The Walakpa Site, Alaska 

ITS PLACE IN THE BIRNIRK 

AND THULE CULTURES 

Dennis J. Stanford 

SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

NUMBER 20 
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SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY • NUMBER 2 0 

The Walakpa Site, Alaska 

ITS PLACE IN THE BIRNIRK AND THULE CULTURES 

Dennis J. Stanford 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS 

CITY OF WASHINGTON 

1976 
ABSTRACT 

Stanford, Dennis J. Th e Walakpa Site, Alaska: Its Place in the Birnirk and Thul e 

Cultures. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, number 20, 226 pages, 

29 figures, 119 plates, 10 tables, 1976.—An archeological survey directed by the 

author near Point Barrow, Alaska, during the summer of 1968 resulted in the 

discovery of Walakpa, a deeply stratified coastal Eskimo site. It contained over 

20 occupation levels, showing the development of Eskimo culture from Birnirk 

to Thule, as well as earlier and later Eskimo occupation levels. On the basis of 

excavations at Walakpa during 1968 and 1969, previous estimates of Birnirk and 

Thul e origins are reexamined and a new interpre t tion of the genesis of this 

Eskimo culture proposed. 

Specifically, on the basis of the Point Barrow excavations, this monograph 

(1) examines the development of the Birnirk and Thul e Eskimo cultures and (2) 

provides definitions for the horizon markers for each of the Eskimo stages represented at Walakpa. As a result of this detailed study, the author concludes that 

(1) Birnirk developed out of Old Bering Sea; (2) Birnirk can be divided into three 

phases: Early, A.D. 500-700, Middle, A.D. 700-800, and Late, A.D. 800-900; (3) 

Thul e Eskimo culture developed directly out of Birnirk; and (4) the development 

from Birnirk to Thul e took place because of over-utilization of seals as the primary 

food resource and a change to a warmer climatic regime that further depleated 

the already weak seal resource, resulting in an increased use of whales for food 

and an expansion of hunting territories to the east. 

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is 

recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

Stanford, Dennis J. 

The Walakpa site, Alaska. 

(Smithsonian contributions to anthropology ; no. 20) 

Bibliography: p. 

1. Walakpa site, Alaska. I. Title. II. Series. 

GN1.S54 no. 20 E99.E7 979.8'7 74-32434 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $4.30 (paper cover) 

Stock Number 047-000-00330-0 
Contents 

Page 

PREFACE xi 

INTRODUCTION 1 

Origins of Thul e Eskimo Culture 1 

Geophysical Conditions 3 

Geology 3 

Physiography and Ecology 3 

Low Tundr a Ecosystem 4 

Marine Ecosystem 5 

Pond and River Ecosystems 7 

Prehistoric Climates and Climatic Change 7 

Modern Climatic Conditions 8 

SITE DESCRIPTION 10 

Stratigraphy 10 

A Area 12 

B Area _ 13 

Archeological Excavations of the Walakpa Site 14 

1968 Excavation 14 

1969 Excavation 15 

Additional Excavations in the Walakpa Bay Area 16 

ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 18 

Hunting and Fishing Equipment 18 

Harpoon Gear 18 

Harpoon Heads 18 

Harpoon End Blades 23 

Harpoon Foreshafts 24 

Harpoon Shafts 25 

Harpoon Ice Picks 25 

Seal Poke Gear 26 

Float Bars 26 

Seal Float Mouthpieces 26 

Seal Float Mouthpiece Stoppers 26 

Seal Float Plugs 27 

Detachable Lance Points 27 

Ice Hunting Gear 27 

Wound Plugs 27 

Wound Pins 27 

Ice Scoops 27 

Two-Piece Ice Scoops 28 

Seal Drag Handles 28 

Seal Scratchers 28 

Seal Rattles 29 

Nets and Net Weights 29 

Atlatl Equipment 29 

Atlatl Dart Boards 29 

Atlatl Hooks 29 

Dart Shafts and Butt Pieces 29 

Harpoon Socket Pieces 30 

iii 
IV SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Page 

Inflation Nozzles 30 

Bird Dart Points and Side Prongs 30 

Harpoon Dart Heads 31 

Bow and Arrow Equipment 31 

Bows 31 

Marlin Spikes 31 

Sinew Twisters 31 

Arrowshafts 32 

Feather-Cutting Boards 33 

Antler Arrowheads 33 

Antler Arrowhead Preforms 37 

Chipped Flint Arrowheads 37 

Bola Weights 38 

Miscellaneous Hunting Gear 39 

Snow-Probe Ferrules 39 

Ice Staff Rings 39 

Snow Shovels 39 

Snow Knives 39 

Wooden Hunting Hats 39 

Snow Goggles 40 

Fish Arrow Prongs 41 

Fishing Poles 41 

Transportation Equipment 41 

Boat Parts 41 

Boat Paddles 41 

Paddle Tips 41 

Umiak Parts 43 

Kayak Ribs 43 

Kayak Cockpit Frames 43 

Sled Parts 43 

Antler Arches 43 

Sled Shoes 44 

Harness Swivels 44 

Miscellaneous Boat or Sled Parts 44 

Manufacture, Maintenance, and Processing of Equipment 44 

Men's Knives 44 

Crooked Knives 44 

Knives with End Blade Slots 45 

Composite Knives 46 

Knife Blades 46 

Whetstones 48 

Flint Flakers and Hammerstones 48 

Flaker Points 48 

Hammerstones 49 

Bone Hammerheads 49 

Engraving Tools 49 

Bow Drills 49 

Firemaking Equipment 50 

Drill Bearings 50 

Fire Drill Platforms 50 

Fire Drill Spindles 50 

Adzes 50 

Adz Handles 50 

Adz Blades 50 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Sleeves 51 

Whale Rib Tools 51 

Mattock Blades 51 

Whale Rib Ice Picks 51 

Whale Rib Mattocks or Pick Handles 52 

Wedges 52 

Ulus 52 

Ulu Handles 52 

Ulu Blades 53 

Scrapers 53 

Planoconvex End Scrapers 53 

Pebble End Scrapers 53 

Side Scrapers 54 

Scraper Handles 55 

Split Pebble Scrapers 55 

Two-handed Scrapers 55 

Scapula Scrapers 55 

Miscellaneous Metapodial Scrapers 55 

Humerus Scraper 56 

Miscellaneous Bone Scrapers 56 

Hide Pegs 56 

Ladles and Spoons 56 

Marrow Extractors 56 

Wooden Trays 57 

Pottery Lamps and Cooking Vessels 57 

Baleen Buckets 57 

Wooden Bucket Bottoms 57 

Complete Baleen Buckets 58 

Bone Crushers 58 

Awls and Bodkins 58 

Gauged Drills 59 

Stone Drill Bits 59 

Awl Handles 60 

Bone Needles 60 

Community Activity Artifacts and Equipment 60 

Perforated Teeth 60 

Beads 60 

Labrets 61 

Drums 61 

Toys 62 

Cup and Pin Game 62 

Inserted Seal Vertebrae 62 

Dolls 62 

Toy Kayaks 62 

Gaming Pieces 63 

Toy Bows 63 

Charms and Amulets 63 

Bear Jaws 64 

Miscellaneous and Unidentified Artifacts 64 

Belt Toggles 64 

Ivory Chains 65 

Unidentified Ivory Artifacts 65 

Miscellaneous Coal 65 

Unidentified Bone Artifacts 65 
Vi SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Page 

Unidentified Wooden Artifacts 66 

Unidentified Baleen Artifacts 67 

Miscellaneous Stone Artifacts 67 

FAUNAL ANALYSIS 69 

Introduction 69 

Procedure 69 

Measurements 72 

Analysis by Archeological Level and Cultural Units 75 

Seals 76 

Caribou 81 

Whale 86 

Polar Bears 86 

Dog, Fox, and Wolf 86 

Other Mammals and Birds 87 

ARCHEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE WALAKPA CULTURAL UNITS 88 

Historic Point Barrow Eskimo 88 

Archeological Considerations 89 

T h e Chronology of the Walakpa Site 90 

Cultural Analysis 90 

Birnirk 90 

Early Thul e 92 

Late Thul e 93 

COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER BIRNIRK AND THUL E SITES 96 

Northern Alaska 97 

Western Alaska 102 

St. Lawrence Island 103 

Siberia 104 

Canadian Arctic 104 

Greenland 106 

Summary 107 

Early Birnirk 107 

Middle Birnirk 107 

Late Birnirk 107 

Early Thul e 109 

Late Thul e 109 

DEVELOPMENT OF BIRNIRK AND THUL E CULTURES IN NORTHERN ALASKA Il l 

LITERATURE CITED 115 

PLATES 119 

Tables 

1. Climatic data from Point Barrow 9 

2. Hunting and fishing equipment 42 

3. Transportation equipment 44 

4. Manufacture, maintenance, and processing equipment 61 

5. Community activity artifacts and equipment 65 

6. Distribution of bones of various species of animals 70 

7. Distribution of bones of the various species of birds 72 

8. Distribution of selected bone elements for polar bear, bearded seal, and walrus ... . 87 

9. Summary of the occurrence of various Birnirk and Early Thul e harpoon types ... . 94 

10. Summary of artifacts and faunal remains 99 
CONTENTS Vll 

Illustrations 

FIGURES 

Page 

1. Summary of climatic data for the Arctic 8 

2. Temperature-wind-chill index 8 

3. Eskimo archeological sites in the vicinity of Point Barrow 10 

4. Topographic map of Walakpa site 11 

5. Schematic profile showing correlation of the stratigraphy of the A and B areas .. . 12 

6. A area stratigraphy 13 

7. B area stratigraphy 14 

8. Contour map of the A and B areas 16 

9. Seal humerus showing the distal condylar width and articular length 74 

10. Seal femur showing distal condylar width and notch length 74 

11. Seal tibia showing diaphyseal length 74 

12. Seal bones from Walakpa site 77 

13. Seal bones from Walakpa site 78 

14. Seal bones from Walakpa site 79 

15. Seal bones from Walakpa site 80 

16. Seal bones from Walakpa site 81 

17. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 82 

18. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 83 

19. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 84 

20. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 85 

21. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 86 

22. Seasonal options and their general geographic location 88 

23. B-9 occupation floor showing logs 91 

24. Plan of house floor from B-8 occupation level 92 

25. B-6 occupation floor 93 

26. A-5 occupation floor showing possible tent structure 93 

27. Occurrence of antler arrowhead ownership marks 93 

28. Polar projection of the locations of Birnirk, and Early and Late Thule sites 98 

29. Development of harpoon heads and antler arrowhead types 108 

PLATES 

1. Walakpa site. 

2. Walakpa site. 

3. Walakpa site A area. 

4. Early Thule levels in B area. 

5. Birnirk Occupation Level B-8. 

6. Birnirk artifacts from the mound A test trench. 

7. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

8. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

9. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

10. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

11. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

12. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

13. Small bow from the mound B Birnirk level test trench. 

14. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

15. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

16. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

17. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

18. Birnirk seal rattle, level B-10. 
Viii SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

19. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

20. Wooden hunting hat, level B-10. 

21. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

21. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

22. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

23. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

24. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

25. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

26. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

27. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

28. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

29. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

30. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

31. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

32. Wooden meat tray, level B-10. 

33. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

34. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

35. Drum rim, level B-10. 

36. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

37. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10. 

38. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

39. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

40. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

41. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

42. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

43. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

44. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

45. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

46. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

47. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

48. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9. 

49. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8. 

50. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8. 

51. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8. 

52. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8. 

53. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8. 

54. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8. 

55. Baleen bucket, level B-8. 

56. Polar bear mandible tied with Baleen cord, level B-8. 

57. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8. 

58. Early Thule artifacts from the mound A test trench. 

59. Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

60. Early Thule polar bear carvings from the mound B test trench. 

61. Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

62. Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench. 

63. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7. 

64. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7. 

65. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7. 

66. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7. 

67. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7. 

68. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6. 

69. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6. 

70. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6. 

71. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6. 
CONTENTS

 1 X 

72. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6. 

73. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6. 

74. Early Thule artifacts, level B-5. 

75. Early Thule artifacts, level B-4. 

76. Early Thule artifacts, level B-4. 

77. Early Thule artifacts, level B-3. 

78. Early Thule artifacts, level B-3. 

79. Early Thule artifacts, level B-3. 

80. Early Thule artifacts, level B-2. 

81. Late Thule artifacts from the area A test trench. 

82. Late Thule artifacts from the area A test trench. 

83. Late Thule artifacts from the area A test trench. 

84. Late Thule artifacts, level B-l. 

85. Late Thule artifacts, level A-1. 

86. Late Thule artifacts, level A-1. 

87. Late Thule artifacts, level A-2. 

88. Late Thule artifacts, level A-2. 

89. Late Thule artifacts, level A-2. 

90. Late Thule artifacts, level A-2. 

91. Late Thule artifacts, level A-2. 

92. Late Thule artifacts, level A-2. 

93. Late Thule artifacts, level A-3. 

94. Late Thule artifacts, level A-3. 

95. Late Thule artifacts, level A-3. 

96. Late Thule artifacts, level A-3. 

97. Late Thule artifacts, level A-4. 

98. Late Thule artifacts, level A-4. 

99. Late Thule artifacts, level A-4. 

100. Late Thule artifacts, level A-4. 

101. Late Thule artifacts, level A-5. 

102. Late Thule artifacts, level A-5. 

103. Late Thule artifacts, level A-5. 

104. Late Thule artifacts, level A-5. 

105. Late Thule artifacts, level A-5. 

106. Late Thule artifacts, level A-5. 

107. Late Thule artifacts, level A-5. 

108. Late Thule artifacts, level A-6. 

109. Late Thule artifacts, level A-6. 

110. Late Thule artifacts, level A-6. 

111. Late Thule artifacts, level A-6. 

112. Late Thule artifacts, level A-6. 

113. Late Thule artifacts, level A-6. 

114. Late Thule artifacts, level A-6. 

115. Late Thule artifacts, level A-7. 

116. Late Thule artifacts, level A-7. 

117. Late Thule artifacts, level A-7. 

118. Late Thule artifacts, level A-8. 

119. Late Thule artifacts, level A-9. 

Preface 

During the summer of 1967, Professor John M. Campbell, at that time Chairman of 

the Department of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico, conducted field reconnaissance in the areas of Anaktuvuk Pass and Chandler Lake, Central Brooks Range, 

Alaska. Before returning to New Mexico he spent several days at Point Barrow. There he 

purchased a sizeable collection of Eskimo antifacts from the Birnirk and Utkiavik sites, 

most of which were obtained from Mr. Charles Brower of Barrow. Dr. Campbell was 

impressed by the possible antiquity of the large midden deposits at Utkiavik and both he 

and Dr. Max Brewer, Director of the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, were disturbed 

over the rapid destruction of the site from relic collectors and wave erosion. It was their 

opinion that Utkiavik should be excavated at the earliest opportunity, lest the site and its 

archeological record be permanently lost. Upon Dr. Campbell's return to Albuquerque, 

he urged me to go to Point Barrow the following summer for the purpose of conducting 

salvage-archeological operations and with the scientific aim of possibly discovering new 

evidence relative to the controversial question of the origin of Eastern Thule culture. 

It was agreed that I would lead a team to Point Barrow and work on these problems 

with Charles W. Amsden as a co-leader. Mary M. Rush ton was to work on problems relating to temporal changes of tool kits and corresponding changes in the local ecology. Mary 

Rushton intended to work on seriation of harpoon-head types with the idea of comparing 

her conclusions with Ford's (1959) harpoon seriation. 

With the Barrow Town Council approval, we began excavating Utkiavik in June 

1968. The crew consisted of Peter Eidenbach, Marc Stevens, Mrs. Natalie Pattison, Simeon 

Kunaknana, and James Itta. The remaining Utkiavik middens were mapped with 

2-meter grids and test trenches for profile controls were started. After one week our 

excavations were discontinued at the request of the town council. Apparently several 

prominent members of the community were concerned that our excavations would disrupt their relic trade. After many frustrating attempts to convince them of the urgency 

of our work and its scientific significance, we temporarily abandoned the project. Being 

in Alaska with a team ready to conduct field work, we were not willing, however, to 

abandon our major theoretical problems and so decided to examine the possibilities of 

excavating other sites in the Barrow area. With Robert Jack Smith, a civil engineer from 

Rawlins, Wyoming, who joined our expedition to help with the surveying, I tested the 

site of Nuwuk located at the tip of Point Barrow. After making several test trenches we 

decided that this site did not contain sufficient time depth to be useful in working on the 

problem of Thule origins. All artifacts collected were of historic Nuwuk age. Kenneth 

Toovak, maintenance supervisor of Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, thought that we 

should examine the house mounds at Walakpa Bay, which, according to local legend, are 

the most ancient in the area. Walakpa Bay, is sometimes known as "monument" as there 

is a monument on the North shore erected in honor of Will Rogers and Wiley Post, who 

crashed on that spot in 1935 (Plate Id). After consulting Dr. Max Brewer, an expedition 

was launched to examine Walakpa, to explore the coast for other archeological sites, and 

to investigate additional house mounds reported earlier by Ford (1959:18). 

Our first stop was at the former site of Nunavak, located two miles (3.3 km) southwest of Barrow village, where we learned that all traces of the former village had been 

destroyed by gravel operations of the Burgess Construction Company. All that remains 

of this former site are several burial mounds, which had been excavated by Fred Hopsen in 

x i 
Xii SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

1929 (Ford, 1959:21). Due to an impending snow storm and my impatience to see 

Walakpa, we decided to take the inland trail and go directly to the bay rather than searching for sites between Nunavak and Walakpa. 

When we arrived at Walakpa, the crew was divided for a more efficient approach to 

the various problems before us. Amsden, Eidenbach, and Stevens were to explore the area 

around the main mounds and judge the size and extent of the occupation, while Mary 

Rushton, Sherry Heizer, and I made a preliminary test trench into the large trash midden. 

Our work was rewarded by finding evidence that both Birnirk and Thule cultures were 

represented at Walakpa. We decided that the Walakpa midden was indeed a site with 

considerable antiquity and possibly contained evidence bearing on the origin of Eastern 

Thule culture. It was due to these several circumstances, therefore, that the excavations 

at Walakpa were undertaken in the summer of 1968 and continued during the summer of 

1969. The work of those two summers was supported by grants-in-aid to Dr. Campbell, 

University of New Mexico, from the Arctic Institute of North America, and the Office of 

Naval Research, Department of Navy, as well as from the New York Explorers Club. 

As anyone knows who has worked in the Arctic, and especially at Point Barrow, field 

conditions are less than desirable. One soon learns to expect a continual series of disasters, 

mostly propagated by adverse weather conditions. It is therefore important that special 

acknowledgments be made to the field crews who assisted me during both seasons. These 

people, who without pay, suffered snowstorms, subzero temperatures, frostbite, permafrost, mosquitos, and other deprivations, include (in 1968) Charles Amsden, Mary Rushton, Marc Stevens, Natalie Pattison, Peter Eidenbach, Walter Akpik, Nate Elavgak, 

James Itta, and Simeon Kunaknana; (in 1969) James Duguid, Peter Eidenbach, T. 

Weber Grieser, Natalie Pattison, Susan Kaplan, Edwin Samuelson, Steve Beckerman, 

and Walter Akpik. Without their generous and industrious support, it would not 

have been possible to conduct this field excavation. 

Laboratory work, by sheer numbers of artifacts and faunal remains, seemed to be an 

insurmountable task. Over 60,000 bones and 7000 artifacts had to be cleaned, preserved, 

identified, and cataloged. Through the untiring work of Natalie Pattison, Susan Kaplan, 

Dan Witter, and Alison Witter, with a total cash budget of less than $500, this work was 

accomplished in less than two years. 

Laboratory space was provided by the University of New Mexico. Unfortunately, 

during the course of the study, due to administrative problems, the laboratory had to be 

moved no less than four times. During these moves, a number of the artifacts were lost 

or misplaced. Fortunately most of the descriptive work was completed before these tragedies occurred. It is for this reason, that all of the artifacts described in the text are not 

illustrated. Those artifacts which survived are now housed at the Maxwell Museum of 

Anthropology at the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

I am indebted to a great many people for their advice, encouragement, and assistance 

throughout the production of this monograph. These people include John M. Campbell 

of the University of New Mexico, William Taylor of the National Museum of Canada, 

Robert McGhee of the National Museum of Canada, Douglas Anderson of Brown University, Wilbert Carter of Tufts University, and Kiyushi Yamaura, a predoctoral fellow 

at the Smithsonian Institution in 1973-1974 from the University of Tokyo, who were 

most generous with their time, collections, and ideas. 

To Drs. Betty Meggers, Clifford Evans, Henry Collins, William Fitzhugh of the 

Smithsonian Institution, William Taylor of National Museum of Canada, and John M. 

Campbell of the University of New Mexico, all of whom suffered through various versions 

of this manuscript, I owe special thanks. I have incorporated most of their suggestions to 

make this a more readable, better organized and more accurate scientific monograph. 

Special acknowledgment is also due to those people whose technical knowledge and 

efforts were required. These people include Mr. Robert Jack Smith of Rawlins, Wyoming, who surveyed and mapped the Point Barrow sites, Steve Beckerman who was the site 

photographer, Dick Dunatchik of the University of New Mexico and Victor Krantz of 
PREFACE Xll l 

the Smithsonian Institution who photographed the specimens. The scientific illustrations were done by Edward Schumacher, George Robert Lewis, and Marcia Bakry of the 

Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, who converted crudely done 

sketches, maps, and charts into magnificent scientific illustrations as well as Paula Cardwell for her efficient typing of a difficult manuscript. 

Special appreciation is due to editor Joan Horn of the Smithsonian Institution Press 

for her ability to bring metamorphic change to a monograph so that it is now easily readable and consistent and whose editorial guidance on my first major publication should 

make her and my job simpler next time. To Al Ruffin, Series Managing Editor, and Vern 

Shaffer, Series Production Manager, of the Smithsonian Institution Press, I owe a word 

of thanks for their advice and assistance at various stages of production of this monograph. 

A note of thanks to scientific collaborators from other fields includes Dr. James 

Duguid of Princeton University, who worked on the geology of the Walakpa Bay area; 

Dr. Loren Potter, who worked on the ecology of Walakpa Bay, Dan Witter of the University of New Mexico, who identified the faunal remains, and Dr. Clayton Ray of the 

Smithsonian Institution, whose work on the paleontology provided important information that led to the conclusions based on archeozoological interpretations. James 

Toler of Albuquerque Technical Vocational Institute, Don Ortner and Neal Roth of the 

Smithsonian Institution provided computer assistance for handling the bulk of the raw 

data. 

Finally, to my wife Jeanne, who for two summers was an archeological widow and 

subsequently lived for three years with all of the artifacts and faunal remains from the 

Walakpa site scattered throughout her living room, dining room, and bedroom, I owe 

my deepest debt of gratitude. 

THE WALAKPA SITE, ALASKA 

Dennis J. Stanford 

Introduction 

ORIGINS OF THULE ESKIMO CULTUR E 

The antiquity of the Eskimo occupation of the 

Point Barrow area of Alaska was first noted by 

Lieutenant P. H. Ray (1885). During the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska 

(1881-1883), Ray observed many ancient villages 

along the coast and in the interior (Ray, 1885:37). 

The site of Perigniak (Birnirk) was observed, and 

its antiquity was apparent as "it stands in the midst 

of a marsh . . . and it is their custom to select the 

high, dry points of land .. . for their villages . . . 

and the fact of our finding a pair of wooden goggles 

twenty-six feet below the surface . . . points conclusively to the great lapse of time since these shores 

were first peopled" (Ray, 1885:37). 

Early excavations conducted at Point Barrow 

(Stefansson, 1914; Mason, 1930) also pointed to an 

occupation of considerable antiquity in the area. 

Wissler (1916), in considering Stefansson's collection 

from Point Barrow pointed out the similarity between 

harpoon heads found at Birnirk and those reported 

by Bogoras from ancient sites in Siberia (in Wissler, 

1916:439). Wissler also noted a greater similarity 

among the harpoon heads from old sites in Siberia, 

Alaska, and the Hudson Bay district than among those 

found in ethnographic collections from these areas 

(Wissler, 1916:440). 

Five archeologists have contributed to our understanding of the significance of Wissler's observation 

and specifically to the origins and spread of Eskimo 

culture in Northern Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. 

These archeologists are Mathiassen (1927b; 1930a), 

Collins (1933, 1935, 1937b,c; 1940; 1951), Ford (1959), 

Taylor (1963), and McGhee (1970). Their research 

and conclusions are the most relevant works on the 

subject of Birnirk and Thule origins and must necesDennis J. Stanford, Department of Anthropology, National Museum 

of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560. 

sarily be reviewed before attempting further discussion of late Eskimo cultural developments. 

The first systematic archeological studies in the 

Arctic were conducted between 1921 and 1924 by 

Therkel Mathiassen of the fifth Thule expedition, 

which was organized by Knud Rasmussen. On the 

basis of his excavations in the Central Canadian 

Arctic, he defined the Thule culture (Mathiassen, 

1927b). The Thule Eskimos, according to Mathiassen, 

were those people who represented a cultural horizon 

older than that of the modern Central Eskimos 

(Mathiassen 1927b: 182). Mathiassen described Thule 

culture as dependent upon marine resources, primarily whale, seal, and walrus. He further defined 

152 elements as representative of Thule material 

culture; and contended that wherever all of these 

elements appear in archeological context, Thule culture is necessarily represented. By plotting the occurrence of these artifacts from the various Arctic 

collections that he was able to study, Mathiassen concluded that Thule, with its highly evolved tool kit, 

must have originated in an Arctic area where whales 

and other large marine mammals were abundant. 

Further, due to the presence of such items as the 

women's boat and conical-shaped tents, the place of 

origin must have been an area where wood was 

present. He believed this to have been in Alaska 

(Mathiassen, 1927b: 182). 

Mathiassen (1927b: 183) pointed out that there are 

many traits of the Thule culture, the prototypes of 

which are known only from the Alaskan regions. 

Examples are ornamental harpoon side blades, the 

winged needle case, the Y-shaped ornamental design, 

barbed antler arrow points and round earthenware 

cooking pots. But, having made this formal bow to 

what was indeed compelling evidence, he never referred to it again. On the contrary, when he discussed 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

the chronological relationships between Birnirk and 

Thule harpoon heads, he argued that the Thule 

harpoon heads were older, because they were simpler 

in form and had a wider geographical distribution in 

the Arctic (Mathiassen, 1930a,b). Birnirk harpoon 

heads, he thought, were a later, local type influenced 

by the Old Bering Sea culture. 

The first papers written by Henry Collins on 

Eskimo archeology were, in considerable measure, 

directed to putting Thule culture into a chronological perspective. Reporting on his work of 1928, 

Collins (1930:149) indicated that early Alaskan finds 

from St. Lawrence Island exerted a strong influence 

to the east as evidenced in Mathiassen's Thule collections, and that the Thule culture was clearly 

derived from Alaska, from where it seems to have 

spread at a relatively late period. 

In considering Mathiassen's claim for the antiquity 

of Thule, based on its simple form and geographical 

distribution, Collins (1929) showed that these axioms 

could not be applied in the Arctic. The complex 

prehistoric art and harpoon-head sequence, which 

Collins worked out for Alaska, pointed to the opposite 

conclusion—that the Birnirk harpoon heads were 

older than the Thule harpoon heads (Collins, 1929: 

45). 

According to Collins, the results of the excavations 

at Kurigitavik at Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska (Jenness 1928; Collins, 1937a, 1940) provided confirmation of the Birnirk-Thule sequence in Western 

Alaska. The presence of Birnirk, Western Thule, 

Punuk, and modern Western Eskimo traits at Kurigitavik, which are not found in the Canadian Thule 

culture, indicated to Collins that the eastward migration of Thule culture must have originated from 

some point farther east, such as Point Barrow (Collins, 1940:562). 

Another interpretation of the development of Eskimo culture has been offered by James A. Ford 

(1959). After careful analysis of the artifacts from 

the Birnirk site, Ford (1959:232) seriated harpoon 

head types from throughout the Arctic. In his analysis he considered five significant types of harpoon 

heads: (1) those with side blades or barbs at right 

angles to the line hole; (2) those with side blades or 

barbs in the same plane as the line hole; (3) those 

with a slit for an end blade in the same plane as the 

line hole; (4) those with a slit for an end blade at 

right angles to the line hole; and (5) those that have 

closed sockets. 

These harpoon types were seriated in terms of their 

individual traits, proposed temporal position, and 

their areal distributions. Ford also constructed traitcomparison lists of artifacts shared by Birnirk and 

other Eskimo cultures. He discussed these traits in 

terms of their earliest occurrences and their spread 

through time and space. The harpoon seriation along 

with the trait comparison led Ford to construct a 

complicated system of cultural relationships and development indicating that Birnirk culture was derived from Okvik and Old Bering Sea cultures, with 

influences from Ipiutak and early Punuk. Canadian 

Thule did not stem directly from Birnirk, but that 

it was derived from the "Nunagiak stage" (Ford, 

1959:241). The Nunagiak stage, named for the 

Nunagiak site located near Wainwright, Alaska, was 

thought by Ford to correspond with the end of the 

Birnirk period, dating around A.D. 1200. This would 

imply that the Thule culture of Canada could not 

be any older than A.D. 1200. 

William E. Taylor, Jr. (1963) has opposed Ford's 

views on the origin of Thule culture. Taylor's 

opinion was based on data that were unavailable to 

Ford at the time of his study. These data are primarily (1) collections of Canadian harpoon heads 

of the "Birnirk" types—Natchuk and Sicco from 

Devon Island, the Inman River, Booth Islands, and 

Lady Franklin Point, Victoria Island; and (2) radiocarbon dates of Thule occupations at Inugsuk, which 

give ages of A.D. 1010 ± 120 and A.D. 1240+120. Therefore, Taylor maintained that the trait comparisons 

made by Ford between Birnirk, Nunagiak, and Thule 

are inadequate to support Ford's conclusions. 

On the basis of this new evidence noted, Taylor 

(1963:461) concluded that 

a) Birnirk culture extended as far east as Cape Parry prior to 

A.D. 900, and that this eastward spread of Birnirk constituted a first stage in the eastward Thule migration; 

b) Canadian Thule developed not in Alaska, but from this 

eastern extension of Birnirk; 

c) Thule culture generally developed from Birnirk along the 

arctic coast between Capes Prince of Wales and Parry; 

d) an early Thule stage must separate Birnirk from Nunagiak; 

e) Nunagiak, or something closely akin, existed as far east as 

Lady Franklin Point on Victoria Island; 

f) finally, the existence on the Beaufort Sea Coast of a ProtoThule stage, between Birnirk and Nunagiak, allows one to 

suggest a beginning for the latter, not around A.D. 900 but 

about A.D. 1100 or 1200. 

In a recent paper, Robert McGhee (1970) has 

indicated that Thule probably developed out of 

Birnirk in Northern Alaska and spread eastward 

across the Canadian Arctic to Greenland. McGhee 

(1970:173) stated that the uniformity of early Thul e 

culture and the close-clustering of C-14 dates suggest this expansion took the form of a single rapid 

migration. It was McGhee's opinion that the transition from Birnirk to Thul e took place due to the 

effects of the climatic changes proposed by Bryson 

and Wendland (1967:280). These climatic changes 
INTRODUCTION 

are (1) the Sub-Atlantic (550 B.C.-A.D. 400), (2) the 

Scandic (A.D. 400-900), (3) the Neo-Atlantic (A.D. 

900-1200), (4) the Pacific (A.D. 1200-1550), (5) the 

Neo-Boreal (A.D. 1500-1850), and (6) the Recent (A.D. 

1850-1960) episodes. 

McGhee (1970:175) has outlined the major effects 

of these episodes in the Arctic. He saw the Scandic 

as a transition between the cooler Sub-Atlantic, and 

the warmer Neo-Atlantic. He stated that the Scandic 

was probably similar to the climatic conditions that 

are found today in the Arctic. He further thought 

that the Neo-Atlantic was apparently warmer and 

ice conditions would be significantly different from 

cooler periods. Drift ice would be reduced, the pack 

ice would retreat from the coast, open water would 

last longer, and new ice would form later and be 

thinner. The result would be an increase in whales, 

walruses, and bearded seals, with a reduction in ringed 

seals. This would necessitate cultural adjustments 

from spring ice lead hunting to summer whaling 

on open water. 

McGhee (1970:178) believed that Thule culture 

developed during the Neo-Atlantic period and spread 

eastward into the Western Canadian Arctic. This 

spread was thought to have consisted of movements 

of small groups that were large enough, however, to 

hunt whales. They were not associated with large 

settlements and moved several times during the year 

to wherever subsistence was assured by either the 

successful killing of a whale or by other means. 

GEOPHYSICAL CONDITIONS 

Geology 

The Quaternary geology of the Point Barrow area 

has been well defined (Black, 1957). The Gubik 

formation comprises the entire Quaternary unit 

throughout the Arctic coastal plain of Northern 

Alaska, and it mantles a Cretaceous unit that is composed of horizontal, bedded sandstone and shale. 

These sandstone and shale deposits are frequently 

exposed and are a potential source of raw materials 

for the manufacture of artifacts (Paige, Foran, and 

Gilluly, 1925). The Gubik is comprised of lenses and 

admixtures of silt and fine-grained sand, which are 

predominantly quartz and chert. The sediments are 

primarily marine, but are partially fluvial, lacustrine, 

and eolian in origin (Black, 1957:1701). The Gubik 

is made up of three lithologic units: (1) Skull Cliff; 

(2) Meade River; and (3) Barrow. The Skull Cliff 

unit is generally widespread throughout the Alaskan 

coastal plain. It is the oldest unit, dating to 38,000 

B.P. (W-380) in the Barrow area (Coulter, Hussey, 

and O'Sullivan, 1960). Its maximum thickness is 

about 6 meters (20 ft), consisting of poorly sorted 

clays and gravels, which are both marine and glacial 

in origin. 

The intermediate stage, the Meade River unit, has 

been frequently eroded and at Walakpa it does not 

exist, as the Barrow unit unconformably overlies the 

Skull Cliff unit. In other localities the Meade River 

unit reaches a maximum thickness of nearly 60 meters 

(200 ft) and consists of light-colored, well-sorted 

marine sand, grading upward into loess in the southern and southeastern areas of the coastal plain. 

The Barrow unit, the youngest, dates possibly as 

late as 2000 B.P. or later and rarely exceeds 6 meters 

(20 ft) in thickness. It consists of poor to well-sorted 

mixtures of clay, silt, sand, and gravel. In many areas 

ice constitutes more than one-half of its structure. 

Organic matter is abundant in the upper part of the 

unit. The sediments are generally marine, but are 

locally fluvial and lacustrine in origin (Black, 1957: 

1701). 

At Walakpa, the Gubik formation comprises only 

two lithologic units—Skull Cliff and the Barrow unit. 

The Barrow unit is of prime importance to the 

Walakpa studies. Its upper portion consists of 

several feet of eolian sand. It is in this sand that the 

first occupation at Walakpa, Walakpa Phase Denbigh, 

is found. Above the Walakpa phase, the Barrow 

unit continues to be eolian in origin for 5-10 centimeters. Above this, it grades into an organic matter, 

mixed with gravels and sand (James O. Duguid, pers. 

coram.). 

Physiography and Ecology 

The coastal plain consists of numerous meandering 

streams, lakes, marshes, and varying types of patterned 

ground. It is nearly flat except for occasional low relief hills and ridges. The plain is treeless, with a 

ground cover of grasses, sedges, willows, and mosses. 

The northern coast of Alaska, although harsh, 

possesses unique qualities, which have great potential 

for economic exploitation by nonmechanized, nonindustrial cultures. Four recognizable ecosystems 

exist. The low tundra ecosystem and the marine ecosystem are of the first order of importance in terms of 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

economic potential. The ponds and river ecosystems 

are of the second order of importance. 

These ecosystems are so situated that they could 

all be successfully exploited from a central geographical area. Moreover, each could act as a buffer 

for the others, so that during certain seasons when 

the food supply of one ecosystem is at a low point, 

another system could be exploited. An important 

point is that these ecosystems have seasonal and longterm cycles of production so that hunters could, with 

a high degree of success, predict a successful pattern 

of exploitation. 

Low TUNDRA ECOSYSTEM 

The low tundra ecosystem is part of the Arctic 

coastal plain physiographic province (Spencer, 

1959:9). This ecosystem, and more specifically, the 

interrelationships of the use of the low tundra and 

the marine ecosystem, is of prime importance to this 

study. The Walakpa midden is located at the point 

of contact between the low tundra, Walakpa Bay, and 

the Chukchi Sea. The ecology of the low tundra ecosystem has been examined twice at Walakpa Bay 

(Wiggens and Thomas, 1962; Potter, 1972), but the 

ecological role of Walakpa Bay and the Chukchi Sea 

at Walakpa, has not to my knowledge been studied. 

At Walakpa, the low tundra ecosystem consists of 

six principal physiographic forms: (1) ponds and 

low-centered polygon pans; (2) sedge-willow meadows; (3) depressions between high-centered polygons; 

(4) high-centered frost polygons; (5) polygons with 

frost boils; and (6) coastal beaches and bluffs. The 

following descriptions of the physiographic forms are 

based on Potter's work in the Walakpa area (Potter, 

1972). 

PONDS AND LOW-CENTERED POLYGON PANS.—The 

dominant relief of the tundra north and east of 

Walakpa is elongated, with oval-shaped basins, which 

have a longitudinal axis of approximately 9° west of 

north. These basins are in varying stages of being 

filled in and range from being well-drained to marshy 

with low-centered polygons. 

The vegetation of these ponds and low-centered 

polygon pans includes Arctophila fulva, which is 

found in the mud, wet gravel, and shallow water 

around the margins of the ponds. A second grass 

found around the wet margins is Dupontia fisheri. 

Grass-like dominants include Carex aquatilis and 

Eriophorum anqustijolium. Th e most common 

aquatic herbs are Hippuris vulgaris and Hippuris 

tetraphylla. Ranunculus pallasii and Ranunculus 

gmelini are found in shallow pools and lake margins. 

SEDGE-WILLOW MEADOWS.—Sedge-willow meadows 

are found on the gentle slopes of the principal drainage channels. Because there is little relief, vegetational variations are not pronounced. Over 90 percent of the vegetation consists of Carex spp. and Salix 

rotundifolia. Other vegetational types include Petasites frigidus, Dupontia fisheri, Poa spp., Luzula 

spp., Salix pulchra, and Saxifraga cernua. Several 

other species make up less than 1 percent of the relative cover. 

DEPRESSIONS BETWEEN HIGH-CENTERED POLYGONS.— 

Depressions or troughs surround raised-centered polygons. These two types of topography are the most 

common around the Walakpa site. It is also in these 

depressions that the principal habitats of the lemmings are found. 

The troughs are covered with a dense growth of 

Carex aquatilis, Dupontia fisheri, and Eriophorum 

spp. Petasites frigidus is found in clumps on the 

upper edges of these depressions. Extensive mats of 

sphagnum are sometimes found in the lower part. 

HIGH-CENTERED FROST POLYGONS.—High-centered 

frost polygons, when mature, can reach a height of 

0.9 meter (3 ft). These polygons are well drained 

and have a dense mat of tufted vegetation. Phanerogam cover is quite high. Salix pulchra makes up 31 

percent of the foliage cover. Patches of willows cover 

the surface with a mat of woody stems. Carex spp. 

make up 30 percent of the relative cover of the polygons. Petasites frigidus, Luzula spp., and Salix 

arbutifolia are found near the centers of the polygons. The grasses, Poa spp., Arctagrostis latifolia, 

Festuca brachyphylla, and Dupontia fisheri are found 

on locally drier sites. The transitional area between 

the sloping sides of the polygons and the more moist 

depressions have tufts of Eriophorum spp., Carex 

spp., and Petasites frigidus. 

POLYGONS WITH FROST BOILS.—When high-centered polygons become dissected by contraction cracks 

and frost boils, the plant types change. Minor 

changes result from lemmings, which use the cracks as 

runways and enrich the peat with nitrogenous wastes. 

Vegetation changes with improved drainage caused 

by the cracks. Major changes also result from mineral 

soil of silt and clay, which is thrust up from below 

by frost boils. Luzula spp., Eriophorum spp., and 

Carex spp. make up the dominant cover of these 

disturbed polygons. Other than crustose lichens, 

much of the disturbed surface has no vegetation for 

several years, except that found in the contraction 

cracks. Salix pulchra and S. arbutifolia grow over 

the surface from the edges, unless they are disturbed 

by additional frost activity. Rubus chamaeorus, 

cloudberry, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, and lingonberry 

are also found on disturbed polygons. 
INTRODUCTION 

COASTAL BEACHES AND BLUFFS.—The shorelines 

of both the Chukchi Sea and the sand splits, which 

separate the open sea from Walakpa Bay, are repeatedly scoured by waves, ice, rolling sand, and 

gravel. For this reason they are nearly devoid of 

vegetation. In the protected bay areas the coastal species of Mertensia maritima, Arenaria peploides, 

Elymus mollis, and Puccinellia phryganodes are 

found. Patches of Cochlearia officinalis, Cerastium 

beeringianum, Stellaria humifusa, and Saxifraga 

caespitosa are also common. 

The exposed areas of the bluff face, brink, and 

gully sides are colonized by tap-rooted plant species 

such as Cochlearia officinalis, Taraxacum lyratum, 

Sagina intermedia, and Oxyria digyna. The dandelion, Cochlearia officinalis, is found in these areas 

and could possibly be an important food plant. Other 

common species include Cerastium beeringianum 

and Saxifraga rivularis. 

Wiggins and Thomas (1962) have identified 59 

species of plants in the Walakpa area. Of these, 

17 percent are known to be used by the Alaskan 

Eskimo for possible food sources (Heller and Scott, 

1967). These are Carex aquatilis, Eriophorum 

angustifolium, Salix pulchra, Oxyria digyna, Rumex 

arcticus, Honckenya peploides, Caltha palustris, 

Ranunculus pallasii, Cochlearia officinalis, Saxifraga 

punctata, Hippuris vulgaris, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, 

Pedicularis lanata, and Petasites frigidus. 

None of these plants was found in the archeological investigations at Walakpa, probably because 

of the seasonal occupation of most of the cultural 

levels. It is a reasonable assumption, therefore, that 

plants were of minor importance as a food resource 

for the people who lived at Walakpa. Ethnographically, I observed only one plant, Petasites 

frigidus, being eaten. This plant has a broad, green 

leaf, which is eaten raw. Other plants are utilized 

for nonfood purposes, such as willows (Salix), which 

are used for floor matting in both houses and tents, 

packing muluks, diapers, and fire tinder (Potter, 

1972:130). Young flexible stems of Salix pulchra 

were found in the archeological assemblage, used for 

bindings on scrapers and knives. 

The Caribou (Rangifer arcticus) is the principal 

tundra food resource for the Point Barrow Eskimo. 

Those caribou that are found in the Point Barrow 

area represent the northernmost occurrence of the 

Arctic caribou herd, which occupies a range of approximately 362,600 square kilometers (140,000 sq 

mi), and numbered more than 242,000 animals in 

the 1970 census (Hemming, 1971:5). 

The primary winter range of this herd is south 

of the Brooks Range, where food resources can be 

found; however, some caribou stay on the Arctic 

slope until the snow gets too deep to find food, then 

they will move toward the coast, where food can be 

found in semi-open areas, which are relatively free of 

snow. The spring brings on the calving season and 

most animals move to the major calving areas located on the headwaters of the Colville, Ketik, Meade, 

and Utukok rivers. The important food during this 

season is the cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) 

shoots. After calving, summer distributions are essentially random and caribou can be found anywhere 

west of the Savavanirktok River to the Arctic Ocean 

and the Chukchi Sea. Towards the fall the herd begins to drift slowly toward the tree line. 

The diet of the caribou, as described by Skoog 

(1968:81) and Hemming (1971:7—9), consists of willow 

shrubs (Salix spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), cottongrass 

(Eriophorum vaginatum) and lichens (Cladonia spp. 

and Certraria), which are all found at Walakpa 

(Potter, 1972:125). Caribou are often found in the 

summer and fall in the immediate area of Walakpa 

Bay; thus during historic times the area has been 

known as a good caribou hunting location. 

Other possible food animals found on the low 

tundra are musk ox (Ovibos moschatus) and moose 

(Alces americana). The bones of these animals are 

rare in most of the occupation levels at Walakpa and 

are not considered to have been important. Remains of the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) and the wolf 

(Canis lupus) are found in the faunal collection. In 

historic times these animals were rarely eaten and 

were probably killed for their skins. It is possible 

that these animals were a prehistoric food resource, 

as in the Birnirk level there is a small species of dog 

that was apparently eaten. 

MARINE ECOSYSTEM 

For man, the main economic resources of the 

marine ecosystem consist of whales (Balaena mysticetus, Delphinapterus leucas), walrus (Odobenus 

rosmarus), bearded seals, (Erignathus barbatas), 

seals (Phoca vitulina, Phoca hispida, Phoca fasciata), 

and certain fishes. 

Ice covers the surface of the ocean offshore from 

the Walakpa site for most of the year and exercises an 

important influence over hunting activities. There 

are several types of ice and ice conditions based on 

the age of the ice and its relationship to the coast. 

These types of ice and their movements, due to currents and winds, are of extreme importance in exploitation of the sea. Sea-ice conditions and their 

effect on hunting has been summarized by Nelson 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

(1969). His observations are the basis of the following description. 

SUMMER ICE.—The ocean is usually ice-free for a 

very short period during the summer. If the summer 

is particularly cold, or if there are frequent, onshore 

winds, the ocean may be ice-bound all year around. 

Even during a relatively warm summer, ice floes 

and drifting ice are common along the shore. The 

ocean is usually ice-free, however, from late June 

through late September or early October. 

The open water of the ocean is not utilized to 

any great extent, and economic activities are generally concentrated on land. Seals are hunted from 

boats, and walruses are found on the ice floes during 

late summer. Open-ocean whale hunting is not practiced at Barrow, as the most effective ice-lead hunting 

is conducted in the spring and fall. The small Beluga 

whales are shot from the shore during this period 

but are not pursued. The hunter usually shoots them 

near shore and waits for them to be washed ashore. 

FALL ICE.—The new or young ice forms in the 

fall. Its occurrence and condition is erratic, as it is 

subject to movement by winds and currents (Nelson, 

1969:11). New ice forms on the ocean and appears 

when onshore winds or currents wash it ashore. By 

the end of November the young ice is usually landfast and will thicken quickly. Ice hunting is possible 

after it thickens, which is usually in December. 

An ice apron is the formation of new ice along 

the edges of open-ice leads in either young ice or 

winter ice. Ice aprons may develop rapidly or slowly, 

depending on the current direction. If the current 

parallels the lead edge, the apron will grow quickly 

and soon cover the entire lead. Most travel and 

hunting are done on the ice aprons. The aprons are 

thicker near the base and become thinner towards 

the edge. It is of extreme importance to be able to 

gauge the thickness and condition of apron ice and 

new ice. The color of the ice will indicate whether 

or not it is safe for travel. 

WINTER ICE.—There are two types of winter ice: 

(1) winter ice (ice of the year) and (2) polar ice (old 

ice) (Nelson, 1969:28). The winter ice is not common 

except during midwinter. It is thick enough that a 

hunter need not worry about it breaking. It can 

reach a thickness of 3.5 meters (10 ft), but when it 

becomes piled it reaches up to 18.3 meters (60 ft) in 

height. This type of ice is quite mobile and is subject 

to cracking and opening of ice leads. This causes the 

surface to become piled and jumbled with pressure 

ridges. 

Polar ice is not flat or piled as winter ice, rather 

it has developed a gently undulating surface. This is 

caused by weathering from the warmer summer 

temperatures. The Polar ice will form jagged, rough 

edges along its limits and cracks. Polar ice will develop large fissures up to 4.57 meters (15 ft) deep, 

which freeze over almost level with the surface (Nelson, 1969:31). Polar ice, unlike winter ice, is usually 

not completely covered with snow. This is because 

the snow will not blow free over the moist surface 

of salty, winter ice, while the Polar ice is free of salt. 

Landfast ice is ice that has been driven up on 

shore or into the shallow water along the shore. It 

becomes solidly anchored to the ocean bottom or 

to the beach. When the offshore ice moves, due to 

currents or winds, the landfast ice will usually stay 

in place, and ice leads will open along its ocean edge. 

It may well be the most important type of ice for 

economic exploitation of the sea. Most of the hunting 

and traveling during the fall, winter, and spring are 

carried out on this type of ice. 

The effects of winds and currents on the ice pack 

and ice floes are of prime importance to the Eskimo 

hunter. During the fall, winter, and spring, the 

wind direction and velocity is more important than 

the currents. In fact, currents are sometimes determined by the wind direction and velocity. 

The most common winter wind is from the northeast. This is an offshore wind, which causes the ice 

to drift seaward and opens up ice leads between the 

pack ice and the landfast ice. This is a dangerous 

time to be hunting out beyond the landfast ice. It 

is, however, an extremely favorable time to hunt 

seals along the leads from the landfast ice. It is also 

necessary for successful whale hunting. An east wind 

will have the same effect as a northeast wind on ice 

movement, but east winds are relatively rare at this 

time of year. 

When there is a southeast wind accompanied by a 

south or southwest current, the ice will remain fast 

against the coast. Onshore winds will also hold the 

ice landfast. During these periods, it is safe for a 

hunter to travel a good distance away from land in 

search of polar bears. A southeast gale is quite 

dangerous. It can open wide leads and remove landfast ice. This is because a wind of gale velocity accompanied by a high tide can lift the landfast ice 

from the ocean bottom and drift it out to sea. 

When traveling or hunting on ice during the 

winter, the hunter is obliged to test both winds and 

currents before leaving shore. Currents often shift 

before an approaching wind change and allow a certain amount of predictability before ice travel. 

During the summer the currents are more important than winds. Summer ice floes are carried 

northward along the coast by the strong and powerful 

south current. In the early summer a west wind will 
INTRODUCTION 

pack the ice up along the shore, but by late summer 

even a strong, onshore wind will not stop the ice 

from drifting along the coast or out to sea. These ice 

floes and their movements are extremely important 

for hunting seals, bearded seals, and walruses. It is 

important for the hunter to make the most of the 

summer landfast ice and the drifting floes. If the 

weather is favorable, a large amount of meat can 

be obtained and stored at this time. 

POND AND RIVER ECOSYSTEMS 

The pond and river ecosystems are not of extreme 

importance to this study. The lakes, ponds, and 

marshes have been analyzed above for vegetational 

composition as physiographic features of the low 

tundra ecosystem. As far as I could determine, none 

of the waters in the Walakpa area contain fish. Some 

lakes, such as Tusikvoak and others, are important 

for winter fishing, but they are long distances from 

Walakpa. During historic times the pond ecosystem 

has been secondarily utilized because waterfowl nest 

along the shores of these lakes. 

The only running stream in the Walakpa area is 

the Walakpa River. This river is not economically 

important, as it has no fish. Walakpa Bay does not 

contain fish, but occasionally a seal will go into it. 

Waterfowl and caribou are also taken in the bay. To 

the east of Point Barrow, the Kulugrua, Ikpikpun, 

and Meade rivers are important in the summer. Many 

families will establish fishing camps there and net a 

great many fish. However, the only fish remains 

found at Walakpa were those of tomcod (Boreogadus 

saida), which are netted or jigged from the ocean. 

Prehistoric Climates and Climatic Change 

Little is known of the paleoclimatic conditions or 

changes that have occurred at Point Barrow. Only 

several minor indications are available. The first 

is that of the pollen analysis of radiocarbon-dated 

coastal peat by Colinvaux (1964:707). The results of 

Colinvaux' analysis indicate that the vegetation and 

climate of the Arctic coastal region have been rather 

stable over the last 4000 years. However, his studies 

were not aimed specifically at the later climatic 

conditions. 

Analysis of the formation of beach ridges by Hume 

(1965), Rex (1964), Brown (1965), Brown and Sellman (1966), and Moore (1960) have indicated that 

there have been rises and falls in the level of the sea 

along the north coast of Alaska. These fluctuations of 

the sea level are summarized as (1) a period from 

approximately A.D. 500-1000, when the sea level 

dropped 2 meters below the present sea level; (2) a 

high period from A.D. 1100 to 1400/1500, when the 

sea level rose 3 meters; (3) a drop in the level of the 

sea between A.D. 1400 and 1500; and (4) high level 

between A.D. 1700 and 1850 (Figure 1, Column 1). 

These sea level fluctuations do not necessarily reflect 

climatic conditions or changes, but with additional 

data presented by Bryson and Wendland (1967), they 

tend to correlate with climatic fluctuations in other 

areas of the Arctic. 

For additional climatic data we must turn to other 

areas where work has been done in the North. 

Whether or not these data are applicable to the Barrow area is problematical, but they are used as indicators of general climatic trends in the Arctic. 

Koch (1945) studied ice and ice conditions in 

eastern Greenland and Iceland. He consulted the 

written works on Norse observations of ice conditions and their effects on life in both Greenland and 

Iceland. Ice conditions and climatic changes were 

expressed by the necessity of the Norsemen to change 

their transportation routes between Greenland, Iceland, and Northern Europe because of ice accumulations and ice floes. Koch also consulted accounts on 

grazing and agriculture in both Greenland and Iceland. From these data he constructed graphs of ice 

conditions showing the number of weeks in which 

ice was around Iceland for 20-year periods from A.D. 

860 to 1939 (Figure 1, Column 3). Koch (1945:354) 

concludes that during this span there were five major 

periods of climatic change: 

1) In the period A.D. 800-1200 there was hardly any ice in 

summer near Iceland and the southern half of Greenland. 

2) In the period A.D. 1200-1400 there was somewhat more ice 

in the summer near Iceland and the southern half of 

Greenland. 

3) In the period A.D. 1400-1600 the ice decreased in quantity 

in the summer near Iceland and the southern half of 

Greenland. 

4) In the period A.D. 1600-1900 there were exceptionally large 

quantities of ice in the summer near Iceland and the 

southern half of Greenland. 

5) In the period A.D. 1920-1939 there was hardly any ice. 

Bryson and Wendland (1967) have proposed tentative climatic patterns for some of the late glacial and 

postglacial episodes in North America. This work 

was done on the basis of correlations between reconstructions of past airmass regimes and biotic regions 

and, specifically, shifts of the northern limits of the 

boreal forests, glacial advances and retreats, and 

palynological studies. They (Bryson and Wendland, 

1967:294-296) have constructed six climatic episodes 

(Figure 1, Column 2), which are of direct importance 

to this study: (1) The Scandic episode, A.D. 400-900, 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

in « 

* - 1 « 

1 

"J t 0: <E 

3 0 

1- z 

_J 

3 ? RIC 

0 

1- m 

1 

UJ 

13 

I 

K 

LU 

h -

< - I 

Id 

- I 

=> X 

1 -

> IT 

< 

•* a. BIRNI 

DATE 

1900 -

1800 -

1700 _ 

1600 . 

1500 _ 

1400 -

1300 _ 

1200 _ 

1100 _ 

1000 . 

900 . 

800 _ 

700 _ 

600 _ 

AD 500 

CHANGES IN SEA LEVELS 

ALONG THE NORTH ALASKAN 

COAST ( BASED ON HUME 

1965 AND MOORE I960 ) 

A 

X w 1 f 

(1 ^w 1 

^v. 

i^S^ 

^ v 1 ^ 

1 1 

) 

S*. y 

x s / 

I 1 V ^4-^ ^\ 

> | S

3

 ' 

!3 < ' 

cr UJ | 

a. « . 

+ 3 FEET | - 3 FEET 

RELATIVE WARMING & 

COOLING TRENDS FOR 

NORTHERN NORTH 

AMERICA ( BASED ON 

BRYSON E. WENDLAND 

1967) 

_i < 

UJ 

t r 

O a 

0 

UJ 

z 

0 

u. 

0 

< a. 

0 

1 -

z 

< _ j 

H 

< 

O 

Z 

O z < 

0 

WAR MER COOLER 

AMOUNTS OF ICE 

AROUND ICELAND 

( BASED ON KOCH 

1945 ) 

</> ' tz 0 2 < 

tr 

< _» 

UJ 

0 

u . 

0 

u l 

"I \ 1- 1 1- 1 

*V 

I 5

1 

UJ 

a 

_ i 

K 

K 

INCREASE IN 

AMOUNT 0 - ICE 

FICURE I.—Summary of climatic data for the Arctic. 

a cold period, much like the Atlantic. (2) Neo-Atlantic, A.D. 900-1200. During this period, open water 

appeared in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the 

tree-line readvanced into the tundra, summer rains 

extended farther into the southwest. Glaciers disappeared from the U.S. Rockies. These evidences 

suggest weaker westerlies and more meridional circulation. Westerlies increased about A.D. 1200, terminating the Neo-Atlantic. The northern edge of the 

boreal forest once again retreated southward. (3) 

Pacific episode A.D. 1200-1500 is a period of increased 

westerlies, followed by an expansion of the circumpolar vortex and a return to patterns more like the 

sub-Atlantic (cooler). A far south jet stream in winter 

associated with blocking highs over northwestern 

Europe and a reduced summertime penetration of 

tropical air northward across the United States and 

into Canada is indicated by historical data. (4) NeoBoreal episode, A.D. 1500-1850, had cooler summers 

and cold autumns. Glaciers once again formed as far 

south as New Mexico. Th e Neo-Boreal ended in the 

mid-nineteenth century with the well-documented 

climatic change which was associated with a return 

to strong westerlies in mid-latitudes. 

Modern Climatic Conditions 

The Alaskan Arctic coastal plain is virtually a 

desert from the standpoint of rainfall. Precipitation 

is slight and ranges from 25 to 228 mm (1 to 9 in) per 

year, with a yearly average of 100 mm (4 in). Most 

of this precipitation comes during the summer in the 

form of sleet and rain. Th e average annual snowfall 

at Point Barrow is about 6.5 cm (26 in). Summer, 

the period of greatest economic potential, lasts from 

June through August, during which the sun shines 

24 hours a day. The summer temperatures range 

from -7° C (20°F) to as high as 18°C (64°F). After 

July the sun begins to set briefly in the early hours 

of the morning and by mid-November the sun will 

not be seen again for 72 days. Winter temperatures 

range from -42°C to 12°C (-45°F to 18°F) (U.S. 

Department of Commerce, 1963:27.) 

Windstorms are frequent, and when the wind is 

blowing, the temperature must be calculated with a 

40 

30 

20 -

10 -

1 1 1 II 1 

\ \CHILL \ 

\ \lNDEx \ 

\ \ 4 \ 

XCHILLV 

\lN0ExV 

\ 3 \ 

\ CHILL \ "\ ^ 

CHILL 

INDEX 

1 

1 1 

INDEX X ^ 

2 ^ V 

1 iN**,,*sfc. 

1 1 

CHILL 

INDEX 

5 

_ 1 1 

1 

T* — 

50 40 30 20 10 10 -20 -30 -40 

TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FARENHEIT 

FIGURE 2.—Temperature-wind-chill index. (Chill Index 1 = Comfortable with normal precautions. Chill Index 2 = Very cold, travel 

becomes uncomfortable on overcast days. Chill Index 3 = Bitterly 

cold, travel becomes uncomfortable even on clear sunny days. 

Chill Index 4 = Freezing of human flesh begins, depending upon 

degree of activity, amount of solar radiation, and character of skin 

and circulation; travel and life in temporary shelter becomes disagreeable. Chill Index b — Survival efforts are required; exposed 

flesh will freeze in less than one minute. Chart is based on data 

from the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory.) 
INTRODUCTION 

TABLE 1.—Climatic data from Point Barrow, Alaska, based on observations 

made between 1921-1953 and averaged per month over this period (based 

on Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, n.d.) 

MONTH 

Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

Jun 

Jul 

Aug 

Sep 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 

Yearly 

Average 

E 

=3 

E 

X 

ta 

E 

-9 

-12 

-8 

7 

24 

39 

46 

44 

34 

22 

7 

-4 

16 

TEMPI- I'A : i !!••! ( 

E 

3 

E 

c 

s : 

-22 

-25 

-22 

-8 

13 

29 

33 

33 

27 

12 

-5 

-18 

4 

- C 

en 

•r- . E 

I E + J 

C 

OJ o 

CTI E 

ro 

S- iOJ OJ 

> •. 

<c 

17 

11 

12 

25 

36 

54 

63 

63 

46 

34 

28 

18 

66 

3 

O - c 

_ J +-> 

c 

OJ o 

CT! E 

i - SOi <U 

> a. 

< 

-40 

-42 

-39 

-25 

-5 

20 

28 

27 

18 

-4 

-20 

-33 

-45 

3H 

E 

=3 

E 

X 

(*3 

s : 

OJ 

3 

O 

<c 

33 

31 

30 

42 

45 

70 

78 

73 

59 

40 

39 

34 

78 

E 

3 

E 

SE 

01 

3 

O 

. O 

<c 

-53 

-56 

-52 

-42 

-18 

8 

22 

20 

4 

-19 

-40 

-55 

-56 

PRECIPITATION 

i/i 

<u 

. c 

CJ 

c 

I - '• -

(U 

a. c 

<u 

enj: m 4-> 

S- c 

OJ o 

> E 

« t 

.2 

.1 

.1 

.1 

.1 

.3 

.9 

.8 

.5 

.5 

.3 

.2 

.1 

WIND 

>, 

• M i -

O O 

0 £ 

OJ i-

> 01 

Q . 

OJ 

c n i/i 

ra <u 

i - i— 

at >r-

> E 

«t 

11.0 

11.3 

10.9 

11.5 

11.8 

11.4 

11.8 

12.7 

13.7 

14.0 

12.5 

10.9 

12.0 

c 

o 

0> T -

cn+ J 

ID u 

S- OJ 

OJ s-

> -r-

< Q 

ESE 

ENE 

NE 

E 

NE 

E 

SW 

E 

ENE 

NE 

NE 

ENE 

NE 

CHILL 

FACTOR 

E E 

3 3 

E E 

C X 

z: £: 

4 5 

4 5 

4 5 

3 4 

2 2 

1 2 

1 2 

1 2 

2 2 

2 3 

3 4 

4 5 

3 3 

chill factor, which will lower the effective temperature (Figure 2). The wind plays an extremely important role in both the success and failure of economic activities; it affects the ability of Eskimos to 

hunt and travel and it also regulates the occurrence 

of game animals. Winds are usually from the northeast. The average wind velocity is about 19 km/hr 

(12 mi hr) (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1959:12). 

Table 1 is a composite chart showing temperatures, 

precipitation, wind velocity, wind direction, and the 

corresponding maximum and minimum chill factors 

for the period of 1921-1953. 
Site Description 

The Walakpa site is located on a 6.1-m (20 ft) 

high bluff on the Chukchi Sea, 19.3 km (12 mi) south 

of Barrow Village (Figure 3). To the south of the site 

is a sandpit which separates Walakpa Bay from the 

sea. North and east of the site is the low tundra, 

which is composed of the physiographic features 

previously described (pp. 4-5). 

The site contained 15 surface house structures of 

varying age, most of which were historic (Figure 4). 

These houses were oriented in two lines, one running 

north-south along the sea coast and the other east-west 

along the bay side of the bluff. The midden was 

situated at the point of the bluff between the two 

house rows. It is reported that there were once more 

houses between the midden and the ocean, but they 

have been washed away by the ocean eroding the 

bluff. 

There is no evidence in the area for prehistoric ice 

cellars. A single ice cellar, which was constructed in 

1946, is located between the A area of the mound 

and the B area. This ice cellar cuts through both 

Thule and Birnirk occupation levels. 

Stratigraphy 

The Walakpa stratigraphy has been defined on the 

basis of the 1968 test trenches and the 1969 excavations. The development of the natural stratigraphy 

of the site has been worked out in detail by Duguid 

(1971). At least one occupation level occurs in the 

upper portion of the Gubik formation; however, the 

rest of the mound has a different origin. Several 

of the processes to be described below are probably 

the same as those that contributed to the formation 

of the Barrow unit of the Gubik. Excepting the 

cultural debris, I consider the mound a continuation 

of the formation of the Barrow unit. 

The first Walakpa stratigraphic process to be described is the eolian deposition. Much of the upper 

Barrow unit and the cultural stratigraphy are separated by windblown sands (Plate 2b). The origin of 

these sands is not completely understood; however, 

the Arctic coastal plain is particularly favorable for 

eolian erosion and deposition (Black, 1951:92). This 

is because of high winds, lack of topographic windbreaks, and an abundance of silt and sand. If it were 

not for permafrost impeding surface runoff, and 

thereby making it possible for vegetation to grow in 

spite of small amounts of precipitation, this area 

would become a desert with shifting sands (Black, 

1951:93). 

The stratigraphic units, which are of prime importance to this study (5, 6, and 7, pp. 13-14), can 

be differentiated by their color and sand composition. 

A R C T I OCEA N 

0 

0 

5 

5 10 

10 

IS 20 

15 

25 

20 25 

KILOMETERS 

MILES 

WAINWRIGHT 

\ 

NUWUK 

(BARROW VILLAGE) UTKIAVIK BIRNIRK ^ pQ| N T 

KUGOK \ 

BARROW 

PLOVER 

ISLANDS 

FIGURE 3.—Eskimo archeological sites in the vicinity of Point Barrow, north coast of Alaska. 

10 
SITE DESCRIPTION 11 

ARCTIC 

OCEAN 

WILL ROGERS - WILEY POST 

MONUMENT 

FIGURE 4.—Topographic map of Walakpa site, showing mounds A and B. 

