Short Papers in the 

Geologic and Hydrologic 

Scienc;es, · Articles 1-146 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 424-B 

Scientific notes and sum11taries of investigations 

prepared by me1nbers of the Geologic, Water 

.Resources, and Conservation Divisions in the 

fields of geology, hydrology, and allied sciences 

UNITED STATES GOVE'RNMENT PRINTING OFFI.CE, \VASH:INGTON : 1'961 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director 

For sale by the s·uperintendent of Documents, U.S. Gove~nment Printing Office 

\Vashington 25, D.C. 
""I. r 

FOREWORD 

The scientific and economic results of work by the United States Geological Survey during the fiscal 

year 1961, the 12 months ending June 30, 1961, will be summarized in four volumes of which this is the 

first. This volume includes 146 short papers on a variety of subjects in the fields of geology, hydrology, 

and related sciences, prepared by members of the Geologic, Water Resources, and Conservation Divisions 

of the Survey. These papers are of two kinds. Some are announcements of new discoveries or observations 

on problems of limited scope, which may .or may not be described in greater detail subsequently. Others 

summarize conclusions drawn from more extensive or continuing investigations, which in large part will 

be described in greater detail in reports to be published at a· later date. · 

Professional Papers 424-C and -D include additional short papers of the same character as those in 

the present volume. Professional Paper 424-A provide·s a synopsis of the more important new findings 

resulting frqm work during the fiscal year. 

THOMAS B. NOLAN 

Director. 

·• 

CONTENTS 

~\ 

Page 

Foreword ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ------------------------------------------------------·----------------------------- III 

'· 

Geology of meta11iferous deposits 

1. Temperature of formation of a Precambrian massive sulfide deposit, Copper King mine, Front Range, Colo., 

P. K. Sims and Priestley Toulmin, 3d·---------------------------·-----------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ B-1 

2. Coffinite in uranium vein deposits of the Front Range, Colorado, by P. K. Sims, E. J. Young, and W. N. Sharp____ 3 

3. Structural control of epigenetic uranium deposits in carbonate rocks of northwestern New Mexico, by Lowe11 

S. Hilpert·----------------------------------------------------~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------- 5 

4. Origin of uranium and gold in the quartzite-conglomerate of the Serra de Jacobina, Brazil, by Max G. White ----- 8 

Hydrologic studies 

5. Mag·nitude and frequency of floods in suburban areas, by R. W. Carter ____________________________________ -____________________________________ .. 9 

6. Effect of artificial storage on peak flow, by William D. MitchelL_______________________________________________________________________________ 12 

7. Distinctive characteristics of glacier runoff, by Mark F: Meier arid Wendell V. Tangborn ------------------------------------- 14 

8. Recent hyd1!olog·ic trends in the Pacific Northwest, by Wilbur D. Simons ________________________________________________________________ :___ 17 

9. Precipitation as a variable in the correlation of runoff data, by William J. Schneider________________________________________________ 20 

10. Regional low flow frequency analysis, by H. C. Riggs------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ·21 

11. Modified conveyance-slope applied to development of stage-fall-discharge ratings, by William C. Griffin____________ 23 

12. Flow in an artificially roughened channel, by H. J. Koloseus and Jacob Davidian------------------------------------------------------- 25 

13. Dimensions of some stable alluvial channels, by Stanley A. Schumm__________________________________________________________________________ 26 

14. Some factors influencing streambank erodibility, by I. S. McQueen____________________________________________________________________________ 28 

15. An example of channel aggradation induced by flood control, by Norman J. King____________________________________________________ 29 

16. Some effects of microclimate on slope morphology and drainage basin development, by Richard F. Hadley________ 32 

17. Hydrologic significance of buried valleys· in glacial drift, by Stanley E. Norris and George W. White__________________ 34 

18. Plan to salvage evapotranspiration losses in the central Sevier Valley, Utah, by Richard A. Young and Carl 

H. Carpenter ________________________________________________________________________ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 36 

19. Relation between storage changes at the water table and observed water-level changes, by R. W. Stallman_____ 39· 

20. The significance of vertical flow components in the vicinity of pumping wells ip unconfined aquifers, by R. W. 

Stallman ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41 

21. Methods for study of evapotranspiration, by 0. E. Leppanen ----------------------------- ____ ------------------------------------------------ 43 

22. Water movement and ion distribution in soils, by R. F. Miller and K. W. Ratzlaff______________________________________________________ 45 

23. Compression of elastic artesian aquifers, by S. W. Lohman ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 47 

24. Measurement of compaction of aquifer systems in areas of land subsidence, by Ben E. Lofgren ..... ------------------~---- 49 

25. The coefficient of storage in a region of major subsidence caused by compaction of an aquifer syst~m, by J. F. 

Poland _________________________________ :____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 52 

26. Compaction of an aquifer system computed from consolidation tests and decline in artesian head, by Raymond 

E. Miller ____________________________ :_~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. -54 

27. Development of an ultrasonic method for measuring stream velocities, by H. 0. Wires------------------------------~----------- 58 

28. Preliminary design of an electric analog of liquid flow in the unsaturated zone, by R. W. Stallman·----------------------- 60 

29. Direct-reading conductivity bridge, by I. S. McQuee.n and C. R. Daum·----------------------------------------------------------------------- 63 

Geology and hydrology of eastern United States 

30 Age of the "ribbon rock" of Aroostook County, Maine, by Louis Pavlides, Robert B. Neuman, and William 

B. N. Berry-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- 65 

31. Ratio of thorium to uranium in some plutonic rocks of the White Mountain plutonic-volcanic series, New 

Hampshire, by Arthur P. Butler, Jr. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67 

32. Uranium and thorium in the older plutonic rocks of New Hampshire, by John B. Lyons--------------------------------------- 69 

33. Distance between basins versus correlation coefficient for annual peak discharge of streams in New England, 

by Jacob Davidian and M. A. Benson---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71 ,- 34. Pleistocene stratigraphy of Boston, Massachusetts, by C. A. Kaye·--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73 

35.' Iron ores of St. Lawrence County, northwest Adirondacks, N.Y., by B. F. Leonard and A. F. Buddington _______ 76 

36. Characteristics of seiches on Oneida Lake, N Y., by John Shen ------------------------~--------------------------------------------------------- 80 

v 
VI CONTENTS 

Page 

Geology and hydrology of eastern United States-Continued 

37. Variations of pH with depth in anthracite mine-water pools in Pennsylvania, by Wilbur T. Stua~t and Thomas 

A. Simpson ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

38. Angular unconformity separates Catskill and Pocono formations in western part of Anthracite region, Pennsylvania, by J. Peter Trexler, Gordon H. Wood, Jr., and Harold H. Arndt·---------------------------------~---------------------------

39. Reefs in the Fort Payne formation of Mississippian age, south-central Kentucky, by Robert E. Thaden, 

Richard Q. Lewis, J. Mark Cattermole, and Alfred R. Taylor _______________________________________________________________________________ _ 

40. The Tuscaloosa gravel in Tennessee and its relation to the structural development of the Mississippi embayment syncline, by Melvin V. Marcher _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _ 

41. Systematic pattern of Triassic dikes in the Appalachian region, by Philip B. King ___________________________________________________ _ 

42. R~infall and minimum flows along the Tallapoosa River, Alabama, by H. C. Riggs _______________________________________________ _ 

43. Stress model for the Bi\-mingham red iron-ore district, Alabama, by Thomas A. Simpson _____________________________________ _ 

44. Water-temperature distribution in a tidal stream, by Frederick W. Wagener ___________________________________________________________ _ 

45. Recent lead-alpha age determinations on zircon from the Carolina Piedmont, by William C. Overstreet, Henry 

Bell, III, Harry J. Rose, Jr., and Thomas W. Stern------------------------------------------------------------------------------·---------------- . 

46. Tidal fluctuations of water levels in wells in crystalline rocks in north Georgia, by J. W. Stewart _____________________ _ 

Geology and hydrology of western conterminous United States 

47. A new map of western conterminous United States showing the maximum known or inferred extent of 

B-82 

84 

88 

90 

93 

96 

98 

100 

103 

107 

Pleistocene lakes, by J. H. Feth ·---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~--------- 110 

48. Recent flood-plain formation along the Cimarron River in Kansas, by S. A. Schumm and R. W. Lichty____________ 112 

49. Abnormal bedding in the Savanna sandstone and Boggy shale in southeastern Oklahoma, by Thomas A. 

Hendricks ----------------------------------------------~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------· 114 

50. Reservoir evaporation and seepage, Honey Creek, Tex., by F. W. Kennon--------------------------------------------------------------------- 117 

51. Pre-Pennsylvanian Paleozoic stratigraphy, Mockingbird Gap quadrangle, New Mexico, by George 0. Bachman_____ 119 

52. Preliminary results of test drilling in depressions on the High Plains, Lea County, N.Mex., by John S. Havens__ 123 

53.· Lower member of Mural limestone of Early Cretaceous age, Bisbee quadrangle, Arizona, by Philip T. Hayes and 

Edwin R. Landis ·--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------c------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125 

54. Origin of cross-strata in fluvial sandstone layers in the Chinle formation (Upper Triassic) on the Colorado 

P la tea u, by John H. Stewart·------------------------------------------ ___ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------·-------------------- 55. Fossil woods associated with uranium on the Colorado Plateau, by Richard A. Scott _______________________________________________ _ 

56. Late Cenozoic events of the Leadville district and upper Arkansas Valley, Colorado, by Ogden Tweto ___________ _ 

57. Movement of the Slumgullion earthflow near Lake City, Colo., by Dwight R. Crandell and D. J. Varnes _______ _ 

58. Relations of metals in lithosols to alteration and shearing at Red Mountain, Clear Creek County, Celo., by 

P. K. Theobald,· Jr., and C. E. Thompson-------------------·------------------------------·-------------------------------------------------------------··-··-···-

59. Hydrology of small grazed and ungrazed drainage basins, Badger Wash area, western Colorado, by Gregg 

C. LusbY-----·····-----~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60. Abandonment of Unaweep Canyon, Mesa County, Colo., by capture of the Colorado and Gunnison Rivers, by 

S. W. Lohman·-------------------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

61. Tripartition of the Wasatch formation near De Beque in northwestern Colorado, by John R. Donnell---------------

62. Diamictite facies of the Wasatch formation in the Fossil basin, southwestern Wyoming, by J. I. Tracey, Jr., 

S. S. Oriel, and W. W. RubeY-------~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63. Tongues of the Wasatch and Green River formations, Fort Hill area, Wyo., by S. S. OrieL _________________________________ _ 

64. Age of the Evanston formation, western Wyoming, by W. W. Rubey, S. S. Oriel, and J. I. Tracey, Jr. ___________ _ 

65. Permafrost and thaw depressions in a peat deposit in the Beartooth Mountains, northwestern Wyoming, by 

William G. Pierce·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,·-----

66. Evidence for Early Cretaceous folding in the Black Hills, Wyo., by Glen A. Izett, Charles L. Pillmore, and 

William J. Mapel·----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

67. Structure of the Clark Fork area, Idaho-Montana, by J. E. Harrison, D. A. Jobin, and Elizabeth King _______________ _ 

68. Pleistocene geology of the central part of the Lemhi Range, Idaho, by Edward T. Ruppel and Mortimer H. 

Hait,. Jr·---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

69. The Michaud delta and Bonneville River near Pocatello, Idaho, by Donald E. Trimble and Wilfred J. Carr ___ _ 

70. Volcanic ash beds as stratigraphic markers in basin deposits near Hagerman and Glenns Ferry, Idaho, by 

Howard A. Powers and Harold E. Malde·-----------------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

71. ~atterned ground of possible solifluction origin at low altitude in the western Snake River Plain, Idaho, by 

Harold E. Malde·-------------------------------------------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

72. Collapse structures of southern Spanish Valley, southeastern Utah, by G. W. Weir, W. P. Puffett, and C. L. 

Dodson ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

73. Age relations of the Climax composite stock, Nevada Test Site, Nye County, Nevada, by F. N. Houser and 

F. G. Poole __________________________________________________________________________ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

74. Rhyolites in the Egan range south of Ely, Nev., by Daniel R. Shawe _____________________________________________________________________ _ 

75. Tectonic significance of radial profiles of_ alluvial fans in western Fresno County, Calif., by William B. BulL ___ _ 

127 

130 

133 

136 

139 

141 

144 

147 

149 

151 

153 

154 

156 

159 

163 

164 

167 

170 

173 

176 

178 

182 

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CONTENTS VII 

Page 

Geology and hydrology of western conterminous United States-Continued 

76. Soil-moisture storage characteristics and infiltration rates as indicated by annual grasslands near Palo Alto, 

Calif., by F. A. Branson, R. F. Miller, and I. S McQueen ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- B-184 

77. Causes and mechanics of near-surface subsidence in western Fresno County, Calif., by William B. BulL__________ 187 

78. Specific gravity of sandstones in the Franciscan and related Upper Mesozoic formations of California, by 

William P. Irwin·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·-------------------------------------------- 189 

79. Some extremes of climate in Death Valley, Calif., by T. W. Robinson and Charles B. Hunt----------------------------- 192 

80. Stratigraphy of desert varnish, by Charles B. Hunt ..... --------------------------------------------------------------------------~--------------------------- 194 

81. Use of archeology in Recent stratigraphy, by Charles B. Hunt and Alice P. Hunt----------------------------------------------- 195 

82. Evidence of strike-slip movement on northwest-trending faults in Mojave Desert, California, by T. W. 

Dibblee, Jr·-------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 197 

83. Zoning· of saline minerals at Deep Spring Lake, Calif., by Blair F. Jones--------------------------------------------------------------------- 199 

84. Effects of rainfall and geolog·y on the chemical composition of water in coastal streams of California, by 

J. H. Feth·--------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------- 2·02 

85. Ground water from coastal dune and beach sands, by E. R. Hampton·------------------------------------------------------------------------- 204 

86. Mass budget of South Cascade Glacier, 1957-60, by Mark F. Meier__________________________________________________________________________ 206 

87. Competence of a glacial stream, by Robert K. Fahnestock -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 211 

88. Structural barrier reservoirs of ground water in the Columbia River basalt, by R. C. Newcomb._______________________ 213 

Geology and hydrology of Alaska and Hawaii 

89. Xenolithic nodules in the 1800-1801 Kaupulehu flow of Hualalai Volcano, by Donald H. Richter and Kiguma 

J. Murata ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

90. Reconnaissance of the Kandik and Nation Rivers, east-central Alaska, by Earl E. Brabb 

Geology of Puerto Rico 

91. Hydrothermally altered rocks in eastern Puerto Rico, by Fred A. Hildebrand ___________________________________________________________ _ 

92. Andalusite-topaz greisen near Caguas, east-central Puerto Rico, by Fred A. Hildebrand·-------------------------------------

93. Ash-flow deposits, Ciales quadrangle, Puerto Rico, and their significance, by Henry L. Berryhill, Jr.-----------------

Paleontology and plant ecology 

94. Replaced Paleocene Foraminifera in the Jackson Purchase area, Kentucky, by I. G. Sohn, S. M. Herrick, 

215 

218 

219 

222 

224 

and T. W. Lambert----------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 227 

95. Coal-ball occurrences in eastern Kentucky, by James M. Schopf__________________________________________________________________________________ 228 

96. Age of the Ohio Creek conglomerate, Gunnison County, Colo., by ·D. L. GaskilL ___________________________________________ ·_______ 230 

97. Bioherms in the upper part of the Pogonip in southern Nevada, by Reuben J. Ross, Jr., and Henry R. 

Cornwall -----------------------·-------------------·--------~-------------------------··-----·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 231 

98. Soil moisture under juniper and pinyon compared with moisture under grassland in Arizona, by R. F. 

Miller, F. A. Branson, I. S. McQueen, and R. C. Culler _______________ 7

____________________________________________________________________________ 233 

99. Corals from Permian rocks of the northern Rocky Mountain region, by Helen Duncan__________________________________________ 235 

100. Occurrences of the Permian gastropod Omphalotrochus in northwestern United States, by Ellis L. Yochelson 237 

101. Pennsylvanian rocks in southeastern Alaska, by J. Thomas Dutro, Jr., and Raymond C. Douglass.___________________ 239 

Geophysics 

102. Poisson's ratio of rock salt and potash ore, by R. E. Warrick and W. H. Jackson------------------------------------------- 241 

103. Frequency content of seismog-rams of nuclear explosions and aftershocks, by S. W. Stewart and W. H. 

Diment ------------------------------------------·----------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 243 

104. Gravity, volcanism, and crustal deformation in and near Yellowstone National Park, by L. C. Pakiser and 

Harry L. Baldwin, Jr.·------------------------------------------------------------------------------"------------------·--------------------------------------------------------- 246 

105. Gravity, volcanism, and crustal deformation in the Snake River Plain, Idaho, by D. P. Hill, Harry L. Baldwin, Jr., and L. C. Pakiser·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 248 

106. Gravity, volcanism, and crustal deformation in Long Valley, Calif., by L. C. Pakiser____________________________________________ 250 

107. Gravity study of the structural geology of Sierra Valley, Calif., by W. H. Jackson, F. R.. Shawe, and 

L. C. Pakiser.--------------------------·------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 254 

Mineralogy, geochemistry, and petrology 

108. Distribution of niobium in three contrasting comag·matic series of igneous rocks, by David Gottfried, Lillie 

Jenkins, and Frank S. Grimaldi ·----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 256 

109. Beryllium content of cordierite, by Wallace R. Griffitts and Elmo F. Cooley________________________________________________________ 259 

110. Germanium content of enargite and other copper sulfide minerals, by Michael Fleischer________________________________________ · 259 

111. Chlorine and fluorine in silicic volcanic glass, by Howard A. Powers------------------------------------------------------------------- 261 

112. Electronprobe analysis of schreibersite (rhabdite) in the Canyon Diablo meteorite, by I. Adler and E. J. 

Dwornik ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 263 
VIII CONTENTS 

Page 

Mineralogy, geochemistry, and petrology-Continued 

113. The synthesis of large crystals of andersonite, by Robert Meyrowitz and Daphne R. Ross ----------------------------- B-266 

114. Unit-cell dimension versus composition in the systems: PbS-CdS, PbS-PbSe, ZnS-ZnSe, and CuFeS~.~.,-

CuFeS~.~~o, by Philip M. ·Bethke and Paul B. Barton, Jr.-------------------------·-------------------------------------------------------------- 266 

115. Unit-cell edges of cobalt- and cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites, by Wayne E. Hall-------------------------------------------:----:-- 271 

116. X-ray diffractometer method for measuring preferred orientation in clays, by Robert H. Meade____________________________ 273 

117. Molybdenum content of glacial drift related to molybdenite-bearing bedrock, Aroostook County, Maine, by 

F. C. Canney; F. N. Ward, and M. J. Bright, Jr, __________ ·--------------------------------'------------------------------------------------------------- 276 

118. Anomalous heavy minerals in the High Rock quadrangle North Carolina, by Amos M. White and Arvid A. 

Stromquist ------------------------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 278 

119. Iron content of soils and trees, Beaver Creek strip mining area, Kentucky, by Eugene T. Oborn______________________ 279 

120. Mineralogy ~f the Olive Hill clay bed, Kentucky, by John W. Hosterman and Sam H. Patterson----------------------- 280 

121. Four environments of thorium-, niobium-, and rare-earth-bearing minerals in the Powderhorn district of 

southwestern Colorado, by D. C. Hedlund and J. C. Olson________________________________________________________________________________ 283 

122. Rhenium iu plant samples from the Colorado Plateau, by A. T. Myers and J. C. Hamilton------------------------------------- 286 

123. Classification of elements in Colorado Plateau uranium deposits and multiple stages of mineralization, by 

A. T. M iesch ______________________________________________________________________ ·---------------------· -----------------------· _____________________________________________________ :__ 289 

124. Hydrogeochemical anomalies, Fourmile Canyon, Eureka County, Nev., by R. L. Erickson and A. P. 

Marranzino ------------------------------------------------------------------------------.. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 291 

125. Grantsite, a new hydrated sodium calcium vanadyl vandate from New Mexico and Colorado-a preliminary 

description, by A. D. Weeks, M. L. Lindberg, and Robert Meyrowitz ·------------------------------------------------------------------- 293 

126. Insoluble residues and Ca:Mg ratios in the Madison group, Livingston, Mont., by Albert E. Roberts_____________ 294 

127. Mangl;l.nese oxide minerals at Philipsburg, Mont., by William C. Prinz______________________________________________________________________ 296 

128. Uranium and radium in ground water from igneous terranes of the Pacific Northwest, by Franklin B. 

Barker and Robert C. Scott ____________________________________________ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 298 

129. Sborgite in the Furnace Creek area, California, by James F. McAllister________________________________________________________________ 299 

Geology and hydrology applied to engineering and public health 

130. Economic significance of a buried bedrock bench beneath the Missouri River flood plain near Council Bluffs, 

·Iowa, by Robert D. Miller. _____________________________________________ . _______ ·----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 301 

131. Relation of supports to geology in the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel, Colorado, by E. E. Wahlstrom, L. A. 

Warner, and C. S. Robinson ----------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------- 303 

132. Landslides along the Uinta fault east of Flaming Gorge, Utah, by Wallace R. Hansen------------------------------------- 306 

Exploratiim and mapping techniques 

133. Geochemical prospecting for copper deposits hidden beneath alluvium in the Pima district, Arizona, by 

Lyman C. Huff and A. P. Marranzino ·----------------------- ·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

134. Measurement of bulk density of drill core by gamma-ray absorption, by Carl M. Bunker and Wendell A. 

Bradley ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

135. Mechanical control for the time-lapse motion-picture photography of geologic processes, by Robert D. Miller, 

Ernest E. Parshall, and Dwight R. CrandelL _________________ ~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

136. Liquid-level tiltmeter measures uplift produced by hydraulic fracturing, by Francis S. Riley ___________________________ _ 

137. A method of recording and representing geologic features from large-diameter drill holes, by Elmer H. Baltz 

and James E. Weir, Jr.·---------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Analytical and petrographic methods 

138. Methods for decomposing samples of silicate rock fragments, by John C. Antweiler ·---------------------------------------------

139. Fatigue in scintillation counting, by Francis J. Flanagan ---------------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------

140. A simplified method of concentrating and preparing carbonate shells for cu age determinations, by Thomas 

C. Nichols, Jr. _______________________________________________________________________ : _______________________________ , ________________________________________________________________ _ 

141. Colorimetric determination of iron in small samples of sphalerite, by Leonard Shapiro ·and Martha S. Toulmin _ 

142. Indirect semiautomatic determination of alumina· with EDTA, by J. I. Dinnin and C. A. Kinser --------------------

143. Determination of copper in plant ash with neo-cuproine, by Claude Huffman, Jr., and Dwight L. Skinner _______ _ 

144. Direct-reading spectrometric technique for determining major constituents in natural water, by Joseph 

Haffty and A. W. Helz ---------------------------------------------------·-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

145. Rapid quantitative estima~es of quartz and total iron in silicate rocks by X-ray diffraction, by D. B. Tatlock _____ _ 

146. The Koberg-Daum wind-direction and wind-velocity recorder, by G. E. Koberg and C. R. Daum -------------------------

Index 

Subject 

Author ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------·--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·· --------------------------------------------------------

308 

310 

313 

317 

319 

322 

324 

326 

328 

329 

331 

333 

334 

337 

339 

343 

Finding- list of article page numbers --------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 344 

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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

GEOLOGY OF METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS 

1. TEMPERATURE OF FORMATION OF A PRECAMBRIAN MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSIT, COPPER KING MINE, 

FRONT RANGE, COLORADO 

By P. K. SIMS and PRIESTLEY TOULMIN, 3d, Denver, Colo., and Washington, D. C. 

The Copper King mine, at Prairie Divide in Larimer County~ Colo., contains ore deposits of two types 

and ages-massive sulfide-magnetite deposits of 

Precambrian age and a vein uranium deposit of 

early Tertiary age. The ore deposits and the geologic 

setting of the mine have been described previously 

(Sims, Phair, and Moench, 1958). This report presents some new data concerning the temperature of 

formation of coexisting sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and 

pyrite from one of th~ massive sulfide deposits in 

the mine. 

The sulfide-magnetite deposit is a small, elongate, 

roughly tabular body that is mainly in cummingtonite-anthophyllite skarn. The ore minerals form 

massive layers and lenses a few feet in maximum 

breadth and width and a few tens of feet in length 

that conform to the foliation and lineation of the 

host rock. The deposit consists, in order of decreasing abundance, of pyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, 

chalcopyrite, magnetite, and molybdenite. The relation of the ore minerals to the host rock clearly 

indicates that they formed mainly by replacement 

of amphiboles. The deposit and its host rock are 

enclosed entirely within a biotite-muscovite granite 

of Precambrian age, which has been called Silver 

Plume granite (Lovering and Goddard, 1950, pl. 1). 

Magnetite from the deposit a~d monazite from a 

pegmatite in the granite have both been dated as 

late Precambrian (Phair and Sims, 1954). 

Except for molybdenite, the ore minerals are 

closely associated and commonly intergrown, although the quantities and proportions of the separate mineral phases differ from one ore-bearing 

layer or lens to another. The close spatial assqciation 

of the ore minerals and the textural relations observed in the field and in polished sections indicate 

that they were deposited during a single stage. The 

minerals crystallized in the commonly observed 

paragenetic order: magnetite, pyrrhotite, pyrite,· 

sphalerite, and chalcopyrite. The sphalerite is dark 

reddish-brown and apparently homogeneous. It contains oriented blebs and blades of chalcopyrite and 

sparse randomly distributed blebs of pyrrhotite, 

which are interpreted to have formed from exsolu-

.tion on cooling. 

The temperature of formation of the deposit can 

be estimated by use of the sphalerite and pyrrhotite 

geothermometers (Kullerud, 1953; Arnold, 1958). 

Barton and Kullerud (1958) have extended the 

earlier work of Kullerud (1953) to show that if 

sphalerite formed in equilibrium with pyrrhotite 

(with or without pyrite) below a temperature of 

600°C., the temperature of formation can be determined from the FeS content of the sphalerite, using 

the solvus curve determined for the binary systems 

FeS-ZnS. The sphalerite at the Copper King mine 

is in contact with both pyrrhotite and pyrite and 

contains exsolved bi'ebs of pyrrhotite, and therefore 

probably crystallized in equilibrium with these 

minerals. The sphalerite in five samples from various 

parts of the deposit exposed in the mine workings 

contains 13.6 to 15.6 formula percent FeS, as shown 

in table 1, which corresponds to a range in temperature of crystallization from 440°C. to 490°C. (Barton and Kullerud, 1958, fig. 33). The low amounts 

of manganese, copper, and cadmium in solid solution in the sphalerite would have little e·ffect on the 

solubility of FeS in ZnS. 

B-1 
B-2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 1.1.-Spectrochemical analyses of sphale'rite and estimated temperatures of crystallization 

[Analyses by R. G. Havens, U.S. Geological Survey] 

Estimated Samples Analyses (percent) temperature 

of formation 

(degrees 

Serial No. Field No. Fe FeSl Mn Cu Cd Zn centigrade) 2 

--------

E-1860 ...... A .......... 9.1 15.6 0.13 0.63 0.26 0.015 490±10 1861 ...... B .......... 8.6 14.8 .13 1.1 .28 .014 480±10 1858 ...... CK-69 ..... 8.2 14.1 .12 .95 .28 .013 455±10 1857 ...... CK-201 .... 7.9 13.6 .13 .52 .26 .012 440±10 1859.: .... UG-20 ..... 7.9 13.6 .13 .69 .26 .011 440±10 

1 Formula percent. 2 Not corrected for total rock pressure. If the rock cover at the time of 

mineralization was 5 miles, the sphalerite temperatures would be raised 

about 50° C. 

Compositions of pyrrhotite from two samples 

( CK-64 and CK-3) collected from the same part of 

the mine as the sphalerite samples have been determined from measurements of d(lo2 > (Arnold and 

Reichen, 1959). Pyrrhotite CK-64, associated with 

pyrite, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite, has d 1102> equal 

to 2.063A, corresponding to 47.03 atomic percent 

metals. Assuming Fe to be the only metal present, 

we may apply the solvus curve in the system FeS-

. FeS2 to find a temperature of 400°C. This temperature is somewhat lower than that indicated by the 

composition of the associated sphalerite. A similar 

relationship between "pyrrhotite temperatures" and 

"sphalerite temperatures" has been found in several 

other studies (for example: Stone, 1959; Skinner, 

1958) and probably is a consequence of differe.nt 

reaction rates in the two systems. 

Comparison of the reaction-rate data on sphalerite 

in the system FeS-ZnS (Kullerud, 1953, p. 98) and 

on pyrrhotite in the system FeS-FeS2 1 shows that 

pyrrhotite equilibrates with pyrite at 325°C. as 

rapidly as sphalerite equilibrates with FeS at 750°C. 

Thus as a pyrite-pyrrhotite-sphalerite assemblage 

cools slowly in nature, one would ~xpect the pyrrhotite to continue to react at temperatures below that 

at which the sphalerite composition had been effectively "quenched in" by decreasing reaction rates. 

Pyrrhotite CK-3 is also associated with pyrite, 

sphalerite, and chalcopyrite, and is cut by a late 

generation of pyrite probably related to the Tertiary 

uranium mineralization. Its (102) peak is much 

broader than that of pyrrhotite CK-64, presumably 

reflecting a range of composition. The mean value 

of d<1o2> is approximately 2.066A, corresponding to 

a composition of 47.3 atomic percent metals. Both 

this higher mean metal content and the greater 

spread in composition of pyrrhotite CK-3 probably 

reflect partial reaction with the late pyrite. Pyrrhotite that has a composition of 47.3 atomic percent 

metals is in equilibrium with pyrite at about 325°C. 

If the massive sulfide deposit is genetically related 

to the granite, as seems probable from their close 

spatial association and their similar absolute ages 

(Sims, Phair, and Moench, 1958, p. 200), the deposit necessarily formed after the adjacent granite 

had crystallized and cooled to about 500°C. On this 

assumption, it is unlikely that the ore-forming solutions could have come from a source near the sulfide body; instead they must have been derived from 

a more distant source, possibly subjacent crystallizing magma. 

REFERENCES 

Arnold, R. G., 1958, The Fe-S system: Annual report of the 

Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, .1957-58, Carnegie Inst. Washington Year Book 57, p. 218-222. 

Arnold, R. G., and Reichen, Laura, 1959, Application of the 

pyrrhotite X-ray determinative curve to natural pyrrhotites: Annual report of the Director of. the Geophysical 

Laboratory, 1957-58, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Year 

Book 58, p. 155-:-156. 

Barton, P. B., Jr., and Kullerud, Gunnar, 1958, The Fe-Zn-S 

System: Annual report of the Director of the Geophysicai 

Laboratory 1957-58, Carnegie Inst. Washington Year 

Book 57, p. 227-229. 

Kullerud, Gunnar, 1953, The FeS-ZnS system, a geological 

thermometer: Norsk geol. tidsskr., v. 32, p. 61-147. 

Lovering, T. S., and Goddard, E. N., 1950, Geology and ore 

deposits of the Front Range, Colorado; U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 223, 319 p. 

Phair, George, and Sims, P. K., 1954, Paragenesis and age of 

the uranium minerals in the Copper King mine, Larimer 

County, Colo. [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 65, p. 

1385. 

Sims, P. K., Phair, George, and Moench, R. H., 1958, Geology 

of the Copper King uranium mine, Larimer County, Colo.: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1032-D, p. 171-221. 

Skinner, B. J., 1958, The Geology and metamorphism of the 

Nairne pyritic formation, a sedimentary sulfide deposit in 

South Australia: Econ. Geology, v. 53, p. 546-562. 

1 Pyrrhotite-pyrite equilibrium relations between 325° c. and 743° c. by Stone, J. G., 1959, Ore genesis in the Naica district, ChihuaRalph G. Arnold, unpublished Ph.D .. thesis, Princeton Univ., 1958, p. 41. hua, Mexico: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 1002-1034. 

.} 

I. 

/_ 
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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-3 

2. COFFINITE IN URANIUM VEIN DEPOSITS OF THE FRONT RANGE, COLORADO 

By P. K. SIMS, E. J. YOUNG, and W. N. SHARP, Denver, Colo. 

Coffinite, a uranous silicate with hydroxyl substitution, is associated with pitchblende in some 

hydrothermal vein deposits in the Front Range, and 

locally is an important ore mineral. Previously reported occurrences of the mineral in the ·united 

States (Stieff, Stern, and Sherwood, 1956; Frondel, 

1958) have been mainly from the black, unoxidized 

vanadium-uranium ores of the Colorado Plateau. 

The known occurrences of coffinite in the Front 

Range are listed in table 1. At the Copper King, . 

Fair Day, and Foothills mines, and possibly also the 

Schwartzwalder mine, coffinite constitutes a substantial part of the uranium ore; at the other. localities · 

it is sparse. 

TABLE 1.-Known occurr.nwes of coffinite in the Front Range 

Mino District or area County Principal associated minerals Source of data 

Blue .Jay Jamestowr1 Boulder Fluorite, uraninite, and Identified by X-ray powder 

uranothorite photographs, this report. · 

Copper :King Prairie Divide J~arimer Pitchblende, siderite, pyrite, Reported by Sims, Phair, 

sphalerite, marcasite, quartz and Moench (1958). 

--

Ji'air Day .Jamestown Boulder Pitchblende, pyrite, quartz, Identified by X-ray powder 

sphalerite, chalcopyrite photographs and in polished 

and thin sections, this report. 

Foothills Idledale Jefferson Pitchblende, pyrite, quartz, Identified by X..:ray powder 

potassium feldspar, carbonates photographs, this report. 

Old Leyden eoal Leyden Jefferson Meta-tyuyamunite, autunite, Reported by A. J. Gude, 3rd; 

uranophane, and pyrite see also Gude and McKeown 

(1953). __ .,. __ 

Sehwartzwaldm· Halston Buttes Jefferson Pitchblende, pyrite, quartz, Reported by J. D. Schlottman, 

earbonate minerals, potassium U. S. Atomic Energy Commisfeldspar sion ·(oral communication, 1960). 

Stanley Idaho Springs Clear Creek Pitehblende, pyrite, sphalerite, Reported by R. H. Moench, 

and a carbonate mineral (oral communication, 1961). 

Coffinite typically occurs in the Front Range in 

veins that are characterized by abundant open 

cavities and conspicuous crustification, features generally conside~ed diagnostic of epithermal veins 

(Lindgren, 1933, p. 444-445). It is associated with 

pitchblende, pyrite, and sparse sulfides that rarely 

are visible megascopically, chiefly sphalerite (nearly 

pure ZnS), chalcopyrite, and marcasite. Quartzor quartz, ankerite, and potassium feldspar-is 

the principal gangue mineral in most deposits, but 

siderite is dominant in one, the Copper King deposit. 

Two exceptions to this mode of occurrence are 

known. At the Stanley mine, coffinite fills fractures 

that cut sulfide and gangue minerals of a mesothermal vein; at the Old Leyden coal mine, coffinite is 

associated with fractured and silicified coal. 

The coffinite is black in hand specimen and generally cannot be distinguished megascopically from 

pitchblende. It can be identified with certainty, however, by X-ray powder photographs, and in some ores 

at least can be recognized in thin and polished sections. Polished thin sections are particularly u~eful 

for study of the coffinite ores. · . 

In transmitted light, the coffinite is brown or 

·yellowish brown, translucent to different degrees, and 

mostly isotropic. It occurs predominantly as .aggregates of extremely small particles that form spheroidal or other rotund forms. Rarely, the aggregates 

have a visible fibrous structure, with the fibers 

oriented perpendicular to the colloform bands. The 

fibrous aggregates show a generally weak but conspicuous dichroism (darker color perpendicular to 

fibers). In general, the optical properties agree with 

well crystallized coffinite from the Woodrow mine, 
B-4 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

Laguna district, New Mexico (R. H . Moench, written communication, 1961). 

Refrq,ctive indices, reflectivity, and unit cell sizes 

of coffinite from two mines are listed below: 

Locality 

Coffinite 

----------c ---------~- ------

Refractive 

index Reflectivity 1 

(percent) 

Unit cell size (A) 

--·----------,-·--- -------------------1----------

Fair Day mine . .. .. . • 1.77 ± 0.005 

Copper King mine . . ...... •. .. (') 

7.8-9 .8 

8.2- 8.6 

A, = 6.93, 

c, = 6.2!, 

A, =6. 97 , 

C0 = 6.28o 

1 Determined in orange light with a Hallimond visual microphotometer, according to the method descr ibed by Leonard (1960). 2 Coffinite is finely admixed with siderite and other minerals, and a re- liable refractive index was not determined. Index is known to be lower than for coffinite from the F a ir Day min e. 

The pitchblende associated with coffinite from the 

Fair Day mine has a reflectivity of 13 in orange 

light. As the coffinite from both the Fair Day and 

Copper King mines contains some finely intergrown 

pitchblende, the measured reflectivities are slightly 

higher than would be obtained from homogeneous 

coffinite. 

In reflected light, coffinite resembles pitchblende 

in its optical and physical properties and in having 

rotund forms and ubiquitous shrinkage cracks. It 

is gray and isotropic, and has a hardness similar to 

that of pitchblende. It can be distinguished from 

pitchblende because it has (a) weak internal reflections, (b) a lower reflectivity, and (c) a local radialfibrous structure in colloform aggregates, which can 

be seen most clearly under oil immersion. 

Metallographic studies of the black uranium ores 

from the Fair Day mine, which have a delicate coHoform structure, indicate that coffinite formed later 

than pitchblende. In all sections examined, coffinite 

embays and veins pitchblende, in a manner such as 

that illustrated in figure 2.1. The upper photomicrograph shows a spheroidal grain of pitchblende that 

is almost surrounded by coffinite. The coffinite embays the host irregularly and has replaced much of 

the outer part of the original sphere. One veinlet 

extends completely across the sphere. Replacement 

clearly preceded complete solidification of the host, 

for shrinkage cracks in the pitchblende in part extend outward into the coffinite, suggesting that 

shrinkage was partly simultaneous in both minerals. 

If the pitchblende had completely crystallized and 

shrunk before it was replaced, the coffinite should 

occur preferably in and along the shrinkage cracks. 

In detail, the contacts between pitchblende and coffinite are sharp, even when observed under high magnification, and are commonly bulbous or mammillary 

FIGURE 2.1.--Photomicrographs of polished section·s of 

ore from Fair Day mine (c, coffinite; p, pitchblende). 

in outline. In the lower photomicrograph, of part of a 

coffinite veinlet that transects a spheroidal grain of 

pitchblende, it can be seen that the veinlet is highly 

irregular and consists of coalescing aggregates of 

individual rotund forms that are smoothly convex 

toward the host. The largest node has conspicuous 

growth bands. This photomicrograph shows also a 

small veinlet of coffinite that appears to follow a 

shrinkage crack in pitchblende; this relation is rare 

in the ores. 

Paragenetic studies of the black uranium ores 

from the Copper King mine are less definitive. Typically, tiny rotund forms of pitchblende, at most a 

few microns in diameter, occur in dominantly coHoform coffinite. Even under magnification of several 

hundred diameters, there is no evidence that the 

pitchblende is corroded by coffinite. 
..... SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND 'HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-5 

The occurrences of coffinite in the Front Range 

indicate that the mineral characteristically forms in 

veins in a low temperature-pressure environment. 

Coffinite· has not been identified from the uraniumbearing mesothermal sulfide veins of the Front Range 

mineral belt (Sims, 1956), except at the Stanley 

mine (table 1), where coffinite is clearly later than 

the dominant vein minerals and therefore could have 

formed under considerably lower temperatures than 

the main mineral assemblage. 

REFERENCES 

Fronde!, Clifford, 1958, Systematic mineralogy of uranium 

·nnd thorium: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1064, 400 p. 

Gude, A. J., 3d. and McKeown, F. A., 1953, Results of exploration at the Old Leyden coal mine, Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report. 

Leonard, B. F., 1960, Reflectivity measurements with a Hallimond visual microphotometer: Econ. Geology, v. 55, p. 

1306-1312. 

Lindgren, Waldem.ar, 1933, Mineral deposits, 4th ed.: New 

York, McGraw-Hill, 930 p. 

Sims, P. K., 1956, Paragenesis and structure of pitchblendebearing veins, Central City district, Colorado: Econ. 

Geology, v. 51, p. 739-756. 

Sims, P. K., Phair, George, and Moench, R. H., 1958, Geology 

of the Copper King uranium mine, Larimer County, 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1032-D, p. 171-221. 

Stieff, L. R., Stern, T. W., and Sherwood, A . .M., 1956, Coffinite, a uranous silicate with hydroxyl substitution: A new 

mineral: Am. Mineralogist, v. 41, p. 675-688. · 

3. STRUCTURAL CONTROL OF EPIGENETIC URANIUM DEPOSITS IN CARBONATE ROCKS OF 

NORTHWESTERN NEW MEXICO 

By LOWELL S. HILPERT, Salt Lake City, Utah 

Wo1·k done in coope?·ation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 

A compilation of data on more than 100 uranium 

deposits in carbonate rocks in northwestern New 

Mexico shows that the deposits are generally associated with tectonic structures. The· deposits occur 

mostly in the Colorado Plateaus Province in the 

Todilto limestone of Jurassic age ; and a few occur 

in the Basin and Range Province in .the San Andres 

and Madera limestones of Permian and Pennsylvanian ages, respectively (fig. 3.1). All the deposits 

are considered to be of epigenetic origin-that is, 

they were emplaced some time after the host rocks 

were deposited. 

In the Todilto limestone the uranium minerals are 

of primary and secondary ·origin. The primary. minerals, which are finely disseminated, are uraninite 

and coffinite, accompanied by the vanadium oxides 

paggite and paramontroseite (Truesdell and Weeks, 

1959, p. 1689-1960). These minerals fill pore spaces, 

and replace limestone along silty layers. They are 

accompanied by the accessory minerals pyrite, hematite, fluorite, and barite (Laverty and Gross, 1956, 

p. 195-201). The secondary uranium minerals, gen-. 

erally closely associated with the primary minerals 

above the water table, are yellow and yellow-gre~n 

uranyl vanadates and silicates, which coat the:.walls 

of fractures and the pore spaces along silty layers 

in the limestone. 

The Todilto deposits are roughly tabular with irregular outline, thus resembling many uranium deposits in sandstone in the Colorado Plateaus Province and elsewhere. They generally conform to the 

bedding but in detail cut across it. M·ore than 50 

deposits have been mined, and individual deposits 

have yielded from a few tons to as much as 100,000 

tons of uranium ore. 

Control of the uranium deposits in the Todilto 

Iim·estone has been ascribed to :diagenetic folds and 

larger scale fold and fault structures (Gabelman, 

1956, p~·· 389, 391-392). The diagenetic folds are 

referred to hereafter as intraformational folds. 

However, a close spatial relation between the deposits and the larger scale structures is difficult to 

establish. In fact, these structures may be younger 

than the primary uranium minerals (Hilpert and 

Moench, 1960, p .. 443-444) as they probably are 

related to a system of large-scale structures that has 
B-6 

37"fI 

I 

<I z 

-21 

i:2t 

<,~ 

I 

I 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

108" 107" 

COLORADO 

--- ---- - J.......... - - __ .... ,, ------ NEW MEXiCO I ~ 

~) 

r,... G> Shiprock 

G> Farmington 

I 

l R I 0 A .R RIB A 

I 

SAN JUAN I 

I 

, ___ _ 

36"~---------+ -----. 

z 

> ,Q 

a:: 

a.. 

: I SANDOVAL 

I II I Santa Fe 

I 

SANTA I M c KINLEY. II 

@~~ I I Llt>~ I I FE 

I ----~~----1 I 

J

l I Grnnts ~ \ ---------~ I G> ~ Laguna G> Al~uquerque I 

35 + + V A L E N C I A G> o + B E R N A L I L L 0 1-- 35" 

L.:-.. ____ • . ~ ~ ' L_ 

I . ~6. g .o \ ,-~. I 

109" 

EXPLANATION 

Uranium deposit or group of deposits in 

Todilto limestone 

Uraniu~ deposit in San Andres limestone 

Uranium deposit in Madera limestone 

----.-----

1 

CAT R 0 N1

1 

34" 

108" 

0 5 10 15 

0 z ----- ----- u <( . I 

I 

I 

------ ITORRANCE 

I I 

~~ l ""'I 

I 

----

20 25 MILES 

l-- 0 Socorro 

107" 

FIGURE 3.1.-Map of northwestern New Mexico showing uranium deposits in the Todilto, San Andres, and Madera limestones. 

I 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 · B-7 

been interpreted to be later than early Eocene in age 

(Hunt, 1938, p. 74-75). On the other hand, the 

deposits are closely related to the intraformational 

folds because they generally occur along the flanks 

and in some places along the axes of the folds. 

The intraformational folds are of many types. 

Some are broad and open, some are recumbent, 

others are parts of larger intraformational folds, 

and still others are associated with intraformational 

faults that have displacements of only a few inches 

or more. In size the folds range from a few inches 

to about 30 feet in width and amplitude, and from 

a few feet to hundreds of feet in length. They are 

generally confined to the Todilto limestone, but some 

extend a few feet into the overlying or underlying 

formations. Many occur in clusters and if so the 

axes of individual folds may· be parallel or subparallel. These structures are developed best in 

McKinley and Valencia Counties and a few occur in 

western San Juan and Rio Arriba Counties (fig. 3.1). 

These intraformational folds are ·apparently tectonic in origin, as they are related to tectonic folding (Hilpert and Moench, 1960,· p. 437-444). They 

are probably of Jurassic or Early Cretaceous age; 

and the associated primary ore minerals are probably of Late Cretaceous or early Tertiary age (Hilpert and Moench, 1960, p. 450). · 

Deposits in the San Andres and Madera limestones also occur where the rocks have been deformed. These deposits may be wholly secondary in 

origin, as only secondary minerals have been identified-but it is possible . that primary minerals will 

ultimately be revealed by further .exploration or 

study. 

In the San Andres limestone the urani urn is in 

conspicuous yellow vanadates that coat fracture 

surfaces, bedding surfaces, and fill open space in 

the rock where it has been broken by faulting. Two 

deposits in north-central Socorro County (fig. 3.1) 

are in a sandy zone in the limestone where it is 

broken by a north-trending high-angle fault. The 

largest mineralized zone, from which some ore has 

been mined, is about 50 feet in diameter and 35 feet 

thick. A deposit also occurs in the San Andres limestone in Valencia County, but the geologic relations 

are not clear. At this locality a yellow uranium 

mineral has been reported to occur in fractures in 

the San Andres limestone near igneous intrusive 

rocks. 

Two uranium deposits also occur in ·a sandy zone 

in the Madera limestone in north-central Socorro 

County (fig. 3.1) where the limestone has been 

brecciated along a north-trending high-angle fault. 

In these deposits also the uranium occurs in yellow 

vanadates and possib~y in silicates that coat the 

fracture surfaces. The largest mineralized zone is 

about 100 f~et in diameter where exposed at the surface, and is several feet thick. The highest grade 

material is near the fault and some ore has been 

mined. 

The deposits in the San Andres and Madera limestones are probably of late Tertiary age or younger· 

because the faults that apparently control the deposits displace the Datil formation (Wilpolt and 

Wanek, 1951), which is probably of late Tertiary 

age. 

In summary, the uranium deposits in carbonate 

rocks in northwestern New Mexico are almost entirely associated with folds, faults, and minor fractures. These deposits are of epigenetic origin; they 

occur in two geologic provinces in formations of 

three geologic ages, and they probably represent 

two different periods of mineralization. Because 

they were formed under diverse geologic conditions 

in which the tectonic structures are the only features common to all, it must be· concluded that localization of the uranium deposits is controlled by the 

tectonic structures. A brief review of the geologic 

literature reveals that most epigenetic uranium deposits in carbonate rock are controlled by tectonic 

structures. Therefore, it is concluded that only deformed carbonate rocks are good host rocks for epigenetic uranium deposits. 

REFERENCES 

Gabelman, J. W., 1956, Uranium deposits in limestone, in 

Page, L. R., and others, compilers, Contributions to the 

geology of uranium and thorium by the United States 

Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for 

the United Nations International Conference on peaceful 

uses of atomic energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 387-404. 

Hilpert, L. S., and Moench, R. H., 1960, Uranium deposits of 

the southern part of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico: 

Econ. Geology, v. 55, p. 429-464. 

Hunt, C. B., 1938, Igneous geology and structure of the Mount 

Taylor volcanic field, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 189-B, p. 51-80. 

Laverty, R. A., and Gross, E. B., 1956·, Paragenetic studies of 

uranium deposits of the Colorado Plateau, in Page, L. R.; 

and others, compilers, Contributions to the geology of 

uranium and thorium by the United States Geological 

Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the United 

Nations International Conference on peaceful uses of 

atomic energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 195-201. 
B-8 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

Truesdell, A. H., and Weeks, A. D., 1959, Relation of the 

Todilto limestone uranium deposits to Colorado Plateau 

uranium deposits in sandstone [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 70, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1689-1690. 

Wilpolt, R. H., and Wanek, A. A., 1951, Geology of the region 

from Socorro and San Antonio east to Chupadera Mesa, 

Socorro County, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and 

Gas Inv. Map OM-121. 

4. ORIGIN OF URANIUM AND GOLD IN THE QUARTZITE-CONGLOMERATE OF THE SERRA DE JACOBINA, 

BRAZIL 

By MAX G. WHITE, Washington, D. C. 

The Serra de Jacobina is in the north-central 

part of the State of Bahia, northeast Brazil. It is 

a narrow prominent range that stands out in sharp 

relief over adjacent plains. The mountainous country rises generally to altitudes of 600 to 800 meters 

with peaks of approximately 1,100 meters. The adjacent plains have an average altitude of about 450 

meters. The principal town in the area is Jacobina, 

about 3~0 kilometers, by road, west of the port city 

of Salvador, Bahia. 

The gold deposits of the r~gion have been known 

since the latter part of the 17th century. Lode and 

placer deposits have been mined on a small scale. 

Currently only the Canavieiras gold mine is operating in the district. · 

Uranium discovered in the pyri'tic gold ores of 

Jacobina in early. 1954 (White, 1956) has been described in fair detail at the Canavieiras mine (White, 

1957; Bateman, 1958). The gold-uranium mineralized quartzite-conglomerates have been traced in 

discontinuous outcrops from about 3 kilometers north 

of Jacobina ·southward to the Rio do Almoco, a 

distance of 23 kilometers.·· The. co.nglomerates are 

known to extend an additional 6 'kilometers southward into an area that has hot yet been investigated 

for uranium. 

Fieldwork o~ the gold- and uranium-bearing conglomerates at: Morro do Vento, 2 kilometers s~mth of 

the Can a vieiras mine, constitutes the basis for the 

present report. 'I" • 

GEOLOGIC SETTING AND STRUCTURE 

Roc~s exposed in the. Serra de Jacobina (Branner, 

1910) in 'the viCinity of ~he· town of Jacobina consist'" of white qvartzite, that in the upper part has 

some nonco.ngl~;>;meratic sandstone, and in· the lower 

part. n,um~rous conglomerate beds that contain pyritic gold-uraniQm deposits .. The conglomerates are 

l: . 

restricted to the western flank of the Serra, where 

they lie in contact with weathered granitic rocks. 

On the eastern border of the Serra the white quartzite is overlain by slate and phyllite. Scattered pockets of high-grade manganese oxides are found in the 

quartzite. 

. The rocks in the Serra de Jacobina dip easterly at 

high angles (45° .to 70°), and strike northerly, 

parallel to the trend of the range; Details of the 

structure are not well known, but considering the 

steep dip of the rocks and the relatively narrow 

width ( 6 km) of the Serra, any divergence in strike 

of the quartzite from the trend of the Serra would 

carry the basal conglomerate away from the Serra 

at some short distance north of Jacobina. Many 

high-angle faults cut the Serra de Jacobina and 

many of the morros (hills) that make up the range 

are fault blocks. The conglomerates may have been 

removed by faulting north of Jacobina. In a few 

places highly weathered dark-colored dikes of what 

probably was an ultramafic rock (possibly pyroxenite) cut across the quartzite~conglomerate. No preferred orientation of the dikes has been observed, 

but many of them lie in the north-trending faults. 

A similarity of these rocks and their ore deposits to 

the well-known gold-bearing conglomerates of South 

Africa has been noted by earlier writers (Oliveira 

and Leonardos, 1943). 

ORIGIN OF DEPOSITS 

The uranium mineral in the Serra de Jacobina 

conglomerates has been identified by X-ray diffraction as uraninite. It occurs in close association with 

gold and pyrite in silicifieq quartzite-conglomerate. 

The mineralized rock is green,. owing to the presence 

of chrome-bearing mica, or brown to yellow owing to 

limonite formed from oxidation of pyrite. On Morros 

do Vento, a mineralized zone 1,260 meters long has 

/. 

). 

, 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-9 

an average content of 0.008 percent equivalent 

UaOH and 10 grams of gold per metric ton of rock. 

This mineralized zone ranges from one-half to 10 

meters in thickness but averages about 2 meters. 

The mineralized zone apparently parallels the strike 

of the enclosing sedimentary rocks and from place 

to place it consists of either conglomerate or quartzite. Numerous sections measured across the mineralized zone show that about 45 percent of the host 

rock is quartzite and the remaining 55 percent is 

conglomerate. The boundary of the mineralized rock 

at some places coincides with the edge of a conglomerate lens or a quartzite bed, but at other places 

the boundaries ~r~ within lenses or beds having 

otherwise uniform lithology. Some mineralized zones 

or shoots that have well-defined boundaries transect 

both quartzite and. conglomerate beds. 

It is apparent that the mineralization does not 

favor any 'lithologic unit in the quartzite-conglomerate sequence. Moreover there seemingly is no correlation between high values of gold and uranium 

and any particular rock type. It would appear, therefore, that this ore deposit is not a placer, which is 

the origin that has been suggested for the somewhat 

~ 

similar South African deposits, and for gold-bearing 

conglomerates of Blind· River, Ontario (Davidson, 

1957). Rather, the minerals probably were emplaced 

by hydrothermal solutions introduced along a possible north-south fracture or fracture zone, apparently parallel to the bedding. This conclusion is 

strengthened by the presence of quartz stringers and 

veins and the extensive sericitization and chloritization .. 

REFERENCES 

Bateman, J. D., 1958, Uranium-bearing auriferous reefs at 

Jacobina, Brazil: Econ. Geology, v. 53, p. 417-425. 

Branner, J. C., 1910, The geology and topography of the Serra 

de Jacobina, State of Bahia, Brazil: Am. Jour. Science, 

4th ser., v. 30, p. 385-392. 

Davidson, C. F., 1957, On the occurrence of uranium in ancient 

conglomerates: Econ. Geology v. 52, p. 668-693. 

Oliveira, A. I., and Leonardos, 0. H., 1943, Geologia do Brazil, 

2nd ed.: Ministerio da Agricultura, Rio de Janeiro. 

White, M. G., 1956, Uranium in the Serra de Jacobina, in 

Peaceful uses of atomic energy: Geneva, United Nations 

Internat. Conf. Proc., v. 6, p. 140-142. 

White, M. G., 1957, Uranium in the auriferous conglomerates 

at th~ Canavieiras gold mine, State of Bahia, Brazil: 

Engenharia, Mineracao e Metalurgia, v. 26, no. 155, Nov., 

p. 279-282. 

HYDROLOGIC STUIJIES, 

5. MAGNITUDE AND FREQUENCY OF FLOODS IN SUBURBAN AREAS 

By R. W. CARTER, Washington, D. C. 

The effect of suburban development on the magnitude of floods may be evaluated by examining the 

relations between floqds of .. a given recurrence interval and the drainage area, lag time, and a lengthslope parameter. Although these relations may not I' • 

measure the effect as. Pr~cisely as would be possible 

with "before and after" records of rainfall and 

streamflow, they d~ per~it fairly accurate prediction, using existing 'records, of the effect of suburban 

development upon flood. peaks. 

Suburban development changes two of the basic 

elements that determine the magnitude and timing 

·of the volume and peak of the flood hydrograph. The 

average infiltration rate is decreased beca.use rooftops and city streets are impervious. The lag time 

between rainfall excess and the flood hydrograph is 

decreased because of storm sewers and improve-

. ments to the principal stream channels. The net 

effect of these changes on the magnitude and frequency of floods in the vicinity of w·ashington, D.C., 

has been evaluated. 

The percentage of imperviou!' surface area in 

basins in which suburban development is virtually 

'complete is fairly low. For example, the percentages 

for Little Falls Branch near B~thesda, Md., and 

F.our Mile Run near Alexandria, Va., based on aerial 

photographs taken in 1955, are 12.6 and 11.5, respectively. An approximation ·'of the effect of impervious area on flood peaks is given by equation 

( 1), which is based on the following assumptions: 
B-10 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

1. The average rainfall-runoff coefficient of 0.3 as 

determined from rainfall-flood volume studies for 

storms in the Washington, D.C., area applies to 

flood peaks as well as to flood volumes. 

2. The effect of the changes in impervious area is 

independent of the size of flood. 

3. Seventy-five percent of the rainfall volume on 

impervious surfaces reaches the stream channel. 

4. The impervious area consists of many fairly 

small areas randomly distributed throughout the 

basin. 

K = 0.30 + 0.0045 I 

0.30 (1) 

In this equation K is the factor by which all flood 

peaks are increased by the ·percent of impervious 

area, I. For example, if 10 percent of the area is . 

impervious, the value of K is 1.15. The effect of 

imperviousness is small relativ:e to other effects of 

suburban development on flood peaks. 

The average time interval, T, between the centroids of rainfall excess and of' the resulting flood 

hydrograph, was determined for each of 20 streams 

in the immediate viCinity of Washington, D. C. The 

time distribution of rainfall excess was determined 

from continuous records 'of rainfall and time-infiltration curves. The criteria for selection of storms 

were (a) a uniform areal distribution and (b) a 

short duration time relative to the lag time. 

In figure 5.1, lag times are shown as a function 

of L/ y S where L is the total length from the gaging 

point to the rim of the basin measured along the 

principal channel, and S is the weighted slope of an 

order of 3 or greater of all. stream channels in the 

basin. The weighted slopes were computed as follows: 

(2) 

Curve 1 on figure 5.1 is the relation for undeveloped areas in the Piedmont province near Washington, and may be ~xpressed as 

( 

L )o.6 T = 3.10 yS (3) 

Snyde~ (1958) found that a similar equation with 

different coefficients, but the same exponent, applied 

to areas in California, Virgi~ia, and other states. 

· The lower limit of the· relation of lag time to· 

L/y S is probably defined by curve 3 on figure 5.1, 

which is based on data given by Snyder for basins 

that are completely sewered and have no natural 

channels. 

Values of lag time for basins that are partly 

sewered, but with the principal stream channels 

maintained in their natural condition, should plot 

between curves 1 and 3. The points numbered 7, 

10, 22, 23, and 24 on figure 5.1 are for such basins 

in the . vicinity of Washington where suburban development is virtually complete. These points tend 

to define ·curve 2 which can be expressed 

( 

L )o.6 T= 1.20 yS (4) 

The slopes of curves 2 and· 3, figure. 5.1, have 

been made identical to the slope of curve 1, although 

the slopes of the curves 2 and 3 are not well defined 

by available data. 

The effect of changes in lag time on the magnitude 

and frequency of floods may be determined by a 

multiple regression technique. The magnitude of 

floods of a given recurrence interval 'for undeveloped 

basins is considered to be a function of T and A, 

where A is the size of the drainage basin in square 

miles. Data for developed basins may also be used 

to determine this relation if the effect of imperviousness on flood peaks is first accounted for, and if it is 

assumed that the effect of T and K are independent. 

Data for developed and undeveloped basins have thus 

been used to define an equation of the form, 

Q 

K = f(A,T) (5) 

The magnitude of the flood discharge Q in cfs, 

which corresponds to a recurrence interval of 2.33 

years, was determined for each of 18 streams from 

the record of maximum annual peak discharges. For 

each stream the annual peaks were plotted against 

the re~urrence interval computed as (n ·+ 1)/m 

where rri is the order number and n is the number 

of years of record. The period 1951 to 1959 was 

used. The value of Q for each stream was determined 

from the discharge-recurrence relation .. 

The constants in the functional expression of 

equation ( 5) were defined by multiple regression 

using values of Q and T computed from records for 

each stream and using the value of K from equ~tion 

· 1. The value of K from equation 1 was 1.00 for nine 

of the streams and ranged from 1.00 to 1.19. The 

equation of the regression is 

Q = 223 A o.s5 r-o.45 

K (6) 

with a standard error of -22 and +29 percent. 

The value of the exponent of A. is significant at the 

i, 

< I 
l., 

..,· 

1. 

,· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-11 

10 

en 

0::: 

=> 

0 

:I: 

z 

~ 

u.i 

~ 

t= 

C!J 

~ 1 

7 23 ./ 

QQ / 

13 

. /4<(,~'\, 15" ~. ~- 0 

4 6 

.o 

0 

3 

0 Natural basins · 

Q Partially sewered 

e Completely sewered 

0.1~-L--------L---~---L--~~~~~--------~--~--~--~~~~~--------~--~ 

0.1 . 1 10 

L/{s, L IN MILES, SIN FEET PER MILE 

FIGURE 5.1.-Effect of suburban development on lag time~ 

99 percent confidence level; the value of the exponent 

of Tat the 98 percent level. Data used to derive the 

equation include a range in A from 3.9 to 546 square 

miles, and a range in T from 1.2 to 18.6 hours. 

The effect of suburban developments on floods 

with a recurrence interval of 2.33 years may be evaluated by use of figure 5.1, and equations (1) and (6). 

For example, assume that the relation between T 

and L/ V S changes the values given in ctirve 1 to 

the values given on curve 2 (fig. 5.1) because of 

suburban development, and that the percent im-· 

perviousness is increased from 0 to 12 percent. Then 

Q (Suburban) = ( 3.10 ) 0

·

45 ( .354) = ...:.tJ...---:,( U ___ n_d_e_v--=el-op....:....e--=d-)- 1.20 · .300 l.S 

The ratio 1.8 is believed to be the maximum effect 

of complete suburban development on flood peaks 

of any recurrence interval for drainage basins larger 

than 4 square miles in the Washington area. 

REFERENCE 

Snyder, Franklin F., 1958, Synthetic flood frequency:. Am. 

Soc. Civil Engineers Proc. v. 84, no. HY5, 22 p. 
B-12 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

6. EFFECT OF ARTIFICIAL STORAGE ON PEAK FLOW 

By WILLIAM D. MITCHELL, Champaign, Ill. 

As a supplement to the .regular network of gaging 

stations, many districts now operate a network of 

high-water partial-record stations. Practical conside~ations have dictated that many of these be located at culvert~, or other channel constrictions, at 

which the peak flows may be materially affected by 

artificial storage. To be of maximum value in 

regional flood studies, th~ recorded amounts of 

such peak flows should. be increased to account for · 

the effect of artificial storage. The problem is complicated· by the lack of complete hydrographs for 

most sites; only the peak stage and outflow discharge are observed for any given flood, therefore 

the usual methods of flood routing cannot be applied. How, then, can an observed outflow peak be 

transformed to the corresponding inflow peak? 

Various arbitrary solutions have yielded highly 

varying results, leading to the conclusion that a 

satisfactory solution could be obtained only by 

making a tabulation of I 10 (inflow peak divided by 

outflow peak) resulting from routing all possible 

inflow hydrographs· through all possible reservoirs. 

Then, given an appropriate description of a specific 

inflow hydrograph and specific reservoir, the tabulations would provide the appropriate correction 

factor. Obviously, it would be impractical to route 

an infinite number of hydrographs through an infinite number of reservoirs, but it appeared feasible 

to make detailed studies of a few combinations, and 

arrange the. results in such manner that interpolations rnight be made for others. It is possible to 

make such interpolations if infl<:>w hydrographs and 

storage-outflow relations are reduced to dimensionless bases. 

Inflow hydrographs may be described in terms of 

Q, the instantaneous . discharge, and H, the time · 

from beginning of rainfall excess, and it is postulated that Q. is determined by H; A, the size of the· 

drainage area; P ('' the amount of rainfall excess· D 

the duration of the rainfall excess; and T and k: 

characteristic times for a given drainage basin that 

indicate the time lag between rainfall and runoff. 

These factors are combined into the dimensionless 

ratios (QTIAPe), (HIT), (kiT), and (DIT), leading to families of· inflow hydrographs in which the 

first ratio is the ordinate, the second is the abscissa, 

and the third and fourth are distinguishing parameters. 

Reservoir routing requires an expression of the 

formS= KO'c, in which Sis the storage, K is a constant depending upon the relative capacities of the 

reservoir and the outlet, 0 is the outflow, and x depends on the relative slopes of the stage-discharge 

and stage-storage curves. The minimum value of x · is 0.67 which would apply only to outflow at critical 

depth from a reservoir with vertical sides. The 

maximum x is indeterminate, but for many sites its 

value appears to be near 1; in fact, it is a common 

assumption in many reservoir problems that S = 

KO, and the storage is said to be linear. (Preliminary 

studies indicate that the methods here described may 

be expanded to include nonlinear storage, but the 

present analysis treats only linear storage.) In the 

expression S = KO, K has the dimension of time, 

and is reduced to a dimensionle~s base by dividing 

by T. 

Sixteen dimensionless inflow hydrographs were 

routed through varying degrees of linear storage to 

obtain 128 outflow .hydrographs. From these routings, pertinent tabulations were prepared as shown 

on table 1. On the first line, KIT. = 0, so that the 

data are for the inflow hydrograph. Other lines are 

for outflow hydrographs, with KIT increasing to 

2.0. The three central columns of the table repre- · 

sent,· respectively, the time of occurrence of the 

peak, the magnitude of the peak, and the time of 

passage of· the centroid of volume. The ratio for 

time of travel through the reservoir, triT, may be 

obtained by subtracting value of t 1jT for KIT = 0 

from other values of t.,/T. 

TABLE 1.-Results of routing infiow hydrographs through 

linear storage 

[kiT= 1.0; D/T = 0.1] 

KIT tp/T QT/APe tV/T l/0 

0.0 ...... 0.88 443.0 1.264 ............ . 1 ....... .98 420.0 1.369 1.031 

.3 ...... 1.16 359.6 1.588 1.204 

.5 ...... 1.30 309.4 1.790 1.399 

.7 ...... 1.44 272.4 1.977 1.590 

1.0 ...... 1.60 232.4 2.237 1.863 

1.5 ...... 1.80 188.5 2.636 2.297-

2.0 ...... 1. 96 159.6 3.012 2. 713 

The data . may be arranged in several ways, but 

the most convenient arrangement appears to be that 

. t 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-13 

3.8~----------------------------------------------------------------

l/0 

.10 .20 .30 .40 .. 50 .60 

FIGURE 6.1.-//0 as a function of tr, tv, and k/T. 

shown as figure 6.1, in which I 10 is plotted as ordinate against t,.ltv as abscissa for different values of 

kiT. Analysis of the tabulated data indicates that, 

for purposes of this plot, the ratio t,.ltv should be 

computed by the formula: 

t,./t.v = 0.9 KIT I (1.00 + 0.7 DIT + 0.9 KIT) 

Not all of the points plotted fit the curves perfectly, but only 2 of the 128 values are more than 10 

percent from the curve, and these are for extreme 

conditions. (Both are for kiT= 0.3, DIT = 1.5; for 

KIT = 1.5, the error is 11.5 percent; for KIT= 2.0, 

· 12.0 percent.) . Two-thirds of the true values are 

within about 3 percent of the curve values. 
B-14 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

' . 

To use figure 6.1, it is necessary to have values for Until these methods become available, .it is suggested· 

D, K, T, and k. Values of D may be estimated from that T may be computed_ by one of the several forrainfall records, and K may be estimated from the mulas now available -for computing time -of· concenstorage-outflow curve. Work is continuing, as a tration; values of k/T may b.e estimated from the 

part of another project, from which it is hoped to steepness of the recessio:t~ curve of surface runoff, 

derive methods of ·estimating T and k from ·the using 0.3 for very rapid recession, 1.5 for very slow 

physiographic characteristics of the drainage area. recession, and· 0.7 for average recession. 

~ ' 

7. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF GLACIER RUNOFF 

By MARK F. MEIER and WENDELL V. TANGBORN, Tacoma, Wash. 

Salient features of glacier runoff patterns may 

be brought out by comparing runoff data from two 

glacier-covered basins with data from three mountain basins that do not retain any significant snowfields throughout most years. These comparisons 

also show the influence of climatic factors, such as 

precipitation, on the runoff. 

Most American glaciers behave as natural storage 

reservoirs that retain a predominant portion of the 

ye~rly total precipitation during a winter period of 

high precipitation, and release large quantities of 

water during a summer period of high temperatures 

and low precipitation. Thus, the annual variation of 

runoff from glacier-covered basins bears little or no 

relation to the annual variation of precipitation. 

This behavior is typical of all mountain drainage 

basins in areas of heavy snowfall, but the effect is 

most extreme for glacier-covered basins. 

The distributions within a water year of runoff, 

precipitation, and degree-days for selected basins in 

Washington and Montana are shown in figure 7.1. 

The four basins in Washington are on the western 

slope of the Northern Cascade Mountains and include basins that are in both the non-glacier-covered 

foothills and on the largely glacier-covered crest of 

the range (table 1). Runoff and precipitation patterns from a different climatic environment · are 

shown for. a partly glacier-covered basin in the 

Northern Rocky Mountains of Montana. The data 

used in plotting the precipitation curves were not 

obtained from stations located within these basins 

but from selected Weather Bureau stations that are 

believed to have similar annual precipitation distributions. 

These curves clearly demonstrate the long lag 

between precipitation and runoff that is characteristic of glacier-covered terrain. The curves from intermediate basins show that, as the mean elevation 

and amount. of glacier-cover increases, appreciable 

runoff is delayed until later in the water year, and 

in a largely glacier-covered basin the highest monthly 

runoff occurs in July or August. 

The role of the various solar and atmospheric 

energy sources in the production of meltwater runoff 

from either type basin is not developed in this 

article. However, there is an obvious qualitative 

relation between air temperature and runoff for a 

glacier-covered basin. This is shown by the cumulative degree-:days above 32°F and runoff measured 

at the outlet of the Grinnell Creek basin (fig. 7.1).· 

Pronounced diurnal fluctuations in discharge are 

characteristic of the runoff from glacier-covered 

basins, reflecting diurnal fluctuations in the energy 

supplied for melting ice. Average daily curves of 

icemelt and runoff during clear weather are shown 

in figure 7.2 for the South Fork Cascade River basin. 

The asymmetric nature of the melting curve is due 

to a slow morning rise of incident solar radiation, 

caused by the basin's high eastern rim and a northwesterly slope of the ice surface. This condition 

occurs over about half of the basin area. The total 

daily runoff is less than the indicated daily icemelt 

because the icemelt recorder was located in a region of higher-than-average melt rates. At this time 

of the year the mean time of transit of meltwater 

from its point of generation to the gaging station at 

the outlet was of the order of magnitude of 4 hours.-

In general, a thick, complete snowpack stores 

rainfall, releasing it gradually or retaining it as 

ice, whereas a bare ice or firm surface permits rapid 

,, 

_.. 

.J 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-15 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0~~~~~~----~~~----~~~----~----~~--~~~ Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 

MONTH MONTH 

FIGURE 7.1.-Cumulative runoff and precipitation for selected drainage basins in the Northern Cascade Mountains, Wash., 

and the Northern Rocky Mountains, Mont. 

a, Average precipitation at Darrington, Diablo Dam, and 

Sedro Woolley, Wash. 

b, Runoff of Day Creek near Lyman, Wash. 

c, Runoff of South Fork Nooksack River near Wickersham, 

Wash. 

d, Runoff of Stetattle Creek near Newhalem, Wash. 

r1,1noff of rainfall and produces a "flashy" hydrograph. 

The effect of individual rain or snow storms on 

the runoff hydrograph is shown in figure 7.3. Inspection of these data shows that it is very difficult 

to forecast runoff from a given rainstorm. The 

rate of runoff following a rainstorm depends on (a) 

the amount of basin area covered with snow, (b) the 

e, Runoff of South Fork Cascade River at South Cascade 

Glacier, Wash. 

f, Precipitation at Summit, _Mont. 

g, Runoff of Grinnell Creek near Many Glacier, Mont. 

h, Degree-days above 32 oF at Grinnell Creek near Many 

Glacier, Mont. 

thickness and density of the snowpack, (c) snow 

temperature, (d) whether the snow has been channeled by previo1,1s rain or periods of high melt rate, 

and (e) perhaps other factors. These factors show 

a normal seasonal variation, but may change rapidly 

and unpredictably in the fall. 

Perhaps the most distinctive aspect of glacier 

hydrology is the natural change in ice storage from 

TABLE 1.-Characte?·istics of d1·ainage basins 

\Yater Altitude Drainage Percent Total Basin year area of area yearly Physiographic description Mean ivlaximum (square glacier- runoff (feet) (feet) miles) covered (inches) 

Day Creek near _Lyman, Wash ......... 1959 2,310 . 4,311 36.3 0 121 Low altitude forested foothills and 

low mountains. 

South Fork Nooksack River near 1959 3,000 6,400 103 0 120 Forested foothills and few high Wickersham, Wash. peaks. 

Stetnttle Creek near N ewhalem, Wash .. 1959 5,000 7,200 21.4 2 155 Forested valleys and high peaks near crest of range. 

South F01·k Cascade River at South 1959 6,4.40 8,265 2.39 61 191 Bare slopes, jagged high peaks, Cascade Glacier, \Vash. little vegetation. 

Grinnell Creek near Many Glacier, 1960 6,780 9,541 3.47 14 93 Bare slopes, jagged high peaks, Mont. some vegetation. 
B-16 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

0: 

:::> 

.020 

~ .015 

5 

C1. 

~ 

~ 

..: 

~ .010 :::> 

0: 

gs 

8 

::;: 

~ 

year to year. The storage changes tend to counteract the effects of cool wet, or warm dry years, as 

shown by table 2, which presents data from South 

Fork Cascade River during two contrasting years. 

Departures from long-term means of temperature 

and precipitation are reported for Newhalem, the 

nearest station for which these data are available. 

Loss of water through evaporation was found by our 

measurements to be negligible during the summer, 

and measurements on other glaciers have shown this 

to be generally true during the whole year. Thus, 

changes in the mass of a glacier represent true additions to, or withdrawals from, ice storage. 

TABLE 2.-Water budget for South F01·k Cascade River at 

South Cascade Glacier, Wash., for two cont'rasting years 

South Fork Cascade River at South Cascade c:tacier, Wash. Newhalem, Wash. 

6~~~~~~~12~~~~~~-6~~~~~~~12~~~~~~ 

Water 

year Change in storage 2 

·(inches) 

Precipitation 

departure 3 

(inches) 

Temperature 

departure 3 

(oF.) 

Noon Midnight 

TIME· 

1958 ... . 

1959 ... . 

Precipitation I 

(inches) 

4 130 

210 

Runoff 2 

(inches) 

4 200 

191 

-51 

+17 

-·14.2 

+32.5 

+3.0 

-0.8 

FIGURE 7.2."-Mean diurnal variation in rates of icemelt and 

runoff for 14 days of clear, warm weather occurring during period July 13-30, 1958. Icemelt was measured at 

station A, elevation 5,527 feet, on South Cascade Glacier. 

Runoff was measured at South Fork Cascade River at 

South Cascade Glacier, Wash., and was averaged over the 

total area of ice and snow in the drainage basin. 

1 As measured at P1, 6,160 feet elevation, on South Cascade Glacier. 2 Average values for whole drainage basin. 3 Departures from 1931-55 means, by U.S. Weather Bureau. 4 Part of the record estimated. 

Dashed where estimated Runoff ,--~---- -------------L ____ , _________________ , ____ =;-=-=-=-=--=-=i"-:.::__ __ --r-----,---------,-----,-----

40 l Snow-free ground 30 1 ,.---l 20 . / 'l.J~:._!>ashed where esti~~t~ 

I~ • ~:: • / , --k_ ~~ -~ . . , ...... ········· 

Precipitation ~ 

_,ruJ\!LA, ~N __ J_ T ---. ,_.._ __ rt .NU.J __ _____, ...--- -~~~--- [/ 

____ -----· ~-------- ·'". L'1/ ~ ..... 

1 

'l 

~ 

l

20:c 

15~ 

110 "' .._ 

js ~ 

0 -~ 

0 

:;~so 

z~60 Temperature 1\ .JI\,.; \ ~ A .I\. j' ~~ 40 

~~3ol~~v~~v~------------------~~---------+~vv~~vocv--~~~ovv~~.----~----------~~~~~---1 !J MA fl • 0 rj,/) rVI! uMI. rv ~-~ 

~~20 

;:e ... 

~~1ol 

~ 0 .-, --=-Oc-:-t.--.----:-N-:-ov-.-.---=-oec-.--··r -:ian~ ----~----Feb.- Aug. Sept. .,. 

FIGURE 7.3.-Variation of runoff, precipitation, snow depth, percent of snow-free ground, and temperature for the drainage 

basin of South Fork Cascade River at South Cascade Glacier, Wash., during the 1960 water year. Dashed lines indicate 

periods of estimated record. Precipitation distribution during the period October 1, 1959, to April 3, 1960, and at several 

later short intervals was computed on basis of known total precipitation on South Cascade Glacier at Pl (6,160 feet) 

and kn<;>wn daily precipitation values at Darrington, Wash. Precipitation is differentiated into rain (solid black bars), 

mixed rain and snow (dotted bars), or snow (clear bars), _on basis of free-air freezing levels over Seattle or actual observation. Snow depths were measured at P1 (6,160 feet). Temperature record is a composite of Darrington daily means minus 

16oF (lapse-rate correction) ~hown by light lines, or actual measurement at !esearch station at South Cascade Glacier 

(elevation 6,040 feet) shown by heavy lines. 

·, 
.,. 

'!' 

,-

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-17 

8. RECENT HYDROLOGIC TRENDS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST 

I 

By WILBUR D. SIMONS, Tacoma, Wash. 

Annual runoff and annual precipitation in the 

Columbia River basin decreased, and annual mean 

temperature gradually increased between 1885· and 

1945, according to an analysis by McDonald and 

Langbein ( 1948). To determine if these trends have 

continued, data for runoff, precipitation, ·and temperatures have been exam.ined for the period 1885 

to 1960-15 more years of record than was available 

to McDonald and Langbein. Annual deviations from 

the 1911-60 means were weighted for running 5-

year periods according to the formula: 

a + 2b + 3c + 2d + e 

9 

in which a, b, ... are data for consecutive years, and 

the deviations were plotted against the middle year. 

The period 1911-60 was chosen as a reference because it was the longest period of concurrent records. 

In this preliminary analysis no adjustments of runoff were made for irrigation diversions or other 

modifications caused by the works of man. 

0 

Trend curves of annual streamflow for seven index 

stations are shown on figure 8.2. A distinct downward trend for the years prior to 1940 and an uptrend during succeeding years are evident. At 5 of 

the stations shown the 15-yeai~ average for the period 

1946-60 was the ma~imum 1~-year average of 

record, being surpassed only at those ~tations that 

had records during the 1890's. The flow of the 

Columbia River near The Dalles, Oreg., without considering the changes in flow regimen caused by the 

works of man, was only 7 percent less during the 

period 1946-60 than during the period 1891-1905. 

Annual precipitation might be expected to show 

trends similar to those exhibited by streamflow data. 

Trend .curves for five precipitation stations are 

shown on figure 8.3. An upward trend during the 

past 15 years is discernible in three of the five stations studied but at only one stati~m is the precipitation greater during the past 15 years than during 

the late 1800's. The trends in annual precipitation 

~ +:T 

~+2"[~----------L----------L----------~----------L-----------L------------L------------~-----------~ o Missoula, Mont. 

I::J 

Spokane, Wash. 

1960 

FIGURE 8.1.-Weighted deviations, in degrees Fahrenheit, from 1911-60 average annual temperatures at selecteq stations in 

the Pacific Northwest. 
B-18 

1..1..1 

<.!) 

c( 

1--

z 

1..1..1 

(.) 

0: 

1..1..1 

Q. 

0 

1..1..1 

I-. 

:r: 

<.!) 

w 

~ 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

0 

-20 

Pend Oreille River at Z Canyon near Metaline Falls, Wash. 

Spokane River at Spokane, Wash. 

Similkameen River near Nighthawk, Wash. 

Chelan River at Chelan, Wash. 

+J'---------'--__.l.....___L.__j_. ~· _.!______L_____ 

Deschutes River near Biggs, Oreg. 

+20 

0 

Ps so~------~~------~~~--------L----------L~-------~~93~o~------~~~9~4o _________ l_9L5o _________ l~960 

Columbia River near The Dalles, Oreg. 

FIGURE 8.2.--Weighted percentage deviations from 1911-60 average annual precipitation at selected stations in the Pacific 

Northwest. 

(, 

..· 

,. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-19 

FIGURE 8.3.-Weighted percentage deviations from 1911-60 average discharges at selected gaging stations in the Columbia 

River basin. 
B-20 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

are similar to the trends in annual runoff but are 

less clearly defined. 

Trend curves for four temperature stations are 

shown on figure 8.1. Earlier records indicated a 

gradual rising temperature that reached a maximum 

about 1940. A downward trend since then is quite 

pronounced at each of the stations for which records 

were studied. However, at only one station do the 

recent temperatures reach the lower temperatures 

of the 1890's. The general tendency is for hot and 

dry years or wet and cool years to coincide. 

Thus the analysis of data for the total 75-year 

period shows significant changes in trends and 

demonstates the necessity for continuing data collection and analysis in order to provide reliable information for development and evaluation of wateruse projects. 

REFERENCE 

McDonald, C. C., and Langbein, Walter, 1948, Trends in runoff: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 29, no. 3, p. 387-397. 

9. PRECIPITATION AS A V ARIABL;E IN THE CORRELATION OF RUNOFF DATA 

By WILLIAM J. SCHNEIDER, Washington, D. C. 

Differences in runoff between basins are at least 

partly caused by differences in precipitation. Precipitation data, therefore, should be useful in improving the correlation between runoffs from different basins. 

The effect of differences in precipitation on correlation of runoff can be expressed by either of two 

equations: 

Rn = f(Rc, D.P) 

Rn = f(Rc (adj)) 

(1) 

(2) 

in which Rv is the runoff of the dependent basin, Rc 

is the runoff of the control basin, D.P is a measure of 

difference in precipitation between basins, and 

R c ( adj) is the runoff of th~ control basin adjusted 

for differences in precipitation between basins. 

Investigations to date indicate that a logarithmic 

transformation of runoff data is necessary to obtain 

an essentially homoscedastic variance. The model 

equations using transformed runoff variables are: 

log Rn = a + b1 log Rc + b:2D.P (la) 

log Rn = a + bt log Rc (adj) (2a) 

The term D.P in equation (la) may be obtained by 

using precipitation for either basin as the subtrahend 

in obtaining the difference in precipitation. Use of 

precipitation data for the dependent basin as the 

subtrahend will give a positive coefficient for b2 ; 

use of precipitation data for the control basin as the 

subtrahend will give a negative coefficient. 

In equation (2a) the adjusted runoff for the control basin is obtained as follows. The precipitation-

. runoff relation for the control basin is developed 

from the existing data. From this relation, two 

expected values of runoff (RJ>n and RJ>c) are deter-

·mined. The first, (Rpv), is the expected value based 

on the precipitation for the dependent area, the 

second, · (RJ>c), is the expected value based on the 

precipitation for the control area. The difference 

(Rp11 -Rpc) represents the expected difference in 

runoff from the control basin due to the difference 

in precipitation (D.Rp), taking into account the magnitude of the precipitation. This difference in runoff is then added to the measured runoff to give 

Rc (adj) = Rc + D.RI' (3) 

which is then correlated directly with the runoff 

from the dependent basin. 

A moderately extreme example of th_e effect of 

precipitation differences on the runoff relation between two basins is shown in the following results. 

Correlation of annual runoff of Albright Creek at 

East Homer, N. Y., (drainage area, 7.08 square 

miles) with runoff of SCS Watershed 97 at Coshocton, Ohio, (drainage area, 7.16 square miles) for 

the 15-year period 1941-55 gave a correlation coefficient of 0.4 7 and a standard error of estimate of + 43 

and -30 percent, based on the Coshocton area as 

the dependent variable. The inclusion of precipitation data in the form of D.P .as shown in equation 

(I 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-21 

(1a) reduced the standard error of estimate to +15 

and -13 percent, and resulted in a correla.tion coeffi-

, cient of 0.93. Thus, the. inclusion of t:.P accounted 

for an additional 64 percent of the variance in the 

data, reducing the residual variance from 78 to 14 

percent. The use of adjusted runoff as indicated in 

equation (2a) reduced the standard error of estimate 

to + 14 and -13 percent, and resulted in a correlation coefficient of 0. 95. All regression coefficients 

were highly significant in both equations. 

Improvement in determining runoff relations can 

also be demonstrated for basins that are close together. The areas drained by Sage Brook near South 

Berlin, N.Y., (drainage area, 0.70 square miles) and 

by Cold Spring Brook at China, N. Y., (drainage 

area, 1.'51 square miles) are less than 25 miles apart. 

The correlation coefficient between annual runoffs 

for the 22-year period 1936-57 is 0.87 and the standard error of estimate for Sage Brook is + 12 and 

-11 percent. Including precipitation data as described in equation (1a) reduced the standard error 

of estimate to + 8 and -7 percent, and resulted in a 

correlation coefficient of 0.92. Model equation (2a) 

gave similar results. 

Although the models used are considered satisfactory, it is not implied that they are the best ones for 

estim~ting runoff. The two examples are cited above 

merely to illustrate the feasibility of improving a 

determination of the relation between runoffs by 

considering differences in precipitation. 

10. REGIONAL LOW FLOW FREQUENCY AN'ALYSIS 

By H. C. RIGGS, Washington, D. C. 

The distribution of the population of annual 

minimum flows at a stream site would be useful in 

planning the optimum development of the flow. In 

hydrology the distribution of the population is never 

known; it can only be estimated from the data obtained at the site. The sample distribution so obtained may be considerably different fron1 the 

population distribution; therefore some method is 

sought for obtaining a better estimate of the population distribution. 

The shape and position of a frequency curve 

6vhich is the sarnple distributiOJ1) of annual minimum flows based on observational data at one site 

differ from' those of a curve ·for another site because of differences in physical characteristics of 

the basins and because of differences in weather experienced. Examples are shown on figure 10.1. Both 

curves differ from their respective population curves 

because· of the short periods of weather sam-pled. It· 

is postulated that weather samples differ areally 

within a common time period. Therefore, some 

method of combining the exp~rience at several stations while maintaining the characteristics of each 

individual station record should result in better estimates of the frequency distributions. Such a method 

is ·called a regional .analysis. 

Regional analysis is useful only when the correlation coefficient between minimum flows at two stations is less than 1, but greater than some mi,nimum 

value. Remembering that the purpose of regional 

analysis is to reduce sampling error in the frequency 

curve, it can be seen that flows which are completely 

correlated must also have the same sampling error 

and, therefore, combining the experience cannot reduce this sampling error. Now consider the other 

extreme of poor correlation between flows .. Poor 

. correlation, might. indicat~ that different weather 

. samples were experienced at. different basins, or 

that the ;reactions to a particular weather occurrence 

were different, or both. The last is the ~ost likely. 

Here,. the combined experience averages deviations 

that consist both of sampling errors and of effects, of 

. differences in basin characteristics. Averaging 

values of the latter component ordinarily will not 

improve the' estimate of the frequency curve; it may 

. even produce an estimate of re~uced reliability .. 

Between total correlation and some minimum value 

of correlation is a range in which there is an opportunity ·for reducing individual sampling errors· 

(some of which are assumed t~ be plus and some 

minus). This may be done by (a) relating the magnitude of the annual minimum flow ·at a· certain . . 
B-22 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

300 

100 

(i) 

u. 

~ 

~ 

0 10 

....1 

u. 

:!: 

::> 

:!: 

z 

~ 

....1 

c( 

::> 

z 

z 

c( 

0.1 

' o,o 

~0.. o-oooo~ 

I o o o 0-.l)-o:::-2-

Buffalo River near Flat wciods o-;--· 0 

- Drainage area=447 sq. mi. 

0 

~ o, o, 

o, 

0~ 

oo 

"0 '{ .. 0 

Harpeth River at Belleview~ Drainage area=404 sq. mi. 0~ 

o, 

0~ 0 

"'"' ~ 

~ ~ 

1.1 1.5 2 4 ~ 8 10 20 

RECURRENCE INTERVAL (YEAR~) 

40 

The computed regression islog Q20 = -2.58 + 1.13 log Q2 -0.22 log A 

+ 1.35 logS + 0.09 (log Q.2) [log (A/Q2)] 

The standard error of Q20 is -20 percent and + 25 

percent. The regression coefficient for the last term 

is statistically significant at the 5-perceri~ level. All 

others are highly significant. Streams used in defining the equation have the following ranges of 

variables: 

1.05 < Q2 < 1,770 cfs 

4.12 < A < 11,220 sq mi 

6. 7 < S < 94 percent 

The equation was solved for Q:!o for each of the 

47 sites and for 61 additional: 25 in Tennessee, 4 in 

California and Washington, 24 in North Carolina, 

and 8 in Turkey. The computed value of Q20 for each 

of the 108 sites is plotted against the corresponding 

value obtained from the individual frequency curve 

on figure 10.2. No geographical bias is apparent 

from study of the deviations. The wide range in 

magnitude of Q:!o and the wide geographic range 

encompassed indicate that the relation should hold 

wherever (a) the rate of summer-and-fall base-flow 

recession is consistent from year to year and (b) 

FIGURE 10.1.-Frequency curves of two Tennessee streams. the annual minimum flow occurs in the late summer 

or fall. 

recurrence interval to the median annual minimum 

flow and to indexes which describe the differences in 

basin characteristics, and then (b) using the computed. value rather than the value obtained from the 

frequency curve. 

The method of regional analysis just described is 

applied to frequency curves of annual minimum 7-

day average flows for 47 sites in the regions, roughly, 

of New England, Georgia, and Kansas. The dependent variable is Q2., the disch~rge at 20-year recurrence interval from the frequency curve based on 

observations. The median annual minimum, Q2, is 

also taken from the frequency curve. The effects of 

basin characteristics are d~scribed by drainage area 

(A) and by an index (S) of the slope o~ the baseflow recession curve, which is defined as the ratio 

(expressed as a percentage) of two discharges from 

the recession curve; the denominator of the ratio is 

Q2 and the numerator is the discharge 10 days after 

the Q2 discharge. The index S describes the integrated effect of geology, topography, vegetal cover, 

and to some extent climate, on the minimum flows. 

if) 

IJ.. 

8 

UJ 

> 

0::: 

::I 

(.) 

>-

(.) 

z 

UJ 

::I 

0' 

UJ 

0::: 

IJ.. 

~ 

0 

0::: 

IJ.. 

0 

0 

1000 Y-.. ., . ~ 

100 

""7{' :u 

• y.· • • • • • 

10 

, .. .~\'-

/ • • ' .. • 

71 

~/-· I 

0.1 

0.01 

0.01 0.1 1 . 10 100 

Q20 FROM REGIONAL EQUATION (CFS) 

1000 

FIGURE 10.2.-Comparison of Q~" from the individual frequency 

curve with the corresponding Q~o from the regional equation. 

( 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-23 

The reliability of the regionalized values of Q:!o time. However, the standard error of 25 percent 

is directly related to the proportion of the regression does not seem· excessive when one considers that 

error that is sampling error, and to the reliability there is some minimum sampling error below which 

of Q:!. These two factors cannot be assessed at this no advantage would be gained by a regional analysis. 

~ 

11. MODIFIED CONVEYANCE-SLOPE APPLIED TO DEVELOPMENT OF STAGE-FALL-DISCHARGE RATINGS 

By WILLIAM C. GRIFFIN, Washington, D. C. 

The common gaging-station rating is a relation between discharge and gage height. Ratings for gaging 

stations on streams with variable backwater effect 

must include an additional variable, fall (F), which 

is the difference in water-surface elevation at the 

ends of a reach of channel. Such ratings are called 

stage-fall-discharge ratings. All methods in general 

use for development of stage-fall-discharge ratings 

require trial and error solutions. This paper presents a direct approach. 

In the Manning formula Q = 1.486 AR:!!ilSI/2 , n ' 

Q is discharge in cubic feet per second; n is a roughness .factor; A is cross-sectional area; R is hydraulic 

d . d S . .1. Th 1.48.6 ra IUS; an IS energy s ope. e term --AR:!;a 

n 

is commonly called conveyance, K. Thus, the formula reduces simply to 

Q = KyS. (1) 

A curve of conveyance against stage could be developed from an instrument survey, and inasmuch 

as Q and K have the same units of cubic feet per 

second (slope is dimensionless), ·the stage-conveyance curve could be used as the base stage-discharge 

rating. The only additional requirement for a complete rating is a relation for determining y S. Intuitively, fall i~ the most logical factor to use in a relation curve to yield y S. If values of .square root of 

slope as computed from the ratio of measured discharge to conveyance, when plotted against fall, define a satisfactory curve of relation, the rating 

process is complete. 

An example is given below for .. the Ohio River at 

Cincinnati, Ohio. Data were not' available for accurately defining a conveyance curve, but discharge 

measurements provided sufficient information, except for the roughness factor, n, for a fair approximation of conveyance at the measuring section. A 

value of 0.03 was selected for n; conveyance was 

computed for each of a sequence of discharge measurements; and the relation between conveyance and · 

discharge was defined graphically (fig .. 11.1). It was 

postulated that the shape of the conveyance curve 

would be more important than its position. Hence, 

an error in n would be critical only if instead of 

being constant as was assumed, n should have varied 

with stage. 

The square root of energy slope was computed for_ 

each measurement, by dividing measured discharge 

by conveyance, and plotted against fall to define the 

right-hand curve of figure 11.1. This curve can be 

used in combination with the conveyance curve as 

the stage-fall-discharge rating for the station. To 

use the rating, if gage height and fall are given, 

conveyance and v Scan be obtained from the curves 

and the corresponding discharge is the product of 

these two. 

The rating just described is virtually the same as 

the conventional constant-fall type of rating for 

variable backwater effect. This similarity would be 

more readily apparent if, for this particular station, 

equation 1 were modified as follows: 

Q = 0.01 K(100 yS). 

The advantage of the procedure described, then, is 

not that a new type of rating can be developed, but 

that a direct approach can be used to get a result 

that might never be apparent if an indirect method 

is attempted. 

The fact that a workable relation was developed 

without the use of trial and error procedure probably 

means that there was no significant variation of n 

with stage. Any error that may have been made in 

the choice of 0.03 for n would have been compensated for in the computed values of y S. 
B-24 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

!=' 

LLJ 

LLJ 

u.. 

50 

45 

40 

35 

'-'30 

1-

J: 

(.!) 

w 

J: 25 LLJ~ 

(.!) 

ct 

(.!) 

FIGURE 11.1.-Stage-fall-conveyance relation for the Ohio River at Cincinnati~ Ohio·. 

.One recognized limitation in the use of the modified conveyance-slope procedure for variable backwater ratings is at stations of the limiting-fall type, 

where backwater is ·not present all the time. ; A 

characteristic of stations o( this type is that, for. a 

given stage, discharge reaches a maximum rate at 

some amount of fall and does not increase with increasing fall. At such stations the modified conveyance-slope pr9cedure would be applicable only 

for falls less than .the limiting values, and it would 

be necessary to use the type of li1)1iting-fall curve 

. · ~ 

-~ ~ ; ~-. 

described by Mitchell ( 1954, p. 145) as the upper 

limit of discharge unaffected by variable backwater. 

Doubtless, other limitations will come to light as 

additional applications are niade; their recognition 

will aid in delineating the conditions. under which 

the method can be used . to aavantage. 

.d 

REFERENCE 

Mitchell, W. D., 1954, Stage-fall-discharge r~lations for steady 

flow in .prismatic channels: U.S. Geol. Survey WaterSupply Paper 1164, 162 p. . . 

.. ' r· '. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES; ARTICLES 1-146 

(I 

~'I.--. : • ;, ·: 

1.2. -FLOW. IN AN A~TIFICIALLY ROUGHENED CHANNEL 

By H. J. KOLOSEUS and JACOB DAVIDIAN, Iowa City, Iowa 

Wo1·k done in coope·ration with the Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research 

A resistance coefficient, such as the''>D'arcy-W eisbach f or the Manning n, is frequently ~sed to evaluate the energy losses due to the retarding'effect of 

channel surfaces on a moving fluid. The coefficient 

is assumed to be a function of the relative rough- • . . t ·• ·' . . 

ness, the· shape· of the channel, .and the Reyl)olds . . . ' . . \. . '. and Froude· numbers; however, the relationship has 

not been defined for most cases of open-channel flow. 

Hence, the re~istance· coefficient is estimated on the 

ba~is of j u9~ment ~nd, exp~rien<;~. ;n . . 

As a first step, toward a more. rational determi~, 1 • \ 0 , •' •)}J f.\_ f I • 

natio!l ~f .t~e{e~i~.ta~ce coeffl~i~!lt, a labor~ tory study 

of the effect of; roughness concE:mtrati~n -on openchannel fio~ was u'ndertaken. The roughness elements,. :y, u-inch metal cubes, were arranged in diamond ·patterns ·c.ommensurate in size with particular 1:' .,1 ·•. ·' I'J• ·,. ropghrtess concentrations. The upstream face of each 

cub~·. was placed normal to thei ·:UH:!an direction of 

fi~jd motion. Tests were conducted in two;.rectanguIa.r tiltable flumes, one 2 feet wide and 30. :fleet long,' 

and the other ·2.5 feet wide and 85 feet long. .. 

The· experimental program was designed to maxi.: 

mize the·· relative importance of the roughness· influence. Koloseus (1958, Ph. D. Thesis lo~a State 

University.) has previously -shown'' for supercritical 

flow .that the resistance coefficient .for a rough chan:.. 

nel of this type is -independent-·of gravitat'ional effects when the. Froude number is less than 1.6, and is 

independent of viscous effects wher{vt;R· k'/4h exceeds 600. Within these limitations; it is assumed' 

thatJ is a!: function of the relative ··height and· the 

cube concentration; that is ·. ·. -.-, .·• • ,·r · ~· 't 1 G(k/4h, A) (1). ' I ' ... . " ' f t . . ' I ~ "" • . ' j t,.. f ! ' 

where f is the ~r.esistance coefficient, 8ghSiV'2; .... G 

means ·"function of"~; g is the acceleration of gravity; 

h is depth of flow; S is the ~nergy gradient ; V is· the 

average velocity; ·k is height of· roughness (k/4h is 

called the relative height of roughness) ;'i\' is rdugh-

:ness concentration, denoting the ratio of the total 

projected area. of the· roughness· in the ·dir.ection;:of 

mean fluid movement· to the total floor area:;·· R is 

Reynolds number, 4Vh/v; and v is kinematic viscosity. · ·~ 

'Experimental data plotted on figure 12.1 define 

the relation. . 

~~= 2log [ 0.14 A -o!l (4h/k) J (2) 

The s.catter of values about the line for equationj (2) 

(fig. 12.l) is· r~markably. small o·v~~ 4-fold variation 

i:p fcl 4h .. and the 64--fold v~riation. in A. . . '· 

Equation .. (2,). reduces to that of Nikur~dse ( 1993) • . , 1 J .J • • • ' ~ 

. fori flow in sa~~-ro';lghened pipes. when . .the· rough} 

ness-concentration .factor is ignored. Comp~rable .·. . . . ...·t 

changes in .magnitude of either k/ ~h. or: A have approxi~~tely the .same effe<rt on the:~~~sistanc~ coefficient.1' J\s w-i~h relative height, the rou~hne~s eon-:. 

,, .. 

:.o; '' ko ·,.;.:, 9.51--+i-~-l---,--J-..:--l-~--l-. ~.T-,---.I-,,-.-,,,--. +-. -. ofo0 

·'I." . I '..'•' ': ,·i . · .. ~: (j.' ··/ j.'~ 

.t16.0 ~-. ·----~~~~.~: --;-'~:zf' ·. ::• (' • .'_.• ' 1 ""i t I ~ • f t ~'1 ' t ' ' \ • ' ~ • .J ,' r \ I : l' 

.... 5.5' ~-rr·---f-/-· -·l-r---1-·-l 

I• 

J. 'J . .. 

'·:. 3.0 
B-26 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

centration must be more than doubled in order to 

obtain ·a two-fold increase in the resistance coefficient. 

REFERENCE 

Nikuradse, J., 1933, Stromungsgese~ze in rauhen Rohren: 

V erein Deutscher Ingenieure, Forschungsheft 361. 

13. DIMENSIONS OF SOME STABLE ALLUVIAL CHANNELS 

By S. A. SCHUMM, Denver, Colo. 

Several attempts have been made to develop a 

series of equations that can be used to calculate the 

dimensions of stable alluvial channels (Leliavsky, 

1955). During recent investigations into the morphology of streams in a semiarid environment, information was collected that may have a practical 

application in the solution of such problems. This 

information indicates that the shape of alluvial channels and the stratification of channel deposits are 

significantly related to the type of sediment found 

within these channels (Schumm, 1960a, 1960b). 

In this analysis the silt-clay content of alluvium is 

used as a simple but significant parameter for sediment description. Silt-clay as discussed here is sediment that passed a 200-mesh sieve or that is smaller 

than 0.074 mm. The percentage of silt and clay in a 

sample gives an indication of the physical properties 

of the sediment, for as the silt-clay fraction increases, 

cohesiveness of the sediment increases, permeability 

decreases (Burmister, 1952, p. 20), and tractive 

resistance increases (Dunn, 1959). 

The information was collected at 41 cross sections 

near Geological Survey gaging stations, located on 29 

rivers and creeks in Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana. The channels are 

considered stable, for gaging-station. records show 

only minor changes in the stage-discharge relation 

through the years of record. The selected channels 

contained less than 40 percent gravel, but nevertheless displayed a considerable range of alluvial and 

hydrologic characteristics. The information collected 

includes the following: Channel width ( w), maximu·m channel depth (d), width-depth. ratio (F), 

mean annual discharge ( Q), mean annual flood or 

the total discharge with a recurrence interval of 

2.3'3 years ( Qd, median grain size of bed and bank 

sediment (D:.o), percent silt-clay in bed (Se) and 

banks (Sh), percent silt-clay in the perimeter of the 

channel (M) calculated as a weighted mean 

M _ S(. X w + Su X 2d 

- w + 2d 

As an indication of the range of variables occurring among the sampled sections, the extreme values 

for some alluvial, hydrologic, and morphologic characteristics of the channels are as follows: 

Drainage area above gaging station __________ sq mi.. .. 212 to 56,700 

Channel width __________________________________________________ feet.... 25 to 800 

Maximum channel depth _______________________________ feeL _ 2.3 to 18 

Width depth ratio______________________________________________________ 2.5 to 138 

Median grain size (bed) __________________________________ mm..... 0.02 to 8.0 

Median grain size (bank) ________________________________ mm.... 0.01 to 0.33 

Silt-clay in banks ______________________________________ percent____ 23 to 97 

Sift-clay in bed ··--------------------------------------~--percent____ 0.2 to 87 

Silt-lay in perimeter of channel __________ percent ___ . 1.4 to 89 

Mean annual discharge ____________________________________ cfs.... 5.8 to 5,155 

Mean annual flood ___________________________________________ cfs .... 311 to 48,000 

That a relationship exists between channel width 

and depth and discharge is well known and has been 

discussed most recently by Nixon ( 1959). The collected data afford an opportunity to relate channel 

width and depth not only to discharge but also to 

other variables. 

Analyses of variance show that at the 0.05 level 

the following are significantly related to width: 

Percent silt-clay in banks, mean annual flood, mean 

annual discharge, weighted mean percent silt-clay. 

Percent silt-clay in the channel and median grain 

size in bed and banks are not significant at the 0.05 

level. Mean annual flood and weighted mean percent silt-clay are most significantly related to width, 

for they are significant at the 0.001 level. These two 

· variables were chosen for a ·multiple correlation 

analysis with channel width. The analysis yields the 

following equation for channel width: 

(1) 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-27 

T~e results of tests of the reliability of simple correlations and the multiple correlati~n between w, 

Q1n and Mare as follows: 

wand Qb 

Coefficient of variation (r) ________ 0.71 

Coefficient of correlation ( ?') ------ .85 

Standard error in log units (Se) .21 

wand M wand (Qb, M) 

0.55 0.83 

.74 .91 

.26 .16 

The coefficient of variation indicates that 71 percent of the variation of width from the mean is explained by the use of Q,) alone. Fifty-five percent of 

the variation of width from the mean is explained 

by the use of Malone. When Q,1 and M are combined 

by multiple correlation analysis, 83 percent of the 

variation of width from the mean is explained. The 

use of M explains 40 percent of the variation unexplained by the use of Q,) alone. 

Analyses of variance indicate that of all variables 

tested, Q11 and M are most significantly related to 

channel depth, for they are significant at the 0.01 

level. Multiple correlation analysis yields the following equation: 

M·"'s Q,/211 (2) 

d = 5.37 

The results of tests of the reliability of simple correlations and the multiple correlation between d, Q,), 

and M are as follows: 

d and M 

Coefficient of variation ( 1.:.:) -------- 0.13 

Coefficient of correlation (?')______ .35 

Standard error in log units (Se) .21 

d and Q1. d and (M, Qb) 

0.10 0.41 

.32 .64 

.21 .16 

Partial correlation analysis shows that only 13 percent of the variation of depth from the mean is explained by the use of M and only 10 percent through 

the use of Q,) alone. When Q,) and Mare combined in 

the above equation, 41 percent of the variation is 

explained. This is a considerable improvement, but 

the unexplained variation is still great. · 

In both cases the use of M improved the accuracy 

of calculation of channel width and depth. Considerable variability remains in the correlations, but 

perhaps some of this may be explained by the innate 

variability of ephemeral streams. In any event, the 

introduction of a parameter for sediment type seems 

necessary before the accuracy of calculations of 

channel width and depth can be improved. 

Although within the limits of the data used channel width can be calculated with some confidence, 

the calculation of maximum depth is considerably 

less accurate. However, maximum depth can be calculated in another way, by the use of an equation 

developed previously for width-depth ratio. Using 

data collected at 69 stations, which include the 41 

with runoff data, it was found (Schumm, 1960b) 

that the channel shape expressed as a width-depth 

ratio (F) is related to M as follows: 

F = 255 M-t.o~o~ (3) 

In a practical application of the above to the 

prediction of stable channel dimensions, width-depth 

ratio can be calculated by equation 3 and channel 

width by equation 1. Maximum channel depth can 

be calculated by the use of equation 2 or by dividing 

the calculated width obtained by equation 1 by the 

calculated width-depth ratio. 

It is recognized that equations 1 and 2 are empirical equations developed from a 'small amount of 

existing data; however, they demonstrate that equations for the calculation of -ehannel wic;.l~h and depth 

can be significantly improved by tqe introd~ction 

of a parameter for sediment type. 

REFERENCES 

Burmister, D. M., 1952, Soil mechanics: New York, Columbia 

Univ. Press, 155 p. 

Dunn, I. S., 1959, Tractive resistance of cohesive channels: 

Am. Soc. Civil ·Engineers Proc., Soil Mechanics and 

Foundations Div. Jour., Paper 2062, v. 85, no. SM 3. 

Leliavsky, Serge, 1955, An introduction to fluvial hydraulics: 

London, Constable and Co. Ltd., 257 p. 

Nixon, Marshall, 1959, A study of the bank-full discharges of 

rivers in England and Wales: Inst. of Civil Engineers 

Proc., v. 12, p. 157-174. 

Schumm, S. A., 1960a, The effect of sediment type on the 

shape and stratification of some ~odern fluvial deposits: 

Am. Jour. Sci., v. 258, p. 177-184. 

--, 1960b, The shape of alluvial channels in relation to 

sediment type: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 352-B, p. 

17-30. 
B-28 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961. 

. ,J :I 'i: 

14. SOME FACTORS JNFLpENCING STREAMBANK ERODIBILITY· 

. . 

By I: S.' McQUEEN, Denver, Colo; I I . ·~. ' 

') .. A : ,•: 

A device ·des'ign'ed 'to simulate' the erosive action 

of· a gently flowing stream was used to erode prepared samples oLsediments to determine what physical ·properties c.<mtrol the erosion processes.· . 

' Circular pats of· disturbed s'edimEmts : were prl. 

pared and. their moisture contel)t and packing were 

controlled. Preli-minary results·; (tables 1· and ·2) in::. 

dicate qualitatively which soil- characteristics are 

important in contr~lling susceptibility to erosion. 

TABLE l.~AveTage erosioh ·rates, in milligrams per squ·are 

! .: 'Centimete·r of erosion: sU'r/.ace per .minute, •imd 

:,_~:.<physical P'r'Oper.ties of sediment· samples from 

~.sources in Colorado. and. Wyoming 

• j I,. iiJ ·Soils 

-·------~-·"------------- ···j·-·1 1 ' 

Hoi! properties 

A·- B C '· D E 

---.------:-:---:--r;:-~_:_ -;---- -----:"':" -------, ---

Air dried. soils: · • i ~. , ... , . 

· .ErosiOn rates ......... mg/cm2/min · )213.7 319.6 579 14.1 Moisture content .......... percent 2. 0 . 2. 0 _, 1. 2 .. •BulkdeJisity.'.•.· .......... L.g/cc .' '1.58 1.62 1.61 ".'.i:i;6 ... i:sa·· Moist samples: 

Erosionrates ......... mg/cm2/min •144. ~ 238 '') 491 7.7 4.9 Moisture content .......... percent 20.0 18.0 13 2 15 7 26.4 Bulk density ................. g/ cc I. 37 1. 62 1: 59t'i 1 : 36 1. 35 Grain size distribution: . .. , _ ,

2 

.. 

2 . ,;}._''' :: 30 · Sand> .0625 mm ......... percent· .,. Silt .004 to .0625 mm ........ do.... '42 :· 52 . Clay <·.004:nm ...... .' ... ,-.do.:. 36 r.);)8~ ;( Median diameter (d110) .•.••.••..•• mm .012 .037. Sorting coefficient ( vd15/d2s).......... 6.44 · 2.83 · 

35 

46 

19 .060 

2:13 .· 

·! . iE' 

TABLE 2,~Eff~cts of packing' and ~oisture CO'f/-te~t 0~ erodi-

. ··-~~{ ·,.' · ~ili(y of pat!J ofsoil_ ~:. .'. '·'.'." ::.·.:, .'. 

'" .... Moisture Bulk density Erosion (percent)· (g/cc) (mg/cm2/min) 

· · 'Pretreatment · · _ _:_:;.__ ___ , _ .. ___ _L_...L,. __ ----··-' ·---

Dry Dry Dry ' '· 

. _ ~ . pac~. Pud~led pack Puddled pack PuMled 

----·----'·-"------~ ----------------

Freshly prepared pat .......... :

1 

••• 

Seasoned at ~ atmosphere ....... . Seasoned at .!/::; atmosphere: 

~;, di~;:: ;· •••. i •. • •• • • •.•• • • : •• 

20 16.6' 1:33 1.71 237.4 3.9 20.1 - ,. 17.2 ~.1.41- . ,1.80 50.0 .4 

14.8 18.3 }:56 I. 79 •125.2 .3 14.9 18.3 1.51 1.81 140.9 .5 

2'.o 1.9 1.65 1. 92 205.8 91.2 2.0 1.9 1.51 2.12 221.7 115.7 

---------------- Average................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. 48 I. 86 163.3 35.3 

APPARATUS AND METHODS 

The erosion device was designed to apply a uniform eroding force to the vertical face of a cylindrical pat of soil 3 inches in diameter and up to 3 inches 

high. The force applied is equivalent to that of a 

stream flowing past a vertical st:reambank with a 

flow velocity of 1.2 fps measun~d at a·'point 0.1 foot 

from the bank. ... , .. · :J..t I· 

- ~ircul~r pats of disturbed sediments were prepared:bY two methods (dry packed and puddled) as 

foll<?_';VS: _ 

pry _packed . ...c_300 g of ~9il passing a No. 10 U. S. 

Standard sieve (2 mm) was .placed .in a paper-lined 

~uchner funnel with_ a funnel .tremie. After saturation from the bottqm with distilled water a vacuum 

was applied to the funpel to consolidate the s~mpl~ 

pat and redue~ th.~ !flOisture content to approximately 

field capacity. 

Puddled.----,.300 g ()f ~P.il passing a No. JO U. S. 

Standard._sje,ve (2. min) wa& saturated with ·distilled 

water and ~ixed thoroughly. This was tht;m tr~ns7 ferred to a paper-lined Buchner funnel and a vacuum 

was applied to reduce _the moisture content to approximately field capacity. 

- Following pr.eparation,-, the pats were removed 

from the funnels and some of each kind of pat were 

tested in the erosion device immediately, some were 

seasoned on a Richards pressure plate at specified 

moisture tensions, and some were air dried .before 

tes_ ting. · -'· · · - · '-· 

In addition to the disturbed soil pats, four. relatively_ undisturbed samples of two soils _(D and E, 

table 1) were pbtained with a Lutz sampl~r. Two 

of these···were saturated~ and then; dra-ined to field 

moistu're condition on a Richards pressure plate before testing. The other two were· air dried before 

tesfing on the erosio~ .de"vice. · · . . . . 

'The results of 'the. eros·ion tests and the p'hysical 

properties of the sarrtples are shown in tables 1 and 

2.' Grain size distribution was not obtained for the 

undistu-rbed samples. .... 

t ·; ~· • ! t 

SOIL FACTORS AN:p ERODIBILITY 

Among the important s6il properties that control 

erosion are antecedent moisture, grain size distribution, packing, and chemistry. The soils used were 

chosen and the sample pats· were prepared to indicate which soil properties have the greatest influence 

on erosion. 

Differences in antecedent moisture cause differences in the erodibility of a soil (table 2). Air dry 

pats erode rapidly because of forces developed by 

the hydration of clay particles and reduced cohesion 

•, 
·~ 

• 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND H"?:DROLOG'IC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-29 

between particles. This is more evident in the 

puddled than in the dry-packed samples because the 

expansion of the clay particles is more disruptive 

in a consolidated tightly packed sample. This hydration or "slaking" action may explain why intermittent str~ams sometimes have higher rates of erosion 

than perennial streams. The erosion rate of moist 

soils increases as ·moisture content increases. 

The erodibility of soils is influenced by the grainsize distribution· (table 1). In general, a poorly 

sorted sediment with a small median-grain size will 

resist erosion better than a well-sorted sediment with 

a larger median-grain size. This may not, however, 

hold true for coarse sands in streams with low 

velocities. 

Packing includes a group of related properties 

such as porosity, bulk density, structure, texture, 

cen:tenting, and pore-size distribution that are associated with the way the sedim·ents are deposited and 

the forces applied to them since deposition. The two 

methods of sampl'e preparation were used to simulate extremes of packing. The erosion rates of th.e 

dry-packed samples were. from 2 to over 400 times 

as high as the corresponding puddled samples (table 

2), indicating that differences in packing can cause 

extreme differences in the erodibility of a sediment. 

fined by the data obtained because it was, masked by 

the effects of packing and antecedent moisture 

content. 

CONCLUSIONS 

This study was undertaken to explore the feasibility of determining in the laboratory an erodibility 

index for soils. For such an index to be of value, the 

erodibility of a given soil would have to be constant 

or would have to h~.ve a direct relation to. some 

measurable property of ·the soil. The data obtained 

indicate that erodibility of a given soil is extremely 

variable. It is influenced by packing and by antecedent moisture content. Erosion rates determined 

on disturbed samples have little relation to actual 

erosion because the change in packing resulting from 

the disturbance changes the erodibility. Changes in 

moisture content and the freezing and tl;lawing of 

natural undisturbed sediments may change . their 

packing and hence change their erodibility so much 

that any i~~ex obtained would have little meaning 

·in terms of actual field erosion rates. 

Comparisons can be made between different sediments to determine which are more susceptible to 

erosion but the rate of erosion to be expected under 

a given set of conditions cannot as yet be determined 

The effect of chemistry on erodibility was hot ·de- 1 from laboratory analyses of sediments. 

15. AN EXAMPLE OF CHANNEL AGGRADATION INDUCED BY FLOOD CONTROL 

By NORMAN J. KING, Denver, Colo. 

Studies by Leopold and Miller ( 1956) show that 

ephemeral streams, like perennial streams, maintain 

a quasi-equilibrium betwe'en1 .. erosion and deposition. 

A change in one or more of the h~draulic factors 

affecting the stream· system results in adjustme.nts 

in the other factors accordingly. ~elow a stream 

junction, for example, the increased discharge should . 

be accompanied by a corresponding increase in channel dimensions since. Q .. wdv, in which Q is discharge, w is width, d is depth, and v is velocity. 

Leopold and Miller ( 1956) show that width, depth, 

and velocity change in the downstream direction as 

simple power functions of discharge. Significantly, 

the power function re~ating width to discharge approximates the sum of the power functions relating 

depth and vel.ocity to discharge. It follows, .therefore, that width-the channel dimension in epheme!"al streams that can be measured m~st easilyis also the most responsive to changes in discharge. 

Measurements above and below arroyo junctions 

made by Miller (1958, table 4) show that with few 

exceptions the width below the junction of all but 

very small arroyos is equal to or greater than the 

width of the larger tributary. Based on the expression a = k ( b +c), in which a is the channel width 

below the junction and b and c are the tributary 

widths,' Miller's measurements show the coefficient 

k to average 0.68. 

If lncreased discharge forms a wider channel below a junction, it might be reasoned that a decrease 
B-30 

Section 3 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

5 FEET 

100 0 100 200 FEET 

CONTOUR INTERVAL 2 FEET 

EXPLANATION 

Monumented channel cross 

section for repeat surveys 

Survey of October 1960 

Survey of Oc Iober 1959 

Survey of October 1957 

Survey of June I 955 

FIGURE 15.1.-Cross sections showing progressive aggradation in the channel of Conant Creek downstream from the mouth of 

Logan Draw, Fremont County, Wyo. 

fi 

I 

(, 

-~ 
'· ' 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-31 

in discharge in one of the tributaries as a result of 

artificial controls would have the opposite effect. At 

first, aggradation would be expected because flow 

emerging from the uncontrolled tributary would 

spread across the wider reach thereby decreasing 

its depth and velocity of flow. According to Schumm 

and Hadley (1957) aggradation would continue until the bed of the channel becomes oversteepened ; 

.then the newly formed deposit would be trenched by 

headward erosion to form a channel that is once 

again in quasi-equilibrium with the discharge. 

Completion by the Bureau of Land Management in 

1~53 of .a flood-control and water-use project on 

Logan Draw in the southeastern part of the Wind 

River basin, Wyoming (King, 1959), is affording an 

opportunity to test the above reasoning, to measure 

the rates of aggradation, and to determine the time 

necessary to complete a cycle of channel adjustment. 

Logan Draw is an ephemeral stream that heads on 

Beaver Rim and trends generally northward to its 

junction with Conant Creek, which in turn drains 

through Muskrat Creek to the Wind River. Above 

the junction of Logan Draw and Conant Creek the 

drainage basins of the two streams are very much 

alike. Logan Draw has a channel length of 21.3 

miles, a drainage area of 60.4 square miles, and a 

sandy bed that carries perennial underflow. Conant 

Creek above the junction has a channel length of 

18.4 miles, a drainage area of 58.9 square miles, and 

a sandy bed that also carries perennial underflow. 

Both basins head at about the same altitude on 

Beaver Rim, experience the same general storm 

events, have similar topography, and are underlain 

by the same general rock types. It is probable, therefore, that both channels experience flow simultaneously, that their discharge is of about the same 

magnitude, and that the peak discharges reach the 

junction at about the same time. A comparison of 

channel cross sections above and below the junction 

(fig. 15.1) show an increase in width below the 

junction. Depending on the points of measurement 

the coefficient lc of Miller (1958, p. 13) ranges from 

about 0.6 to 0.8. 

Since completion of the water-control structures 

in Logan basin, no flows have reached the mouth of 

Logan Draw, whereas numerous runoff events have 

occurred in Conant Creek. The channel downstream 

from the junction has aggraded as expected (fig. 

15.1) . This in turn has induced aggradation in both 

tributary channels for a short distance above the 

junction (sections 5A and 5B, fig. 15.1). However, 

the newly formed deposit thins rapidly upstream so 

that no aggradation has occurred at section 6B (fig. 

15.1) on Logan Draw and almost a foot of channel 

degradation has occurred at section 6A (fig. 15.1) on 

Conant Creek. In the aggraded reach the small 

inner channel that normally contained low flows has 

been largely filled and is now protected by vegetation 

that induces further aggradation (fig. 15.2). Repeat 

surveys (fig. 15.1) show that the greatest aggradation (2. 7 acre-feet in the surveyed reach) occurred 

during the period 1955-57. Aggradation in the 

FIGURE 15.2.-Conant Creek channel downstream from the mouth of Logan Draw (1960). Only vestiges remain of the inner 

channel that once carried low flows. 
B-32 ,, .. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY: RESEARCH 1961. 

same reach during the periods 1957-59 a·nd 1959-60 

r .. {vas 0. 7 and 0.3 acre-foot respectively~ "'' ., · r·. 

The number o:ftunoff events, the amount of run-. 

off, ·or the maximum discharge of Conant Creek during the period '(1955.:...60). is nof''known. However," 

.. these data are available for Logan Draw and are 

believed to be representative of Conant Creek basin 

for reasons previously stated: These data show no 

·unusual· storm events or high· discharges, but they 

: aO' show a wide range in runoff during· th€Fperi6ds 

between surveys.· For· example, runoff ·during the 

period 1955-57 was 28.3 acre-feet per- square mile 

compared to 5.1 and '3.2 acre-feet per 1 square mile 

· du'ririg the·· periods 1957--'59 and 1959-60, respectively~l\ The data are ·admittedly meager,· but they 

! . . ·. '1 . 

,! 

. t.' 

. I : ' . { ~ . · ..• ~ .1 •' . ~ 

[J;>. :. 1 t· I • T/i..), f • t _; J 

s·uggest that runoff and the amount of sediment deposited in the reach shown on' figure 15~ 1 are directly 

proportionaL :, 1 

,.- REFERENCES 

-Ki.hg, N. J., 1959,· Hydrologic 'datil, ·wind River and;FifteEln 

Mil~ Creek basins, Wyoming; 1947:-54:' U.S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 1475-A, p. 1-44. · 

.Leopold, L. B., and Miller, J, P., 1956, Ephemeral stream~~ 

Hydraulic factors and their relation to .the drainag~ net: 

U.S. qeol. Surv~y Pr.of. Paper 2~2-;-A, p. 1-37. ; ,

0

·c_. 

Miller, J.P., 1958, High mountain streams~Effects,of geology 

on chann~l chanicte~istics and bed material:· New Mexico 

r. · B~r. Mines and l\n'neral Resbu~ces ·M~·m." 4, p. ,1_:_52. 

. Schumm, S. A., and Hadley;· R. F·., l957, Arroy.os -~-~d the se'miarid cycle'of er~sion: Am. Jour. ·Sci.,'v:·255, p; 161-174> 

I: ' 

:·· . 

.:··. ··. -.. :11 . \: ' . : - -~ . 

SOM;E EFFECl'S· OF, MICROCLIMATE: ON SLOP1E.:MORP»OLOGY AND DRAINAGE BASIN D.EVEI;.OfMENT . ,_ . . . . . ... ' .. . . \ . \ . . . . . . . . ~ .. . . 16. 

~-; t : ·, : 1~ ' 

I~\ f ' 

':·i. r l . . ~ '· - ... ~-.' ---.. -:-. -.-. ~ -~~ .. 

:.· · . N drth'edy !f~cin~ siopes- generally ·~re ste~per, 'le~s : metri~al b~sin. 'devel~pment. that rhight be. caus.ed by 

::disse~ted, and support a more luxurian(growth·'of folding." . . ; . ·, •., . ',i '. ·:··.. : 

vegetation than southerly facing slopes,· whi¢h often . Slope gradients ar~· coinpared with exposure 6n 

ar·e deepiy r~~lle.d and. nea:riy barr~i1.' Becahse··bf these figure 16 .. 1 for an· area of· one-half. squlare rriile 'th.at 

differen'ces In e~osion there is a tendency for the inCludes p·art o'f the drainage areas"of the sfx basins 

thalweg of the major stream channel in an east-west in which the other measurements were made. The 

oriented basin to be shifted to the south side of the slope of the land surface and direction of exposure 

valley floor by the debris fans and alluvial aprons of were measured at 50 points equally spaced in a grid. 

eroded material derived from the south-facing slopes. The diagram shows that the steepest slopes face 

This type of channel migration has caused a~. asym- north;. northeast, and northwest, whereas the genmetrical development of many drainage "ba~ins tlest slopes face south, southeast, and south-southstudied· by the writer ~p. the High Plains, by Bass west. 

( 1929) in Kansas~·· Me'iton\ (<l96o·)· in sol,ith~qstern .Vegetation: c·ounts made ·on several' slopes using 

Wy.oJl?.ing and s~mthern Arizona, and Emery '(1947)' :une-intercept t~ansects.sho~ that the plant cover on. 

in so~'t:hern ··Cali~ornia where geology and regional southerly-facing slopes is only 28 percent of that 

.;;;.climati'c cohditi.otik· are distinctly different. An at- occurring on northerly-facing slopes. The sparse 

· tempJ is made here to state quantitatively the effects vegetation cover on southerly-facing slopes is probon basin morphology and drainage development due ~bly caused by moisture deficiency due to rapid 

to.· direction of slope or. the exposure, or more pre- evaporation and melting of snow cover on the slopes 

.ciselyi due to the microclimate. ·that receive more direct solar radiation. Vegetation 

protects the slope from sheet erosion and rilling. · '·· A· P.F~liminary study wa~ made in the Cheyenne Drainage density, expressed as miles of channel 

· .. River basin of ea'st-central Wyoming in six small p·er squa ·1 f d · d t · d re m1 e o ra1nage area, was e ermine 

drainage basins· underlain by the Fort Union for- separately for both the north and south sides of the 

mation of Paleocene age._ The bedrock units are six drainage basins. The basins were divided into 

virtually flat-lying, thus minimizing the possibility two .sides by a line. virtually parallel to the axial 

.or' ddwndip ~igration 'o:f ·stream. chann~ls :~nd ·a~y;m- · ·channel in. each basin. Result's of th~se computations, 
~· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND ~YDROLOGIC. SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

NORTH 

SOUTH 

FIGURE 16.1.-Diagram showing relation between e?'posure 

and degree of slope at 50 localities. 

tabulated below, show that the drainage density on 

the south-facing sides of the basins is more than 

twice that on the north-facing sides. 

If•. 

D1·ainage clensity, in ?niles pe1· square mile, fiir "six bas'iris in 

east-cent1·al Wyoming 

Drninngc basin 

(fig. 10.2) 

Area 

(sq miles) 

Drainage density 

North-facing 

side South-facing 

side 

---·--~- ·--------------------

1 ............... .. 

2 ................ . 

:l ................ . 

4 ................ . 5 ................ . 

6 ................ . 

Avet·nge ..... 

0. Hi 

.10 

.0!) 

.14 

.76 

.2:~. 

' 5.0 

:l. :l 

' ti.2 T I (;~'2 I • i ,' ! 

5.0 

-5.6 

5.2 

15.1 

12. I 

\7.0 

q 8.5 • 

8.5 

6.7 

I I 

Drainage basin asymmetry has been expressed as 

the difference in slope angles on the north- and 

south-facing slopes within a si~gle basin .(Emery,: 

1947; ,Melton, 1960) .. In the six .. drainage basil)s. 

considered here, af:1ymmetry is simply. a measure of 

~he ~eviation of the mai·n chan~el from a position 

along .the central axis of..the basin. Se~eral measurem~nts were made. of the distance from the main 

channel to both. north and south' dr~in~ge ~i.vides. in 

e.~ch of the basi~s in figure 1~.2 (p .. ~::-3.4). The lines 

o.f measurement were perpendicular to the axis of 

th~ ~hannel. . The. ~ati.o of th~ me~n val~e of .all 

measurement~ . :(rom the channel to the northern. . . \ ~ . . 

divide to the meaq value of all measurements to. the 

southern di~ide .i1' .each basin is term~d the index 

of sym;metry. An .index of 1.0 de:riotes perfect symmetry:.· The 'index.es of symmetry rang·e from 1.22 

to 1. 97· for ··the six basins indicating that the main 

channel ~:p. each of these basins has been displaced 

appreciably to the !south by erosional debris derived 

from south-facing .slopes. 

A reconnaissance has been made of basins having 

a wider range of bedrock and climate to determine 

the relative importance of the several variables 

being considered. A group of drainage basins was 

selected,. along a tra~erse. nearly parallel to the 15-

irtch rainfalr ·'line i.~)he ·western part -~f ~~e. High 

Plains from central . Texas t,o . northweste'rn N,e-

'braska .. ':rhu"'S·,·~the variable pa~aineter of mean annual rainfa)l, ~·as· it might affect slope erO'sion and 

I J)lant life, ·was minimized and the differences caused 

. by mean annual temperature, particularly the frequency of freezing and thawing, were accentuated. 

The basins· in the southep.n part of the High Plains 

were underlain by the Ogallala formation of Pliocene 

age and the basins in northwestern Nebraska were 

underlain by the Brule and Chadron formations of 

Oligocene age. Measurements included degree and I 

direction of slope and basin symmetry. These data 

are summarized as follows : 

:,• ,,],' : .::~ 

Number of Average· Mean slope (percent) 

basins Location of basins index of 

symmetry 

North-facing South-facing 

, ------

4 .......... Lat :~2° N.; near Big Spring, Tex. 1.a8 20 Hl 

4 .......... Lat 41° N.; near O.H2 24 2:~ 

. i 9heyenne, w~~ .. '. ( 

2 .......... Lu.t 4:3° N.; near 1.:n 2:~ Hi 

Harrison; Nebr. 

The indexes of symmetry for the basins near 

Cheye~i-le, Wyo. are contradict~ry to the indexes for 

the other basins studied, but this may be due to 

differences in the resistance to erosion of gravel in • . .' . . •j . . • . . . . ·' 

the Ogallala formation; which underlies the· ·basins. i • ,' . l • ~ : . • • J .. · 

' . ' ·· ... :l ' 

Bass, N., W., 1929, Geology of Cowley County, Kansas:. Kansas 

State Geol. Survey Bull. 12; .p. 19:' ·· ·" .~ 

Em~ry, K. o:, 1947, AsY.nimetrical valieys of Sa~ Di~.g~ 

··county, Ca:lif.: B\lli. So. Calif.·;Acad: Sci., v. 46, 'pt:·~2: 

···p.; 61'-70. . . . I.' ' , 

Melton, ·:M. A., 1960,. Irit'ravalley variation in slope angles 

related.to microclimate·. and erosional environment: Bull. 

p.eol. Soc. America,_ v. 7~, .P: 133-144. 
B-34 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

I= 1.75 I= 1.50 I= 1.22 

4 

1=1.48 

5 

N I= 1.97 

r 0 1 MILE 

r·(------71~-------~;-----·--, 

U

' ~~ \ ! 

I .I 

- \ ' 

. ~ Casper • ! I /~._,;:J 

i J r-: 

L_____ _ ______________________ j 

INDEX MAP OF WYOMING SHOWING 

LOCATION OF STUDY BASINS 

I= 1.52 

FIGURE 16.2.----.:Maps of drainage network in six basins. I is index of symmetry. 

17. HYDROLOGIC SIGNIFICANCE OF BURIED VALLEYS IN GLACIAL DRIFT 

By STANLEY E. NORRIS and GEORGE W. WHITE, Columbus, Ohio 

Wo·rk done in cooperat·ion with the Ohio Depa-rtment of Natural Resou1·ces, Division of Wa.ter 

Bedrock valleys containing permeable outwash 

deposits are recognized as impo.rtant sources of 

ground-water supply in glaciated regions. Commonly, in water-resources investigations of driftcovered areas, contour maps are made of the bedrock surface, and the buried valley systems are 

described and interpreted. These studies have provided data of considerable value, not only about 

ground-water resources, but also about the sequence 

and chronology of Pleistocene events. Similarly, 

buried valleys cut in till, rather than in bedrock, 

have been discovered in northeastern Ohio, in the 

course of current investigations on the hydrology 

of the glacial deposits. Such valleys have been observed in deep cuts for highways and strip mines, 

and recognized elsewhere by analysis of subsurface 

and hydrologic data. For example, near Ashland, 

Ohio, during construction of Interstate Route 71 in 

November 1958, a spring with a discharge of approximately 165 gallons per minute was opened by 

the power shovel when a deep cut was made in thick 

till. The water flowed from an interbedded deposit 

" I 
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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-35 

of silt and sand containing a minor amount of 

coarse gravel which, at the orifice, occurs in a shallow valley in a gray unnamed till at what is now 

known to be a disconformity between this till and an 

overlying till recently named the Millbrook (White, 

written communication, 1961). The relatively. large 

discharge of the spring strikingly demonstrates that · 

large quantities of water can be transmitted through 

glacial materials of generally low permeability. 

Permeable deposits in till-enclosed valleys constitute zones of relatively high permeability in the 

till, and are highly important in ground-water circulatory systems in areas of glacial terrane. They 

function much as do open joints and solution cavities in limestone in conducting water through an 

otherwise poorly permeable medium. The depo:;;its 

they contain are typically referred to by well drill- · 

ers as "gravel pockets" or "gravel stringers" in the 

till. Locally, the deposits are sources of water to 

farm and suburban wells; however, their significance as aquifers has been generally overlooked .. 

These buried deposits are important as potential 

sources of water in many so-c~lled "water-short" 

areas in northeastern Ohio, where thick till generally overlies relatively impermeable bedrock. 

Some of the buried valleys in till. appear to have 

been cut by streams in interglacial or interstadial 

times and filled during these times, as illustrated in 

figure 17.1. Others, as in the example in figure 17.2, 

appear to have been cut by meltwater streams from 

·nearby ice and filled by ice readvance before any 

SW 

25 50 FEET 75 100 

NE 

125 

FIGURE 17.2.-Sketch of cut made for superhighway, center of 

sec. 27, Perry Township, Richland County, Ohio, showing 

buried shallow valley in lowest of three tills. 1, Till, dark 

drab gray, calcareous; 2, till, olive-brown, calcareous; 3, 

silt, yellow; 4, gravel and coarse sand, calCareous, water-

. bearing; spring in each of 3 units; 5, till, bluish-gray, 

calcareous; 6, till, yellow-brown, calcareo~s; 7, till, darkbrown, calcareous below 4 feet; depth of leaching shown 

by dashed line. 

weathering of the deposits could take place. The 

examples illustrated are typical of many that have 

been found. Some, as in figure 17.1, ar.~Lco.mpletely 

preserved beneath a later till cover; others, as in 

figure 17 .2, have had part of their fillings . (and 

probably part of their upper valley walis'· a;~· well) 

removed by erosion before or during later till 

deposition. These may 'Qe similar, in part, to buried 

meltwater channels in Minnesota described by 

Schneider and Rodis (1959), at least some of which 

sw 

may have been cut in glacial drift rather than 

NE bedrock. 

FIGURE 17.1.-Sketch of cut made for superhighway, NEIA,-

NWI4 sec. 33, Perry Township, Morrow County, Ohio, 

showing buried valley in till. 1, Till, very dark gray, 

calcareous; 2, till, yellow-brown or olive-brown, calcareous; 3, till, yellow-brown, noncalcareous; 4, san.d, fine, 

calcareous, water-bearing; 5, silt, sandy, upper part noncalcareous; 6, clay, very dark gray; 7, silt and colluvium, 

highly weathered; 8, till, dark-brown, c~lcareous; 9, soil 

and weathered dark-brown till. 

These buried valleys are unconformities and occur at the contact between two tills. Individual tills 

in northeastern Ohi·o have been distinguished and 

mapped (White, 1960, and Art 176) on the basis 

of variations in their mineralogy, petrology, · texture, color, and mechanical properties. Identification of till contacts in the subsu.rf~ce provides clues 

to the location of buried valleys ·that may contain 

permeable sand and gravel deposits. 

REFERENCES 

Schneider, Robert, and Rodis, H. G., 1959,· Aquifers in meltwater channels along the southwest flank of the Des 

Moines lobe, Lyon County, Southeastern Minnesota 

[abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70, p. 1671. 

White, G. W., 1960, Classification of Wisconsin glacial deposits 

·in northeastern Ohio: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1121-A. 

12 p. 
B-36 GEOL0GICAL SURVEY iRESEARCH 1961 

·, ;: 

/. 

. ., 

18 .. PLAN TO SALVAGE EVAPOTRANSPIRATION LOSSES. IN THE CENTRAL·SEVIER· VALLEY, UTAH ' • >.• ~· '-:.' (.~•· •l I • 

! 'I '· ~ · f t! •, ''() 

By RICHARD A. YouNG and CARL H. CARPE:NTER, Richfield,,';.Uta,h.,,. ··~· 

' .. J '•',. 

. ·-.! 

Work don:e in cooperation with the Utah State Engineer .. ;.;· 1 . ·h~r., ·' ~ ! • • 

-~--~------

The Sevier River, as a· ·source of irrigation water, 

is one of the mo~t highly developed streams in the 

United States. ··At four points· aiong its course in 

the.· central Sevier Valley . the ·stream . is -completely 

diverted into· irrigation systems, but· retnrn· flow 

and ground-water discharge replenish the flow. for 

downstream users; Severe >drought conditions, ext;:nsi~e Invasion ~-Y; phreatoph.yt~s o~ l~w ec~nornic 

value, poor drainage practices, and outmoded irrigation'systems h~ve eorp.bined in the past decade to 

diminish the irrigation supply. A ground~water investigation, begun in 1956 and completed in 1960, 

has resulted in a greater ·knowledge :of the 'hydroiogy 

of .this .highly ·complex -river system .. _;; -·. 

The .central Sevier ·valley (fig. 18.1) ;occupies· a 

s;yncline modified by:a graben (fig. l8.2).lThe iii1fh11 

syncline was formed in late-Jurassic time, 'and fold-

.ing continued throughout;· cr·etaceous and Tertiary 

times.~ The' faulting that formed the graben· inay 

have started -after Miocene time' becaJse it involves 

volcanic rocks of Oligocene or iM:iocetie age. Renewed faulting took place in Pleistocene ~rid Recent 

time and: cut ·the Sevier. River: formation ·of late 

Pliocene or early Pleistocene age. The graben-" was 

~ubsequently filled ·with alluvium· from the side 

slopes and with poorly sorted valley fill deposited 'by 

the ancestral Sevier Rivet .. Faulting, lava flows, 

and~. salt-dome intrusions' have' resulted in constrictions across the valley that for~ basins ·which contain large supplies .of ground) water. Largest ·of 

these basins are Circle Valley, the· Sevier-Sigurd 

area, and the G~nnison-:Seyier Bridge area. . . The ground w'ater in ·these basins is in. approx.i-· 

mate dynamic equ.ilibrium ·; that is, "gr.ound-water 

inflow essentially equals ground-water outflow. The . 

basins are filled to capacity and the ground water 

is under artesian pressure throughout much of the 

valley. The Sevier River acquires the .overflow or 

natural ground-water discharge from each basin; 

this flow is diverted at some· downstream point to 

satisfy irrigation demands. 

It :has long been considered 'impossible to utilize 

ground water to stabilize or increase the irrigation 

supply without interference with established water 

rights. Results of this investigation verify this 

premi~e but-also suggest that some water~~-~ wasted 

by lo\V-val'ue vegetation.·m.~~ _be salyageq. The con~ 

fining materials 'that cover the artesian 'basins in 

the· cenfral· Sevie.r Valley are ·pe:Fm~able·:'. Thus the 

artesian· pressure from ·uri·Cfern~~th, together .·with 

saturation by irrigation ·from above, ~' raises the 

water table to a Jevel within reach of phreatophytes. 

Dense growths of ·low-value phreatophiytes · cover 

much_ of -the. land sur{ace) overlying~~ the·· artesian 

al;'eas,. and an estimated .60,000 .to 70,000 acre-feet of 

ground water is lost by evapotransp,i_ratioll; annually 

from the ,three ~ain. basins. Much of the phreatoph:v.te growth occurs along riv'er qanks, creek chanilels·, ·drains, and irrigation canals. ·A· ·coordinated 

program· of phreatophyte e'radicatl'ori~: improved ir..: 

rigation management, and lowering of the high water 

table by improv.ed·drainage· practices and·by pum·ping of .wells could salvage as much as 50 percent of 

the water .. annually lost to· evapotr'arispiratiori · by 

low-value plants. ·· · · ~ ; · 

It is :difficult to estimate to what extent pumping 

may be utilized to salvage' evapotranspiration· losses 

without interference with established water rights, 

but careful development should minimize that interference. The following table gives a breakdown of 

estimated annual ground-water discharge from the 

three main .basins·: · · - · · 

Basiu 

.. 

' -: I£stinui'ted 

loss by 

low-valur 

phreatophytes 

(acre fert) 

· Other artificial and natural discharge from the groundwater basins.· Includes springs, 

drains, flowing wells, and 

pumped wells (acre feet) 

-------------· ------ --------------'-~· 

Cir<:le Valley .. · ..... . 

Sevier-Sigurd .... .- .... 

Gurini~on-Sevier Bridge .... 

Total .......... : .. 

10,000 

:~o,ooo 

:m,ooo 

70,000 

5,000 

.. :H,OOO 

t8,ooo 

60,000 

· Th'~s table il'l:dicates, that ··more water is lo~t by 

l(;>w-value phre~tophytes than .i~. q.sed . .from all present ground-water sources. If half the. water .now 

lost to low-value phreatophytes could be salvaged by 

pumping without seriously affecting the present 

f 
,. 

' •' 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE ~GEOLOGIC 'AN.D HYDROLOGIC SQ;IENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

. '! 

EXPLANATION 

·.~------

Bound~ries of ground-water areas 

,;,.. ..... / I / I 

/ I 

Boundaries of ground-water storage areas 

·: 

Boundary of alluvium 

A- -A' 

Location of cross section 

0 

Well used in constructing cross section 

{). 

.. · . i 

l' 

'') 

lo") 

-

,£:· 

":f 

.f' 

I' 

; ' 

:,, 

N 

\ . 

1 

.·. ,. . AREA. } ' .. ' 

_. r ;.\ t{ J 

i . . : ~ ·' ,. . ~o:"'.. .., •. 

I : ···~ , .. 

-.r: •'. 

: 0 5 io 15 

J ~·~ ., C.J t. 

\ ;' i 

B-37! 

I 

MILES 

:· 

: ~ ~ l .. ~ .~ 

FIGURE 18.1.-Map of central Sevier Valley, Utah, showing areas of ground-water storage. 
B-38 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

A A' 

EXPLANATION 

Pleistocene and Recent deposits, undifferentiated 

5750' 5750' 

Sand, silt, and clay deposi~s Water-bearing gravel deposits 

5500' 

5250' 

5000' 

4750' 

4500' 

Crazy Hollow formation 

(Spieker, 1949) 

Flagstaff limestone 

J 

0::11-

0...J 

Zl::> lij<! 

Li11LL 

0 

~ 

..0 

1.0 "' 

("t) 

M' 

I 

("t) 

N 

I 

8 

~ "' 

~ 

1.0 

("t) 

M' I 

("t) 

N 

I Q) 

8 0 

..r::. 

2 MILES 

!-

~ N 

·i: Q) 

~ 0 !- ..r::. 

·~ 

"" 

0::1-

W...J 

>=> 

w<! (f)LL 

5500' 

5250' 

5000' 

4750' 

4500' 

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X16 

FIGURE 18.2.-Geologic section across Sevier Valley. 

rights, an additional 30,000 to 35,000 acre-feet might 

be made available in the central Sevier Valley. 

A water-budget study was made in the SevierSigurd area to estimate the annual yield that might 

be obtained by pumping. This study indicated that 

evapotranspiration amounted to about 55,000 acrefeet of water in 1957 and about 65,000 acre-feet in 

1958-about half of it consumptive waste. The 

water-budget study also ·indicated that, for a decline 

of one foot in average ground-water level, about 

20,000 acre-feet of ground-water was discharged. 

The artesian head of the . wells and springs in the 

Sevier-Sigurd area ranges from 1 to 7 feet above 

land surface. If large wells were spaced and constructed properly, the_ Sevier.:Sigurd basin might 

yield an additional 15,000 acre.-feet of water to wells 

annually without seriously affecting present flowing 

wells and springs. Similarly, in Circle Valley and 

in the Gunnison~Sevier Bridge area an additional 

5,000 and 15,000 acre-feet respectively might be developed, for a total of about 35,000 acre-feet in the 

central Sevier Valley. 

REFERENCE 

Spieker, E. M:, 1949, The transition between the Colorado 

Plateaus and the Great Basin in central Utah: Utah 

Geol. Soc. Guidebook no. 4, 106 p. 

1. 

r.'· 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GE9LOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-:!.46 B-39 

19. RELATION BETWEEN STORAGE CHANGES AT THE WATER TABLE AND OBSERVED WATER-LEVEL 

CHANGES 

By R. W. STALLMAN, Denver, Colo. 

Meinzer ( 1923, p. 28) defined specific yield as the 

ratio of (a) the water removed by gravity drainage 

from a saturated rock to (b) the volume of the rock. 

Specific yield, both as a concept and as a characterization of the hydraulic properties, of water-bearing 

materials, plays a useful role in hydrologic studies. 

However, in many situations the variables affecting 

the ground-water flow system are .not interrelated 

adequately by the basic assumptions inherent in the 

specific yield concept. Specific yield may be defined 

algebraically as 

dh 

q == Sv dT (1) 

where q is the rate of increase of water storage in 

the saturated zone (expressed as a length per unit 

time)' s/1 is the specific yield, and dh/ dt is the slope 

of the curve water-table height (h) versus time ( t). 

Equation (1) was adopted as the basis for the "transpiration-well method" by White (1932), was applied 

by Gatewood and others (1950) for measuring 

ground-water use by vegetation, and is still in use 

(Stallman, Art.-20). 

If the position of the water table changes in 

response to changes in flow in the saturated zone, 

equation ( 1) may be 'considered an abbreviation of a 

differential equation which defines the relationship 

among head, storage, and aquifer-conductivity with 

respect to water movement. Two-dimensional flow· 

through a homogeneous unconfined aquifer may be 

exl?~essed approximately as 

[

o:!h o:!h] oh 

T ox:!+ oY'.! +W == SJ/~ (2) 

in which T is the aquifer transmissibility, and W is 

the rate of recharge to the saturated zone expressed 

as a length per unit time. 

Flow in the saturated zone as defined by equation 

(2) is illustrated in figure 19.1. The first term on 

the left side of equation (2) is an expression of the 

rate of change of storage due to variations in flow 

in the x-y plane. The accretion rate W also accounts· 

for a part of the total rate of change of storage and 

is either added to or subtracted from the flow through 

the aquifer. Thus, the rate W, as defined, represents 

the rate of interchange of liquid between the saturated and unsaturated zones. 

Unsoturo ted 

zone 

}-· s dh .A.t 

Y at 

FIGURE 19.1.-Flow relations in the saturated zone. 

In equation ( 1), q generally is a_ssumed to be the 

rate at which water is removed from the saturated 

zone by evapotranspiration. This presumes that 

q == W, and that the first term in equation (2) is 

negligible compared with W. Though this might be 

considered a reasonable presumption, there has been 

little, if any,. evidence developed to support it. From 

data for one small group of wells (Stallman, 1'956, p. 

454) it was determined that lateral flow cha.nges, 

given by the first term in equation (2 }, accounted 

for more than one-third of the calculated W during 

a short period of observation. One set of water-level 

altitudes showed W to be a positive quantity while 

oh/ot was negative according to analysis by equation (2). Thus, equation (1) would have indicated a 

water loss from the zone of saturation even though 

recharge occurred, as- demonstrated by the analysis 

using equation (2), This one example suggesting 

analytical inadequacy in equation ( 1) cannot be eonsidered conclusive evidence that equation (~) must 

always be used for calculating W; it emphasizes the 

need for ~ more cautio1:1s approach in assigning 

physical significance to q a~ calculated by means of 

equation ( 1). 
B-40 .'~1. . . ! ·GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 . 

In the derivation of equations (1) and (2) it was 

assumed that flow in the unsaturated zone does not 

affect ·'the storage changes in the sAturated zone. 

This assumption is inherent in the definition of 

specific yield. However, the saturated anq, un~aturated zones form one continuous hydraulic system. 

Thus, even though the hydraulic characteristics of 

both zones are different from one another-, --it ·should 

be evident from the fundamental concepts of hydraulics that any change of either head or velocity in 

the unsaturated zone will be reflected to some degree 

as a change of head everywhere in the saturated 

zone. Therefore, the water table ·will move in response to the distribution 'of flow in both contiguous 

zones, and it does n()t appear reasonable ito relate 

the position of the water t3:ble s~J~Jy to flow in the 

saturated zone as has been done in the derivation· 

of equations (1) and (2). 

The relation between discharge from the saturated· 

zone and its effect on the position of the water table 

is show..n schematically-· in figure .. 19.2. The column 

shown -~epresents a flow tube wh.ich. extends from 

some distant point where head· .. is controlled ~Y say,. 

surface-water stages, through the aqqifer, tp a)point · 

on the land surface~ Flow through the saturated 

'zone discharges into· the; _unsaturated zone, from 

which it is discharged into' the atmosphere by evapotranspiration~ At a particular discharge rate A, a· 

given head distribution will be .. established in· the· 

·system cdmmensurate· with' all' the hydrauliC ·boundary conditions imposed on the aquifer. The resulting 

w~terl..table positiori is at a. If the discharge through. 

the;~surfac·~ lis· i'r:i'creas·ed 'to ~rate'·B·; lhe: head· at· all 

points irF the system will be· decreased to acc~mmo-· 

dat€;:: the increase in1 veloC"ity '··at all; •tpo1nts in the 

systElm. -Thus, with ldischkrge at rate: B' the :po'sitidn' 

of the water table 18 'b'.-;~.For ·a:.igiven~:·vatu'e .. 6f·A/B·,. 

the. diff~rence' between 'the 'altitudes. 'of .d/ a~d.' 6: ii 

chi~flY depe~i;dent Oil the .r~il6: pf th~. Qyiita~ii'c cb·ri·~ ' '· ·,.' ( : : • • • • I { ' • -~ ' T r.~ ) j :. ); t • • •• ) J. t I ~ .~ f I • { • ' ' /' • .I·.~ . . . . -

qJ,ic~+~~~~~;s .9f: ~thr, ~~i~~t_{lt,ep ~fl~-~4. lln.~~tu!\_~ttf.~ zpp,e~ 

· t,o st~~dy st.~.te.ifl.ow, arid ther.e~~re\ts not_nece~sariJy~ 

dir.ectly related to a change of storage in,the;system•.: 1', • '•. ;, • ' I,, .... -''· • • . J 

! \ lflpw ·lthrpughJ :the unsaturated zone<-.js·': chiefly. 

ve.rttcai..~· Thus;rthe· exterit:.to. whicih!the· water'-table 

position:·, [s .dependent· on ) flow. ;_,i~n···the . unsa!turated. 

zone;Cmight ·be' determined· frorti 1stti(:ly ofVve:fticaJ 

flow comp·o:nents~)in ~tlier\ticih.ityr' of 'lHe:··wate.r·;t3:hle! 

Fieia -~ea:Suremen't ·bf Stich' ~Jrticai flqw1 c'ompon_e'nts 

is' not'·phteticable' by yhet techriicfileis Jiqw_ ~\i~il~_bl~,1 

b'uPrec.erit: ·w1ork (Mo·s~~tti; '1966; .. silillki: i9~·<r 'a$'d 

s·taihit'iin3 : '1960f h~is .. :.g{(:i'i\~~ted.i the 'r~dsib'nity:··',.d¥ ')''I :-r·q 1·,c ·' , ... 1 .,, ... :(' .• ~·"li•r·'·r··:-~.·; -:-r.:; · ,. n · '~:Y·I,·i 

rri.e~suring verY'· ~maW g'found.:.water ... velociti.e,s. by ; • < I • • I • :, ' :' ' I • 1 • ' ~· o ' ,-• t... \ , : \ :: _', I : • • • t,:' ~ 

a'nalysis of the underground' teinperat~re 9ist~ibu,. 

Ql 

c: 

0 

N 

"0 

Ql 

.i;d: 

. ''- . 

~ !D 

·0 

en 

C:· 

~ 

Ql •. 

c: .. 0 ,N 

·"0 

~<t· 

I';~ !D. 

:::J 

+-

0 

(/) 

'1 

8 Discharge 

A 

··;' 

----- . ____ 0 

·': · " : 0 - wat'er -table positions 

...; -·-·-- ../2_ 

:,, 

-- Distant point in aquifer 

.I. 

FIGURE 19.2.-Cfiange· of th~ water-table position d~e · to 

. changes in 'rate of 'discharge fro~ the saturated zo~e. 

tion. From such data,' 'it 1 should be possible to make 

a·:direct evaluation of the adequacy of equations· (1) 

and• (2), and· to document the· sHs'nificance ·o~ the 

concept ·iUust.rated by .figure 19.2. ·• · ''l!f,.. ,... .,~. 

REFERENCES .f ·.I 

G~tew~od, J. S., Robin~~n, T: 'w.:, Colby, B .. R.,, Hem, ·J.D.,' and 

: '' Haipenny', L:'b:, 1950, -qse of water ~:y_.b?t1fm-la1_14 .v.ege-

, tation 'in lower· Safford Valley; Arizona: U.$. Geol. ,Sur,.. " 

veyW ~ter-S~pply :Paper '1103,· 210 ·'p~ ·. 1 

• , . 

Meinzer,· o:: :E.; i_92.3/ :outline of groJ:fid'-wat~r hydrol()gy: 

··u.'s·. ·Geol: Survey Wate~.:Supply· Pap~r :494, 7.1 p. : ' 

M6setti; 'Fernlbo, 1960,' Thermometric st~d·y of the m~:VemEmt 

of ground water: (Pres~nt~d' ·'orally bi•·P:rof; ':M:ario. 

Picotti), J~ternat. Union· Geodesy and, Geophysics Mtg., 

Helsinki.'' - · · 

Stallman, R. w.;\ l956, Numerical analysi~ of regional water 

; lev:~ls>,to d~:fine, .~ql}ifer hydrol~gy: .Am. Geophys. Union 

.)·. Tr~~~·· v .• ~7· p. 451-4.60. .· : . . . . r ·:· . ; j( •..•. : 

--,-1960, :N'otes sur l'emplo1 de rese1gnements therm1ques 

pour !'evaluation de 'la vitesse d'e~u s~uterraine -(Not~~ n' ; on. the. use!··· of :ietbperature data J for--+ computing . ground--

£'.: w3.1ter veloCity').: Soc( .llydrotech.nique·de'Fran'ce,.Jbur; de 

-:;. {;1/hYJGlrauliqpe ·(Nan_cy,i 1~60),:Quest;11',' Ra>ppi 3, p~:1-7.t! i 

~}\zuki, : S .. ettaro, , 1~6.0, Per-colation. measu·rements based . on 

heG\t flow through soil with spe.cial· ref~r~nce to pa~dY. 

:· ·.· ._:fi'eid~: J~u~. Ge~phys: R~s., p. ,28~3;-~~8.5., . ,< ,.. 1 I ,

1 ,: .' ··u· ·l. :,, . . . .... . . ·• . . • .'· ~~· · ·· · 

Wn1te, W .. N ., 1932; .f\. method . of ~stmwtmg_ g:r,ou.n~bw~t~_r 

t.t; (L~~IS~~ie~ ba'~e'd ~k dis~harg.e b~/ -P.l~~ts 1 a·;;d11 ~~~p~~.~t~oil 

<:·.' .. fr'drtC soil :~·:}~~{at~ of i~vestigatibhs in Ekca:lante -'valley, 

. _',: .Utaih: u~-s~.: 'G~ol. ·srut~rey· ·W·ater:.·sup'ply Paper 659-'A; 

105 p. >.··;i~' • · 'I· ,-;;;;[ i,f ,;i.: ·' i; 

t 

. ., 
+ 

.. 

" 

·-

SHORT PAPERS IN THE. GEOLO.GIC AND· HY,DRQLOGI.C SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-41 

20. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF VERTICAL FLOW. COMPONENTS IN THE VICINITY. OF PUMPING WELLS IN, 

UNCONFINED AQUIFERS· . 1r ,. 

l. By R. ·w. 'STALLMAN, Denver, Colo . . .. :0:1. .·. 

Most algebraic equations used for analyzing pump-:: ' 

ing tests ·(see Theis, 1935; Wenzel, 1942; Ferris, 

1949; Jacob, 1950; and Brown, 1953, for example) 

have been derived usi-ng the assumptio:n that flow 

to wells occurs only in horizontal planes as shown 

schematically on figure 20.1A. However, where the 

upper surface of the ground-water body is unconfined and free to move as head in the aquifer changes, 

paths of flow originate at the unconfined or free surface and terminate at. the well: as shown schematically on figure 20.1B. bownwa~d flow from the free 

surface is most pronounced during the initial period 

of pumping. The water table is lowered most rapidly 

near the pumpeq well, and in that region the effects 

of downward movement on flow become progressively less ·significant as pumping continues. Thus, 

it is generally recognized-- that flow conditions become essentially like those found in artesian aquifers 

only after long periods of pumping in unconfined 

aquifers. Nevertheless, it is common practice to 

utilize the equations defining artesian conditions to 

determine the characteristics of_ unconfined aquifers 

from pumping_ tests lasting ·only a few hours. Valid7 

ity of such practice has been supported more by . . 

wishful thinking than by·. real evidence that the 

assumption of purely horizontal flow leads to ·a 

satisfactory analysis. Furthermore, there are as yet 

no quantitative data to indicate _how long a per_iod 

Pumped 

well 

Pumping 

level - ...... /h ""...,t/ 

.. '' ·. --. t-. '!"'j , ... , 

"I·-~··, ~- . I ·:.!'I 

of. pumping ~is required befoterrflow may be: sa tis~ 

factorily defined by the. assumptions made ·in deriving:analytical expressions like -the Theis. equation. 

.Boulton· (1954): ·and· Kirkham (1959) ·have developed methods 'for· analyzing unconfined ;flow to 

wells, taking account of the vertica-l flow components 

at the·i water. table. . However, these- methods· are 

founded -or:i other restrictiVe assumpt-ions, and p·rovide little.· or no direct evaluation of. the .~ffects; of 

vertical flo~ coni.pcments on' r1diai' i flow relation~. 

Without such' an· evaluation the nee'd for more 

lengthy· anaJyt'ic~l m:ethods is ·open· to question. 

The relative effects of vertical flow components on 

changes in head at the 'water table rpight be ascert'ained by a f.orm of Boulton's. (t95.4, p. 568) differential equation defining the f~ee·· ~n~rface. ·For· an 

anisotropic' formation, Boulto.il's ·equation· is .. 

(1) 

in w hi~h S,~~ i~ the· specitic ,Yiel d,~ ~ ._i,s . the decli:n_e· o'f 

the water table, r is the distance fro~. the center of 

the well to the point where the decline is observed, z 

is the distance upward from the confining bed to the 

point where the decline is observed,, ,t is time, and 

Pr and Pz are the permeabilities. for radial and vertical ~ow of :wa~er, respectively. )f the. value of the 

Pumped 

weli 

I·, 

•• _)j, ! .. t~-----·-' 

::-.... :' :.·/ ;.,:,·Jt;·; l•i:.t .... ::, ·•·• ·_l'·l·.·-'Pumpin.g 

fl.' .'·• .'·· ~~ ·;!l'.' Iff 'v'l'·i't ir~·:-1 ··. ~--: , ~Jl:· level•i·-

(li.':. ::. (• !'\. J.: ,,; · ..••. ·~!:.:.-".It~ I ':;:.:j 

· ·<~ ~-' ... """"' :,: .• J .,,r· :;·:J·,·: , t · \.:.:.·\. ~.l .l·· 

A. ~RTESIAN CONDITIONS ; i ~~-~' • f,: 'l >. ~. •, 0 '\ I i (. : J ... l' 

.r, .: ._, 

,,: 

~.; .. . Cor~ining beds, . 1 , . 

B. WATER-TABLE CONDITIONS 

,, 

\' 

, ... ·· 

~ ' ... : . { ~' . ' '~ :: 

r • '~' • I 

,··•,J I 
B-42 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

left side of equation (1) is nearly equal to (o.~lor):.!, 

the effects of vertical flow components on the rate 

of water-table decline are negligible and the flow is 

essentially horizontal. 

Pumping-test data collected near Grand Island, 

Nebr,, by Wenzel (1942, p. 117-122) afford an opportunity for demonstrating, by means of equation 

( 1), the effects of vertical flow components. The 

aquifer at the test site is composed of unsorted 

sands and gravels and is about 100 feet thick. The 

pumped well was 24 inches in diameter and was 

drilled to a depth of about 37 feet below the water 

table. Dra wdowns were ·observed in 80 nearby ob-

.· servation wells. According to Wenzel's (1942, p. 

125) analysis of the field data, S" = 0.2 and Pr = 140 

ft. per day, approximately. However, laboratory 

tests indicated (Wenzel, 1942, p. 118) that the value 

of Pr at the water table may be much less, say as low 

as 65 ft. per day. 

Graphs of s versu~ rand s versus t are shown on 

figure 20.2 to illustrate the finite-difference method 

used for comp:Iting as/at and as/or from test observations. This procedure was applied also to drawdowns observed at other times after pumping began. 

Values of as/at and as/or computed for selected 

times are given in table 1. 

TABLE 1.-Drawdown mtes and water-table g1·adients at 

r = 50 feet for Wenzel's (1.942) Grand Island, Nebr., 

pumping test 

08 

t at 

(min) (ft/day) 

50 ...... . 100 ...... . 

300 ...... . 700 ...... . 

2,000 ...... . 

11.0 

7. 2 2.9 

1.0 

. 45 

2.7xt0-2 

2.sx10-2 

2.9X 10-2 

2.4XI0-2 

2. 4X J0-2 

Su osl 

Pr '& 

1.6XI()-2 

I.OX J0-2 

.t.tx to-~ 

1.4X IO-~ 

6.4X to-1 

3. 4X t0-2 

2.2XJ0-2 

8.9XIO-~ 

3.1X J0-3 

1.4XI0-3 

7.3XI0-1 · 

li.2X to-1 

8.-txw-~ 

5.8xw-~ 

5.8xw-~ 

1 Letting Svl Pr = 0.2/140 day per ft from Wenzel's (1942, p. 125) pump- ing-test analysis. !! Letting Su/Pr = 0.2/65 day per ft from Wenzel's (1942, p. 118) laboratory value of Pr near the water table. 

It is evident from table 1 that the radial flow components were not the chief influence on the rate of 

water-table decline, even after about a day and a 

half of pumping. This can be seen by comparing 

the value of~:~~ =1.4 X 1o~a with(~:)!!= 5.8 X 

10--t, using Pr from laboratory tests. Probably the 

value of Pr determined in the laboratory is more 

nearly correct than the value obtained from Wenzel's 

analysis of radial flow through the entire depth of 

the aquifer. 

The coefficient S", the specific yield, is generally 

considered a constant in the equations used for 

cs~ 6s = 0.58 = 0 029 cr 6r 20 . 

~ 1 w 

~ 

z 

H 

z 

~ 

~ 2 6s 

0 

~~0----~L------4~0------L-----~------~----~80 

RADIUS, IN 

Time equals 300 minutes 

o~----~,------1~----~,------~,-----~,--~ 

cs ~ 6s = 0. 40 = -3 I 

ct 6t 200 2xl0 ft min 

0 

I 

2.88 ft/day0~, 6s = 0.40 

l>t = 200 --j ~ 0 

I I I 

200 400 

TIME, IN MINUTES 

Distance equals 50 feet 

I 

-

-

c 

600 

FIGURE 20.2.-Drawdown changes with respect to distance and 

time (after Wenzel, 1942, p. 117-122). 

pumping-test analysis, and this was also assumed 

to be the case in table 1. However, pore drainage 

above the water table varies with time, and s!l is 

small during the first few minutes of pumping, gradual1y increasing to a value of 0.2 after a long period 

of pumping. A three-dimensional electric analog 

study of the drawdowns observed during the first ten 

minutes of pumping indicated that s!l probably did 

not exceed 0.01 during that interval. Such a low value 

of S,, in the early part of the test would materially deth I f S,, as b . . ·t I crease e va ue o p. -t , ringing 1 more near y r 0 

equal to (as/or):! than indicated in table 1. 

·,... 
L 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GE.OLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1·146 B-43 

It can be shown that, at any time 

Q 00 (6.8) - =271" ~ - r· O.T 811 1' 1

,. O.t r (2) 

in which Q is the rate of pumping, an~ 'tw is the 

radius of the pumped well. According to equation 

(2), 811 == 0.11 at t =50 minutes in the Grand. Island 

test. The error in the latter analysis is believed to 

be less than 20 percent. Thus, the conclusion drawn 

from table 1, that vertical flow components at this 

site are significant for at least 11/:! days of pumping, 

is not affected appreciably by changes in s!l with 

respect to time. 

The aquifer tested is not unique in thickness, specific yield, or permeability; therefore, vertical .flow 

components may be important in most unconfined 

aquifers during the initial period of pumping. Equations based on the assumption that flow is essentially 

horizontal thus are likely to yield erroneous values 

of both P and 811 , and additional error due to assuming 811 con.:tant may be expected if the duration 

of the test is only a few hours. 

REFERENCES 

Boulton, N. S., 1954, The drawdown of the water table under 

nonsteady conditions near a pumped well in an unconfined 

formation: In st. Civil Engineers (British) Proc., p. 564-

579. 

Brown, R. H., 1953, Selected procedures for analyzing aquifer 

test data: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 45, p. 844-

866. 

Ferris, J. G., 1949, Ground water, Chap. 7, in C. 0. Wisler and 

E. F. Brater, Hydrology: New York, John Wiley and 

Sons, 408 p. 

Jacob, C. E., 1950, Flow of ground water, Chap. 5, in Hunter 

Rouse, Engineering Hydraulics: New York, John Wiley 

and Sons, 1039 p. 

Kirkham, Don, 1959, Exact theory of flow into a partially 

penetrating well: Geophys. Res. Jour., v. 64, p. 1317-1327. 

Theis, C. V., 1935, The relation between the lowering of the 

piezometric surface and the rate and duration of dis· 

charge of a well using ground· water storage: Am. 

Geophys. Union Trans., p. 519-524. 

Wenzel, L. K., 1942, Methods for determining permeability of 

waterbearing materials: U.S. Geol. Survey Water·Supply 

Paper 887, 192 p. 

21. METHODS FOR STUDY OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 

By 0. E. LEPPANEN, Phoenix, Ariz. 

The evaporation processes of nature are the largest item in the water balance of the United States. 

The 17 Western States receive 2,000 maf (million 

acre-feet) of precipitation of which MacKichan 

(1957) estimated that only 5 maf is used directly 

by man. C. H. Hardison (written communication 

Feb. 21, 1952) calculated the runoff from these states 

to be 440 maf-about 22 percent of the precipitation. 

J. S. Meyers (written communication, 1960) estimates that evaporation from free-water surfaces is 

24 maf. Thus, most of the precipitation in the West 

returns to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration 

from vegetation and land surfaces. 

Most quantitative estimates .of evapotranspiration 

are made by considering long-term averages of rainfall and runoff in a basin, or by analysis of irrigation records. These methods are not suitable for 

estimating short-term water demands or for assigning relative water-us.e indices to various vegetationcovered surfaces. More sensitive methods are desirable not only for direct practical applicationbut also for development of a better understanding 

of the physical mechanism involved, so that wasteful evapotranspiration can be controlled. 

The most direct method of measuring evapotranspiration is a water budget: first, the inflow (precipitation, irrigation) and outflow (seepage, runoff) are 

measured, then after accounting for changes in soilmoisture storage, the net loss is attributed to evapotranspiration. This method fails, except under very 

special circumstances, because of difficulties in 

measurement. 

Another method is the energy budget. Directly 

analogous to the water budget, the energy budget 

accounts for inflow, outflow, and storage of heat. 

The singular advantage of this method lies in the 

fact that the term that describes evapotranspiration 

is large numerically, having been weighted by the 

energy necessary for change-of-phase. Measurement 

errors in water flow become less significant. The 
B-44 GEOLOGICAL' SURVEY· RESEARCH' .1961 

energy budg~t has been applied successfully to the temperature and humidity· gradients above the surme~surement of evaporatiop from lakes ap.~ there is face were determined by measurements in the vegeno ~heoretical reason why it could not be applied also tation and at levels of .. ·lf:!, 1, 2, and 8 I!,leters above 

to mea~urement of evapotranspiration .. L'.J:·~ ·• the vegetation. Anemometers were also installed at 

Experiments have been made in an are~ in eastern these levels .. About-1A .. million··observations'of temN ebraska to test the application of the.energy budget. peratures and humidities ·were· analyzed using an 

A site ·near Fairmont, Nebr., was carefully chosen eleCtronic computer. · ·· 

in a loess plain with soil formed on Peorian loess. . . · r ., i. · . · · : · · 

Below the Peorian, at a depth of about 5 meters, lies Evapotra.nspl'ration, . calculated. from th~ water 

the Loveland ·loess. Nearby" wells :indicated ground budget d~~ing a)68-dayseason, was 0.46 em per day. 

water to be at depths exceeding 30 meters. The sur- Evapotranspir3;~ion; . calculated from the energy 

face has a slope of abo_ut 1:750, arid no runoff was budget ranged,~from 0.5~ em to 0.92 em per day, 

anticipated or observed. The area had been ·seeded depending on the levels above the surface that w:ere 

with alfalfa late in the previous season. The alfalfa used in selecting the meteorological. data needed to 

grew. sl<?wly in April,' rapidly· in May, matured in calculate ··the Bowen . ratio. These results suggest 

Jun:e, an~ :was mowed on Ju~e30. Asecond crop th~~ that the Bowen ratio, 'as calculated· in this exgrew, but·some;what less vigorously. periment, is nof ·applicable· to· evapotranspiration 

A water pudget was first computed using the rec- measurement.· 

ords from 'a local raingage a~d soil mois.ture , data · · · · · that were obtained from six sets of soil samples taken To investigate the data fo~· .seasonal bias, and to 

during'·t.~e .study:.·~ Information. from. a neutron-sc~t- 9pser:ve the eff~~t· of changi~g the len.gth of the 

tering soil-moisture meter, which ~~s ll.sed ~~~eral observation. peri~d, evap~transpiration wa.s calcutimes weekly, allowed interpolation between samp-. lated for six periods of about a month each. Results 

lings. Deep seepage, or percolation, was considered are listed in table 2. The levels above the vegetation 

to be zero because of the existence at a depth of 5.2 used in calculating the Bowen ratio are lj~ and 1 

meters of a buried soil that apparently was very · meter. 

impervious to soil-moisture movement. 

The results of the water budget are shown in 

table 1. : :} ~ 

TABLE 1.-Evapotr·anspir·ation computed . f"r.otn !.!1.e . water· · 

TABLE 2.-Comparison of water-budget and energy-budget 

evap,_o~rartspiratiQn rates for intervals throughout 

the season, in centimeters of. water pe·r day 

budget for the experimental site at Fairmont, -------------:--------,.------

Period, 1958 Nebr., for selected periods, in centimeters of water 

· Period, 1958 ,. · _·.:_:_ _ _c._.::..::: ... L!.::... _____ •. · ___ :_ Change in 

soil-moisture ·From To storage 

April 1-1............. May 13 ........... . 

s~~~ ·J~:::: :.:::::::: i~~~ !

9

5.·. ·.:::::: :::-:: 

iuulgyu!5t .

5 ...... ··.:·. :_ ... ·.'; ......... · August ·s• ........ :~ .. September 2.: ... ' ... ,Scp,tem?e.r 2; f·... .. . . . September~29 .... , . 

Total ..... : .. , , ......... · ....... . 

+ 1.9 -:-23.0. 

+ 9.3 •· . ..,... 2. i. -13.2 

+ 6.4 

P~~cipitation ~~ . 

<: Evapotranspiration 

Measurement ·of. items): -in the energy tbntftig:eti.tequireclltexterisive instrume'ntatiort A· netr'.excihia~rtge 

radiometer measured thermal radiation,:tthe'l majiOr 

energy(source. ·Changes in !heat storage in~~the soil, 

although.smaU,~were~ measur-ed. Heat~ brough~dn by 

rain was. a,ccounted .,fo:ru)JHeat conducted frotnuthe 

surface of vegetation' ·as 'sens'ible!heat· was co"ffll)l.ifed 

.using the :.tatio deve1oi?ed·\by Bowen· (1926) 1• The 

\ . ~~\"" r~:(..., .. l'.. . fJ\ ~ . \ ... ~· 

.. 1 Brc~~se .a practical_, field in~.t~ume_~t .. to,)m.e,asure the "qnd.ttcted :heat .is 

not yet ava1lable, the Bowen rat10, · wh1ch relates heat lost by conduction 

·to heat lost by evaporation, has been•widely used t'o comput'ti conducted' heat. i 

Water-budget Energy-budget 

From ~0' 

evapotranspiration evapotranspi~ation 

--------·----------- ------- " ·-----------

April14 ............. May t3 ........ ~ ..... ~ 0.18 0.41 : 

. 79 ~~~~~~:::·:::::;:::· i~~fs.·.-·.:::::::<::: .58 1

:?g· i~~~u~f·5:::::::::·::: :~:t~~~~~r·2::::::::-:: · :~~ '· :~~ ·~:. 

~f~ember 2......... September 2~......... ·-~-~.iJ. .42 . • ,, , 

~-------~---------~-------- '!;. 

Th~ results 'for the shorter periods show no bette·ia~reerilent with ~the water budget than ·do the seasonal figures. L .G ·· · • • · · • · J ; 

1 1 

' • • ,· ; f • • 'i. 

Compa~ison, with data fr9m lake~- .inQ.icates. thaJ 

the. conduct~~;:e:r.ergy term ~s a large item . in the 

evapotranspiration energy· bu·dget .but. is . a, small 

iterp,. in a lake~evaporatioJl; energy budget.. The reason is ·,that water absorbs and stores most .of the 

radiant energy Aalling upon it, but vegetation con~ 

verts .radiant energy to· a combination of conducted 

andcJatent heat .. Thtis, the theory and. m~thod ·of 

calculati·ng the Bowen .rati<:r becomes· critical in the 

.evapotranspiration energy budget.· The· energy-

.\.· 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYD-ROLOGIC SCIE'NCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

budget ·method is, however, theoretically correct, and 

further analyses of the data from this and similar 

experiments •in determining the conducted energy 

should resol~e · discrepancies in results. fro~ the 

w~1.ter-budget and energy-budget methods. 

.. , ,· 

'1: I'' 

REFERENCES: · .. 

Bowen, J. S.,: 1926, The rat_i_o of heat los~es ~y- cond'\].ction and 

! by evaporation from any water surfkce: Phys. R_ev., v. 27, 

' p. 779-787. . 

M~cKichan, K. A., 1957, Estimated use _of water in t}le United 

States, 1955: U.S. Geol. Survey. Cite. 398, 18 p . 

.i-l 

22. WATER MOVEMENT AND I9N !JISTRIBUTION IN SOILS ) 

By R. F. MILLER and K. W. R;\TZLAFF, Denver, Colo. 

:· : 

· Divalent calCium and magnesium both have greater 

replacing ability than monovalent ·sodit:m in ion exchange reactions with soil colloids. (Kelley, 1948,' p~ 

57). Therefore, ·when calcium 2.nd ·magnesium e:x-· 

ceed the sodium in water moving through the ·soil, 

the proportion of calc:ium and magnesium in solution 

should decrease in the directi'On of water· movem·ent 

as a ·result of adsorpti(.n ·to ion exchange surfaces~ 

and· the proportion of S')dium should increase 'in th~· 

direction ·of water movement :as a ·result ·of its ·dis-... 

placement from ion. exchange surfa·ces (Rible and 

Davis, ·1955). 

Because of this relation, the direction and patternof· moi~ture movement- in soils can be interpreted 

~rom soil ch.emistry. The depths to which untilled 

soils in .arid and semiarid . climates are most frequently wetted also are reflected by the relative .con-. 

centr~tions' of soluble ions in the. soil profiles. . 

The greater solubility of sodiu~' salts also permits 

sodium to move farther t~ropgh _the soil in the direction of water movement than ca~cium or magnesium. 

This is especiaJly true when the ions in solution are 

concentrated' by the pro.ces.ses of ev~poration and 

the. use of water by plants-a condition that causes 

precipitation of the less soluble salts '(Gardner and 

others, 1957). 

The relations between w·ater movement and .. ion 

distribution in two soils with different internal drainage characteristics have been studied by the writers. 

The relative proportions of soluble calcium plus magnesium and sodium in consecutive vertical portions 

of the two soil profiles are expressed as differences 

in soluble sodium percentage (SSP). 

Soluble Na 

SSP == Soluble Na + (Ca + Mg) X 100 

·A residual coarse-silt loam soil near Palo Alto, 

·Calif., (table .I arid fig. 22.1) is characteristic of:soil~ 

with uni:mpeded internal drainage. Winter rainfall 

frequently provides enough moisture to wet the:base 

of the soil profile. The soluble sodium percentage increases with depth, a:s a result of progressive ad~orptio1 'o(calcium and magnesium from soil water· o'rito 

the lion· exchange surfaces, whereas sodium is disP~filC~d from ion exchange surfaces into the ~ater m,oving down through the soil profile. A gradual 

decrease in total salts in the soil with depth reflects 

the loss of ions from solution to ion exchange: surfaces and .frequent flushing. of the soil. A higher 

concentration of both·calcium plus magne'sium and 

sodium in the. top. five inches of ~oi•i as compared 

with the next layer below~·-'indicates that··precipitation of salts occurs as they ·are concentrated by 

evaporation. · 

An ·all~vial'. medi~m-silt. ·loam soil near ·.Fort 

Apache, Ariz., (table 1 and fig. 22.1) is characteristic of deep. perm~'able soils that commo:rily ,do not 

receive enough moisture to become. wet thr'o~gho~t 

the p~~file. The A hor.izon. i~ ·~oist~~ed by summer 

show:ers,. b,ut. the B hprizon is moistened .t9. .tiel~ ·capacity prjmarily by sn-~wmelt. Moisture appa~ently. 

moves. do~n into the .C horizo:ri only i~ res pons~ .to 

temperatur~. and moisture tension gradie~ts. · Apparently the buried B horizon impedes capillary 

movement of water downward. 

The increase in soluble sodium percentage from 

the 2A horizon into the 1A horizon reflects capillary 

rise of water as the surface soil dries. The decrease 

in calcium plus magnesium and the increase in 

sodium indicate that ion exchange is primarily responsible for the increase. The gradual increases in 
B-46 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

r 

0 

10 

20 

w 30 u 

<( 

1.1.. 

0::: 

::> 

en 

3: 

g 40 w 

Ill 

en 

w 

J: 

u 

~ 50 

60 

70 

SOLUBLE SODIUM PERCENTAGE 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

1A1 

2A1 

80~--._--~---L--~--~~--~--~---L--~--~ 

FIGURE 22.1.-Changes in soluble sodium percentage (SSP) 

with depth through a residual coarse-silt loam soil ·near 

Palo Alto, Calif. (curve A), and an alluvial medium-silt 

loam soil near Fort Apache, Ariz. (curve B). Numbers 

and letters to left of curves designate soil horizons. 

soluble sodium percentage to the base of the B 

horizon and the little corresponding increase in total 

ion concentration reflect downward movement of 

water and frequent flushing. The increases in soluble 

sodium percentage are attributed primarily to ion 

exchange. The slight accumulation of calcium plus 

magnesium at the base of the B horizon reflects some 

TABLE l.-Dist1·ibution of ions with depth in soils 

Residual coarse-silt loam soil near Palo Alto, Calif. 

Depth 

below soil surface 

(Inches) 

Extrart from saturated soil paste 

(!\filii-equivalents per liter) 

Ca+Mg Na Total 

Alluvial medium-silt loam soil near Fort Apache, Ariz. 

Depth below soil surface 

(Inches) 

Extract from saturated soil paste 

(l\Iilli-equivalents per liter) 

Ca+Mg Na Total 

- o-s-:-:--:-:--:-:--:-:- -6li9- oll7- -r-66- --o::r:--:-:--:-:--:-:--:-:- --:tlio- o~l- -:r-31 5-9 ........ 3.90 .78 4.68 3-i ......... 4.88 .30 5.18 9-13....... 3.16 .97 4.13 7-12. 4.40 .30 4. 70 13-17 ....... 2.30 .97 3.27 12-17 ........ !i.20 .31l 5.58 17-20.5..... 2.17 1.19 3.36 17-24........ 4.20 .46 4.66 20.5-24. . . . . I. 83 I. 23 3. 06 24-30. . . . . . . . 4. 00 . 46 4. 46 24-27...... 1.54 1.37 2.91 30-36........ 4.88 .85 5. 73 36-42........ 4.08 1.25 5.33 42-48........ 5.52 2.54 8.06 48-54 . .. . . . . . 5. 60 3. 81 9 . 4 1 54-60. . . . . . . . 8. 00 i . 55 15 . 55 60-65 ........ 12.12 11.10 23.22 65- 74. . .. . . . . 17. 60 I i. I 0 3-l. 70 

accumulation of moisture above the more porous calcareous C horizon; but there is no evidence of capillary rise from this zone of possible moisture accumulation. The top of the C horizon is apparently the 

depth to which water frequently penetrates and is 

retained at or near the field storage capacity. 

Movement of some moisture down through the C 

horizon by capillarity is reflected by the sharper 

increase in soluble sodium percentage with depth. 

This sharper increase indicates precipitation of calcium from solution and is apparently the result of 

,both ion exchange and salt solubility. The increase 

in soluble sodium percentage in both directions from 

the top of the B horizon reflects capillary rise from 

accumulated moisture above the impeding B:!., horizon and some movement of water down through the 

impeding B:!., horizon. The accumulation of salts but 

no increase in soluble sodium percentage reflect the 

entrapment and evaporation of accumulated water 

at the impeding zone. 

REFERENCES 

Gardner, R., Whitney, R. S., and Kezer, A., 1957, Slick spots 

in Western Colorado soils: Colorado State College Exp. 

Sta. Tech. Bull. 26, p. 1-13. 

Kelley, W. P., 1948, Cation exchange in soils: New York, 

Reinhold Pub. Corp., 144 p. 

Rible, J. M., and Davis, L. E., 1955, Ion exchange in soil 

columns: Soil Science, v. 79, p. 41-47. 
.1. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-47 

23. COMPRESSION OF ELASTIC ARTESIAN AQUIFERS 

By S. W. LOHMAN, Denver, Colo. 

The concepts of the occurrence of water in artesian 

aquifers have changed considerably in the last 35 

years. Artesian aquifers formerly were considered 

to have only the properties of conduits for conducting water from the recharge areas to the points of 

discharge (such as wells) and to have no property of 

storage, ~s now known. · Confining beds were regarded as impermeable, whereas we now know that 

an artesian aquifer may be confined by a relatively 

impermeable stratum or simply by a stratum having 

permeability lower than that of the aquifer. Only 

wells that flowed at or above the land surface were 

considered artesian by many earlier workers. Now 

artesian wells are considered by most authorities to 

be those in which the water is confined under pressure beneath a relatively impermeable stratum or 

a stratum of lower permeability than the aquifer, 

and in which the water rises above the point at which 

it is first found in drilling. 

Meinzer and Hard ( 1925, p. 90-93) were the first 

to recognize that an artesian aquifer does not perform like a rigid system, but as one having volume 

elasticity and hence variations in storage capacity 

with changes in the internal buoyant force due to 

changes in artesian head. The evidence that a large 

part of the water discharged from artesian wells 

came from storage by compression of the aquifers 

with loss of artesian head led to Meinzer's classic 

theory of the compressibility and elasticity of artesian ·aquifers ( 1928). 

It has long been recognized that two types of compression are involved: elastic compression of elastic 

media, such as a clean sand or sandstone; and plastic deformation of bodies, lenses, or beds of clay in 

or adjacent to the aquifer. The amount of elastic 

compression, with which the remainder of this paper 

is chiefly concerned, is small but nevertheless significant. The amount of plastic deformation of clay 

bodies may be rather large, and has caused subsidence of the land surface of from a few feet to 

several tens of feet where artesian water or oil has 

been withdrawn in large quantities. (See Gilluly 

and Grant, 194~; Winslow and Doyel, 1954; Poland 

and Davis, 1956; and the report of the Inter-Agency 

Committee on Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin 

Valley (1958); see also papers in this volume by 

Poland, Art. 25; Lofgren, Art. 24; Miller, Art. 26), 

The next important step in our understanding of 

the manner in which artesian aquifers release water 

from storage was the development by Theis ( 1935), 

through analogy with the mathematical theory of 

heat conduction, of an equation for the non-steadystate flow of ground water through permeable media 

to a discharging well, which is 

. Q !00 

s == 411'T r-!!S (e-"/u)du (1) 

4Tt 

in which s is the drawdown in water level at distance r- from a well discharging at constant rate Q 

from an extensive homogeneous and isotropic acquifer having a coefficient of transmissibility T (permeability times thickness) and a coefficient of storageS 

after a period of discharge t. This important equation, which for the first time introduced the elements 

of time ( t) and coefficient of storage (S), has become the foundation of quantitative ground-water 

hydrology. The coefficient of storage (S), which is 

a dimensionless constant, was defined by Theis 

( 1938, p. 894) as " * * * the volume of water, measured in cubic feet, released from storage· in each 

column of the aquifer having a base 1 foot square 

and a height equal to the thickness of the aquifer, 

when the water table or other piezometric surface is 

lowered 1 foot." Thus, if in an artesian aquifer 

having a coefficient of storage of 2 X 10-4 (0.0002) 

the head is lowered 400 feet in an area of one square 

mile (about 2.79 X 10.7 ff!), more than 2.23 X 106 ff1 

of water is released from artesian storage. 

Jacob (1940, p. 575, 576) pointed out that the 

release of water from artesian storage involves not 

only compression of the aquifer but also elastic expansion of the contained water, and that the components of the coefficient of storage may be defined 

by 

S = y8m [i., + ~-;-J (2) 

in which S is the coefficient of storage; y is the 

specific weight of water (62.4 lb ft-a/144 in2 ft- 2 

= 0.434 lb in-2 ft- 1 ) ; (} is the porosity of the aquifer; 

m is the thickness of the aquifer, in feet; '$w is the 

bulk modulus of elasticity of water (3X J.On lb in-2 ) ; 

b is the effective part of unit area of the aquifer that 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ·RESEARCH 1961 .. :" ... 

responds elastically 1 ; and E., is the bulk modulus of politan area are about: S 5 X 10-4, (} = 0.33, 

elasticity of the aquifer. It i~. convenien.t~.to .. u.se the 1 . ?'! , ,,2,0P ;f~, }ln~ ~P. = ~~0 lb in-:! ( 600 ft decline in 

. . 1 · . head). Using equation (6) :! 

reciprocal f3 In place of E., the value .. of ~ bei~g.. .

1 :; ·. .. .: . . 

3.3 x 10-11 in:! lb-t. 11 • • 'A1m ... · 2.6 X 10:! lb in-:! [ (2.31 ft 1~- 1 in:!) (5 X lO--t) 

. By combining Hooke's Law of ~lasticity with ~q~a- _ ( 0.33) (2X 10::? ft) (3.3 X 10-11 in:! lb-1) J 

twn;(2L lshalLpropose an.equatwnJor determ~ning ·' . . ....... · .. . ..... _. .. · · ·, ·Jq:· .. ,; .i· · 

the am<;m~t.,of ~l~stj_c sul;>siden<;e orcompressiqnlfrom · 2.6 X ,10- ~~ In-- .. ; . , 1• • . uvr. · . :. 

other kno~n factors~~ Hooke'.s Law statesthat,,~itJ~i_n .[11.55 x·,lO•'\ ft lb-1 in:!_ 2 Xnlo-.. ft lb-t in:!] 

the elastic limit, ~trai~is.:propo~tional to. stres~. · Ip = ... 25 ft"' . 1 ..: 1 · ~11~ l '~ . ; . 

notation .. conv~nie:nt 1 to .the problem, Hoo~e's. Law ·. · · · · .' Using the. aboV~ \iallie 'of ~in', :and' other knoWn 

ma;y be:~_~ritten.· .·~. .. 1 . ..• . . .· . . ')··· '''·"' . , .· · ·. · .. ·• 

·.. factors, equations"(3.) or (5) may be solved for E.,, ~ • • • , ~ • e t • l i • • l f "'( \ j "[ : I . . • , f ', / . '. . • ( . • •. I • ' I 

(3) wh.Ich Is found to be about 2:1 X 10;; 'lb In-2-a rea-· 

' ' ;- in which ~m; ''is the change \(reduction) in thickness 

of the aquifer (amount'. of elastic subsidence), in 

fe~t; m .aiJd. EH a;re a~ drpn~d ~or equation (~) ;. anq 

4P .is· th~. chan~e. (;r,ed, uctio;n). ;inr artes~~:p. pres~ure, 

in 'lb ft-2• · " • · - · . · ' • , I , r I ' •,. , ' I·~ ( ~ J • ~~ jj (j 9 {: • ·:,.· ' , ~ .' ; .... ' .· . ~, ; '.:.I • , . 

DjvJding both. siaes of equatiqn. (2) by y,;.assurp.- ,.. .;J ··. ii I I I • ••••• L, .. : •• 

ing b to be unity, substituting the reciprocal /3: .for 

{, and exp~n,di~;:,~qu~t~on. (2)·'hecomes• . , ' 

, i '·" • • ', • '- t • i '• ' ' ' ) ·. ~ ,• • i : ' i ; ' j ; ' I ' ' ' ~ ~ I ' 

sort~ble iv~ilue for' 'a .$ali'dstone) or cohglo'm.erate.' ' .: ' 

'~.The~ studies riow· .in progress by' Mr. 'cliase w!ill 

include a. com'patison of :the''tot~l· 'cblnpt·t~d elas.tic 

corhpression of: this arid' 'over:l1

yirlg 'and 'underh~irt'g 

drtesian'' ~quife'rs . :With the 'lot:;tl suhsiden~e qf' the 

land ~s"indicated b~'old ailct' new leveling,by the u.:~t' Coas't 1 l:tnd. Geod~tie s urve~r.' ·- . ·, ·.- . .. " .. " . : .. ·· 

~ . '' ~ 

-":It, sh.ould ·again be stres'sed 'that equat!o}:t' (6) 

g'i v:e~'. only the -'elastic. ·.~orhpression or' subsidence'~· 

an<f that ;the :g.:r~ater sub~!idence: that ha~· bccu'rred 

1n··m~{ny Jreas fs due· .to'plas_tic:de!bifu~Pioti 6f ·asso-

, · '( 4>' cia ted clay. · ' ~ · 1 • • brL'' J- · 

· • · 1 ,. , ·a · , . (').:;I 1!' 

Equation· {3) may be written· 

. : ' ·) : ( · .

-<:... '.' '(5) . ).; ' ' ... .. · i. 

Combining. equations t4) and (5) and solving for.~m 

,gives the· desired equation· ; 1

. r .. · 

tirr{ ·; ·ap· '(Sly-:-Omf:J) '(6) ! r, ' I' r •j ' 

.. .'.Thus, in. an ·elastic ·.or reas.onably ·elastic artesian 

aq~i~~r, .for, )¥_hiGh S ·;is 'kn.oin. f~om . a . pumping 

(Theis, 1953) .. ,or flow. (Jacobr:.and Lohm~n, 195:1). 

test, () is ~.nown ,f:r:om core or ·Sample. tests, m ·l·S 

known from a dri"lfe~'s.log or electric log, it.'is possible. to co~p~t~ from. equation (6) tJ:le am~u.nt ·.of 

elastic suhsiqence. of the .. land surface ( GOmpression 

of aquifer)' ~m, ·for a'given regional de~lirie 'in artesian pressure' d;p> For ~~ample', although studie·s ~f 

the 'Denver artesia'ri· jbasin ar~ . not yet c·ompleted~ 

preliminary information (George H. Chase, U.S. 

Geological Suryey, written communication, Jan. 23, 

1961) indicated that average values for wells in the 

basal sandstone and conglomerate of the Arapahoe r \ -~ . ..~ . ··. \ , . . , .J • • :. ! , . . .•. · • 

formation (Upper Cretaceous) in the Denver metro- ~ ' I I ' ' : • ' '• • 

; 1 In :an aquifer com :Posed of· uncemented granular. material the value of 

b .js unity. In a solid aquifer •. afl- a limestone having, tubular channels,: b is 

apparently ~qual to 'the porosity. The value of b for a sa'ndstone doubtless 

ri!~ges between these limits, but in the deveio:pment that f()llows, a valuejbf 

unity. has. been assumed. 1 ro, 

Gilluly, 'Jam~s,·and ·G~afit; U.' s.; 1949';· Sub~iderice irl the Lring 

·Beach Harbor are·a,.·.caiif. ::· · GeoL ·Soc~ America Bull., \r. , , -·60, p. 461-52.9, 28 fig. ·.~, ; .Lt. )'~[!J,. ' 

~nter-A,gency Committee on] L~~<;I Subsjden<;e ·in ·.the San 

. Joaquin. Vlillley,. 1958, Progress report ~n ·Iand-sub~idence 

· ' fnvestigations in the San 'Joaq~i~ Valle·y~ Calif., through 

· ·1957; Sacrainento; 'Caii:d,' i6o· p:, 45. pis. · · ·. · · · ,\) 

Jacob, C.:·E.,-1940, On the flow of water in ·an elast'ic artesian 

· aquifer:. Am. Geophys . .p nion ·Trans., pt. 2, p. 57 4-586, · .4· 

fig~ . . 

J~~qb, .Q. E., an9. ~ohman, 'S. :w.,,,1952, )\l"onsteady ,flo,w to a 

. well. of constant drawdown in an extensive aquifer: Am. 

Ji: Geophy~~· Uni~~ Trans.; v. 33,'p~ 559-569,.9 11i: · · ·-: · Meinze;r; o. E~;;192S; ··compressibility ~uia-·elasticityof artesian 

aquifers: Econ. Geology, v. 23, 'p. ·263-291: ti r r. . · 

Meinzer, ·o. E., and :Hard, H. H., 1925, .. The artesian. water 

.: .:".· sup~ly of. the Dakota s~n.dsti:m~l in ·Noxr~h Dako.ta; wjth 

. ,.,special reference .to the .Edgeley quadr~ngle: U.S.: Geol. 

. Su,rvey Water-Supply Pap~r 520~E, p. · 73-95, pl. 6, 7, ·fig.c'7,·8.: -· ') · ·. '· · · · · ·:' · · 

Pohmd'~•'J. F:, ·and Davis, G:: H., '1956', 'subsi(Umce of the·1·fand 

~surface in the .Tulare-Wasco· · (Del an b) and Los · Ban~s,;; 

. K~ttleman City ar.ea, S;;~.n ·Joaquin Valley,. Calif.: Am. 

: qeophys_. Union Trans~, v .. 37,.no. 3, p. 28T-29.6, 12 .. figs. 

Theis, .C. V., i935,. The r~lation between .the iowering of the 

. piezometric sur.face and the rate and duration. ~f .dis-

'charge' of a' well us'in~ft ground~ water. stor~ge: Am. 

· Geophys. Union Tran·s: !16th Aim. Mtg., p. 519-524, 2 figs: 

2 It is" convenient to us~ the' 1eci~roc~i of 'Y (0:434 lb in-~ ft-1), which 

is 2.3.1 ft lb-1 in2.. • .• :. , , ) ..... : .. 

t 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE' GEOLOGIC -AND HYDROLOGIC ·sciENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-49 

Theis, C .. v., 1938, The significance and nature 'of the cone of 

depression in ground-wat~~i bqdies; Econ. ~eo logy, v .. 3~, 

p. 889-902, 2 figs. . .. ,. , . 

I 1 :• ( 

:i .. . I/ 

\ • ~a r ( 

,•a' • 

·Winslow, A.- 'G., and Doyel, W; W., .1954, Land-surface·1subsidence and its relation to the withdrawal of g-round 

, , water. in the Houston:-Galveston. region, Texas: ··Econ. 

Geol'ogr. v. 49, p·.· 413~42~. · .·. · 

.. I .< 

• " } r ., 

24. ' MEASUREMENT OF· COMPACTION OF AQUIFER SYSTEMS IN·· AREAS OF LAND ·suBSIDENCE' 

. ' .'\ '~ . .. . : .. ··{ .. ' . . ' 

'1; 1. By.BEN.E. LOFGREN, Sacramento, Calif. 

'f1' I • ; • , ( I • ' ~ ; I • 

·. I.'· ~ • f ·. . . . , . ., I 1: ' ·' .:-.r 

Wq1·k .d.?p.e,in .coope_1'fJ,tion,w~t!t. ~h~, palifO?·n_iq, Department-of W~ter Res9urces_ 

.. • I , 1 1 ~ , • ~, ;· r • , \ J '. ~ t • • • ¥ I , , ; 

. , Land subsidence, affects ap, area of mor.e than ,2!500 

square miles in t_he San Joaquin yalley, Cal,if., ~nd 

is t~e r~sult of.comp~cticm. of _unco.n~_olidat~d al~uvial 

an~ lacustrine. ideposits ~s groun~-wat~r levels .~re 

l_owered by_,heav.y pu,mping. Th,e subs~dence .. occur~ 

in areas 'where the aquifers are confined or semiconfined. Twenty specially designed compaction recorders h.a y~_peen inst~lled in the a;re~s .oLm~?.Ci.J)1JHP. .. 

subsidence. Two to 5 ye·ars of records show that 

compaction measured by recorders is directly related 

to changes in water level, ~nd is approximately equal 

to the surveyed subsidence·"of the larid surface. · 

In a~eas of. maximum subsidence, ground-water 

levels show a general downward trend, a:(.ld --sub~ 

sidence rates range from 0.4 to 1.5 feet per year. In 

these areas, 1 foot of St!b'siderice. has been observed 

for each 10 to .25 feet of water-level decline. Compaction· of· the unconsolidated deposits takes place 

as the artesian pressure decreases, thus tran~ferring·. 

more of the overburden load to grain-to:.grain con.- .. 

tacts of the aquifer. The compaction is due chiefly·· 

to a nonelastic .. rearra.ngement of the grains of the 

deposit and· .. ·results in· a permanent decrease in 

volume~ A small part of the compaction is,--elastic; · 

and samples tested in the laboratory for co,nsolidation sh9w minor rebound· when unloaded. However, 

rebound or expansion of the: aquifer system :has not 

been observed in the ,fie,ld me~surements. ,.' . 

EQUI~M~NT 

A special type•of r~corder is being used to meas~re.­

the rate and ·.;magnitude. of compaction occurring at_-

depth. As _sht5w.n in figu~-~ ~~.1, the assembly con-. 

sists of a heavy_ w~ight emplaced in the form~~ion 

below the bottom. of a well casing, with an attached: 

cable st~~~cheq upward, in_ ;th~ ~a~~ng and cou~t~r:- . 

. t • ~ • i ~ .. 

If [ I ,. 

increments 

'· \ 

:. \- ·.. · .. 

.'!' 

t ••• ,, . 

~q . l '; . ') 

Metal table on concrete platform 

FIGURE 24.1._:_Diligram of co~pactipn~recorder installation. 

,w_eighted at the land surface to maintain constant 

tension .. A monthly recorder mounted .over the open 

casi_ng is . used to _measure direct~y _the ;:tmount of 

cable tha:~. appears. above tJ?~. cas_ing __ as subsidence 

occurs. At the land surface it appears as if the 

bot~om-hole wei~ht ~s,rising:;· actu_ally, the land sur-
. B-50 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

face is settling ·with respect to the bottom-hole 

weight. 

The success of this method and equipment depends largely on the elastic characteristics of the 

cable under tension. After considerable experimentation, a specially manufactured lj8 -inch, stainless steel, 7 X 7 stranded, plastic-coated cal;>le was 

selected, and seems to meet the rigorous requirements very well. Ball-bearing sheaves are used to 

reduce the frictional drag of the system. 

Compaction recorders have been installed in unused irrigation wells and in specially drilled wells. 

At most sites, the bottom weight is placed in an 

open hole 15 to 25 feet below the bottom of the well 

casing so that measurements of vertical shortening 

are independent of the casing. 

At several locations in the San Joaquin Valley, 

compaction recorders have been installed in two or 

more closely spaced wells. Bottom-hole weights in 

these wells are placed at different depths so that the 

compaction occurring at different depth intervals 

can be computed. Water-level recorders are also 

generally installed in or near the compaction-recorder well to record fluctuations and trends of 

ground-water levels as compaction continues. 

RESULTS 

A compaction recorder of the type shown in figure 

24.1 installed in well19/17-35N1 has been measuring 

the rate of compaction in the upper 2,000 feet of 

unconsolidated alluvial deposits near Huron, California. Subsidence of nearby bench mark B 889 

has been d~termined by periodic leveling traverses 

of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In addition, 

the changes in hydraulic support in the underlying 

artesian aquifer system have been determined by 

frequent water-level measurements in well 19/18-

27Ml. 

The correlation between subsidence of the surface 

bench mark, vertical compaction, and water-level 

fluctuation is shown in figure 24.2. The water level 

in well 19/18-27M1 fluctuates 50 feet or more each 

year in response to heavy pumping in the area, and 

has declined about 40 feet during the 4.8-year period 

r---------~----r-------------~.---------------r---------------~------------~358 

1-

UJ 

UJ 

1.1.. 

1-

tj 0 ....... .-----------r--------------, 1.1.. 

z· 

;1r------------1~~~~-----J------------~ ------ 0 L-----------J 352 t2~-------~-------~---~~~~±-----------, <( 

Q.. 

~3L_ ________ L_ _________ L_ _______ +------~----~~----------.3 () 

~ 360 

~ UJ 

~ 380~-------~~--~-4~--~t-~~t-------~~~--t-~F-~---~-t-t-~-t------j 3: 

0 

::r::: 1- .400~----------~----------~--------~t-~~--~-t--t-~-~~-----, 1-

Q.. 

UJ 

0 

420~---------~---------t----------t----------t------~~---j 

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 

FIGURE 24.2.-Graph showing measured subsidence, compaction, and water-level change near Huron, Calif. 

1-

UJ 

UJ 

1.1.. 

~ 

LJ" 

0 

:::> 

1-

i= 

...J 

<( 

::;::: 

0:: 

<( 

~ 

± 

u 

z 

UJ 

en 

_, 

"; 
.. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-51 

shown on the graph. This water-level decline has 

resulted in a measured compaction of 3.8 feet within 

the 2,000-foot depth interval of the compaction recorder, and a total subsidence of the land surface 

of 4.6 feet. Thus, subsidence near Huron is continuing at a rate of 0.96 foot per year, and 1 foot of 

subsidence has occurred for each 10 feet of waterlevel decline. The compaction that occurred in the 

upper 2,000 feet of deposits during the 4.8-year 

period represented 82 percent of the total subsidence, 

suggesting that 18 percent, or 0.84 foot of compaction, occurred in the deposits below 2,000 feet. This 

assumption is reasonable, because nearby wells withdraw water from below 2,000 feet. 

200 

400 

~ 

UJ 

UJ 

u... 

~ 600 

::i 

~ 

a.. 

UJ 

a 

800 

1000 

COMPACTION RECORDERS 

16H3 16H4 16H2 

Upper confined aquifer 

Lower confined aquifer 

Approximate base of aquifer 

-------

A. RELATION OF MULTIPLE RECORDERS TO 

THE HYDROLOGIC UNITS 

Inspection of figure 24.2 shows that each major 

change in hydraulic support, as indicated by the 

hydrograph of well 19/18-27M1, is reflected in the 

compaction graph. During periods of rapid waterlevel decline, compaction occurs at a maximum rate. 

Conversely, during periods of rising water levels, 

the compaction rate declines. No expansion has 

been detected by the compaction recorder during 

periods of water-level rise. 

Figure 24.3 A is a diagrammatic cross section 

through an area of active subsidence near Oro Lorna, 

Calif. The relative positions of the depth anchors 

of the three compaction recorders operating at this 

site are shown in relation to the principal hydrologic 

0 

I 

' 

COMPACTION RATE, ft X 10-"lftlyr 

2 3 4 5 6 

~Nov. 1, 1958, to Nov. 1, 1959 

I 

~ 

I 

Nov.1, 1959, to Nov.1, 1960 

I 

I 

I 

I 

16H3 1-~-r:- L---------:---- ~-- 1 

16H4 

. . . . . 

1 

16H2~--------------------------------~------

B. MEASURED COMPACTION RATE OF DEPOSITS 

IN THREE DEPTH ZONES 

FIGURE 24.3.-Compaction rates near Oro Lorna, Calif., as measured by three compaction recorders. A, Relation of multiple 

recorders to hydrologic units; B, measured compaction rate of deposits in three depth zones. 
.B-52 i .. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961. · 

units; .Recorder 16H3 measures the total compac- · 

tion ·occurring between the. surface and the anchor 

at 350-foot >(lepth .. Siinilarly, . recorders 16H4 and 

16'H2 measure the' compaction occurring· between 

the 'surface and their respective ·500-foot and 1,000-

foot anchor deJitl~s~ · By· coni paring the rec·ord of 

ahy two 'recorder's, the magnit'ude' and' rate of com-

'pacti()n ;occurring in each d'epth zo~e' ate obtained. 

.Figure 24.3 B shows th~ rate of :compaction that 

occ~rred.·i~·each of three depth zones fo~ 'two peripds 

.of .recorqing;!_,Fo~ compariso'n, .theserates hav·e· btr~n 

.converted to unit values and represent .the. average 

.amount ·of vertic~J..shortenipg that .occurred in each 

foot of thickness each year. The compaction rate in 

1.'· 

the 350- to 500-foot depth zone. decreased greatly 

during the second year of record. 

·From November 1, 1959, to .November 1, l960, 

0.014 ·foot of compaction occurred in the 0- to 350-. 

foot depth zo.ne (0.40 X10"" .ft/f~/y:r), 0.016 foot of 

compaction oc.curred. in the· 350- to. 500-foot depth 

zone ( 1.07 X 10-4 ft/ft/yr), .and 0.292 foot of. compaction occurred in the 500- to 1,000-foot depth zone 

( 5.84 X 10-4 ft/ft/yr). The total 0.322 foot of compaction measured .by the 1,000 foot recorder· approximately equaled the amount of subsidence of a nearby 

Coast 'and Geodetic Survey bench mark. · These 

measurements suggest that during this 1-year period, 

little or no compaction was ocgurring within the 

unconsolidated deposits below· 1,000 feet. 

. . !... -·-I '• . ·.' , . . . . . . , ~ 

25. THE COEFFICIENT OF STORAGE IN A REGION OF MAJOR SUBSIDENCE CAUSED BY COMPACTION OF 

AN AQUIFER SYSTEM , 

·.:/. 1 By J. F. PoL!A.No, Sacramento, Calif. 

Meinzer (Meinzer and Hard, 1925) .was the first 

to conclude that the water discharged :by wells tapping an artesian aquifer (the Dakota sandstone) 

had been derived largely from storage.' He rea:~(med 

that water withdrawn from storage was released by 

compression of the aquife·r: Subsequently· Meinzer 

(1928) c<;>nsiderecr··release from storage by' expansion 

of the water, described evidence for the compressibility ang elasticity of artesian aquifers, and stated 

(p. 289) that"* * * artesian aquifers are apparently 

all more·· or less compressible and elastic though 

they. differ widely in the degree .and relative importartce" of these properties." · . 

Following development in 1935 of Theis' equation 

for non-steady-state flow of water to a discharging 

well, Theis ( 1938, p. 894) defined the coefficient of 

storage as " * * * the volume of water, measur~d in 

cubic fee_t, released from storage in each column of. 

the _aquifer ;having a base 1 foot squ~re :;tn<l a height 

equal to the thickness of the aquifer when the water 

table or other piezometric surface is lowered 1 foot." 

Shortly thereafter Jacob (1940) postulated that 

when water is removed from and pressure is· decreased in an elastic artesian aquifer, .. stored water 

is derived from thre~ sourc~s: (.a') expansion of the 

confined water,' (b) comp.ression of the aquifer, and 

(c) compression of the adjacent arid included ·clay · •'! 

beds. He concluded that t~e third source is probably 

the chief one in the usual case. He stated (p. 574) 

" * * * that because of the low permeability of the 

clays (or shales) there is a tip1e-lag between the lowering of pressure within the aquifer and the appearance of th=it part of the water which is derived from 

storage in those clays (or shales)." To avoid mathematical complications, however, he assumed that 

release of stored ~ater from th~ clay. bed~ (i~ instantaneous. He defined the coefficient of storage in 

terms of the three sources of water, as 

.· [ 1 - b . ' c J S=y8m .. -E +:8 ..E +-E· II' .~ I' • 

(1) 

In this equationS is the coefficient of storage; y is 

the specific weight' of water (0.434 lb/in:!/ft); () is 

the porosity of the aquifer; m is the thickness of the 

acquifer, in feet; Eu- 1 is the bulk modulus of elasticity 

of the water (3 X 10" lb/i·~t) ;. b is the proportion of 

the plane of contact between the aquifer and the con-

. fining layer over which the hydrostatic pressure is 

effective (unity. for an aquifer composed 'of uncemented gran~l~r material) ; E.~ i~· .the bulk modulus 

of elastiCity of the aquifer matrix; Ec is the modulus 

of compression of clay beds; and c is a dimensionless 

. 1/3, the reciprocal of E,.:. is 3.3 x. 10-o in2Jb-·1. 
+ 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE ·GEOLOGIC;:AND HYDRO'LOGIC SCIEN:CES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-5'3 

quantity that depends largely on the thickness, con- We can compute approximate values for the coinfiguration, and distribution ·of the intercalated clay ponents of the;coefficient of storage in equation (1) 

beds. · for an example in the Los Banos-Kettleman City 

El~ewhere in this volume Lohm3;n (Art. 23) briefly area. Average values used for the confined aquifer 

reviews the development of the concepts of .the oc- system· are .as follows: ·coefficient of storage from 

currence. of water. in artesian aquifers· beginning short-term pumping tests about 1 X io-a,. () = 0.4, m 

with Meinzer's c'lassic work, and derives an equa- i\. 790 _feet .(aqui.fe:r th:i.ckness, ,excluding ·,for this 

tion for determining the am.ount of' elastic co~pres- example the clayey interbeds aggregating about .?00 

sion of artesian aquifers from known declines in feet in thickness), and 6.p = 130 lb in-2 (300 feet· 

adesian. pressure an~Lknown hydrologic properties· decline in. head). . · · 

of the aquifers. Lohman's equation (Art. 23, this The first element of equation (i), the component 

volume) is expressed' inr.t·he form of S due to elastic expansion of the water (ide'ntified 

' ~ !'r,·: n . . . here as sl) is y0m(3. . .· , : 6.?1~ =r= D-P .. (S/y - OntfJ}, (2) 

in which' D.nt is th:e reduction in 'thickn.ess of the sl = (0.434 lb in-:! ft-1

) (0.4). (700· ft) (3.3 ' 

X 10-.6 in. 2 Ib-1 ) •.. 4 X 10-4 

aquifer: (amount.: ,of .~~astic compression), in feet, 

and'6p ·is the redu-ction ip artesian pressure in lbs/ft:!. The elastic c.ompression of the aquifer (elastic 

The:other te~ms a~e as'tlefined for equation (1). Loh- subsidence· ·of the land _.surface) can be computed 

man's equation· '(2) ·affords a: means of evaluating . from equation (2), using the S obtained from short-· 

the second component of equation (1), ymb/E.,, when term pumping tests, as follows: 

E .• is not known. 

In areas where intensive ground-water develop- .. 6.m · 130 lbs in-2 [ (1 X 10-a)/ (0.434lb in-:! ft-1 ) -

ment has drawn down the artesian head substantially 

(a hundred to several hundred feet) in highly com- (0.4) (700ft) (3.3 X. 10-6 in2 lb-1

) J = 0.18 ft 

pressible confined aquifer systems containing many Thus, the second component of s in equation ( 1), 

cl3:y interq~~s, major subsidence of the Ian~ s~rface ide.ntified here as s2

, is the elastic compression di- · •· 

has occurred. For example, land subsidence ,from 

this cause has reached 2 to more than 20 feet in vided by the artesian-head decline or 0.18 ft/300 ft 

-. _6 ·X 10-4 • parts of the San Joaquin Valley (see Art. 24 by 

Lofgren and Art. 26 by Miller) and 9 feet in the The component of storage derived from compacSanta Clara Valley, both in California, and several tion of the clayey interbeds and confining beds (Sa) 

feet in the Houston:.:Galveston area in Texas (Wins~ can· be estimated approximately from the gross sublow and'Wood, 1959),. · The· subsidence probably i~ sidence of the land surface. In this· area, the ratio 

caused ·almost wholly by compaction of the inter- of s.ubsiden~e to: 'head decline ranges' about from 

calated and confining .beds of clay, silty clay, and · l/10 to 1/25. if ·~e use a.' rati'o of 1/20· (subsidence 

clayey 'silt, both by ''plastic deformation and me- = {5 .feet for 300 feet of head decline)~ 'the':h '"the.·· 

chanica! rearrangeme~t ~f grains,. a~d to that ex- compo.nent of ~torag·e deriveq from compactio~. (both 

tent is inelastic and permanent. In such aquifer elastic and inelastic) of~the ·clayey sediments is · 

systems the ~water take;n ~rorri ·storage as defined by 15 ft _..._ 0:18 ft = 

0 05 .

5 

X 

10_

2

· • 

the coe.f!icient of s!orage derived from short-term . 300 ft . · or . 

P\lmping tests may-::rep:r;-~sent a very small part of Summing the three components, S 1 +. ·s'2· + Sa~ 

the water actually removed from storage.: gives·a long-term unit stor~ge yield of 0.051.' _Thus~ 

APPLICATION TO THE LOS BANOS-KETTLEMAN· CITY . AREA ' 

;f'! -1 ; il / . ; .' •'! 

Subsi,dence in the Los :Panos-Kettleman City area 

on the central west si~~;of the San Joaquin Valley 

(for ·location see map in Art. 26 by Miller) extends 

over 1,100 square miles.and ranges from 1.to, 22 feet. 

In most of this area, about all the subsidence is 

known to be caused by compaction of the. confined 

aquifer system (see Art. 24 by Lofgren). 

It' I , ' ' \ 1 : ' }f: r 

Sa, the stored water released by compr~ssion or c.ompaction of the clayey bed~, is about 50 times'as great 

as the·iwater. released.- by elastic expansion ·Of the 

water and elastic compression of the aquif,er (com- ,... . , ,.I I. . . · 

ponents sl anq S2). )n other words, i~~thi~ ex:ampl~.l 

the coefficient of .. storage .derived from a sport-term 

pumping test gives a vo~ume only about one-fiftieth 

that of the long-:-term ( 15 to 25 year.s) yield from 

storage. 
B-54 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

This is an extreme example because it is computed 

for one of the most compressible aquifer systems for 

which data are now available. However, it serves 

to emphasize that the storage derived from compaction of the clayey interbeds and confining beds may 

be many times as great as that derived from elastic 

expansion of the water and elastic compression of 

the aquifer. 