It was not possible to determine what caused these 

differences, but it is thought that they reflect sands 

of different origins, compositions or mixtures rather 

than soils as described by Britton (1967:35). The 

immediate sources for sand at Walakpa are (1) the 

ocean beach and large sandspit of Walakpa Bay, (2) 

the beach of Walakpa Bay, and (3) the tops of polygonal mounds stripped by winds. The parent formation of most of these eolian sands is probably the 

Gubick formation consisting of fine-grained, white to 

yellow and tan quartz, and chert sands. 

The change in color of these deposits at Walakpa 

is perhaps indicative of climatic fluctuations and 

changes in the sea level (page 7), both perhaps 

reflected by changes in the mean annual wind direction and velocity, and severe storm frequencies. A 

drop of 2 meters in the sea level would cause Walakpa 

Bay to become an inward draining basin and the 

alluvial sediments, which would normally be disbursed along the beaches to the northeast by ocean 

currents and ice floes, would then accumulate at the 

bottom of the bay. These sediments would be similar 

to the gray lake sediments as described by Brown 

(1965:44) . Furthermore, if there were a 2-meter drop 

in the sea level, areas now under water in Elson Lagoon and Dease Inlet would be exposed to wind action 

and would contribute to eolian deposition throughout 

the entire Point Barrow area. 

When the bay was once again open, after a rise in 

the sea level, there would be an extremely high 

amount of sediment that would be cleaned out of the 

basin and be deposited in an alluvial fan at the mouth 

of the Walakpa River. This load of silt would subsequently be disbursed along the coast by ocean current and ice action. If this rising of the sea level were 

concurrent with a warming trend, there would also 

be an increase in the silt load of the Walakpa River, 

which would be highly variable in color and compo-
12 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

sition caused by the differential draining of inland 

lakes and bogs as the permafrost recedes. 

Additional sources of sand would be produced by 

solifluction causing numerous rivulets of sludge to 

descend from the face of the cliffs along the beach, 

which would be composed of variable types and 

amounts of sand (Rex, 1964:388). It should also be 

noted that waves reach the cliffs only during severe 

storms and erosion is especially pronounced during 

southwest storms (Rex, 1964:388). 

Also of importance for determining stratigraphic 

breaks is the occurrence of thin gravel layers. The 

cliffs in the Walakpa area are covered with a thin 

lens of gravel, which at first glance would be identified as the result of solifluction. Gravels of this 

nature covered the Walakpa midden; however, no 

artifacts were found among the gravels. It was also 

observed that these lenses were interspersed throughout the stratigraphic column of the site. These 

gravel layers were apparently formed on the tundra 

surface after a period of Eskimo occupation and 

then covered by subsequent occupations. 

It is Duguid's (1971:4) contention that these gravel 

lenses were formed by a strong onshore wind pushing 

pack ice against a narrow margin of landfast ice, 

which is pushed up to the cliff forming a ramp. An 

offshore wind would subsequently push the pack ice 

back out to sea. During later storms, waves would 

push beach sand and gravel up over the ice ramp and 

onto the beach cliff. Over a period of years, erosion 

and precipitation would spread the gravel out in a 

thin layer across the surface of the cliff. 

T h e stratigraphy of the two major excavation 

units, A and B of the Walakpa site, is summarized 

below (Plate \a,b,c,d). Profiles were drawn of all 

trench walls. Changes in the geological deposition 

were identified and grouped into ten major stratigraphic units (Figure 5). The term "unit" designates 

discrete, natural accumulations of soil and does not 

relate to the cultural subunits which are described 

on pp. 15-16. The units are identified on the basis of 

their color, composition, and position. 

A AREA 

FIGURE 6 

Unit 1: This uppermost layer consists of recent 

sod, gravel, and sand. It varies from 5 to 3 cm (0.5-0.1 

ft) in thickness and is light gray in color. Artifacts are 

all datable to historic and modern times. 

Unit 2: A thin lens 6-3 cm (0.2-0.1 ft) thick of 

beach pebbles and sand. This unit is gray in color. 

It probably originated through the ice ramp process. 

There were no artifacts found in this unit. 

Unit 3: This unit is from 39 to 18 cm (1.3-0.6 ft) 

thick—a gravel lens containing artifacts of Nuwuk 

and Thule ages. It is composed of gravel and sod, 

along with sand and is gray-brown in color. It is 

probably the result of the construction of a house that 

was built during the Nuwuk period in Unit 4 (Plate 

3a). 

Unit 4: A lens averaging about 60 cm (2 ft) thick 

of gravel, sand, and sod. It is coarse and gray-brown 

N955 

AREA 

5.0' 

1.5 M 

FIGURE 5.—Schematic profile showing correlation of the stratigraphy 

of the A and B areas of the Walapka site. 
SITE DESCRIPTION 13 

.UNIT I 

UNIT 

5.0' ( 1.5 METERS) 

1*^.^1 NUWUK ^Z^*3 EARLY THULE 

rzzzi LATE THULE 

EOLIAN 

OEPOSITS 

HISTORIC 

BIRNIRK 

GUBIK 

FORMATION 

^q WALAKPA, 

DENBIGH 

FIGURE 6.—A area stratigraphy at the Walakpa site. 

in color. It is also made up of elements from Unit 5 

that were disturbed by the construction of a Nuwuk 

age house. 

Unit 5: A 92-61 cm (3-2 ft) deposit of sand, clay, 

sod, and gravel. It is reddish to yellow-tan in color. 

This is the unit that contains the Late Thule occupations. Unit 5 contains 20 independent levels of which 

10 are occupation levels and 10 are sod and sand 

levels that separate each occupation. At the west end 

of the east-west profile test trench, these levels are all 

slumped together and have been completely soaked 

with oil from a sea mammal. This is probably the 

result of a historic Eskimo staking out a seal or walrus 

skin on the ground surface. This is the point where 

these levels emerge from the eroded midden. It appears that this area was disturbed by both erosion 

and later Eskimo activity. Consequently, artifacts 

and cultural debris from this area have been excluded 

from the analysis. Th e cultural levels can be readily 

recognized. They are 6-3 cm (0.2-0.1 ft) thick. Bones, 

artifacts, sod, cultural debris, and gravel were found 

in these units. The occupation levels are dark brown 

to gray in color. Each is separated by eolian sands, 

which are yellow to tan in color. 

Unit 6: Unit 6 is black grading into yellow in 

color. It is 39-18 cm (1.3-0.6 ft) thick containing 

eolian sand interspersed with organic units. Artifacts, 

diagnostic of Early Thule, were found in one of the 

organic subunits; other subunits contained artifacts 

but none was diagnostic. 

Unit 7: Unit 7 contains logs and bones. It has at 

least one occupation level containing artifacts that 

are Birnirk in age. It is yellowish to brown and black 

in color, measuring an average of 92 cm (3 ft) thick. 

Unit 8: Thin lenses of fine gray and tan sands. 

These units are probably a continuation of the Gubik 

formation post-Walakpa Phase Denbigh occupation. 

No artifacts were found in this unit. 

Unit 9: A lens of organic matter and sand. It is 

black in color. This unit contains a distinct occupation level with artifacts typical of the Arctic Small 

Tool Tradition. It has been identified as Walakpa 

Phase Denbigh. 

Unit 10: This consists of yellow-tan, fine-grained 

sands with interspersed gray, loamy streaks. It also 

contains orange and yellow clays, which are probably limonite. Unit 10 represents the upper part of 

the Barrow unit of the Gubik formation. 

B AREA 

FIGURE 7 

The stratigraphy of the B area has five major units, 

all of which contain one or more occupation levels. 

These units are not as well-defined as those in the 

A area, but it is possible to identify and correlate 

them on the basis of color and cultural compositions. 

Therefore, the unit numbers given below also correspond to the units of area A. Many of the units 

found in the A area did not occur in the B area. 

Unit 1: This is the current sod level, with the 

typical band of gray sand and clay. This unit contains 

artifacts of historic age. 

Unit 5: This unit is a sandy loam which is yellowtan in color. Its upper portion, as well as some areas 

of the first unit, have been disturbed. This unit contains a single, black organic level which is 3 centimeters (0.1 ft) thick in most areas. There is little in 

the way of bones and cultural objects in this level. 

Artifacts indicate that it is Late Thule in age (Plate 

2c). 

Unit 6: This unit is quite thick, measuring up to 

about 1 meter (3 ft) thick. It consists of a yellow-
14 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

N950 

5.0 ' (1.5 METERS) 

1///I

 LATE THULE 

|C^y j EARLY THULE 

HISTORIC 

GUBIK 

FORMATION 

BIRNIRK 

FIGURE 7.—B area stratigraphy at the Walakpa site. 

gray sand, which is interspersed with six organic 

levels which are gray to black in color. These lenses 

are usually 6-3 cm (0.2-0.1 ft) thick and contain 

occupational debris of Early Thule age and cultural 

affiliation. 

Unit 7: This unit is quite complex. It is made up 

of nearly solid occupational debris of Birnirk affiliation. It consists of wood chips, baleen, bone, and 

logs, all permeated with oil. The unit has been divided into three subunits on the basis of the midden 

structure. It is felt that these three levels are quite 

distinct and they do separate when traced out from 

the midden. 

Units 8, 9, and 10: This is the upper part of the 

Gubik formation. It consists of yellow-tan, finegrained sands with interspersed gray streaks. There 

are slight traces of an occupation level in the upper 

portion of the unit, but it was nearly removed when 

the Birnirk house was constructed. I believe that it 

was Denbigh in age. 

The correlation of the stratigraphic units of the A 

and B areas can be accomplished with the aid of the 

test trench segment stratigraphy (Figure 5). Unit 1, 

the recent sod, is, of course, quite readily recognized 

throughout the site. Units 2, 3, and 4 of the A area 

are apparently unique to that portion of the site. 

This is probably because of the manner in which 

they were deposited and their proximity to the beach. 

Unit 5 of the A area can be traced through the site 

and becomes the second layer (Unit 5) in the B area. 

The number of Late Thule levels in the A area is reduced to only one in the B area. Unit 6 contains the 

Early Thule cultural levels. It is identified as the 

third layer (Unit 6) in the B area. Unit 7 (in the A 

area) contains Birnirk artifacts. 

Archeological Excavations of the 

Walakpa Site 

1968 EXCAVATION 

The archeological excavations at Walakpa utilized 

a grid system of 1.5 meter (5 ft) squares, which was 

superimposed on the site area. A north-south base 

line was established, using true north as its orientation. The base line was assigned the coordinate identification of E 1000. The southeast corner of the 

base of the Will Rogers-Wiley Post monument is a 

reference point for the base line (Plate 2a). The 

corner of the monument was identified on the grid as 

N 1096.4, E 1000. Three brass caps embedded in 

concrete were placed along the base line. These brass 

caps were located at N 1000, E 1000; N 1050, E 1000; 

and N 950, E 1000. Th e brass cap at N 1000, E 1000 

was used as the main datum point, with all elevations 

and grids referenced to this point. 

The grid point identification system was set up so 

that each 1.5 meter (5 ft) grid had four main reference points, one at each corner. The corners were 

referenced to a point that was identified as N 1000, E 

000, W 000, and S 000, a point southwest of the site 

in the Chukchi Sea. This point was used so that all 

of the site would be in the northeast quarter of a 2-

axis grid. This was found to be quite useful, as all 

grids were located only on north and east lines. This 

system eliminates the confusion of four directional 

locators. Moreover, with this system, all artifacts can 

be referenced to each other without having to transpose directions. 

From this figure of a sample grid, one notes how to 

determine the exact location of the grids and how the 

positions of artifacts were plotted. Th e artifacts' 

location (N 943.9, E 804.2) were thus plotted horizontally on the site map without any other identification. 

A second system was used for rapid grid identification. This system was devised primarily for the ease 

of handling paper work. This system utilized both 

letters and numbers. The letters were assigned to 

grids located in the north-south plane, with the 

letter "A" being completely off the site area. All grids 
SITE DESCRIPTION 15 

along the east-west axis of the site between N 895-

900 were assigned the letter "A"; all grids along the 

east-west axis N 900-905 were designated by the 

letter "B" and so on. 

The numbering system identified grids in their 

east-west position along the north-south axis. The 

numbers ran from 1 to 100, with number 1 being to 

the west of the site. For example, grid unit J-19 has 

the coordinate numbers N 940-945, E 935-940, while 

unit J-20 has the coordinate numbers N 940-945, 

E 940-945. 

Elevations during the 1968 field season were determined by positions above or below the main datum 

point. The elevation of an artifact was calculated 

from its depth below the northeast corner of the excavation square. The elevation of the northeast 

corner of the square was calculated according to its 

position in relation to the main datum point. 

The grids chosen for excavation in 1968 were those 

along a single east-west axis (N 940-945) and those 

along the two north-south axes (E 880-885 and E 

920-925). These were chosen in order to provide a 

test trench that would transverse both axes of the 

major middens. Cross-sectional trenches were excavated into all other house structures to determine 

their age and relationship to the middens. 

Every other grid along these axes was excavated. 

The other grids were left intact in order to work out 

detailed stratigraphy of all four faces of the excavated grids. By excavating in this manner and interpolating the stratigraphy between the excavated grids, 

a complete cross-section of the stratigraphy of the 

major middens was determined. The interpretation 

of the east-west test trench stratigraphy also provided 

evidence for the relationship of the stratigraphy of the 

two middens. The grids were excavated in arbitrary 

levels of 12 centimeters (1 ft). This depth was used to 

speed up excavation, but when occupational stratigraphy was determined, natural living surfaces were 

excavated. All levels were troweled, and when possible, the dirt was dried and screened. All structural 

features, artifacts, and other debris were mapped and 

recorded before they were removed. 

1969 EXCAVATION 

In 1969, excavations were resumed a month earlier 

and even though our work was critically hampered 

by below seasonal temperatures and numerous snow 

storms, good results were forthcoming. Those areas 

labeled "A" and "B" (Figure 8) were chosen for 

excavation because the stratigraphic continuum defined by the 1968 test trenches indicated that they 

would be the most productive areas. Each area was 

excavated according to the grid system established in 

the 1968 excavations. Occupation floors, which were 

defined by the test trenches, were excavated as single 

units, exposing entire occupation surfaces. These surfaces were left intact until all features were mapped 

and photographed. By using this method, specific 

activity areas were exposed; moreover, the relationships between these task specific-activity areas and 

other features such as houses, drying racks, and trash 

middens were observed. 

All cultural features including bone scraps and 

flaking debitage were collected, recorded, and analyzed. 

Pollen and carbon samples were collected from 

each level. Several pollen profiles were made in 

each stratigraphic column, as well as a composite 

sample from each occupation surface. Surface pollen 

samples were collected from the site and the surrounding tundra. 

The major difference between the archeological 

techniques used in 1969 and those used in 1968 was 

the utilization of local H.I. (height above main 

datum) stations for elevation control. Two major 

H.I. stations were erected. The H.I. stations consist 

of three concrete reinforcement bars, which were 

placed in the ground, forming a small triangle with 

each reinforcement bar being 0.3 meter (1 ft) from 

the other two. The stations were placed on the 

highest ground nearest the area of excavation. A 

string was tied around the rebars at 61 centimeters 

(2 ft) above zero elevation. All artifacts, structural 

features, debris, and the upper surface of each occupation level at grid intersection points were recorded 

as to their positions below the H.I. datum point. This 

allowed fast, accurate recording of data without the 

use of a line and line level. Further, with one consistent point of elevation for each unit, all artifacts 

in that unit could be directly compared with the elevation of every other artifact from all levels in the 

unit. 

Excavations of area A, the largest excavation area, 

were terminated at a depth of 1.2 meters (4 ft) below 

the present ground surface. At this lowest depth, an 

Early Thule horizon was partially excavated. Overlying the Early Thule level were eight distinct levels 

of Late Thule occupation. Above the Late Thule 

levels were two levels of historic Eskimo occupation, 

but these levels were, for the most part, disturbed by 

looting (Plate 3a). In addition, the 1968 test trenches 

indicated that the Thule occupation may be underlain by Birnirk, Norton, Choris, and Arctic Small 

Tool levels. As yet, we have not systematically excavated these occupations. 

In area B, an historic level, one level of Late Thule, 
16 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

:»1 

\ 

N 

25 50 FEET 

10 METERS 

FIGURE 8.—Contour map of the A and B areas of the Walakpa site. Contour interval 

equals one foot (0.3 meter). 

six levels of Early Thule, and three Birnirk levels 

were excavated. Below the Birnirk occupation, there 

is evidence that an Arctic Small Tool level may have 

once existed, but it has been nearly destroyed by the 

construction of the Birnirk house. 

ADDITIONAL EXCAVATIONS IN THE WALAKPA BAY AREA 

Test excavations were made in two new sites found 

in the Walakpa Bay area during the 1969 season. The 

Coffin site, located on a high bluff about a mile east 

of Walakpa on the north beach of the bay, yielded 

pottery and ground slate in unquestionable association with typical flint artifacts of the Arctic Small 

Tool Tradition. Since a level consisting of this same 

assemblage was found in the main Walakpa excavation, we now have considerable control over this horizon. This level has been dated by C-14 at 1450 B.C 

±520 (GAK-2299), and is designated as the Walakpa 

phase of the Arctic Small Tool Tradition. Apparently this assemblage represents a late Denbigh horizon, transitional into the Choris horizon. 

Facing the Coffin site from across a large creek 

basin is another archeological locality known as the 

Kahraok site. From this small surface site were recovered projectile points similar to the lanceolate 

points of the Old Cordilleran tradition. 

Other artifacts found were burins, burin spalls, 

and large blade tools, all distributed around a cache 

of 32 cores. These artifacts are similar to both the 

Akmak assemblage and to the Driftwood Creek complex (Anderson, 1970; Humphrey, 1970). 

The surface reconnaissance of the Point Barrow 

area produced what appeared to be six additional 

Arctic Small Tool sites, several Norton sites and several uncharted Eskimo sites. Based on a composite 

interpretation of these several sites and both summers' excavations, a tentative scheme for cultural succession of the Walakpa site areas includes the following horizons, from latest to earliest: Modern Eskimo, 
SITE DESCRIPTION 17 

Historic Eskimo, Late Thule, Early Thule, Birnirk, more extensive excavations are required for the 

Ipiutak, Norton, Choris, Walakpa Phase Denbigh, earlier material. Only the Birnirk, Early Thule, and 

Denbigh, and Kahraok. Late Thule occupations that have direct bearing on 

Although many of the above early levels are impor- the problem of the origins of Thule culture and 

tant to an understanding of American Arctic prehis- Thule culture development in the Point Barrow area 

tory, they will not be considered in this monograph; will be analyzed and interpreted here. 
Analysis and Classification of Artifacts 

HUNTIN G AN D FISHING EQUIPMEN T 

Harpoon Gear 

HARPOON HEADS 

Except where noted, the classification used in the 

following treatment of harpoon heads is that employed by Ford (1959) and Collins (1937c). Several 

new types of harpoon heads have been identified and 

given names that are compatible with the already 

existing classifications. 

BIRNIRK OPEN SOCKET.—Fourteen specimens of the 

Birnirk open socket variety were found in the 

Walakpa excavation (Plates la, \bd-h, 37a, 49a-d). 

Unlike the Birnirk open socket harpoons found by 

Ford at the Birnirk site, which were all of antler, four 

of the Walakpa specimens are made of ivory and ten 

are made of antler (Ford, 1959:75). 

All specimens have barbs placed on a lateral edge 

with an inset side blade facing the barb. On nine 

specimens, where the location of the socket could be 

determined, it was found that the spur occurred on 

the right edge of four and on the left edge of five. 

Three have the open socket flanked by two lashing 

slots, while six have only one lashing slot. The rest 

of the base is grooved for hafting. All line holes are 

round. 

On four complete examples, "the range of the 

lengths of these harpoon heads is from 14.4 to 8.8 cm, 

with an average of 11.9 cm. This compares to a range 

length of 13.5-7 cm and an average of 10.5 cm on 

Ford's Birnirk open socket harpoon heads (Ford, 

1959:75). Measurements from the upper edge of the 

line hole to the tip of the harpoon point range from 

8.75 to 6.8 cm, with an average of 7.7 cm. The ivory 

specimens are all shorter than the antler specimens, 

which have a range of 7.1-6.9 cm from line hole to 

tip of harpoon point. 

Decoration is simply straight incised lines that diverge from the median ridge to approximately halfway between the line hole and the point of the 

harpoon. One of the antler specimens has two short 

converging lines placed over the line hole and on the 

socket surface; the area between these lines is also incised. A unique specimen has two scallops that are 

similar to nonfunctional side blade slots. These occur 

on the edge of the outside spur. On either side of the 

spur are incised crescent-shaped lines. None of the 

ivory specimens contain any decoration above the 

line hole. 

It is also interesting to note that the location of the 

sockets on the antler specimens are not determined 

by the cancellous structure of the antler, for on five 

specimens the socket is carved into the hard surface. 

On four others it is carved into the cancellous 

structure. 

The inset side blades are made on small, thin semirectangular flakes. Three of these flakes are made 

from a gray chert that comes from the Siksikpuk formation in the Brooks Range. One is made from a 

clear chalcedony. 

NAULOCK OPEN SOCKET.—Six specimens of the 

Naulock open socket variety were found, all made 

from antler (Plates 6b, lb, c, 15a). Th e range of 

lengths of these harpoon heads is 9.2-7.6 cm, with an 

average of 8.4 cm. 

On three specimens, three gracefully carved points 

which make up the spurs are carved (Plates 7c, 15a). 

These are placed directly below the sockets on the 

left edge of the harpoon. One specimen has only two 

points, one much larger than the other (Plate lb). 

The larger point has four lateral points. Unlike the 

specimens reported by Ford (1959:79), one has the 

open socket placed on the hard surface rather than on 

the cancellous side of the antler. Three of these 

harpoons have the open sockets flanked by two lashing slots. One has only one lashing slot. They have 

round line holes, which are beveled toward the base 

of the harpoon to accommodate the harpoon line. 

The blade slit is located in the same plane as the line 

hole. 

The decoration on these specimens consists of two 

converging lines located on both sides of the harpoon 

point. Th e lines begin at the lashing slot and continue beyond the blade slit. The incised lines do not 

reach the edge of the harpoon and do not serve as 

ornamental barbs. Ornamental barbs appear on the 

li 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 19 

edges, but are simply the result of the depression 

carved into both lateral edges to form nonfunctional 

side blade slots. 

TUQUOK OPEN SOCKET.—Two antler specimens 

were found which resemble Ford's (1959:79) Tuquok 

type (Plates 6a, 15b). Although in certain aspects 

they are quite different, I will not attempt to describe 

a new type with only two specimens, and consider 

these examples as a variety of the Tuquok type. 

These specimens are small compared to Ford's and 

measure 9.4-8.7 cm in length, while Ford's measure 

on the average of 10-16 cm in length (Ford, 1959:79). 

The spur of this type is not bifurcated and rather 

than a vestigial third prong, one has four distinct 

prongs symmetrically placed below the open socket 

(Plate \5b). The other has only two prongs (a third 

prong is broken), which are also placed directly below the socket (Plate 6a). The open sockets are 

flanked by one lashing slot. One has a deeply cut 

groove running from the slot across the harpoon to 

the socket. The other has the groove cut completely 

around the harpoon. Both examples have side blades 

located on both edges of the blade. The side blades 

are made from chert. The line holes are round and 

beveled towards the base of the harpoon. Other than 

the four basal spurs, the decoration is simply two 

converging lines that start between the line hole and 

the edge and nearly three-fourths the length of the 

harpoon blade. 

TASIK OPEN SOCKET.—Only one example of the 

Tasik type was recovered in the Walakpa excavations 

(Plate Id). This specimen is 8.6 cm in length, which 

compares to the range of 13-7.5 cm reported by 

Ford (1959:82). This specimen, like Ford's, is made 

of antler. 

The harpoon head has a single asymmetrically 

placed lateral spur. The inside of the spur is scalloped 

in the shape of a nonfunctional point placed on the 

upper margin of the spur. It is oval in cross-section. 

Both sides are slightly constricted by the presence of 

nonfunctional side blade slots. Ford does not mention the presence of these side blade slots on any of 

his specimens. Two lashing slots are present on 

either side of the socket. The line hole is rather small 

and placed in the same plane as the blade slot. It is 

slightly beveled towards the socket to accommodate 

the harpoon line. Ornamentation consists of incised 

lines that run from the line hole to the blade slot. 

Two incised lines are located along both edges below 

the nonfunctional side blade slots and extend almost 

to the base of the harpoon point. It also appears that 

the small, nonfunctional point on the spur is for 

ornamentation. 

Sicco OPEN SOCKET.—Three examples of the Sicco 

Open Socket type were recovered at Walakpa (Plates 

58b, 63c). Only one specimen was complete and its 

length is 8.9 cm; this is slightly smaller than those 

described by Ford (1959:83). Its spur has one point 

with five facets placed lateral to the socket. All of the 

examples have two lashing slots, which flank the open 

socket. Blade slits occur in the same plane as the line 

hole and socket. In cross-section these harpoon heads 

have six facets. They are slightly constricted at the 

line hole and have faceted triangular-shaped prongs 

on either side of the blade slit. Decoration, which 

occurs on only one specimen, consists of elongated 

triangles placed between the line hole and blade slot. 

The center areas of the triangles have been filled 

with incised lines. Neither specimen has vestigial side 

blade slots, such as those reported by Stefansson 

from Point Barrow (Ford, 1959:85). 

NATCHUK OPEN SOCKET.—Ford believes that the 

Natchuk open socket evolved from the Birnirk open 

socket by the elimination of stone side blades and the 

reduction of the multipronged spur to one point 

(Ford, 1959:83). He further believes that it is a type 

that represents a step in the development of the 

Thule ii harpoon head (Ford, 1959:83). Evidence 

from the Walakpa site would suggest that this type 

occurs very late in the Birnirk sequence and is contemporary with the Birnirk type harpoon head in the 

uppermost Birnirk level at Walakpa. The differences 

between the two types of harpoon heads are that the 

Natchuk type is usually more delicate, less elaborate 

and does not have inset side blades. 

Three ivory specimens of the Natchuk open socket 

were recovered at the Walakpa site, two from levels 

that represent middle period Birnirk occupation 

(Plate 49e, /), and one from an Early Thule level 

(Plate 58a.) Of those from the Birnirk level, one is a 

finished specimen while the other is a nearly finished 

preform. The two Birnirk specimens may demonstrate an early period of Natchuk development, as 

they are more closely related to the Birnirk open 

socket variety in that they have multipointed spurs 

and the barb is placed at the center of the blade. 

As Ford (1959:83) noted, Natchuk specimens are 

smaller than the Birnirk type. These two measured 

8.9 and 8.8 cm in length, as compared to the average 

of 10.5 cm for the Birnirk type. The spurs have two 

points and are placed on the opposite side of the 

lateral barb. The line hole in the finished specimen is 

round while in the unfinished specimen it appears to 

have been intended to be triangular. 

The unfinished specimen has three nonfunctional 

slots to replace the side blades, while the other contains two scallops, unlike the nonfunctional slots. One 

specimen has two lashing slots, while the other has 
20 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

only one slot with a cut groove extending threefourths of the way around the diameter of the harpoon point. The unfinished preform provides details 

on the manufacture of the open socket. Three cuts 

are made: two long cuts run parallel to the long axis 

of the harpoon and one short cut placed at a right 

angle across the top of the two parallel cuts. This 

leaves an uncut section, which is chipped out; then 

the rough surfaces are ground off. Decoration consists 

of converging incised lines starting at the lowest portion of the nonfunctional slot and/or scallops, which 

end and do not meet above the lateral barb. On the 

complete specimen an intricate scallop has been 

carved under the bark. 

The Early Thule Natchuk specimen from the A 

area is extremely interesting, as it more closely resembles the Thule 11 type than the Birnirk open 

socket variety (Plate 58a). It has only a one-pronged 

spur, which is laterally placed. It retains the nonfunctional side blade slot. Unlike Ford's specimen, 

however, and more nearly like Thule 11, the lateral 

barb has been placed near the tip of the harpoon 

rather than at the center of the blade. It has a small 

round line hole with beveling between it and the 

socket for the line. It has two lashing slots. The 

specimen is 9.15 cm in length. Its decoration is confined primarily to two converging lines above the 

line hole with two matched sets of inward pointing 

lines which do not meet. 

THULE II OPEN SOCKET.—The Eastern Thule 11 

is the most distinctive of the Thule types. Eleven 

specimens were recovered at Walakpa (Plates 49g, 

58c, 59a, b, 63e, 15b, 118a). Three of these were 

complete and the rest were damaged. Seven of the 

harpoon heads were made of ivory, while the rest 

were of antler. The range of lengths is 8.9-8.5 cm. 

This compares to a range of 15-8 cm from Birnirk, 

with an average of 9.5 cm (Ford, 1959:86). 

These harpoon heads can be characterized by having two symmetrically placed lateral barbs, open 

sockets and single-pointed spurs. Three slight variations appear in the lashing techniques. Six specimens 

have two lashing slots cut into either side of the socket 

and converge toward each other. A groove is cut 

between them on the opposite side of the open socket. 

One specimen has two drilled holes on either side of 

the socket. Two specimens have only a groove cut 

around the diameter of the harpoon head from one 

side of the socket to the other. Four specimens have 

triangular line holes, while the others are round. One 

specimen has two round line holes. This appears to 

be accidental, as the socket cuts into the lower line 

hole and the second hole was subsequently drilled. 

Occasionally on the outside edges of the body of 

the harpoon head there appears a pronounced ridge. 

The ridge runs from slightly below the line hole to 

the tip of the spur. It appears that these were carved 

to give greater support for the lashing slot. 

Decoration ranges from no modification to a 

straight line carved from the line hole extending up 

the center of the harpoon to the tip. An incised, upside down Y occurs over the line hole on one example, while another has a very simple triangle carved 

above the line hole. Th e final example has a triangular-line hole, the top of which terminates with a short 

incised line. Both the line hole and the incised lines 

are inside two converging lines that run from the 

lashing slots to about two-thirds the length of the 

harpoon head. 

One, possibly two, specimens of Thul e 11 harpoon 

heads occurred in the Walakpa-Birnirk occupation. 

The first is a broken ivory specimen (Plate 49g). In 

most respects it is similar to those described by Ford 

(1959) and Mathiassen (1927a), but it seems to have 

many decorational features that are more similar 

to Birnirk than to Eastern Thul e and is identical to a 

specimen from Kurigitavik (Collins, 1940:562). The 

length of this specimen is 7.25 cm. On the specimens 

from Birnirk, Ford (1959:86) reports that they have 

single pointed spurs. On the Walakpa-Birnirk specimen there is a single pointed spur, which has been 

faceted into a pentagonal cross-section, with one small 

but very pronounced spur placed slightly above the 

main spur and to the opposite side of the socket. The 

open socket is flanked by two lashing slots with connecting lashing grooves. Th e line hole is triangular. 

Two barbs are placed symmetrically at the tip of the 

harpoon head but are broken. 

The decoration is quite elaborate. A set of two 

incised lines are placed above the line hole, with one 

starting below the hole and meeting above the line 

hole where they form a single line and continue up 

the blade of the harpoon. A triangular-shaped groove 

has been cut between the line hole and the incised 

lines, which act as a decorative extension of the triangular line hole. Incised lines are cut into the 

blade from the ends of the barb cuts. Below the 

barbs, and symmetrically placed to either side of the 

line hole, are two gracefully carved vestigial barbs. 

These barbs have incised lines cut into the blade from 

the termination of the barb cuts. Th e faceted spur 

is the final form of decoration. 

This particular harpoon head, even though it is 

considered here as a Thule n, has features that are 

characteristic of both Thul e and Birnirk cultures. 

It is a good example of a harpoon head belonging to 

the time when Thule types were beginning to emerge 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 21 

from Birnirk types. Therefore, it is considered ?n 

early form of Thule n. 

The second example, which may be a Thule n 

harpoon head found in the Birnirk occupation at 

Walakpa, is a broken tip (Plate 376). Although there 

is no way of making a positive identification, whatever type it may have been would have had two 

symmetrically placed lateral barbs. The only type of 

harpoon head that occurs with this type of barb 

arrangement is the Thule n. 

THULE HI OPEN SOCKET.—Eastern Thule m is 

represented by only two antler specimens (Plates 

63 b, 80a). In regard to general characteristics, they 

have no side barbs but are slotted for end blades. The 

slots are cut so the blade is set parallel with the line 

hole. They have round, medium-sized line holes and 

both sides have lashing slots. They have open sockets 

with lateral spurs. Mathiassen's (1927a: 25) specimens 

range in length from 10.4 to 7.4 cm, while those recovered at Walakpa are 11 and 6.7 cm in length. 

The smaller specimen is decorated by two incised 

lines, which run from the lashing slot along both 

edges for a distance of approximately two-thirds the 

length of the point. In the manufacture of the socket 

on the larger specimen, the line hole was accidentally 

damaged. A small ivory wedge was placed in a slot 

behind the line hole. This wedge kept the open 

socket separated from the line hole. 

THULE IV CLOSED SOCKET.—Thule iv specimens, 

as described by Mathiassen (1927a: 25), have closed 

sockets, with the blade slit cut at right angles to the 

direction of the line hole. Eastern Thule iv is not 

reported by Ford from the Point Barrow area. At the 

Walakpa site, four, or possibly five, specimens of this 

type were recovered. Three of these were in unquestionable association with the Birnirk occupation. 

There is no doubt about their occurrence in situ in 

the Birnirk occupation. The implication is that, like 

Eastern Thule n, Eastern Thule iv also has its immediate origin during the Birnirk period and is indeed 

fully developed before the end of the Birnirk period. 

One of these closed socket specimens (Plate 15c) is 

made of ivory. Its total length is 8 cm. The prongs 

have a thick diamond-shaped cross-section, while the 

base has been faceted into ten sides. The line hole 

is round and in comparison with other specimens 

from this level is rather large. The hole is placed in 

a shallow concave surface on each side of the harpoon, 

with a shallow bevel extending towards its base. The 

end blade slot is placed at a right angle to the line 

hole. It has a single-pointed spur occurring below 

the socket. Other than the faceting at the base of the 

harpoon point, there is no decoration appearing on 

this specimen. 

The Second specimen of Thule iv (Plate le) comes 

from the test trench in a Birnirk level. This specimen, measuring 6.8 cm, is smaller than the example 

described above. The prongs have a diamondshaped cross-section and the base has eight facets. The 

line hole is round and is proportionally smaller than 

the first specimen. It is placed in a shallow concavity 

with a bevel leading back to the base of the harpoon. 

Unlike other specimens from Walakpa, this one has 

a slight ridge at the front of the line hole. The end 

blade slit is placed at a right angle to the line hole. 

The faceted spur is placed below the socket. A portion of an ivory foreshaft still remains wedged into 

the closed socket. 

A third specimen from the A area was also found in 

association with Birnirk type artifacts (Plate 6c). This 

specimen is not complete and no overall length could 

be determined. The blade slit is situated at a right 

angle to the line hole, with the prongs being diamondshaped in cross-section. The line hole is relatively 

small, and it is placed in a concave Surface, which 

occurs on each side of the harpoon. The socket is 

also relatively small. The spur is placed at a right 

angle to the socket. The spur is not faceted as in the 

first two specimens and there is no decoration. 

The fourth specimen of Thule iv (Plate 63d) made 

of antler was found in the Early Thule unit of the B 

area. The prongs have been broken, but it is possible 

to determine that the blade slot was at a right angle 

to the line hole. The specimen is broken and no 

measurements could be made. The line hole is round 

but it is not placed in the concave portion of the 

harpoon. The cross-section of the harpoon is almost 

rectangular, which is quite different from the Barrow 

or Nuwuk types and fits the faceted cross-section of the 

other Eastern Thule types from Walakpa. 

THULE na.—I have here designated four harpoon 

types as Thule na, b, c, d. These new designations 

are used to remain parallel with the Thule-n type 

harpoon head, of which these are simply variations. 

They do not imply any temporal ordering. 

Only one broken specimen (Plate 97a) of this 

variety was recovered at Walakpa. Larsen and 

Rainey (1948) recovered one of this type in their 

Western Thule house at Point Hope. 

In their general characteristics, they are open socket 

harpoons, which are very closely related to both 

Thule ii and the Natchuk types. The singular difference is that they are similar to Thule n, but have 

only one lateral barb rather than two. The specimen 

from Walakpa is broken; however, it has a triangular 

line hole, no decoration, and is made of ivory. 

THULE nb.—This type is also a variety of Eastern 

Thule II (Plate 936). The only difference is that these 
22 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

specimens are cut for an end blade slot. In all other 

features they are identical to Thule 11. 

Only one specimen was recovered at Walakpa. It 

measures 7 cm in length and is made of ivory. It has 

an open socket, two lashing slots, and a single-pointed 

spur placed at a right angle to the socket. Two 

lateral barbs were present but one is broken. The 

specimen has a round line hole. Decoration is a 

simple incised line running from the line hole to the 

end blade slot. 

THULE IIC.—This variety of harpoon head was 

found in the St. Lawrence Island Punuk assemblage 

and is called type iv(a) by Collins, (1937c:211) (Plates 

816, c, 87a, e). It is closely related to Thule 11, but 

differs in that it has multiple sets of barbs. Most of 

these specimens come from the Late Thule levels at 

Walakpa. 

In general description, they may be characterized 

as having open sockets and two or three sets of 

lateral barbs. End blades are not present. The line 

holes on four specimens are round. The spur is 

placed at right angles to the socket and has only one 

point. On three specimens there are lashing slots on 

both sides of the socket, while a fourth has two round 

holes drilled on both sides of the socket. The lashing holes are connected by cut grooves. 

Only one specimen is complete (Plate 87a) and its 

length is 11.8 cm. Decoration consists of incised lines 

extending from the line hole past, or at least to, the 

end set of barbs. On one specimen the decoration is 

much more elaborate. A mark, which may indicate 

ownership, is placed above the line hole. On both 

edges of this specimen there are two incised lines, one 

on either side of the edge facet. These lines all have 

short incised lines, which turn away at approximately 

90° and nearly meet the ends of the main incised 

lines. The back facets are bifurcated. 

THULE nd.—This variety of Thule has not been 

described in the literature. Two ivory specimens 

were found at Walakpa (Plate 81a, d). These harpoon heads have, as their most characteristic feature, blades that have neither barbs nor end blades. 

They have a long slender pointed blade. In its essential structural features, this type is similar to Ford's 

(1959:82) Tipiruk-type. Ford sees this as a more 

slender and ancestral version of Mathiassen's (1927a: 

24) Thule 1. Collins (1937c:211, pi. 71:12, 13) also describes a variety similar to these from St. Lawrence 

Island. The complete Walakpa example, however, is 

simply a Thule 11 type, which has a long barbless 

blade. It may well indeed be the end point of the 

change from a Tipiruk to Thule 1 type. 

The smaller specimen is incomplete (Plate 8Id). 

We can determine, however, that it has an open 

socket and a round line hole. Th e most interesting 

feature of this harpoon head is the decoration that is 

incised on the blade. 

The larger specimen measures 16.9 cm in length 

(Plate 81a). It has an open socket with the spur 

placed at a right angle. Th e spur has a single point 

with gracefully scalloped edges. Lashing slots flank 

the socket. The line hole is triangular in shape. On 

the blade a fluting effect has been achieved by the 

removal of the core pulp from the walrus tusk. Decoration consists of an ownership mark placed above 

the line hole. The mark is an inverted Y, which has 

two slashes across the base. This same ownership 

mark occurs on several antler arrowheads in the Late 

Thule levels. The edge facets have been incised with 

a single line located on all four facets of the spur. 

These lines are bifurcated near the base and have 

two pairs of falling lines, which meet at the base. 

UTKIAVIK CLOSED SOCKET.—This variety is closely 

related to Thule nd (Plate 101a). It has multiple 

barbs, a round line hole and a closed socket. The 

spur has a single point and is placed below the socket. 

Three of these were recovered at Walakpa. Two 

antler specimens were incomplete. One made of 

ivory was complete; its length is 11.6 cm. Decoration 

consists of a simple incised line beginning at the line 

hole and running approximately two-thirds of the 

length of the blade. One specimen has an inverted Y 

design over the line hole. 

NUWUK CLOSED SOCKET.—Nuwuk Closed Socket 

harpoon head, in addition to having a closed socket, 

has spurs containing single points, which are placed 

below the socket. Line holes are round and the end 

blade slot is placed in the same plane as the line 

hole. The prongs are triangular to elliptical in crosssection. The main body and the spur are faceted to 

round in cross-section. Line holes are beveled towards 

the socket. 

Three examples of Nuwuk closed socket harpoons 

were found in the Late Thul e levels (Plates 846, 93a, 

108a) and one from an Early Thul e level at Walakpa 

(Plate 75a). One (Plate 108a) is made of ivory and 

three are made of antler. They range in length from 

8.4 to 7.5 cm. These specimens are decorated with 

incised lines. The major design motifs are converging 

lines forming series of triangles. Th e upper ends of 

the triangles have been etched solid. Th e inverted Y 

motif occurs on two harpoon heads over the line hole 

(Plates 75a, 108a). 

PUNUK II (f)(x).—This harpoon head type is represented by one specimen in the Early Thul e level 

(Plate 63a). It has an open socket flanked by two 

lashing slots and a bifurcated symmetrically placed 

spur. The line hole is round and is slightly beveled 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 23 

towards the spur. Two nonfunctional side blade slots 

occur at right angles to the line hole. The blade is 

diamond-shaped in cross-section and the blade slot is 

located on the same plane as the line hole. In crosssection the main body of the harpoon is almost rectangular in shape. The lateral edge expands directly 

below the side blade slots, then falls at a slight angle, 

where two additional triangular slots have been 

carved. This specimen measures 9.6 cm in length. 

Decoration is quite elaborate and consists of two 

incised lines beginning at the bifurcation of the spur 

and extending up the blade on both sides. At a point 

directly across from the upper edge of the lashing 

slot, the outside line turns back to the upper edge of 

the spur. At the exact place where the outside line 

turns, a hole inset with fossil ivory, has been drilled. 

From the edge of the spur the outside line turns 

back up the blade and rejoins the inside line near the 

line hole. One line extends up both sides to a point 

just below the end blade slot. On both lateral surfaces 

the single inside line has been carved. This line starts 

slightly above the line hole and proceeds to a point 

opposite the end blade slot. The line then turns back 

on itself; after a short distance, it terminates with a 

set of drilled holes, which have been inset with fossil 

ivory. 

WHALING HARPOON HEAD.—The only specimen 

of strictly whaling equipment is a whaling harpoon 

head from the Late Thule occupation (Plate 84a). 

This harpoon measures 25.6 cm in length. It is made 

of bone. It has a closed socket and the end blade slot 

is located at a right angle to the line hole. The line 

hole is located near the ventral edge. It is extremely 

large, measuring 2.7 by 1.7 cm. The line hole is not 

particularly beveled, but it is placed in deep concave surfaces carved on both sides of the harpoon 

point. An ownership mark occurs on the dorsal surface near the socket. It consists of a single line slanting slightly to the right. Another short line extends 

at a 90° angle to the right of the main line. The 

spur is faceted into five sides. 

HARPOON HEAD PREFORMS.—Eleven examples of 

harpoon-head preforms were recovered. As these 

were in various stages of manufacture, they indicated 

the steps in the manufacture of harpoon heads. 

The first step in the manufacture of open socket 

harpoons is the cutting of a rectangular antler strip. 

The second step is that of cutting one end at an angle 

(Plate 6h), which will eventually become the spur of 

the harpoon. The edges are then faceted and the 

point is roughly cut. Next, the blade is ground to a 

sharp edge, as is the point. At the upper edge of the 

angular-end cut there is a deep notch (Plate 37c, d). 

This gives additional definition to the spur and 

creates a flat surface from which the socket can be 

carved. Next, the line hole is drilled (Plate 6i). (On 

one example the hole is drilled completely through 

the preform; in another case, holes are drilled from 

both sides and meet near the center of the preform.) 

The spur is then shaped and ground into its final 

shape. The next step includes the cutting of the 

barbs, side blade slots, and lashing slots, and the final 

step is the manufacture of the socket (Plate 6;). The 

socket is made by cutting two parallel grooves up to a 

point near the line hole. Another groove is cut that 

transects the ends of the parallel lines. This leaves a 

central portion, which is chiseled out, and then the 

rough surface is ground off. 

Very few specimens of the closed socket preforms 

were recovered. The step after quartering the antler 

blank is that of cutting an angular surface across one 

end (Plate 85a). The other end is bluntly pointed 

by a series of facets and the diameter of the harpoon 

head body is also faceted. These are then ground 

smooth (Plate 85a). The end blade slot and the 

sockets are then manufactured. As no specimens were 

found representing these final steps, I cannot say 

which is manufactured first. 

HARPOON END BLADES 

Several types of harpoon end blades were found 

in the Walakpa middens. In general they conform 

to the type described by Ford (1959:96-97). 

TYPE ONE.—The first type has fluted or hollow 

ground faces (Plate 856). This type occurs only in the 

Late Thule levels. Six specimens, all of gray slate, 

represent this type. They range in length from 5.3 

to 4.2 cm. Their maximum widths range from 2.2 to 

1.4 cm. The maximum widths of the flutes range 

from 1.4 to 1.2 cm. 

The style of the base ranges from concave to 

straight. The edges are ground all the way to the 

margin of the flute. Below the flute the edges meet 

to form a diamond-shaped cross-section. The flutes 

are horizontally scarred; probably the results of manufacturing or from the wedging of these end blades 

into the prongs of the harpoon. 

These end blades appear to be very strong, as the 

only breakage, which occurred on five of the specimens, was that on the upper quarter of the blades. 

This appears to have resulted from stress in harpoon 

removal. 

TYPE TWO.—Type two is closely related to the first 

type, but rather than being hollow ground, they are 

ground flat (Plate 87/). The cutting edges are not as 

steep as those of type one. At the termination of the 

hafting surface there is a steep rise to meet the edges. 

The edges are ground into four facets. 
24 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

The type-two examples were recovered in the Late 

Thule occupation. The complete specimen is made 

of red slate, and the other of gray slate. On the only 

complete specimen, the base is ground flat; the length 

is 5.1 cm, the maximum width is 2.3 cm, and the 

maximum width of the hafting surface is 1.8 cm. 

TYP E THREE.—Type three is the most numerous 

type of end blade found at Walakpa. These are both 

Early and Late Thule in age (Plates 59d, 73a, 776, 

87d, 93d, e, 1016). There are fourteen examples: 

eleven of gray slate and three of red slate. These 

harpoon end blades are extremely thin and well 

made. The major portion of the end blade consists 

of the hafting surface. The edges are steep, narrow, 

and come together at the tip. The bases are ground 

flat. This type of harpoon end blade appears to be 

the least structurally sound of the types. All but one 

of these specimens is highly fragmentary. They appear to break near the tip, at the center, and at the 

base of the blade. The measurements range from 3.7 

to 2.3 cm in length. The maximum width is 2 cm, 

and the maximum width of the hafting surface is 

1.6 cm. 

The final class of harpoon end blades includes a 

large variety, presumably for whale or walrus harpoons. Three tip fragments of gray slate make up the 

first type. These correspond to type three of the 

smaller variety (Plate 59c). No measurements are 

meaningful, but they are extremely wide. The hafting plane extends nearer to the tip than do those of 

type three of the small variety. All of these specimens 

are Early Thule in age. 

Specimens which do not fit into Ford's classes are 

lenticular in cross-section, with no distinct bevel on 

the edge (Plates 81 ft, 84c, d). The only near-complete 

specimen is greater than 7.3 cm in length, and it is 

approximately 4.6 cm in width. The base is ground 

flat. It is Late Thule in age. 

Nine harpoon end blade preforms were found 

(Plate 59e). These are roughly triangular-shaped 

pieces of chipped and ground slate. They range in 

length from 5.8 cm to slightly greater than 2.3 cm. 

The method of manufacture appears to be flaking the 

preform to the approximate shape with final shaping 

by grinding. The grinding of the edge is the last step. 

HARPOON FORESHAFTS 

On the upper end of the harpoon shaft is affixed the 

harpoon foreshaft. The foreshaft is used to connect 

the main shaft with the harpoon head. These artifacts 

occur in two varieties, large and small, but structurally and morphologically they are the same. The size 

difference is probably related to function, with the 

larger type being used for walrus, bearded seal, and 

possibly whale, while the smaller are used for small 

seals. 

Eight ivory specimens were recovered in the Birnirk levels, but only one is complete. Seven larger 

specimens make up the first class (Plates 15/-ra, Vie, 

49h, i). One (Plate 15m), nearly complete, can be 

used for descriptive purposes. The foreshafts are 

slender, oval to rectangular in cross-section, and made 

of ivory. Both ends are tapered and round. On those 

specimens, which are complete enough for analysis, 

all have one small line hole near the butt end for 

attaching a line to the harpoon shaft or socket piece. 

The upper end is carved to fit the socket of the 

harpoon head. No total lengths are available, but 

for two specimens the length from the line hole to the 

haft end is 5.1 and 6.7 cm, respectively. On one, the 

length from the line hole to the tip is 16.4 cm. These 

foreshafts tend to break in two places—at the tip 

near the harpoon head and at the line hole or immediately behind it. These would be the two places 

of maximum stress during impact. 

The smaller variety is represented by one complete 

specimen and a broken end from the Birnirk levels 

(Plate \5i). They are structurally identical to the 

larger type except that one end is scarred for hafting 

purposes. This indicates that the larger type is made 

to separate from the harpoon shaft, while the smaller 

remains attached. The length of the complete specimen is 10.5 cm, with the distance from the line hole 

to the shorter end being 2.1 cm, and 8.1 cm to the 

longer end. 

Only three foreshafts were found in the Early 

Thule occupation. Two are broken fragments of 

the larger variety (Plates 63g, 68a). They are oval in 

cross-section, measuring 1.5 by 1.4 cm at their widest 

point and tapering to a narrow blunt point. Th e 

complete example (Plate 806) is of the smaller 

variety. It is pointed at both ends. One end is closer 

to the widest portion of the shaft than is the other. 

The rectangular slot is in the widest portion. Lashing grooves are cut on one side of the slot. Th e specimen has four sides, three of which are slightly fluted. 

The fourth side is convex. The foreshaft measures 

9.1 cm in length and 1 cm at its maximum width. The 

line hole is 1.2 cm long and is situated 6.6 cm from 

one end and 1.4 cm from the other. One complete 

foreshaft and three fragments were found in the Late 

Thule levels (Plate 119a). Th e three broken specimens appear to have been from broken, larger foreshafts. 

An extremely large, bone harpoon socket piece was 

found in the lowest Birnirk level (Plate 16e). This 

tool is 32 cm long and 2.4 cm wide. Th e distal end 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 25 

contains a socket hole for engaging the butt of the 

foreshaft. The hole is 1.6 cm deep and 1.25 cm wide. 

At the other end it is flat on two surfaces with a hole 

drilled completely through the shaft. The hole is 

located 6.4 cm from the end. This end of the artifact 

is beveled to a round point. 

HARPOON SHAFTS 

Harpoon shafts are not common because wood was 

extremely valuable and a broken shaft could be reused for another artifact. Five small fragments and 

one large fragment were recovered (Plates 68/, 101ft). 

The measurements of the diameters of these fragments range from 3 to 2.5 cm. 

The longest section (not illustrated) is 89.5 cm in 

length. It is from a Birnirk level. Fortunately, one 

end of this example was that which was attached to 

the harpoon socket. This harpoon shaft is beveled on 

one edge to fit the socket. The hafting surface was 

manufactured by cutting away one-half of the shaft at 

a slight angle. The length of this surface is 6.6 cm. 

From the lower end of the outside surface of the haft 

surface it is slightly beveled toward the end, where it 

culminates with a raised lip. There is wood discoloration, which outlines the binding of the socket to the 

shaft. The hafting surface has not been drilled. 

Another Birnirk specimen is a fragment of the butt 

end of the shaft. The end of this shaft has a drilled 

socket to receive the tang end of the ice pick. This 

hole is 2 cm in diameter and 5.4 cm in depth. This 

correlates with tang measurements on certain Birnirk ice picks. As in the hafting technique of the 

socket, this end is also slightly tapered toward the 

butt with a lip at the end. The wood is discolored 

from the binding of the ice pick. 

The last artifact was probably never utilized for a 

harpoon shaft, as it bends markedly to one side. It 

is probably a discard from the manufacture of a shaft. 

This section of shaft measures 40.5 cm in length. Its 

largest diameter is 3 cm and tapers to 2.3 cm. Although the surface has undergone the final smoothing stage of manufacture, it has not been polished. It 

had been cut from a larger shaft by incising the 

circumference to a depth of 0.3 cm; then it was 

snapped off. This specimen is from the lowest Birnirk 

level. 

HARPOON ICE PICKS 

The ice pick is attached to the butt end of the 

harpoon and is used to break ice from seal breathing 

holes. According to Ford (1959:102), they appear to 

change through time and are possibly diagnostic of 

cultural change. The ivory ice picks recovered by 

Ford from the Birnirk period fall within one of his 

five major classes of harpoon ice picks, that is, class A. 

He found that this was the only type that occurred in 

the Birnirk level (Ford, 1959:102): 

Type A. Only one type occurs in the Birnirk finds. It is made 

from the distal end of the slender tusks of young female 

walrus. Towards the points, flat facets have been ground to 

sharpen the picks. .. . At the proximal end there are a sloping shoulder and tapering tang made to fit into a socket in 

the wooden harpoon shaft. 

Two complete examples of type A were found in 

the Birnirk levels at Walakpa (Plate 49/, k). Both of 

these are ivory. The measurements are 17.7 and 18.8 

cm in length and 2.3 and 2.1 cm in maximum diameter, respectively. The length of the hafting tangs are 

both 6.5 cm with their maximum diameter being 1.8 

and 17 cm. Fourteen broken examples were recovered (Plates 686, 81i, 91 e, 1196, c). Their distribution seems to be fairly general throughout the various 

occupation levels of the site. This does not conform 

to the pattern discovered by Ford, where this type 

was strictly a Birnirk manifestation. 

Another complete specimen was recovered from 

the lowest Birnirk level at Walakpa (Plate 16d). 

This example may make up a subtype of Ford's A 

group, but in many respects it is different. Although 

it is made from the distal end of a walrus tusk, it does 

not have the shoulders nor is it cut into a cylindrical 

shaft. Rather, it is simply a quartered section of tusk 

with three pronounced sides. It is pointed at both 

ends, with adz cuts on one end for hafting. Its total 

length is 28.5 cm, which is 4.5 cm longer than any 

reported by Ford. 

Two other examples of possible ice picks, which 

have not been described in the literature, were found 

in the Birnirk levels (Plates 166, 49/). Only one of 

these antler examples is complete. It is a long, 17.5 

cm, slender, knife-shaped piece of carved antler. The 

blade is diamond in cross-section, having four beveled 

edges. At 10.1 cm from the tip of the blade there are 

slightly rounded shoulders, with the rest of the artifact being oval in cross-section. At the hafted end, 

adz cuts occur. On the face of the complete specimen 

is a small hole cut into the blade. The hole does not 

go completely through the blade. 

A single example of Ford's type B was found in a 

Late Thule level (Plate 115a). It is made from antler 

with a round shaft and the tip is semicircular in crosssection. The distal end is beveled to a point, while 

the proximal end is socketed to fit the harpoon shaft. 

There is a shoulder 5 cm above the proximal end. 

The area between the socket and the shoulder is 

roughened for lashing. This ice pick measures 19.5 

cm in length and 2.4 cm in diameter. 
26 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

The second variety of Late Thule ice pick, recovered at Walakpa, is represented by four broken 

examples (Plate 10lg). These specimens are made of 

antler. In cross-section the blade is triangular. Th e 

longest specimen measures in excess of 29.5 cm in 

length. The other two examples are small blade 

sections. The tang on the longest specimen is wedgeshaped, with a single bevel along one edge. The 

beveled surface has been roughened for hafting by adz 

cuts. 

The final examples of ice picks from Walakpa are 

probably closely related to Ford's type E (Ford, 1959: 

102-104). The major difference is that this variety 

does not have the cut scarf of the type E, and the 

blade tends to be oval in cross-section. The blade is 

carved round in a very crude fashion. The tang is 

wedge-shaped, having been beveled on one edge. All 

surfaces of the tang are scarred for hafting. There is 

no shoulder to offset the tang from the blade. This 

specimen dates Late Thule in age. It measures 19.4 

cm in length. The tang is 8.6 cm in length, with a 

width of 2.2 cm. 

Another extremely interesting ice pick was found 

in the upper Late Thule level (Plate 93i). It is made 

from a split caribou antler. The blade is curved 

gracefully to a sharp point. The tang is wedge-shaped, 

the wedge being produced by cutting the split antler 

at a slight angle until it intersects the os-compacta of 

the antler. The inside cancellous structure has been 

scarred for hafting. At the upper end of the tang a 

hole is drilled. Slightly above the hole two notches 

are carved in both lateral edges. The interior of these 

notches is roughened. Near the tip of the tang, on the 

outside surface, is a shallow notch. These are probably hafting devices. The total length of this ice pick 

is 33.8 cm. The tang measures 12.1 cm in length, with 

its maximum width being 3.3 cm. 

Seal Poke Gear 

FLOAT BARS 

Ford describes three major varieties of float bars: 

(1) small bars with raised ends late in time, (2) large 

round bars with rounded ends, Birnirk in age, and (3) 

curved bars, Birnirk in age (Ford, 1959:104). Th e 

float bars from Walakpa generally follow Ford's 

model. 

Ford's Type 1: No examples of type 1 were found 

in the Late Thule levels, but they did occur in the 

historic houses. 

Ford's Type 2: Five examples of the second type 

were found in the Birnirk and Early Thule levels 

(Plate 70a, 6). It is hard to determine whether these 

are float bars or baleen basket handles. It is most 

probable that they are float bars, as the ends have not 

been perforated for basket suspension. They are 

round in cross-section with the widest portion in the 

center and slightly tapered to either end. This type 

does not have the raised lip on the ends as does the 

smaller type 1 mentioned above. Th e range of 

lengths for these bars is 22.9-15.1 cm. Th e average 

length is 18.6 cm. The range of maximum measurements of the center diameter is 2.7-1.7 cm, with an 

average of 2.1 cm. 

Ford's Type 3: One example of the curved type was 

found in the Birnirk level. This specimen is crescentshaped (Plate 17a). Its length is 18.3 cm. Th e center 

is concave. The length of the concavity is 4 cm. 

Below the concavity the ends taper to a point and turn 

downward. 

SEAL FLOAT MOUTHPIECES 

As the name implies, the seal float mouthpiece was 

used for the inflation of seal floats. Two examples of 

these artifacts were found at Walakpa. One is of 

Birnirk age and one is Early Thul e age. 

The Birnirk specimen, like those of Ford's (1959: 

105) was crudely manufactured in comparison to the 

later forms (Plate 47c). It is a short, cylindrically 

shaped tool with a wide groove encircling the entire 

shaft. The groove is used in the attachment of the 

mouthpiece to the float. It has an extremely small 

hole cut through the length of the cylinder. It is 3.6 

cm in diameter and its length is 4 cm. Th e width 

of the attachment groove is 0.8 cm. 

A single example of an Early Thul e seal float 

mouthpiece was found (Plate 69c). This is an ivory 

specimen that measures 3.4 cm in diameter and 2 cm 

thick. It is concave on the inside and convex on the 

outside. A small hole was drilled through the center. 

It probably has an attachment groove; however, the 

mouthpiece is still attached to a portion of the seal 

skin and the groove is not visible. 

SEAL FLOAT MOUTHPIECE STOPPERS 

Four examples of mouthpiece stoppers were found. 

Three are of Birnirk age and one is Late Thul e in 

age. The ivory specimen measures 4.8 cm in length 

(Plate 51c). It has at the outside end a short, tabular 

handle, which would fit the fingers. Th e remaining 

portion of the tool is slender and tapers to a blunt 

point. Around the shaft, spiraling scars are visible, 

which resulted from the stopper being forced into the 

mouthpiece. 

A wooden specimen of Birnirk age is identical in 

form to the one described above (Plate 5Id). It has a 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 27 

short, tabular handle placed above a long, tapering 

plug. It measures 5.8 cm in length. Another Birnirk 

specimen was also made of wood. It consists of a 

round piece of wood, larger in diameter at one end 

and tapering to the small end. At the small end the 

wood is peeled back a distance of 1 cm. This has 

resulted from its insertion into the mouthpiece. It 

measures 3.3 cm in length, 1.1 cm in maximum 

diameter, and 0.4 cm in minimum diameter. 

The last specimen is Late Thule in age (Plate 81*). 

It, too, is a cylindrical-tapering piece of wood. It 

measures 3.7 cm in length, with the diameter tapering 

from 1.2 cm to 0.6 cm. 

SEAL FLOAT PLUGS 

These plugs are used to close holes in the floats. 

A wooden Birnirk specimen is quite well made and 

is possibly a float mouthpiece without the hole having 

been drilled (Plate li). It is polished and appears to 

be a finished specimen. It is 2 cm in length and 3.4 

cm in diameter. It has an attachment groove carved 

around the outside surface, which measures 0.8 cm 

in width. 

The second specimen, also Birnirk in age, is crudely 

made, possibly an unfinished tool. It measures 4.6 

cm in length and its diameter is 3.4 cm. The attachment groove is slightly offset towards the inside face. 

The groove is 0.8 cm in width. 

DETACHABLE LANCE POINTS 

Ford describes an artifact known as the detachable 

lance point (Ford, 1959:105). This is a wooden shaft, 

measuring 37 to 41 cm in length. The tip has a 

crude stone blade. The proximal end has a conical 

point, which fits into the harpoon socket piece. A 

shallow notch near the butt serves to retain a line 

that holds the lance point in place. 

A possible example of this artifact was found in 

the Late Thule occupation. The blade end is broken, 

but it appears to have once had a blade slot. The 

length is greater than 36.5 cm and its diameter is 

2 cm. The butt end has a conical point. The major 

difference, which may mean that it is not a lance point, 

is that it does not have the retaining notch. 

Ice Hunting Gear 

WOUND PLUGS 

The wound plug is used to plug the wounds of 

animals to conserve the blood in the carcass. These 

have also been described as plugs to hold air blown 

under the skin of a seal to make it float (E. Nelson, 

1899:147, Ford, 1959:106). Ford (1959:106) feels that 

there has been little change in the morphology of this 

artifact through time. I would have to agree, as in our 

finds this artifact does not change through time. 

Four wound plugs are from the Birnirk occupation 

(Plates 11, m, lib, c). They can be described as blunt, 

pointed, tapering pieces of wood. They range from 

9.5 to 8.5 cm in length. Ford (1959:106) indicates that 

his specimens have grooves encircling the larger end 

of the artifact. These specimens from the Walakpa 

site were attached at the opposite end. One has an 

encircling groove at the narrow end, while two 

others have perforated holes at the same end. One of 

these holes is square while the other is round. 

A preform was also recovered from a Birnirk level. 

It is nearly complete except that there has been no 

arrangement made for attachment to the bundle. 

Another specimen (Plate 51ft), which I will describe 

separately because it is unique, was found in an 

upper Birnirk level. The most distinguishing feature 

of this example is that at its wide end it has two 

flanges on both edges. It has a round hole drilled at 

the pointed end and measures 9.2 cm in length. Two 

additional specimens come from the Late Thule 

occupations. Here, again, the holes have been drilled 

in the pointed end. 

WOUND PINS 

Wound pins from Walakpa can be separated into 

two varieties. One is exclusively Birnirk, while the 

other is Thule. 

Four ivory wound pins were found in the Birnirk 

levels (Plates Ij, k, lid, 51g). They tend to be round 

in cross-section, but near the tip, four facets make a 

diamond-shaped cross-section. The upper end is 

flared and gives the artifact a nail-shape in appearance. These do not have the sharp edges reported by 

Ford (1959:106). The range of lengths is 11-7.8 

cm. The diameters range from 0.7 to 0.5 cm. 

A bone specimen from a Late Thule level (Plate 

87;) more closely resembles Ford's specimens (1959, 

fig. 41). In cross-section it is flat to lenticular. The 

base is expanded and has a short handle-like central 

section, which results in the pin looking like a miniature dagger. Directly below this handle there are 

shoulders, which expand to the blade. The edges are 

ground sharp. The length measures 9 cm. Its width 

is 0.8 cm and its thickness is 0.4 cm. 

ICE SCOOPS 

The ice scoop, as described by Murdoch (1892:308-

309), was a baleen netting lashed inside an oval-shaped 
28 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

antler strip. It has a long handle attached at one end. 

These were used for removing ice chips when cutting 

holes in the ice or gathering chips of fresh water to 

melt. 

Two small sections and one large section of an ice 

scoop rim were found in the Birnirk levels (Plate 

lle-g). They measured 2-2.7 cm in width. The diameter of the scoop on a nearly complete specimen is 

roughly 18 cm. This is identical to the diameter of 

those from the Birnirk site (Ford, 1959:107). 

Along the bottom edges of these rims are lashing 

slots through which the baleen netting was attached. 

These slots, on the most complete specimen, average 

3 cm apart, while on the broken rims they average 

1.9 cm. These slots are connected on all but two 

specimens by grooves used for additional lashing 

support. One specimen had two holes drilled at both 

ends to lash the ends together. On another specimen, 

an additional hole was drilled on the upper edge. 

Ford (1959:107) recovered at least one rim with this 

type of attachment mechanism. 

The last Birnirk specimen is made from antler. 

Rather than binding holes, this example has a narrow 

tang with lateral spurs. The tang is either inserted 

into a slot or it overlaps the other end. 

A single broken Late Thule specimen was also 

recovered (Plate 114g). It is made of antler and is too 

fragmentary to yield measurements. 