Moreover, this component, S:h is a variable. The 

stored water yielded by the clayey beds would be 

large only during the first decline of artesian pressure. If the pressure subsequently recovered to (or 

near to) the initial conditions, and then was drawn 

down again through the same interval, the compression of the clayey beds, if mostly preconsolidated 

during the first drawdown· phase, would be only a 

small fraction of that in the first phase of pressure 

decline, probably less than 10 percent. 

REFERENCES 

Jacob, C. E., 1940, On the flow of wa~er in an elastic artesian 

aquifer: Am. Geophys. Union Trans. 21st Ann. Mtg., pt. 

2, p. 57 4-586, 4 figs. 

·Meinzer, 0. E., 1928, Compressibility and elasticity of artesian 

aquifers: Econ. Geology, v. 23, p. 263-291. 

Meinzer, 0. E., and Hard, H. A., 1925, The artesian water 

supply of the Dakota sandstone 'in North Dakota, with 

special reference to the Edgeley quadrangle: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 520-E, p. 73-95, pls. 6-7, 

figs. 7-8. 

Theis, C. V., 1935, The relation between the lowering of the 

piezometric surface and the rate and duration of discharge of a well using ground-water storage: Am. Geophys. Union Trans. 16th Ann. Mtg., p. 519-524, 2 figs. 

Theis, C. V., 1938, The significance and nature of the cone of 

depression in ground-water bodies: Econ. Geology, v. 33, 

p. 889-902, 2 figs. 

Winslow, A. G., and Wood, L. A., 1959, Relation of land subsidence to ground-water withdrawals in the upper Gulf 

Coast region, Texas: Am. Inst. Mining Metall. Petroleum 

Engineers Trans., v. 214; Mining Engineering, p. 1030-

1034. 

26. COMPACTION OF AN AQUIFER SYSTEM COMPUTED FROM CONSOLIDATION TESTS AND DECLINE IN 

ARTESIAN HEAD 

By R. E. MILLER, Sacramento, Calif. 

In the parts of the San Joaquin Valley shown on 

figure 26.1, the land surface has been subsiding at 

rates up to 1.5 ft/yr owing to large withdrawals of 

artesian water from poorly consolidated late Cenozoic sediments. By refining a method outlined by 

Gibbs ( 1960), the compaction in the confined aquifers 

is being computed at selected core-hole sites in the 

San Joaquin Valley. The method of computation is 

based upon Terzaghi's theory of consolidation (1943, 

p. 266-267), using the results of one-dimensional 

consolidation tests made upon core samples of the 

aquifer system, and the decline in artesian head that 

has occurred. An extension of this technique can be 

used to predict future subsidence. 

COMPUTATION OF AQUiFER COMPACTION 

The computation of aquifer compaction at core 

hole 12/12-16H1 in the Los Banos-Kettleman City 

area in the western part of the San Joaquin Valley 

(fig. 26.1) is a typical example of the method being 

used in the present studies. In this area there has 

been no decline in the water table, but intensive 

pumping from the confined aquifer system has 

caused a substantial drawdown of artesian head. 

The procedure for making the computations was 

as follows: 

1. The upper and lower limits of the confined 

aquifers were determined from the electric 

logs of nearby wells. 

2. Then, as shown in figure 26.2, the aquifer and 

overburden is divided into sufficient segments 

so that each segment could be represented by 

a single consolidation test typical for that 

segment. 

3. The artesian head of the confined aquifers was 

determined from the static levels in nearby 

wells and converted into pounds per square 

inch. The decline in aquifer pressures was 

estimated for the aquifer system for the period 

1937-59 using t}:le static-level records of the 

wells for previous years. 

4. The overburden load on the aquifers in pounds 

per square inch was computed from the wet 

unit weight of the core samples. There has 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-55 

·o 

I 

' 

0 

' " 

<I? 

' " ' " /' ' 

~ ' 

---· 

FIGURE 26.1.-Areas of land subsidence in the San Joaquin 

Valley, Calif. 

been no decline in the water table in this .area 

between 1937 and 1959. This means that no 

compaction occurred in segments 1, 2, and 3 

during this period and that there was no decrease in overburden load on the confined 

aquifers owing to dewatering of the sediments 

above the water table. 

5. The effective load on the top segments of the 

confined aquifers was computed for the periods 

for which the aquifer pressures had been determined by subtracting the aquifer pressure 

from the bulk weight of the aquifer overburden. The maximum load that could occur would 

be when the artesian pressure is zero and the 1 full weight of the overburden bears on the 1 

aquifer. 

6. One-dimensional consolidation tests were made 

on the core samples of the aquifer system for 

the maximum load range that could occur in 

the aquifers. These tests were made in the 

Earth Laboratory of the Bureau of Reclamation at Denver, Colo. An increase in loading 

results in a decrease in the void ratio of the 

sample tested. Clays tend to consolidate more · 

under load than sands, but not as rapidly. 

7. The compaction occurring in each segment of an 

aquifer system can be computed for any specified aquifer pressure decline if the effective 

load change on the segment can be determined. 

In determining the e'ffective load on the segment, the buoyant weight of any overlying 

aquifer segments is added to the effective 

weight of the overburden load. The aquifer 

pressures at the core-hole site are shown in 

figure 26.2 and the effective loading on each 

aquifer segment is listed in table 1. 

As illustrated in figure 26.2, two confined 

aquifers are present in this area. The principal aquifer is the lower one. Pumping from 

this aquifer was locally decreased shortly after 

1953, owing to the availability of surface water 

from a nearby canal. Consequently the static 

levels of wells perforated in the lower aquifer 

were lowest in 1953 and have shown a slight 

amount of recovery since that time. The greatest effective load on the lower aquifer was in 

1953, therefore, and the load at that time was 

used as a maximum for computing compaction 

in the lower aquifer. In the upper aquifer, 

which is tapped by only a few domestic wells, 

there has been a small but steady decline in 

static level between 1937 and 1959. 

8. The compaction due to the load change on each 

segment of the aquifer system was computed 

from the void-ratio change which was determined graphically from the extension of the 

straight-line part of the one-dimensional consolidation curves. Compaction was computed 

by the equation 

~h = e1 - e:! h 

1 + e1 

in which ;j.h = compaction, in feet; e1 == initial 

void ratio; e:! == void ratio after loadjng, and 

h == thickness of aquifer segment, in feet. 

The ultimate compaction determined for 

the confined aquifers as a result of the change 

in artesian pressure from 1937 to 1959, and 

the part of that compaction computed to have 

occurred by 1959 are shown in table 1. 

9. A complicating factor that must be considered 

is the time lag of compaction. In segments 

of the aquifer that have very low permeability, 

years or even decades might be required before 

enough water is displaced so that all of the 

computed compaction can occur. The time required for the computed compaction to be 
.B-5,6 GE;OLOGICA~ SUR_Y~Y RESEARC!I 1961 

SELF~' i · · · . 

DESCRIPTION 

· Millivolts· : 

POTENTIAL. . RE~I~TIVITY $EGME~TS ,,. . 

0~~~~~+---~----~--~~~~--------------+---------------------------~--~ 

· Ohm-meters 

VECTORS SHOWING 

PRESSURE-LOADING DISTRIBUTION 

30 . '. 

·.? \' 

100 1-~----s--+-+-----:--~ 

~ 1 • 

', -:· 1; 

::.·: ,200 ~-:-'-'----)-;_:- .. -J~,{--il'' "?~~~-----! 

.. •' .. '\' ) 

OVERBURDEN 

: '(Silt, clay, and ~ome sand) 

'' 300' !--~..=:--+~~ ;_·' -'--'~-~ ('----------l . ' 

; rr<: ·~ · --------- -f;--.,...-~--1 

·,,, :t 2 -·--- ~- ~ 1-'-' ;.:..''-----! 

. 'I ··; ".'-.I ;j ., .. 3 t --.------

. t;. 400 1---_:__-f--1"-1-,------'-....j 

I· 

.· .... ~ 

. . 

UP.PER CONFINING CLAY 

· (Diatomaceou~) 

OVERBURDEN LOAD ON 

ARTES!AN AQUIFERS 

400 psi 

(· ..... , ... 1)4.·;. '•: 

.·. 'Jl t : .. ) 

644 psi 

\ 

·tLIJ 

LIJ 

, I , , ~ . --:-- ......... --- ~-------h--:-------------l---r----L----r------'-----11----------j 

~ ~ 

II 

'•I.L.· :i z '500 ~-~--~~+----------l~--~ _,- ·.-· :.:(·J. ,· )> >--~---,--:-

~· ,; \. ~~~[~===== ·: v ~" -1-., . ., : . ' 8 . 

600 ~----~~~~~,~,----:-~--~~ 

9 j~} f .. (

t . . i . . 

t

;> . ' . ·_ ,· 

. . ' \...,.-------

.i J' 

.. i; ·., 

10 

UPPER ARTESIAN 

AQUIFER .. 

M " 0'1 

- ·0'1 

LO 

0'1 

-

·. 145 psi 

(Fine sand, silt, and. clay) . ! .,169 psi - .~.! 

'l. 

'ARTESIAN PRESSURE 

1i•A-• :.·I 

I J• t •:._..,. ' 

·: ,. 

-------.-j..;--___:-4----------+-----------:-----t---------, 

11 LOWER CONFINING CLAY '-~;,;) 1 . 

--------~---~~-------,--~--+-~~----~----,-~~~---------; 12 -------1-------1 

aoo~~---+---1-4-----~ 13 

• I • I '1 - ...:_._---- -1!--~_;..;.--1 

14 

I ; ~- lj 1 

LOWER ARTESIAN'. 

. f r ·~· 206 psi 

i' -~~ t f) 

lt ;r: 

15 

9901-_ .. --:-----,-~>~--;-. ~.-f>~.----.,-.T----.:-----.. ~-~--~ .. ~.~ 

. ··< : ~~ ( j r ?(' ' 16' 

AQUIFER·' 

~~(Fine to coarse sand, 11 

silt, an9 clay) .r,- . u !·1 _ . n i260 psi 

· \ .• · -~. ::T!•-·'J 10001-------~~~L-----~~+-----~ 

• , ~ o I j ( l t_): ,' J ~ ~ 

. 0 L 

:' c. 

. I. 

•• '-!:: 

:, I. -~ 

;, 

j>J)I • .;!· '.(";! . I .I I 

~ ·. . ARTESIAN PRESSURE I 'J ::J • • , •• !.~ i 

-~'.·1 )• ! ...... 

\ ... : ~ ' !., I ~· 

.. FH:iu·R~ 26.2._:_Logs · an'd' diagr~hi;;~:f- press\fre~loading .distribution -f~r: th~ ~duifer system at' cor~ hole '12;/ 12~i~~ 1·, Sari .Joaquin 

··:HU . l't~.j(' . ,: · :I Valley, Cali:i~.. . , . . fi: -: :; .• I 

::ll. •'•':(/ ~ ~ ' . .t 

J I(~ !"ri-;J J:..~ 'I.; 
~· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-57 

TABLE 1.-E.ff'ective loading and compaction, at core hole 12/12-16H1 computed lo1· the period 1937-59 

----------- ---~-,------,-----------

Effeetive load rltimate rompac:tiun completed by 1959 Amount of :;~llllll'llt ' 

ntunhrr (:;cc fiK. 26.2) ThiC'km·s~ 

(fret) 

Efft•<'tivc 

load 10:~; 

(psi) I -~0-=~~~~·~-~~:~:~1--~:)~;~(:·i~~~~- \JlSil I (JlSi) I 

compaetion t 

(feet) --------·-. ------ residual 

compaction Percent Feet as of 1959 

(feet) 

1------2-5.:>---1·-----

:> ....... . · ... . 48 2:~1 

------------·-------

I . 1:3 8B 1.00 0.1:~ 

H ....... -·~· .. ,~5 247 

7 ........... . 20 265 

8 ........... . 25 272 

9 .......... .. 87 284 

.10 .......... . 2-l :{2:3 

.1.1 .......... . :38 ;{:l4 

12 .......... . 24 :384 

J:3 .......... . 52 :{!)5 

14 .......... . a2 JHJ 

15 .......... . 71 4:{:~ 

·u; .......... . li\) 465 

17 .......... . 1()0 -H>5 

, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .. 27.1 

289 

2!)6 

:308 

J . .j.'j 

:358 

.56 

.52 

.16 

.76 

. 12 

.:35 

.28 

.34 

.31 

1.08 

.75 

1. 7-:1: 

100 5() .00 

100 .52 .00 

100 ,1() .00 

2() .20 .56 

100 .12 .00 

6:l .22 . l:l 

100 .28 .00 

100 .:H .00 

100 .:31 .00 

100 1.08 .00 

100 .75 .00 

1.74 .00 

l--~-----l~----l-----~--l--~--.--.~.~~·~.-l-------

1'obtl .... · ......... . I .. I~. 7.28 0.82 

... ~ 

J 

1 Pounds per square inch. 2 Compaction estimated to occur as result of artesian-head change, 1937-59. 

·completed can be estimated from the consolidation coefficient which is determined as part 

of the one-dimensional consolidation test. The 

equation given by Terzaghi and Peck (1948, 

p. 241) for computing the compaction time is 

Th':! ' 

t == -c-:-· I! 

in which t == compaction time, in years; T == 

time factor; h == thickness of aquifer seg~ent, 

in feet; and C,. · CQnsolidation coefficient, in 

ft!!/year. · 

If drainage can t~ke place from b~th top and 

bottom of the a?-uifer segment, ( h/2):! is used 

in plac.e of h!!. The time required for various 

percentages of compaction to be compl~ted is 

not a linear , relation, f9r the time depends 

upon T, which is a pure number nonlinearly 

related to the percent of compaction completed. 

Thus T == 1.0 for about 93 percent compaction, 

T = 0.2 for 50 percent compaction, and T :z 

0.0076 .for 10-percent compaction. 

Compaction of the upper confining clay oqcurs by 'qrainage into the underlying aquifer 

as a result of the downward pressure differential. The time required fo~ this compaction 

to be nearly completed (about 93 percent) can 

be estjmated from the preceding equation, 

using the values T == 1, h == 86 feet, and d, .. . . 

== 0.92 ft:!/yr for the load range of 200 psi to 

400 psi. 

1 X 86!! 

t == •.0.92 ... 

8.10 

/Similarly, half· of the compaction ·would be 

completed in about 1,600 years, but 10 percent 

of the compaction would be completed in only 

about 60 years. ·This would indicate that only 

a small amount of compaction has occurred in 

·this confining clay segment during the relatively ~short period between 1937 and 1.95~. 

·By this method the percent of co~pacti<;>.n 

. completed in each segment of the aquifer at . I "• • . . 

core. hole 12/12-16Hl was computed an<:} is 

, shown in .~able 1. Secondary consolidation effects ~ave not been. considered in these approximate computations of ~o.mpacti.on. •,: ,. 

COMPARISON OF ·coMPUTED SUBSIDENCE TO 

MEA~URED SUBSIDENCE 

Releveling of bench marks by the U. S. 'Coast and 

·Geodetic Survey indicated that 7.8 ·feet of' '!aridsurface subside.nce occurr~d in· the vicinity of cor¢ 

hole l2/12-16H1 between 1937 and 1959. 'The total 

ultimate .computed compaction of the' aquifers oue .. . . . . . . . ' . f ) i f• . 

to pressul,'e decline between ~937 and 1959 '_is 8.~ 

feet. The part of thi~ ultimate' compaction co~put~d 

to have occurr.~d by 19~~ fo.r segm~~ts 5 thro~gq: 17 (~g. ?6~2) is 7.28 f~et. I~ aqd~tjon, th~. rate o! ~ompacti.o!l of the. upper confinin.g. clay 1( s~gment .4•) .-has 

. been calculated as approxiJriately 0.01 foot .per.,year. 

Thus, the .total compaction ... computed. to. have· ':Occurred in segments 4 through.17 from 1937· to 195~ 

is 7.5 feet, 'compared.'to a tneasuted~·-iand-surface 

·subsidence··o{ 7.8 feet:l·'The 'resi.dtial 'compaction 
B-58 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

estimated to occur after 1959 as a result of the decline in artesian pressure from 1937 to 1959 is 0.8 

foot in segments 5 through 17. Additional compaction in the upper confining clay (segment 4) is estimated to continue at a rate of roughly 0.01 foot a 

year unless the artesian pressure in the upper artesian aquifer recovers appreciably. 

• 

REFERENCES 

Gibbs, H. J., 1960, A laboratory testing study of land subsidence: The First Pan American Conference on Soil 

Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Proc., 1959, 

Mexico City, v. 1, p. 13-36. 

Terzaghi, Karl, 1943, Theoretical soil mechanics: New York, 

John Wiley & Sons, 510 p. 

Terzaghi, Karl, and Peck, R. B., 1948, Soil mechanics in engineering practice: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 566 p . 

27. DEVELOPMENT OF AN ULTRASONIC METHOD FOR MEASURING STREAM VELOCITIES 

By H. 0. WIRES, Columbus, Ohio 

Wo1·k done in coperation with the U.S. Army Co'rps of Engineers and the Califo?·nia Department of Wate1· Resou1·ces 

Continuous records of streamflow in tidal or backwater reaches are difficult to obtain by. conventional 

methods because the velocity of flow is not a simple 

function of water-surface elevation. The number of 

such reaches in which flow records are needed is increasing as more streams are controlled by reservoirs and as the flow in tidal reaches becomes. increasingly. important in the total development of 

water resources. Continuous records of velocity 

would allow computation of flow at any time, and 

efforts have been directed toward development of 

instrumentation for that purpose. 

A system has been devised that utilizes the difference in velocity of propagation of sound in the upstream .and downstream directions to measure the 

velocity of streamflow. In this system transducers 

are installed near each streambank at an angle () with 

the direction of flow as shown on figure 27.1. Ultrasonic waves are generated and received at both installations. The difference in travel time of the wave 

in the upstream and downstream direction is related to the velocity of streamflow and this relation 

can be derived mathematically. 

A continuous wave transmission system using received-wave displacement as a measure of the difference in travel time was first designed and constructed under contract by Raytheon Manufacturing 

Company. After testing the system at several locations and under many separate conditions it was 

concluded that phase stability requirements could 

not be achieved. The extreme fluctuations of phase 

and amplitude encountered could be ascribed to 

multi path interference phenomena due to such· causes 

as thermal and energy gradients and boundary 

reflections. 

A second system has been devised, which eliminates the defects of the continuous wave transmission system. The basic characteristics of the new 

system, which is known as the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) method, are: 

1. Upstream and downstream sound velocities are 

measured simultaneously over a single acoustic 

path. 

2. A transmitted pulse with a sharp leading edge is 

used to eliminate multipath effects. .The first 

Wuff/&/d#4·~ / 

Flow. 

8 ,/ 

/7/ ~7/7/;#. .. '7$/;'////!f; ' / 

FIGURE 27.1.-lnstallation of transducers in a stream channel. 

.,. 
•· 

t 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-59 

arrived signal is used and any immediately fol-

. lowing signals are gated out. 

3. Flow velocity is related to the mean of the differences between the downstre~m and , upstream propagation velocities. 

A system having these characteristics is shown· 

diagrammatically on figure 27.2. A 135- acoustic 

pulse is transmitted from the upstream transducer 

and received at the downstream transducer. The 

energy from this pulse activates a keying circuit 

and another 135- pulse is transmitted from the upstream transducer. The 85- electro-acoustic circuit 

operates simultaneously with, and in the same manner as, but in the opposite direction from the 135-

circuit. The two-pulse repetition frequencies (PRF) 

are fed into a computing circuit, the output of which 

is proportional to the difference frequency. 

It is easily shown that the difference frequency is 

proportional to the velocity of streamflow. 

Let: v = velocity of moving medium 

Flow 

t I 

I 

I 

I & I 1/8 

I 

II 

')'~L ~I 

I 

I I 

I l 

I I 

I I 

I I 

I 

c = velocity of sound with no flow 

d = length of acoustic path 

() = angle between downstream acoustic path 

and downstream flow path 

Then: Velocity of sound propagation downstream 

C12 = C + V COS () 

Velocity of sound propagation upstream 

c:! 1 = c - v cos () 

The times of travel are 

d d d d 

t1'> =-= and t·>t =-=----- - c12 c + v cos () - C:!1 c - v cos () 

The pulse repetition frequencies, l12 and l211 are 

given by the reciprocals of these equations and the 

velocity of the streamflow is 

d 

v = 2 cos () (11'2 - 12d 

The computing circuits consist of two PRF multipliers, two motor-driven amplifiers, a synchro-differTransmitting, PRF=f2 receiving, and 

keying circuits 

85kc 

Computing 

circuits 

Transmitting, 

receiving, and 10 inch strip 

keying circuits chart recorder 

135kc PRF::;: t 1 

FIGURE 27 .2.-Diagram of the PRF system. 
B-60 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

entia!, and a syrichro-generator. The multipliers are 

used to bring the pulse repetition frequencies close · 

to 60 per second.· The synchro-differential subtracts 

the two frequencies, and the output of the synchrogenerator ·is proportional to this difference frequency. The generator output is fed into a circuit 

which multiplies this signal by the constant d/ (2 cos 

0). This product voltage appears on a meter and is 

recorded on a 10.-inch strip chart. 

The velocity of flow equation shows that, in addition to the two pulse-repetition frequencies, it is 

necessary only to determine d and (} to compute the 

river velocity. These t~o quantities are easily ahd 

I • 

accurately measured. As the upstream and downstream transmissions are sent simultaneously the 

effects of any fluctuations caused by changes in the 

acoustic properties of the water are eliminated. 

The PRF system has· been -installed on the Sacra..: 

·men to River at Sacramento, Calif. Several problems 

in the original design and operation of the equipment, such as selection of proper ·cable for adequate 

transmission, determination of automatic gain control requirements, and prevention of extensive· record blanking from occasional missed pulses, have 

been resolved, and a record is now being obtained 

to be used for analysis of the method. 

28. PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN ELECTRIC ANALOG OF LIQUID FLOW IN THE UNSATURATED ZONE 

By R. W. STALLMAN, Denver, Colo. 

The solution of hydrologic problems, in which the 

details of liquid flow through the unsaturated zone 

are significant, has been hampered by a lack of 

simple means for computing the relation between 

time, flow, moisture content, and space. 

Normally flow in the unsaturated zone· is onedimensional, nonsteady, and occurs approximately 

vertically. The differential equation ·relating the 

variables of liquid flow for this condition may be 

stated as ' 

I 

k ?J'2~~ + ~k, [ah; ·+ 1 J ::::: ci> -ao~ I a~2 oz az . at (1) 

':ln which k; i~ the copdrlctivity to liquid flow, h1 is the 

liquid head at point z above an arbitrarily.established 

horizontal reference plane, ci> is the porosity, (} 1 is 

the liquid content expressed as a fraction. of ·the 

porosity, and t is· time. The conductivity k 1 is a nonlinear function of the liquid content of (} 1 ; consequen'tly it·-is very difficult to find mathematical solu..; 

tions satisfying both equation {1) and the highly 

variable field boundary conditions at the upper and . 

lower limits of the unsaturated zone. Philip (1955) 

devised an efficient iterati'on process for findin,g a 

solution to a form of equation {1) for continuous 

infiltration from. the land surface. Subsequently 

Youngs (1957), by laboratory studies, demonstrated 

that Philip's method gave accurate forecasts of flow 

ensuing from infiltration. Nelson ( 1960) recently 

determined nonsteady liquid drainage from initially 

saturated sediments by solving the differential equations of flow using digital computing equipment. 

Youngs ( 1960) applied the c~pillary-tube hypothesis 

of unsaturated flow to calculate drainage from saturated media as a function of time. 

Use of Philip's iteration process is limited to a 

hydraulically homogeneous · profile and increasing 

water content during infiltration from the land surface. Although digital computing equipment · is 

capable of solving the problem regardless of complicating nonhomogeneities and variable boundary 

conditions; experience has indicated 7that the costs 

of. such solutions are generally highe-t than can be 

afforded in ordinary hydrologic investigations. In 

an effort to obtain a versatile and low-cost computing 

system for the study of liquid flow· through the unsaturated -zone, electric analog techniques for solving 

equation . ( 1) were considered. The following describes preliminary plans for an electric analog 

system believed capable of solving problems. in onedimensional vertical flow through nonhomogeneous 

profiles under' a variety .of boundary 'conditions. 

-r-
~ 

., 

..,. 

f-. 

-4 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-61 

10 10 

8 8 

6 6 

r<\ 

0 

~ 

.c.~ >< I .!I.~ 

4 4 

C\J 

I 

0 

~ 

:< 

Q~ 

2 2 

FIGURE 28.1.-Hydraulic characteristics of unsaturated porous 

media. 

For electrical simulation, equation ( 1) may be 

more conveniently written in .the following form: 

[ a:!.ht] +a log k1 [ah1 + 1 ] _ D ah~ == 0 az:t. az az 1 at (2) 

in which D1 == :

1 

a~~ , the liquid diffusiv~ty of the al 

unsaturated porous media. Neglecting hysteresis, 

the curve of D1 versus 01 may be obtained directly 

from curves of kt versus 01 and h 1 versus 01 characterizing the porous media. An ~example of a set of 

these curves is given in figure 28.1. 

Consider equation (2) as comprising three separate terms, each defining a single compone11-t of 

flow accumulation at a point, z. The first gives the 

r~te of change of storage for a hydraulically homoc

2

h d

2

fl' e 1 I ~ 

A dZ.2 ~ ~z2 R 

d log k,e ldh.e I ~ 1] dZ ·--+ B Ldz 

IC~ D!l 

db£ de 

/IB 

_,__.,c 

ct dt ...... e 

'Ic 

l 

jz 

FIGURE 28.2.-Electrical currents analogous to terms in 

equation of flow. 

Static head reference 

I 

~B 

---'(")e-

(Bias) 

n + 1 

e~ -z 

n - 1 

e+ 

FIGURE 28.3.-Schematic diagram of analog and bias circuits. 
B-62 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

Model 

n + 1 G-- Sununing et;:::;'h£ (n + 1) ~----~------------~--~----------------------------~---------, Bias G--- amplifier 

n + 1 

! ....., ,"-

..., fO w )) ""'Y t:::Oo ""'f 

~ 1---------------1 

Sununing . 1 ~ Q) s ~ 

log k£ 

versus h£ 

function 

generator 

+l- amplifier 1 ' ____., .....,~ t------------"'"'i":J§ ~ ,..-j I , ,. +~'\, '(, ~ 

+ ~~~~ 

.c.~ I~ 

·-r Q) 

o log k£ 

e= oz 

I E to I ! 

converter] 

~ IB to node n 

ModelG--

n - 1 Summing 

Bias e--- amplifier 

n - 1 

FIGURE 28.4.-Computer for determining lB. 

geneous element, the second identifies variations due 

to hydraulic heterogeneity and gravity, and the third 

accounts for changes as a function of time and 

storage capacity. The electrical counterparts of these 

terms are currents (I) added to a point in a resistive 

element, with a constant resistance (R) per unit 

length, as shown in figure 28.2. The continuous 

resistance element must be viewed as a series of 

finite elements because it does not appear practical 

to model Ill and I c at each point along its length. 

Accordingly, a finite-difference approximation to 

equation (2) is represented .by the electrical model 

shown in figure 28.3. A voltage divider at the right 

in figure 28.3 serves as a reference for static head 

conditions in the profile and for dynamic evaluation 

of kt and Dt as the analysis proceeds. 

As can be shown by finite-difference techniques, 

I A to any node n in the model is simply the resultant 

of current flow from points n + 1 and n - 1. Simulation of Ill is much more difficult. A schematic of a 

proposed circuit for calculating Ill is given in figure 

28.4. The output may be fed directly to node n. However, to effect a solution, only the e versus IJJ converter (the last element in the circuit of figure 28.4) 

need be constructed at each node. By adding memory 

to this converter, it will be possible to switch the 

circuit of figure 28.4 continuously over the network 

of nodes, changing the value of In at each pass. Use 

of such · a switching arr~ngement would permit 

solving problems of one-dimensional flow with only 

one set of the equipment shown in figure 28.4. The 

third term of equation (2) niay be simulated at each 

node by an electronic element whose capacity changes 

as a function of voltage at the node. The latter element is to be designed s·o that the capacity versus 

node-voltage .curve is congruent with an appropriate 

curve of D, versus h1, such as the one shown in 

figure 28.1. Varying boundary conditions, in terms 

of either liquid head or flow rates, may be applied 

to both or only one end of the resistor elements and 

bias control. 

Analog construction is underway with the objective of solving for drainage from homogeneous pro-

-~ 
·• 

...., 

·• 

· SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-63 

files; computed results will be compared with laboratory data already available in the U. S. Geological 

Survey Hydrologic Laboratory, Denver, Colo. Once 

these initial phases are completed, studies will be 

made of drainage from nonhomogeneous profiles. It 

seems that the basic analog plan described here can 

more easily be modified to account for nonhomogeneities than other analytical techniques thus far 

considered. Nevertheless, the search for a more 

efficient analog system is being continued while development work . on the above electric analog 

continues. 

REFERENCES 

Nelson, R. W., 1960, Ground water movement rates: Am. 

Geophys. Union Ground-Water Symposium, Pacific Northwest Hydrologic Research Committee, Nov. 16, Portland, 

Oregon, oral presentation. 

Philip, J. R., 1955, Numerical solution of equations of the 

diffusion type with diffusivity concentration-dependent: 

Faraday Soc. Trans., v. 51, p. 885-892. 

Youngs, E. G., 1957; Moisture profiles during vertical infiltra-

. tion: Soil Sci., v. 84, p. 283-290. 

---, 1960, The drainage of liquids from porous materials: 

Jour. Geophys. Res., v. 65, p. 4025-4030 . 

29. DIRECT-READING CONDUCTIVITY BRIDGE 

By I. S. McQUEEN and C. R. DAUM, Denver, Colo. 

One measurement that has been useful in selecting 

desirable water sources and in identifying the 

aquifer supplying a given well is specific conductance, which is an indicator of the total dissolved 

solids in water. Laboratory an~lyses of water 

samples usually include this measurement. A conductivity bridge that could be used in the field would 

permit more rapid selection and identification of 

water sources, and would guide in the choice of 

sources for which more complete chemical analyses 

should be made. Available conductivity measuring 

equipment did not appear to be suitable for field 

use becau~e of inconvenient operation, lack of sensitivity, or instability. 

Preliminary requirements for a suitable instrument include the following: (a) a range of 0 to 10 

millimhos, (b) provision for temperature measurement and temperature compensation, (c) provision 

for use of a conductivity cell with a cell constant of 

2 and for a limited range of adjustment for· variations between cells, (d) portability, (e) low power 

consumption, and (f) simplicity of use. 

The newly designed instrument described here 

fulfilled all these requirements and several that were 

subsequently proposed. The circuit diagram for the 

completed bridge is shown in figure 29.1. 

A transistorized oscillator supplies a 1,000-cyclesper-second signal for excitation and a small high 

impedance earphone is used to detect the null or 

balance point. The bridge measures either the resistance of a thermistor directly in ohms or the 

specific conductance of a water sample in millimhos 

by using a precision 10-turn variable resistor for the 

measuring arm· and selected resistors for the ratio 

arms. 

The resistance of the measuring arm, using a 0- to 

5,000-ohm variable resistor and a 10-turn micrometer dial, is 1

'

00

2

° D ohms, in which D is the dial 

reading (0.00 to 10.00). Then, with the operation 

selector switch slJ in position 2 and the bridge in 

balance, the following relationship holds: 

1,000 D 600 

2 Rth == 1,200 

1,000 D == Rt, (1) 

means that when measuring resistance the dial 

in which R1, is the resistance of the thermistor. This 

rea~s directly from 0 to 10,000 ohms to the nearest 

10 ohms. 

A thermistor with a nominal resistance of 2,000 

ohms at 25°C is used to measure the temperature of 
B-64 . 'GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RE~EARCH 1961 

1. 

Oscillator 

As required 

R tc . 

0-1,000 ..f"\_ 

Temperature 

compensator 

Rc 

Conductivity cell 

FIGURE 2y}·---:C:onductivity bridge circuit. 

solutions. A calibration curve for this thermistor I' 

was obtained by laboratory measurements, so that 

the temperature of a solution can be obtained from 

this curve and the resistance readings. The tern- · 

perature-compensation dial on the bridge is set for 

this temperature, and the bridge then measures the 

conductivity adjust~d to a standard temper~ture-~f 

25°C. Temperature compEmsktion was calibrated according to data of U.S. Salinity Laboratory 1• 

With the operatiort. selector switch in position 3 

and the bridge in balance, the following· '·'i·ei~tion 

:·holds: · · . · 

1,000 D. 

2(600 + Rtc) 

900· +. R.cc .. 

Rot .. .. l '' ~ : .-. 

in which Rtr· is the resistance of the temperature 

correction resistor, Rcc is the resistance of the cell 

constant compensating resistor, and Ro is the re-

. sistance of the conductivity cell in an unknown 

solution. By definition Rc · K/EC, in which K is 

the cell constant and EC is the specific conductance 

·of the solution. By substituting iri the above formula we obtain: 

1,000 D K/2 = EC (600 + Rto) (900 + Rcc) (2) 

With a cell constant of 2 and a temperature of 25°C; 

Rtr• = 400 ohms and Rcr: == 100 ohms. Substituting 

1 1,000 I 1 = 600 + R 1 c where I 1 = temperature factors from table 15, 

p. 90, Agricultural Handbook No. 60, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, and Rtc 

is the resistance of the temperature-correction resistor. 

these values in equation 2 and simplifying we find 

that: ' 

EC = D/1,000 

Therefore, the dial reads directly irt millimhos. ·The 

cell-constant compensation ·resistor was calibrated 

to keep the above equation in balance for cell constants of 1.8 to 2.2 2• 

_;,Position 1 on the operations selector switch (81) 

· was adqed to permit the use of a microdip. cell with 

a cell constant of 0.1. The balance relation for this 

position' is: 

,. 1,000 D K/2 == EC (600 + Rec) 50 

When the cell constant is· 0.1· the bridge reads. directly in millimhos. · 

A sensitive balance was .difficult to obtain on 

samples with high conductivity when using a microdip cell; therefore, a ·small transistorized' amplifier 

(not shown in fig. 29.1) was built as a separate unit 

to sharpen the null point. A capacitor placed in 

parallel with the ~90-ohm ratio arm· of the· bridge 

also sharpens the n u11 point. The use of the microdip cell had been limited to the laboratory in the 

past. 

A_ series of 17 samples was measured in the field 

with fliis bridge. Repeat measurements were made 

2 1

•

00° K = 900 + Rcc. Wh K 1 8 R 0 d h K 2 en = . , cc = , an w en = 

2.2, Rcc = 200 ohms. 
; 

.,_ 

/"· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-65 

using a standard conductivity bridge. The measurements agree within about 2 percent. The. standard 

deviation of .the. ·differences is 9.3 micromhos and 

students "t" for the paired data is 0.438 which indicates that there is no significant difference between the pairs of analyses. 

GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY OF EASTERN UNITED STATES 

30. AGE OF THE "RIBBON ROCK" OF AROOSTOOK COUNTY, MAINE 

By LOUIS PAVLIDES, ROBERT B. NEUMAN, and WILLIAM B. N. BERRY, Beltsville, Md., Washington, D. C., 

and Berkeley, Calif. 

Discovery of Middle Ordovician graptolites establishes the age of at least part of the "ribbon rock" 

in eastern Aroostook County, Maine. The '~ribbon 

rock" (originally the ribbon limestone) was assigned as a member of the Aroostook limestone in 

and north of the Presque Isle area (fig. 30.1) and 

classed as Middle Silurian in age (White, 1943, p. 

129). Earlier, Twenhofel (1941, p. 169) suggested 

th3:t these rocks might be of Late Ordovician age 

and possibly equivalent to similar rocks, such as the 

Whitehead formation of the Gaspe Peninsula in 

Quebec. Twenhofel's suggested Ordovician age assignment was followed by Boucot and others (1960} 

in a recent compilation of the geology of northern 

Maine. "Ribbon rock" in the Br-idgewater area (fig. 

30.1) is reassigned as a member of a new formation 

in a forthcoming report (Pavlides, in pres·s). 

"Ribbon rock" underlies large parts of eastern 

Aroostook County (fig. 30.1) corresponding closely 

with the fertile potato-growing regions. The unit 

consists of beds of medium-gray to bluish-gray lime-

. stone several inches to several feet thick, separated 

by somewhat thinner layers of gray calcareous to 

greenish-gray noncalcareous slate.. Limestone beds 

range in composition from relatively pure carbonate 

layers to argillaceous limestone and to calcareous 

siltstone. Some layers that are complexly deformed 

are found in sequenc'e with beds having more regular 

stratification. Interbeds of graywacke, and lenses of 

graywacke and slate and of slate, are also included 

in the unit. Stratigraphic boundaries of the "ribbon 

rock" are poorly defined and little studied over broad 

areas; in parts of the Bridgewater area, however, 

the "ribbon rock" is underlain by· graywacke and 

slate, and overlain, at places gradationally, by more 

argillaceous rock. 

The "ribbon rock" is highly deformed. Tightly 

compressed folds plunge steeply, some are· nearly 

vertical, and a few are inverted. Thus, most beds are 

steeply inclined or vertical, and some are overturned. 

Steep to vertical slaty cleavage is common, especially 

south of Mars Hill, where a steep lineation results 

from the intersection of bedding and cleavage. 

Graptolites that for the first time permit reliable 

age determination of the "ribbon rock" were found . 

in 1960 at a roadside exposure 2 miles east of Colby 

(locality 3 of fig. 30.1) by_ W. H. Forbes, amateur 

paleontologist of Washburn, Maine, who has made 

several other valuable fossil discoveries in this area 

(Berry, 1960a). The fossils occur through several 

feet of calcareous siltstone. They are, on the whole, 

poorly preserved, most having been stretched· or 

compressed. Many, however, are preserved in relief, and some that are preserved as molds yielded 

latex peels that afford good material for study. 

W. B. N. Berry examined the collection and identified the following forms: 

A mplexograptus sp. 

Amplexograptus cf. A. perexcavatus (Lapworth) 

Climacograptus cf. C. typicalis mut. posterus Ruedemann 

Diplograptus? spp. (two distinct kinds of this form are 

represented; one is long and slender, the other shorter 

and wider) 

Ortkograptus aff. 0. truncatus (Lapworth) 

Ortkograptus truncatus cf. var. intermedius ( Elles and 

Wood) 

Other ·orthograptids of the 0. truncatus type 

Some of the orthograptids of the 0. truncatus type 

are probably new. Their poor preservation, how-
B-66 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

10 0 10 MILES 

FIGURE 30.1.-Known distribution of "ribbon rock" (Or) in 

Aroostook County, Maine. Northern part modified from 

White, 1943, plate 24; southern half from geologic mapping by Louis Pavlides. Numbers refer to fossil localities. I 

Igneous rocks within "ribbon rock" belt not shown. . 

ever, and that of the questionable Diplograptus, prohibits more certain identification. 

The assemblage of many orthograptids of the 

truncatus group (especially the presence of 0. truncatus cf. var. intermedius), other large diplograptids, 

and the Climacograptus of the C. typicalis group, 

is pr.obably representative of the zone of Orthograptus truncatus var. intermedius. Closely similar 

assemblages have been recognized by Berry ( 1960b, 

p. 38) from the Snake Hill and Canajoharie shales 

in New York, and the Magog shale in Quebec. Berry 

(1960b, p. 38-39) discussed correlation of the zone 

with the standard New York Ordovician stages, and 

concluded that it was equivalent to the Trenton. 

Other fossils that have been found in the "ribbon 

rock" include elongate aggregates of ovoid pellets 

that were found about 1% miles southeast of Bridgewater (locality 1 of fig. 30.1). These aggregates 

are about 5 em long, and 1 em in cross section. The 

individual pellets are closely packed and arranged 

parallel to the borders of the aggregates. They are 

2 to 3 mm long and slightly more than 112 mm in 

diameter. Dr. Walter Hantzschel of the Geologisches 

Staatsinstitut, Hamburg, examined these pellets in 

1958 and he suggested they were the work of mudingesting worms, perhaps worms that had been 

given the generic name Tomaculum by Groom 

(1902). Such pellets were originally found in Ordovician rocks in England, and they have also been 

found in Ordovician rocks of France, Germany, and 

Czechoslovakia (Penau, 1941). It is noteworthy that 

Dr. Hantzschel's identification preceded Forbes' discovery of the graptolites, and came at a time when 

many still considered these rocks to be of Silurian 

.age. 

Minute fossils, none larger than 3 mm and mostly 

fragmentary, have been found in thin sandstone 

layers about 5 miles southwest of Bridgewater (locality 2 of fig. 30.1).. The fossils include smooth 

ostracodes, fragments of bryozoan zoaria, and 

brachiopods, but the material is inadequate for specific identification. Brachiopods, represented by an 

orthoid, a rhynchonellid, and a leptellid, do not contradict the age assignment indicated by the graptolites. 

Rocks like those of "ribbon rock" are present to 

the east in New Brunswick, and the northeast along 

highways between Grand Falls, N. B., and Matapedia·, Quebec, at the southwestern end of the Gaspe 

Peninsula. They extend, also, from Matapedia 

(Crickmay, 1932; Beland, 1958, 1960) across the 

Gaspe P~ninsula to Perce (McGerrigle, 1953), the 

type locality of the Upper Ordovician Whitehead for- ·!o 
i· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-67 

mation. Although the Whitehead has an unusual 

shelly fauna (Schuchert and Cooper, 1930; Cooper 

and Kindle, 1936), its lithologic similarity to the 

"ribbon rock" suggests that within this belt rocks of 

this kind span a considerable segment of Ordovician 

time. 

REFERENCES 

Beland, Jacques, 1958, Preliminary report on the Oak Bay 

area: Quebec Dept. Mines Prelim. Rept. 375, 12 p. 

---, 1960, Preliminary report on Rimouski; Matapedia 

area: Quebec Dept. Mines Prelim. Rept. 430, 18 p. 

Berry, W. B. N., 1960a, Early Ludlow graptolites from the 

Ashland area, Maine: Jour. Paleontology, v. 34, p. 1158-

1163. 

--, 1960b, Graptolite faunas of the Marathon region, West 

Texas: Texas Bur. Econ. Geology Pub. 6005, 179 p. 

Boucot, A. J., Griscom, Andrew, Allingham, J. W., and Dempsey, W. J., 1960, Geologic and aeromagnetic map of northern Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report. 

Cooper, G. A., and Kindle, C. H., 1936, New brachiopods and ·1 

trilobites from the Upper Ordovician of Perce, Quebec: 

Jour. Paleontology, v. 10, p. 348-372. 

Crickmay, .G. W., 1932, Evidence of Taconic orogeny in Matapedia Valley, Quebec: Am. Jour, Sci., ser. 5, v. 24, p. 368-

386. 

Groom, Theodore, 1902, The sequence of the Cambrian and 

associated beds of the Malvern Hills: Geol. Soc. London 

Quart. Jour., v. 58, p. 89-135. 

McGerrigle, H. W., 1953, Geological map of Gaspe Peninsula: 

Quebec Dept. of Mines. 

Pavlides, Louis, in press, Geology and manganese deposits of 

the Maple and Hovey Mountains area, Aroostook County, 

Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 362. 

P€mau, Joseph, 1941, Die Anwesenheit von Tomaculum prob-· 

lematicum im Ordovicium West-Frankreichs: Senckenbergiana, v. 23, p. 127-132. 

Ruedemann, Rudolf, 1936, Ordovician graptolites from Quebec 

and Tennessee: Jour. Paleontology, v. 10, p. 385-387. . 

Schuchert, Charles, and Cooper, G. A., 1930, Upper Ordovician 

and Lower Devonian stratigraphy and paleontology of 

Perce, Quebec: Am. Jour. Sci., ser. 5, v. 20, p. 161-176, 

265-392. 

Twenhofel, W. H., 1941, The Silurian of Aroostook County, 

northern Maine: Jour. Paleontology, v. 15, p. 166-174. 

White, W. S., 1943, Occurrence of manganese in eastern 

Aroostook County, Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 940-E, 

p. 125-161. 

31. RATIO OF THORIUM TO URANIUM IN SOME PLUTONIC ROCKS OF THE WHITE MOUNTAIN PLUTONICVOLCANIC SERIES, NEW HAMPSHIRE 

By ARTHUR P. BUTLER, JR., Denver, Colo. 

Wo'rk done in coope1·ation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 

Plutonic rocks of the White Mountain plutonicvolcanic series, in New Hampshire, are slightly alkalic and somewhat more radioactive than calcalkalic rocks of other igneous suites in New Hampshire (Billings and Keevil, 1946). Some additional 

study of the. distribution of uranium and thorium in. 

rocks of this series is being carried on as one aspect 

of the Geological Survey's investigation of uranium 

and thorium in selected suites of igneous rocks. 

Preliminary summary of analyses for uranium has 

shown that felsic rocks of this series are 2 to 3 times 

as rich in uranium as their counterparts. among 

calc-alkalic rocks (Larsen and others, 1956, p. 70-

72). Thorium analyses were not available when the 

summary of uranium analyses was reported. The 

amounts of thorium and uranium and the thoriumuranium ratios in 24 samples of these rocks are 

summarized here. 1 

Work toward the results reported here began in 

part under the leadership of the late E. S. Larsen, 

Jr., and has benefited materially from consulation 

with E. S .. Larsen, 3d, and David Gottfried on many 

problems. 

The plutonic rocks of the series range in com~ 

position from gabbro to granite. As shown. by 

analyses (Chapman and Williams, 1935, table 1), 

most of the rocks (but particularly the felsic rocks) 

are slightly richer in sodium and potassium and 

poorer in calcium than corresponding types of calcalkalic rocks. The bulk of the rocks cropping out 

1 Lyons (Art. 82) presents somewhat similar data for rocks of three 

older plutonic series in New Hampshire. 
• 

B-68 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

are granite, quartz syenite, and syenite (Billings 

and Keevil, 1946, table· 1). Biotite granite occupies 

about 55 percent of the a:r,ea of outcrop qf the series . 

The plutonic rocks are· int:ruded in many separate 

masses, some simple and some composite. The main 

mass, also called the White Mountain batholith (Billings, 1956, p. 70), is a composite group of intrusions. 

It is about 33 mi.les long east-to-west and about 25 

miles wide·. Granites of this ~ass. were sampled 

fairly systematically in order to obtain nearly representative data for the largest mass of rock. Consequently, the data reported here are probably more 

n'early repr¢sentativ~ of th~ bulk of the granite in 

the batholith than are the data for other types of 

rock:.and for granites from other locations. 

Samples analyzed for thorium were chosen from 

a much larger number of samples analyzed for 

urani~m (Larsen and others, 1956, p. 72; 'Butler, 

1956)". The samples so chosen rep:t;'~s,ent the rap.ge 

of uranium contents and of the ro.el{ types sampled. 

They include samples of gabbro, biotite-quartz monzonite, biotite and pyroxene-amphibole syenites, 

fayalite-amphibole quartz syenite, amphibole granite, and biotite granite (Conway). 

Analyses for uranium and thorium were made in 

the Washington laboratory of the Geological Survey 

by the methods described by Grimaldi and others 

(1952) and Levine and Grimaldi (1958), respectively. A summary of the results of those analyses 

and of the thorium-uranium ratios is given in table 1. 

The average uranium and thorium contents in 

biotite granite and some amphibole granite of the 

White Mountain plutonic series are somewhat 

greater than the average contents of these elements 

in granites of the Oliverian ·and New. ·Hampshire 

plutonic series, two of the older calc-alkalic plutonic 

series in New Hampshire (tables 2 and 4, Art. 32, 

this volume). However, the average values of the 

thorium-uranium ratio in biotite granite and amphibole granite of the White M·ountain series is 3.8 to 

4.3, which falls within the range of the ratios 3.3 

to 4.3 reported by Lyons (Art. 32, this volume) in 

the two nearby older granites, and within the range 

3. 7 to 4. 7 reported by Lftrsen and Gottfried ( 1960) 

in granites and quartz monzonites from_ three western batholiths. In other rocks of the White Mountain plutonic-volcanic series, rather scattered data 

suggest somewhat larger values for ~he thoriumuranium ratio in amphibole granite of outlying 

masses and in. some syenites than in biotite granite 

and amphibole granite of the main mass. 

Among the granite masses of t~e White Mountain 

plutonic-vqlcanic series ~he roc~s of the main batholithic m;;tss are slightly richer in both uranium and 

thorium. than their counterparts in the outlying 

masses. Also among the felsic rocks those with lesser 

. uranium contents tend to have higher Th/U ratios 

than the rocks richer in uranium. This relation, 

decrease in Th/U ratio with increase of uranium, is 

even more distinct if the samples of felsic rocks are 

· grouped by intervals ·of uranium content without 

regard to petrographic type· or geographic position 

as shown on page B-69. 

The biotite .g·ranite (Conway granite) is the only 

rock. type for, ~hich there are enough samples to 

make a similar comparison among samples of one 

rock type. In 5 samples of this granite containing 

10 ppm or more uranium the value of the Th/U ratio 

is 3.1 whereas in 5 samples containing less than 10 

ppm uranium it is 5.6. No petrographic features of 

TABLE I.-Thorium and uranium contents and Th!U ratios in some igneous rocks of the White Mountain plutonic-volcanic 

series, New Hampshire 

[Analysts, A. B. Caemmerer, E. Y. Campbell, L. B. Jenkins, and Roosevelt Moore] 

Uranium Thorium Number (parts per million) (parts per million) Th/U Rock type and general location of samples ------------------------------------------ Range Average Range Average Range Average 1 

Gabbro, Belknap Mountains._ ... __ . _____ . __ ._. 1 • 0 •• 0 ••••••• 0. 0.9 •••••••••• 0 0 0. 0.9 • •• 0 ••••• 0 0 0 •• 1.0 

Biotite quartz monzonite, Merrymeeting stock. _ . 1 • • • • • • • • • 0 •••• :3.5 • 0 ••• 0 ••••••• 0 18.7 •••• 0 •••• 0 •••• 5.3 

Pyroxene syenite, Pilot range ...... _______ ..... 1 • • • • • • 0 ••••••• 1.2 • 0 •• 0 ••••••• 0. 10.2 • ••••••••• 0 0 •• 8.5 

Pyroxene syenite, main mass ................... 1 • 0 0 •••••• 0. 0 •• 2.5 . ............. 9.5 ••••••••• 0 •••• 4.5 

Amphibole-biotite syenite, Belknap Mountains.· .. 2 6.9 - 8.0 7.5 25.0 - 33.5 29.3 3.1 - 4.9 3.9 

Quartz syenite, north side Pilot Range mass ..... 1 • 0 ••••••••••••• 4.1 . ............. 27.0 . ............. 6.6 

Amphibole granite, Pilot range mass ............ 2 2.4 - 3.5 2.9 14.0 - 21.0 17.5 5.8 - 6.0 5.9 Amp~ibole granite (Mount 'Osceola type), . •main mass ......... · ..... ,. ..... , ............ 3 3.6 - 9.9 7.4 25.0 - 40.5 30.5. 3.4 - 6.9 4.3 

'Biotite granite, smaller masses ................. 3 4.3 - 14.2 9.7 30.0 - 44.0 35.3 2.3 - 7.0 3.8 

Biotite granite, main mass ........... .' ......... 9 5.2 - 25.5 13.0 33.0 - 77.0 49.4 2.0 - 8.2 3.8 

1 The aver~ge Th/U ratio is the ratio of the means of the Th and U contents. 

~-

-r 
• 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-69 

Uranium Numb~r Uranium Thorium ' (range, in of (average, in (average, in Th/U 

parts p~r million) samples parts per million) parts per million) 

10-25 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 15.0 51.6 3.3 

5-10. 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 7.6 :36.0 4.7 

1..2-5.0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 3.2 19.4 6.3 

the samples have been observed which might e~plain 

the differences in uranium contents from sample to 

sample or the difference in Th/U ratios between the 

group of samples richer in uranium and that leaner 

in uranium. At present, an explanation for this 

difference is lacking. 

REFERENCES 

Billings, M. F., 1956, The geology of New Hampshire, Pt. II, 

Bedrock geology: New Hampshire State Planning and 

. Devel. Comm., Concord. 

Bjllings, M. P., and Keevil, N. B., 1946, Petrography and 

radioactivity of four Paleozoic magma series in New 

Hampshire: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 57, no. 9, p. 

797-828. 

Butler, A. P., Jr., 1956, White Mountain plutonic series, New 

Hampshire, in Geologic investigations of radioactive deposits-Semiannual progress report for June 1 to Nov. 

30, 1956: U.S. Geol. Survey TEl-640, issued by U.S. 

Atomic Energy Comm. Tech. Inf. Serv. Ext. Oak Ridge, 

Tenn. 

Chapman, R. W., and Williams, C. R., 1935, Evolution of the 

White Mountain magma series: Am. Mineralogist, v. 20, 

no. 7, p. 502-530. 

Grimaldi, F. S., May, Irving, and Fletcher, M. H., 1952, U.S. 

Geological Survey fluorimetric methods of uranium an-

. alysis: U.S. GeoL Survey Circ. 199, 20 p. 

Larsen, E. S., Jr., Phair, George, Gottfried, David, and Smith, 

W. L., 1956, Uranium in magmatic 'aifferentiation, in 

Contributions to the geology of uranium and thorium by 

.the United States: Geological Survey and Atomic Energy 

Commission of the United Nations International ·Conference on Peacef~l Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Swit-

. zerland, 1955: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, ·p. 

65-74. 

Larsen, E. S., 3d, and· Gottfried,· David, 1960, Uranium and 

thorium in selected suites of igneous rocks: Am. Jour. 

Sci., Bradley volume, v .. 2.58-A, p. 151-169. 

Levine, Harry, and Grimaldi, F. S., 1958, Determination of 

thorium in the p~frts per- million range in rocks: Geochim. 

et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 1~, p. _93-97. 

32. URANIUM AND THORIUM IN THE OLDER PLUTONIC ROCKS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE .~. 

By JOHN B. LYONS, Hanover, N. H. 

Wo·rk done in coope1·ation with the U.S. Atomic Ene1·gy Commission 

Field studies in New Hampshire (Billings, 1937) 

have established the existence of four Paleozoic plutonic series, one of Taconic age (the Highlandcroft 

series), two of Acadian age (the Oliverian and New 

Hampshire series), and one of post-Devonian age 

(the White Mountain series). Chemical and spectrochemical data relating to the distribution of uranium 

and thorium in the three older series are summarized 

in this report 1• The analytical work was done in the 

Geological Survey laboratories by Marian Schnepfe, 

Alic'e Caemmerer, Roosevelt Moore, E. Y. Campbell, 

and L. B. Jenkins. 

1 A paper by Butler (Art. 31, this volume) presents somewhat sinlilar 

datn for rocks of the younger White Mountain plutonic,-volcanic series . 

HIGHLANDCROFT PLUTONIC SERIE;$ 

All intrusives of this series have been metamorphosed to the· greenschist fa~ies. The· rocks ioriginally were quartz diorites, granodiorites, or quartz 

monzonites, and consist now of varying amounts of 

albite, microcline, epidote, 'quartz, chlorite, hornblende, sphene, zircon, apatite, and -opaque minera-ls. 

Uranium and thor~um analyses for some rocks of 

this series are.. listed on table 1. 

Sphene (586 ppm), zircon (342 ppm)~: apatite (30 

ppm), and epidote (5 ppm) are. the ~ost'uraniferous 

mineral~ .. The sphene .and ·ep!d.ote,: account fQr ~p.:. 

proximat~ly. 42 :percent. of all the· uraqium. i~, ~·h~ 

rock. : .. 
B-70 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 1.-Chemical analyses for uraniurn and tho'riurn in 

'rocks of the Highlandc'roft plutonic se'ries 

Rock type 

Quartz monzonite .. . 

Granodiorite ...... . 

Sodaclase-tonalite ... 

Number of samples 

analyzed 

Uranium (ppm) 

1\-lean Range 

3.7 2.7-5.0 

3.0 

3.1 

Number Thorium (ppm) 

of ------- Mean samples Th: U ::.nalyzed Mean Range ratio 

12.6 10.6-14.8 3.4 

11.8 . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 

11.3 3.6 

OLIVERIAN PLUTONIC SERIES 

Domal plutons of the Oliverian series consist of 

the following petrographic types (Billings and 

Keevil, 1.946·,'·:':·p. 816) : quartz diorite, 10 percent; 

granodiorite, 30 percent; quartz monzonite, 30 percent; granite, 17 percent; and syenite, 13 percent. 

These rocks are at grade with the surrounding epidote amphibolite and amphibolite facies rocks, and 

consist of varying quantities of quartz, microcline, 

oligoclase-andesine, hornblende, biotite, epidote, 

muscovite, apatite, sphene, and opaque minerals. 

Uranium and thorium analytical data for rocks in 

the Oliverian series are presented on table 2. 

Uranium contents of minerals concentrated from 

5 samples of the Oliverian series are shown on table 

3. There is a consistent relation between the uranium 

content of each mineral and the kind of rock 

from which the mineral was extracted; the more 

felsic the rock, the higper the uranium· content of 

each of its minerals. 

Approxim.ately · 70 percent (59 percent to 78 percent) of the total uranium in any rock of the Oliverian series is tied up in sphene and epidote-both 

of which are of metamorphic origin. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE PLUTONIC SERIES 

Stocks and sheetlike plutons of this series consist 

of the following rock types (Billings and Keevil, 

1946, p. 812) : diorite, 1 percent; amphibolite, 1 percent; quartz diorite to granodiorite, 23 percent; 

Bethlehem gneiss (granodiorite to quartz monzonihi), 14 p~rcent; Kinsman quartz monzonite, 26 

r ABLE 2.-Chern:ical analyses for uraniurn and thoriurn in rocks 

of the Oliverian plutonic serieS. 

Number Uranium (ppm) Number Thorium (ppm) 

of of Mean Rock type samples samples Th:U analyzed Mean Range analyzed Mean Range ratio 

----------------- Granite ........... 13 5.8 1.8-13.0 10 19.3 7.5-32 3.3 Quartz monzonite .. 8 3.1 1.1-5.3 5 12.1 6.2-21 3.9 Granodiorite ....... 15 2.5 0.8-5.0 5 14.6 6.5-38 5.8 Quartz diorite ...... 15 1.9 0.8-3.6 6 7.1 2.9-14.8 3. 7 Pegmatite ......... 3 9.1 1.3-13.7 2 4.2 3.6-4.7 O . .f'i Aplite ............. 3 9.3 2.1-15.9 3 39.2 5.5-57 4.2 Wall rocks and inclusions ....... 1.3 0.6-1.8 ......... ....... ........... ....... 

TABLE 3.-Uraniurn contents of rnine'rals of the Olive'rian 

plutonic series . 

[In parts per million] 

Mineral Number of determilllltions Range Mean 

-·------------------------------

Quartz ............. . Potassium feldspar ... . Plagioclase ......... . Hornblende ......... . Biotite and chlorite .. . Epidote ............ . Sphene ............. . Apatite ............ . Zircon ............. . 

.5 

5 

5 

1 

4 

4 

5 

4 

5 

0. 25- 1. 45 

.25- 1.45 

.25- 2.3 

.84 

1.11-24.6 

11.7 -204 

220-:!11 

11.1 -26.3 

466-2ii0 

0.77 

.72 

.97 

.84 

9.9 

85. 

308. 

19.1 

1317. 

percent; and Concord (and other) granite, 29 percent. These rocks are surrounded by amphiboliteand granulite-facies metamorphic rocks, with which 

they are at grade. Minerals include quartz, microcline, oligoclase-andesine, biotite, muscovite, garnet, 

hornblende, monazite, xenotime, allanite, zircon, and 

opaque minerals. 

Uranium and thorium contents of the major rock 

types of this series are listed on table 4. 

Minerals have been separated from 4 samples of 

the New Hampshire series and analyzed for uranium 

(table 5). Abnormally high urani urn concentrations 

recorded for some of the minerals in these samples 

are the result of the inclusion of a peg~atite sample; 

its minerals cause the abnormality. 

Rocks of the New Hampshire series have between 

50 percent and 90 percent of their total uranium 

distributed among the major rock-forming silicates. 

CONCLUSIONS 

At leas~ three deductions or conclusions can be 

drawn from the analyses: (a) Uranium and thorium 

TABLE 4.-Chernical analyses for u1·anium and tho1·iurn in 

rocks of the New Harnpshi're plutonic se1·ies 

Number Uranium (ppm) Number Thorium (ppm) 

of ·-------- of ----------- Mean 

Rock type samples samples Th:U 

analyzed Mean Range analyzed !\lean Range ratio 

-------------------------------

Granite ........... 4.3 2.8-5.8 5 18.3 10.7-28.5 4.3 

Quartz monzonite (chiefly Kinsman) 15 3.3 1.5-6.3 15. i 9.1-19.4 4.8 

Quartz monzonite to granodiorite 

(Bethlehem 

gneiss) .......... 28 3.6 2.2-5.2 10 14.9 11.7-18.6 4.1 

Quartz diorite ...... 3.1 2.9-3.4 12.2 ........... 3.9 

Pegmatite ........ 16.7 4. 7-39 3.9 2.8-5.0 0.23 

Aplite ............. 7.2 3.3-14.2 I 28.6 -1.3-52 -1.0 

Wall rocks and inclusions .•...... 3.3 0.8-5.0 16.0 ........... 4. 9 

+ 

I 

~} 
.. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

TABL~ 5.-U'mnimn contents of mine?·als of the New Hampshi?·e plutonic se?·ies 

[In parts per million] 

Number of 

Mineral determinations Range Mean 

Qunrtz .............. 4 0.10- 2.5 0.92 

Potnssium feldspn.r .... 4 .10- 1.8 .67 

Pln.gioclnse .......... 4 .30- 6.6 2.34 

Biotite .............. 3 .. 53- 2.6 1. 71 

Muscovite ........... 4 1.4 - 3.1 2.20 

Gamet .............. 2 0.88- 5.5 3.14 

Magnetite ........... 4 2.0 -39.5 23.2 

Ilmenite ............. 3 2.0 -32.7 17.0 

l'yrit.e ............... 2 16.7 -373 195. 

Apatite ............. 4 1.3 -16.4 13.8 

Monn.zite ........... : 3 624-2570 1516 

Xenotime ........... 1 798 798 

Zircon .............. 3 500-20,000 6700 

analyses confirm the earlier work of Billings and 

Keevil (1946), based on alpha 'counts, both as to the 

general level of radioactivity, and the increase in 

radioactivity in the more felsic rocks of these series; 

(b) the thorium :uranium ratios for these rocks lie 

within expectable ranges for calc-alkaline plutons. 

Much lower ratios for pegmatites compared to aplites 

(table 4) indicate that the two rock types belong to 

different fractions of the parent magma; (c) neocrystallization during metamorphism apparently 

causes a redistribution of uranium and thorium. 

·Sphene and epidote formed during recrystallization 

serve as traps for radioactive elements. 

REFERENCES 

Billings, M. P., 1937, Regional metamorphism of the LittletonMoosilauke area, New Hampshire: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 48, p. 463-566. 

Billings, M. P., and Keevil, N. B., 1946, Radioactivity of four 

Paleozoic magma series in New Hampshire: 'Geol. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 57, p. 797-828. 

33 . DISTANCE BETWEEN BASINS VERSUS CORRELATION COEFFICIENT FOR ANNUAL PEAK DISCHARGE 

OF STREAMS IN NEW ENGLAND 

By JACOB DAVIDIAN and M.A. BENSON, Iowa City, Iowa, and Washington, D. C. 

One interesting sidelight of a recent investigation 

of flood-frequency relations in New England was a 

study of the coefficient of correlation between annual 

peak discharges for different pairs of str.eams in 

that area. Floods at many of the gaging stations in 

the area result ~rom a few major storms that are 

widespread and affect many streams at the same 

time, rather th~n from scattered storms of small 

areal extent. It was of interest to determine a 

median coefficient of correlation of annual peak discharges between gaging stations in New England 

in order to determine the interdependence of the 

peak-flood data. 

To avoid the prohibitive amount of work of computing the 13,366 possible individual correlations 

between the 164 gaging stations used in the investigation, an estimate was made by correlating data 

for pairs of stations selected at random. The 164 

stations were numbered consecutively from 1 to 164. 

Then, a table of random numbers was used from 

which groups of three digits were selected. The 

first 400 numbers of magnitude less than 165 were 

listed; adjacent numbers were paired. Thus, 200 

pairs of numbers of magnitudes 1 to 164, representing the stations with those numbers, were available 

and their selection was shown by a statistical test 

(chi-square) to be truly random .. 

. The airline distance between the geographic centers of the drainage basins of each pair of stations 

was then measured. The distribution of these distances for the 200 pairs of stations indicated that 

the median distance was about 94 miles, with a range 

from 8 to 403 miles. 

The range of distances from 8 to 403 miles was 

subdivided into increments of about 20 miles, and 

a random sampling of the pairs of stations in each 

increment was made to cut down further the amount 

of work of computing correlations between stations. 

Within the group of stations 75 to 110 miles apart, 

all of the available pairs in the list of 200 were tested 

to obtain a better value of the correlation coefficient 

for the median distance of 94 miles. A total of 54 
B-72 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

1.0.-----------------------., 

08.~ ~-x. 0.95 confidence limit, 

basins 75· to 110 miles apart 

~06~ . -~ 

~ . ~0.4- ., 

(.) "· . 

, ~::·1~ 

•.t 

• 

~~-2~ LJJ • ':~~~- • • • 

Q . •• . • • • . t:: . . ••. • ·.-- ~0.0~ (.) • • 

••• -0.2-

• 

I 1 I I I • I I I I 10 20 50 100. 400 

DISTANCE, IN MILES . 

FIGURE 33.1.-Relation. between corr~lation, coefficient of 

annual peak discharges and distances between basins. 

pairs was used. The annual peak discharges for the 

selected pairs were listed for concurrent periods and 

were ranked in order of magnitude. For each pair, 

the Spearman rank coefficient of correlation was determined. Of the 54 pairs, 8 had negative correlation coefficients. 

ln figure 33.1 the ·coefficient of correlation between 

sb1tions (arithmetic scale) is plott~d against dis:.. 

tance between stations (logarithmic scale). A coefficient of correlation of ·about,. 0.26 corresponds to 

the median dfstance of 94 miles, and is taken to be 

the median correlation coefficient for the 164 New 

England stations that were-considered .. in the O'riginal . 

study. The curve has .. been drawn so· ·tha;t the ex:.. 

tremes would be asymptotic to 1.0 and o.o.:; rh~ curv~ 

shows . an increasingly good· c(n:relatlori · with ·de:.. 

creasing ·distance separating the ·basins.· · ·· t · • '· 

·The 27 pairs of stations :between 75' 'ahd t10·1piles 

apart we:re ·studied· more thoroughly· to test. the· sig- : 

nificance of the ·scatter within the· ·hand.·· These ;27 

pairs have. an average of 17:.3 yea~s·· o.f' coirclirrent 

recor.ds. The 95-percent confidence · 11elt · 'for t'he 

sample correl~tion coefficient of 0.26· iuid the sam pie 

size of 17.3 ranges between -0.25:ahd -f-0.'64~ Tpis 

means that although a tnedian value; '6f ·o~26 is indicated on the illustration; pure: ch~nbe. alone le'ads . 

to ·a:··scatter between ~o~25 and + 0.64 for 95 :Percent . 

of··t:he observations. The,se· .iimits· are somewhat. ap: · ' ' I . • '·;' . 

proxini~te because .. th~ ·periods of record have been ! ·, .. , • ' '. • 

averaged. For these 95-percent confidence limits, 

1.35 points would be expected outside the limits; 

actually there are 4 points~ ·which is a significant 

difference statistically and which suggests the possibility of unknown factors causing more scatter 

than could be expected .by chance alone. Negative 

coefficients of correlation are to be expected by 

chance for stations having relatively short concurrent records. Had the average length of concurrent 

record between . pairs . of stations been about 45 

years instead of 17.3 years, the 95-percent confidence 

limits for a median correlation coefficient of 0.30 

would have been 0.0 to. +0.55 . 

It is generally considered that :stations with like 

characteristics will have a higher degree of cor:r;-ebition than stations with unlike characteristics. Therefore, an attempt was made to relate the departures 

of correlation coeffic~ent from the median curve of 

the graph shown with (a.). ·difference in drainage 

area size, (b) ratios of drainage area size, (c) number of years of concurrent record, (d) difference in 

an "orographic factor" evaluated in the New England flood-frequency study, and (e) difference in 

average winter temperatures (a measure of the difference in the types of flood peaks). None of these 

seemed to relate to the departures in the degree of 

correlation. 

. 'It might be. expected that a correlation between 

two' ·small drainage areas, for example 100 miles 

apart, would . .be less. than the correlation between 

two l~rge are~s the same. distance apart. Any such 

differences cannot be detected in this set of data, 

possibly because the. differences .. are. much smaller 

than the .. variations due to. chance. Apart from distance between. stations, pr~sent hydrologic knowl-

.edg~ ca~~ot aid us in .predicting which pairs of sta-:-

tions' w~~ld correlate well or which would correlate 

poorly. Even th~ugh two .drainage basins. were. sep, 

arated .qy a high mo_untain barrier 'transverse to the 

storm winds, the annual peak discharges-.for each, 

though. far different .in magnitude,. might be pro~ 

port:lonal. · · . , 

· · . T,his · ·~tl-!9Y indicates that . a high coefficient of 

correlatioiJ: bet~een the annual peak dis(!harges of 

two stre~ms picked ~t random may be due to chance. 

ln estimating peak discharg~ for years of no. record, 

a~ station that ~ppears, to correlate best may not give 

better·. results than on~ of the other· statio1,1s.. Addi.;. 

tion.al·r~sea~c·h on the. use .of correlativ,e estimates of 

~??d peak~. is: .needed. 

·-~·, .'I 

'I,' 1 I ~ I ,l'1 I 

·•' t ~· \ 

i· 
; 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-7'3 

34. PLEISTOCENE STRATIGRAPHY OF BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS 

By C. A. KAYE, Boston, Mass. 

•' 

An excavation in 1960 for a large underg~ound 

garage in the lower slopes of Beacon Hill, at the 

western edge of the Boston Common, proved to be a 

key exposure for the unraveling of the Pleistocene 

stratigraphy of the area. Evidence for 4-and probably . 5-ice advances and 3 marine trans.gressions I • . ' 

occur In, or under, the garage and the .~urrounding 

lowland. Study of many hundreds. of deep borings 

in the Boston basin, and soil-mechanic~ ~~st data on 

C()mpaction of materials, support these conclusions. 

. Preglacial surface.-Bedrock beneath the garage 

(fig. 34.1) consists of argillite of the Cambridge 

slate. The argillite is altered to a soft white'kaolinitic 

sap!"olite under the southeastern part :9f the site, 

where it is buried by· about 85 feet cl Pleistocene 

deposits. Similar saprolite has been found in deep 

borings ·in at least .six other places. ii}; the, Boston 

basin. In one of the garage borings, weathered argillite was found to be overlain by 10 feet of fairly 

coarse quartz sand in a wh1te clay matrix. This resembles kaolinitic quartz sands of Late Cretaceous 

age (Raritan(?) formation) on Martha's Vineyard, 

Block Island, Long Island, and New Jersey. Patchy 

remnants of Coastal Plain sediments may therefore 

occur in the Boston basin. 

D·rift /.-In 9 borings at the garage site, as much 

as 30 feet of very compact till was found at the base 

of the Pleistocene section (fig:. 34.1). It is prevailingly a pebble till, poor in cobbles and boulders, and 

somewhat variegated in color. The high degree of 

compaction of the till is shown by standard penetration tests (Terzaghi and Peck, 1948, p. 265) which 

average more than 100 blows per foot. This thi.n 

dense till has been found in many deep borings· 'in 

the Boston basin but has not been recognized on the 

surface. 

Clay I.-As much as 25 feet of fairly soft 'to ·Compact olive-gray unoxidized clay, sandy clay, and very 

fine sand was found between Drifts I and 11 in five 

garage borings. The clay is identical in appearance 

to. certain clays along the New England seaboard 

that are recognized from sparse fossils to be of marine origin. Standard penetration tests ranged from 

5 to 40. blows per foot. Clay I has not been recog'-

nized in surface exposures, and borings in th~ 

Boston area indicate that it has been preserved ih 

only a few places. 

Drift //.-This consists mostly <?f thick outwash, 

but some underlying till is associated with it in 

several of the garage borings (fig. 34.1). Outwash 

Borings on, or referred to, this cross section 

X NORTH 

30' 

20' 

SFA L(V(L 

20' 

40' 

60' 

Outline of excavation T T 

Drift II 

Cambridge slate 

.. 50 100 FEET 

I y 

. SOUTH 

30' 

Outline of exca on-.l 

·: 1 20· 

S(A, LEVEL 

20' 

40'. 

_,..--- ? --..._ ;> __.". -~ 

·~ 

;>~ 

60' 

80' 

Drift I 100' 

120' 

·FIGURE 34.1.-North-south geologic cross section, lower Boston Common, at .site of underground garage. . 
B-74 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

of Drift II was well exposed in the garage excavation and crops out at the surface quite widely in the 

Boston area. It is characteristically a brown, welloxidized coarse gravel interbedded with somewhat 

lesser amounts of fine gravel and sand and relatively 

sparse layers of compact yellow silt. Outwash under 

the garage is about 65 feet in maximum thickness 

and it is oxidized throughout. Sparse samples and 

drillers' logs are inconclusive as to whether the 

underlying associated till is oxidized. Pebbles of 

schist and argillite in the outwash show varying degrees of decomposition, but, in general, most granitic 

rocks and feldspars appear fresh. At the garage 

the gravel has been folded into a series of three 

anticlines (fig. 34.1), presumably by the action of 

the ice that deposited Drift III. 

Clay l/.- Another clay having the physical characteristics of marine clays overlies Drift II at the 

garage excavation (fig. 34.1). It is unoxidized (blue 

gray to slightly greenish gray) except where close 

to the present surface. Clay II was deformed with 

Drift II. This is evident from numerous small faults 

in the gravel, formed during the folding, which extend up into the clay. Stratification of the clayFIGURE 34.2.-Contact of Drift III (above) and Clay II (below), showing scant signs of disturbance. East wall of 

excavation, underground garage, Boston Common. 

marked by alternating lighter and darker laminaeis well marked in some zones. The contact of the 

clay and the overlying till is generally quite sharp; 

in places the bedding of the clay shows no disturbance whatever at the contact (fig. 34.2), in others 

gross bedding disturbances in the clay are evident 

to a depth of 3 or 4 feet below the contact. In several 

places in the excavation the contact is deformed into 

fairly large waves (fig. 34.1). 

Drift III.-At the garage excavation more than 

30 feet of till overlies Clay II. It appears to be the 

major component of Beacon Hill drumlin and probably the other drumlins of the Boston area. It is 

very well graded but has sparse boulders up to 10 

feet in diameter. Cobbles and stones are predominantly of Cambridge slate and are generally conspicuously striated. A fabric study of the pebbles 

shows a preferred orientation of axial planes parallel 

to the long axis of Beacon Hill and adjacent drumlins 

(approximately S. 70° E.). The maximum depth of 

oxidation seen in the till at the garage excavation 

was 25 feet, although deep borings in Beacon Hill 

show the till there to be oxidized to a maximum 

depth of 65 feet. Differences in depth of oxidation 

are probably due mainly to differential erosion of 

the oxidized zone by the ice responsible for Drift 

IV. Fragments of shells-mostly very thick shelled 

M er-cenar-ia m er-cenar-iar-occur in the till of Beacon 

Hill and other drumlins. These are possibly derived 

from Clay II. 

Clay /l/.-This clay forms the bulk of the marine 

clay in the Boston basin and attains a thickness of 

180 feet in a few places. In physical appearance it 

resembles the two older clays. It crops out as a 

patch over Drift III in the northeast corner of the 

garage excavation at about 15 to 25 feet altitude. 

Many borings in the Boston area show that it overlies drumlin till (Drift III); therefore, there can be 

no doubt that it is separate from, and younger than, 

Clay II. Borings indicate that where overlain by 

Drift IV, Clay III is oxidized to a depth of about 3 

feet. Where exposed at the surface it is oxidized 

to a maximum depth of 10 feet. Marine mollusks 

were found in Clay III by the writer at West Lynn, 

at the north edge of the Boston basin, and Foraminifera were reported by Stetson and Parker (1942, p. 

42) from the clay in Boston Back Bay. Sparse embedded cobbles and small stones suggest ice-rafting 

and therefore deposition at a time when an ice front 

may have been close to Boston. Spruce pollen is very 

abundant in the upper 10 feet at West Lynn (Estella 

B. Leopold, written communication), thus supporting 

a cold climate-or periglacial-depositional environ-
.... 

J 

!" 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GE!OLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

Deposit 

Drift IV 

Description 

Boston basin: 

mostly outwash. 

Uplands: till and 

outwash. 

TABLE I.-Pleistocene deposits of Boston, Mass. 

Remarks Depth of oxidation I 

In outwash 

generally less 

than 4 ft, in 

till 17'? ft. 

Direction of ice flow 

Relative sea 

level 2 

Lower than 

-30 ft. 

Suggested age in years 

13,000 

-----'----------'-------------------------------- 15 '000 

Oxidation of Clay III Lower than 

-35 ft. 

---------------------------------------- 26,000 

Clay III 

Marine chw. 

lVfore tha:n 180 

ft thick under 

lowlands. Precompressed to 

rlepths of 70 ft. 

Possibh· deposited ;,,·hen 

ice front was not far from 

Boston. 

3 ft under 

Drift IV, 10 

ft elsewhere. 

Found to altitude +25 ft 

in Boston. 

Contains fairly 

deep water 

fauna suggesting sea level above 

+50 ft. -----__________________ ,__ ______________ -------- 28' 000 

The drumlin till. 

Dt·ift III 

Oxidation of Drift III 

Ver.'· compact 

in drumlins; 

less compact as ground 

moraine. 

:\laximum 65 ft. 

in drumlins: 

where less, · 

oxidized zone probably 

eroded In· 

Late \\"is<·on-

::;in ice. 

Lower than - 20ft. 

PossiblY above 

+50 ft. 

65,000 

-------------------------------------------- 75 '000 

Clay II 

)rift II 

Probably marine. 

:\lost I.'· gra veil~· 

outwash; some assoeiated till. 

Prol.mbh· soun·e of shefls in 

Drift III. 

:\[a,· have 

heei1 deposited 

dming advance 

of Iowan ice. 

Oxidation of Drift II 

Folded in 

places. 

Xone where 

recognized. 

:\lax have 

heei1 erodNI. 

65 ft ot· more Unknown. 

in sand and 

gravel. Some 

pebbles 

decomposed. 

PossiblY about 

+50 h. 

-45ft (?) 

Below -75 ft. 

-------------------------------------------

Cia~· I 

Probabl.'· marine. Recognized onl.'· 

in borings. 

X one noted; possibl~· 

eroded. 

-45ft or above. 

-------------------------------------------

)rift I Very compact till. Recognized with Xone noted. 

certaint.\· onlY 

in deep 'boririgs. 

1 Oxidized zone of all units but Drift IV was subject to erosion by later ice. :! Altitudes refer to present mean sea level. 

T;nknown. ('?) 

77,000 (?) 

100,000 

('?) 

(?) 

(?) 

B-75 

Standard Pleistocene sequence 

Late Wisconsin 

(Car~· substage; Lexington substage of 

Judson) 

:\liddle 

Wisconsin 

(Tazewell 

substage) 

EarlY \\"isconsin 

(Iowan 

substage) 

Earl~· Iowan ('?) 

Sangamon 

interglacial 

Sangamon 

interglacial 

Illinoian 

EarlY 

Illinoian ('?) 

Yarmouth (?) 

Kansan or Xebraskan 
B-76 'GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

ment. Although much of the clay is very soft 

(standard penetration test, 2 to 3 blow.s per foot), 

soil mechanics studies (A. Casagrande', written communication) show that it is precompressed (Terzaghi and Peck, 1948, p. 67) to a depth of as much as 

70 feet below its surface. It is thought that this 

precompression resulted from the ensuing glaciation 

responsible for Drift IV. 

Drift /V.-Overlying Clay III in many places in 

Cambridge and the Back Bay are outwash gravels 

that are only slightly ox.idized and rarely exceed 20 

feet in thickness. They are correlated with the poorly 

compacted and barely oxidized tills (oxidation generally less than 2 feet) that are found with patchy 

distribution on the uplands surrounding the Boston 

basin. This drift belongs to what Judson (1949) 

termed the Lexington substage of the Wisconsin. It 

is now fairly certain that the late Wisconsin ice responsible for it flowed approximately S. 20° E. and 

covered the entire Boston basin, probably reaching 

the outermost moraines off the southeastern New 

England shore. The direction of ice movement is in 

marked contrast to that of the drumlin-forming 

Iowan ice (table 1), which flowed approximately S. 

70° E. 

Table 1 summarizes the more salient facts about 

the Pleistocene section. Relative ages were assigned 

to the later drifts primarily on the basis of their 

depths of oxidation. 

REFERENCES 

Judson, S. S., Jr., 1949, The Pleistocene stratigraphy of Boston, Massachusetts, and its relation to the.Bolyston Street 

Fishweir, in Johnson, F., ed., The Boylston Street Fishweir II: Phillips Acad., Robt. S. Peabody Foundation for 

Archaeology Papers, v. 4, no. 1, p. 7-48. 

Stetson, H. C., and Parker, F. L., 1942, Mechanical analysis 

of the sediments and the identification of the Foraminifera 'from the building excavation, in Johnson, F. and 

others~ The Boylston Street Fish weir: Phillips Acad., 

Robt. S. Peabody Foundation for Archaeology· Papers, 

v. 2, p. 41-44. 

Terzaghi, Karl, and Peck, R. B., 1948, Soil mechanics and 

engineering practice: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 

566 p. 

35. IRON ORES OF ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY, NORTHWEST ADIRONDACKS, NEW YORK 

By B. F. LEONARD and A. F. BUDDINGTON, Denver, Colo., and Princeton, N. J. 

·, •• l 

St. Lawrence County is a major producer of magnetite and crystalline hematite co:pcentrates from 

low-grade ores of Precambrian age. The rocks of 

the district are mainly .granitic. They are separated 

'into an older quartz syenite gn~iss series and a 

younger granite and granite gneiss series. Metasedimentary rocks, migmatites, and other rocks are 

subordinate. All the rocks except some granites and 

basaltic dikes have in some measure been dynamothermally metamorphosed. 

The iron ore bodies are restricted to. a structural 

knot of metasedimentary rocks and younger granitic 

rock, the· latter representing members of the granite 

and granite gneiss series. · Within this knot, developed at the intersection of two dominant regional 

structural trends, the metasedimentary rocks and 

sheets of younger granitic rock have been pressed 

into variously oriented isoclinal ~olds against buttresses of older granitic rock (fig. 35.1). Other major 

structural ·controls for iron-oxide mineralization 

have been recognized. All the major deposits are 

(a) on or within a mile of the borders of great areas 

of subperpendicular lineations, or (b) ·well within 

the ce:p.tral zone of subparallel lineations at places 

where ~·dineations culminate, diverge, or change 

markeoly in trend.~.· AU the deposits are within a 

mile of the axes of major synclinal folds. Moreover, 

all the deposits are within 500 feet of at least one 

facies of the younger granite aria granite gneiss. 

. The iron ores are of two types: magnetite deposits in skarn or marble (skarn ores), and mag-

. .. . '· ;: . ' 1 Subparallel'Iineations are mineral lineations whose rake is ·within 30° 

of the strike of the foliation, and subperpendicular lineations are those 

whose rake is within 30° of the direction of dip of the foliation (Buddington, 1956). 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-77 

.,. 

EXPLANATION 

Q 

Younger granite and granite gneiss series ~ 

~ -~ Quartz syenite gneiss series ~ 

D ~ Metasedimentary rocks, migmatites, and 

subordinate amphibolite 

----- Contact 

--- __..--1 

Fault, approximately located 

·Queried 'whert• i >ifcrred 

• Magnetite deposit of skarn type 

• Magnetite deposit of granite gneiss type 

Geology by A F Buddtngton 

and 8 F Leonard. 1943-49 

FIGURE 35.1.-Relation Qf magnetite ~eposits to major rock units and fold axes, St. Lawrence County magnetite district, New 

York. 

netite deposits-with or without hematite--in microcline granite gneiss (granite gneiss ores). 

Magnetite, virtually nontitaniferous, is the only 

significant iron oxide in skarn ores. The principal 

gangue mineral is green clinopyroxene, though biotite or dark amphibole is conspicuous locally. The 

skarn ores are variable in grade (generally ·30-44 

percent magn~tic Fe), complex in structure, and 

small to moderate in size, tending to yield massive 

ore bodies. One major deposit and parts of several 

others are in skarn that was partly replaced by 

quartz, untwinned barium-bearing potassium feldspar, fluorite, barite, and scapolite before introduction of the magnetite. 

The granite gneiss ores contain magnetite, accom-

·panied in some places by slightly titaniferous primary crystalline hematite. This hematite, with or 

without martite, forms sizable or.e bodies locally. 

The principal nonmetallic minerals are quartz, untwinned barium-bearing potassium feldspar, biotite, manganiferous almandite, and sillimanite. The 

granite gneiss ores form disseminated deposits of 

uniformly low grade (generally about 25 percent 

recoverable Fe), remarkable continuity, and moder-
B--78 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

ate to very large size. One ore deposit is in gneiss 

that was partly replaced by quartz, barium-bearing 

potassium feldspar, fluorite, barite, and spessartite 

before introduction of iron oxide. 

The iron ore deposits are mainly concordant with 

the complex structure of the country rock which 

they replace. At very large and very small scales, 

the deposits are nevertheless discordant. In shape, 

the deposits are tabular, fishhook, linear, mimetic 

after multiple drag folds, and "complex." Deposits 

of complex shape are controlled by sets of intersecting fold axes of two or more distinct generations. 

Most deposits of the district, though imperfectly 

known, seem to have two long dimensions and one 

short one; that is, they are sheetlike rather than 

lath- or rod-shaped. Many deposits have a fishhook 

shape, the ore having replaced the nose and part of 

one limb of a syncline. 

Though magnetite and hematite are the only ore 

minerals in the deposits, other metallic minerals are · 

associated with them. Arranged roughly according 

to decreasing frequency and quantity, these minor 

associates are pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, 

sphalerite, molybdenite, bornite, ilmenite, marcasite ( ?) , chalcocite, covellite, vonsenite, loellingite, 

graphite, unidentified minerals, and valleriite ( ?) . 

Vonsenite (ferrous ferric borate) is an important 

mineral in one dep_osit. A little maghemite, very 

likely supergene, has been found in a single deposit. 

The rarer metallic minerals are detectable only under the microscope. There seems to be no systematic 

distribution of sulfides according to type of magnetite deposit, though concentrations of pyrrhotite 

are usually associated with skarn ores and concentrations of pyrite with granite gneiss ores. Most 

of the metallic minerals associated with magnetite 

and hematite are related to the main mineralizing 

episode that yielded the iron oxides. However, some 

metallic minerals belong to a later stage, and a few 

are referred to a stage of late hydrothermal mineralization that yielded minerals of the epidote group, 

zeolites, fluorite, quartz, calcite, clay minerals, and 

others. 

The magnetite deposits and the hematite bodies 

locally associated with them are closely related in 

space, time, and origin. They are thought· to be 

high-temperature replacement deposits effected by 

emanations from younger granite magma, though 

the ultimate source of the iron is still conjectural. 

The deposits represent one aspect of a process that, 

under slightly different and definitely cooler conditions, yielded pyritic sphalerite deposits, pyrite and 

pyrrhotite deposits, and perhaps also tremolite-talc 

deposits in the Grenville lowlands northwest of the 

massif. (Cf. Engel and Engel, 1958.) 

The first major deformation of the A~irondack 

rocks took place after the consolidation of the quartz 

syenitic rocks and before their intrusion by scattered 

dikes of hypersthene metadiabase. Subsequently, 

younger granite magma was intruded into the metasedimentary rocks and partly metamorphosed older 

igneous rocks. This ma'~ma, which consolidated 

chiefly as hornblende-mkroperthite granite, differentiated to give a volatile-enriched phase that worked 

upward and outward, crystallizing as alaskite, in 

part as "roof rock," in part as satellitic sheets and 

phacolithic bodies in the metasedimentary rocks. 

Probably the same fundamental ma.gma also yielded 

a high-potassium, volatile-enriched phase that intruded the metasedimentary rocks as thin sheets, 

re~cted with the country rock, and in places metasomatized it extensively, yielding heterogeneous 

microcline granite gneiss. Locally, the younger 

granitic rocks were deformed. An advance wave of 

metasomatism by volatile emanations rich in F, OH, 

and Si, locally accompanied by B, Cl, and P, preceded 

the intrusion of some of the granite and formed 

skarn. Once the skarns had been developed and 

partly enriched in iron, and the heterogeneous microcline granite gneiss had formed, both rocks were 

locally modified by introduction of quartz, untwinned 

potassium feldspar, fluorite, barite, and scapolite or 

spessartite. Such modification, app-reciable on~y 

where skarn was enclosed in microcline granite 

gneiss, represents a continuation or renewal of the 

same process that developed all the microcline 

granite gneisses of the district. 

At sites favorable because of their structure and 

their proximity to the supply of metasomatizing 

solutions, the skarns were subjected to the progressive introduction of more iron. Initially, iron was 

substituted within the silicate lattice of diopside, 

producing salites and ferrosalites. Where the ap .. 

propriate concentrations of volatiles existed, pyroxenes were locally replaced by amphiboles or by 

micas. Local access of Fe+a, or perhaps merely local 

oxidation of Fe+:!, permitted the development of andradite skarn. At some appropriate but unknown 

pressure, temperature, and degree of concentration, 

the silicates could no longer accommodate all the Fe 

within their lattices; at that stage, magnetite was 

precipitated, closely followed by a series of simple 

sulfides, minor in quantity. Very similar processes, 

locally affecting biotite- or sillimanite-microcline 

granite gneiss, resulted in the formation of magnetite deposits in those rocks. Perhaps the local de-
""'· 

•' 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-79 

. velopment of hematite in the granite gneiss ores 

(representing an increased oxidation state of the 

Fe) is analogous to the local development of andradite in the skarns, where primary hematite is 

lacking. Progressive decrease in the concentration 

of Fe, decreasing temperature, and a change in the 

character of the metasomatizing solutions toward a 

dilute water-rich fluid led to local alteration and 

partial leaching of ore and wall rocks, followed by 

deposition of hydrous silicates, calcite, and sporadic 

base-metal sulfides. At some later date-possibly in 

late Precambrian time, possibly in Silurian or 

younger time-a few of the deposits were faulted. 

Still later, faults, joints, and permeable rock units 

conveyed surface waters downward, yielding local 

masses of earthy hematite and chlorite. 

The evidence of supergene alteration of the deposits is generally slight, for the bedrock of the 

region was thoroughly scraped by Pleistocene glaciers. "Rotting," leaching, limonitization, and claymineral alteration are apparent at the suboutcrop of 

some deposits deeply mantled by glacial debris. 

Earthy hematite and chlorite form streaks and small 

masses along joints, faults, mica-rich zones, and 

marble layers in a few deposits. This type of alteration is comparable to that which affected the sulfidebearing schists of the nearby Grenville lowlands and 

resulted in the development of scattered bodies of 

supergene hematite in marble. 

The regional geology and ore deposits of the district are treated by Buddington and Leonard in 

reports now in preparation. Critical structural features are discussed by Buddington (1956), whose 

paper lists the major references on regional geology 

of the northwest Adirondacks. Representative magnetite deposits are described by Buddington and 

Leonard (1945) and by Leonard (1952, 1953). Mineralogic features of a borate-bearing skarn deposit 

are presented by Leonard and Vlisidis (in press). 

Preliminary exploration of several deposits is summarized by Balsley, Hawkes, and others (1946), 

Hawkes and Balsley (1946), Millar (1947), and Reed 

and Cohen· (1947). Regional aeromagnetic and geologic data are shown on maps by Balsley, Hawkes, 

and others ( 1946), and by Balsley, Buddington, and 

others (1954a, 1954b, 1959a, 1959b). Magnetic effects due to Fe-Ti oxide minerals in the country rock 

are interpreted by Balsley and Buddington ( 1958), 

and the usefulness of these minerals as geothermometers is demonstrated by Buddington, Fahey, 

and Vlisidis ( 1955). 

REFERENCES 

Balsley, J. R., and Buddington, A. F., 1958, Iron-titanium 

oxide minerals, rocks, and aeromagnetic anomalies of the 

Adirondack area, New York: Econ. Geology, v. 53, p. 

777-805. 

Balsley, J. R., Buddington, A. F., and others, 1954a, Aeromagnetic survey and geologic map of the Cranberry Lake 

quadrangle, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv. 

Map GP-118. 

---, 1954b, Total aeromagnetic intensity and geologi.c ID!ilP 

of Stark, Childwold, and part of Russell quadrangles, 

New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv. Map GP-117. 

---, 1959a, Aeromagnetic and geologic map of the Oswegatchie qu.adrangle, St. Lawrence, Herkimer, and Lewis 

Counties, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv. 

Map GP-192. 

---, 1959b, Aeromagnetic and geologic map of the Tupper 

Lake quadrangle, St. Lawrence, Hamilton, and Franklin 

Counties, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv. 

Map GP-193. 

Balsley, J. R., Hawkes, H. E., and others, 1946, Aeromagnetic 

map showing total intensity 1,000 feet above the surface 

of part of the Oswegatchie quadrangle, St. Lawrence 

County, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv. 

Prelim. Map 1. 

Buddington, A. F., .1956, Correlation of rigid units, types of 

folds, and lineation in a Grenville belt, p. 99-119 in 

Thomson, J. E., ed., The Grenville problem: Royal Soc. 

Canada Spec. Pubs. 1, 119 p. 

Buddington, A. F., Fahey, Joseph, and Vlisidis, Angelina, 

1955, Thermometric and petrogenetic significance of 

titaniferous magnetite: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 253, p. 497-532. 

Buddington, A. F., and Leonard, B. F., 1945, Geology and 

magnetite deposits of the De·ad Creek area, Cranberry 

Lake quadrangle, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Prelim. 

Rept. 106053 [mimeographed]. 

Engel, A. E. J., and Engel, C. G., 1958, Progressive metamorphism and granitization of the major paragneiss, 

northwest Adirondack Mountains, New York. Part I. 

Total rock: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, p. 1369-1413. 

Hawkes, H. E., and Balsley, J. R., 1946., Magnetic exploration 

for iron ore in northern New York: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Strategic Minerals Inv. Prelim. Rept. 3-194 [mimeographed]. 

Hawkes, H. E., Balsley, J. R., and others, 1946, Aeromagnetic 

survey at three levels over Benson Mines, St. Lawrence 

County, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv. 

Prelim Map 2. 

Leonard, B. F., 1952, M.agnetite deposits and magnetic 

anomalies of the Brandy Brook and Silver Pond belts, St. 

Lawrence County, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral 

Inv. Field Studies Map MF-6 . 

---, 1953, Magnetite deposits and magnetic anomalies of 

the Spruce Mountain tract, St. Lawrence County, New 

· York: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Field Studies Map 

MF-10. 

Leonard, B. F., and Vlisidis, A. C. (in press), Vonsenite at the 

Jayville magnetite deposit, St. Lawrence County, New 

York: Am. Mineralogist. 
B-80 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH. 1961 

Millar, W. T., 1947, Investigation of magnetite deposits at I Reed, D. F., _and Cohen, C. J.,_ 1947, :Star Lake magnetite deStar Lake, St. Lawrence County, N. Y. (to November · posits, ·St. Lawrence County, N . .Y. (November 1945 to · 1945): U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv .. 4127. November 1946): U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 4131. 

36. CHARACTERISTICS OF SEICHES ON ONEIDA LAKE, NEW YORK 

By JOHN SHEN, Washington, D. C. 

Seiches are series of oscillating .standing waves 

caused by strong winds or sudden changes .in barometric pressure. Depending on the nature of such 

disturbing sources, seiches may be uninodal, binodal 

or multinodal; any number may.eoexist. Good examples of seiches have been observed frequently at a 

Geological ·Survey recording gage at Brewerton, 

Oneida Lake, N.Y. A recording o~: the water-surf~ce 

fluctuations during typical seiches is shown in figure 

36.1. . 

In general, seiche waves possess the characteristics 

of shallow-water waves and may thus be closely approximated by sine functions. For a simple · rectangular basin, the period of oscillation may be computed by 

T -. 2L , -kyg7J (1) 

in which L is the length of the basin; D is the depth 

of the basin; g is the gravity acceleration; and, k 

is the number of nodes. 

Equation 1 is applicable only to a closed basin 

of constant depth. For irregular basins, Du Boys 

( 1891) proposed the equation: 

T--21L ' d X 

-.k()·ygd (2) 

in which d is the depth corresponding to a length 

increment, dx, along the line of greatest depth 

through the basin. Du Boys' equation !s considered 

applicable to parabolic and quartic basins which 

approximate many natur~l lakes (Chrystal, 1906). 

After the disturbing source of a seiche ceases to 

exist, the oscillations continue with diminishing 

amplitudes. The effect of such damping may be described by a decay-type function (Keulegan, 1959, 

p. 34): 

where, Ao is the amplitude of oscillation at the initial 

set-up; A is the amplitude at any one subsequent interval;, m is the order number :of the oscillations and 

is equal to the time elapsed from Ao. divided by the 

wave period; and, a is a constant,· known as the 

modulus of decay, depending on the physical characteristics of the basin. 

The period of oscillation of Oneida Lake wa~. 

computed by Du Boys' equation. A iongitudinal 

profile of the lake was obtained. by plotting the mean 

dept}:l along its navigation ·line, and this, profile, 

·shown on figure 36.2, was used to represent the 

~ectionof greatest depth. Details of the computation 

for summation of dx/ y d are shown on table 1. Assuming the seiches on Oneida Lake are uninodal, 

the period of oscillation would be: 

2 X 20,630 . 

T== v~X60X60 == 2 hours, 1 minute. 

Comparing with the actual observed period of 1 

hour and. 57 minutes, the computed value is a close 

approximation. 

10.0r-----.-----,....------r---------, 

t=" ttl 9.0t-------lill 

~ 

S.Ot-------

21 22 23 24 

JUNE 1954 

FIGURE 36.1.-Water-surface oscillations on Oneida Lake, A= Aoe -am, ( 3) during seiches of June 21 to 22, 1954. 

.. 

I 
J.. 

1.;, 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-81 

or------r------r------r------+------+---r~ 

t-----·- ·--r~---r~-~·. ~~t/:.....__1·----i 60o'-----:2:':-o----~4o _____ G"""'o------:':ao,-------!1ol._o ____ __._~12o 

DISTANCE !THOUSANDS OF FEET) 

FIGURE 36.2.-Longitudinal profile of Oneida Lake. 

The damping characteristics of Oneida Lake were 

also investigated. By rearranging equation 3, we 

have 

log ( :J == - 0.434am. (4) 

The value of a may be readily determined by plotting 

values of (A/ A,J against values of 0.434m on semilog graph paper. Figure 36.3 shows such a plot for 

the seiches which occurred on Oneida Lake during 

June 21 to 22, 1954. From this plot, the value of a 

was found to be 0.476. 

The foregoing example illustrates the exponential 

damping characteristics of a natural basin. Other 

natural basins having greater moduli of decay are 

known. For example, Lake Erie possesses a value of 

a == 0.86 (Hunt and Bajorunas, 1959). 

The nodes would not be symmetrically located for 

an irregular basin ; however, the position ~of· the 

1.00., 

., 0.60 1-----~~~-----------l--------l--'------i 

0.40 ~ ....... ""~---.--1---------+--------i 

~ ~q, 

~ 0.20 1-------l-----------+-· ~ --

~ -~~ 

0.05 0'----'----1~.....:-.-. -. --------12'------------'3------' 

VALUE OF 0.434 m 

FIGURE 36.3.-Determination of a., the· modulus of decay, of 

Oneida Lake. 

TABLE I.-Computation of seiche period of Oneida Lake. 

I f::::.x 

Station, x (in feet) I On foet) I 

110,000 

10,000 26 

100,000 

5.10 1,H60 O.O:H5 

10,000 :{H 

90,000 

6.25 1,600 .0282 

10,000 41 

80,000 

l). 40, 1,560 .0275 

10,000 42 

70,000 

6.48 1,540 .0271 

10,000 39 6.25 1,600 .0~82 

60,000 ,. 

10,000 34 5.82 1,720 .Q:3o:3 50,000 

10,000 27 5.19 1,930 .0:340 

40,000 

10,000 21 

:30,000 

4.58 2,·180 .0:384 

10,000 20 4.47 2,240 .0:3H5 

20,000 

·10,000 18 < 10,000 

4.24 2,:360 .0416 

6,700 12 :3.46 1,·940 .050H 

:3,300 I 

------------ ---

-~ 106,700 20,6:30 

node or nodes may be approximately determined by 

plotting the value of 1/yga against the. distance, x, 

and measuring the area under the resulting curve. 

A uninode will occur at a value of x that divides the 

area into 2 equal parts; binodes will occur at the 

values of x that divide the area into 4 equal· parts. 

On this basis the position of the. uninode on Oneida 

Lake was found to be at 48,300 feet (fig. 36.2). 

REFERENCES 

Chrystal, G., 1906, On the hydrodynamical theory of seiches: 

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, v. 41, p. 599-649. 

Du Boys, P., June 1891, Essai theorique sur les seiches: 

Archives des Sciences Physiques et N aturelles, Geneve, 

p. 628. 

Hunt, I. A., and Bajorunas, L., June 1959, The effect of seiches 

at Conneaut Harbor: Am. Soc. Civil ·Engineers, Proc. v. 

85, ww 2, p. 31-41. 

Keulegan, G. H., July 1959, Energy dissipation in standing 

waves in rectangul~r basins: Jour. Fluid Mechanics, 

Cambridge, v. 6, p. 33-50. 
B-82 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

37. VARIATIONS OF pH WITH DEPTH IN ANTHRACITE MINE-WATER POOLS IN PENNSYLVANIA 

By WILBUR T. STUART and THOMAS A. SIMPSON, Arlington, Va. 

When mining of anthracite coal was a flourishing 

industry during the 1920's and during the years of 

World War II, the water pumped from the mines 

was strongly acid and created ·pollution problems 

in the streams. When the coal was exhausted and 

the mines abandoned, pools of water accumulated in 

the underground workings. In some mines the pools 

drained naturally, and in others water was pumped 

to prevent overflow into adjacent active mine workings. These waters had considerable range in acid 

content (Felegy, Johnson, and Westfield, 1948) and 

their action on the pumping machinery required acidresisting components. Knowledge of the areas or 

zoning of the acid waters might make control of 

pollution easier and reduce the cost of handling the 

water. 

During the investigation, under Public Law 162, 

84th Congress, of pump projects relating to anthracite mine drainage, it was noted that the pH of the 

water in certain flooded mines varied with the depth 

below the surface of the pool. In some pools less 

acidic or fresh-water zones occurred near the surface above more acid waters at depth. 

Vertical shafts penetrating flooded mines were 

randomly selected ·in each of the four anthracite 

fields of Pennsylvania for determining the presence 

of layering of the acid water. Isolated unpumped. 

pools, pools pumped periodically, and pools having 

continuous circulation by overflowing were included 

in the sampling. At each shaft the pool was sampled 

25 feet below the pool surface and 75 to 100 feet 

above the bottom of the shaft. One or two samples 

were taken at points uniformly spaced between the 

uppe~ and lower sampling levels. 

The sampling was done by lowering a stoppered 

thick-walled bottle on a measured line to the desired 

depth. A long and a short open capillary tube 

through the stopper permitted the water to enter 

the bottle and the air to be released. The time that 

the bottle was in position at the sampling site was 

long compared to the time required to lower and 

raise it to the pool surface. Large bottles were used 

at depths of more than 400 feet, medium sizes between 100 and 400 feet, and small sizes for nearsurface samples. 

The pH of the samples was determined immediately at the shaft collars by a Beckman Model N 

pH meter. The pH was determined to the nearest 

0.01 unit, but in reporting the results in table 1, 

the determination is rounded to the nearest 0.05 

unit. 

Table 1 shows the range in· pH in eleven minewater pools in the four anthracite fields. The pools 

at the South Wilkes-Barre and Henry mines are 

relatively new pools isolated from other mines and 

have not been pumped. The pH in these pools indicate more acid water at depth. The Greenwood mine 

contains an isolated new pool and the level of the 

pool is rising at present. The pH in this pool indicates more acid water in the lower sections. The 

pool in the Clearspring mine is about 15 years old 

and has not been pumped. It reportedly receives recharge from and discharges to the buried valley of 

the Susquehanna River. The range in pH in this 

pool does not indicate any significant layering of 

acid water. 

The mine-water pools in the Exeter, Schooley, No. 

7, Reliance, and Packer mines are not appreciably 

layered. The pools have been pumped at intervals 

either to prevent overflow or to obtain water for 

processing of prepared coal. Water enters pools at 

each of these mines at several levels corresponding 

to the points where the mine shafts intersect waterbearing coal beds. This tends to keep the pool water 

mixed and helps prevent acid layering. 

The mine-water pools in the Hazelton and Locust 

Gap mines overflow to drainage tunnels. The amount 

of vertical flow in the shaft is unknown, but is probably significant. Slight differences in pH at depths 

within the pools of these mines were observed, but 

they are insufficient. to indicate layering of the acid 

water. 

REFERENCE 

Felegy, E. W., Johnson, L. H., and Westfield, J., 1948, Acid 

mine-water in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania: 

U.S. Bur. Mines Tech. Paper 710. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-83 

TABLE 1.-pH of wate'l' at diffe'rent levels below su·rface. of mine-water pools in anthracite fields of Pennsylvania 

Altitude of Altitude of 

Sampling point 

------~=---l---- Shaf~--

Altitude surface of sampling of collar mine-water point of shaft pool Date of tiample (feet above pH 

(feet above (feet above sampling number or below sea lcvrl) sea level) sea level) 

Remarks 

Northern anthracite field 

Exeter ............ Heel Ash .... 580 485 Jan. 9, 1961. .. 1 -!60 6.80 Pool formed after 1 H4H and 

2 :3:.~0 6.85 was pumped to prevent over- :3 200 6.85 flow until about. July 1959. 

-! 60 G.G5 

Clear-spring ....... Clear-spring . 578 528 Jan. 4, lUG 1 .. I 503 6.85 When mine was in operation, 

2 47:3 6.75 the pH of pumped discharge 

was 6. 5 on :\Ia.v 27, 19-:1-1. 

Pool formed before 19-:1--~; 

not pum1)ed sirwe. 

Schoole_, ........... Xo. 1. •...... 558 423 Jan. \:J, 1\)f..il .. 1 :~HS ti.-1-0 When mine was in operation, 

2 278 6.20 the pH of pumped discharge 

:~ 158 6.-1-0 was 6. 7 on :\Ia~· 2:~. 19-J.l. 

4 :3:~ G.75 Pool formed after Jan. 1951. 

Pumping ceased Ju)_,. 195~). 

South \\'ilkes-Barn~. Xo. 5 ....... .58\:J 8H ... do .. ...... I ()4 7.10 \\'hen mine was in operation, 

2 -61 :~ .65 the pH of pumped discha'rge 

:3 -2:36 4.00 was 5.1 on :\lay 19, 19-!1. 

4 --1-11 4.10 Pool formed after .June 1958. 

Xo. 7 ............. Xo. 2 ....... 545 508 Jan. 10, Hl61 .. 1 4n 6.\:JO \\'hen mine was in operation, 

2 :335 6.25 the pH of pumped dischar·ge :~ 185 6.50 was 3. 2 on June 10, 1941. 

1... 4 72 6.:35 Pool formed after :\Ia~· 1954. 

Henry ............ H.ed :hh .... 561 HS Apl'il20, 1960. 1 -±:38 7.:35 \\'hen mine was in operation, 

2 :3-:1-8 6.00 the pH of pumped discharge ;~ 148 5.10 was 3. 9 on :\Ia~, 15, 1958. 

-1- -162 5.30 Pool formed after Jan. Hl59. 

Shaft destroyed June 1960. 

----· 

Eastern middle anthracite field 

Hazelton .......... Hazelton .... 1,580 l ,091 Xov. 1:3, Hl57. 1 1,070 3.20 

2 900 :~.40 \\"ater rises in shaft and over-

:3 750 3.20 flows through drainage 

Jan. 10, 1\161.. 1 1,066 :3.60 tunnel at altitude 1, Of)l feet. 

2 955 3.80 

:3 848 3.60 

Western middle anthracite field 

Lo<·u~t Gap ........ Loeust Gap .. 1 ,28-J. 7\)7 Jan. I 1, 1\161 .. 1 772 4.55 :\Iine-\\'ater pool overflows 

2 6-:1-7 4.50 through drainage tunnel at :~ 522 5.85 a.ltitude 7-17 feet. 

4 28-1 5.50 

lh•liarwc ........... lh•lianee ..... I ,058 !17\.1 .Jan. 12, Hl61 .. l 954 6.10 \\'hen mine \Vas in operation, 

2 756 5.85 pH of pumped discharge "'' as :3 556 5.65 2. 7 on Sept. 18, 19-H, and 

-:1- 356 . 5. 95 -!.0 on Sept. 2:3, 19-16 . 

\\"ater pumped sporadieally 

from shaft. 

Pa('kPr X o. 5 ...... Xo. 5 ....... 1 '108 \)():3 Jan. 1:3, 1!)61 .. 1 9:38 6.70 \\"hen mine \nlS in operation, 

2 678 6.55 pH of pumped dischar·ge 

:3 :318 6.70 was -!. 9 on Sept. 16, H)41. 

4 58 6.55 Pool formed :1fter Sept. 

1957. 

-
·B-84 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 1.-pH of water at different levels below surface of min_e-wate1· pools i11 anthracite fields of Pennsylvania-Continued 

Altitude of I Altitude surface of I sa,rJ!llllg 1 

Sampling point of collar mine-water JlOJnt j 

I AJt;'""'' "' i 

of shaft pool Date of 

I 

Sample 1 lfel't ahovl' I pH Hernarks 

--------------,----- (feet above (feet above ~am piing nuruht•r , or helow J 

M~e Shah sea level) sea level l i s~!l L•::lr I 

Southern anthracite field 

Greenwood ........ Xo. 10 ..... ·. 1,002 452 Jan. 12, 1\Hil .. I 421 4.20 \\'hen mine was in operation, 

2 :{/2 -1.00 pH of pumpetl dis<~harge 

;{ J/2 ;~. 75 was :L 6 on July 2, 1\l-l-1, 

-l- -l-2 2.80 and ;{. 1 on Oct. 15, 1\)46. 

Pool formed aft.f'r :\Ia,· l\HiO. 

Pumping at shaft ccaserl 

Xov. 1!)60. 

38. ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY SEPARATES CATSKILL AND POCONO FORMATIONS IN WESTERN PART OF 

ANTHRACITE REGION, PENNSYLVANIA 

By J. PETER TREXLER, GORDON H. WOOD, JR., and HAROLD H. ARNDT, Washington, D. C. 

Geologists working in Pennsylvania generally 

have thought that the Pocono formation rests conformably on the Catskill formation, although Willard 

(1939, p. 19-21) believed a disconformity intervenes 

in northern Pennsylvania. The present authors, 

mapping in the western part of the Anthracite region 

in eastern Pennsylvania, found that the contact is a 

regional, low- to high-angle unconformity in an area 

of more than 600' 'square miles. 

At most localities in the western part of the Anthracite region (fig. 38.1) the predominantly red, 

main body of the Catskill formation is overlain by 

an upper gray member that consists chiefly of gray 

. and green sandstone, shale, and conglomerate, with 

local interbeds of red sandstone and shale. This gray 

member, which ranges in thickness from 0 to 2,400 

feet, is absent at some localities north and northeast 

of Pine Grove (fig. 38). 

The overlying gray Pocono formation is composed 

mainly of sandstone and conglomerate, and ranges 

in thickness from 700 to 1,200 feet. The basal unit 

is a widespread pebble conglomerate, perhaps the 

Griswold Gap conglomerate of White (1883, p. 47-

52), which ranges in thickness from 2 to 100 feet. 

Because of the similarity between the gray beds 

in the upper part of the Catskill formation and beds 

of the Pocono formation, White ( 1883, p. 49-52) 

·recognized a "Pocono-Catskill transition group." 

This "transition group" is designated as the gray 

member of the Catskill formation in this report. 

White further stated that a geologist would assign 

the gray beds to the Pocono at one locality and to 

the Catskill at another, depending on the presence 

or absence of red beds. Although other geologists · 

generally placed the contact between the Catskill 

and Pocono formations at the top of the uppermost 

red bed, the present investigation confirmed that the 

red beds in the gray member are of local extent and 

that the contact, where placed at the top of the uppermost red bed, was at different stratigraphic positions at different localities. Therefore, the writers 

followed White ( 1883·, p. 46-49) in placing the contact between the Catskill and Pocono formations at 

the base of the widespread pebble conglomerate, 

~hich locally rests on red beds or gray sandstone in 

the gray member or on the red: main body of the 

Catskill formation. 

EVIDENCE FOR THE UNCONFORMITY 

Three miles southeast of Lykens, near the nose of 

the Joliet anticline, the gray member of the Catskill . 

formation attains its maximum thickness of about 

2,400 feet (fig. 38.2). To the west, on both limbs of 

the anticline, the upper 2,000 to 2,300 feet of the 

1-
•( 

1Wznbcthville0 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC ·SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

76°45' 

Post-Pocono rocks 

Pocono formation 

Gray member 

~ of the Catskill formation 

Main hody of the Catskill formation 

and older rocks 

EXPLANATION 

}I 0 

N De 

De 

1 0 Pine Grove 

5 0 5 MILES 

.----

Conformable contact 

Unconformable contact, no angularity 

observed · i 

Unconformable contact, angularity observed 

between the basal conglomerate of the 

Pocono formation and the gray member 

of the Catskill formation 

·········· Unconformable contact, basal conglomerate 

Of the Pocono .formation rests on the red 

main body of the Catskill formation 

Fault, showing relative horizontal 

movement 

B-85 

FIGURE 38.1.-Map showing angular unconformity bet'Yeen the Catskill and Pocono formations in the western part of the 

Anthracite regiqn, Pennsylvania. 
~·~ ~l! ~ 

;:: 

~-::l 

~~ ~ 

De 

EXPLANATION 

EJ 

Post-Pocono rocks 

z z 

<{ ::!: . a: z 

!!:o~ VIZ-' 

~<{~ 

VI z ~ z ::E w 

G )~ a. Main body of the Pocono formation ~ 

VI 

a ~ Basal conglomerate of the Pocono formation i 

8 

Gray member of the Catskill formation 

Dashed lines indicate map units overlapped 

· by basal conglomerate of the Pocono 

G 

Main body of the Catskill formation 

De 

z 

::!: 

z 

0 

> 

w 

0 

c: 

~ c: 

co 

() c: .>C. 'iii QJ .... ~ c: 

:J () 0 

00 l: 

.!: 

;::; ~ 

rti Q; 0:: ID 

c: 

~ c: 

:J 

0 

l: 

-o 

co 

e 

ID 

w 

~--~ w_, 

:::iu 

Of= 

•z <{ 

---------....... 

c: 

-~ 

c: 

:J 

0 

l: 

f?Mr/Mp£/ "D~··:s~s ~ ::: --~:-: $%' ···~~,.~Mp )g'M1SEA LEVEL 

IPMr 

N 

... ~ I ~-,./ (}-o-i: 

.. r 1 0 lMILE 

IPMr 

~,.... 1 ,"' t ~~r /\~- 40°30' 

FIGURE 38.2.-Geologic map and structure section showing angular relations between the gray member of the Catskill formation and the basal conglomerate of 

the Pocono formation south of Lykens, Pa. 

~ ,._ , i. ,. ..,. 

td 

~ ~ 

Cl 

t:z::l 

0 

t'"1 

0 

Cl 

-

0 

> 

t'"1 

en 

Cj 

~ 

< 

t:z::l 

~ 

~ 

trj 

en 

trj 

> 

~ 

0 

::r: 

~ 

co 

~ 

~ 
..... 

·, 

\ 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-87 

member are gradually overlapped by the basal conglomerate of the Pocono formation. Along the southern flank of Broad Mountain, on the north limb of 

the anticline, the gray member dips 10° to 30° more 

steeply northward than the overlying Pocono beds. 

On Peters Mountain, on the south limb of the anticline, the Pocono dips as much as 25° more steeply 

southeastward than the gray member. These strati- . 

graphic and structural relations indicate that an 

angular unconformity separates the gray member of 

the Catskill and the basal conglomerate of the 

Pocono, and that locally the gray member dipped 

about 25° to the north when the Pocono formation 

accumulated. 

About 1 mile south of Lykens in the canyon cut 

through Berry Mountain by Rattling Creek, two 

sharp anticlines and a syncline in the gray member 

underlie a simple asymmetric anticline in the Pocono 

formation (fig. 38.2). The discordance is as great as 

75°. Thus, the angular unconformity noticed on 

Broad and Peters Mountains is also present here. 

Although the evidence is not obvious at other 

localities, the regional unconformity between the 

Catskill and Pocono formations throughout the 

western part of the Anthracite region (fig. 38.1) is 

indicated by local differences in dip and strike across 

the contact. The unconformity is also indicated by 

the truncation of red and gray beds in the gray 

member of the Catskill formation, which explains the 

variations in the thickness of the gray member and 

the local absence of the member north and northeast 

of Pine Grove. 

AGE OF THE UNCONFORMITY 

The Catskill formation is generally considered to 

be Late Devonian and the Pocono formation Early 

Mississippian in age. However, a pi_nnule of a fossil 

plant collected by the authors from a bed in the gray 

member of the Catskill formation about 500 feet 

above the base of the member has been tentatively 

identified as Adia.ntities sp. (S. H. Mamay, oral communication, 1960), indicating a probable Early Mississippian age for at least the upper part of this 

member. Read ( 1955, p. 8) included the beds here 

designated as the gray member in the lower part of 

the Pocono formation and in his Early Mississippian 

Ad,ia,ntit·ies zone. This fossil evidence indicates that 

deposition of gray, green, and red beds of the Catskill 

formation continued into Early Mississippian time. 

The age of the Catskill formation in the Anthracite 

region, consequently, is now designated as Late 

Devonian and Early Mississippian. Because the unconformity is underlain and overlain by rocks of 

Early Mississippian age, it also is of Early Mississippian age. 

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UNCONFORMITY 

The angular unconformity between the Catskill 

and Pocono formations is the result of folding, uplift, and erosion that occurred after deposition of 

the gray member of the Catskill formation and before 

deposition of the basal conglomerate of the Pocono 

formation. The authors believe that this deformation 

was a late phase of the Acadian orogeny and that 

the Acadian disturbance, which heretofore. was generally believed to be of Middle and Late Devonian 

age, continued into Early Mississippian time in 

eastern Pennsylvania. Woodward (1957a, 1957b) 

postulated that the Acadian orogeny affected the 

Valley and Ridge province of eastern Pennsylvania, 

but did not describe specific localities where Acadian 

folds could be distinguished from later Appalachian 

folds. The angular unconformity between the ·catskill and Pocono formations provides definite structural evidence of the Acadian orogeny in the Valley 

and Ridge province of eastern Pennsylvania. The 

Acadian folds underlying the unconformity are obscured by folds resulting from the Appalachian 

orogeny, mainly because the trend of the folds 

formed during this later orogeny generally parallel 

those formed during the Acadian. Compression was 

from the southeast during both orogenies. This 

probably explains why definite Acadian folds have 

not been previously distinguished, and substantiates 

Woodward's (1957b, p. 2320) hypothesis on the 

occurrence of Acadian folds and the parallelism of 

these folds to Appalachian folds in eastern Pennsylvania. 

The unconformity provides the only widespread 

recognizable contact between the gray member of 

the Catskill formation and the Pocono formation in 

the western part of the Anthracite region, and may 

be the same as the disconformity postulated by Willard ( 1939, p. 19-21) for northern Pennsylvania. 

Recognition of this unconformity, which is the upper 

contact of the Catskill formation, should eliminate 

some of the difficulties encountered in the past in 

mapping and correlating units in the upper part of 

the Catskill formation and in the lower part of the 

Pocono formation. 

REFERENCES 

Read, C. B., 1955, Floras of the Pocono formation and Price 

sandstone in parts of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia and Virginia: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 263, 

32 p., 20 pls. 
B-88 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RE~EARCH 1961 

White, I. C., 1883, The geology of the Susquehanna River 

region in the six counties of Wyoming, Lackawanna, 

Luzerne, Columbia, Montour, and Northumberland: PennsylvaniaGeol. Survey, 2d ser., Bull. G-7, 464 p. 

Willard, Bradford, 1939, The Devonian of Pennsylvania, Middle and Upper Devonian: Pennsylvania Geol. Survey, 4th 

ser., Bull G-19, 481 p. 

Woodward, H. P., 1957a, Structural elements of northeastern 

Appalachians: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 

41, no. 7, p. 1429-1440. 

--, 1957b, Chronology of Appalachian folding: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologist~ Bull., v. 41, no. 10, p. 2312-2327. 

39. REEFS IN THE FORT PAYNE FORMATION OF MISSISSIPPIAN AGE, SOUTH-CENTRAL KENTUCKY 

By ROBERT E. THADEN, RICHARD Q. LEWIS, J. MARK CATTERMOLE, and ALFRED R. TAYLOR, Columbia, Ky. 

Wo1·k done in cooperation with the Kentucky Geological Survey 

Geologic mapping. and studies in the Amandavi1le, 

Breeding, Burkesville, Creelsboro, Cumberland City, 

Jamestown, and Wolf Creek Dam quadrangles in 

south-central ·Kentucky, being done' in cooperation 

with the Kentucky Geological Survey, have partly 

delineated several limesto~e reefs in the Fort Payne 

formation of Early Mississippian age. They are well 

exposed in the valleys of the Cumberland River and 

its large·r tributaries between B'urkesville and Jamestown, Ky., and are ~less .well exposed in shallower 

valleys to the ·west and ·north. The area includes 

parts of Adair, Russell, Clinton, and Cumberland 

Counties. Butts. (1922, p. 78-83), Klepser (1937), 

and Stockdale (1939, p. 138) noted the presence. of 

limestone.in the Fo·rt Payne formation; and Klepser 

(1937) pointed out ·that .limestone masses in this 

area are like bioherms. · 

The Fort · Payne· formation ~overlies the Chattanooga shale of Devonian· ·and· Early Mississippian 

age and underlies the Warsaw limestone of Late 

Mississippian age (Stoc.kdale, 1939, p. 52-54). The 

FortPayneis about 250 to 270 feet thick and; where 

reefs are not present, is ·composed almost entirely 

of siltst~:me and shale. Within the. F0.rt P~yne. interval reefs may occupy any position,.' but pos$ibly 

are more numerous near the base. SorqeAr:Iconclusive 

evidence suggests that the northernmost reefs tend 

to occur stratigraphkally .higher than those to the 

south. Th.e larg,e reefs (~g. 39.1.). trend .g~nerally 

1\f. 65° to 80° W. This ~bservation, .together with 

information from oil wells in su.rrounding counties, · 

indicates that the reefs occur in a belt of unknown 

width that may trend in the same general direction 

as the individual reefs. 

The reefs range in size from thin isolated lenticular bodies a few. tens of feet in lateral extent to 

blocky and thick-bedded bodies more than 100 feet 

thick, more than 1 mile wide, and 15 or more miles 

long. Indeed, many of the 'large reefs locally ·make 

up most of the Fort Payne formation. · 

Small reefs are found throughout the Fort Payne, 

vertically and laterally, but· apparently are most 

numerous in the vicinity of the large reefs. · The 

small reefs generally a:re thicker and are convex 

upward. At their margins the reefs consist largely 

of overlapping .sheets of reef-derived detritus which 

grade into the main reef body, are steeply crossbedded away from the main reef, and tongue into 

the adjacent shale and siltstone. 

Some reefs· are made up of limestone from top to 

bottom; others are. multiple, superposed limestone 

bodies separated. by shale and siltstone beds ; still 

others are discontinuous short segments of limestone 

separated -laterally by shale and siltstone. The margins of the large~ reefs are not unlike the margins 

of the small ones. Tongues and fingers of limestone· 

a few feet to several tens of feet in thickness may 

extend thousands of feet into the surrounding sh.ale 

and siltstone. These tongues may be either compact 

li'mestone or recemented reef-d.erived detritus. Bedding is absent in some parts of the -main body of 

individual reefs; elsewhere there may be undulating 

beddin·g or gentle crossbedding. Bedding in · the 

tongues, although at some places like' that in the 
.. 

., 

~' 

BREEDING 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-89 

AMANDA VILLE 

EXPLANATION 

Outcrop of reef limestone 

Da.~hed where projerl.ed beyond 

limits ofob.~ervat'ion 

Lateral limit of reef 

Da.~hed where appt·m"inwtelylol'lll.ed 

0 

("f) 

Information on reef locations is limited 

by cover and by incomplete mapping 

N 

N 

Lrl 

co BURKESVILLE 

St. Louis limestone 

Warsaw limestone 

l"ort Payne formation 

Reefs in black 

z 

<{ 

a. 

a. 

lf) 

lf) 

lf) 

lf) 

~ 

~· 

Chattanooga shale 

z 

<{ 

}~ w 

0 

WOLF CREEK DAM 

'Z 

D }8~ Pre-Chattanooga units cr ~ 0> 

h 

JAMESTOWN 36052,

30 .. 

'\ .,. 

CUMBERLAND CITY 

36 o

45, 

MAP AREA 

FIGURE 39.1.-0utcrop pattern and stratigraphic position of reefs in the Fort Payne formation in part of south-central 

Kentucky . 
B-90 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

main body of the reefs, characteristically is crossbedded at steep angles. Dips of crossbeds may exceed 20°, though dips of 8° to 10° are more common. The inclination of crossbedding nearly everywhere is to the south. 

Limestone in the reefs commonly is coarse grained, 

arenaceous and argillaceous, and gray to bluish gray. 

Fossils are common in coarse-grained limestone, 

less abundant in fine-grained limestone. Large 

crinoid stem segments are particularly abundant; in 

places the reefs are essentially a "crinoid hash." 

Brachiopods and bryozoans, though not as abundant 

as crinoids, are common. Chert lenses and pods, 

quartz geodes, and small irregular masses of paleblue chalcedony less than an inch in diameter are 

abundant in parts of the limestone as well as in the 

nearby siltstone and shale. Near the reefs, especially 

in laterally equivalent _peds, the siltstone and shale 

are much more calcareous and darker than elsewhere 

in the formation. 

Petroleum and natural gas have been produced 

from limestone reefs in the Fort . Payne formation 

in Wayne County southeast of the area of the 

present study and in parts of Hart, Barren, and 

Metcalf Counties to the northwest of the area. Local 

names have been given to the producing horizon in 

nearly every oil pool in these counties, but the producing horizons are also widely known as the "Beaver 

sand" or "Beaver Creek sand." The present production of petroleum and natural gas from reef limestone in the Fort Payne formation in Kentucky has 

been small in comparison with production from 

rocks of Ordovician age. It is likely that additional 

knowledge of the size, trend, and physical properties 

of the reefs will ~ssist in future exploration. 

REFERENCES 

Butts, Charles, 1922, The Mississippian series of eastern Kentucky; Kentucky Geol. Survey, Series 7, vol. 7, 188. p. 

Klepser, Harry J., 1937, The Lower Mississippian rocks of the 

Eastern Highland Rim; Ohio State Univ. Abstracts, Doc. 

24, p. 181-187. 

Stockdale, Paris B., 1939, Lower Mississippian rocks of the 

East-Central Interior; Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 22. 

40. THE TUSCALOOSA GRAVEL IN TENNESSEE AND ITS RELATION TO THE STHUCTURAL -DEVELOPMENT 

OF THE MISSISSIPPI EMBAYMENT SYNCLINE 

By MELVIN V. MARCHER, Nashville, Tenn. 

Work done in coope1·atim1. w·ith the Ten:nessee Div·ision of Geology 

The Tuscaloosa gravel of Late Cretaceous age 

occurs as outliers capping many of the hills and 

ridges on the Western Highland Rim of Tennessee. 

In the southwestern part of the Rim a maximum 

thickness of 150 feet has been preserved; elsewhere 

the thickness is 30 feet or less. 

On the basis of its lithologic characteristics the 

Tuscaloosa can be subdivided into a western and 

eastern facies. Of the two, the western facies is 

more widespread and is typical of the formation 

over most of the area. The eastern facies is restricted to a narrow northwa:r~-trending belt along 

the eastern margin of the Western Highland Rim .. 

LITHOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS 

Size analyses indicate that the western facies of 

the Tuscaloosa gravel is a mixture of three distinct 

sedimentary components. Frequency curves show 

separate peaks for gravel, medium sand, and fine 

sand. 

The gravel component (larger than 13 mm in 

diameter) consists mainly of chert plus a small 

amount of sandstone. Much of the chert gravel was 

derived from formations of Devonian (Camden 

chert) and Mississippian (Fort Payne, Warsaw, 

and· St. Louis formations) ages. 

Sandstone pebbles, although rare in the Tuscaloosa gravel, are relatively widespread. These peb-

.:... 

,. 

-. 
. .,.. 

~· 

,. 

;~· 

.,. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-91 

bles are not indigenous to the area and did not come 

from formations now exposed in western Tennessee. 

Most of the sand in the western facies consist of. 

angular chert and quartz grains. These grains, particularly the chert, resemble partly weathered Camden and Fort Payne chert that has been mechanically 

crushed. 

All samples studied contain very minor amounts 

of rounded and frosted quartz sand which, li~e the 

sandstone and quartz pebbles, did not come , from 

rocks now exposed in the area. 

Kaolinite, montmorillonite, and mica are present 

in all samples analyzed. Kaolinite is dominant (20 

to 40 percent of total sample) in all samples except 

one, which contains 20 to 30 percent montmorillonite. 

In all other samples montmorillonite makes up 10 

percent or less of the total sample. 

The eastern facies of the Tuscaloosa gravel contains all the components of the western_ facies and 

in addition contains beds of well-sorted sand and 

gravel, siliceous siltstone containing fragmentary 

plant fossils, heavy minerals, and an abundance of 

quartz sand and quartz pebbles. The contrast in 

sorting, lithologic diversity, and mineral content indicates a marked difference both in source and depositional environment. 

SOURCE 

The pebbles of Mississippian chert are clearly of 

local origin. The Camden chert is present only in 

the .Western Valley of the Tennessee River and in 

the subsurface farther west. Thus pebbles of the 

Camden chert in the Tuscaloosa have been transported 10 to 50 miles from the west. 

Because pebbles of the Camden chert were transported. from the west, the sandstone pebbles, which 

are thoroughly intermixed in the main mass of the 

Tuscaloosa gravel, must have been transported from 

that direction also. The most probable source beds 

for the sandstone pebbles include the Lamotte and 

Roubidoux formations, which were exposed in western Tennessee during Tuscaloosa time (Grohskopf, 

1955, p. 14-16 and pl. 3). 

Angular chert and quartz grains seem to have 

been developed by attrition of Camden and Fort 

Payne chert during transport. The rounded. and 

frosted quartz-sand grains in the main mass of the 

gravel probably were derived from the St. Peter 

or Dutch Creek formations, which formerly cropped 

out in western Tennessee and western Kentucky. 

Kaolinite and montmorillonite are both developed 

by weathering of the Camden and Fort Payne chert. 

Thus these components are of both local and distant 

origin. Some of the montmorillonite could have developed by alteration of volcanic glass which also 

occurs in the fine fraction of the Tuscaloosa. 

Because the quartz pebbles so abundant in the 

eastern facies of the Tuscaloosa·· are not mixed 

throughout the main mass of the gravel as they 

should be if they had come from the west, it i~ inferred that they were derived from some other direction. The most probable source was Pennsylvanian 

bedrock in northwestern Mississippi and western 

Kentucky. The beds of well-sorted sand and heavy 

minerals associated with the quartz gravel may also 

have come from the same areas. 

PALEOGEOLOGY_ AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY DURING 

T'Q'SCALOOSA DEPOSITION 

The western facies of the Tuscaloosa gra ve'l is 

probably a series of coalesced stream deposits because the deposits lie at the base of a transgressive 

marine sequence; because of the apparent lack of 

significant chemical difference between the source 

areas and the deposits; and because of the textural 

similarity between the deposits and typical valleyfill deposits. 

The eastern facies of the Tuscaloosa may represent 

shoreline deposits where waves and currents winnowed the stream-transported sediments from 'the 

west and brought in additional components from the 

north .and south (fig. 40.1). 

As demonstrated by the source of some of the 

Tuscaloosa gravel components, the area west of the 

Western Highland. Rim was a highland during Late 

Cretaceous time. Paleogeologic maps of the northern 

Mississipp~ Embayment (Freeman, 1953, pl. 3, Caplan, 1954, pl. 4, and Grohskopf, 1955, pl. 3) show 

that this topographic highland was- also a structural 

high and that beds as old as Cambrian were exposed 

on its crest. This structural feature., first postulated 

by Wilson ·(1939), has been named the Pascola arch 

by Grohskopf (1955, p. 25). 

· Reconstruction of the Pascola arch based on ·stream 

gradients estimated from the maximum size pebbles 

in the Tuscaloosa gravel and eastward thickening 

of post-Tuscaloosa sediments indicates that the arch 

stood nearly 1,000 feet above sea level during TuscalGosa deposition. More than 8,000 feet of strata 

had been eroded from the crest of the arch by the 

beginning of Tuscaloosa deposition. 
B-92 

MISSOURI 

-1---

<P q 

0 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

ILLINOIS 

MISSISSIPPI 

50 

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 FEET 

' I 

100 MILES 

KENTUCKY 

ALABAMA 

<( 

LIJ 

en 

<( 

en 

0 

0 

....J 

<( 

(.) 

en 

:::::> 

1-

N 

FIGURE 40.1.-Paleogeology and paleogeography of western Tennessee and adjoining areas during Tuscaloo$a deposition. 

Contours show topography of ·Pascola arch. 

.) 
• 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-93 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI EMBAYMENT 

SYNCLINE 

During and shortly after deposition of the Tuscaloosa gravel the Pascola arch began to subside. 

Most of the subsidence occurred near the synclinal 

axis that generally follows the present course of the 

Mississippi. Superposition of the synclinal bend 

across the now-buried high resulted in faults that 

cut Paleozoic rocks and, in some areas, that extended 

upward into the overlying younger strata. 

REFERENCES 

Caplan, W. M., 1954, Subsurface geology and related oil and 

gas possibilities of northeastern Arkansas: Arkansas Div. 

Geology Bull. 20, 124 p. 

Freeman, L. B., 1953, Regional subsurface stratigraphy of the 

Cambrian and. Ordovician in Kentucky and vicinity: Kentucky Geol. Survey Bull. 12, 352 p. 

Grohskopf, J. G., 1955, Subsurface geology of the Mississippi 

Embayment of southeast Missouri: Missouri Geol. Survey 

and Water Res., 2d ser., v. 37, 133 p. 

Wilson, C. W., Jr., 1939, Probable connection of the Nashville 

and Ozark domes by a complimentary arch: Jour. Geology, v. 47, no. 6, p. 583-597 . 

41. SYSTEMATIC PATTERN OF TRIASSIC DIKES IN THE APPALACHIAN REGION 

By PHILIP B. KING, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Nearly 30 years ago Bucher (1933, p. 351-353) 

observed that a promising field for tectonic research 

would be the Triassic dikes that traverse the rocks 

of the Appalachian region in the eastern United 

States. The present note reaffirms this observation, 

and indicates new data that have become available 

since the time of Bucher~s writing. 

During preparation of a revised tectonic map of 

the United States (Cohee and others, 1961 in press) 

it was decided that these dikes were an item of sufficient tectonic interest to be plotted on this edition 

of the map. Their map pattern was therefore compiled from all published sources; in addition, unpublished data for North and South Carolina were contributed by W. R. Griffitts and W. C.· Overstreet, 

and for New England by John Rodgers. 

NEW ARK GROUP AND AS~OCIATED FEATURES 

Sedimentary rocks of the Newark group of Late 

Triassic age form elongate strips of outcrop from 

Nova Scotia: southwestward along the strike to South 

Carolina. Probable subsurface extensions of the 

Newark group farther east and south are also known 

from drilling and from geophysical surveys. The 

nature and occurrence of the Newark group has been 

summarized recently (Reeside and others, 1957, p. 

1459-1461; McKee and others, 1959, p. 12, 13, 18, 

24, pis. 4, 5, 7, 9). 

The extent and pattern of the present outcrop 

·areas of the Newark group are determined largely 

by normal faults, along which the Newark has been 

dropped against older rocks on one or both sides. 

Present outcrop areas may have nearly the original 

extent of the deposits, as the nature of deposits adjacent to the major bordering faults indicates that 

these were in process of displacement during sedimentation. However, the major faults and the numerous minor faults continued to be displaced after 

the close of the depositional epoch. Trends of faults 

and outcrop areas conform grossly to the northeastward strike of the older rocks, which had been produced· by deformation of the Appalachian region 

prior to Late Triassic time. Also, the larger strips of 

outcrop of the Newark"group are paired on each side 

of the central axis ·of the ·Appalachian deformed 

belt, with the faults which border them dropped 

antithetically toward the axis (McKee and others, 

1959, p. 24, pl. 9)_. 

Newark sedimentation was accompanied by much 

igneous activity. Interbedded with the sedimentary 

rocks in the northern outcrop areas are flows of . 

mafic lava. Both here and in outcrop areas farther 

south the sedimentary rocks are intruded by extensive stocks and sills of igneous rock, mostly classed 

as diabase, but including other mafic varieties. Even 

more abundant are the dikes, discussed below, which 

extend far away from the Newark areas. At least 

some of the intrusives are related to· the lava flows 

and faults, but the age of others can be determined 

only. within wide limits. Possibly these intrusives 
B-94 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

formed during a long time span, but they appear 

to be so closely related, not only among themselves 

but to the other features associated with the Newark 

group, that they all must be broadly of Late Triassic 

age. 

DIKES 

Narrow steeply dipping mafic dikes intrude the 

Newark group in all its outcrop are'as and in places 

branch from the larger intrusives. They also extend 

into the surrounding older rocks and are common 

even far distant from the Newark outcrops. Most 

of the outlying dikes intrude the metamorphic and~ 

EXPLANATION 

Diabase. dikes of Triassic age 

Ma.inly ,:,, Piedr1wnt proviru:e of Appa.lachinn ·region; u:nrnapped in ·mnny areas 

Outcrops of • Newark group of 

Late Triassic age 

Ma.in/.y sedimenl.a.ry rocks but including 

intrus1:ve stock.~ a.nd sills in ·most areas, 

a.nd interbedded la.va in some northern 

Normal faults 

At border.• of nreas of outcrop of Newark 

group 

··-.. ······-··:~?.-·····? ...... 

Boundaries of major geologic 

provinces 

.. _, _..., 

.... ·· \ . I 

.4 ... ,• I 

... /. \ .••. · I 

·: .. ...: \ 

··~-----._:': .. _ ..... 

plutonic rocks of the Piedmont province, although a 

few extend northward into the Paleozoic rocks of 

the Valley and Ridge province near Harrisburg, Pa. 

Southeastward, many dikes extend to the edge of 

the Atlantic Coastal Plain, where they pass unconformably beneath Cretaceous and younger strata. 

The dikes have been observed and located mostly 

as an incident to other. geological investigations, and 

have seldom been a specific field of study, so that 

many more. data regarding them could still be ob:-

tained. The accompanying map (fig. 4l.il.) reflects 

this present state of information. The abundant 

dikes shown in Pennsylvania and Maryland were 

0 100 200 300 MILES 

FIGURE 41.1.-Sketch map of the Appalachian region of the eastern United States, showing known occurrences of dikes of 

Triassic age, and areas of outcrop of the Newark group. 

+ 
. ., 

... 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC ~ClENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-95 

mapped in detail many years ago, and those in 

Georgia more recently by Lester and Allen (1950). 

Very few dikes, by contrast, are shown in North 

Carolina. Here, in a 30-mile segment of the Deep 

Hiver basin, Reinemund (1955, p. 54-61, pis. 1, 4) 

mapped hundreds of transverse dikes, yet the 

geologic map of North Carolina (Stuckey, 1958) 

shows no dikes in the segments of the basin on 

either side. Probably some dikes, perhaps many, 

occur in these other segments, but are so far unmapped. 

The dikes are sufficiently known, however, to permit significant generalizations regarding their pattern. Although dikes of different trends cross or 

intersect, most dikes locally have a common trend. 

However, these local common trends vary systematically from one part of the Appalachian region to 

another. In the southwestern 400-mile segment of 

the Appalachians, from Alabama to North Carolina, 

the dikes trend consistently northwestward (fig. 

41.1). In southern Virginia the trend changes to 

north-northwestward and i_n northern Virginia to 

northward. Across Maryland and Pennsylvania the 

northward trend changes to northeastward, and this 

same trend continues into New England. 

·The trends of the dikes are everywhere discordant 

to the trends of the structures of the enclosing rocks, 

and they are everywhere straighter than these structures. In the southwestern 400..:mile segment of the 

Appalachian region the dikes extend nearly at right 

angles to the trends of the outcrop areas of the 

Newark group and the associated faults, as well as 

to the strike of the older rocks. Farther northeastward they cross the structures in the Triassic and 

older rocks diagonally. Moreover, in Pennsylvania 

and adjacent States, the dikes are not deflected by 

the marked sinuosities in the trend of the Newark 

rocks and their associated faults. 

INTERPRETATION 

Dikes, stocks and sills, normal faults, and sedimentary basins all formed in the Appalachian region 

during Late Triassic or closely related times, and 

are manifestations ·of a stress pattern, or succession 

of stress patterns, which existed in the region during 

those times. 

Dikes are products of regional tension directed 

horizontally in the· crust (Anderson, 1951, p. 30). 

Those in the Appalachian region, which cut cleanly 

through all other structures, probably reflect the 

deep-seated tensile stresses that existed during Late 

Triassic time. In the southwestern segment they indicate that the trend of the axis of greatest tension, 

or of least compressive stress, was to the northeast, 

but in the northeastern segment this axis curves in 

an arc to the east, and finally to the southeast. 

A different pattern is shown by the normal faults 

and sedimentary basins of the Newark group. These 

follow closely the strike of the older rocks amidst 

which they lie, and may have been conditioned by 

fracture and displacement along existing lines of 

weakness. Pairing of the major basins and associated faults on opposite sides of the central axis 

of the Appalachians suggests that this axis was again 

raised into a broad arch during Triassic time. 

Differences between the stress pattern suggested 

by the dikes and that by the faults and sedimentary 

basins are seemingly incompatible. Possibly the two 

patterns existed at slightly different times, but more 

likely the faults and basins are an expression of 

superficial stresses which were contemporaneous 

with the deep-seated stresses that produced the dikes. 

Be that as it may, the stress patterns of Late 

Triassic time in the Appalachian region appear to 

have been more systematic, and the tectonic history 

more complex than has generally been assumed. An 

eventful tectonic history of the region during 

Triassic time has also been suggested recently by 

Woodward (1957, p. 1437-1439), on the basis of 

other evidence and with a different interpretation. 

It would appear that further study of the Triassic 

phase of the tectonic evolution of the Appalachian 

region is warranted. The nature, history, and pattern of the Late Triassic dikes will be a useful tool 

in such studies. 

REFERENCES 

Anderson, E. M., 1951, The dynamics of faulting and dyke 

formation, with applications to Britain, 2d ed.: Edinburgh, Oliver & Boyd, 206 p. 

Bucher, W. H., 1933, The deformation of the earth's crust: 

Princeton, N. J., Princeton Univ. Press, 518 p. 

Cohee, G. V., and others, 1961, Tectonic map of United States: 

U.S. Geol. Survey (in press). 

Lester, J. G., and Allen, A. T., 1950, Diabase of' the Georgia 

Piedmont: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 61, p. 1217-1224. 

McKee, E. D., and others, 1959, Paleotectonic map of the 

Triassic system: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

I-300, 33 p., 9 pis. 

Reeside, J. B., Jr., and others, 1957, Correlation of the Triassic 

formations of North America, exclusive of Canada: Geol. 

Soc. Ameri~a Bull., v. 68, no. 11, p. 1451-1513. 

Reinemund, J. A., 1955, Geology of the Deep River coal field, 

North Carolina: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof .. Paper 246, 

159 p. 

Stucke~, J. L., 1958, Geologic map of North Carolina: North 

Carolina Dept. Conserv. Dev., Div. Mineral Resources. 

Woodward, H. P., 1957, Structural elements of northeastern 

Appalachians: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 

41, p. 1429-1440. 
B-96 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

42. RAINFALL AND MINIMUM FLOWS ALONG THE T ALLA~OOSA RIVER, ALABAMA 

By H. C. RIGGS, Washington, D. C. 

A major problem in hydrology is the estimat.ion 

of the frequency distribution of an event such as a 

flood or drought. Ordinarily this is obtained by 

some analysis. of the recorded events. Fr.equently 

one or more of the recorded events appear unusual 

with respect to the others and the proper interpretation is not apparent. This is the problem posed by 

the annual minimum flows for the Tallapoosa River 

at Wadley, Ala., for 1924-1955 as shown on figure 

42.1. 

The three lowest points (fig. 42.1) appear "out of 

line" with the others, particularly if a typical frequency curve that flattens at the low end is postulated. Several explanations are possible: the actual 

recurrence intervals of these three minimum flows 

are much greater than indicated by the period of 

record; the three lowest minimum flows are lower 

than natural flows because of emergency withdrawals 

upstream; or the frequency curve should be concave 

downward instead of concave upward. 

To choose the correct explanation, additional information is needed. The minimums occurred in 

1925, 1931, and 1954. It is unlikely that the first two 

were affected by emergency withdrawals of water 

because water requirements were not great in the 

earlier years. Much additional information would 

be required to define the shape of the frequency 

curve. This leaves only the possibility of making 

I.JJ 

<!) 1000 ct: 

a:: 

I.JJ 

> 

ct:cn 

>-La.. 

ct:u 

qz 

,.;. -. 

I.JJ 

:::!:<!J 

:::>0:: 

:::!:ct: _I 100 

.... . I 

····· ········ I 

I . . .. . .. .. . . - zu 

-en :::!:-0 ...J 

. . I . ct: 

:::l 

z 

z 

ct: 

10 1.1 2 5 10 20 50 

RECURRENCE INTERVAL.IN YEARS 

FIGURE 42.1.-Drought frequency plot, Tallapoosa River at 

Wadley, Ala. 

0 Rome 

0 Gadsden 

oTalladega 

\ N 

·, t \ . 

0 Auburn 

0 10 20. 30 40MILES 

FIGURE 42.2.-Map of Tallapoosa River basin above Wadley, 

Ala., showing location of long-record rainfall stations. 

better estimates of the recurrence intervals of the 

three lowest discharges. 

If it cou@.'-' be shown that extremely low annual 

minimum flows coincide with extremely low precipitation, then the rainfall record could be used to indicate whether lower minimum flows had occurred in 

the longer period covered by the rainfall record. Four 

rainfall records near the Tallapoosa River basin are 

..... I 
... 

"+ 

.., 

... 

.._. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-97 

500 

C/) 

1.1.. 

(.) 

z 

w 

(.!) 

0::: 

<( 

::r: 

(.) 

C/) 

i5 

....J 

~ 100 1-

(.) 

<( 

50 

9 0 

1-1------f--------g- /-

0. <fgo <Yo ~ 

0 0 0 

0 

0 

/

0 

Arithmetic model 

~0------r---------------------r-~ ~0 

~+--------+-----------------0~ Gl oo ~ o o 

·o 

0 

OJO 0 · 

0 0/ 0 

~ 00 

0 

0 

<o 

Semi log ·model 

.50 100 500 50 100 500 

COMPUTED DISCHARGE,IN CFS 

FIGURE 42.3.-Comparison of discharges computed by two equations with actual discharg~. 

available for the period 1888-1955. These records 

are used in the following analysis. 

The principal factors affecting the magnitu.de of 

· an annual minimum flow are the amount and distribution of precipitation during the year or part 

of the year. For this study the winter, spring, and 

early summer precipitation is considered an index 

of the relative amount of ground water available to 

the stream on July 31, and the August-September 

precipitation an index of the opportunity for depletion of this ground-water supply. 

Locations of long-rainfall-record stations in the 

vicinity of the Tallapoosa basin are shown on figure 

42.2. Comparison of these rainfall records showed 

that no two agreed very well in the summer months 

because of the irregularity of thunderstorm activity. 

Therefore, all four records were used. The two indexes selected are January-through-July precipitation in percent of normal and August-September precipitation in percent of normal. These percentages 

were computed for each rainfall record and then 

averaged over the four records to obtain the index 

values. 

. Annual minimum flows were related to the two 

precipitation indexes by standard regression methods 

using two models, one arithmetic and one semilog . 

The regression equations are 

Q == 356 + 12(JJ) + 43 (AS) 

and 

log Q == 2.49 + 0.023 (JJ) + 0.079(AS) 

where Q is the annual minimum 7-day average discharge, (JJ) is the January-through-July precipitation index, and (AS) is the August-September precipitation index. 

Plots of computed values of Q against actual values 

for both equations are shown on figure 42.3. The 

results appear similar except that the arithmetic 

model fits the· three low points better . 

Both equations were solved for Q using rainfall 

indexes from 1888 to 1955, and the results are 

plotted on figure 42.4. These plots indicate that the 

three lowest minimum flows in the period of streamflow record 1924-1955 probably were also the lowest 

in the period 1888-1955. Therefore, the recurrence 

intervals assigned to these flows are recomputed on 

the basis of a 68-year period (1888-1955) rather 

than a 32-year period (1924-1955). The points as 

originally plotted and the three adjusted points are 

shown on figure 42.5. A straight line is a reasonable 

interpretation of the frequency relation if the ad-

_j us ted points are used. 
B-98 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

500 

(/) 

LL.. 

(.) 

~ 200 

w 

(!J 

a:: 

c( 100 I 

(.) 

(/) 

Ci 500 0 

LiJ 

1-

:::> 

a.. 

::E 

0 200 

(.) 

Semilog model 

100 

50 

1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 

YEAR 

FIGURE 42.4.-Annual minimum 7-day average discharges for 

Tallapoosa River at Wadley computed by two equations. 

The equations indicate that greater than normal 

January-through-July precipitation virtually precludes a very low annual minimum. Both precipitation indexes must be low in order to obtain an extremely low annual minimum flow. 

The method outlined here is restricted to streams 

having their minimums in the late summer. The 

indexes used are rather rough and undoubtedly the 

regression could be improved by use of more appropriate ones. A model is needed to account for 

the July, August, and September precipitation in a 

year in which the minimum occurred in September, 

and that would ignore the August and September 

precipitation· for the year in which the minimum 

occurred in July. However, the results are sufficiently reliable to demonstrate· "the usefulness of 

precipitation records for improving estimates of the 

r-ecurrence intervals of very low annual minimum 

discharges. The method should be applicable to 

other streams having suitable basin characteristics, 

and having precipitation records for much longer 

periods than streamflow records. 

IJ.J 

~ 1000r---+----+--+-----~----+----+-----+--~ 

a:: 

IJ.J 

> 

c((j) 

~~ 

~ .. '='t ••••••• 

0 z •• l - ••• 

-....:; .. 

i r 100 t----+----+-___,....._ ____ .+-,·~----+----i Z (.) I • Q..,_ 

~5 . ?~ ~ • From streamflow record 

z· 

z 

c( 0 Based on precipitation 

records 

10 ~~1~.1~----~2------~5~~1~0~--2~0-----5~0--~ 

RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS 

FIGURE 42.5.-Drought frequency curve based on both streamflow and precipitation records, Tallapoosa River at Wadley, Ala. 

43. STRESS MODEL FOR THE BIRMINGHAM RED IRON-ORE DISTRICT, ALABAMA 

By THOMAS A. SIMPSON, Arlington, Va. 

Open fracture systems associated with tight folds 

and major faults were observed to be the controlling 

factors that influenced the direction of ground-water 

movement in the red iron-ore mines of the Birmingham district. The parallelism of the northeasterly 

trending folds and faults in the Birmingham red 

iron-ore district suggests a common origin as the 

result of compression from the southeast. The orientation of the joints in relation to the folds and 

faults· suggests a second stress field that acted as 

compression from the south. 

The area is underlain by sedimentary rocks about 

15,000 feet thick ranging in age from Cambrian to 

Pennsylvanian. These rocks have been folded into 

parallel and subparallel northeasterly trending anticlines and synclines. The composite structure, the 

Birmingham anticline, is overturned to the northwest and cut by a low-angle thrust along its north-

. .. 

. ... 

~.-

.'r 
.... 

·) 

... 

West 

SHORT PAPERS iN: ·:THE ·GE~G·~: ·.AND HY.D;ROLOGIC SCIENCES,. ARTICLES 1-146 B-99 

North 

F2 

... ·. ••••• 0 •• 

i 

F2 

South 

EXPLANATION 

Fl 

Initial stress system 

D 

Strike of joints· resulting 

from initial stress system 

F2 

Second stress system 

ESTI 

Strike of joints resulting 

from second stress system 

FIGURE 43.1.-Diagram showing strike of joints, folds, and faults in the Birmingham red iron-ore district. 
B-100 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

west margin. The Ishkooda-Potter fault system in 

the northern part of the district strikes N. 40°-50° 

E. and consists of high-angle reverse and normal 

faults. The Shannon fault system in the central 

part of the district strikes generally N. 50° E. and 

consists of a large normal fault and several subsidiary faults. The Dickey Springs-P~tton fault system strikes N. 44°-53° E. and consists of several 

high-angle normal faults and a major high-angle 

reverse fault. Some of the faults in the district 

show evidence of strike:slip movement at underground and surface exposures. 

The strikes of the joints and major structural features commonly observed in the district are shown 

on figure 43.1. Most of the joints trend from N. 2° 

E. to N. 68° W. or from N. 18°-90° E. The greatest 

concentration of joint sets lie within relatively nar-· 

row limits from N. 20°-40° W. and from N. 30°-

700 E., which is parallel and subparallel to the 

strikes of the major folds and faults, 

The orientations of the fplds, faults, and joints 

can be explained as the result of two separate stress 

fields acting in the area. The initial stress field 

· (F1) originated as compression from the southeast. 

This stress field produced the northeasterly trending 

folds and thrusts, and the conjugate joint systems 

indicated on figure 43.1. 

The second stress field (F2 ) originated as compression from the south and produced strike-slip 

movement along preexisting northeasterly trending 

fractures. Joint systems formed in this field are 

rotated counterclockwise relative to the first joint 

systems. The concentration of joints shown on figure 43.1 can be explained as the overlapping of the 

joint systems formed in the two stress fields. 

The stress model just described accounts for the 

major structural features and for the jointing observed in the Birmingham district. 

44. WATER-TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN A TIDAL STREAM 

By FREDERICK W. WAGENER, Columbia, S. C. 

Work done in cooperation with South Carolina Public Service Authority 

Water-temperature and velocity observations were 

made in a tidal reach of Waccamaw River at Conway, S. C. to determine and explain variations in 

water temperature during a tidal cycle. These observations provided data for studying the vertical 

distribution of temperature, and for comparing the 

results with similar studies on nontidal streams. 

Other studies of temperature distribution in nontidal South Carolina streams having velocities ex-. 

ceeding 1.5 fps (feet per second) indicate little vertical variation in temperature. Temperature observations were made at both 0.2 and 0.8 of the total 

depths at more than 300 vertical-profile stations and 

at each foot of depth at several dozen others, but 

at only a few of the stations was the temperature 

variation more than 0.1 oF. The depth of the streams 

at these stations was as much as 19 feet and water 

temperature ranged from 54° to 92° F. 

. The temperature, velocity, and depth observations 

discussed in this paper were made during a tidal 

cycle from 7 a.m. to 7:18 p.m. on September 23, 

1958. The temperature observations were made by 

lowering the small probe of an electric thermometer 

into the water to the desired depth. The stage, discharge, air temperature, and water temperature during the tidal cycle are shown on figure 44.1. 

Water temperatures were obtained periodically 

at the 0.2 and 0.8 depths at 16 stations across the 

stream, which provided a total of 113 pairs of observations. For 72 of these pairs, temperatures were 

the same at 0.2 and 0.8 depths; for 21 pairs the temperature difference was 0.1° F; for 9 pairs the dif- · 

ference was 0.2° F; and for the remaining 11 pairs 

the difference was greater than 0.2° F. Sixteen additional sets of water temperatures were obtained 

periodically at selected stations, observations being 

.... 

·14. 
~ 

-T· 

.,.. 

... 

.. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-101 

3.5 .... LLJ 

LLJ 

Ll.. 

~ 3.0 ....: 

J: 

(.!) 

w 

J: 2.5 LLJ 

(.!) 

c( 

(.!) 

2.0 

C/) 

Ll.. 

u +1000 

~ 

L.J' 

(.!) 

a:: 0 c( 

J: 

u 

C/) 

i5 

-1000 

85 

.... 

w Z:t 

-z 

"LLJ 80 LL.Ia:: 

a::J: 

:Jc( 

~LI.. 

a:: en LLILLJ 75 a.w 

~a:: 

LLI(.!) 

t-LLJ 0 

70 

8A.M. 10 A.M. 12 M. 2 P.M. 4 P.M. 6 P.M. 

FIGURE 44.1.-Physical conditions during tidal cycle. 

made at each foot of depth. For 13 of these sets, 

the maximum variation in the vertical was 0.1 o F; 

for the three remaining sets the variation was 0.2° 

F or more. Temperature differences that exceeded 

0.2° F can be arranged in two groups. The first 

group comprises temperature differences observed 

at times of velocity less th~n about 0.25 fps., high 

solar radiation, and little or no wind. At these times, 

a minimum amount of turbulent mixing occurs and 

heating of the water near the surface by solar radiation is at a maximum. Such conditions favor a temperature differential. The greatest observed temperature difference resulting from the combination 

of these conditions is shown by the temperature 

profile for station 150 at 11:18 a.m. (fig. 44.2) . 

A second period during which relatively high 

temperature differentials occurred was 45 to 60 minutes after high tide. Velocities at that time increased 

to 0.5 fps or more, which is usually sufficient to 

cause turbulent mixing. During this period, however, it seems that a slug of warmer water released 

from stor~ge passed by the measuring section. This 

warmer water probably originated either in an extensive shallow borrow pit connected with the river 

0.3 mile upstream or in Kingston Lake which is connected with the river 0.6 mile upstream. The temperature and velocity hydrographs, figure 44.3, show 

the effects of this warmer water. The difference in 

temperature between the 0.2 and 0.8 depths at 12:10 
B-102 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

p.m. was 0.8 o F shortly after· the direction of flow 

had changed from upstream to downstream, but 

within two hours the difference was again negligible. 

The results of the investigation indicate that when 

velocities exceed about 0.25 fps, turbulent mixing 

'is sufficient to preclude temperature differences of 

IJJ 

(.) 

<( 

LL. 

0:: 

:::> 

(f) 

0:: 

IJJ 

1-

<( 

~ 

~ 

0 

_J 

IJJ 

Ill 

2 

4 

6 

I 8 1-

a.. 

w 

0 

10 

12 

79 80 81 

TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT) 

FIGURE 44.2.-Temperature profiles at station 150. 

more than 0.2° F from top to bottom except when 

water at a higher temperature enters the stream a 

short distance above the measuring section; when 

velocities are less than about 0.25 fps, however, temperature differences up to 1.3c F can be caused by 

solar radiation. 

E 

IJJ 81 :I: 

z 

w 

0::: 

I 

<( 

u. 

(f) 

IJJ 

L&.J 

0::: 

(.!) 

IJJ 80 0 

.._, 

w 

0:: 

:::> 

1-

<( 

0:: 

L&.J 

a.. 

~ 

w 79 1-

+2.0 

+1.5 

0 

z 

0 

(.) 

~+1.0 

0::: 

IJJ 

a.. 

~ +.5 L&.J 

LL. 

>- !:: 

(.) 

0 

.....1 

IJJ 

> 

0 

-.5 

EXPLANATION 

0 

0.2 depth 

X 

0.8 depth 

8 10 12 2 4 6 8 

A.M. A.M. M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. 

FIGURE 44.3.-Temperature and velocity observations at 

station 100. 

. ... 

~ 

~ 

' ,., 
--1· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-103 

45. UECENT LEAD-ALPHA AGE DETERMINATIONS ON ZIRCON FROM THE CAROLINA PIEDMONT 

By WILLIAM C. OVERSTREET, HENRY BELL, Ill, HARRY J. ROSE, JR., and THOMAS W. STERN, Beltsville, Md., 

and Washington, D. C. 

Lead-alpha ages have recently been determined 

for 21 zircon concentrates separated from granite, 

granodiorite, and syenite exposed in the Piedmont 

of North and South Carolina. The location of the 

samples is shown on figure 45.1, and descriptions of 

the sources of the zircon are listed in table 1. Results 

No. on fig. 45.1 

TABLE 1.-Sowrces of the zi'rcon 

1. U.S. National Museum collection. Large zircon crystals 

stated to have come from a locality 4 miles east of 

Tigerville, Greenville County, S.C. Zircon-rich vermiculite deposits thought to be source of the specimen. 

Sample USNM 105674. 

2. U.S. National Museum collection. Large zircon crystals 

from the Jones Mine, Henderson County, N. C. Vermiculite-bearing syenite pegmatite. Sample USNM 

80114. 

3. Zircon panned from 200 pounds of saprolite of finegrained massive granite exposed in deep road cuts 0.9 

mile southwest of Blackjack, Fairfield County, S. C. 

Rock is marginal phase of pluton represented by sample 59-0T-102. Sample was free of inclusions, but 

exposure shows blocky inclusions of amphibolite, biotitehornblende schist, and feldspathic kyanite-muscovite 

schist. Sample 59-0T-107. 

4. Zircon panned from 290 pounds of saprolite of massive 

biotite-granite exposed at the intersection of S. C. Rte. 

20-19 and the Rockton-Rion Railroad 5.5 miles S. 20° 

W. of Winnsboro, Fairfield County, S. C. Sample 59-

0T-102. . 

5. Zircon panned from 260 pounds of saprolite of coarsegrained massive porphyritic biotite granite having 

phenocrysts of pink microcline up to %, inch in length, 

exposed on S. C. Rte. 97 at a point 1.1 miles north of 

White Oak Creek, Kershaw County, S. C. Sample 59-

0T-110. 

6. Zircon panned from 180 pounds of saprolite of very coarse 

grained massive porphyritic biotite granite exposed on 

the east side of Lowrys-Baton Rouge road at a point 

0.5 mile west of the junction with U.S. Rte. 321 near 

Lowrys, Chester County, S. C. Sample 59-0T-101. 

7. Zircon panned from 220 pounds of saprolite of finegrained massive biotite granite exposed in deep road 

cuts on both sides of the Leeds-Wilksburg road at a 

point opposite the Leeds Lookout Tower, Chester 

County, S. C. Sample 59-0T-100. 

8. Samples from Isenhour Quarry on N. C. Rte. 73 about 0.5 

mile east of Concord, Cabarrus County, N. C. Samples 

are composites of 20-pound samples taken from different parts of the body of rock. 

of the analyses and the calculated ages of the zircon 

crystals are given in table 2. 

Radioactivity determinations on igneous or pyroclastic rocks in the Piedmont offer the only means 

of determining the ages of these rocks, as the intruded sedimentary rocks contain no fossils. The 

No. on fig. 45.1 

TABLE 1.-Sou:rces of the zi'rcon-Continued 

Sourc·e and sample no. 

Zircon panned from 60 pounds of saprolite of mediumgrained biotite granite in the southern dike in quarry. 

Sample IPE. 

Zircon panned from 60 pounds of saprolite of biotite granite formi:Qg the northern dike in the quarry. Sample 

IPF. 

Zircon panned from 100 pounds of saprolite at the main 

body of biotite granite. Sample lPG. 

Zircon panned from 100 pounds of saprolite at the main 

body of biotite granite. Sample IPH. 

Zircon panned from 260 pounds of syenite in a dike cutting granite and gneissic granodiorite. Sample HB39-59. 

Zircon panned from 60 pounds of saprolite of gneissic 

granodiorite; both the granite and the syenite intrude 

the gneissic granodiorite. Sample IP A. 

Zircon panned from 40 pounds of saprolite of gneissic 

· grandiorite. Sample IPB. 

Zircon panned from 40 pounds of saprolite of gneissic 

granodiorite. Sample IPC. 

Zircon panned from 40 pounds of saprolite of gneissic 

granodiorite. Sample IPD. 

9. Zircon panned from 340 pounds of saprolite of coarsegrained, massive augite syenite exposed iri a quarry on 

the north side of N. C. Rte. 49 just west of the intersection with U.S. Rte. 601 about 2.5 miles south of 

Concord, Cabarrus County, N. C. Sample 56-0T-11 

and 56-0T-lla. 

10. Zircon panned from 200 pounds of saprolite of porphyritic 

granite exposed on county road between Watts and 

S. C. Rte 71 at a point 2 miles south of route 71 in 

Abbeville County, S. C. Nonmagnetic fraction at 1.5 

amperes in Frantz Separator; sample 59-0T-111 

(N.M. 1.5). Magnetic fraction at 1.5 amperes; sample 

59-0T-111 (M 1.5). 

11. U.S. National Museum collection. Large zircon crystals 

from gneiss exposed 4.5 miles east of Iva on the line 

between Anderson and Abbeville Counties or in Abbeville County, S. C. Sample USNM 97589. 
B-104 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

82" 80' 

is br 

).:(2 NORTH CAROLINA _,_,-..,------:--- ......./- Xl 

is 

25 25 50 MILES 

EXPLANATION 

0 Coastal plain rocks of Cretaceous 

and younger age 

0 0 

Sedimentary and igneous rocks Granite 

of Triassic age 

"' CJ G 

Syenite Kings ~ountain belt 

0 B Gabbro Charlotte belt 

8 D Bre,·ard belt Inner piedmont belt 

·G 0 Carolina slate belt Blue Ridge belt 

35' 

~~~~----~--~ Sample locality 

82' 

I 

' 80' 

FIGURE 45.1.-Major rock units and location of zircon samples in the Piedmont of North and South Carolina. 

rocks studied are now saprolite, so that only resistant 

minerals can be used for age determinations. Despite a lack of positive knowledge concerning the 

absolute ages of these rocks, many tentative ideas 

have been presented regarding their relative ages. 

Major syntheses of the regional geology of the 

Southeastern States evolved by Arthur Keith (1923, 

p. 309-380") and Anna I. Jonas (Mrs. G. W. Stose) 

(1932, p. 228-243), though profqundly different in 

tectonic and stratigraphic interpretation, generally 

attributed a Precambrian age to the bulk of the 

metasedimentary rocks and to some of the plutonic 

igneous rocks. The massive igneous rocks were considered to be late Paleozoic in age. Both Keith and 

Jon as recognized the polymetamorphic character of 

some of the schist and gneiss, and, despite differences 

in opinion as to the mechanics of the metamorphism, 

Recent geologic observations in the Carolina Piedmont support King's view (Kesler, 1944, p. 755-

782; Griffitts and Overstreet, 1952, p. 777-789; 

Kesler, 1955, p. 37 4-387; Overstreet and Griffitts, 

1955, p. 549-577; Stuckey and Conrad, 1958, p. 3-51; 

Stro_mquist and Conley, 1959, p. 1-36; Bell and Overstreet, 1959, p. 1-5; Long, Kulp, and Eckelmann, 

1959, p. 585-603; Bell, 1960, p. B189-B191; and 

Overstreet and Bell, 1960, p. B197....:.B199). They show 

3 sequences or episodes of sedimentation, volcanism, 

igneous intrusion, folding, and metamorphism. Erosional unconformities bracket the 3 episodes. The 

Paleozoic geologic events shown schematically in 

table 3 were deduced by Overstreet and Bell as a 

result of reconnaissance mapping during which it 

was recognized that the metasedimentary rocks of 

the South Carolina Piedmont consist of slate-belt 

they attributed it to processes operating in Precam- rocks· of various ages raised to different grades of 

brian and in late Paleozoic time. Recently another 

major synthesis of Appalachian geology has been 

presented by P. B. King ( 1951, p. 119-144; ~955, p. 

332-373) who proposes that the metamorphosed 

sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Carolina 

Piedmont and the igneous rocks, intruded during 

several orogenic episodes, are Paleozoic in age. 

regional metamorphism, and that unconformities in 

the slate belt correlate with unconformities in the 

Kings Mountain belt. 

The unconformities correlated between the slate 

and the Kings Mountain belts are those below episodes B and C, table 3. A postulated unconformity 

beneath episode A has not been observed in the 

.4: 
-.J. 

41-. 

'"· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-105 

TABLE 2.-Lead-alpha ages of zi·rcon f"rom •rocks in the 

Piedmont of No·rth and South Ca1·olina 

[Alpha activity measurements by T. W. Stern: spectrographic analyses of 

lend by H. J. Rose, Jr., T. W. Stern, and H. W. Worthing.] 

Alpha Average lead 

content from counts per duplicate Nu. un l:inmJllc Nu. milligram determinations Calculated age 1 

Iii(. 45.1 per hour (parts per (millions of years) 

million) 

-----

l USNM l05(i74 ...... 26!} 28 255 ±:30 

2 USNM 801.14 ....... 4:39 51 280±:30 

:3 50-0T-107 ......... :346 :37 260 ±:30 

4 5H-OT-l02 ......... 477 53 270±30 

5 5!)-0T-UO ......... 1.70 1.7 245 ±30 

6 5H-OT-10l. ....... ·. 30() 32 255 ±30 

7 59-0T-100 .......... 145 28 460±50 

8 IPB ................ 377 68 445 ±50 

IPF ................ 4.58 68 :360±40 

IPG ................ 4:33 78 430±50 

IPH ............... 398 49 :300 ±:35 

HB-3!l-5!L ......... 262 49 450±50 

IPA ............... .132 28 505 ±55 IPJ~ ............ · .... 12:3 2.5.5 495 ±55 

TPC ................ 117 H) :380 ± 1.00 

IP.D ............... 132 26 470±55 

!) 5ti-OT-:I.I .......... 24 3.0 305l 425±110 

.5G-OT-1 I a ......... 22 5.0 540) 

10 5!l-OT-1ll (NM 1.5) 344 82 5()5±6.5 

50-0T-.111 (M 1 .5) .. 481 102 505±55 

u USNM !17589 ....... 172 40 550±60 

1 Lend-alpha n~es (rounded to nearest 6 million years) were calculated 

from the equations: 

( 1) t = C Pb where t is the calculated age in millions of years, C is a 

a . 

constant based upon the U/Th ratio and has the value 2485, Pb is the 

lend content in parts per million and a is the alpha counts per milli- gram per hour; and 

(2) T = t- 1/2 kt2 where Tis the age in millions of years corrected for 

decay of uranium ·and thorium, and k is a decay constant based upon the U/Th ratio and has a value of 1.56 X I0-4 • 

U/Th ratio from X-ray fluorescence analyses by F. J. Flanagan is 1.0 for 

samples 59-0T-100, 59-0T-101, 69-0T-102, 59-0T-110, and 59-0T-111 (M 

1.5) ; assumed 1.0 for other samples. · 

Piedmont of southern North Carolina or in South 

Carolina. Some measure of the probable age of the 

unconformities and of the sediment_ary and pyro- · 

clastic rocks they bracket have been sought by the 

authors through the lead-alpha ages of zircons from 

plutonic igneous rocks emplaced during one or another of the three episodes listed in table 3. Many 

pounds of saprolite were panned to obtain each 

~ircon concentrate. In addition, three samples of 

coarse-grained zircon were kindly given to the 

writers by G. S. Switzer of the U.S. National 

Museum. 

Direct measurements of the ages of the sediments 

in the three episodes is being attempted by A. A. 

Stromquist, A. M. White, and T. W. Stern by 

analyzing zircon from felsic lavas interbedded. with 

the sediments. This work, however, is not yet 

completed. 

~.,he results of ·lead-alpha age determinations on 

17 of the 21 samples fall into three groups (table 4) 

which correspond to the position of their host rocks 

in the three geologic episodes shown on table 3. The 

analyses are most consistent and seem to show the 

best agreement with presently available field data 

in the younges~ group of samples, and increasingly 

less consistent in the older groups. 

The results from four samples do not fit with the 

recognized field relations. One sample of zircon 

(59-0T-100) with an age of 460 ± 50 m.y. (million 

years) was collected from fine-grained granite 

thought to be a marginal phase of the oval pluton 

represented by sample 59-0T-101 having an age of 

255 ± 30 m. y. The older sample may be contaminated by nonradiogenic lead or by an older generation of zircon. The samples of zircon from Cabarrus 

County, N. C., 56-0T-11 and 56-0T-11a ( 425 ± 

110 m.y.), HB-39-59 (450 ±50 m. y.), are thought 

to come from. rocks occupying structural positions 

similar to the episode-C syenite. Low lead and alpha 

activity of the zircon from samples 56-0T-11 and 

56-0T -11a make satisfactory analysis very difficult, 

but sample HB-39-59 was satisfactory for analysis, 

and it also gave an. unexpectedly old age. Possibly 

some syenite was emplaced during episode B, but the 

field evidence presently restricts syenite to episode 

c. 

The probable ages of the unconformities between 

the three episodes can be interpreted from the three 

groups. of ages shown on table 4. The unconformity 

between episodes C and B apparently formed between 

· 400 and 260 m.y. ago. In order to allow for the 

deposition of the sediments in which episode-C 

syenite and granite is emplaced, the unconformity is 

probably closer to 400 than to 260 m.y. old. It apparently was formed between Ordovician and Devonian 

time. 

The ages of the zircon crystals from rocks in episode A doubtless are modified by loss of lead during 

the profound metamorphism of episode B. We do 

not yet know when these rocks were emplaced, but 

it is likely that they were intruded into sediments 

of late Precambrian and Cambrian age. The unconformity between episodes Band A may have been 

formed between Cambrian and Ordovician time. 

REFERENCES 

Bell, Henry, III, 1960, A synthesis of geologic work in the 

Concord area, North Carolina, in Short papers in the 

geological sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, 

p. B189-B191. 

Bell, Henry, III~ and Overstreet, W. C., 1959, Relations among 

some dikes in Cabarrus County, North Carolina: South 

Carolina Div. Geology, Geol. Notes, v. 3, no. 2, p. 1-5. 
B-106 

Era 

Paleozoic 

---?--

Late 

Precambrian 

Episode of 

folding, meta- morphism, 

and igneous 

activity 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 3.-Summary of Paleozo-ic geologic events in the Ca1·olina Piedmont 

Rock Metamorphism 

Sedimentary Igneous Regional 

Unconformity 

Contact 

-----·-------------------~---------------------~---------------------------~----------------·--·--·---·--·-

c 

Syenite, gabbro, PY"7 

roxenite, norite; 

granitic rocks, typically form circular 

plutons and elongate 

cross-cutting bodies; 

felsic and mafic flows 

and dikes associated 

with the pyroclastic 

and sedimentarv 

rocks. ·· 

Syenite, gabbro, pyroxenite, norite and granites 

unaffected by progressive regional metamorphism, but show some retrogressive features 

chiefly resulting from 

cataclasis; felsic and 

mafic dikes and flows 

show effects of lowgrade regional metamorphism. 1-------·---·---·-----------·-------·---- -------------

Argillite, graywacke, 

pyroclastic rocks. 

Progressive, seldom ex- ceeding greenschist 

facies; slight retrogressive. 

~one attributable to 

syenite; feeble local 

contact effect from 

gabbro, pyroxenite, 

and norite; feeble in- crease in metamorphism at granite con- tacts; no metamorphism attributable to 

felsic and mafic 

feeder dikes. 

--------~--------·-·---·~-------------------------~-----------------------~-----------------------

Unconformity 

--·---------~-------------------~----------·--·-·--·-·-·-·-·~---------------~------------

B 

A 

Argillite, graywacke, 

pyroclastic· rocks, 

local sandstone and 

limestone; now seen as schists, gneisses, 

migmatites, quartzites and marble. 

Granitic rocks, typically 

concordant plutons; 

gabbro, pyroxenite, 

andesite dikes· mafic 

flows, and felsic dikes 

and flows associated 

with pyroclastic and 

sedimentary rocks. 

\Videspread migmatization; retrogressive effects 

such as recrystallization 

of biotite attributable 

to episode C. 

Progressive, ranging from 

greenschist facies to 

sillimanite-garnet subfacies; retrogressive 

features attributable to 

episode C locally com- mon; highest-grade 

rocks show some re- {~rystallization of biotite 

a.nd retrogression of 

sillimanite to sericite. 

Unconformity 

Granitic rocks. Apparently strongly metamorphosed in episode B. 

------------------------------------1---------·-----------

Gmywacke, pyroelastic rocks, local 

limestone; now seen as schists, gneisses, 

calc-silicate rocks; 

migmatites common. 

Progressive, ranging from 

greenschist facies to 

sillim:Ulite-garnet subfacies; locally retrogressive. 

Unconformity, widespread erosion 

Granites of episode B 

react retrooTessively on inclusio7ts of gailbro and pyroxenite 

of episode B; may 

have large contact 

aureoles in greenschist and albiteepidote amphibolite 

zones; litt.le or no aureoles in higher 

grade zones; no evidence of metamorphism induced by 

feeder dikes for mafie 

and felsic flows; 

retrogressive effects 

associated with the 

granites of episode C. 

Relations essentially 

unknown. 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·--·--·~·--·--·-------------·--·--·--------------

Precambrian Basement unobserved in the Carolina Piedmont 

·...t. 
... 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-107 

TABLE 4.-Con·elation of selected lead-alpha ages of zi?"con 

C'rystals 

Episode of folding, meta- morphism, 

and i~n.eous 

IICtiVlty 

(tnble 3) 

Hock Sample No. Lead-alpha age 

(millions 

of years) 

Unconformity below sedimentary rocks of Late Triassic age 

Syenite. : . ......... U.S.N.M. 105674 ..... 255 ±30 

Syenite ............. U.S.N.M. 80114 ...... 280 ±30 

C drn.nite ............ 59-0T-107 .......... 260 ±30 

Gmnite ............ 59-0T-102 .......... 270 ±30 

Gt·n.nite ............ 59-0T-UO .......... 245 ±30 

Grn.nite ............ 59-0T-lOl .......... 255 ±30 

Unconformity 

Grn.nite ............ IPE ................ 445 ±50 

.13 Granite ............ IPF ................ 360 ±40 

Granite ............ lPG ................ 430 ±50 

Granite ............. IPH .................... 300±35 

Uneonfoi·mity 

Gneissic: gm.nodiorite IPA ................ 505±55 

Gneissi'c grn.nodiorite IPB· ................ 495 ±55 

Gneissic gm.nocliorite IPC ................ 380 ± 100 

A Gneissic gntnodiorite IP.D ................ 470 ±55 

Gmnite ............ 59-0T-Ul (N.M. 1.5) 565±65 

Gmnite ............ 59-0T-111 (M 1. 5) 505 ±55 

Gneiss ............. USNM 97589 ........ 550 ± 60 

Griffitts, W. R., and Overstreet, W. C., 1952, Granite rocks of 

the western Carolina Piedmont: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 250, 

p. 777-789. 

Jonas, A. 1., 1932, Structure of the metamorphic belt of the 

southern Appalachians: Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., v. 24, 

p. 228-243~ 

Keith, Arthur, 1923, Outlines of Appalachian structure: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 34, no. 2, p. 309-380. 

Kesler, T. L., 1944, Correlation of some metamorphic rocks in 

the central Carolina Piedmont: Geol. Soc. America Bull., 

v. 55, p. 755-782. 

---, 1955, The Kings Mountain area, in Russell, R. J., ed., 

1955, Guides to southeastern geology: Geol. Soc. America 

Guidebook, 1955 Ann. Mtg., p. 374-387. 

King, P. B., 1951, The tectonics of middle North America: 

Princeton, N. J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 3-203. 

---, 1955, A geologic section across the southern Appalachians: an outline of the geology in the segment in 

Tennessee, North Carolina, and 'south Carolina, in Russell, R. J., ed., 1955, Guides to southeastern geology: Geol. 

Soc. America Guidebook, 1955 Ann. Mtg., p. 332-373. 

Long, L. E., Kulp, J. L., and Eckelmann, F. D., 1959, Chronology of major metamorphic events in the southeastern 

United States: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 257, no. 8, p. 585-603. 

Overstreet, W. C., and Bell, Henry, III, 1960, Geologic relations inferred from the provisional geologic map of the 

crystalline rocks of South Carolina, in Short papers in the 

geological sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, 

p; B197-B199. 

Overstreet, W. C., and Griffitts, W. R., 1955, Inner Piedmont 

belt, in Russell, R. J., ed., 1955, Guides to southeastern 

geology: Geol. Soc. America Guidebook, 1955 Ann. Mtg., 

p. 549-577. 

Stromquist, A. A., and Conley, J. F., 1959, Geology of the 

Albemarle and Denton quadrangles, North Carolina: 

Carolina Geol. Soc., Field .Trip Guidebook, p. 1-36. 

Stuckey, J. L., and Conrad, S. G., 1958, Explanatory text for 

geologic map of North Carolina: North Carolina Dept. 

Conserv. Devel., Div. Mineral Resources, Bull. 71, p. 3-51. 

·~ 

46. TIDAL };'LUCTUATIONS OF WATER LEVELS IN WELLS IN CRYSTALLINE ROCKS IN NORTH GEORGIA 

By J. W. STEWART, Atlanta, Ga. 

Wm·k done in coope1·ation with the U. S. Atom.ic Energy Commission and the 

U. S. Air Force 

The semidiurnal water-level fluctuations of a tidal 

period were observed in wells in metamorphic 

crystalline rocks during a geologic and hydrologic 

study at the Georgia Nuclear Laboratory in Dawson 

County, Ga. The laboratory is about 45 miles northnortheast of Atlanta, at lat 34°25'N. and long 

84°8'W., about 240 miles west of the Atlantic Ocean 

and 300 miles north of the Gulf of Mexico. This is 

believed to be the first reported occurrence of tidal 

fluctuations in wells drilled in metamorphic rocks. 

The Georgia Nuclear Laboratory site is underlain 

by metamorphic crystalline rocks and by a mantle of 
-f 

~ 

0 z cno 

L&Jo 

~ ::.:.!: First quarter Full moon Last quarter New moon First quarter 

t;; 51.8 " ' ' ' ' ' ' 51.8 

L&J' 

::.:.!: 

:::> 

f-

(5 

L&J 

(.) 

<( 

~ 

0:: 

:::> 

en 

0 

z 

<( 

...J 

~ 

0 

...J 

L&J 

CD 

fL&J 

L&J 

~ 

z 

_j 

L&J 

> L&J 

...J 

0:: 

L&J 

f-

<( 

~ 

0:: 

:::>0:: cnL&J 

cnfL&J<C 

g:~ 

~ 

(.)0 

ii:ff-L&J 

l.&JL&J 

::.:.!:~ 

Oz 

~-CD 

~ 

~~ <(:X: 

~(.) 

zz 

~-0:: 

,, T 

52.0 

52.2 

Wale' le•~ In well TW-6 \ 

52.4 I 

""I 52.61 

Lower transit of moon 

shown by vertical lines 

52.8 I 

33.81 

/ Inverted barometric pressure ~~ ~'\] I 

34.0 I 

I 

34.2 

2.0 

1.0 

0 

I 9 I 10 I 11 I 12 I 13 I 14 I 15 I 

APRIL 1959 MAY 

FIGURE 46.1.-Water-level fluctuations in well TW -6, inverted barometric pressure, and rainfall. 

}- l + .., A; ... t ~ #· ...... . /.."': 

t:d 

I 

"""""" 0 

00 

~ 

t.%j 

0 

t"'l 

0 

~ 

-

0 

> 

t"'l 

r:n 

e 

::0 

< t.%j 

~ 

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,_. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-109 

saprolite derived from weathering of these rocks. 

The saprolite consists of a soil cover, a zone of highly 

weathered saprolite, and a zone of slightly to mod-

.erately weathered saprolite. Bedding and foliation 

at the site dip about 50° to 70° SE. Ground water is 

found both in the saprolite and in the ·unweathered 

rock, but on high hills and ridges ground water 

generally occurs only in hard rock. 

'Of twenty-six 6-inch wells in the area, four bottom 

at a depth of 400 feet and 22 at depths ranging from 

50 to 137 feet. Water levels in the wells ranged 

from about 4 feet below land surface in valleys to 

as much as 60 feet below land surface on hills and 

ridges. Tidal fluctuations were observed in 3 of the 

4 wells 400 feet deep. None of the other wells showed 

tidal fluctuations, but the water levels in most of 

the wells were affected by changes in barometric 

pressure. 

Figure 46.1 shows the water-level fluctuations observed in well TW-6 during a lunar cycle and the 

corresponding barometric pressure changes and rainfall during the cycle. The water level in the well did 

not appear to be affected to any great extent by 

changes in barometric pressure. 

In general, ground water at the laboratory site 

occurs under confined and unconfined conditions in 

the saprolite and under confined conditions in the 

hard unweathered rock. Ground water occurs in the 

pore spaces and in fractured quartz veins in the 

saprolite, and the degree of confineme:nt of the water 

depends upon the composition, thickness, and extent 

of the saprolite, and differences in the permeability 

of the beds. The porosity of th~ saprolite averages 

about 46 percent. On the other hand, the unweat.hered rocks are dense and massive, and ground water 

occurs chiefly in joints and other openings in the 

rock. The porosity of the unweathered rock averages 

about 4 percent. Where the rock is close to the 

surface many of the joints and cracks are filled with 

clay and silt to depths slightly above or below the 

water table. Thus, the overlying clay and silt zones, 

the dense nonpermeable rock, and the sealed joints 

and cracks above the zone of saturation probably 

cause local confinement of the water in the ·hard 

rock. 

A well drilled in quartz-mica schist and another 

in biotite schist showed very distinct tidal fluctuations; another well drilled in the quartz-mica schist 

showed less pronounced fluctuations; and one well 

drilled in quartz-mica-amphibole schist showed no 

fluctuations. 

The transmissibility of the quartz-mica schist 

was 210 gpd/ft (gallons per day per foot), whereas 

the transmissibility of the biotite schist was 60 

gpd/ft, and that of the quartz-mica-amphibole schist 

was 7 gpd/ft. 

For two wells the average daily retardation of the 

moon's transit for the periods of records computed 

was 49.1 and 48.8 minutes (U. S. Naval Observatory, 

1957), and the average daily retardation of the 

peaks and troughs in the wells for the same periods 

was 48.1 and 49.8 minutes, respectively. The tidal 

fluctuations in a third well were partly masked by 

recharge from precipitation, and the average daily 

retardation of the peaks and trough could not be 

determined with acceptable accuracy. ' 

The water-level fluctuations were more regular 

and the amplitude of the fluctuations was greater 

during periods of new and full moon, when the tideproducing forces were greatest, than they were during periods of the first and last qua·rters when the 

tide-producing forces were smallest. The amplitude 

of the maximum fl~ctuations was about 0.25 foot 

and the amplitude of the minimum fluctuations was 

about 0.01 foot. The lowest water levels in the wells 

generally coincided with the time of the moon's transit at upper and lower culmination, as shown by 

the short vertical lines in figure 46.1. 

The following evidence indicates that the semidiurnal fluctuations of water levels are the result of 

earth tides produced by the attraction of the moon 

and sun: (a) two daily cycles of water-level fluctuations occur in the wells, about 50 minutes later each 

day; (b) the close agreement of the average daily 

retardation of the peaks and troughs in the wells 

with that of the average daily retardation of the 

moon's transit; (c) the occurrence of regular fl uctuations of maximum amplitudes during periods of 

new and full moon and irregular fluctuations of minimum amplitudes during periods of the first and last 

quarters of the moon; and (d) the coincidence of 

the lowest water levels in wells with that of the 

moon's transit at upper and lower culmination. 

REFERENCE 

U.S. Naval Observatory, 1957, The American Ephemeris and 

Nautical Almanac for the year 1959: Nautical Almanac 

Office. 
B-110 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY OF WESTERN CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES 

47. A NEW MAP OF WESTERN CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES SHOWING THE MAXIMUM KNOWN OR 

INFERRED EXTENT OF PLEISTOCENE LAKES 

By J. H. FETH, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Maps showing Pleistocene lakes of the Basin and 

Range Province were published by Meinzer (1922) 

and Hubbs and Miller (1948). The one compiled by 

Hubbs and Miller is accompanied by a lengthy bibliography and provides essentially complete coverage 

of the Great Basin. A new map, figure 47.1, includes 

new information gathered as a result of the large 

amount of geologic mapping done during the last 

15 years. This recent mapping has refined some of 

the earlier data, and has also disclosed many additional areas, some of large size, that were occupied 

by Pleistocene lakes both within and outside the 

areas covered by the earlier maps. The large number of lakes outside the Basin and Range Province 

have not been shown previously on a single compilation. 

Names are not shown for the Pleistocene lakes on 

figure 47.1 because many of them are either unnamed or are named only informally and because 

many others have been given more than one, name. 

A list of references, table 1, is keyed by number to 

individual lake basins or to groups of basins shown 

on the map (fig. 47.1). The list merely supports the 

map and does not constitute a complete bibliography 

on the subject. In general, the reference given for 

each lake basin is the earliest one found that is 

accompanied by a map sqowing the outline of the 

Pleistocene lake. 

TABLE 1.-Reje·rences for map showing· extent of Pleistocene , • lakes 

Map no., 

(fig. 47.1) H.eferenee 

1......... Hobbs, W. H., 194.5, Geol. Soc. Amel'iea Bull., v. 56, no. 12, p. Jlui. 

Bretz, J. H., Smith, H. T. U., and Neff, G. K, 

1956, Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 67, no. 8, 

p. 957-l04n. 

2. . . . . . . . . Alden, \V. C., 1932, Physiography and gbcinl 

geology of eastem Montana and adjacent areas: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 174, 133 p. 

Bretz, .J. H., Smith, H. T. U., and Neff, G. E., 

1956, Geol. Soc. Amez·ica Bull., v. 67, no. 8, 

p. 957-1049. 

0. . . . . . . . . Alden, W. C., HJ:32, Ph~·siography and glacial 

geolog.v of eastern Montana and adjacent areas: U. S. Geol. Surve_,. Prof. Paper 174: 133 p. 

TABLE 1.-References fo·r mar showing extent of Pleistocene 

lakes- (Continued) 

Map no., 

(fig. 47.1) 

4 ....... .. 

5 ....... .. 

6 ........ .. 

7 ....... .. 

8 ........ . 

9 ........ . 10 ........ . 

11 ........ . 

12 ........ . 

1:3 ........ . 

14 ........ . 

15 ........ . 

16 ........ . 

17 ........ . 

18 ........ . 

lH ....... .. 

20 ....... .. 

21 ........ . 

22 ........ . 

2:3 ........ . 

24 ........ . 

Reference 

Moulder, E. A., and Kohout, F. A., 1958, U.S. 

Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1424, 198 p. 

Schwennesen, A. T., and Meinzer, 0. E., 1918, 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 425-E, 

p. 131-158. 

Newcomb, R. C., 1958, Am. Jour. Sci., v. 256, no. 5, p. :328-340. 

Pardee, J. T., 1910, Jour, Geology, v. 18, no. 4, 

p. 376-386. 

Langton, C. M., 19~35, Jour. Geology, v. 4:3, no. 1, p. 27-60. 

Fox, P. P., 1955, Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 66; no. 12, p. 1713. 

Allison, I. S., 1953, Oregon Dept. Geol. and 

Min. Industries Bull. 37, 18 p. 

Wheeler, H. E., and Cook, E. F., 1954, Jour. 

Geology, v. 62, p. 525-536. . . Orr, P. C., Hl59, oral commumeatwn. 

Howard, A. D., 1937, Geol. Soc. America Spec. 

Paper 6, xii, 159 p. 

Trauger, F. D., 1950, U. S. Geol. Survey openfile rept., 287 p. 

Piper, A. M., and others, 19:39, U. S. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 841, 189 p. 

Wallace, R. E., and Calkins, .J. A., 1956, U.S. 

Geol. Survey Min. Inv. Field Studies Map MF·82. 

Meinzer, 0. E., 1922, Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 3:3, no. 3, p. 541-552. 

Jenkins, 0. P., 1951, California Div. Mines 

Econ. Minerals Map 2 (revised 1951). 

Hubbs, C. L., and Miller, R. R., 1948, Utah 

Univ. Bull., v. 38, no. 20, p. 18--166. 

Russell, I. C., 1885, U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 

11, 288 p. . Gilbert, G. K., 1890, U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 

1, 438 p. 1 

Love, J. D., ·weit.z, J. L., and Hose, R. K., Hl55, 

Geologic map of Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey. 

W. P. Irwin, 1959, oral communication. 

Frink, J. W., and Kues, H. A., 1954, Am. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 38, no. 11, 

p. 2357-2371. 

Davis, G. H., and Poland, J. F., 1957, U. S. 

Geol. Survey ·water-Supply Paper 1360-G, 

p. 409-588. 

Matthes, F. E., Hl30, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 160, 137 p. 

Russell, I. C., 1889, U. S. Geol. Survey 8th 

Ann. Rept., p. 261-394. 

Mayo, E. B., 1934, Science n. s., v. 80, no. 2065, p. 95-96. 

Miller, W: J., 1928, Jour. Geology, v. 3(), no. 

6, p .• 510-525. 

1 In light of recent studies ( M. D. Crittenden, oral communication, 1961), 

the Escalante arm of Lake Bonneville has been deleted. 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

EXPLANATION ,34 

Maximum area of Pleistocene lake reported 

in the literature or by personal communication 

Number refers w reference in adfacent list ,43 

Area inferred by present writer from descriptions unaccompanied by any available 

map of lake basin 

Number refers to reference in ad)"acent list · 0 lOOMILES 

B-111 

FIGURE 47.1.-Map of western conterminous United States showing maximum known or inferred extent of Pleistocene lakes 

reported in the literature. 
B-112 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE l.-Refe1·ences for map showing extent of Pleistocene 

lakes-(Continued) 

Map no., 

(fig. 47.1) 

25 ........ . 

26 ........ . 

27 ........ . 

28 ........ . 

29 ........ . 

30 ........ . 

31 ........ . 

32 ........ . 33 ........ . 

34 ........ . 

35 ........ . 

36 ........ . 37 ........ . 38 ........ . 

Reference 

Miller, R. R., 1946, .Jour, Geology, v. 54, no. 1, 

p. 43-53 .. 

Blackwelder, Eliot, 1933, Geog. Review, v. 23, no. 3, p. 464-471. 

Gale, H. S., 1914, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

580-L, p. 251-323. 

Dibblee, T. "\V., Jr., 1952, California Div. Mines 

Bull. 160, p. 7-43. 

Thompson, D. G., 1929, U. S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 578, 759 p. 

Hewett, D. F., 1956, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 275, 172 p. 

Jenkins, 0. P., 1951, California Div. Mines 

Econ. Minerals Map 2 (revised 1951). 

Buwalda, J. P., 1914, California Univ., Dept. 

Geol. Sci. Bull., v. 7, p. 443-464. 

Bassett, A. M., Kupfer, D. H., and Barstow, 

F. C., 1959, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull 1045-D, 

p. 97-138. . Longwell, C. R., 1936, Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 47, no. 9, p. 1393-1476 

C. R. Longwell, 1959, oral communication. 

Feth, J. H., previous work. 

Merrill, G. P., 1908, Smithsonian Inst. Washington 

Misc. Collections No. 50, p. 461-498. 

Jenkins, 0. P., 1923, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., v. 5, no. 25, p. 65-81. 

Meinzer, 0. E., 1911, U.S. Geol. Survey WaterSupply Paper 275, 89 p. 

R. H. ·weber, 1959, written communication. 

Powers, W. E., 1933, Science n. s., v. 77, p. 51-52. 

Brown, J. S., 1923, U. S. Geol. Survey WaterSupply Paper 497, 292 p. 

TABLE !.-References fo1' map showing extent of Pleistocene 

lakes-(Continued) 

Map no., 

(fig. 47.1) Reference 

39. . . . . . . . . Schwennesen, A. T., 1.917, U. S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 425-A, p. 1-36. 

40. . . . . . . . . Meinzer, 0. E., and Kelton, F. C., 1913, U. S. 

Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 320, 231 p. 

41. . . . . . . . . Schwennesen, A. T., 1918, U. S. Geol. Survey 

'Vater-Supply Paper 422, 152 p. 

42.. . . . . . . . Kottlowski, F. E., 1958, Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 69, no. 12, p. 1733-1734. 

43. . . . . . . . . Metzger, D. G., 1952, in Halpenny, L. C., and 

others, U. S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 

p. 171-176. 

44. . . . . . . . . Coates, D. R., 1952, in Halpenny, L. C., and 

others, U. S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 

p. 159-164. 

45. . . . . . . . . Wolcott, H. N., 1952, in Halpenny, L. C., and 

others, U. S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 

p. 171-176. 

REFERENCES 

Hubbs, C. L., and Miller, R. R., 1948, The zoological evidence; 

Correlation between fish distribution and hydrographic 

history in the desert basins of western United States, in 

The Great Basin: Utah Univ. Bull., v. 38, no. 20, p. 18-

166. 

Meinzer, 0. E., 1922, Map of the Pleistocene lakes of the 

Basin-and-Range Province and its significance: Geol. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 33, no. 3, p. 541-552. 

48. RECENT FLOOD-PLAIN FORMATION ALONG THE CIMARRON RIVER IN KANSAS 

By S. A. SCHUMM and R. W. LICHTY, Denver, Colo. 

Areas of particular interest to the geomorphologist are· ones in which processes of erosion or 

deposition are occurring at a rapid rate. A striking 

example is the valley of Cimarron River ·in southwestern .Kansas, where within the past 46 years 

substantial changes have occurred in the widths of 

the channel and of the flood-plain. 

The river in Kansas was described by Haworth 

(1897) in the latter part of the 19th century as follows: "The Cimarron seems to have reached baselevel and to have begun meandering across its flood 

plain. Beautiful oxbow curves are frequent, and a 

sluggish nature is everywhere manifest during times 

of low water." Figure 48.1 illustrates the general 

appearance of the channel prior to 1914. Although 

the river bed both to the southeast and to the southwest in Oklahoma has always been relatively wide 

and sandy during historic times, the Cimarron Valley in Kansas prior to a destructive flood in 1914 

was quite different, as shown by comparison of figures 48.1 and 48.2. 

McLaughlin (1947) described the channel widening and flood plain destruction which followed the 

flood of 1914. He reported that in 1874 the channel 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-113 

FIGURE 48.1.-Valley of Cimarron River in southeastern 

Meade County, Kans., prior to the flood of 1914. Photograph taken by Willard Drake Johnson, U.S. Geological 

Survey, during the 1890's. 

of Cimarron River had an average width of 51 feet 

in 6 counties of southwestern Kansas as measured 

along section lines. Channel width increased to an 

average of 1,160 feet measured at the same sections 

in 1939. Discharge records at Liberal, Kans., and 

dates of highway bridge destruction indicate that 

channel width may have been at a maximum in 1942. 

FIGURE 48.2.-Present channel of Cimarron River near Waynoka, Okla. The channel in Kansas had much the same 

appearance during the period of channel widening, 1914 

to 1942. 

TABLE l.-Ave1·age width of Cima1'1'0n Rive1· channel in 

Kansas by counties 

Number of Years measured and average channel width (feet) 

County cross sections measured 

1874 I 1939 I 1954 1960 

------- --

).[orton ...... . 3 1 56 2,050 800 910 

11 43 1,500 630 

19 54 630 190 190 Stevens. . . .. .. . .... ... . Grant ........... . .. .. . . Haskell .... . 5 32 480 250 260 

Seward .............. . 40 28 900 440 535 

Meade .... .. ... . . ..... . 14 92 1,050 850 800 

--------- Weighted average ..... . 48 1,200 560 

1 From McLaughlin, 1947; measurements at 34 l'>Calities not used in the 

tabulation. 

During a period of 29 years (1914 to 1942), the 

Cimarron River in Kansas was altered from a narrow meandering stream (fig. 48.1) to one which 

had destroyed most of its former flood plain (fig. 

48.2). 

A major flood in 1942 was followed by a period 

of above-average rainfall; however, floods were of 

low to moderate intensity until 1950. Examination 

of aerial photographs reveals that during the 15-

year period between 1939 and 1954 the channel of 

Cimarron River narrowed an average of 640 feet, 

from 1,200 feet to 560 feet (table 1). The narrowing 

apparently occurred because the above-average precipitation in the first half of this period promoted a 

vigorous growth of vegetation which anchored the 

sediments in parts of the channel and prevented 

erosion during flooding. 

Average channel widths for five counties were 

measured on aerial photographs in 1960 and are 

listed on table 1. A slight widening is suggested by 

the measurements. This may be the result of a 

moderately large flood in 1958 preceded by a period 

of low rainfall. It is doubtful, however, that the 

channel will become as wide as it was in 1939. In 

that earlier period, vegetation on the flood plain 

was mostly grass, whereas cottonwood, willow, and 

saltcedar trees are growing abundantly on the 

present flood plain. The deeper tree roots will undoubtedly tend to stabilize the new flood plain. They 

will tend to resist bank erosion by binding together 

the alluvium and, where exposed, by increasing 

channel roughness, which has the effect of decreasing 

the velocity of flow at the banks. 

To summarize, the destruction of the flood plain 

in 1914 occurred during a period of large floods 
B-114 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

and deficient precipitation. Flood-plain construction 

occurred during a 9-year period when no large floods 

occurred and precipitation was above normal. Apparently flood-plain growth depended on the establishment and survival of vegetation in the stream 

channel. 

REFERENCES 

Haworth, Erasmus, 1897, Underground waters of southwestern Kansas: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 6, 

65 p. 

McLaughlin, T. G., 1947, Accelerated channel erosion in the 

Cimarron valley in southwestern Kansas: Jour. Geology, 

v. 55, p. 76-93. 

49. ABNORMAL BEDDING IN THE SAVANNA SANDSTONE AND BOGGY SHALE IN SOUTHEASTERN 

OKLAHOMA 

By THOMAS A. HENDRICKS, Denver, Colo. 

Some sandstone units within the Savanna sandstone and Boggy shale of Pennsylvanian age in the 

McAlester district of southeastern Oklahoma have. 

an unusual type of bedding in areas as large as a 

half mile across. Where abnormally bedded the individual sandstone units are coarser grained and 

thicker than elsewhere. Consequently, they are more 

resistant to erosion, so that the areas are topographically high and the outcrops of the sandstone beds 

form promontories extending updip from the normal 

trace of the cuesta front. A good example of the 

abnormally dipping . sandstone beds about 6 miles 

east of McAlester was mapped partly by planetable 

and partly by sketching and is shown on figure 49.1. 

Subaqueous land-slip deposits have been observed 

in the Savanna sandstone and Boggy shale by Dane, 

Rothrock, and Williams ( 1938), Hendricks ( 193 9), 

and others. They differ from the abnormally bedded 

deposits here discussed in several ways, particularly 

in that the bedding and lithologic types are disordered. 

In the area of abnormal bedding (fig. 49.1) the 

sandstone beds are as much as 10 feet thick, are 

laminated but have no shale partings or beds, and 

consist of medium- to coarse-grained sands. The 

cementation varies by beds so that some are markedly more resistant to erosion than others and crop 

out prominently. The angle between the abnormal 

bedding and the regional dip of true bedding is commonly about 30°, or close to the angle of repose of 

sand. Local increases of dip of abnormal bedding 

to higher angles are believed to be due to movement 

after initial deposition. In many places, such as 

along section A-A' (figs. 49.1 and 49.2), the strike 

of the abnormally dipping beds is relatively straight 

and the bedding planes are subparallel. The sharp 

bend at the west end of each bed is due to topography. 

Beds of this type have been described by Dane, Rothrock, and Williams (1938, p. 163-164). Where they 

have been observed they dip to the south, and may be 

traced for as inuch as half a mile. Other steeply 

dipping beds have a roughly concentric·outcrop pattern. Remnants of a sandstone unit with steeply 

and concentrically dipping beds are shown in the 

lower part of figure 49.1, but the abnormally bedded 

sandstone has been removed by erosion in most of 

the west half of original area of occurrence. At other 

places and on relatively level surfaces, the outcrop 

of such beds is continuous in a crude circle. 

The beds with abnormal dips terminate sharply 

and without curvature against the underlying shale 

beds at most places, but locally the dip of some beds 

decreases at the lower contact (fig. 49.2). 

The shale underlying the sandstone unit in the 

area of figure 49.1 contains thin beds of fine-grained 

sandstone having on their bottom surfaces miniature 

flute casts, groove casts, prod marks; and other features considered characteristic of turbidity-current 

deposition. The orientation of these features indicates a current direction from west to east, which 

is nearly parallel to the axis of the basin of deposition 

of the Savanna sandstone (Hendricks, 1939, p. 273). 

Invertebrate marine fossils are common in this 

shale unit 50 feet or more below the sandstone unit 

shown in figure 49.1, and 25 to 45 species have been 

identified from each of several collections from this 

shale from other places in the McAlester district 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-115 

EXPLANATION 

D 

Resistant sandstone bed 

D 

Less resistant E 'l.ndstone bed 

-------- Outline of dip slope 

------- Contact of sandstone and shale 

Shale containing 

~ 

~ 

thin sandstone beds 

'y 

Dip of abnonnal beds 

"<8 

Regional dip 

A A' 

Line of section 

100 200 300 400 FEET 

N 

---=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=--=-=-::-:-:-.:-.:-=-=-= 

--=================================:=:=:====== --=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=~-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= ·-:::-:::-=-=-=-:-:-::::-:-:-::-::-:-:-::-:-.,?4-::-=-=----:_- --=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= 

·-=:~~~~~r~:~illllllllifllllllllllilllllll -_ -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-;__-_ -_-_-_---_-_-_-_-________ _:----

. ~-== ::-:-=-=~~ =-=-=~-=-=-=-.:-.:-=-= ~-=-- --------------_ -_ -_ -:_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_;-

J:4.,IGURE 49.1.-Sketch map of an area of Savanna sandstone with abnormal bedding, El/2 sec. 32, T. 6 N., R. 16 E., Pittsburg 

County, Okla. See sections, figure 49.2. 1 
B-116 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

A A' 

---

- ---- --- ----- - ·-------:____- -- --- ---- ---- ------- ---------:. 

SECTION ACROSS FORESET BEDS WITH RELATIVELY UNIFORM DIP 

B 

SECTION ACROSS BEDS WITH CONCENTRIC DIP 

0 100 200 FEET 

FIGURE 49.2.-Cross sections in area (fig.· 49.1) of Savanna sandstone with abnormal bedding. Resistant beds in the sandstone 

unit are shaded. 

(Hendricks, 1937). The brachiopods and pelecypods 

characteristically still have the two ·valves joined. 

Some of the sandstone units with abnormal bedding, such as the one in the area of figure 49.1, are 

overlain within a few feet by a coal zone; others 

are overlain by shale that contains a few marine 

fossils. 

These features suggest the following interpretation of the conditions of deposition for a sequence 

of beds <;ontaining in its middle part a sandstone 

with abnormal bedding: 

1. Clay and silt were deposited in water shallow 

enough to be hospitable for a varied fauna but 

· so deep that waves and currents did not uncover and disjoin fragile bivalves. Such deposition could occur a short distance below wave 

base. A heavy rain of clay and silt probably 

buried the organisms very quickly and was 

periodically interrupted by weak turbidity currents that moved generally parallel to the axis 

of the basin of deposition and deposited· thin 

beds of sand. 

This type of deposition continued until the 

basin was filled nearly to sea level, and· produced a mud flat which at times may have been 

exposed at low tide, ·as is suggested by discontinuous red beds in this zone. 

2. Sheetlike currents from the north carried sand 

across the submerged mud flats. The subparallel straight beds with abnormal dip (section A-A', fig. 49.2) are believed to have been 

formed nearshore as foreset beds by deposition 

from these strong currents flowing over a broad 

area. 

The centripetally. or concentrically dipping 

beds (section B-B', fig. 49.2) are believed to 

have formed by scour and fill by somewhat 

stronger currents. The current is believed to 

have developed locally strong eddies that 

scoured, in the unconsolidated sediments, deep 

elliptical holes similar to those formed when a 

river breaks through a levee (Hendricks and 

Parks, 1950, p. 91-92). Subsequent currents 

passing above the scour hole carried sediment 

of mixed grain size with the coarser sizes at 

the bottom. These coarser sizes dropped into 

the still water of the scour hole from all sides 

and formed foreset beds with crudely concentric attitudes. Successive flood currents produced other concentric foreset beds inside those 

previously deposited. 

3. At times, mud and sand were subsequently deposited to form broad coastal swamps in which 

\. 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 ·B-117 

coal-forming materials were deposited. At 

other times, subsidence deepened the water and 

initiated another major cycle of deposition. 

Conditions that resulted in the deposition 

of the abpormally dipping beds were repeated 

locally during the accumulation of many sandstone units throughout about 3,000 feet of beds 

in the Savanna and Boggy formations. 

REFERENCES 

Dune, C. H., Rothrock, H. E., and Williams, J. S., 1938, Geology and fuel resources of the southern part of the Oklahoma coal field, pt. 3. The Quinton-Scipio district, 

Pittsburg, Haskell, and Latimer Counties: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 874-C, p. 151-253. 

Hendricks, T. A., 1937, Geology and fuel resources of the 

southern part of the Oklahoma coal field, pt. 1, McAlester 

district, Pitts.burg, Atoka, and Latimer Counties: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 874-A, p. 1-90. · 

--, 1939, Geology and fuel resources of the southern part 

of the Oklahoma coal field, pt. 4, The Howe-Wilburton 

district, Latimer and LeFlore Counties: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 874-D, p. 255-300. 

Hendricks, T. A., and Parks, Bryan, 1950, Geology of the Fort 

Smith district, Arkansas: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

221-E, p. 67-93. 

50. RESERVOIR EVAPORATION AND SEEP AGE, HONEY CREEK, TEXAS 

By F. W. KENNON, Oklahoma City, Okla. 

'rhis report describes an investigation of evaporation and seepage losses from 12 flood-retarding reservoirs in the upper 36 square miles of Honey Creek 

basin (fig. 50.1), a tributary of the Trinity River. 

Records are available for the period October 1952 

through September 1959. Honey Creek watershed is 

in north-central Texas about 35 miles north of 

Dallas. It lies in the Black Prairie physiographic 

province and is underlain by the Austin chalk of 

Late Cretaceous age, which is composed primarily 

of chalk, marl, and claystone. 

The surface areas of the reservoirs range from 

12 to 44 acres and capacities range from 81 to 421 

acre-feet at the elevations of the outlets. Waterstage recorders were installed at reservoirs 11 and 

. 12 (fig. 50.1) and staff gages were install~d at the 

other 10 reservoirs. Precipitation was measured at 

14 places in the basin during the investigation. 

Evaporation from reservoirs 11, 12, and 13 was 

measured by the mass-transfer method for the period 

October 1957 through September 1959. Evaporation 

from the remaining reservoirs during this period 

was assumed to be the average of evaporation 

amounts measured at reservoirs 11, 12, and 13. 

As a check, evaporation was estimated by two 

other methods at reservoir 12 for the previous 5-

year period, October 1952 to September 1957. First, 

for periods of no inflow or outflow, previously estimated seepage was subtracted from reservoir waterstage recession adjusted for precipitation. Thirtythree months of evaporation records were so computed. Monthly evaporation figures obtained by this 

method agree well with those obtained by the masstransfer method. 

Secondly, estimates of evaporation were made 

from observations at a 24-inch screened sunken pan 

located about 30 miles directly west of Honey Creek. 

A correlation between the pan and reservoir 12 was 

obtained by ·comparing evaporation from the pan 

with evaporation from the reservoirs as determined 

by mass transfer and the method described above. 

Estimate of evaporation during periods of inflow 

or outflow could then be made by measuring evaporation from the pan . 

The annual (water-year) evaporation, in feet, determined for reservoir 12 by the mass-transfer and 

other methods is given below: 

1959 

5.01 

1954 

5.16 

1955 

5.04 . 

1956 

6.31 

1957 

4.76 

1958 

4.25 

1959 

5.41 

The. average of the annual evaporation rates is 5.13 

feet. The average annual precipitation on reservoir 

12 for 1953-1959 was 2.93 feet. Hence, the average 

net annual evaporation loss was 2.20 feet. 

During periods of no surface inflow or outflow, 

reservoir seepage equals stage recession plus precipitation on the pool minus evaporation. There was 

little monthly variation in the reservoir depths so 
B-118. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

0 2 MILES 

N 

EXPLANATION 

BE 

Reservoir number 

'v Stream gage 

FIGURE 50.1.-Honey Creek basin, Texas, showing location of reservoirs and average annual seepage rates. 

<f-

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B_;_l19 

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UJ 

UJ 

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z 

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~ 

1-

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Aug/ pJuly 

Aug. 

Sept. I> /0 Sept ) 

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60 

< 50 z 

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J: 

1-

z 

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Feb:) 

Jan.o oDie . 

0.05 0.10 0.15 

SEEPAGE AT RESERVOIR 12, IN FEET PER MONTH 

FIGURE 50.2.-Relation of seepage at reservoir 12 to monthly 

mean air temperature at McKinney, Tex. 

the effect of head on seepage was essentially constant. No water spilled over during the two periods 

July 1958 to February 1959 and August to September 

1959, and inflow was reported on only 9 days during 

this time. Thus an observational period of almost 

a year is available for determining monthly seepage 

at all reservoirs. The variation in seepage rates for 

the 12 reservoirs is shown in figure 50. The rates 

ranged from .0.8 foot to 4~5 feet and ayeraged 2.6 

feet per year. 

The seepage rate varied with temperature as 

shown in figure 50.2. If the seepage flow is laminar, 

the rate of flow should vary inversely with the viscosity of the water, which in turn is dependentupon 

the temperature. 

Undoubtedly some water passes under or around 

each of the earth dams. The flow in the channels 

immediately below the dams was not measured when 

water in the reservoirs was p.ot spilling over, but 

during rainless periods, the flow frequently. is reported to be zero at the stream gage about one mile 

below reservoir 14. This suggests that no significant 

amount of seepage water is passing from the reservoirs into the drainage systems below them. Furthermore, during the month of December 1955, the 

estimated seepage from the lower six reservoirs, 

Nos. 9 to 14, was 12.1 acre-feet. The area of the 

stream channels below this group of reservoirs is 

about 11 acres. Evaporation from the r~servoirs for 

the month was estimated to be 0.21 foot. Evaporation from a wetted channel bottom probably would 

be considerably less than that from a reservoir, because the channels are deeply incised and bordered 

by a dense protecting fringe of trees. In addition, 

transpiration by riparian vegetation is negligible 

during December. However, if the lake evaporation 

figure of 0.21 foot is used, channel evaporation would 

be only 2.3 acre-feet, and 9.8 acre-feet of seepage 

water is unaccounted for. As no surface flow passed 

the stream gage that month, it seems that the major 

portion of the reservoir seepage must leave the basin 

by underflow through cracks and fissures in the 

underlying Austin chalk and enter the regional 

body of ground water. 

51. PRE-PENNSYLVANIAN PALEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY, MOCKINGBIRD GAP QUADRANGLE, NEW MEXICO 

By GEORGE 0. BACHMAN, Denver, Colo. 