TWO-PIECE ICE SCOOPS 

The two-piece ice scoop was used to skim ice from 

fishing holes and to remove snow and hoar frost from 

clothing (Murdoch, 1892:309). It is made from two 

semicircular pieces of antler, baleen, or horn lashed 

together to form a scoop. The two halves are attached 

to a handle. Ford (1959:108) speculates that this was 

not a popular tool in early periods but came into more 

general use later. Our meager evidence tends to 

support this thesis. Only four halves were found, all 

of Late Thule age (Plates 82ft, i, 111ft). None of 

these were found in the Early Thule or Birnirk levels. 

Two halves (Plate 82ft, i) were found that were 

undoubtedly part of the same artifacts. These are 

made from antler measuring 12.8 by 9.1 cm. The 

edges are smooth and blunt. On the inside edges 

there are four matching holes drilled in each half, 

which are for lashing the halves together. Two 

lower lashing holes are square. The upper two holes 

are round and were probably used for the handle 

attachment. 

A third antler specimen (Plate 111ft) is different 

and may not be part of a two-piece ice scOop. It has 

the general shape and outline, but the holes for the 

attachment of the second half are peculiar in placement and there is no provision for handle attachment. 

It measures 13.7 cm in length and its maximum width 

is 5.2 cm. It has two holes placed close together and 

near the juncture of the inside edge and the distal 

end. The distal end and the outside edges are ground 

sharp. The inside edge is ground flat to fit to the 

other half. 

The fourth example of a two-piece ice scoop is 

made of baleen. The handle end is incomplete, but 

the overall shape must have been semicircular. The 

outside edges are rounded while the inside edge is 

flat. Along the inside edge four holes were drilled 

for the attachment of the other half and the handle. 

SEAL DRAG HANDLES 

As the name implies, a seal drag is used to drag 

home seals. It consists of a thong about 46 cm (18 in) 

long attached to a handle. Th e thong is attached to 

the seal's lower jaw. The handle can be used for 

attachment to a longer line or to a dog harness 

(Murdoch, 1892:256). 

One specimen of a seal drag handle was found at 

Walakpa. It is Late Thule in age (Plate 10\e). The 

handle is carved from dense bone, such as a walrus 

mandible, and resembles a seal's head. A hole is 

drilled from a tang at the base of the head to a point 

just below the mouth. A second hole goes through 

the tang at a 90° angle to the original hole. These 

holes serve to attach the thong to the handle. The 

eyes and nostrils are drilled holes. A mouth is represented by an incised line. Th e handle measures 4.5 

cm long and 1.5 cm wide. 

SEAL SCRATCHERS 

The seal scratcher is used to make a scratching 

noise on the ice, which was thought to attract seals 

to the hunter (Murdoch, 1892:253). Two very fine 

complete specimens were found in the Birnirk occupation at Walakpa. Ford (1959:102) did not recover 

any from the Birnirk site. 

The first specimen fits Murdoch's (1892, fig. 253) 

drawings of those being used in historic times at 

Point Barrow (Plate 50d). It is 21 cm long and 5 cm 

at its widest point, which is just below the claws. It 

is manufactured from a single piece of wood, which 

resembles a seal's flipper. Th e wood is carved to allow 

seal claws to slip over five spurs at the distal end. The 

claws are attached by baleen cords. Two holes, cut 

side by side, are placed 8 cm back from the distal end. 

The holes are cut at an angle so that they intersect 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 29 

each other and allow the baleen to pass through. 

The holes do not penetrate the ventral side of the 

tool. There are four baleen cords that are tied around 

the claws, passing through the holes and then back 

up to be attached to another claw on the other side. 

No provision has been made for attaching a thong to 

the proximal end of the scratcher. 

The second specimen is made from a carved piece 

of wood (Plate 506). When the handle portion is 

held in the hand, the claws bend downward. This 

specimen has only three claws. The claws are apparently made to be covered by seal claws, as in the 

specimen reported above. There are two holes 

drilled at the ventral side of the scratcher, which must 

have been used in claw attachment. The tool is 

carved to leave a thicker cross-section immediately 

behind the claws. The holes are drilled in this 

thicker section. The proximal end of the handle has a 

hole drilled through the side. In cross-section the 

handle is rectangular and flattens to a wide triangular 

cross-section near the claws. The length of this 

specimen is 18.1 cm. 

SEAL RATTLES 

The cottonwood block and ivory bangle seal rattle 

reported by Ford (1959:109) was not found at 

Walakpa; however, a possible rattle was found in 

the lowest Birnirk level (Plate 18). It is made from 

two split caribou scapuli attached to a short wooden 

handle. The handle is 20.5 cm in length. A notch is 

cut at one end and a hole drilled 7.2 cm back from 

the end. A baleen loop passes through the hole and 

around the notch. The distal end of each scapula is 

drilled and another loop of baleen attaches both 

pieces. The two loops are joined together, allowing 

the scapuli fragments to hang loose. When the 

handle is jerked, they bang together producing a 

clicking sound. 

NETS AND NET WEIGHTS 

Nets were used for capturing seals and fish. One 

fragmentary example of a net was recovered at 

Walakpa. It is made of thin baleen strings tied 

together producing diamond-shaped openings. It is 

Late Thule in age. 

An example of a net weight made of dense bone 

was found in a Birnirk level (Plate 47d). It is circular 

in shape and on one end it has two sets of holes, which 

are used to attach the weight to the net. It is 5.2 cm 

in diameter. 

Two stone weights of Late Thule age were found 

(Plate 116a, 6), which are heavy quartz beach pebbles. 

They are not modified but are bound with baleen 

lashing. The lashing has a major knot on the upper 

surface with four bands encompassing the stones. 

Rawhide lashing is attached around the central knot. 

This lashing is used to attach the stone weights to the 

net. These weights are 10.3 and 9.2 cm in diameter. 

Atlatl Equipment 

ATLATL DART BOARDS 

The atlatl dart boards were used for casting both 

seal darts and bird darts (Murdoch, 1892:218). A 

possible dart board handle was recovered in an Early 

Thule level (Plate 63/). It was purposefully cut in 

half just above the forefinger platform. The groove 

for the atlatl shaft runs the full length of the handle. 

Three finger holes are located on the left margin, with 

a notch to rest the middle finger below the forefinger 

platform. The opposite side is carved round to fit 

into the palm of the hand. 

An example of a distal end of a throwing board was 

found in the same Early Thule level (Plate 63n). 

The end is carved blunt. The dart shaft groove 

terminates at 4.1 cm from the end. Above the end 

of the groove a hole is drilled to receive the hook 

that engages the dart butt piece. On the reverse side 

there is a shallow hole of undetermined function. 

ATLATL HOOKS 

A possible atlatl hook made of ivory was found in a 

Late Thule level (Plate 85n). Its total length is 2 cm. 

It has a relatively long hafting tang and a short, 

pointed barb for engaging the dart butt piece. 

DART SHAFTS AND BUTT PIECES 

Dart shafts are hard to identify unless a diagnostic 

feature can be found. There is only one candidate 

for a dart shaft in the Walakpa collections and its 

identification is highly tenuous. It is of Early Thule 

age. If it is a dart shaft it is the butt end. The end of 

the shaft has been carved to receive another artifact 

such as a butt piece. The shaft is narrow at the butt, 

1.2 cm in width, and expands to a maximum diameter 

of 1.9 cm. The shaft is diamond-shaped in crosssection. The total length of this fragment is 24.7 cm. 

The shaft is highly polished. 

A dart butt piece was recovered from the Birnirk 

occupation. It is 2.7 cm in length. The socket is 

circular with a concave base. Four tiny holes of 

unknown function are drilled into the rim of the base. 
30 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

The diameter of the socket is 0.1 cm. The hafting 

tang is 2.2 cm in length. It is wedge-shaped and none 

of the surfaces have been scarred for hafting (Plate 

37f). 

HARPOON SOCKET PIECES 

The type of harpoon socket piece found at Walakpa 

is similar to those found in Eastern Thule collections (Mathiassen, 1927a: 28). Three specimens were 

recovered in the Early Thule levels and one from a 

Late Thule level. In general form they are very 

similar. The first two specimens are of the same style. 

These measure 6.1 and 4.6 cm in length, respectively. 

They are cylindrical in form with the inside portion 

of the bone carved out, leaving a thin cylinder. The 

socket opening on the only complete specimen (Early 

Thule) is 1.8 cm in diameter. Around both the 

upper and lower lips there is a groove. 

The second variety is Early Thule in age. It is 

essentially the same as those described above, with 

the exception that it does not have the grooved rings 

around the lips. The surface is highly polished and 

the socket end is slightly flared. Its length is 5.4 cm 

and the diameter of the socket is 1.7 cm. These sockets 

function by sliding down over the distal end of the 

dart shaft. Since the holes are large and round 

rather than rectangular, they must have been used for 

larger lance points or bladder darts. 

One possible preform for a socket piece is from a 

Late Thule level. This is a cylindrical-shaped piece 

of bone, which measures 5.4 cm in length. At both 

ends of the cylinder, holes have been started but 

were not completed. 

INFLATION NOZZLES 

One example of an inflation nozzle was found in an 

Early Thule level (Plate 59/). It is made of ivory and 

measures 2.7 cm in length. It is cylindrical with a 

hole drilled through the center. A raised portion at 

one end forms a thin lip. The center section is 

indented with attachment scars cut three-fourths of 

the way around the diameter. The lip at the distal 

end is larger and has a transverse tapering base. In 

diameter this artifact measures 1.3 cm. 

BIRD DART POINTS AND SIDE PRONGS 

Murdoch (1892:210-214) reports that atlatl cast 

bird darts were used at Point Barrow. These darts 

consisted of a single end point or occasionally two 

points with additional prongs attached near the 

midcenter point of the shaft. At Walakpa four 

specimens of bird dart side prongs were recovered. 

No end points were found. All of these specimens 

fit into either Ford's (1959:117) class A or B. Thre e 

of these specimens from the Walakpa site were found 

in the Birnirk levels while the last was from an 

Early Thule level. Ford's (1959:117) class A side 

prongs are flattened ovals or lens-shaped in crosssection and have barbs on both edges. Two of this 

type were found in the same Birnirk occupation level. 

One is complete while the other is a small fragment. 

The complete specimen (Plate 51a) was manufactured 

from antler. It measures 14 cm in length. There are 

four side barbs on the inside edge and three barbs 

on the outside edge. The barbs are made by cutting 

into the blade at an angle greater than 90°. Th e 

point of the lower barb tapers back to the cut made 

for the barb above. A lashing slot is cut near the 

base of the prong. At the edge directly above the 

lashing slot there is a small notch. This is undoubtedly used for lashing. Both faces of the base of the 

prong are also scarred for lashing. 

The fragment of a side prong is made of ivory 

(Plate 516). It has a lashing slot and edge notch. Th e 

edge notch is placed above the lower end of the slot. 

The faces of the base have been slightly roughened 

for hafting. 

Specimens of Ford's (1959:117) class B are similar 

to those of his class A except that they are triangular 

in cross-section with barbs placed on all three edges. 

A Birnirk specimen is made of ivory. Its total length 

is 10.9 cm. There is only one side barb on two 

edges and none on the third. Th e edges with the side 

barbs are gracefully carved with an incised line 

running the full length of the prong on each side. 

There are three slightly raised borders and at the 

center of each there is a lashing notch. A lashing 

slot is carved slightly off center and closer to the 

barbed edges. On the barbless edge and slightly above 

the upper end of the lashing slot there is a relatively 

large notch. It has a tapering tang, which has not 

been scarred for lashing. 

An Early Thul e specimen is made of ivory (Plate 

lie). Its length is 10.9 cm. All three edges have 

small side barbs. One edge has at least two while the 

other edges have at least one. An incised line is carved 

on both sides of each edge. Th e lashing slot is placed 

near the base. It is impossible to determine if there 

were any lashing notches. 

Another type of side prong for a bird spear occurred in the Late Thul e occupation. It was not 

described for Point Barrow by Ford but is similar to a 

specimen described by Giddings (1964:31, 34) for 

Nukleet. This ivory artifact measures 11.5 cm in 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 31 

length. It is flat to oval in cross-section with side 

barbs on both edges. The outside edge has only one 

barb and there are two areas for lashing, one carved 

at the base and the other a short distance above the 

first. The inside edge has two barbs. The base of the 

inside edge is beveled and the surface is scarred. 

HARPOON DART HEADS 

Giddings (1952:54-55) found that on the Kobuk 

River there were two sizes of harpoon dart heads. 

The smaller type has been termed "harpoon arrow 

point." 

Two examples of the smaller variety were found at 

Walakpa. Both were made of antler. A broken 

specimen of this type was found in the Birnirk level. 

The blade is diamond in cross-section and has only 

one side barb on each edge. A line hole is drilled into 

the shank, but does not appear to be beveled. The 

length from the line hole to the tip of the blade is 

3.6 cm. A complete example, measuring 7 cm, was 

recovered in the Late Thule level. Both edges have 

one side barb. Toward the tip on one edge it looks as 

though there may have been an additional barb. The 

edges curve outward and resemble a Christmas tree. 

A line hole is drilled in the shank of the dart head. 

On the os-compacta surface of the antler the line 

hole is beveled for the line. The opposite side has 

not been beveled. The length from the line hole to 

the tip of the blade is 5.2 cm. The base is carved to 

a wedge-shape. The butt is flat with an edge that 

measures 0.7 cm along its long axis. 

Another extremely interesting example came from 

a Late Thule level. This long antler harpoon dart 

head is 30.7 cm in length (Plate 89/). Three deeply 

cut side barbs occur on one edge. At the termination of each cut for the barbs, there is a long incised 

line, which runs almost to the beginning of the next 

incised line. The incised line of the last barb runs 

completely to the end of the dart head. The tip is 

socketed to receive a stone end blade. Two line holes 

are drilled at the base, one directly below the other. 

On one side of the blade the line holes are connected 

with a short groove. The tang is beveled on all sides 

and terminates with a sharp point, which is scarred 

for hafting. 

B ow and Arro w Equipment 

Bows 

Two specimens of bows were recovered at Walakpa, 

one complete and the other a fragment. Both are of 

the "Arctic Type" (Murdoch, 1884:316) or a singlepiece self bow. These are the type n bow in Hamilton's (1970:46) classification. 

The complete bow is Birnirk in age (Plate 13). 

Although small, 76 cm long, it is probably a functional hunting bow rather than a toy. It is a short 

spruce bow, nearly elliptical in cross-section, being 

flatter on the back than on the ventral surface. The 

handle is narrow, but thick in cross-section. It has 

recurved wings. The nock ends were carved by 

splitting the wood on both sides and breaking the 

edges off. Although no traces of the sinew backing 

are present, marks on the ventral surface indicate that 

it was once present; there are six bleach marks on 

one end and four on the other. 

The broken specimen comes from the Early Thule 

occupation (Plate 68&). It consists of a recurved end. 

It would have been a larger specimen than the one 

described above. At its maximum width it measures 

4 cm and it is 1.3 cm thick. The wide wing tapers to a 

carefully manufactured nock. Two wedge-shaped 

notches were cut on both sides of the end leaving a 

small wooden central peg for the attachment of the 

bowstring. At 25.7 cm from the nock the wing is 

curved. It is at this point that the bow was broken. 

Just above the break the edges have been roughened 

for the attachment of the sinew backing. There were 

at least five lashes, each having six strands for holding 

the sinew backing in place. The bow is elliptical to 

rectangular in cross-section. 

MARLIN SPIKES 

Marl in spikes were used to raise parts of the sinew 

cord when putting the backing on a bow (Murdoch, 

1892:292). Although no tools such as Murdoch illustrates were found at Walakpa, several were found 

which are similar to those illustrated by Giddings 

(1952:72) from the Kobuk River. 

The three examples from Walakpa were found in 

the Late and Early Thule levels and fit the same basic 

type (Plates 77ft, 83g, 89;). They are long and 

slender, slightly curved, and with pointed rib sections. 

All have holes drilled near a blunt end. The most 

nearly complete specimen has an ownership mark 

below the hole (Plate 83g). The ownership mark 

consists of a bifurcated line placed over the suspension hole. An incised line extends 1.8 cm down the 

spike from the point of bifurcation. This marlin 

spike measures in excess of 18 cm. In maximum 

width they are 1.5 cm, 1.3 cm, and 1.1 cm, respectively. 

SINEW TWISTERS 

A single bone sinew twister was recovered from a 

Birnirk level (Plate 8e). It is rectangular in crosssection, measuring 11.5 cm long and 1.1 cm wide. At 
32 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

either end and on opposite sides flanges are carved 

producing notches to keep the sinew in place. 

ARROWSHAFTS 

In order for a wooden shaft to be classified as an 

arrowshaft, it must be either complete or have one 

or the other distinguishing end described below. 

Two types of arrowshafts were found in the Walakpa 

levels. The first type was for hafting deer arrowheads (Murdoch, 1892:201). The haft end of this type 

of arrowshaft does not change in appearance from 

Birnirk to modern times. Eighty-one examples were 

found in the Walakpa mound. Two are Birnirk in 

age, six are Early Thule (Plate 73ft), and 73 are Late 

Thule (Plates 85g, 896, 94ft-;', 102*', 108/). The ends 

of these shafts are cut at right angles to the shaft. 

A conical hole is drilled into the flat end of the shaft. 

This conical hole received the tang of the antler 

arrowhead. The deer arrowhead is wedged into the 

conical holes up to and beyond the shoulder of the 

arrowhead tang. The stele and pile are wrapped with 

baleen lashing. The pile is wrapped to a point above 

the shoulder of the tang and the lashing extends 

about 3.8 cm up the stele. The stele occasionally 

split when used, which allowed the pile to slip in its 

haft. Consequently, we see examples of these haft 

ends being purposefully cut above the splits and 

being discarded. Four specimens were recovered in 

which the broken arrowhead tangs are still in place. 

The diameter of the stele at this end ranges from 1.1 

to 0.6 cm. 

The second type of haft end was used on Bear 

arrows (Murdoch, 1892:202; Plates 102g, 115i). There 

are six examples of this type of stele in the Walakpa 

collection, all of which are of Late Thule age. These 

artifacts do not have the concave ends, but are 

expanded and flattened out with the surfaces tapering to a blunt end. The ends have been split laterally, 

and a stone point is inserted into the split. The hafting is reinforced by sinew bindings, which extend up 

the stele for at least 2.5 cm. One of these specimens 

has an ownership mark carved above the lashing 

scar. The ends of these hafts range from 1.81 to 1.1 

cm in width and average 1.3 cm. 

An Early Thule arrowshaft is unique (Plate 89a). 

It has four projections carved in the haft end of the 

shaft. Directly below the projections, a notch has 

been carved around the diameter of the shaft. Below 

the notch the shaft is square in cross-section with 

four hollowed-out sections on each side. This gives 

the impression of a worn-out drill bit. Th e shaft is 

broken but would have measured in excess of 30 cm. 

It measures 1.1 cm in diameter with the diameter of 

the point being 1.1 cm. 

The nock end of arrowshafts from the Walakpa 

site sort into three distinct types. These types seem 

to be unique to certain culture types. Th e earliest 

variety found in the Birnirk levels can be characterized as having a triangular-cut nock (Plate 48c). 

The stele is slightly widened just below the nock 

and is round in cross-section. Of five specimens of 

this type only one had any direct evidence of fletching. 

This consists of two shallow cuts or scratches across 

the stele just below the nock. Th e range of diameters 

on this variety is 0.8-0.6 cm, with an average of 0.7 cm. 

The second variety appears to be characteristic 

of the Early Thule levels (Plates 68g, ft, Ilk). It is 

similar to the one described above, the major difference being that these tend to be flat in cross-section 

rather than round. The nock end is more expanded 

and the upper part of the stele tends to be flat and 

expanded. The nock has a large V-shaped cut on 

both outside edges. Thirteen examples of this variety 

of arrowshaft were recovered. Seven of these have 

evidence for fletching. Two types of fletching were 

utilized. In the first, the feather is bound to the stele 

without any modification. Binding marks occur 

directly below the nock end and at an average of 0.5 

cm below the nock. The widths of the upper binding 

scars range from 1.4 to 2.2 cm. Th e width of the 

lower binding ranges from 2.2 to 1.2 cm. Th e outside 

length of the fletching ranges from 14.1 to 11.3 cm. 

One of these examples has a small notch placed on 

one edge near the center of the fletching, which may 

be for stabilizing the fletching. 

T h e second technique for fletching is cutting 

notches below the nocks, around which a binding 

holds the feathers to the stele. Two specimens have 

one notch, while another has a series of four notches. 

The diameters of the stele on this type ranges from 

1.1 to 0.7 cm. 

The third type of arrowshaft is found only in the 

Late Thule levels (Pates 85/, 102ft, \08i-k, 118e). This 

type was utilized up to historic times. Th e majority 

of this type do not have an expanded notch. Th e 

general form for these arrowshafts is a round stele, 

which gradually flattens out to an oval cross-section 

near the nock. Th e butt of the nock is flat with a 

U-shaped notch in the center. Th e diameters of these 

arrowshafts range from 1 to 0.8 cm. Th e fletching is 

attached by cutting a slight groove directly below 

the nock. No lower grooves have been cut. Binding 

marks occur on the upper end of one specimen, which 

measures 2.5 cm in length. One shaft has traces of red 

paint on the stele but no design was discernible. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 33 

FEATHER-CUTTING BOARDS 

Three wooden feather-cutting boards were found 

at Walakpa. All three are Late Thule in age. These 

boards are thought to be used for either cutting 

feathers for fletching or for cutting sinew thread 

(Ford, 1959:138, Giddings, 1952:81). 

The first specimen is a long, thin, bipointed piece 

of wood (Plate 89&). It is rectangular in cross-section. 

There are 34, 30, 15, and 11 irregularly placed notches 

on the four respective edges. The surfaces are slightly 

concave with both vertical and horizontal cutting 

scars. The board is highly polished on all edges and 

surfaces. It measures 17.8 cm in length, 3.3 cm in 

width, and 1.2 cm in thickness. It is possible that 

because of the notches, the artifact may be a game 

counter; but due to the cutting scars on the surfaces, 

I feel that it is probably a cutting board and the 

notches may serve as gauges. 

The second specimen is an elongated oval that is 

rounded at both ends (Plate 85;). It has a semilenticular cross-section. The flat surface has numerous vertical cutting scars with fewer horizontal scars. 

It is 9.7 cm long, 3 cm wide, and 0.8 cm thick. 

The last specimen is also an elongated oval in outline. Its cross-section is semilenticular. The flat 

surface is also scarred with vertical and horizontal 

scars. One end is thinned to a tang. It measures 10.4 

cm long and 3.3 cm wide. In thickness it measures 

from 0.7 to 1.6 cm. This specimen has a dubious 

identification, and the surface scars may be the result 

of manufacturing rather than cutting. 

ANTLER ARROWHEADS 

Antler arrowheads have caused an extremely interesting and equally confusing problem in Eskimo 

prehistory. It is thought that the arrowheads are 

almost as useful as harpoon heads for establishing 

cultural chronologies for the north coast of Alaska 

(Ford, 1959:124). The most distinguishing feature 

is apparently the tang. Collins (1937c:324) first 

described the important types of tangs, which he 

termed the "tapering tang," the "knobbed tang" and 

the "spurred tang." Ford (1959:124) used this same 

general taxonomic system for his Point Barrow 

specimens, although he included placement of barbs 

as another important type determiner. 

It was observed in the Walakpa specimens that 

several different types occurred within the same level 

and that in levels where ownership marks occurred 

the same ownership marks were found on specimens 

of purportedly different types. This raises the question as to whether the variability of types is temporal, 

functional, or fortuitous. As the antler arrowpoint 

is reported to be used only for caribou hunting 

(Murdoch, 1892:201-207), it would be extremely 

difficult to determine functional differences. The 

possible difference that could occur would be the 

manner in which the caribou were hunted, e.g., 

single kills, herd challenges, drives, surrounds. The 

principle for killing the animal with bow and arrow, 

however, would be essentially the same. The variability in antler arrowpoints is probably not functional, but probably has more to do with the individual manufacturer's whim at the time of manufacture. 

However, these variable were all compared and 

include the following categories: (1) shoulder type: 

curved, square; (2) knobs: curved knobs (strong, 

weak, strong upper portion), circular, lateral (offset, 

symmetrical), no knobs; (3) barbs: single barb, unilateral multibarb, multiple-bilateral barb (symmetrical, asymmetrical), no barb; (4) spur: short, long; 

(5) cross-section: round, lenticular, triangular, diamond-shape, combinations; (6) ownership mark: 

present, absent. 

Using these twenty-three variables on a sample of 

over 400 antler arrowpoints from Walakpa, Birnirk, 

Utkiavik, and Cape Prince of Wales, it was found 

that only four specimens conformed to a single type, 

while each of the others then represented a unique 

type of its own. A comparison of the arrowheads was 

made using only the first three categories: (1) shoulders, (2) knobs, and (3) barbs. This comparison 

indicated that the form of the barbs did not constitute 

type indicators. The shoulder and knob form appeared to be the only traits that seemed to change 

through time, or to indicate types. All five barb 

forms were found on the various shoulder and knob 

classes. It therefore appears that Collins (1937:324) 

was correct when he discussed types based on only 

shoulder and knob forms. On the basis of these 

comparisons we found that there were eight types of 

antler arrowheads, which indicated general trends 

through time. These eight types and their varieties, 

based on barb placement (used only in a descriptive 

sense), are discussed below with the earliest forms 

first and younger forms last. 

TYPE I, TAPERING TANG.—This type is thought 

to be one of the earliest, and at Walakpa it appeared 

only in the Birnirk levels. This type is called the 

"tapering tang" by Ford (1959:128). In his classification, however, he includes types with both a strong 

central knob and those without knobs, which may be 

temporarily significant. For these reasons I have split 

these types into two distinct groups. Type i has a 

rounded shoulder, long, tapering tangs and no knobs. 

Five of these were found, all of Birnirk age. There 
34 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

are three varieties of side barbs: (1) no side barb, (2) 

multiple, bilateral barbs, and (3) multiple-bilateral 

barbs with end blade slots. 

Three barbless examples were found. Two larger 

examples (Plates 8a, 51 q) measure 16.1 and 15.1 cm 

in length. The tangs are 3.3 and 2.8 cm in length, 

respectively. The blades are slightly expanded near 

the tip. No ownership marks are present. The third 

barbless example (Plate 86) is extremely short (9 cm), 

but otherwise it is identical to those discussed above. 

The tang measures 3.3 cm long. 

There is only one example of the multiple-bilateral 

barb variety (Plate 5lp), which is 16.3 cm long, with 

the tang 2.8 cm long. It has a side barb placed on 

both sides of the blade. These barbs are part of the 

blade structure. One barb is slightly higher on the 

blade than the other. These barbs are both long, 

narrow, and extremely sharp. 

The last specimen of this type is unique for this 

collection (Plate 19a). It has a bifurcated tip for the 

insertion of an end blade. The barbs are short and 

are part of the blade structure. One barb is placed 

above the other and on the opposite side of the blade. 

The length of the arrowhead is 16.4 cm; the tang is 

2.6 cm long. There is no ownership mark on the 

arrowhead. This arrowhead was found in sterile 

clay a few centimeters below the lowest Birnirk 

level. It is unknown if it is Birnirk in age or older. 

It is the author's opinion that it probably belongs to 

the Birnirk level and was forced into the wet clay 

from pressure by the occupants of the site. 

TYPE II, KNOBBED TAPERING TANG.—This type is 

similar to type 1 and is the type that Ford (1959:128-

132) included in the tapering tang category. Twentyeight examples were recovered at Walakpa. These 

were found most commonly in Birnirk and Early 

Thule levels, but four* were found in Late Thule 

levels. Most of these were originally long arrowheads 

but appear to have been broken and resharpened. 

The range of lengths is 20.7-6.8 cm, with an average 

length of 11.3 cm. 

The majority of these arrowheads have a single 

lateral barb. These barbs group into three types: 

(1) those with the main blade terminating in a barb 

at a distance of over one-half the length of the point 

(one of these is Birnirk in age, Plate 5In, and three 

are Early Thule, Plate 63ft, ;); (2) those with the barb 

being placed almost directly at the end of the blade 

(one example of this type is Birnirk in age, Plate 8c); 

(3) those with a single barb carved in the side and are 

not a part of the main structure of the blade (two are 

Early Thule, Plate 68e, two are Late Thule). Th e 

varieties of barb manufacture occur together in several levels and are not to be taken as functional 

variables. 

Four small specimens have no lateral barbs of any 

kind and appear to be resharpened examples of the 

larger varieties. Three are Early Thul e in age (Plate 

59ft-;) and one is Late Thule (Plate 91k). 

Two examples have multiple-unilateral barbs. A 

Birnirk specimen is rather unique (Plate 51o). The 

end of the blade has been widened before it tapers 

to the point. Th e first barb is part of the blade structure and, like those described above, it is placed about 

halfway down the length of the blade. Th e second 

barb is quite small and is placed directly below the 

first barb. In the case of a Late Thul e example, the 

barbs are evenly spaced on the blade but do not 

make up part of the blade structure (Plate 118c). 

The tang on this specimen has been roughened by 

lateral cuts for hafting purposes. No ownership 

marks are found on any of these specimens. 

TYPE HI, CONICAL KNOB.—The conical tang variety 

was first described by Larsen and Rainey (1948:169). 

This type was associated with the Western Thule 

levels at the Ipiutak site. Ford (1959:129-136) 

found this type at both Birnirk and Nunagiak. Ten 

specimens of these arrowpoints were found at Walakpa: two from the uppermost Birnirk levels, five 

from the Early Thule levels, and three from the Late 

Thule levels. I would therefore conclude that these 

are probably Late Birnirk types and are transitional 

forms between Birnirk and Early Thule, and persist 

into Late Thule times. 

The most characteristic feature of these antler 

arrowheads is the conical tang. The upper edges of 

shoulders of the cones are rather sharp and intersect 

the taper of the rounded shoulder. Th e cone is short 

in comparison to the tapering tang varieties. At least 

two types of barbs are present, single barbs and 

multiple-unilateral barbs. These measure from 16.3 

to 13.1 cm in length. The length of the tangs from the 

shoulder to the conical tip range from 3.5 to 2.7 cm. 

The average of the tang lengths is 3 cm. Th e length 

of the conical portion of the tang ranges from 2.1 to 

1.1 cm, with an average of 1.6 cm. Th e longer tangs 

are from the Birnirk levels. 

The most common form of barb is that of the 

single barb. All of the single barb types have the 

barbs carved independently of the blade structure. 

One, of Early Thule age, is a short barb that extends 

out from the blade at a steep angle (Plate 68d). Two 

other Early Thul e examples have relatively long 

barbs that are slightly parallel to the blade (Plate 

63*). Th e cuts that separate the barb from the blades 

on these specimens are long and cut quite deeply into 

the blade. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 35 

The only example of multiple-unilateral barbs is 

Late Thule in age. It has five small barbs along 

the central portion of one side of the blade. These 

barbs are manufactured like the barbs of a leister 

prong. 

Six broken examples, four Early Thule (Plates 

58d, 59fc, 73/, 80c), and two Late Thule cannot be 

analyzed for blade types. The Birnirk specimens are 

both small tang sections that were broken just above 

the shoulder of the cone. One of the Birnirk tangs 

was found still hafted to a broken arrowshaft. 

TYPE IV, OFF-SET KNOBS.—A single level from the 

Walakpa site had this interesting type of knob (Plate 

75c, d). There are two knobs on either side of the 

tang, one placed slightly above the other. The 

shoulders are not square but do not slope as much as 

those in the previous classes. This type of tang has not 

as yet been reported for North Alaska, but it is found 

in the Eastern Thule collections from Canada (Mathiassen, 1927a: 35-36, pi. 9:4). Only two specimens 

were recovered and they are incomplete. Therefore, 

the only measurements to be discussed are the tangs. 

The total lengths are 2.4 and 3 cm. The lengths of 

the tangs below the upper knob are 1.7 and 1.6 cm, 

respectively. No ownership marks occur on these two 

arrowheads. 

TYPE V, TAPERING TANG, WITH A SLIGHT KNOB.— 

This unique type came from the uppermost levels of 

the Early Thule period. These can be characterized 

by a slight shoulder and a very slight knob. Two 

types of barbs occur. The Early Thule example is 

a multiple-unilateral barb (Plate 80d). It has one 

barb present, carved away from the blade structure. 

Another barb (Plate 84<?) which has been broken, is 

placed a short distance above the lower barb. Incised 

lines run from each of these barbs up the blade for 

a short distance. The length of this arrowhead is 

13.3 cm, the tang length is 2.5 cm, with the distance 

below the knob being 0.7 cm. There are no ownership marks on this specimen. 

One of the Late Thule arrowheads of this type has 

two bilateral barbs. One, which is broken, was placed 

near the tip while the other is a short distance below 

the tip. The incised line occurs on the lower barb. 

This arrowhead measures greater than 9.8 cm. The 

tang is broken slightly below the knob. This specimen 

has the first ownership mark in the stratigraphic 

sequence. The ownership mark is a straight incised 

line. At the lower end of the line there are two short 

symmetrical lines slanting downwards. A second 

Late Thule example has a single barb. It measures 

7.9 cm long. It does not have an ownership mark. 

TYPE VI, SQUARE SHOULDER SYMMETRICAL KNOBS.— 

This type and type VII are closely related. Both types 

occur in the same levels and both types have the same 

ownership marks. These arrowpoints have square 

shoulders and two knobs symmetrically placed on each 

side of the tang. There are at least four types of barb 

techniques: (1) single barb, (2) single bilateral barbs, 

(3) multiple-unilateral barbs, and (4) no barbs. The 

most common has a single barb. Four examples of 

this type occurred (Plate 102a). The range of lengths 

varies from 21.1 to 8.6 cm. The tangs range from 3.6 

to 2.2 cm. The distances below the knobs measure 

from 2.7 to 1.5 cm in length. The barbs are all part 

of the blade structure. They ocur about halfway 

between the tip and the tang. 

The second type of barbs are those which have 

single bilateral barbs, symmetrically placed at the tip 

(Plate 946). Neither of this type is complete. Tang 

measurements are 2.8 and 2.11 cm. The lengths of 

the tangs below the knobs are 2.1 and 1.4 cm, respectively. 

The third type of barb has several barbs on a single 

side (Plate 88d). A large specimen measures 14 cm 

in length. The tang measurements are 1.8 cm for total 

length and 1.2 cm below the knobs. Two barbs occur 

on part of the blade structure and the second is 

placed just below. Decoration consists of two incised 

lines at each barb. A smaller specimen measures 8.5 

cm long (Plate 102e). The tang measures 1.9 cm in 

length and the distance below the knobs is 1 cm. 

The barbs have been placed close together directly 

under each other. There are four in number. The 

last barb is part of the blade structure. A broken 

example may have been of type vi (Plate 88m). 

One example of a barbless arrowhead was found 

(Plate 88ft). It probably resulted from the resharpening of a broken specimen. It has a broken tang, 

thus measurements are of little use. The length of 

the point is in excess of 8.4 cm. Most of the specimens of this type have ownership marks. 

A unique specimen in this class has neither barbs 

nor a tip. The tip of the point is socketed to receive a 

flint point. This specimen does not have an ownership 

mark. Its length is 7.7 cm. The tang measures 1.7 cm 

in length and the lower portion is 1.1 cm. Another 

broken specimen has a hole drilled near the tip 

(plate 88/). A groove has been carved on both faces 

running towards the tip from the drilled hole. 

TYPE VII, SQUARE SHOULDERS, CIRCULAR KNOBS.— 

This type is closely related to Type vi. Twenty-two 

Late Thule antler arrowheads fit into this class. Four 

types of barbs are found on arrowheads of this type: 

(1) multiple-bilateral barbs, (2) single barb, (3) 

notches on the blades, and (4) no barbs. Four examples are broken so that no barb analysis was possible on them (Plates 97g, ft, 102d). 
36 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

The first and most numerous type of barb placement is that of multiple-bilateral barbs. There are 

several techniques of manufacture of these barbs. 

Three examples have two very short barbs that are 

part of the blade structure (Plate 1026, c). These 

are located approximately halfway between the tip 

and the tang. Below the barbs there are nonfunctional barbs consisting of a slight raise in the antler. 

These specimens are decorated by long, incised lines 

on both sides, running from the nonfunctional barb 

to the tip of the point. The range of lengths is from 

18.3 to 15.1 cm. The tangs range from 3.3 to 2.2 cm, 

with the portion below the knobs ranging from 2.4 

to 1.7 cm. 

The second type of multiple-bilateral barbs are 

those that are placed near the tip of the projectile 

point (Plate 88e). These are set slightly asymmetrically and are sharply pointed. One complete specimen measured 14.6 cm in length; the tangs on this 

and an incomplete specimen measured 2.3 and 1.8 

cm, while the lower portions of the tangs measured 

1.8 and 1.2 cm, respectively. 

The last example of this subclass is a broken tip 

that has been rebased. The barbs are simply a sharp 

symmetrical shoulder at the end of the blade (Plate 

97/). This specimen measures 9.3 cm, with tang 

measurements of 1.7 and 1.2 cm. The remnant of the 

ownership mark and the decorative incised lines of 

the former barb are still visible. 

The next type of barb found in type vii are those 

antler arrowheads that have only one barb (Plate 

886, c). These barbs are placed about midway between the tip and the tang. They are part of the blade 

structure. Only two complete specimens were found. 

These are 13.9-12.8 cm long. Their tang lengths are 

2.3 and 1.9 cm, respectively. Only one specimen has 

decoration, which consists of an unusually placed 

ownership mark. The mark is an incised line running from the barb to near the tip of the point. 

It is crossed by two short lines. 

The third subtype consists of those specimens with 

unilateral notches cut into the blade edge (Plate 

108c). These notches serve as barbs. One has a real 

barb placed below a notch. The only complete 

specimen measures 12 cm long and tang measurements of 2.4 cm in length, with the knob measuring 

1.6 cm. 

The specimens of the fourth subtype have no barbs 

(Plate 88g). They, as in the cases described above, 

are probably resharpened, broken arrowheads. Two 

of these were recovered, one complete and the other 

with a broken tang. The complete specimen measures 9.6 cm in length. The tang is 3.5 cm in length, 

and the knob is 2.8 cm long. 

TYPE VIII, SQUARE SHOULDER, KNOBBED TANG.— 

This type is only found in Late Thul e levels. It has 

a square shoulder and a slightly knobbed tang. Two 

varieties were found: multiple barb and no barb. 

The multiple barb variety is represented by two 

specimens, of which one is complete. Th e incomplete 

specimen has one barb, but it has the beginning 

groove for a second (Plate 119d). These barbs are not 

part of the blade structure. Decoration is the typical 

incised line at the barb. It does have an ownership 

mark. The tang measurements on this specimen are 

2.8 cm in length, with the knob measurement being 

2.6 cm. 

The second specimen of this type has two small 

barbs at the tip of the point (Plate 119e). The first 

is part of the blade structure while the second is a 

small rise carved away from the blade. It measures 

9.5 cm in length. Th e tang is 1.8 cm long with the 

length of the knob being 0.8 cm. This specimen has 

no ownership mark. 

The barbless example has the end ground round 

(Plate 94g). It may be a bird arrowpoint, but it fits 

these types of arrowheads better. It measures 7.6 

cm. in length. 

TYP E IX, SQUARE SHOULDER, CONICAL KNOB.—Two 

examples of square shoulder, conical knob, antler 

arrowheads occurred in the Late Thul e levels. Ford 

(1959:133) also illustrates two of these from his 

Utkiavik collections. One of these specimens has a 

single barb that is part of the blade structure. The 

barb is placed near the tang. The length of this point 

is 10.8 cm. The tang measures 1.6 cm, and the knob 

measures 1 cm. 

The second specimen is identical to the first, with 

the exception of a narrow notch cut into the blade 

to form another barb. This specimen measures 15.6 

cm with a tang length of 2.6 cm. The conical knob 

measures 2 cm in length. Both of these specimens 

were from the same level and contained the same 

ownership marks, the mark being placed on the 

incised line of the notch decoration. 

TYPE x, BLUNT-BIRD ARROWPOINTS.—The last 

variety of arrowpoints to be described in this section 

is that of blunt-bird arrowpoints. One from an Early 

Thule level is made of antler (Plate 80e). It is expanded at the point. The point is divided into four 

wings, all coming together at a raised point in the 

center of the tip. This gives an impression of a wornout drill bit. It has a bifurcated tang with a small portion of the arrow stele still wedged in place. It appears 

that there was once a binding around the tang and 

the arrowshaft. This specimen measures 7 cm in 

length. Th e maximum diameter of the arrowhead is 

2.3 cm. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 37 

ANTLER ARROWHEAD PREFORMS 

The manufacture of antler arrowheads has never 

been described in detail. Examples of arrowhead 

preforms were found in most stages of manufacture, 

which permits the following description. 

Three types of antler were observed in the occupation levels at Walakpa and primarily in the Birnirk 

levels: (1) old, shed antler, probably found by the 

Eskimos, and brought into the site; (2) antlers which 

were in velvet; and (3) antlers in advanced stages of 

ossification. These are distinguished by the fact that 

shed antler has natural separation scars on the articular surfaces, while unshed antler, when disarticulated, 

still has major skull portions attached. Antler in the 

velvet stage is soft and spongy in texture and does 

not preserve as well as the hardened, mature antler. 

The skull bone of a specimen of advanced ossification was separated from the antler in two stages: 

first, by cutting in a saw-like fashion, which yielded 

an irregular-cut surface around the base of the antler 

and on the skull; and secondly, after several edges 

were cut in this manner, by chopping strokes, which 

were used for final separation. Once the antler was 

removed from the skull, the forward tine and the 

immediate upper portion were removed leaving a 

short section of antler with the skull attached. The 

tines were removed by sawing, probably with a baleen 

saw, through the os-compacta surface to the cancellous 

structure. Then it was a simple matter of breaking 

the antler by force. 

Two types of scars are found in tine separation. 

One is from the baleen saw, which leaves long, flat 

scars in a vertical plane to the antler stem. The other 

type of scar results from adz cuts, which are short, 

irregular chops at an angle to the antler stem. Occasionally these are found in combination with the 

sawing used to weaken the antler and the adz-chopping for final separation. 

Long beams are split with a graver-like tool. One 

short section of antler, 18.11 cm, is probably a preform core. It has five cuts parallel to its long axis. 

In this case it was discarded before any sectional 

pieces were split away. In split sections the groove is 

repeatedly cut with a graver or burin-like tool until 

the cancellous structure is struck. Then a wedge is 

inserted and probably twisted to break the antler 

into the desired pieces. Four sections, each 24 cm 

long, were found. They were probably intended 

for antler arrowheads. An interesting cache of these 

quartered sections was found under a toboggan of 

unknown age. Twenty-one cut antler sections were 

found in this cache. The width range is from 2.1 to 

1.1 cm. 

The next step in arrowhead manufacture is the 

sharpening of both ends of the antler strip (Plate 88o). 

Three examples from this cache have one end carved 

to a point. After the points have been carved, the 

tangs are roughly blanked out (Plates 88p, \\5e, 119*'). 

The blade is then faceted and ground to a sharp point, 

and the rest of the blade is ground into shape. Barbs 

are then cut into the sides of the blade. Tangmanufacture appears to be the last step in the manufacture of antler arrowpoints. 

CHIPPED FLINT ARROWHEADS 

On the basis of Murdoch's classification of flint 

points from Point Barrow, Ford (1959:135) devised 

five classes of chipped flint points: 

Class 1: Long, narrow points, diamond in cross-section. 

They have square shoulders and short stems, with parallel 

sides and square bases. 

Class 2: Shorter points with rather sloping shoulders. 

Class 3: Relatively long, narrow, unstemmed points with 

a squared, thinned base. 

Class 4: Thin, wide, well-chipped points with slight 

shoulders, curving, blade edges. Th e stems, which form almost 

one-half of the length of the points have either straight or 

curved bases. 

Class 5: Willow-leaf-shaped points without stems. Th e bases 

are either round or almost straight, approaching a triangular 

form. 

These classes are apparently partially compatible to 

Giddings' (1952:50-51) sequence, which is as follows: 

"1250 A.D.: thin, stemless, wedge-shaped points; 1400 

A.D.: thin, wide-stemmed, Ekseavik type A points; 

1550 A.D.: transitional to following; 1750 AD.: long, 

parallel points with rhomboid cross-sections and 

small, rectangular stems." 

The flint points from Walakpa do not particularly 

fit these sequences. Ford's class 1 is the most common 

type found. Classes 4 and 5 are not arrowheads but 

are either lance, spearheads, knife or end blades. 

Classes 1 and 2 create problems. If these are 

indeed independent, functional classes, they should be 

tested for that function. Murdoch (1892:202) does 

not imply any function for any class of flint arrowheads other than for killing bears. It appears, however, that many differences may be due to proficiency 

of workmanship. These types could also be the result 

of reutilization of broken projectile points for drills 

and other types of artifacts. When projectile points 

of both classes 1 and 2 are seriated, one finds that there 

is an even, imperceptible transition from one class to 

the other. Therefore, I would say that there is only 

one class of flint arrowhead at Walakpa and that 

minor variations in length and shoulders are due to 

individual proficiency in manufacture. 
38 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Thirty-four specimens of chipped flint arrowheads 

were found at Walakpa and, of these, only twelve 

are complete. All but two are made from chert from 

the Sik-sik-puk formation in the Brooks Range. The 

color of this flint ranges from black to red with the 

most common color being gray. Two specimens were 

made from a clear chert. 

The length of these projectile points ranges from < 

7 cm to 4 cm. The average length is 5.2 cm. All but 

two of these specimens are of Late Thule age (Plates 

89d-g, 94k, /, 102;', k, 108g, ft, 115ft, 119g). The 

remaining three are of Early Thule age (Plates 59n, 

77/, ;). None were found in the Birnirk levels. 

Bola Weights 

Bola weights, used for hunting birds, were numerous at Walakpa. Murdoch (1892:244) describes the 

bola as six or seven small, ivory balls, each attached 

to a string about thirty inches (75 cm) long. The 

ends of the string are fastened to a tuft of feathers, 

which serves as a handle and perhaps directs the 

flight of the bola. Ford (1959:139-141) classified 13 

varieties of bola weights, classes A-M. Four of these 

varieties, A-D, were found only in later periods while 

three types, E, F, and G were found in both early 

and late occupations. Six varieties, H-M, were found 

only at Birnirk. At Walakpa, only 11 classes were 

found. Ford's classes C and I did not occur in the 

collection. Further, it was found that classes A, B, 

and D, which Ford found only in later sites, occurred 

in the Walakpa Birnirk levels. Of Ford's types H, J, 

and L were found only at Birnirk. At Walakpa types 

H and J occurred in both Birnirk and Early Thule 

levels, while type L was found in Late Thule levels. 

It appears that there is possibly no temporal distinction between bola weights. 

CLASS A.—These are irregular fragments of ivory or 

bone. They are parts of broken tools or leftover raw 

materials that have been drilled for a bola weight. 

Ford (1959:140) did not recover any bolas of this 

class from the Birnirk site, while the majority of bola 

weights from the Walakpa Birnirk levels were of this 

type (Plates 9/, k, 31k). One Birnirk specimen 

(Plate 19c) is an ice pick tang which is drilled for a 

bola weight. Another specimen is a small section of 

a harpoon foreshaft (Plate 31k). A root section of a 

walrus tusk was utilized for a bola weight. A split 

section of ivory is cut to a point and drilled (Plate 

19d). The last Birnirk specimen (Plate 37m) is an 

irregular portion of a walrus jaw that is drilled for 

suspension. This specimen has part of the baleen 

thong attached. 

Three additional examples of broken tools utilized 

for bola weights were found in the Early Thul e levels 

(Plate 646). Two are broken sections of harpoon 

foreshafts and the third is a broken ivory ice pick. 

Part of the hafting tang and shaft remain. A hole has 

been drilled in the tang; both broken ends are 

rounded and polished. 

Six irregular pieces of bone from the Late Thule 

levels were also drilled for bola weights (Plate 109a). 

CLASS B.—Bolas in Ford's class B are those that 

are made from perforated seal astragali. A modification of this type, a class that Ford found only at 

Utkiavik, is made from a perforated Caribou astragali 

rather than seal. There were four of these found in 

the Birnirk levels (Plate 9g-;). Two additional examples of caribou astragali bola weights were found 

in the Early Thule occupations. One (Plate 73*') is 

split in half while the other is split in half and 

ground. 

CLASS D.—These are cut segments of walrus ribs 

and ivory. These weights differ from class C in that 

the suspension holes are drilled from the sides rather 

than from the ends. These holes are also slanted so 

that they meet to allow the thong to be inserted. Four 

of these were found in the Birnirk levels (Plates 19e, 

31m,n). Three examples of this type were found in 

the Late Thule occupations. One (Plate 75;) has a 

short section of rawhide lashing still attached. 

CLASS E.—These weights were cut from walrus 

tusks or ribs. The cut faces of these sections are flat. 

Three examples of class E were recovered in the Late 

Thule levels (Plate 82a). These were all ivory and no 

examples of rib sections were found. 

CLASS F.—This class consists of teeth that are 

drilled for bola weights. Ten examples of drilled 

teeth were found at Walakpa. Two were Birnirk in 

age, one is Early Thule (Plate 64a), while seven were 

Late Thule (Plate 1096). All of the teeth used at 

Walakpa are walrus molars. 

CLASS G.—These bola weights are teardrop in 

shape and are made from bone or ivory. One ivory 

Birnirk example was found (Plate 37/). Three Early 

Thule examples were found at Walakpa. Two were 

drilled at the small end, while one was drilled at 

the large end. 

CLASS H.—These are crudely finished weights cut 

from sections of whale ribs They are oblong in 

shape. The suspension hole is drilled in the long 

end. Two of them are Birnirk in age (Plate 9/), and 

two are Early Thul e (Plate 69a). 

CLASS J.—These are segments cut from ribs with 

the suspension holes drilled through the sides rather 

than the ends. These weights resemble class D but 

are made of bone and are much larger and heavier. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 39 

The suspension holes are drilled straight through 

rather than being formed by two perforations. One 

specimen is Birnirk in age (Plate 19/). Three specimens of this class were found in the Early Thule 

levels, as well as an undrilled preform (Plate 64d-/). 

The preform has the perforation started but not completed. 

CLASS K.—These weights are egg-shaped in outline 

and are carved thin with flat faces on opposite sides. 

Many appear to have been made from the hard bone 

of the jawbone of a whale. The perforation is located 

in the smaller end. One of these was found in the 

Birnirk levels at Walakpa (Plate 37a). 

CLASS L.—These are bone cylinders with a perforation in one end. Three Late Thule examples of this 

type were found at Walakpa. 

CLASS M.—This class is made up of bolas that are 

made from femur heads. Only one example of this 

type of bola was found (Plate 31 p). It is Birnirk in 

age. 

Miscellaneous Hunting Gear 

SNOW-PROBE FERRULES 

Snow-probe ferrules are cylindrical objects that 

come to a pointed end and are used to tip the snow 

probe. Two of these ferrules were recovered in the 

Birnirk levels (Plates 37ft, 50e). Both specimens have 

sockets to receive wooden poles. In both cases a portion of the pole remains inserted into the socket. 

These examples show no evidence of having been 

secured by a bone pin as were the specimens reported 

by Ford (1959:142). These specimens measure 4.6 

and 3.3 cm long, respectively. They are 1.3 and 1.6 cm 

in their maximum diameters. 

Ford did not recover any ferrules in his Birnirk 

collections. Since they are common in Eastern Thule 

sites (Mathiassen, 1927a:67-68) and have a very restricted distribution in Alaska, where they appeared 

late, Ford (1959:142-145) argues that they have an 

Eastern origin. As both of these specimens are Birnirk 

in age, it appears that Ford's assumptions are wrong 

and that the Eastern Thule varieties have their origin 

in the Alaskan Birnirk period. 

ICE STAFF RINGS 

Ice staffs were used as an aid for walking on thinice tundra (E. Nelson, 1899:214-215). They have an 

attached ring, which makes the tool appear to be a 

ski pole. One example of an ice staff ring was found 

in the Birnirk occupation (Plate 50c). This was a 

baleen strip, which had been tied to form a circle of 

9.1 cm in diameter. The strip is completely wrapped 

with another layer of baleen. A small inner circle 

manufactured in the same manner is attached to the 

outer circle by four baleen cords. A short section of 

the ice staff still remains inserted through the inner 

circle. This staff measures 0.8 cm in diameter. A 

specimen reported by Ford (1959:145) also had a similarly small hole. Because of the small hole, Ford suggested that an iron staff was used. 

SNOW SHOVELS 

Snow shovels made of wood with ivory or bone 

blades were used to remove snow from houses, pitfalls, etc. (Murdoch, 1892:306). No wooden or bone 

shovels were found at Walakpa. However, six bone 

blades of Late Thule age were recovered (Plates 91c, 

103;, 109/). Three are complete enough for measurements ranging from 32.3 to 22.2 cm in length. In 

width they measure from 3.8 to 2.2 cm. The blades 

are crescent-shaped and have one sharp edge for cutting into the snow. A groove on the upper edge or 

surface is carved for a socket, in which the shovel is 

inserted. Usually there are a series of lashing holes 

for attachment to the shovel. 

SNOW KNIVES 

Snow knives were used for cutting blocks of snow 

while building snow huts (Murdoch, 1892:304-305). 

Only one specimen of Late Thule age was recovered 

at Walakpa (Plate 82;). This is a long, thin, saberlike antler implement. It measures 42.9 cm in length 

with a maximum width of 3.4 cm. Along one edge 

of the blade, 13 drilled holes are placed very close 

to each other. Near the point on the opposite edge, 

two small holes are drilled. These holes are drilled 

for baleen wrapping to provide a grip. 

WOODEN HUNTING HATS 

A most unique archeological discovery comes from 

the lowest Birnirk level (Plate 20). This artifact is 

apparently a wooden hunting hat. The wooden 

hunting hat is known ethnologically among Eskimos 

south of Norton Sound and was used for hunting 

sea animals, for dances, and by shamans (Ivanov, 

1930:483, E. Nelson, 1899:394). They are generally 

ornately decorated with zoomorphic objects and hunting scenes. The present specimen is of the open-top 

variety. It is a single piece of wood that has been 

wrapped into a truncated cone. The front extends 
40 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

forward and projects over the face as a visor. The 

back has two narrow overlapping tangs that have been 

wrapped together with willow strips. On both sides 

there are two slots for straps, which are tied under 

the chin to hold the hat on the head. This specimen 

has no ornamentation, although it may once have 

been painted. The distance from the top of the cone 

to the forward edge of the bill is 21.1 cm. The 

diameter of the top of the cone is 18.9 cm. 

SNOW GOGGLES 

Snow goggles are an extremely important item for 

traveling across either snow or ice during daylight 

hours. On bright days these are essential in protecting the eyes from snow blindness. 

Three complete snow goggles were recovered in the 

Birnirk occupations. They are of the single-piece 

variety. One is made of wood and the others of 

baleen. The wooden specimen has been carved from 

a single piece of wood in a semilunar shape to fit the 

contour of the face (Plate 50a). The inside or dorsal 

surface had been carved at the center to conform 

to the nose. To either side of the nasal cavity are 

two deeply cut sockets, in which the eye slits are set 

near the center. The eye slits are long, thin, semilunar cuts. The left border of the goggle has two 

small holes, while the right border has four holes. 

Apparently two of these holes on the right side were 

split, making it necessary to carve the additional 

holes. The dorsal surface has been finished by sanding the cut marks and polishing. No further decoration was attempted. The upper border is faceted with 

a slight concavity for the bridge of the nose. 

The ventral surface is not polished. The primary 

cutting is done with short, narrow whittle cuts; there 

is no evidence of adz cuts. The deeper portion of the 

sockets were cut with a thin, narrow, graver-like tool. 

The nasal cavity has been done with long, carving 

strokes and then ground for good fit. 

The first baleen specimen is also of the single-piece 

variety (Plate 7ft). The eye slots are narrow and 

slightly elliptical in shape. One hole is carved at 

both ends for holding straps. The overall shape of 

the artifact is bi-elliptical with a slightly deeper 

groove cut at the center on the bottom edge to fit 

over the nasal bridge. Two decorative grooves are 

carved between the eye slits and the nasal notch. 

These probably represent an illustration of the nose. 

Both the nasal notch and the eye slits are deeply inset 

to fit the nose and protect the eye. This specimen 

measures 13.3 cm in length, 3 cm in height, and 

1 cm in maximum thickness. 

The last Birnirk specimen is incomplete (Plate 37g). 

The eye slits are flattened ovals in outline. A slot 

has been carved for the lashing. There is no cut made 

for the nose except for slight notches on both the 

upper and lower edges. On the inside the eye sockets 

are extremely deep. There is no decoration on this 

specimen. It measures over 12.9 cm in length, 3.2 cm 

in maximum height, and 0.6 cm in thickness. 

Two incomplete examples of Early Thul e snow 

goggles were found. Both are made of ivory and 

split at the nasal groove. Th e first specimen is an 

elaborately decorated artifact (Plate 75/). Th e eye 

slit is narrow and rectangular in shape. There is a 

slight rise for the nasal bridge. Th e border of the 

upper edge has an incised line running its full length. 

At a point near the inside edge of the eye slit, two 

parallel lines fall from the rim line to a point just 

above the eye slit. Over the center of the eye slit, a 

diamond-shaped figure is carved. A deep groove runs 

from the eye slit to a lashing slot. Th e inside surface has deep concave grooves for both the nose and 

the eye. It is 3.1 cm in height and 1.2 cm in maximum 

thickness. 

The second specimen has oval-shaped eye slits 

(Plate 63&). The nasal notch is incomplete, but it 

appears to have been fairly deep. For lashing, a slot, 

rather than a drilled hole, is cut at the edge. The 

inside portion of the eye slit is extremely deep and 

almost the entire wing is concave in cross-section. 

There is no decoration on this example. In height 

it measures 3.5 cm while in thickness it is 1 cm. 

A complete baleen and a broken wooden example 

are part of the Late Thule collections. The complete 

specimen is a narrow, rectangular-shaped goggle 

(Plate 101c). The eye slits are rectangular and parallel 

to the plane of the edges. A notch has been carved 

for the nose. Lashing holes are drilled near the ends 

with slight notches carved at the ends for guiding the 

lashing. Three holes are drilled, one above and 

one below the left eye slit; another is drilled above 

the nasal notch. Th e function of these holes is 

unknown. The remains of two additional holes 

drilled at both ends of the eye slit can still be seen. 

These are probably cutting guides for the manufacture of the eye slit. Both the nasal and eye grooves are 

concave. This goggle measures 14.8 cm in length. 

It is extremely narrow and measures 2.5 cm in maximum height and 0.6 cm in thickness. 

A small fragment of a wooden snow goggle was 

recovered from a Late Thul e level (Plate 93g). Th e 

eye slit is extremely narrow and parallel to the edges 

of the goggle. Two holes are drilled at the end for 

lashing. The eye socket is extremely deep and there 

is no decoration. It is 2.7 cm in height and 0.6 cm 

thick. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 41 

FISH ARROW PRONGS 

Nine examples of fish arrow prongs were recovered 

at Walakpa. These fall into two types: a small variety 

found in Birnirk levels and a larger type found in 

the Thule levels. It is difficult to determine if the 

larger variety is a fish arrow prong or a bird dart 

prong. 

Two small, ivory fish arrow prongs were found in 

the Birnirk levels (Plate 51c,/). These are slender, 

delicate prongs with lateral barbs. Both of these 

prongs are incomplete and no measurements were 

made. 

An additional small, center arrow prong was recovered in the Birnirk level (Plate 37;). It is made of 

ivory and measures 7.6 cm in length. One small barb 

has been placed near the end and the tang is beveled 

on all sides. 

The first example of the large variety is from an 

Early Thule level (Plate 80/). This antler specimen 

is 15.6 cm in length. It has three barbs on the outside 

edge. In cross-section it is round. The tang is tapered 

to a sharp point with a beveled surface for hafting. 

The lower end of the main shaft of the prong is 

carved to a slightly smaller diameter than the tang. 

This aids the prong by giving it a wider angle of 

separation from the shaft. The tang has not been 

roughened for hafting. 

An antler center prong was found in the Early 

Thule occupation (Plate 68/). This specimen is 

6.8 cm in length. The blade is only 2.3 cm long 

while the tang is 4.5 cm in length. The blade has no 

barbs and is carved to a short, slightly blunted point. 

The tang is beveled on both edges, which converge 

towards each other. Both sides of the tang have been 

scarred for hafting. 

A broken, wooden fish arrow prong is also of Early 

Thule age (Plate 63m). This is a long, thin prong, 

which is rectangular in cross-section. It has three 

barbs placed near the tip on one side and a single barb 

on the other side. It measures over 13.8 cm in length. 

Three examples of the large fish arrow prong were 

recovered from the Late Thule levels. All of these 

specimens are made of antler. Two examples of outside prongs are 16.8 and 16.7 cm in length (Plate 

115c,d). The larger specimens have long, beveled 

tangs, which are horizontally scarred for hafting purposes. Three outside lateral barbs are made by 

cutting notches into the edge of the arrow prong. 

A smaller example has its prongs on the inside edge 

(Plate 81k). It measures 11.5 cm in length. It has a 

short, beveled tang. This tang has not been scarred 

for hafting, although two hafting notches are found 

on the opposite side. This specimen has three lateral 

barbs; unlike those described above, they have been 

cut at right angles into the blade. At the bottom of 

the cut it tapers back to the next barb. The lowest 

barb tapers to the hafting tang. 

FISHING POLES 

A possible fishing pole was found, which is Late 

Thule in age (Plate 866). It is similar to the poles 

used for jigging tomcod and flatfish by the modern 

Eskimo. It consists of a long, slender piece of wood, 

round in cross-section. It measures over 40 cm in 

length and 1.3 cm in diameter. At one end a notch 

has been carved, which runs three-fourths of the way 

around the diameter of the pole. A two-strand baleen 

line is looped and tied around the notch. Several 

inches of the line extend below the pole. Table 2 is 

a summary of all the hunting and fishing equipment 

found in each occupation level. 

TRANSPORTATIO N EQUIPMENT 

Boat Parts 

BOAT PADDLES 

A single fragment of a Birnirk paddle was found. 

It is too fragmented to tell if it is a two-bladed kayak 

paddle or a single-blade umiak paddle. It is part of 

the paddle blade and a fragment of the handle. 

PADDLE TIP S 

Two examples of paddle tips were found in the 

Birnirk levels. A complete antler specimen is nearly 

triangular in shape with a rounded point (Plate 22a). 

It is lenticular in cross-section. The tip is 3.7 cm 

long, 3.7 cm in maximum width, and 1.5 cm thick. 

The inside is hollowed out to form a socket, which 

fits over the paddle. The socket is 2.9 cm long and 

1.2 cm wide. 

A second specimen is made of ivory (Plate 9d). It is 

broken in half. In shape it is identical to the first 

specimen and is 3.1 cm long. The socket was made 

by drilling three holes, two at both ends and one in 

the middle. The remaining area was then ground 

out. The socket is 2 cm deep. 
42 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

TABLE 2.—Hunting and fishing equipment by occupation level of each 

culture phase, Walakpa site 

Culture Phase Late Thule Earl

y Thule 

•H 

a 

u 

Mound 

Occupation Level 

A-l 

A-2 

A-3 

A-4 

A-5 

A-6 

A-7 

B-l 

B-2 

B-3 

B-4 

B-5 

B-6 

B-7 

B-8 

B-9 

B-10 

Late Thule 

Test Trench 

Early Thule 

Test Trench 

Birnirk 

Test Trench 

Totals 

Harpoon Gear Harpoon Heads Harpoon End Blades Harpoon Foreshafts Socket Pieces Ice Picks 

- 1 

2 2 - - 1 

2 4 - - 2 

I -

I I 1 

I - 1 -

- - 1 

I I - -

2 1 -

1 

1 - -

- 1 

4 - 1 

5 3 

2 1 - -

11- 2 1 2 

5 2 2 1 

1 3 1 

12 - - - 1 

52 15 7 3 12 

Seal Poke 

Gear 

Float Bars 

Seal Float Mouthpieces 

Seal Float Stoppers Seal Float Plugs 

i i i i 

i i i i 

I l -

l-I -

l l -

1 - - -

1 - -

- 1 

- 1 

4 4 1 1 

Ice Hunting Gear Wound Plugs Wound Pins Ice Scoops Two Piece Ice Scoops Seal Drag Handles Seal Scratchers Seal Rattles 

Nets & Net Weights 

H | H rH 1 

1 1 

1 H I I 

1 1 1 

1 H 1 1 1 

1 H 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 

1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 

1 1 1 1 

1 1 - - - 2 

- - - - 1 

2 1 3 - - 1 

1 - -

344 2 121 4 

Atlat l 

Equipment 

Atlatl Dart Boards Atlatl Hooks Dart Shafts & Butt Pieces 

Inflation Nozzles 

Bird Dart Points & Slide 

Prongs 

Harpoon Dart Heads 

H I 1 1 1 1 1 

i i i i i i 

i i i i i 

i i i i i 

H 1 1 1 1 

i i i i i 

1 H 1 1 

1 1 I H 

1 1 1 

1 CM 

- - 2 

1 -

_ 1 -

_ _ i _ 

1 - 1 -

3 1 2 1 5 1 

Bow and Arrow 

Equipment 

Bows 

Marlin Spikes 

Sinew Twisters 

Arrowshafts 

Feather Cutting Boards 

Antler Arrowheads Antler Arrowhead Preforms 

Chipped Flint Arrowheads 

1 - - 1 

- - 1 15 2 3 

4 - 1 

_ 1 - - 5 - 2 

2-2161 2 

1 - 2 4- 2 

- - 1 2 -

4 - _ 

- 2 - -

- - 3 - 3 

1 2- 4 

- - 2 - 2 

- 1 5 -

- - - 5 - 3 1 

11- 1 - 5 - 1 

1 - 1 - 1 -

5 4 1 18 3 67 8 13 

Miscellaneous 

Hunting Gear 

Snow Probe Ferrules 

Ice Shaft Rings 

Snow Shovels Snow Knives 

Wooden Hunting Hats 

Snow Goggles 

Fish Arro

w Prongs 

Fishing Poles Bola Weights 

- - - 1 l 

--1-- 1 - 2 

- - 1 - - - 2 

- - 1 - 1 

_ - 1 

- - - - 1 - 1 

- - --11 - 5 

-1---12 - 1 

1----11 - 8 

_ _ _ i__ _ 3 

- - 1 - - - 3 

1-- - 1- - 4 

2121178 1 40 

Totals by Occupation Level 

6 

31 

15 

9 

23 

15 

7 

4 

5 

5 

5 

4 

8 

21 

28 

22 

34 

27 

20 

26 

315 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 43 

UMIAK PARTS 

A Birnirk artifact is probably an umiak part 

(Plate 21a). It is a large, massive piece of wood 

measuring 82 cm in length, 25.3 cm at its maximum 

width, 14.4 cm at its minimum width, and 5.5 cm 

thick. Although there are no diagrams of umiaks 

that illustrate a part of this nature, I feel that it is 

most likely a seat which, because of its small size and 

shape, would have been located near the bow or the 

stern of a boat. It is fashioned so that an individual 

could sit facing either direction. It is too large to be 

a kayak part or sled but it could be part of a house 

or other large, wooden structure. 