Wedge-edges of Paleozoic rocks of pre-Pennsylvanian age are exposed in two general areas in 

south-central New Mexico. One area is the Caballo 

and Fra Cristobal Mountains and has been discu~sed 

by Kelley and Silver ( 1952). The other area is in 

and near the Mockingbird Gap quadrangle, and includes parts of the San Andres and Oscura Mountains. Darton (1928, p. 194) described briefly the 
B-120 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

·36°-tt-----f--- . 36' 

0 Gallup 

.12° 

FIGURE 51.1.-Index map of New Mexico showing location of 

Mockingbird Gap quadrangle and some nearby mountain 

ranges. 

stratigraphic relations in the second area; they 

have received renewed attention during recent geologic mapping. 

The Mockingbird Gap quadrangle (fig. 51.1) and 

nearby areas are in the White Sands Missile Range 

to which access is prohibited to the general public. 

I express my appreciation to the Commanding General, White Sands Missile Range, and his staff, whose 

cooperation made this study possible. 

STRATIGRAPHY 

Bedrock exposed in and near the Mockingbird Gap 

quadrangle ranges in age from Precambrian to Permian. The Fusselman dolomite of Middle Silurian 

age wedges out about 28 miles south of the quadrangle (Kottlowski and others, 1956, p. 27) and is 

not discussed here. 

Bliss sandstone.-The Bliss sandstone of Late 

Cambrian and Early Ordovician age forms a prominent ledge and rests on an undulatory surface on 

Precambrian crystalline rocks in the Mockingbird 

Gap Hills. and in the southern part of the Oscura 

Mountains. The Bliss consists chiefly. of mediumgray to dark-brown sandstone and quartzite. The 

dominant constituents are medium-grained, subangular to subrounded quartz grains. It also includes 

some medium-grained carbonate pellets; and locally 

a quartz granule conglomerate is at the base of the 

formation. 

The Bliss sandstone is about 250 feet thick (Cloud 

and Barnes, 1948, p. 369) in the type area, which is 

in the Franklin Mountains near El Paso, Tex. The 

thickness of the Bliss in the Mockingbird Gap quadrangle ranges from 19 feet to a wedge-edge (fig. 

51.2). Local irregularities in thickness are due to 

relief of the underlying Precambrian surface. The 

El Paso formation overlies the Bliss gradationally 

except in the northern part of the Mockingbird Gap 

Hills (fig. 51.2, section C) where Lower Pennsylvanian strata overlie the Bliss unconformably. 

El Paso formation.-The El Paso consists chiefly 

of light- to medium-gray finely crystalline dolomite 

and calcareous dolomite that weathers light olive 

to yellowish gray. Individual beds are 2 inches to 

2 feet thick. Microscopically the rocks consist of a 

fine mosaic of anhedral to subhedral carbonate crystals, scattered grains of quartz, and a few grains of 

glauconite. Fine- to medium-grained quartz sand 

locally constitutes 15 to 20 percent by weight of the 

basal part of the formation in the quadrangle; this 

proportion decreases upward. 

The El Paso is 125 feet thick in the southern part 

of the Oscura Mountains (fig. 51.2, section D). It 

thins rather uniformly northward and wedges out 

about the middle of the Oscura Mountains (fig. 51.2, 

section G). Locally near its northern termination, 

the thickness is variable because of channeling by 

overlying Pennsylvanian strata. The El Paso is 17 

feet thick in the southern part of the Mockingbird 

Gap Hills, and is absent in the northern part of the 

Hills (fig. 51.2, sections B and C). 

The part of the El Paso formation present in the 

Mockingbird Gap quadrangle is believed to be equivalent to the basal part of the El Paso at its type locality in the Franklin Mountains where the total 

formation is 1,590 feet thick (Cloud and Barnes, 

1948, p. 74). TheEl Paso in the quadrangle is very 

similar lithologically to the Sierrite limestone at 

the base of the El Paso group as defined by Kelley 

and Silver (1952, p. 42-45). 

Montoya dolomite.-In the Oscura Mountains the 

Montoya dolomite of Middle and Late Ordovician 

age ( Kottlowski and others, 1956, p. 24-25) rests 

with a sharply defined irregular contact on the El 

Paso formation. In parts of southern New Mexico 

the Cable Canyon sandstone of Kelley and Silver 

(1952, p. 58-59) is present at the base of the Mon-

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-121 

NORTHERN SAN ANDRES MOUNTAINS 

Devonian 

late and 

Middle 1 

Ordovician 

A--------------------------

P/2 sec. 31 

T. 9 S., R. 5 E. 

6•12 MILES 

MOCKINGBIRD GAP HILLS 

--------------s -- 1 MILE --c 

Rocks of Early Pennsylvanian age 

NP/4 sec. 33 

T. 8 S., R. 5 E. 

100 FEET 

NW1/4 sec. 27 

T. 8 S., R. 5 E. 

Early 

Ordovician 

Precambrian rocks 

a;~r~~t~rg~~~i~~n : ~<)':~:::·:·::·~:\· .. Precambrian 1

..--~ -,... , ': 

OSCURA 

0- 1 MILE -- E 3 MILES 

Sec. 16 SWlf4 sec. 9 

T. 9 S., R. 6 E. T. 9 S., R. 6 E. 

Rocks 

MOUNTAINS 

F 

NWV4 sec. 32 

T. 8 S., R. 6 E. 

of Pennsylvanian 

106°30' 

3112 MILES 

age 

R. 5 E. 

50 

0 

--------G 

R. 6 E. 

SP/4 sec. 12 

T. 8 S., R. 5 E. 

106°15' 33°45' 

Precambrian rocks 

Early 

Ordovician 

and 

late Cambrian ~-......-........,......t' 

EXPLANATION 

(lithology highly generalized) 

Cherty 

~ limestone ~ 

~ Dolomite 

~~~:~ Calcareous shale and sandstone 

Sandstone 

Crystalline rocks 

(chiefly granite) 

1 

Age ol Montoya dolomite as given by Kottlowski and others. 1956, p. 24-25. 

A 

T. 

7 

S. 

T. 

8 

S . 

T. 

9 

S. 

INDEX MAP OF MOCKINGBIRD GAP QUADRANGLE SHOWING LOCATIONS 

OF MEASURED STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS 

FIGURE 51.2.-Columnar sections showing wedge-edges of pre-Pennsylvanian Paleozoic strata in the Mockingbird Gap area, 

New Mexico. 
B-122 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

toya dolomite, but this sandstone is absent in the 

Mockingbird Gap quadrangle. 

The Montoya in the Oscura Mountains consists of 

medium dark-gray to olive-gray evenly bedded dolomite that weathers with a deeply pitted· surface. 

The beds range in thickness from 1 to 6 feet. Insoluble residues consisting mainly of clay constitute 

3 to 5 percent by weight of the rock. 

The Montoya is 429 feet thick in the Franklin 

Mountains (Pray, 1958, p. 35). It thins northward 

to 43 feet thick in the southern part of the Oscura 

Mountains (fig. 51.2, section D), and it wedges out 

within 2 miles farther north in sec. 9, T., 9 S., R. 6 E. 

It is absent in the Mockingbird Gap Hills. The Montoya thins northward at a fairly uniform rate in 

the Oscura Mountains, except for local channels 

filled with deposits of Pennsylvanian age. 

Lithologic comparisons with other areas indicate 

that only the basal part of the Montoya-the Upham dolomite of Kelley and Silver ( 1952, p. 59-60) 

-is represented in the Oscura Mountains. 

Devonian and Mississippian rocks.-Rocks of Devonian or Mississippian age were not observed in 

the Mockingbird Gap quadrangle; however, they are 

well exposed ~n the San Andres Mountains to the 

south and they were traced to a wedge-edge about 

a mile south of the quadrangle. The Devonian rocks 

consist of fine-grained calcareous sandstone and calcareous shale, and they are 30 feet thick about 200 

yards south of the wedge-edge (fig. 51.2, section A). 

At the same locality Mississippian rocks are represented by cherty medium-gray limestone 10 feet 

thick. This limestone is believed to be equivalent 

to the Alamogordo member of the Lake VaJley limestone of Laudon and Bowsher (1949, p. 57) in the 

Sacramento and San Andres Mountains. 

Pennsylvanian rocks.-Strata of Pennsylvanian 

age truncate older strata in a general northward 

direction, and in the northern part of the quadrangle 

the Pennsylvanian rocks rest directly on the Precambrian rocks. At the base of the Pennsylvanian 

rocks are sandstone and granule conglomerate in 

lenses that locally are more than 40 feet thick. One 

of these beds was traced in. the Oscura Mountains 

for more than a mile across the wedge-edge of the 

Montoya. Fragments of underlying Paleozoic formations were not definitely recognized as constituents of the beds, but some local lenses of chert fragments at the base of the Pennsylvanian probably 

were derived from preexisting formations. These 

lenticular sandstone beds are believed to represent 

channel deposits, although locally they may be lag 

deposits or a regolith on the pre~Pennsylvanian 

erosional surface. 

INTERPRETATION 

Kelley and Silver (1952, p. 132-134) postulated 

an east-west hinge-line north of the Caballo Mountains along which the region to the south was tilted 

downward periodically during Paleozoic time. Observations in the Oscura and northern San Andres 

Mountains strongly support this hypothesis, but it 

is suggested that the hinge line may have had a 

slight northeastward trend and that it extended at. 

least as far as the Oscura Mountains. Data from 

the Mockingbird Gap quadrangle, along with observations by Kelley and Silver (1952) and Kottlowski 

and others (1956), suggest that the pre-Pennsylvanian tilting and beveling occurred during Early or 

Middle Ordovician, Early Silurian, and Late Silurian 

or Early Devonian time. 

The Bliss in the Mockingbird Gap area is probably a basal deposit of a transgressing Late Cambrian and Early Ordovician sea. The 'overlying prePennsylvanian Paleozoic limestones and dolomites 

are marine deposits where they wedge out, and the 

rock facies .do not . indicate that the shorelines of 

the ancient seas were very near the present Oscura 

Mountains during deposition of these rocks. 

REFERENCES 

Cloud, P. E., Jr., and Barnes, V. E., 1948, The Ellenburger 

group of central Texas: Texas Univ. Bur. Econ. Geology 

Pub. 4621. 

Darton, N. H., 1928, "Red Beds" and associated formations in 

New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 794. 

Kelley, V. C., and Silver, Caswell, 1952, Geology of the Caballo 

Mountains: New Mexico Univ. Pub. in Geology 4. 

Kottlowski, F. E., Flower, R. H., Thompson, M. L., and Foster, 

R. W., 1956, Stratigraphic studies of the San Andres 

Mountains, New Mexico: New Mexico Inst. Mining and 

Tech., Bur. Mines and Mineral Resources, Mem. 1. 

Laudon, L. R., and Bowsher, A. L., 1949, Mississippian formations of southwestern New Mexico: Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 

vol. 60, p. 1-88. 

Pray, L. C., 1958, Stratigraphic section, Montoya group and 

Fusselman formation, Franklin Mountains, Texas: West 

Texas Geol. Soc., Guidebook, Franklin and Hueco Mountains, p. 30-42. 

.· 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-123 

52. PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF TEST DRILLING IN DEPRESSIONS ON THE HIGH PLAINS, LEA COUNTY, 

NEW MEXICO 

By JOHNS. HAVENS, Lovington, N.Mex. 

W01·k clone in cooperation with the New Mexico State Engineer 

The Ogallala formation of Tertiary age, which 

covers the High Plains in Lea County,· N. Mex., consists mostly of very fine grained sandstone 0 to 250 

feet thick overlain by as much as 20 feet of caliche 

caprock. The caprock surface is dotted with numerous closed depressions ranging in diameter from 

a few yards to more than half a mile and ranging 

in depth from a few inches to more than 30 feet. 

Previous investigators have suggested that the depressions may have been caused by deep-seated collapse of soluble underlying formations (Judson, 

1950, p. 254, 272). 

The depressions seem to be alined in swales that 

are remnants of an old drainage system. Groups of 

depressions show a general alinement down the 

slope of the land surface, which is 10 to 15 feet ·per 

mile to the southeast or south-southeast. 

The main drainage into the depressions generally 

is on the northwestern side. With some exceptions 

there are no connections between depressions. 

Test drilling has been done in and near several 

of the depressions, using both core ·and auger drills. 

Two typical depressions that were drilled are designated depressions 8 and 9, and are approximately 

1 mile from the western edge of the High Plains, 

and about 3 miles north of the town of Maljamar, 

. N. Mex. (see figure 52.1). . 

Information from drilling indicates .. that the depressions are surficial features not related to solution of deeply buried gypsum or salt. The Ogallala 

formation shows no signs of collapse beneath the 

depressions. A sequence of events leading to the 

stratigraphic relations shown on the cross sections . 

of depressions 8 and 9 (figs. 52.2 and 52.3 on p. 

B-124 and B-125) might be described as follows: 

r 32 1 33 34 35 36 37 38E 391 0 I 0 Depression 8 Lovington i 16 \ 0 -Depression 9 

I I 0 I I Maljamar 0 I Knowles, 

Humble City 17 

: 0 ~ 

I ~$ I 

I >$'(' L E A 18 I ~/. I $ .... 0 HOBB,R l I I Ci)(,. 

·------ l 

I ~"?~ ~· 

I 

19 .I I C'.yo ()'~$ Monument 0 I 

I 

I 0 ..() Kornegay ! I 

l/-v~ 20S 

L_ i 

FIGURE 52.1.-Central part of Lea County·, N. Mex., showing 

locations of depressions 8 and 9. 

1. The caliche caprock was dissolved away in local 

areas along old stream channels. 

2. Poorly· consolidated sandstone of the Ogallala 

formation was exposed to the wind and the 

initial shallow depressions· in the caliche were 

deepened by deflation. 

3. The d~pressions were partly filled. by sandy silty 

clay and silty clay carried into the depressions 

by inflowing streams following heavy rains. 

Traces of caliche in depre.ssion 8 (fig. 52.2) 

may be caliche rubble washed into the depressions from the sides. 

REFERENCE 

Judson, S. S., Jr., 1950, Depressions of the northern portion of 

the southern High Plains of eastern New Mexico: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 61, no. 3, p. 254, 274. 
B-124 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

EXPLANATION 

Residual soil Alluvium 

Silty clay 

Alluvium 

Sandy silty clay 

B 

I~ Caliche cap rock Ogallala formation 

Sands toM 

A 

Traces of caliche 

400 800 FEET 00~----~----~----~--~ 

400 800 FEET B I 

CROSS SECTION A-A' THROUGH DRILL HOLES 

CROSS SECTION B-B' THROUGH DRILL HOLES 

FIGURE 52.2,-Sections and map of depression 8, SW';4 sec. 20, T. 16 S., R. 32 E., Leo County, N. Mex. 

·-

·• 

A' 

~-

.. 

·-

-~ 

t-
.... 

+· 

,. 

,,. 

.. , 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-125 

N 

0 800 FEET 

A A' D 

Residual soil 

~ E-3 

CROSS SECTION A-A' THROUGH DRILL HOLES 

Alluvium 

Silty clay 

B B' 

~~i~~~~ • . 

. 

Alluvium 

Sandy silty clay 

CROSS SECTION B-B' THROUGH DRILL HOLES 

60 FEET 

30 

400 800 FEET 

Caliche cap rock 

Ogallala formation 

Sandstone 

FIGURE 52.3.-Sections and map of depression 9, Nlh sec. 29, 

T. 16 S., R. 32 E., Lea County, N. Mex. 

53. LOWER MEMBER OF MURAL LIMESTONE OF EARLY CRETACEOUS AGE, BISBEE QUADRANGLE, 

ARIZONA 

By PHILIP T. HAYES and EDWIN R. ~ANDIS, Denver, Colo. 

The Mural limestone and the underlying Morita 

formation, both of Early Cretaceous age, were established by Ransome ( 1904, p. 56) on the basis of 

their exposures on and below the south-facing cliffs 

of Mural Hill in the Bisbee quadrangle (fig. 53.1). 

Although he mapped the Mural as a single unit, he 

recognized two distinct members, a lower member 

about 300 feet thick containing thin-bedded impure 

limestone, and an upper member about 250 feet 

thick of thick-bedded pure limestone. Ransome noted 

that widely separated thin beds of impure limestone 

are present in the upper part of the underlying 

Morita formation but chose his contact at the top 

of a prominent bed of hard buff sandstone. The 

contact is arbitrary but is a readily recognizable 

mapping horizon over a wide area. 

As a result of detailed paleontologic work in the 

Ninety One Hills area, 8 miles south of Mural Hill, 

Stoyanow (1949, p. 6) restricted the name Mural 

·to the upper member of Ransome's original unit, and 

named the Lowell formation (Stoyanow, 1949, .p .. 8.) 

to include the lower member of Ransome's Mural 
B-126 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH '1961 

ARIZONA 

0 5 

FIGURE 53.1.-Index maps showing location of Bisbee quadrangle, Cochise County, Ariz., and location of measured 

sections shown on figure 53.2. 

and the upper beds of the Morita formation down 

to the base of the lowest fossiliferous limestone bed. 

In the course of current mapping in the Bisbee 

quadrangle, we investigated the feasibility of mapping and the stratigraphic value of both the base 

of Ransome's Mural limestone and the base of 

Stoyanow's Lowell formation. We found that the 

base of the lower member of the Mural limestone as 

defined by Ransome can be mapped readily within 

narrow stratigraphic limits in the quadrangle, 

whereas the base of the Lowell formation is not a 

readily traceable horizon. Mapping during the present investigation has shown that, in addition to the 

lower member of the Mural limestone, Stoyanow included 580 feet of the upper part of the original 

Morita formation in his Lowell formation. Furthermore, in remapping the area in the vicinity of the 

type section of the Lowell formation (Stoyanow, 

1949, p. 8-12), we discovered that about 160 feet 

of rock in the upper part of the Lowell formation 

evidently is duplicated across a normal fault. 1 Fortunately, this duplication does not alter Stoyanow's 

faunal zonation. 

Because Stoyanow ( 1949, p. 8) did not specifically 

state that he was 'including hundreds of feet of the 

Morita formation in his Lowell formation, several 

write·rs (Gilluly, 1956, p. 74; Gillerman, 1958, p. 

1 As nearly as \ve c·arf · determin·e, units 2c and 3b of the type· Lowell 

formation (Stoyanow, 1949, p. 9) are the same and the fault lies near the 

mfddle of unit 2d. 

43; Fergusson, 1959, p. 43) have assumed that the 

term "Lowell" was just a new name for the lower 

member of the Mural limestone. This led Gilluly 

(1956, p. 74) to conclude that the lower member of 

the Mural thickens from about 400 feet near Mural 

Hill to 1,104 feet in the Ninety One Hills. Actually, 

the lower member of the Mural is only about 360 

feet thick in the Ninety One Hills .. The general 

Mural Hill Ninety One Hills 

EXPLANATION 

~ Dolomite 

gm 

limestone 

Sandy limestone 

Argillaceous limestone 

l\;'<'::.::·::-::=;:~_:;:::,:1 Sandstone 

r:::::;QJ::;:z;J Calcareous sandstone 

J;·.~s:·tB Sandy shale and siltstone 

[:.i¢gu§;] 

Shaly sandstone 

FEET 

0 

100 

200 

300 

400 

FIGURE 53.2.-Stratigraphic sections showing relations between lower member of Mural limestone and Lowell 

. formation of Stoyano~ (1949). Ninety One Hjlls _section 

modified from Stoyanow (1949, p. 6--10); unit numbers 

beside column are his. 

'\I 
.,.. SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLO(;IC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-127 

similarity in thickness and lithology of the sequence 

at the two localities is shown in figure 53.2. 

These findings, along with other observations made 

during recent fieldwork, indicate that facies changes 

within and variations in thickness of Lower Cretaceous rock units in southeastern Arizona are not 

as extreme as heretofore commonly believed. 

REFERENCES 

Fergusson, W. B., 1959, The Cretaceous system of southeastern Arizona, in Arizona Geol. Soc., Southern Arizona 

Gillerman, Elliot, 1958, Geology of the central Peloncillo 

Mountains, Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and Cochise 

County, Arizona: New Mexico Bur. Mines and Mineral 

Resources Bull. 57, 152 p. 

Gilluly, James, 1956, General geology of central Cochise 

County, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 281, 

169 p. 

Ransome, F. L., 1904, The geology and ore deposits of the 

bisbee quadrangle, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 21, 168 p. 

·Guidebook II, April, 1959: p. 43-47. l 

Stoyanow, Alexander, 1949, Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy in 

southeastern Arizona: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 38, 169 p. 

~ 

54. ORIGIN OF CROSS-STRATA IN FLUVIAL SANDSTONE LAYERS IN THE CHINLE FORMATION (UPPER 

TRIASSIC) ON THE COLORADO PLATEAU 

By JOHN H. STEWART, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Cross-strata are a distinctive feature of the sandstone layers of the Chinle formation (Upper Triassic) on the Colorado Plateau. Channel-filling 

sediments, conglomerate lenses, carbonized ·and 

silicified plant material, and ·locally remains of· dryland and fresh-water animals are associated with 

the cross-stratified layers (Stewart and others, 

1959); the combination of these features clearly 

indicates that the cross-stratified layers are of fluvial origin. The descriptions given apply mainly to 

the cross-strata in the Shinarump and Moss Back 

members of the Chinle formation. 

Tabular planar sets of cross-strata (fig. 54.1)-

units of cross-strata with flat surfaces of erosion 

as upper and lower boundaries (McKee and Weir, 

1953)-are common in the Chinle formation, and 

locally, at least, are the dominant type -of crossstrata in the Shinarump and Moss Back members. 

The sets generally range in thickness from one-half 

foot to 2 feet. Some sets can be traced laterally along 

exposures for at least .200 feet. In plan view, the 

cross-strata appear as laminae dipping and striking 

uniformly. In cross section, the cross-laminae are 

concave upward and become tangential downwards 

with the bounding surface of the set. The maximum 

dip of cross-strata is generally about 25 o. 

Tabular planar cross-strata probably formed in 

transverse bars (fig. 54.1) similar to those described 

by Sundborg (1956, p. 207, 270-272) in the river 

Kladilven in Sweden. These bars are 0.05 to 0.5 

meter high and 2 to 20 meters apart. The upstream 

side of the bars is flat and dips upstream at an angle 

of about 1 o. The downward side is steep and roughly 

at the angle of repose. Sediment is carried up the 

backside of the bar and deposited on the frontside, 

in the manner of the foreset beds of a delta building 

out into a body of water. As the front of the bar 

is built forward by continued deposition, a tabular 

layer of cross-strata is left. McDowell (1960) has 

described the formation of cross-strata by "sand 

waves"-the same features that Sundborg calls 

transverse bars-in recent deposits of the Mississippi River. 

Trough sets of cross-strata are also common in 

the Chinle formatiort, although il). the Shinarump 

and Moss Back members they may b~ less abundant 

than tabular planar sets. These cross-strata occur 

in sets that have curved surfaces of erosion as upper 

and lower boundarie.s (fig. 54.1). I~ plan view, the 

sets are narrow elongate features commonly 5 to 20 

feet long and 2 to 5 feet wide, with blunt terminations upstream. The cross-strata, in plan view,· are 

curved and conv~x upstream. In a cross section cut 

along the length of the trough, the sets are lens 

shaped and average about 2 feet thick. In a section 

cut across tbe trough, the lower boundary of the set 
B-128 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABULAR PLANAR CROSS-STRATA TROUGH CROSS-STRATA 

TRANSVERSE BARS AND TABULAR PLANAR CROSS-STRATA ARCUATE BARS AND TROUGH CROSS-STRATA 

-FIGURE 54.1.-Tabular planar and trough cross-strata and bar types. 

is gently U-shaped. The maximum dip of the crossstrata is generally about 25 o. 

Trough cross-strata are generally thought to form 

by scouring of a trough and later filling of the 

trough (McKee and others, 1953; McKee, 1957; 

Stokes, 1953). Stokes (1953) ascribes the formation 

of troughs to water vortices that scour the stream 

bottom in rp.uch the same way that a tornado picks 

up debris on land. Such turbulent vortices, according to Matthes (1947, p. 259), are the most powerful 

agents of stream scour and produce troughs on 

stream bottoms. 

Some trough sets of cross-strata may have formed 

by filling of troughs produced by such vortices, but 

another process, or a modification of the above process, is suggested here to explain the formation of 

many, perhaps most, of the trough cross-strata in 

the Chinle formation. They may have formed by 

the downstream migration of arcuate bars that are 

similar to barchan dunes in shape (fig. 54.1). Erosion would take place, perhaps in part by vortex 

action, in the area between the two arms of the 

crescent. In such a manner, the trough is extended 

downstream as the arcuate bar migrates downstream. Formation ·of trough cross-strata in this 

way is similar to the formation of tabular planar 

cross-strata in tr.ansverse bars, except for the diff-

,.. . 

... 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-129 

FIGURE 54.2.-0verturned cross-strata in Moss Back member 

of Chinle formation in southeastern Utah. 

ferent shape of the bars · and the formation of 

troughs ahead of the bars by erosion. 

The suggested mode of formation adequately explains the shape of the trough sets and the curvature, 

in plan view, of the cross-strata. In addition, tabular planar and trough cross-strata commonly are 

associated with one another and with intermediate 

types, suggesting that both may be formed by constructional deposition in bars. Finally, observations 

in modern streams indicate that transverse bars 

("sand waves")· have a tendency to break up along 

strike into crescentic-shaped parts (Bucher, 1919, 

p. 172). Trough cross-strata, following the hypothesis, would form in these crescentic, or arcuate bars. 

Many of the cross-strata in the Chinle formation 

are peculiarly deformed so that the upper part of 

the cross-strata are drawn downstream; thus the 

individual laminae in cross section have the shape 

of a U laid on its side (fig. 54.2). 

This type of cross-strata is termed "overturned" 

cross-strata by Potter and Glass (1958). This deformation probably is caused by a flowage of sand 

shortly after deposition of the cross-strata. Observations in modern streams show that the top few 

feet of the sand bed often have the consistency of 

"quicksand" and that they commonly move downstream as a "fluid" mass. This motion of the top 

few feet of the sand bed has been observed by 

a civil engineer who descended in a diving bell to the bottom 

of the Mississippi at a point where the depth was 65 feet and 

the bottom of sand. Stepping to the bed, he sank into it about 

3 feet, and then thrusting his arm into the yielding mass, 

could feel its flowing motion to a depth of 2 feet, the velocity 

diminishing downward 

(Gilbert, 1914, p. 156). A similar motion .down to 

3 meters was observed on the gravel beds of the 

upper part of the Rhine and one of its small tributary streams (Bucher, 1919, p. 169-170). This 

motion presumably would cause the laminae to deform. The diminishing downward velocity could 

account for the observed diminishing "bending" of 

the strata downward. 

REFERENCES 

Bucher, W. H., 1919, On ripples and related sedimentary 

surface forms and their paleogeographic interpretations: 

Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., v. 47, p. 149-210, 241-269. 

Gilbert, G. K., 1914, The transportation of debris by running 

water: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 86, 263 p. 

Matthes, G. H., 1947, Macroturbulence in natural stream 

flow: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 28, p. 255-262. 

McDowell, J. P., 1960, Cross-bedding formed by sand waves in 

Mississippi River point-bar deposits [abs.]: Geol. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 71, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1925. 

McKee, E. D., 1957, Flume experiments on the production of 

stratification and cross-stratification : Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 27, p. 129-134. 

McKee, E. D., Evensen, C. G., and Grundy, W. D., 1953, 

Studies in sedimentology of the Shinarump conglomerate 

of northeastern Arizona: U.S. Atomic Energy Comm. 

Tech. Rept. RME-3089, 48 p., issued by U.S. Atomic 

Energy Comm. Tech. Inf. Serv., Oak Ridge, Tenn. 

McKee, E. D., and Weir, G. W., 1953, Terminology for stratification and cross-stratification in sedimentary rocks: 

Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 64, p. 381-390. 

Potter, E. P., and Glass, H. D., 1958, Petrology and sedimentation of the Pennsylvanian sediments in southern 

Illinois-A vertical profile: Illinois State Geol. Survey 

Rept. Inv. 204, 60 p. 

Stewart, J. H., Williams, G. A., Albee, H. F., and Raup, 0. B., 

1959, Stratigraphy of Triassic and associated formations 

in part of the Colorado Plateau region, with a section on 

Sedimentary petrology by R. A. Cadigan: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 1046-Q, p. 487-576. 

Stokes, W. L., 1953, Primary sedimentary trend indicators as 

applied to ore finding in the Carrizo Mountains, Arizona 

and New Mexico, Part 1: Tech. Rept. for April 1, 1952 

to March 31, 1953: U.S. Atomic Energy Comm. Tech. 

Rept. RME-3043 (pt. 1), 48 p., issued by U.S. Atomic 

Energy Comm. Tech. Inf. Serv., Oak Ridge, Tenn. 

Sundborg, Ake, 1956, The river Klaralven-a study of fluvial 

processes: Geografiska Annalar, v. 38, no. 2-3, p. 127-316. 
B-130 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

55. FOSSIL WOODS ASSOCIATED WITH· URANIUM ON THE COLORADO PLATEAU 

By RICHARD A. SCOTT, Denver, Colo. 

Work done ·in cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Comrni.<Jsion 

Fossil woods and other organic debris commonly 

occur with uranium in deposits of Triassic and 

Jurassic age on the Colorado Plateau. The possibility that woods. of differing systematic affinities 

might have different capacities for localizing uranium has been suggested as an explanation for the 

highly variable uranium content of organic matter 

from a single mineralized zone. Woods associated 

with uraniferous minerals from various deposits on 

the Colorado Plateau were collected and studied to 

evaluate this possibility .. 

AFFINITIES OF THE WOODS 

All structurally preserved woods collected from 

the Colorado Plateau belong to Araucarioxyl~n 

Kraus, a form genus for fossil woods like those of 

the modern coniferous family Araucariaceae. All 

Upper Triassic woods examined belong to one 

species, A. arizonicum Knowlton (fig. 55.1 A to C). 

Two undescribed species of Araucarioxylon are 

present in Jurassic strata (Morrison formation). 

Lack of diversity among Plateau woods is puzzling, for floras of the times are kriown to have been 

varied. The Chinle flora contained members of all 

major groups of vascular plants except dicotyledons 

(Daugherty, 1941); cycadeoids and other vascular 

plants except dicotyledons were common in Morrison 

time. Spore. and pollen assemblages bear out the 

diversity (Scott, 1960). A possible explanation for 

this anomaly is that uranium deposits commonly 

are found in channel fills and floodplain deposits, 

depositional environments favoring degradation. 

Remains of small plants became too degraded to 

identify. Some entire logs were affected to an extent that eliminated cell-wall details necessary for 

identification. Coalified exteriors are present on 

many logs with silicified cores, indicating that degradation proceeded centripetally. Relatively intact 

wood could persist in the interiors of large logs even 

when smaller remains were d~graded; consequently, 

large size of the araucarians-logs 5 feet in diameter 

are known-may have been a selective factor favoring their structural preservation. Organic trash 

zones commonly associated with ·ore bodies on the 

Colorado Plateau probably were derived from 

various plants. 

LACK OF RELATION BETWEEN WOOD TYPE AND 

URANIUM 

Absence of marked systematic d~versity among 

Plateau woods collected impedes direct evaluation of 

the possible effect of. wood type upon uranium fixation. Nevertheless, several observations· indicate 

that systematic differences were not important factors affecting uranium content of fossil woods. 

Nature of the plant remains.-Variations in effectiveness in uranium fixation· for woods of different 

species would derive from chemical differences 

among them. The organic components of wood comprise two major groups: cell-wall· components consisting of holocellulose and lignin make up 80 to 90 

percent of the wood substance; and so-called extraneous components consisting of resins, oils, tannins, 

and pigments make up the rest. Degradation of 

wood in nature results first in the loss of cellulosic 

and at least part of the extraneous components 

(Varossieau and Breger, 1951; Barglioorn, 1952). 

Later, the lignin may be altered and ultimately 

transformed to hurrtic compounds. Uranium mineralization in the sandstone-type deposits of the 

Plateau followed deposition of the sediments by a 

geologically significant time interval (Stieff, Stern, 

and Milkey, 1953), and unsilicified plant remains 

present during mineralization were composed chiefly 

FIGURE 55.1-Triassic wood associated with uranium. A, 

Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; ~ransverse section; 

X60. B, Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; tangential 

section; X 45. C, Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; 

radial section; X90. D, Wood structure in asphaltite derived from Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; note 

crushing and distortion at upper margin; ·the parallel 

lines are rays; transverse section; X45. E, Wood structure in asphaltite derived from Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; note intrusion into silicified wood; the 

larger cells at lower right and scattered; X45. F, Uraninite in Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; the white 

material is the uraninite seen by reflected light; it is 

associated with the cell wa~l C()mponents, probably uniting 

with but not replacing them; X 90. . . 

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+· 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, AR~ICLES 1-146 B-131 
B-132 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

of lignin residues and their derivatives. Any original compositional differences would have been minimized by degradational and diagenetic changes. prior 

to mineralization. 

Variation in uranium content anwng samples of 

a single species.-Eight samples of coalified wood. 

from Temple Mountain, Utah, all determined as 

Ar-aucarioxylon ar-izonicum, contained the following 

percentages of uranium (Roosevelt Moore, analyst): 

0.0005, 0.007, 0.007, 0.16, 0.33, 0.69, 1.3, and 5.8. 

Ash from each of two samples of the same species 

from the Adams mine on the west side of the San 

Rafael Swell, Utah, have uranium contents of 0.09 

percent and 8.5 percent; This large range within 

the single species demonstrates that factors in the 

depositional environment at the time of mineralization, other than the affinities of the plant material, 

effected marked variation in uranium concentration. 

Association of ur-anium with organic matter- from 

diverse plant sources.-Uranium has been found 

associated with organic material from a variety of 

plants. For example, a sample of ash from wood of 

Callixylon, which has pteridophytic relationships 

(Beck, 1960), has been found to contain 2.58 percent uranium (Breger and Schopf, 1955), and ash 

from a lignite of Tertiary age contained 0.3 percent 

uranium, chiefly associated with the organic matter 

(Breger, Deul, and Rubenstein, 1955). Araucarian 

conifers are not yet known from North American 

Tertiary rocks ; presumably the Tertiary lignite is 

of nonaraucarian origin. Garrels and Pommer 

. (1959) reported that fresh spruce wood and Tertiary lignite were equally effective in reducing 

uranium to uraninite, a mineral commonly found 

(along with coffinite) in ores associated wi_th coalified wood and other carbonaceous material (Weeks, 

Coleman, and Thompson, 1959). Concentration of 

uranyl ions by silicified dicotyledonous woods has 

been described by Barghoorn (written communication, 1956). 

Thus, various organic materials have the ability 

to effect fixation, and the available evidence does 

not suggest that systematic differences among plants 

that contributed organic remains were significant 

factors in producing ore. 

TEMPLE MOUNTAIN ASPHALTITE WITH WOOD 

STRUCTURE 

There is disagreement as to whether the so-called 

uraniferous "asphaltite" !lt Temple Mountain, Utah, 

was derived from petroliferous (Kelley and Kerr, 

1958) or plant (Breger and Deul, 1959) sources. 

Some sections of silicified wood include regions of 

black, apparently amorphous, asphaltite. When 

ground sufficiently thin, remnants of original wood 

structure are visible in these asphaltites (fig. 55.1, 

D and E). Cellular structure is present even in 

some asphaltite that had been forced by pressure 

in a plastic state into fractures in silicified wood 

(fig. 55.1, E). This evidence indicates that at least 

some of the Temple Mountain asphaltites were derived from wood. 

REFERENCES 

Barghoorn, E. S., 1952, Degradation of plant tissues in organic 

sediments: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 22, p. 34-41. 

Beck, C. B., 1960, The identity of Archeopteris and Callixylon: 

Brittonia, v. 12, p. 351-368. 

Breger, I. A., and Deul, Maurice, 1959, Association of uranium 

with carbonaceous materials, with special reference to the 

Temple Mountain region in Garrels, R. M. and Larsen, 

E. S. 3d, Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Colorado 

Plateau uranium ores: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

320, p. 139-149. 

Breger, I. A., Deul, Maurice, and Rubenstein, Samuel, 1955, 

Geochemistry and miner'alogy of a uraniferous lignite: 

Econ. Geology, v. 50, p. 206-226. 

Breger, I. A., and Schopf, J. M., 1955, Germanium and urani urn in coalified wood from Upper Devonian black shale: 

Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 7, p. 287-293. 

Daugherty, L. H., 1941, The Upper Triassic flora of Arizona: 

Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 526, 108 p. 

Garrells, R. M., and Pommer, A. M., 1959, Some quantitative 

aspects of the oxidation and reduction of the ores in Gar-. 

rels, R. M. and Larsen, E. S., 3d, Geochemistry and 

mineralogy of the Colorado Plateau uranium ores: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 320, p. 157-164. 

Kelley, D. R., and Kerr, P. F., 1958, Urano-organic ore at 

'):'emple Mountain, Utah: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, 

p. 701-756. 

Scott, R. A. 1960, Pollen of Ephedra from the Chinle formation (Upper Triassic) and the genus Equisetosporites: 

Micropaleontology, v. 6, p~ 271-276. 

Stieff, L. R., Stern, T. W., and Milkey, R. G., 1953, A preliminary determination of the age of some uranium ores of 

the Colorado Plateaus by the lead-uranium method: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Circ. 271. 

Varossieau, W. W., and Breger, I. A., 1952, Chemical studies 

on ancient buried wood and the origin of humus: Estrait 

du Compte Rendu: 3ieme Cong. Stratig. et de Geol. du 

Carbonifere-Heerlen. 

Weeks, A. D., Coleman, R. G., and Thompson, M. E., 1959, 

Summary of the ore mineralogy in Garrels, R. M. and 

Larsen, E. S., 3d, Geochemistry and mineralogy of the 

Colorado Plateau uranium ores: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 320, p. 65-79. 

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1 
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i 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIE~CES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-133 

56. LATE CENOZOIC EVENTS OF THE LEADVILLE DISTRICT AND UPPER A.RKANSAS VALLEY, COLORADO 

By OGDEN TWETO, Denver, Colo. 

In the upper Arkansas Valley, Colo., unconsolidated deposits of Pliocene and younger age form a 

thick cover over the bedrock (fig. 56.1). In the Leadville mining district, the nature and extent of these 

deposits and, especially, the topography of the 

buried bedrock surface, are of direct concern to the 

mining industry. Studies there have shown that 

the bedrock surface is very irregular, as it is furrowed by deep canyons and displaced by faults 

younger than some of the covering materials. This 

rough bedrock topography markedly affects the distribution of geologic formations and ore deposits, 

and also affected the pattern of oxidation of the ores.· 

Erosional, depositional, and tectonic events that led 

to formation of this rough surface and its cover 

are illustrated in figure. 56.2, and the two principal 

unconsolidated deposits are described briefly below. 

Subsurface data indicate that the bedrock floor 

of the Arkansas Valley has a relief of more than 

1,000 feet. Although older materials may fill the 

deeper depressions, insofar as known · the floor is 

overlain by massive brown sandy silt and interbedded gravel, sand, and minor volcanic ash of Pliocene age. These deposits, the "lake beds" of earlier 

reports (Emmons, 1886, p. 72; Emmons, Irving, and 

Loughlin, 1927, p. 17), are here given the name Dry 

Union formation, for Dry Union· Gulch, 5 miles 

south of Leadville. A landslide scarp near the mouth 

of this gulch (sec. 23, T. 10 S., R. 80 W.) exposes 

about 260 feet of strata in the upper part of ~he 

formation. Thickness of· the formation in the 

Arkansas Valley ranges widely, as the top is irregularly eroded and the surface beneath the base has 

high relief. Maximum thickness of about 800 feet 

is known from surface distribution and exploratory 

openings in the Leadville area, but geophysical data 

suggest that locally the formation may be as much 

as 2,000 feet thick. The formation probably under ... 

lies most of the Arkansas Valley from Leadville to 

Salida and also occurs farther downstream near 

Howard (fig. 56.1), as noted by Powers ( 1935, p. 

189). The formation is covered by younger deposits 

in many ·places but is widespread at the surface in 

the Salida area, where about 500 feet of it is 

exposed (Van Alstine and Lewis, 1960). · 

The detrital sediments that compose the Dry 

Union formation in the Leadville area are chieflv 

silt, sand, and gravel deposited in alluvial fan~. 

r·-------------1 

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: ~ I leo LORADO: 

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106° 

0 10 20 MILES 

FwuRB 5fi.l.-Distribution of unconsolidated deposits, upper 

Arkansas Valley. Major deposits indicated by pattern. 
3-134 

EXPLANATION 

D . 

. 

Deposits of glacial episode 4 

· Deposits of glacial episode 3 

---111------:-

v alley floor during episode 3 

---11---

Valley floor during epi~ode 2 

llllllllJrlilillli 

Surface of prepediment materials 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

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{ I=···~-.§ Dry Union formation u 

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Fault 

i'JGURE 56.2.-Sketches showing effects of Late Cenozoic events. Not drawn to scale. A, diagrammatic cross section showing 

relations at pediment stage. B, diagrammatic cross section showing relations of deposits and valley floors of glacial episodes 2, 3, and 4. C, map showing distribution of terminal moraines of glacial episodes 4 through 9 in a typical valley. 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-135 

They are characteristically ill-sorted and occur 

either in lenses or in thick beds (5 to 30 feet thick) 

that show little or no internal stratification. Channel structures are numerous. Pebbles and cobblessome of them wind polished and many of them 

angular-are scattered throughout the formation 

but are most abundant near the mountain slopes. 

The sediments consist chiefly of angular grains of 

relatively fresh rock derived from adjoining mountain slopes. Leached zones and caliche-cemented 

zones probably formed during episodes of subaerial 

weathering while the sediments accumulated. 

The Dry Union formation appears to have been 

derived from mountains somewhat lower than those 

of today, in an arid and possibly cold climate. No 

plant or animal fossils have been found in the formation in the Leadville area, except for a few poorly 

dated vertebrate remains in one mine (Emmons, 

Irving, and Loughlin, 1927, p. 19). Vertebrate remains found in the Salida area indicate an early 

Pliocene age (Van Alstine and Lewis, 1960). 

During the later Pliocene, the Dry Union formation was stripped from some areas and dissected to 

depths of at least a few hundred feet in others. Icecap glaciation, the first of nine glacial episodes recognized in the region, then occurred, probably in the 

early Pleistocene. Following this glaciation the 

glacial deposits were deeply weathered, and tributary valleys of the Arkansas were enlarged and 

deepened in the glacial drift, Dry Union formation, 

and bedrock. These valleys had reached depths of a 

few hundred feet and widths of as much as a mile 

when a climatic change or tectonic movement caused 

the streams to deposit coarse gravel, which eventually filled the valleys completely. 

This gravel, the "high terrace gravel" of earlier 

reports (Emmons, Irving, and Loughlin, 1927, p. 

15) is here named the Malta gravel for the railroad 

station of Malta, 3 miles southwest of Leadville. As 

seen in a cut 60 feet high at this station and also 

in many other places along the upper Arkansas Valley, the Malta gravel is buff, massive, coarse, and 

dirty. It shows little stratification except that imparted by the shingled arrangement of cobbles and 

by a few small lenses of sand or silt. The gravel is a 

mixture of materials of all sizes from silt to 

small boulders, but rounded cobbles 4 to 10 inches 

in diameter predominate. Near the mountain slopes, 

the gravel is composed entirely of rock of local 

origin, but near the valley axis it is a blend of rock 

from various sources. No fossils have been found 

in it, but traces .of humus occur locally. The gravel 

fills old valleys so its thickness varies widely; shafts 

and drill holes have revealed as much as 300 feet of 

gravel. 

Deposition of Malta gravel transformed dissected, 

hilly areas to rolling surfaces of much lower relief. 

During the waning. stages of gravel deposition, 

streams planed off the "highs" on these surfaces, 

producing pediments. These pediments, the "high 

terraces" of earlier reports· (Capps, 1909; Behre, 

1933; Powers, 1935), were once widespread along 

the upper Arkansas Valley but now exist as erosional remnants partly covered by glacial deposits. 

Since the pediments were formed, glaciation, 

stream erosion, and faulting have further modified 

the Arkansas Valley. Glacial episodes 2 and 3 occurred after dissection of the pediments had begun, 

but before the Arkansas River and its tributaries 

had reached their present levels (fig. 56.2 B). By 

the time of glacial episode 4, these valleys were at 

essentially their present levels. Episodes 4, 5, 6, and 

7, which probably constitute the Wiscons~n glacial 

stage, occurred in relatively rapid succession, and 

their glaciers were successively less extensive (fig. 

56.2 C). They were followed by two minor glacial 

episodes, numbers 8 and 9. 

Faults that displace the unconsolidated deposits 

trend about parallel to the Arkansas Valley and are 

downthrown on the side nearer the valley axis. They 

are believed to be reactivated Laramide faults. As 

shown by the unconsolidated deposits and related 

land forms, movement occurred on the faults: (a) 

after deposition of the Dry Union formation; (b) 

after glacial episode 1 ; (c) late in the stage of pedimentation; and, possibly (d) after the Arkansas 

River had reached approximately its present level. 

REFERENCES 

Behre, C. H., Jr., 1933, Physiographic history of the upper 

Arkansas and Eagle Rivers, Colorado: Jour. Geology, v. 

41, p. 785-814. 

Capps, S. R., 1909, Pleistocene geology of the Leadville quadrangle, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 386. 

Emmons, S. F., 1886, Geology and mining industry of Leadville, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 12. 

Emmons, S. F., Irving, J: D., and Loughlin, G. F., 1927, 

Geology and ore deposits of the Leadville mining district, 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 148. 

Powers, W. E., 1935, Physiographic history of the upper 

Arkansas Valley and the Royal Gorge, Colorado: Jour. 

Geology, v. 43, p. 184-199. 

Van Alstine, R. E., and Lewis, G. E., 1960, Pliocene sediments 

near Salida, Chaffee County, Colorado, in Short papers 

in the geological sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

400-B, p. B245. 
B-136 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

57. MOVEMENT OF THE SLUMGULLION EARTHFLOW NEAR LAKE CITY, COLORADO 

By DWIGHT R. CRANDELL and D. J. VARNES, Denver, Colo. 

General relations of the Slumgullion earthflow, 

about 2 miles south of Lake City, Colo., have long 

been known (Endlich, 1876; Cross, 1909; Howe, 

1909, p. 40-41; Atwood and Mather, 1932, p. 163-

164). A brief examination of the earthflow in June 

1958 revealed a stable flow about 700 years old that 

is being overridden by a younger flow (Crandell and 

Varnes, 1960). This paper presents some data on 

the amount and rate of movement of the younger 

flow during the past 20 years,· and discusses the 

type of deformation that is occurring. 

Both. parts of the Slumgullion earthflow head in 

a large cirquelike basin (fig. 57.1) about 4,500 feet 

in diameter, on the northeastern margin of the 

Lake City caldera (Burbank, 1947). The source 

rocks consist of hydrothermally altered latite flows 

and breccias of Tertiary age; abundant montmorillonite in the earthflows is derived from these altered 

rocks. 

The older ·flow is about 4 miles long and extends 

from the source area to a position across the valley 

of Lake Fork of the Gunnison River. It descends 

from an altitude of about 11,400 feet to 8,800 feet 

at an average gradient of 650 feet per mile. 

The active earthflow is about 2.4 miles long and 

from 500 to 1,000 feet wide. It descends from an 

altitude of 11,400 feet to 9,700 feet at an overall 

gradient of about 700 feet per mile. The toe of 

the earthflow is steep and unstable, and both it and 

the body of the flow are dotted with leaning trees. 

The active earthflow is separated from the older 

earthflow by lateral cracks, along which movement 

occurs. The active flow also is broken by open 

transverse cracks in many areas, into which some 

of the surface drainage disappears. 

Velocity of the active earthflow has been studied 

in three ways: the displacements of trees were determined from air photographs made in 1939 and 

in succeeding years, and from measurements made 

on the ground; control stakes installed in 1958 were 

checked periodically; and an automatic time-lapse 

m()tion picture camera (Miller, Parshall, and Crandell, Art. 135) was installed at the flow margin to 

record movement between June and October 1960. 

Comparison of aerial photographs shows that ·certain recognizable trees near locality C (fig. 57.1) 

movErd 194 feet in the 13-year period 1939-52, an 

average velocity of 15 feet per year. Trees at a 

point about 3,000 feet from the head moved at an 

average rate of 5.8 feet per year in this same 

period. 

Near locality D, the displacement of trees that 

could be located on aerial photographs taken in 

1951 was measured directly on the ground in 1959; 

these measurements indicate an average velocity of 

16 feet :Per year. Control stakes installed in 1958 

moved at a rate of about 20.0 feet per year at locality D, about 15.5 feet per year at locality C, 8.5 

feet per year at locality B, and 2.5 feet per year at 

locality A. During the period 1940-52 the toe advanced an estimated distance of 30 feet, also an 

average rate of 2.5 feet per year. · 

The time-lapse motion picture camera study of 

the active earthflow at locality D during the summer of 1960 recorded a constant velocity of 0.04 

feet per day. 

We think that the virtually constant velocity from 

year to .year and from season to season at a given 

point indicates that neither long-term nor seasonal 

fluctuations of temperature and precipitation have 

much effect on movement. Maximum lubrication 

and pore-water pressure probably exist in the flow 

at all times, .and the entire flow probably would be 

accelerated only by the addition of a large amount 

of material at the head by a landslide, or an earthquake. 

Control stakes were installed across the entire 

width of the active earthflow at lo.cality D (fig. 57.2). 

Stakes in the center move at a slightly greater 

velocity than those along the sides. This, and the 

evidence of decreased velocity downslope, suggest 

viscous flowage, contrary to an earlier opinion ( Crandell and Varnes, 1960) that the earth flow is moving 

without internal deformation. The velocity decrease 

below locality D suggests thickening between locality C and the toe, but this possibility has not yet 

been verified by field observation. 

The overall rather slow rate of movement poses 

the question of how the toe of the active flow got to 

its present position of some 12,000 feet beyond its 

source. ·The oldest tree found near the toe is a 

leaning dead spruce with 330 growth rings; no ap-
.. 

/_ ./ • " :- -L ,_ _l ... 

FIGURE 57.1.-Aerial view of Slumgullion earthflow. Note that the younger, active earthflow occupies only a small part of the source area of the older earthflow. Deepest part of Lake San Cristobal determined by sounding is 90 feet at point X, near bottom of photograph. (Enlargement of Department of 

Agriculture photograph DOM-lA-8, taken September 9, 1951.) 

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B-138 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

FEET 

40-

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25-

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60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

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Younger, active earthflow 0 

PROFILE 

0 100 200 300 FEET 

VERTICAL SCALE X 2 

FIGURE 57.2.-Plan and profile of younger, active earthflow at locality D, showing differential movement of control stakes 

between October 1958 and October 1960. 

preciably larger trees were seen, either alive or 

dead, although trees as old as 700 years grow on 

the older earthflow. Probably, therefore, the younger 

flow originated not much more than 350 years ago. 

But at its present velocity, the toe would have progressed only 875 feet from the source area in that 

length of time. 

Several possible reasons may account for this 

apparent anomaly. The flow may have come nearly 

to its present position in a relatively short time by 

rapid flowage, and then may have continued to creep 

slowly. The earthflow also may periodically lengthen 

rapidly by a wave that progresses from the head to 

the toe, possibly propagated by sliding of new material onto the head. Slower velocity near the head 

of the earthflow than at the middle between 1939 

and 1952 suggests such a wavelike motion. Finally, 

the toe may possibly advance in quick surges following a long period of very slow movement. A surge 

would be encouraged by a gradually accumulated 

bulge in the lower part of the flow. Although the 

active part of the Slumgullion earthflow might be a 

reactivated part of the older, stable flow, age of 

vegetation growing on the two parts suggests otherwise. Much of the older flow, however, probably has 

been incorporated in the active flow, especially near 

the source area. 

REFERENCES 

Atwood, W. W., and Mather, K. F., 1932, Physiography and 

Quaternary geology of the San Juan Mountains, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 166, 176 p. 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-139 

Burbank, W. S., 1947, Lake City area, Hinsdale County, in 

Mineral Resources of Colorado: Colorado Min. Res. Board, 

p. 439-443. 

Crandell, D. R., and Varnes, D. J., 1960, Slumgullion earthflow and earthslide near Lake City, Colorado [abs.]: 

Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1846 . 

Cross, C. W., 1909, The Slumgullion mudftow [abs.]: Science, 

new ser., v. 30, p. 126-127. 

Endlich, F. M., 1876, Report of F. M. Endlich, in U.S. Geol. 

Geog. Survey of the Territories Ann. Rept. 1874. 

Howe, Ernest, 1909, Landslides in the San Juan Mountains, 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 67, 58 p. 

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58. RELATIONS OF METALS IN LITHOSOLS TO ALTERATION AND SHEARING AT RED MOUNTAIN, CLEAR 

CREEK COUNTY, COLORADO 

By P. K. THEOBALD, JR., and C. E. THOMPSON, Denver, Colo. 

Tungsten, molybdenum, lead, arsenic, zinc, and 

copper have been determined by geochemical field 

methods in 268 samples of lithosol (poorly developed 

soil) from the Red Mountain area, Clear· Creek 

County, Colo. (fig. 58.1). These data establish distinct anomalies for each of the elements and suggest 

two stages of mineralization. 

The· crest of Red Mountain is underlain by a plug 

of argillized quartz monzonite porphyry of Tertiary 

age (fig. 58.2 A). Surrounding the plug is silicified, 

argillized, or chloritized quartz monzonite of Precambrian age. Two principal sets of shear zones 

trend N. 5° E. and N. 70° E. and dip 85° SE. and 

75° NW.~ respectively. Both are characterized by a 

large number of small discontinuous gouge zones; 

only a few faults are continuous enough to be shown 

on the map. 

The Urad mine, on the southeast slope of Red 

Mountain, has produced molybdenum (Vanderwilt, 

1947, p. 225), and previous work (Theobald and 

Thompson, 1959) demonstrated the presence of tungsten in the same area. To establish the distribution 

of these metals and to search for other potential ore 

metals in this intensely altered area, the lithosols on 

the slopes of Red Mountain and the opposing slope 

to the north were systematically sampled and analyzed. Landslide and morainal debris are abundant 

on the steep ( 30 o or more>. slopes, but most of these 

materials are easily identifi·ed and were avoided in 

sampling. There is no evidence for distortion of 

the geochemical patterns by down-slope creep. 

Areas of anomalously high values for tungsten 

and molybdenum roughly coincide and trend northeasterly (fig. 58.2 B). The tungsten background is 

less than 20 parts per million (ppm) and anomalous 

values range from 40 to 3,000 ppm. The molybdenum 

background is less than 4 ppm, and anomalous values 

range from 6 to 7,000 ppm. Maximum values for 

both elements are in the zone of silicification. A 

northeast-trending fault marks one edge of the area 

containing anomalous amounts of molybdenum and 

of the area containing more than 30 ppm of tungsten. 

Anomalously high concentrations of lead and arsenic occur in nearly coextensive generally northtrending areas. The lead background is probably 25 

ppm or less, but this value has been obtained in only 

6 samples from the northern edge of the area 

sampled. Anomalous values range from 50 to 6,000 

ppm. The lead anomaly (fig. 58.2 C) is exceptionally 

large; in nearly a square mile the lead content exceeds 200 ppm and in nearly a quarter of a square 

L_----~----~~-4------+----r---------.40" 

----------. 

0 50 

I 

I 

\ 

I 

I 

\ 

-----~ 

100 MILES 

FIGURE 58.1.-Index map of Colorado showing location of this 

study. 
B-140 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

~ ::s 

0' 

A. AREAS OF ALTERED ROCKS 

0 

C. LEAD 

EX PLANA II ON 

m!:J~\~;;~!~~J ~ Silicified 

•• Argillized 

D 

Chloritized 

-......__----.. Contact 

__...------ Fault Dashed where inferred 

EXPLANATION 

Pb more 

~ than 200 parts per million 

Ill Pb 4000 parts per million or more 

----------- Contact 

------- Fault Dashed where inferred 

z 

~ 

0:: 

[II 

~ 

<i 

u 

w 

0:: 

a. 

B. TUNGSTEN AND MOLYBDENUM 

1 MILE 

D. ZINC 

EXPLANATION 

W 40 

~ parts per 

million or more 

ESZJ Mo 6 parts per 

million or more 

[!] w and MolOOO parts 

per million or more 

~ 

Contact 

~---

Dashed where inferred 

EXPLANATION 

Ifill~ Zn 200 parts per million or more 

D Zn 100 to 175 parts per million 

Zn 75 parts 

-

per million or less 

.......__---... Contact 

~--­

Fault Dashed where inferred 

FIGURE 58.2-Maps showing the distribution of major rock types and faults, az:eas of altered rocks, and the distribution of 

tungsten, molybdenum, lead, and zinc in lithosols at Red Mountain, Clear Creek County, Colo. 

mile it exceeds 1,000 ppm. The arsenic background 

(not illustrated) is 10 ppm, and anomalous values 

range from 20 to 120 ppm. ,Lead and arsenic are 

most abundant on the south margin of the porphyry 

plug and generally east of both the zone of silicification and the area containing maximum tungsten and 

molybdenum values. 

The zinc background is 100 to 150 ppm; anomalies 

in the area sampled (fig. 58.2 D) are both positive 

(200 to 2,000 ppm) and negative (75 to less than 

25 ppm). The negative anomaly approximately coincides with areas of argillized or silicified rock and 

with the area of maximum values for tungsten and 

molybdenum. The positive anomaly forms an arc 

.... 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-141 

immediately outside of the negative anomaly, generally in the area of chloritization. High values are 

found in some samples from the south margin of 

the porphyry plug at approximately the same places 

as the maximum values for lead and arsenic. The 

pattern is unrelated to structural features. It could 

have been produced in large part by hypogene redistribution of metals inherent to the rocks, although 

some zinc may have been introduced ~ith lead and 

arsenic. 

The copper pattern (not illustrated) is complex. 

Background is 20 to 30 ppm. A negative anomaly, 

10 ppm or less, has the general configuration of the 

negative zinc anomaly. The negative anomaly is 

bisected by a north-trending group of positive 

anomalies, 40 to 150 ppm, that coincides with the 

area of highest lead values. 

All these anomalies have maxima lying along 

the south boundary of the porphyry plug. The 

maxima for tungsten and molybdenum,· coincide with 

the zone· of silicification, in the area of zinc and 

copper lows. The maxima for lead and arsenic, and 

the minor zinc and copper high, lie along the edge 

of the porphyry east of the zone of silicification. 

Areas of high tungsten and molybdenum are elongate parallel to the northeast-trending shears and 

areas of high molybdenum are locally elongate 

parallel to north-trending shears. Areas of highest 

lead and arsenic values are parallel to north-trending shears, but they apparently have no relation to 

either the northeast-trending shears or the zones 

of alteration. These patterns suggest that tungsten 

was introduced and copper and zinc were redistributed during or shortly following alteration and 

that the northeast-trending shears were open at this 

time. The three elements were dispersed from conduits in the area of silicification. Introd1.1ction of 

molybdenum probably occurred at this time but 

continued into a later stage of mineralization when 

the principal open fractures were the north-trending 

shears. The northeast-trending shears and the conduit for metals introduced in the early period of 

mineralization were effectively closed before lead, 

arsenic, and some zinc and copper were distributed 

along the north-trending shears from conduits on 

the southeast margin of the porphyry plug. 

REFERENCES 

Theobald, P. K., Jr., and Thompson, C. E., 1959, Geochemical 

prospecting with heavy mineral concentrates used to 

locate a tungsten deposit: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 411. 

Vanderwilt, J. W., 1947, Mineral resources of Colorado: State 

of Colorado Mineral Resources Board. 

59. HYDROLOGY OF SMALL GRAZED AND UNGRAZED DRAINAGE BASINS, BADGER WASH AREA, WESTERN 

COLORADO 

By GREGG C. LUSBY, Denver, Colo. 

Work doite in cooperation with Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Burt3au of Land Management, and Bureau of Reclamation. 

Erosion and runoff on much rangeland in the 

Western States have greatly damaged manmade 

structures, and also caused the loss of great ·quantities of soil and hence decreased the productivity 

of the land. 

A need for quantitative data on the effectiveness 

of treatment-practices on rangelands has long been 

recognized, particularly for the Colorado Plateau 

in western Colorado and eastern Utah where the 

soils on thousands of square miles of land are held· 

in place by only a sparse vegetation cover. In 1953 

a project was begun at Badger Wash to compare 

and evaluate changes in runoff and sediment yield 

from paired grazed and ungrazed drainage basins 

and to determine sources of sediment in the drainage basins. 

The Badger Wash basin is in western Colorado 

in an area of intricately dissected terrain along the 

base of the Book Cliffs a few miles east of the UtahColorado boundary and about 25 miles west of 
B-142 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 1.-Precipitation and runoff at Badge?· Wash, 1954-1959 

[A, grazed basin; B, ungrazed basin] 

Precipitation and runoff (inches) 

Drainage 

basin 

Drainage 

area 

(square 

nules) 

---------------------------------------------------------,----------

195~ 1955 1956 195i 1958 1959 

------------;---------------------- ----1----:--------- --------,---- ------- -----

Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff 

----------------------·--r-------· -----------1-----------------

lA ....... 0.066 4.07 1.08 :3.24 1.06 2.12 

lB ....... .084 4.68 .05 :3.10 .82 1. 94 

2A ....... .167 5.04 1. 11 :3.82 1.21 1.90 

2B ....... . 158 4.80 1.07 3.64 .96 2.09 

:3A ....... .OMl 4.76 .90 :3.71 1.06 1. 90 

:3B ....... .048' 4 .. 79 .84 3.48 1.06 1.82 

4A ....... .022 4.61 .01 3.49 1.29 2.28 

4B ....... .OHl 4.60 .79 3.50 .fll 2.29 

Grand Junction. Badger Wash is a tributary of 

West Salt Wash, which in turn is a tributary of the 

Colorado River. The Badger Wash basin is underlain entirely by the Mancos shale of Late Cretaceous 

age, but the lithology .of the bedrock differs somewhat in various parts of the basin. Shale in the 

west and north parts of the basin contains several 

thin flat-lying sandstone layers. The sandstone resists erosion and locally forms areas of low· relief 

with sandy soils. On the southeast side of the basin 

sandstone is absent. Throughout the basin relatively 

steep slopes merge at their bases with gentle colluvial slopes. Stream channels are everywhere incised 

into the bedrock. 

Eight small drainage basins, ranging in size from 

12 to 107 acres, were studied. The basins were 

matched in four pairs so that the basins in each 

pair were nearly similar in drainage area, topographic characteristic, soil type, and vegetation. 

One basin of each pair wa~ fenced to prevent grazing, 

and the other received normal grazing for the area. 

Runoff and sediment yield from each drainage basin 

was measured in a reservoir at the lower end of 

the basin. Nine recording rain gages were installed 

so that at least two gages were located in each pair 

of basins. Point rainfall, measured at the gages, 

was adjusted to areal rainfall on the watersheds by 

the Thiessen polygon method. 

Precipitation and runoff at each of the eight 

drainage basins for the period 1954-59 are shown 

in table 1. The precipitation and runoff were measured from about April 1 to October 31 each year. 

Precipitation during the winter months occurs 

mostly as snow and does not produce appreciable 

runoff. Table 1 . shows a decrease in runoff from 

ungrazed areas as compared to grazed areas. The 

average runoff was 6 percent less for the ungrazed 

areas than for the grazed areas in 1954, and it was 

0 8.03 1.15 2.95 0 4.~H 0.44 

0 7.58 1.29 2.95 0 4.46 .20 

.02 8.17 1.35 2.74 .01 4.31 .57 

0 7.81 .68 ~.69 0 4.38 . :39 

.02 7.02 2.34 . ~. 69 0 4.:31. .72 

.02 7.18 1. 81 2.71 0 4.43 .:30 

.03 7.48 1.29 -2.41 .03 3.90 .60 

0 7.88 .98 2.54 0 3.94 .29 

51 percent less for ungrazed areas than for the 

grazed areas in 1959. 

Table 2 shows sediment yield at the four pairs of 

watersheds during the period 1954-59. A reduction 

in sediment yield from ungrazed areas is indicated 

by these data. Channel cross-sections were measured at 49 places and line transects were measured 

at 8 places· to determine the main areas of erosion. 

No change in ground level could be detected along 

the 8 transects, but channels at 75 percent of the 

cross-sections measured had increased in cross-sectional area during the period 1954-58, including 

channels in both grazed and ungrazed basins. The 

increase in size of channel consisted in most cases 

of an increase in both width and depth. Cross sections at two places are shown in figure 59.1. 

Weather Bureau precipitation records for Fruita, 

Colo., about 16 miles southeast of Badger Wash, 

show that rainfall in the area was below normal in 

5 of the 6 years between 1954 and 1959. The largest 

storm during the period occurred in July 1955. 

About 1.25 inches of rain fell in 30 minutes and 

produced runoffs of 0. 7 4 to 1.02 inches at rates approaching 1,900 cubic feet per second per square 

mile. Storms of about this intensity occur at about 

10-year intervals. 

TABLE 2.-Sediment yield at Badger Wash, 1954-1959 

[A, grazed basin; B, ungrazed basin] 

Sediment yield (acre-feet per square mile) 

Drainage 

basin April1954- July 1955- Nov. 1956- Oct. 1957- Nov. 1958-

July 1955 Nov. 1956 Oct. 1957 Nov. 1958 Oct. 1959 

---- 1A ............. 10.8 0 3.80 0 4. 48 

1B ............. 7.41 0 0 0 .06 2A ............. 14.1 0 2.46 0 1.98 

28 ............. 15.3 0 . 70 0 2.13 

3A ............. 12.5 0 1. 70 0 3. 71 

38 ... : ......... 8.37 0 .82 0 2.8R 

4A ............. 20.4 0 9.55 0 2.82 

48 .... 14.7 0 4.21 0 2.68 (I) 13.5 0 3.09 0 2.89 (2) 12.0 0 .74 0 1. 72 

1 Average, all grazed areas. 2 Average, all ungrazed areas. 

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0 

i= 

< 

> 

LJ.J 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

.......... o,;.:: ••• 

1958/"'-::::. 1954 

'<~1::. r=== 

~::. 

~~t: 

DISTANCE FROM INITIAL POINT, IN FEET 

DISTANCE FROM INITIAL POINT, IN FEET 

rmrrrrmm 

liliilililiilil 

Erosion 

Deposition 

-

B-143 

FIGURE 59.1.-Cross sections of gullies showing changes in channels between 1954 and 1958 at Badger Wash, Mesa County, Colo. 
B-144 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

60. ABANDONMENT OF UNAWEEP CANYON, MESA COUNTY, COLORADO, BY CAPTURE OF THE COLORADO 

AND GUNNISON RIVERS 

By S. W. LOHMAN, Denver, Colo. 

Work done in cooperation with the Colorado Water Conservation Board 

Unaweep Canyon is a spectacular gorge cut to a 

depth of 1,500 to 3,300 feet across the Uncompahgre 

Plateau between the towns of Whitewater and Gateway, Colo. (fig. 60.1 D). The nearly vertical-walled 

inner gorge, 500 to 1,200 feet deep, was cut in hard 

Precambrian crystalline rocks. The more gently 

sloping upper walls of the canyon were cut in softer 

Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. The canyon is occupied by two small streams, one of which flows northeastward (East Creek) and the other southwestward 

(West Creek) from a gentle divide in the bottom 

of the gorge about 11 miles east of the crest of 

the plateau (fig. 60.1 D). The divide now stands 

about 2,500 feet above Grand Junction and Gateway. 

That such an immense canyon could not have been 

cut by such small streams flowing in opposite directions was recognized as ~arly as 1875 by members 

of the Hayden Survey, who attributed the cutting 

to the Gunnison River (Peale, 1877, p. 58, 59) or the 

Grand [Colorado] River (Gannett, 1882, p. 785). 

They believed that the canyon was abandoned solely 

because of renewed uplift of the Uncompahgre 

Plateau [arch], however, and did not recognize the 

more obvious possibility-stream capture. Stokes 

(1948, p. 39) correctly attributed the abandonment 

to stream capture, but did not tell the complete 

story which, I believe, involved two successive major 

stream captures, later renewed uplift of the Uncompahgre arch, and one later minor stream cap-· 

ture. Only the highlights of these events can be 

given in this brief account-the details are given 

in a report now in preparation. 

The courses of the ancestral Colorado and Gunnison Rivers probably were established by superposition on widespread lava flows of post-Green 

River age (Hunt, 1956, p. 67 and 68) remnants of 

which still cap several high plateaus, including 

Grand Mesa. During subsequent epeirogenic uplifts 

and some renewed differential uplift of the Uncompahgre arch probably as late as Pliocene time, the 

streams cut downward without regard to underlying 

structures such as the Uncompahgre arch-a northwestward plunging faulted anticline that had been 

formed in part by gentle warping at about the close 

of the Cretaceous but mainly by more vigorous deformation· in post-Green River time. Figure 60.1 A 

shows my concept of what the major drainage and 

topographic features may· have been in Pliocene 

time just prior to capture of the ancestral Colorado 

River. The soft Mancos shale (Upper Cr~taceous) 

had been partly stripped from the hard core of the 

Uncompahgre arch into which the ancestral Colorado 

River had cut, and the ancestral Book Cliffs capped 

by the resistant Mesaverde group (Upper Cretaceous) were much closer to the arch than they are 

now.· The ancestral Colorado and Gunnison Rivers 

were baseleveled on the hard Precambrian rocks in 

Unaweep Canyon, which retarded downcutting in 

and upstream from the canyon for a long period of 

time. The subsequent tributary shown at the left 

(fig. 60.1 A), however, though carrying much less 

water than the master stream, had only the soft 

Mancos shale to cut, so was able to erode headward 

rapidly around the plunging arch. Hunt (1956, p. 

68) suggested that this tributary was established by 

superposition on deposits at least as old as the 

Browns Park formation. If such deposits once were 

present, however, they have since been removed by 

erosion. Normal head ward erosion in soft rock 

w bile the master stream was baseleveled on hard 

rock seems a more likely mode of origin of the 

tributary. 

CAPTURE OF ANCESTRAL COLORADO RIVER 

The subsequent tributary continued to cut headward until only a low divide of shale separated it 

from the ancestral Colorado River (fig .. 60.1 A). 

Then, probably during some large flood in Pliocene 

time, the ancestral Colorado breached its banks and 

spilled over into the headwaters of the tributary. 

With the aid of this greatly increased supply of 

water, the tributary cut down rapidly into the soft 

Mancos shale, captured the ancestral Colorado, and 

isolated the ancestral Gunnison River (fig. 60.1 B). 

Soon af~er this capture, another tributary was cutting southward in the soft shale and was about to 

capture the ancestral Gunnison. 
l ..., 

~ 

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~HORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-145 

.::' ,,,, ....... 

~'/) 

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D 0<==:;..5=:::::;1 0 MILES 

FIGURE 60.1.-Sketch maps of ·a part of western Colorado and eastern Utah, showing probable drainage pattern and topographic 

features at four successive stages of development. Solid drainage lines taken from Moab and Grand Junction, Utah-Colorado topographic maps by the Army Map Service; dashed drainage lines are hypothetical. A, just prior to capture of 

ancestral Colorado River; B, after capture of ancestral Colorado River and just prior to capture 'of ancestral Gunnison 

River; C, after capture of ancestral Gunnison River; and D, present drainage pattern, after renewed uplift of the Uncompahgre arch and capture of East Creek. 
B-146 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

CAPTURE OF ANCESTRAL GUNNISON RIVER 

Figure 60.1 C depicts my concept of what the 

drainage pattern and topographic features may 

have been sometime after capture of the ancestral 

Gunnison River. The divide between ancestral East 

and West Creeks had migrated from a point near 

the ancestral Gunnison River to the northeastern 

end of Unaweep Canyon, and was still migrating 

slowly southwestward. Meanwhile, a short tributary 

of ancestral North East Creek was cutting southward toward ancestral East Creek. 

Evidence that Unaweep Canyon was occupied by 

the ancestral rivers was provided when basalt pebbles were found in high terrace gravels along West 

Creek about 41j2 miles above Gateway (F. W. Cater, 

U.S. Geological Survey, written communication, 

Dec. 1960). Basalt pebbles have not been found in 

gravels of the Dolores River (fig. 60.1 D), but 

are abundant along· both the Colorado and Gunnison 

Rivers east of the arch. Cater believed it likely that 

the basalt pebbles found near Gateway were reworked by ancestral West Creek from deposits laid 

down earlier in Unaweep Canyon by the ancestral 

Colorado River. 

RENEWED UPLIFT OF THE UNCOMPAHGRE ARCH 

There is evidence that the renewed uplift of the 

Uncompahgre arch that may have begun in Pliocene time before abandonment of Unaweep Canyon 

probably continued in latest Pliocene or earliest 

Pleistocene time after abandonment, when uplift 

and crustal warping were renewed in the nearby 

San Juan Mountains (Atwood and Mather, 1932, p. 

25-27). This renewed uplift, which is discussed in 

more detail in a report now in preparation, had a 

profound effect upon the subsequent erosional development in and above the Grand Junction area 

(fig. 60.1 D), but seemingly was not the cause of 

any of the stream captures. 

CAPTURE OF EAST CREEK 

There is evidence that ancestral . East Creek formerly joined the ancestral Gunnison River along 

the course shown in figure 60.1 C, through what is 

now known as Cactus Park (fig. 60.1 D), but that 

later, in the Pleistocene, East Creek was captured by 

a tributary of North East Creek to form the present 

drainage pattern. A. gentle divide in . Cactus Park 

now separates small tributaries of East Creek and 

the Gunnison River. Near the northwest end of 

Cactus Park about 200 feet above the new channel 

of East Creek just 0.6 mile to the west, is a small 

patch of terrace deposits containing cobbles and 

pebbles of basalt, quartzite, and crystalline. rocks. 

These deposits are about 800 feet below the divide 

in Unaweep Canyon, so probably were not deposited 

by the ancestral Colorado or Gunnison Rivers. At 

least the basalt and probably also some of the other 

rock types were brought into Unaweep Canyon by 

these rivers, and then probably were carried back 

to the northeast by ancestral East Creek. 

POSSIBLE FUTURE STREAM CAPTURES 

The Colorado River has cut about 15 feet into 

hard Precambrian rocks at two places in Ruby 

Canyon just east of the Utah State line, and the 

Gunnison River has reached Precambrian rocks at 

the mouth of Dominguez Creek (fig. 60.1 D). Thus 

once again downcutting by the two rivers is being 

retarded by hard rock. When Ruby and Westwater 

Canyons have developed deep inner gorges in hard 

crystalline rocks, and the Book Cliffs and adjacent 

belt of Mancos shale have retreated farther to the 

north, these canyons may be abandoned through 

capture of the Colorado River by a subsequent tributary cutting in the Mancos shale around the Uncompa~hgre arch. Similarly, when a deep gorge in 

Prec~mbrian rocks has been cut by the Gunnison, 

tributaries of Indian Creek or Kannah Creek could 

cut headward around the gorge and capture this 

reach of the Gunnison River. However, other possible future events, such as renewed uplift or pronounced climatic· changes, could alter or prevent 

such changes. 

REFERENCES 

Atwood, W. W., and Mather, K. F., 1932, Physiography and 

Quaternary geology of the San Juan Mountains, Colorado: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 166, 34 pl., 25 figs., 176 p. 

Gannett, Henry, 1882, The Unaweep Canyon [Colo.]: Pop. 

Sci. Monthly, v. 20, p. 781-786. 

Hunt, C. B., 1956, Cenozoic geology of the Colorado Plateau: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 279, 86 figs., 99 p. 

Peale, A. C., 1877, Geological report on the Grand River 

district: U.S. Geol. Geog. Survey Terr. (Hayden), Ann. 

Rept. 9, p. 31-102, maps. 

Stokes, W. L., 1948, Geology of the Utah-Colorado salt dome 

region, with emphasis on Gypsum Valley, Colorado, in 

Utah Geol. Soc. Guidebook to the geology of Utah, no. 3: 

11 figs., 50 p. 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES,. ARTICLES 1-146 B-147 

61. TRIPARTITION OF THE WASATCH FORMATION NEAR DE BEQUE IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 

By JOHN R. DONNELL, Denver, Colo. 

The Wasatch formation thins from 5,500 feet near 

the eastern margin of the Piceance Creek basin in 

northwestern Colorado to a featheredge along the 

western margin of the basin. Through most of the 

Piceance Creek basin the Wasatch is a monotonous 

sequence of brightly colored claystone beds, a few 

massive lenticular arkosic sandstone beds, and a few 

thin limestone beds; and no attempt has been made 

heretofore to map separate units. 

Within an area of several hundred square miles 

in Garfield and Mesa Counties the Wasatch formation can be subdivided into three mappable members 

(fig. 61.1). The upper and lower members are mainly 

claystone similar to the undif{erentiated Wasatch 

elsewhere. The middle member is mainly sandstone 

that forms steep ledges, in marked contrast to badlands· topography formed by the upper and lower 

members. 

The upper member of the Wasatch in a measured 

section north of Plateau Creek, shown on figure 61.2, 

is 930 feet thick. It thins to the northwest, west, 

and southwest, as does the entire Wasatch formation,. and thickens to the northeast, east, and southeast. The southeastward thickening is accompanied· 

by a partly compensating thinning of the overlying 

Douglas Creek member of the Green River formation. 

The upper member weathers to many colors, but 

red predominates in the upper part. The top of the 

highest persistent thick band of red claystone is used 

to identify the contact between the Wasatch and 

overlying Green River formations. A single such 

band, greater than 10 feet thick, was traced 20 miles 

along ~he Colorado River. South and east of 

De Beque, red claystones appear in progressively 

younger beds, and along Plateau Creek just east of 

the area shown on figure 1, red claystones intertongue with and overlie rocks about 400 feet thick 

belonging to the Douglas Creek member of the Green 

River formation. 

The middle member of the Wasatch attains its 

maximum thickness of 530 feet along Plateau Creek 

in T. 10 S., R. 96 W. It thins to the northeast, north, 

northwest, and southwest and disappears in T. 8 S., 

R. 99 W., and Tps. 10 and 11 S., R. 97 W. East and 

south of the exposures on Plateau Creek the middle 

member of the Wasatch is known only from bore 

holes. SB:ndstorie beds of the middle member are 

easy to discern on electrical logs of wells along 

Plateau Creek for a distance of 8 miles east of the 

area shown on figure 61.1. Farther east some sandstone beds are indicated on electrical logs at about 

the interval of the middle member, but these beds 

are thin and widely separated by thick claystone 

beds. 

The source of detritus in the middle member of 

the Wasatch probably was southeast of the area 

mapped. The sandstone beds thicken and become 

more numerous and coarse grained to the southeast. 

In T. 9 S., R. 96 W. (fig. 61.2), the middle member 

includes several conglomerate beds that contain 

pebbles as much as 3 inches in diameter of quartz, 

quartzite, and black, red, and brown chert. The 

sandstone in the middle member is mostly poorly 

sorted and feldspathic; locally the sandstone is an 

arkose, which suggests a nearby source. 

The upper contact of the middle member rises in 

section to the northwest; the lower contact is the 

base of the lowest persistent sandstone, and (unlike 

the upper contact) it is at about the same stratigraphic horizon everywhere in the area. 

The lower member of the Wasatch formation is 

about 650 feet thick in the measured section, figure 

R. 99 W. R. 95 W. 

EXPLANATION 

Middle member of the Wasatch formation 

I Measured section 

10 15 MILES 

FIGURE 61.1.-Areal distribution of the middle member of the 

Wasatch formation. See figure 61.2 for measured section. 
B-148 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

c 

0 

:;:::; 

ro 

E 

.E 

.c 

~ ro 

VI 

ro 

3: 

,_ 

Q) 

.D 

E 

Q) 

E 

~ a. 

a. 

::> 

... 

Q) 

.D 

E 

Q) 

E 

Q) 

::0 

"0 

~ 

~ .D 

E 

Q) 

E 

~ ~ ·0 

...J 

Ohio Creek 

300 

600 

900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

EXPLANATION 

Claystone 

D . 

. . Sandstone 

Conglomerate 

~ 

~ 

D 

Covered 

conglomerat~ 100 ....L..;......;.....;..;;..;.....;.__;.....;__;_;_;_:.....----

FIGURE 61.2.-Generalized stratigraphic section of the 

' Wasatch formation. 

61.2. This member has a fairly constant thickness 

in the western part of the area, but increases in 

thickness eastward. The lower member is lithologi-

. cally similar to the upper member except that the 

lower member contains more and thicker carbonaceous claystone beds. One thick carbonaceous unit is 

near the top of the member just east of De Beque; 

and another is 75 feet above the base of the member 

at the east end of De Beque Canyon, about 4 miles 

southwest of De Beque. The lower unit contains a 

low-grade coal bed. 

Several lenticular sandstone units are interbedded 

with brightly colored claystone in the lower 100 feet 

of the member, and this sandy sequence probably 

correlates with drab shale and sandstone beds that 

contain late Paleocene plants in the lower part of 

the Wasatch formation north and east of Rifle. Beds 

of undescribed thickness in the lower part of the 

Wasatch formation near De Beque were called the 

Plateau Valley beds by Patterson (1939), who reports that they contain Paleocene vertebrate fossils. 

The fossils were found in or just above the lenticular sandstone beds in the lower part of the ·lower 

member at two places; one is south of De Beque in 

T. 9 S., R. 97 W., and the other west of De Beque 

in T. 8 S., R. 97 W. The vertebrate-bearing Plateau 

Valley beds of Patterson are not sufficiently distinctive to be distinguished easily from the main 

body of the lower member of the Wasatch formation, 

and they are not differentiated on the map. 

In the De Beque area the Wasatch formation is 

everywhere underlain by conglomeratic sandstone, 

the Ohio Creek conglomerate, which is the oldest 

Tertiary unit. 

REFERENCE 

Patterson, Bryan, 1939, New Pantodonta and Dinocerata from 

the upper Paleocene of Western Colorado: Field Mus. 

Nat. History Pub. 1441, Geol. ser., v. 6; no. 24, p. 351-384. 
).. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-149 

62. DIAMICTITE FACIES OF THE WASATCH FORMATION IN THE FOSSIL BASIN, SOUTHWESTERN WYOMING 

By J. I. TRACEY, JR., S. S. ORIEL, and W. W. RuBEY, Washington, D .C., Denver, Colo., and 

Los.Angeles, Calif. 

Unsorted mudstone breccia forms an extensive 

facies of the Wasatch formation around the northern periphery of the Fossil basin ("Fossil syncline") 

north and west of Kemmerer, Wyo. The breccia 

consists of mixed angular fragments of rock of 

Mesozoic and Paleozoic age, some of them more than 

20 feet across, in a pebbly red mudstone matrix. 

The mudstone breccia fits the definition of the 

term diamictite recently proposed by Flint, Sanders, 

and Rodgers ( 1960a, b) for "terriginous sedimentary rocks that contain a wide range of particle' 

sizes." Similar or related deposits of about the 

same age have been noted in other parts of Wyoming 

by Knight (1937), Love (1939, p. 60-62), Tourtelot 

(1957, p. 5, 21), Keefer (1958), and Soister (1960). 

The rocks resemble fanglomerate described by Sharp 

(1948) from the Bighorn Mountains, the Ridgway 

and Gunnison "tillites" from Colorado (Van Houten, 

1957), and many mudflows and "lahar" (volcanic 

mudflow) deposits, although little or no volcanic 

material is present. 

Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks of the southern part of the Wyoming overthrust belt form the 

structural framework of the Fossil basin, which 

contains variegated mudstone, sandstone, and conglomerate of the Wasatch formation, and laminated 

limestone, marlstone, claystone, and oil shale of the 

Green River formation, both of Eocene age. As in 

other regions (Sears and Bradley, 1924; Bradley, 

1926), sequences of the laminated beds of the Green 

River are separated by tongues of the Wasatch formation, showing periodic encroachment of fluvial 

sediments into lakes in which the Green River formation was deposited. The diamictite facies of the 

Wasatch apparently formed during most of this 

period of deposition, for it grades in some places 

into normal variegated beds of the main body of 

the Wasatch formation, below basal Green River 

strata, and in other places it spreads out over uppermost Green River strata. 

Diamictite overlies older rocks of the thrust belt 

on Dempsey Ridge 1 in the Tunp Range, along the 

Great Basin-Colorado River Divide, and it forms 

large fanlike masses projecting into the Dempsey 

1 r~ocnllties cited here nrc shown on U.S. Geological Survey topographic 

sheets for the Sage, Kemmerer, and Cokeville quadrangles, unless otherwise 

noted. 

Basin along the east side of Dempsey Ridge, as in 

the NWlJ.t. sec. 15, T. 24 N., R. 118 W. These fanlike ma~ses are large aprons of material, in part 

deltas, dumped into the borders of the Green River 

lake, as shown in several places where as many as 

three .tongues of limestone of the Green River formation pinch out westward within the diamictite; 

an example is in the Slj2 sec. 3, T. 23 N., R. 118 W. 

Thicknesses of the diamictite facies cannot be 

measured accurately at most localities. Maximu~ 

thicknesses probably do not exceed 500 feet. Despite moderate ranges in thickness, the facies is remarkably continuous along strike, but thins basinward to an edge within one to several miles. 

Rock of the diamictite facies, more than 100 feet 

thick, fills remnants of channels cut i.n older rock 

across the crest of Rock Creek Ridge, 2 miles west 

of Dempsey Ridge. It is also found in Rock Creek 

valley, between exposures on Rock Creek Ridge 

and on Dempsey Ridge; rocks on the west are 500 

to 1,000 feet lower than on Dempsey Ridge, whose 

western flank coincides with a normal fault. 

Most common boulders and blocks are from the 

Mesozoic Ankareh formation, Nugget sandstone, 

Twin Creek limestone, Preuss sandstone, and 

Ephraim conglomerate, and from the upper Paleozoic Wells and Amsden formations. Blocks of quartzitic conglomerate from the Ephraim are especially 

common locally and are the coarsest; some are up to 

20 feet in length. 

The extraordinary range . in particle sizes of the 

deposits is striking. A complete gradation of shapes 

and angularity, as well as concentrations, of coarse 

fragments is also evident. Orientation of blocks is 

not evident; the deposits seem chaotic or jumbled. 

Gravitational sliding and solifluction seem to 

us the most probable explanations of origin. Deposits filling channels cut into older rocks likely 

originated as mudflows. Slopes forming the margins of the basin in Eocene time were steep and 

deeply w~athered, and the hillsides and drainageways in times of abnormal rainfall were probably 

choked with debris that was being moved basinward. 

Normal faulting since Wasatch time has greatly 

altered topographic relations. The nearest present 

outcrop of Ephraim conglomerate that might have 
B-150 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

served as a source for the material along Dempsey 

Ridge is 6 miles west and more than 2,000 feet 

lower. 

Other exposures of the diamictite-facies are found 

along the northeast periphery of the Fossil basin, 

on the western slopes of Commissary Ridge. Large 

blocks of upper Paleozoic to Upper Cretaceous rocks 

were derived from formations that underlie the 

Ridge. In places they are in a pebbly red mudstone 

matrix, in others they lie free on a gently sloping 

surface and probably are relict blocks of the diamictite facies. 

Large accumulations of rubble on Boulder Ridge, 

north and south of Sage station in the Sage quadrangle, may be part of the diamictite facies. The 

boulders and blocks come mostly from Paleozoic limestones exposed now in the Crawford Range some 

miles to the southwest. One very large block of 

Ordovician dolomite 2 miles north of Sage is more 

than 600 feet long. Others are 40 to 60 feet long. 

About 4 miles south-southwest of Sage, in parts of 

sees. 25, 35, and 26, T. 21 N., R. 120 W., a large 

mass of steeply dipping Cambrian, Ordovician, and 

Devonian limestone and dolomite, 3,800 feet long, 

1,400 feet wide, and 200 feet high, seems to be 

surrounded and underlain by Lower Cretaceous 

mudstone and sandstone. Rocks composing this mass 

strike nearly normal to similar Paleozoic strata exposed 1j2 to 3 miles northwest and southwest in .the 

northern part of the Crawford Mountains. The mass 

may be a klippe of the nearby Crawford thrust plate; 

possibly it is merely a slid block similar in origin to, though differing greatly in scale from, the 

rubble that makes up the bulk of the diamictite 

facies. 

A diamictite facies of the Wasatch formation has 

also been recognized along th~ ·western margin of 

the Green River basin south of LaBarge Creek in 

the Fort Hill quadrangle, wher,e it was previously 

mapped by Schultz (1914, pl. 1).as the conglomeratic 

Almy formation of the Was~tch group. The facies 

intertongues here, also, with .the Green River formation and is not, at lea~f ·~n· this area, older than 

the main body of the Wasatch formation, as generally supposed. 

Farther north· along the western margin of the 

Green River Basin, a lower member of th.e Wasatch 

formation, consisting of pebbly red mudstone and 

some large blocks, extends almost continuously for 

40 miles or more northward along the east sides of 

Deadline and Meridian Ridges, to Horse Creek in 

the Big Piney quadrangle and beyond. Throughout 

the region the diamictite facies may have accumulated soon after the major overthrust plates had 

moved into their present positions. In a few places, 

however, as in the northern part of Deadline Ridge, 

in the S1f2 sec. 32, T. 29 N., R. 114 W., the diamictite 

is involved in the thrusting. Distribution of the facies 

·was evidently controlled by proximity to steep slopes 

and mountainous relief, the growth of which need 

not have coincided more than generally in time and 

place with final movements of the thrust plates. 

REFERENCES . 

Bradley, W. H., 1926, Shore phases of the Green River 

formation in northern Sweetwater County, Wyoming: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140-D, p. 121-131. 

Flint, R. F., Sanders, J. E., and Rodgers, John, 1960a, Symmictite: a name for nonsorted terrigenous sedimentary 

rocks that contain a wide range of particle sizes: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p. 507-510. 

--- 1960b, Diamictite, a substitute term for symmictite: 

Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p. 1809. 

Keefer, W. R., 1958, Cenozoic landslides versus klippen [abs.]: 

Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1732. 

Knight, S. H., 1937, Origin of the giant conglomerates of 

Green Mountain and Crook's Mountain, central Wyoming 

[abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Proc. 1936, p. 84. 

Love, J. D., 1939, Geology along the southern margin of the 

Absaroka Range, Wyoming: Geol. Soc. America Spec. 

Paper 20, 134 p. 

Schultz, A. R., 1914, Geology and geography of a portion of 

Lincoln County, Wyo.: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 543, 141 p. 

Sears, J. D., and Bradley, W. H., 1924, Relations of the 

Wasatch and Green River formations in northwestern 

Colorado and southern Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 132-F, p. 93-107. 

Sharp, R. P., 1948, Early Tertiary fanglomerate, Big Horn 

Mountains, Wyoming: Jour. Geology, v. 56, no. 1, p. 1-15. 

Soister, P. E., 1960, Landslide debris from Cretaceous rocks in 

the Wind River formation of early Eocene age, Wind 

River basin, Wyoming [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., 

v. 71, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1982-1983. 

Tourtelot, H. A., 1957, The geology and vertebrate paleontology of upper Eocene strata in the northeastern part of 

the Wind River basin, Wyoming, pt. 1, Geology: Smithsonian Misc. Coli., v. 134, no. 4, 27 p. 

VanHouten, F. B., 1957, Appraisal of Ridgway and Gunnison 

"tillites," southeastern Colorado: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 68, p. 383-388. 

+-

. .( 
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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-151 

63. TONGUES OF THEWASATCH AND GREEN RIVER FORMATIONS, FORT HILL AREA, WYOMING 

By S. S. ORIEL, Denver, Colo. 

Three tongues of the Green River formation and 

two tongues (as well as the main body) of the 

Wasatch formation, all of early Eocene age, have 

been recognized during mapping of the Fort Hill 

quadrangle. 

The Fort Hill 15-minute quadrangle lies on the 

western margin of the Green River basin in western 

Wyoming, about 15 miles north of the town of Kemmerer. The Green River and Wasatch formations 

crop out in eastward-dipping cuestas that extend 

northward through the quadrangle. These cuestas 

have . been cut by eastward-flowing tributaries of 

Green River. The facies relations (fig. 63.1) between the two formations are well exposed in steep 

bluffs along these tributaries. 

The lower tongues were recognized and described 

by Donavan 1 (1950). 

The main body of the Wasatch formation consists 

chiefly of variegated red, yellow, buff, purple, green, 

and gray mudstone with interbedded marlstone, 

sandstone, and lentils of conglomerate. The unit 

becomes increasingly conglomeratic westward. 

The Fontenelie tongue of the Green River formation (Donavan, 1950, p. 63-64; Bradley, 1959, p. 

1072) conformably overlies the main body of the 

Wasatch formation. Only the basal 50 to 60 feet of 

strata assigned to the Fontenelle by Donavan at his 

type section~ and in adjoining areas is here included 

in the unit. As thus restricted, the tongue consists 

of very thinly laminated light-gray to white muddy 

limestone, marlstone, calcareous very fine grained 

sandstone, and calcareous mudstone. 

A wedge of detrital rocks; about 250 feet thick 

in the Fort Hill quadrangle, overlies the Fontenelle 

tongue and is here assigned to the New Fork tongue 

of the Wasatch formation. The New Fork tongue 

consists dominantly of green and gray mudstone 

with numerous lenses of yellow, buff, and brown, 

very fine- to medium-grained sandstone. The basal 

20 to 45 feet is locally thinly laminated; most of 

the sequence is like the Wasatch formation in coarseness of the mudstone bands but lacks the characteris1 Donavan, Jack H., 1950, Intertonguing of Green River and Wasatch 

formations In part of Sublette and Lincoln Counties, Wyoming: M.S. Thesis, 

Univ. Utah. 

2 Donavan, Jack H., 1950, Intertonguing of Green River and Wasatch 

formations in part of Sublette and Lincoln Counties, Wyoming: M.S. thesis, 

Univ. Utah. Donavan's type section, no. 7 (p. 40-41), is located erroneously 

in his description but is shown properly on his geologic map in the NW% 

sec. 13, T. 24 N., R. 115 W. 

tic shades of red and purple. These beds grade 

laterally westward into mudstone and sandstone 

beds in which red is the dominant color, as in the 

SW1/4SW1/4 sec. 15 and NW1/4 sec. 26, T. 26 N., 

R. 114 W . 

The New Fork tongue of the Wasatch formation 

is overlain by an unnamed middle tongue of the 

Green River formation. The middle tongue is divisible into two readily distinguishable and mappable 

units; a lower white unit composed mainly of whiteweathering low-grade oil shale and white to gray 

limestone, and an upper buff to brown, locally pink, 

gray, or white limestone, marlstone, mudstone, silt-

·stone, and sandstone unit. Bo~h ·units are very 

thinly laminated and both grade westward into 

thicker bedded organic limestone of nearshore facies 

(Bradley, 1926) as do the other tongues of the 

formation. 

Another wedge of detrital rocks composed mainly 

of green and gray mudstone and yellow to brown 

sandstone overlies the middle tongue of the Green 

River formation. This wedge, here informally designated the upper tongue of the Wasatch formation, 

is 200 feet thick in the central part of the Fort 

Hill quadrangle but only 100 feet thick along its 

eastern margin. This eastward thinning is due to 

eastward tonguing with algal and ostracoda! limestone and laminated marlstone assigned to the 

Green River formation. 

The uppermost unit of the sequence, directly beneath the ·Bridger formation, is here termed the 

upper tongue of the Green· ~iver formation. Rocks 

included are thinly and evenly bedded to laminated, 

tan, yellow to brown, and gray limestone, marlstone, 

mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone, particularly ostracoda], gastropodal, and aJgal limestone. 

Recognition of the relations between the Green 

River and Wasatch formations in the Fort Hill area 

has been hampered by the presence of the two 

wedges of detrital rocks that do not fit original 

descriptions and definitions of either of the formations. 

The name Wasatch was originally applied by 

Hayden (1869, p. 91) to variegated sandstone and 

claystone in which some shade of red predominated; 

the empha.sis on red hues was again stressed in a 

later description (1870, p. 106, 113-114). The name 

Green River, on the other hand, was applied by 
B-152 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

W,;.......----=--------------------1E the Wasatch formation yet do not contain the lamic 

0 

:;::; 

§ c .E 0 

:;::; ~ § ii: 

.E 

~ ~ !::! (5 

:l! 

~ 

Main body 

FIGURE 63.1.--'-Idealized section of Wasatch and Green River 

units in the Fort Hill area, Wyoming. 

Hayden (1869, p. 90-91) to "thinly laminated chalky 

shales" which locally include "combustible or petroleum shales"; the peculiarly banded appearance of 

the rocks wa~ stressed, although the abundance of 

limestone in the great range of compositions of 

the laminae was recognized. Emphasis in original 

descriptions, therefore, was on color for one unit 

and on primary structure for the other. 

Some subsequent usage of the terms, however, 

has stressed genesis. Rocks considered to be of 

fluvial origin were assigned to the Wasatch formation; those of lacustrine origin to the Green River 

formation. Lack of assurance regarding the origin 

of the green mudstone:._brown sandstone facies, 

however, makes adoption of this criterion impractical. 

Rocks assigned here to the New Fork tongue of 

the Wasatch formation were included by Donavan 

(1950) in the Fontenelletongue of the Green River 

formation in the Fort Hill area where they consist 

of green, not red, mudstone and brown sandstone. 

Beds similar to these, on the other hand, make up 

the bulk of the sequence assigned to the New Fork 

tongue (Donavan, 1950) farther north in its type 

area where, however, basal strata include red, 

brown, and purple mudstone. Color seems to have 

influenced the stratigraphic assignment. 

Rocks in the two wedges of green mudstone arid 

brown sandstone lack the dominant reds typical of 

nae diagnostic of the Green River formation. The 

absence of red is not unusual because green mudstone and yellow to brown sandstone form narrow, 

intermediate facies between more typical exposures 

of the two formations at many places elsewhere in 

the Green River and Fossil basins. Moreover, an 

absence of red may be expected close to the ancient 

lake in which the Green River formation was deposited, because of poor drainage and reducing conditions in contrast to the well-drained alluvial soils 

of higher elevations. 

The two wedges of detrital rock are assigned here 

to the New Fork and unnamed upper tongues respectively of the Wasatch formation because: 

1. Although dissimilar in color, the rocks are similar in every other respect (including composition, primary structures, and faunal content) 

to those commonly and originally assigned to 

the Wasatch. 

2. The rocks are similar in every respect, including 

color, to some that are included in the formation at many other localities. 

3. Assignment to the Wasatch formation facilitates recognition, through stratigraphic nomenclature, of two significant geologic events 

along the western margin of the Eocene 

Gosiute Lake, both marked by extensive deposition of detrital material advancing from the 

west and possibly by eastward regressions of 

the lake. 

REFERENCES 

Bradley, W. H., 1926, Shore phases of the Green River formation in northern Sweetwater County, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140-D, p. 121-131. 

-- 1959, Revision of stratigraphic nomenclature of Green 

River formation of Wyoming: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Buil., v. 43, no. 5, p. 1072-1075. 

Donavan, J. H., 1950, Intertonguing of Green River and 

Wasatch formations in part of Sublette and Lincoln 

Counties, Wyoming, in Guidebook to southwest Wyoming: 

Wyoming Geol. Assoc. 5th Ann. Fieid Conf., p. 59-67. 

Hayden, F. V., 1869, Preliminary field report (3d ann.) of the 

U.S. Geol. Survey of Colorado and New Mexico, 155 p. 

-- 1870, Sun pictures of Rocky Mountain scenery, with a 

description of the geographical and geological features 

and some account of the resources of the Great West: 

New York, 150 p. 

t 
.... 

. ., 

., 

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tl 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-153 

64. AGE OF THE EVANSTON FORMATION, WESTERN WYOMING 

By W. W. RUBEY, S. S. ORIEL, and J. I. TRACEY, JR., Los Angeles, Calif., Denver, Colo., 

and Washington, D. C . 

Renewed interest has arisen concerning the age 

of the Evanston formation because it provides a 

means for dating precisely some tectonic events in 

the thrust belt ·of western Wyoming. The formation 

was long of interest because of its bearing on the 

Laramie problem and therefore on the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems (Veatch, 

1907, p. 86-87; Schultz, 1914, p. 70-71). 

The Evanston formation was formally named 

by Veatch (1906, p. 332) and defined (1907, p. 76) 

to include strata that were earlier referred to informally as the "Evanston beds" and "Evanston 

coal series." No type section was designated. Veatch's 

criteria (1907, p. 77) for distinguishing the formation from the underlying Adaville formation and 

from overlying strata, which he assigned to the 

Wasatch group, are still valid. Veatch failed to 

recognize the Evanston over much of its extent, 

however, and distinguished it (see his pl. 3) in only 

a few small areas near the town of Evanston. 

Disagreements amon·g paleontologists regarding 

the age of fossils found within the Evanston formation led Veatch (1907, p. 84-87) to discuss the 

problem at length. The age, he concluded tentatively, was early Tertiary, but he used the symbol 

KTe to designate the unit on maps and cross 

sections. 

Geologists other than Schultz (1914, p. 68) have 

not made use of the Evanston formation as a mappable lithologic unit. Beds north of the type area 

formerly assigned to the Evanston by Schultz were 

defined as the Hoback formation by Eardley and 

others (1944). 

Extensive exposures of the Evanston formation 

have been mapped by us in the Cokeville, Kemmerer, 

and Sage quadrangles, Lincoln County, and Big 

Piney quadrangle, Sublette County, Wyo. The belt 

of the. rocks assigned by Veatch ( 1907, pl. 3) to his 

Almy formation in the eastern part of the FossiJ 

basin belongs in the Evanston formation as well 

as scattered exposures well within the basin which 

he assigned to his Knight formation. Our assignment of these rocks to the Evanston is supported 

both by Veatch's published description and by comparison of certain distinctive rock types in the quadrangles mentioned with those in exposures at the 

type area. Exposures of the unit in both areas are 

similar in gross aspect and in some details, although 

not identical because of facies differences typical of 

continental strata. 

Fossils in the Evanston formation in the Kemmerer,· Sage, and Cokeville quadrangles include vertebrates, fresh-water invertebrates, leaves, and 

pollen. Ages inferred from these varied fossil forms 

are in agreement. 

Vertebrates from near the base of the formation 

include the jaw of T1·iceratops cf. · T. fiabellatus 

Marsh, indicating probable Lance (==Hell Creek), 

latest Cretaceous age (G. E. Lewis, written communication, 1958), and numerous unidEmtifiable dinosaurian bone fragments indicative only of Mesozoic 

age. Mollusca from strata near but above the vertebrate horizon are different from those of Paleocene 

age and are regarded of ·probable Cretaceous or 

early Paleocene age (D. W. Taylor, written communication, 1960). 

Leaves found about 50 feet _above the base of the 

Evanston formation, about 20 miles north of the 

vertebrate localities, were identified by J. A. Wolfe 

(written communication, 1959) as D1·yophyllum subfalcatium Lesquereux, Cinnamomum linijoliu1n 

Knowlton, and Dombeyopsis obtusa Lesquereux and 

assigned a Lance (latest Cretaceous) age. A collection froma nearby locality yielded Protophyllocladus 

subintegrifolius (Lesquereux) Berry, Ficus planicostata Lesquereux, and Cinnamomum affine Lesquereux, also of Late Cretaceous age (R. W. Brown, 

written communication, 1958). 

Fourteen species of pollen were identified from 

mudstone samples collected at one of the leaf localities. The presence of Proteacidites annularis Cookson, as well as other forms, indicates the samples 

are no younger than Late Cretaceous (E. B. Leopold, 

written communication, 1959). 

Pollen species identified in samples from mudstone 

close to the Triceratops locality are even more varied ; 32 species were recognized. The species Schizaeoisporites pseudodorogensis Potonie, Osmundacidites wellmannii Couper, Proteacidites annularis 

Cookson, and associated forms confirm the Late Cretaceous age of these rocks (E. B. Leopold, written 

communication, 1959). 

Fossils found near the middle of the Evanston 

formation include Paleocene, possibly middle Paleo-
B-154 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

cene, leaves (R. W. Brown, written communication, 

1958) and pollen (E. B. Leopold, written communication, 1959). , 

A varied vertebrate fauna has been reported 250 

, to 300 feet below the top of the unit by Gazin (1956, 

p. 708) who interprets the presence of Plesiadapis 

cf P. fodinatus Jepsen, Pheocodus sp., and other 

genera to indicate an early late Paleocene (Tiffany) 

age. No fossils have been found in uppermost strata 

assigned to the formation. 

Additional collections of leaves and pollen from 

exposures in other parts of the Sage, Kemmerer, and 

Cokeville quadrangles confirm the Cretaceous and 

Paleocene. age of the Evanston formation in this 

area. 

Cretaceous age assignments for parts of the 

Evanston formation in the quadrangles under study 

are not in accord with the Paleocene age inferred 

for the unit in its type area some 30 miles to the 

south in earlier reports (for example, Brown, 1949; 

. Eaton, 1955, p. 116). 

The apparent discrepancy. in age led us to reexamine exposures of the formation in it~ type area. 

The thickest section reported by Veatch (1907, p. 

80) lies along the boundary between the western 

parts of sees. 18 and 19, T. 16 N., R. 120 W., north 

of the old settlement at Almy and is regarded by us 

as the informal reference section. 

Fossils w~re collected by us directly below and 

above a main coal bed north of the old No. 7 mine 

(Veatch, 1907, pl. 3). Leaves_ were examined by 

R. W. Brown (1958), mollusks by D. W. Taylor 

(1960), and pollen by E. B. Leopold (1959, 1960), 

who conclude they indicate a Paleocene age. 

No · megascopic fossils were found considerably 

below the· ·main coal bed. Samples of mudstone collected directly above and below the horizon of the 

lowest conglomerate layer mentioned by Veatch 

(1907, p. 80), however, contain an assemblage of 

pollen of latest Cretaceous age (E. B. Leopold, written communication, 1961). Among the more critical species are Aquilapollenites quadrilobus Rouse, 

Appendicisporites tricornitatus Weyland and Greifeld, and Proteacidities annularis Cookson. The possibility that these forms are re.worked from older 

rocks is considered unlikely. 

Collections from the type area, tperefore, seem 

to confirm the Cretaceous and Paleocene age of the 

Evanston formation, to verify the age assignments 

made by Knowlton and Stanton som~. 60. years ago 

(Veatch, 1907, p. 86-87), and to support Veatch's 

use of the map symbol KTe. 

REFERENCES 

Brown, R. W., 1949, Paleocene deposits of the Rocky Mountains and Plains: U.S. Geol. Survey prelim. map, scale 

1:1,000,000, with descriptive notes . Eardley, A. J., and others, 1944, Hoback-Gros Ventre-Teton 

[Range, Wyo.], field conference: Michigan Univ. geol. 

map, tectonic map, with sections, 2 sheets. 

Eaton, E. C., 1955, Catalog of formations for Green River 

Basin and Adjacent areas, in Guidebook to the Green 

River Basin: Wyoming Geol. Assoc. lOth Ann. Field 

Conf., p. 114-121. 

Gazin,· C. L., 1956, The occurrence of Paleocene mammalian 

remains in the Fossil basin of southwestern Wyoming: 

Jour. Paleontology, v. 30, no. 3, p. 707-711. 

Schultz, A. R., 1914, Geology and geography of a portion of 

Lincoln County, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 543, 

141.p. 

Veatch, A. C., 1906, Coal and oil in southern Uinta County, 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285-F, p. 331-353. 

-- 1907, Geography and geology of a portion of southwestern Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 56, 178 

p., 26 pl. 

65.. PERMAFROST AND THAW DEPRESSIONS IN A PEAT DEPOSIT IN THE BEARTOOTH MOUNTAINS, 

NORTHWESTERN WYOMING 

By WILLIAM G. PIERCE, Menlo Park, Calif. 

The discovery of permanently frozen ground in 

a peat deposit in the southeastern part of the Beartooth Mountains, northwestern Wyoming, is of interest because permafrost is of infrequent. occurrenee this far south in the Rocky Mountains. Associated with it are numerous thaw ponds, which indicate the presence of permafrost. 

The Sawtooth peat deposit, named from Sawtooth 

#(':. 

4 

,. 

r 

•• 

+ 
.. . 

' 

.. 

+ 

; 

.. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146. B-155 

Mountain half a mile to the north, is in the western 

part of the Deep Lake quadrangle, at latitude 

44 °53'N. It is at an altitude of 9,700 feet, a few 

hundred feet below timberline in this area. The peat 

extends over an area 1,500 feet wide and 2,000 feet 

long and has an estimated thickness of 10 to 15 

feet. Peat is not forming here now, but rather is 

being removed by erosion. The deposit lies in a 

broad northwest-trending valley that appears to be 

downfaulted on its southwest side. The shape and 

appearance of the valley suggest that it may be a 

. pre-Wisconsin ice-scoured valley. The broad valley 

in which the peat was deposited is part of the Beartooth Mountains subsummit surface (peneplain of 

Bevan, 1925), a deeply weathered pre-Wisconsin 

surface developed on Precambrian granitic and 

gneissic rocks. During the most recent glaciation, 

presumably Wisconsin, deep valleys on three sides 

of the deposit were filled with ice that came up to 

about the level of the subsummit surface, but the 

peat deposit was not glaciated. 

Two shallow holes were dug in the peat on August 24, 1956. At a depth of 15 inches a sharp contact between moist peat above and a solid frozen mass 

of ice and peat below was found in both holes. Although excavation into the solidly frozen peat was 

continued for only a few inches, it seems probable 

that the ice extends downward some distance in 

the peat. The deposit was visited again on July 30, 

1957, and several additional holes were dug. Near 

the previous holes, solidly frozen peat occurred at 

a depth of 18 inches. A hole in the previously untested southern part of the deposit, which is marshy 

and grass-covered, also reached ice at a depth of 18 

inches. 

Patterned ground, in the form of polygons 5 to 

10 feet across, is conspicuous in places (fig. 65.1). 

The polygons are in the peat and consist of shallow 

trenches separating slightly convex areas. They 

may have been formed by ice-wedges in the peat. 

Even more striking, however, are circular undrained 

depressions in the central part of the peat deposit. 

Superficially they resemble sink holes, about 6 feet 

deep and from a few feet to 40 feet in diameter. 

Their nearly flat bottoms are covered by 2 to 3 feet 

of water. The peat at the margins of the depressions 

is slowly caving downward, as shown by marginal 

cracks (fig. 65.2), and by circular cracks beyond 

the margin. The depressions are not due to solution, for neither the peat nor the underlying Precambrian rocks are readily soluble. There is no 

evidence to indicate that they resulted from water 

or wind erosion. 

FIGURE 65.1.-Patterned ground in the Sawtooth peat deposit. 

Hammer in center for scale. 

The origin of the depression was discussed with 

D. M. Hopkins, who suggested that they are thaw 

depressions, formed by melting of the ice beneath. 

The irregular land surface produced by this process 

has been called thermokarst by Russian scientists 

and cave-in lakes are one of its surface features 

(Muller, 1945). Hopkins (1949) proposed the name 

"thaw lakes" as synonymous with cave-in lakes, and 

defined thaw depressions as depressions that- result 

from subsidence following the thawing of perennially frozen ground. The depressions in the Sawtooth peat seem to be clearly thaw depressions, 

formed by melting of ice within the peat. The depressions probably started forming where slight 

irregularities in the ground surface permitted a 

FIGURE 65.2.-Two thaw depressions in the Sawtooth peat 

deposit. The cracks in the walls of the depressions indicate lateral growth by downward caving of the peat. 

These two depressions have grown until they now 

coalesce. Hammer on bank in foreground for scale. 
B-156 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

little water to accumulate. The water in the depressions kept the underlying peat wet and permitted downward thawing to continue in the depressions during the summer months, while beyond 

the depressions the dry peat insulated the ice be~ 

neath it. As the ice thawed the volume of the peat 

and ice lessened and the depression deepened. 

The peat is not older than Pleistocene. A sample 

of the peat, obtained from about a foot below the 

eroded top of the deposit was submitted for examination for pollen and diatoms and for a carbon 14 

age determination. K. E. Lohman found an assemblage of diatoms (USGS diatom loc. 4209) that is 

no older than late Pleistocene, and he reports that 

the same diatom assemblage is living today in cool 

to cold ponds. The radiocarbon age of the sample 

(laboratory number w...:..459) is reported by M.eyer 

Rubin as 7,570 years, ± 400 years. The C14 age 

thus indicates that the upper part of_ the peat bed 

is post-Wisconsin in age, but the lower part of the 

bed may be of late Wisconsin age. 

The presence of perennial ice indicates that the 

present climate is cold enough at the altitude and 

latitude of the Sawtooth peat to maintain permafrost provided there is a few feet of exceptionally 

good insulating cover. The permafrost in the Sawtooth peat has an antiquity greater than just the 

last few years, for the thaw depressions have been 

in the process of developing for some time. If the 

rate of retreat measured by Wallace (1948) on the 

margins of some cave-in lakes in eastern Alaska is 

applicable, then the time required to form the larger 

depressions may have been less than a hundred to 

a few hundred years. However, their growth may 

have been intermittent, and, if so, a longer time 

may be represented. 

REFERENCES 

Bevan, Arthur, 1925, Rocky Mountain peneplains northeast of 

Yellowstone Park: Jour. Geology, v. 33, p. 563-587. 

Hopkins, D. M., 1949, Thaw lakes and thaw sinks in the 

Imuruk Lake area, Seward Peninsula, Alaska: Jour. 

Geology, v. 57, p. 119-131. 

Muller, S. W., 1945, Permafrost or perennially frozen ground 

and related engineering problems: Office, Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army Spec. Rept. Strategic Eng. Study 62, 

p. 83-84. 

Wallace, R. E., 1948, Cave-in lakes in the Nebesna, Chisana, 

and Tanana River valleys, eastern Alaska: Jour. Geology, 

v. 56, p. 171-181. 

66. EVIDENCE FOR EARLY CRETACEOUS FOLDING IN THE BLACK HILLS, WYOMING 

By GLEN A. IZETT, CHARLES L. PILLMORE, and WILLIAM J. MAPEL, 

Denver, Colo. 

The Lakota formation of Early Cretaceous age 

and its lithogenetic equivalents the Kootenai formation in central Montana and the lower part of the 

Cloverly formation in Montana and Wyoming are 

fluviatile and lacustrine deposits that extend in a 

relatively thin sheet over several hundred. thousand 

square miles in the Western Interior region. Regional stratigraphic relations indicate that over 

broad areas the surface on. which these rocks were 

deposited was essentially undisturbed by folding· or 

faulting. However, mapping of the Lakota and 

adjacent formations along the west side of the Black 

Hills has shown that in two areas, folds having 

amplitudes of more than 100 feet in horizontal distances of 2 to 3 miles were formed in Early Cretaceous time. Similar folds that might be concealed 

by· unconformably overlying rocks in the adjacent 

Powder River basin would have interest for their oil 

and gas possibilities. 

·Early Cretaceous folding is indicated by local 

angular unconformities within and bounding the 

Lakota formation at a small dome in Barlow Canyon. 

in T. 54 N., Rs. 65 and 66 W., Crook County, Wyo., 

about 5 miles north of Devils Tower, and at a small 

dome bisected by Oil Creek in T. 47 N., R. 62 W., 

Weston County, Wyo., about 8 miles north of Newcastle (fig. 66.1). The sequence of beds and the 

stratigraphic relations at the two localities are 

shown by figure 66.2. 

At Barlow Canyon, the Morrison formation and 

part of the Redwater shale member of the underlying 

Sundance formation of Late Jurassic age are trun-

•' 

• 

; 

... 

~-· 
... 

... 

.... 

·~ 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-157 

____ ME!:!_~~----------,. 

1

------ WYOMING I 

I I 

~ I I 

' i o Hulett 

X Barlow Canyon area 

! II 

l CROOK 

I 0 Sundance I ~ 

I I ~I~ I o Gillette 1 >< 1 ll: 

I I ------~1'=' ! C A M ·P B E L L ~- - 0 U.pton ~ ~~ ~ 

I Oil Creek area x 

I I 0 : 

I 

I Newcastle 

1 I 

WESTO~ 

I 1 I I I 

l_ _______ _l _________ l 

0 10 20 MILES 

FIGURE 66.1..-Map showing location of Barlow Canyon and 

Oil Creek areas, northeastern Wyoming. 

cated beneath an angular unconformity that dies 

out laterally in the basal part of the Lakota formation (fig. 66.2 A). Polished pebbles and cobbles 

of quartzite and chert in the basal part of the Lakota 

formation mark the position of the unconformity. 

At locality 3 (fig. 66.2 A), a basal conglomerate in 

the Lakota contains belemnite· fragments derived 

from the underlying Redwater shale member of the 

Sundance. The Lakota thickens abruptly northward 

between localities 2 and 3 (fig. 66.2 A) in a manner 

that suggests the Lakota occupies a channel where 

the formation is thickest; however, folding and subsequent truncation of the upraised rocks probably 

accounts for the absence of most of the missing 

rocks in the Morrison and Sundance formations on 

the crest of the fold. The amplitude of the Early 

Cretaceous fold at this locality is estimated to be 

about 125 feet, and the areal extent of the fold is 

about 4 square miles. 

Two periods of folding can be recognized along 

Oil Creek (fig. 66.2 B). The lower part of the Lakota 

formation is truncated beneath an angular unconformity within the formation (locality 2), and the 

upper part is truncated beneath an angular unconformity at the base of the overlying Fall River 

formation (locality 3). At locality 2, the basal part 

of the Fall River formation contains granules and 

pebbles of quartzite and chert probably derived from 

erosion of the Lakota at the crest of the fold. The 

amplitude of the Early Cretaceous fold at Oil Creek 

is estimated to be about 200 feet, and the areal extent 

of the fold is about 2 square miles. 

The limited extent of the folds in both areas suggests that folding was caused by local rather than 

regional forces. Redistribution of evaporites in the 

Spearfish (Triassic and Permian) or Minnelusa 

(Permian and Pennsylvanian) formations, which underlie the Lakota formation at shallow depths, seems 

a possible explanation for the folding. Repeated 

episodes of folding such as occurred . at Oil Creek 

might indicate repeated episodes of flowage. 

In both the Barlow Canyon and Oil Creek areas, 

the normally clayey Morrison formation grades 

laterally to massive fine-grained well-sorted grayishwhite sandstone that in lithology and stratigraphic 

position resembles the Unkpapa sandstone-a thick 

sandstone that replaces the Morrison in the southern 

and eastern parts of the Black Hills (Darton and 

Paige, 1925, p. 11). Thick sandstone lenses are unusual in the Morrison on the west side of the Black 

Hills, and their occurrence at both folds suggests 

that the sandstone and the folds are related. No 

evidence was found of appreciable folding during 

deposition of the Morrison, however, and the relation, if any, is unknown. 

REFERENCE 

Darton, N. H., and Paige, Sidney, 1925, Description of the 

central Black Hills [with contributions by J. D. Irving]: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 219, 34 p. 
B-158 

.:0: 

., 

_, 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

5 

A.· BARLOW CANYON AREA 

FEET 

f 

0 

50 

'--100 

B. OIL CREEK AREA 

5 

7 .E 

., 

> 

= 

~ 

R. 65 W. -rR. 66 W. 7 

c 

~ 

e 

.§ 

4 

X 6 

X 

5 ~ T. 2x 54 

N. 

} X T. 

53 

N . 

.E BARLOW CANYON AREA c 

.~ EXPLANATION 

~ EJ ~~-+~ Sandstone 

r:-:-:::o::l 

~ 

Conglomerate 

~ 

~ 

Siltstone 

Shale 

Calcareous claystone 

r=..:=::==t c..=:::J 

Claystone 

Limestone 

D 

Covered 

Chert 

G 

Glauconite 

* Carbonaceous 

~ 

material 

Unconformity 

--..s---

Correlation uncertain 

R. 62 W . .--,.-----6r 

5x 4 

3 

2 

xl 

OIL CREEK AREA 

T. 

47 

N. 

T. 

46 

N. 

FIGURE 66.2.-Sections showing truncated sedimentary rocks, Sundance, Morrison, and Lakota formations, west side of Black 

Hills, Wyo. 

--+ 

.

1 

•·· 

,..
..4., 

+ 

.. , 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-159 

67. STH.UCTURE OF THE CLAH.K FORK AH.EA, IDAHO-M9NTANA 

By J. E. HARRISON, D. A. JOBIN, and ELIZABETH KING, Denver, Colo., and Washington, D. C. 

Rocks ot the Belt series of Precambrian age have 

been intruded north of the Hope fault by quartz 

diorite of Precambrian age (the Purcell sills), and 

both north and south of the fault by granodiorite of 

probable Cretaceous age (fig. 67.1). The Belt series 

here consists of about 40,000 feet of argillites, siltites, very fine grained quartzites, limestone, and dolomite. The granodiorite, which occurs as small plutons and sills scattered throughout most of the 

mapped area, is virtually identical chemically and 

petrographically with granodiorite in stocks exposed 

in the southwestern part of the Packsaddle Mountain 

q_uadrangle and with granodiorite in the Selkirk 

batholith (Gillson, 1927) which borders the Packsaddle Mountain quadrangle on the north. 

The regional structural setting is relatively simple. 

The Hope fault, trending north-nprthwest across the 

area, separates a homocline in the Belt rocks to the 

north from a syncline to the south. The Hope fault 

also separates an intricate mosaic of steep-sided fault 

blocks to the south from a simpler mosaic to the 

north. 

South of the Hope fault most of the blocks in the 

eastern part of the area are only slightly tilted and 

show folds only as drags near each fault. The dip 

of the beds increases westward in the west limb of 

the major syncline, and this regional dip has been 

increased further . by tilting of some blocks in· the 

western part of the ar~a. In addition, many of the 

western blocks show internal folding throughout the 

block, though blocks that show extensive folding 

commonly are adjacent to blocks that show only drag 

folding near the faults. The bounding faults are 

steep to vertical, as is .shown by the nearly straight 

traces of the faults across a topographic relief of 

about 4,000 feet. Some of the faults that are subparallel in strike appear to converge downward, and 

a few converge upward. Axes of drag folds are 

nearly horizontal a·nd thus indicate dip-slip movement on the faults. 

North of the Hope fault the blocks are at most 

slightly tilted. The principal interruption of the 

regional homocline is a zone, about 1,500 feet wide, 

of small folds that wrap around the exposed pluton 

of granodiorite. 

Metamorphic grade of pelitic rocks is shown by 

numbers on figure 67.2. Samples indicated by 1's 

contain sericite and/ or chlorite, but no secondary 

biotite. Samples indicated by 2's contain a little 

secondary biotite but still retain most of their original clastic texture. Samples indicated by 3's contain 

abundant secondary biotite and retain little or no 

original clastic ~exture. 

Correlation between magnetic intensities, exposures of intrusive rocks, and metamorphic grade is 

excellent (fig. 67.2). Each area of exposed intrusive 

rocks shows up as a positive magnetic anomaly, and 

the Belt rocks of higher metamorphic grade are adjacent to intrusive masses or to positive anomalies. 

Study, of Belt rocks near exposures of intrusive 

rocks suggests that only Belt rocks within about 

2,000 feet of an intrusive body reached grade 3, so 

the positive magnetic anomalies where no intrusive 

rocks are exposed most likely represent buried but 

shallow plutons. The positive anomaly southeast of 

Clark Fork is the only one that does not have grade 

3 rocks around it, and perhaps represents a slightly 

deeper intrusive body. Because Precambrian quartz 

diorite is known here only in sills in the Prichard 

formation and only north of the Hope fault (Anderson, 1930, pl. 14), all positive anomalies except the 

two at the north-central edge of the area probably 

represent bodies of Cretaceous ( ?) granodiorite. 

Four· of five joint sets common in the· Belt rocks 

of the area are subparallel to four principal sets of 

block faults. It seems unlikely that the joints, which 

are products of tension, were formed at the time of 

the faults, which are products of shear. 

An interpretation of the data available to date 

is shown in figure 67.3. The position of these sec-

. tions is shown on figures 67.1 and 67.2. The structural rise from right to left in the sections is accompanied by a general stepping down of the blocks 

in the same direction. Some of the structural rise 

is toward an anticlinal crest, but part of it may 

also be due to upward pressure from a rising magma. 

If all the pressure had been upward, then sets of 

shear planes dipping about 45° should have formed, 

as they commonly do over salt domes. Because the 

faults are steep, they probably reflect a fracture 

pattern, perhaps originally expressed only by joints, 

established during regional folding. Local folding 

within certain of the keystone blocks, however, must 

have been in response to an upward punch, for some 

of the keystones are upside down (bounding faults 

known to converge upward); only an upward push 
·~ ~ 

~ 

-r , .. 

N 

v 

~ 

~J 

Surficial deposits 

Granodiorite 

~ 

EJ 

Quartz diorite 

Libby 

-

formation 

§ 

Striped Peak formation 

Wallace formation 

Iiiii 

St. Regis formation 

LLJO:: 

f-<( 

}

0::>-

~z 

0 

}

' ~·~ <( Vl "' f- :::::> "' LLJO..., 

a:::w~ 

uuCI:i 

z 

<( 

0: 

CD 

IDAHO 

Revett 

-

quartzite 

Burke 

~ formation 

Prichard 

-

formation 

Contact 

······ Fault 

z 

<( 

0: 

CD 

::;: 

<( 

~ 0:: 

0.. 

~ Dotted where inferred. Bar and ball on 

~ downthrown side 

~ 30 

y 

Strike and dip of beds 

EB 

Horizontal beds 

A A' 

Line of section 

LAKE PEND OREILLE 

8 

Packsaddle 

Mountain 

116° 15' 

0 5MILES 

. 

116°00' ""'"-~.~-.~. ~.-. .,..,,_...,.,,,...._ ..... ,-.......... 48 ° 15' 

48°00' 

Geology by J. E. Harrison and D. A. Jobin, 1957-60 

FIGURE 67.1.-Generalized geologic map of the Clark Fork quadrangle and part of the Packsaddle Mountain quadrangle, Idaho-Montana. 

..,. 7 .t ...t .,. ~ ;t " ; .. -1- ~ ·T "' ...,;. __ 1-- ~-

to 

I 

~ """""' 0 

0 

trl 

0 

t"'4 

0 

C1 

-

0 

> 

t"'4 

r.n 

cj 

~ 

<! 

trl 

~ 

~ 

trl 

u: 

trl 

> 

~ 

0 

::r:: 

1-' 

c.o 

0') 

1-' 

I~-, 
.. ...,.. -~ ~ 

EXPLANATION 

t;_L__J 

~ 

Cretaceous(?) granodiorite 

[I] 

Precambrian quartz diorite 

~ Fault 

Bar and ball on downthrown side 

1, 2, 3 

Metamorphic grade of Belt 

rocks 

See text for explanation 

~200~-. 

Total intensity aeromagnetic 

contour 

Dashed where inferred. Interval 50 gammas; contours 

between 50-gamma interval 

shown only where needed to identify anomalies. Contours based on 32 aerial 

traverses south of the Hope 

fault and 3 tie lines north 

of it 

.,i.· .. -~ ~- Jr- ,i ~ ·" +- •• ·. + .L -~ ~ 

, ~ 

116"30' 116"15' 116"00' 

- - 48"15' 

3 

3 

I )x x\ I I I I \ \ ll I ' "'W :::::, I I -=:::::oo, I I I 48"00' 

Geology in southwestern part of 

map after Sampson, 1928, pl. 2 

0 5 MILES 

Aeromagnetic survey by J. L. Meuschke 

and Elizabeth- King, 1959 

FIGURE 67.2.-Total intensity aeromagnetic map of the Clark Fork and Packsaddle Mountain quadrangles, showing intrusive rocks, faults, and metamorphic 

grade of Belt rocks. ' 

.... 

(/} 

::r: 

0 

~ 

t-3 

'"0 

> 

'"0 

M 

~ 

U1 

z 

t-3 

::r: 

M 

C) 

M 

0 

~ 

0 

C) 

0 

-

> z 

1:::1 

::r: 

~ 

1:::1 

~ 

0 

~ 

0 

C) 

-

0 

U1 

0 

-M 

z 

0 

M 

!;fl 

> 

~ 

t-3 

-

0 

~ 

M 

U1 

';""' 

~ 

11'>-

m 

to 

I 

~ 

~ 

~ 
B-162 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

20,000' 

10,000' 

SEA LEVEL 

B 

20,000' 

10,000' 

SEA LEVEL 

0 5 MILES 

EXPLANATION 

Granodiorite 

rxxxl 

~ 

Libby and Striped 

-

Peak formations 

D 

----- Contact 

I 

Fault 

....... ---· .. 

Wallace, St. Regis, Revett and Burke formations Present topographic surface 

Prichard 

-

formation 

FIGURE 67.3.-Diagrammatic sections showing relation of blocks to intrusive rocks. 

of these inverted keystones could cause the local 

lateral pressure required for the folding. The pattern of stepping down towards the main intrusive 

-mass suggests collapse. 

We infer the following sequence of events: Regional folding and fracturing; an upward push from 

a magma, particularly in the crest of the regional 

anticline; and block mosaic faulting and adjustment 

of the blocks over the magma. The adjustment consisted of collapse in the flanks and crestal part of 

the syncline and of a combination of upraising and 

collapse in the ant.iclinal crest. Sampson (1928) has 

suggested a somewhat similar origin for a series of 

"intrusion faults" in the nearby Pend Oreille mining 

district. We suggest that the large intrusive mass 

in the Packsaddle Mountain quadrangle and the 

smaller masses northeast of it are cupolas on a 

batholith that extends under the whole area and 

'l"f,-

j.... 
.• 

r 

... 

. .; 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-163 

perhaps connects with the Selkirk batholith. The 

lack of block tilting, relatively small displacement of 

blocks, a~d the obvious shouldering aside of rocks 

adjacent to one of these cupolas .lead us to infer 

that collapse over this large underlying mass was 

accompanied by intrusion of magma into the blocks 

by a process that included some shouldering asid.e. 

REFERENCES 

Anderson, A. L., 1930, Geology and ore deposits of the Clark 

Fork district, Idaho: Idaho Bur. Mines and Geology Bull. 

12, 132 p. . 

Gillson, J: L., 1927, Granodiorites in the Pend Oreille district 

of northern Idaho: Jour. Geology, v. 35, p. 1-31. 

Sampson, Edward, 1928, Geology and ore deposits of the 

Pend Oreille district, Idaho: Idaho Bur. Mines and 

Geology Pamph. 31, 25 p. 

68. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF THE · .;ENTRAL PART OF THE LEMHI RANGE, IDAHO 

By EDWARD T. RUPPEL and MORTIMER H. HAlT, JR., Denver, Colo., and Pennsylvania State University, 

University Park, Pa . 

Pleistocene deposits in the central part of the 

Lemhi Range, in east-central Idaho, reflect the repeated occurrence of glacial or near-glacial climatic 

conditions during Pleistocene time (Dort, 1960). 

The earliest glaciation, probably in early Pleistocene time, left deposits that are now preserved at 

altitudes as low as 6,400 feet, well out in front of 

the moraines of later glaciations, west of the village 

of Leadore, and on a few interstream divides in the 

mountains. These deposits consist' of unsorted 

pebbles, cobbles, and boulders of quartzite, and, 

_rarely, small fragments of dense volcanic rock, which 

retain no distinctive glacial form; they have been 

so extensively eroded that they remain only as gravel 

veneers. The remains of a preglacial surface beneath the gravel veneers, and the probably related 

relatively broad, gently sloping interstream divides 

characteristic of the lower parts of the central 

Lemhi Range suggest that much of this surface was 

a pediment above which the higher part of the 

range seems to have been subdued and rounded. 

Glacial deposits considered to be early Pleistocene in age have been recognized at only a few places 

in central Idaho; conspicuous among these places 

are the Whitecloud Peaks (Ross, 1929, p. 123-128; 

1937, p. 93-95) and Stanley Basin 1 in south-central 

Idaho, and the Salmon River and Beaverhead Mountains near Salmon, Idaho (Anderson, 1956, p. 31-32). 

The early glaciation was followed by a period of 

erosion during which much of the glacial debris 

1 Williams, Paul L., 1967, Glacial geology of the Stanley Basin, Idaho: 

WBBhinfltOn l.Tnlv., Master of Science thesis . 

was removed, and canyons. were carved to depths of 

several hundred feet below the earlier surface. When 

·this erosional period was interrupted by a second 

period of glaciation (probably in early Wisconsin 

time) the topography appears to have been much 

like today's except that it lacked the extreme features of alpine erosion, because the relations of the 

deposits of this stage to present topography suggest 

little deepening of valleys since the beginning of the 

second stage. The deposits of the second stage lie 

inside the deposits of the early stage in the Swan 

Basin, and are made up of quartzite, a small percentage of volcanic rock-appreciably more than in 

the early till-and rare fragments of dolomite, in 

a sand and silt matrix. The moraines of this stage 

are smoothed and rounded, drainage is well integrated in and across the. moraine, and areas underlain by the moraine are characterized by irregularly 

distributed low rounded hills and shallow intervening basins. Trains of outwash extend out from 

the moraine in a few places. 

The third, probably late Wisconsin, glacial stage is 

represented by deposits still more restricted than 

those of the second stage. The deposits contain 

· abundant quartzite and abundant unweathered dolomite and volcanic rocks in a sand and silt matrix. 

Related outwash fans and small valley trains containing the same types of rock extend beyond the 

moraine in some places, and conceal older moraine 

and bedrock. The deposits are characterize.d also by 

slight modification of their original form, and by un~ 

integrated drainage; soil development has been 
B-164 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

slight to moderate on the deposits, and vegetation 

covers them in many places. 

. A fourth glacial stage is represented by moraines 

deposited when ice reoccupied small sheltered cirques 

above an altitude of 9,000 feet. The topographic setting of these cirques seems to have offered maximum 

protection against ablation and to have favored snow 

accumulation, perhaps especially through retention 

of snow blown over the cirque walls into the cirque. 

The larger cirques do not contain moraines; their 

openness makes them more accessible than the 

sheltered cirques to the winds that almost constantly 

blow at the higher altitudes in the Lemhi Range, 

and probably snow could not accumulate as readily 

under such conditions. The larger cirques contain 

deposits of waste rock in talus, protalus ramparts, 

and small rock streams, that are probably contemporaneous with the mqraines in the small cirques, 

for both have thin soils and very sparse vegetation. 

The stage of cirque glaciation and related mass 

wasting was followed by a later stage of mass wasting in which waste rock accumulated in talus, protalus ramparts, and rock streams in many cirques 

and canyons; these deposits conceal older glacial and 

mass-wasting deposits and clearly are the youngest 

surficial deposits, other than stream deposits, in the 

central Lemhi Range. They are characterized by an 

absence of any soil or of drainage development, and 

by frontal slopes as steep as 40°; the growth of 

lichens on the rock fragments suggests that the de~· 

posits are not now receiving much rock waste or 

moving-but their fresh appearance strongly suggests that they represent a very recent period of 

more rigorous climate than that prevailing today. 

Other mass-wasting deposits not clearly related 

to any one period of glacial or near-glacial climate 

are widespread below the lower limit of glacial deposits on Leadore Hill, south of Leadore. These deposits lie in canyons below remnants of the preglacial surface and several are near remnants of 

the early glacial· till but at altitudes well below the 

till and in canyons that clearly have been deepened 

many hundreds of feet since the early glacial stage. 

The deposits on the west flank of Leadore Hill are 

principally talus, most of which is now apparently 

stable or nearly so, as it is covered by a thin soil 

and by vegetation. The deposits on the east flank ·of 

Leadore Hill are diverse in form and origin, and 

include deposits on creep slopes, and deposits in 

mudflows, landslides, talus, protalus ramparts, and 

nivation moraine.· The deposits on creep slopes are 

most widespread, and although many of them are 

now covered with vegetation, tilted trees and tears 

in the sod cover suggest that soil creep is still active. 

The deposits are clearly younger than the early 

glacial deposits, and probably began to form under 

the rigorous climatic conditions that prevailed at 

these lower altitudes during the later alpine and 

cirque glaciations in the higher parts of the Lemhi 

Range. 

REFERENCES 

Anderson; A. L., 1956, Geology and mineral resources of the 

Salmon quadrangle, Lemhi County, Idaho: Idaho Bur. 

Mines and Geology, Pamph. 106, 102 p. 

Dort, Wakefield, Jr., 1960, Multiple glaciation, east side of 

Lemhi Range, Idaho [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 

71, no. 12, p. 1852. . 

Ross, C. P., 1929, Early Pleistocene glaciation in Idaho: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 158-G, p. 123-128. 

--1937, Geology and ore deposits of the Bayhorse region, 

Custer County, Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 877, 161 p. 

69. THE MICHAUD DELTA AND BONNEVILLE RIVER NEAR POCATELLO, IDAHO 

By DONALD E. TRIMBLE and WILFRED J. CARR, Denver, Colo. 

Late Pleistocene gravel at and near Pocatello, 

Idaho has been named the Michaud gravel (Trimble 

and Carr, in press). The Michaud gravel was deposited as a delta in the Pleistocene American Falls 

lake by an ancient stream, the Bonneville r!ver of 

Gilbert ( 1890, p. 176), which drained glacial Lake 

Bonneville. 

The Michaud gravel extends from the mouth of 

the Portneuf River canyon at Pocatello southwestward for about 18 miles almost to American Falls 
.L. 

r 

...... 

··~ 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-165 

~ 

0 

c 

z 

.... 

EXPLANATION 

Qs Sterling terrace deposits 

Oo Aberdeen terrace deposits 

09 Grandview terrace deposits 

M ichoud grovel 

(oaffij 

LJ§~f,::~:):J Loess and alluvium 

Cedar 

~ Butte basalt 

Snoke 

~ 

~ 

River basalt 

1!1 

Raft format ion 

D 

~ 

0:: 

<t 

z 

Q: 

UJ 

.... 

<t 

:::> 

0 

Unmapped oreos and rocks mostly 

old'er than the Raft formation 

American Falls lake beds, 

includinQ some Roft formation 

southwest of American Falls 

~ 

0:: 

<t 

z 

a:· 

UJ 

.... 

<t 

:::> 

0 

Contact, approximately located 

5 0 5 MILES 

Terrace ~oundary 

CONTOUR INTERVAL 200 FEET 

~------------------~~~~~------------------------------------------------------------------~42°30' Geology by 0. E. Trimble ond w. J. Carr 

FIGURE 69.1.-Sketch map of the American Falls-Pocatello area showing generalized distribution of upper Quaternary rocks. 

(fig. 69.1). It rests conformably on the unweathered surface of the American Falls lake beds, and 

it is limited areally at most places by two scarps, 

an upper one against which the gravel was deposited, and a lower one which is a lake-cut scarp 

at the back of the younger Aberdeen terrace (fig. 

69.1). 

The surface of the Michaud gravel was terraced, 

scoured, and channeled, and the prominent Aberdeen terrace, which is partly lacustrine and partly 

fluviatile, was cut on the gravel on the east side 

of the American Falls reservoir. The scours and 

channels are· higher and older than the Aberdeen 

terrace, or are graded to it. 
B-166 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

0 2 3 4 5 6 MILES 

FIGURE 69.2.-Distribution of maximum boulder size· in the 

Michaud gravel. Contours (in feet) of size larger than 

cobble. Dashed where no control available. 

The Michaud gravel is 50 to 80 feet thick. The 

basal contact of the Michaud gravel with the American Falls lake beds is uniformly about 4,400 feet in 

altitude, and its upper surface ranges from about 

4,450 to 4,480 feet in altitude. 

The distribution of maximum boulder size in the 

Michaud gravel was mapped during the summer of 

1960 (fig. 69.2). The contours show the rapid decrease in size away from the mouth of the Portneuf 

River canyon. At Pocatello, the gravel consi"sts 

mainly of large boulders derived almost entirely 

from the Portneuf valley. East of Bannock Creek, 

near Michaud, the deposit is a cobbly gravel, but 

west of Bannock Creek it is a pebbly sand: Correlative deposits consisting mainly of fine sand and silt 

cover··the Grandview terrace west of the American 

Falls reservoir (fig. 69.1). 

The maximum diameter of boulders (about 8 feet) 

in the Michaud gravel at Pocatello suggests that the 

transporting stream had an unusually high velocity. 

Observations of Barrell, cited by Rubey (1952, p. 71), 

imply t4at stream velocities of between 4 and 12 

miles per hour are necessary to move a cobble about 

6 inches in diameter. Inasmuch as the radius of the 

largest object moved. by a stream varies with the 

square of the velocity, an 8-foot boulder probably 

indicates a current velocity of between 16 and 48 

miles per hour. These are very broad and approximate fimits, but when this general order of magnitude is compared with a median velocity of 3.54 miles 

per hour for the Mississippi River during one of 

its greatest floods (Rubey, 1938, p. 137), and with 

a maximum recorded velocity of about 16 miles per 

hour for any natural stream (Howard F. Matthai, 

oral communication, 1960), it is evident that the 

stream responsiple for the Michaud gravel attained 

abnormal size and velocity, at least temporarily. 

Such a great stream in the Pocatello area could only 

have been the river flowing from Lake Bonneville. 

Other evidence of flooding along the Bonneville 

river has been discussed by Malde (1960, p. B295-

B297). 

The Michaud gravel has been dated late Pleistocene on the basis of mollusks (D. W. Taylor, written 

communication, 1960) and vertebrates, including 

Bison alleni (Hopkins, 1951, p. 195), found in the 

gravel. Now, however, the age of the Michaud gravel 

(and the time of overflow of Lake Bonneville) can 

be more nearly fixed. A radiocarbon date (W-929) 

for a peat layer 13 feet below the top of the American 

Falls lake beds is > 42,000 years B.P. (before 

present) according to Meyer Rubin (written communication, 1961), and shells (W-731) from the 

Aberdeen terrace deposit are dated at 29,700 ± 

1,000 years B.P. (Trimble and Carr, in press). The 

Mi~haud gravel probably was deposited, therefore, 

about 30,000 to 40,000 years ago. 

REFERENCES 

Gilbert, G. K., 1890, Lake Bonneville: U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 

1, 438 p. 

Hopkins, M. L., 1951, Bison (Gigantobison) latifrons and 

Bison (Simobison) alleni in southeastern ·Idaho: Jour. 

Mammalogy, v. 32, p. 192-197. 

Malde, H. E., 1960, Evidence in the Snake River Plain, Idaho 

of a catastrophic flood from Pleistocene Lake Bonneville, 

in Short papers in the geological sciences: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B295-B297 .. 

Rubey, W. W., 1938, The force required to move particles on a 

stream bed: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 189-E, p. 

121-141. 

-- 1952, Geology and mineral resources of the Harden 

and Brussels quadrangles (in Illinois): U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 218, 179 p. 

Trimble, D. E., and Carr, W. J., (in press), Late Quaternary 

history Of the Snake River in the American Falls region, 

Idaho: Geol. Soc. America Bull. 

, 

~J 

-~ 

1 

~, 
. .,.: 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-167 

70. VOLCANIC ASH BEDS AS STRATIGRAPHIC MARKERS IN BASIN DEPOSITS NEAR HAGERMAN AND 

\ GLENNS FERRY, IDAHO 

By HOWARD A. POWERS and HAROLD E. MALDE, Denver, Colo. 

The upper Cenozoic detrital deposits exposed along 

the Snake River downstream from Hagerman, Idaho, 

contain numerous thin beds of siliceous volcanic 

as~ that are indisti~guishable in the field but that 

differ significantly in physical and chemical properties. By study of these properties several distinctive ash beds have been identified in discontinuous, 

widely separated outcrops. These ash beds can be 

used to demonstrate the stratigraphic relations of 

deposits otherwise devoid of marker beds, and they 

are indispensable, therefore, for recognizing facies 

changes and basin deformation. This paper describes two such beds of volcanic ash in a formation 

of late Pliocene and early Pleistocene age near 

Hagerman and Glenns Ferry. 

Significant chemical comparisons of volcanic ash 

beds require laboratory separation of clean unaltered glass. The analyses given here are of glass 

shards scrubl)ed by ultrasonic agitation, separated 

from phenocrysts and other contaminants by flotation in diluted bromoform, and further· cleaned by 

feeding through a Frantz magnetic separator. The 

cleaned shards in such samples are colorless and 

completely isotropic. 

PETERS GULCH ASH LAYER 

The Peters Gulch ash layer is named informally 

for Peters Gulch, 4 miles southwest of Hagerman, 

where sample E1810 was collected (fig. 70.1). The 

distinctive physical and chemical properties that 

identify this bed were determined from nine samples. 

Physically, the ash consists of about equal parts of 

extremely vesicular pumice grains and of complexly 

shaped glass shards, both of which are very weakly 

magnetic in the strong field of a Frantz separator. 

The particular combination of phenocrysts embedded 

in the glass shards ( chevkinite, zircon, ilmenite, and 

magnetite) is different from the phenocryst assemblage in 60 samples from all other· ash beds exposed 

in this region. (For descriptions of chevkinite in 

other ash beds, see Young and Powers, 1960.) Chemical analyses of glass shards separated from the ash 

are listed in table 1. Seven of the samples collected 

at various places along 3 miles of continuous outcrop from Peters Gulch northward indicate the 

variation found in amounts of constituents. Comparison with the 60 samples of other analyzed ash 

beds in this region shows that the Peters Gulch ash 

layer is highest in Cl, La, and Sn, and lowest in Ba 

and Sr. In brief, no other ash samples have the 

same combination of physical properties and chemical constituents. 

Confident correlation of the Peters Gulch ash 

layer between localities as widely spaced .as 24 miles 

(fig. 70.1) helps to reconstruct the terrain on which 

it was deposited. Where the ash is recognizable, it 

occurs as a bed a few inches thick, either in carbonaceous shale or in thin-bedded silt and clay. 

These fine-grained materials probably accumulated 

on a flood plain, as is suggested by paleoecological 

evidence and by sedimentary features (Malde and 

Powers, 1958). At the time of the ash fall this area 

may have been the floor of a broad, flat valley dotted 

with sloughs, shallow lakes, and a few channels 

along which the water moved sluggishly. Where 