The artifact resembles an airplane propeller with 

two large wings or blades. The center is narrowed 

and curves outward to the maximum widths of the 

wings on all four edges. The edges are rounded on 

both sides giving it a lenticular cross-section. At both 

ends there are large rectangular slots measuring 

6 cm deep and 3 cm wide. These were probably 

set into a frame of some type. Two holes are drilled 

on both sides and at the end of the slots, and are used 

to lash this piece to the frame. 

both ends notched on the edges. On one specimen, 

one end has two sets of notches with the posterior set 

being 2.8 cm behind the forward notch. Four holes 

are drilled into the central section of the artifacts. 

Two are placed on each edge with the holes on one 

edge being spaced farther apart than those on the 

other edge. The distance between these sets average 

11 cm on one edge and 6.1 cm along the other. On 

one specimen along the edge with the shortest spacing 

between holes, there is a groove; it runs the full 

length of the artifact and joins both holes. As seen 

in other artifacts, such as ice scoop rims, these grooves 

are usually for insetting the lashing to provide 

strength and to get the lashes out of the way. This 

groove does not occur on all specimens and may give 

some clue to their function. 

Three broken rib ends were found, all in one level 

of the Early Thule period (Plate 14i-k). These are 

all broken in the same place, which is at the point 

where the first edge hole is drilled. These specimens 

all measure 12.8 cm from the hole to the end. Two 

are notched on the upper and lower edges near the 

end of the rib, while the third has a slight notch on 

the ventral side near the end. 

KAYAK RIBS 

The last possible boat part is an antler artifact. 

Ford (1959:159-160) found similar artifacts and 

stated that he was unable to identify them but feels 

they were possibly ribs for kayaks. 

Possibly these are ribs for kayaks. The flattened sides of the 

staves (concave side) are carefully smoothed, possibly to prevent 

the fraying of the skin covering. They could hardly have been 

intended for the bottom ribs of the western type of kayak, for 

they do not have enough arch and lashing holes are provided 

for only two longitudinal stakes, not the six or eight usually 

found. Possibly these are top ribs used aft and foreward of the 

manhole. 

Mathiassen is also uncertain of their use. He 

thought they were either drying racks or drum 

frames (Mathiassen, 1927a:78). They are obviously 

not frames for drums as they do not have essential 

drumjeatures (pp. 61-62). The possibility of drying 

racks is intriguing, but no data are available to confirm this. 

Seven of these ribs were found at Walakpa, three 

complete and one broken specimen in the Birnirk 

occupation, and three broken specimens in an Early 

Thule level. 

The Birnirk specimens measure from 34 to 31 cm 

in length (Plates 34e, 38d, 54d,e). The antler is split 

and the central cancellous structure is removed. The 

edges of the concave sides are ground smooth and 

KAYAK COCKPIT FRAMES 

T WO sections of wood from a Birnirk level are 

possibly frames for a kayak cockpit (Plate 38a,b). 

These pieces are both from the same artifact. They 

are curved, rectangular strips measuring 2.6 cm wide 

and 1.6 cm thick. The edges are ground round, giving it a slightly elliptical cross-section. One section 

has the end beveled so that it would abut to another 

strip. A lashing hole is drilled at this end. Three 

additional lashing holes are located at various points 

along the center axis of the frame. 

Sled Parts 

ANTLER ARCHES 

Ford (1959:152) identifies bow pieces or antler 

arches for built-up sleds. These were used for supporting the structure of the railed sled and for attachment of the runner. The railed sleds were large 

and were pulled in historic times by dog teams 

(Murdoch, 1892:355). 

Two of these arches were found, one of Birnirk age 

and one of Early Thule age. The Birnirk specimen 

is semicircular in outline and oval in cross-section 

(Plate 38c). Both ends are roughened for hafting. 

Two holes, 11.2 cm apart, are drilled in the middle of 

the arch. The total length of the arch is 48.1 cm and 

is 1.6 cm thick. 
44 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

The Early Thule specimen is of the same general 

shape (Plate 62a). Both ends have two lashing holes 

and notches for attachment to the sled frame. Two 

holes, 7.4 cm apart, are drilled at the center portion 

of the arch. Below the center holes are two notches, 

which fitted into the sled frame. The arch measures 

33 cm in length and 2.5 cm thick. 

SLED SHOES 

Only one sled shoe was found (Plate 106d). It is 

Late Thule in age. It is made from the dense bone 

of a whale jaw. It is rectangular in cross-section. The 

bottom surface is highly polished while the upper 

surface is rough. It has four irregularly placed holes 

drilled along the center axis in a horizontal line. 

Bone treenails are still inserted in all the holes. One 

end is flat while the other is beveled at a 33° angle 

back from the bottom surface. The shoe is 33.3 cm 

long, 3.9 cm wide, and 1.7 cm thick. 

HARNESS SWIVELS 

The last sled piece is a harness swivel from the 

Birnirk period (Plate 37z). This is a broken ivory 

artifact that resembles a nail in shape. It has a round, 

flat head, which measures 1.8 cm in diameter and 

0.9 cm in thickness. Below the head there is a 

cylindrical schaft, which has been broken. A hole 

for a line attachment was drilled through this portion 

of the artifact. The cylinder measures 1.1 cm in 

diameter. 

Miscellaneous Boat or Sled Parts 

A large, carved fragment of wood from an Early 

Thule level is possibly a boat or a sled part (Plate 

61b). The wood is markedly curved at one end while 

the other end tapers flat with a hole drilled through 

the center. One face is carved for lashing to another 

artifact. The specimen measures 3.8 cm in width 

and 1.5 cm in thickness. 

Table 3 is a summary of all the transportation 

equipment that was recovered at each level at 

Walakpa. 

TABLE 3.—Transportation equipment by occupation level of each culture phase, Walakpa site Culture Phase Late Thule Early Thule Birnirk Mound Occupation Level 

A-l 

A-2 

A-3 

A-4 

A-5 

A-6 

A-7 

B-l 

B-2 

B-3 

B-4 

B-5 

B-6 

B-7 

B-8 

B-9 

B-10 

Late Thule 

Test Trench 

Early Thule 

Test Trench 

Birnirk 

Test Trench 

TOTALS 

Boat Parts Boat Paddles Paddle Tips Umiak Parts 

Kayak Ribs 

Kayak Cockpit Frames 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 

- - - 1 

- 1 2 

1 - 1 

1 -

0 2 0 4 2 

Sled Parts Antler Arches Sled Shoes Harness Swivels 

1 1 1 1 1 H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 

1 

1 

2 1 0 

Boat 

or 

Sled Miscellaneous Parts 

-

1 

-

-

1 

Level Totals by Occupation 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

2 

1 

1 

12 

MANUFACTURE , MAINTENANCE , AN D PROCESSING OF EQUIPMEN T 

Men's Knives 

CROOKED KNIVES 

These knives are used for whittling or carving on 

wood (Murdoch, 1892:157). These knives have a 

long, slender tapering handle, which is usually slightly 

bent or curved. Th e handle has a blade socket on the 

ventral edge near one end. According to Murdoch 

(1892:157) there are two types of crooked knives, a 

large variety for cutting wood and a small one for 

cutting bone and ivory. Ford (1959:160), taking 

Murdoch's suggestion, arbitrarily divided these knives 

into the two categories at the length of 17 cm. How-
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 45 

ever, the large-knife category, illustrated by Murdoch, 

ranges from 30 to 22 cm. I feel that the distinction 

made by Ford may not be valid. 

Two complete handles were found at Walakpa. 

All of the Walakpa specimens are made of bone and 

antler. These, as are Ford's specimen, are Early 

Thule in age (Plate 10i,k). None were recovered in 

the Birnirk levels. The length of the handles ranges 

from 29 to 14.2 cm and averages 16.4 cm. Blade 

slots measure from 1.1 to 3.7 cm in length. One 

Early Thule handle has a hole drilled in the larger 

end for a suspension loop (Plate 10k). This specimen 

is decorated with two incised lines, which run at right 

angles to both edges and nearly meet in the middle 

of the handle. 

KNIVES WITH END BLADE SLOTS 

Ford (1959:171) indicates that there are two varieties of knife handles with end blade slots, one that he 

considers to be of Birnirk age and the other later in 

age. The distinctions between these types is not clear, 

but it is based primarily on handle shape. Two 

varieties of end blade slots were found at Walakpa. 

The distinguishing feature of these is not so much 

the handle shape but rather the method in which 

the end slot is made. The two types of ends are (1) a 

socket type of slot and (2) a split slot that extends 

part way up the handle. These types do not reflect 

any temporal change. Both types were found in 

Birnirk, Early Thule, and Late Thule levels. It 

would appear that these types of blade slots are 

functional. The socket type is used for chipped flint 

blades, while the slotted variety are for ground slate 

blades. 

The handles from the Birnirk occupations are made 

of either antler or wood. The antler specimen is 

similar to Ford's (1959:166-167) Birnirk type (Plate 

19;). It is made from a round section of antler with 

no surface modification. It has a socketed end that 

is ground flat, with a rectangular cut, which measures 

1.1 cm in length and 0.3 cm wide. The cross-section 

of the handle is 1.5 cm wide by 2.2 cm long. The 

end has been broken but it would have measured at 

least 19.2 cm in length. There is no evidence for a 

suspension hole. 

The wooden handles from the Birnirk assemblage 

are of the split slot variety and oval to flat in crosssection (Plates lOh, 52c). The two specimens measure 

18.9 and 16.8 cm in length. The longer specimen is 

2.3 cm wide and 1.2 cm thick. It tapers to a blunt 

point with a round suspension hole drilled near the 

end. The socket is 4.2 cm in depth. A slight notch 

has been cut for lashing. Ford (1959:166) does not 

believe that the lashing was for stabilization of the 

blade, but rather for holding the handles together. 

The smaller specimen is nearly identical, except that 

the lashing notch is expanded to a wide groove, which 

covers the full length of the socket. The socket depth 

is 3.8 cm. The cross-section measures 2.6 cm by 

1.8 cm. 

Both varieties of knife handle also occur in the 

Early Thule levels. The socketed type is represented 

by two specimens. One, an extremely well made 

handle, measures 14.8 cm in length with the oval 

cross-section measuring 2.4 by 1.1 cm (Plate 75g). 

The socket is rectangular in shape, measuring 2 by 

0.6 cm. A suspension hole is drilled near the end 

with an additional notch carved into the base. The 

handle is decorated with two short incised lines starting from the base and running up both sides of the 

knife to a point above the suspension hole. Another 

decorational motif is highly reminiscent of an ownership mark. It is located above the suspension hole. 

This mark consists of a long, straight line that culminates with two lines crossing over the end of the 

original line. 

The second specimen appears to be a composite 

tool. Blade sockets are located in both ends. It appears that the original socket was broken and then 

the other end was used. The length of the handle is 

9.3 cm. It is oval in cross-section with measurements 

of 1.8 by 1.4 cm. The depth on one socket is 2.8 cm. 

One end of the knife is cross cut, giving it the appearance of having once been part of a composite handle. 

Four examples of the slotted socket type were found 

in the Early Thule levels. One was made of antler 

and the others of wood. The antler specimen is similar to Ford's Birnirk type (Plate 15h) . The surface 

of the antler has not been modified. It measures approximately 13.8 cm in length. The oval cross-section 

measures 2.2 cm. The slot is greater than 2.5 cm in 

depth. A hole is drilled completely through the handle to hold the end blade in place. The base has a 

round suspension hole. The handle is wrapped for 

a grip. 

The wooden specimens are both rectangular and 

pointed in shape. The pointed specimen is 14.4 cm 

in length (Plate 75?). The oval cross-section is 2.8 by 

1.2 cm in width. The blade slot is 5.2 cm deep. A 

slight notch has been carved for binding. A round 

suspension hole is drilled in the tapered end. 

The rectangular specimen is 16.8 cm in length 

(Plate 18b). Its cross-section measures 1.8 by 3.1 cm. 

The blade slot is 3.3 cm. The hafting surfaces are 

carved slightly smaller in cross-section and slightly 

tapering. A small round hole is drilled at the butt for 

suspension. 
46 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

The fourth Early Thule specimen to be described 

is oval in shape. It measures 13.2 cm in length and 

is 2.8 cm wide. The slot is 5.5 cm deep. It has a 

lashing notch cut into one surface. A rectangular 

lashing hole is drilled into the base. 

There are two examples of the socket type of knife 

handle found in the Late Thule levels. Both of these 

are antler and fit Ford's description. Their length 

ranges from 16.8 to 13.8 cm. The cross-sections measure 3.2 by 1.4 cm, and 0.2 by 1.2 cm, respectively. 

The rectangular sockets are 3 by 0.6 cm and 1.3 by 

0.5 cm. One specimen has no suspension hole (Plate 

103?) , and the other has a rectangular hole (Plate 

117;). 

Eight examples of the slot-socket type of handle 

were recovered in the Late Thule levels. Seven are 

made of wood and one is made of bone. The bone 

specimen is 12 cm long (Plate 95g). It is rectangular 

in cross-section measuring 2 by 1 cm wide. The 

hafted end has been cut on an angle, which brings 

one edge to a slight point. The maximum depth of 

the slot is 3.1 cm. Around the hafting prongs there 

are a series of scars. The base is square with a hole 

drilled from one edge to the other. Another hole has 

been drilled from one surface, which intersects with 

the first hole. 

The seven wooden specimens are discussed according to the method of the suspension arrangement. 

The first are those with no suspension holes. Three of 

these occur and possibly a fourth, but the base has 

been broken on the last example. These tend to have 

a tapering handle although one is truncated. The 

largest measures 14 cm in length (Plate 117?). It is 

oval in cross-section and measures 3 by 2 cm in width. 

The length of the slot is unknown as it is split well 

behind the original termination. A fragment of the 

tang of a slate blade still remains wedged in the 

socket. A lashing notch is carved near the tip. The 

smaller specimen measures 11.4 cm, with a slot 

depth of 4.2 cm (Plate 95*?). No cross-section is available as it is split in half. The other small specimen 

is also split in half (Plate 95c). It measures 12.7 cm 

in length. The slot is 2.6 cm in depth. Both of these 

have a lashing notch, but differ in that the base 

of one comes to a blunt point. 

The broken specimen is very crudely made (Plate 

lOOd). The length of the handle is in excess of 21 cm. 

It is oval in cross-section, measuring 2.3 by 1.4 cm. 

The slot is at least 2.5 cm deep. The slot end is 

wrapped by a baleen lashing. 

Only one Late Thule specimen has a drilled 

suspension hole (Plate HOd). It is 16.8 cm long. It 

has an oval cross-section, which measures 2.6 by 

1.5 cm at its maximum width. At the slotted end 

there is a collar, which is 3.2 cm long. Lashing scars 

extend below the collar for 1.8 cm. Th e slot is 

3.4 cm long and 2.6 cm wide. Th e slot was made by 

drilling a hole through the handle at 3.4 cm back 

from the end. Th e rest of the slot was then cut out, 

probably by using a string saw. 

The final two examples are similar to those described above, except that instead of suspension 

holes they have a deep groove carved around the base. 

The first handle has a woven cord of baleen that 

wraps the handle, acting as a grip (Plate 98a). It 

measures 15.4 cm in length. Th e oval cross-section 

is 2.8 by 1.4 cm in width. Th e slot measures 3 cm 

in depth. It has a lashing notch near the end. The 

scars of a separate set of bindings, which are not part 

of the handle grip, were present in the slot. 

The final handle to be discussed is part of the most 

spectacular knife in the collection (Plate 98b). A 

complete slate blade is still hafted into position. The 

blade will be discussed below (p. 48). The handle 

has a suspension groove rather than a hole. The 

length of the handle is 13.8 cm. In cross-section it 

measures 2.4 by 1 cm. The slot is 3 cm deep. The 

blade is set completely to the base of the socket. The 

prongs of the handle extend up the entire length 

of the blade tang and terminate at the blade shoulder. 

Lashing begins at a notch cut below the haft termination and extends 4.7 cm down the shank of the 

handle. It is wrapped with a braided baleen lashing. 

COMPOSITE KNIVES 

The composite or splitting knife is a specialized 

form of knife used for splitting bone, ivory, and antler 

(Ford, 1959:161-165, Murdoch, 1892:172-173). The 

knife has a thin chisel-like blade, used like a graver. 

Four ivory specimens of composite knives, one of 

which is a complete handle, were found in the Birnirk 

levels (Plates 19?', 37r-^). These handles are short 

split pieces of ivory. When they are put together 

they form a handle that is round in cross-section. 

The chuck end has a raised flange, in back of 

which the binding is attached. They are further 

secured by both round and rectangular splines drilled 

into both inside surfaces. In one specimen the spline 

passes completely through the handle. Th e blade 

sockets are extremely short and narrow. Th e handles 

measure 9.2-7.6 cm in length. The diameters are 

1.5-1.2 cm in maximum width. 

KNIFE BLADES 

Five major types of knife blades occur in the 

Walakpa artifact assemblages. These are (1) stemmed 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 47 

ground slate blades, with a single cutting edge, (2) 

stemmed ground slate blades with double cutting 

edges, (3) bifacially flaked stemmed chert blades, (4) 

bifacially flaked ovate blades, and (5) knife blades 

made on flakes. 

A considerable amount of confusion exists over 

the flaked chert knife blades. As mentioned above 

these could be knife blades, lance points, or arrowpoints. The criteria used here is that of relative 

size and apparent usage. Flaked points that are too 

small for lance points and too large for arrowpoints 

are considered knife blades. Many of these examples 

have definite knife wear on the edges. The presence 

of knife wear, however, does not necessarily exclude 

the possibility that they may have also been used for 

either arrowheads or lance points. Many of these 

artifacts could have been used for both purposes. It 

is my belief, however, that because of their size they 

are best considered knife blades. 

From Birnirk levels ten knife blades were found 

that can fit into the four latter classes, 2-5. 

CLASS 2.—The ground slate variety have both 

edges ground sharp and have a stemmed tang (Plates 

10c, 19h). The only complete specimen measures 

7.4 cm in length and 1.9 cm wide. The tang is 2.1 cm 

long and 1.9 cm wide. The widest portion of the 

blade is 3.2 cm. An extremely short tanged end blade 

is incomplete but the blade is 3.7 cm in length. These 

slate blades are diamond- to rectangular-shaped in 

cross-section. 

CLASS 3.—Three examples of flaked chert blades 

are present. These have a relatively square-based 

tang, as do the slate specimens (Plates 6p, 52d). They 

measure 5.6 by 2.3 cm, 2.4 by 2.3 cm, and 2.1 by 1.3 cm 

in length and width. Two of these specimens are 

bifacially flaked, while one is unifacial, being made 

from a primary cortex flake. 

CLASS 4.—Two ovate bifacial knife blades occurred 

in the Birnirk levels (Plate I0e,f). These are thin 

(0.4 cm and 0.45 cm), bifacially flaked blades. They 

have a wide rounded base, which tapers to a point. 

These blades measure 4.5 by 1.8 cm and 4.3 by 1.7 cm. 

The blades are not made from the commonly used 

Sik-sik-puk flint but rather from a clear chalcedony 

and a translucent brown flint. 

CLASS 5.—Twelve examples of retouched flakes, 

which have been used for knives, were found in the 

Birnirk levels. Four of these are made on primary 

flakes with a portion of the cortex still visible. Eight 

are secondary flakes. All are made from the Sik-sikpuk chert. 

All five classes of knife blades were found in the 

Early Thule levels. 

CLASS 1.—Two examples of this variety occurred 

(Plate 78a). They are 7.4 and 5 cm long. The tangs 

are 2 and 1.3 cm in length, and the maximum widths 

at the shoulder are 2.1 and 1.7 cm, respectively. The 

upper (back) edges have the remains of the preform 

flaking still unground. The blades have a single facet 

starting at the back edge and taper to the sharp edges. 

CLASS 2.—Only one example of the double edge 

blade occurred (Plate 64/?). This specimen is 6.5 cm 

long; the length of the tang is 1.3 cm, and the width 

of the shoulder is 2.4 cm. It is made of gray slate 

and has two holes to facilitate binding and hafting. 

One is drilled in the tang and the other is drilled just 

below the shoulder. 

CLASS 3.—One complete example (Plate 70;) and 

several broken specimens were recovered. The complete blade is symmetrical and appears to be like a 

lance blade. The edges have not been resharpened, 

but close examination shows knife usage. It measures 

6.4 cm in length. 

A subclass of class 3 occurred in the Early Thule 

levels; these are semilunar stemmed chert blades. 

These are probably the same as the symmetrical types, 

but it appears that when the blade has been resharpened several times, it becomes semilunar in 

shape. Semilunar stemmed blades occur in both large 

and small varieties. A large example measured 6.1 cm 

in length (Plate 70/?). The stem is 2.6 cm long and 

the maximum width of the stem is 2.9 cm. This is a 

bifacially flaked blade made from Sik-sik-puk chert. 

One edge is resharpened and the tip is repointed. 

There is no evidence for basal grinding. A stem 

section of a semilunar blade (Plate 70/) was recovered; it is 2.5 cm long and at the shoulder it measures 

2.8 cm. 

Two small examples, one made of gray sik-sik-puk 

chert and the other of a clear to black banded 

chalcedony (Plate 61/?) were also found. Both have 

semilunar blades with retouch on their cutting edges 

and tips. The stems are not ground. The only complete blade measures 3.9 cm in length with the tang 

measuring 1.4 cm and the width at the shoulder being 

2 cm. 

CLASS 4.—Two examples of ovate bifacial chert 

blades were made of Sik-sik-puk chert (Plate 13k,o). 

They measure 4.7 and 3.4 cm in length, with maximum widths of 2.8 and 2.3 cm, respectively. There 

is no grinding present to indicate hafting. The blades 

are not resharpened, but they do have hard knife wear 

on both edges. 

CLASS 5.—Nine examples of flake knives were 

found in the Early Thule levels. Two were made on 

primary flakes; the rest on secondary flakes (Plate 

76c). All but one were of Sik-sik-puk chert. The remaining flake is a gray quartz. 
48 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

One example found in an activity area gives us an 

idea of how these flake knives were used (Plate 65/?). 

This is a simple secondary flake, which (when found) 

was hafted between two flat sticks of wood. It was 

bound in place by baleen lashings, one set in front 

of the flake and the other in back. The lashings held 

the two sticks together and the flake in place. The 

stick handle of this knife measures 9.5 cm in length, 

2 cm in height, and 1.4 cm thick. The flake is oriented 

so that its long axis, 5.1 cm long, is on the same 

plane as the handle. About 1.6 cm of the flake extends below the handle. This edge of the flake is 

circular in outline. Along the edge there are small 

chips that resulted from usage along one side. If this 

flake had been resharpened it would have been 

identified as a side scraper. 

The function of this tool is to shave spalls of wood 

when preparing arrowshafts. Many arrowshafts that 

were broken in manufacture were scattered around 

the artifact, along with long wood spalls (Plate 71?) 

and discarded arrowshaft preform ends. 

Only four of the five classes of knife blades were 

found in the Late Thule levels. (Type 4 did not occur 

in the Late Thule collection.) 

CLASS 1.—Three examples of single-edged slate 

blades occurred in this sample. Two are made from 

gray slate (Plate 98b,, 117d), while one is of red slate 

(Plate 95/). All of these are complete, and measure 

in length at 10.4, 6.8, and 6 cm. The stems measured 

2.7, 2, and 2.4 cm. The widths of the shoulders are 

2.6, 2.3, and 1.5 cm, respectively. 

CLASS 2.—Five examples of double-edged slate 

blades were found (Plate 110c). Four are made of 

gray slate and one of red slate. The lengths range 

from 7.8 to 5.1 cm, with an average of 6.3 cm. The 

length of the tangs range from 2.5 to 1.7 cm, with an 

average of 2 cm. The width of the shoulders varies 

from 3 to 1.7 cm, with an average of 2.5 cm. 

CLASS 3.—Seven examples of the stemmed symmetrical flint blades were found (Plates 95^ , 99d_, 

110c). Two are complete, both measuring 6.8 cm 

long. Their stems are 2.8 and 1.7 cm in length. The 

shoulders are 3.2 and 2.3 cm wide, respectively. All 

of these specimens are made from Sik-sik-puk chert. 

CLASS 5.—Fourteen flake knives were found in the 

Late Thule levels. Six are made on primary flakes 

and eight on secondary flakes. Twelve are made from 

Sik-sik-puk chert (Plate 86c,d,f) and two of a clear 

chalcedony. 

Whetstone s 

Three types of whetstones were observed in the 

Walakpa collections. The most common type occurred in most of the cultural units (Plates 23a-e, 

29d, 39d-h, 53d,e,g, 66i,j, 84g, 90/?). These are unshaped, fine-grained pieces of sandstone. They range 

in size from 18 by 11.7 cm to 6.8 by 5.1 cm, respectively. A broken example has a suspension hole 

drilled in one end (Plate 99b). 

The second type are elongated sandstone bars, 

which are square in cross-section. Two examples of 

this type ocurred, both in Late Thul e levels (Plates 

90?', 95/?). Both of these examples are fragmentary. 

The third variety of whetstone seems to be unique 

to the Walakpa collection. These are extremely large, 

unshaped sandstone slabs. Th e largest specimen 

(Plate 24a) measures 35 by 26 cm, and two other 

examples are 25 by 24 cm (Plate 24b) and 20 by 

22 cm (Plate 24c) in size. Only one surface on each 

stone has been utilized. These whetstones are all 

Birnirk in age. 

The wear pattern on most of these whetstone surfaces seems to indicate two grinding phases. The first 

phase is that resulting from hard usage or wear. This 

produces deep longitudinal scars. Th e second wear 

pattern produces a highly polished surface. Th e motion that produces this surface is from the opposite 

axis of the deep scars. There is no evidence for a 

circular motion. This last type of wear probably 

results from fine finishing of slate artifacts, with the 

deeper scars resulting from roughing out preforms. 

Flint Flakers and Hammerstone s 

The composite tools used for working flint, which 

were common at Nuwuk, Birnirk, and Utkiavik, were 

not found at Walakpa. No handles or handle fragments were found, and only three possible flaker 

points were identified. This can be correlated with 

the scarcity of flint flakes at Walakpa. 

FLAKER POINTS 

Two flaker points came from the Birnirk levels. 

The first is unique. It is undoubtedly a complete tool 

(Plate 8/). It is made from the proximal end of a 

walrus rib with the rib shank making up the handle. 

The shank is beveled laterally with the end cut 

blunted on both edges from use. Th e flaker measures 

21.8 cm in length. The width of the flaking edge is 

1.4 cm. 

The second Birnirk specimen is possibly a flaker 

point (Plate 28;). It is a short section of walrus rib 

measuring 9.8 cm in length. Both ends are blunted 

from usage. One end is beveled from both sides. 

The widths of the flaking edges are both 1.7 cm. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 49 

T h e third specimen is Early Thule in age (Plate 

72a). It is made from a short curved section of 

walrus rib. The length of the point is 18.2 cm and 

the width of the flaking edge is 1.3 cm. The flaking 

edge is beveled on both sides. The other end is 

slightly pointed. 

HAMMERSTONES 

One example of a hammerstone was found which 

may have been used for a flaking instrument (Plate 

114c). It is simply a round quartz beach cobble which 

is scarred on one surface from pounding hard objects. 

It measures 7.4 by 5.7 cm in diameter. The hammerstone was found in a Late Thule level. 

BONE HAMMERHEADS 

Two bone hammerheads were found, one Birnirk 

and the other Late Thule in age. These hammerheads are smaller than those described by Murdoch 

(1892:93), which were used as bone crushers, but the 

ends are crushed from usage. It is thought that 

these may have been used for a soft hammer when 

flaking flint. 

The Birnirk specimen is a rectangular section of 

dense bone (Plate 34d). It is rectangular in crosssection with slightly rounded ends. There is a notch 

in the middle of the one edge, for attaching a handle. 

The opposite edge is flat. A lashing hole is drilled 

through the center. It measures 8.1 cm long, 5.5 cm 

wide, and 3.3 cm thick. 

The Late Thule specimen is badly damaged but 

appears to be the same type of artifact (Plate 96;). It 

is rectangular in shape with rounded ends. A notch 

was once cut into one edge and the opposite edge is 

flat and scarred for hafting. A lashing hole was drilled 

through the center. It measures 6.4 cm in length, 

4.8 cm in width, and 2.7 cm in thickness. 

Engraving Tools 

These are tools for incising lines on bone and ivory. 

They were, according to Ford (1959:171), not used in 

later times. Our evidence does not support this assertion. These tools occurred in the Birnirk, Early 

Thule, and Late Thule periods. 

Two of the Birnirk specimens are made of ivory. 

These are long slender rods, with the widest portion 

at the center tapering to both ends. The wide portion is used as the handle or the point of applied 

force. One tapering end is for the blade shaft, the 

other rests against the hand between the thumb and 

forefinger. A specimen from the earliest Birnirk level 

is 7.59 cm long (Plate 31w). The stylus end has a 

small groove to receive the engraver point. Lashing 

notches are found on the reverse face of the tip. The 

widest portion has four sides on which the thumb 

and forefinger rest. The edges between the sides 

have three cut scallops for either decoration or to act 

as a finger grip. 

An ivory specimen from a later Birnirk level is 

similar, except that the thumb and forefinger rest is 

made of two raised knobs, with a short distance between (Plate 51s). The stylus end has a flat facet for 

hafting the engraver point. The back of the facet 

has a single notch for lashing the engraving point to 

the handle. This engraving tool measures 8.7 cm in 

length. 

The rest of the specimens are made of wood. Two 

are of Birnirk age (Plate 11 d,e), one is Early Thule 

(Plate 61c), and two are Late Thule (Plates 83c, 

117g). These are very simple and have a single knob 

finger rest. The stylus ends are all socketed for the 

engraver point. One has a lashing notch but the 

others have no mechanism for attaching the point. 

An Early Thule specimen has a short section of iron 

for the engraving point (Plate 61c). These specimens 

measure from 7.4 to 6.8 cm in length. 

B ow Drills 

Drills that are used to drill holes in ivory, bone, 

and antler are a common Eskimo artifact. The drills 

are composite tools, which consist of a bow, a mouthpiece or handpiece, drill spindles, and drill points. 

In the Walakpa midden, several small bows were 

found which could have functioned for bow drill 

bows. However, none of these specimens are similar 

to any described by other investigators, and they are 

most likely toy bows. 

No examples of mouthpiece or drill bits were recovered. The only part of this composite tool that 

was found at Walakpa was a small wooden drill 

spindle from a Late Thule level (Plate 84;). This 

specimen is short and measures only 13.1 cm in 

length. At its maximum diameter it measures 1.4 cm. 

The spindle tapers from the small bearing end to a 

larger chuck end. The bearing end is rounded with 

a slight shoulder, probably resulting from use. The 

bearing portion measures 1.2 cm in length. The 

chuck is slotted or split to receive a drill bit which is 

slightly rectangular. Hafting scars are present and 

extend 1.7 cm up the spindle. There is a slight lip 

at the chuck, which prevented the haft wrapping 

from slipping during use. 
50 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Firemaking Equipment 

Aboriginal Eskimo firemaking equipment was of 

two kinds, the strike-a-light method and the platformdrilling technique (Murdoch, 1892:291). No pyrites 

were found at Walakpa; however, many rounded 

shafts, which are burned on one end, were found in 

all levels. 

DRILL BEARINGS 

Two drill bearings were also found, both from the 

Birnirk occupation. These are wooden blocks that 

are pointed at both ends and carved to fit the palm 

of the hand. At first glance these would appear to be 

kayak models. The flat surfaces have holes drilled 

near their centers. These holes are burned from repeated use. The larger specimen, which measures 

20 cm in length and 4.2 cm in width, has two holes, 

both placed nearer one end than the other (Plate 25?). 

The other end is slightly inset to provide a tanglike 

handle. Over the holes on the back side a slight 

notch is carved to fit a finger to provide better leverage. The smaller example measures 11.4 cm in length 

and 3.5 cm at maximum width (Plate 25/?). This 

example is nearly symmetrical in shape with a single 

center hole. 

into a hole in the fire drill platform. Both ends of 

the spindle are burned. 

Adzes 

The compound adz has been described by Murdoch 

(1892:165) as being a tool that women used for wood 

cutting. The adz consists of a short curved handle, 

which is attached to either an adz blade or an 

antler sleeve, which holds a blade. 

ADZ HANDLES 

Four adz handles were found at Walakpa, two are 

Early Thule (Plates 70c, 80/?) and two are Late Thule 

in age (Plates 100c, 110/). Three are made of antler, 

the fourth is a large piece of dense bone (Plate 100c). 

The range of handle lengths is 27.2-18 cm. The 

distal end of these handles are widened and have 

from one to four lashing holes. Th e proximal end on 

one is notched, another is drilled for suspension. 

The central edges on two handles are notched near 

the distal end, presumably for additional lashing support. The butt, or distal end, is also notched on two 

specimens for additional hafting stability. 

FIRE DRILL PLATFORMS 

Fire drill platforms are thin pieces of wood that 

have been used to start the tinder for a fire. Thin 

shavings of wood or dried moss were placed over the 

platform. A drill spindle was placed in a slight notch 

in the fire platform and was rotated until the tinder 

ignited. Several examples of fire platforms were 

found in Late Thule levels (Plates 83/?, 966). They 

consist of a piece of split spruce with several drilled 

holes, which are scorched on the edges. Several 

bunches of collected wood shavings were also recovered (Plate 103c). It is thought that these may 

have been tinder caches. 

FIRE DRILL SPINDLES 

Numerous examples of short, arrowshaft-like 

spindles with burned ends were found in all levels. 

A single Late Thule specimen is unique (Plate 103d). 

It is larger than the majority of drill spindles measuring 11.5 cm long and 2.2 cm at its maximum diameter. One end has been roughly carved to fit a drill 

bearing. The other end is worn round from use, with 

a short nipple-like projection, which apparently fitted 

ADZ BLADES 

Seven adz blades were found. Five were of Birnirk 

age (Plates 96, 39a,b, 52a) and two from an Early 

Thule level (Plate 64?,;). Five were made from jade 

(Plates 39a,b, 52a, 64;) and two of slate (Plates 9b, 

64?). These blades are quadrilateral to triangular in 

outline with the blade edge being wider than the 

tang edge. Usually these are made from rough 

pebbles with grinding appearing only on the lower 

faces and the faceted edge. Th e size of these blades 

ranges from 7.8 to 4.9 cm. 

Ford (1959:178) classified two varieties of adz 

blades: "One group has ground facets which meet at 

an angle of about 30°. These were presumably used 

to cut fairly soft materials such as wood. Th e second 

group has facets which meet at an angle of about 90°. 

These blades were probably intended for working 

hard materials such as bone, ivory or antler." 

In the Walakpa collection there are several edges 

with angle measurements averaging between 30° and 

90°. Those which measure closer to 90° do not indicate any more or less wear than the others. Th e possibility should be considered that resharpening of the 

blade while it was hafted in a sleeve or to the handle 

may account for angle variation. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 51 

SLEEVES 

One sleeve was found in a Birnirk level (Plate 52a). 

This is simply a cut section of antler measuring 

8.8 cm in length. The lower portion of the sleeve is 

hollowed out to receive the blade. Both faces are 

scarred and roughened to facilitate hafting to the 

handle. 

Whal e Rib Tools 

Whale rib mattocks were extremely important 

tools for construction of semisubterranean houses, 

ice cellars, etc. They were used to cut sod for houses 

and for clearing the houses of ice that collected during the summer (Murdoch, 1892:302). The mattock 

consists of a whale rib blade attached to a short 

wooden handle. 

MATTOCK BLADES 

Eight specimens of rib blades were found in the 

Walakpa collections, six in the Birnirk levels, and two 

in the Late Thule levels. There appear to be five 

varieties of mattock blades, based on the method of 

attachment of the blade to the handle. The differences are in the number of notches cut into the edges. 

They number from four to two notches, with the twonotch variety being later in time than the others. The 

other difference is the presence or absence of connecting grooves carved between the lateral notches. This 

latter characteristic does not seem to have any chronological significance. 

In the Birnirk specimens there are three examples 

with three notches and no connecting grooves (Plates 

40a, 41c). These measure 30.5, 33, and 60 cm in 

length. Three specimens have three notches with 

connecting grooves (Plates 266, 406). They measure 

38.9 and 28.3 cm in length. The final Birnirk specimen has four lateral notches with no connecting 

grooves (Plate 26c). It measures 32.1 cm in length. 

The two Late Thule specimens have two sets of 

lateral notches connected by grooves. The upper 

notch is near the termination of the tool and forms a 

small knob. They measure 33.3 and 32.4 cm in 

length. The latter specimen has an additional hole 

drilled into the ventral surface, presumably for the 

insertion of an additional brace between the blade 

and the handle. 

In all cases the ventral surface has been roughened 

to create a surface for hafting the handle to the blade. 

One specimen from the Birnirk level has a shallow 

socket to receive the handle. Cutting edges are badly 

worn and chipped, indicating hard wear, which 

would occur when chipping ice or frozen ground. 

Mattock heads from the Birnirk type site are apparently quite short, averaging about 25 cm (Ford, 

1959:181). The difference in size between the Birnirk 

and Walakpa specimens is probably the result of use 

and resharpening and not of function. Ford (1959: 

181) does not report any specimen from Birnirk with 

four pairs of hafting notches. 

WHALE RIB ICE PICKS 

In addition to whale and walrus rib mattocks, 

Murdoch (1892:302) describes rib ice picks. These 

are picks made from small narrow ribs that come to a 

sharp point, rather than the wide blade of the mattocks. The pick points have been dulled from use; 

however, they have not been as badly crushed and 

chipped as the mattock blades. These were also 

used for digging ice cellars, house excavation, and 

for chipping ice (Murdoch, 1892:302). Seven specimens were found at Walakpa: two were Birnirk, two 

Early Thule, and three are Late Thule in age. As 

with the mattock head, the pick head can be divided 

into groups depending on the number of lashing 

notches, and once again, those with two notches are 

later in age. 

One Birnirk example is extremely small and measures only 19.1 cm in length (Plate 26d). It has three 

lashing notches connected by lashing grooves. The 

articulatory surface is cut and roughened to receive 

the pick handle. The pick end is crushed to a flat 

surface but the angular cut for the point is still 

visible. The other Birnirk specimen measures 42.2 cm 

in length, made from a whale rib split in half (Plate 

416). 

Two Early Thule specimens are different from each 

other. One has three notches with connecting grooves. 

The uppermost groove is a deep notch that extends 

to the end of the tool (Plate 62d). The articulatory 

surface consists of a deep socket, which is inset between the upper and lower hafting notch. Its total 

length is 33.3 cm. The second specimen closely resembles a mattock head but has been cut to a narrow, 

thin blade (Plate 62c). It has only two lashing notches 

with connecting grooves. It measures 37.8 cm in 

length. The hafting surface has been scored for 

hafting to the handle. 

Five Late Thule specimens have two notches with 

connecting grooves (Plates 916, 100/, 104c-c). They 

vary only in the way the handle is attached. One has 

a deeply inset socket (Plate 100/), while the others 

have only a roughened surface between the notches. 

Two specimens have the tip broken and the others 

range from 35.3 to 31.2 cm in length. 
52 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

WHALE RIB MATTOCKS OR PICK HANDLES 

Only one handle was recovered (Plate 40c). It is 

Birnirk in age. Its total length is 37.4 cm. It is 

9.9 cm in width at the articulatory end, while at the 

end of the handle it is 4.4 cm wide. It is made from 

driftwood, which is cut narrow at one end and wider 

at the hafted end. A large hole is cut at the haft end 

for the lashing. The articulatory surface is slightly 

concave and roughened to facilitate hafting. 

Wedge s 

Bone wedges were used for splitting wood (Ford, 

1959:184). These wedges can be divided into two 

categories based on size. Some are quite large, while 

others are significantly smaller. The difference in 

size may reflect differences in function. The larger 

ones were for splitting large logs, while the smaller 

examples were used for working on smaller wooden 

items. It is also possible that the smaller ones may 

have been used for splitting bone, antler, or ivory. 

Large wedges are quite wide at the bit and shank 

compared to the smaller variety. 

The large wedges are all made of whale or walrus 

rib. The working edges are sharpened while the opposite ends are crushed from hammer blows. Two 

Birnirk (Plates 12a, 41a) and two Late Thule (Plates 

104a,6) examples were found. The range of length 

is 23.3-18.1 cm, with an average of 20.7 cm. One of 

the Birnirk specimens is made from a broken mattock 

blade and has a whole drilled into the side. 

The smaller wedges are made from bone ivory and 

one from antler. Five are from Birnirk levels (Plates 

126-d, 47a,6), one from Early Thule (Plate 64g), 

and two are Late Thule in age (Plates 92a, 118g). 

The range of length is 15.8-7.9 cm, with an average 

of 11.2 cm. 

A very small wedge was found in an Early Thule 

level arrowshaft manufacturing activity area (Plate 

64g). It was wedged into a split in a long, thin piece 

of driftwood. The wedge is short, measuring 3 cm 

in length- It is 1 cm wide and 0.2 cm thick. It is 

trapezodial in cross-section with one flat surface and 

the other having sharp beveled edges. It does not 

have any crushed surfaces and was probably used by 

hand. 

Ulus 

One of the most distinctive Eskimo artifacts is the 

woman's knife or the ulu. These knives seem to have 

served as an all-purpose tool being used to -cut anything from food to thread (Murdoch, 1892:161). Th e 

knife consists of a handle made from wood, bone, 

antler, or ivory. The handle was placed over a 

roughly triangular- to lunate-shaped slate blade. 

ULU HANDLES 

Ulu handles are short blocks of antler, wood, bone, 

or ivory carved to fit the hand. A slot is cut on the 

ventral edge for the insertion of the ulu blade tang. 

Seven examples were found at Walakpa. Five wooden 

specimens are from the Birnirk levels, while two ivory 

specimens are Late Thule in age. 

Two of the Birnirk specimens are roughly cut 

pieces of wood. One appears to be part of a discarded 

burned shaft. One end is tapered and burned while 

the other is cut square. Th e other handle is simply a 

roughly cut block of wood (Plate 276). Th e handles 

measure 7.5 and 11.2 cm in length. Th e widths of 

both are 1.5 cm. 

The other three Birnirk specimens are more nicely 

finished. Two are elongated, hemispherically shaped 

objects (Plate 42a,6). They measure 14.5 and 13.3 

cm in length, with the widths measuring 2.4 and 

2 cm, respectively. The lengths of the lashing slots 

are 13.8 and 10.5 cm. Th e larger specimen has two 

concave notches cut near the center of the ventral 

edge (Plate 42a). A groove is carved around the 

handle between the two notches. An ivory peg is 

inserted from the dorsal edge through the handle. A 

short section of a rawhide thong is still attached to the 

peg. A wooden handle is split and patched with 

baleen lashing. A hole is drilled through the handle 

for a suspension lashing. 

The third handle is basically different from those 

described above (Plate 27a). It more nearly fits the 

handle type described by Ford (1959:186) for the 

late period handles. It is a short, thin, hemispherical 

piece of wood, which measures 6.2 cm in length and 

1.1 cm in width. The lashing slot is 4.3 cm in length. 

The Late Thule ivory specimens are both small. 

They measure 8.8 and 4.5 cm in length, with a width 

of 1.7 and 0.8 cm, respectively. Th e hafting slot on 

the larger specimen is cut through both ends (Plate 

84/). A hole has been drilled through the sides to 

attach the slate blade. Th e small ulu is a unique 

specimen (Plate 90a). Th e blade is still attached and 

the handle has been incised with a long line extending along both sides almost to the top. A series of 

short lines in the typical Thul e style extend a short 

distance down the handle from the longer lines. A 

rectangular hole has been cut in the top of the handle. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 53 

ULU BLADES 

There appear to have been three basic forms of 

blades used at the Walakpa site. These blade forms 

are based on the way the hafting was manufactured. 

The most common is that of a nonspecific tang shape 

with a convex edge. Twenty-five specimens of this 

variety were found: 19 are Birnirk in age (Plates 

27g, 42i-k, 53a,6) and seven date from Early Thule 

times (Plate 70d). These blades have little or no 

preparation for the handle but are most generally 

convex to pointed in shape. The cutting edges vary 

from straight to slightly curved. The sizes range from 

11.1 to 4 cm in their maximum length and their 

average length is 7.1 cm. These blades range from 

7.3 to 2.2 cm long, with an average of 4.7 cm. 

The second type of blade is an elongate, narrow 

blade with roughly parallel sides. The cutting edge 

is crescentic, coming to a point at either end of the 

blade back. The backs are either ground flat or 

chipped straight. Only seven of this type were found, 

four are Birnirk (Plates 10a,6, 21 h) and three are 

Early Thule in age (Plates 73;, 76g). They range in 

maximum length from 9.7 to 7.5 cm, with an average 

of 7.9 cm. The blade heights range from 3.8 to 

2.4 cm, with an average of 3 cm. 

The last variety of ulu blade is that containing a 

tang, which is inserted into the handle. A total of 

eleven examples of this variety were found, eight 

are Birnirk (Plates 27a, c-f, 42c-/), one Early Thule 

(Plate 61?'), and two Late Thule (Plates 86g, 110a). 

This type is quite distinctive. The backs of the blades 

are dressed to fit the handle by flaking a square tang 

near the center of the dorsal edge. After the desired 

shape is attained the edges are ground. In most cases 

there are two shoulders; however, in some only one 

shoulder exists. One of the Late Thule specimens 

has a hole drilled into the tang, probably for pegging 

the blade to the handle. The shape of the blades 

are semilunar to horizontal. The range of lengths 

is 8.6-6 cm, with an average of 7.5 cm. The blade 

heights range from 6 to 3.4 cm, and the average is 

• 4.7 cm. 

Six slate ulu blade preforms were recovered. The 

slate preforms are flaked to the desired shape. The 

first grinding was done on the flat face surfaces, 

gradually tapering to the cutting edge. The final 

step is the fine grinding on the facets for the edge 

sharpening. 

Scrapers 

There are essentially four types of chert scrapers 

found in the Walakpa assemblage. These I have 

divided into the major groups of end and side 

scrapers. Under the end scraper category there are 

two types. First the common planoconvex end 

scraper, and secondly a type of end scraper that is 

simply a split pebble, or a primary flake, both of 

which still have cortex on the dorsal surface of the 

artifact. 

The side scrapers fall into the same two types, 

those made on secondary flakes and those made on 

primary flakes with cortex still present on the dorsal 

surface. The main difference between the side and 

end scrapers is that the side scrapers have one or both 

edges of the longitudinal axis of the flake resharpened 

while the end scrapers have retouch and use on the 

distal end of the flake. 

PLANOCONVEX END SCRAPERS 

A common artifact in most late period Eskimo sites 

is the planoconvex scraper. These scrapers are used, 

according to Murdoch (1892:294-295) to remove bits 

of flesh and fat from a green skin and for breaking 

the grain and removing the subcutaneous tissue from 

a dried skin. The skin is laid upon the thigh and 

thoroughly scraped with the tool, which is pushed 

away from the worker. It is also used to soften dried 

skins. 

Planoconvex end scrapers occurred in the Birnirk 

(Plate 52/?), Early Thule (Plate 58/?), Late Thule 

(Plate Ilia) levels. Four specimens made from Siksik-puk flint make up the entire sample. All but the 

Birnirk example are bifacially flaked. In overall 

shape they are triangular, being widest at the scraping 

plane and tapering to a point. Steep retouch on the 

distal end constitutes the scraper edge. On two specimens the edge has a high gloss polish, most likely 

the result of the breaking down of hide fiber. The 

overall lengths of two specimens are 3.8 and 3.5 cm. 

The third specimen is still hafted to its handle and 

was not removed for measurement (Plate 1036). The 

width of the scraping edges on these specimens is 2.2, 

2.2, and 1.8 cm. 

The handle on the hafted specimen is a straight 

piece of wood, oval in cross-section (Plate 1036). It is 

split at the end, with the stone bit wedged into place. 

A slight shoulder is carved at the end for lashing. The 

handle is 10.3 cm long and 2.4 cm in maximum 

diameter. The lashing consists of split willow 

wrapped around the handle for a distance of 2.4 cm. 

The willow is cross-threaded in a fashion that interlocks the wraps and holds the scraper blade secure. 

PEBBLE END SCRAPERS 

Ford (1959:194) found only three end scrapers in 

his Birnirk assemblage, and noted their rarity in 
54 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

comparison to the many two-handed metapodial 

beamers. He also noted that the two-handed beamer 

was no longer in use during historic times. From 

this evidence he postulated that these two tool types 

served the same function in different periods of Point 

Barrow cultural development. Ford would likely 

have attributed the rarity of planoconvex scrapers to 

the exclusive use of the beaming tool. This does not 

seem to me to be the case, as from specific activity 

areas we found that the most common occurrence of 

the two-handed beamer was in areas where there was 

a great deal of caribou hair and some were matted 

with the hair. Thus, two-handed beamer may have 

been used for hair removal, while scrapers were used 

for other tasks in hide preparation. The scarcity of 

planoconvex scrapers in early period sites might be 

attributed to the use of pebble scrapers rather than 

the well-flaked end scrapers. 

The pebble end scraper, not to be confused with 

the split pebble scrapers, is a flake tool which would 

probably be discarded with the flake debutage by 

the unwary investigator. Strictly speaking, the pebble 

end scraper is indeed a planoconvex scraper. It does 

not, however, have the fine dorsal and ventral retouching of the common Eskimo scraper. It is manufactured from either a cobble stone or a primary 

reduction flake with cortex still visible. Fourteen 

examples are Birnirk in age (Plates 28a,d-g; 43/-/?, k) 

four, Early Thule (Plates 656,d; 72c), and two are 

Late Thule (Plates 86c; 111c). Two are unmodified 

and 12 are resharpened. All of these specimens have 

cortex material on their dorsal surface. At the distal 

end we find pressure retouch for resharpening purposes. Twelve of these scrapers are made of chert 

from the Sik-sik-puk formation, while two are made 

of fine grain quartz. 

These scrapers measure, from the distal to the 

proximal end, 6.4 to 2.1 cm with an average of 

3.80 cm. In width the scrapers range from 5.4 to 

2 cm. The average width is 3 cm. 

SIDE SCRAPERS 

Most side scrapers found at Walakpa were of the 

pebble side scraper variety. However, numerous side 

scrapers or cutting tools were found which were made 

from secondary flakes. There are flakes which do not 

have any cortex left on their dorsal surfaces from the 

original core. They also have edge retouch on one 

or more edges. In general shape they are usually 

rectangular in outline, but are occasionally triangular 

or irregular in shape. None of these occurred in the 

Birnirk collection, but they became more common 

in the later occupation levels. The occurrence of 

more pebble end and side scrapers in the Birnirk 

levels, as opposed to their increasing scarcity in later 

levels, does not imply an evolutionary scheme, but 

reflects the fact that the Birnirk culture in the Point 

Barrow areas confined most of its activity to the coast. 

As the natural chert sources on the coast consists only 

of relatively small pebbles, there was not an overproduction of large chert bifaces or secondary flakes. 

This is seen in the relative scarcity of flakes, or chert, 

tools in the Birnirk levels, as well as the fact that most 

scrapers and flake knives were made from small primary cortex flakes. As the population increased during later Thule times, we note two significant 

changes: expansion into the interior, and an increase 

in the amount of chert artifacts made from larger 

cores, which are quarried in the interior. 

The Early Thule side scrapers are all basically the 

same (Plates 65?', 73a). They are triangular in outline, 

unifacially flaked and retouched along all three edges. 

The edge measurements of three examples are 4.5 

by 2.9 by 3.6 cm, and 3.3 by 2.6 by 3.2 cm. 

An additional chert artifact that would fit into the 

side scraper classification is a large secondary Sik-sikpuk flake spall, which is rectangular in outline (Plate 

65g). All four edges have been retouched. It measures 4.2 by 2.6 cm. 

A total of eleven side scrapers occurred in the Late 

Thule levels. Ten were made from Sik-sik-puk chert 

and one of a dark brown translucent chert. One 

triangular-shaped scraper has three edges; its edges 

measure 4.4, 4.2, and 3 cm. 

The rest of the side scrapers found in the Late 

Thule tool kit do not appear in either Early Thule 

or Birnirk levels at Walakpa. These are long thin, 

blade flakes which are sharpened along the lateral 

edges (Plate lllc,d). None of these scrapers are 

complete so no measurements were made. The 

proximal end on one is resharpened in a concave 

manner to produce a spoke shave (Plate 99/?). 

The pebble side scraper is the most common side 

scraper found in the Birnirk levels. Eight were found, 

all made of Sik-sik-puk chert (Plates 28b,c,h,i; 43c; 

52/,g). These scrapers range in size from 4.5 to 2.1 

cm, measuring from the scraping plane to the back 

edge of the artifact. Two are multiple use tools. At 

the end of the scraping plane on one specimen there 

is a sharp point, which was probably used as a graver 

(Plate 52g). Th e second specimen has retouch along 

both edges and at the distal end. Th e distal end is 

concave and may have functioned as a spoke shave. 

Three pebble side scrapers were found in the Early 

Thule levels. They ranged from 5 to 3.1 cm in 

length, with the scraper edges averaging 3.05 cm long 

(Plate 65c,c,/). 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 55 

Three Late Thule pebble side scrapers were also 

found. One of these scrapers is secondarily flaked on 

two edges that terminate at rounded points (Plate 

118/). The lengths of these scraper planes are 6.3 and 

5.4 cm. The second specimen has only one scraping 

edge, which measures 4.6 cm (Plate 1116). The third 

Late Thule specimen is incomplete (Plate 111/). 

SCRAPER HANDLES 

Two scraper handles were found in the Birnirk 

levels. Both are made from wood. The larger 

specimen is 22.1 cm in length (Plate 526). Its lenticular cross-section measures 4.6 by 1.3 cm at its 

maximum width. A small hole is drilled through the 

proximal end. The distal end is rounded and has a 

raised collar. Lashing scars run from the collar ridge 

4.8 cm onto the handle. The side in which the scraper 

blade fits is carved out. This socket is 7.5 cm long. 

The back of the socket is rounded to fit the back end 

of the scraper. This handle would fit a large scraper 

such as the one depicted in Plate 656. 

The smaller handle is of the same type but considerably shorter. It is 8.8 cm long and 5.6 cm wide. 

The proximal end is wider than the distal end. Here 

again there is a raised collar with lashing scars extending back 3.5 cm. The scraper socket is 3.2 cm 

long and has a rounded end. 

SPLIT PEBBLE SCRAPERS 

Four very interesting Tci Tho-like scrapers were 

recovered from the Birnirk levels (Plates 29c, 45e-g). 

These are quartz pebbles that have been split in half 

and flaked along the edges of the broken surface. 

Grinding occurs on the broken face and on the cortex 

of the pebble. This grinding could either be from 

wear or purposefully done. The surfaces of the 

ground edges have a high gloss, satin polish. I believe 

that these artifacts were used like the Tci Tho scraper 

for breaking down the fibrous structure of animal 

hides. 

The flat faces of these scrapers range in measurement from 9.3 by 7.8 cm to 6.8 by 4.6 cm. In 

height, with the flat surface as a base, they range 

from 7.5 to 2.5 cm. 

One example of these artifacts is either a multipleuse tool or is made from a broken hammerstone 

(Plate 45g). The top and one side of the artifact is 

scarred from being used as a hammer for crushing 

hard substances. 

TWO-HANDED SCRAPERS 

The two-handed scraper is an interesting artifact. 

Murdoch's (1892:299) supposition, which has not 

been questioned by subsequent investigators, is that 

bone beamers made from caribou metapodials were 

used for cleaning subcutaneous tissue from skins. 

Murdoch thought that they were an obsolete tool, as 

he never observed any in use during his stay in Point 

Barrow. His opinion has been discussed by Ford 

(1959:194), Larsen and Rainey (1948:22-25), and 

Giddings (1952:77-78). 

Ford has evidence that it occurs quite commonly 

during the Birnirk period and is rare in later times. 

This would support Murdoch's opinion. At Walakpa 

it was again found quite commonly in the Birnirk 

levels, but was rare in later periods. I question Murdoch's assertion that their function was for cleaning 

subcutaneous tissue from skins. We found that when 

two-handed scrapers were examined in the activity 

specific context, they generally occurred with large 

mats of caribou hair. I therefore propose that these 

tools were for the removal of hair from hides, rather 

than for cleaning tissues. 

The two-handed scraper is manufactured by cutting 

a horizontal groove down the ventral surface of the 

metapodial; then the lateral edges are cut and ground 

to fine edges. The condylar ends were normally left 

intact to serve as handles. Twelve Birnirk specimens 

were recovered (Plates 31a-/, 54c). The range of 

lengths of the Walakpa specimens are 19.6-24 cm, 

while the lengths of the working edges measure from 

12.7 to 18 cm. 

An extremely small Early Thule scraper was made 

from a loon or goose humerus. It is manufactured 

just as those described above. It measures 17.4 cm 

in length and 2 cm in width. 

SCAPULA SCRAPERS 

The caribou scapula scraper is by far the most 

consistent bone scraper. Eleven examples were found 

at Walakpa. Three were Birnirk (Plates 30d, 546), 

two were Early Thule (Plate 79/?) and six were Late 

Thule in age (Plates 111;, k, 119&). These scrapers 

are scapulae with the epiphyses broken away. One or 

both edges are sharpened and used for scraping planes. 

The edges are either resharpened or worn down from 

use until only the center keel remains. 

MISCELLANEOUS METAPODIAL SCRAPERS 

The second most common bone scrapers are made 

from broken caribou metapodials or worn out twohanded scrapers. They occur in several forms with 

different portions being used for the scraper plan. 

Six were found in the Birnirk occupations. Three 
56 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

are metapodials that are split down the middle and 

one or the other end broken away (Plate 306, c). 

The broken ends are sharpened for use. The other 

two have distal ends broken and are sharpened to a 

point at the break (Plates 30a, 46d). The last specimen is a distal end with a short section of the shank 

remaining (Plate 46/). The shank has been cut transversely, coming to a rounded point. The rounded 

point is polished from use. 

Two examples from Early Thule occupations are of 

a variety that have been split down the center of the 

shank. One comes to a round point while the other 

has a rounded edge with a larger scraping plane 

(Plate 71a, 6). 

HUMERUS SCRAPER 

A caribou humerus was found in the Birnirk occupation that had its proximal end removed (Plate 54a). 

The proximal end of the shank was broken to produce 

a scalloped edge, and the surfaces of the edge are 

worn and polished from use. This could have been a 

tool similar to the gun barrel scrapers used by the 

historic Eskimos in the Point Barrow area. These 

tools are used to clean tissue from skins and to break 

down hide fiber. 

MISCELLANEOUS BONE SCRAPERS 

Bone scrapers, fish scalers, and bark peelers are the 

catch-all classification for unidentified worked bones. 

These artifacts are generally broken, long bone 

shanks, used as a tool (Plates 30c, 46a, g, ;', 666, 86h, 

105c, g, lllg , i, 113?). Murdoch and others have 

observed these bone artifacts used in a certain way; 

hence these functions are the basis of the identification. It appears that such classifications as fish scalers 

and bark peelers should be dropped, and the simple 

classification of bone scraper used instead. Over 50 

miscellaneous bone fragments were recovered at 

Walakpa, which have various edges or points that 

show usage. It is conjectured that these bones were 

used whenever the circumstance required. The 

functions could be fish scaling (although little evidence for fishing was found at Walakpa), bark peeling, 

fleshing, or dehairing hides. 

Hide Pegs 

Hide pegs, or short thin wooden pointed stakes, 

were quite numerous in all levels (Plates 76;', 80;, k). 

The hide peg is still in use by Eskimos in the Point 

Barrow area. While excavations were in the process, 

an Eskimo hunter came to the excavation area to 

retrieve a bundle of 36 stakes that were cached in a 

small hole. Later in the summer these same pegs were 

used for stretching hides over a grassy hillside. 

These pegs vary in length from 23 to 12.5 cm, 

and average about 16 cm in width. A unique Early 

Thule bundle consists of eight small slender pegs 

(Plate 18d-k). The lengths range from 17.6 to 12.5 

cm. In width they average 0.7 cm. 

Ladles and Spoons 

Only four spoons were found in the Walakpa 

excavation, all Birnirk in age. Two of these are 

wooden and two are made from bird sternums. 

One wooden spoon is very badly eroded and does 

not lend itself to extensive analysis. It is broken in 

half and the handle is also broken. It appears to have 

been long in comparison to the other example and 

the fragment measures in excess of 18 cm. It is 

markedly curved and concave in outline, with a deep 

bowl. The other wooden example is rectangular in 

shape and flares at one end (Plate 34a). It has a 

shallow bowl. Two rectangular holes are drilled in 

the tang for hafting the handle to the spoon. The 

edges of the bowl are ground to a rounded edge. In 

total length the spoon measures 10.4 cm, and 6.5 cm 

in maximum width. Th e bowl is 1.5 cm deep. 

Two bird sternum spoons were also found (Plate 

346). One is made from an eider duck and the other 

from a Canadian goose. These artifacts are manufactured by grinding the pectoral keel from the sternum. Th e rear portions of the sternum are broken, 

leaving only the central tang. There is no evidence 

that these were hafted. 

Another fragment, which could possibly be part of 

a spoon or a wooden bowl, was found in a Late Thule 

level. However, there is not enough of the artifact 

left for analysis. 

A wooden spoon-like artifact also occurred in the 

Birnirk collection (Plate 34c). Although this is not a 

spoon and does not have a bowl, it may have been 

used as a stirring instrument. Th e handle is broken 

but the tool measures over 19.7 cm in length. The 

diameter of the handle is 1.2 cm. Th e blade is flat 

with rounded edges. The distal end is slightly 

elongated and comes to a blunt point. Th e blade is 

7.9 cm long, 4.5 cm wide, and 1.8 cm thick. 

Marrow Extractor s 

Marrow extractors have been reported by BirketSmith (1945:198) and Stefansson (1914:102) from 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 57 

the Eastern Arctic. Ford did not recover any of these 

from the Point Barrow area. 

Nine possible marrow extractors were found in 

the Late Thule levels. Seven are made of caribou 

ribs, while the remaining two are made from ivory. 

One example of a marrow extractor is a short ivory 

artifact measuring 5.8 cm in length (Plate 85&). The 

handle portion has three gracefully carved scallops 

on both edges. The base is concave with a suspension 

hole drilled just below the concavity. The tip is flat 

with a semicircular edge. 

The second ivory specimen (Plate 105c) may not 

be a marrow extractor, but the semicircular edge is 

worn almost identically to the specimen described 

above. The tool is carved round while the blade is 

flattened and terminates with the blunt semicircular 

edge. It measures 12.5 cm in length. 

Seven caribou ribs are possible marrow extractors 

(Plates 83/, 9Id, c, 106a, 6), but they could possibly 

be meat forks or scrapers of some type (Ford 1959: 

207). However, the rib is broken and the tip is cut to 

a flat semicircular blunt edge. This is in contrast to 

the sharp pointed ends described by Ford. The tips 

of these ribs, as well as a short portion of the rib 

sides, have a high gloss polish. Three specimens have 

the proximal end broken from the ribs. These ribs 

range from 32.8 to 16 cm in length. 

Wooden Trays 

Wooden trays used for serving food were apparently common during the Late Thule period (Murdoch, 1892:89). Ford (1959:198) did not recover any 

specimens of this type from his earlier sites. Only 

one example of a wooden tray was found at Walakpa 

(Plate 32). This specimen was from the Birnirk 

period. This artifact is an oblong tray with low 

edges. One end is slightly pointed and tang-shaped. 

The other is wider and round. The tang end is 

slightly elevated from the bowl of the tray. The 

length of the tray is 40.1 cm and its width is in excess 

of 20 cm. The bowl is 1.3 cm deep. One end is 

cracked and repaired by split willow lashing. The 

tray was apparently roughed out by an adz and then 

carved into its final shape. 

Pottery Lamps and Cooking Vessels 

Unlike other artifacts found at Walakpa, pottery 

was not well preserved. Only 227 potsherds were 

found and 211 of these were of Late Thule age. No 

vessel bettoms were recovered in any level and very 

few rim sherds were found. In general it appears that 

two types of vessel were found, the nearly verticalsided pot and lamp fragments. Most sherds were 

covered with thick layers of soot and grease. All 

vessels have been tempered with coarse gravel and 

organic matter such as hair, feathers, and grass. Only 

two styles of surface treatment were observed, Barrow 

curvilinear and Barrow plain. Both surface types 

occurred in all levels, and it does not seem that the 

Barrow curvilinear type is indicative of culture age 

at the Walakpa site. 

Nine Birnirk sherds have an average thickness of 

1.5 cm and a range of 2.6-1.2 cm. The Early Thule 

examples average 1.5 cm in thickness with a range of 

2-1 cm (Plate 76d). The Late Thule sherds averaged 

1.4 cm in thickness with a range of 2.7-0.8 cm (Plates 

92c,;', 99?). 

Twenty-seven rim sherds were analyzed for rim 

shape. Many rim sherds could not be analyzed, as 

surfaces had either crumbled away or were completely 

obscured by dried and burned oil. Three types of 

rims were observed. The most common were those 

with completely convexed rims and no lip. All the 

pottery lamp discs have this same type of rim. 

Two rim sherds of Late Thule age have convex 

rims with interior lips. Other Late Thule sherds and 

one of Early Thule age have rounded to flat rims 

with exterior lips. 

The last rim type observed has a flat rim with a 

sharp exterior lip directly below, which the vessel 

body begins to expand. This sherd is one of the thinnest, measuring 0.8 cm and appeared to be more 

well made than the other specimen. 

Baleen Buckets 

Buckets with wooden bottoms and baleen sides are 

found in many Eskimo sites. Murdoch recovered 

several buckets that had both wooden bottoms and 

sides. He felt that the wooden sides replaced baleen, 

after baleen acquired commercial value (Murdoch, 

1892:86-88). 

WOODEN BUCKET BOTTOMS 

Wooden bucket bottoms were relatively rare in the 

Walakpa collections. Fifteen wooden bottoms were 

found; twelve were Birnirk, one Early Thule, and two 

Late Thule in age. 

The Birnirk bucket bottoms were carved from split 

shakes of spruce driftwood (Plates 33a-e, 41g). They 

are typically oval in outline and flat in cross-section. 

The grain of the wood runs parallel to the long axis 

of the bottom. Many specimens have a deposit of 
58 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

organic matter on one face. The organic matter 

often has circular and parallel scratches, which are 

apparently evidence of attempts to clean the vessels. 

Two unique Birnirk specimens were found. One 

which approaches a rectangular outline measures 16.2 

by 11.5 cm, with a thickness of 1.2 cm. This specimen 

is split along its long axis in several places. It is 

mended by placing two small wooden braces across 

the breaks. The braces are attached to the bottom by 

baleen lacing, passing through holes drilled on both 

sides of each end of the brace. 

The second bottom measures 25 by 23 cm, with a 

width of 1 cm. On one side two pairs of holes are 

partially drilled into the disk. The two holes are 

11.3 cm apart. The holes measure 8.6 and 3.9 cm 

from their nearest respective ends. On the observe 

side there are two other partially drilled holes arranged in a parallel axis to the bottom. These holes 

are 6 cm apart and measure 9.7 cm from their closest 

ends. It is thought that the two pairs of holes may 

be sockets for legs, but no function is offered for the 

two single holes. 

As a group these bucket bottoms range in size from 

12 by 15.5 cm to 20 by 28 cm, and 1.7-1.5 cm in 

thickness. 

The single Early Thule specimen is quite small 

and circular (Plate 72c). It measures 8 cm in diameter, 

with a thickness of 0.7 cm. The bottom has no unusual features and is, in outline and shape, the same 

as the Birnirk examples. 

Only two bucket bottoms were found in the Late 

Thule occupations (Plate 1146). One specimen is 

an ordinary bottom, which measures 16.7 by 11.4 

cm and has a thickness of 0.5 cm. The other specimen 

is split down the middle but measures 10.8 cm long 

and 0.4 cm thick. This *bottonr*'has a series of holes 

drilled along the outside circumference. These were 

probably used to lash the bucket side to the bottom. 

COMPLETE BALEEN BUCKETS 

Three complete buckets were found, all Birnirk in 

age. The largest bucket has a bottom which measures 

25 by 15 cm (Plate 55). The walls are made of three 

baleen strips which have a total height of 19.5 cm. 

The inside surface of the bottom strip appears to be 

grooved for the attachment of the bottom. The 

strips are fastened together by two sets of lacing on 

opposite sides of the bucket. The baleen strips 

overlap each other and the ends of each strip are 

overlapped too. Holes for handle attachments are 

drilled at the top of the bucket on two sides. 

Two smaller buckets have bottoms that average 

12.7 by 9 cm in diameter (Plate 47/?). Th e baleen 

sides consist of a single baleen strip averaging 4 cm 

in height. Another thin strip is sewn at the bottom 

of the wall strip. Th e smaller strip provides the seat 

upon which the wooden bottom rests. Both strips 

overlap at the ends and have two laces on the sides of 

the walls. No suspension holes were drilled in these 

specimens. 

Bone Crushers 

A bone crusher is a stone or bone maul attached 

to a short handle. These tools were used to break 

large bones, both to obtain the marrow and to 

facilitate the drying out of fat for making pemmican 

(Murdoch, 1892:93). It is also possible that they were 

used to crush bone when making bone grease. 

Only one specimen of a stone bone crusher was 

found at Walakpa. This specimen occurred in a Late 

Thule level (Plate 96?). It is roughly round to oblong 

in shape. Both ends are chipped and battered to give 

rough, flattened surfaces. Near the center on both 

edges a slight groove has been pecked, one for the 

handle and the other for lashing. It measures 12.3 

cm long and 7.8 cm wide. 

Two other possible bone crushers are not of the 

handled variety. The first is Early Thul e in age 

(Plate 67d). This is a long, oval slate nodule. It is 

18.9 cm long and 5.7 by 3.7 cm in diameter. The 

rough edges of the ends are ground flat. Th e use scars 

are located on the flat surfaces of the diameter at both 

ends. 

A second bone crusher is of Late Thul e age (Plate 

114?). It is the distal end of whale rib. Th e end is 

carved round, and use-scars are evident on this end. 

It measures 30.4 cm in length and 5.4 cm at its 

maximum diameter. 

Awls and Bodkins 

Bone awls and bodkins were used to make holes 

in soft material such as wood or skins. These were 

used both in a twisting and pushing fashion. Usually 

they consist of a bone bit, which is usually a slender 

pointed bone fragment attached to a handle. Some 

specimens consist of a single large pointed bone 

making up both the handle and the sharpened point. 

As the bone awls are found over the entire Eskimo 

area and are made from many kinds of bone splinters, 

Ford (1959:211) felt that they have little diagnostic 

value. Several types of awls are found in the various 

levels at Walakpa. The most obvious difference is in 

the presence or absence of a handle. 

In the Birnirk levels, eight awls were found. Two 

were sharpened bone splinters with handles, and six 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 59 

were probably used without handles. Neither Murdoch nor Ford illustrates or describes any similar 

ones. 

The first specimen consists of the awl point, a 

wooden handle, and baleen lashing (Plate 37M). The 

awl point was made from a section of bone 1 cm long 

and 0.1 cm wide. The distal end had been sharpened 

and then rounded smooth from usage. The total 

length of the tool is 12.2 cm. The baleen wrapping 

is made from a single strand, which is 0.04 cm wide. 

The binding runs from directly below the end of the 

handle to 2 cm from the end of the shank. 

The other specimen found in the same activity 

area is manufactured differently (Plate 31 v). This 

long slender tool has a total length of 11 cm and is 

3.3 cm wide. The bone bit extends below the shank 

for a distance of 1.6 cm. It is made from an unidentifiable bone fragment and is ground to a sharp point. 

The cutting edge of the bit has a flat surface cut 

back away from the bone at a 33%° angle. This tool 

was used for piercing by direct force rather than by 

a rotation action, which would indicate that it is a 

bodkin rather than an awl. 

The bone bit was hafted by placing it between two 

small sections of wood. No measurements are available as they are completely wrapped. The wrapping 

is made from split willow fibers and can be divided 

into two functionally different sections. The first 

is the binding section. Here the function is to bind 

the two wooden sections and the bone bit into one 

complete unit. This is accomplished by numerous 

wrappings around the end of the tool. Then a few 

wider spaced wraps appear to be placed further up the 

handle. Over this wrapping the second functional 

wrapping occurs. This is a mat of split fibers all held 

together around the wooden shank. Then the bone 

bit is wrapped again to hold it into place. 

Twenty-one single-piece awls were recovered. They 

measure from 14.1 to 8.4 cm in length. Eleven are 

Birnirk (Plates 61, n, lla-c, 256-g, Six). Six Early 

Thule (Plates 66a, c, d, 726, 74a, 6) and five Late 

Thule (Plates 83d, 92c, 113a, c, d) in age. They are 

made from split or broken fragments of seal, caribou, 

and bird long-bone shank fragments, which occasionally have a proximal or distal end attached for 

a handle. The tips of the awls are sharpened points 

of the shanks. The tips of several Birnirk specimens 

are beveled on two sides, producing a short, flat edge. 

A unique Birnirk awl-like tool is a V-shaped piece 

of ivory (Plate 3766). It is scalloped along all three 

edges. Between the points of the scallops, the edges 

are fluted. These scallops and flutes may have provided excellent finger holds, especially if the user 

wore mittens. This tool may be the one Geist and 

Rainey (1936:103) thought was used for cleaning ice 

and snow from clogged implements. The tip is relatively sharp and is offset to one side. It measures 

19.5 cm long by 0.9 cm thick. 

GAUGED DRILLS 

This artifact is termed the gauged drill because the 

sharpened end is presumably made to a gauged 

thickness to allow a hole to be manufactured at a 

predetermined size (Giddings, 1964:145). As mentioned above, Geist and Rainey (1936:103) thought 

they were used for cleaning clogged implements. 

Robert McGhee (pers. comm.) feels that in the Canadian Arctic, these tools may have functioned as 

foreshafts. 

Twenty-two gauged drills were found, five are 

Birnirk (Plates 6m, 46/?, ?'), eight Early Thule (Plates 

71d-g, 74c-/, 79d), and nine Late Thule in age (Plates 

83a, 6, 99a, 1136, c, /, 117a-c). These artifacts range 

in measurement from 11.5 to 4.6 cm in length. They 

are round in cross-section with little modification of 

the bone, except for sharpening of the point. A few 

have been sharpened in such a way as to produce a 

slight shoulder between the bone shank and the tip. 

In most cases the tips are badly broken. In those cases 

where they are not, wear is present all around the 

diameter of the point. Whether this resulted from 

use or manufacture could not be determined. One 

Birnirk example has been resharpened and comes 

to a short point, which is offset to one side of the 

tool. Several have the same type of beveled edge as 

described above. Where measurements were available, the tips range from 1.2 to 0.4 cm in length. I 

believe that these tools are drills and the gauged 

length is incidental to both wear and resharpening. 

STONE DRILL BITS 

Six stone drill bits were found at Walakpa. These 

were bits that were hafted to wooden handles and 

used to drill hard materials such as ivory, bone, 

antler, or wood. One was Birnirk, three Early Thule 

and two Late Thule in age. 

The single Birnirk specimen is broken (Plate 37y). 

It appears to have been made from a broken knife 

blade or projectile point. It is shouldered with a 

square tang. The tang measures 1.8 cm long and 2.2 

cm wide. Below the tang the blade is widened. This 

section of the tool measures 2 cm long and 2.7 cm 

wide. The broken tip measures 1.8 cm wide. The 

surfaces of the tip are slightly worn from use. 

The three Early Thule examples have drill bases, 
60 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

which were hafted to a handle (Plate 61g). In width 

the bases of the three examples range from 2.3 to 1.2 

cm. The two complete examples measure 4.8 and 3.2 

cm in length; their tips are 1 and 0.7 cm wide, 

respectively; and they are 2.2 and 1.4 cm in length. 

The Late Thule specimens are different from the 

earlier examples (Plate 113g, h). These do not have 

the expanded bases. They are simply long, narrow 

points. They measure 4 and 3.5 cm in length. At 

their widest portion they are 1 and 0.9 cm wide, 

respectively. 

AWL HANDLES 

Other than the two-hafted awl handles described 

above (p. 59), two wooden handles were found. 

The first, of Birnirk age, is round in cross-section 

(Plate 25a). It measures 16.9 cm in length and 1.8 

cm in diameter. The hafted end is carved smaller 

than the rest of the handle. It has a slight shoulder. 

A wide groove is carved out on one side of this end. 

The groove is 4.1 cm long, 1.2 cm wide, and 0.8 cm 

deep. The shape and size of this groove would fit 

perfectly to the shank of a gauged drill. There are 

lashing scars around the outside surface of this end 

of the tool. 

The second awl handle is of Late Thule age (Plate 

1006). It measures 12.2 cm in length and 1.8 cm 

in maximum diameter. At the distal end the handle 

is cut to a tapering point. The end has a raised collar. 

On one side a rectangular notch is cut for a bit. The 

central portion of the artifact is wider than either end. 

On one side of the widest point, there is a small 

round hole. On the opposite side of the hole, there is 

a long, wide, concave groove, which is probably a 

finger rest. At the proximal end three sides are cut 

flat and taper to a rounded point. On the side where 

the finger rest is carved there is a slight indented 

shoulder. The proximal point is offset from the 

shoulder, which produces a tang that would rest 

between the thumb and the forefinger. This gives 

additional leverage while using the awl. 

BONE NEEDLES 

Two bone needles were found in the Birnirk 

occupations. Both specimens are broken. One has 

a small drilled hole at the proximal end for threading. It is round in cross-section, measuring 0.7 cm in 

diameter. The second specimen is a distal end. It 

has a long, curved shank with a sharp point. It is 0.6 

cm in diameter. 

Table 4 is a summary of all of the manufacturing, 

maintenance, and processing equipment found in the 

various levels at Walakpa. 

COMMUNITY ACTIVITY ARTIFACTS AND EQUIPMENT 

Perforated Teeth 

Canine teeth of bear, wolf, dog, and seal, along 

with walrus molars, were perforated or grooved at 

the proximal end for suspension. It is thought that 

these teeth were used for decoration. Fourteen 

examples of these teeth were found. 

No examples of perforated bear teeth were found 

in the Birnirk levels. However, one drilled walrus 

molar was found (Plate 9c). This tooth was drilled 

near the distal end. Four examples of pinniped 

incisors were also recovered. The teeth have all been 

grooved around the proximal end. 

Three large bear teeth were found in the Early 

Thule levels. Two (Plates 64&, 15k) have been 

drilled, while one (Plate 78c) is grooved around the 

lower portion of the proximal end. One grooved 

pinniped tooth has also been grooved for suspension 

(Plate 73/). 

In the Late Thul e level, two perforated bear teeth 

were found (Plate 112c). Two dog or wolf canine 

teeth were also found in the Late Thule occupation 

(Plate 117c,/). 

Beads 

Three beads were recovered. One from each cultural horizon. Th e Birnirk bead fits more in the 

category of a ball pendant as reported by Giddings 

(1964:77) from Nukleet. This is an ivory ball, which 

measures 1.2 cm in diameter. Th e top of the bead 

has a perforation in an elevated loop. There is a 

diamond shape incised on the front of the bead 

(Plate 37aa). 

The Early Thul e bead is tubular in form with a 

triangular cross-section (Plate 73m). It measures 2.6 

cm in length. The width is 1.1 cm. This ivory specimen has three sides with both ends cut flat. 

An amber bead is from the Late Thul e period 

(Plate 926). Th e amber is lenticular in shape, but 

seems to be unformed. A hole is drilled in the small 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 61 

TABLE 4.—Manufacture, maintenance, and processing equipment by 

occupation level of each culture phase, Walakpa site 

Mound Occupation Level 

A-1 

A-2 

A-3 

a-4 

A-5 

A-6 

A-7 

B-1 

B-2 

B-3 

B-4 

B-5 

B-6 

B-7 

B-8 

B-9 

B-10 

e Thule 

Trench 

y Thule 

Trench 

nirk 

Trench 

als 

Knives & 

Knife Blades 

Crooked Knives 

Composite Knives Knife Blades Knife Handles Flaker Points 

Gravers 

2 

2 1 

- 3 

3 

- - 1 

2 2 

1 1 

" - 3 

- - 4 

2 2 1 

3 

2 1 1 

3 - 1 

1 1 1 

1 

- 3 1 

4 1 1 2 

2 4 25 17 3 6 

Firemaking 

Equipment Bow Drills & Sockets Fire Platforms Fire Drill Spindles 

1 

1 

2 

1 

3 1 1 

Adzes Adz Handles Adz Blades 

Sleeve 

1 

1 

1 

1 2 

1 1 

2 

1 

4 6 1 

Whale Rib 

Mattocks Whale Rib Ice Picks Whale Rib Mattock Heads Whale Rib Mattock or Pick 

Handle 

1 

1 1 

1 2 

2 3 1 

Wedges Large Wedges Small Wedges 

1 

1 

2 2 

1 

2 

2 7 

Ulu Ulu Handles Ulu Blades 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 4 

3 4 

1 

7 14 

Scrapers 

Pebble End Scrapers Planoconvex End Scrapers Side Scrapers 

Split Pebble Scrapers 

Scraper Handles 

Two-Handed Scrapers Bone Scrapers 

1 1 

2 2 

1 

1 

1 1 

1 1 3 2 

1 3 

1 

1 

4 3 3 

2 2 2 1 

4 2 3 5 

5 1 4 1 6 4 

1 

1 2 

3 5 2 

20 4 25 5 2 12 21 

Hide Pegs 

Ladles & Spoons Marrow Extractors 

Wooden Trays 

Pottery Lamps & Cooking 

Vessels Baleen Buckets 

Bone Crushers 

1 

1 

1 1 

- 1 

4 1 

1 1 1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 1 3 1 

4 4 4 1 8 6 3 

Drills & 

Awls 

Gauged Drills 

Stone Drills 

Bone Drills or Awls 

Awl Handles 

1 1 

1 -

2 1 -

1 

1 2 

1 -

1 

1 4 2 

6 1 

2 2 

2 1 

3 

5 6 22 3 

Whetstones 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

1 

10 

— Totals by Occupation Level 

3 

12 

7 

7 

13 

16 

10 

2 

2 

3 

4 

9 

8 

19 

17 

43 

55 

9 

10 

25 

274 

end. It measures 4.1 cm in length. The closest source 

of amber is found at Wainwright. 

Labrets 

Only one labret was found in the Walakpa excavations. This is an ivory specimen from an Early 

Thule level (Plate 59g). This labret is of the diskshaped variety. It has a thin, flat platform, which 

measures 1.1 cm in diameter and 0.7 cm in width. 

A round shaft, 1.2 cm long, extends from the platform. 

Drums 

Only one fragment of a tambourine drum was 

recovered at Walakpa (Plate 35). This fragment is 

part of a drum rim from a Birnirk level. It is too short 
62 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a specimen to give any indication of the drum diameter. There is no indication of handle attachment. 

The rim measures 3.5 cm wide and is 0.8 cm thick. 

A deep groove for binding the drum head occurs on 

the outside of the rim. The groove is 0.7 cm wide 

and 0.3 cm deep. 

Toys 

Toys are an interesting archeological manifestation 

in Eskimo sites. Most toys described in the literature 

are miniatures of adult equipment, animal carvings, 

dolls, etc. Murdoch (1892:378-379) describes tops, 

bull-roarers, whirligigs, buzz toys, and pebble snappers 

CUP AND PIN GAME 

Few examples of artifacts that can unquestionably 

be attributed to the toy category were found at 

Walakpa. Among these are three seal humeri, which 

may be representative of the Ajagag game (Ford, 

1959:227). 

Two of these humeri are of Birnirk age (Plates 

Hi, 36g). One is from an ugruk, the others from 

small seals. Both have been tied near the center of 

the bone shank by baleen. The small specimen has a 

short baleen string with a loop near the end for the 

attachment of the pin. 

A third specimen of the cup and pin game is from 

an Early Thule level (Plate 69d). This humerus is 

from a small seal. It, too, has baleen tied near the 

center of the bone shank. 

INSERTED SEAL VERTEBRAE 

An example of a seal vertebrae, which has three 

seal ribs inserted through the foramen, was recovered 

in a Late Thule level (Plate 82/). Another example 

was observed in a Birnirk level; however, the artifact 

was destroyed and I can only attest to its presence in 

the Birnirk period. 

It is thought that these vertebrae make up a game 

such as pulling the wishbone (Ford, 1959:229). However, an Eskimo informant interviewed at Barrow 

indicated that this game may have been similar to 

pick-up sticks. He was not aware of whether or not 

the direction or pattern in which the ribs fell would 

be indicative of a good hunting direction such as in 

scapulamancy. Murdoch does not make any reference 

to this type of artifact. 

DOLLS 

Three dolls or human figures were found. In the 

Birnirk phase a grass and baleen doll was recovered 

(Plate 86e). The doll is 17.1 cm in height. It consists 

of hair, grass, and baleen, wrapped with baleen to 

the approximate human shape. Th e arms are outstretched and the legs are spread out in a V-shape. 

The head is damaged and no facial features are 

present. Th e doll is completely soaked with oil. 

A possible doll from an Early Thul e level was 

recovered (Plate 61a). It is not possible to tell if this 

artifact was a doll or an effigy of some kind. A human 

head is carved at the end of a long slender tapering 

rod. Although the rod is broken, it would have measured in excess of 26 cm, with a maximum diameter 

of 1.5 cm and a minimum diameter of 0.8 cm. Below 

the head a notch is cut into the rod, possibly for the 

attachment of arms. Th e head is 2.4 cm high and 

1.3 cm wide. The eyes and mouth are carved out 

leaving the nose in relief. There was no provision 

made for ears. 

This doll resembles one illustrated by Murdoch 

(1892:409), which has a soapstone head attached 

to a shaft, with a cross-member, resembling a crucifix. 

Murdoch was convinced that this was an invention 

of a local Eskimo, possibly based on a crucifix that 

he may have seen at one time or another. He further 

stated that other Eskimos, on viewing this doll, would 

only laugh. Thus, he felt that it was not part of the 

native artifact assemblage. With its occurrence in a 

prehistoric level at Walakpa, this does not seem to be 

the case. I would suggest that these artifacts are more 

properly assigned to the category of religious paraphernalia, possibly a shaman's rod. 

The last human figure to be described is that of a 

crudely carved wooden doll from a Late Thul e level. 

This small doll stands 5.8 cm high. Th e outstretched 

arms are short and stubby, as are the legs. There are 

no apparent sexual features. 

T O Y KAYAKS 

One example of a wooden kayak model was recovered from the Early Thul e occupation (Plate 69e). 

It is thought that this is a kayak model rather than 

a drill bearing, as the opening on the deck is rectangular rather than a drilled hole. At one time, this 

slot probably contained a figure of a human being. 

The hull has a definite keel and gunnel ridges. The 

total length of the boat is 12.2 cm. Its maximum 

width is 2.8 cm and its depth is 1.4 cm. Both the 

bow and the stern are pointed, but the bow is slightly 

raised above the deck level. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 63 

GAMING PIECES 

Cut bone and antler squares were found in all 

periods at the Walakpa site (Plates 12g-/, I05h). 

Larsen and Rainey (1948:57) contended that these 

were used as swivel pins. Gidings (1964:78) and 

others (e.g., Hall, 1971:44) have thought that they 

were gaming pieces. I suggest that they are probably 

button blanks, because an example from an historic 

level at Walakpa has two rectangular slots cut into 

the center. However, if this is true, it is perplexing 

that more finished specimens do not occur in other 

levels. 

At Walakpa there are two varieties, those that are 

square or rectangular and those that are concave on 

all four sides. The square variety range from 3.8 by 

3.7 cm to 2.9 by 2.9 cm in width, while the concave 

variety range from 3 by 3 cm to 3 by 2.8 cm across 

the diagonals. 

T O Y Bows 

Six specimens of toy bows were recovered in the 

Birnirk levels. All these bows are of the "Arctic 

type" or the self-bow (Murdoch, 1884:316; Hamilton, 

1970:43). These bows are all too small to function 

as adult bows or drill bows. For this reason they are 

considered to be toys. 

The first specimen has an elliptical cross-section 

but is flatter on the back than on the underside 

(Plate 48d). It is narrow but thick at the handle, 

with the end being recurved. It measures 46 cm long 

and 1.4 cm wide. There is no evidence of a sinew 

backing. There is still baleen wrapping attached on 

one end below the nock. 

Another specimen is much smaller (Plate 36d). 

It measures 17 by 1.1 cm. It is manufactured from a 

single piece of wood. The handle portion is carved 

small with wide wings. There is no evidence to 

indicate whether or not it was a reflex bow. 

A crude wooden self-bow was also recovered. This 

bow measures 29 cm in length. No special feature 

has been carved for a handle. The nock ends are both 

manufactured differently. One end has notches cut 

in either side, just below the bow tip. On the other 

end, cuts are made into either side, and the upper 

portions are cut away leaving a short tang for bowstring attachment. 

A broken example of a self-bow was also found 

(Plate 48a). This fragment consists of a carved handle 

and two small sections of the wings. This would have 

been an extremely small example. The handle measures 6.6 cm in length, with a maximum width of 

0.8 cm. 

A small baleen bow, also of Birnirk age, would fit 

the self-bow category (Plate 51b). It is 32 cm long. 

No handle has been carved. The nocks are made by 

notching both ends. 

Five fragments of small bows came from the Thule 

levels. Three are Early Thule (Plates 58?, 59o, 68i) 

and two (Plates 105&, 112c) are Late Thule in age. 

Three are made from wood and two from baleen. 

The small bows are broken in the same manner as 

those described above. The nocks are also manufactured in the same manner. The range in widths 

is from 1.5 to 1.2 cm (Plates 58?, 59o, 68*', 105&, 112c). 

An Early Thule baleen specimen is identical to 

the bows described above. It measures 1.7 cm at its 

maximum width. The other baleen bow is part of a 

composite bow. This is the nock end; it measures 

4.5 cm in length. The nock was manufactured by 

cutting notches into the side and rounding the nock. 

The wing portion has a large wedge cut to articulate 

with the next piece of the bow. 

Charms and Amulets 

Most Eskimo archeological sites have yielded a 

number of carvings of animals. These carvings functioned as toys, decorational motifs, or religious items. 

The finest effigy that was recovered at Walakpa 

was that of an ivory polar bear (Plate 60a-/). This 

carving was found in an Early Thule level. As the 

legs of the bear are carved so that the front feet meet 

and the back legs are grooved, it is thought that the 

carving is part of a composite tool. 

The bear measures 5.1 cm in length, with a maximum width of 1.4 cm. The carving stands 2.9 cm 

high. The bear has three incised lines running from 

the head around the sides and back to the tail. They 

appear to be similar to a harness. The lines are connected by short 0.2 cm lines, two pairs near the back 

and front quarter of the animal body. At the center 

of the body, holes are drilled between the lines. These 

holes are inset with fossil ivory. On each side of the 

holes there are two more short lines connecting the 

main lines. Below the main lines and the inset holes 

are two short lines, which are bifurcated at the ends. 

The eyes and anus are also inset with fossil ivory. 

Another hole is drilled near the center of the back. 

These holes have also been filled with fossil ivory. 

The ears are carved in relief as is the snout. The 

ivory chosen for the carving has a dark spot, which 

was positioned at the snout tip to give it a realistic 

color. 
64 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

NUMBER 2 0 

TABLE 5.—Community activity artifacts and equipment by occupation level of each culture phase, 

Walakpa site Phase Culture 

<D 

3 

$ 

id 

0) 

H 

3 

a > rH 

U 

ffl 

W irk 

c 

ffl 

rH 

% 

rl 

Mound 

Occupation 

A-1 

A-2 

A-3 

A-4 

A-5 

A-6 

A-7 

B-1 

B-2 

B-3 

B-4 

B-5 

B-6 

B-7 

B-8 

B-9 

B-10 

Late Thule 

Test Trench 

Early Thule 

Test Trench 

Birnirk 

Test Trench 

Totals 

Perforated 

St Notched 

Teeth 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

5 

13 

Beads 

1 

1 

2 

Labrets 

1 

1 

2 

Toys 

0) 

id 

rl 

•P 

Games eal Ve 

ces 

01 01 01 

C M-rl 

•H 73 id Q< 01 

p & p 

serte 

lis y Kay ming y Bow 

3 c o o ffl O 

CJ H Q trl IS E-l 

1 - 1 

2 

1 - 1 - - 1 

-11-- -

_ _ 1 - - -

1 4 -

2 1 3 1 44 

2harms & 

Amulets 

5 

1 

1 

1 

8 

Bear 

Jaw 

1 

1 

rH 

> J 

C 

0 

-P 

ft 

3 

u 

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a 

rH 

id 

•p 

fH 

1 

1 

1 

5 

2 

2 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

3 

3 

2 

3 

10 

41 

1 

Two effigies, one from the Early and one from Late 

Thule occupation, are carved whales (Plates 69g, 

82g). The carvings are simply outlines and no features are apparent other than the flukes. Th e whales 

measure 21.2 and 4.5 cm in length, and 2.3 and 

1.7 cm in maximum width, respectively. 

The last effigy found at Walakpa is a grass caribou 

from a Late Thule level (Plate 107a). Th e body is 

made of grass wrapped by baleen strands. Th e legs 

are small twigs inserted into the body. Th e caribou 

does not have antlers. Th e length of the effigy is 

6.3 cm and stands 4.4 cm high. Th e body is 1.1 cm 

in maximum width. Found with the caribou effigy 

were three small broken arrows (Plate 101 b-d). Although comparatively larger, it is believed that they 

are associated with the caribou and possibly represent some form of sympathetic magic. Th e arrow 

shafts are all broken but measure in excess of 8.5 cm 

in length. In diameter they measure 0.4 cm. Fletching still remains on one specimen. Th e fletching consists of a small feather wrapped at both ends by a 

baleen string. The feather, which is split at the center 

but not at the end, is still attached to the arrowshaft. 

Bear Jaws 

An interesting small polar bear jaw is pictured in 

Plate 56. It is a lower mandible found in a Birnirk 

level. The jaw is unmodified. A baleen cord is tied 

around both of the ascending rami. Th e cord was 

probably used to hang the jaw on a wall or a post. 

Modern Eskimo use parts of skulls of various animals 

for charms and amulets (Murdoch, 1892:434, Spencer, 

1959:282). This jaw may, in fact, be a Birnirk version of one of these charms and reflect a variation of 

the bear cult. % 

Table 5 is a summary of all of the community activity artifacts that were recovered in each level at 

Walakpa. 

MISCELLANEOUS AND UNIDENTIFIED ARTIFACTS 

Belt Toggles 

At Walakpa three examples of belt toggles were 

found, all of Birnirk age. These are square, flat to 

pyramidal-shaped artifacts. The flat specimen is made 

of bone (Plate llh). It measures 3.8 by 3.9 cm in 

width and 1.2 cm in thickness. One side is" polished 

with the center being slightly elevated. Near the 

center on the opposite side, two rectangular holes 

have been cut at an oblique angle so that they 

intersect. 

T h e other specimen, which is made from antler, 

measures 3.8 by 3.7 cm (Plate llg). Its thickness is 

1.7 cm. Th e front face has a high center with a 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 65 

drilled hole, which is inset with an ivory plug. On the 

reverse side two oblique holes are drilled near the 

center. 

The third Birnirk belt toggle looks like a quarter of 

a sphere with two flat sides. The rounded outer 

surface has a ridge at the center. One side is polished 

while the other side has the two obliquely cut, rectangular holes. This ivory specimen measures 3.6 cm 

in length, with a width of 1.1 cm. 

Only one example of an Early Thule toggle was 

recovered. It is an incomplete bone specimen. In 

overall shape it is rectangular, with one end curved, 

on which there is a small slot, while at the other end 

a large hole. The toggle measures 2.6 cm in length, 

1.2 cm in width, and 1.2 cm thick. 

Ivory Chains 

An extremely well-carved chain with three oblong 

interlocking links was found in the lowest Birnirk 

level (Plate 36a). Its maximum length is 8.7 cm, with 

the links being 4, 3.6, and 3.2 cm, respectively. It 

appears to be identical with those reported by Larsen 

and Rainey (1948, pi. 70:1-3) from the Ipiutak site. 

A single ivory link or circle was found. It is also 

Birnirk in age. This ivory artifact is nearly circular 

and measures 2.1 cm on its outside diameter 

(Plate 51m). 

Unidentified Ivory Artifacts 

Many ivory objects, which are probably parts of 

other artifacts or ornaments, were recovered at 

Walakpa. One of the most interesting is a thin piece 

of ivory with a small hole bored into its center (Plate 

36b). At either end, and pointing in opposite directions, are two small projections, which are reminiscent 

of half of a whale's fluke. On both edges two sets of 

bifurcated appendages are carved. Its length is 

4.15 cm and its maximum width is 0.98 cm, with the 

thickness being 0.52 cm. It appears to be a zoomorphic figure, such as two seals or whales, facing 

opposite directions. 

Another interesting artifact is a thin strip of ivory 

which has been curved like a bracelet (Plate 36c). 

It has a series of wrapped baleen strands tied to either 

end. Near the apex of the curve, a slight nipple has 

been left on one edge with a shallow cut in its center. 

It is impossible to specify the function of this tool, 

but I feel that it is probably a saw similar to a hack 

saw. The baleen strings, acting along with a fine grit 

sand, would constitute the blade, and tension could 

be regulated by pressure applied to the ivory strip. 

To support this identification, a similar baleen string 

saw was found at the Utkiavik site. On the Utkiavik 

specimen the blade was broken in the process of 

cutting ivory, and it was left in its original position 

when it was discarded. 

An interesting Late Thule artifact is a thin ivory 

cylinder measuring 4.4 cm in length (Plate 112d). Its 

maximum diameter is 0.8 cm. One end is ground to 

a point with two flat sides and a hole has been drilled, 

which goes through both sides. The opposite end is 

truncated with a slightly raised lip going completely 

around the circumference. The lip is slightly larger 

and pointed at one end. A socket has been drilled 

in the truncated surface. This could possibly be a toy 

harpoon socket piece. 

An unidentified Late Thule artifact may be a 

thimble holder. It is a highly decorated piece of 

ivory. The edges have three scallops which terminate 

in a blunt point. A square hole is cut near the point. 

At the other end, a slot is cut up the center of the tool 

shank. Prongs to either side of the slot are broken. 

Incised lines run along all of the edges. Two short 

lines run from the tips of the scallops toward the 

center of the artifact. Five short lines are found 

around one side of the rectangular cut. Two designs, 

which suggest ownership, are located above the end 

slot. The tool is oval in outline and weald have 

measured in excess of 7.8 cm. It is 1.4 cm at its widest 

point and 0.7 cm thick. 

Another Late Thule ivory object could be a cupshaped, fat scraper or a chin rest for a bow drill 

(Plate 103a). It is a thin, 0.3 cm, concavely carved 

artifact. It is 7.1 cm long and 4.7 cm wide. All edges 

are rounded and polished. A cut, which is keyhole in 

shape, is placed near the center of the artifact. 

Miscellaneous Coal 

A single Late Thule disk is made of fine-grained 

bituminous coal (Plate 85o). It may be a labret. It is 

quite thin, measuring 0.6 cm. The diameter is 3.2 cm. 

It is ground flat with holes drilled into the center 

from both sides, but not meeting. 

Unidentified Bone Artifacts 

Two unidentified Birnirk bone tools were found. 

One is a long, thin, highly polished tool (Plate 51r). 

It is 13.4 cm long, 1.3 cm wide, and 0.7 cm thick. 

The edges of the proximal end have two scallops. The 

distal end comes to a sharp, flat end. 

Another bone artifact is a long, 18.3 cm, pointed 

peg (Plate 8d). It is 1.3 cm wide, 1.8 cm thick, and is 
66 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

oval in cross-section. The proximal end is crushed 

and appears to have been beaten with a hammer. Th e 

distal end is pointed. A baleen string is tied around 

the center of the peg. 

Unidentified Wooden Artifacts 

Seventeen unidentified artifacts were found in the 

Birnirk levels. A short, wooden handle-like object 

was recovered (Plate 51 d). It has a square end with a 

hole drilled through the center. Behind the square 

end the handle is round and comes to a blunt end. 

The tool measures 18.5 cm in length. 

An object shaped like a propeller measures 11 cm 

in length and 1.1 cm at its maximum width (Plate 

11/). It is lenticular in cross-section. It is carved 

from a piece of wood that contained a knot hole. The 

knot is at the center of the artifact and has been 

removed. To either side of the hole there are short, 

tapering, flat wings, which terminate in rounded 

ends. 

A long, thin stick measuring more than 20.5 cm in 

length and 1.7 cm in diameter was recovered (Plate 

51 e). Two notches are carved on one edge, and one 

on each side of the pointed end. 

Several unmodified wooden sticks and pieces of 

wood were found in the Birnirk levels (Plates \4a,e, 

36/). These pieces of wood were tied together and 

undoubtedly made up part of a more complex tool. 

Four unidentified Early Thule artifacts were made 

out of wood. The first is a split tool, which measures 

in excess of 12.7 cm in length, 4.5 cm in width, and 

3.3 cm in thickness (Plate 19b). On one surface a 

large hole measuring 2.8 cm in diameter was drilled 

near the center. Two small holes are drilled to either 

side of the large hole. On one edge, two holes are 

drilled even with, and at a 90° angle to, the small 

holes on the artifact. 

Another broken piece of wood is rectangular in 

cross-section (Plate 80/). It measures 2.1 cm in width 

and 0.8 cm thick. The end that is not broken is cut 

to a tip with a slight shoulder and has a hole drilled 

in it. 

A large piece of wood has a truncated, oval shape. 

One end is beveled with a notch for adjoining to 

another artifact. Discoloration at this end of the 

artifact indicates that it has been lashed around the 

beveled portion. It measures 2.2 cm in width and 

2 cm in thickness. 

An interesting type of artifact of unknown use was 

found in both the Early and Late Thule levels (Plates 

66/, 14n, 16h, 80g, 92h, 112ft). These are small shafts 

that resemble arrowshafts. They have a nock end 

with V-shaped cuts. The opposite ends are expanded 

at the tip. It may be that they are small toy arrows. 

However, one has a cord tied around the center and 

the tip has been burned (Plate 66/). They may be 

small, bow-drill spindles, but if this is the case I cannot account for the nock ends. Also the string around 

the specimen depicted in Plate 66/ is not set up for 

a bow-drill string. It is looped on one side and the 

unattached ends are both on the same side. These 

range in length from 18 to II cm and 0.6 to 0.3 cm 

at their maximum diameters. 

Two wooden artifacts of Late Thul e age may be 

small cases for holding needles, end blades or other 

objects. The larger specimen is broken (Plate 83e). 

This case looks as though it was made from a broken 

wound plug. It is 9.8 cm long. Its maximum width 

is unknown. The center part of the case is carved 

hollow. There is a notch around the wide end, 

which possibly held a lid over the top. Th e other 

end is cut out and would not serve as a containing 

end. The second case is extremely small (Plate 85p). 

It is 2.8 cm long, 1 cm wide, and 0.5 cm thick. The 

ends are rounded with lashing grooves cut around 

the outside surface. Th e inside is hollowed out. 

A chain of five wooden balls are of Late Thul e age 

(Plate 84i). The chain is 6.2 cm long and 1.7 cm in 

diameter. It is highly reminiscent of the chain pendant pictured by Mathiassen (1927a, pi. 30:18). However, it does not have any suspension mechanism. 

Two short sections of wood that are the same kind 

of artifact was found in a Late Thul e level (Plates 

84&, 105n). The complete specimen is 16.2 cm in 

length. They are both 2.2 cm wide, and 2 cm and 

1.7 cm thick, respectively. They are ovoid in crosssection. At opposite sides on both ends the wood is 

cut in a curved fashion to attach an elliptical object. 

Behind the cuts on both edges a hole is drilled. At 

the center, another hole is partially drilled for a brace. 

A thin stick is cut on both ends and resembles a 

crude toy bow (Plate 118ft). It is 12.5 cm long and 

0.8 cm wide. 

A long, thin spatulate-shaped artifact measures 

44.5 cm in length. At its maximum width it measures 

2.8 cm; its thickness is 0.8 cm. Th e distal end of the 

artifact is blade-like, with its widest portion near the 

blunt tip. At the proximal end there is a shoulder 

with a tang made from a cut on both edges. The 

width of the shoulder is 2 cm, the width of the tang is 

1.4 cm, and its length is 1.8 cm. A hole has been 

drilled through the tang. 

A broken artifact with an elliptical cross-section 

measures 2.5 cm wide and 1.5 cm thick (Plate 105m). 

The only unbroken end has a rounded, blunt end. 

Four notches are carved on both faces of the artifact 

below the end. 
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 67 

A broken piece of wood that measures in excess of 

38 cm has four large square holes cut into one face 

(Plate 83i). These squares are 1.8 cm by 2.6 cm. 

A portion of what appears to be a round wooden 

ball was also recovered. In diameter it would have 

measured 9.1 cm. The rounded surface is roughly 

cut and not finished. 

A split piece of wood gives the appearance of a 

spoon. It measures 9.3 cm in length. At its maximum 

width it is 1.7 cm, and its minimum width is 0.6 cm. 

In thickness it is 0.3 cm. I do not believe it is a spoon 

as the surface is broken and it appears that it may 

have been originally round in cross-section. 

An example of what the above-described artifact 

may have been was also recovered. It is a round shaft 

but at one end it widens out considerably then tapers 

back to a blunt point. The end is broken so its length 

is unknown, but it is more than 11 cm. The diameter 

at the greatest point of expansion is 1.8 cm, while the 

diameter of the narrow end of the shaft is 1.2 cm. 

Another paddle or spatulate-shaped object was 

found. It is carved flat on one face, while the rest 

of the artifact is rounded. A long, round handle is 

broken. The other end is oval in outline. It would 

have measured in excess of 14.3 cm in length. The 

widest point of the blade measures 1.5 cm. The 

handle is 1.1 cm in width and 0.7 cm in thickness. 

Unidentified Baleen Artifacts 

One of the most unique unidentified baleen specimens comes from the Birnirk occupation (Plate 14c). 

It is a circle made of a baleen strip with baleen 

wrapped around it. In diameter it measures 10.2 cm. 

Another piece of baleen is a long parallel-sided strip 

of baleen, which is bent into a square crook-shape. 

The bottom of the crook is drilled with a baleen 

swivel passing through the hole and attached to the 

circle. The end of the crook is notched and tied back 

to the main strip with a baleen cord. The end of the 

strip is also notched. In tlength the strip measures 

28.9 cm. It is 2.4 cm wide. 

Another piece of baleen measuring 24.7 cm long 

by 5.1 cm wide has both ends rounded (Plate 36ft). 

It appears similar to a bull roarer such as Ford (1959: 

226, fig. 112b) describes, but it has not been drilled 

for suspension. 

In the Early Thule levels three silhouettes of unknown objects have been cut out of baleen. One, 

measuring 22.8 cm long and 1.4 cm at its widest point, 

looks like a long knife blade and handle (Plate 69ft). 

The blade is lunate in shape and terminates with a 

point. The handle is rectangular and is set off from 

the blade by notches cut on both edges. 

The second specimen is 17.3 cm long and 2.3 cm 

at its widest portion (Plate 70c?). The blade is also 

lunate in shape with a sharp point. The handle is 

narrower than the blade, but expands at its base. 

The third specimen also has a lunate blade and a 

rectangular handle (Plate 66e). However, the handle 

is wider than the blade. This artifact measures 13 cm 

in length. Its maximum width is 1.2 cm. 

Another silhouette is probably part of a more complex tool (Plate 69/). It has an elongated diamond 

shape measuring 16.5 cm long. At its widest portion 

it measures 2.5 cm. Six holes have been drilled in 

a straight line, evenly spaced from one point to the 

other. It is bent at the center, causing the points to 

turn upward. 

Another baleen strip has been tied in a small 

circle. It measures 6.2 by 4.1 cm in diameter (Plate 

69b). Inside the circle is a webbing of baleen string 

with a small sliver of wood woven into the web. 

Very little baleen of any kind was found in the Late 

Thule levels. Among those pieces that were found 

were two elongated, diamond-shaped silhouettes like 

the one described from the Early Thule period 

(Plates 92z, 112a). The major difference being that 

these two do not have the drilled holes. They measure 

12.2 and 10.2 cm in length. Their maximum widths 

are 1.7 and 1.6 cm, respectively. 

A silhouette shaped like a knife also occurred in the 

Late Thule period (Plate 100c). It has a lunate blade 

and a short, narrow handle. It measures 18.7 cm in 

length. The widest portion of the blade measures 

3.6 cm. 

Coils of baleen lashing were found from each occupational period (Plates 14d, 66ft, lll-n, 85q,r, 

1126). Several skin lashing cords were also found. 

The cord depicted in Plate 57a has a small loop on 

one end. The one in Plate 14b has a loop on one end. 

The one in Plate 85q, has a loop on one end and a 

small twig at the other end. 

Miscellaneous Stone Artifacts 

Thin, bifacially flaked, flint preforms were found 

in both Birnirk and Early Thule levels. Fifteen are 

Birnirk (Plates 43b,c,i, 52i), two are Early Thule 

(Plate 65a), and one is Late Thule (Plate 90;) in age. 

These are relatively thin pieces of stone, which appear 

to be exhausted cores. Many show use on the edges. 

They have not been assigned to any formal artifact 

class as the use patterns may have resulted from being 

used as scrapers, knives, or adzes. They range in size 

from 14.1 by 13.7 cm to 3.8 by 3.7 cm. All are made 

from fine-grained quartzite, which can be found along 

the beach at Walakpa. 
68 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Two exhausted conical cores were found in Late 

Thule levels. Both are made from Sik-sik-puk chert 

and do not show any indication of secondary use. 

The complete specimen measures 6 cm long, 5.5 cm 

wide, and 2 cm thick. 

Two large stone artifacts were found in the Birnirk 

levels (Plates 23d, 44a). These are both made of slate. 

They have been flaked into the desired shape and 

then the flat surfaces were partially ground. Neither 

has sharp edges although one has a slightly beveled 

edge. They resemble gigantic ulu blades, but do not 

seem to have functioned in that capacity. 

Among the stone artifacts which have not been 

identified are a series of slate nodules (Plates 29/, 

45d, 53/, 16a,b, 114a). These nodules occurred in 

all three occupation units. They are all of the same 

general shape. They are round to oval in crosssection, with a central portion having a larger diameter than the ends. The ends are flat to rounded. 

Some ends were naturally flat but others were ground 

to this shape. Any irregularity on the stone is ground 

away to leave the circular cross-section. They range 

in size from 20 to 4 cm in length, with an average of 

7.6 cm. In maximum diameter they range in size 

from 6.2 to 1.2 cm, with an average of 2.7 cm. 

Several small hematite nodules were found. Three 

were Birnirk (Plates 29e, 53c) and three were Late 

Thule in age. These have been ground, producing 

faceted surfaces. Th e grinding was presumably done 

to get the fine, red powder for making red paint. 

A notched quartzite pebble was found in a Birnirk 

level (Plate 29b). It measures 3.7 by 2.8 cm. The 

notch runs around the entire center of the long axis. 

It is flat on one surface. Th e pebble may have been 

used for a sinker, a bola weight, or possibly an atlatl 

weight. 

Two small, flat, sandstone pebbles, one Birnirk 

(Plate 45c), and one Early Thul e (Plate 61;) in age, 

have a hole drilled through one edge. They may have 

been used for sinkers. Th e larger specimen measures 

5.7 cm and the smaller specimen is 2.8 cm in diameter. 

The debitage produced in flaking chert or flint 

artifacts from Walakpa was very sparse. A total of 

816 flakes were found in all the levels combined. 
Faunal Analysis 

Introduction 

The excavations at Walakpa produced over 30,000 

animal bones. In addition, a few fish scales, gastropods, egg shells, and quantities of oil-soaked fur and 

feathers were recovered from the prehistoric levels, 

all of which have not been identified as to species. 

Only 18,523 bones were used for the faunal sample, 

as the others were from disturbed areas of the site 

and historic levels that are not a part of this study. 

Ninety-two percent of the 18,523 bones under study, 

or 17,066 bones of the faunal sample, were identified 

as to species and bone elements. Over one-third of 

the 1457 unidentified specimens were bird bones. 

Procedure 

Identification of faunal elements was established by 

comparing each bone or bone fragment to specimens 

in the Department of Biology reference collection 

of the University of New Mexico. The comparative 

osteological collections available included complete 

skeletons of common seal, fur seal, bearded seal, 

arctic fox, and musk ox. A coyote skeleton was used 

to determine the dog bones; black and grizzly bear 

skeletons were used for the polar bear; and a mule 

deer skeleton substituted for caribou. These were 

supplemented by miscellaneous caribou, walrus, and 

polar bear elements collected at Point Barrow. 

All cervid remains of deer size, and too small to be 

moose, were assumed to be caribou Rangifer arcticus. 

Similarly, all small seal bones were considered to be 

Phoca spp., while those of medium large size were 

considered to be bearded seal, and those too large for 

bearded seal were referred to as walrus. 

There was no reference skeletal material available 

for whales at the time of the study. This material was 

dealt with by measuring the forelimb bones and 

extrapolating size by comparisons with illustrations of 

whale skeletons. In the case of small whales, the ratio 

of the length of the humerus to the total length of the 

animal is about 1 to 25 (Romer, 1966). All humeri 

material from Walakpa seems to belong to this small 

whale. No evidence was found for larger whales. 

The available bird reference collection included: 

(1) loon, (2) black brant, (3) Canadian goose, (4) snow 

goose, (5) pin-tailed duck, (6) old squaw, (7) bufflehead, (8) merganser, (9) grouse, and (10) gull. Marine 

material was absent and references made to such 

species is by inference only. Identifications in the 

case of birds was attempted only for selected elements 

that are the most distinctive in the different species. 

The elements used were the skull, corocoid, furculum, 

humerus, tibia, tarsal-metatarsal, synsacrum, and 

sternum. 

Bones that had been modified into tools or that 

showed use-marks were considered as artifacts and 

were not included in the faunal identifications or 

count. Both butchering marks and dog-tooth marks 

were observed on many of the bones but no attempt 

was made to record them formally. 

The faunal remains were recorded by the provenance units of level and square. Where the bone 

concentrations were dense, each provenance unit was 

recorded on a separate data form. In many cases so 

few bones and fragments were present that they were 

merely listed. 

Bones were sorted into species, then into specific 

bone elements, after which the number of each element for each species was recorded together with 

other information outlined below. 

Eleven species of mammals were found at Walakpa: 

(1) ground squirrel, Citellus spp.; (2) polar bear, 

Thalarctos maritimus; (3) fox, Alopex spp., (4) wolf, 

Canis lupis; (5) dog, Canis familarus; (6) common 

seal, Phoca spp.; (7) bearded seal, Erignathus barbatus; (8) walrus, Odobenus rosmarus; (9) whale; 

(10) caribou, Rangifer arcticus; (11) musk ox, Ovibos 

moschatus (Table 6). 

Twelve species and four families of birds found 

were classified and include: (1) loon, Gavia spp.; (2) 

brant, Branta spp.;(3) Canada goose, Branta canadensis; (4) snow goose, Chen hyperborea; (5) pintail 

duck, Ana acuta; (6) shoveler, Spatula clypeata; (1) 

scaup, Aythya marila; (8) old squaw, Clangula hyemalis; (9) bufflehead, Bucephala albeola; (10) king 

eider, Somateria spectabilis; (11) common eider, 

Somateria mollissima; (12) ducks, Anseridae; (13) 

ptarmigan, Lagopus spp.; (14) shore birds, Charadriidae; (15) gulls, Laridae; (16) thick biller murre, 

Uria lomvia; (17) owls, Strigidae (Table 7). 

69 
70 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

TABLE 6.—Distribution of bones of various species of animals by number 

and percentage from the various occupation levels of each culture phase, 

Walakpa site 

Culture Phase, 

Mound, and 

Occupation 

Level 

ule 

fl 0) 

-P 

J Thule Early 

£ 

•H 

C 

•rH 

CQ 

A-1 

A-2 

A-3 

A-4 

A-5 

A-6 

A-7 

B-1 

B-2 

B-3 

B-4 

B-5 

B-6 

B-7 

B-8 

B-9 

B-10 

Totals 

% of Totals 

Ground 

Squirrel 

No. % 

6 .6 

-

-

-

-

_ 

-

-

-

-

-

1 .1 

-

-

-

7 

.3 

NO 

3 

-

1 

5 

3 

1 

-

1 

2 

-

1 

2 

4 

9 

2 

34 

-

Bear 

% 

.1 

.2 

.3 

.1 

.2 

-

.4 

.7 

.2 

.3 

.6 

.2 

.1 

.2 

No. 

2 

1 

4 

4 

8 

4 

3 

-

1 

-

1 

2 

4 

26 

112 

172 

-

Fox 

% 

.2 

-

.2 

.7 

.2 

.7 

1.1 

.6 

.3 

-

.2 

.3 

.6 

.7 

2.2 

.9 

No. 

13 

4 

4 

3 

8 

12 

14 

3 

1 

4 

3 

2 

6 

13 

63 

143 

296 

Doq 

% 

1.4 

.2 

1.1 

.5 

.5 

1.1 

3.9 

.6 

.4 

1.4 

1.1 

.7 

-

.9 

1.9 

1.7 

2.8 

-

1.6 

2 

3 

9 

Seal 

No. 

385 

508 

255 

242 

424 

446 

106 

230 

121 

159 

172 

198 

274 

340 

404 

,020 

,193 

,477 

-

% 

41 

29.2 

68.8 

43.8 

26.8 

46.5 

29.8 

47.6 

54.5 

56.5 

60.5 

70.5 

71 

55.1 

59.3 

55 

62.6 

-

51.2 

Bearded 

Seal 

No. 

13 

10 

6 

3 

6 

4 

3 

4 

1 

1 

2 

2 

6 

13 

70 

57 

201 

% 

1.4 

.6 

1.6 

.5 

.3 

.3 

.8 

.8 

.4 

.3 

.7 

-

.5 

.9 

1.9 

1.9 

1.1 

1.1 

Walrus 

No 

5 

2 

1 

-

3 

5 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

8 

10 

52 

4 

99 

-

• 

1 

1 

1 

% 

.5 

.1 

.2 

-

.2 

.4 

.2 

.4 

.3 

.7 

.7 

.2 

.3 

.4 

.4 

.1 

5 

CRANIAL ELEMENTS.—Maxillae and mandibles for 

each species were recorded as right or left. Fragments 

were also sorted into right and left when possible. 

When the tooth row was at least partially present, 

jaws were recorded as to their probable age. Th e classification used (juvenile, mature, or old) was based 

on a subjective examination of the degree of tooth 

wear. Initially, an unsuccessful attempt was made 

to determine ages of caribou from the faunal remains 

based on tooth eruption, wear, and shedding. Our 

tentative classification was based on those of Bochoud 

(1966), Skoog (1968), and Lucifer (n.d.). During the 

summer of 1971, Dr. Lewis R. Binford of the University of New Mexico made a collection of caribou 

mandibles at Anaktuvuk Pass, Alaska. These were 

animals killed during a known year and season and 

were of known ages. This collection was provided 

for our use and proved invaluable for age determination of the caribou of comparable time periods. However, caribou killed during the Birnirk time period 

did not have the same type of eruption and wear 

as did the latter examples. This difference in wear 

may be attributed to a different climatic episode, a 

shift in the caribou migration schedule or changes in 

territory, which allowed the animals to graze on 

softer feeds in early spring and late fall. These possible changes may have caused the teeth to be less 

highly worn than on those animals that did not graze 

on softer vegetation so long into the year. 

LONG BONES.—Long bones were recorded as right 
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 71 

41 

Whale 

No. % 

3 .3 

5 .2 

-

-

3 .2 

7 .6 

3 .8 

1 .2 

2 .9 

1 .2 

2 .3 

4 .6 

7 .2 

3 .1 

Caribou 

No. % 

473 

955 

97 

244 

974 

380 

212 

151 

65 

74 

67 

50 

44 

194 

127 

960 

1,009 

50.5 

55 

26.2 

44.2 

61.5 

38.7 

59.3 

31.3 

29.2 

26.3 

23.5 

17.8 

11.4 

31.4 

18.6 

26.2 

19.1 

Musk Ox 

No. % 

-

-

1 .2 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1 .2 

-

-

-

1 .1 

Birds 

No. 

8 

23 

6 

29 

22 

17 

5 

2 

14 

5 

7 

38 

32 

44 

120 

288 

% 

.8 

1.3 

1.6 

5.2 

1.4 

1.6 

1 

.9 

4.9 

1.7 

2.1 

9.9 

5.2 

6.5 

3.3 

5.6 

Unidentified 

No. % 

29 

230 

27 

135 

101 

13 

84 

29 

27 

33 

22 

23 

24 

58 

335 

287 

3.1 

13.2 

4.9 

8.5 

10.2 

3.6 

17.4 

13.1 

9.6 

11.6 

7.9 

5.9 

3.9 

8.5 

9.2 

5.6 

Total Per 

Level 

1 

1 

3 

5 

937 

.740 

371 

553 

,584 

983 

357 

483 

222 

282 

285 

281 

386 

617 

681 

662 

099 

% of Total 

Count 

5.1 

9.4 

2 

3 

8.5 

5.3 

1.9 

2.6 

1.2 

1.5 

1.5 

1.5 

2.1 

3.3 

3.7 

9.7 

7.7 

6,076 660 1457 

32.8 .01 3.5 7 . 9 

18,523 

100 

and left. On the humerus and femur the degree 

of epiphyseal fusion was recorded. The fusion was 

recorded in three categories: unfused, partially, and 

completely fused. 

When possible, proximal and distal fragments were 

treated as if they were complete bones, but if they 

were badly broken they were recorded as long-bone 

fragments. Shank fragments were identified as to element whenever possible. When this was not possible, 

they were recorded in the general category of longbone fragments. Due to the lack of size overlap in 

the populations present, fragments could usually be 

assigned to a species if not to the particular bone 

element. 

Caribou metapodials were recorded with the long 

bones as right or left metatarsals or metacarpals. 

Fragments were sorted into front and rear legs when 

possible; otherwise they were recorded as metapodial 

fragments. Seal metapodials were considered as 

miscellaneous flipper elements instead of long bones, 

because they are not long bones in a morphological 

sense. 

BODY ELEMENTS.—Pelvic elements were recorded 

as complete pelvis, ilium, ischium-pubis, acetabulum, 

or pelvic fragments. These were also identified as to 

right or left side when possible. 

Vertebrae were recorded in the categories of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal. Fragments 

were also recorded in these categories whenever pos-
72 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

TABLE 7.—Distribution of bones of the various species of birds from the 

various occupation levels of each culture phase, Walakpa site 

Culture Phase, 

Mound, and 

Occupation 

Level 

mle Late TTr Thule rly 

rd 

H 

tf 

a 

u 

m 

A-1 

A-2 

A-3 

A-4 

A-5 

A-6 

A-7 

B-1 

B-2 

B-3 

B-4 

B-5 

B-6 

B-7 

B-8 

B-9 

B-10 

Totals 

% of 

Totals 

Loon 

No. % 

-

2 6.9 

1 4.5 

-

-

-

1 7.1 

1 14.3 

-

-

-

5 1.7 

10 

- 1.5 

Brant 

No. % 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

5 1.7 

5 

.7 

No 

1 

-

-

-

1 

1 

4 

2 

2 

5 

3 

20 

-

Goose 

% 

3.3 

5.9 

-

-

-

7.1 

14.3 

10.6 

6.2 

4.5 

4.2 

1. 

3.1 

Snow 

Goose 

No. % 

-

1 4.3 

_ 

-

-

-

-

-

-

2 1.6 

3 

.4 

Pintail 

Duck 

No. % 

1 12.5 

-

2 9.1 

-

1 20. 

_ 

_ 

-

-

-

-

-

4 

.6 

Shoveler 

No. % 

-

_ 

2 6.9 

-

-

-

_ 

-

-

-

-

-

-

2 

.3 

Scaup 

No. % 

1 12.5 

-

3 10.4 

2 9.1 

-

1 20. 

. 

; 

-

-

-

6 2.1 

13 

1.9 

Old 

Squaw 

No. % 

-

-

_ 

-

3 13.6 

-

-

1 7.1 

2 40. 

1 14.3 

-

-

5 11.3 

3 2.5 

3 1. 

18 

2.7 

Bufflehead 

No. % 

-

-

_ _ 

-

-

_ _ 

-

1 .3 

1 

.1 

sible; otherwise they were called miscellaneous vertebrae fragments. 

Ribs "were recorded in three categories: complete, 

proximal, and fragmented. 

FOOT BONES.—Tarsal and carpals were not separated but were recorded as foot bones. Th e cubonavicular was recorded separately. Th e metapodials 

were not subdivided except in the case of the caribou 

as noted above. First and second phalanges, both 

front and rear, were recorded as one category. The 

third phalange, or ungle, was recorded separately. 

Proximal and distal fragments of the metapodials 

and phalanges were also recorded. 

Measurements 

In addition to classification, a set of measurements 

was taken on selected elements and recorded on the 

same data forms. Dog skulls were measured to see 

if there were any differences in sizes. Seal femurs, 

humeri, and tibias were measured for maximum 

length and maximum width at the distal ends. 

SEAL LONG-BONE MEASUREMENTS.—It has been 

pointed out by McLaren (1962:177) that the size of 

seals is directly proportional to the length of the seal 

pup suckling period. Th e suckling period is terminated when the ice breaks up in the spring. There-
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 73 

King 

Eider 

No. % 

-

-

-

-

_ 

-

23 8. 

23 

3.5 

Common 

No. 

5 

21 

6 

21 

13 

13 

-

2 

9 

3 

4 

34 

15 

20 

103 

227 

496 

Eider 

% 

62.5 

91.5 

100. 

72.4 

59.3 

76.5 

-

40. 

64. 

60. 

57.1 

89.4 

46.9 

45.5 

86. 

78.9 

75.5 

Ducks 

No. % 

1 12.5 

-

_ 

-

1 4.5 

3 17.6 

_ _ 

1 20. 

-

-

-

-

-

_ 

-

2 .7 

8 

1.2 

Ptarmiqan 

No. % 

-

_ 

-

-

-

-

-

_ _ 

-

1 3.1 

-

1 

.1 

Shore 

Birds 

No. % 

-

-

-

-

2 100. 

2 14.2 

-

-

-

_ 

-

1 .3 

5 

.7 

Gulls 

No. % 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

_ 

5 4.2 

12 4.2 

17 

2.6 

Thick Billed 

Murre 

No. % 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

14 43.8 

17 38.6 

2 1-6 

-

33 

5. 

Owls 

No. % 

-

1 4.3 

-

-

_ _ 

-

-

-

-

-

1 

.1 

Total Per 

Level 

8 

23 

6 

29 

22 

17 

-

5 

2 

14 

5 

7 

38 

32 

44 

120 

288 

660 

% of Total 

Count 

1.2 

3.5 

.9 

4.4 

3.3 

2.6 

-

.7 

.3 

2.1 

.7 

1. 

5.8 

4.9 

6.7 

18.3 

43.6 

100. 

fore, if the ice breaks up earlier in the year the pups 

will be smaller, and if the ice breaks up later in the 

year the pups will be larger (McLaren, 1962:177). 

If the rise and fall of the sea level at Point Barrow 

indicates climatic changes, these changes would affect 

the seal suckling period, which would be reflected by 

variations in the sizes of seal bones found in the different occupation levels at Walakpa. Measurements 

were then taken on seal long bones in order to see if 

in fact there was a correlation between seal size and 

the proposed sea levels or climatic episodes. 

As it has been demonstrated by Usher and Church 

(1969:126) that there is a relationship between seal 

length and girth that can be used to predict seal 

weight, a biometric analysis of seal long bones was 

made on seal specimens coming from various archeological levels. If there were any significant changes in 

seal sizes, it was hoped that they would correlate with 

proposed climatic shifts. Biometric measurements 

were taken on seal humeri, femurs, and tibias. 

Measurements taken on the humerus were articular length and distal condylar width (Figure 9), on 

the femur were the notch length and the distal 

condylar width (Figure 10), and on the tibia, for 

diaphyseal length (Figure 11). The major problem of 

this experiment was that the sample size was too small. 
74 

Articular s 

Length 

Distal 

Condylar 

Axis 

SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

I 

NUMBER 2 0 

Distal 

Condylar Width 

FIGURE 9.—Seal humerus showing the distal condylar width 

and articular length. 

As juvenile variability would skew the result, only the 

bones of adult animals were used. Also the bones had 

to be complete. Both of these features reduced the 

sample size to the following: humerus—Birnirk (40), 

Early Thule (14), Late Thule (12); femur—Birnirk 

(66), Early Thule (22), Late Thule (0); tibia—Birnirk 

(32), Early Thule (5), and Late Thule (14). 

Notch 

Length 

Distal 

Condyle Axis 

Distal 

Condylar Width 

FIGURE 10.—Seal femur showing distal condylar width 

and notch length. 

)• Diaphyseal 

Length 

FIGURE 11.—Seal tibia showing diaphyseal length. 