the ash fell in slack water or on boggy ground, it 

had some chance for preservation as a recognizable 

bed, but where the ash fell in a channel, it was 

carried by currents and mixed with other debris. 

The sedimentary equilibrium of a broad, flat valley 

implied by the fine-grained materials associated with 

the Peters Gulch ash layer is seemingly contradicted 

by the lithologic dissimilarities of the sediments 

that occur considerably above and below the beds in 

which the ash is found. At Peters Gulch the section 

consists dominantly of thin-bedded silt and clay 

with some fine sand and carbonaceous shale. In contrast, the section at King Hill consists of a massive 

sequence of coarse sand and fine gravel. At Clover 

Creek units of these different lithologies alternate. 

Such contrasting facies can be accounted for by the 

local geography. The deposits at Peters Gulch accumulated several miles from the margins of the 

basin, whereas those at King Hill were brought to 

the northern margin of the basin by steeply graded 

streams that drained granitic outcrops a few miles 

farther north. The mixed deposits at Clover Creek 

are in an intermediate position. The presence of 

the ash shows that sedimentation at these places was 

concurrent. 

Differences in altitude of the Peters Gulch ash 

layer, as shown in figure 70.1, are mostly accounted 

for by displacements on high-angle faults that sep-
B-168 

Altitude, 

in feet 

3200 

3100 

3000 

CD 

The Narrows 2900 

2800 

... I !:,1 

..!!!1 

.c:::l 

/3' p/ 

2700 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 2600 

,, e' 

~I I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

G3043 _.ai:JI:Jl-_J 

(Covered) 

2500 

EXPLANATION 

• Basalt 

D Massive silt 

JuMJ Volcanic ash 

Thin-bedded 

~ 

~ silt and clav 

Carbonaceous ~ shale 

EJ 

Fine sand 

~ 0 

0 

Coarse sand and gravel 

G3052 Volcanic ash sample 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

® 

Morrow Reservoir 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

(Covered) 

El919 

® 

King Hill 

o

0

o

0

o

0

a 

0000000 

0 0 0 0 

o oo 

0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 

000 

0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 

ooooooo 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

(Covered) 

115"30' 

I 

I 

I 

@) 

Clover Creek 

G3052 r-lr:I..Wnl--. 

~/ ~ ;;I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

~I 

fit (Covered) 

'S I (!]I 

/.?I 

.&I 

tJ..<IJ/ 

I 

I 

I 

I 

0 10 

115•oo· 

® 

Altitude, 

in feet 

3600 

3500 

Peters Gulch 

EISIO 

(Covered) 

20 MILES 

3400 

3300 

3200 

3100 

3000 

2900 

2800 

114.45' 43"05' 

42"45' 

FIGURE 70.1.-Generalized columnar sections and outline geologic map of ash-bearing. deposits of late Pliocene and early 

Pleistocene age near Hagerman and Glenns Ferry, Idaho. Sections 1, 2, and 3 are each overlain by about 30 feet of basalt 

of middle Pleistocene age. Section 5 is overlain by 55 feet of alluvium of early Pleistocene age. The beds lie nearly horizontal at places where the sections were measured. 

+· 

... 

..... 

~-

'r 
. ..,.. 

. ...., 

,.. 

·,.: 

~: 

-4· 

1 

,. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-169 

TABLE 1.-Analyses of p'repa'red samples of glass shards from the Pete1·s Gulch ash laym· 

[Chlorine annlyses by V. C. Smith. Other chemical analyses as follows: sample E1810 by P.M. Montalta; samples E2308, B441, B443, E2309, B442, and B414 by L. N. Tarrant; sample El919 by M. R. Kittrell; and sample G3052 by V. C. Smith. Quantitative spectrographic analyses by P. R. Barnett .... indicates not determined.] 

Sample 

No. Location of sample 

Chemical analyses 

1----~----~-----~·--·---~--~~--.--~----~-----------------------------

A bOa FeO MnO F 

____ , ___________ , ___ -----------------------------------------------

E18l0 

E2308 

B441 

B44:3 

E2309 

B442 

B4l4 

El919 

03052 

Sec. 5 u.t Peter·s Gulch. . . . . 69. 82 12. 49 

1. 9 mi. N. of Peter·s Gulch. . . . . . 0.12 0. 77 1..10 0.05 0.13 0.59 2.32 6. 72 ..... 0.104 0.01 ..... 5.19 

2 . 46 6 . 63 0 . 243 . 103 . . . . . 5 . 1 0 

2.2 ])o ............... . 2.48 6.34 .252 .098..... 5.29 

2.3 Do ............... . 2.42 6.57..... .098 .......... 5.07 

2.6 Do ............... . 2.64 6.57 .252 .103 ......... . 2.8 Do ............... . 2.43 6.33 . . . . . .098 .......... 5.05 

2. 9 Do ............... . 69.56 12.35 .12 . 77 1..10 .03 .08 .52 2.49 6.48..... .106 .00 ..... 6.11 

Sr.c. 3 nem· King Hill ..... . Sec. 4 u.t Clover· Creek ... . 70.03 12.62 .13 .67 1.21 .04 .02 .56 2.26 6.16 .243 .103 .02 0.00 5.70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246 . 106 ................ . 

Quantitative spectrographic analyses 

Sample ---------- -- No. Location of Sl\mplc B Ba Be Cu Ga La Mo Nb Pb Sn Sr v y Yb Zr 

----------------------------- ----

1!:1810 See. 5 n.t Peter·s Gulch ..... 0.006 0.005 0.0011 0.0008 0.0033 0.014 0.0006 0.007 0.002 0.0011 0.0010 <0.0002 0.009 0.0008 0.04: 3 

3 

8 

6 

0 

6 

9 

8 

0 

1!:2308 I.. f) mi. N. of Peters Gulch. .007 .004 .0011 .0008 .003~ .008 .0004 .006 .002 .0009 .0008 < .0002 .006 .0007 

B44l 2.2 Do ................ .006 .006 .0008 .0010 .0040 .014 .0006 .008 .002 .0012 .0009 < .0002 .009 .0008 

B443 2.:~ ])o ................ .005 .006 .0013 .0009 .0036 .016 .0005 .009 .002 .0012 .0008 < .0002 .011 .0008 

E2309 2.6 ])o ................ .008 .005 .0010 .0009 .0038 .008 .0004 .006 .002 .0008 .0020 < .0002 .006 .0006 

B442 2.8 J)o ................ .006 .007 .0011 .0010 .0038 .01:~ .0005 .007 .002 .0012 .0012 < .0002 .009 .0008 

B41.4 2.9 ])o ................ .007 .00:3 .0012 .0009 .00:36 .013 .0006 .007 .002 .0011 .0005 < .0002 .009 .0008 

K1919 Sec. 3 nenr King Hill ...... .008 .008 .0010 .0008 .0034 .012 .0004 .008 .001 .0012 .0007 .0002 .008 .0007 

G:W52 Sec. 4 n.t Clover Creek .... .007 .005 .0009 .0008 .0040 .009 .0004 .006 .002 .0009 .0005 .0002 .007 .0006 

arate the section at Clover Creek from King Hill 

and Peters Gulch. 

tinctive combination of physical and chemical properties that identify this bed were determined from 

three samples. Physically, the ash is made up of 

complexly shaped shards, some shards that are 

simply curved, and a few grains of pumice, all of 

which are nonmagnetic. The phenocrysts are brown 

hornblende, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and magTHE NARROWS ASH LAYER 

The Narrows ash layer is named informally for 

the Narrows, 5 miles west of Glenns Ferry, where 

sample G3123 was collected (fig. 70.1). The disTABLE 2.-Analyses of p1·epa1·ed samples of glass shards f1·om the Nan·ows ash layer 

[Chlorine nnd fluorine analyses by V. C. Smith. Chemical analysis of sample G3123 by D. F. Powers. Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses by R. G. Havens .... indicates not determined.] 

],ocation Of Rl\mp)C 

Sample 

No. 

Chemical analyses 

----.-------.-----;--·-·-;----;----·-.---.---...,..------------------------

F 

--------------------------------------------------- 0312:3 

03053 

03046 

Sec. l n.t the Nnrrows ..... 72.18 12.40 0.22 0.47 0.64 0.04 0.26 1.14 2.92 4.340.1150.020 0.04 0.01 4.79 

See. 2 n.t Morrow Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Iml .016 .... . 1 mi. S. of Monow Res ............................................................ 115 . 018 ................ . 

Sample Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses 

No. I.ocntion of sample B Ba Be Cu Ga La Mo Nb Pb Sn Sr v y 

~~! --- -------------- 03123 Sec. l nt the Narrows ..... 0.002 0.07 <0.0001 0.0007 0.0007 <0.003 <0.0005 <0.001 <0.001 <0.005 0.007 0.001 0.001 

03053 Sec. 2 n.t Morrow Reservoir .003 .07 < .0001 .0007 .0007 <.00:3 < .0005 < .001 < .001 <.005 .007 .001 .001 

G3046 1 mi. S. of Mon·ow Res .... .003 .07 < .0001 .0007 .0007 < .003 < .0005 < .001 < .001 < .005 .007 .001 .001 

.04' 

.04 

.05 

.04 

.04 

.03. 

.04 

.03 

Yb 

---

0.0001 

.0001 

.0001 

Zr 

--

O.Oo 

.oo· 

.oo· 
B-170 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

netite. Chemical comparison with the 60 samples 

of other ash beds in this region shows that the ash 

is very low in F, Ga, Y, Yb, and Zr (table 2). 

The isolated outcrops where the Narrows ash 

layer is identified are not much alike and could not 

be correlated otherwise. The section at the Narrows 

is sandy . with many beds of carbonaceous shale, 

whereas the section at Morrow Reservoir has fewer 

beds of carbonaceous shale and more layers of thinbedded silt and clay. Apparently the ash fell on 

boggy ground or on a mud flat at the Narrows and 

in a body of slowly moving water at Morrow 

Reservoir. 

The ash bed is now 400 feet lower in altitude at 

the Narrows than at Morrow Reservoir, but like 

the Peters Gulch ash layer it was probably deposited on the floor of a broad, flat valley. If so, the 

present difference in altitude demonstrates moderate 

basin deformation. Because no faults were found 

during mapping, this difference in altitude is attributed to an average southwestward tilt of about 

50 feet per mile. 

The stratigraphic relation of the Peters Gulch ash 

layer to the Narrows ash layer has not been determined, but as more ash beds are identified a complete local sequence. probably will be established. 

REFERENCES 

Malde, H. E., and Powers, H. A., 1958, Flood-plain origin of 

the Hagerman lake beds, Snake River Plain, Idaho [abs.]: 

GeoL Soc. America Bull., v. 69, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1608. 

Young, E. J., and Powers, H. A., 1960, Chevkinite in volcanic 

ash: Am. Mineralogist, v. 45, nos. 7-8, p. 875-881. 

71. PATTERNED GROUND OF :pOSSIBLE SOLIFLUCTION ORIGIN AT LOW ALTITUDE IN THE WESTERN 

SNAKE RIVER PLAIN, IDAHO 

By HAROLD E. MALDE, Denver, Colo. 

A distinctive geometric pattern formed by soil 

mounds and stone pavements, which resembles the 

patterned ground of polar regions (Washburn, 1956), 

occurs on the dissected plateaus and marginal colluvial deposits north of the Snake River near Glenns 

Ferry, Idaho (figs. 71.1 and 71.2). The mounds and 

stone· pavements are typically developed on gravel 

fans and on basaltic lava flows, but they are found 

also on such· diverse materials as lake beds and 

welded tuff -all of middle Pleistocene or older age. 

Because the patterned ground is not developed on 

lithologically similar younger deposits in the same 

region, it is regarded as a relict landform. This 

paper concerns only the patterned ground in areas 

of basalt and gravel. 

The soil mounds are monotonously uniform, particularly in relatively flat areas. A typical mound 

is circular, from 50 to 60 feet in diameter, and 3 

feet high at the center. Generally the mounds are 

regularly spaced from 60 to 85· feet apart, measured 

from their centers. They are surrounded by a pavement of stones. Lithologically, the mounds consist 

mostly of friable light-colored silt that contains some 

angular fragments from the underlying rocks. These 

fragments usually are the size of pebbles, but a few 

are as larg~ as cobbles and boulders. Below a depth 

of 18 inches the mound material is compact, loamy, 

and darker-seemingly a consequence of soil development-and rock fragments are more numerous. 

At a depth of 3 to 4 feet below the center of a mound, 

the mixture of silt and rock fragments grades downward rather abruptly into tightly packed· gravel (or 

broken basalt), which emerges at the periphery of a 

mound to join the surrounding stone pavement. 

The stone pavements that surround the mounds 

ordinarily consist of well sorted angular stones, 

which range from cobbles to boulders. A few of the 

stones are fractured. Depending on the spacing of 

the mounds, the pavement areas pinch and swell, 

in places being as much as 20 feet wide. At a few 

localities, where the mounds are far apart, the pavement areas form rubbly fields more than 100 feet 

across. The stones of the pavement that are tabular 

shaped commonly are oriented on edge and are 

turned parallel to the margins of the pavement so 

as to occupy the least space side-to-side (fig. 71.3). 

·~· 

... 

·~ 

+ 

4. 
.,. 

. SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-171 

FIGURE 71.1.-Vertical aerial photograph of patterned ground on part of a basalt plateau and on marginal blocky colluvium 

9 miles northeast of Glenns Ferry, Idaho. The light colored spots on the plateau are mounds of silt covered with grass and 

sagebrush. The barren darker ground, which forms a network surrounding the mounds, consists of blocks dislodged from 

the underlying basalt. The light colored bands that trend downslope on the colluvium are also grass-covered silt. These 

strips of soil separate darker bands of sorted basalt fragments. The plateau slopes 1 o southwestward, and the colluvium 

slopes 15° southeastward. The area shown is about 3,600 feet above sea level. [Enlarged from U.S. Department of Agriculture aerial photograph DLG--7G--98 taken Oct. 22, 1950.] 

These upturned stones are so tightly wedged that 

several must be dislodged in order to remove one. 

They make the pavement comparatively rough, and 

large surface areas of the stones that comprise the 

pavement consequently are exposed to weathering. 

These stone surfaces are encrusted with lichens. Below the pavement layer the stones are smaller, less 

well sorted, and randomly arranged. In some basalt 

areas, stone fragments that are recognizably articulated with the underlying lava occur at a depth of 

1 or 2 feet, and it is possible to walk at other places 

from a stone pavement onto a bare lava surface. In 

gravel areas, also, apparently undisturbed gravel 

occurs at a shallow depth. 

The regular pattern expressed in fiat areas by the 

soil mounds and stone pavements changes progressively to parallel bands of soil and stones as the 

angle of slope increases. Where the angle of slope is 

less than 1°, the mounds are fairly equally spaced 

and the stone pavements form rectangular or polygonal networks (area A of fig. 71.1). In areas of somewhat greater slope, where drainage channels are 

defined, the mounds are arranged in parallel rows 

separated by continuous gutterlike shallow troughs 

paved with stones (area B of fig. 71.1). On slopes of 

about 6 o , the mounds are elliptical and the downhill 

sides of some encircling nets of stone pavement are 

broken so that adjacent mounds are connected down-
B-172 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

0 5000 FEET 

CONTOUR INTERVAL 40 FEET 

FIGURE 71.2.-Topographic map of the area 9 miles northeast 

of Glenns ;Ferry, Idaho, shown in the vertical aerial 

photograph reproduced as figure 71.1. 

slope by a strip of soil (not well illustrated in 

71.1). At slope angles between 6° and 15°, most 

of the mounds are connected by such narrow strips 

of soil, much like beads on a string, and the pavement areas form continuous rocky bands. These alternate parallel bands of soil and stones trend directly downslope (area C of fig. 71.1). On slopes of 

15° to 30°, the mounds along the bands of soil are 

indistinct, whereas lines of stone pavement are 

prominent (area D of fig. 71.1). On slopes steeper 

than 30 o , a sorted pattern of soil and stones generally cannot be recognized. 

Even though the patterned ground in flat areas 

differs from that on the slopes, the gradational 

change in pattern from one place to the other suggests that a similar process accounts for both. These 

gradational changes in pattern resemble the progressive modification of polygonal ground by solifluction on increasingly steeper slopes, as observed 

by Holmes and Colton (1960) near Thule, Greenland. 

The soil mounds and stone pavements near Glenns 

Ferry apparently are now stable, as indicated by soil 

development and lichen growth, so the mechanism 

by which they formed can only be inferred. However, their great similarity to the patterned ground 

of polar regions implies development by frost sorting 

and by solifluction. If so, the patterned ground 

near Glenns Ferry may have developed during a 

former period of cooler and wetter climate. 

Patterned ground that resembles the soil mounds 

and stone pavements near Glenns Ferry is reported 

elsewhere in the northwestern States. For example, 

FIGURE 71.3.-A narrow stone pavement between soil mounds 

in an area of gravel at 3,900 feet altitude 12 miles north 

of Glenns Ferry, Idaho. Tabular stones are steeply or 

vertically oriented and are alined parallel to the margins 

of the pavement. The ruler is 7 inches long. 

analogous patterned ground occurs on plateau basalt 

in eastern Washington and Oregon (Freeman, 1926; 

1932; Waters and Flagler, 1929; and Kaatz, 1959) 

and on gravel fans and lava flows near Mount Shasta, 

California (Masson, 1949). A study of t he distribution of such patterned ground, and a better understanding of its origins, could determine the 

former southward extent of cold and wet climatic 

conditions in this region and would help to establish 

ages for the land surfaces on which the pattern is 

found. 

REFERENCES 

Freeman, 0. W., 1926, Scabland mounds of eastern Washington: Science new ser., v. 64, no. 1662, p. 450-451. 

r 

.. 
~ .. 

• 

1 

''I 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-173 

Freeman, 0. W., 1932, Origin and economic value of the scabland mounds of eastern Washington: Northwest Sci., v. 6, 

no. 2, p. 37-40. 

Holmes, C. D., and Colton, R..B., 1960, Patterned ground near 

Dundas (Thule Air Force Base), Greenland: Medd. om 

Gr~nland, v. 158. no. 6, 15 p. 

Kaatz, M. R., 1959, Patterned ground in central Washington; 

a preliminary report: Northwest Sci., v. 33, no. 4, p. 145-

166 . 

Masson, P. H., 1949, Circular soil structures in northeastern 

California: California Div. Mines Bull. 151, p. 61-71. 

Washburn, A. L., 1956, Classification of patterned ground and 

review of suggested origins: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 

67' p. 825-866. 

Waters, A. C. 1 and Flagler, C. W., 1929, Origin of thl ~nall 

mounds on the Columbia River Plateau: Am. Jour. Sci., 

5th ser., v. 18, p. 209-224. 

72. COLLAPSE STRUCTURES OF SOUTHERN SPANISH VALLEY, SOUTHEASTERN UTAH 

By G. W. WEIR, W. P. PUFFETT, and C. L. DODSON, Menlo Park, Calif., Corbin, Ky., and Decatur, Ala. 

Wo-rk done in coope'ration with the U.S. Atonl.ic Ene-rgy Cornmission 

Southern Spanish Valley, a few miles southeast 

of Moab, Utah, lies in a syncline of Mesozoic rocks 

that is superimposed on the subsurface salt-cored 

Moab anticline in late Paleozoic rocks (Baker, 1933; 

Shoemaker and others, 1958). On the east flank of 

the syncline are many small collapse structures (figs. 

72.1 and 72.2). Most of the· collapse structures are 

roughly oval in plan, a few hundred feet in diameter, 

and contain a mass of broken rock that has been 

dropped several hundreds of feet. They are found 

in all exposed formations from the Navajo sandstone (Triassic? and Jurassic) of the Glen Canyon 

group through a sandstone member of the Mancos 

shale (Upper Cretaceous)-a stratigraphic range of 

more than 3,000 feet. Although the vertical exposure 

of any of these collapse structures is only about 200 

feet, they are inferred to be breccia pipes that extend 

several thousand feet below the surface. 

Forty-five collapse structures were identified in 

and near southern Spanish Valley (fig. 72.1) ; an 

additional 33 collapse structures were noted in a 

reconnaissance north of this area to Moab. Most of 

the collapse structures lie on the east side of Spanish 

Valley within a northwest-trending belt that is about 

three-quarters of a mile wide and 10 miles long. 

The three collapse structures south of Pack Creek 

may be in another more westerly trending belt. 

Most of the collapse structures are partly obscured 

by surficial deposits and form inconspicuous mounds 

or swales. The sharp boundaries of these structures 

are fault contacts that, in plan, consist of many 

short straight segments enclosing the core of broken 

rock (fig. 72.3). The bounding faults commonly dip 

steeply inward, but several outcrops of wavy fault 

planes suggest that they average about vertical. Displacements along these faults range from a few 

hundred feet to about 1,500 feet and may differ 

greatly in adjacent collapse structures. 

The breccia within the bounding faults is made 

up of the country rock and younger sedimentary formations. In several collapse structures the breccia 

is roughly segregated into small mappable units 

(fig. 72.3), but more commonly the breccia is a 

jumbled mixture of fragments from many formations. The. fragments within the breccia, which 

range from grains to huge blocks 50 feet across, 

are not slickensided, and the sand grains are not 

crushed and sheared. In general, the· breccia is little 

altered except for the effects of removal of carbonate cement from sandstone units. For example, the 

breccia fragments are generally more friable than 

their parent rocks, and sandstone dikes and veinlets 

are common both in the breccia core and in the surrounding country rock. The edge of the core of the 

collapse structure south of the M4 Ranch locally 

shows a well-developed foliation that parallels the 

boundary fault; this foliation apparently resulted 

from flowage of the decemented sand and stretching 
B-174 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

109" 15' 

EXPLANATION 

WUs.·:~i;:::;~ • Alluvium 

Igneous rocks 

Chiefly diorite porphyry 

Mane lS shale, Dakota sandstone, 

ar d Burro Canyon formation 

Morrison ~ formation 

0 

San Rafael group 

Glen Canyon 

~ group 

m 

Chinle formation 

u 

iii 

lll 

~ 

a: 

1-

;-----:---: 0 2 3 4 5 MILES Geology by G. W. Weir, 

L----'-----'----.L..----'------' W. P. Puffett, C. L. Dodson, 

and V. C. Kennedy, 1956-59 m ~~ }

.Jz 

I !_ __ I 

! Salt L~ke City : 

I UTAH I 

Moab 0 i 

Spanish Vall/y 1 

I I L_ ________ j 

~---.......... 

Contact 

Dashed where approximately located 

.,.........-o----••• 

High-angle fault 

Dashed where approximately located; 

dotted where concealed. D, downthrown side 

Hermosa form.ation 

Collapse structure 

zz 

Z< W> 

ll. 

FIGURE 72.1.-Generalized geologic map of southern Spanish Valley and environs, Utah, showing location of section A-A' 

(fig. 72.2) and location of geologic map of collapse structure (fig. 72.3). 

of clay particles in the sandstone. Some breccias are 

locally stained by iron and manganese oxides, but 

they do not resemble the hydrothermally altered 

breccias in the somewhat similar collapse structures 

of the San Rafael Swell (Kerr and others, 1957). 

The collapse structures are Tertiary in age, for 

they are overlain by early Pleistocene deposits and 

they cut rocks as young as Late Cretaceous. Most. 

A 

10,000' 

0 2 

likely all the collapse structures bottom in inclined 

Paleozoic limestone beds that flank the salt core of 

the Moab anticline beneath Spanish Valley, because 

displacements of many of the breccia cores exceed 

the thickness of the underlying Mesozoic rocks. 

The origin of these collapse structures is uncertai~ 

but may be hypothesized as follows: Connate water, 

perhaps admixed with hydrothermal solutions, 

3 4 5 MILES 

La Sal 

Mountains 

A' 

10,000' 

Ti, Tertiary intrusive rocks, chiefly in laccoliths and stocks; Mlc, Mesozoic clastic rocks; Pzc, Paleozoic clastic 

rocks; F\1, Paleozoic limestone; F\e, Paleozoic evaporites, chiefly salt (Quaternary deposits not shown) 

FIGURE 72.2.-Generalized section A-A' across southern Spanish Valley and environs, Utah. 

....... 

·t· 

•• 

.... 

\.. 

·\>-· 
., 

·if 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-175 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I .. 1/ 

).:: Jltu 

............. 

J"fin 

b 100 200 300 FEET 

CONTOUR INTERVAL 40 FEET 

DATUM IS APPROXIMATE MEAN SEA LEVEL 

Geology and topography by G. W. Weir 

and W. P. ~uffett, 1956 

EXPLANATION 

BRECCIA UNITS 

Dakota sandstone (Upper Cretaceous) 

Burro Canyon formation (Lower Cretaceous) 

~ 

Morrison formation 

~ (Upper Jurassic) 

Jmb, BruBhy Basin member. 

Jms, Salt Wash member 

Entrada sandstone (Upper Jurassic), Carmel 

formation (Upper and Middle Jurassic), 

and Navajo sandstone (Jurassic and 

Triassic(?) undivided 

COUNTRY ROCK 

Nav~o sandstone (Jurassic and Triassic?) 

/ 

,.......-----. __ _..,./ 

Approximate contact 

~---/ 

Fault, showing dip 

Dashed where approximately looated 

~0 

Strike and dip of beds 

Vertical joint 

Ao 

Strike and dip of joints 

N 

FIGURE 72.3.-Simplified geologic map of collapse st~ucture: I 

northeast rim of Spanish Valley, Utah. 

moved downslope from igneous domes of the La Sal 

Mountains during the Tertiary and dissolved limestone in the upturned Paleozoic beds in the subsurface near Spanish Valley and thus created space 

for collapse breccia from the overlying formations. 

Moving upward along fracture channelways in the 

younger formations, the solutions removed carbonate 

cement so that these younger rocks caved into the 

open spaces. If these inferences and hypothesis are 

approximately correct, the collapse structures are 

the outcrops of breccia pipes that are as much as 

5,000 feet high. 

The collapse structures of Spanish Valley are not 

known to be mineralized, but they resemble in part 

other pipelike bodies of brecciated sedimentary rock 

that contain uranium ore such as the Temple Mountain collapse structure, Utah (Kerr and others, 

1957; Keys and White, .1956), the Woodrow pipe, 

New Mexico (Hilpert and Moench, 1960), and the 

Orphan pipe, Arizona (Gabelman and Boyer, 1958). 

REFERENCES 

Baker, A. A., 1933, Geology and oil possibilities of the Moab 

district, Grand and San Juan Counties, Utah: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 841, 95 p. 

Gabelman, J. W., and Boyer, W. H., 1958, Relation of uranium 

deposits to feeder structures, associated alteration, and 

mineral zones: Proc. Second United Nations Internat. 

Conf. on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 

Switzerland, v. 2, p. 338-350, 7 figs. 

Hilpert, L. S., and Moench, R. H., 1960, Uranium deposits of 

the southern part of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico: 

Econ. Geology, v. 55, p. 429-464. 

Kerr, P. F., Bodine, M. W., Jr., Kelley, D. R., and Keys, W. W., 

1957, Collapse features, Temple Mountain Uranium area, 

Utah: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 68, p. 933-982. 

Keys, W. W., and White, R. L., 1956, Investigations of the 

Temple Mountain collapse and associated features, San 

Rafael Swell, Emery County, Utah in Page, L. R., 

Stocking, H. E., and Smith, H. B., Contributions to the 

geology of uranium and thorium by the United States 

Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the 

United. Nations International Conference on Peaceful 

Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 285-298. 

Shoemaker, E. M., Case, J. E., and Elston, D. P., 1958, Salt 

· anticlines of the Paradox basin, in Geology of the Paradox 

Basin: Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Guidebook; 9th Ann. Field Conf., 1958, p. 39-59. 
I 

B-176 GEOLOGICAL. SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

73. AGE RELATIONS OF THE CLIMAX COMPOSITE STOCK, NEVADA TEST SITE, NYE COUNTY, NEVADA 

By F. N. HOUSER and F. G. POOLE, Denver, Colo. 

Work done in cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 

The Climax composite stock consists of two separate, contiguous intrusive masses, a granodiorite 

and a quartz monzonite that do not necessarily differ 

greatly in age (Houser and Poole, 1960a). On the 

basis of crosscutting relations and of chemical and 

mineralogic characteristics observed in hundreds of 

feet of drill core and an 800-level tunnel, as well as 

in surface outcrops, it is concluded that the quartz 

monzonite is the younger. Numerous aplite and pegmatite dikes cut both masses. Field relations and a 

lead-alpha age determination (T. W. Stern, written 

communication, 1960) suggest an age for the Climax 

composite stock of Permian ( ?) to early Mesozoic. 

The Climax stock intruded complexly folded and 

faulted carbonate rocks of the Pogonip group of 

Ordovician age. In fault contact with the Pogonip 

group are sedimentary rocks of Cambrian to possible Pennsylvanian age. The carbonate rocks have 

been thermally and metasomatically altered to marble and tactite for as much as 1,500 feet from the 

contact with the ~tock, although minor discontinuous 

metasomatic effects are noted in all rocks out to 

3,000 feet. Pyroclastic rocks of the Oak Spring 

formation (Miocene(?) or younger) unconformably 

overlie parts of the stock and Paleozoic formations 

(Houser and Poole, 1960a, 1960b). 

The granodiorite intrusive is light gray to greenish medium gray, equigranular, and predominantly 

medium grained (Houser and Poole, 1959). Its average composition, based on 19 modal analyses, is 28 

·percent quartz, 16 percent potassium feldspar, 45 

percent plagioclase, and 9 percent biotite. The average grain size is about 2 mm, but the common range 

is Y2 to 4 mm. The texture is granitic and very 

slightly porphyritic. No distinct inclusions of country rock are known .. 

The contact between granodiorite and adjoining 

quartz monzonite masses is generally vertical or 

very steep. In detail it is highly irregular and shows 

mutually penetrating fingers of each rock. These 

fingers are measurable in inches or feet in width 

and length. No glassy chilled zone has been noted 

in either rock. No systematic variation like that 

described for the quartz monzonite has been noted 

in t~e texture or composition of the granodiorite in 

relation to this contact. 

The quartz monzonite intrusive is concluded to be 

younger than the granodiorite because of a transitional variation in texture and composition of the 

quartz monzonite inward from its contact with the 

granodiorite, and because similar transitions are 

found in the quartz monzonite where it intrudes the 

Pogonip group. 

The quartz monzonite intrusive can be divided on 

the basis of grain size into a fine-grained variety, 

in which the average subhedral grains are from 

1,4 to 1 mm across, and a medium-grained variety 

in which they are from 1 to 11/2 mm across. Finegrained quartz monzonite occurs in a zone that 

parallels the border of the intrusive; the mediumgrained variety makes up the remainder of the intrusive. The peripheral zone of fine-grained rock 

is from 50 to 800 feet wide; it averages 500 feet 

wide where the intrusive adjoins the granodiorite, 

and less than 100 feet wide wherJ~ it adjoins the 

marble. In most places the fine-grained rock grades 

to the medium-grained variety within distances 

ranging from a few feet to 100 feet. In some places 

·the two varieties ate intimately intermixed; this is 

thought to be the result of autointrusion of older 

fine-grained material by younger medium-grained 

material.· 

Where in contact with the granodiorite intrusive, 

the quartz monzonite intrusive varies in composition from quartz diorite in the first 15 feet to granodiorite throughout the next 45 feet, and to quartz 

monzonite in the rematnder of the mass. However, 

the zones vary considerably in width from place to 

place, and the boundaries are indefinite. Table 1 

.shows the mineralogic variations. 

The fine-grained border zone of the quartz monzonite next to the marble is texturally similar to 

· corresponding zones in the quartz monzonite next 

to the granodiorite although it is more highly variable mineralogically and chemically. Autointrusion similar to that observed in the vicinity of the 

contact with the granodiorite is also common near 

the contact with the marble. 

J 

t 

.... 
,.i. 

\_ 

., 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-177 

TABLE !.-Changes in the essential mine1·al compositions, in volmne penent, of the qua1·tz 1nonzonite intrusive at selected · inteTvals j?·o1n the contact with the g1·anodiorite intTusives 

[tr, trace] 

' 

____________________________ Vol u m c pcrcen t .....:.. _______________ Distaucc from Estiu111tcd vuluruc Potassium Rock lutervnl ~~:rnuudioritc percent of qunrtz Number of Total feldspar type iutrusivc mOIIZOUitc modal (lunrtz Potassium Plagioclase Biotite Hornblende Total feldspar of total (feet) intrusive r analyses feldspar 2 fcldspa~ 

---- ·-------------------------------------

.1. ....... 15 and less .. 0.8 !) 22 8 54 15 tr 99 62 13 Quartz diorite 

2 ....... 1.5-GO ...... 2.2 5 27 17 46 8 tr 98 6:3 27 Granodiorite 

3 ....... 60-200 ..... 7 -1 2G 25 42 7 0 100 67 :37.4 Quartz monzonite 

4 ....... >200 ...... 90 7 28 25 40 6 tr 99 65 38.5 Do. 

\Veightecl average eom position 3 

. . . . . . . . 28 25 40 6 tr ...... 65 38.5 

1 Based on the total exposed quartz monzonite stock. :! Includes proportioned amounts of potassium feldspar phenocrysts. 3 Weighted for the various proportions of the intrusive represented in intervals 1 through 4. 

The relative ages of the quartz monzonite and 

granodiorite are important in interpreting the leadalpha age determination for the Climax stock. It 

has been concluded that the quartz monzonite is the 

younger intrusion, and because the lead-alpha age 

was determined for this intrusiv~, it applies as the 

youngest age limit for the intrusion of the preceding 

granodiorite. 

Field relations indicate that the Climax stock was 

intruded no earlier than Permian ( ?) time. Strata 

of the Tippipah limestone of Permian ( ?) and Pennsylvanian age 10 miles to the southwest are without 

noticeable breaks in sedimentation and are without 

coarse clastics that would suggest nearby contemporaneous or previous structural deformation (P. 

P. Orkild, oral communication, 1960) such as the 

tight folding and high-angle faulting which next to 

the Climax stock (Houser and Poole, 1960a) preceded intrusion. Many of the metamorphic ·effects 

equivalent to those observed next to the stock are 

found throughout the formations of Ordovician 

through Mississippian age that had been involved 

in this deformation. 

The field relations also indicate that the stock 

was intruded, exposed, and dissected before deposition of the Oak Spring formation, which is of Ter-

• 

tiary age, possibly Miocene or Pliocene (Johnson 

and Hibbard, 1957, p. 369). 

Two lead-alpha age determinations made by T. W. 

Stern (written communication, 1960) for zircon 

from the medium-grained quartz monzonite give 

estimates of 330 ± 35 and 230 ± 25 million years. 

The younger of these two estimates is thought to be 

more nearly correct because it was substantiated by 

replicate determinations and it falls within the age 

limits established by field relations. Therefore, both 

intrusions of the Climax stock are dated tentatively 

as Permian ( ?) to early Mesozoic. 

REFERENCES 

Houser, F. N., and Poole, F. G., 1959, "Granite" exploration 

hole, Area 15, Nevada Test Site, Nye County, Nev.-

interim report, Pt. A, Structural, petrographic, and 

chemical data: U.S. Geol. Survey TEM-836, open-file 

report. 

--- 1960a, Preliminary geologic map of the Climax stock 

and vicinity, Nye County, Nev.: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. 

Geol. Inv. Map I-328. 

--- 1960b, Structural features of pyroclastic rocks of the 

Oak Spring formation at the Nevada Test Site, Nye 

County, Nev., as related to the topography of the underlying surface, in Short papers in the geological sciences: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B266-B268. 

Johnson, M. S., and Hibbard, D. E., 1957, Geology of the 

Atomic Energy Commission Nevada Proving Grounds 

area, Nev.: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1021-K, p. 333-384 . 
B-178 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

74. RHYOLITES IN THE EGAN RANGE SOUTH OF ELY,.NEVADA 

By DANIEL R. SHAWE, Denver, Colo. 

Rhyolite of Tertiary age in the Egan range south 

of Ely, White Pine County, Nev., occurs as (a) intrusive bodies, including a volcanic neck a mile 

across and a small sill; and (b) extensive dissected 

layers of welded tuff (fig. 74.1). Whether the ip.-

trusive rhyolite bodies are comagmatic with and 

mark the vents for the welded tuff ash flows is the 

subject of this paper. This possibility is in part 

suggested by the crude tendency for the welded 

tuff layers to dip outward from the neck (fig. 74.1), 

and in part by the superficial similarity of the 

rhyolites. 

PETROLOGIC CHARACTER OF THE RHYOLITES 

The intrusive rhyolite is generally a light- to darkgray porphyritic rock composed of. phenocrysts 

mostly about 1 to 2 mm across set in an aphanitic 

or glassy matrix that makes up about 75 to 80 percent of the rock. Glassy rhyolite forms a chilled 

border 100 to 200 feet wide around the volcanic 

neck. Flow structure is locally evident, generally 

as vertical banding in the volcanic neck and lineation in the sill. Much of the rhyolite in the neck is 

brecciated, and, as seen in thin section, flow line·s are 

marked by strings of crushed crystals embedded in 

groundmass (fig. 74.2). Apparently deuteric or hydrothermal alteration affected large parts of the 

volcanic neck, as these parts are bleached light yellowish gray to almost white, and the rhyolite has 

become "porcelaneous." Another result of deuteric 

or hydrothermal action in the volcanic neck was the 

development of numerous small and imperfect 

"thunder-eggs"-cavities within dense, siliceous ellipsoidal shells lined with chalcedony and minor 

amot:nts of fluorite and manganese oxide. Oxidation 

occurred locally in the neck, as parts of the rhyolite 

are pinkish from "dusty" hematite. Small inclusions of chert or silicified limestone 1 mm to 1 em in 

diameter are abundant. 

Phenocrysts in intrusive rhyolite comprise subequal amounts of quartz, sanidine, and plagioclase 

(albite to oligoclase?), and about 1 percent of biotite; the size range is about 0.1 to 4 mm. Quartz 

occurs as euhedral to strongly corroded and embayed 

crystals; some is smoky. Sanidine forms subhedral 

to euhedral crystals; a few crystals contain intergrown quartz in graphic and myrmeckitic forms 

(fig. 74.3). Plagioclase forms subhedral to euhedral 

crystals, with slight oscillatory zoning and few albite and pericline twins. Biotite is dark brown to 

light yellowish brown and in places is charged with 

tiny specks of an iron oxide. Except for sparse iron 

ores, no accessory minerals were recognized. 

The welded rhyolite tuff is similar in gross appearance to the intrusive rhyolite, except that almost everywhere it shows layering due to flattened 

pumice lapilli, and there is no obvious flow structure. 

Phenocrysts are mostly 1 to 2 mm across and are embedded in a glassy matrix constituting about 50 

to 65 percent of the rock. In hand specimen, the 

tuffs appear no darker than the intrusive rhyolites, 

although crystals, especially mafic species, are more 

abundant in the welded tuffs. Inclusions of chert or 

silicified limestone in the welded rhyolite tuff appear 

to be more abundant than in the intrusive rhyolite, 

and they are not concentrated locally-as they are in 

the intrusive rock. 

Phenocrysts in welded tuff comprise plagioclase 

(albite to andesine?), making up about 15 percent . 

of the rock, lesser and subequal amounts of quartz, 

sanidine, and biotite, about 1 percent of pyroxene, 

iron ores, and pale hornblende, and traces of sphene, 

apatite, and zircon. The size range of all phenocrysts is about 0.1 to 4 mm. Plagioclase occurs as 

subhedral to euhedral crystals with slight to rather 

strong progressive zoning; a few crystals show 

ragged cores that are probably albite, rimmed with 

andesine ( ?) which is zoned outward progressively 

to albite. Albite and pericline twins are sharper and 

more abundant than in plagioclase of the intrusive 

rhyolite. Quartz is euhedral to strongly corroded 

and em bayed (fig. 7 4.4) ; hand specimens show some 

smoky quartz like those of the intrusive rhyolite. 

Sanidine forms subhedral to euhedral crystals ; a few 

of these have glass inclusions, in part zoned, but 

none contain graphic and myrmeckitic intergrowths 

of quartz. Biotite is strongly pleochroic, almost black 

to yellowish brown with a greenish cast, and commonly includes minute apatite crystals, and opaque 

iron minerals along cleavage traces. Accessory minerals aggregate less than 1 percent of the rock; they 

comprise iron ores, sphene ·(some diamond-shaped 

gr~ins as much as 0.5 mm long), apatite, and 

zircon. 

J. 

-' 
.. 

·-k 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-179 

0\) 

0 

I 

5 MILES 

I 

EXPLANATION 

~ I \ .... J 

Outline of area of rhyolite 

Crosshatched area is volcanic neck. (Not all 

rhyolite areas a,re shown) 

Strike and dip of layering in rhyolite 

Estimated strike and dip of layering in rhyolite .-4 

Sample locality 

7 is about 50ft stratigraphically below 5; 9 is a few ft 

from the wall of the volcanic neck, 4 is about 100ft, 

and 2 is about 200ft; 1 is in the sill 

NEVADA 

I 

N 

FIGURE 74.1.-Map showing areas of rhyolite and sample localities in the Egan range south of Ely, Nev. 
.B-180 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE !.-Chemical analyses and semiquantitative spectrograpMc analyses of eight rhyolites f'rom the Egan range south of 

Ely, Nevada 

[Chemical analyses by Margaret Lemon; semiquantitative spectrographic analyses by Paul R. Barnett; d, detected; 0, looked for but not found 

(below limit of detectability) ] · 

Intrusive rhyolite 

Sill I Volcanic neck 

------------------------------

Sample 

---~----~--~----~---~----~ --~---

(DRS-45-58) (DRS-22-58) (DRS-21-58) (DRS-52-58) 

Arithmetic 

average of 

four intrusive rhyolites 

"Comparison 

factor" 

Chemical analyses 

Si02 ....... . Al20a ...... . Fe20a ...... . FeO ....... . MgO ....... . CaO ....... . Na20 ...... . K20 ....... . H20+ ...... . H20- ..... . Ti02 ...... . P20s ....... . MnO ...... . C02 ....... . Cl ......... . F ......... .. 

Sub-total .. Less 0 .... 

Total. .... 

75.36 

13.55 

.31 

.43 

.07 

.84 

3.80 

4.61 

.35 

.19 

.05 

.09 

.07 

.01 

.01 

.11 

99.85 

.05 

99.80 

73.09 

13.59 

.44 

.34 

.07 

.90 

3.42 

5.11 

2.46 

.12 

.05 

.01 

.08 

.01 

.03 

.14 

99.86 

.07 

99.79 

72.92 

13.63 

.51 

.27 

.14 

.97 

3.48 

4.83 

2.66 

.29 

.05 

.01 

.07 

.01 

.03 

.11 

99.98 

.06 

99.92 

72.49 

13.45 

.55 

.25 

.08 

.88 

3.30 

5.00 

3.33 

.23 

.05 

.00 

.08 

.01 

.02 

.13 

99.85 

.05 

99.80 

73.47 

13.56 

.45 

.32 

.09 

.90 

3.50 

4.89 

2.20 

.21 

.05 

.03 

.08 

.01 

.02 

.12 

> 

< 

<2X 

<4X 

<9X 

<3X 

> 

> 

> 

<5X 

<9X 

<3X 

> 

<2X 

>2X 

Arithmetic 

average of 

four extrusive 

rhyolites 

69.71 

14.11 

1.12 

1.41 

.81 

2.85 

2.51 

3.84 

1.81 

1.00 

.45 

.10. 

.05 

.02 

.02 

.07 

Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses 1 

B ........... 0 . 0015 .0015 .0015 . .0011 > 0 

Ba .......... .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 <60X .19 

Be .......... .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 >2X .00015 

Ce .......... 0 0 0 0 0 < .023 

Co .......... 0 0 0 0 0 < .0003 

Cr ........... d. d .0003 d < .0003 < .0003 

Cu ......... .0003 d d d < .0003 < .0003 

Ga ......... .003 .003 .0015 .0015 .0023 >3X .0009 

La .......... 0 0 0 0 0 < .011 

Nb ......... .003 .003 .Q03 .003 .003 > .0019 

Nd ......... 0 0 0 0 0 < .009 

Ni .......... 0 0 0 0 0 < < .0003 

Pb .......... .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 >3X .0009 

Sc .......... .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 <2X .0007 

Sn .......... .0007 .0007 .0007 .0007 .0007 > 0 

Sr .......... .003 .003 :003 .003 .003 <20X .06 

v ........... 0 0 0 0 0 < .004 

Y .......... .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 > .0023 

Yb ......... .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 > .00023 

Zr .......... .007 .007 .003 .003 .005 <4X .019 

Extrusive rhyolite 

Welded tuff 

Sample 

-~---·-~-~-----~--~---~--~---

(AB-23-51) (DRS-5-59) (AB-22-58) (DRS-28-58) 

70.50 

14.31 

1.07 

1.41 

.74 

2.89 

3.02 

3.48 

1.43 

.36 

.46 

.10 

.05 

.01 

.04 

.08 

99.95. 

.04 

99.91 

0 

.15 

.00015 

.015 

.0003 

.00015 

.0003 

.0007 

.007 

.003 

.007 

.0003 

.0007 

.0007 

0 

.07 

.003 

.003 

.0003 

.015 

70.28 

13.97 

1.09 

1.63 

.76 

3.21 

2.48 

3.70 

1.38 

.50 

.45 

.09 

.04 

.03 

.01 

.03 

99.65 

.01 

99.64 

0 

.3 

.00015 

.03 

.0003 

.0007 

.0003 

.0007 

.015 

.0015 

.015 

.0003 

.0007 

.0007 

0 

.07 

.003 

.0015 

.00015 

.03 

69.46 

14.62 

1.11 

1.44 

.84 

2.98 

2.97 

3.54 

1.53 

.61 

.47 

.10 

.05 

.03 

.04 

.09 

99.88 

.05 

99.83 

0 

.15 

.00015 

.03 

.0003 

.0003 

.0003 

.0015 

.015 

.0015 

.007 

0 

.0015 

.0007 

0 

.07 

.007 

.003 

.0003 

.015 

0 

0 

0 

68.58 

13.55 

1. 21 

1.16 

.88 

2.30 

1.56 

4.64 

2.88 

2.52 

.43 

.09 

.04 

.00 

.00 

.07 

99.91 

.03 

99.88 

.15 

.00015 

.015 

.000:3 

.00015 

.0003 

.0007 

.007 

.0015 

.007 

.0007 

.0007 

.03 

.003 

.0015 

.00015 

.015 

1 Figures are reported to the nearest number in the series 7, 3, 1.5, 0.7, 0.3, 0.15, etc., in percent. These numbers represent midpoints of group data on a· geometric scale. Comparisons of this type of semiquantitative results with data obtained by quantitative methods, either chemical or spectrographic, show 

that the assigned group includes the quantitative value about 60 percent of the time. 

t 

... 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-181 

CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF THE RHYOLITES 

The chemical character of four samples of intrusive rhyolite and four samples of welded rhyolite 

ass A 

artz 

0 1 MILLIMETER 

0 

FIGURE 74.2.-Pen-and-ink drawing of rhyolite from volcanic 

neck. Glass A is clear;· glass B is comminuted containing 

numerous small fragments of broken crystals (sample 3). 

Biotite 

0 1 MILLIMETER 

FIGURE 74.3.-Feldspar crystals with myrmeckitic and graphic 

intergrowths of quartz. Feldspar crystal A is sanidine 

from sill (sample 1). Feldspar crystal B is sanidine 

rimmed with plagioclase from volcan\c neck (sample 4). 

tuff is summarized in table 1. As shown in table 1, 

the four intrusive rhyolites form a group closely 

similar in composition, as do the four welded tuffs; 

the two groups are, however, chemically quite distinct. (See "Comparison factor" of the group averages, table 1.) For more valid comparison of the 

groups the analyses should probably be recalculated 

without H:!O, although this could not alter the basic 

differences between the two. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Both the petrologic and chemical data suggest 

that the intrusive and extrusive rhyolites were not 

closely related genetically. For example, the distinct differences between both plagioclase and sanidine phenocrysts in the two groups indicate that they 

probably were not derived from the same magma 

chamber, even at widely separated times. Further, 

the obvious chemical disparity between the intrusive 

rhyolite and the welded rhyolite tuff suggests that 

one is not related to the other through crystal fractionation. 

Glass 8 

0 1 MILLIMETER 

FIGURE 74.4.-Pen-and-ink drawing of welded rhyolite tuff. 

Glass A generally rims crystals, is vesiculated and fragmented; glass B forms matrix enclosing whole and broken 

crystals and particles of glass A (sample 8). 
. B-182 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

75. TECTONIC SIGNIFICANCE OF RADIAL PROFILES OF ALLUVIAL FANS IN WESTERN FRESNO COUNTY, 

CALIFORNIA 

By WILLIAM B. BULL, Sacramento, California 

Work done in cooperation with the Calij01·nia Department of Water Resources 

The shape of an alluvial fan reflects part of i·t~ 

depositional history, which is controlled primarily\ 

by erosional and tectonic changes in the drainage · 

basin upstream. The radial profiles of fans along 

the western border of the San Joaquin Valley in 

western Fresno County, Calif.; are interesting features because they are segmented, and because they 

can be used to help decipher part of the tectonic 

history of the area. 

The drainage basins of the fans head in two distinct mountainous areas. The small fans have drainage basins with ephemeral s.treams which head in 

the foothill belt of the Diablo Range. The large fans 

have drainage basins wi.th intermittent streams 

which head in the main Diablo Range. 

The overall radial profiles of the alluvial fans 

are concave upward, but the slope does not decrease 

at a uniform rate away from the mountain front. 

Instead the radial profiles are segmented. Profiles 

of fans whose streams head in the foothill belt have 

three straight-line segments; profiles of fans whose 

streams:head in the main Diablo Range have four 

segments: three are straight lines but the uppermost 

segment may be concave upward. An example of 

each type of radial profile is shown in figure 75.1. 

The dots represent altitudes from topographic maps 

that have. a 5-foot contour interval. The lengths of 

the segments and the angular relationships between 

them vary for different fans, but the profiles of 

adjacent fans generally are similar. 

Near their apexes the fans accumulate deposits 

that have the same general slope as the valley upstream from the fan. Slope measurements from 

topographic maps of 10 streams show that the uppermost .fan segments and the valleys upstream from 

the fans for a distance of lj2 to 1 mile have the same 

general slope, although there have been periods of 

arroyo cutting during the lastcentury. Five of these 

valleys have slightly lower gradients than their uppermost fan segments, and five have slightly higher 

gradients. For one stream, the slope of a terrace for 

three-fourths of a mile upstream from the fan is the 

same as the upper fan segment. The continuous slope 

implies that the terrace deposits were laid down at 

the same time as the upper deposits of the fan 

segment. 

\ Valleys also tend to be cut down to the same 

g~adient as the adjacent lower fan surface. This 

ten\iency is illustrated by the stream of Tumey Gulch 

where it is entrenched into the upper fan segment. 

More than a mile of the stream has been cut down 

.,to th~\ same gradient as the adjacent lower fan 

, segme~t. . \ 

Channel trenching helps preserve fan segmentation by restricting deposition to certain fan segments. At the present time deposition is not occurring on the upper fan segment of the fans whose 

streams head in the foothill belt, or on the upper 

two segments of the fans whose streams head in the 

main Diablo Range. 

Climatic fluctuations, uplift of the mountains, and 

changes in base level should be considered as possible causes of fan segmentation. Neither the fans 

nor drainage basins show any evidence of marked 

base-level changes. Moisture studies of deep cores 

from the dry alluvial-fan deposits do not indicate 

major changes in rainfall or stream runoff. However, Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits on the summits of the foothill belt show that parts of the 

mountains were uplifted more than 2,000 feet during 

Pleistocene time. The uplift occurred mainly as 

monoclinal and anticlinal folding. 

The drainage basins of western Fresno County 

have paired terraces that are commonly 100 to 300 

feet above the present-day stream channels. These 

terraces represent periods of lateral planation and 

I'ittle downcutting followed by periods of accelerated downcutting, which made narrower valleys 

within the former wider valleys. The accelerated 

downcutting accompanies uplift in the mountain 

area, which steepens the stream gradient ; as a result, the fan deposits also should have a steeper 

gradient. Thus, the result of uplift would be a 

"new fan" built out onto the older more gently 

sloping fan. 

J 
' 

.c. 

., 

t 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-183 

TUMEY GULCH FAN 

(Foothill belt) 

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 53 

SCALE, IN MILES 

9 

CANTUA CREEK FAN 

(Main Diablo Range) 

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 211 ..... 

LLJ 

LLJ 

LL. 

300~--------~---------------------+---------------~-1-----------------------~r------------------

0 2 4 

SCALE, IN MILES 

FIGURE 75.1.-Radial profiles of two alluvial fans in western Fresno County, Calif. 

Some stages of alluvial-fan development are outlined by diagrams in figure 75.2. In figure 75.2a a 

fan and stream channel have developed a common 

gradient. Uplift steepens the stream gradient and 

the new fan deposits also have a steeper gradient 

(fig. 75.2b). The stream-channel gradient may have 

been steeper after the uplift, but the slopes in figure 

75.2b represent equilibrium conditions near the end 

of the stage. Another period of uplift makes the 

youngest segment (fig. 75.2c), completing a fan similar to the Tumey Gulch fan (fig. 75.1). Deposition 

continues on the fan and the stream channel maintains the same slope as the fan by aggrading slightly 

(fig. 75.2d). An increase in the amount and intensity 

of rainfall causes temporary channel trenching (fig. 

75.2e). The low terrace and the upper fan segment 

have the same slope, and the downstream end of 

the entrenched channel has the same gradient as 

the adjacent lower segment. The surficial deposits 

of respective fan segments generally are not of distinctly different ages. For example, deposition may 

have been occurring mainly on the upper segment a 

century ago, but channel trenching then caused deposition to occ·ur mainly on the middle segmen~ as 

the end of the channel moved downslope (fig. 75.2e). 

Thus, in the situation illustrated in· figure 75.2e, 

deposition is restricted to the area downslope from 

the upper two fan segments, as it is for the streams 

that head in the main Diablo Range. 

The segmented fans of western Fresno County 

indicate three or four episodes of uplift of the Coast 

Ranges rather than continuous uplift. Part of the 

uplift may have occurred in the last 3,000 years. 

Charcoal that was 10.5 feet below the surface of 

the upper (youngest) fan segment of the Arroyo 

Hondo fan is 1,04Q ± 200 years old according to a 

radiocarbon age determination. 1 The total thickness 

of deposits of the fan segment at this locality is 

1 Radiocarbon age determination made by Meyer Rubin of the U.S. Geological Survey; sample W-793. . 
B-184 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

estimated to be 24 feet, which suggests that the 

segment is 2,000 to 3,000 years old, if a similar 

rate of deposition existed throughout its history. 

Segmented fans apparently occur where the slope 

of the valley upstream from the apex has been made 

steeper than the slope of the fan. Large changes in 

fan slope probably indicate greater uplift and steepening of the valley upstream from the apex than do 

small changes in fan slope. The different radial 

profiles of fans whose streams head in the foothill 

belt for 50 miles along the western border of the 

San Joaquin Valley indicate different amounts or 

times of uplift and rates of erosion in their drainage 

basins. 

The fans of streams that head in the foothill belt 

and main Diablo Range have a distinctive segmentation which reveals part of the tectonic history of 

their respective mountain areas. Fan segmentation 

should be helpful in deciphering part of the tectonic 

history of the drainage basins of other mountain 

ranges. ~·::. Youngest deposits 

;;'.... ? 

Stream channel - •• · · · 

e 

c --..;;: 

FIGURE 75.2.-Diagrammatic sketc.hes showing segmented 

alluvial fan development in western Fresno County, 

Calif. 

76. SOIL-MOISTURE STORAGE CHARACTERISTICS AND INFILTRATION RATES AS INDICATED BY ANNUAL 

GRASSLANDS NEAR PALO ALTO, CALIFORNIA 

By F. A. BRANSON, R. F. MILLER, and I. S. McQUEEN, Denver, Colo. 

One of the chief determinants of the kinds and 

amounts of vegetation found on unplowed land surfaces is quantity of water stored in the soil and available for plant growth during the growing season. 

The annual-grasslands floral assemblage of California, although composed largely of introduced species, 

shows some striking contrasts on soils having different water-storage capacities. Certain indicator 

plants have been identified that may help in mapping 

soils of different textures, and in estimating quickly 

the hydrologic characteristics of soils in some local 

areas. 

The vegetation and soils of three small basins 

(310, 245, and 170 acres) near Palo Alto were 

mapped and sampled in 1959. A metal frame of the 

type shown in figure 76.1 was used to measure the. 

amounts and kinds of vegetation. Sampling locations were chosen at intervals along transects across 
.,. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-185 

FIGURE 76.1.-Metal frame and pins used to measure amounts 

and kinds of herbaceous vegetation. 

each basin. The annual precipitation on the basins 

is about 22 inches, most of it falling at moderate 

intensities from November to March. 

The abundance, and commonly the kinds, of plants 

differed on the sandy and clayey soils in all three 

basins as shown on table 1. Most of the soils of the 

three basins were either sandy or clayey, generally 

with sharp boundaries between soil types, leaving 

only small areas of medium-textured soils. Because 

the medium-textured soils were so limited, only the 

vegetation and soil analyses of the sandy and clayey 

soils were studied ·in detail. Most of the soils developed in place on bedrock consisting of alternate 

shale and sandstone strata that Branner and others 

(1909) mapped as the Purisima formation of Tertiary age. Residual soils developed from these strata 

can be seen in figure 76.2. · 

Species that were more abundant on clayey than 

on sandy soils included wild oat, Italian ryegrass, 

bellardia, tarweed, and bur clover. Purple star 

.thistle was found only on clayey soils. Soil cracks 

were present only in the clayey soils. Four or more 

hits (contacts) in soil cracks per 100 pins were recorded for clay soils of the three basins. 

Greater amounts of vegetation and a greater variety of plant species grow on the sandy soils. Species present in most samples but more abundant on 

sandy soils included shoft chess and red-stem filaree. 

Species found only on the sandy soils were ripgut 

brome, California oatgrass, foxtail fescue, mouse 

barley, needlegrass, agoseris, bindweed, Spanish 

clover, two species of lupine, California poppy, and 

fiddle dock. Sandy soils were characterized by a 

greater number of vegetation contacts per 100 pins, 

more mulch, and less bare soil surface. 

Trees and shrubs were widely but uniformly 

spaced in the three basins except for the few dense 

groves on north-facing slopes. The three important 

tree species in order of their abundance were valley 

oak (Que1·cus lobata), blue oak (Q. douglasii), and 

coast live oak (Q. agr-ifolia). The trees and shrubs 

did not appear to be affected by the different soil 

textures. 

Some of the physical characteristics of the sandy 

and clayey soils of the basins studied are shown in 

table 2. The percent moisture at saturation and at 

field capacity were considerably greater in the clayey 

than in the sandy soil. The estimated field capacity 

in the clay soil was approximately double that of 

the sandy soil in the upper 2 feet of the two soils. 

Lineal shrinkage was nearly four times greater for 

the clayey than for the sandy soils. 

FIGURE 76.2.-Residual soils developed on alternating strata 

of the Purisma formation. Sandstone is on the right and 

shale is on the left. 
B-186 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 1.-Herbaceous vegetation on basins A, B, and C near Palo Alto, Cal·if. 

[Numbers are average hits per 100 pins, using device shown on figure 76.] 

Auena/alua L. Wild oat .............. Bromus mollis L. Soft ehess ............. Bromus rioidus Roth. 

Ripgut hrome .......... /)fmlhonia californica 

Boland California 

oatgrass ............. Festuca meoalura Nutt. Foxtail fescue .......... Hordeum oussonianum Pari. 

Meditermnion harley ... Hordeum murinum L. 

Mouse barley .......... Lolium multijlorum La 111. 

Italian ryegrass ........ Stipa cernua Stibbins and Love Needlegrass ........... 

Aooseris orandijlora (Nutt.) 

Greene 

Agoseris· ............... Bellardia trixaoo (L.) All. 

Bellardia .............. Centaurea calcitrapa L: Purple star thistle ...... Conuolvulu,q arvPnsis L. Bindweed ............. Brodium cicutarium L 'Her. 

Red-stem filaree ........ Bschscholtzia cali/ornica 

Cham. 

California poppy ....... Lotus americanus (Nutt.) 

Bisch. 

Spanish clover ......... Lupinus bicolor Lindl. 

Lupine ................ Lupinus formosus Greene 

Lupine ................ Madia sp. Mol. 

Tarweed .............. Medicaoo hispida Gaertn. Bur clover ............. Rumex pulcher L. 

Fiddle dock ............ Unidentified forbs .......... 

Vegetation contacts per 100 pinsl ........ 

Basin and type of soil 

---~\----~---B---~----c---­

Sandy fc~~~ sand~r~:~ sa~~11-c~~~ 

Grasses 

4.7 10.2 4.2 

53.0 16.2 49.4 

1.3 1.2 

1.0 

17.9 

26.9 

.4 

17.7 30.0 17.2 

1.0 

Forbs 

1.0 

0.7 2.2 

11.5 

.4 

44.7 35.5 S3.6 

.3 

7.1 

3.7 12.0 6.9 

5.3 3.5 9.0 

.2 .7 1.1 ----------

133.1 121.8 196.8 

Other 

4.5 

8.5 

11.0 

75.0 

24.5 

8.5 

11.5 

---

143.5 

31..5 

47.2 

9.2 

3.8 

3.8 

.5 

43.8 

3.8 

1.5 

.5 

.5 

1.2 

2.2 

.5 ---

l.'iO.O 

38.7 

26.0 

25.3 

74.7 

1.3 

13.3 

6.0 

. 7 ----

18fi.O 

1 Total of grasses and forbs. 

Although the soil moisture retention capabilities 

of the clayey soils exceeded those of the sandy soils, 

more herbaceous vegetation grew on the sandy soils, 

probably because of higher rates of infiltration of 

water, and because. soil water is more readily available for plant use in the sandy soils. Infiltration 

rates of 1.35 to 13.85 inches per hour with a mean 

of 6.40 inches for 6 1-hour runs were measured for 

the sandy soils. The infiltration rate on an uncracked clay-loam soil was 0.18 inch per hour; however, the degree of soil cracking (shrinkage, table 

2) and an almost complete absence of soil erosion, 

even on slopes exceeding 40 percent, indicated that 

moisture entered the clayey soils fairly readily. The 

cracks provide large areas for water entry until 

they are closed by swelling of the moistened clays. 

TABLE 2.-Some characte1·istics of a sandy soil and a clayey 

soil in the basins studied 

Depth 1\-foisture Estimated 

SUt' I Cl•y, 

from soil at field Lineal 

surface saturation 1 capacity 2 Sand 3 shrinkage • 

(inches) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) j (percent) (percent) 

Sandy soil 

0- 4 ....... 24.0 12.0 5.j 30 16 4. 7 

4- 9 ....... 25.2 12.6 55 31 14 5.6 

9 - 14 ....... 23.6 11.8 55 30 15 5.0 

14 - 19 ....... 24.8 12.4 56 26 18 4.8 

19 - 24. ...... 31.0 15.5 49 32 19 8.0 

24 - 27 .. .... 26.8 13.4 44 4:3 13 4. 3 

Clayey soil 

-

0- 4 ...... 50.8 25.4 19 33 48 19.2 

4- 7 ....... 49.7 24.8 17 23 60 19.8 

7- 10 ....... 48.4 24.2 17 31 52 19.6 

10- 13 ....... 48.6 24.3 16 34 50 19.0 

13 - 16 ....... 48.8 24.4 20 31 49 19.0 

16 - 19 ....... 48.6 24.3 18 32 50 18.6 

19 - 23 ....... 49.1 24.6 20 32 48 18. i 

23 - 26 ....... 46.6 23.3 21 31 48 18.4 

26 - 30 ....... 46.6 23.3 26 27 47 21.1 

30 - 34 ....... 42.1 21.1 28 35 37 19.5 

34 - 38 ....... 32.8 16.4 40 2!! 31 11.3 

38 - 42 ....... 23.4 11.7 56 

I 

27 17 8.0 

42 - 46 ....... 21.2 10.6 61 32 7 4. i 

46 - 51. ...... 21.2 10.6 65 30 5 5.2 

1 Method 27a (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954). 2 One-half of percent moisture at saturation is shown as estimated field 

capacity. 3 The sand fraction (greater than 74 microns) was determined by sieving, 

the silt (2 to 74 microns) and clay (less than 2 microns) fractions by hydrometer analyses. 

4 Lineal shrinkage = 100 { 1 - \Y ---=--,-------=1,....

0

_

0

_---:-....,..-o-:-} Volume change+ 100 

REFERENCES 

·Branner,. J. C., Newson, J. F., and Arnold, Ralph, 1909, 

Description of the Santa Cruz quadrangle [California]: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 163. 

U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954, Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils: U.S. Dept. Agriculture, 

Agr. Handb. no. 60, 160 p. 

•· 

... 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-187 

77. CAUSES AND MECHANICS OF NEAR-SURFACE SUBSIDENCE IN WESTERN FRESNO COUNTY, 

CALIFORNIA 

By WILLIAM B. BULL, Sacramento, Calif. 

Work done in cooperation with the California Department of Water Resources 

Near-surface subsidence on certain alluvial fans 

in western Fresno County, Calif., has destroyed or 

damaged ditches, canals, roads, pipelines, electric 

transmission towers, and buildings, and has made 

the irrigation of crops difficult. About 72 square 

miles have subsided and about 37 additional square 

miles probably would subside if irrigated. Three to 

5 feet of subsidence is common, and more than 10 · 

feet has occurred within small areas. 

The subsidence results chiefly from the compaction 

of deposits by an overburden load as the clay bond 

supporting the voids is weakened by water percolating through the deposits for the first time. The 

amount of subsidence that occurs when water is 

applied is dependent mainly on the overburden load, 

natural moisture conditions, and the amount and 

type of clay. 

The materials are deposited during the winters as 

mud-flows, water-laid sediments, and deposits intermediate between these two types. Some of the voids 

commonly found in these alluvial-fan deposits are 

openings between grains held in place by a dry clay 

bond, bubble cavities formed by air entrapped at 

the time of deposition, interlaminar openings in 

thinly laminated sediments, buried (but unfilled) 

polygonal cracks, and voids left by entrapped vegetation. An unusually large number of bubble cavities is shown in the clay in figure 77.1. 

The average annual rainfall on the fans is only 

6 to 8 inches. Plants and air remove much of the 

soil moisture during the hot, dry summers, reducing 

the moisture condition of the deposits to the wilting 

coefficient. Water from succeeding winter rains and 

floods does not percolate below the root zone ; therefore the deposits continue to be moisture deficient 

after burial below the root zone. 

Near-surface subsidence illustrates the significance of water in the natural compaction of sediments. Most alluvial sediments are compacted in 

the presence of excess water as th.- 0verburden load 

increases. However, on the fans su.,ceptible to nearsurface subsidence, the deposits are moisture deficient and only part of the compaction occurs as the 

overburden load is gradually increased. Later application of irrigation water allows the compaction 

to increase suddenly to the normal amount of compaction for a given overburden load, causing surface 

subsidence. 

EFFECT OF OVERBURDEN LOAD 

The amount of compaction due to wetting increases with an increase in overburden load, but 

most subsidence has been caused by compaction in 

the upper 200 feet of deposits. The surface of three 

irrigated test plots rose slightly immediately after 

the water was applied because the surface deposits 

swelled. When the water reached a depth of a few 

feet, the increased overburden load caused a net 

reduction in the volume of the deposits as the clay 

became wetter and lost part of its strength. 

The effect of the overburden load on subsidence 

during the first 42 months of operation of InterAgency test plot B (Inter-Agency Committee, 1958, 

p. 61-67) is shown in figure 77.2. Bench marks were 

set within cased holes drilled beneath this test plot 

at depths of 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, and 300 feet. The 

amount of compaction within each depth interval 

above 150 feet was determined from periodic levelFIGURE 77.1.-Bubble cavities in clay. 
B-188 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

fLIJ 

LIJ 

u.. 

~-------------------.--~~ ' ', 

' ' ' 'a.. 

' ' 

. FIGURE 77.2.-Effect of overburden load on compaction due to 

wetting, Inter-Agency test plot B after 42 months of 

operation. 

ing of these bench marks. Each point in figure 77:2 

represents the percent compaction within a 25-foot 

depth interval except the point at 125 feet which 

represents the 50-foot interval between 100 and 150 

feet. To a depth of 100 feet, there is a nearly linear 

increase in the percent compaction ·with increasing 

depth. The reason for the decrease in the percent 

compaction of the 100- to 150-foot depth interval is 

discussed below. 

STRENGTH OF CLAY 

The strength due to clay in a deposit is dependent 

on the moisture content and on the type and amount 

of clay. These variables control the amount of compaction due to wetting under a give~ overburden 

load. 

The strength of clay varies considerably for all 

moisture gradations between wet and dry. The 

natural moisture condition of the deposits susceptible 

to subsidence is about equivalent to the wilting coefficient, and subsidence is chiefly the· result of compaction caused by increasing the moisture content 

of these deposits to a condition of field capacity. 

A good example of the importance of moisture 

conditions is provided by the compaction record 

shown in figure 77.2. Although the lithology does not 

appear to change with depth there is a marked 

change in the percent compaction in the zone between 100 and 150 feet. The amount of compaction 

in this zone is only 7 percent, but the circle on . the 

dashed (projected) line· indicates that the amount . 

of compaction for that overburden load should have 

been about 12 percent. Tests of cores showed a 

sharp increase in natural moisture content below 

about 125 feet. The higher moisture content would 

indicate an increase in the natural compaction of 

the deposits below 125 feet, and therefore less compaction due to artificial wetting. 

The effect of the amount of clay on compaction 

due to wetting is shown in figure 77.3. The consolidation tests were made on surface samples, therefore a 50-foot over.iJurden load was simulated. The 

variable of post-depositional environment was eliminated, because the air-dry samples were collected a 

few months after they were deposited. The variable 

of textural features of the samples remains, but 

these features are controlled partly by clay content. 

Montmorillonite is the predominant clay mineral 

(R. H. Meade, written communication). 

This leaves the amount of clay as the most important variable. The curve in figure 77.3 shows 

the amount of compaction that occurs when air-dry 

samples are wetted under load. The sample containing no clay did not compact when wetted. Samples containing more than about 30 percent clay not 

only had enough strength to resist compaction when 

wetted but they showed a net swell under the simulated overburden load. The maximum compaction 

12~----~------~----~ 

.. f--10~----~--~--~----~ 

z 

LIJ 

(.) 

cr 

LIJ 

a.. 

~ 8~--+-~------~----~ 

ci 

z 

i= 

fLIJ 

~ 6~~--~------~~--~ 0 

fLIJ 

:::> 

0 

EXPLANATION 

• 

Water-laid sediment 

• 

Mudflow deposit 

• Deposit intermediate between 

mudflow and water-laid types 

40 

CLAY CONTENT, IN PERCENT 

48 

FIGURE 77.3.-Effect of clay content on compaction due to 

wetting under a simulated load of 50 feet of overburden. 

f 

f 

.. 
~I 

.. 

~· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-189 

for the samples tested occurred when the clay content was about 12 percent. If less than this amount 

is present, the dry overburden load already will have 

accomplished much of the compaction because there 

is not enough .clay to preserve the larger voids. 

As the amount of clay increases above about 12 

percent, the resistance of the sample to compaction 

when wetted increases progressively with clay content. In addition, the montmorillonite clay minerals 

swell. Both factors reduce the compaction progressively, and for the samples tested, the net compaction decreased to zero at about 30 percent clay. 

REFERENCE 

Inter-Agency Committee on Land Subsidence in the San 

Joaquin Valley, ·1958, Progress report on land-subsidence 

investigations in the San Joaquin Valley, Calif., through 

1957: Multilithed, 160 p., 45 pls. 

78. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SANDSTONES IN THE FRANCISCAN AND RELATED UPPER MESOZOIC 

FORMATIONS OF CALIFORNIA 

By WILLIAM P. IRWIN, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Work done in coope'ration with the California Division of Mines 

The specific gravity of sandstone was investigated 

as an adjunct in distinguishing between the Franciscan and related upper Mesozoic formations in the 

Coast Ranges and Sacramento Valley of California 

(fig. 78.1). In the Sacramento Valley the formations 

are of the shelf and slope facies, and constitute an 

essentially conformable sequence of strata that 

range in age from Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous. 

For the purpose of this discussion the rocks of the 

Sacramento Valley sequence will be divided according to age into three units: the Knoxville formation 

of Late Jurassic age, the Lower Cretaceous, and the 

Upper Cretaceous. In the Coast Ranges most of the 

rocks of upper Mesozoic age are assigned to the 

Franciscan formation, a eugeosynclinal assemblage 

composed mostly of sandstone, but which includes 

a·pproximately 10 percent greenstone and chert. The 

Franciscan also ranges in age from Late Jurassic to 

Late Cretaceous, and is more highly folded arid 

faulted than the strata of the Sacramento Valley. 

The thickest section of the Sacramento Valley sequence is about 35,000 feet, whereas the Franciscan 

formation probably is considerably thicker. 

Although the Franciscan is the dominant upper 

Mesozoic formation in the Coast Ranges, rocks of 

the Sacramento Valley sequence also are present, · 

many as relatively small blocks folded and faulted 

into the Franciscan. Recognition of small str!]ctural 

blocks of strata of the Sacramento Valley sequence 

within areas underlain chiefly by the Franciscan 

formation is difficult in many places because completely satisfactory criteria for distinguishing between sandstones of the Sacramento Valley sequence 

and of the 'Franciscan formation have not been 

determined. 

The specific gravity of 1,030 specimens of sandstone of both the Fr.anciscan formation and the Sacramento Valley sequence was measu'red, including 

most of the specimens used by Bailey and Irwin 

(1959) for determination of K-feldspar content, and 

others collected throughout the Sacramento Valley 

and the northern and southern Coast Ranges. Specific gravity was measured on a direct-reading balance, with the specimen immersed in water. The 

average weight of the specimens is approximately 

300 grams. Most of the specimens are essentially 

·unweathered and impermeable, and for these the 

measurements represent bulk specific gravity. However, many of the sandstone units of the Upper Cretaceous of the Sacramento Valley sequence are permeable, and as the surfaces of the specimens were 

not treated to prevent penetration by water, values 

somewhat higher than bulk specific gravity were 

obtained. 

Cumulative frequency distribution curves based 

on the specific gravity measurements are shown in 
B-190 

• 

42°· 124° 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

. lfl' 

. :y: 

. ·0. 

•• "')!J'. 

122° 

·. -y·. 

. ·->. 

.. ~· 

... -z. . ,..), . 

. o 

.•. 

1-

z 

w 

(.) 

0:: 

w 

0... 

z 

>--

(.) 

z 

~50 a 

w 

0:: 

u. 

0 

w 

1-

<X: 

...J 

::l 

::::E 

::l 

(.) 

2.3 

Median 

2.4 2.5 

2.68 2.70 

r--+---t---- Upper Cretaceous 

62 samples 

o.-1~-...,..--f----Lower Cretaceous 

71 samples 

!----+----Knoxville formation 

40 samples 

Franciscan formation 

857 samples 

---+----Coastal belt 

128 samples 

2.6 ~7 2.8 2.9 

3.01 

3.0 

38~r-----------~~~~~-#~~~~~~------~ .... SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

124° 

. 36°-

122° 

0 100 MILES 

EXPLANATION 

D . 

. Quaternary and Tertiary rocks 

·. D ~ D . · · · Marine sedimentary rocks Franciscan formation 

. ' Shelf and slope fames Euqeosynclinal facies 

Undivided rocks 

of Coastal belt 

LATE JURASSIC TO LATE CRETACEOUS 

Granitic and pre-Cretaceous metamorphic rocks of the Klamath 

Mountains, N acimiento·San Andreas fault block, and Transverse Ranges -

FIGURE 78.l.-Map showing distribution of the Franciscan and related upper Mesozoic formations, with graph showing 

cumulative frequency distribution curves of specific gravity of sandstones. 

1,-· 

•. 

I 

r 

:·-

{w. 
.~. 

.... 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-191 

figure 78.1. The curve for sandstone in the Franciscan formation is well separated from and on the 

high specific gravity side of the curves for the three 

units of the Sacramento Valley sequence. The 

median specific gravity of the sandstone in the 

Franciscan is 2.65. The marked increase in specific 

gravity at the upper end of the Franciscan curve 

reflects metamorphism of the sandstone that generally is not recognized in hand specimen. E. H. 

Bailey of the Geological Survey studied the specimens that plot along this part of the curve and 

states (oral communication, J artuary 1961) that 

most of the Franciscan sandstone with a specific 

gravity of 2.70, and all with a specific gravity of 

2.71 or higher are metamorphosed; the metamorphism is chiefly of the plagioclase feldspar to form 

jadeite and lawsonite. About 22 percent of the 

specimens of sandstone in the Franciscan have a 

specific gravity higher than 2.68, the highest observed in rocks of the Sacramento Valley sequence. 

The curves representing sandstone of the three 

units of the Sacramento Valley sequence are conspicuously lower than the curve for the Franciscan 

formation and are displaced progressively toward 

the low specific gravity side of the· graph with decreasing age, although at some places the curves 

intermingle. As previously stated, many values for 

sandstone units of the Upper Cretaceous do not truly 

represent bulk specific gravity, and thus the· curve 

for the Upper Cretaceous should be further to the 

left side of the graph than shown. Median values 

for t?e curves are 2.59 for the Knoxville formation, 

2.57 for the Lower Cretaceous, and 2.55 for the 

Upper Cretaceous. 

Reasons for the general differences in specific 

gravity of the sandstone of the several units are 

not surely known. However, one might speculate 

that the generally higher specific gravity of the 

sandstone in the Franciscan relative to the sandstone of the Sacramento Valley sequence results 

from a greater abundan~e of mafic volcanic fragments (high specific gravity), a general lack of Kfeldspar (low specific gravity), and a high degree· 

of compaction. The progres~ive decrease in specific 

gravity with decrease in age of the units of the 

Sacramento Valley sequence probably is related to 

the marked increase in K-feldspar content with decreasing age, and to a progressively smaller amount 

of compaction resulting from shallower depth of 

burial. 

Specific gravities of 128 specimens of sandstone 

from the coastal belt of undivided sandstone, shale, 

and conglomerate are shown by a separate curve. A 

general lack of volcanic rocks, sparse paleontologic 

data, and results of study of K-feldspar content 

(Bailey and Irwin, 1959), suggest an affinity with 

the Sacramento Valley sequence. The cumulative 

frequency distribution curve for sandstone of the 

coastal belt also suggests this affinity, as it is close 

and generally parallel to the curves for the units of 

the Sacramento Valley sequence.· Although generally somewhat to the right of the curves for the 

units of the Sacramento Valley sequence, it is far 

to the left of the curve for the sandstone of the 

Franciscan. The generally higher specific gravity 

indicated by the curve for the coastal belt, compared 

to the curves for units of the Sacramento Valley 

sequence, may reflect the presence of areas of unrecognized sandstone of the Franciscan formation 

within the coastal belt. This interpretation is supported by the presence of a few specimens with 

specific gravities above 2.68, which is higher than 

the specific gravity of any specimen collected from 

the Sacramento Valley sequence. 

REFERENCE 

Bailey, ·E. H., and Irwin, W. P., 1959, K-feldspar content of 

Jurassic and Cretaceous graywackes of northe·rn Coast 

Ranges and Sacramento Valley, California: Am. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 43, no. 12, p. 2797-2809 . 
B-192 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

79. SOME EXTREMES OF CLIMATE IN DEATH VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

By T. W. ROBINSON and CHARLES B. HUNT, Menlo Park, Calif., and Denver, Colo. 

The hydrologic basin of Death Valley, Calif., includes about 8,700 square miles, of which about 500 

square miles is below sea leyel. The bottom of the 

basin, the salt pan, covers about 200 square miles 

and is more than 200 feet below sea level. Elevations in Death Valley range from 282 feet below sea 

level near Badwater, the lowest point in the United 

States, to 11,045 feet at Telescope Peak some 15 

miles to the west. 

The climatic measurements made at the National 

Park Service Headquarters, 3 miles north of Furnace Creek Ranch, for the period May 1958 to May 

1959, are shown in figure 79.1. The conditions of 

low humidity, high summer temperatures, high 

evaporation, and low rainfall, shown graphically in 

the figure, typify the climate of Death Valley. 

In the 48-year period,. 1912 to 1960, the U.S. 

Weather Bureau at Furnace Creek Ranch, formerly 

Greenland Ranch, reco~ded the lowest average rainfall, 1.66 inches, of any official weather station in 

the United States. The average rp.onthly rainfall 

ranges from a high of 0.2.9 inch in February to a 

low of 0.0.2 inch in June. There have been periods· 

of more than a year in which less than 1 inch of 

rain has fallen and, during 1929, no measurable 

rainfall was recorded at this station. The station, 

168 feet below sea level, is located on the edge of the 

salt·pan. A frequency analysis of the precipitation 

records shows an annual precipitation of less than 

1 inch during 40 percent of the time, and 3 inches 

or less for 96 percent of the time. Rainfall has 

exceeded 4 inches only twice in 48 years. · 

Temperatures greater than 120°F are common 

during the summer months. The highest air temperature ever measured in the shade at an official 

Weather Bureau station in the United States, 134°F, 

was recorded on July 10, 1913, at Greenland Ranch, 

now Furnace Creek Ranch. This recording is believed to have been e·xceeded only by 136°F reading 

that was observed at Azizia, Tripolitania in northern Africa on September 13, 1922, and which is 

generally accepted as the highest air temperature 

recorded under standard conditions (Hansen, 1960, 

p. 442). July is the hottest month with a long-time 

average maximum of 116°F. However, Furnace 

Creek Ranch does not appear to be the hottest place 

in the valley. Temperature records indicate that 

Badwater, about 15 miles south of the ranch on the 

salt pan, 280 feet below sea level, has maximum te:r:nperatures as much as 3°F higher; the average maximum for July was 122.5°F in 1959 and 120.4° in 

1960, while at the ranch the average maximum was 

119.3°F and 118.1 °F. In July 1959, the highest temperature recorded at the ranch was 124°F, but at 

~adwater this temperature was exceeded on 11 

days. Similarly in July 1960, 124 oF was exceeded 

on only 1 day at the ranch but on 5 days at Badwater. 

Ground surface temperatures in excess of 160°F 

have been recorded in several parts of the valley. 

The maximum recorded was 190°F in August 1958, 

and was measured on the surface of massive gypsum 

at Tule Spring some 5 miles west of Badwater. 

The average relative humidity for 2 years of record at the National Park Service Headquarters, May 

1, 1958 to May 1, 1960 was 17.2 perc.ent. The average maximum was 23.3 percent and th_e average 

minimum 11.7 percent. The highest recorded during 

this 2-year period was 74 percent and the lowest was 

3 percent. The driest day was April 8, 1959 (see 

fig. 79.1), when the minimum was 4 percent and 

the maximum was 6 percent. 

Pan evaporation in. the hydrologic basin of Death 

Valley is the highest in the nation, exceeding 120 

in.ches a year in most of the basin. It is greatest in 

Death Valley proper. In the two 12-month periods 

of record, May 1, 1958 to May 1, 1960, for the 

standard Weather Bureau pan at the National Park 

Service Headquarters, the evaporation. was 155.05 

an~ 144.66 inches. So far as can be ascertained, 

this is the highest evaporation from a standard pan 

ever recorded. in the United States. Monthly pan 

evaporation ranged from a high of 22.71 inches in 

July 1960 to a low of 2.72 inches in January 

1960. During 1958 and 1959 daily evaporation 

exceeded 1 inch once each summer, and in 1960 

three t~mes during the summer. The daily evaporation in June and July for the 3 years averages about 

0. 70 inch. The ratio of annual pan evaporation to 

rainfall-90 to l-is a measure of the aridity of 

Death Valley. At no other locality in the United 

States is the ratio known to be this great. 

Rainfall during late Pleistocene time was undoubtedly many times greater and evaporation much less 

than that of the past 50 years. Remnants of bars 

and shorelines indicate that during this time the 

precipitation in the basin was sufficient to maintain 

... 

..,, 
~_; 

> 1-

4.-

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f\ ~g(.l"' ~ I . . . \ . .r~. . f'J. ·- , l_/:1'.. •'\:> ..... '---:''· ::JV'v ~'\ .... h~:C~~~.-J 

DAILY RELATIVE HUMIDITY RANGE 

183111 675 700 [, 1333 1220 

Q I >,...J I 1 I V' '-/ \JV V 1 - ' • 

1.0 WIND MOVEMENT (Numbers denote total for month) 

z 0.8 

0 

~(/) o:::•W 0.6 oi 

a_U 

<tZ 

>-

. w ~ 0.4 

z 

<{ 

a.. 0.2 

or 17 OR ..,,___ J -. .. ,... -.-..-T~ J ""-'·.&.- .... ,,_,..., 1 .._,.,...,_,. ...,,,..., 1 oJoV- ! U' Y"""T•V"- ....-.-V\1 J .J.V,J"- I 13.79___j 

0.4 EVAPORATION (Numbers denote total for month) 

'(/) ....Jw 

....JJ: I 0·:16 , 0.00 ~~ 0.2 z_ 

:;;(z 0:::_ 

0 

,May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 

FIGURE 79.1.-Climatic observations during the period of May 1958 to May 1959 as recorded by the weather station at National Park Service Headquarters on 

Cow Creek in Death Valley, Calif. 

r:n 

:::c: 

0 

~ 

~ 

"'0 

> 

"'0 

tz:l 

~ 

r:n 

z 

~ 

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tz:l 

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B-194 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

a lake in Death Valley some 600 feet deep in places, 

more th~n 100 miles long and from 5 to 10 miles 

wide. 

In spite of the extremes just described, the climate of Death Valley is delightful from about midSeptember to about mid-May. This·is attested to by 

the thousands of visitors who annually visit the 

valley during these months. 

REFERENCE 

Hansen, Harry, editor, 1960, The World Almanac: New York, 

New York World-Telegram and The Sun, 896 p. 

80. STRATIGRAPHY OF DESERT VARNISH 

By CHARLES B. HUNT, Denver, Colo. 

Desert varnish, a natural dark stain of iron and 

manganese oxides on rock surfaces, is useful in. the 

study of the stratigraphy of Recent deposits in the 

semiarid and arid west, for, in general, it permits 

separating deposits and surfaces that are no older 

than about 2,000 years from earlier ones. 

As the name implies, desert varnish is best developed, or at least is most conspicuous, in desert 

regions, but the stain is by no means restricted to 

such areas. Similar stain, also consisting chiefly of 

iron and manganese oxides, covers rock surfaces in 

humid regions too. 

The stain occurs ·on every type of rock, although 

it is least common on carbonate rocks. The surfaces 

stained may be the top or sides of stones lying about 

the surface; they may be vertical or overhanging 

cliffs or surfaces splashed by rivers or wetted by 

seeps. The stained surfaces may be exposed to 

direct sunlight or surfaces never reached by the 

sun, such as joint planes. 

Engle and Sharp (1958), in an important contribution to the chemistry of desert varnish, studied 

trace elements occurring with the iron and manganese stain and concluded that (a) varnish on 

stones seated in soil or colluvium is derived largely 

from that material, (b) varnish on large bedrock 

surfaces comes from weathered parts of the rock, 

and (c) airborne materials are probably a minor 

contributor. 

There is abundant archeological evidence throughout the Western States indicating that very little varnish has been deposited during the last 2,000 years. 

Only locally are stone artifacts and structures of 

the pottery and bow-and-arrow occupations-the occupations characteristic of the last. 2,000 yearsstained with desert varnish. In general they are not 

stained, whereas stone artifacts of the earlier, prepottery occupations commonly are stained, and the 

earliest ones darkly so. These generalizations are 

based on observations at many hundreds of archeological sites; the numerous and well-known prehistoric structures at Mesa Verde National Park are 

examples. of pottery-age structures that are younger 

than the desert varnish staining the cliffs there (fig. 

80.1). Also, in the Rocky Mountains, desert varnish 

characteristically is lacking on the most recent, historic and protohistoric glacial deposits in cirques, 

but is present on older ones (Moss, 1951, p. 877). 

Finally, on the gravel fans throughout the southwest, the elevated and older surfaces are stained 

with varnish, whereas the lowest surfaces, the 

youngest ones, are not. The archeological record and 

the supporting physical record are compelling that 

little varnish has been deposited in the Western 

States during the last 2,000 years. 

The same appears to be true in arid regions in 

other parts of the world. Blackwelder (1948) cites 

evidence from Egypt indicating practically no deposition of desert varnish in 2,000 years, slight deposition in 5,000 years, and dark stain on older 

stonework. 

There are exceptional localities. Iron and manganese oxides are being deposited at many seeps at 

the present time, but these clearly are isolated localities where conditions, still not understood, have been 

unusual and optimum for its deposition. Engle and 

Sharp (1958, p. 515-516) overemphasize such a 

locality-one where they infer varnish has been deposited in 25 years. But the total record indicates 

clearly that such deposition is highly localized and 

. .. 

\oo· 
'#· 

., 

~-

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-195 

FIGURE 80.1.-Pottery-age cliff house dwellings and other 

structures (ca. 500 to 1300 A.D.) at Mesa Verde and elsewhere in the Southwest rarely are stained with desert 

varnish but generally are built against cliffs that are 

stained, and the masonry overlaps the stained surfaces. 

exceptional. Were it otherwise, buildings and ·other 

surfaces, artificial and natural, that are as old as 

25 years should generally be darkly stained. 

The origin of desert varnish still is uncertain. 

Water obviously is needed to transport the metals 

to the surfaces where they are deposited, and iron 

and manganese are being deposited at the present 

time at many wet places in the West and in. the more 

humid parts or the country. Very little or no varnish is being deposited on surfaces that are not 

frequently wet. This restricted occurrence of newly 

deposited iron and manganese oxides suggests that 

the moisture requirements may be considerable. Deposition may be chiefly by physical-chemical processes, but I suspect that micro-organisms play a 

major role, as they are known to do in hastening 

the oxidation of iron compounds in mine waters. 

(See bibliography in Temple and Koehler, 1954). 

Whatever the process of origin, the evidence about 

the ag.e of desert varnish and the evident need for 

moisture to produce the deposits leads to the conclusion that the principal deposits are the product of 

pluvial periods. The last such pluvial time in the 

Western States was just prior to the Christian era. 

The archeological evidence indicates substantial deposition of desert varnish at that time and very little 

· since then. 

REFERENCES 

Blackwelder, Eliot, 1948, Historical significance of desert 

lacquer [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 59, p. 1367. 

Engle, C. G., and Sharp, R. P., 1958, Chemical data on desert 

varnish: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, p. 487-518. 

Moss, J. H., 1951, Late glacial advances in the southern Wind 

River Mountains, Wyoming: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 249, p. 

865-883. 

Temple, K. L., and Koehler, W. A., 1954, Drainage from 

bituminous coal mines: West Virginia Univ. Bull. Eng. 

Exp. Sta., Research Bull. 25, 35 p . 

81. USE OF ARCHEOLOGY IN RECENT STRATIGRAPHY 

By CHARLES B. HUNT and ALICE P. HUNT, Denver, Colo. 

The changes· in the tools of the prehistoric occupants of the United States provide a stratigraphic 

record that helps distinguish between older and 

younger Recent deposits.· The earliest known occupationsin the United States were in late Pleistocep.e 

time, but these are not sufficiently numerous nor 

well enough known to be helpful geologically. In 

this country late Pleistocene deposits are best iden-
B-196 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

tified by their content of Pleistocene species of elephants, cam~ls, horses, and other mammals (Hunt, 

1953). 

Prehistoric occupations accompanied by a modern 

vertebrate fauna, the basis for Lyell's original definition of the Recent (Lyell, 1873; Forbes, 1846), 

can be divided into two major stages. The late stage 

roughly coincides with the Christian era, that is, 

the past 2,000 years, and it is characterized over 

much of the United States by pottery and the bow 

and arrow. Earlier peoples depended on basketry 

and the atlatl or spear. 

The changes in tools did not occur simultaneously 

over the whole of the United States. In parts of 

central United States, for example, pottery was 

used before 1 A.D., whereas along much of the 

Pacific Coast pottery never was made. Similarly, the 

Indians of Florida continued to use the throwing 

stick (atlatl) almost to historic time. Nevertheless, 

the early stages of the Recent are prepottery and 

prebow-and-arrow, and are characterized by the 

heavy projectile points suitable for spears or the 

atlatl. 

Archeologists distinguish many stages within the 

arrowpoint and atlatl stages, the two major ones, 

but for geological purposes a two-fold division of 

each is sufficient. Figure 81.1 illustrates a stratigraphic sequence of projectile points from the Basin 

and Range province, Colorado Plateau, and High 

Plains. The diagram, of necessity oversimplified, is 

adapted from other published chronologies, especially 

one by Krieger (1950). Some projectile-point types 

continued to be made from one stage into another, 

although in reduced numbers. Further, one must 

consider the associated traits and not depend on a 

single one. In paleontology it is the faunal assemblage rather than the individual fossil that is important; in archeology it is the collection of associated traits rather than the individual artifact that 

is important. For example, there is no difficulty in 

distinguishing a modern kitchen from a colonial one 

despite the fact that the modern kitchen may contain some colonial antiques. 

In the western States the pottery and bow-andarrow occupations commonly are on top of alluvial 

flood plains, and they may occur' in dunes that have 

formed on top of the alluvium. Such dunes clearly 

are the product of the past 2,000 years, and the 

alluvium is earlier. 

Where the underlying alluvium contains a modern· 

fauna and is therefore Rece1,1t, the projectile points 

in the alluvium are likely to ·be those shown in the 

Geologic 

age 

-

c: 

Cll 

u 

Cll 

a:: 

Cll 

c: 

Cll 

u 

.s 

Ill 

·a; 

~ 

~ ro 

....J 

INCHES 

2 

0 

Ill 

(J) 0 UJ .s a. tiO 

~ ·E 

3: ~ 0 «; Ill llO 

...:, "C 

a:: c: a. ro 

llO 0 c: z:;:; 

<( c: 

:1 

>- .c: a:: .c: LLJ ~ 

1- 3: 1--c 0 Cll 

a. ,-ro 

~ ·g a. Ill 

Ill 

.e 

Ill 

0 (J) 

UJ .s a. tiO 

~ c: 

~ :1 z .c: <( ;; :E "i >- "C ....J 

a:: ~ <( ro 

'f ·u 

0 

Ill 

Ill 

~ 

FIGURE 81.1.-Stratigraphy of some projectile point types of 

the Basin and Range province, Colorado Plateau, and 

· High Plains. 

middle row of figure 81.1. These are larger and 

heavier than the arrow points, which are later. 

This Recent alluvium may overlap old sand dunes 

that are weathered reddish and stabilized. The 

projectile points most common in these dunes are 

like some indicated in figure 81.1 as early Recent. 

The alluvial, colluvial, or other deposits overlapped 

by the stabilized dunes generally are of Pleistocene 

age and can be so identified by their paleontological 

remains. 

.. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-197 

One of the limitations of the archeological record 

is that sites with sufficient tools to be useful for 

geologic stratigraphy and geologic mapping are 

mostly at the surface, and these provide only a 

limital date for the underlying deposit. Only rarely 

are diagnostic artifacts contained within a deposit 

over sufficient extent or in sufficient numbers to be 

exposed in a cross-section cut and thus useful in 

geologic mapping. Nevertheless, the sites, especially 

the younger ones, are sufficiently numerous to be of 

great assistance in many areas for distinguishing 

the different stages of Recent deposits. 

REFERENCES 

Hunt, C. B., 1953, Pleistocene-Recent boundary in the Rocky 

Mountain region: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 996-A, p. 1-25. 

Lyell, Charles, 1873, Geologic evidences of the antiquity of 

man: 4th ed. London, p. 3-4. 

Forbes, Edward, 1846, On the connexion between the distribution of the existing fauna and flora .of the British Isles 

and the geologic changes which have affected their area, 

especially during the epoch of the northern drift: Geol. 

Survey of England and Wales, Mem., v. 1, pt. III, P·. 402-

403. 

Krieger, A. D., 1950, A suggested general sequence in North 

American projectile points: Utah Univ. Anthropological 

Papers, no. 11, p. 117-124. 

82. EVIDENCE OF STRIKE-SLIP MOVEMENT ON NORTHWEST-TRENDING FAULTS IN MOJAVE DESERT, 

CALIFORNIA 

By T. W~ DIBBLEE, tTR., Menlo Park, Calif. 

The western Mojave Desert region is transected 

by many prominent northwest-trending high-angle 

faults, as shown on figure 82.1. These are nearly 

parallel to the San Andreas fault and terminate 

south of the Garlock fault, and they cut Quaternary 

sediments and basalt; many have inconsistent or 

even alternating vertical displacements. Movements 

on these faults have been interpreted to be mainly 

dip-slip (Hewett, 1954, p. 17). However, geologic 

mapping of this region during the past few years 

reveals that structural and physiographic features 

adjacent to some of these faults indicate or suggest 

movements that are predominantly right lateral, as 

on the San Andreas fault, but on a smaller scale. 

In the western part of this region, southwest of 

Mojave, two northwest-trending faults (fig. 82.1 A) 

show conclusive evidence of :right-lateral disphicement but no discernible vertical displacement. Vertical east-trending pre-Tertiary rock units transected 

by these two faults are offset as much as 1,500 feet, 

and several southward-draining stream-channels 

that dissect the overlying Quaternary fan gravel 

are deflected westward as they cross the faults. 

Farther east, in the central part of the region, 

a northwest-trending fault (fig. 82 .. 1 B) transecting 

an extensive exposure of Mesozoic granitic rock 

south of Boron offsets several hundred feet right 

laterally a network of vertical dikes of pegmatite 

and aplite (Dibblee, 1961). 

Still farther east, meta volcanic rocks that are 

exposed on the southwestern side of the Helendale 

fault (fig. 82.1 C), notheast of Vi.ctorville, are apparently displaced several miles northwestward. 

Vertical displacements on this fault are reversed at 

several places on its course and are small. 

On the Lockhart fault (fig. 82.1 D) northeast of 

Boron, vertical displacements are small and alternating. On the northeast block undrained depressions formed in Quaternary alluvium along several 

north-trending branch faults (Dibblee, 1959) suggest that these br.anch faults may be 1n part tension 

fractures resulting from internal stresses set up by 

right-lateral drag movement of the block. 

N 

r 

Gabriel 

Mountains 

Victorville0 

0 10 · 20 MILES 

117° 

FIGURE 82.1.-Faults in the western Mojave Desert region 

(between San .A,ndreas and Garlock faults). Position of 

faults referred to in text is indicated by letters. 
B-198 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

Qa 

Fault. showing ~···· lateral displacement 

Dotted U'here ronrealed 

---t----- Axis of Barstow syncline 

Dotted ll'here <'oncealed 

-,--

40 

Strike and dip of beds 

. 

\ .. ·-. ·-·-···-t-.... ·-. ·-... , 0 2 MILES • 

FIGURE 82.2.-Map of the Mud Hills near Barstow. Qa, alluvial sediments, Quaternary; Ts, sedimentary rocks, Miocene; Tp, 

mainly pyroclastic rocks, Miocene(?); gr, granitic rocks, Mesozoic. 

Southeast and east of Randsburg, structural features in the Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary 

and volcanic rocks strongly suggest right-lateral 

drag .movement and displacement along the Harper 

and Blackwater faults (Hewett, 1954, pl. 1). The 

Harper fault (fig. 82.1 E) is a zone of several minor 

parallel faults along which Tertiary rocks are com-

. pressed into folds with axes trending east as compared to the northwesternly trend of the faults, and 

the axes of several folds are offset right laterally 

along several of the faults of this zone. The Blackwater fault (fig. 82.1 F), a few miles northeast, also 

offsets contacts of several rock units right laterally. 

Southeastward, both these faults pass into and apparently die out under a thin but extensive cover 

of Quarternary basalt; along the extensions of the 

fault traces this otherwise undeformed flow is 

buckled into several arches whose axes trend south of 

east, indicating right-lateral drag movement. Vertical displacements on these faults are small and 

inconsistent. 

In the Mud Hills, 8 to 12 miles north of Barstow 

and a few miles southeast of the Quaternary basalt 

flow under which the Blackwater fault disappears, 

·granitic rocks are overlain by some 6,000 feet. of 

stratified rocks of Miocene age that are compressed 

into a symmetrical syncline with an axis trending 

nearly east. This axis and some contacts between 

rock units are offset right laterally by several northwest-trending faults (fig. 82.1 G) that diagonally 

transect the folded seq;uence as shown on figure 82.2. 

Nearly horizontal grooves can be seen on several of 

the fault planes when~ well exposed. On the southwest block of a fault north of the Mud Hills, aplite 

dikes are bent parallel to the fault where they approach it (fig. 82.2). 

A northeast-dipping fault (fig. 82.1 H) near Barstow ( Dibblee, 1960) has generally been regarded 

as a thrust fault (Waterman thrust of Bowen, 1954, 

p. 104-105, pl. 1) with vertical uplift on the northeastern block. Recent mapping reveals that it displaces a small granitic intrusion right laterally a 

4.· 
.• 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-199 

few hundred feet. The northeast-trending foliation 

of the gneiss of this area bends northwesterly, 

parallel to the fault along part of its course. 

Another northwest-trending fault (fig. 82.1 /) 

southwest of Barstow (Dibblee, 1960), displaces 

right laterally the axis ·of at least one large easttrending fold in Quaternary alluvial sediments and 

terminates several drag folds east of the fault. 

Evidence of right-lateral displacement on several 

other northwest-trending faults in the western Mojave Desert region is lacking, but their straight 

traces suggest all are high-angle or vertical faults. 

None shows evidence of left-lateral movement. 

At a few places where some of the northwesttrending faults are exposed, the fault planes are generally vertical or dip steeply. Steep dips are suggested, also, by the generally straight traces of all 

the faults. They generally transect hilly terrain or 

alluviated valleys. Gravity data (Mabey, 1960) indicate that, with a few local exceptions, the faults 

do not bound the deep alluvial basins. Some form 

only low scarps, and none lies at the foot of high 

steep mountain fronts. Strike-slip displacements 

probably exceed vertical displacements along some 

of the faults; some show little or no geologic or 

physiographic evidence of vertical displacement, yet 

make conspicuous lineations on aerial photographs. 

In marked contrast, most of the great normal faults 

of the region north of the Garlock fault trend north, 

sharply bound alluviated valleys and mountain 

ranges, have imposing fault-line scarps, commonly 

curve abruptly or jog, and dip toward the sunken 

valley blocks. 

Presumably, the strike-slip movement of the northwest-trending faults are related to movement along 

the San Andreas fault, but the movements are of 

much smaller magnitude. 

REFERENCES 

Bowen, 0. E., Jr., 1954, Geology and mineral deposits of the 

Barstow quadrangle, San Bernardino County, Calif.: 

California Div. Mines Bull. 164, p. 1-185. 

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1959, Geologic map of the Boron quadrangle, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Field 

Studies Map MF-204. 

-- 1960, Geologic map of the Barstow quadrangle, San 

Bernardino County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Field Studies Map MF-233. 

-- 1961, Geology of the Rogers Lake and Kramer 

quadrangles, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1089-B. 

Hewett, D. F., 1954, A fault map of the Mojave Desert region, 

[Pt.] 2, Chap. 4 of Jahns, R. H., ed., Geology of southern 

Cailfornia: California Div. Mines Bull. 170, p. 15-18. 

Mabey, D. R., 1960, Gravity survey of the western Mojave 

Desert, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 316-D, 

p. 51-72. 

83. ZONING OF SALINE MINERALS AT DEEP SPRING LAKE, CALIFORNIA 

By BLAIR F. JONES, Washington, D. C. 

The Deep Spring Valley is a relatively small intermontane basin in northern Inyo County~ Calif. 

Drainage is wholly internal and the area possesses 

many features in common with the larger lacustrine 

closed basins of the region. At the southern end of 

the valley is a small playa known as Deep Spring 

Lake (fig. 83.1). The playa is nearly equidimensional 

and covers an area of approximately 5 square miles; 

The northeastern third of this area has a porous 

multilayered saline crust up to 16 inches thick and 

is underlain for the most part by fluid organic black 

mud. This area is outlined by a low levee built up 

in connection with a commercial attempt to obtain 

potash salts. The playa south and immediately west 

of the levee is covered by a thinner saline crust, 

which overlies dense mois't gray-green or brown 

mud. The western one-third of the area consists of 

clay, grading to silt and sand toward the playa margins; much of this area is marked by very shailow 

alluvial channels and is covered by efflorescent salt 

crust. 

The distribution of sali~e minerals in the Deep 

Spring Lake deposits is largely dependent on the 

hydrography of tlle area. About two-thirds of the 

area enclosed by the levee contains a perennial body 

of dense highly colored brine, which is exposed in a. 
B-200 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

0 

N 

EXPLANATION 

Cia Calcite-aragonite 

D Dolomite 

G Gaylussite 

T Thenardite 

8 Burkeite 

"Bog mound" springs 

1 MILE 

FIGURE 83.1.-Sketch map of Deep Spring Lake, .lnyo County, Calif., showing mineral zoning. 

few stagnant pools in the driest seasons. Normally, 

a standing body of saline water a few inches deep 

·occupies a substantial part of the leveed area. In 

wetter seasonal cycles, the lake water extends beyond the levee. Most of the coherent saline crusts 

have been;. precipitated"' by· evaporatiqn of lake 

waters. ' 

The waters of Deep Spring Lake are derived from 

(a) a serie.s of "bog mound" springs on the north 

side of the lake, (b) the Buckhorn springs (which 

rise along a prominent fault zone on the east side 

of the lake), (c) direct precipitation Qn the lake 

area, (d) seepage through the lake muds ·from below, 

and (e) overland flow. The last two sources are 

probably minor as compared to the others. Normally 

the Bu-ckhorn springs contribute· by far the greatest 

amount of inflow to the lake at all times of the year. 

The saline minerals and the general type of deposit in which they occur are listed below in approximate order of abundance: 

Mineral Occurrence 

Dolomite, CaMg(COa):l ______________ Mud 

Calcite, aragonite, CaCOa __________ Mud 

Thenardite, N a:lS04 ____________________ Mud, saline crust, efflorescence 

:f!'alite, NaCl ::_-_____________________________ Mud, saline crust, efflorescence 

Gaylussite, Na:lCa(COak5H20 .. Mud 

Burkeite, Na .. (S04):lCOa ___________ ._Mud, saline crust, efflorescence 

Aphthitalite, NaaK(SO,h _________ Saline crust, efflorescence 

Trona, N a:1H ( C0ah·2H:l0 __________ Saline crust, efflorescence 

Pirssonite, N a2Ca (CO a) 2·2H20 .. Efflorescence 

Nahcol,ite, NaHCO ____________________ Mud 

Thermonatrit~, Na2COa•H:lO ____ Efflorescence 

Glauberite, Na:lCa(S04h __________ Saline crust, efflorescence 

Sylvite, KCl ___________________________ · _____ Saline crust, efflorescence 

Bloedite, Na:lMg(S04):l ----"---------Saline crust 
A. 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-201 

Detrital minerals, predominantly quartz and 

"illite" (as defined by Grim, 1953, p. 35) are also 

present in the muds. 

Hunt (1960) has delineated mappable.zones in the 

salt pan at Death Valley based on dominant anion 

composition and related to the sequence of precipitates formed on evaporation of an average brine. 

To provide greater detail and correlation with water 

composition, the zoning of the deposits at Deep 

Spring Lake has been worked out on the basis of 

saline mineralogy rather than chemical composition. 

This zoning is of three types: relatively regular 

lateral zoning of precipitate minerals in the lacustrine deposits over the entire playa area (fig. 83.1); 

local vertical zoning within distinct layers of saline 

minerals; and highly irregular and often localized 

zoning of saline mineral assemblages in efflorescent 

crusts. The first type is the only one that can be 

mapped. 

With the ex.ception of calcite and dolomite, zonal 

boundaries are drawn along the outer limit of certain key precipitate minerals on the playa. Calcitearagonite and dolomite zones are based on the relative amounts of these minerals. The sequence of 

key minerals from playa margin to center is calcite 

and (or) aragonite, dolomite, gaylussite, thenardite, 

burkeite. Except for aragonite and gaylussite, all the 

key minerals persist from the outer limits of their 

occurr~nce to the center of Deep Spring Lake. No 

aragonite could be positively identified in deposits 

containing thenardite. Gaylussite crystals persist 

only into the outer reaches of the thenardite zone. 

No zone based on halite can be established, inasmuch as halite crystallizes from evaporating waters 

over a wide area. Other saline minerals occur irregularly, or in response to conditions other than 

fluctuating lake levels alone. 

Calcite an·d (or) aragonite strongly dominate over 

dolomite only on the playa's far western side. Typically the surficial sediments of these areas contain 

a high percentage of detrital material. Most of the 

carbonate is present as an extremely fine grained 

aggregate. . 

Dolomite is the dominant precipitat~,· mineral of 

the muds throughout most of the playa. Such muds 

usually are extremely fine grained, smooth and even 

textured, plastic, and normally gray-green except 

near the top where they are oxided and are light 

brown. The dolomite-clay aggregate is commonly 

coa~ed with ~ydrous iron oxide. It is very difficult 

to draw a precise zonal boundary separating areas 

containing mostly dolomite from those containing 

mostly calcium carbonate. This boundary probably 

is closely dependent on the microrelief of the playa 

surface, and lies near the highest shoreline achieved 

by the ephemeral lake during an average climatic 

cycle. Precipitation of dolomite directly from solution is suggested by the distribution. of dolomite: 

muds within areas of relatively frequent flooding 

b~ lake waters contain the highest percentage of 

dolomite; and near the playa, dolomite ooze coats the 

bottoms of all surface inflow channels from springs. 

Near the central part of the playa in an area of 

broad flats gaylussite occurs as clear euhedral flattened wedge-shaped crystals disseminated in a carbonate-clay matrix that is mostly dolomite, but that 

also contains calcite. and laminae of white aragonite. 

The gaylussite crystals are fairly uniform in size, 

averaging 1 or 2 mm in maximum dimension, and 

are present only in permanently wet mud. They are 

oriented with long axes approximately. parallel to 

traces of stratification and seem to interrupt such 

traces. This suggests that the gaylussite formed by 

reaction of calcite with sodium-rich interstitial solutions. The distribution of the crystals within the 

zone is quite variable; in places they make up nearly 

35 percent of the total, whereas a short distance away 

they may be totally absent. 

The playa area immediately west and south of the 

levee consists of a nearly monomineralic crust of 

thenardite overlying dolomitic mud. Enclosed in the 

mud are crystals of thenardite. The proportion of 

crystals decreases rapidly with depth. Textures 

suggest that the very fine grained dolomite-clay 

aggregate has been forced aside by the growth of 

the thenardite crystals. 

Thenardite also is the major constituent of the 

saline crusts that cover nearly the whole eastern side 

of the playa .. The upper surface of these layers is 

often covered with a network of skeletal powdery 

mirabilite (Na:!S0 4·10H:!O) crystals altered to thenardite by dehydration, which indicates solution and 

reprecipitation of sulfate during fluctuation in lake 

levels. 

Inside the area enclosed by the levee, crustal layers of thenardite overlying brow~· and green dolomitic muds grade abruptly· into layers of brilliant 

white crust. This cru.st becomes thicker a·~d the , ' 

mud underneath ·becomes darker and more fluid in 

the area underlain by perennial .~rine. In the central 

part of the leveed area, the average total thickness 

of saline layers exceeds one foot. · 
B-202 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

Where the saline crusts exceed 2 or 3 inches in 

thickness, burkeite becomes a persistent component 

of the upper crustal layers. Thus burkeite may be 

considered the characteristic mineral of the central 

zone. 

REFERENCES 

Grim, R. E., 1960, Clay mineralogy: New York, McGraw :am 

Book Co., 304 p. 

Hunt, C. B., 1960, The Death Valley Salt Pan, a study of 

evaporite in Short papers in the geological sciences: U.S. 

. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B; p. B456-B457. 

84. EFFECTS OF RAINFALL AND GEOLOGY ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WATER IN COASTAL 

STREAMS OF CALIFORNIA 

By J. H. FETH, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Water flowing into the Pacific Ocean from streams 

originating along the California coast shows a variation between summer and winter in the concentration of dissolved solids, and between north and 

south in the composition of dissolved solids. The 

summer-winter variation has been examined on the 

west slope of the San Francisco Peninsula, and the 

north-south variation has been examined in streams 

north and south of the San. Francisco Peninsula. 

SAN FRANCISCO PENINSULA 

During the summer of 1957 and again during the 

following winter samples of water were taken from 

13 sites along 10 small streams originating on the 

west slope of the San Francisco Peninsula. These 

streams head at distances ranging from 5 to 15 miles 

from the coast in an area about 35 miles long. A 

few of the drainage basins remain in virtually a 

wild state; in most of the others human use, other 

than farming, is slight. In areas where farming is 

pract.iced irrigation is minimal, characteristically by 

sprinklers rather than by flooding or by ditch, hence 

flow returning to the streams is probably negligible. 

Natural influences thus dominate the chemical relations found. 

The pairs of samples representing, respectively, 

late summer and early winter show persistent differences. Without exception the summer samples 

contain almost twice the concentration of dissolved 

solids as the winter samples. The summer samples, 

taken at a time of minimal flow, probably consist 

almost entirely of ground water discharge because 

summer rains are almost unknown in this area. The 

samples taken during the winter rainy season consist of both ground water and rain water and thus 

show the lower concentration of dissolved solids. 

Because of the dilution, it is preferable to compare 

samples on the basis of percentage reacting values 

instead of concentration in parts per million. Comparison of mean values calculated for 13 sampling 

points indicated the following changes in percentage 

reacting values: 

Constituent 

Change, in percent, from 

summer (dry season) to 

winter (rainy season) 

(Mean of 19 pairs of samples) 

Calcium ---·----------------------------------------------------------

Magnesium ____________________ ··---------------------------------

Sodium plus potassium ___________________________________ _ 

Bicarbonate ------------------------------------------------------

Chloride ---------------·----------------------------------------------

Sulfate ----------------------------------------------------------------

+1.0 

+1.8 

-2.8 

-6.0 

-1.5 

+7.5. 

Nitrate, a minor constituent of stream water not 

included in the table above, shows both a relative 

and an absolute increase in concentration in the 

winter samples. This increase may be attributed to 

the decay of plant material during the fall and the 

washing of the nitrogenous byproducts into the 

streams by the heavy winter rains. 

Inasmuch as the winter rains originate over the 

ocean, it was expected that winter stream samples 

would contain appreciably larger amounts of windblown salts derived from the ocean than the summer 

samples. It was found, however, that in terms of 

mean percentage composition, sodium and chloride 

both decrease in winter. Comparison of percentage 

contents of chloride and of sulfate for· individual 

samples is given in figure 84.1. This graph shows 

that in six streams (8 pairs of samples) the chloride 

percentage decreased and sulfate percentage int 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-203 

PERCENT REACTING VALUES, 

IN ANIONS 

10 20 30 40 

s 0 X 

Molino Creek at road to Swanton 

w 0~ 

Big Creek, 0.25 miles north s (~ 

of Swanton 

w 0 >< 

s 0 

Little Creek at bridge near Swanton 

w X ) 

Mill Creek, 0.25 miles southeast s 0 X 

of Seaside School w (~ 

s 0 X 

Pescadero Creek at Pescadero 

w X p 

Pescadero Creek, 4 miles east s ex 

of Pescadero w X 0 

San Gregorio Creek, 2 miles s it' 0 

south of La Honda w )o p 

Nameless Creek above Tunitas s () X 

Creek w X <D 

Tunitas Creek above Nameless s 0 X 

Creek w ox 

Tunitas Creek, 0.5 miles above s 0 X 

mouth w X (~ 

Purissima Creek, 2.5 miles above s X c 

mouth w )o (~ 

s ox 

Purissima Creek near mouth 

w P< 0 

Scott Creek at Seaside School 

s >C 

w xo 

FIGURE 84.1.-Graph showing percentage reacting values of 

chloride (X) and of sulfate (0) in summer (S) and 

winter (W) samples from 10 streams on the San Francisco Peninsula, Calif. 

• Streams north of San Francisco 

0 

Streams south of San Francisco 

PERCENTAGE REACTING VALUES 

FIGURE 84.2.-Diagram showing differences in general chemical composition of water in coas~l streams north and 

south of San Francisco. 

creased in the winter samples. In four streams ( 5 

pairs of samples) both sulfate and chloride percentages increased in winter. In no sample did 

chloride increase and sulfate decrease. When consideration is given to the fact that in seawate.r 

chloride is a little more than 7 times as abundant 

as sulfate (Clarke, 1924, p. 127), it seems clear 

that oceanic salts are of less influence than other 

factors in determining the chemical composition of 

waters in the 10 streams. 

CALIFORNIA COAST NORTH AND SOUTH OF THE . SAN FRANCISCO PENINSULA 

The general chemical composition of water in 44 · 

streams north of San Francisco and in 88 streams 
B-204 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

south of San Francisco is shown in figure 84.2. All 

these streams discharge into the Pacific Ocean, all 

rise within 125 miles of the ·coast and most of them 

rise within 25 to 50 miles. 

The solid circles, representing streams of the . 

northern coast, indicate by their location and tight 

grouping the predominance of calcium magnesium 

bicarbonate waters. The open circles, representing 

streams of the southern coast, indicate by their 

sporadic distribution a wide variation of water types 

and the scatter of points toward the top of the 

diagram reflects the predominance of sulfate and 

chloride among the anions and of calcium and magnesium among the cations. These differences reflect 

major differences in the geologic environment and 

in the amount of rainfall. As previously determined 

for streams on the San Francisco Peninsula, windblown salts derived, from the ocean are not present 

in significant quantities in the streams along the 

northern and southern coasts. As shown by the 

Geologic Map of California (Jenkins, 1951) much of 

the area along the northern coast is underlain by 

igneous rocks and by low-rank metamorphic rocks 

of the Franciscan formation. The southern coast, 

on the other hand, is underlain predominantly by 

sedimentary rocks of diverse types and geologic age, 

many of which are weakly consolidated and contain 

readily soluble minerals. The northern coast also 

receives relatively large amounts of precipitation as 

compared to the southern coast (Dale, 1959). 

The streams along the northern coast are relatively high in bicarbonate, in part (at least) because 

of a relative abundance of carbon dioxide in the air 

and soil. These streams are probably relatively low 

in chloride and sulfate because these substances are 

tied up in complex compounds in the igneous and 

metamorphic· terrane and are not readily dissolved. 

Amounts that are available for solution are removed 

immediately and continuously by the heavier rainfall. 

The streams along the southern coast contain · 

relatively larger quantities of sulfate, chloride, calcium and magnesium derived from the loosely consolidated sedimentary rocks. 

REFERENCES 

Clarke, F. W., 1924, Data of geochemistry: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 770, 841 p. 

Dale, R. F., 1959, Climate of California, in Climatography of 

the United States No. 60-4: U.S. Weather Bureau, 37 p. 

Jenkins, 0. P., 1951, Outline geologic map of California showing oil and gas fields and drilled areas: San Francisco, 

California Div. Mines. 

85. GROUND WATER FROM COASTAL DUNE AND BEACH SANDS 

By E. R. HAMPTON, Portland, Oreg. 

The coastal plain along the youthful coast of 

Oregon is narrow or entirely lacking (Brown and 

Newcomb, 1956; Hampton, 1960). The harder rocks 

of the cliffed headlands extend a few miles out to 

sea, and the interheadland bays are relatively narrow 

. low plains underlain by windblown sand. Onshore 

winds prev_ail from the northwest in summer and 

:·{rom the southwest in winter; consequently, the 

longshore currents can feed sand to the interheadland beaches from either direction, and the baymouth 

bars and the beaches are tied to headlands at either 

or both ends. The bedrock consists· alm.ost entirely 

of poorly permeable sedimentary, volcanic-sedimentary, and volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. 

The areas of windblown sand in the interheadland 

bays range in. size from small pocketlike accumulations to some as much as 20 miles in length and 4 

miles in maximum width. The three largest areas, 

(fig. 85.1 A), are the Clatsop dunelands near the 

mouth of the Columbia River, the Florence dunelands near the town of Florence, and the Coos Bay 

dunelands near Coos Bay. Smaller, but important, 

sand areas occur at Manzanita, Newport, Sand Lake, 

Bandon, and· Langlois: 

These windblown sands lie on the westward 

sloping bedrock surface, as shown by figures 85.1 B 

and C. The thickness of the sand ranges from zero 

at the inland edges to a maximum of about 200 feet. 

The uppermost 100 feet of the sand consists largely 

of evenly sized, subangular to rounded grains of 

quartz. Samples from the top 20 feet of sand of 

the Coos Bay dunelands deposit contain 78 percent 
w 

100' 

100' 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEO.LOGIC AND HYDROLOGJC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

Bandon 

Langlois 

0 R E G 

0 

~ 

40 MILES 

A 

0 N 

E 

200' 

100' 

100' _._--------------------------~-..J...100' 

0 5280 FEET 

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 10 

B 

Sand Sand -""'/ /" _..,.....,.---/ 

~ 

-------- Bedrock 

--- --- ------ ---- 0 3000 FEET 

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 20 

c 

/ 

/ 

B-205 

E 

100' 

100' 

FIGURE 85.1.-Map of Oregon, and cross section's of sand deposits. A, map of Oregon showing location of principal coastal 

dune and beach sands; B, cross section of sand deposit north of Florence showing its surface, saturated zone, and part of 

the bedrock base; C, cross section of the sand deposit north of Coos Bay showing its surface, saturated zone, and bedrock 

base. 
B-206 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

medium-grained sand and 19 percent fine-grained 

sand. The sand of the top 20 feet of the Florence 

dunelands deposit is similar but finer, containing 

from 50 to 80 percent fine-grained sand and 20 to 

·50 percent meqium-grained sand. 

· Some sand beds are silty and clayey, and in places 

contain considerable peat and wood. In some deposits, as in the Coos Bay dunelands, the percentage 

of silt increases progressively with depth, but in 

others, as in the Manzanita deposit, the sand is almost uniform down to bedrock at a depth of 200 

feet. These conditions ·Suggest that the sand accumulated as a wind deposit inland from the beach 

as the ocean level rose 200 feet during late Pleistocene and Recent time. 

The annual rainfall is 50-70 inches, but the summers are· dry and the streams are very low during 

the summer and fall. About 75 percent of the annual 

precipitation sinks into the sand. Surface runoff 

occurs only in places where the sand has become 

saturated to the land surface: as in some low areas, 

along a few creeks, and in the ground-water discharge areas around the edge of the dunelands. 

Within each dune area the water table slopes outward toward its margins and is shallowest in topographic lows. During the wet winter months the 

water table rises from 3 to 10 feet. 

Properly screened 8-inch diameter wells commonly yield 200 to 300 gpm (gallons per minute). 

The sand of the Coos Bay dunelands has a coefficient 

of transmissibility of about 50,000 gpd/ft (gallons a 

day per foot) and a specific yield of 35 percent. The 

sand of the Florence dunelands probably has about 

the same values. 

At some places, the ground-water bodies may 

"float" on sea water as so-called Gyhben-Herzberg 

lenses. However, at the few places where wells have 

completely penetrated the sand, the entire body of 

ground water is fresh. Apparently, infiltration from 

precipitation is able to move the water seaward 

through the sand at a rate sufficient to keep out the 

sea water. As a result, the water table stands remarkably high above sea level in some of the dunelands-10-30 feet in the Coos Bay dunelands, and 

10-115 feet in the Florencf; dunelands. 

Lakes occur in the dunel~nds wherever depressions 

in the land surface extej1d below the water table 

(fig. 85.1 C). Lakes as deep as 100 feet, formed by 

the encroachment of the sand upon the channels of 

marginal streams, are common at the inner edge of 

the dunelands, and are in hydraulic continuity with 

the ground-water bodies. 

The ground water generally is of good chemical 

quality. It is soft and contains only about 20 ppm 

(parts per million) chloride. However, some of it 

has an amber color and contains enough dissolved 

iron, and. is sufficiently acid to require treatment for 

some uses. Saline water has not been found above 

bedrock, but probably is in contact with the fresh 

water in the sand farther offshore. Therefore, plans 

for large· withdrawals of fresh water should include 

precautions against encroachment of sea water. 

These sand deposits are virtually the only natural 

reservoirs of fresh water along the coast, for the 

older rocks are relatively impermeable. 

REFERENCES 

Brown, S. G., and Newcomb, R. C., 1956, Ground-water resources of the coastal dune-sand area north of Coos Bay, 

Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 27 p., 23 pls. 

Hampton, E. R., 1960, Ground water in the dune-sand area 

near Florence, Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 

40 p., 15 figs. 

86. MASS BUDGET OF SOUTH CASCADE GLACIER, 1957-60 

By MARK F. MEIER, Tacoma, Wash. 

Over a period of years, the changing mass of a 

glacier represents a moving average of its mass net 

budgets during each of these years. Considerable 

effort went into the measuring of net mass budgets, 

or volumetric changes, of typical glaciers all over 

the world during the International Geophysical Year 

apd the year following. This paper reports on one 

of these cooperative investigations. · 

Accumulation and ablation usually predominate in 

different seasons, so the mass of a glacier varies 
'· 

1-

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-207 

with time. Considering this variation we can define 

. the following quantities: 

1. Budget year is the interval between the time of 

minimum mass in one calendar year to the 

time of minimum mass in the next following 

year. 

2. Accumulation is the net change in mass from the 

value at the beginning of one budget year to 

the maximum value during that budget year. 

It is considered as a positive value. 

3. Ablation is the net change in mass from the 

maximum value during a budget year to the 

value at the end of the same budget year, and 

is defined as a negative value. 

4. Net budget is the net change from the beginning 

to the end of a budget year, is equal to accumulation minus ablation, and can have a positive 

or negative value. 

These components of the mass budget can be defined for a glacier as a whole, as an area-average 

for a whole glacier, or at points on the glacier surface: Values are given here in cubic feet of water 

(density 1 gm per cubic em) per square foot of 

glacier surface, reported simply as feet. 

It is also instructive to determine the altitudi11al 

gradient in the net budget. This parameter, termed 

here the "activity index," determines the amount 

of material that must be transferred from high elevations to low elevations in order to maintain a· 

steady-state condition, and thus determines the thickness and velocity of a glacier on a given bedrock 

slope. The net budget as a whole describes a glacier's state of health, and the activity index describes 

its metabolism (Shumskii, 1947). 

The Geological Survey began studies on South 

Cascade Glacier in 1957 (Meier, 1958). This glacier 

lies in the Northern Cascade Mountains of Washington, and is the source of the South Fork Cascade 

River, a tributary of the Skagit River. It flows toward the northwest at an average speed of about 

60 feet per year. The glacier is 2.2 miles long, as 

much as 3,600 feet wide, ranges in altitude from 

5,292 feet to about 7,300 feet, and covers an area of 

1.0 square mile, not including partially or completely 

separated ice masses clinging to the contiguous 

slopes (fig. 86.1). These separated ice masses are 

not included in the information presented here. The 

glacier terminus calves into a lake, but the yearly 

mass lost by this means is not considered in this 

'report. 

The distribution of mass net-budget values, given 

in feet of water equivalent, over the surface of 

South Cascade Glacier for the 1957-58 budget year 

is reported in figure 86.1. Note that only a very 

small area (3.9 percent) was included within the 

accumulation zone. The irregular distribution of net 

budget is primarily due to the effects of changes in 

the inclination of the surface slope (which cause 

erosion or augmented deposition by the wind) and 

the movement of accumulated snow by avalanches. 

The average net budget for the whole glacier was 

- 7.1 feet. 

Firn lines for 1959 and 1960 are also shown in 

figure 86.1. In 1959, 66.9 percent of the whole area 

was included in the accumulation zone, and ·the 

average net budget was + 2.33 .feet. In 1960, 48.7 

percent of the area was included in the accumulation zone, and the average net budget was - 1.84 

feet. 

The time distribution of accumulation and ablation for a station in the middle of the glacier is 

shown in figure 86.2. This station is located on the 

flow centerline, and is located in such an area that 

its mass budget is closely related to the average mass 

budget for the whole glacier. This illustration is 

drawn showing true depths of the various layers of 

snow, and these depths must be multiplied by appropriate values of density in order to obtain values 

of accumulation, ablation, or mass budget. Inspection of this chart shows that1. Th.e long and intense period of ablation from 

mid-April to mid-August 1958 not only· removed the complete 1957-58 winter accumulation, but also the net snow remaining from 

several. years before, creating a pronounced 

unconformity in the stratigraphic record. Another unconformity was produced in October 

196q. A third pronounced unconformity, occurring at depth, was formed in 1947, 1948, 

or 1950. Thus a stratigraphic section tal<en in 

1961 at this locality (P1) would contain at least 

three major time b:t;"eaks, and it would be difficult if not impossible to reconstruct the climatic history or mass budget history from 

stratigraphic evidence· alone. 

2. The close of the budget year occurred on different 

dates: October 12, 1958, September 25, 1959, 

and October 23, 1960. The 1959-60 budget. 

year was 394 days long whereas the 1958-59 

budget year included only 348 days. It is 

common practice to measure the size of a 

glacier once a year on a fixed date to determine its growth or decline. The data given 
B-208 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

INDEX MAP OF WASHINGTON 

N 

I 

0 1000 2000 3000 FEET 

100 0 500 1000 METERS 

FIGURE 86.1.-South Cascade Glacier, Wash., showing distribution of net budget values 

for 1957-58 budget year. The accumulation area for' this budget year is indicated 

by the stippled pattern; the perimeter of the stippled area is the firn line in 1958. 

Interval between lines of equal net budget is 2 feet. Firn line in 1959 indicated by 

heavy dashed line, and firn line in 1960 indicated by heavy dash-dot line. Topography 

indicated by dotted lines, contour interval is 100 feet. 

). 

t 

; 
+- / 

40 I 

00 

'<t 

-

"' 

w 

~t:i~30 ;w 

wu.. 

..--'-/r-~--./\_ 

/ \ 

,..J ' 

>z o_ ' \ Cl) <{> 1- ' 1957-58 \ 

\ 

0~~20 <{a:: 

a..O 

s:u.. oa 

zu 

cnz 

\ 

~·1956-57 / / 

J ./ 

/ 

0=>~10 

I 

1-

a.. 

1953-56 \. ,J 

\ I 

~952-53f./ . 

'--7:!.. w 

0 1948?-53 

0 

Pre-1948 

J 1 F 1 M 1 A 1 M_l_JjJ 1 A.lS.lO_l_N.lD 

1958 

-

Q) 

t:lO 

c: 

ro 

..C:c: 

uo 

E·~ 

ou 

.::~ 

DOc: 

-~.Q 

-r 

3 ~ f"y......_ 

:G IJ) f'-J """ 

~-~ J \ e /./ , w I \ r .... - J 1958-59· I ); 

.> 

I 

I 

1948?-52 .. 

--

~ ~ 

Pre-1948? 

J.l.F.l.M 1 A 1 M 1 JiJ,A 

1959 

/'-/.../ 

) 

s 0 

/ _, ... _,.. .. ,._/"\. 

~.../ \ / ... _ 

j' '\ •( 

J \ r- ...... , 

I 1959-60 \ 

r./ \ 

1., I \. I J \ I .......... , I ........ ... , ./1960-61 

1952-53/ 

N 1 D J 1 F 1 M_1_A M I J I J A . s I 0' N _l D 

1960 

FIGURE 86.2.-Growth and decay_ .of the snowpack at Station Pl ( 6,160 feet) on South Cascade Glacier. Solid lines indicate values known by direct measurement, dashed lines indicate values estimated on basis of weather records obtained at Darrington, Wash., and streamflow records obtained at South Cascade Glacier. 

rn 

::r: 

0 

~ 

1-3 

'"t:j· 

> 

'1:l 

tzj 

~ 

rn 

z 

1-3 

::r: 

tzj 

Cl 

tzj 

0 

t"" 

0 

Cl 

0 

-

> z 

_tj 

::r: 

~ 

tj 

~ 

0 

t"" 

0 

Cl 

"'""" 0 

rn 

0 

'tzj -

z 

0 

tzj 

sn 

> 

~ 

1-3 

-

0 

t"" 

tzj 

rn 

7' 

~ 

~ 

0') 

td 

~ 0 

~ 
B-210 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

below show that this practice is not likely to 

yield more than qualitative results. 

Measurement date 

August 1 ................ . September 1 ............. . 

October 1 ................ . Actual change in thickness .. 

Change in thickness (feet) 

in budget year -

+0.6 

-6.6 

-7.8 

-8.0 

1958-59 

+12.7 

+8.1 

+7.0 

+6.0 

1959-60 

+7.3 

+3.3 

+1.3 

-0.2 

This analysis ignores the fact that there is a component of flow in a vertical di:r:ection so that a zero 

net budget does not necessarily imply a zero net 

thickness change. However, locality P1 is located 

7000 

6500 Iw 

w 

u.. 

z 

w 

Cl 

::::> 

Ii= 

.....J 

<( 

6000 

5500 

I I I 

-30 -20' 

I 

/ 

I 

/ 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

-10 

a 

near the long-term average position of the firn line, 

at which place the vertical component is zero. The 

effect of vertical motion on these data would be the 

addition or subtraction of a constant small amount 

to all values. 

The altitudinal variation of accumulation, ablation, and net budget is shown for each of the three 

years in figure 86.3. The 1957.-58 curves show very 

large values of ablation and slightly less than average accumulation, producing a strongly negative net 

budget. In 1958-59 accumulation was large and 

ablation less than average, causing a positive net 

budget. The budget year 1959-60 appears to have 

been intermediate in its characteristics although it 

is interesting to note that ablation was large and 

accumulation was low at the lower elevations. 

.,· 

/ 

I 

I 

I 

' I 

I ' 

c 

I 

/ 

_, / 

0 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

\ 

I 

I 

~ 

\ 

I 

I 

I 

( 

b 

' " \ ' . I 

I ) I 

I I 

I I I 

I I 

I 

I 

I I 

I 

\ I 

I 

" ' I 

I 

( 

' \ 

h I 

I 

// I f I 

I / 

+10 

BUDGET COMPONENT, IN FEET OF WATER 

FIGURE 86.3.-Altitudinal variation in accumulation, ablation, and net budget, South Cascade Glacier, 1957-60. Light lines, a, 

indicate ablation; light lines, b, indicate accumulation; and heavy lines, c, indicate net budget. Budget year 1957-58 

designated by dash-dot lines, 1958-59 by dashed lines, and 1959-60 by solid lines. 

,t 

I 
j' 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-211 

In analyzing a diagram such as figure 86.3, it is 

important to note that ablation is not independent 

of accumulation. Ablation is caused primarily by 

the net absorption of radiation, and thus is a sensitive function of albedo. The albedo of 'old firn or 

ice is very low compared with that of snow so that 

ice or old firn is capable of absorbing several times 

as much radiant energy as snow. A heavy winter 

snow accumulation will result in a snow cover persisting long into the ablation season, decreasing the 

amount of possible ablation. 

The activity index, or vertical gradient of net 

budget, was relatively constant for the 3 years0.014 ( 14 mm per m). This is a high value, as high 

as any values quoted by Shumskii (1947, fig. 3). 

This activity index suggests an environment similar to that of the Blue Glacier, Olympic Mountains, 

Wash. (LaChapelle, 1959, p. 444-5), indicating that 

these glaciers occur in a maritime climate with relatively high values of winter snow accumulation and 

summer melt, and rapid transfer of material from 

high to low elevations. 

R.EFERENCES 

LaChapelle, E. R., 1959, Annual mass and energy exchange on 

·the Blue Glacier: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 64, no. 4, 

p. 443-449. 

Meier, M. F., 1958, Research on South Cascade Glacier: The 

Mountaineer, Seattle, Wash., v. 51, p. 40-47. 

Shumskii, P. A., 1947, Energiia oledeneniia i zhizn lednikov 

(Energy of glacierization and the life of glaciers) : Moscow, Geografgiz, translated by William Mandel, the 

Stefansson Library, New York, 60 p. 

87. COMPETENCE OF A GLACIAL STREAM 

By ROBERT K. FAHNESTOCK, Fort Collins, Colo. 

Size measurements of boulders in transport, and 

measurement of associated stream velocities were 

made in White River below the Emmons Glacier, 

Mount Rainier, Wash., during a study of the processes of valley-train formation (Fahnestock, 1960). 

These measurements provide excellent data for the 

study of competence, for in White River all sizes at 

or near the range of competence are readily available for transport. 

Size measurements were made of boulders that· 

were either trapped in a wooden-framed sieve with 

0.175-foot openings or caught by hand. Most point 

velocities were measured with a Price Type-A cur-· 

rent meter set at 0.6 stream depth. Because of the 

large size of the particles, this depth setting · 

provided velocity measurements in the immediate 

vicinity of the moving particles. Surface float velocities adjusted to 0.6 depth were used when currentmeter measurements of velocity could not be made. 

Velocity measurements were made in the reach 

through which the boulders had been transported. 

The relation of particle size to velocity (fig. 87.1) 

indicates that the boulders from White River were 

moving at lower stream velocities than would be 

predicted from the other data cited. White River 

data show that boulders up to 1.8 feet intermediate 

diameter moved in currents of about 7 fps (feet per 

second). For comparison, data that Nevin (1946) 

selected from Gilbert (1914), the U.S. Waterways 

Experiment Station .(1935), Rubey (1937), and 

Nevin's own traction-tube experiments have been 

used to define bed velocity and critical (traction 

velocity lines shown in figure 87.1. Projections of 

these lines intersect at a velocity of aboJt 12 fps I 

and a particle diameter of about 1.5 feet. The White 

River data indicate that the critical traction velocity 1 for coarse materials is closer to the velocity 

at 0.6 depth than to the bed velocity computed with 

Rubey's formula. 

Parts of Hjulstrom's curves (1935, p. 298) which 

separate the zones of erosion, transportation, and 

deposition are also shown in figure 87.1. Most data 

for White River boulders in motion plot in the zone 

of deposition that is defined by projections of these 

curves. Hjulstrom's curves, however, were based on 

average velocity and uniform materials. 

1 Critical traction velocity (Nevin 1946, p. 665) is the velocity measured 

near the bed or mean velocity in shallow flow. 
B-212 

1-

L..t.J 

L..t.J 

u... 

L..t.J 

_I 

(.) 

t= 

0::: 

<( 

CL 

len 

L..t.J 

(.!) 

0::: 

<( 

_I 

u.. 

0 

0::: 

L..t.J 

1-

L..t.J 

~ 

<( 

0 

L..t.J 

I-

<( 

0 

L..t.J 

~ 

0::: 

L..t.J 

1-

z 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

2.0r----------------r------~--------------~~-----r----------------~----~ 

l.Or----------------+------;---------------~~----~r---------------;------4 

0.8 

0.6 

0.5~---------------+------~--------------~~~-+-+----------------~----~ 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1r----------------r------;-----------~--~~--~-+----------------;------4 

0.08 

0.06 

0.05~---------------+------~------~~~~~~~---+----------------~----~ 

0.04 

0.03 

0.02 

0.01~---------------+--~~~-----+~~~--~-------+----------------+-----~ 

0.008 

0.003 

0.002 

EXPLANATION OF 

WHITE RIVER DATA 

® 

Screened 

0.001 t----------------+----:~ 

Velocity measured at 0.6 

depth with current meter 

0.0008 

0.0006 

0 

Screened 

0.0005 ~---------------+--~<:.=---~-----------

Velocity measured with surface 

floats and adjusted to 0.6 

depth 0.0004 

0.0003 

0.0002 

0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1 2 

• 

Caught by hand 

Velocity measured with surface 

floats and adjusted to 0.6 

depth 

3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 

VELOCITY, IN FEET PER SECOND 

FIGURE 87.1.-Relation of particle size to velocity in White ·River. 
I, 

' 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-213 

Hjulstrom's curves indicate that particle size is 

proportional to the 2.6 power of velocity, which is 

the power found by Nevin (194S), who used average 

velocity. A line with a slope of 2.6 fits the White 

River data better than one with a slope of 2.0 (the 

"sixth power law" when particle size is expressed 

in terms of linear dimensions). Thus, for materials 

having intermediate diameters larger than 0.1 foot, 

streams may have greater competence than some 

applications of the "sixth power law" would predict. 

Most experiments related to erosion and traction 

velocities have been made in laboratory flumes using 

uni~orm materials, mostly sand, with diameters of 

less than 0.1 foot. The few experiments that have 

been made with mixed sizes show that the mobility 

of such materials is quite different from that of uniform materials. Gilbert ( 1914, p. 173) stated that. 

fine particles fill irregularities in a rough stream bed 

permitting larger particles to move more readily 

on the smoother bed and to continue in motion 

longer. Ippen and Verma (1953) noted a similar 

effect of bed roughness. Thus, because of the wide 

variation of particle sizes in the bed and banks of 

White River, one can expect erosion of particles 

larger than those predicted by formulas based on 

data for uniform materials. On the valley train, 

boulders of all sizes are readily available for movement by any current capable of eroding the finer 

supporting materials. Boulders on the bed were 

often set in motion by the blows from other boulders 

loosened from the banks. 

Studies by White (1940) emphasize the importance of turbulence in initiation of motion of particles on the bed of natural streams. He concluded 

that the higher the turbulence the more effective ·a 

given mean velocity. White River's high tu·rbulence 

is another factor that·favors high competence. 

REFERENCES 

Fahnestock, R. K., 1960, Morphology and hydrology of a 

glacial stream [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, 

no. 2, pt. 2, p. 1862 .. 

Gilbert, G. K., 1914, The transportation of debris by running 

water: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 86, 263 p. 

Hjulstrom, Filip, 1935, Studies of the morphological activity 

of rivers as illustrated by the river Fyris: Univ. Upsala 

Geol. Inst. Bull., v. 25, p. 221-527. 

Ippen, A. T., and Verma, R. P., 1953, The motion of discrete 

particles along the bed of a turbulent stream: Minnesota 

Internat. Hydraulics Convention Proc., 1953, Internat. 

Assoc. Hydraulic Research and Am. Soc. Civil Eng., p. 

7-20. 

Nevin, C. M., 1946, Competency of moving water to transport 

debris: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 57, no. 7, p. 651-674. 

Rubey, W. W., 1938, The force required to move particles on 