The means of the measurements of the humeri 

widths are 2.39 cm (Birnirk), 2.39 cm (Early Thule), 

and 2.38 cm (Late Thule). Th e lengths are 9.42 cm 

(Birnirk), 9.26 cm (Early Thule), and 9.47 cm (Late 

Thule). This indicates that the humerus width did 

not vary in the three phases examined. However, 

there is a high correlation between the lengths of 

the Birnirk and Late Thul e lengths, while the Early 

Thule lengths are significantly different from the 

other two. This may indicate that suckling periods 

for seals during the Birnirk and Late Thul e ages 

may have produced seals that were longer than those 

of the Early Thule period. 

The mean femur width for Birnirk is 3.6 cm, 

while for Early Thule is 3.7 cm. Th e length mean 

was 7.63 cm for Birnirk and 7.7 cm for Early Thule, 

respectively. 

The tibia diaphyseal lengths for Birnirk had a mean 

of 15.4 cm, while for Early Thul e the mean was 14.44 

cm. Late Thul e was again longer with a mean of 

15.7 cm. Here, as in the measurements for the 
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 75 

humerus, we see that the Birnirk and Late Thule 

seals appear to be longer than those from the Early 

Thule levels. It should be pointed out that the slight 

tendency of correlation of longer seal humeri in the 

Birnirk and Late Thule levels does correlate with 

cooler climatic periods and the lowering of the sea 

level. However, this may be insignificant, as the 

sample is small. The other problem that, must be 

considered is that no work has been done on the 

osteological remains of modern seals from various 

localities to see if in fact the bones reflect the body 

size as reported by McLaren (1962), and Usher and 

Church (1969). 

DOG SKULL MEASUREMENTS.—The measurements 

of dog skulls from the Birnirk levels at Walakpa indicate that there is a possible bimodality in the dog 

population. The most common size of dog is quite 

small as compared to modern Greenland sledge dogs. 

On ten selected adult animals the condylo-basal 

length ranges from 15.8 to 17.7 cm. The zygomatic 

breadth ranges from 10.7 to 9 cm. The palatal lengths 

range from 9.1 to 7.9 cm, and the upper carnassials 

range from 1.9 to 1.6 cm. They are probably the same 

type of dog as those at Ipiutak, but are slightly 

smaller. They fall into the range of Siberian dogs and 

Samoyeds. However, a single Birnirk-age specimen, 

which may be a wolf, has a condylo-basal length of 

23 cm. This dog compares more favorably to the size 

of Greenland sledge dogs and those from Labrador as 

measured by Olaus Murie (in Larsen and Rainey, 

1948:255-259). 

NUMBER OF ANIMALS PRESENT.—In order to determine the minimum number of individual animals of 

each species from each occupation level, the maximum number of animals represented by the absolute 

number of each skeletal element was calculated. 

Special attention was paid to the number of right and 

left sides and distal and proximal ends of bones with 

maximum possible pairs being calculated. The element with the largest number per level was taken to 

represent the minimum number of accountable individual animals present in each occupation level. 

I believe this estimate of minimum numbers of 

individuals per species is fairly accurate; however, it 

may be that the number of individuals was higher. 

Whole bodies or body parts may have been removed 

to other campsites, or there may have been errors in 

recovery. The important point, however, is that the 

basic calculation is on the low conservative side. 

Analysis by Archeological Level and 

Cultura l Units 

The analysis of the horizontal distribution of the 

bones in the various levels was not particularly useful. 

Most bones were found in association with trash 

middens, which were irregularly structured with elements introduced from discarded portions of meat 

when the animal was butchered and from choice meat 

packets when they were either consumed or processed 

for the drying racks. There was little evidence that 

the middens were disturbed by dogs or wolves. Few 

bones showed extensive scars from being chewed by 

these animals. The evidence suggests that dogs were 

present at the site and were staked out in an area that 

was not excavated. 

As seal and caribou make up the primary animals 

utilized by the Walakpa inhabitants, the elements of 

these animals have been grouped into "meat packets." 

The meat packets are differentiated by the amount of 

available meat occurring on unit cuts. The unit cuts 

are large meat packets (upper fore and hind limbs), 

small meat packets (lower fore and hind limbs, trunk 

and certain head portions), and waste packets (hooves, 

feet and certain head portions). The presence or 

absence of these parts in each occupation level was 

tabulated as a basis for establishing the minimum 

number of individual animals represented. When 

the minimum number of animals is known, the 

maximum number of possible elements can be determined. The percentage of the number of bones recovered, calculated with respect to the expected number of bones found in a single animal, and multiplied 

by the estimated number of animals, should indicate 

what portions of the animals are present or absent. 

It is important to consider several variables when 

discussing the meaning of the occurrence or nonoccurrence of bones representing meat packets, because they reflect to a great extent the time of year 

during which the animal was killed; therefore they 

are potentially significant. The variables are (1) the 

type of camp, i.e., a base camp or hunting camp; (2) 

the distance from the camp to the kill or kills; (3) the 

number of animals in the kill or kills; (4) the number of people available to process the meat; (5) the 

mode of transportation available to carry the meat 

back to camp, i.e., sled, boat, pack dog or by hand/ 

foot; (6) weather conditions, e.g., windy, icy, snowy; 

(7) ice and snow conditions; (8) whether or not the 

meat was frozen when butchered; (9) what the ultimate destination might be, i.e., immediate or nearfuture consumption by man and/or dogs, storage 

for later consumption, drying or ice-cellar freezing; 

(10) season of animal year (if antler or hide is not 

suitable for artifact manufacture due to seasonal 

changes, it will be discarded). 

Several assumptions based on these variables and 

on observations of Eskimo butchering practices have 

been made about the significance of meat packets. 
76 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

One assumption is that if the animals were killed at 

or near the site, most, if not all of the elements, will 

be represented at some time at the site. Whereas, if 

the animals were killed far from the site, many waste 

portions such as the feet and certain head elements 

will not be taken back to the camp. If antlers, 

tongues, brains, and noses were desired, they would 

be extracted in the field. This would eliminate the 

necessity of carrying many extra pounds back to the 

camp. This is particularly likely when there is no 

transportation available, or when the number of 

animals killed exceeds the capacity of a sled or boat. 

In this case, even large meat packets will be discarded. In some cases, meat will be cut from the 

bones in the field leaving heavy elements such as 

humeri or femurs at the kill site. 

When a level represents a base camp, most of the 

elements from the large meat packets should be 

present. Irregularities in the numbers of elements 

found in a base camp probably represent meat consumed, dried, or fleshed out at the hunting camps, or 

stored in ice cellars to be consumed later. Waste cuts 

found in the base camp probably represent an occasional animal killed near the base camp and/or 

portions introduced for dog food. 

The evidence also indicates that when dealing with 

a hunting camp, particularly a seasonal task-specific 

hunting camp, the bones found in extraordinary 

numbers represent that specific activity, while bones 

from other species found in small quantities were 

introduced into the hunting camp from the base 

camp. That is, provisions were brought from the base 

camps to sustain the hunter for the duration of the 

encampment or until he obtained fresh meat. Certain 

elements may also have been introduced to provide 

raw materials for the manufacture of tools. 

Base camps should be central collection points with 

meat being imported from various task-specific hunting camps. Although these camps are considered as 

primarily winter sites, bones should represent animals that are killed during all seasons of the year. 

SEALS 

From examining the occurrence of seal elements 

from Walakpa, we find two general trends (Figures 

12-16). The first is found in levels A-1 through B-8. 

Here we see a low percentage of skulls, relatively low 

percentage of the trunk bones and high percentages of 

leg and flipper bones. In levels B-9 and B-10 we see 

nearly the reverse of this trend, with skulls, lumbar 

vertebrae, and ribs being high. The larger leg meat 

packets are also high in relationship to -the smaller 

meat packets, and the flippers are extremely low. It 

is also observed that the number of individual seals 

in levels A-1 through B-8 is very low, while in B-9 

and B-10 it is extremely high. This has been interpreted to mean that the upper levels are hunting 

camp sites of brief duration, while the lower levels 

represent base camps. 

The scarcity of skulls from the levels that represent 

hunting camps could be explained by the fact that the 

skull is prized for both the brain and eyes (Spencer, 

1959:373). These are apparently taken back to the 

base camp. Thirty-three to 58 percent of the skulls 

from the minimum number of seals killed were found 

in the base camp levels. This is extremely high and 

supports the hypothesis expressed above. This is also 

affirmed by Murdoch (1892:434), who indicates that 

skulls are usually brought home and regarded as 

sacred. 

The trunk, as represented by the lumbar vertebrae 

and ribs, does not figure significantly in the hunting 

camp levels, but a relatively high percentage of these 

were found in the base camp levels. Spencer (1959: 

373) indicates that the choicest portions of seals are 

the heart, liver, and shortribs. This would account 

for absence of lumbar vertebrae and ribs from the 

hunting camps and their presence in the base camp 

levels. 

No mention is made by either Spencer or Murdoch 

of the leg and flipper cuts. It appears from our data 

that the back leg bones are introduced into the base 

camp more frequently than the front leg bones. Apparently the back leg and flippers are either consumed or left at the hunting camp. 

In former days dogs were fed blubber and seal 

entrails (Spencer, 1959:374). Rarely was a dog given 

seal meat; but the blubber was an important source 

of dog food, as it took little of it as compared to either 

seal meat or caribou meat to sustain a dog. 

The archeological significance of the change in 

size of seal elements between the lower B levels and 

the upper B levels can only be assessed by examination of the population dynamics of modern seals. 

McLaren's (1962) work on seals in the eastern 

Canadian Arctic has profound implications for the 

seal analysis at Walakpa. Even though there is a possible bimodality of seal sizes at Walakpa, I believe 

that these animals are all the Phoca hispida or ringed 

seal. The ringed seal is the most common seal found 

in these northern latitudes, and is the only species 

of small seal that currently resides the full year in 

these waters (Burns, 1970:447). Th e size variation 

is not only influenced by sex and age, but also by ice 

conditions. The size of adult seals from high arctic 

localities averages 15 percent longer than that of 

adults from southeast Baffin Island, while those from 
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 77 

a 

LEVEL A-1 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 13 

100-

99 -

9 0 -

8 3 -

8 0 . 

7 5 -

7 0 . 

6 5 " 

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 3 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

1 0 -

3 -

PERCENTASE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD MANDIBLE ATLAS 

0 

0 

26 

23. 

3 

13 

TRUNK 

AXIS 

23. 

3 

13 

CERVICAL 

12. 

8 

65 

THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

8. 

15 

195 

22. 

14 

65 

SACRAL 

3. 

1 

39 

RIBS 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RAOIUS 

DISTAL 

RAOIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR DISTAL FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

< 

-< 

DISTAL 

TIBIA 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

8. 

30 

364 

50. 

13 

26 

27. 

7 

26 

31. 

8 

26 

58 

15 

26 

1 

3B. 

10 

26 

15 

4 

26 

23 

6 

26 

19 

5 

26 

W* 

22 

26 

50 

13 

26 

0 

0 

988 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

b 

LEVEL A-2 

MINIMUM 

AN1"MBALS°FH 

100-

95 -

9 0 -

65 -

8 0 -

7 3 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

4 5 . 

4 0 . 

35 -

3 0 -

25 -

20 -

10 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

./SONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD MANDIBLE ATLAS 

14. 

3 

22 

27. 

3 

11 

TRUNK 

9. 

1 

11 

< 

9. 

5 

55 

THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

12. 

19 

165 

15. 

8 

55 

SACRAL 

2 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

S 3 j = 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL DISTAL FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

£< 

DISTAL 

TIBIA 

gi 

1. 

2 

33 

10. 

32 

308 

36. 

8 

22 

18. 

4 

22 

36. 

8 

22 

86. 

19 

22 

6R 

15 

11 

23. 

5 

22 

45. 

10 

22 

50. 

11 

22 

73. 

16 

22 

68. 

15 

49. 

4 1 0 

22 836 

-

-

-

-

-

c 

LEVEL A-3 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 6 

100-

9 5 -

9 0 -

B S -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

3 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 . 

3 3 -

3 0 -

25 -

2 0 -

13 -

1 0 -

3 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

I 

ATLAS 

2 5 . 

3 

12 

n 

n 

6 

TRUNK 

AXIS 

33 

? 

6 

CERVICAL 3 

9 

30 

THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

12. 

11 

LiS. 

20 

ft 

30 

SACRAL 

RIBS 

6. 

1 

M. 

11, 

18 

168 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RAOIUS 

DISTAL 

RADIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR 

i\ 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

TIBIA 

DISTAL 

TIBIA 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

25. 

3 

12 

58, 

7 

12 

67, 

9 

12 

67, 

8 

12 

J i 

4 

12 

17, 

2, 

12 

17, 

2 

12 

0 

0 

12 

v7, 

a 

12 

59, 

7 

12 

28. 

127 

4 5 6 

" 

-

-

" 

d 

LEVEL A-4 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 10 

95 -

9 0 -

85 -

6 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 3 -

30 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

10 -

»-

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

2 

ATLAS 

0 

0 

20 

10. 

1 

10 

TRUNK 

s 1 

THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

10. 

1 

10 

8 

4 

50 

11 

16 

150 

18. 

9 

50 

SACRAL 

1 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG 

l O S 

DISTAL 

HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG RAOIUS DISTAL 

RADIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

UJ 

PROXIMAL 

FEMUR 

j £ 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

TIBIA < -

i- ? 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

7. 

2 

30 

1. 

3 

280 

25. 

5 

20 

5 5 . 

11 

20 

60. 

12 

20 

70. 

14 

20 

60. 

12 

20 

15. 

3 

20 

1 0 . 

6 

20 

25. 

5 

20 

4 5 . 

9 

20 

40. 

8 

20 

7. 

5 4 

/60 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

" 

FIGURE 12.—The attained percentage of the expected number of bones for the minimal number 

of recovered seal bones from the Walakpa site: a, level A-1; b, level A-2; c, level A-3; d, level 

A-4. 
78 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBKK 2 0 

a 

LEVEL A-5 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 12 

100-

9 5 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5-

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

23 -

2 0 -

15 -

10 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAO MANOIBLE 

I 

\ 

\ 

13. 

3 

24 

0 

0 

12 

TRUNK 

X 

CERVICAL 

0 

0 

12 

10. 

6 

60 

THORACIC LUMBAR 

10. 

18 

180 

20. 

12 

60 

SACRAL RIBS 

0 

0 

36 

16. 

54 

336 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG 

< 

PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RAOIUS 

OISTAL 

RADIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

UJ 

PROXIMAL 

FEMUR 

DISTAL 

FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

TIBIA 

DISTAL 

TIBI A 

[ FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

46. 

11 

24 

83. 

20 

24 

75. 

18 

24 

58. 

14 

24 

50. 

12 

24 

38. 

9 

24 

21. 

5 

24 

25. 

6 

24 

100. 

24 

24 

88. 

21 

24 

8. 

77 

912 

-

" 

-

-

-

-

-

b 

LEVEL A-6 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 13 

100-

95 -

9 0 -

85 -

80 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 . 

3 5 -

3 0 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

10 -

»" 

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAO MANDIBLE ATLAS 

2X. 

6 

26 

15. 

2 

13 

TRUNK 

< 

0 

0 

13 

CERVICAL 

< 

LUMBAR 

6. 

4 

8. 

16 

65 195 

8. 

5 

65 

SACRAL 

1 

0 

0 

39 

2. 

9 

364 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RADIUS 

OISTAL 

RADIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR <1 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

TIBI A 

OISTA L 

TIBIA 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

35. 

9 

26 

46. 

12 

26 

42. 

11 

26 

1 

42. 

11 

26 

42. 

|1 

26 

23. 

fi 

26 

19. 

5 

26 

31 

R 

26 

81, 

?1 

26 

42. 12 

•11 122 

26 988 

-

" 

-

_ 

-

c 

LEVEL A-7 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 7 

100-

9 5 . 

9 0 -

85 -

8 0 . 

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 3 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

25 -

20 -

13 -

10 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

80NES 

EXPECTEO 

NUMBER 

HEAD MANDIBLE ATLAS 

A 

/ 

0 

0 

14 

' \ 

14. 

1 

/ 

TRUNK 

<x 

< 

L, 

0 

0 

7 

0 

0 

35 

THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

3. 

3 

105 

6. 

2 

35 

5 1 

5. 

1 

21 

12. 

23 

96 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RADIUS 

DISTAL 

RAOIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

i 

PROXIMAL 

FEMUR 

OISTAL 

FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

I < 

DISTAL 

TIBIA 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

21. 

3 

14 

36. 

5 

14 

43. 

6 

14 

43. 

6 

14 

7. 

1 

14 

29. 

4 

14 

14. 

2 

14 

21. 

3 

14 

93. 

13 

14 

79. 

11 

14 

9. 

47 

532 

-

-

-

-

-

-

d 

LEVEL B _ , 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 7 

100-

95 -

SOBS ' 

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 . 

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 . 

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

1 0 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD MANDIBLE ATLAS 

7. 

1 

14 

29 

2 

7 

TRUNK 

<i 

CERVICAL 

0 

0 

7 

6. 

2 

35 

THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

4. 

4 

105 

0 

0 

35 

SACRAL 

0 

0 

21 

1 

3. 

6 

196 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RADIUS 

DISTAL 

RADIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR DISTAL FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

S

1 

DISTAL 

TIBI A 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

7. 

1 

14 

50. 

7 

14 

57. 

8 

14 

36. 

5 

14 

29. 

4 

14 

0 

0 

14 

7. 

1 

14 

7. 

1 

14 

29. 

4 

14 

29 

4 

14 

13. 

67 

532 

-

-

-

• 

-

-

-

" 

FIGURE 13.—The attained percentage of the expected number of bones for the minimal number 

of recovered seal bones from the Walakpa site: a, level A-5; b, level A-6; c, level A-7; d, level 

B^l. 
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 79 

a 

LEVEL B _ 2 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS g 

100-

9 5 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 . 

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

50 . 

4 3 . 

4 0 . 

3 5 . 

3 0 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

10 -

5 -

0 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVEREO 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD MANDIBLE 

1 ATLAS A 

r 

1 

8. 

1 

12 

33. 

2 

6 

AXIS 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

17. 

1 

6 

TRUNK 

CERVICAL 

\ 

\ 

0 

0 

30 

THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

SACRAL 

0 

0 

90 

7. 

2 

30 

22. 

4 

18 

RIBS 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RADIUS 

DISTAL 

RADIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR DISTAL FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

< 

?5 gl 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

4. 

6 

168 

8. 

1 

12 

58. 

7 

12 

67. 

8 

12 

42. 

5 

12 

33. 

4 

12 

0 

0 

12 

8. 

1 

12 

0 

0 

12 

33. 

4 

12 

17. 

2 

12 

11. 

49 

456 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

c 

LEVEL B-4 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 17 

100-

9 3 . 

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 . 

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 3 -

3 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 . 

3 3 -

3 0 -

25 -

2 0 -

13 -

10 -

3 -

0 -

PERCENTAOE 

RECOVEREO 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD MANDIBLE ATLAS 

\ 

3. 

1 

34 

\ 

0 

0 

17 

TRUNK 

AXIS 

CERVICAL THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

SACRAL 

1 

0 

0 

17 

11. 

9 

85 

70. 

18 

255 

37. 

31 

85 

2. 

1 

51 

12. 

56 

476 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RAOIUS 

+ 

DISTAL 

RADIUS 

1+ 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR DISTAL FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

!< «2 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

I 1 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

I 1 

1 l 

\ A 

i— I A 

/ \ / I 

/ 1 / \ 

/ 1 / \ 

/ \ / \ 

I / \ 

1 / I 

1 2 . 

4 

34 

35. 

12 

34 

35. 

12 

34 

147 

50 

34 

135. 

46 

34 

4 1 . 

14 

34 

35. 

12 

34 

0 

0 

34 

12. 

4 

34 

38. 

13 

34 

4. 

59 

292 

-

_ 

b 

LEVEL B-3 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 5 

100 -

95 -

9 0 -

85 -

8 0 . 

7 5 -

7 0 . 

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

3 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

30 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

10 -

5

" 

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVEREO 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

I ATLAS 

30. 

3 

10 

40. 

2 

b 

TRUNK 

! 

0 

0 

b 

CERVICAL THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

SACRAL 1 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG 

\ 

PROXIMAL 

HUMERUS £* 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RAOIUS 

OISTAL 

RADIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR DISTAL FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

2 « <. ^ 

"* x 

/ 1 

^ 

-

-

-

-

-

/ \ " 

/ \ 

/ \ / S\ 1 \ / f \ / \ / 

8 

2 

25 

13. 

10 

lb 

16. 

4 

2b 

0 

0 

15 

17. 

24 

140 

30. 

3 

10 

70. 

7 

10 

100. 

10 

10 

30. 

3 

10 

20. 

2 

10 

10. 

1 

10 

0 

0 

10 

0 

0 

10 

2 0 . 

2 

10 

7 0 . 

7 

10 

8. 

31 

380 

d 

LEVEL B _ 5 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 6 

100-

95 -

g o -

es -

60 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 3 -

6 0 -

55 -

S O -

45 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

30 -

23 -

20 -

15 -

10 -

» • 

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVEREO 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAO MANDIBLE ATLAS 

17. 

2 

12 

33. 

2 

6 

TRUNK 

s 

0 

0 

6 

CERVICAL 

20. 

6 

30 

THORACIC 

9. 

8 

90 

z 

33. 

10 

30 

\ 

"'" 

0 

0 

18 

14. 

24 

168 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG 

| 

PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RADIUS 

DISTIL 

RADIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

2 

PROXIMAL 

FEMUR 

J 3 S

3 

LOWER 

LEG 

I < <5 

H CD 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

33. 

4 

12 

50. 

6 

12 

0 

0 

12 

25. 

3 

12 

I 

0 

0 

12 

8. 

1 

12 

33. 

4 

12 

0 

0 

12 

7b. 

9 

12 

17. 

2 

12 

12. 

53 

4 5 6 

-

-

-

-

-

• 

-

-

FIGURE 14.—The attained percentage of the expected number of bones for the minimal number 

of recovered seal bones from the Walakpa site: a, level B-2; b, level B-3; c, level B-4; d, level 
80 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a 

LEVEL B-6 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 12 

100-

9 5 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 . 

6 5 -

6 0 -

3 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

25 -

2 0 -

15 -

10 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD MANOIBLE ATLAS 

13. 

3 

24 

17. 

2 

12 

TRUNK 

< CERVICAL 

25. 

3 

12 

35. 

21 

60 

THORACIC LUMBAR 

SACRAL 

15. 

27 

180 

12. 

7 

60 

12. 

40 

36 

1 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMA L HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

.FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RADIUS 

J = 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVI S PROXIMAL FEMUR 

l\ 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

i < 

DISTAL 

TIBIA 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

1 . 

2 

336 

13. 

3 

24 

33. 

8 

24 

54. 

13 

24 

46. 

11 

24 

63. 

15 

24 

13. 

3 

24 

38. 

9 

24 

42. 

10 

24 

25. 

6 

24 

25. 

6 

24 

5. 

42 

912 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

c 

LEVEL B . 8 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 18 

100-

95 -

9 0 -

85 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 . 

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

1 0 -

5 -

0 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVEREO 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAO 

< J 

TRUNK 

X 

CERVICAL 

THORACIC 

LUMBAR 

8. 

3 

36 

6. 

1 

18 

1 1 . 

2 

18 

2. 

23 

90 

1 6 . 

43 

270 

2. 

2 

90 

SACRAL 

16. 

84 

54 

1 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

S 3 

S< 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

> 

*< tr 

x 5 i 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

< 

DISTAL 

TIBIA 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

0.2 

1 

504 

36. 

13 

36 

22. 

8 

36 

0 

0 

36 

47. 

17 

36 

58. 

21 

36 

25. 

9 

36 

5b. 

20 

36 

6 1 . 

22 

36 

69. 

25 

36 

67. 

24 

36 

3. 

42 

1368 

-

-

-

-

-

-

b 

LfVEL B- 7 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 13 

100 • 

95 -

9 0 -

85 -

8 0 -

75 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

30 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

10 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAO 

< 

2 

ATLAS 

\ 

\ 

1 9 . 

5 

2 6 

8 . 

1 

13 

TRUNK 

AXIS 

8 . 

1 

13 

< 

THORASIC 

LUMBAR 

8 . 

5 

65 

1 6 . 

3 1 

195 

4 9 . 

32 

65 

SACRAL RIBS 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RADIUS 

OISTAL 

RAOIUS 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR DISTAL FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

TIBI A 

OISTAL 

TIBIA 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

4 . 

1 

26 

1 7 . 

6 1 

3 6 4 

2 7 . 

7 

26 

6 2 . 

1 6 

2 6 

2 3 . 

6 

26 

5 4 . 

1 4 

26 

4 6 . 

12 

26 

2 3 . 

6 

26 

7 7 . 

2 0 

2 6 

6 2 . 

16 

2 6 

1 5 . 

4 

26 

1 9 . 

5 

26 

4 . 

39 

9 8 8 

-

-

d 

LEVEL B- 9 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 6 8 

100-

95 -

9 0 -

85 -

8 0 -

75 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

10 -

'-

0 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVEREO 

SONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAO 

Z 

< 

2 3 . 

32 

L36 

2 5 . 

17 

6 8 

TRUNK 

AXI S 

CERVICAL 

THORASIC 

LUMBAR 

SACRAL 

1 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA PROXIMAL HUMERUS DISTAL HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RAOIUS 

DISTAL 

RAOIU S 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR DISTAL FEMUR 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

TIBIA 

OISTAL 

TIBIA 

OR FLIPPER 

3 2 . 

22 

6 8 

1 6 . 

53 

3 4 0 

1 5 . 

1 5 4 

1020 

6 2 . 

2 1 1 

3 4 0 

8 . 

1 0 

2 0 4 

1 6 . 

3 1 3 

1904 

3 4 . 

4 6 

L36 

9 0 . 

L22 

1 3 6 

7 9 . 

1 0 8 

1 3 6 

3 7 . 

5 0 

1 3 6 

3 7 . 

5 0 

1 3 6 

2 9 . 

4 0 

1 3 6 

8 5 . 

1 1 6 

1 3 6 

7 2 . 

9 8 

1 3 6 

7 2 . 

9 9 

1 3 6 

6 5 . 

8B 

1 3 6 

4 . 0 

2 1 4 

516( 

-

. 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

FIGURE 15.—The attained percentage of the expected number of bones for the minimal number 

of recovered seal bones from the Walakpa site: a, level B-6; b, level B-7; c, level B-8; d, level 

B-9. 
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 81 

LEVEL B-10 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 162 

9 5 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 . 

6 3 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

25 -

2 0 -

15 -

1 0 -

3 . 

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD MANDIBLE 

59. 

191 

324 

ATLAS 

24. 

39 

162 

TRUNK 

AXIS 

15. 

24 

162 

CERVICAL 

12. 

94 

BIO 

THORASIC 

10. 

241 

>430 

LUMBAR 

35. 

280 

810 

SACRAL 

8. 

38 

186 

RIBS 

18. 

7 94 

1536 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA 

57. 

185 

324 

PROXIMAL HUMERUS 

73. 

>36 

324 

DISTAL HUMERUS 

67. 

216 

324 

LOWER 

FRONT 

LEG 

PROXIMAL 

RADIUS 

62. 

201 

324 

DISTAL 

RADIUS 

61. 

197 

324 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

% 

26. 

84 

324 

PROXIMAL 

FEMUR 

93. 

300 

324 

OISTAL 

FEMUR 

85. 

75 

324 

LOWER 

REAR 

LEG 

|< 

41. 

133 

324 

OISTAL 

TIBIA 

44. 

142 

324 

FOOT 

OR FLIPPER 

3. 

384 

1 2 . 

m 

-

FIGURE 16.—The attained percentage of the expected number of 

bones for the minimal number of recovered seal bones from the 

Walakpa site, level B-10. 

southern Hudson Bay may be 8 to 10 percent shorter 

(McLaren, 1962:171). The reason for this size difference is that a longer suckling period is permitted 

in the more northerly localities, which results in 

larger, more vigorous pups. If the climatic conditions during the Early Thule occupations were significantly warmer with longer summer weather conditions, the ice would tend to break up sooner in 

the spring and seriously shorten the suckling period 

of the ringed-seal pups. This would in turn cause 

the seals to be smaller and would account for the 

size distribution noted above (p. 74). 

The maintenance of a balanced population size of 

the ringed seals is of great importance for the successful exploitation of these animals. Land-fast ice is 

the most important variable limiting the number of 

reproducing females. Within the area of land-fast ice, 

there are limited numbers of sites which are suitable 

for birth lairs and reproduction is unsuccessful elsewhere (McLaren, 1962:172). Each seal requires a 

territory of fixed size so that there is an upper limit 

to the number of animals inhabiting a given area of 

ice. McLaren has calculated population densities of 

seals based on ice types: (1) Within one mile of shore 

and surrounded by further ice, there will be approximately 35 seals per square mile of ice. (2) Within one 

mile of land but exposed to open water on its seaward 

edge, there will be about 10 seals per square mile. 

(3) More than one mile from land, there will be about 

5 seals per square mile of ice. 

If the Eskimos of a region are successfully to exploit an area for a long period of time, then the 

mortality rate imposed by hunting and natural causes 

must not exceed the recruitment into the seal population. In order to achieve this balance of population, 

the annual kill should not exceed 10 percent of the 

total population at the beginning of the seal year 

(McLaren, 1962:175). 

When calculating the minimum number of seals 

represented by Birnirk level B-10, I find that at least 

162 seals were killed. By using optimum modern 

hunting conditions, with a seal density of 35 individuals per square mile, it is found that 162 seals 

totally depletes four square miles of ice area. In order 

to maintain a balance in the seal population, the 

Eskimos would have had to exploit a minimum of 

3.5 seals per mile. If the 162 seals from level B-10 

represent this type of minimal exploitation, the Eskimos would have had to hunt 46 miles of coastline. 

Based on element distribution, if our remarks about 

proximity of kills to the camp site are valid, then a 

great percentage of the seals were killed locally. We 

can then assume that the local seal population would 

have been seriously depleted for several generations 

and would not support a continued Eskimo habitation. 

The above remarks are based on modern climatic 

conditions and with the proposed warming trend in 

the climatic situation correlated with a decrease of 

suitable pupping areas, the ringed-seal population 

may actually have been significantly smaller. Given 

this situation and the fact that I did not calculate any 

loss of seals due to ice conditions, I feel that a minimum exploitative area of 46 coastal miles is not out 

of line and should possibly be increased several fold. 

This is possibly the reason that Birnirk camp sites 

were of brief duration and moved often. It is also 

because of this type of maximizing exploitative 

strategy that we see a rapid spread of Birnirk camp 

sites. 

CARIBOU 

The same pattern was found in the distribution of 

caribou elements (Figures 17-21) as occurred with the 

seals. The elements again point to the same type of 

campsites as indicated by the seal bones. In levels 

A-1 through B-8 there is a higher incidence of skulls. 
82 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20 

a 

LEVEL A-1 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 4 

100-

95 -

9 0 -

6 5 -

8 0 -

7 3 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

.!-

, 0 -

s -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTEO 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

s 

13. 

1 

e 

i 3 

100 

8 

8 

0 

0 

4 

TRUNK 

s 

0 

0 

4 

1 

0 

0 

16 

5 

0 

0 

56 

2 

0 

0 

24 

1 ; 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

0 

0 

4 

IB. 

17 

56 

UPPER 

Is 

o 2 w

 2 

LOWER 

S 3 i! 

ii i\ 

UPPER 

I 2 ? 

/ — 1 A 

r\ 

A / 

A / / ' / 

/ 

/ 

/ / \ / 1/ 1 

38. 

3 

8 

0 

0 

8 

13. 

1 

8 

5 0 . 

4 

8 

50 

4 

8 

0 

0 

8 

2 5 . 

2 

8 

50. 

4 

8 

0 

0 

8 

0 

0 

8 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

lo 

i - E? 

2 tt 

DISTAL 

MErATARSAL 

FOOT 

I 

0 

0 

8 

38. 

3 

8 

50. 

4 

8 

50. 

4 

8 

?5. 

4 

16 

2 

3 i 

25. 

4 

16 

16, 

15 

96 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

" 

C 

LEVEL A-3 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 4 

100-

95 -

9 0 -

85 -

eo_ 

75 -

r o -

e s -

6 0 -

5 3 -

3 0 -

4 3 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

, 5 -

1 0 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTEO 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

2 

36. 

3 

8 

3 

3 

13. 

1 

8 

0 

0 

4 

TRUNK 

0 

0 

4 

13. 

2 

16 

D 

18. 

10 

56 

2 

17. 

4 

24 

i 1 

25. 

1 

4 

7. 

7 

96 

UPPER 

FRONT EG 

| II 

o 2 £

 2 

LOWER 

FRONT LEG 

|| ii ii 

2 g 

° 2 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

J 

2 ^ 

x 2 ^ 2 

25. 

2 

8 

38. 

3 

8 

0 

0 

8 

38. 

3 

8 

88. 

7 

8 

13. 

1 

8 

0 

0 

8 

0 

0 

8 

0 

0 

8 

13. 

1 

8 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2 „ 

h aj - s 

L

 2 

OISTAL 

METATARSAL 

FOOT 

13. 

1 

8 

50. 

4 

8 

25. 

2 

8 

38. 

3 

8 

13. 

2 

16 

2 

3 

1 

6. 

1 

16 

1 . 

1 

96 

-

" 

b 

LEVEL A-2 

MINIMUM 

ANIMALS 6 

100-

9 5 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

55 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

. 5 -

. 0 -

5

" 

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTEO 

NUMBER 

HEAO 

5 

75. 

9 

12 

d 

LEVEL A _ 4 

NUMBER OF 

9 5 -

9 0 -

6 5 -

0 0 -

75 -

70 -

65 -

6 0 -

55 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

15 -

1 0 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTEO 

NUMBER 

s 

3 

42. 

5 

12 

0 

0 

6 

HEAD 

5 

0 

0 

2 

i 

3 

| 

0 

0 

2 

mo 

I 

i 

TRUNK 

a E J 2 

50. 

3 

b 

25. 

6 

24 

18. 

15 

84 

22. 

8 

36 

| 1 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG 

1 

100. 

6 

6 

60. 

86 

144 

58. 

7 

12 

TRUNK 

= 1 I 2 

A A 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

4 

21 

3 

14 

n 

n 

6 

1 • 

OISTAL 

HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT LEG 

1 = - I D H 

2 a 

^ 2 

s. 

° 2 

REAR LEG 

; 2 § 

x 2 H

1 

0 

0 

12 

12, 

5 

12 

inn, 

12 

12 

100 

12 

12 

4? 

5 

12 

42 

5 

12 

16: 

2 

12 

tfl 

6 

12 

0 

0 

12 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

? « 

OISTAL 

TIBIA 

PROXIMAL 

METATARSAL 

DISTAL 

FOOT 

I 

3 

2 

3 

PHALANGES 

6 0 . 

6 

12 

V> 

11 

1? 

7 

12 

6 4 

17. n 

4 31 

12 24 24 144 

-

-

-

-

-

-

UPPER 

FRONT LEG 

i 

0 

0 

1 

n 

n 

24 

n 

2 

li 

O 2 in

 3 

LOWER 

FRONT LEG 

2=> 11 i i 

2 g • s 

° 2 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

UJ 

x 2 K

3 

1 1 1 I n n 

i 

J 

lul l 

0 

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

PROXIMAL 

TIBIA 

S-

- i 

°- 2 

£ 2 

FOOT 

1 3 ! 

2 2 2 2 4 4 24 

FIGURE 17.—The attained percentage of the expected number of bones for the minimal number 

of recovered caribou bones from the Walakpa site: a, level A-1; b, level A-2; c, level A-3; d, 

level A^t. 
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 83 

a 

LEVEL A-S 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 6 

100-

9 5 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

6 0 -

7 3 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

so4 3 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

2 3 -

Z 0 -

15 -

1 0 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

I 

32. 

11 

12 

C 

LEVEL A-7 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 3 

LOO. 

9 5 -

9 0 -

85 -

8 0 . 

7 5 -

7 0 ^ 

6 3 -

6 0 -

3 5 -

50/-

4 3 -

4 0 -

5 3 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

. 3 -

1 0 -

5 -

0 -

PERCENTAOE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTEO 

NUMBER 

2 

5 

ioQ. 

12 

1 2 

3 

6 

HEAD 

? 

1 

/ 

0 

6 

J a 

A 

' 

\ 

6 

n 

3 

TRUNK 

5 

L7. 

1 

6 

CERVICAL 3 

24 

< 

2 

25 

84 

16 

36 

SACRAL 

1 

6 

6 

RIBS 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG SCAPULA 

2 ^ 

0 2 

DISTAL 

HUMERUS 

LOWER 

FRONT LE6 

PROXIMAL 

RAOIUS 

J D 

METACARPAL 

DISTAL 

METACARPAL 

UPPER 

REAR LEG PELVIS PROXIMAL FEMUR 

2

s 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

It i. m 

2 a 

°- 2 Q 2 

FOOT 

I 

63 

9 1 

144 

Rl 

10 

1 2 

R 

1 

12 

17 

2 

12 

17 

2 

12 

75. 

3 

12 

fl 

1 

12 

?5 

3 

12 

4? 

5 

12 

8 . 

1 

12 

n. 

I 

12 

R 

1 

12 

5 0 . 

6 

12 

25 

3 

12 

25 

3 

12 

1 3 . 

3 

24 

2 

3 

PHALANGES 

1 7 . 

4 

2 4 

7 . 

10 

149 

-

• 

-

-

-

-

-

" 

TRUNK 

J_ 

0 

3 

CERVICAL 

/

S 

12 

1 2 

V^ 

1 

42 

1 

18 

s 

N/ 

0 

3 

5 

UPPER 

0 2 £ 2 

LOWER 

FRONT LEG 

2=) 

|1 Si 

is 

2 5 

S

2 

° 2 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

2 ? 

x 2 2 j 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2 ., |i is 

2 3j 

Q

 2 

FOOT 

| 

k 

/ 

l\ 

/ l l / 1 ll / l A / 1 11 

A / 11 / \ / 11 / V 1 I I / 11 / 1 /

/A \ A / \ 

, \ / 

14 

72 

1 

6 

n 

0 

6 

0 

0 

6 

? 

6 

i 

6 

? 

6 

50 

1 

6 

81 

5 

6 

0 

0 

6 

0 

0 

6 

0 

0 

f 

«7 

4 

6 

1 7 . 

] 

6 

17 

1 

6 

16 

2 

12 

2 

3 

1 

0 

0 

u 

3, 

2 

72 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

" 

b 

LEVEL A-6 

100-

95 -

9 0 -

65 -

8 0 -

7 3 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

3 3 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

40 J 

35 J 

3 0 -

25 H 

2 0 . 

, 5 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

£ 

17. 

1 

6 

d 

LEVEL B-1 

ANIMALS 3 

95 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 3 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

3 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

2 3 -

2 0 -

. 3 -

1 0 -

" 

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVEREO 

BONES 

NUMBER 

5 

1 

1 

17. 

1 

6 

1 3 

67. 

4 

6 

0 

0 

3 

HEAD 

\ s 

1 1 

M 1 \ 

33. 

2 

6 

33. 

1 

.1 

TRUNK 

S 

J 

0 

0 

3 

9 

\ 

\ V 0 

0 

3 

1 

A 

8. 

1 

12 

l 

rN 

/ 

8. 

1 

12 

| 

\ 

2. 

1 

42 

| 

SJ J 

5. 

2 

42 

2 

^ 

0 

0 

18 

» 

2 

A 

A 

M 

33. 

6 

18 

( 

0 

0 

3 

j 

I 

0 

0 

3 

1 

35. 

25 

72 

1 

j 

4. 

3 

72 

UPPER 

i li 

o2 • * 

LOWER 

FRONT LEG 

f| 

^2 

ii 

2 * 

° 2 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

u 

2 % 

K

 s 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2 < a 

A 5 

OISTA L 

METATARSAL J 

0 

0 

6 

3 3 . 

2 

6 

50. 

3 

6 

33. 

2 

6 

50. 

3 

6 

50. 

3 

6 

83. 

5 

6 

1 0 0 

6 

6 

17. 

1 

6 

0 

0 

6 

0 

0 

6 

100. 

6 

6 

17. 

1 

6 

50. 

3 

6 

1 7 . 

2 

12 

FOOT 

2 

0 

0 

12 

I 

1. 

1 

72 

" 

-

-

" 

-

-

-

" 

" 

-

UPPER • .-

FRONT L^G • HUMERUSif 

1

 LOWER 

" FRONT LEG 

25 

?£ 

ii 

2 a «i 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

J 

x 2 ^ 2 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

3

< ii 2 £ 

11

 2 ° 2 

1 

A I \ / \ \ 

h 1 

'\ \ A M \ A \ 1 \l l/\ / I 

33. 

2 

6 

0 

0 

6 

0 

0 

6 

50. 

3 

6 

33. 

2 

6 

0 

0 

6 

67. 

4 

6 

0 

0 

6 

17, 

1 

6 

0 

0 

6 

33. 

2 

6 

inn 

6 

6 

17 

1 

(j 

sn 

3 

6 

a 

l 

i: 

DOT 

2 

0 

0 

1.' 

S 

l 

1 

72 

" 

-

" 

" 

FIGURE 18.—The attained percentage of the expected number of bones for the minimal number 

of recovered caribou bones from the Walakpa site: a, level A-5; b, level A-6; c, level A-7; d, 

level B-1. 
84 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a 

LEVE L B- 2 

MINIMU M 

NUMBER OF 

-ANIMAL S 2 

100 -

9 5 -

9 0 -

as -

8 0 -

75 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 3 -

3 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

15 -

1 0 -

5 -

PEHCENTAG E 

RECOVERE O 

BONES 

EXPECTE O 

NUMBE R 

HEAD 

5 2 

I 

TRUNK 

5 I | 1 | • 

UPPER 

5

a 

o 2 0 I D - J -

is 

2 <? 

3 

UPPE R 

REAR LEG 

$ s5 

x 2 ^ 2 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

Is a 2 • 

* a Q

 2 

FOOT 

§ 

1 1 n 

. . 

w \ \ \ 

I \ \ i \ 1 \ 

. I \ AM / 

/ \' V I I 1 \ r I 

0 

0 

4 

25. 

1 

4 

0 

0 

2 

50. 

1 

2 

1 3 . 

1 

8 

4. 

1 

28 

0 

0 

1 2 

0 

0 

2 

2. 

1 

48 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

7 5 . 

3 

4 

7 5 . 

3 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

25. 

1 

4 

50. 

2 

4 

0 

0 

4 

13. 

1 

8 

2 I 

13. 

1 

8 

0 

0 

48 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

" 

-

" 

c 

LEVE L B- 4 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMAL S 2 

100 -

9 5 -

9 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

75 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

55 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

15 -

1 0 -

5 -

PERCENTAG E 

RECOVERE D 

BONES 

NUMBE R 

HEAD 

i 3 

TRUNK 

; I 

a i | i 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG 

I 25? 

£ 2 

LOWER 

FRON T LEG 

2 J 

<?2 

is 

a

 2 

A 

UPPE R 

REAR LEG 

u 

2 5 

i! 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2 a u 2 ^ 

0

 2 

FOOT 

I 

| 

M 

Jl h 1 

h A i / 

\ 

\ 

\ ./ \ / \ / W / / 11 1 11 / \/ 1/1 / 1 / 

2 5 . 

1 

4 

0 

0 

4 

50. 

1 

2 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

8 

0 

0 

28 

0 

0 

12 

0 

0 

2 

2. 

1 

48 

00. 

4 

4 

0 

0 

4 

25. 

1 

4 

0 

0 

fl 

25. 

1 

4 

25. 

1 

4 

50. 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

50. 

2 

4 

0 

0 

4 

25. 

1 

4 

75. 

3 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

8 

25. 

2 / 

8 

2 

| 

"\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

25. 

2 

a 

0 

0 

4 8 

b 

LEVE L B- 3 

NUMBER OF 

9 5 

9 0 -

8 5 -

9 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

55 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

, 0 -

5 -

PERCENTAG E 

RECOVERE D 

BONES 

EXPECTE D 

NUMBE R 

HEAD 

* 

0 

0 

6 

i 3 

17. 

1 

6 

0 

0 

3 

; 

33. 

1 

3 

I I 

8. 

1 

12 

0 

0 

42 

J N K 

2 

1 1 . 

2 

18 

1 1 

0 

0 

3 

1. 

1 

72 

| 

50. 

3 

6 

JPPER 

ONT LEG 

is 

OISTAL 

LOWER 

FRON T LEG 

2 D 

?J 

is 

2 a 

a. 3 0

 2 

UPPE R 

REA R LEG 

s 

s5 j l 

l\ h 1 \ 

A \ 1 / \ A / \ 

0 

0 

6 

0 

n 

6 

33. 

2 

6 

0 

0 

6 

17. 

1 

6 

0 

0 

6 

33. 

2 

6 

17 

1 

6 

0 

0 

6 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

i< 11 

2 5 

FOOT 

\ 

1 1 

. 

. 

-

-

/ \ • 

1 

0 

0 

6 

17. 

1 

6 

17 

1 

6 

17 

1 

6 12 

B 

1 

12 

V " 

1 

1 

7? 

d 

LEVE L B- 5 

ANIMAL S 1 

95 -

90-

85 -

a o -

7 5 -

7 0 -

65 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

5 0 -

«-

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

25 -

20 _ 

i a -

, 0 -

5 -

PERCENTAG E 

fiECOVTRED 

80NE S 

EXPECTE O 

NUMBE R 

HEAD 

2 

0 

0 

2 

2 

3 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

1 

TRUN K 

9 

0 

0 

1 

l I 

A 

/ 

0 

0 

4 

7 

1 

14 

2 

\ 

n 

0 

6 

( S 

A 

A / \ 

/ 

/ 

0 

0 

1 

21 

5 

24 

FR"I 

i 

\ 

\ 

2 

PPER 

ii 

j> 3 

LOWER 

FRON T 1 EG 

2 5 || 2 ^ 

0

 2 

UPPE R 

REAR LEG 

tlj 

2? 

x 2 if 

1—1 1—1 n n 

j . 

2 

50 

1 

2 

sn 

1 

2 2 2 

50 

2 2 2 2 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2 fl 

i- ? j | 

0

 2 

FOOT 

| 3 ! 

. 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

I 1 n -

• 

-

• 

• 

• 

-

—1 ' * 

2 2 2 2 

5(1 

4 4 

0 

24 

FIGURE 19.—The attained percentage of the expected number of bones for the minimal number 

of recovered caribou bones from the Walakpa site: a, level B-2; b, level B-3; c, level B-4; d, 

level B-5. 
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 85 

a 

LEVEL 8-6 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 2 

9 5 -

9 0 -

6 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

3 3 -

3 0 -

4 3 -

4 0 -

3 3 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

20-

15-

1 0 -

3 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

2 

0 

0 

4 

C 

LEVEL B-8 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 4 

100-

9 5 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

7 5 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

3 5 -

5 0 -

4 3 -

4 0 -

3 5 -

3 0 -

2 3 -

2 0 -

15 -

5 -

PEftCENTAGE 

RECOVEREO 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

2 

3 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

2 

HEAD 

2 

\ 

\ 

\ 

25. 

2 

8 

2 

3 

A 

A 

\r V 0 

0 

8 

25. 

1 

4 

9 

0 

0 

2 

CERVICAL / 

0 

0 

8 

TRUNK 

1 2 

A 

7. 

2 

28 

\ 

0 

0 

12 

f 

/ 

0 

0 

2 

1 

A 

8. 

4 

48 

TRUNK 

5 

\ 

M 0 

0 

4 

CERVICAL 

/ \ 

6. 

1 

16 

j 2 

/ 

s / 

0 

0 

56 

8. 

2 

24 

| 

A A 

25. 

1 

4 

5 

\ 

13. 

15 

96 

UPPER 

FRONT LEG 

I 

\ 

0 

0 

4 

FR 

l 

13. 

1 

8 

«

 3 

LOWER 

FRONT LEO 

si 

- a 

ii 

2 5 

2 

IS 

° 2 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

5J 

x 2 

. i i 

K

1 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2 4 

i- ? 

it S 

-< -'5 

FOOT 

ASTRAGALUS 

t A h ft 

\ 

\ 

\ I \ r\ \\ \ A i 0 

0 

4 

50 

2 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

50. 

2 

4 

2 5 . 

1 

4 

0 

0 

4 

2 5 . 

1 

4 

2 5 . 

1 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

4 

/ 

0 

0 

4 

A 

13. 

1 

8 

PPER 

NT LEG 

o 2 V, 2 

LOWER 

FRONT LEG 

2 = 

^ t t 

ii 

- % 

° 2 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

jj 

U 

x 2 

H S 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2

< ii 

2 * 

°- 2 Q

 2 

2 

3 

PHALANGES 

\ 

0 

0 

8 

0 

0 

4 8 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

" 

-

-

I 

13. 

1 

8 

50. 

4 

8 

25. 

2 

8 

0 

0 

8 

25. 

2 

8 

25. 

2 

8 

13. 

1 

8 

0 

0 

8 

0 

0 

8 

0 

0 

8 

63. 

5 

8 

38. 

3 

8 

0 

0 

8 

13. 

2 

16 

3 1 

0 

0 

16 

4. 

4 

96 

-

-

1-

-

-

-

-

-

b 

LEVEL B-7 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 4 

100-

9 5 -

9 0 -

8 5 -

8 0 -

75 -

7 0 -

G 5 -

8 0 -

35 -

5 0 -

4 5 -

4 0 -

35 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

, 0 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

BONES 

EXPECTED 

NUMBER 

HEAO 

j 

50 

4 

8 

d 

LEVEL B-9 

MINIMUM 

NUMBER OF 

j ANIMALS 11 

9 5 -

9 0 -

85 -

8 0 -

7 3 -

7 0 -

6 5 -

6 0 -

5 5 -

, 0 -

4 3 -

4 0 -

3 3 -

3 0 -

2 5 -

2 0 -

1 0 -

5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

80NES 

EXPECTEO 

NUMBER 

2 

3 

TRUNK 

a I ° 2 

13. 

1 

8 

25. 

1 

4 

1 0 0 

4 

4 

63. 

10 

16 

20. 

11 

56 

4. 

1 

24 

I 5 

UPPER 

FRONT EG 

3 H 

o 2 S ' 

LOWER 

FRONT LEG 

2 D |1 ii 

2 g 

OISTAL 

METACARPAL 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

= 2? 

x 2 2 j 

1 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2 C i\ If 1 

FOOT 

i 

2 

3 

PHALANGES 

t 

A 

1 

I 1 

. . j \ 

l\ h l \ l\ / 1 / \ I \ 1 \ 

\ I \ I \ fs. / \ / \ I I 1—\ l\/ \ \ \ \ 

\ 1 \ 1 \ 1 \ 

25. 

, 

4 

22. 

21 

96 

13. 

1 

8 

25. 

2 

8 

50. 

4 

8 

38. 

3 

8 

13. 

1 

8 

0 

0 

8 

50. 

4 

8 

25. 

2 

8 

0 

0 

B 

0 

0 

8 

13. 

1 

8 

75. 

6 

8 

0 

0 

8 

25. 

2 

8 

25. 

4 

16 

0 

0 

16 

1 . 

1 

96 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

" 

HEAO 

^ 

14. 

3 

22 

1 3 

TRUNK 

2 

CERVICAL 

| 2 

. 

5. 

1 

22 

45. 

5 

11 

36. 

4 

11 

32. 

14 

44 

31. 

46 

154 

68. 

45 

66 

I 5 

UPPER 

1 3

tt 

o 2 !jj

 3 

LOWER 

FRONT LEG 

2 = ->2 

is 

2 ^ 

^ 2 

i 

° 2 

UPPER 

REAR LEG 

UJ 

»5 

x 2 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

3

« s i\ II 

° 2 

FOOT 

l 3 

I 

18. 

2 

11 

4 1 . 

108 

264 

50. 

11 

22 

50. 

11 

22 

86. 

19 

22 

9. 

2 

22 

59. 

13 

22 

50 

11 

22 

14. 

3 

22 

50. 

11 

22 

100 

22 

22 

50. 

11 

22 

95. 

21 

22 

95. 

21 

22 

27. 

6 

22 

73. 

16 

22 

8. 

3 

44 

32. 

14 

44 

9. 

24 

264 

-

-

" 

FIGURE 20.—The attained percentage of the expected number of bones for the minimal number 

of recovered caribou bones from the Walakpa site: a, level B-6; b, level B-7; c, level B-8; d, 

level B-9. 
86 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

LEVEL B-10 

NUMBER OF 

ANIMALS 12 

6 5 -

2 5 -

PERCENTAGE 

RECOVERED 

80NES 

NUMBER 

HEAD 

3 

\ 

17. 

4 

24 

2 

1 4. 

1 

24 

3 

100 

12 

12 

TRUNK 

5 

67. 

8 

12 

1 

23. 

11 

48 

I 

36. 

61 

168 

2 

58. 

42 

72 

| 

3 3 . 

4 

12 

g 

53. 

153 

288 

FRONT LEG 

s 

46. 

11 

24 

0 2 

29. 

7 

24 

S! 

50. 

12 

24 

LOWER 

ii 

7 1 . 

17 

24 

i\ 

42. 

10 

24 

it 

58. 

14 

24 

«3 

D

 2 

58. 

14 

24 

REAR LEG 

J 

25. 

6 

24 

2 = 

x 2 

29. 

7 

24 

£ 2 

58. 

14 

24 

LOWER 

REAR LEG 

2 < 

71. 

17 

24 

il 

71. 

17 

24 

iS, 

^ 2 

25. 

6 

24 

i \ 

25. 

6 

24 

FOOT 

l 

6. 

3 

48 

3 

25. 

12 

48 

i 

3. 

9 

288 

-

FIGURE 21.—The attained percentage of the expected number of 

bones for the minimal number of recovered caribou bones from 

the Walakpa site in level B-10. 

ribs, scapulae, pelves, and lower leg bones. Foot bones 

remain proportionately high or low to head bones 

which, as mentioned above, may indicate the distance 

the animal was killed from camp. However these, 

as well as missing lower leg bones, may indicate dog 

feeding. In the levels B-9 and B-10 these bones are 

relatively scarce, indicafing^ that most of the caribou 

meat utilized in these two levels came from places 

other than Walakpa. The occurrence of a few of these 

bones may indicate the occasional local kills. The 

upper limb bones and trunk bones are relatively low 

to completely absent in the hunting camp levels, while 

in the base camp levels they are represented by 50 to 

100 percent of the expected bones. It can be observed that the occurrence of the scapulae and pelves 

is quite erratic. It is felt that their presence or absence 

has to do with whether or not the meat was frozen 

when butchered. 

WHALE 

The rare occurrence of whale bones in the Birnirk 

levels at Walakpa is significant. Although the sample 

is extremely small, I believe that it represents a true 

picture of the whales hunted by the Birnirk inhabitants. Considering the combined length of occupation of both the B-10 and B-9 levels (page 92 

for details) and the probability that the time spans 

cover two fall seasons, one or two spring seasons, and 

one summer season, it would seem reasonable to assume that during this time the larger baleen whales 

would have migrated past the site at least three or 

four times, unless, of course, the migratory habits of 

these mammals were different than those we observe 

today. If these whales were present in these waters 

during the Birnirk occupation, their presence does 

not appear in the Walakpa faunal sample. This may 

indicate that the Birnirk Eskimos were not getting 

these animals regularly, that the bones were left at the 

kill sites, or possibly they were not even hunting the 

large whales. 

However, by late Birnirk times, which does not 

occur at Walakpa, whale-hunting equipment is found 

and is probably imported from western Alaska (Ford, 

1959:103). The evidence seems to indicate that during the early Birnirk phase, large whales were not 

hunted regularly, but their importance increased during middle Birnirk and may have been an important 

element in the late Birnirk economy. 

POLAR BEARS 

The distribution of polar bear bones is unique 

(Table 8). Bear meat was considered an excellent 

food by the historic Eskimos (Spencer, 1959:374). 

Most of the bear meat, other than the liver, which is 

extremely toxic, is eaten. In the hunting camp levels 

where bear elements did occur, they were exclusively 

head or feet elements. It is presumed that the choice 

cuts of meat were taken back to the base camp with 

the claws and teeth being extracted at the hunting 

camp. However, in the base camp levels there were 

again fewer choice meat elements and more head and 

feet bones. It is possible also that the claws and skulls 

were brought back still attached to the hides, resulting in this bone distribution. 

DOG, Fox, AND WOL F 

By the breaks in the dog skulls, it appears that a 

small variety of dog was eaten. Coastal Eskimos are 

not now inclined to eat dog, but have no feelings 

against it (Spencer, 1959:374). Th e inland Eskimos 

raise dogs for food, and wolves and foxes are also 

boiled and eaten. Dog and fox may have made up a 

small portion of the diet of the people living on levels 

B-9 and B-10, but are infrequently found in the later 

levels. 
FAUNAL ANALYSI S 87 

TABLE 8.—Distribution of selected bone elements 

for polar bear, bearded seal, and walrus from the 

various occupation levels of each culture phase, 

Walakpa site 

CD 

CO 

rd 

£ 

cu 

i-i 

3 

4-> 

r H 

3 

U 

CD 

rH 

3 

$ 

CD 

4-> 

r H Thu 

r>H ! 

H 

ca 

H irk 

c 

-rH 

m 

c 

o 

•H 

4-> 

rd 

•0 ftrH 

C 3 CD 

3 O > 

o O (D E O J 

A - 1 

A - 2 

A - 3 

A - 4 

A - 5 

A - 6 

A - 7 

B - 1 

B - 2 

B - 3 

B - 4 

B - 5 

B - 6 

B - 7 

B - 8 

B - 9 

B-10 

Pola r 

TJ 

id 

& X 

2 

-

_ 

-

2 

-

1 

-

-

2 

-

-

-

-

_ 

6 

7 

| 

3 

SH 

E-i 

1 8 

Bear 

tj> 

CD tTi 

r-l CD 

•H 

O 0 

u id 

fc, CQ 

-

-

_ 

-

-

-

-

-

_ 

-

-

-

- -

1 

4 1 

2 2 

-P 

O 

o 

fc, 

1 

1 

_ 

-

3 

3 

1 

1 

2 

3 

1 8 

3 0 

Bearded 

-a 

CO 

CD 

a 

1 

-

1 

-

l 

-

1 

1 

_ 

3 

5 

ti 3 

rH 

EH 

3 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

5 

2 4 

2 9 

CTl 

CD 

r H 

4-1 

c 0 

rH 

fc. 

2 

1 

2 

-

-

-

1 

1 

3 

1 6 

5 

Seal 

CTl 

CD 

r H 

X 

u 

id 

HI 

2 

-

1 

1 

1 

_ 

-

-

1 

5 

2 

+i 

0 

0 

tu 

8 

5 

2 

4 

2 

1 

1 

1 

5 

1 

-

1 

6 

2 0 

•0 

rd 

CD 

a 

l 

-

-

-

_ 

2 

3 

3 

Walrus 

3 

3 

h 

EH 

1 

1 

2 

3 

2 

1 

2 

4 

1 

2 

Cn 

V 

f-H 

4-1 

c o 

l-l 

CK 

1 

1 

" 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

Cn 

CI 

x 

o 

id 

m 

l 

_ 

-

-

1 

-

1 

2 

2 2 

2 0 

4-1 

o 

o 

Cu 

-

2 

_ 

2 

2 

3 

1 0 

6 

OTHER MAMMALS AND BIRDS 

Except in levels B-9 and B-10, the bones of animals other than seal and caribou make up an extremely insignificant number. Those bones, as mentioned above, are thought to have been introduced 

from outside the site in the form of supplemental 

foods. This is particularly apparent in the case of 

birds where the majority of bones found were those 

on which larger portions of meat occurred. There 

were few heads and no feet, with the humeri, sterna 

and furcula making up over 90 percent of the bone 

count. 

This is also apparent with bearded seal and walrus 

bones. Th e bones found in the hunting camps represent, for the most part, leg bones, foot bones, and 

occasionally trunk bones (Table 8). From these animals the choice portions of meat are the heart, liver, 

and ribs (Spencer, 1959:374). The rest of the meat 

is less highly regarded for human consumption and is 

fed to the dogs. The flesh of the flippers and legs 

are sewn into skins and allowed to ferment. When 

the flipper is boiled it is regarded as an excellent food 

(Spencer, 1959:374). Skull bones of these animals 

are very dense and may have also been carried to 

hunting sites or collected on the beach for materials to 

manufacture artifacts. 

In summary, the faunal analysis has pointed out 

several important aspects from which to interpret 

archeological evidence of the Walakpa site. The first 

and most important inference that can be made is 

that there has been a change in the seal populations 

between the Birnirk and Early Thule periods and the 

possibility of larger sizes of ring seals in the Birnirk 

and Late Thule periods as compared to variations in 

size of the seals from the Early Thule period. This is 

thought to have occurred because of the nutritional 

defects of a shorter pupping season, caused by the 

earlier ice break-up in the spring during the possibly 

warmer, Early Thule cultural phase. 

The second important inference which can be made 

from the faunal analysis is that there are two basic 

patterns of site utilization. The first is that of brief 

hunting camps represented by small numbers of seal 

and caribou kills. The elements that were left behind in these camps are butchered and discarded 

bones and a relative absence of choice meat-packet 

bones. It is thought that the better cuts or portions 

of meat were taken back to a base camp while the 

rest was left at the hunting site. 

The second pattern of site utilization is that of a 

base camp site. Here we found that the reverse 

distribution of bones occurred. The choice or large 

meat packet bones made up the majority of the bone 

count, while the less desirable cuts made up significantly fewer bones. This would indicate meat input from the hunting camps. 

Another important consideration is that during 

Birnirk times few whale bones were being introduced 

into the faunal inventory. The possibility that the 

Birnirk Eskimos were not systematically hunting 

large whales is quite significant for the origin of 

Thule culture and is discussed in greater detail on 

pages 97 and 113. 
Archeological Analysis of the 

Walakpa Cultural Units 

In order to clarify the cultural processes represented by the archeological assemblages unearthed 

at Walakpa Bay, it may be fruitful to examine the 

seasonal round of the historic Point Barrow Eskimos 

(Murdoch, 1892; Spencer, 1959), which can be viewed 

as a complex scheduling of various seasonal economic 

activities, which correlate with the maximum potentials of the various ecosystems. The seasonal round 

is manifested in a series of economic options so that 

when one ecosystem is at a low point, another ecosystem may be exploited. The seasonal options are 

ranked in order of their economic potentials, so that 

the primary option has the greatest energy yield, 

while the secondary and tertiary options are respectively less. If the primary option activity is successful, the secondary and tertiary options are less 

important and are used only to provide a variation 

in diet or activity. However, if the primary option 

should fail, the secondary and tertiary options become extremely important for replacing the major 

food resource. The scheduling of options will depend 

seasonally on the success of the primary option. These 

options are summarized in the discussion of the seasonal round and in Figure 1. 

Historic Point Barrow Eskimo 

The seasonal round of the historic Point Barrow 

Eskimo begins in the spring (Figure 22). During midApril most people are gathered in the main village 

(Utkiavik). If the weather is favorable the whaling 

season will soon commence. The major activities 

revolve around preparations for whaling (spring, 

option 1). New gear is made and old gear is repaired 

and cleaned. A small amount of duck and caribou 

hunting (spring, option 2) can be done at this time. 

The whaling season continues through May and 

tapers off during the first week of June. 

The whaling camps are situated on the ocean ice 

near ice leads. Camps are located near each other, 

and there is frequent intercrew cooperation. The 

remains of these camps will not, in most instances, 

FIGURE 22.—Seasonal options and their general geographic location. 

survive the summer, and broken and discarded tools 

usually end up in the ocean leaving no evidence 

for the archeologist. 

During June the offshore ice usually breaks up and 

drifts out to sea. Cooperative hunting may continue, 

concentrating on the bearded seal. 

After the whaling season, several subsistence options exist. A hunter may remain in the village and 

participate in cooperative hunting (summer, option 

1), or if he desires he may take his family to individual 

hunting camps (summer, option 2). These camps are 

88 
ARCHEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL UNITS 89 

oriented toward hunting of seals, caribou, water 

birds, and fishing. 

In July, the main caribou herds arrive, and they 

are hunted by cooperative hunting parties composed 

of the same people who make up the whaling crew. 

Some men will return to the village from the small 

summer camps to participate in the hunt, others 

prefer to stay in the summer camps and hunt caribou 

on their own. If a man returns, his family generally 

stays at a summer camp to concentrate on the fish 

resources (option 3). Although the caribou remain 

on the coast for a short time, they can be obtained 

in large numbers when hunted on a cooperative 

basis. 

By mid-August, the walrus herds are moving along 

the coast with the drifting pack ice. Walrus hunting 

is another cooperative activity. The walrus is essential for the manufacture of many items needed to 

sustain life. The walrus herds have mostly left the 

area by the end of August at which time more effort 

is expended on fishing and duck hunting. The summer camps then become the primary center of 

activity. 

In the fall a secondary whaling season might occur 

in the Barrow area (fall, option 1). At this time 

families start returning to the main village; but many 

individuals elect to continue hunting caribou and 

seal (fall, option 2). Most hunters are generally back 

in the main village by November (winter, option 1). 

Sometimes during the winter, a few families will leave 

the community to ice fish on the inland lakes and 

hunt caribou (winter, option 2) or venture down the 

coast to hunt seals and caribou (winter, option 3). 

However, the attractions of the village are great during the winter months of December through March, 

when one can visit with friends and participate in 

group activities, such as dances, games, and religious 

activities. This is also a period for repairing and 

manufacturing tools. 

This brief sketch of the seasonal round of the 

historic Point Barrow Eskimo indicates that there 

are certain limitations placed on the Eskimo by the 

cyclical nature of the major food sources. In order to 

insure enough food for the long winter, it is important 

that a hunter participate, in cooperative economic 

associations. It is also clear that several options are 

available for a variation in the pattern of existence 

if a primary energy source should fail. 

Archeological Considerations 

In order for the archeologist to reconstruct the 

economic round of the prehistoric Eskimo culture, 

the investigator must define basic sets of interrelated 

variables associated with specific seasonal economic 

activities. The variables that should define economic 

pursuits are (1) settlement types and locations, (2) 

tool kit types, and (3) faunal analysis. 

SETTLEMENT TYPES AND LOCATIONS.—The settlement types to be used in this treatment are the type i, 

II, and in settlements as defined by Campbell (1968) 

for the Tuluaqmiut Eskimo. 

Type i: The central base camp. This is the 

largest local group forming a political unit and a 

village. At Point Barrow, it is the village of Utkiavik. 

Type ii: Smaller, less permanent camps occupied 

for several months during the year. These camps 

are not necessarily occupied every year. The summer 

hunting or fishing camps belong here. Many of these 

camps exist along the coast, inland lakes, and rivers 

in the Point Barrow area, but none have been excavated. 

Type HI: Camps set up for short durations for 

various hunting and fishing activities. These are located in the geographical areas of exploitation. 

TOOL KIT TYPES.—Tool kit types have been defined on the basis of implied activities all of which 

are confirmed by research on the historical Eskimo. 

The tool kits utilized by an Eskimo group would 

include those for hunting whales, seals, caribou, birds, 

and fish; and also those used for processing, maintenance, and manufacturing; transportation; culinary; 

environmental protection; and community activities. 

Of this inventory of tool kits, it is presumed that only 

hunting tool kits, environmental protection tool kits 

(dwelling type and associated artifacts) and community activity tool kits (drums, games, etc., used 

during the winter), and possibly transportation tool 

kits (boats, sleds, and related gear) would be good 

indicators of seasonality. The other tool kits are less 

specific in their functions and can be expected to 

occur on almost every type of camp site at all times 

of the year. 

FAUNAL ANALYSIS.—Faunal and floral analysis are 

essential in understanding the seasonal round. In 

many cases, this type of data is not available to the 

archeologist. In the Arctic, animal and plant remains 

are usually well preserved; however, because of the 

remoteness of most sites and the tremendous cost of 

transportation, few investigators bring this material 

back to the laboratory and do not capitalize on this 

type of analysis. This is unfortunate because the age 

of animals at the time of death can be determined 

from tooth eruption and wear, growth ring patterns, 

and examination of the stages of epiphyseal closure. 

It also appears that butchering and meat-handling 

processes among the Eskimo may fluctuate during the 

year, depending on the type of camp site, the weather, 
90 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

and if the meat is intended for immediate consumption or storage. This type of data is an extremely 

important tool for determining the seasonal aspect of 

an archeological site. 

The Chronology of the Walakpa Site 

The chronological sequence of the occupation 

levels at Walakpa represent one of the most complete 

series showing cultural development in northern 

Alaska. The superimposed nature of the occupation 

levels have yielded new data that will help clarify 

these cultural developments. 

The chronology presented here is based primarily 

on the occurrence in the stratigraphic sequence of 

certain cultural features that seem to be significant. 

Only two wood-charcoal C-14 samples were recovered, 

and the dates fit the sequence reasonably well: 970 ± 

90 B.P. (Gak 2298)=A.D. 980 for the upper Birnirk 

level in the A area test trench, and 840 ±90 B.P. (Gak 

2297)=A.D. 1110 for Early Thule in the A area test 

trench. Additional dates were .analyzed using seal 

bones; the results are, as usual, unsatisfactory. These 

dates are: (1) level B-10, 1240 ±95 B.P. (SI-2158)=A.D. 

710; (2) level B-8, 1695±95 B.P. (SI-2159) = A.D. 255; 

(3) level B-7, 1765 + 90 B.P. (SI-2160) = A.D. 185; 

(4) level B-6, 1070±90 B.P. (SI-2161)=A.D. 880; (5) 

level A-5, 1555 ±95 B.P. (SI-2162) = A.D. 395. Of these 

dates, only one falls close to the expected age, that is, 

sample 1 (SI-2158), A.D. 710 for Early Birnirk. 

Birnirk is divided into three phases: Early, Middle 

and Late. It is suggested that these phases date as 

follows: Early Birnirk, A.D. 500-700; Middle Birnirk, 

A.D. 700-800; and Late Birnirk, A.D. 800-900. 

These dates are arrived at by (1) the approximate 

date of A.D. 500 for the Kugusugaruk site, which is 

here considered to be the earliest Birnirk date, and 

(2) the terminal date of A.D. 900 for Birnirk, because 

the Early Thule occupation of Nunagiak must have 

occurred between A.D. 900-1000, as indicated by the 

rise in the sea level elevation. The break for Middle 

Birnirk is purely arbitrary, and further dating is being 

awaited. 

Early Birnirk is characterized by having harpoon 

heads with medially placed trifurcated spurs. This 

type of spur is found exclusively in the lowest level 

at Walakpa and from two burials at Point Hope. The 

spur is also thought to have developed from Old 

Bering Sea, where many harpoon heads have trifurcated spurs. The major differences between Birnirk 

and the earlier Eskimo cultures seem to be (1) that 

the Birnirk open-socket harpoon head only occurs in 

Birnirk, and (2) there is a decreased emphasis on 

decorative motifs in Birnirk. 

Middle Birnirk is a relatively subjective phase. 

It is typified as having harpoon heads with bifurcated 

spurs. This type of spur is found exclusively in two 

levels (B9 and B8) at Walakpa, as well as at other 

sites. There are variations and overlaps in spur styles; 

the sequence is not as clear-cut as it should be. However, it seems that the vast majority of harpoon heads 

from this phase have the bifurcated spurs. Many 

others have ornamental third spurs, but it can 

usually be demonstrated that these are strictly ornamental with the basic spur being bifurcated. These 

ornamental spurs may represent a transitional phase 

between the trifurcated and bifurcated spurs. 

Late Birnirk did not appear at Walakpa but was 

found at mound A in the Birnirk site. The harpoon 

heads from this phase have single-pointed spurs with 

decorative medial lines recalling the bifurcated spur. 

Sometimes these medial lines separate tiny points, 

which also give the impression of an ornamental 

bifurcated spur. A decorative single point placed 

laterally at the top of the spur also recalls the bifurcated spur. This last feature occurs in the Early 

Thule phase. 

The Thule sequence is divided into two phases, 

Early and Late. Early Thul e dates from A.D. 900 to 

A.D. 1400, and Late Thule lasts up to historic contact. 

The major difference between Late Birnirk and 

Early Thule is the dropping of the decorative medial 

line on the harpoon head spur and the disuse of 

many of the classic Birnirk harpoon heads, particularly the Birnirk open socket variety. The major 

differences between Early and Late Thule are that 

Early Thule has the classic Thul e harpoon types and 

antler arrowheads with rounded shoulders. The Late 

Thule harpoon heads are obviously related to the 

Early Thule types, with many modifications and proliferations of the Early Thul e types. Th e major difference is the change from round-shouldered antler 

arrowheads to the square-shouldered types and the 

use of ownership marks in the Late Thule phase. The 

date of A.D. 1400 is used for the transition because of 

the cooling of the climatic conditions and the lowering of the sea level, which occurred at this time. 

These two events probably triggered the beginning 

of communal whale hunting and the development of 

large villages—both of which are characteristic of 

Late Thule in northern Alaska. 

Cultura l Analysis 

BIRNIRK 

The Birnirk phase at Walakpa was found in both 

middens and underlays Early Thul e cultural levels. 
ARCHEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL UNITS 91 

In the A area of excavation, a Birnirk level was encountered in the 1968 test trenches. Only the upper 

Thule levels of A area were examined in 1969, but 

the evidence indicates that it may contain several 

distinct levels of Birnirk occupation. The lower portion of the unit contained the earlier Naulock and 

Birnirk types. No structural features were excavated 

in the A area. 

The B area contained three Birnirk-occupation 

levels. These consisted of a permanent house, a possible tent structure and three levels of trash middens. 

Estimation of population size is impossible without 

further excavations in the A area. However, the size 

of the A midden would indicate that it contains no 

more than one additional house, and it is doubtful 

that more than two households could have camped 

here at any one time. 

The lowest Birnirk level was B-10. The harpoon 

heads from this level are all early types and may date 

this level as being one of the earliest Birnirk occupations in the Point Barrow area. This unit consisted 

of a trash midden and several upright posts. To the 

southwest of the trash midden there was an activity 

area defined by a large area of matted caribou hair. 

Associated with the caribou hair were several twohanded scrapers and a log. The insides of the twohanded scrapers were matted with caribou hair as 

was one end of the log. Caribou skins were placed 

over the log, and the scrapers were used to pull the 

hair away from the hide. The concave portion of 

the scrapers matched the upper diameter of the log. 

From the faunal analysis of this level it appears 

that level B-10 represents a continuous habitation 

of several months duration. The dentaries on the 

juvenile caribou mandibles and the epiphyseal closure 

of other bones indicate that the animals were killed 

during the winter. The exceptionally high number 

of seals points to a long period of habitation. The 

remains of 162 seals were recovered from this level 

which represents a minimal number. This would 

average out to represent about a seal a day during the 

winter. This can be compared to the 18 seals recovered from level B-8, which apparently represents 

a short-duration Birnirk hunting camp. Many of the 

seals and caribou may have been killed locally. However, from the occurrence and absence of the animal 

elements it appears that as high as 37 percent of the 

seals and 42 percent of the caribou may have been 

killed at other places and their meat transported to 

this camp site. The number of walrus and bearded 

seal bones is significantly lower than would be expected. 

Level B-9 appears to represent a spring-throughfall habitation. This is indicated by the eruption and 

wear on caribou dentaries along with an extremely 

high proportion of immature animal bones. Moreover, the wear pattern on the seal teeth found in this 

level is significantly different from those of the presumed winter levels. A high number of walrus, 

bearded seal, and polar bear bones may also indicate 

that this level was occupied from spring through fall. 

A possible tent structure was discovered in this 

level (Figure 23). Three logs were found placed in a 

roughly U-shaped rectangle. Perhaps they had been 

placed over the lower edges of a tent-covering to hold 

them down. Eight horizontal planks make up an 

entrance platform near the center of the open end. 

Upright legs were placed at the corners where the 

logs come together. Between the entrance platform 

and the sides, there were several upright logs along 

the front edge. These uprights were probably used for 

the tent framework. Two upright logs in front of the 

structure and slightly to the west possibly served as 

drying racks. These logs were placed about 1.2 meters 

apart. All of the upright logs were cut off in the 

upper levels, and these portions of the logs were used 

for other purposes or by later inhabitants. Several 

other miscellaneous upright logs were found, but it is 

tsr^l = Horizontal Logs 

\(^)\ = Vertical Logs 

I I = Bones 

FIGURE 23.—B-9 occupation floor showing logs possibly used to 

hold down the tent walls, and logs used for entrance way. 
92 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20 

[gag 'Horizontal Logs |<§g)| "Vertical Logs 1 1 = Bone 

FIGURE 24.—Plan of house floor from B-8 occupation level. 

impossible to say what their use may have been. They 

were probably associated with level B-10, as caribou 

hairs from level B-10 were found matted around 

them. Nothing indicates that the logs were intrusive. 

The B-9 level is unique for the Walakpa site. It 

is the only level that apparently represents a springthrough-fall occupation of the site. There is no actual 

stratigraphic break between the B-10 and B-9 levels. 

However, it was observed that the logs at level B-9 

overlayed the bones of level B-10. Secondly, there 

seemed to be a difference in the structure of the refuse 

deposition. This was further substantiated by. the 

faunal analysis. It is for these two reasons that the 

levels were excavated and artifacts cataloged separately. 

The B-8 level represents a brief hunting camp. 

Seals and caribou were the animals primarily killed 

or introduced into this occupation level. These 

animal remains are similar to those found in the later 

hunting camp levels, and the caribou dentaries point 

to this as being a winter site. This level is different 

from the hunting camps of the Thul e periods in that 

a sod house was the dwelling used (Figure 24, Plate 

5a-d). 

The house remains consisted of a single room with 

a square wooden floor measuring 2.14x2.14 m (9x9 

ft). There were several upright posts at the southwest 

corner and along the west side of the structure. These 

were probably wall supports. Cut sod was placed 

along the outside timbers with the grass mat facing 

downwards. There were no remains of the entrance 

tunnel and no roof timbers were found. It is possible 

that these planks may have been used by later occupants of the site and thus removed from this level. 

Whale bone apparently was not used in construction 

of this house. 

EARLY THULE 

Early Thule levels were found in both the A and 

B areas of the site. As the 1969 excavations did not 

reach the depth of the Early Thule level in the A area, 

little is known about it. Th e Early Thul e level found 

in the test trench contained Natchuk and Sicco 

varieties of harpoon heads. Our information on the 

Early Thule occupation of Walakpa site comes from 

the B area. Six occupation levels were found in the 

B area, all of which contained harpoon heads and 

arrowpoints, which are similar to those of the Thule 

culture as defined by Mathiassen (1927b). 

The six levels represent essentially the same type of 

occupation (Plate 4a-c). No permanent houses were 

found, and it is thought that tents were used for 

shelters. The only evidence for a tent occurred in the 

B-6 level, which consists of a few scattered large logs, 

and it is possible that it may represent another type of 

structure (Figure 25). 

The patterns of occurrence of the faunal elements 

in these levels are nearly the same throughout the 

entire Early Thule continuum. They are thought to 

represent the results of brief winter-hunting encampments with the choice cuts of meat being taken to 

these base camps and leaving mostly discarded butchered elements at the kill sites. The area of occupation, 

including the A area, indicates that there were 

probably less than two or three tent sites in any one 

level, and the scarcity of bones and artifacts indicates 

that these probably represent single-family or single 

hunting-party occupations. 

The lowest Early Thul e level, B-7, had the largest 

concentration of artifacts (Plate 4d). These included 

the typical Thule harpoon heads and a Punuk harpoon head. 

An activity area, where arrowshafts were manufactured, was found in the B-7 level. Th e debris 
ARCHEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL UNITS 93 

15' (4.57 Meters)-

A*^t=-5«r== 

Horizontal Logs Vertical Logs j !• Bones 

FIGURE 25.—B-6 occupation floor, showing logs possibly used 

to hold down the tent walls. 

•Horizontal Logs |<@?1 •Vertical Logs I I • Bones 

FIGURE 26.—A-5 occupation floor showing possible tent structure. 

recovered from this area includes (1) small sections 

of driftwood in various stages of being split and 

carved into round shafts, (2) shafts that were apparently too curved to be straightened or that were 

otherwise found to be unsuitable, (3) several bundles 

of wood shaves collected into piles, which had apparently been saved for padding or kindling, (4) a hafted 

knife, (5) a worn-out flake-knife blade, (6) a small 

wedge, and (7) numerous pressure-resharpening flakes. 

LATE THULE 

There were at least nine Late Thule levels in the A 

area. However, the lower two, A-8 and A-9 were 

only tested and not excavated. Like the Early Thule 

levels, these are all considered brief winter hunting 

camps. No permanent structures were found. However, there were the remains of several tents (Figure 

26, Plate 3b). There is no evidence to indicate that 

OCCUPATION 

LEVELS 

HISTORIC 

HOUSE 

A - 2 

A - 3 

A - 4 

A - 5 

A - 6 

A - 8 

B-1 

OWNERSHIP MARKS 

f 

1 1 w 

1 

If 

Ul 

1 w 

1 

I / 

FIGURE 27.—The occurrence of antler arrowhead ownership 

marks in the Late Thule levels at Walakpa site. 
94 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TABLE 9.—Summary of artifacts and faunal remains from the various 

occupation levels of each culture phase, Walakpa site 

NUMBER 20 

(1) 

01 

rd 

,c 

n 

ID 

H 

3 

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3 

U 

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£ 

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A-1 

A-2 

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A-4 

A-5 

A-6 

A-7 

B-1 

B-2 

B-3 

B-4 

B-5 

B-6 

B-7 

B-8 

B-9 

B-10 

01 

c 

• H 

i d 

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« <D 

H 

r H 0 

i d > 

C 0 

a o 

i d 0 

ELJ « 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Whale 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Seal 

Caribou 

Ugruk 

Walrus 

Polar Bea 

Whale 

Bird 

Fish 

Seal 

Caribou 

Ugruk 

Walrus 

Polar Bea 

Whale 

Bird 

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Seal 

Caribou 

Ugruk 

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Late Fall 2-Fall 

~ 

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Late Fall 2-Fall 

Early Winter 2-Fall 

Late Fall 2-Fall 

-

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Winter 3-Winter 

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Winter 3-Winter 

_ 

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Spring-Fall 1-Summer 

-

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Fall-Winter 1-Winter 

-

+ Present in undetermined quantities. Missing data, T Tent, S Sod. 
ARCHEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL UNITS 95 

there were over two tents here at any one time. The 

tent remains were similar to that described for the 

B-9 level. They consisted of several logs placed 

horizontally in subrectangular patterns with horizontal planks making up entrance porches. The 

interiors around the logs were remarkably devoid of 

cultural debris. Only the central portions of the tents 

contained debris accumulations. In each tent, the 

clear area between the logs and the debris is believed 

to have been storage or sleeping areas, with either containers or skins having been placed on the floor. Most 

of these floors were covered with scattered cut sod. 

The Late Thule phase at Walakpa is defined on the 

basis of ownership marks on the antler arrowheads. 

Ownership marks are identification signs that are 

carved on the body of the arrowheads. These marks 

occasionally occur on other objects but are found 

primarily on antler arrowheads and whaling harpoon 

heads—both communal activity tools with the marks 

serving to identify the killer or owner of specific 

animals. 

Ownership marks, according to Spencer (1959:150) 

are not inherited, but a man designs his own mark 

when he feels he has sufficient equipment and prestige 

to merit having a mark. His mark is related to his 

father's in that it is similar in the use of the same 

motifs but with slight variations. Brothers have 

closely related marks. 

When examining the marks from Walakpa (Figure 

27), we see that there is a close relationship between 

the marks from the earliest level until the historic 

period. These marks are variations of slanted lines 

around a single straight line. Although it is not conclusive, I would suggest that these marks may indicate 

that the same family used Walakpa for their fallhunting camp over the generations from perhaps 

before A.D. 1400 until the historic period. The same 

historic ownership mark occurs at Nuwuk, and it may 

not be too far out of line to suggest that the family 

who camped at Walakpa were Nuwukmuit. 

Table 9 is a summary of the artifact and faunal 

remains from each of the levels at the Walakpa site. 
Comparison of Walakpa and Other 

Birnirk and Thule Sites 

Most archeological reports on Eskimo cultures 

contain detailed comparisons of trait lists. These lists 

are designed to show similarities and differences between various phases of Eskimo prehistory. As more 

sites are found and reported, various phases become 

less distinctive and often they may now be grouped 

together into larger cultural complexes. To illustrate 

this point, one can examine Ford's (1959:241) trait 

comparisons of Birnirk and Canadian Thule. He 

described 46 traits that tie Birnirk to Thule. However, from Walakpa and other excavations in Alaska 

and Canada, his trait list could now be expanded to 

include Thule II, Thule m, Thule iv, Sicco, and 

Tasik harpoon heads, tapering tang antler arrowheads, and seal scratchers as occurring in both Birnirk 

and Thule. 

In another list, Ford (1959:241) described eight 

traits that first appeared at Nunagiak and were 

shared by Canadian Thule. These traits are (1) 

Thule II harpoon heads, (2) Tasik harpoon heads, 

(3) arrowheads with knobbed tangs, (4) harpoon 

socket pieces with wedge-shaped tangs, (5) bird dart 

side prongs, (6) bladder dart socket pieces with 

tubular and split tangs, (7) double-crescent thimble 

holders, and (8) gull hooks. Of this list, which was 

designed to prove that* Nunagiak is the cultural link 

between Birnirk and Thule, the first four traits are 

found in collections from the Birnirk sites. As Taylor 

(1963:460) points out, these finds seriously weaken 

Ford's argument that Nunagiak was the transitional 

phase and thus brings Birnirk and Canadian Thule 

closer together. 

Ford (1959:241-242) in another comparative list, 

notes 34 traits that first appeared in Canadian Thule 

and are found in later Point Barrow phases. But six 

of these traits are now found in either Birnirk or 

Northern Alaskan Early Thule levels at Walakpa. 

These are (1) single-edged, slate knife blades, (2) snow 

probes, (3) men's knife handles, flattened, oval in 

cross-section, (4) picks and mattocks with lashing 

notches, (5) crooked knives, and (6) cylindrical ulu 

handles. 

Traits that are now found in Thul e but not in 

Birnirk are (1) loose lance heads with open sockets, 

(2) fixed lance heads with wedge-shaped tangs and side 

blades, (3) weapon points of baleen, (4) squareshouldered antler arrowheads with spurred tangs, (5) 

Late Thule harpoon heads, (6) Thul e bird darts, 

(7) barbs for salmon spears, (8) broad snow knives, 

(9) whale bone shaves, (10) winged needle cases, (11) 

lamps, and (12) soap-stone cooking pots. Th e present 

writer believes that many of the items in the above 

list will be dropped as exclusive to one or the other 

cultural complexes when more Birnirk sites are 

excavated and described. 

To show that there was continuing influence from 

the Bering Straits region to the Point Barrow area, 

Ford (1959:242) pointed out traits shared between 

Punuk and later Point Barrow cultures. In this list 

he included the seal scratcher and bladder-dart mouthpieces. Both of these items were found in earlier 

cultural units at Walakpa. Th e seal scratcher, as 

mentioned above, was found in the Birnirk unit, 

while an excellent example of a bladder-dart mouthpiece was found in an Early Thul e level. 

Four traits supposedly link Okvik of the Bering Sea 

area and Nuwuk-Utkiavik (Ford, 1959:242). Among 

these are blunt, bird arrowpoints and three-piece 

adzes with handles lashed to the socket at right angles. 

The three-piece adz occurs in both Birnirk and Early 

Thule and the blunt, bird arrowpoint is found in 

Early Thule occupation at Walakpa. 

The use of trait lists was of value in early days of 

Eskimo archeology. At the time the exact relationships between far distant cultures was not known. 

These lists, during the 1920s and 1930s, helped to 

show the relationships of these cultures from Greenland to Siberia. Now, however, we should turn to 

more sensitive diagnostic comparisons. It is felt here 

that the most diagnostic traits that can be used to indicate Eskimo cultural development and relationships 

are harpoon heads and, possibly, antler arrowheads. 

While their known distribution and chronological 

positions are still somewhat confusing, these artifacts, 

nevertheless, show general style changes through time. 

Few sites have been found in which the stratigraphy 

96 
COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER SITES 97 

indicates temporal positions of various Birnirk and 

Thule harpoon heads and arrowpoints. In fact, in 

most sites, these artifacts have been discovered in 

separate middens and it is unfortunately impossible 

to tell which midden accumulated first, as C-14 dating 

is not that sensitive. Therefore, the stratigraphic 

continuum of the 17 levels of the Walakpa midden is 

important in that it precisely indicates the relative 

temporal positions of these artifact types. Therefore, 

the harpoon heads and antler arrowheads found in 

these levels will be compared with other sites of 

Birnirk and Thule age. 

A second type of comparison will be made between 

Birnirk and Thule cultures on the basis of settlement 

size for the purpose of indicating possible group size 

and showing any significant change through time. 

This latter comparison is tenuous and is based largely 

on circumstantial evidence because many investigators 

generally fail to seriate habitations accurately into 

horizontally comtemporaneous units. 

Northern Alaska 

Most Birnirk sites occur in Northern and Western 

Alaska, and none have been found east of Point 

Barrow. Few of these sites have been excavated, and 

others, for various reasons to be explained, are not 

believed to be Birnirk by the present author. 

BIRNIRK (Figure 28:9).—The Birnirk type-site, 

located midway between Utkiavik and Point Barrow, 

consists of 16 mounds. Seven of these mounds were 

excavated in part by Ford (1959). Three were excavated by Wilbert Carter of Tufts University between 1951 and 1953. Other excavations were conducted at Birnirk by Eskimos who were employed by 

Stefansson (1914:393), but the exact location of where 

they worked is uncertain. The mounds represent a 

long period of occupation, which may be as early as 

Old Bering Sea in age (Carter, pers. comm.), with 

occupations during all the Birnirk phases and including a Thule occupation. 

The Birnirk occupation of the site can be grouped 

into three periods based on harpoon head types (Table 

10). The earliest Birnirk occupations are found in 

mounds H, Q, and K. This phase, as at Walakpa, is 

marked by harpoon heads with medially placed, trifurcated spurs. They include the types of Birnirk, 

Naulock, Oopik, and Tuquok. Middle Birnirk artifacts, similar to those in levels B-9 and B-8 at Walakpa, are also found in mounds H and Q. These 

harpoon heads have bifurcate, laterally placed spurs. 

These were also found in mound B and C of Ford's 

excavations. The types represented here are Naulock, 

Birnirk, Natchuk, and Tuquok. Late Birnirk is well 

represented in the various structures of mound A, 

but also occurs in mounds J, R, H, and Q. This 

phase has the simple lateral spur, with a decorative, 

medial line. These spurs are found on Naulock, 

Tasik, Birnirk, Tuquok, Oopik, Katoktok, Tipiruk, 

Thule II, Natchuk, Sicco, and Alilu. Late Birnirk 

was not found at Walakpa. 

The harpoon heads that were found at Birnirk, 

but were not found at Walakpa, are (1) Oopik, an 

open socket type with either lashing slots or grooves, 

barbless blades placed at right angles to the line hole, 

inset-side blades placed in the same plane as the line 

hole, and spurs with either single or multiple points 

placed either directly below or at right angles to the 

open socket (Ford, 1959:77, fig. 27b-4); (2) Katoktok, 

which is very similar to Oopik, except that it does not 

have the inset-side blades (Ford, 1959:80, fig. 28g), 

and (3) Tipiruk, which has an open socket, lashing 

slots and blades without either barbs or end blades 

(Ford, 1959:80, fig. 28h-l). 

The Thule occupation of the Birnirk site is found 

primarily in mound H. It appears to be late in the 

Thule sequence and has only Thule II harpoon heads. 

Carter (pers. comm.) feels that the elevation of mound 

H is high enough to have remained dry during periods 

of high sea levels. However, it can be pointed out that 

this Thule occupation could have coincided with the 

drop in sea level of A.D. 1400/1500. 

The antler arrowheads that I have been able to 

examine from Birnirk tend to follow the same sequence as is seen at Walakpa, with the rounded 

shoulder, straight tang varieties being common in 

the early phase structures, while the rounded 

shoulder, conical tang variety is typical of the late 

structures in mound A. 

Two whaling harpoon heads should be noted as 

having been found at Birnirk. Ford (1959:103) 

reported one from mound A, which has a round 

Thule type of line hole, but the angular shape is 

suggestive of Punuk-whaling harpoon heads. Carter 

(pers. comm.) found a whaling harpoon head, along 

with other whaling gear in mound Q. The harpoon 

head from mound Q is much more Punuk looking 

than is the example from mound A. It is made of 

ivory, with an elongated, oval line hole, which is 

placed near the lower margin of the head. Of the 

two harpoon heads, I would say that Carter's specimen 

is much earlier than is Ford's, which was found with 

Late Birnirk harpoon head types. The only piece 

of Birnirk whaling gear found at Walakpa, was a large 

harpoon socket piece (Plate 16«?). Little evidence is 

found at Walakpa of whale hunting, and Carter and I 

feel that the Birnirk hunters did not regularly hunt 

whales. 
98 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

FIGURE 28.—Polar projection of the locations of Birnirk, and Early and Late Thule sites. 

Although the sites are on the coast, for emphasis they are shown as large dots and are designated 

by numbers with their names and cultural affiliation as follows: 1, Cape Baranov (Late Birnirk); 

2, East Cape (Early and Middle Birnirk, Late Thule); 3, St. Lawrence Island (Early Birnirk); 

4, Cape Denbigh (Early and Late Thule); 5, Cape Prince of Wales (Birnirk, Early and Late 

Thule-Punuk); 6, Cape Krusenstern (Birnirk, Early and Late Thule); 7, Point Hope (Early 

Birnirk, Early and Late Thule); 8, Nunagiak (Early and Late Thule); 9, Point Barrow sites: 

Birnirk site (Early, Middle, and Late Birnirk, Late Thule); Utkiavik (Late Thule); Koguk 

(Early and Middle Birnirk); Nunavak (Early, Middle, and Late Birnirk); Walakpa (Early and 

Middle Birnirk, Early and Late Thule); 10, Hershel Island (Early Thule); 11, Vaughn (Early 

Thule); 12, Jackson (Early Thule); 13, Memorana (Early Thule); 14, Lady Franklin Point (Early 

Thule); 15, Pembroke (Early Thule); 16, Clare (Early Thule); 11, Bell (Early Thule); 18, Ml 

(Early Thule); 19, Ruin Island (Early Thule); 20, Umanag (Early Thule); 21, Nugdlit (Early 

Thule). 

Carter (pers. comm.) estimates that the occupation 

of the Birnirk site during any one phase was rather 

small, consisting of possibly two to three houses. 

This fits the estimates of the size of the occupation at 

Walakpa. 

NUVUWARUK (Figure 28:9).—Nuvuwaruk, located 

at Browerville, near Barrow Village, consists of three 

house mounds (Ford, 1959:55-56). Ford made several 

minor tests at the site finding only one Thul e n 

harpoon head and no antler arrowheads. Th e placement of Nuvuwaruk into the Thule sequence is 

impossible on the bases of the evidence at hand, and 

it seems unlikely that any further work will be done 

at this site, as Browerville is now built up. 

UTKIAVIK (Figure 28:9).—The Kugok burial 

mounds excavated by Ford are located at Utkiavik 

(1959:25-32). These mounds contained Birnirk harpoon heads of the trifurcate spur, Birnirk open 

socket, and the Naulock bifurcated spur types, as well 

as artifacts that have Old Bering Sea styles of decoration. Ford (1959:31) thought that these burials may 

be slightly earlier than most of the material from the 

Birnirk site. This was because of the Old Bering Sea 

decoration. Now, with the stratigraphic placement 

at Walakpa of the trifurcate-spurred harpoon heads 

as being early Birnirk, it seems that Ford's assumption 

was correct. 

Most of the house mounds at Utkiavik represent 

Late Thule occupations. As the present village of 

Barrow is built over the site it is nearly impossible to 
COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER SITES 

TABLE 10.—Summary of occurrence of various Birnirk and Early Thule 

harpoon types in the Point Barrow area 

99 

Birnirk and Early 

Site s 

Walakpa 

Birnirk 

Kugok 

Nunagiak 

Kugusugaruk 

Nunavak 

Mound 

A 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

A 

B 

C 

D 

J 

R 

H 

Q 

C 

Thule Structure Level 

Early 

Thule 

Test 

Trench 

Early 

Thule 

Test 

Trench 

B-7 

B - 8 

B-9 

B-10 

A 

B 

C 

E 

F 

H 

Punuk 

House 

1 

2 -

3 -

4 

5 

1 -

3 

Medially Placed 

Trifurcated Spurs Naulock Birnirk Tuquok Oopik Katoktok Tipiruk 

-

" 

- -

_ _ _ _ 

1 5 1 

1 - -

- - -

- -

- -

- - -

- -

-

-

-

1 -

3 2 

1 4 4 1 -

1 -

-

- _ - - -

4 - _ _ _ 

- _ -

- -

-

- -

3 -

-

Laterall y Placed 

Bifurcated Spurs Naulock Birnirk Tuquok Oopik Katoktok 

" - " -

4 

1 

-

-

- - - -

- - - -

-

-

- -

- 1 - -

1 1 - -

_ _ -

" 

-

2 1 

3 2 2 

1 -

-

5 

1 1 

1 

- 1 

1 -

2 - -

11- -

3 

u 

•H ft 

•H 

EH 

-

-

-

" 

" 

-

" 

Natchuk 

2 

2 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Laterall y Placed Singl e Spur 

Decorative Medial Line 

Naulock Tasik 

Birnirk Tuquok 

Oopik 

Katoktok 

Tipiruk Thule II Natchuk 

1 1 

- 1 

_ i -

- - 1 -

- - 1 

- _ 

1 - 2 - 1- 1 

2 1 - - - - 1 

1 2 2 - - - 1 

2 3 - - - - 7 

1 - -

1 2 1- 2 

-

- _ 

1 - -

- 1 - 1 

- - 1 -

345 1 2 13 4 

2 2 1 - - 1 

- - - _ -

_ - --1-2 1 

2 1 

-

- " 

" 

1 - -

1 2 - -

1 - - - 1 

- _ _ _ 

with Sicco Thule III 

1 

1 1 

-

-

-

1 

-

- -

1 -

-

-

-

-

1 

1 

-

-

-

-

- -

-

Closed 

Socket 

-

-

1 

-

1 

1 

-

-

-

4 

-

-

-

-

-
100 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

tell how many houses were once there. In 1968 we 

mapped over 17 houses. Reports from villagers 

indicate that many of the modern houses were built 

over older houses with the older houses being destroyed. It is also reported that many houses have 

been washed into the sea. However, it appears that 

this village must have been quite large in former 

times. During 1968, we were able to test several 

areas of the site as Ford (1959:67-74) had earlier. 

The harpoon head types that were found here are 

Utkiavik, Nunagiak, Cape Smyth, Nuwuk, Brower, 

Kilimatavik, Kuk, Thule II, and Thule n with an 

extra barb. 

To summarize the harpoon heads mentioned above, 

which have not been previously described: Cape 

Smyth is a closed socket variety, which resembles the 

Nuwuk type, but has blunt, end blade prongs, which 

are grooved for binding a thick end blade (Ford, 

1959:89, fig. 32a-d); Brower is a closed socket harpoon 

head, which is extremely similar to Nunagiak, but is 

slotted for an end blade (Ford, 1959:90, fig. 32e-g); 

Kilimatavik has closed sockets, multiple barbs placed 

in the same plane as the line holes. One side is flat 

with the other side being round with the spur placed 

on the round side of the harpoon (Ford, 1959:89, 

fig. 31k-p). Barrow is the same as Nuwuk but significantly larger (Ford, 1959:92, fig. 32k-n). The 

antler arrowheads have square shoulders and spurred 

tangs. 

The harpoon heads found at this site are similar to 

those from the Late Thule levels at Walakpa. Many 

of the types listed above were not found at Walakpa 

except in the historic levels. These are Kuk, Cape 

Smyth, Brower, and Kilimatavik. These types were 

also found at the historic village of Nuwuk, which 

is located at the tip of Point Barrow. It is thought 

here that these types are either protohistoric or historic in this area. The Barrow and Nunagiak types 

were not found in any of the Walakpa levels. Of 

the harpoon heads found at Walakpa only one type 

was not found at Utkiavik. This is the Thule nd as 

defined in this paper (p. 22). The antler arrowheads 

from Utkiavik are nearly identical with those from the 

Late Thule levels at Walakpa. 

NUNAVAK (Figure 28:9).—The Nunavak site is 

located about 6.5 kilometers southwest of Barrow 

Village. This site consisted of two localities, one on 

the ridge north of Nunavak Lagoon and the other on 

the south side of South Nunavak Lagoon. W. B. Van 

Valin, a school teacher from Point Barrow, acting 

under a contract from the University of Pennsylvania 

Museum, collected several mounds, but I was unable 

to determine at which locality he excavated. House 

mound one contained Early Birnirk-Naulock harpoon 

heads with trifurcated spurs, as well as the Late 

Birnirk types of Tasik and Natchuk. It is felt here 

that there were two occupations of this mound, one 

in Early Birnirk and one which was near the end of 

the Late Birnirk phase. House mound three contained the Naulock and Birnirk open socket harpoon 

heads with bifurcated spurs. 

Alfred Hopson, a resident of Barrow village, continued Van Valin's work at Nunavak for the University of Pennsylvania during the 1920s. He excavated 

a series of burials, but few artifacts were found as 

the preservation was poor. It is not possible to tie 

these burials in with the various mounds. 

KUGUSUGARUK (Figure 28:9).—Dated between A.D. 

318 and 804 (Rainey and Ralph, 1959:367), this site 

consists of 6 mounds about 16 km southwest of 

Barrow. It was excavated by Van Valin between 1917 

and 1919. The results of his work are published in 

Mason (1930). There is some confusion as to the 

location of the site, as Mason describes a place that 

could only be Utkiavik, and the artifacts are described 

and cataloged at the University of Pennsylvania Museum as having come from Utkiavik (Barrow Village). 

However, when Ford (1959:19) was in Point Barrow 

in 1931-1932, Hopsen and others showed him where 

Van Valin had excavated, which was indeed at the 

Kugusugaruk site rather than at Utkiavik. 

The site consists of several house mounds, as well 

as several charnel houses. Here, as at other Birnirk 

sites, all the phases of Birnirk culture are represented 

by the harpoon heads found in the various structures. Structure one seems to be the oldest, with 

harpoon heads that have trifurcate and bifurcate 

spurs of the Naulock and Birnirk types. 

Houses two, three, four, and five contained harpoon heads with bifurcated Birnirk and Tuquok 

types of the later single-spurred varieties, house four 

had one Tasik and house 5 had one Birnirk, and two 

Oopik. 

The antler arrowheads, which were found with the 

various harpoon heads, conform to the Birnirk sequence at Walakpa. Th e rounded shoulder, slightly 

bulbed, straight tang varieties occurred with the 

earlier harpoon heads. Conical tang, round shoulder 

examples occurred with the later varieties. 

Between Kugusugaruk and Nunagiak, with the 

exception of Walakpa, no Birnirk sites have been reported. There are at least four areas in which house 

mounds have been reported (Ford, 1959:18). Although these are reported as recent, some of these 

may be Birnirk or Thule in age. One of these, Atanik 

(Figure 28:8), is indeed a historic village. There 

are numerous house mounds at Atanik and the situation of the site on Peard Bay is similar to the situation 
COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER SITES 101 

of the Birnirk site on Elson Lagoon. I would suspect 

that several of these house mounds may be of an 

earlier age. The rest of the sites listed by Ford were 

not occupied or at least have not been referred to as 

sites occupied during the historic period. As Ford 

did not excavate these sites and as historic artifacts 

are found on the surface of most areas where there is 

good hunting, it may be possible that some of these 

sites are Birnirk in age. 

NUNAGIAK (Figure 28:8).—The Nunagiak site, 

located 18 miles northwest of Wainwright, Alaska, 

consists of thirteen mounds (Ford, 1959:56). Ford 

tested seven of the mounds, but concentrated his work 

in three of the structures. 

None of the mounds tested by Ford had any classic 

Birnirk occupations. In mound A, the only harpoon 

heads found were the closed socket Nuwuk variety. 

Mound B had at least two occupations, one was Early 

Thule in age with Sicco and Thule n harpoon heads. 

Above the Thule occupation in mound B was a later 

occupation with five Nunagiak-type harpoon heads. 

Nunagiak harpoon heads, named by Ford, are similar 

to Thule II, with two symmetrically placed barbs, but 

differ in that they have closed sockets. Ford (1959:89) 

contends that these developed from Thule n, but 

occurred later than the spread of Thule into Canada. 

At Walakpa, this type was found only in the historic 

levels, and it appears that Ford was right in that they 

developed too late to be part of the Early Thule 

tool kit. 

Mound C is of considerable interest in that three 

Punuk heads were found in association with Early 

Thule harpoon heads. These included the Punuk 

types of in (a) x and vx as described by Collins (1937c: 

118-120). The Early Thule types which were found 

were Natchuk, Sicco, Katoktok, and Thule n. It is 

not clear from Ford's monograph as to what he 

thought the differences between Punuk m(a)x and 

Sicco are, as he feels Sicco is a direct copy of m(a)x 

(Ford, 1959:86). Sicco may better be considered a 

Punuk-Late Birnirk cross-tie, as are the whaling 

harpoons from the Birnirk site. 

The Birnirk types of Natchuk, Katoktok, and 

Thule II are considered here to be Early Thule, as 

their spurs in all cases but one are laterally placed 

and do not have the decorative medial line. I feel 

that these may represent a very early stage of Early 

Thule, as the Katoktok specimen does have a medial 

line and all of the Natchuk examples have ornamental 

side-blade slots. Furthermore, a Thule n harpoon 

head, purchased by Ford from an Eskimo who dug at 

mound C, had a decorative spur similar to the Thule 

II from level B-8 at Walakpa. However, the Nunagiak 

specimen did not have the elaborate decoration of the 

Birnirk example from Walakpa. 

The antler arrowheads that were found in these 

mounds were of the rounded shoulder, conical tang 

variety. A spurred-tang arrowpoint was found near 

the entrance of the house in mound C, but it may be 

intrusive as this area was disturbed by relic collectors. 

Mound C, which is apparently the earliest house 

at Nunagiak, was built below the present water level 

of the lagoon (Ford, 1959:58). Ford's conclusion was 

that the area has subsided since the house was constructed. However, if the house were built during 

the period when the sea level was lower than it is now, 

the subsequent rise in sea level might account for the 

flooding rather than the subsidence of land. Further, 

if the dates of A.D. 1000/1100 (Hume, 1965:1166) are 

correct for the rise in the sea level, one must infer 

that mound C at Nunagiak was built before that time. 

As pointed out above, the harpoon heads found at this 

mound appear to be extremely Early Thule in age. 

This would date the beginning or transition of 

Birnirk to Thule at some time prior to A.D. 1000/ 

1100. 

POINT HOPE (Figure 28:7).—There is evidence of 

an Early Birnirk occupation at Point Hope. Three 

Birnirk burials were excavated by Larsen and Rainey 

(1948, pi. 87:1-4), which contained the Early Birnirk, 

trifurcated spur harpoon heads of the Tuquok and 

Naulock types. The Tuquok harpoon head from 

burial TB 171 is of an extraordinary size and may 

have been an early whaling harpoon head. 

The antler arrowheads from the Birnirk burials are 

the straight tang variety and the knobbed tang variety. 

Both of these types were found in the WalakpaBirnirk levels and are considered early. No house 

mounds were excavated that contained Birnirk artifacts at Point Hope. 

TIGARA (Figure 28:7).—The Western Thule finds 

from the Tigara locality at Point Hope, burials 253 

and 186, are probably very early Early Thule in age. 

Two examples of the Birnirk-Natchuk type (Larsen 

and Rainey, 1948, pi. 88:4-5) and one Thule II with 

a lateral spur, similar to the spur on the Walakpa 

specimen from Level B-9 (Larsen and Rainey, 1948, 

pi. 88:3), were found. The antler arrowheads from 

these burials were of the rounded shoulder, knobbed 

tang variety, which is common in the WalakpaBirnirk and Early Thule levels. 

JABBERTOWN (Figure 28:7).—The Western Thule 

house found at Jabbertown is also Early Thule in age. 

The Thule n harpoon head (Larsen and Rainey, 

1948, pi. 95:1) is closely related to the Birnirk-Thule 

II from Walakpa with a vestigial spur, but this specimen has an end-blade slot. Plate 95:2 (Larsen and 
102 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Rainey, 1948:175) is an Early Thule Natchuk type 

harpoon head. The antler arrowheads from this 

house have conical tangs similar to the Early Thule 

arrowheads from Walakpa. 

OLD TIGARA (Figure 28:7).—The village of Old 

Tigara at Point Hope is probably a Late Thule 

historic village (Larsen and Rainey, 1948). In 1924 

there were 122 house mounds, but by 1940 only 70 

had not been washed into the ocean (Larsen and 

Rainey, 1948:20). The artifacts collected by Larsen 

and Rainey included the harpoon types of Kilimatavik and Nunagiak. These were found along with 

square-shouldered antler arrowheads with spurred 

tangs. Rassmussen, as reported in Mathiassen (1930a: 

154), made a collection from Old Tigara. His collection included two Thule nb, as defined in this 

paper, a variant of Thule 11 with an extra side barb, 

a typical Thule 11, Nuwuk, Kilimatavik and a variant 

of Thule iv (Mathiassen, 1930a, pi. 12:1-7). 

It can be seen that this village has a long period of 

occupation; in fact, the village of New Tigara is simply 

an extension of this older site. The artifacts collected 

by Rasmussen are more like those from the Late 

Thule occupation at Walakpa than those collected by 

Larsen and Rainey. As it appears that this village is 

growing by accretion, and as the older houses are 

being washed away, it would also seem that some of 

Rasmussen's artifacts may date earlier than others, 

particularly those collected by Larsen and Rainey. 

Rasmussen's Thule nb is identical to those from 

the Late Thule levels at Walakpa. His Thule 11 

variant is very similar to one we collected from a Late 

Thule house at Utkiavik. The Thule m and Thule 

iv may fit either into Birnirk or Early Thule. The 

rest of the harpoon heads found by Rasmussen, and 

Larsen and Rainey are considered to be either protohistoric or historic in age. 

Western Alaska 

CAPE KRUSENSTERN (Figure 28:6).—Giddings 

(1965) reported both Birnirk- and Thule-age sites 

from Cape Krusenstern. These sites now have been 

analyzed, and a manuscript is being written by 

Douglas Anderson of Brown University. The Birnirk 

remains from the beach ridges at Cape Krusenstern 

consisted mostly of stone artifacts, as the wood and 

bone preservation was poor. Only one harpoon head 

was recovered, and it was not typical of Birnirk from 

Point Barrow. This harpoon head had a closed 

socket and an end blade slit that was situated in the 

same place as the line hole. Morphologically, it is 

similar to the Nuwuk variety at Point Barrow, but 

it is much longer from the line hole to the end blade 

than are the Nuwuk types. 

The chipped stone is much finer in technique than 

are the Birnirk examples from Walakpa. There also 

seems to be a greater proportion of stone artifacts at 

Cape Krusenstern, as fewer than two dozen flaked 

stone artifacts were found at Walakpa. 

The Early Thule houses at Cape Krusenstern had 

better preservation than the Birnirk houses. They 

produced harpoon heads of Natchuk, Thule 11, Thule 

in, Thule iv, and Sicco-Punuk ma(x) types. These 

appear to be quite early in the Thule sequence as 

several examples have bifurcated spurs. 

The antler arrowheads also appear to be very early 

with round shoulders and straight, bulbous, or conical tangs. 

Several other houses appear to be later in the Thule 

sequence having only Thule 11 harpoon heads, and 

one has a Nunagiak-type harpoon head. 

KOTZEBUE (Figure 28:6).—The archeology of the 

Kotzebue area has been defined by Giddings (1952) 

and VanStone (1955). From various sites on Kotzebue 

Sound and the Kobuk River, a fairly good chronology 

for Late Thule occupation has been worked out. The 

sequence includes: Ekseavik, A.D. 1400; Old Kotzebue, 

A.D. 1400; Intermediate Kotzebue, A.D. 1550; and 

Ambler Island, A.D. 1730-1760. These sites have a 

slightly different aspect from those of the Point Hope 

area and the west. In this area there was continued 

strong contact with the Punuk culture of the Bering 

Straits, with emphasis on inland fishing. However, 

all phases contain harpoon heads in the cultural 

inventory, which can be compared to the Late Thule 

cultures of the northern coast. 

The harpoon heads that occur in the Ekseavik 

collection are Thule 11, Thul e in, and a local variety 

of Nuwuk. The Nuwuk harpoon heads differ from 

the northern varieties in that they are constricted 

both above and below the line holes. They also have 

a local decorational motif that does not occur at 

Walakpa. The antler arrowheads have square 

shoulders and spurred tangs. Other than the local 

embellishment of the Nuwuk harpoon heads, this 

culture phase is represented by the harpoon heads 

and antler arrowpoints, which are very similar to those 

from the Walakpa Late Thule. 

Old Kotzebue harpoon heads are identical to the 

Nuwuk type found in the Early and Late Thule levels 

at Walakpa. The type of decoration found on the 

Nuwuk harpoon heads here is quite similar to the 

decoration on those from the Point Barrow area. The 

antler arrowheads found here are also square shouldered with spurred tangs. 

The Intermediate Kotzebue is probably very closely 

related to the protohistoric periods of the northern 

coast. The harpoon heads found here are Kilima-
COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER SITES 103 

tavik, Nuwuk, and a possible variant of Nunagiak. 

The antler arrowheads have square shoulders and 

spurred tangs. This culture phase compares very 

favorably to the historic and protohistoric levels at 

Walakpa, Nunagiak, and Nuwuk. 

AHTEUT (Figure 28:6).—Ahteut, originally excavated by Giddings (1952), is an Early Thule occupation in the Kotzebue area. It has harpoon heads, 

which include the types of Thule II and Thule m, 

Punuk ma(x), which have design elements typical of 

Punuk. The antler arrowheads have rounded 

shoulders and knobbed tangs. With its date of A.D. 

1250, this phase fits in the Early Thule levels at 

Walakpa. 

CAPE PRINCE OF WALES (Figure 28:5).—Two 

Birnirk sites are reported at Cape Prince of Wales 

(Collins, 1940:558). One of these sites is Kurigitavik 

and the other, located 3.2 kilometers north of Wales, 

is known as the Beach Midden. Neither site has been 

described in detail. 

One Birnirk open socket harpoon head was found 

at the Beach Midden site. However, the head was 

poorly preserved, and the spur is no longer present. 

A carbon-14 date was taken from a nearby cut at the 

same level as the Birnirk harpoon head, and yielded 

a date of 1480 ±240 B.P. (P-63) (Rainey and Ralph, 

1959:368). 

KURIGITAVIK (Figure 28:5).—Kurigitavik is thought 

to be a single midden containing several occupations 

(Collins, 1940:562). An Ipiutak type 1 harpoon head 

was found in the lowest level. This type of harpoon 

point is very close to the Oopik open socket harpoon 

head of the Early Birnirk. It has a medially placed, 

trifurcated spur. A side blade slot, which is in the 

same plane as the round line hole, is cut completely 

through the harpoon head. A carbon-14 date, taken 

from nine small pieces of wooden shafts, is dated 

1320 ±230 B.P. (P-65) (Rainey and Ralph, 1959:368). 

This date of A.D. 637, indicates that Ipiutak lasted 

longer in Western Alaska than it did in Northern 

Alaska. 

Above the Ipiutak level at Kurigitavik, there occurred artifacts that Collins (1940, pi. 16:8, 9) described as containing Birnirk-like harpoon heads that 

were transitional into Thule. These Birnirk-like 

harpoon heads were Natchuk and Thule II with an 

ornamental bifurcated spur. These Thule n harpoon 

heads have more of a Thule appearance than Birnirk, 

and I would place them as being similar to the Early 

Thule from Point Hope and Nunagiak. 

The upper levels of Kurigitavik produced harpoon 

heads that were of the later Thule n types, as well 

as Punuk harpoon heads. 

The antler arrowheads from the Early Thule levels 

at Kurigitavik are, in general, similar to those from 

Walakpa, in that they have rounded shoulders and 

conical tangs. The later examples have square 

shoulders and spurred tangs. 

NUKLEET (Figure 28:6).—At Cape Denbigh, Giddings (1964) described the Nukleet culture. This 

culture is divided into three phases: Early, Middle, 

and Late. The earliest phase, according to Giddings 

(1964:116), dates prior to A.D. 1250 and is related 

to Punuk with Birnirk cross-ties. The harpoon heads 

found in this level are Sicco or Thule in and a 

spurred variety of Thule II. The antler arrowheads 

from this level are of the Birnirk and Early Thule 

varieties and not Punuk. These arrowheads are round 

to oval in cross-section, while, as mentioned above, 

Punuk arrowheads are triangular in cross-section 

(Collins, 1937c:222). They have rounded shoulders 

and both conical and knobbed tangs. I believe that 

this unit can be equated with the Early Thule occupations described above. The Punuk harpoon head 

type is either Sicco or Thule in, a type found in both 

Late Birnirk and Early Thule, and other traits such 

as the antler arrowheads also appear in Early Thule 

and Late Birnirk. 

St. Lawrenc e Island 

Birnirk-related harpoon heads were found at various sites in the St. Lawrence Island area (Figure 28:3). 

These harpoon heads occurred at Seklowaghyaget, 

Ievoghiyok, Miyowagh, Hillside, Cape Kialegak, 

Kukulik, and the S'keliyuk sites. All of these sites 

are of Old Bering Sea or Early Punuk ages. The 

occurrences of the earliest Birnirk-like types were at 

Miyowagh and S'keliyuk. The harpoon head that 

has been named Type nix by Collins (1937c: 104) is 

very similar to Naulock, but it is decorated with Old 

Bering Sea art styles. The Type n(a)y harpoon head 

found at Miyowagh is similar to the Tuquok variety 

of harpoon head, which has a trifurcated, medially 

placed spur and was found at Point Hope in the lowest level at Walakpa. Type n(a)y found at Miyowagh, 

S'keliyuk, and one on Cape Kialegak of St. Lawrence 

Island, is apparently Early Punuk in this area of the 

Arctic. Another Birnirk harpoon head found here, 

Type nx of Collins' (1937c: 102) classification, is 

similar to Oopik. This type of harpoon head is Old 

Bering Sea and Early Punuk in age. 

Type m(a)x in Collins' (1937c: 118) classification, 

as pointed out above, is identical to the Tasik type. 

It is Early Punuk in age and lasts in various forms 

through the Punuk cultural phase. It occurred at the 

Seklowaghyaget, Ievoghiyok, Miyowagh, and Hillside 

sites. 
104 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Antler arrowheads from these sites have been 

classified into at least seven types (Collins 1937c: 135). 

The Old Bering Sea types range from little or no 

shoulders to rather square shoulders with tapering 

tangs. Some have end-blade slots and barbs, while 

others are just barbed. A Walakpa specimen (Plate 

19a) from the lowest Birnirk level is similar to the 

Old Bering Sea types with end blade slits, but differs 

in that its shoulder is not as rounded and it has two 

small asymmetrical barbs. 

The later Old Bering Sea-Early Punuk types are 

extremely important, as they show the relationship of 

antler arrowheads from Old Bering Sea to Birnirk. 

These are types 5 and 6 in Collins' classification. 

These have rounded shoulders with slight knobs 

(Collins, 1937c, pi. 34). They range from single 

barbs to no barbs. In general these types are identical 

to those found at Walakpa and the Birnirk site. A 

Birnirk specimen from Walakpa (Plate 5lp) has the 

deeply cut barbs and is nearly identical to the one 

pictured by Collins (1937c, pi. 34:6). 

The antler arrowpoints from S'keliyuk are in general of the same types as described above (Ackerman, 

1962). However, Ackerman (1962, fig. 3) describes 

an example of the conical tang variety. The conical 

tang was found in the Birnirk levels at Walakpa. 

The Walakpa and the S'keliyuk finds indicate an 

early date for the appearance of this arrowhead-tang 

type. 

The later Punuk type of arrowheads are different 

from either those of the Old Bering Sea age or of 

Birnirk. They have as their most characteristic 

feature triangular cross-sections and most are made 

of ivory (Collins, 1937c:222). None of these types 

of arrowheads have been reported from any Birnirk 

site. 

Siberia 

EAST CAPE (Figure 28:2).—At the Uelen and Ekven 

cemeteries on East Cape Siberia, there were burials 

that contained Birnirk or Birnirk-related harpoon 

heads (Arutiunov, Levin, and Sergeev, 1964; Arutiunov and Sergeev, 1968; Levin 1964a, 1964b; Okladnikov and Beregovaia, 1971). The burials, based on 

Walakpa artifacts, would fall into the Early and 

Middle Birnirk periods. 

Burial 17 would be the earliest, with harpoon heads 

of the trifurcated-spur variety of a Birnirk and 

Tuquok-Naulock cross. This harpoon head has the 

inset side blades of the Tuquok, and the end-blade 

slit of the Naulock types. A closed socket harpoon 

head was found that fits Collins' (1937c: 109) type 

nix, with an end-blade slit, which is in the same 

plane as the line hole. It has a trifurcated spur, with 

the center point being longer than the two lateral 

points. A Naulock harpoon head from burial 17 has 

a single lateral spur with a secondary, decorative 

point. 

The harpoon heads from burial 6 are a Birnirk 

open socket harpoon head that has a bifurcated, lateral 

spur and a closed socket harpoon head. The spur of 

the Birnirk type has several decorative points on the 

outside margin of the spur, which is similar to those 

from Walakpa level B-8. Th e closed socket harpoon 

head is broken, and it is impossible to tell from the 

illustration if the end-blade slit is at right angles to 

the line hole or in the same plane. 

Harpoon-head examples of simple bifurcated, 

spurred Birnirk, Naulock, and Natchuk types were 

found in burial 5. An Oopik harpoon head was 

found that had a trifurcated spur without the decorative line on the middle point. A closed socket Thule 

iv harpoon head was also found. This burial appears 

to be the youngest of the three burials from Uelen. 

Mathiassen (1930a, pi. 18) pictures several later 

Thule types from East Cape. These are the harpoon 

type of Thule 1, Thule in, and a variant of Thule n. 

Also included in this collection is one square shouldered, spurred tang antler arrowpoint. This collection 

was acquired by Knud Rassmussen from local natives, 

and it is impossible to tell their exact proveniences 

(Mathiassen, 1930a:72). 

CAPE BARANOV (Figure 28:1).—At Cape Baranov 

near the Kolyma River, several examples of Birnirk 

harpoon heads have been found (Beregovaia, 1953, 

Okladnikov and Beregovaia, 1971). 

Three houses have been excavated at Cape Baranov 

that are Late Birnirk in age (Okladnikov and Beregovaia, 1971). All of the harpoon heads from these 

houses have laterally placed, single spurs with decorative medial lines. Only two types were reported, 

Tuquok and Birnirk. House one contained eight 

Birnirk open socket harpoon heads and five Tuquok 

examples. House five produced three Birnirk open 

socket harpoon heads and three Tuquoks. A house in 

another nearby site yielded one Tuquok with the 

same type of spur. 

These types of harpoon heads did not occur at 

Walakpa but were found in mound A of the Birnirk 

site and should be considered Late Birnirk in age. 

Canadian Arcti c 

HERSHEL ISLAND (Figure 28:10).—The first site east 

of Point Barrow that has an early cultural component 

is the Hershel Island site (MacNeish, 1959). 

The size of this site is not reported. Th e harpoon 
COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER SITES 105 

types found here are Thule i, Thule n, and Nuwuk. 

The antler arrowpoints have rounded shoulders with 

the knobbed tangs. This site also contained Barrow 

curvilinear pot sherds. The artifact types from this 

site are mostly comparable to the Early Thule levels 

at Walakpa. The major difference is that the Thule I 

harpoon head was not found at Walakpa. This is 

probably a matter of luck rather than its absence at 

Walakpa. As it has been pointed out above, the 

harpoon-head sample size from these levels is very 

small. It is felt that when further investigations are 

conducted in the A area of Walakpa, the Early Thule 

harpoon-head types, which did not occur in the B 

area, will be found. 

Barrow curvilinear pottery has been found in 

Canada and is used to point to Birnirk origins. However, it has been found in all three cultural units at 

Walakpa and should not be used as a temporal 

indicator. 

VAUGHN (Figure 28:11).—The Vaughn site, located 

at Cape Parry, has two house middens (Taylor, 

1972:8). The harpoon head types are Tasik, Thule 

II, and Nuwuk. These harpoon heads have lateral 

spurs that do not have a decorative medial line. The 

antler arrowpoints have rounded, nearly square 

shoulders and knobbed tangs. Many traits that have 

been listed by Taylor give this site a nearly western 

flavor. These traits are the absence of soapstone, 

quartzite scrapers (which are common in Birnirk and 

Early Thule levels at Walakpa), the form of the adz 

handle, and the incised barb on antler arrowheads. 

The only feature that is found here and is not 

found at Walakpa is the tendency of the antler arrowheads to have square shoulders. This type of shoulder 

occurs at an early age from this point eastward and 

is considered by Collins (1951:563) to have developed 

in the Canadian Arctic during the Thule cultural 

period. This is substantiated since the square 

shoulder does not occur at Walakpa until later in the 

Thule phase. 

Taylor (1972:12) felt that this site is well-developed 

Canadian Thule and dates the same as Naujan and the 

Ml site. I see no reason to date it as Late Thule, as 

most of the taits listed by Taylor are found in Birnirk 

and Early Thule levels at Walakpa. It seems logical 

to place this site chronologically, as being related to 

the Early Thule levels at Walakpa; but because of the 

squarish shoulders of the antler arrowheads, it appears 

to be slightly later than the occupation at Hershel 

Island. 

JACKSON (Figure 28:12).—This is a small site adjacent to the Vaughn site on Cape Parry (Taylor, 

1972:14). It consists of at least three house mounds. 

The harpoon head types found here are Thule i, 

Thule II, Thule m (which has side grooves), possibly 

Alilu, Nuwuk, and two late Dorset culture harpoon 

heads. The arrowpoints have square shoulders with 

knobbed or spurred tangs. Here again Barrow curvilinear pottery and pebble scrapers were found. 

Of interest is the occurrence of the Eastern Thuletype mattock handle (Taylor, 1972, pi. 3c) and the 

spurred tang antler arrowhead (Taylor 1972, pi. 3e, f). 

Taylor (1972:25) felt that this site represents an 

established stage of Thule, not proto-Thule, but is a 

contemporary of Nunagiak. Carbon-14 dates of this 

site are A.D. 744±100 (M-1509) and A.D. 774±100 

(M-1508), but Taylor estimated its age as approximately A.D. 1200. The occurrence of the Thule m 

with ornamental side-blade grooves and an Alilu 

harpoon head, along with the pebble scrapers, argues 

for an earlier age. However, the mattock handle 

and spurred-tang antler arrowheads suggest that it is 

probably younger than the Hershel Island and the 

Vaughn sites. 

MEMORANA (Figure 28:13).—On Victoria Island 

there are several sites that probably date the same as 

the Jackson site. The first discussed is the Memorana 

site (McGhee, 1971:166). This site consists of four 

oval-shaped houses. The harpoon types are Thule II 

and Thule in. 

Several of the Thule n harpoon heads have a single 

barb (McGhee, 1971:185, pi. 6b) and may be of the 

Late Birnirk-Early Thule-Natchuk type. The antler 

arrowheads have square shoulders and spurred tangs. 

McGhee felt that this site is fairly old and is 

contemporaneous to Nunagiak, because the harpoon 

heads have lashing slots rather than drilled holes 

(McGhee, 1971:167). Thule n harpoon heads from 

Early Thule levels at Walakpa have both lashing 

slots and drilled holes. For this reason and because 

of the antler arrowheads, I would place this site 

closer to the Jackson site in age. 

LADY FRANKLIN POINT (Figure 28:14).—Sicco and 

Alilu types of harpoon heads were reported from a 

collection from Lady Franklin Point (Taylor, 1963: 

458). Taylor (1972:35) in search of a possible site 

with these harpoon head types, excavated a site at 

Lady Franklin Point. This site had 21 house mounds. 

It produced harpoon heads of the Thule n, the endblade, slotted variant of Thule n, and the Nuwuk 

closed socket type (Taylor, 1972:39). These were 

associated with antler arrowheads with rounded 

shoulders and knobbed tangs, tapering tangs and 

square shoulders with spurred tangs. 

Taylor (1972:39) felt that the artifacts from this 

site would suggest an occupation no older, and perhaps younger, than Nunagiak. I would concur with 

his evaluation, but would suggest it may be older than 
106 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20 

the Memorana or Jackson sites, as the rounded 

shoulder, knobbed tang variety of antler arrowheads 

arid the lack of soapstone point to a close relationship 

with both Hershel Island and the Vaughn site. It 

would be interesting to know the exact provenience 

of the arrowheads and see more of the house mounds 

excavated, as there is a possibility that not all of the 

house mounds represent the same stage of cultural 

development. This site may have earlier components 

than is indicated by the brief testing. 

PEMBROKE (Figure 28:15).—The Pembroke site, 

located at Cambridge Bay on Victoria Island, has 

twelve structures (Taylor, 1972:44). Among the 

artifacts found here are a single-barbed harpoon head 

and a square-shouldered antler arrowhead. Taylor 

felt that the harpoon head is of the Natchuk type 

and hints an early age. Close examination of this 

harpoon head indicates that it is probably a broken 

Thule type n which has had the edges refaceted, 

giving it a Natchuk appearance. This would indicate 

that this site dates more closely in time to the Jackson 

and Memorana sites. 

CLARE (Figure 28:16).—The Clare site, located 

near the Pembroke site, is apparently a caribou hunting station. It consists of as many as 11 tent rings 

(Taylor, 1972:46). The predominant artifacts are 

the same type of antler arrowheads as were found at 

the Pembroke site. No harpoon heads were reported 

from here, save a preform which could be either 

Nuwuk or Thule iv. It is felt that the Clare site dates 

about the same age as the Pembroke site. 

BELL (Figure 28:17).—The Bell site on the Ekalluk 

River on Wellington Bay of Victoria Island has416 

houses (Taylor, 1972:54). Harpoon heads found here 

include both Thule n and Thule in. An antler arrowhead has a square shoulder and offset spurs. This site 

probably dates the same as the Pembroke and Clare 

sites. 

Ml (Figure 28:18).—At Resolute Bay, Collins 

(1955:50, 51) found three small sites, the Lake site 

with nine houses, the Ml site with twelve houses, 

the M2 site with nine houses, and the M3 site with 

five houses. The Ml site has Sicco and Natchuk harpoon heads in association with Thule n and in. The 

Natchuk harpoon head has an ornamental side-blade 

slot. The other sites are contemporaneous to Ml and 

have Thule type iv harpoon heads. The antler arrowheads that are found here have rounded to nearly 

square shoulders with conical knobs and symmetrically placed spurs. 

With the presence of the Sicco and Natchuk harpoon heads with the ornamental side-blade slots, the 

occupation at Resolute Bay appears to be one of the 

earliest Thule sites in Canada. However, the spurs 

of the harpoon are not decorated with the medial 

line, which would place the occupation as similar to 

level B-7 at Walakpa. 

Greenland 

RUIN ISLAND (Figure 28:19).—This small island, 

located in Marshall Bay of the Thul e district in 

northwest Greenland, has seven house ruins on it 

(Holtved, 1944:70). Th e artifacts from these houses 

include several Thule n harpoon heads with the 

lateral spur, as noted on the Thul e n harpoon heads 

from the Birnirk level at Walakpa (Holtved, 1944, 

pi. 3:5). Plate 3:8 also illustrated the ornamentation 

above the lashing slot that occurred on the Birnirk 

specimen from Walakpa. No antler arrowheads were 

illustrated from this site. It is felt here that the 

strong resemblances between the Thul e n harpoon 

heads found at Ruin Island and those from the 

Western Arctic would date this site as very early 

Early Thule. 

UMANAG (Figure 28:20).—This site and Comer's 

midden are also located on Marshall Bay (Holtved, 

1944:112). The site includes 27 houses and 2 midden 

areas, one known as Comer's midden. From Holtved's 

charts it is very apparent that all of the houses do not 

represent contemporaneous occupations. Holtved 

(1944:146-149) indicates that there are probably four 

levels of occupations. The harpoon heads found here 

include Thule i, Thule n, Thule n with end-blade 

slots, Thule in, Thule iv, Nuwuk, and Sicco. The 

antler arrowheads range from rounded shoulders 

with knobbed tangs to rather square shoulders with 

offset spurs. The presence of the Sicco-type harpoon 

head and the round shouldered antler arrowheads 

would indicate that the lower components of this site 

may be of the same age as Ruin Island. 

NUGDLIT (Figure 28:21).—The site of Nugdlit is 

located in the Thule district of northwest Greenland 

(Holtved, 1954). This site has 62 ruins; they are 

divided into three groups with two being older than, 

and one dating from, the 16th century. However, 

once again it is impossible to determine within these 

groups if the houses were contemporaneously occupied. The harpoon heads found here include Thule n 

with end-blade slots, Thule n, Thul e iv, Nuwuk, and 

Sicco. The antler arrowheads have rather square 

shoulders and spurred tangs. The site has been radiocarbon-dated to the first half of the tenth century A.D. 

(McGhee, 1970:187). I would concur with this early 

date for this site because of the presence of the Sicco 

and Nuwuk-type harpoon heads. 

Other Thule sites in Canada and Greenland 

(Mathiassen, 1927a, 1930b, 1931, 1933, 1934, 1936; 
COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER SITES 107 

Mathiassen and Holtved, 1936; Collins 1951b, 1955; 

Holtved, 1944, 1954; Larsen, 1934; Manning, 1950; 

McGhee, 1971; Taylor, 1964, 1967) are considered as 

well-established Canadian Thule and do not contain 

the harpoon heads of Natchuk and Sicco, which 

mark the Early Thule development in Northern 

Alaska. As these sites are rather numerous and represent a fairly uniform cultural phase, I will not attempt 

to describe each of them, but I will point out the 

types of harpoon heads and arrowpoints that are 

representative of the Late Thule culture in the Eastern Arctic. 

The harpoon heads found in these Late Thule sites 

are Thule types i, n, iv, vi, vn, and a closed socket 

variety with a bifurcated spur. The bifurcated spur 

is placed directly below the socket. This last variety 

appears to be a local invention and does not occur 

in the Western Arctic. The antler arrowheads have 

rather square shoulders and spurred tangs. Occasionally an antler arrowhead is reported with rounded 

shoulders and knobbed tangs. The size of these sites 

range from one house mound to more than twenty. 

The above comparison of the harpoon heads and 

antler arrowheads from various related culture phases 

in the Arctic to those from the levels at Walakpa, 

point to several major trends in the development of 

Birnirk and Thule cultures. These trends are reviewed below and summarized in Figure 29. 

Summar y 

EARLY BIRNIRK 

It is increasingly obvious that Birnirk had its 

roots in the Old Bering Sea-related cultures of St. 

Lawrence Island. This is reflected in the Birnirk 

harpoon heads of the Naulock, Tuquok, and Oopik 

types, which have analogous forms with shared 

features of medially placed trifurcated spurs with 

the type n harpoon heads from the Old Bering Sea 

and Early Punuk phases. The closed socket harpoon 

heads found in Early Birnirk have as their prototypes the nix and my harpoon heads from St. Lawrence Island. 

4 

These Old Bering Sea-Birnirk-related harpoon 

heads turn up along the coasts of both Siberia and 

Northern Alaska. This is evidenced by the finds at 

the Uelen and Ekven cemeteries in Siberia and the 

Early Birnirk finds at Point Hope, the lowest level 

at Walakpa, and the Birnirk site. 

The Early Birnirk harpoon heads have as their 

most characteristic feature, the medially placed trifurcated spurs. Usually, the center prong of the 

spur has a decorative medial line, but this is not 

always the case. The outside lateral edges of the spur 

and the body of the harpoon heads are sometimes 

decorated with thin, raised, scalloped lines which 

have notches cut at their apex. Sometimes the margins 

of the spurs are serrated with a series of small barbs. 

Early Birnirk is found at the Birnirk type site 

mounds H and Q, Kugok, Nunavak structure 1, 

Kugusugaruk, level B-10 at Walakpa, the Point 

Hope-Birnirk burials and burial 17 at Uelen, Siberia. 

MIDDLE BIRNIRK 

There is a gradual transition from the trifurcated 

spurred harpoon heads to harpoon heads with bifurcated spurs. The transition occurs with various 

combinations, but most commonly there are 

bifurcated spurs with small decorative third barbs. 

During this phase of Birnirk the decorative features 

continue, with ornamental side-blade slots becoming 

common. However, there is a general decreasing of 

decorative features. This phase, which should be 

properly called "Middle Birnirk," is found at the 

Birnirk site mounds R, H, and Q, Kugok, Nunavak 

structure 2, Kugusugaruk, and Walakpa levels B-9 

and B-8. In Siberia, burial 6 at Uelen is Middle 

Birnirk in age. 

During this phase in Northern Alaska, the Natchuk and Thule n harpoon heads appear. These 

early forms of Natchuk at Walakpa tend to be 

heavier harpoon heads with broad, shorter blades 

than those of the Early Thule-Natchuk varieties. 

The Birnirk-Thule n harpoon head from Walakpa 

has Birnirk decorative features typical of this phase, 

but has a single-pointed spur. The spur is decorated 

with a pronounced ornamental barb, which is found 

on harpoon heads as late as Early Thule, at which 

time it is finally discontinued. 

LATE BIRNIRK 

This final phase of Birnirk is marked by decreasing ornamentation of the spur and a higher incidence 

of ornamental side-blade slots and spur prongs. The 

spurs are totally lateral by this time and are decorated 

with medial grooves, but usually have only one point. 

The late phase of Birnirk was not found at Walakpa, 

but the .harpoon types from mound A at the Birnirk 

site were almost exclusively Late Birnirk. Late Birnirk also occurred in mounds H and Q at the Birnirk 

site, mound C at Nunagiak and houses four and five 

at Kugusugaruk. The only other reported occurrence 

of Late Birnirk is at Cape Baranov in Siberia where 

harpoon heads of this description were found in three 
108 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

UJ HUL 

i— 

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WALAKPA A- 1 

WALAKPA A- 2 

WALAKPA A—3 

WALAKPA A- 4 

WALAKPA A- 5 

WALAKPA A- 6 

OLD KOTZEBUE 

WALAKPA A- 7 

EKSEAVIC 

WALAKPA B- 1 

AHTEUT 

NUKLEET 

NUGDLIT 

UMANAG 

RUIN ISLAND 

Ml 

BELL SITE 

CLARE 

PEMBROKE 

LADY FRANKLIN POINT 

MEMORANA 

JACKSON 

VAUGHN SITE 

HERSHEL ISLAND 

CAPE KRUSENSTERN 

HOUSES 5, e a a 

JABBERTOWN WESTERN 

THULE HOUSE 

TIGARA BURIALS 

186 S 253 

WALAKPA B7-B 2 

NUNAGIAK BEACH HOUSE 

MOUND C 

CAPE BARANOV 2 

HOUSE 1 

CAPE BARANOV 1 

HOUSE 1 a 5 

NUNAVAK MOUND 1 

BIRNIRK MOUNDS A, 

H a 0 

UELEN- BURIALS 98 6 

WALAKPA LEVELS 

B - 8 a B-9 

KUGUSUGARUK HOUSE 

1,2.3,4 bS 

NUNAVAK MOUND 1B 3 

KUGOK 

BIRNIRK SITE MOUND B,C 

H ao 

BIRNIRK SITE MOUNDS 

o a H 

KUGOK 

NUNAVAK MOUND 1 

KUGUSUGARUK HOUSE 1 

POINT HOPE BURIALS 

TB 160. 171 B 172 

UELEN BURIAL 17 

WALAKPA LEVEL B-10 

TO HISTORIC 

TYPES 

* 

OLD BERING 

SEA 

TYPE Hx 

OLD BERING 

SEA 

TYPE H Y 

OLD BERING 

SEA 

TYPE m X 

VARIOUS LATE THULE 

TYPES 

NATCHUK THULE H 

TO HISTORIC 

TYPES 

TO HISTORIC 

TYPES 

t 

ANTLER ARROWHEAD 

TYPES 

FIGURE 29.—Development of harpoon heads and antler arrowhead types 

arranged by period and sites. 
COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER SITES 109 

mounds. The unique difference between the Late 

Birnirk from the northern coast of Alaska and the 

Cape Baranov-Late Birnirk is that there is a proliferation of harpoon head types in Alaska, while at 

Cape Baranov, there are only two types, Birnirk and 

Tuquok. 

During Late Birnirk, there appears to be a certain 

amount of Punuk influence. This is seen in the 

Punuk harpoon heads my and Sicco, which become 

common in Northern Alaska during this later phase. 

The harpoon type Naulock is replaced by Tasik, 

which is simply an undecorated version of Naulock. 

It is also during this time when Punuk whaling 

harpoon heads and presumably whaling gear may 

have been introduced. This may be seen at the Birnirk site where a Punuk-related whaling harpoon 

head was found in mound A associated with Late 

Birnirk-type harpoon heads (Ford, 1959:103). Another Punuk-type whaling harpoon head was found 

by Carter (pers. comm.) at the Birnirk site. Morphologically it could be an earlier variety, but its age is 

not known at this time. 

EARLY THULE 

The transition from Birnirk to Thule is a gradual 

change marked only by minor differences in the 

harpoon heads. The most significant being the 

elimination of the classic Birnirk harpoon head types 

of Birnirk, Tuquok, and Oopik from the tool kit. 

Naulock, in the form of Tasik and Punuk type my, 

become or are replaced by Thule in. There is a continuance of the Birnirk harpoon head types of 

Natchuk, Sicco, and Thule n, all of which have singlepointed spurs without the decorative medial line of 

the Late Birnirk. Initially, during the Early Thule 

phase, there is a decorative barb on the spur, but this 

is relatively rare (occurring primarily on the Thule n 

varieties). 

These harpoon head types, which are considered 

Early Thule, are found at Walakpa: Early Thule Test 

Trench (mound A), Nunagiak, Point Hope (burials 

253 and 186), .the Western Thule house at Jabbertown, Cape Krusenstern, and at Kurigitavik. 

It is during the Early Thule cultural phase in 

Northern Alaska that Thule began to spread into 

the Eastern Arctic. East of Point Barrow, the number 

and kinds of Birnirk harpoon heads diminish. The 

types that occur are restricted to the types of Natchuk 

and Sicco, having the undecorated single-pointed 

spurs, which are found in the Early Thule phase in 

Alaska. In the east, they are associated with various 

froms of Thule n, Thule ill, and possibly Alilu and 

Nuwuk. These types are here considered to be 

Canadian Early Thule types and are restricted in 

their occurrence to the northern Canadian archipelago, including the southern part of Victoria, the 

southern coast of Cornwallis Island, the southern coast 

of Devon Island and the northwest coast of Greenland 

(Taylor, 1963:461). They do not occur in the southern Canadian Arctic at Naujan, Crystal n, or the 

Cape Smyth area (McGhee, 1971:179). 

During the latter phases of the North Alaskan 

Early Thule period, the harpoon head types of 

Natchuk and Sicco tend to drop out of the cultural 

inventory, with Thule n, Thule in, and Nuwuk 

being the major types found. Sicco, or its Punuk 

equivalent, lasts longer in Western Alaska than it does 

in the Point Barrow area. 

LATE THULE 

By the Late Thule period, most of the Birnirk and 

Early Thule types of harpoon heads, except Thule li, 

no longer exist. In most areas of the northern Arctic, 

the harpoon heads include the types of Thule i, 

Thule II, Thule in, Thule iv, and Nuwuk. At this 

time local developments of harpoon heads have been 

firmly entrenched in the artifact inventory. These 

are such harpoon heads as the Nuwuk variety found 

at Kotzebue, Nunagiak, Kilimatavik, Brower, Kuk; 

Cape Smyth harpoon head types found in the western 

Arctic, and the bifurcated spur variety mentioned 

above in the eastern Arctic. 

In the Point Barrow area, Late Thule is identified 

by square shouldered antler arrowheads and the occurrence of ownership marks on arrowheads and other 

artifacts. These, along with the proliferation of 

harpoon head types mentioned above, are the major 

distinguishing characteristics for Late Thule. 

The antler arrowhead sequence, as defined in this 

paper, is straight forward and seems to hold true 

for most sites. At Walakpa the earliest Birnirk arrowheads have rounded shoulders with straight to slightly 

knobbed tangs. These can be seen as a direct development from the Old Bering Sea arrowheads, 

which have rounded shoulders and straight tangs. 

The knobs appear to have developed later in the Old 

Bering Sea-Punuk, sequence, at about the same time 

that Birnirk was emerging as a distinct culture phase. 

Both the straight and knobbed tangs appear in the 

earliest Birnirk sites on the northern coast of Alaska. 

The straight tang is eventually replaced by the 

knobbed tang in the middle Birnirk phase sites. 

During the Late Birnirk phase, the knobs on the 

tangs become more pronounced, and by the end of 

the Birnirk phase the conical tang with the rounded 
110 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

shoulders is found. This can be seen on the antler 

arrowheads from mound A at Birnirk. 

Both the conical tang and the knobbed tang varieties of arrowheads are found during the Early Thule 

phase with the conical tang being more common 

during the Early Thule phase in Northern Alaska. 

The Early Thule arrowheads in Canada have 

rounded shoulders and bulbed tangs. The conical 

tang has not been found east of Point Barrow. This 

could mean that Early Thule began to spread eastward before the conical tang was fully developed in 

the cultural inventory at the beginning of the Early 

Thule phase. 

The square shouldered antler arrowheads appear 

first in the east and then spread to the western Arctic. 

The square shouldered varieties are found with typically Early Thule assemblages in Canada, but do not 

show up until later in the Alaskan sequence. The 

knobbed tang variety of Birnirk lasts much longer in 

western sites than it does at Point Barrow, with the 

square shouldered arrowheads showing up quite 

late in the western sites. 

Settlement size, although very important, is difficult 

to discuss, in that few sites of Birnirk and Early Thule 

age have been completely excavated in Northern 

Alaska, or because much of our knowledge of Birnirk 

comes from burial excavations rather than from 

village sites. The evidence that is now at hand indicates that settlements were small during the entire 

Birnirk sequence and did not increase in size during 

the Early Thule sequence. Perhaps the Birnirk occupation at Cape Krusenstern was a single large 

village; but, because of the poor preservation of 

perishable artifacts, it is impossible to determine how 

the various houses might fit into the Birnirk sequence. 

The estimated size for the Birnirk occupation at 

Walakpa is at maximum only two houses being occupied at any one time. Carter (pers. comm.) also 

estimates that at the Birnirk site there were possibly 

less than three houses being occupied simultaneously. 

The evidence from Siberia suggests that there were 

only one or two houses at maximum being occupied 

at the same time at Uelen. 

During the Early Thule period, possibly one or 

two family groups made up an entire village. This 

is seen at Nunagiak, where only one house mound 

was found that represented an Early Thul e occupation. I would also estimate that only one house unit 

made up any single occupation at Walakpa. Once 

again it is possible that larger Early Thul e villages 

may have occurred at Cape Krusenstern. 

By Late Thule times in Northern Alaska, there 

are numerous large villages. These are located at 

Nuwuk, Utkiavik, Nunagiak, Old Tigara, and possibly at other sites yet unexcavated. Walakpa does not 

represent a large Late Thule occupation, but appears 

to be an area of seasonal activity where perhaps only 

one extended family may have camped from time to 

time. 

To summarize the settlement pattern for Northern 

Alaska, McGhee's (1970) model for Canadian Early 

Thule seems to fit the evidence for both Birnirk and 

Early Thule in Northern Alaska and Siberia. In 

his model he sees small groups of hunters frequently 

moving their base camps in order to insure sufficient 

amounts of food by exploiting new hunting areas or 

a windfall kill, such as a whale. At Walakpa, there 

were no mixed seasonal or annual accumulations of 

faunal remains in proposed Birnirk-based camps. 

Several of the Birnirk occupations have a large accumulation of bones in the trash middens, but none 

appears to have been carried over from other seasonal 

activities. Thus it appears as though they lived at 

Walakpa without bringing in faunal elements from 

previous camp sites. 

The settlement pattern appears to change during 

the Late Thule phase, and at this time I feel that 

the exploitive strategies center around large group 

activities, such as organized whale hunting and communal caribou hunting. I think that the occurrence 

of ownership marks on antler arrowheads and other 

aTtifacts indicates this shift from family hunting to 

large group hunting, with the ownership marks representing the basis for the division of meat. This would 

not have been necessary with family group hunting 

associations, but would be with large communal associations. 

Figure 29 indicates the development of harpoon 

heads and antler arrowheads during the various 

cultural phases as defined in the preceding discussion. 
Development of Birnirk and Thule 

Cultures in Northern Alaska 

The Eskimo culture phases of Birnirk and Thule 

have been known to Arctic archeologists for at least 

forty years. What has not been known in any substantial detail were their relationships with one another. The excavations of 17 superimposed levels 

of Eskimo occupations at the Walakpa site and the 

comparison of artifact types, especially harpoon heads 

and antler arrowheads found in these levels, to those 

from other sites has added much to our knowledge of 

the nature of Eskimo cultural development in North 

America. Moreover, the Walakpa archeological assemblages, including the faunal remains, have yielded 

new evidence concerning the economic exploitative 

strategies employed by these people and how these 

strategies might relate to the spread and development 

of Late Eskimo culture throughout the northern 

Arctic. 

The excavated stratigraphic sequence at Walakpa 

consists of 17 occupation levels, which I have grouped 

into the cultural phases of Early Birnirk, Middle Birnirk, Late Birnirk, Early Thule, and Late Thule. 

The distinctions between the phases are made on the 

basis of harpoon head and antler arrowhead differences. These divisions are essentially arbitrary, because, quantitatively, the difference between the last 

level of one cultural phase and the beginning of the 

next are minor. The development of Late Eskimo 

culture, as seen from Walakpa, is a smooth, gradual 

transition from Early Birnirk into Late Thule. 

As a whole, the Birnirk material culture assemblage 

from Walakpa is nearly identical to that of the Late 

Thule assemblage from Walakpa. Harpoon heads 

and antler arrowheads are the main artifacts that 

indicate the transition between these cultural phases. 

In the above chapters, I have described these indicative artifact types in detail, noted their stratigraphic 

placement in the Walakpa mounds, and discussed 

their relationships with other sites. 

To summarize, there is a gradual change from 

the early harpoon head types of Birnirk, Naulock, 

Oopik, and Tuquok, which have trifurcated spurs, 

to the Middle Birnirk harpoon heads of the same 

types, which have bifurcated spurs, and the addition 

of the new harpoon-head types of Natchuk, Tasik, 

Sicco, Thule n, and Thule iv. The Late Birnirk 

types have single-pointed spurs with decorative 

medial lines. These types persist into the Early 

Thule period and slowly alter in form, dropping the 

Early Birnirk types of Birnirk, Naulock, Oopik, and 

Tuquok, until they represent the classic Thule harpoon head assemblage of Thule i, n, in, and iv. 

The Early Thule types continue into Late Thule 

with local developments in harpoon types, especially 

proliferations of Thule ii variants. 

It is significant that the Early Birnirk harpoon 

heads have their immediate origins in the Old Bering 

Sea phase. However, it is not clear at this time if 

Birnirk developed in the Point Barrow area from a 

local North Alaskan Old Bering Sea phase population, as seen from Old Bering Sea finds at Point 

Barrow (Ford, 1959; Mathiassen, 1930a; Carter, 

pers. comm.), or developed from a general cultural 

level that existed from along the coast of Northern 

Alaska to Point Barrow. The Old Bering Sea-Early 

Birnirk harpoon heads from Ekven and St. Lawrence 

Island might indicate that Birnirk may have been 

well developed before moving into the Point Barrow 

area. 

It is also possible that the Ipiutak culture of Point 

Hope may have contributed to the development of 

the Birnirk culture. This is especially true if the 

date of A.D. 500 at Kurigitavik indicates a late stage 

of Ipiutak in Western Alaska. Consequently, this 

means that Ipiutak lasted as late as Early Birnirk in 

Western Alaska. Further indications for a late date 

for Ipiutak in Western Alaska were found at Cape 

Krusenstern (Anderson, pers. comm.). 

Early Birnirk was firmly established in Northern 

Alaska sometime after A.D. 500 and is found at an early 

date at Point Hope, Walakpa, Kugusugaruk, Nunavak, and Birnirk. By the Middle Birnirk phase, 

several changes occurred in the harpoon heads, including a possible Punuk-Birnirk tie (Sicco and the 

development of local Birnirk variants), Natchuk, and 

Thule II. During Late Birnirk, Naulock, along with 

most of the other Birnirk harpoon heads have lost 

111 
112 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

much of the decorative frills, with Naulock becoming 

the plain undecorated Tasik. Both types give way 

to the Punuk type mx or Thule in. 

The same sequence is true of antler arrowheads. 

The Birnirk antler arrowheads defined on the basis 

of rounded shoulders and knobbed tangs are nearly 

identical to those found in Old Bering Sea assemblages. During the Late Birnirk phase at Walakpa, 

antler arrowheads having rounded shoulders and 

conical tangs developed. Both the conical tang and 

the knobbed tang arrowheads lasted well into the 

Thule phase, during which they were eventually 

replaced by antler arrowheads with squared shoulders 

and spurred tangs. This last change took place during the Early Thule phase of the eastern Arctic and 

did not occur in the western Arctic until relatively 

late in the Thule sequence. 

To summarize the evidence concerning the origin 

of Thule culture, I will first recapitulate the theories 

of Thule origins which were discussed in the introduction. Secondly, these theories will be analyzed 

in the light of the evidence recovered at the Walakpa 

site, and from this evidence a functional explanation 

will be made for the development of Thule culture. 

The position of Mathiassen (1927b) was quite 

general; he felt that Thule developed west of Canada 

and Greenland and in regions where whales and wood 

were abundant. Presumably, this would have been in 

Alaska. However, the Birnirk types with which he 

was familiar were not considered to be proto-Thule, 

but a development out of Thule. This is not supported at Walakpa in that Birnirk occurs below 

Thule in the stratigraphic continuum. 

Collins (1940) placed the development of Thule to 

the east of Cape Prince of Wales along the northern 

coast of Alaska. The excavations of the Birnirk site 

by James A. Ford and Collins' work at Kurigitavik 

indicated to Collins (1940:563) that Birnirk was 

temporarily older than Thule and a logical parent of 

the Canadian Thule. 

The ideas originally expressed by Collins now have 

been supported by the stratigraphic evidence from 

Walakpa. There is little doubt now that Thule did 

develop directly out of the Birnirk phase on the north 

Alaskan coast. 

Ford's (1959) idea of the transitional step of the 

Nunagiak stage between the Birnirk and Thule cultural phases can in part be supported by the Walakpa 

data. Ford's argument was based on the presence 

of Thule traits found at the Nunagiak site, which 

were not found at the Birnirk site. From the excavations of 1968 and 1969 at Walakpa, these traits have 

now, with minor exceptions, been found in the 

Birnirk assemblages at the Walakpa site. One of the 

house mounds at the Nunagiak site represents an 

Early Thule occupation with Punuk affinities. It may 

be noted that Ford considered the inhabitants of the 

Nunagiak site to be contemporary with those of the 

Early Canadian Thule sites. From the occurrence 

of Early Thule types of harpoon heads at the Nunagiak site in the Early Thule house mounds, this 

appears to be true, but his estimated date of A.D. 1200 

for the Nunagiak cultural stage is apparently too 

young. The dates of Early Thul e sites in the central 

Arctic, clustering around A.D. 1000, imply that the 

Nunagiak-Early Thule occupation is of about that 

same time period or earlier. 

Moreover, the dated beach ridge chronologies indicate that mound C or the Early Thul e house at 

Nunagiak had to have been built before A.D. 1000, 

to have been sufficiently above sea level for habitation. 

Birnirk did not, however, as Taylor (1963:456) suggests, extend as far east as Cape Parry prior to A.D. 900. 

Attempts to locate Birnirk or proto-Thule sites in 

the Canadian Arctic by both Taylor (pers. comm.) 

and Robert McGhee (pers. comm.) have failed. Instead, the harpoon heads from Canadian sites thought 

by Taylor to be Birnirk, according to my criteria, 

would be considered Early Thule. Taylor is correct 

in suggesting that Nunagiak, or something closely related to it, existed as far east as Lady Franklin Point 

on Victoria Island (Figure 28:14). Many sites to the 

east of Walakpa have been found to contain Early 

Thule harpoon heads. These sites are Hershel Island, 

Vaughn, Jackson, Memorana, Lady Franklin Point, 

M l, Ruin Island, Nugdlit (Figure 28). Taylor's hypothesis that an Early Thul e stage separated Birnirk 

from the Nunagiak-Early Thule period has not been 

supported by the evidence from the North Alaskan 

sites. It can be seen at Walakpa, Birnirk mound A, 

and at Nunagiak that the transition from Late Birnirk 

to Early Thule at Nunagiak is quite smooth and 

does not require an additional cultural phase. 

McGhee (1970) felt that Thul e culture developed 

out of Birnirk in Northern Alaska. Th e development 

of Thule, according to him, took place because of a 

climatic shift and a corresponding shift in hunting 

strategy from Birnirk to Thule. He proposed that 

during the Scandic episode, the climate was similar to 

that which is found in the Arctic today. McGhee 

postulates that the main hunting strategy, which 

would have been practiced during the Birnirk 

phase, would have been one of ice-lead whale hunting. 

This would require large permanent villages located 

along the coast in various strategic places, where ocean 

currents and wind direction would cause ice leads to 

form during the periods of whale migrations. The 

large villages would support several teams of whalers 
DEVELOPMENT OF BIRNIRK AND THULE CULTURES 113 

who could trap whales in the ice leads. The whales 

would then be the primary food resource for the 

Birnirk hunters. 

According to McGhee's idea, the change to warmer 

weather during the Neo-Atlantic would cause an 

increase in whales, walruses, and bearded seals, and a 

reduction in ringed seals. The ice would also break 

up sooner in the spring and ice-lead hunting would 

then become impossible. The hunting strategy would 

then have to change to accommodate these new conditions. The new hunting strategy would be one 

of open-water whale pursuit. Because the probability 

of successful whale hunting in open water is quite low, 

sufficient food resources would not be available to 

support large villages. Consequently, the villages 

would break up and the Eskimo population would 

be dispersed. McGhee (1970:179) sees the transition 

from Birnirk to Thule as a rapid migration of small 

groups of whale hunters into Canada and Greenland 

at this time. 

Although the faunal evidence from Walakpa tends 

to support McGhee's interpretation of the effects of 

climatic changes on the economic potential of ice 

hunting, it does not support his interpretation of 

Birnirk whale-hunting strategies and settlement patterns. It appears that even though ice-lead whale 

hunting was possible, Birnirk hunters did not capitalize on whale hunting. The evidence from three 

Birnirk occupations at Walakpa indicates that seals 

were the primary food source and not whales. It also 

appears, from the estimated village sizes of various 

Birnirk sites, that large villages with cooperative 

whale-hunting groups were not formed. 

In my opinion, widespread occurrence of Birnirk 

and Early Thule harpoon heads may be attributed 

to the manner in which the Eskimos exploited their 

environment. If, as suggested by the faunal analysis 

of the Birnirk levels at Walakpa, these people were 

nearly eliminating the ringed seal populations for 

80.5 kilometers or more of coastline during a single 

season, they would have been forced to move their 

camps considerable distances from year to year. In 

fact, it is conceivable that if they were killing as 

many seals every year, as were represented in the 

B-10 and B-9 levels, the average Eskimo family, 

during the course of a human generation, would 

have moved and lived along the entire coast of Northern Alaska. This type of economic strategy would act 

as a population check to keep the number of Eskimo 

inhabitants of this area at a low level, as well as 

produce a very homogeneous distribution of culture. 

The broader implication of this exploitative 

strategy is that it would not take too many generations 

of Eskimos to reduce the ringed-seal population to 

such a low point that it could not serve as the primary 

food source. This prime energy source would then 

have to be augmented or replaced by other sources. 

It appears that from Birnirk to Thule the seals are 

replaced by whales as the primary food resource. 

This would not have required a particularly drastic 

change in the hunting technology. As has been 

pointed out (page 97), during Birnirk times the 

Eskimos were occasionally killing small whales and 

possibly killing or collecting dead baleen whales. 

In order to kill larger whales, a somewhat elaborate 

technological assemblage is necessary. The development of large whaling equipment is seen in the Bering Straits area during the Punuk period (Collins, 

1937c), possibly several hundred years prior to the 

development of Thule. It can also be pointed out 

that during Late Birnirk and Early Thule periods, 

there was considerable influence from the Bering 

Straits area. This is witnessed by the Punuk artifacts 

that occurred in the Nunagiak assemblage and the 

lowest Early Thule level at Walakpa, the Punuk-like 

whaling harpoon heads in the Late Birnirk levels at 

the Birnirk site, and the Thule III or Punuk type 

in (a) harpoon heads found at various sites in northern 

Canada. 

The introduction of Punuk whaling equipment 

might possibly be correlated at Walakpa with a 

gradual shift to a warmer climatic episode and the 

depletion of seal resources, and the increase of the 

availability of large sea mammals. With the advent 

of slightly warmer winters, the ice would break up 

sooner in the spring. These climatic events would, 

as McGhee (1970) points out, cause a further reduction in the ringed-seal populations. Therefore, the 

shift to a different economic resource would become 

even more imperative, and new hunting areas would 

have to be sought out. This would explain the rapid 

expansion into the eastern Arctic by the Early Thule 

hunters. Further, if the ice did break up sooner in 

the spring, the whale migrations may have also adjusted to this new ecological condition and commenced sooner in the year, allowing ice-lead hunting 

during Early Thule times as well as during Birnirk 

and Late Thule periods. 

In summary, the stratigraphic sequence at Walakpa 

indicates a development of Birnirk culture through 

at least three major phases: Early Birnirk, Middle 

Birnirk, and Late Birnirk. It also indicates that 
114 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Thule developed directly out of Birnirk with some population by overexploitation and warming climatic 

of the Thule features, such as the Thule n harpoon conditions, seals could no longer support the Birnirk 

head, appearing as early as the Middle Birnirk phase. hunters. The alternatives were to expand into new 

The faunal evidence from Walakpa suggests that territories in search of new sealing localities and to 

seals were the primary food resource of the Birnirk replace the seals with a new primary food resource, 

Eskimos, and through the depletion of the seal whales. 
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1964b. Fieldwork on the Chukchi Peninsula in 1957. Pages 298-

305 in Henry N. Michael, editor, The Archaeology and 

Geomorphology of Northern Asia: Selected Works. Montreal. [Translations from Russian Sources (AINA), 5.] 

Lucifer, C. 

n.d. Aging of Caribou, 1963-1968. Manuscript. Files of Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution. 

MacNeish, Richard S. 

1959. Men out of Asia: As Seen from the Northwest Yukon. 

Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, 7(2): 

41-70. 

Manning, Thomas H. 

1950. A Mixed Cap Dorset-Thule Site on Smith Island, East 

Hudson Bay. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 

(Ottawa), 123. 

Mason, J. Alden 

1930. Excavations of Eskimo Thule Culture Sites at Point Barrow, Alaska. Pages 383-394 in Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Americanists. Lancaster. 

Mathiassen, Therkel 

1927a. Archaeology of the Central Eskimos, I: Descriptive Part. 

Pages 1-327 in part 1 of volume 4 in Report of the Fifth 

Thule Expedition, 1921-24 (The Danish Expedition to 

Arctic North America in Charge of Knud Rasmussen). 

Copenhagen. 

1927b. Archaeology of the Central Eskimos, II: The Thule Culture and Its Position within the Eskimo Culture. Pages 

1-201 in part 2 of volume 4 in Report of the Fifth Thule 

Expedition, 1921-24 (The Danish Expedition to Arctic 

North America in Charge of Knud Rasmussen). Copenhagen. 

1930a. Archeological Collections from the Western Eskimos, 

Eskimo Archeology and Ethnology. Pages 1-98 of volume 

10 in Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition 1921-24 (The 

Danish Expedition to Arctic North America in Charge of 

Knud Rasmussen). Copenhagen. 

1930b. Inugsuk: A Medieval Eskimo Settlement in Upernivik 

District, West Greenland. Medelelser om Gr0nland (Copenhagen), 77:147-340. 

1931. Ancient Eskimo Settlements in the Kangamiut Area. 

Meddelelser om Gr0nland (Copenhagen), 91:1-149. 

1933. Prehistory of the Angmagssalik Eskimo. Meddelelser om 

Gr0nland (Copenhagen), 92:1-157. 

1934. Contributions to the Archeology of Disko Bay. Meddelelser om Gr0nland (Copenhagen), 93(2): 1-192. 

1936. The Eskimo Archeology of Greenland. Pages 397-404 of 

Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1936. 

Washington, D.C. 

Mathiassen, Therkel, and Erick Holtved 

1936. The Eskimo Archeology of Julianehaab District. Meddelelser om Gr0nland (Copenhagen), 118(1):1-140. 

McGhee, Robert 

1970. Speculations on Climatic Change and Thule Culture Development. Folk (Copenhagen), 11/12:153-184. 

1971. An Archaeological Survey of Western Victoria Island, 

N.W.T., Canada. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 

(Ottawa), 232:157-191. 

McLaren, Ian A. 

1962. Population Dynamics and Exploitation of Seals in the 

Eastern Canadian Arctic in the Exploitation of Natural 

Animal Populations. Pages 168-187 in E. D. LeCren and 

M. W. Holgate, editors, A Symposium of the British Ecological Society. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. 

Moore, G. W. 

1960. Recent Eustatic Sea-Level Fluctuations Recorded By Arctic 

Beach Ridges. United States Geological Survey, Professional Papers, 400B:B335. 

Murdoch, John 

1884. A Study of Eskimo Bows in the U. S. National Museum. 

Pages 307-316 in Annual Report of the U.S. National 

Museum. Washington, D.C. 

1892. Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition. 

Pages 19-441 in Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of 

American Ethnology. Washington, D.C. 
LITERATURE CITED 117 

Naval Arctic Research Laboratory 

n.d. Temperature Wind Chill Index Chart. Mimeographed 

handout. Point Barrow, Alaska. 

Nelson, Edward W. 

1899. The Eskimo about Bering Strait. Pages 1-518 in Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part I. Washington, D.C. 

Nelson, Richard K. 

1969. Hunters of the Northern Ice. Chicago: The University of 

Chicago Press. 

Okladnikov, P. Aleksei, and Nina A. Beregovaia 

1971. Drevnie Noseleniia Baranova Mysa (Ancient Settlement of 

Cape Baranov). Novosibirsk: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka," Sibirskos Otdelenia. 

Paige, S., W. T. Foran, and J. Gilluly 

1925. A Reconnaissance of Point Barrow Region, Alaska. United 

States Geological Survey Bulletin, 772:1-33. 

Potter, Loren D. 

1972. Plant Ecology of the Walakpa Bay Area, Alaska. Arctic 

(Montreal), 25(2). 

Rainey, Froelich, and Elisabeth K. Ralph 

1959. Radiocarbon Dating in the Arctic. American Antiquity, 

24:365-374. 

Ray, Patrick H. 

1885. Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point 

Barrow, Alaska, in Response to the Resolution of the 

House of Representatives of December 11, 1884. Washington, D.C. 

Rex, R. W. 

1964. Arctic Beaches, Barrow, Alaska. Pages 384-391 of Papers in 

Marine Geology. New York: Macmillan. 

Romer, Alfred S. 

1966. Vertebrate Paleontology. Chicago: University of Chicago 

Press. 

Rudenko, S. J. 

1961. The Ancient Culture of the Bering Sea and the Eskimo 

Problem. Henry N. Michael, editor. [Translations from 

Russian Sources (AINA), 1.] 

Skoog, R. O. 

1968. The Ecology of the Caribou (Rangifer tarondus granti). 

Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. 

Smith, T. G. 

1973. Population Dynamics of the Ringed Seal in the Canadian 

Eastern Arctic. Fisheries Research Board of Canada 

Bulletin, 181:1-55. 

Spencer, Robert F. 

1959. The North Alaska Eskimo: A Study in Ecology and Society. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, 171 

Washington, D.C. 

Stefansson, Vilhjalmur 

1914. The Stefansson-Anderson Arctic Expedition of the American Museum: Preliminary Ethnological Report. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural 

History, 14(l):396-457. 

Taylor, William E., Jr. 

1963. Hypotheses on the Origin of Canadian Thule Culture. 

American Antiquity, 28(4):456-464. 

1964. Interim Account of an Archeological Survey in the Central Arctic, 1963. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, 12(l):46-55. 

1967. Summary of Archeological Field work on Banks and Victoria Islands, Arctic Canada, 1965. Arctic Anthropology, 

4(l):221-243. 

1972. An Archeological Survey Between Cape Parry and Cambridge Bay, N.W.T., Canada in 1963. Archaeological Survey of Canada Paper (Ottawa), Mercury series, LPP1-106. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau 

1959. Climates of the States: Alaska. Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office. 

1963. Climatic Summary of Alaska. Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office. 

Usher, Peter, and Michael Church 

1969. On the Relationship of Weight, Length and Girth of the 

Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida) of the Canadian Arctic. Arctic, 

22(2): 120-129. 

VanStone, James W. 

1955. Archaeological Excavations at Kotzebue, Alaska. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, 3(2):75-155. 

Wedel, Waldo 

1961. Prehistoric Man on the Great Plains. Norman: University 

of Oklahoma Press. 

Wiggins, Ira, and J. H. Thomas 

1962. The Flora of the Alaska Arctic Slope. Arctic Institute of 

North America, Special Publication (Montreal), 4. 

Wissler, 

1916. Harpoons and Darts in the Stefansson Collection. American Museum of Natural History Anthropology Papers, 14 

(2):397-443. 

•frU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 197&—0587-663 

PLATES 119 

•HMDHBI 

PLATE 1.—Walakpa site: a, looking west toward the ocean, the full length of the site; b, looking 

east from the top of mound A (mound B is just beyond the whale bone); c, mound A 

looking west; d, looking north from mound A toward the Will Rogers-Wiley Post monument 

with modern Eskimo camp in the foreground. 
120 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

t

jf*L\

T

 "J&*" 

PLATE 2.—Walakpa site: a, Will Rogers-Wiley Post monument; b, section of east-west 

stratigraphy, mound A; c, level B-1, an unusual feature in a Late Thule level. 
PLATES 121 

PLATE 3.—Walakpa site A area: a, Nuwuk (historic age) house, which cut through several 

Late Thule levels; b, Late Thule level A-2, showing truncation of the occupation floor by the 

Nuwuk house. 
122 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

'•&&? p* •- y:-t"-- ^ 

?*»3W .,> f-'A .-.,•<</..•••> . X 

en.—,;/-., *. ''* £ ••ft'- -•;&••' • • ' m i-f 

V^m -.; • 

i 

35" 

• ..r '.;>• " • , rj* /• • _..jt^»& . -

'"-•'i <• Is &• fh- >'« ' • IT' S

 ;*.y ^i-ik 

-^ >) --C

 ,; 

*—r^, 

»?%&& 

1? 

PLATE 4.—Early Thule levels in B area: a, Early Thule level B-4 (sign board indicates this as an 

Eastern Thule level; stratigraphic units are visible in the wall behind the sign board); b, Early 

Thule level B-6; c, another view of the B-6 occupation level; d, close-up of square J 20, level 

B-7 Early Thule. (b, c, d, incorrectly labeled "Birnirk"; note concentration of artifacts). 
PLATES 123 

7 

• •:' J^l H^^^S^k 

^ 

PLATE 5.—Birnirk occupation level B-8: a, house structure (the stratigraphy is visible in the 

wall); b, detail of square J 17, Birnirk house floor; c, detail of square K 17, Birnirk house floor; 

d, another view of square K 17, Birnirk house floor. 
124 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20 

PLATE 6.—Birnirk artifacts from the mound A test trench: a, Tuquok open socket harpoon 

head; b, d, Naulock open socket harpoon heads; c, Thule iv closed socket harpoon head; e, 

fragment of open socket harpoon head; /, g, fragments of harpoon foreshafts; h-j, harpoon 

head preforms; k, antler arrowhead; I, n, bone awls; m, gauged drill; o, unidentified chert effigy; 

to. chert knife blade. 
PLATES 125 

PLATE 7.—Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench: a, Birnirk open socket harpoon head; 

b, c, Naulock open socket harpoon heads; d, Tasik open socket harpoon head; e, Thule iv 

closed socket harpoon head; /, g, harpoon head fragments; h, baleen snow goggles; i, seal float 

plug; /, k, ivory wound pins; I, m, wood wound plugs. 
126 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

I 

5 CM. 

PLATE 8.—Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench: a-c antler arrowheads! 

d, unidentified bone artifact; e, sinew twister; /, flaking tool. 
PLATES 127 

PLATE 9.—Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench: a, wooden spoon; b, adz blade; 

c, unidentified bone tool; d, paddle tip; e, drilled bear tooth; f-l, bola weights. 
128 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20 

I 1! 

5 CM . 

2 I N. 

PLATE 10.—Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench: a, b, d, ulu blades; 

c, men's knife blade; e-g, chert knife blade; h, knife handle. 
PLATES 129 

PLATE 11.—Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench: a-c, bone awls; d, e, engraving 

tools; /, unidentified wooden object; g, h, belt toggles; i, cup and pin game. 
130 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

if" 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

K 

J 

PLATE 12.—Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench: a-d, wedges; 

e, f, bone scrapers; g-j, gaming pieces. 

PLATE 13.—Small bow from the mound B Birnirk level test trench. 
PLATES 131 

PLATE 14.—Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench: 

a-e, unidentified wood and baleen objects. 
132 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 15.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, Naulock open socket harpoon head; b, Tuquok open 

socket harpoon head; c, Thule iv closed socket harpoon head; d-h, Birnirk open socket harpoon 

heads; i, small harpoon foreshaft; j-n, large harpoon foreshafts. 
PLATES 133 

PLATE 16.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, harpoon shaft ice pick fragment; 

b-d, harpoon shaft ice picks; e, harpoon socket piece. 
134 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 17.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, float bar; b, c, wound plugs; 

d, wound pin; e-g, ice scoop rims. 
5 CM. 

2 IN. 

PLATE 18.—Birnirk seal rattle, level B-10. 
136 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 19.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, antler arrowhead; b, antler arrowhead fragment; 

c-f, bola weights; g, foreshaft fragment; h, slate knife blade; i, composite knife handle; 7, knife 

handle. 
PLATES 137 

PLATE 20.—Wooden hunting hat, level B-10. 

PLATE 21.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, boat seat; b, harpoon shaft. 
138 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 22.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, paddle tip; b, wooden shaft; c, d, paddle blades. 
PLATES 139 

PLATE 23.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a-e, whetstones. 
140 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 24.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a-c, whetstones. 
PLATES 141 

PLATE 25.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: «, awl handle; b-g, awls; h, i, bow drill bearings. 
142 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 26.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a-c, whale rib mattock heads; d, whale rib pick. 
PLATES 143 

PLATE 27.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-IO: a, ulu; b, ulu handle; c-i, ulu blades. 

c 

i 

PLATE 28.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, b, d-g, k, pebble end scrapers; c, f, h, i, 

side scrapers;;', flint flaker point. 
144 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 29.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, flaked pebble; b, notched quartz pebble; c, 

Birnirk split pebbles scraper; d, whetstone; e, ground hematite nodule; /, ground slate nodule. 

f 

PLATE 30.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a-e, bone scrapers. 
PLATES 145 

*m 

VmmYWmm*ummma H B 

d 

mmmmm 

PLATE 31.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a-f, two-handed metapodial scrapers. 
146 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 32.—Wooden meat tray, level B-10. 
PLATES 147 

PLATE 33.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a-e, wooden bucket bottoms. 
148 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 34.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-fO: a, b, spoons; c, spoon-like artifact; 

d, flaker hammerhead; e, kayak rib. 

PLATE 35.—Drum rim, level B-10. 
PLATES 149 

PLATE 36.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, ivory chain; b, ivory object; c, baleen saw(?); d, toy 

bow; e, organic doll; /, wooden object; g, cup and pin game; h, baleen object. 
150 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 37.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-10: a, Birnirk open socket harpoon head; b, harpoon head 

fragment; c, d, harpoon head preforms; e, harpoon foreshaft; /, antler arrowhead fragment; g, 

baleen snow goggles; h, snow probe ferrule; i, dart butt piece; ;', fish arrow prong; k-q, bola 

weights; r-t, composite knife handles; u, v, composite awls; w, engraving tool; x, awl; y, chert 

drill bit; z, toggle fragment; aa, ivory pendant; bb, ivory awl. 
PLATES 151 

PLATE 38.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a-c, sled arches; d, kayak rib. 
152 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a 

5 CM. 

PLATE 39.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, b, adz blades; c, ground hematite; d-h, whetstones. 
PLATES 153 

PLATE 40.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, b, whale rib mattock heads; c, mattock handle. 
154 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 41.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, wedge; b, whale rib ice pick; 

c, whale rib mattock blade. 
PLATES 155 

PLATE 42.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, b, ulu handles; c-k, ulu blades. 
156 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

••ore 

2 IN. 

PLATE 43.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, stone object; b, c, i, chert bifaces; d, slate knife 

blade; e, pebble side scrapers; f—h, pebble end scrapers; k, I, retouched flakes. 
PLATES 157 

i ^:m^m -

^ <• •,., v # 

m*<Jfj:'*>- j * • ' •-* A* » '••••'• ' ' >*." , 

- • • •:•'•. :

 r * l V%; ^ 

*tr** 

• < > ~-«grjflE 

tf 

PLATE 44.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: «, flaked and ground slate object; b, c, large, 

bifacially flaked objects. 
158 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 45.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, b, hammerstones; c, drilled stone object; 

d, ground slate nodule; e-g, Birnirk split pebble scrapers. 
PLATES 159 

-

o 

ft 

? 

PLATE 46.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, d, f, g, j , bone scrapers; b, c, e, bone awls; 

h, i, gauged drills. 
160 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a 

PLATE 47.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, b, small wedges; c, seal float mouthpiece; d, net 

weight; e, wooden shaft; /, baleen object; g, wooden bucket bottom; h, baleen bucket. 
PLATES 161 

•rf^td^^i^^^i^TT-TNPLATE 48.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-9: a, b, toy bow fragments; c, arrowshaft; d, toy bow. 

PLATE 49.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-8: a-d, Birnirk open socket harpoon heads; e, f, Natchuk 

open socket harpoon heads; g, Thule n open socket harpoon head; h, i, harpoon foreshaft fragments; ;-/, harpoon shaft ice picks. 
162 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 50.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-8: a, wooden snow goggles; b, d, seal scratchers; 

c, ice staff ring; e, snow probe ferrule. 
PLATES 163 

i; 

m 

n 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

% 

PLATE 51.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-8: a, b, bird-dart side prong; c, d, seal float mouthpiece 

stoppers; e, f, fish arrow prongs; g, wound pin; h, wound plug; i-l, bola weights; m, ivory ring; 

n-q, antler arrowheads; r, knapping tool; s, engraving tool. 
164 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 52.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-8: a, adz blade and antler sleeve; b, scraper handle; 

c, knife handle; d, chert knife blade; e, gauge drill; /, g, pebble side scrapers; h, planoconvex 

end scraper; i, bifacial tool. 
PLATES 165 

PLATE 53.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-8: a, b, ulu blades; c, ground hematite nodule; 

d, e, g, whetstones; /, ground slate nodule. 
166 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

Lix.fe 

5 CM. 

PLATE 54.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-8: a, humerus scraper; b, scapula scraper; c, 

two-handed bone scraper; d, e, kayak ribs. 
PLATES 167 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 55.—Baleen bucket, level B-8. 
168 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

2 IN, 

PLATE 56.—Polar bear mandible tied with baleen cord, level B-8. 
PLATES 169 

PLATE 57.—Birnirk artifacts, level B-8: a, rawhide cord; b, toy bow; 

c-e, unidentified wooden artifacts. 
170 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 58.—Early Thule artifacts from the mound A test trench: a, Natchuk open socket 

harpoon head; b, Sicco open socket harpoon head; c, Thule 11 open socket harpoon head; d-g, 

antler arrowheads; h, planoconvex end scraper; i, toy bow fragment. 

5 CM. 

< 

^ 

J m 

PLATE 59.—Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench: a, b, Thule n open socket 

harpoon heads; c, d, slate end blades; e, harpoon end blade preforms; /, inflation nozzle; g, ivory 

labret; h-m, antler arrowheads; n, chert arrowhead; o, bow fragment. 
PLATES 171 

5 CM. 

2 IN. 

PLATE 60.—Early Thule polar bear carving from the mound B test trench. 
172 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

• 

e 

Pi 

1-4S3 

5 CM. 

PLATE 61.—Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench: a, wooden staff with human 

face; b, c, d, bola weights; e, engraving tool; /, bone awl; g, chert drill bit; h, chert knife blade; 

i, ulu blade; /, drilled stone. 
PLATES 173 

• & 

n 

B H r a. 

• v * 

CW^O* ^ 

PLATE 62.—Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench: a, antler sled arch; 

b, cut drift wood; c, d, whale rib mattocks. 
174 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

«&£ 

m n 

5 CM. 

PLATE 63.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-7: a, Punuk n (f)(x) harpoon head; b, Thule in open 

socket harpoon head; c, Sicco open socket harpoon head; d, Thule iv closed socket harpoon head; 

e, Thule n open socket harpoon head; /, harpoon head fragment; g, harpoon foreshaft; h, antler 

arrowhead; i, j , antler arrowheads; k, snow goggle fragment; I, n, atlatl fragments; m, fish arrow 

prong. 
PLATES 175 

vv 

b 

5 CM. 

PLATE 64.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-7: a-f, bola weights; g, small ivory wedge; 

h, men's knife blade; i, j , adz blades; k, drilled bear tooth. 
176 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

< 

S . 

\ 

J&0E2, 

iPp*^ 

• 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 65.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-7: a, bifacial preform; b-d, pebble end scrapers; 

e-g, i, pebble side scrapers; h, hafted flake knife. 
PLATES 177 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 66.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-7: a, c, d, bone awls; b, bone scraper; e, baleen object; 

/, pointed shaft with cord; g, polished stone; h, baleen knot; i-j, whetstones; k, wooden shaft. 
178 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a 

hi 

PLATE 67.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-7: a-c, boat or sled fragments; 

d, ground slate hammerstone. 
PLATES 179 

c d 

PLATE 68.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-6: a, harpoon foreshaft fragment; b, harpoon ice pick 

fragment; c-e, antler arrowheads; /, fish arrow prong; g, h, arrowshafts; i-k, bow fragments; 

/, harpoon shaft fragment. 
180 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20 

'%&*•••* , 

*«: <* -£wfauL~.: 

S CM . 

2 I N. 

PLATE 69.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-6: a, bola weight; b, baleen and wood object; c, seal 

float mouthpiece; d, cup and pin game; e, kayak model; /, h, unidentified baleen objects; g, baleen 

whale effigy. 
PLATES 181 

/ 

PLATE 70.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-6: a, b, seal float bars (?); c, adz handle; d, ulu blade; 

e, baleen object; f, h, j , chert knife blades; g, awl handle; i, k, knife handles. 
182 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

5 CM. 

2 IN. 

PLATE 71.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-6: a, b, two-handed bone scrapers; c, unidentified 

wooden object; d-g, gauged drills; h, small pointed shaft; i, cut wood with shave spalls. 
PLATES 183 

PLATE 72.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-6: a, flint flaker point; b, bone awl; c, small 

bucket bottom; d, ground and flaked discoid; e, pebble end scraper; /, ground stone. 
184 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

i 

a b 

J 

I 

n 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 73.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-6: a, slate end blade; b, chert end blade; c, d, harpoon 

foreshaft fragments; e, f, antler arrowheads; g, antler arrowhead preform; h, arrowshaft; i, bola 

weight; ;', ulu blade; k, o, chert knife blades; /, grooved seal tooth; m, bead; n, slate knife blade; 

p, drilled antler; q, side scraper. 
PLATES 185 

* 

f 

J 

y.'i-f' 

/ 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

m 

n 

PLATE 74.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-5: a, b, bone awls; c-f, gauged drills; g, h, unidentified 

wooden objects; i-k, kayak ribs; I, m, unidentified antler tools; n, small arrow or drill shaft. 
186 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

\ 

5 CM. 

2 IN. 

PLATE 75.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-4: a, Nuwuk closed socket harpoon head; b, Thule n 

open socket harpoon head; c, d, antler arrowheads; e, arrowshaft; /, wound plug; g-i, knife 

handles; /, bola weight; k, drilled tooth; I, snow goggle fragment. 
PLATES 187 

* | 

f 

J 

5 CM. 

PLATE 76.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-4: a, b, ground slate nodules; c, ground stone; d, potsherd; e, retouched flake; /, small knife blade; g, ulu blade; h, unidentified pointed stick; i, gauge 

drill; /, hide peg. 
188 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a 

f 

PLATE 77.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-3: a, harpoon head fragment; b, c, slate end blades; 

d, small foreshaft fragment; e, bird dart point; /, g, antler arrowheads; h, marlin spike; i, j , 

chert arrowheads; k, arrowshaft; l-n, baleen knots. 
PLATES 189 

5 CM, 

2 I N 

PLATE 78.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-3: a, slate knife blade; b, knife handle; 

c, notched bear tooth; d-k, small pointed wooden pegs. 
190 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

a 

NUMBER 2 0 

I 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 79.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-3: a, composite knife handle; b, drilled wooden object; 

c, stone drill bit; d, gauged drill; e, bone awl; /, adz blade; g, large quartzite retouched flake; 

h, scapula scraper. 
PLATES 191 

H 

PLATE 80.—Early Thule artifacts, level B-2: a, Thule in open socket harpoon head; b, harpoon 

foreshaft; c, d, antler arrowheads; e, bird arrowhead; /, fish arrow prong; g, pointed shaft; h, 

adz handle; i, bone scraper; /, k, hide pegs; /, drilled wooden object. 
192 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

9 5 CM 

PLATE 81.—Late Thule artifacts from the area A test trench: a, d, Thule nd harpoon heads; b, c, 

Thule nc harpoon heads; e, harpoon head preform; f, g, harpoon foreshafts; h, slate end blade; 

i, seal float mouthpiece stopper; ;', antler arrowhead preform. 
PLATES 193 

V 

•2 m 

bo, * "a * ? o 

rt C 

03 

^SesSs-

- -jO— • -•-! < } 

/ 

c * 

C o a a. 

u JZ 

E 

o !-

4-1 <J 

<*2 srt hule 

H SJ 

rt 

H-l 

1 1. oi 00 

w E-

< 

• « >~ ffig <u 1) 

"rt J5 

£ 

bfl ebrae i -

> 

in 

CD 

X 
194 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20 

PLATE 83.—Late Thule artifacts from the area A test trench: a, b, gauged drills; c, engraving 

tool; d, bone awl; e, needle case(?); /, marrow extractor or rib scraper(?); g, marlin spike(?); h, 

fire drill platform; i, unidentified wooden object. 
a 

, \ 

j 

i 

5 CM. 

PLATE 84.—Late Thule artifacts, level B-1: a, whaling harpoon head; b, Nuwuk closed socket 

harpoon head; c, d, slate end blades; e, antler arrowhead; /, wound pin; g, whetstone; h, end 

scraper; i, carved wooden object; ;', drill spindle; k, unidentified wooden object; /, ulu handle. 
196 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

V 

f 

. 

\ v 

J 

PLATE 85.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-1: a, harpoon head preform; b, c, slate harpoon end 

blades; d, harpoon ice pick fragment; e, antler arrowhead; /, g, antler arrowshafts; h, chert 

arrowhead; i, bow fragment; /, feather-cutting board; k, marrow extractor; I, bola weight; m, 

drilled tooth; n, atlatl hook; o, labret(?); p, small needle case; q, r, baleen cords. 
PLATES 197 

1 

-'jd 

ffm ' 

U 

I 

fcSOOWPLATE 86.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-1: «, drill shaft; b, fishing pole; c, d, f, retouched 

flakes; e, pebble end scraper; g, ulu blade; h, bone scraper; z, whale rib mattock fragment. 
198 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

/ 

• 

ft* 

J 

5 CM. 

PLATE 87.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-2: a, e, Thule nc open socket harpoon heads; b, harpoon 

head fragment; c, d, f, g, slate end blades; h, harpoon foreshaft fragment; i, harpoon ice pick 

fragment; ;', wound pin; k, fish arrow prong. 
PLATES 199 

a b d e f g h 

J 

m 

I n 

PLATE 88.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-2: a-n, antler arrowheads; o-r, antler arrowhead 

preforms. 
200 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

i 

J 

I 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 89.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-2: a, wooden bird arrow; b, c, arrowshaft fragments; d-g, 

chert arrowheads; h, i, bola weights; /, marlin spike; k, feather-cutting board; I, harpoon dart 

head. 
PLATES 201 

a 

5 CM. 

PLATE 90.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-2: a, ulu; b, ulu blade; c, d, g, retouched flake knives; 

e, slate knife blade; /, notched pebble; h, i, whetstones;;', bifacial core. 
202 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

I I 

ftj 

PLATE 91.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-2: a, paddleshaped wooden object; 

whale rib ice pick; c, snow shovel blade; d, e, marrow extractors or rib scrapers(P). 
PLATES 203 

'*»•'**,- *, * 

/ 

m 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 92.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-2: a, antler wedge; b, amber pendant; c, j , potsherds; 

d, wooden bowl fragment; e, ivory awl; /, g, bone scrapers; h, pointed wooden shaft; i, baleen 

object; k, I, unidentified wooden squares; m, net float bar. 
204 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

44 

• 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 93.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-3: a, Nuwuk closed socket .harpoon head; b, Thule nb 

harpoon head; c, harpoon head preform; d-f, slate end blades; g, wooden snow goggle fragment; h, i, harpoon shaft ice picks. 
PLATES 205 

fi 

V 73 

' 1 

f 9 

m rt 

J 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 94.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-3: a-g, antler arrowheads; h-j, arrowshaft fragments; 

k, I, chert arrowheads; m, seal float mouthpiece stopper; n, labret. 
206 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

m\ 1 JMIfc 

*^*Ws< £ 

& 

\ ICT'-V 

5 CM. 

2 I N 

PLATE 95.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-3: a, ulu blade; b, d, chert knife blades; 

c, e, g, knife handles; /, slate knife blade; h, whetstone. 
PLATES 207 

•i 

i» 

<f" **--

->>-^ajii IT iijrtm,!. 

y 

2 I N. 

PLATE 96.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-3: a, hide peg; b, fire drill platform fragment; c, drilled 

ivory object; d-g, miscellaneous wooden objects; h, lump of coal; i, bone crusher; /, bone 

hammerhead. 
208 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

J 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 97.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-4: a, Thule na harpoon head; b, harpoon head 

fragment; c, d, harpoon foreshaft fragments; e, harpoon ice pick fragment; /-/, antler arrowheads. 
PLATES 209 

m.M 

5 CM. 

PLATE 98.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-4: a, knife handle; b, man's knife. 

e f g h 

•dk* 

i 

<J 

PLATE 99.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-4: a, gauged drill; b, whetstone; c, unidentified antler 

object; d, g, knife blade fragments; e, f, chert drill bits; h, side scraper; i, potsherd. 
210 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

,-"*»-

•vSt M 

;"*••' ••>*&>-• F""Hr? . ' 

c ' • -

PLATE 100.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-4: a, unidentified handle; b, awl handle; 

c, baleen knife; d, knife handle; e, adz handle; /, whale rib ice pick. 
PLATES 211 

• v 

f 

&E&Qfif^ 

&&&Z& 

PLATE 101.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-5; a, Utkiavik closed socket harpoon head; 6, slate 

end blade; c, baleen snow goggles; d, harpoon head fragment; e, seal drag handle; /, g, harpoon 

ice pick fragments; h, harpoon shaft fragment. 
212 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

m 

K 

J 

PLATE 102.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-5: a-e, antler arrowheads; /, antler arrowhead 

preform; g-i, arrowshaft fragments;;', k, chert arrowheads. 
PLATES 213 

MM!;: 

y 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 103.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-5: a, fat cup; b, scraper; c, wood shaves bundle; 

d, fire drill spindle; e, f, bola weights; g, h, ulu blades; i, knife handle; /, snow shovel blade. 
214 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

I 

'££-:«. 

.^s"-" 

• > 

3 i' 

UfA W 

PLATE 104.—Late Thule artifacts, level'A-5: a, &, large whale rib wedges; 

c-e, whale rib ice picks. 
PLATES 215 

f 9 

PLATE 105.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-5: a-d, hide pegs; e-g, bone scrapers; h, gaming 

piece; i, chert drill bit; j , k, toy bow fragments; I, kayak rib; m, n, unidentified wooden objects. 

PLATE 106.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-5: a, b, marrow extractors or rib scrapers (?); 

c, wooden shaft; d, sled shoe; e, sled shoe preform. 
216 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a 

'mj&mmiti&(t--'\ 

5 CM. 

2 IN. 

PLATE 107.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-5: a, grass caribou effigy; b-d, arrow effigies. 
9 

PLATES 217 

y / 

5 CM. 

2 IN . 

PLATE 108.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-6: a, Nuwuk closed socket harpoon head; b, darting 

harpoon head; c-e, antler arrowheads; /, i-l, arrowshaft fragments; g, h, chert arrowheads. 
218 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

PLATE 109.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-6: a-d, bola weights; e, bone weight; /, snow shovel 

blade. 

PLATE 110.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-6: a, b, ulu blades; c, slate knife blade; 

d, knife handle; e, chert knife blade; /, adz handle. 
PLATES 219 

*'" 

f 

S* f-f *"-\f 

J 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 111.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-6: a-d, f, chert scrapers; e, pebble end scraper; 

g, bone scraper; h, two-piece ice scoop; i, bone scraper;;, k, scapula scrapers. 
220 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

e 

f 

5 CM. 

PLATE 112.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-6: a, unidentified baleen object; b, tied rib; c, toy 

bow fragment; d, unidentified ivory object; e, drilled bear tooth; /, unidentified wooden object; 

g, lead ore nodule; h, toy arrowshaft. 
PLATES 221 

<r> 

.*%* 

> 

.-.* 

, • 

9 h 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 113.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-6: a, c, d, bone awls; b, e, f, gauged 

drills; g, h, chert drill bits; i, cut antler. 
222 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

''V-> 

PLATE 114.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-6: a, ground slate nodule; c-f, miscellaneous stone 

artifacts; b, bucket bottom; g, ice scoop rim; h, wooden handle; i, bone maul. 
PLATES 223 

t 

j 

5 CM 

PLATE 115.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-7: a, harpoon ice pick; b, wooden wound pin; c, d, 

Leister barbs; e, antler arrowhead preform; /, g, antler arrowhead fragments; h, chert arrowhead; 

i, j , arrowshaft fragments. 
224 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

a 

e 

J 

5 CM. 5 CM. 

PLATE 116.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-7: a, b, stone net weights. PLATE 117.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-7: a-c, gauged drills; d, slate knife blade; 

e, f, drilled teeth; g, engraving tool; h, unidentified bone tool; i, j , knife handles 
PLATES 225 

^ 

r

-"#~-

• 

5 CM. 

2 I N. 

PLATE 118.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-8: a, Thule II open socket harpoon head; b, slate 

end blade; c, d, antler arrowheads; e, arrowshaft fragment; /, side scraper; g, bone wedge; h, toy 

bow fragment(?); i, adz handle. 
226 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 0 

1 

If

 C 

b 

a 

f 

J 

\ 

5 CM. 

PLATE 119.—Late Thule artifacts, level A-9: a, harpoon foreshaft; b, c, harpoon ice pick fragments; d, e, antler arrowheads; /, fire drill shaft; g, chert arrowhead; h, wooden arrowhead; 

i, antler arrowhead preform; j , ulu blade; k, scapula scraper. 
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