a stream bed: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 189-E, 

p. 121-141. 

U.S. Waterways Experiment Station, 1935, Studies of river 

bed materials and their movement with special reference 

to the Low~r Mississippi River: Paper no. 17, 161 p. 

White, C. M., 1940, The equilibrium of grains on the bed of a 

stream: Royal Soc. (London) Proc., ser. A., v. 17 4, p. 

322-338. 

88. STRUCTURAL BARRIER RESERVOIRS OF GROUND WATER IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER BASALT 

By R. C. NEWCOMB, Portland, Oreg. 

A thick sequence of dark-colored lava flows, the 

Columbia River basalt of Miocene and early Pliocene ( ?) , extends beneath about 50,000 square miles 

of the Columbia Plateaus and adjacent areas of the 

Pacific Northwest. In the central part of its vast 

areal extent the total thickness of the basalt is 

more than 5,000 feet and may exceed 10,000 feet. 

At its margins it tapers out _against the. pre-basalt 

slopes: the Okanogan Highlands at the north, the 

Rocky Mountains at the east, the mountains of central Oregon at the south, and the Cascade Range 

at the west, though it crosses through the Cascade 

Range at a few places (fig. 88.1 top). The individual 

lava flows range in thickness from about 5 to 150 

feet, and averag~ about 50 feet. 

The basalt. is a dense gray or black rock, composed 

of microcrystals in a glassy groundmass, that solidified in near horizontal position from highly fluid 

lava that rose along fissures. Cooling joints cracked 

the rock into sets of vertic'al columnar and cubical 
B-214 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

( 

\ 

--·-·-- ·-··--· 

t=-~j 

EXPLANATION >-

Columb~~;;~~r basalt }~ w 

~ ~ ~~~ ·~~ Older rocks (inlying) a. o:: 

w 

~ 

l .. ~ ··" 

w 

(.!) 

z 

<( 

0:: 

r---1 MILE 

CANADA 

400' 

Static piezometric surface of the water 

;------------

1 

300' 

200' 

100' 

116" 

-~-r------, 49· 

1\ : : I 

I I 

0 

DATUM~-J----------------------------------------------------------------------1 

60MILES 

400' 

300' 

200' 

100' 

DATUM 

FIGURE 88.1.-Top, Generalized map of the main area underlain by the Columbia. River basalt; Bottom, Diagrammatic cross 

section of a hypothetical ground-water withdrawal system operating on an aquifer of a barrier reservoir. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-215 

blocks and into less prominent horizontal sheeting 

slabs. Except for the cooling joints, most flows are 

rather monolithic; little breccia or fragmental lava 

is present. Few sedimentary interbeds are present 

except around the edges of the basalt unit. Most individual. flows are dense and tight in their center 

parts, but some are vesicular, rubbly, and porous 

near their tops. Water percolates mainly along the 

porous tops of some of the lava flows. Tabular separation of the aquifers is common, and the hydraulic 

conditions of such occurrences vary from place to 

place. 

The basalt has been tectonically warped into 

broad open folds with local areas of intense deformation. Infiltrated water moves down the dip of 

inclined porous flow tops so that the downwarped 

areas are sites of ground-water accumulation. 

Locally structural deformation has sheared and 

crushed the rock along faults and along tight folds 

in which the porous tops of the flows were crushed 

during the interflow slippage. These zones of crushed 

rock obstruct the tabular percolation of ground-water 

and cause impounding back to points of discharge. 

These ground-water reservoirs updip from structural barriers occur in and near some of the valleys 

and in the uplands. Notable among the barrier 

reservoirs now in use is one underlying the Upper 

Cold Creek v_alley northwest of Pasco, Wash., and 

one under the Walia Walla valley plain at College 

Place west of Wall a Walia, Wash. · 

The hydraulic characteristics of a typical barrier 

reservoir in the basalt are illustrated in figure 88.1 

(bottom). The impounded water is best tapped by 

wells at the barrier end of the reservoir. The perennial yield would be determined by the annual recharge and would differ from reservoir to reservoir. Withdrawals from reservoirs where flowing 

streams cross the intake area may decrease the 

streamflow; however, calculations on theoretical examples suggest this deduction in stream flow, at its 

maximum in late summer, would equal only a small 

part of the water drawn from otherwise unused 

storage. 

GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY OF ALASKA AND HAWAII 

89. XENOLITHIC NODULES IN THE 1800-1801 KAUPULEHU FLOW OF HUALALAI VOLCANO 

By DONALD H. RICHTER and KIGUMA J. MURATA, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Hawaii, and 

Washington, D. C. 

Hualalai is one of the five volcanoes whose flows 

have built up the island of Hawaii. Now dormant, it 

was last active in 1800-1801 when the Kaupulehu 

and smaller Huehue flows were erupted from its 

northwe~t rift zone. The presence of xenolithic 

nodules in the Kaupulehu lavas has long been known, 

but only limited mention of them or ot' their remarkable occurrence has appeared in the literature. 

Stearns and Macdonald (1946) briefly described some 

of the physical features of the nodules and later 

Macdonald ( 1949) presented additional petrographical data. Chemical analyses of a clinopyroxene and a 

spinel from the Kaupulehu nodules were given, along 

with a discussion on the origin of dunitic inclusions, 

by Ross, Foster, and Myers ( 1954). Recent geologic 

studies on Hualalai Volcano have revealed some exceptional exposures of nodules which indicate a possibly greater abundance of nodules than heretofore 

believed, as well as a significant difference in their 

aggregate composition. The possible significance 

which these nodules may have in regard to the genesis 

of the Hawaiian lavas has prompted a detailed 

mineralogical-chemical study, now in· progress; this 

paper describes the geologic occurrence and physical 

mineralogy of the nodules. 

The Kaupulehu flow, together with the Huehue 

flow, represents the youngest lavas of the alkalic 

basalt series which mantle Hualalai Volcano. On the 

basis of the wel~-established chronological succession of Hawaiian magma types, however, the main 

bulk of Hualalai is believed to be composed principally of basalts of the tholeiitic series. The tholeiitic 

rocks, characterized by a saturated groundmass, are 

erupted frequently and rapidly during the. youthful 

and mature stages of volcanic activity; whereas the 

undersaturated alkalic basalts and their differen-
B-216 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

SCALE I ~===''~~···· tOIH~ INT[RV~l 1,000 fE[l --+ T-.-,DJUS~ ... S<I<"'T 

----- 19• 

156" 155" 

FIGURE 89.1.-Map of the island of Hawaii showing location 

of the 1800-1801 Kaupulehu flow on Hualalai Volcano. 

Outline of flow from report by Stearns and Macdonald 

(1949). 

tiates are erupted intermittently and in minor volume during the decadent stage of volcanism. Xenolithic nodules appear to be restricted in their occm·rence to these later alkalic rocks, not only on 

Hualalai, but on other volcanoes of the Hawaiian 

Islands as well. 

The voluminous Kaupulehu lavas were erupted 

from a group of vents, between 5,500 and 6,000 feet 

in elevation, along the northwest rift of Hualalai, 

and with the exception of a few short tongues that 

flowed to the west, they flowed northward down the 

slopes of the volcano some 10 miles before entering 

the sea south of Kawaihae Bay (fig. 89.1). The 

nodule locality recently investigated is along a relatively flat bench, on the first major break in slope, 

2 miles below the vent area at an elevation of about 

· 3,250 feet. 

Briefly reconstructing the history of the flow, it 

appears that the rapidly flowing, extremely fluid 

lava-heavily charged with nodules-lost velocity 

and carrying capacity on reaching the area of reduced gradient. Here the early flows spread out in 

relatively thin sheets, both on the level area and on 

the slopes below, depositing the nodules in welldefined layers. As lava continued to flow into the 

level area a pond of considerable depth soon formed, 

first by surface overflow and later by lava running 

under the surface and floating the crust. Eventually, 

as the lithostatic head increased, the impounded 

fluid lava broke through the downslope wall of the 

pond and cut · a deep channel through the nodulebearing flows which had spread out earlier over 

the surface below the pond. As material drained 

out of the pond, the still fluid lava in many of the 

nodule zones also drained away leaving discrete 

nodule beds, without appreciable matrix lava. Toward the end of eruptive activity, lava domes on the 

surface of the pond and portions of tubes within the 

pond collapsed, and it is in these collapse features 

together with the main lava channel below the pond 

that the spectacular nodule beds are now expQsed. 

The great abundance of the nodules is well shown 

in the wall of the main lava channel where no less 

than 4 distinct nodule beds, ranging in thickness 

from 3 to 9 feet, are exposed (figs. 89.2 and 89.3). 

In fact, along one 200-foot long exposure, the nodule 

beds have an aggregate thickness of 26 feet and constitute more of the rock than the lava itself. In the 

collapsed domes and tubes on the top of the lava 

pond only the uppermost nodule bed is visible; and 

where collapse occurred prior to complete solidification of remnant matrix lava the nodules tumbled 

into the depressions forming an outcrop very similar 

in appearance to a cobble beach deposit (fig. 89.4). 

In size, the nodules generally range from a fraction of an inch to more than one foot in diameter; 

the largest observed measured 27 inches in its greatest dimension. They are angular to subrounded in 

FIGURE 89.2.-Wall of main lava channel in Kaupulehu flow 

showing four nodule beds (1, 2, 3, 4) each separated by 

several thin pahoehoe flows. 
'sHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-217 

external form, although in the exposures where 

matrix lava has been withdrawn the thin coating 

of lava remaining on the nodules tends to accentuate 

their roundness. 

The nodules consist principally of medium- to 

coarse-grained crystal aggregates of one or more of 

the following three minerals: clinopyroxene (approximately Ca ~Mg44 Fe14 ), olivine (Fa ), and 

plagioclase feldspar (Anoo- 7:;). Opaque minerals are 

generally present in amounts ranging from a few 

tenths to 2 percent. The crystals are all anhedral 

and form a tightly interlocked allotriomorphic granular texture. With the exception of a minute coronalike clinopyroxene growth observed around some 

opaques in a few specimens, the minerals do not 

exhibit any evidence of magmatic reaction. Some 

of the olivine grains, however, do show an incipient 

marginal alteration probably caused by the action of 

hot water-laden gases streaming through the nodules 

after the cessation of volcanic activity. 

On the basis of mineralogy four general types of 

nodules are recognizable. These types in order of decreasing abundance, as shown by random sampling of 

over 200 nodules, are: clinopyroxene-olivine, olivine, 

clinopyroxene, and clinopyroxene-feldspar. Only 

a few olivine-feldspar and olivine-clinopyroxenefeldspar nodules were observed, and predominantly 

feldspar nodules apparently do not exist. Modal 

analyses of representative nodules from the different 

types indicate that clinopyroxene is the most abundant mineral present. 

FIGURE 89.3.-Closeup view of nodule bed 2, shown in figure 

89.2. Spatter from the last flows through channel is 

draped over some of the nodules. 

FIGURE 89.4.-Loose nodules on the floor of a collapsed dome 

in the surface of the lava pond. Note the relatively thin 

lava caprock of the nodule bed. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Murata (1960) and Eaton and Murata (1960) 

support the theory that the fundamental Hawaiian 

magma is tholeiitic and that fractional crystallization of pyroxene is the principal mechanism for producing the undersaturated alkalic magmas. The 

mineralogy and abundance of the Kaupulehu nodules 

(together with the fact that xenolithic nodules, in 

general, occur only in alkalic rocks) lends additional 

support to this view. The nodules therefore, are interpreted to represent fragments of subterranean 

consolidated deposits of crystals whose precipitation 

has played a dominant role in affecting the fundamental change in magma type. Furthermore their 

' angularity and lack of pronounced magmatic reaction strongly suggest that the processes of fractional crystallization occurred far above the original 

source of the tholeiitic magma-probably in relatively shallow magma reservoirs within the volcano. 

REFERENCES 

Eaton, J. P., and Murata, K. J ., 1960, How volcanoes grow: 

Science, v. 132, p. 925-938. 

Macdonald, G. A., 1949, Petrography of the Island of Hawaii: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 214-D, p. 51-96. 

Murata, K. J., 1960, A new method of plotting chemical 

analyses of basaltic rocks: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 258-A, p. 

247-252. 

Ross, C. S., Foster, M. D., and Myers, A. T., 1954, Origin of 

dunites and of olivine-rich inclusions in basaltic rocks : 

Am. Mineralogist, v. 39, p. 693-737. 

Stearns, H. T., and Macdonald, G. A., 1946, Geology and 

ground-water resources of the Island of Hawaii: Hawaii 

Div. Hydrography Bull. 9, 363 p. 
B-218 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

90. RECONNAISSANCE 0~ THE KANDIK AND NATION RIVERS, EAST-CENTRAL ALASKA 

By EARL E. BRABB, Menlo Park, Calif. 

The purpose of this report is to describe briefly 

the rocks and structure along two previously unmapped rivers in east central Alaska. All localities 

mentioned are shown on Charley River A-2, B-1, 

B-2, B-3, C-1, C-2 and D-1 quadrangles, scale 

1:63,360. 

All of the rocks cropping out along the Kandik 

River are provisionally assigned to the Kandik formation of Early Cretaceous age. They are predominantly shale, mudstone, argillite, slate, and graywacke but include minor amounts of chert-pebble 

conglomerate, "clean" sandstone, pebbly mudstone, 

and cherty limestone. These rocks seem to represent 

one lithogenetic sequence. Graded beds and other 

features suggestive of turbidity current deposits are 

common. The rocks are intensely deformed between 

the mouth of the Kandik River and Easy Moose 

Creek and between Indian Grave Creek and the 

United States-Canada border. The beds have a general northeast strike and a moderate northwest dip 

between Easy Moose Creek and Indian Grave Creek, 

and an anomalous northwest strike and moderate 

northeast dip in the vicinity of the border. Pelecypods collected from the formation along the Kandik 

River about 2 m'iles upstream from the mouth of Big 

Sitdown Creek suggest an Early Cretaceous (Valanginian) age according to D. L. Jones (written communication, 1961). 

Slate, shale, mudstone, argillite, and minor graywacke and quartzite cropping out along the N atiori 

River between the mouths of Tindir and Jungle 

Creeks are also provisionally referred to as the 

Kandik formation. These rocks are moderately to 

intensely deformed and appear to have an anomalous 

northwest strike. Several minor southeastwardplunging folds in these rocks can be seen near the 

mouth of Ettrain Creek. Most of the rocks. are not 

well dated but all of the fossils collected from them 

indicate an Early Cretaceous age. For example, 

Foraminifera collected from shale along the Nation 

River near the mouth of Tindir .Creek are possibly 

of early Neocomian age, according to H. R. Bergquist 

(written communication, 1961). Megafossils collected from the same beds and from another locality 

nea1·by were identified by D. L. Jones (written communication) as Polyptychites and Buchia cf. B. 

crassicollis and are also suggestive of an early Neocomian (Valanginian) age. 

The Kandik formation may be in fault contact 

with petroliferous shale and limestone of Triassic 

age, Tahkandit limestone of Permian age, and N at ion River formation of Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian?) age, which crop out along the Nation River 

about 1 mile upstream from the mouth of Waterfall 

Creek. These late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic rocks 

have a northeast strike and, for the most part, a 

northwest dip. Conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, 

and minor coal and "red beds" cropping out along 

the Nation River between Waterfall and Hard Luck 

Creeks are also provisionally referred to the Nation 

River formation. These rocks have a northeast 

strike and southeast dip. They are apparently in 

fault contact with shale and limestone about 2 miles 

downstream from the mouth of Hard Luck Creek. 

Corals from the limestone are of Silurian or Devonian age, according to W~ A. Oliver, Jr. (written 

communication, 1961). 

No oil seeps or deposits of e~onomic interest were 

found. 
•• 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-219 

GEOLOGY OF PUERTO RICO 

91 . HYDROTHERMALLY ALTERED ROCKS IN EASTERN PUERTO RICO 

By FRED A. HILDEBRAND, Denver, Colo. 

Wo·rk done in cooperation with the Depa•rtment of Indust·rial Research, 

Puerto Rico Economic Development Administration 

A belt of light-colored altered rocks ~pproximately 

50 km long and 5 km wide extends from the eastern 

coast of Puerto Rico northwest to the Cerro La Tiza 

area, as shown in figure 91.1. The altered belt skirts 

the northern edges of the .San Lorenzo and Caguas 

plutons and lies within a broad zone of· structural 

weakness trending about N. 70° W. across northcentral Puerto Rico (Smith and Hildebrand, 1953; 

Hildebrand and Smith, 1959). Within the belt, exposures of hard altered quartzose rock stand in 

relief as ridges and knolls above the softer volcanic country rocks. 

The greenish-gray volcanic country rocks consist 

principally of Ia va, tuff, tuff and volcanic breccia, 

and agglomerate. In general, the volcanic rocks are 

of borderline basaltic-andesitic composition · and 

their age is probably Cretaceous and early Tertiary 

(Hildebrand, 1959). 

The plutonic rocks shown on figure 91.1 consist 

mainly of granodiorite. Zircon age determinations 

indicate that the San Lorenzo pluton is of late Cretaceous or early Tertiary age. The age of the 

Caguas pluton has not been determined. · 

On the whole the altered rocks are light colored 

and consist of intermixed hard, massive quartzose 

rocks and soft, clayey, sericitic rocks composed principally of quartz, sericite, alunite, pyrophyllite, kaolinite, and halloysite. Less abundant minerals are 

hematite, goethite, diaspore, zunyite, jarosite, barite, 

sulfur, pyrite, and svanbergite. 

The belt of altered rocks is not continuous but 

consists of elongated patches of altered rock (fig. 

91.1) surrounded by unaltered country rock. Within 

the patches of altered rock there is no distinct 

zoning of rock types, however, elongated zones of 

hard banded quartz-alunite rocks and soft foliated, 

pyrophyllitic rocks commonly occur within softer, 

clayey sericitic rocks. At the western end of the belt, 

where the terrain is generally higher, the altered 

rocks have weathered to an earth-rock debris that 

has moved downslope to form extensive tongue and 

apron deposits over the volcanic country rocks. 

The mineral assemblages at the largest and best 

exposed areas along the hydrothermal belt are listed 

in table 1. Most noteworthy observations at these 

areas are as follows : 

I. At Cerro La Tiza and Pueblito Del Rio, ~lunite 

and quartz occur as alternating bands in finely 

banded and crenulated rock. The banding is 

believed to be inherited from the foliated structure of the volcanic host rock. 

2. At Cerro La Tiza and Cerro Marquesa, kaolinite, 

and halloysite are more abundant at the southern margins of the altered zone. The margins 

of the zones in other areas are concealed. 

3. Crystalline pyrophyllite and diaspore are most 

abundant at Cerro Marquesa. · 

4. Between Aguas Buenas and Gurabo the rocks 

are mainly silicified and sericitized volcanic 

host rocks. Further study of quartz-sericite 

rocks in this area may show that they are 

greisen. 

5. That part of the belt richest in barite borders· 

the north edge of the San Lorenzo pluton from 

Cantagallo eastward to Pueblito Del Rio. 

6. Kaolinite and halloysite are generally less abundant and zunyite and jarosite more abundant 

toward the eastern end of the belt. 

The altered rock belt shown in figure 91.1 is believed to be of hydrothermal origin; that is, the volcanic host rocks were altered by emana.tions from a 

magmatic source. The emanations probably originated in plutonic rocks that presumably underlie 

much of Puerto Rico (Hildebrand, 1959). The alteration processes have destroyed all primary textures of the volcanic host rocks and have caused 

profound compositional changes that have resulted 

in a completely different mineral assemblage. Calcium, magnesium, and most of the iron were removed from the host rocks, but silica, sulfur, and 

probably potassium were added during the alteration processes. The ab1,1ndance of introduced quartz, 

aluminum silicates and sulfate-bearing minerals is 

evidence that the emanations were acid, sulfate bear-
66° 15' 

Cerro Marquesa 

~ 

0 

AGUAS 0 

0 0 0 

BUENAS 0 CD >'/$_/6 

o<P ao ~%#~~./ 

'COMERiO 

~/a 

~e 

CIDRA 

0 

Outcrops of hydrothermally altered rocks of probable 

Late Cretaceous or Eocene age 

Plutonic rocks, principally 

~ granodiorite of probable Late 

Cretaceous or Eocene age 

D 

Volcanic rocks, principally lavas, tuffs, tuff breccias, and 

agglomerates of probable Cretaceous and early Tertiary 

age 

{/Fv 

G0 

/i~vPh~~ CAGUAS/ 

·~/Pl.UtoN 

~~ 

FIGURE 91.1.-0utcrop belt of hydrothermally altered rocks and 

..of -t ,.. 

Clllb 

®~e> e 

C9o Pueblito del Rio 

0 0 

# •• 

NAGUABO 

0 

Q) 

G> co~ Colonia J unio 

q 

~ ~~ 

& q~ 

~~ 

10 KILOMETERS 

Puerto Rico. 

• 

18° 15' 

18°00' 

• 

b:j 

1:\:) 

~ 

0 

Cl 

t_:J:j 

0 

t"' 

0 

Cl 

~ 

(1 

> t"' 

Ul 

e 

~ 

< t_:J:j 

~ 

~ 

t_:J:j 

Ul 

t_:J:j 

> 

~ 

(1 

::r1 

1--' 

c.:> 

0') 

1--' 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-221 

TABLE 1.-Mine?·al assemblages at p?'om.inent outc?·op a?'eas in belt of hyd?·othennally alte?·ed ?'ocks shown in figure 91.1 

[Hematite and goethite occur in the altered rocks at all areas. Some hematite is believed to be of hydrothermal origin but goethite and some hematite has 

probably resulted from weathering of ferruginous minerals.] 

Areas 

Between Cerro La Tizn Cerro Mnrquesn Aguns Buenas and Gurabo 1 Cantngallo and Las Pinas Pueblito Del Rio Colonia Junio 

---------------------------------------------------------

Qwutz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz. 

Sericite Sericite Sericite Sericite Sericite. 

Alunite Alunite Alunite Alunite Alunite. 

Pyrophyllite Pyrophyllite Pyrophyllite Pyrophyllite 

1\:nolmite Kaolinite Kaolinite Kaolinite 

Hnlloysitc Hnlloysite 

Din.spore ·Diaspore Diaspore Zunyit,e Zunyite Zunvite. . Jnt·osite Jarosite . Barite Barite 

Sulfm· 

Pyrite 

Svnn bergi lie'! 

Rutile? · 

1 The elongated outcrop area shown at the north edge of the Caguas pluton in figure 91.1 consists of greisen and is described in Art. 92 in this volume. 

ing, and silica rich. This type of genesis agrees with 

stability relations in a similar mineral assemblage 

studied experimentally by Remley (1959). The 

maximum temperature to permit the existence of 

kaolinite which is abundant in much of the belt is 

about 350°-400°C. In those areas where kaolinite 

is lacking and the assemblage sericite-pyrophyllitediaspore predominates, the temperature was somewhat higher. 

Puerto Rico is rapidly undergoing industrial expansion and is keenly interested in reducing imports 

of raw materials and developing its own natural 

resources. Alunite, which is now imported, is useful 

in the preparation of sulfates (Faith, Keys and 

Clark, 1950, p. 59-62) for use as a coagulant in 

water purification. The alunitic rocks of Puerto 

Rico might be used for this and also In· the manufacture of aluminum refractory materials (Knizek 

and Fetter, 1950, p. 202-249). The Puerto Rico 

alunite probably contains too much sodium to be 

used for potash fertilizer. 

Pyrophyllite could be used in the ceramic tile 

and refractory industries in the manufacture of 

vitreous floor tiles, which are commonly used in 

buildings in Puerto Rico. Pyrophyllite could also be 

used as a carrier for paint pigments, insecticides, 

and fungicides, as a filler in the preparation of soaps, 

and in the manufacture of porcelain, sanitary. ware, 

artware, and hotel china (Johnstone, 1954; Mudd, 

1949). 

Kaolinite could be employed in Puerto Rico in 

the glass, ceramic, pottery, and clay pipe industries. 

Halloysite could be used as a porous catalyst support of high surface area in the cracking of petroleum (Emmett, 1954, p. 261). 

REFERENCES 

Emmett, P. H. (ed.), 1954, Catalysis: New York, Reinhold 

Publishing Corporation, v. 1, 394 p. 

Faith, W. L., Keyes, D. B., and Clark, R. L., 1950, Industrial 

Chemicals: New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc;, 652 p. 

Hemley, J. Julian, 1959, Some mineralogical equilibri~ in the 

system K~O-ALO,~-SiO::H"O: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 257, p. 

241-270. 

Hildebrand, Fred A., and Smith, R. J., 1959, Occurrence of 

alunite, pyrophyllite, and clays in the Ceuo La Tiza area, 

Puerto Rico: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 82 p. 6 pl. 

Hildebrand, Fred A., 1959, Zones of hydrothermally altered 

rocks in eastern Puerto Rico [in Spanish]: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Dept. Indus. Inv., Econ. Devel. 

Adm., Tech. lnf., p. 82-96. 

Johnstone, S. J., 1954, Minerals for the chemical and allied 

industries: New York, John Wiley and ~ons, Inc., 692 p. 

Knizek, J. 0., and Fetter, Hans, 1950, The refractory properties of alunite: !~High alumina . refractories and the 

genesis, occurrence and uses of alunite: British Ceramic 

Soc. Trans., v. 49, no. 5, p. 202-223. 

Mudd, S. W., 1949, Industrial Minerals and Rocks (nonmetallics other than fuels): New York, Am. Inst. Mining 

Metall. Engineers, 2d ed., 1156 p. 

Smith, R. J., and Hildebrand, F. A., 1953, Occurrence of 

alunite and pyrophyllite in Puerto Rico [abs.]: ·Geol. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 64, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1476. 
B-222 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

92. ANDALUSITE-TOPAZ GREISEN NEAR CAGUAS, EAST-CENTRAL PUERTO RICO 

By FRED A. HILDEBRAND, Denver, Colo. 

Wo'rk done in cooperation with the Department of lndust'rial Resea1·ch, 

Puerf.,o Rico Economic Development Administration 

Hydrothermally altered rocks with a greisen mineral assemblage are exposed about 3 km northeast 

of Caguas, P. R., in the extreme southeast corner 

of the Aguas Buenas quadrangle. The greisen zone 

lies within a larger zone of hydrothermally altered 

rocks of different and possibly lower temperature 

mineral assemblage than greisen. As shown in figure 92.1, the area described in this report embraces 

only a small part of this larger zone, which extends 

from the east coast of Puerto Rico northwest for 

about 50 km (30 miles) to the Cerro La Tiza area 

(Hildebrand, 1959). 

The greisen zone and the distribution of adjacent 

volcanic country rocks and plutonic rocks are shown 

in figure 92.2. The volcanic rocks are of probable 

Cretaceous and early Tertiary age; the greisen zone 

is presumably related in origin to the Caguas pluton 

of undetermined age and the San Lorenzo pluton 

of Late Cretaceous or Eocene age (Hildebrand, 

1959). 

The host rocks of the greisen are metamorphosed 

and silicified nearly beyond recognition. By analogy 

to fresher rocks nearby, the host rocks are probably 

lavas, tuffs, tuff breccias, volcanic breccias and agglomerates of borderline andesitic-basaltic composition. They are greenish gray, moderately foliated, 

and contain local patches of weakly bedded siltstone 

or sandstone. No contacts of the country rocks with 

either the plutonic rocks or the greisen zone were 

seen. 

Plutonic rocks along the south edge of the greisen 

zone are coarse-grained quartz diorite or granodiorite. Megascopically recognizable minerals are 

quartz, plagioclase feldspar, biotite, hornblende, 

sphene, and magnetite. Pinkish-white pegmatite 

dikes composed mainly of orthoclase and quartz and 

having a crude graphic granite texture intrude the 

volcanic rocks adjacent to the pluton. 

The greisen zone, because of its assemblage of 

hard resistant minerals, stands in relief above the 

valley floor of the Rio Grande de Loiza, which 

cuts transversely across and separates the zone into 

two knolls (fig. 92.2). Where exposed only in these 

knolls, the zone is about 3 km long and % km wide. 

Although the edges of the greisen zone are concealed, scattered outcrops of country rock, and float 

blocks of border-phase rock show that the greisen 

probably grades through silicified, greenish-white 

volcanic rock to the greenish-gray" unaltered country 

rock. 

Exposures of fresh, unweathered greisen are 

scarce; specimens of fresh rock were found in only 

two shallow test pits. The fresh rock is grayish white 

to tannish gray and has a faint banding. Because 

of the scarcity of outcrops, many specimens were 

collected from massive, brown to brownish-red ferruginous float blocks, some of which are strongly 

banded and have a pronounced fluting from differential weathering of the bands. The greisen rocks 

have a wide range of grain size from fine-grained 

quartzitelike phases to coarse-grained pegmatitelike 

phases in which the minerals have maximum dimensions of about 1f2 to 1 em. Both banded and structureless rocks contain well-djstributed mica and generally the most mieaceous rocks are also the most 

ferruginous. 

The greisen mineral assemblage consists principally of muscovite, andalusite, quartz,· and topaz 

with moderate amounts of hematite and goethite, 

and minor amounts of rutile and jarosite. Topaz is 

less abundant than andalusite, muscovite, and quartz. 

Quartz occurs as pods and stringerlike masses. Muscovite occurs as fine and coarse books and plates as 

large as 1 em in maximum dimension that commonly 

contain blood-red hematite along cleavage planes, 

especially at the outer edges. Hematite commonly 

occurs in thin, black, submetallic veins less than 1 

mm in thickness. Hematite is present on some vuggy 

vein surfaces as tiny euhedral crystals with striated 

faces. Some of these crystals of hematite have apparently been altered completely to goethite. Goethite most commonly occurs as thin, black to brown 

botryoidal coatings. In some coatings and crusts, 

goethite grades into hematite and appears to have 

been altered from it. Rutile occurs sparingly as tiny 

purplish-red to light-brown euhedral crystals with 

adamantine luster. Jarosite was observed only in the 
., 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-.146 

EXPLANATION 

~ 

. 

Belt of hydrothennally altered rocks 

~ Magnetite ore bodies 

-------- Inferred margin of plutonic rocks 

Dashed where approximate 

Las Piedras 

0 

SAN LORENZO 

PLUTON 

0 

Yabucoa 

65°4 ' 

.:> 

5 10 KILOMETER 

5 MILES 

B-223 

18 ° 15' 

18°00' 

FIGURE 92.1.-Index map showing position of greisen area in the long belt of hydrothermally altered rocks and relation of 

greisen area to plutonic rocks and magnetite ore bodies. Area shown in details in figure 92.2 is outlined. 

0.5 

1000 2000 

66°00' 

EXPLA ATION 

Outcrops of volcanic 

-

country rocks 

Outcrops 

-

of plutonic rocks 

Outcrops 

~ of greisen 

Inferred contact between plutonic and volcanic rocks or plutonic rocks and greisen 

FIGURE 92.2.-0utcrop map showing relation of greisen to plutonic and country rocks. 

18° 15' 
B-224 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

1 freshest specimens as a thin yellowish-brown crust 

in tiny vugs and as minute colloform clusters. 

The greisen probably developed from hydrothermal alteration o{ the volcanic country rocks by emanations from the Caguas pluton or from similar plutonic rocks at depth. The mode of origin is in 

agreement with stability relations among these minerals as outlined by-Hemley (1959). The temperature 

ne.cessary for the development of andalusite was 

probably above 400°C, which is too high for the 

development or existence of kaolinitic clays that 

occur elsewhere in the long, broad hydrothermally 

altered belt (Hildebrand, 1959)1. By comparison 

with the minerals of the volcanic host rock the 

abundance of muscovite, topaz, and iron minerals 

in the greisen indicates that potassium, silica, iron, 

1 This belt is described in article 91 of this volume. Although information 

on the temperature of formation of some minerals of this assemblage is 

lacking at this time, pr~sumably the greisen zone was formed at a somewhat greater temperature than was the rest of the hydrothermally altered 

belt. 

and fluorine were introduced into the host rocks. 

Because of the lack of minerals containing sodium, 

calcium, and magnesium, these cations must have 

been removed from the minerals of the host rock. 

The hematite in the greisen may be of hydrothermal 

origin but it may also have developed by alteration 

from magnetite .. Assuming that the greisen previously contained primary magnetite that is now 

hematite and. goethite, it seems likely that this 

greisen zone may be related in origin to magnetite 

ore bodies that occur between the hydrothermal belt 

and the plutonic rocks (fig. 92~1). 

REFERENCES 

Remley, J. J., 1959, Some mineralogical equilibria in the system K~O-ALOa-SiO,-H~O: Am. Jour. Sci., v., 257, p. 241-

270. 

Hildebrand, F. A., 1959, Zones of hydrothermally altered rocks 

in eastern Puerto Rico [in Spanish] : Commonwealth of 

Puerto Rico, Dept. Indus. Inv., Econ. Devel. Adm., Tech. 

Inf., p. 82-96. 

93. ASH-FLOW DEPOSITS, CIALES QUADRANGLE, PUERTO RICO, AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 

By HENRY L. BERRYHILL, JR., Denver, Colo. 

W 01·k done in cooperation with the Depa1·tment of Indust1·ial Research, 

Pne1·to Rico Economic Development Administration 

The only known ash-flow deposits 1 in Puerto Rico 

are in the north-central part of the island within 

and adjacent to an arcuate northwest .. trending 

graben about 30 km long and 3 km wide (Berryhill 

and others, 1960). A segment of this graben crosses 

the southern part of the Ciales quadrangle (fig. 93.1), 

which was mapped in 1958-59 with the assistance 

of Fred A. Hildebrand. The ash-flow deposits represent a specific phase of a regional volcanic cycle. 

Special thanks are extended to Ray E. Wilcox, 

whose knowledge of volcanic processes was freely 

given and extensively utilized during the study of 

these rocks. 

1 The term "ash flow" is applied here according to the nomenclature of 

Smith ( 1960, p. 800). 

STRATIGRAPHY 

The lower member of the C~amo formation in 

the Ciales quadrangle (Berryhill and others, 1960) 

is about 495 m thick and consists of ash-flow deposits interbedded with conglomerate, lapilli tuff, 

and reworked coarse and fine tuff. A reddish color 

distinguishes this sequence of rocks from all other 

volcanic rocks in north-central Puerto Rico. 

Lenticular and very dense ash-flow deposits 

within the sequence range in thickness from 10 to 

40 m and extend laterally for at least 4 km in discontinuous outcrops. The ash-flow deposits consist 

primarily of plagioclase crystals, devitrified glass 

shards, fragments of feldspathic oxidized lava, pumice, and a very fine ash matrix containing iron oxide 

' 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC· AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-225 

N 

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS r 

EXPLANATION 

D 

Quaternary deposits and middle 

Tertiary limestone D ' I 

Lower Tertiary granodiorite 

and dioritic intrusive rocks 

Upper Cretaceous dacitic ash 

flows and associated rocks 

D 

Cretaceous volcanic rocks; includes 

some lower Tertiary rocks 

_,.---______ ,.,. 

Contact 

Dashed where approximately located 

Fault 

U, upthrown side; D, downthrown side. A·rrows indicate direction of strike-slip 

rnovement 

--+.-----...... 

Syncline, approximately located 

......,. 

Strike and dip of beds 

FIGURE 93.1.-Map of eastern Puerto Rico showing loca~ion of ash-,ow deposits. 

dust. The plagioclase crystals are highly fragmented, 

the microscopic glass shards are altered, mostly to 

quartz and clay, and the flattened pumice bombs and 

much of the matrix have been altered to a clay 

mineral (nontronite ?) , quartz, and zeolites. A concentration of plagioclase crystals is common at the 

base of the deposits. 

Welding of the glass shards and fragments under 

intense heat and pressure at time of emplacement is 

a distinctive feature of the lower part of each individual ash-flow deposit. The degree of compaction 

and cohesion decreases from base to top. Basal parts 

of most deposits have vitroclastic texture, but they 

also have a distinct parallelism of shards and flattening of pumiceous bombs. Upper parts of flows 

are nonwelded tuff comprised primarily of pumiceous and feldspathic lava fragments and iron-rich 

chert. 

The sequence of rock types and the crude zonation 

within an ash-flow deposit are described in the following representative section: 

Section of an ash-flow deposit 200m west of Quebrada Blacho 

in cliff adjacent to Rio Toro Negro, northern part of 

barrio Pozas, Ciales quadrangle . 

Thickness 

Top (meters) 

6. Lapilli tuff, nonwelded except for very slight welding at base, reddish brown, compact; intermixed 

fragments of pumice, oxidized feldspathic lava, 

and iron-rich, reddish-black chert. Fine matrix 

Thickness 

Top (meters) 

makes up less than 20 percent of total mass, fragmented plagioclase crystals less than 15 percent. 

Some fragments have heat reaction rims; pumice 

bombs are compressed only in basal part________________ 26 

5. Lapilli tuff, partially welded, reddish brown; heterogeneous mixture of partially sericitized fragmented plagioclase crystals, oxidized feldspathic 

lava fragments, devitrified glass shards, and compressed pumice bombs well alined parallel to 

stratification. Reddish, fine-grained matrix, 

largely altered to zeolite (?), quartz, and nontronite( ?) , makes up 40 percent of total mass; 

plagioclase crystals about 15 percent._____________________ 3 

4. Tuff, welded, reddish-brown, with sparse fragments 

of feldspathic lava as much as 5 mm long, vitroclastic; abundant iron oxide dust; fragmented 

plagioclase crystals make up about 15 percent of 

mass; all pumice bombs compressed; feldspathic 

lava fragments have heat-reaction rims._______________ 5 

3. Tuff, welded, reddish-gray, vitroclastic; all pumice 

bombs compressed and altered to nontronite( ?) ; 

fragmented plagioclase crystals comprise about 15 

percent of mass·-----------------------------------~---------------------- 0.5 

2. Tuff, welded, reddish-brown, vitroclastic-fluidal texture; consists of pulverized andesine (?) crystals 

in a flour of quartz, iron oxide, zeolite (?), and 

nontronite( ?) ; plagioclase makes up about 40 percent of mass·---------------------------------------------------------------- .3 

1. Crystal tuff, welded, vitroclastic-fluidal texture; 

highly fragmented, cracked, and bent andesine(?) 

crystals make up about 50 percent of mass (represents sole of ash flow)------·-------.. --------------------------------- .07 

Base of ash-flow deposit. 
B-226 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 1.-Chemical and app1·oxirnate mineral composition of ' 

a dacite ash-flow deposit and of granodiorite f'rom the Ciales 

stock, north-central Pue1·to Rico 

[Analysts: P. D. Elmore, I. H. Barlow, S. D. Botts, and Gillison Chloe] 

Norms 

Granodiorite Dacite ------------~-------

Granodiorite Dacite 

~~---- ------- --~=-- ----'---(- ---~--

SJ02 61.3 6.3'. I Q 14. ,) Q W.8 

Al203 16.4 16.5 or 20.0 OJ' 25.0 

Fe20a 3.0 :3.7 ab 28.8 ab :~6.6 

FeO 2. 7 1. 0 an 19. 5 an 10. 0 

:\I gO 2 . 1 1 . 3 e J . :3 

:\InO .18 . 15 wo 2.4 

CaO 5. 1 2 .·2 en 5. 2 en :3. 2 

~a 0 :~.4 4.2 fR 2.8 

K 20 3.4 4.2 mt 4.4 mt 1.6 

H 20 1 .1 2. 2 il 1. 1 il 1.1 

Ti02 • 5() . 74 ap l. 0 ap 1.:3 

P 20 5 • 40 . 22 he 1 . :~ 

C02 .07 .06 r .2 

Total 99.61 100.17 100.1 98.4 

The age of the ash-flow deposits, based on correlation with fossil-bearing marine rocks of the 

Coamo formation elsewhere in Puerto Rico, is latest 

Cretaceous (Maestrichtian). Massive gray poorly 

stratified andesitic volcanic breccia and possibly reworked marine tuffs of Late Cretaceous ( ?) and 

e~rly Tertiary age overlie the ash-flow deposits. 

Chemical analyses and normative .mineralogic calculations (table 1) indicate that the ash-flow deposits are dacite. 

STRUCTURE 

The graben that contains the ash-flow deposits is 

bounded on the southwest by a regional strike-slip 

fault and on the northeast by a fault that is subsidiary to the regional fault (fig. 93.1). The throw 

of the graben increases progressively toward the 

southeast end where the ash-flow deposits are in 

juxtaposition with basaltic pillow lavas that are several thousand meters stratigraphically lower than 

the ash-flow deposits. The rocks within the graben 

form a syncline, although internal faulting has segmented the graben into tilted blocks. 

REGIONAL RELATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE 

Ash-flow deposits of dacitic composition on top 

of a pile of andesitic tuffs and basaltic pillow lavas 

several thousand meters thick, suggest a progressive 

change in the composition of magmas that supplied 

the Late Cretaceous volcanic materials. 

Although both overlain and underlain by volcanic 

breccia and tuff that are obviously marine, the 

Coamo formation ash-flow deposits are probably subaerial in origin as shown by interlayers of fluvial 

gravel and nonstratified mudflow deposits, and plantroot casts. Moreover, as pointed out by Rankin 

(1960, p. 32), an ash flow (the specific gravity of 

which is well below unity) could not be propagated 

under water, much less become welded. 

The geographic and structural position of the 

graben relative to plutonic intrusives (fig. 93.1) and 

the restricted occurrence of ash-flow deposits within 

and adjacent to the graben suggest that the area of 

accumulation was initially outlined by sagging of a 

crustal segment above a magma chamber. Faulting, 

both contemporaneous with and subsequent to ashflow deposition, formed the graben. The chemical 

and mineralogical similarity (table 1) of the dacite 

ash-flow deposits and the granodiorite in the nearby 

stocks suggests that the ash-flow deposits represent 

expulsion of volatile-rich magmatic material from 

these plutonic bodies after they had moved upward 

into the near-surface crustal zone. 

REFERENCES 

Berryhill, H. L., Jr., Briggs, R. P., and Glover, Lynn, III, 

1960, Stratigraphy, sedimentation, and structure of Late 

Cretaceous rocks in eastern Puerto Rico--preliminary 

report: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 44, no. 

2, p. 137-155. 

Rankin, D. W., 1960, Paleogeographic implications of deposits 

of hot ash flows: Internat. Geol. Cong., 21st, Copenhagen, 

1960, sec. 12, pt. 12, p. 19-34. 

Smith, R. L., 1960, Ash flows: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, 

no. 6, p. 795-846. 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-227 

PALEONTOLOGY AND PLANT ECOLOGY 

94. REPLACED PALEOCENE FORAMINIFERA IN THE JACKSON PURCHASE AREA, KENTUCKY 

By I. G. SOHN, S. M. HERRICK, and T. W. LAMBERT, Washington, D. C., Atlanta, Ga., and Paducah, Ky. 

Abundant replaced Foraminifera were recognized 

by Sohn in a glauconitic sandy claystone of the Clayton ( ?) formation near Reidland, 8.2 miles southeast 

of the Paducah Court House. The fossiliferous bed 

is in a bank of a tributary of the Clark River, in 

which the following formations are exposed: 

Section near Reidland, McCracken County, Ky. 

(Pnducnh Enst 71,-~J-minute quadrangle measured by T. W. Lambert) 

Paleocene. Feet 

Porters Creek clay: 

Black claystone -----------------------·-------------------------------------- 10 

Clayton(?) formation: 

Glauconitic claystone, sandy; Foraminifera and 

barite(?) crystals .. ------------------·----------------------------------- 2 to 3 

Upper Cretaceous. 

Owl Creek(?) formation: 

Black claystone -------------------------------------------------------------- 6 

Black glauconitic claystone__________________________________________ 5 (?) 

McNairy sand: 

lnterlaminated lignitic clay and fine-grained 

micaceous sandstone ...... -------------------------------------------- 15+ 

The bulk of the faunule is small enough to pass 

through a 100-mesh screen, although some large 

specimens also are present. The following forms 

were identified by S. M. Herrick : 

Reophax? sp. 

Textula~·ia midwayana La)icker, 1935 

Clavulinoides midwayensis Cushman, 1936 

Adhae'rentia midwayensis Plummer, 1938 

Robulu.s midwayensis (Plummer), 1927 

cf. R. rosettus (Gumbel). Cushman, 1940 

Dentalina cf. D. cooperensis? Cushman. Cooper, 1944 

Nodosa'ria latejugata· Gumbel, 1870 

Chrysalogonium eocenicum? Cushman and Todd, 1946 

Ramulina cf. R. aculeata (d'Orbigny). Cushman, 1940 

Nonionella sp. 

Bolivinopsis cf. B. rosula (Ehrenberg). Cushman, 1949 

Guembelina morsei Kline, 1943 

Siphogenerinoides eleganta (Plummer). Cushman, 1940 

Bulimina cacu.menata Cushman and Parker, 1936 

(Desinobulimina) quadrata Plummer. Cushman, 

1940 

Bolivina midwayensis Cushman, 1936 

midwayensis· Cushman, 1936 

Loxostomum deadericki Cushman, 1947 

deadericki Cushman var. exilis Cushman, 1947 

Ellipsonodosaria paleocenica? Cushman and Todd, 1946 

Valvulineria wilcoxensis Cushman and Ponton, 1932 

Gyroidina. aequilateralis (Plummer). Cushman, 1944 

Gyroidina subangulata (Plummer). Cushman, 1940 

Siphonina p1·ima Plummer, 1927 

wilcoxen.<~is? Cushman, 1927 

Aste'rige1·ina p1·imm·ia Plummer, 1927 

Alabamina wilcoxensis Toulmin, 1941 

Pullenia quinqueloba (Reuss). Cushman, 1940 

Globige1·ina pseudo-bulliodes Plummer, 1927 

t1·iloculinoides Plummer, 1927 

Anomalina midwayensis (Plummer). Cushman, 1940 

acuta Plummer, 1927 

clementiana (d'Orbigny). Franke, 1925 

Cibicides alleni (Plummer). Plummer, 1933 

newmanae (Plummer). Cushman and Todd, 1942 

When tested with dilute hydrochloric acid, specimens belonging in nor;mally calcareous foraminiferal 

genera did not dissolve. Charles Milton determined 

that the foraminiferal tests are composed of a mixture consisting of hulandite and, probably barite. 

Crystals probably composed of barite are found with 

the fossils. 

Switzer and Boucot ( 1955) record foraminiferal 

tests replaced by heulandite in specimens of Paleocene age from a well near Jackson, Tenn., at depths 

483-509 feet. Barite has not yet been recorded as · 

replacing foraminiferal tests, although megafossils 

replaced by barite are known (Ladd, 1957, p. 23). 

The only other record of Tertiary Foraminifera in 

the Upper Mississippi Embayment is that by Cooper 

(1944). He described a foraminiferal assemblage of 

Paleocene age from the Porters Creek formation in 

well samples from depths of 115-135 feet at Cache, 

Alexander County, Ill. These fossils are calcareous. 

Lamar and Sutton (1930) pointed out that absence 

of calcareous material is one of the outstanding 

features of most of the Cretaceous and Tertiary 

sedimentary rocks in Kentucky, Illinois, and Missouri. They suggested that the absence of fossils is 

due to leaching. Replaced fossils near the surface 

at Reidland, and unreplaced fossils at a depth of 

more than 100 feet in Illinois support that hypothesis. 

REFERENCES 

Cooper, C. L., 1944, Smaller Foraminifera from the Porters 

Creek formation (Paleocene) of Illinois: Jour. Paleontology, v. 18, p. 343-354, pis. 54, 55. 

Ladd, H. S., 1957, Treatise on marine ecology and paleoecology: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 67, v. 2, 1077 p. 
B-228 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

Lamar, J. E., and Sutton, A. H., 1930, Cretaceous a.nd .Tertiary I Switzer, George, and Boucot, A. J., 1955, The mineral comsediments of Kentucky, Illinois and Missouri: Am. Assoc. position of some microfossils: Jour. Paleontology, v. 29, 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 14, p. 845-866, 3 figs. p. 525-533. 

95. COAL-BALL OCCURRENCES IN EASTERN KENTUCKY 

By JAMES M. ScHOPF, Columbus, Ohio 

Coal balls containing abundant petrified plant remains were found beneath the marine Magoffin beds 

of Morse (1931f in eastern Kentucky during field 

seasons of 1949, 1950, and 1951. Apparently, these 

are the oldest coal-ball occurrences known in North 

America, and the first to be. found in the Appalachian province. The eastern Kentucky coal balls 

are intermediate in age between those known from 

the Lower Coal Measures of Britain and the Interior 

basins· in the United States. Collections of this material have been studied intermittently by me since 

autumn 1950. I am indebted to John W. Huddle, 

John E. Johnston, and other U. S. Geological Survey geologists for knowledge of the Kentucky oc-

·currences, which are listed below: 

1. Shock Branch. Creek-bed outcrop half a mile 

above the confluence of Shock (Shack) Branch 

with Rockhouse Creek, about 3 miles southwest of Hyden, Leslie Coui:J.ty, Ky. 

2. Lewis Creek. Creek-bed outcrop one-fourth mile 

above confluence of Lewis Creek with Left 

Fork, about 4 miles east of Chappell townsite, 

Leslie- County, Ky. 

3. Bear Branch. Outcrop in ravine on southeast 

slope about three-fourths mile from the point 

where Bear (Briar) Branch empties into North 

Fork of Kentucky River, about one mile west 

of Cornettsville townsite (Dent), Perry 

County, Ky. 

The Magoffin beds of Morse ( 1931, p. 302-303) 

represent one of the most widely distributed and 

easily identified stratigraphic "markers" of eastern' 

coal measures. In some places, the marine beds are 

distinguished chiefly by impressions of invertebrate 

fossils in shale; in other places, they are accompanied by limestone masses of lenticular concretionary 

habit. A lower limestone layer a few inches thick 

is most persistent and, near the Lewis Creek occurrence, this bed thickens and resembles a coquinoid 

breccia. The Magoffin beds of Morse ( 1931) are 

discussed by Johnston and others ( 1955) in the 

Cornettsville area and have been widely identified 

by Wanless (1939, p. 53; 1946, p_. 145). McFarlan 

( 1943) also has discussed the occurrence of this 

marine zone in Kentucky. Wanless ( 1957, p. 73) 

indicated that the Magoffin beds of Morse (1931) 

were correlated with the Winefrede limestone of 

West Virginia, the Lower Mercer limestone of Ohio 

and Pennsylvania, the Minshall limestone of Indiana, 

the Verne limestone of Michigan, and the Curlew 

and Seville limestones of Illinois. 

The eastern Kentucky coal balls occur close below 

the marine beds at Shock Branch and Lewis Creek 

and apparently occupy the position of the Copeland 

coal of Morse (1931). They evidently are- within 

Read's (1947) Neuropte1·is ten~tifolia zone of late 

Kanawha (Mercer) age: The relation of the Bear 

Branch coal balls to the principal marine zone is 

less definite (J. E. Johnston, written communication) ; they probably are slightly older than those at 

the other localities. 

The coal balls consist of limestone having less than 

10 percent included plant substance. They generally 

appear light buff to brown on weathered surfaces, 

and include whiter areas of purer calcite and darker 

areas due to crusts of coal. Coal balls range from 

the size of small pisolites to large solid aggregated 

masses as much as a yard thick. Coal balls characteristically are restricted to local areas in a coal bed, 

and, in this respect, the eastern Kentucky coal balls 

are typical. The coal bed beneath the limestone is 

not thick, and it becomes particularly inconspicuous 

in the presence of abundant coal-ball deposits. 

Plant assemblages from coal balls at all three 

localities appear similar and include calamites and 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-229 

6 

0 

3 

E 

E 

Q 

FIGURE 95.1.-1, Cross section of Bear Branch coal ball showing arrangement of peaty plant material. Stigmarian 

axis (a), stigmarian roots radiating from axis (b), calamite stem fragments (c), and fine vegetable debris including tiny leaves, stems, spores, and seeds (d). 

2, Cross section of delicate stigmarian root from Bear Branch coal ball showing original form. Central air cavity 

(a), conductive strand (b), and parenchymatous outer cortex (c). 

lepidophytes in abundance; Botr·yopter"is, Car·diocar·-

pon, M edullosa, and other elements may be new. 

Coal balls represent petrified peat litter, or peat, 

of Carboniferous age. A cross section of one of the 

coal balls shown in figure 95.1. (1) illustrates the 

arrangement of peaty plant material. If it had not 

been petrified, this peat would have contributed a 

layer of coal to the thin coal bed. The brown coloration of coal-ball limestone is mostly derived from the 

natural color of the original peat preserved in a 

finely crystalline to cryptocrystalline calcite matrix. 

Spherulitic or concretionary bands of crystal patterns in the matrix often pass through plant fossils 

without notable interruption. However, tissue preservation is mostly a result of mineral infiltration and 

impregnation, rather than replacement. The cell 

walls of tissues generally are intact and mineral 

infiltration has been early and rapid enough to preserve even residues of protoplasmic substances inside the cells of some fossils. Preservation of delicate cytologic structures of fossil plants is not as 

unusual as was once supposed, but it serves to emphaize the quality of preservation in some of these coal 

balls. A common type of delicate tissue preservation 

is illustrated in figure 95.1 (2) by a section of stigmarian root showing its original form. Preservation 

generally is poor wherever plant substance is actually replaced by mineral matter. A few vugs and 

veins represent a later generation of coarsely crystalline calcite within larger coal balls. Petrified tissues 

are interrupted in these areas. 

The marine limestone associated with these coal 

balls is argillaceous, calcite-cemented, and contains 

small cavities. Weathered surfaces are mottled buff 

or gray. Many dissociated crinoid stem segments, 

worn brachiopod valves, small gastropods, bryozoan 

fragments, and one shark tooth have been observed. 

Pebbles and small cobbles of the brown coal-ball 

limestone also may occur within this coquinoid 

matrix, but these appear to be erratic, redeposited 

in the coquina. The surfaces of these coal-ball 

pebbles are rounded, with some re-entrant cavities. 

Some rounding may come from local transport, but 

the cavities suggest etching or solution. The coal 

ba.lls themselves, the later generation of coarsely 

crystalline veins, and the coquina cement all show 

that excess calcium carbonate was present during 

petrification and early diagenesis. 

Preservation of cytologic details in some of the 

land plant remains strongly indicates early and rapid 

initial precipitation of coal-ball calcite. The close 

association with an overlying marine limestone in 

eastern Kentucky is similar to relations at other coalball localities such as those at Berryville, Ill. and 

West Mineral, Kans. described by Mamay and Yochelson (1953). Henbest (1958) has discussed 

ecologic implications of a similar deposit in the 

Secor coal bed near McAlester, Okla. The marine 

invasion over the coal swamp evidently was so rapid 

that it corresponds to a "local catyclism." The same 

interpretation seems applicable to occurrences in 
B-230 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

eastern Kentucky and nearly all the other 20-odd 

occurrences I have examined in the Interior coal 

fields over the past 30 years. 

REFERENCES 

Henbest, L. G., 1958, Ecology and life association of fossil 

algae and Foraminifera in a Pennsylvanian limestone, 

McAlester, Oklahoma: Cushman Foundation for Fora- . 

miniferal Research, v. 9, pt. 4, p. 104-111. 

Johnston, J. E., Stafford, P. T., and Welch, S. W., 1955, Preliminary coal map of the Cornettsville quadrangle, Perry, 

Knott, Letcher, Harlan, and Leslie Counties, Kentucky: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Coal Inv. Map C-22. 

McFarlan, A. C., 1943, Geology of Kentucky: Lexington, 

Univ. Kentucky, p. 105-106. 

Mamay, S. H., and Yochelson, E. L., 1953, Floral-faunal 

associations in American coal balls: Science, v. 118, p. 

240-241. 

Morse, W. C., 1931, The Pennsylvanian invertebrate fauna of 

Kentucky: Kentur~ky Geol. Survey, Ser. VI, v. 36, p. 

296-349. 

Read, C. B., 1947, Pennsylvanian floral zones and floral 

provinces: Jour. Geology, v. 55, p. 271-279. 

Wanless, H. R., 1939, Pennsylvanian correlations in the eastern Interior and Appalachian coal fields: Geol. Soc. 

America Spec. Paper no. 17, p. 1-130, 9 pls. 

--1946, Pennsylvanian geology of a part of the Southern 

Appalachian coal field: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 13, p. 

1-161, 40 pls. 

-- 1957, Geology and ·mineral resources of the Beardstown, Glasford, Havana, and Vermont quadrangles: 

Illinois Geol. Survey Bull. 82, 233 p., 7 pls. 

96. AGE OF THE OHIO CREEK CONGLOMERATE, GUNNISON COUNTY, COLORADO 

By D. L. GASKILL, Denver, Colo. 

The discovery of fossil plants in the Ohio Creek 

conglomerate about 10 miles northwest of the type 

locality ·in the Anthracite quadrangle, Gunnison 

County, Colo., indicates a Paleocene age for the 

formation. 

The Ohio Creek beds were first referred to by 

Hill (1890), and by Cross (1892), and mapped as 

the Ohio formation by Eldridge (1894). In the 

northwest quarter of the Anthracite quadrangle the 

Ohio Creek conglomerate is a light-gray to white, 

conglomeratic, feldspathic, quartzose sandstone unconformably overlying beds assigned to the Mesaverde formation (Lee, 1912), and unconformably 

overlain by the Wasatch ("Ruby") formation. The 

Ohio Creek beds are generally massive, conglomeratic 

at the base, with a few conglomeratic lenses or pebble layers above. Grain size is predominantly medium 

to coarse, but individual lenses range from very fine 

to very coarse angular-grained sandstone. Grains of 

quartz predominate. Weathered feldspar locally 

constitutes 15 to 30 percent of the matrix. Scattered 

grains of chert, .argillite, and occasional rounded 

granules of chert are common constituents. Some 

lenses contain flakes of biotite, muscovite, and less 

commonly, grains of pink feldspar and· hornblende. 

At places, particularly at the base of the formation, there is much argillaceous and carbonaceous 

material, including thin lenses and pellets of greenish-gray clay, thin silty shaly layers, and carbonized 

wood fragments. The conglomeratic lenses are composed of smooth gen.erally well-rounded, poorly· cemented pebbles and cobbles of variously-shaded gray, 

red, orange, yellow, or brown chert and quartzite, 

white quartzite, quartz, argillite, and claystone, and 

an occasional pebble of igneous or volcanic rock. The 

pebbles and cobbles range from about 1.4 to 3 inches 

in diameter, but most of them are lf2 to 11;2 inches 

in diameter. At one locality numerous boulder-size 

concretions and concretionary lenses of hard dense 

fine-grained sandstone were found. Torrential cross- . 

bedding commonly occurs within the individual layers. The mineral composition seems to be rather 

uniform, although no microscopic examinations were 

made. The thickness of the formation ranges from 

about 15 to 80 feet in this area. 

Fossil plants were collected from a locality on 

the ridge north of Middle Anthracite Creek at an 

elevation of 9,100 feet in the N~ sec. 1, T. 13 S., R. 

88 W., 6th P.M. From this collection, J. A. Wolfe 

(written communication, 1960) identified "Juglans" 

rhamnoides Lesquereux, "Magnolia" magnifolia 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-231 

Knowlton, and Platanus 1·egula'l'is Knowlton. Wolfe 

states: 

The "Juglans" 'rhamnoides is known from several Paleocene 

floras, but has also been recorded (erroneously I think) from 

Late Cretaceous floras. The other two species are only known 

from Paleocene floras such as the Raton and Denver. This 

small flora is certainly of Paleocene age, and is probably 

correlative with the early Paleocene Raton and Denver 

floras * * *. The species identified are characteristic forms of 

the Paleocene and preclude a Cretaceous age. 

REFERENCES 

Cross, Whitman, 1892, Post-Laramie deposits of Colorado: 

Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., v. 44, no. 259, p. 19-42. 

Eldridge, G. H., 1894, Description of the sedimentary formations, i'n Anthracite-Crested Butte quadrangles, Colorado: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 9, p. 6-10. 

Hill, R. C., 1890, Orographic and structural features of Rocky 

Mountain geology: Colorado Sci. Soc. Proc., v. 3, p. 362-

458. 

Lee, W. T., 1912, Coal fields of Grand -Mesa and the West Elk 

Mountains, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 510, 237 p. 

97. BIOHERMS IN THE UPPER PART OF THE POGONIP IN SOUTHERN NEVADA 

By REUBEN J. Ross, JR., and HENRY R. CORNWALL, Denver, Colo., and Menlo Park, Calif. 

Recent stratigraphiG study in southern ·Nevada 

has led to the recognition of large bioherms of very 

pure limestone in the upper part of the Pogonip 

group (Early and Middle Ordovician). These are 

known at Meiklejohn Peak in the Bare Mountain 

quadrangle (Cornwall and Kleinhampl, 1960), southwest of Aysees Peak in the Frenchman Lake quadrangle, and probably west of Oak Spring in the 

northern part of the Tippipah Spring quadrangle. 

In cross section these bioherms are great lensshaped masses almost flat on the bottom and convex 

upward on the top. The largest, located on the west 

side of Meiklejohn Peak (fig. 97.1), is estimated to 

be 250 to 300 feet in maximum thickness and approximately ~~ mile in lateral extent. All these 

masses are composed of light-gray aphanitic limestone of a massive nature that shows very few internal depositional structures. However, detailed 

petrologic work is yet to be done. · 

All the bioherms are in the lower part of the 

Antelope Valley limestone of southern Nevada. 

Specifically they rest almost directly on top of unit 

F of Johnson and Hibbard (1957,. p. 347) and they 

extend upward within what those authors call unit 

G. It is of considerable importance to note that unit 

G does not increase in thickness where the bioherms 

are present. Its top and bottom limits remain essentially paraJlel. 

The bed on which each bioherm rests is seemingly 

continuous underneath the bioherm. Surrounding 

beds above the base are composed mostly of impure 1 

silty and muddy limestones which are highly fossiliferous and are characterized in particular by the · 

presence of trilobites that suggest correlation with 

the Kanosh shale of Hintze (1952, p. 20-23) and of 

the brachiopods of the 01·thidiella zone of Nolan, 

Merriam, and "'illiams (1956, p. 28-29). Each of 

these surrounding beds seems to grade laterally into 

some portion of the upper convex side of the bioherm 

in w}?ich it loses. its identity within a few feet. Although there is locally an appearance of "wrapping 

around" the upper surface of the bioherm, no single 

bed can be found to overlie its curved surface for 

an appreciable distance. At no place have we been 

able to find a .truly distinct contact along the sloping 

sides of the bioherm. We infer that the surrounding 

muddy beds were deposited while the bioherm was 

growing and that its mass was not developed and 

then buried at a later date. 

Our ~xamination of lithologic features has been 

only cursory and was undertaken only at Meiklejohn 

Peak. There, small masses of thinly laminated limestones, in which the laminae appear complexly contorted, are present within the base of the bioherm. 

The boundaries of the laminae, which do not exceed 

1 inch in thickness, are delineated by extensive development of secondary calcite. There are also some 

6-inch to 1-foot beds composed almost entirely of the 

shells of small brachiopods, but these beds are exceedingly rare. On the north side of the bioherm on 

Meiklejohn Peak, large cephalopods are well defined 

in various orientations within its mass. 
B-232 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

FIGURE 97.1.-Large bioherm (white area) in the Pogonip group in the southwest slope of Meiklejohn Peak js about 250 feet 

thick. 

G 

F 

and 

E 

FIGURE 97.2.-Bioherm (white area) in the Pogonip group southwest of Aysees Peak, Frenchman Lake quadrangle, is 75 feet 

thick, rests on unit F, and is within lower part of unit G of Johnson and Hibbard (1957, p. 347). 
r 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC ·SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-233 

The bioherm southwest of Aysees Peak (Nevada 

grid, central zone, 750,100 feet E. and 773,000 feet 

N., on Frenchman Lake quadrangle) (fig. 97.2) probably does not exceed 75 feet in thickness. and 250 feet 

in width. It is located high on the east wall of a 

large canyon. The eroded remains of· another bioherm ~re readily seen high above the canyon in a 

side draw 4,000 feet to the north-northeast (Nevada 

grid, central zone, 751,000 feet E., 776,700 feet N.). 

A third bioherm buildup may be located west of 

Oak Spring in the Tippipah Spring quadrangle (Nevada grid, central zone, 674,750 feet E., 907,500 feet 

N.). This area on the west side of Amphitheater 

.Valley has been mapped geologically by Houser and 

Poole ( 1960). Ross believes such a mass may be 

represented by the uppermost exposed unit of the 

Pogonip as mapped by Houser and Poole (1960, 

unit Opma, sheet 1) as the upper part of the Pogonip. 

This unit is composed of exceedingly fine grained 

homogenous dolomite in which bedding is either 

massive or very thick. The typical flat bottom and 

convex top cannot be demonstrated and the presence 

of a bioherm is therefore uncertain. We have established the presence of a fauna within· the underlying unit which dates it beyond question as equivalent to the Ninemile formation and to unit D of 

Johnson and Hibbard (1957, p. 346) in a much 

dolomitized state. The stratigraphic position, homo- . 

geneous nature of the rock, and aphanitic texture 

of the dolomite suggest to Ross that this body is 

also a bioherm. 

The localities mentioned here are in an area that 

is approximately 50 miles from east to west and 30 

miles from north to south in the southern part of 

Nevada. To our knowledge, rio algalogist has examined any of these deposits. We do not know what 

organisms contributed most to their construction. 

When detailed studies have been undertaken and 

completed on these and any other similar structures 

in the same stratigraphic posit{on it may be possible 

to reach conclusions concerning their ecologic significance, and concerning the factors that caused or 

permitted growth of such impressive structures 

essentially contemporaneously in a large area of 

southern Nevada. 

At the present time the economic significance of 

these buildups seems limited. They are so compact 

and aphanitic in texture that they probably could 

not themselves serve as reservoirs for petroleum. 

Analyses by I. C. Frost and E. J. Fennelly, U. S. 

Geological Survey, indicate that the single sample 

tested is composed 93 percent of calcite and 2.65 

percent of dolomite. 

REFERENCES 

Cornwall, H. R., and Kleinhampl, F. J., 1960, Preliminary 

geologic map of the Bare Mountain quadrangle, Nye 

County, Nevada: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Field 

Studies Map MF-239. 

Hintze, L. F., 1952, Lower Ordovician trilobites from western 

Utah and eastern Nevada: Utah Geol. and Mineralogo. 

Survey Bull 48, 249 p., 28 pis. 

Houser, F. N., and Poole, F. G., 1960, Preliminary geologic 

map of the Climax stock and vicinity, Nye County, 

Nevada: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-328. 

Johnson, M. S., and Hibbard, D. E., 1957, Geology of the 

Atomic Energy Commission, Nevada Proving Grounds 

area, Nevada: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1021-K, p. 333-

384, pis. 32, 33, fig. 57. 

Nolan, T. B., Merriam, C. W., and Williams, J. S., 1956, The 

stratigraphic section in the vicinity of Eureka, Nevada: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 276, 77 p., illus. 

98. SOIL MOISTURE UNDER JUNIPER AND PINYON COMPARED WITH MOISTURE UNDER GRASSLAND IN 

ARIZONA 

By R. F. MILLER, F. A. BRANSON, I. S. McQUEEN, and R. C. CULLER, Denver, Colo. 

Soil-moisture movement and retention in areas 

under juniper and pinyon as compared with areas 

under grass are being investigated at selected sites 

on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation in Arizona to 

determine if a net gain of usable water· can result 

from the eradication of juniper and pinyon and replacement with grass. Soil moisture, temperature, 

and moisture tension under the three types of plant 

cover illustrated in figure 98.1 will be measured periodically for one year starting early in 1961; prelimi-
B-234: GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

A 

B 

FIGURE 98.1.-Photographs of sites being investigated. A, 

forested area in background, sparsely vegetated area in 

foreground; B, open grassland. 

nary measurements were made at these sites near the 

end of the 1960 growing s.eason (late September). Information on t he vegetative and aerial cover at each 

site is given in t able 1. 

TABLE 1.-Ground and aerial cove1· on each of th1·ee sites · sampled. 

I Ground cover lperrent) 

Type of roots Vegetative using water Bare Bare Aerial cover from the soil soil rocks Mulch Grass Forbs cover 

---------- Sparsely vegetated . Grass and tr<'C ... . 75.3 0 .2 20.3 4.0 0.3 12 

Forested .. . ....... 1J;ce .... .. .....•. 0 0 100 0 0 100 

Grassland .. . ..•. . . Grass . .. . ·.· . .... ·14R 0.8 40.1 12.2 0 .9 25 

Soil moisture, temperature, and moisture tension 

were determined at 3- to 4-inch increments down 

through each of the three soils (fig. 98.2). Soil 

samples were obtained with a 3-inch diameter barreltype auger . . Part of each sample was placed in a can 

with a disc of dry pentachlorophenol-treated filter 

paper, and sealed with elastic adhesive tape. The 

containers were then stored in a constant temperature chamber for 2 weeks to permit equilibration 

between the moisture in the soil and the moisture 

in the pa.per. Moisture contents of the filter papers 

and the soil samples were obtained gravimetrically. 

Soil moisture tension was then determined from a 

curve that relates the percent of moisture in the 

paper to soil moisture tension (Gardner, 1936). Soil 

temperature was determined for each sample as 

it was taken from the auger hole. 

Moisture storage in the upper part of the soil 

columns was greatest under the dense stand of trees 

TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE 

SOIL MOISTURE, IN PERCENT 

10 20 30 

I 

I (f) I 

w .. ) ::r: / (.) 

~ ' '\ 

:£ \ 1-

a.. 

w 

0 ' l 

c 

OOL-~~~~~~~LL~~~~L_LL~LULL~~_L_j 

100 50 10 5 3 

~ 

Grassland 

MOISTURE TENSION. IN ATMOSPHERES 

EXPLANATION 

_ ..... - ...... -~-

Sparsely vegetated 

---·-··-······- ... Forested 

FIGURE 98.2.-Soil moisture (M), temperatures, in degrees 

centigrade (C), and moisture tension (T) under the three 

different types of plant cover illustrated in figure 98.1. 
·, 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, AliTICLES 1-146 B-235 

(fig. 98.2). Soil moisture under the trees, to a depth 

of 3 feet, was also retained at lower moisture tensions. This is apparently the combined result of 

lower temperatures from shading, and reduction of 

evaporation by a thick mulch of fallen foliage. 

Soil temperatures and moisture tensions at the 

surface (fig. 98.2) were highest in the site with the 

least aerial plant cover and decreased as the cover 

increased. 

Soil moisture in the grass-root zone (0-48 inches) 

of the two grassed sites was held at about the same 

moisture tensions down through the soil profiles. 

The decrease in moisture tension with depth probably reflects a decrease in the amount of grass roots 

with depth. The differences in moisture content 

betwee!l soils are apparently the result of differences 

in soil porosity, rather than differences in water 

use by the plants. Therefore, differences in waterusing capabilities of trees compared to those of grass 

may be more adequately reflected by moisture-tension data than by soil moisture. 

Throughout the profiles temperatures tend to decrease with depth in the two grass-covered soils, but 

to increase with depth under the trees. Thus, mois1 ture could move down by vapor diffusion in the two 

grass-covered soils, but would move toward the surface under the trees in response to the slight temperature gradients (Philip and Devries, 1957). 

The accumulations of moisture that are indicated 

by zones of reduced moisture tension at several 

depths in each of the grass-covered soils (fig. 98.2), 

reflect a downward movement of water. This movement could be· a response to moisture-tension gradients as well as to temperature gradients, inasmuch 

as capillary tension increases below each zone of 

moisture accumulation. Moisture tensions at depth 

are within the range through which Philip and 

Devries ( 1957) report a maximum of soil-moisture 

transfer by a combination of capillary tension and 

moisture diffusion in response to temperature 

gradients. 

REFERENCES 

Gardner, Robert, 1936, A method of measuring the capillary 

tension of soil moisture over a wide range: Soil Science, 

v. 43, p. 277-283. 

Philip, J. R., and Devries, D. A., 1957, Moisture movement in 

porous materials under temperature gradients: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 38, p. 222-232. 

99. CORALS FROM PERMIAN ROCKS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION 

By HELEN DUNCAN, Washington, D. C. 

'rhe seeming absence of corals in the Permian 

rocks of the northern Rocky Mountain region has 

been a faunal anomaly to stratigraphic paleontologists concerned with studies of the Phosphoria, Park 

City, and Shedhorn formations. Some of the sedimentary environments that prevailed in the region 

through much of Permian time quite obviously 

were unfavorable for corals, but it is difficult to 

explain why these organisms should not be present 

in carbonate facies that supported a fairly prolific 

fauna of bryozoans and articulate brachiopods. 

Solitary rugose corals normally occur in such faunal 

associations, and representatives of the group are 

found, at least sporadically, in temporally equivalent 

strata to the west and south. 

The many reports of Girty on Permian faunas of 

the region contain no references to corals; moreover, 

during a period of about 15 years, I had seen no 

corals in Permian collections made by U.S. Geological Survey geologists from the northern Rockies. It 

is therefore worthy of note that E. L. Yochelson's 

current i~vestigations of faunas from the Phosphoria, Park City, and Shedhorn formations have 

disclosed the presence of horn corals in 4 collections, 

I of which at least 2 are certainly Permian. E. R. 1 Cressman's discovery of colonial rugose corals in 

strata assigned to the lower member (supposedly 

Grandeur equivalent) of the Park City formation in 

Lemhi County, Idaho, extends our data on the geographic distribution of a coral zone that is fairly 

widely developed in western Lower Permian rocks 

(Wolfcamp and early Leonard equivalents). 

The material presently available is meager and 

very poorly preserved, but it is adequate to demon-
B-236 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

strate that corals are not entirely lacking in the 

Permian of the region. It is hoped that future collecting will provide specimens that can be used for 

systematic description. Known occurrences are reviewed in this paper. 

MONTANA 

Corals were found in two collections from tongues 

of the Park City that extend into the Sno:wcrest 

Range in southeast Beaverhead County, Mont. A 

mold of a calyx of a small horn coral was collected 

about the middle of the Franson tongue on Sawtooth 

Peak (USGS 10854-PC). The rock is composed 

largely of organic debris, and the coral was reworked 

to some extent but presumably came from essentially 

contemporaneous deposits. This occurrence is definitely Permian .. 

Two fragments of small horn corals in fine-grained 

siliceous rock were collected from beds considered 

in the field to be about the middle of the Grandeur 

tongue of the Park City on Hogback Mountain 

(USGS 11674-PC). Sections reveal that one of the 

specimens is probably LophoJJhyllidium.. The othei· 

is a zaphrentoid coral too altered for generic identification. According to Yochelson (oral communication, 1961), the beds from which the collection came 

probably are older than the type Grandeur member. 

The corals are not of kinds that can be safely used 

to differentiate Permian from Pennsylvania. 

WYOMING 

A collection (USGS 12201-PC) from the base 

of the lower part of the Shedhorn sandstone on Tosi 

Creek, Gros Ventre quadrangle, Sublette County, 

Wyo., provided a mold of a small horn coral, which 

I suspect belongs to the lophophyllidid group. There 

is no· good evidence from the associated fauna that 

the beds in question are Permian. 

IDAHO 

Three minute horn corals of indisputable Permian 

age were discovered in a collection from a limestone 

lens near the middle of the Rex chert member of the 

Phosphoria formation. This lot (USGS 19532-PC) 

was collected on the South Fork of Sage Creek, Stewart Flat quadrangle, Caribou County, Idaho. The 

corals were obtained when rock from this locality 

was dissolved in acid. These silicified specimens have 

slightly curved ceratoid coralla, the largest being 

about 10 mm long, with rather conspicuous longitudinal ribbing. Evidence of internal deposits 

(septa, tabulae, etc.) is lacking, possibly having been 

destroyed by the acid treatment. 

E. R. Cressman found colonial rugose corals at 

three localities in the Morrison Lake quadrangle,. 

Lemhi County, Idaho. The material is recorded as 

coming from the lower part of the Park City formation, a unit that presumably would now be called the 

Grandeur member. The corals are replaced by silica, 

and one cannot be. certain that all critical internal 

structures are preserved. Specimens from two of 

the localities, one (USGS 19302-PC) 66 feet above 

the base of the Park City in the Hawley Creek section and the other (USGS 19303-PC) from about the 

middle of the suppos'ed Grandeur member, are dissepimented phaceloid forms. The corallites seem to 

have relatively short septa and slightly domed tabulae. Most individuals show no evidence of columellae or axial structures; however, traces of delicate 

axial rods and slightly more complicated structures 

were seen in a few transverse sections. It is impossible to tell whether axial structures originally were 

present in all corallites and largely destroyed in the 

course of replacement, or whether these corals represent a diphyphyllid variant of some lithostrotionoid 

genus. 

Another genus of dissepimented phaceloid coral 

was collected 185 feet above the base of the Park 

City in the Hawley Creek section (USGS 19304-PC). 

The septa are persistent and relatively long, and 

most of the corallites exhibit an arachnoid axial 

structure. This form is related to H eritschioides. 

The colonial corals obtained from the lower part 

of the Park City of the Morrison Lake quadrangle 

suggest that the beds involved are pre-Kaibab in age 

and somewhat older than the Grandeur member of 

the type area in the Wasatch Mountains. Similar 

corals occur rather widely in the Great Basin, commonly in the zone of Pseudoschwagerina and primitive PaTafusulina. 

t 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-14fi B-237 

100. OCCUnnENCES OF THE PERMIAN GASTnOPOD OMPH.-.lf.O'fllOCHUS IN NOI{THWESTERN. UNITED 

STATES 

By ELLIS L. YOCHELSON, Washington, D. C. 

Omphalot'roch:us is a guide to the lower part of the 

Lower Permian (Yochelson, 1954) occurring in the 

type Wolfcamp formation and its equivalents. More 

than half a century ago George H. Girty (1905a, p. 

20) wrote of an American uon"phalot'I'Ochus zone," 

and Knight ( 1940) discussed the stratigraphic importance of the genus in Russia. 

The genus is a common, widely distributed fossil 

in southwestern United States (Yochelson, 1956). 

It is also widespread in northwestern United States 

but has rarely been collected, possibly because the 

significance of this gastropod has not been emphasized. Localities where it has been found are here 

documented. Because Om,phalot'rochus is easily 

identified in the field it has a high potential usefulness in stratigraphic investigations. 

Ont,phalot?·ochus is large : specimens are seldom 

less than one inch across the base and may be up to 

6 inches across. The base is flattened and bears a 

large umbilicus with nearly vertical walls. Shells 

are low spired, with few whorls and with a fairly 

simple whorl profile. Incomplete specimens and. 

cross sections can be identified as to genus with a 

high degree of confidence. All known American 

species are illustrated by Yochelson ( 1956). Apertural and basal views of representative specimens 

are shown in figure 100.1. 

Occurrences of On~phalot1·ochus in Arizona, Kansas, 1'-{ew Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas are given by 

Yochelson ( 1956), and no additional records from 

these states are included in this review. HOmphalot?·ochus" as used by Girty for specimens from the 

Park City, Phosphoria·, and "Embar" formations has 

been assigned to the genus Babylonites Yochelson, 

which is excluded. Numbers in parenthesis refer 

to the permanent register of U. S. Geological Survey 

fossil localities. 

South Dalcota.-In 1957, V. R. Wilmarth collected 

0'1nphalot1·ochus near Minnekahta, S. Dak., in the 

SWl)a. sec. 27, T. 6 S., R. 4 E. Fossils were collected 

from the steep west wall of the unnamed canyon just 

east of Argyle Canyon, about 1.25 miles north of 

the Custer-Fall River County line. Omphalot1·ochus· 

occurs in two zones: one is a red, fine- to mediumgrained sandstone, 59 to 22 feet below the top of 

the Minnelusa sandstone (19152-PC); the second is 

a limestone breccia 96 to 84 feet below the top of the 

formation (USGS 19153-PC). Specimens are rare 

and too incomplete to be specifically identified. 

Wy01ning.-Thompson and Thomas (in Thomas, 

Th.ompson, and Harrison, 1953, p. 19) cite an identification by J. Brookes Knight of O'mphalot1·ochus 

collected in 1940 by H. R. McCurdy from the upper 

part of the Casper formation near Farthing, Wyo. 

In 1959, 0'mphalot'l·ochus wolfca-mpensis Yochelson 

was collected by the writer in abundance from a 

cherty limestone on the north side of a branch of 

Chugwater Creek in the NE14SW14SE14 sec. 34, 

T. 19 S. 70 W., Laramie County, Wyo., as determined 

from Harrison's unpublished map (USGS 19820-

PC). Thomas, Thompson, and Harrison (1953, pl. 

9) indicate that OmphalotTochus occurs about 450 

feet below the top of the Casper formati~:m. 

I~ 1922, C. R. Longwell and W. W. Rubey collected 

a specimen 70 feet below the top of the Minnelusa 

sandstone, in Fawcett Canyon, Newcastle quadrangle, Weston County, Wyo., (USGS 4397-PC). 

The specimen may be 0. wolfcampensis, but additional material is needed to verify the specific identification. 

Utah.-Girty (1905b, p. 391) listed Omphalot?·ochus in a fauna collected by him and J. M. Boutwell, 

in the Bingham mining district. His specimens came 

from the "upper portion of limestone," now recognized as the upper part of the Oquirrh formation, 

one-eighth mile west of the Dalton and Lark mine, 

Salt Lake County, Utah (USGS 2555 green series). 

In 1959, the writer, R. J.· Roberts and E. W. Tooker, 

relocated this locality in Cooper Canyon, west of 

Lark, Utah, on the extreme edge of the Bingham 

Canyon quadrangle (USGS 18892-PC). The specimens we obtained were identified as 0. wolfcampensis. In 1958, Roberts and Tooker collected the 

same species in the upper part of the Oquirrh at an 

elevation of 5,700 feet in Black Rock Canyon, NEl)a, 

sec. 30, T. 1 S., R. 3 W., Garfield quadrangle, Tooele 

County, Utah, (USGS 18486-PC, 18893-PC). 

Girty (in Nolan, 1935, p. 38) listed OmphalotTochus sp., from the "western facies" of the Oquirrh 

formation about l!:! mile NNE of the AB Claim on 

the west side of Dutch Mountain in the Gold Hill 

mining district (USGS 6332-PC). From the "central facies" of the Oquirrh, he listed OmphalotTochus 

sp., occurring just west of the intersection of the 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

FIGURE 100.1.-Apertural and basal views of representative 

specimens of Omphalotrochus, approximately natural size. 

center spur in Sheridan Canyon with the main ridge 

line (USGS 6362-PC), and Omphalot1·ochus? sp. 

from the lower slopes of the center spur in Sheridan 

Canyon (USGS 6360-PC). The specimens from the 

first two localities are 0. wolfcampensis; that from 

the third locality is indeterminate. All localities were 

considered to be from the "higher Pennsylvanian" 

as used by Girty, which now refers to the lower 

part of the Permian. 

Omphalotrochus may occur in the Silver Island 

Range of northwest Utah, but specimens are incomplete and locality data unsatisfactory. In faunal lists, 

Girty (in McKnight, 1940, p. 34) reports 01nphalotrochus? sp. from the Rico .formation in San Juan 

County. Unfortunately, the specimen or specimens 

could not be found in the collection (USGS 6036-PC), 

and this report cannot be substantiated. 

N evada.-Although this genus has been reported 

informally as being widespread and locally abundant, 

a brief examination of the many Survey collections 

from this State yielded Omphalotrochus from only 

three areas. To the best of the writer's knowledge 

these occurrences have not been cited heretofore . 

.In 1900, F. B. Weeks collected a large specimen 

from the southeast slope of Hamels Peak, Egan 

Range, 17 miles south of Ely in the gully south of 

Ice Creek (USGS 2702 green series) ; presumably 

1 this is from the Carbon Ridge formation. Girty 

identified the specimen in the collection as 0. whitneyi. This first use of the specific name for a specimen far from the type area in California probably 

was based on the large size of the shell, here considered to be specifically indeterminate. 

In 1923, C. R. Longwell's party, mapping in the 

Las Vegas quadrangle, collected specifically indeterminate Omphalotrochus from 250 feet of "Pennsylvanian limestone and sandstone" at the top of Williams Peak in the Sp_ring Mountains (USGS 6484-

PC). Excellent 0. wolfca,mpensis was collected in 

the quadrangle, but the locality data are poor; the 

specimens are from the first 30 feet of black dense 

limestone just below the "Supai" formation (USGS 

6473-PC). Presumably both collections are from 

the upper part of the Bird Spring formation of 

current terminology. 

A single small specimen of 0. wolfca·mpensis was 

collected by H. G. Ferguson and J. S. Williams in 

1940 in float from the Antler Peak limestone. It was 

obtained on the southeast slope of Antler Peak, near 

the top, in theSE%. sec. 33, T. 31 N., R. 43 E., Antler 

Peak quadrangle (USGS 8730-PC). 

ldaho.-ln 1958, W. J. Carr and D. E. Trimble 

collected two specimens from approximately sec. 5, 

T. 12 S., R. 32 E., about 7 miles south of the southwest corner of the Arbon quadrangle on the west 

face of the Deep Creek Mountains, Power County, 

Idaho. The first specimen (USGS 19114-PC) is 0. 

wolfcampens·is; the second (USGS 19116-PC) is less 

well preserved and is ·specifically indeterminate. 

Carr and Trimble obtained one other specimen, 

which probably is 0. wolfcampensis, 890 feet below 

the top of a measured section, ending at the top of 

peak 7 484, Deep Creek Mountains, on the east side 

of the north fork of Sawmill Canyon in the NW1,4 sec. 

19, T. 9 S., R. 32 E., Rockland quadrangle, Power 

County, Idaho (USGS 19105-PC). 

Oregon.-In 1908, J. T. Pardee submitted several 

collections from the Sumpter quadrangle to George 

H. Girty for identification. One collection from along 

the railway about 2.75 miles south of Sumpter, Baker 

County, Oreg., (USGS 19549-PC) contains fusulinids, echinoid spines, Composita? sp. indet., and a 

poorly preserved Omphalotrochus. 

California.-A review of old collections has 

brought to light additional specimens of Omphalotrochus, including some from the Redding quadrangle (Diller, 1906). Some of the specimens are 

topotypes of 0. whitneyi (Meek), the type of the 

genus, but also the least well known species. Because 

some Omphalotrochus undergo pronounced ontogen-
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-239 

etic change, there has been a question of the relationship of 0. whitneyi to better known forms. Investigation of all California specimens may result 

in revision of the limits of several species. 

REFERENCES 

Diller, J. S., 1906, Description of the Redding folio [California]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 138. 

Girty, G. H., 1905a, The relations of some Carboniferous 

faunas: Washington Acad. ScL Proc., vol. 7, p. 1-26. 

---1905b, Paleontology, p. 387-393 in Boutwell, J. M., 

Economic geology of the Bingham mining district, Utah, 

with a section on areal geology, by Arthur Keith, and an 

introduction on general geology, by S. F. Emmons: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 38, 413 p., 49 pis. 

Knight, J. B., 1940, Are the "Omphalotrochus beds" of the 

U.S.S.R. Permian?: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Bull., v. 24, p. 1128-1131, with additional discussion by 

C. 0. Dunbar and R. B. King. 

McKnight, E. T., 1940 [1941] Geology of area between Green 

and Colorado Rivers, Grand and San Juan Counties, 

Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 908, 147 p., 13 pls. 

Nolan, T. B., 1935, The Gold Hill mining district, Utah: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 177, 172 p., 15 pis. 

Thomas, H. D., Thompson, M. L., and· Harrison, John W., 1953, 

Stratigraphy of the Casper formation, p. 1-14, pl. 9, in 

Fusulinids of the Casper formation of Wyoming: Wyoming Geol. Survey Bull. 46. 

Thompson, M. L., and Thomas, H. D., 1953, Systematic 

Paleontology of fusulinids from the Casper formation, 

p. 15-56, pls. 1-8, in Fusulinids of the Casper formation 

of Wyoming: Wyoming Geol. Survey Bull. 46. 

Yochelson, E. L., 1954, Some problems concerning the distribution of the late Paleozoic gastropod Omphalotrochus: 

Science, v. 120, p. 233-234. 

·--1956, Permian Gastropoda of the southwestern United 

States: 1, Euomphalacea, Trochonematacea, Pseudophoracea, Anomphalacea, Craspedostomatacea, and 

Platyceratacea: Am. Mus. Nat. History Bull., v. 110, art. 

3, p. 173-276. 

101. PENNSYLVANIAN ROCKS IN SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA 

By J. THOMAS DUTRO, JR., and RAYMOND C. DOUGLASS, Washington, D. C. 

The apparent scarcity of marine rocks of Pennsylvanian age in Alaska has been a stratigraphic anomaly that has· puzzled geologists for nearly 50 years. 

In his summary of the geology of Alaska, P. S. Smith 

( 1939, p. 26) emphasized the importance of a limestone at a single locality in Soda Bay, Prince of 

Wales Island, concluding: 

More detailed examination of the locality will be required 

before this determination (Pennsylvanian?) can be regarded 

as definite, but should it be confirmed by that study it would 

be of special importance, because it would prove the presence 

of Pennsylvanian rocks, which are unknown not only elsewhere in southeastern Alaska but in any other part of the 

Territory. 

PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND 

Material collected from this locality is not sufficiently diagnostic to establish the precise age of 

the beds in question. A restudy of the coelenterates 

by Helen Duncan, the gastropods by Ellis Yochelson, 

and the foraminifers by Douglass has been inconclusive. The fossils could represent a lower Namurian fauna (highest Mississippian equivalent) which 

might reasonably occur above the Upper Mississippian Gigantoproductus beds, present also at Soda 

Bay. On the other hand, the strata of dou.btful age 

could correlate with the Lower Pennsylvanian beds 

with Gastrioceras, which crop out in Trocadero Bay, 

just to the !lOrth on the west coast of Prince of Wales 

Island (Gordon, 1955). 

Fusuline foraminifers were listed in several collections from southeastern Alaska by G. H. Girty in 

Buddington and Chapin (1929, p. 112-115). Girty 

stated that the evidence, although not unequivocal, 

suggested a Mississippian age. L. G. Henbest (written communication, 1936) called Girty's attention 

to the significance of the Fusulinellas in a collection 

from northern Kuiu Island; this .information, together with the evidence from crinoids and a reevaluation by Girty of the rest of the fossils, was the basis 

for Kirk's (1937a, p. 110) Pennsrlvanian age assignment. Our detailed reexamination of this collection 

has resulted in a definite Middle Pennsylvanian age 

determination. 

Field geologists should be alert to the possibility 

that Pennsylvanian rocks are more widespread in 

the area than hitherto assumed. Further study is 

needed to determine the areal extent of these rocks 
B-240 GEOLOGICAL SURVE.Y RESEARCH 1961 

134 °30' 134° 

.---------------------------------~---,5?" 

0 5 MILES 

N 

1 KUIU ISLAND 

._ ___ .__ ____________________________ ___J 56° 45' 

FIGURE 101.1-Locality of Middle Pennsylvanian collection 

(USGS 5443-PC) near the head of Saginaw Bay, northern 

Kuiu Island, southeastern Alaska. 

and their precise stratigraphic relations with the 

Mississippian and Permian strata. 

KUIU ISLAND LOCALITY 

Collection 5443-PC came from a 40-foot thick bed 

of limestone, intercalated in a series of interlayered 

chert, quartzite, and chert-bearing limestone, at the 

northwest end of the long island near the head of 

Saginaw Bay, Kuiu Island (figure 101.1). Lithologically similar rock sequences are relatively widespread in southeastern Alaska at the top of what 

was considered Mississippian by Buddington and 

Chapin (1929, p. 110), and Pennsylvanian fossils 

should be sought in this part of the section during 

future field investigations. 

Foraminifera identified in this collection ( 5443-

PC == f2277 == Buddington field No. 930) are: 

Clirnacamrnina sp. 

endothyrid foraminifer, undet. 

Tetrataxis sp. 

Bradyina sp. 

Nummulostegina ? sp. 

Fusulinella spp. 

Probably two species of Fusulinella are represented. One is a loosely coiled form with plane septa 

and small, nearly symmetrical chomata. This form 

resembles F. bocki Moller, 1878. It is smaller and 

shows less fluting of the septa than is shown by 

forms referred to this species by Forbes ( 1960) from 

Spitzbergen. The species is quite like-and may. be 

referable to-Fusulinella jamesensis Thompson, Pitrat, and Sanderson (1953), described from British 

Columbia. 

The other species is more tightly coiled, fusiform 

to elongate, and has asymmetrical chomata extending 

along. the septa and floors toward the poles, somewhat resembling W edekindellina. Fusulinella iowensis Thompson .(1936) is similar in many ways to the 

Alaskan speciip.ens. 

The foraminiferal fauna indicates an early Middle 

Pennsylvanian age, possibly an Atoka equivalent. 

Although Girty prepared a long fossil list from 

this locality, many of the forms either were not determined as to species or were listed as new. A restudy of the collection has resulted in the identification of the following larger fossils: 

Clithrocrinus pyrifo'rmis Kirk 

Synbathocrinus sp. 

Delocrinus sp. 

Cyathaxonia sp. 

aulophylloid corals, genus undet. 

'horn coral, undet. 

F enestella sp. 

"Batostomella" sp. 

Cystodictya sp. 

rhomboporoid bryozoan, indet. 

multifoliate fistulipor.oid, ·undet. 

Leioclema ? sp. 

PetrocTania? sp. 

Rhipid01nella aff. R. nevadensis (Meek) 

SchizophoTia aff. S. resupinoides (Cox) 

Derbyia? sp. 

Chonetes sp. 

Chonetina? sp. (compare C. flemingi crassi'i·-

adiata Dunbar and Condra) 

Juresania aff. J. ovalis Dunbar and Condra 

Krotovia? sp. 

Linop1·oductus (sensu stTicto) spp. 

dictyoclostid brachiopod, genus indet. 

"Marginifera" sp. 

Spirifer aff. S. 1·ockynwntanus Marcou 

Neospirifer sp. 

Spi'i·iferella aff. S. texana (Shumard) 

M aTtinia? sp. 

Composita sp. (small) 

Crurithyris sp. 

P hricodothyris? sp. 

Stenoscisma sp. 

H ustedia sp. 

Rhynchopora cf. R. magnicosta Mather 
'-

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-241 

C?·enispi't'i/e?·? sp. 

Punctospi?·ije?'? sp. 

Dielasma spp. 

A viculopecten sp. 

Schizodus sp. 

Platyce?·as sp. 

cf. St?·apa?·ollus (EuO'Inphalus?) savagei Knight 

euomphalacean gastropod, indet. 

. pleurotomariacean gastropod, indet. 

bellerophontacean gastropod, indet. 

ostracodes, indet. 

This revised list of megafossils clearly indicates 

a Pennsylvanian age. Several species to which the 

Alaskan fossils have been compared are restricted 

to the lower part of the Pennsylvaniap, insofar as 

their distribution is known at present. For. example, 

Rhipidontella nevadensis (Meek), Chonetina flemingi 

c?·assi?·adiata Dunbar and Condra, Spirifer rockynwntanus Marcou, Rhynchopo?··a n~agnicosta Mather, 

and St?·aparollus savagei Knight are all compatible 

with the early Middle Pennsylvanian age assignment 

suggested by the fusulines. The other fossils do not 

conflict with such an assignment. 

REFERENCES 

Buddington, A. F., and Chapin, T., 1929, Geology and mineral 

deposits of southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

800, 398 p., 22 pis., 3 figs. 

Dunbar, C. 0., and Condra, G. E., 1932, Brachiopoda. of the 

Pennsylvanian system in Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Sur-

. vey Bull. 5, second series, 377 p., 44 pls., 25 figs. 

Forbes, C. L., 1960, Carboniferous and Permian Fusulinidae 

from Spitzbergen: Palaeontology, v. 2, pt. 2, p. 210-225, 

pls. 30-33, text fjg. 

Gordon, Mackenzie, Jr., 1955, Alaskan Carboniferous goniatites [abstract]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 66, no. 12, 

pt. 2, ,p. 1565. 

Kirk, E., 1937a, Clistocrinus, a new Carboniferous crinoid 

genus: Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 27, no. 3, p. 105-

111, figs. 1-8. 

-- 1937b, Clith?·oc?·inus, new name for Clistoc'r·inus Kirk: 

Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 27, no. 9, p. 373-374. 

Knight, J. B., 1934, The gastropods of the St. Louis',· Missouri, 

Pennsylvanian outlier: VII. The Euomphalidae and 

Platyceratidae: Jour. Paleontology, v. 8, no. 2, p. 139-166, 

pis. 20-26. 

Moore, R. C., and others, 1944, Correlation of Pennsylvanian 

formations of North America: Geol. Soc. America Bull., 

v. 55, p. 657-706. 

Muir-Wood, H., and Cooper, G. A., 1960, Morphology, classification and life habits of the Productoidea (Brachiopoda): 

Geol. Soc. America Mem. 81, 447 p. 135 pls., 8 figs. 

Smith, P. S., 1939, Areal geology of Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 192, 100 p., 18 pis., chart. 

Thompson, M. L., 1936, Pennsylvanian fusulinids from Ohio: 

Jour. Paleontology, v. 10, no. 8, p. 673-683, pis. 90, 91. 

Thompson, M. L., Pitrat, C. W., and Sanderson, G. A., 1953, 

Primitive Cache Creek fusulinids from central British 

Columbia: Jour. Paleontology, v. 27, no. 4, p. 545-552, 

pis. 57, 58. 

GEOPHYSICS 

102. POISSON'S RATIO OF ROCK SALT AND POTASH ORE 

By R. E. WARRICK and W. H.· JACKSON, Denver, Colo. 

W01·k done in coope1·ation with the U.S. Ato'mic Energy Commission 

jo1· the Plowshare Prog?'a?n, P1·oject Gnome 

Measurements of elastic constants of rock salt and 

potash ore of the Salado formation of Permian age 

(DQnlap, 1951) were made in the mine of the U.S. 

Potash Co. near Carlsbad, N. Mex. The same constants were measured on samples in the laboratory, 

and Poisson's ratio determined by the different 

methods was found to differ. The writer is grateful 

for help given in the field by the management and 

staff of the U.S. Potash Co. 

In-place measurements.-ln-place measurements 

of elastic constants consisted of determining the 

velocities of compressional and shear waves in a 
B-242 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

pillar of rock (Roller and others, 1959). Pillars representing t'he potash rock and the salt rock were selected. Four sites in the same h_orizontal plane along 

the pillars were chosen for instrument locations, and 

a matching set of four positions was surveyed directly opposite from the first set of points on the 

other side of the pillar. The· potash pillar was 38 

feet wide and l50 feet long. The salt pillar was 25 

feet wide and more than 300 feet long. 

The source of vibrations was a small hammer 

that was struck against a steel block fastened to the 

rock wall with an expansion bolt. Two bariumtitanate accelerometers were fastened on the opposite 

side of the pillar with a small expansion bolt. One 

was mounted with its principal axis of sensitivity 

perpendicular to the wall, and the other with its axis 

parallel to the wall. The signals from the accelerometers were amplified with a wide-band preamplifier, and were displayed on a calibrated oscilloscope. 

Permanent records were made by photographing 

the oscilloscope screen. ·The instant the hammer 

struck the anvil, the· oscilloscope sweep began moving across the screen at a constant rate. The energy 

arriving through the pillar was detected by accelerometers and the signal that was produced was presented on this time base. · 

The first energy ·arriving at the detectors was 

compressional. The shear energy arrived somewhat 

later and could be distinguished by the change of the 

wave form. The velocities of both waves were determined from transit times of the waves transmitted through the pillar. All elastic constants can 

be derived from compressional and shear velocities 

and the density of the rock (Howell, 1959, p. 204). 

Density was determined , from large samples taken 

from the pillars. 

Spectrographic analyses .of the samples, made by 

T. Botinelly, showed the salt was 90 to 93 percent 

NaCl, an:i included a trace of sylvite (KCl). The 

potash was 95 percent sylvite, and included trac~s 

of haUte and polyhalite. 

Laboratory measurements.-Samples from the 

mine pillars were sent to· two laboratories for determination of the elastic constants. For one set 

the constants were measured by ultrasonic-pulse 

_methods (Mason, 1958, p. 95) by E. C. Walker in 

the Geological Survey, laboratories in Washington, 

D.C. For the other set the constants were measured 

by uniaxial compression tests through the courtesy 

TABLE !.-Poisson's 1·atio detennined by different techniques 

Type of rock and location of test or sample within pillar 

Potash pillar: North ....... Central ..... South ....... 

Salt pillar: 

North ....... South ....... 

In-place t-est Ultrasonic test Unconfined uniaxial compression test 

600 1,000 lb. Standard Standard lb. per sq. in. 1,fi00 

Ratio deviation Ratio deviation per ------------- lb. per sq. Standard sq. in. in. Ratio deviation 

0.32 0.03 0.35 0.05 0.16 0.17 0.02 0.23 

.32 .01 .24 .05 . . . . . . ...... ·········· . . . . . . . . .29 .01 .31 .05 ······ ...... ·········· ........ 

.27 .03 .15 .0-t 0.14 0.19 .02 0.27 

.24 .01 .18 .04 

of 0. J. Olson in the Bureau of Reclamation laboratories in Denver, Colo. 

C01nparison of results.-Values of Poisson's ratio 

determined by the three methods are shown in table 

1. Poisson's ratio was selected for comparison because it is derived more directly from the measured 

data than other elastic constants. The values listed 

are mean values of the several determinations. The 

in-place and ultrasonic methods yielded values of 

Poisson's ratio that are in fairly good agreement for 

potash. Internally disrupted or slightly weathered 

samples may be the cause of lower values determined 

by the ultrasonic method for the salt. The salt pillar 

was several years older than the potash pillar, and 

the salt samples could not be taken as deep within 

the pillar as the potash samples. 

Unconfined uniaxial-compression determinations 

did not agree with in-place and ultrasonic determinations of Poisson's ratio for potash. The compressiontest values approached the in-place values as the 

stress increased for both potash and salt samples. 

Exact correspondence of Poisson's ratio determined by the different techniques could not be expected because of the variation of elastic constants 

·with the method of measurement. The in-place 

method should be preferable because the problem of 

altering properties through sampling is less sev~re. 

REFERENCES 

Dunlap, John C., 1951, Geologic studies in a New Mexico 

potash mine: Econ. Geology, v. 46, no. 8, p. 909-923. 

Howell, B. F., Jr., 1959, Introduction to geophysics: New 

York, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 

Mason, Warren P., 1958, Physical acoustics and the properties 

of solids: Princeton, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. 

Roller, .J. C., and others, 1959, Seismic measurements by the 

U.S. Geological· Survey during the pre-Gnome highexplosive tests: A preliminary suinmary: U.S. Geo!. 

Survey open-file report. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-243 

103. FREQUENCY CONTENT OF SEISMOGRAMS OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS AND AFTERSHOCKS 

By S. W. STEWART and W. H. DIMENT, Denver, Colo., and Washington, D. C. 

Wo·rk done ·in coope·ra.tion with the Adva?"-ced Research Projects Agency, Department of Defense 

The frequency content of seismic waves is a fundamental part of the data obtained from seismograms. 

Reported methods for studying the frequency spectra of seismic waves have ranged from simple measurements of apparent frequency along the seismogram to elaborate cross- and auto-correlation 

calculations by digital or analog computers. Most of 

these studies have necessarily been concerned with 

the frequency spectrum of fairly large parts of the 

seismogram. However, some investigators have reported a technique of presenting a continuously 

changing frequency spectrum as a function of time. 

This technique, called here the moving-spectrum 

method, essentially is one of calculating the frequency 

spectrum of relatively small parts of the seismogram, 

and presenting the frequency spectra so calculated 

as a function of time. Ewing and others ( 1959) 

have used seismograms recorded on magnetic tape, 

and appropriate analog methods, to present movingspectrum representations of seismograms of earthquakes and explosions. In this paper results are 

given for the calculation of moving-spectrum data 

by digital methods. 

R. G. Henderson and H. W~ Oliver helped in setting up the digitizing program. We are particularly 

indebted to R. G. Henderson for helping us in designing the method of analysis, and to Walter Anderson for writing the program. F. M. Valentine assisted in the seismogram digitizing and plotting of 

the data. 

CALCULATION OF MOVING-SPECTRUM DATA 

Seismograms used in this study were taken from 

larger groups used in studies of nuclear explosions 

in Nevada (Diment and others, 1961), and aftershocks of the Hebgen Lake, Mont., earthquake of 

August 1959 (Stewart and others, 1960). For these 

seismograms, frequencies were chiefly in the range 

2 to 10 cycles per second, and the main part of the 

seismic energy had traveled past the recording station in a few tens of seconds. 

The frequency content of parts of seismograms 

was calculated by the Fourier transform method on 

a Datatron 220 digital computer. The seismogram 

trace was prepared for input into the computer by 

digitizing it at intervals of 10 milliseconds, using 

a semi-automatic seismogram digitizer developeq 

under the direction of Donald Rock, with assistance 

from E. C. Moore. Frequency spectra were calculated for 1-second segments along the trace, with 

the 1-second segments overlapping by l/2 second. 

For e.xample, spectra were calculated that covered 

the intervals 10.0-11.0 seconds, 10.5-11.5 . seconds, 

11.0-12.0 seconds, etc. Although the time associated 

with the spectrum covering a 1-second interval of 

the trace has been taken to be the time at the midpoint of the i'nterval, it must be realized that the 

time of arrival of any frequency component is no 

more accurate than the length of this interval, or 

approximately ± V:! second. 

Referring to figures 103.1, 103.2, and 103.3, the 

spectra so computed are then plotted in the form of 

a contour map, with the X-axis representing time 

along the seismic trace, the Y -axis representing frequency, and the values of the contours representing 

the amplitude components of the Fourier frequency 

spectrum calculation, referred to a maximum Fourier 

amplitude component of 100. Fourier amplitude 

components were calculated for the frequency range 

of 0 to 20 cycles per second, at intervals of lj~-cycle 

per second. The Fourier amplitude components were 

not corrected for the frequency response charactP..ristics of the seismic recording system. Because the 

seismic recording system has a peak response at 

about 3 cycles per second (Diment and others, 1961, 

p. 205, curve B), the effect of this is to make the 

Fourier amplitude components progressively smaller 

than they should be, for progressively higher frequencies. However, the. qualitative nature of the 

contour map is preserved. Although a smaller contour interval adds greatly to the usefulness of the 

data, the large contour interval used in these figures 

is sufficient to bring out the main features of the 

method. 
B-244 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

20 

18 

c 

z 

0 16 (.) 

w 

CJ) 

w 

0:: 14 

I~ c.. 

CJ) 

w 12 ....J 

(.) 

> (.) 

~ 10 

:.: 

(.) 

z 8 w 

:::::> 

0' 

w 

0:: 

LL.. 

4 

2 

TRAVEL TIME, IN SECONDS 

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 

7 6 5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2.2 

GROUP VELOCITY, IN KILOMETERS PER SECOND 

FIGURE 103.1.-Moving-spectrum analysis, and tracing of seis .. 

mogram for vertical component of air nuclear shot 

SMOKY. Distance from shot to station is 58.8 kilometers. 

Contours are in percent of largest Fourier amplitude 

component present. 

RESULTS 

The seismogram for air nuclear shot SMOKY 

(fig. 103.1) shows, just before the arrival of the initial P-wave at 10.6 seconds, a background of continual noise. The moving spectrum analysis indicates 

that this microseismic noise is confined to a relatively narrow frequency band centered at about 12 

cycles per second, and that the amplitude of this 

noise is about 1 percent of the maximum amplitude 

recorded on the seismogram. The arrival of the 

initial P-wave coincides with a noticeable broadening of the frequency spectrum, both above and below 

this microseismic band. 

The seismogram also shows a large-amplitude 

transient event with .an arrival time of 13.4 seconds. 

1 The spectrum beginning at 13 seconds shows a 

,noticeable broadening, the 10-percent contour lines 

~overing the spectrum from 2 to 7 cycles per second, 

and the !-percent contour lines extending up to 16.5 

cycles per second. Taking into account the time 

delays associated with the shot and station locations, 

the observed time of arrival of this transient event 

is only 0.2 seconds earlier than that calculated for 

a P-wave reflection from the base of crustal material 

having a velocity of 6.15 km per sec in this region 

(Diment and others, 1961). The good agreement 

between· the observed event at 13.4 seconds and the 

calculated time of 13.6 seconds suggests that the observed spectral broadening beginning at 13 seconds 

may be related to this reflection event. The effect of 

reciprocal spreading (Ewing and others, 1959) may 

account for the broad-band nature of these shortlived events. 

Similar broadenings of the spectrum, beginning 

at 17 and 191/:! seconds, are suggested in figure 103.1. 

These may also be caused by the appearance of 

short-lived but coherent transients superposed upon 

c 

z 

0 

(.) 

w 

CJ) 

0:: 

w 

c.. 

CJ) 

w 

....J 

(.) 

> 

(.) 

!; 

:.: 

(.) 

z 

w 

:::::> 

0' 

w 

a: 6 

I 

6 

12 

I 

I 

5 

I I 

2.2 2 

GROUP VELOCITY. IN KILOMETERS PER SECOND 

FIGURE 103.2.-Moving-spectrum analysis, and tracing of seismogram, for vertical component of underground nuclear 

shot BLANCA. Di~tance from shot to station is 61.2 

kilometers. Contours are in percent of largest Fourier 

amplitude component present. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-245 

0 

~ 16 -· u 

UJ 

en 

0:: 14 UJ 

Cl. 

~ 12 ....J 

~ 

u 10 

~ 

> 

~ 8 UJ 

::::> 

0' 

UJ 

0:: 

u.. 

APPROXIMATE TRAVEL TIME, IN SECONDS 

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 

6 5 4 3 2.5 2 1.5 

APPROXIMATE GROUP VELOCITY, IN KILOMETERS PER SECOND 

FIGURE 103.3.-Moving-spectrum analysis, and tracing of seismogram, for vertical component of an aftershock of the 

Hebgen Lake, Mont., earthquake of August 1959. Distance from focus to station is about 37 kilometers. 

Contours are in percent of largest Fourier amplitude 

component present. 

the relative "noise" of the seismic trace, but it seems 

reasonable to associate the broadening of the spectrum at 19th seconds with the onset of the largeamplitude surface waves at this time. 

Because the seismic traces on figures 103.2 and 

103.3 were free of noise, spectrum analyses were 

calculated only from the beginning of the first arrival of seismic ene'rgy. The seismogram on figure 

103.2 shows a large-amplitude pulselike event arriving at about 13.3 seconds, and a noticeable broadening of the spectrum beginning at 13 seconds. The 

observed time of this event is only about 0.2 seconds 

earlier than that calculated for a P-wave reflection 

from the base of crustal material having a velocity 

of 6.15 km per sec in this region. 

Although the complex nature of the near-surface 

geology in Nevada and the relatively high frequencies 

recorded on these seismograms would complicate 

greatly the appearance and interpretation of seismic 

surface waves, it was hoped that the dispersive character, if any, of the surface waves could be displayed 

by this moving-spectrum technique. The best example of dispersed waves found is shown on figure 

103.2, corresponding to group velocities in the range 

2.3 to 2.6 km per sec, and frequencies in the range 

2 to 3 cps. The dispersion is reversed, the higher 

frequencies having the higher group velocities. 

It is instructive to compare the envelopes of the 

10-percent contour lines for the moving-spectrum 

presentation. For the air and underground nuclear 

shots (figs 103.1 and 103.2) the main part of the 

seismic energy is below 10 cycles per second, and 

the envelope of the 10-percent contour decreases in 

frequency only gradually with time. For the aftershock (fig. 103.3) the main part of the seismic energy 

is in a higher part of the frequency spectrum, and 

the envelope of the 10-percent contour decreases 

more rapidly with time. This difference has been 

noted for most seismograms from the Nevada and 

Montana groups, and we attribute it primarily to 

differences in the near-surface geology along the 

propagation path and in the broad vicinity of the 

recording stations, rather than to differences in the 

source mechanism. All other conditions being essentially the same, seismograms from recording 

stations located within predominantly bedrock areas 

generally are characterized by higher frequency 

waves and shorter duration of the entire wave train 

than are seismograms from stations located within 

predominantly alluviated areas. Conversion and 

scattering of body and surface waves by changes 

in geology and topography along the propagation 

path may account for much of this effect (Tatel and 

Tuve, 1955). 

The data presented here do not permit generalizations about the character of seismograms of 

natural and artificial seismic sources. However, 

they do suggest that the moving-spectrum method 

furnishes a useful way to study and characterize 

seismograms. 

The digital method of' preparing moving-spectrum 

diagrams, as presented here, is more time-consuming 

than the analog method reported by Ewing and 

others (1959). However, the digital method has the 

advantages that seismic data not on magnetic tape 

can be analyzed; the calculation of phase angles from 

the Fourier transform program is valuable (for 

example, Sa to, 1960) ; and quantitative amplitude 
B-246 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

"information can be obtained. Recent developments 

in the preparation of seismic traces for input into 

digital computers (for example, Adams and Allen, 

1961), and of methods for plotting large masses of 

data, can speed up the digital method of presentation. 

In the examples presented here, nothing has been 

brought out by the moving-spectrum presentation, at 

least in a qualitative sense, that is not already apparent by examination of the seismogram itself. 

Presently, the chief merit of the moving-spectrum 

method is that it separates the various frequency 

components in a way that calls attention to events 

that might be overlooked by the observer, and it 

provides quantitative information on amplitudes, 

frequencies, and phase angles that should be helpful 

in describing and studying the seismogram. It remains to be seen if the fine structure and details of 

these presentations will provide useful information 

not derived directly from the seismogram. 

REFERENCES 

Adams, W. M., and Allen, D. C., 1961, Reading seismo·grams 

with digital computers: Seismol. Soc. America Bull., v. 

51, no. 1, p. 61-67. 

Diment, W; H., Stewart, S. W., and Roller, J. C., 1961, Crustal 

structure from the Nevada Test Site to Kingman, Arizona, from seismic and gravity observations: Jour. 

Geophys. Research, v. 66, no. 1, p. 201-214. 

Ewing, Maurice, Mueller, Stephan, Landisman, Mark, and 

Sato, Yasuo, 1959, Transient analysis of earthquake and 

explosion arrivals: Geofisica Pura e Appl., v. 44, p. 83-

118. 

Sato, Yasuo, 1960, Analysis of dispersed surface waves, in 

Davids, N., ed., International symposium on stress wave 

propagation in solids: New York, Interscience Publishers, 

p. 303-327. 

Stewart, S. W., Hofmann, R. B., and Diment, W. H., 1960, 

Some aftershocks of the Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of August .1959, in Short papers in the geological 

sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B219-

B221. 

Tatel, H. E., and Tuve, M. A., 1955, Seismic exploration of a 

continental crust, in Poldervaart, Arie, ed., Crust of the 

earth: Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 62, p. 35-50. 

104. ·GRAVITY, VOLCANISM, AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN AND NEAR YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 

By L. C. PAKISER and HARRY BALDWIN, JR., Denver, Colo. 

A gravity survey made during 1960 in Yellowstone 

National Park and adjacent parts of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, revealed a pronounced gravity 

low that coincides approximately with the late Cenozoic rhyolites of the Yellowstone Plateau. A narrow 

north-trending gravity low was also r~vealed along 

Madison Valley, west of the Madison Range (fig. 

104.1). The area of the Yellowstone Plateau 

anomaly, inside the zone of steep gradients, is about 

1,500 square miles. The steepest gradient, on the 

southeast side of the anomaly, is 7 milligals (mgals) 

per mile (fig. 104.1), and the. maximum residual 

gravity. relief is about 40 mgals. 

Gravity was measured at 890 stations, some of 

them north of the area discussed in this paper. The 

measurements were reduced to the simple-Bouguer 

anomaly with respect to the International Ellipsoid 

(Nettleton, 1940, p. 139-143) using an assumed 

density above sea level of 2.67 g per em'\ and the 

resulting data were then contoured at an interval of 

10 mgals (fig. 104.1). 

RELATIONS OF GRAVITY AND GEOLOGY 

Gravity is high over (a) the pre-Tertiary rocks 

that form the high mountains north, south, and 

west of the Yellowstone Plateau, (b) the basalts of 

the Snake River Plain, and (c) the Tertiary volcanic breccias east of the Plateau. Gravity is relatively low over (a) the Cenozoic rhyolites of the 

Yellowstone Plateau and (b) the Cenozoic clastic 

deposits and rhyolites of Madison Valley (fig. 104.1). 

The gravity low of Madison Valley probably reflects a narrow graben filled with low-density Cenozoic clastic deposits and rhyolites several thousand 

feet thick, bounded by high-angle faults. 

A disc-shaped accumulation of rhyolite with gently 

tapered sides, 10,000 or more feet thick, and 0.3 g per 

cma less dense than the surrounding rocks, could 

explain a major part of the Yellowstone Plateau 

gravity low. If the interface of density contrast is 

deeply buried, the disc-shaped body could have steep 

or even vertical sides. Using Gauss's theorem in a 

manner described by Yokoyama ( 1958), the mass 
44°00' 

112·oo· 111"00' 

0 5 10 20 30 MILES 

<. 

11o·oo· 

--:--:1 ~ :"" t. ) , 

~ ..: L -# '- ,. r '7 

~ : : : :: -~ ~ LV ~. '-'~ 

• ,.-· ~' v; < ... 7 ~ ~ 

>" , v 

7 ... ., 

< ~ 

44•oo• 

11o•oo· 

Geology compiled from State geologic 

maps of Idaho, Montana. and 

Wyoming, and from Hamilton (1960) 

FIGURE 104.1.-Combined gravity_ and geologic map of the Yellowstone region, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. 

EXPLANATION 

D 

Cenozoic clastic deposits 

[]] . 

. Cenozoic rhyolite deposits 

and rhyolite welded tuff 

Cenozoic basalt 

Tertiary volcanic breccias 

Pre-Tertiary rocks 

--------- Contact 

__ ,60---

Gravity contour Contcur interval 10 milligals 

G.:) 

Gravity low 

___ , 

Lake boundary 

rn 

::r: 

0 

~ 

~ 

'"0 

> 

"'0 

t%j 

~ 

rn 

z 

t-3 

::r: 

t%j 

~ 

t%j 

0 

t"4 

0 

~ ~ 

0 

> z 

t1 

::r: 

~ 

t1 

~ 

0 

t"4 

0 

~ ~ 

0 

rn 

0 

~ 

t%j 

z 

0 

t%j 

sn 

> 

~ 

t-3 

~ 

0 

t"4 

t%j 

rn 

7" 

~ 

""' 0) 

td 

~ ~ 

-:t 
B-248 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

deficiency corresponding to the gravity low was determined to be about 5 X 10 ~o~ g, which is equivalent 

to 4,000 cubic miles of material 0.3 g per cma less 

dense than the surrounding material. If this volume 

of material is spread over a circular area 40 miles in 

diameter, the average thickness would be nearly 

20,000 feet. 

The Yellowstone Plateau gravity data could also 

be explained in part by (a) a thickening of the lowdensity silicic upper part of the earth's crust from, 

say, 15 to 21 km, (b) a magma chamber, or (c) a 

silicic batholith. 

Hamilton (1959, p. 228) has suggested that the 

rhyolites of the Yellowstone Plateau " * * * may be 

the upper crust of a lopolith which has been forming 

with a complex history since early Pliocene time, 

an extrusive lopolith roofed by its own differentiates, 

its mafic bulk hidden beneath its felsic cover * * *". 

The mafic bulk of such a lopolith would presumably 

be dense, especially if it is the mafic fraction of 

which the silicic differentiate has a mass deficiency 

as large as 5 X 10 1N g. The lack of a positive gravity 

expression of such a dense mass, assuming that it 

immediately underlies the rhyolite, must mean that 

the proposed lopolith does not exist. If the rhyolite 

differentiated from a mafic magma, it was· at such a 

great depth that the gravity exl?ression of the mafic 

fraction is overwhelmed by the gravity low of the 

near-surface low-density rocks of the Yellowstone 

Plateau. Alternatively, the rhyolites of the Yellowstone Plateau could have been formed from silicic 

magma generated by partial fusion of relatively 

shallow crustal rocks. 

The gravity data are consistent both with F. R. 

Boyd's (written communication) conclusion that the 

Yellowstone Plateau marks the site of a gigantic 

caldera formed by collapse into a huge underlying 

magma chamber which may still exist, and with 

Daly's (1933, p. 142-143) suggestion that the rhyolite may be the foundered crust of a roofless batholith of low density, that is, a silicic batholith. 

REFERENCES 

Daly, R. A., 1933, Igneous rocks and the depths of the earth: 

New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 508 p. 

Hamilton, Warren, 1959, Yellowstone Park area, Wyoming: a 

possible modern lopolith: Geol: Soc. America Bull., v: 70, 

p. 225-228. 

Hamilton, Warren, 1960, Late Cenozoic tectonics and volcanism of the Yellowstone Region, Wyoming, Montana, 

and Idaho: Billings Geol. Soc. Guidebook 11, p. 92-105. 

Nettleton, L. L., 1940, Geophysical prospecting for oil: New 

York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 444 p. 

Yokoyama, Izumi, 1958, Gravity survey on Kuttyaro Caldera 

Lake: Jour. Physics of the Earth, v. 6, p. 75-79. 

105. GRAVITY, VOLCANISM, AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN THE SNAKE RIVER PLAIN, IDAHO 

By D. P. HILL, HARRY L. BALDWIN, JR., and L. C. PAKISER, Denver, Colo. 

A net of gravity recordings was established over Pliocene age covers the silicic volcanic rocks in the 

6,800 square miles of the Snake River Plain in south- lower elevations.· The western Snake River Plain is 

western Idaho during 1959 and 1960. a graben filled with Pliocene and Pleistocene sediThe western Snake River Plain is a relatively flat mentary rocks and interbedded. basalt flows to a 

lava plain that trends northwest and ranges in width depth of at least 3,000 feet below the surface of 

from 40 to 100 miles. It is bounded on the southwest the plain (H. E. Malde and H. A. Powers, written 

by the Owyhee Mountains and· on the northeast by communication, 1961). Subsidence of the graben 

the mountains of the Idaho batholith. The average took place along a series of faults trending northelevation of the plain is about 3,000 feet above sea west. The most prominent fault zone forms a sharp 

level. escarpment along the northern edge of the Snake 

The highlands immediately to the north and south River Plain. Malde (1959) estimates that the agof the plain .are composed mainly of silicic volcanic gregate throw along this zone is at least 9,000 feet. 

rocks of early Pliocene age and of granite of 'ere- / The net of 1,859 gravity stations has an average 

taceous age. A veneer of basalt flows/ of middle/ density of one station per 3. 7 square miles. The 
·' 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-249 

0 10 15 20 MILES 

CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 MILLIGALS 

115' 114'15' 

43'30' 

FIGURE 105.1.-Simple-Bouguer gravity map of part of the Snake River Plain, Idaho. 

vertical and horizontal control for the survey was 

taken from Geological Survey 71j2 - and 15-minute 

topographic maps. The gravity data were reduced 

to simple-Bouguer values assuming a density of 2.67 

grams per cma down to sea level. These simpleBouguer values are represented as gravity contours 

plotted at a 10-milligal contour interval on figure 

105.1. 

The major anomalies form three elongated, en 

echelon gravity highs, oriented in a northwest direction. The axes of the g·ravity highs are parallel to 

the major fault zones of the region. 

The central gravity high is the largest of the 

three; it extends for 95 miles from Wen dell northwestward to about 10 miles south .of Nampa, has a 

maximum amplitude of about 70 mgals, and a maximum simple-Bouguer gravity of -66.5 mgals. 

Gradients ar~ steepest on the northeast side of the 

anomaly, reaching 6 to 8 mgals per mile in places. 

The high is divided into two parts in the vicinity of 

Glenns Ferry, Idaho. The eastern section of the high 

is slightly offset to the northeast with respect to 

the western section. 

The northern and southern gi"avity highs are similar in outline and amplitude; both are approximately 

35 miles long and have amplitudes of about 20 mgals. 

The northern high is offset about 15 miles northeast 

from the central high, and the southern high is offset 

about the same distance sout~west from the central 

high. 

Preliminary two-dimensional analyses, based on 

an assumed density contrast of 0.3 grams per em\ 

have been made along several profiles normal to the 

axes of the gravity highs. These analyses take into 

account the fact that •the gravity highs are over the. 

relatively low-density. sedimentary deposits of Pliocene and Pleistocene age:·. The tops of the anomaly·-

causing bodies are at·· least 3,000 ·feet· below the 

surface as the thickness of these sedimentary deposits is knpwn. ·Re~sults ·of the two-dimensional 
B-250 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

analyses suggest that the anomaly-causing bodies 

extend at least 16,000 feet below sea level and may 

reach 60,000 feet below sea level, depending on how 

the shape of the bodies and the regional gravity 

are assumed. In the preferred interpretation the 

disturbing masses are approximated by tabular 

bodies, the largest about 90 miles long, 4 to 6 miles 

wide, and extending from about 5,000 to 60,000 feet 

below sea level. 

A graphical integration using Gauss's theorem 

over the surface of the gravity map was used to 

estimate the total mass excess of the anomalous 

bodies. A mass excess of about 1 X 10111 grams, or 

1 X 101:{ tons, is obtained if the simple-Bouguer background is taken as -120 mgals. The volume of this 

mass excess for material 0.3 grams per cma more 

dense than the surrounding material would be approximately 8,000 cubic miles. 

Several geological hypotheses have been offered 

in explanation of the gravity highs. The most important of these are : 

1. The Snake River Plain is a broad downwarp that 

has been filled with extensive basalt flows. 

2. The plain is a graben bounded by faults with 

large vertical displacements. Volcanism has 

accompanied the subsidence. The resulting 

lava flows filled the depression, yielding thick 

accumulations of basalt. 

3. Crustal stresses have caused large en echelon fissures under the Snake River Plain. These fissures have been injected with basalt or basaltlike material. 

In light of the evidence presented in this paper, 

the authors believe that the anomalies are explained 

by a combination of the second and third hypotheses. 

REFERENCE 

Malde, H. E., 1959, Fault zone along northern boundary of 

western Snake River Plain, Idaho: Science, v. 130, no. 

3370, p. 272. 

106. GRAVITY, VOLCANISM, AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN LONG VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

By L. C. PAKISER, Denver, Colo. 

Wo'rk done in cooperation with the California Division of Mines 

A gravity survey made during 1955 and 1956 in 

and aroun~ Long Valley, Mono County, Calif., led 

to the discovery of a pronounced elliptical gravity 

low bounded by steep gradients that coincide. approximately with the margin of the basin and with 

the exposed boundary between Cenozoic volcanic 

and sedimentary rocks and pre-Tertiary. crystalline 

rocks. The area of the anomaly inside the zone of 

steep gradients is about 150 square miles, the steepest gradient on the east end of the anomaly is 20 

mgals per mile, and the maximum local gravity reli~f is 78 mgals (fig. 106.1). This is the largest local 

difference in gravity in the Great Basin reported to 

date. A prominent gravity high, only suggested at 

the 10-mgal contour interval of the gravity map 

(fig. 106.1), was found near the center of the 

gravity low a short distance west of the intersection of sections A-A' and B-B'. 

An aeromagnetic survey of the Long Valley area 

was flown in 1956. 

The areal geology shown on figure 106.1 has been 

generalized from reports by Gilbert ( 1941), and 

Rinehart and Ross ( 1957), and from unpublished 

work between 1952 and 1959 by C. D. Rinehart, D. C. 

Ross, and N. K. Huber (C. D. Rinehart, written 

con1munication). I am grateful to Mr. Rinehart for 

permission to use the results of the geologic mapping in this study. 

RELATIONS OF GRAVITY AND GEOLOGY 

Gravity tends to be high over exposures of preTertiary rocks and relatively low over areas where 

Cenozoic deposits are found at the surface (fig. 
37"45' 

~ 

119"00' 

~ : ~" : v-~ .: ~' •" '~' L' : "" ' ', < < 

' 

1 

~ v' <? ,'S/fRi?A.' ,>' ',',", ',->_: v ' -' v " ~ •> ;_I I'' i. v > ~ ', ''< ~ ;' : ~ .... < .... <;, "' I" :- f '? \ 

118"45' 

.... I\>,., 

~ 

3 7 ° 30' ~ ' . < ..... 

119"00' 118"45' 

0 If.! 1 2 3 4 5 MILES I I I I I I I 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 

r 

118"30' 

118"30' 

EXPLANATION 

D 

Cenozoic clastic deposits 

Pleistocene Bishop tuff of Gilbert (1938) 

~ . 

.. 

Cenozoic rhyolite and quartz latite 

1++1 

~ 

Cenozoic andesite and basalt 

D ~ ., 

" 

Pre-Tertiary rocks 

CJCJCJ 

Vertical fault based on geophysical evidence 

---250---

---260---

Gravity contour 

Contour interval10 milligals 

D 

Gravity low 

A A' 

Location of cross section 

Gilbert {1941) 

:0 1::~~ 

co .0 "' ..c:::::J:.: Rinehart and Ross 

Q)r.o (1957, unpublished) .s-o a a: c: c: 

"'2-

37"45' 

37'30' 

ll'J'OO' llR'30' 

INDEX TO FIGURE SHOWING 

GEOLOGY SOURCES 

FIGURE 106.1.-Combined gravity and g-eoiogic map of Long Valley, Calif., showing locations of profiles A-A' and B-B'. 

en 

::t= 

0 

~ .....,. 

~ 

> 

'i::1 

ttl 

~ 

en 

z 

....., 

::t= 

ttl 

C1 

ttl 

0 

t"" 

0 

0 

(") 

-

> z 

t:1 

::t= 

~ 

t:1 

~ 

0 

t'"' 

0 

0 

("} 

-

en 

(") 

-ttl 

z 

(") 

l;fj 

sn 

> 

~ 

~ 

(") 

-t'"' 

l;fj 

en 

";"' 

~ 

>1::-

C'l 

td 

~ 01 

~ 
B-252 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 · 

A 

1o.oo6'.A · 

-1o.ooo' 

-20,0001 

r: 

>en <{...J 

o::<t 

(.!)~ ...J o::...J 

~~ (.!) z -250 ::J0 

CD 

A' 

B' 

(.) 

i=cn 

~<{ 

2000 ~ ~ ~<{ (.!) 

...J 

<tZ 

.... - 0 - ..... ~ 

UJin 

>Z 

1500 ~ ~ UJ0:: 

EXPLANATION 

CJ Cenozoic clastic deposits 

Pleistocene Bishop 

tuff of Gilbert (1938) 

Cenozoic rhyolite 

Cenozoic andesite and basalt 

D v ( 

Pre-Tertiary rocks 

0 If.! 1 2. 3 4 5 MILES 

I 1 I I I I I 

FIGURE 106.2.-Analysis of gravity and magnetic profiles. 

106.1). The average density of pre-Tertiary rocks 

is about 2.7 g per em:\ and the average density of 

Cenozoic deposits is probably about 2.3 g per cma. 

The correspondence of high gravity over rocks of 

high density and low gravity over material of low 

density suggests the configuration of the surface of 

pre-Tertiary rocks. The amplitude of negative departure of the gravity field from higher values over 

exposures of pre-Tertiary rocks is related to the 

thickness of the Cenozoic deposits, but the form of 

the gravity contours does not in general cori·espond 

to the actual subsurface configuration of the Cenozoic 

and pre-Tertiary boundary (fig. 106.2). However, 

the steepness of gravity gradients is a general guide 

to the steepness of this boundary. 

By making a simple computation, using the expression for the gravity attraction of. an infinite 

sheet and an assumed density contrast of 0.4 g per 

em a between the Cenozoic and pre-Tertiary rocks, it 

can be concluded that the thickness of Cenozoic deposits in Long Valley corresponding to a residual 

gravity low of 60 mgals is greater than 12,000 feet. 

Similar relations between gravity and geology 

were found in the Mono Basin area just north of 

Long Valley (Pakiser, Press, and Kane, 1960). 

ANALYSIS OF GRAVITY AND MAGNETIC PROFILES 

Profiles A-A' and B-B' (fig. 106.1) were analyzed 

to determine a depressed structure filled with Cenozoic deposits 0.4 g per em=~ less dense than the en-
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-253 

closing pre-Tertiary rocks that could account for 

the measured gravity anomaly (fig. 106.2) .. The 

gravity effect within the ellipse-shaped area bounded 

on all sides by a vertical fault zone (fig. 106.1) was 

computed and compared with the measured gravity 

along the east segment of profile A-A' at 9 points by 

a method previously described (Pakiser, Press, and 

Kane, 1960, p. 424, 441, fig. 17). Using the result 

of this computation of gravity effect as a guide, 

generalized geologic cross sections were constructed 

along profiles A-A' and B-B' and compared with the 

measured gravity. A wedge of Cenozoic deposits 

bounded on all sides by a vertical fault zone and increasing gradually from a thickness of less than 

5,000 feet on the west to 18,000 feet on the east can 

account for the gravity anomaly (fig. 106.2). The 

density contrast between the Cenozoic deposits and 

pre-Tertiary rocks may be greater or less than that 

assumed, so there is an uncertainty of ± 5,000 feet 

in the computed maximum depth of 18,000 feet. 

Total-intensity aeromagnetic profiles along parts 

of profiles A-A' and B-B' reveal that the magnetic 

field is generally high over Long Valley, in contrast with the low gravity (fig. 106.2). However, 

the sharp magnetic high near the center of Long 

Valley corresponds very roughly with the local gravity high in the same general area. By measuring 

the horizontal extent of steepest gradients and 

using an interpretive method described by Vacquier 

and others ( 1951), Isidore Zietz (wt:itten communication) calculated the depth to the upper sL1rface of 

the magnetic body to be about 3,000 feet below the 

surface. This is in the upper part of the Cenozoic 

section as determined by gravity. 

DISCUSSION 

The mass deficiency corresponding to the. entire 

gravity low of the Long Valley area was determined 

uniquely by Gauss's theorem to be about 7.8 X 1017 

g, which is equivalent to 470 cubic miles of Cenozoic 

deposits 0.4 g per cm:1 less dense than pre-Tertiary 

rocks. Yokoyama (1958) has used Gauss's theorem 

to solve a similar problem. The volume of the Long 

Valley structural block based on the same density 

contrast was found by direct computation to be 375 

cubic miles. Local accumulations of low-density material · outside the boundaries of the Long Valley 

structure contribute to the gravity low and the volume determined from Gauss's theorem but not to 

the volume of the structure found by direct computation, so the agreement between volumes computed 

by the two methods is good. 

The volume of clastic deposits that could have 

been transported to Long Valley by streams was • 

found by a method described by Pakiser, Press, and 

Kane (1960, p. 444) to be only about 150 cubic 

miles. The discrepancy between the probable volumes of the structure and the stream-transported 

deposits suggests that a large proportion of the Cenozoic deposits in Long Valley is volcanic. This conclusion is supported by direct observation of volcanic 

rocks at the surface and by gravity and magnetic 

evidence of a mass of dense and magnetic material 

buried near the center of Long Valley. 

Long Valley may be a volcano-tectonic depression 

caused by subsidence along faults, following extrusion of magma from a chamber at depth. A similar 

conclusion was reached for the origin of Mono Basin 

(Pakiser, Press, and Kane, 1960). · 

REFERENCES 

Gilbert, C. M., 1938, Welded tuffs in eastern California: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 49, p. 1829-1862. 

-- 1941, Late Tertiary geology southeast of Mono Lake, 

California: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 52, p. 781-816. 

Pakiser, L. C., Press, Frank, and Kane, M. F., 1960, Geophysical investigation of Mono Basin, California: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p. 415-448. 

Rinehart, C. D., and Ross, D. C., 1957, Geology of the Casa 

Diablo Mountain quadrangle, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map GQ-99. 

Vacquier, V., Steenland, Clarence, Henderson, R. G., and Zietz, 

Isidore, 1951, Interpretation of aeromagnetic maps: Geol. 

Soc. America Mem. 47, 151 p. 

Yokoyama, Izumi, 1958, Gravity survey on Kuttyaro Caldera 

Lake: Jour. Physics of the Earth, v. 6, p. 75-79. 
B-254 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

107. GRAVITY STUDY OF THE STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SIERRA VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

By W. H. JACKSON, F. R. SHAWE, and L. C. PAKISER, Denver, Colo., Bowling Green, Ky., and Denver, Colo. 

Work done in cooperation with Califo'rnia Department of w·ate·r Resources 

'! 

Sierra Valley is in parts of Sierra and Plumas 

• Counties, Calif., and near the northern end of the 

Sierra Nevada. The valley is a flat, almost featureless plain, approximately 10 miles on a side. An 

arm about 4 miles wide extends south about 7 miles 

from the southwest corner. Mountains rise abruptly 

on all sides to altitudes of more than 3,000 feet above 

the valley floor, which has an altitude of about 4,900 

feet. 

During parts of 1959 and 1960 approximately 

300 gravity stations. were established in Sierra Valley and in the surrounding areas as a part of a longrange study of major crustal features.· Data from. 

an additional 418 stations in the valley were made 

available to the Geological Survey by the Division 

of Resources Planning of the California Department 

of Water Resources. The observed gravity data were 

corrected for latitude, elevation, and terrain effects. 

Terrain corrections were made through Hayford 

Zone "H" using the modified Hayford-Bowie charts 

·and tables described by Swick ( 1942). Both terrain 

and elevation corrections wen~ based on a density 

of 2.67 grams per cm:l. The data were tied to the 

airport gravity control network (Woollard, 1958) 

at Reno, Nev., and San Francisco, Calif., contoured 

at a 5-milligal interval, and generalized to delete 

the minor irregularities (fig. 107.1). 

The authors are especially indebted to Mr. Lawrence B. James, Chief Geologist of the California 

Department of Water Resources, and to Mr. Jerome 

C. Nelson, Geophysicist of· the Division of Resources 

Planning, California Department of Water Resources, for making available geologic and gravity 

data for this area. 

Rocks ranging in age from Precambrian ( ?) to 

Quaternary are exposed in the region surrounding 

Sierra Valley (fig. 107.1), although rocks of many 

geologic periods are missing. Most of the bedrock 

is composed of volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. These 

rocks range in composition from basalt to rhyolite; 

andesite predominates. The total thickness of the 

volcanic rocks and the thickness of the individual 

units vary greatly. Much of the region is covered 

by deposits of unconsolidated or poorly consolidated 

clastic sediments of Quaternary age. The age of 

the underlying .valley deposits is not known but 

could possibly range from late Tertiary to Recent. 

The geologic history is incompletely known. The 

area may have undergone diastrophism during Precambrian time; certainly the rocks were deformed 

prior to the intrusion of the Sierra Nevada granitoid 

rocks during Late Jurassic(?) to Cretaceous time. 

The post-Cretaceous rocks have also been deformed; 

both normal and strike~slip faults seem to have developed during this period of deformation, although 

high-angle reverse and minor thrust faults may 

have contributed to the present geologic configuration. Faulting that commenced with the initial uplift of the Sierra Nevada has continued intermittently to the present. 

As in other ~reas along the Sierra Nevada front, 

the gravity maxima in the Sierra Valley area are 

generally associated with outcrops of pre-Tertiary 

rocks, and the gravity minima with thick deposits of 

Cenozoic rocks. The average density contrast between the pre-Tertiary rocks and Cenozoic rocks 

probably ranges from 0.3 to 0.5 grams per cm11 • 

The largest residual gravity minimum in Sierra 

Valley is about -15 milligals, which for a simple 

approximation based on the gravity attraction of 

an infinite slab represents a minimum thickness of 

from 2,500 to 3,000 feet of Cenozoic deposits. 

The prominent, elongated gravity minimum associated with the valley floor indicates a broad, deep 

basin with a northeasterly trend, corresponding approximately with the outline of the valley floor. 

Relatively steep gravity' gradients on the northwest 

and west margins of the valley suggest steep bounding faults. The trend of'the marginal faults on the 

west side of the valley is slightly east of north ; 

however, an abrupt change in direction occurs near 

Beckwourth, where the trend is approximately northeast. The southern boundary _of the valley, in the 

vicinity of Sierraville, may be formed by a complex 

.... 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-255 

45 

15' 

EXPLANATION 

D 

Cenozoic clastic deposits 

Cenozoic 

-

volcanic rocks 

Predominantly andesite' 

Pre-Tertiary ro~ks 

.,.-------

Contact 

Dashed where approximate 

,....----- Inferred fault 

--/50-

Gravity contour 

Contou.r interval 5 milligals 

Closed ~ gravity low 

0 1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MILES 

FIGURE 107.1.-Generalized geologic and gravity map of Sierra Valley, California. 

pattern of faults. The gravity gradient at the northeast end of Sierra Valley near Vinton suggests a 

gently sloping contact between Cenozoic fill and preTertiary bedrock. The margin of the valley southwest of Vinton is probably bounded by a steeply 

dipping faults, and the trend of the gravity field is 

northeast, suggesting that bounding faults on each 

side of the valley are parallel. 

Pre-Tertiary rock is exposed on the low, rounded 

hills called The Buttes. This rock gives rise to the 

northernmost of three gravity highs that form a line 

trending southeastward across the valley. There is 

no exposed bedrock associated with the high near 

the center of the valley, which may represent a 

buried hill of pre-Tertiary rock or of dense volcanic 

rock. The southernmost high is relatively broad 

and centers near a hill of Tertiary volcanic rock. 

This ano~aly suggests that dense volcanic rock may 
B-256 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

extend under the alluvial cover for some· distance 

toward the center of the valley. 

The gentle gravity gradient near Beckwourth Pass 

indicates an easterly sloping bedrock surface beneath the .light Cenozoic stream and lake deposits 

in Long Valley. The structural setting of Sierra 

Valley is similar in many respects to that of Mono 

Basin and Long Valley, Calif., (Pakiser, Press and 

Kane, 1960; Pakiser, Art. 106). 

REFERENCES 

Pakiser, L. C., Press, Frank, and Kane, M. F., 1960, Geophysical investigation of Mono Basin, California: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 71, no. 4, p. 415-448. 

Swick, C. H., 1942, Pendulum gravity measurements and 

isostatic reductions: U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey Spec. 

Pub. 232, 82 p. 

Woollard, G. P., 1958, Results for a gravity control network at 

airports in the United States: Geophysics, v. 23, no. 3, p. 

520-535. 

MINERALOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY,· AND PETROLOGY 

108. DISTRIBUTION OF NIOBIUM IN THREE CONTRASTING COMAGMATIC SERIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 

By DAVID GOTTFRIED, LILLIE JENKINS, and FRANK S. GRIMALDI, Washington, D. C. 

Because of the difficulties involved in the measurement of small concentration of niobium, little is 

known regarding the distribution of this element in 

suites of igneous rocks from the United States. 

Much of our present knowledge on the geochemistry 

of niobium in igneous rocks is based on about 80 

analyses by Ran kama ( 1948) of various igneous 

rocks, chiefly from localities in Europe. From this 

study it was· shown that siliceous rocks generally 

contain greater amounts of niobium than the mafic 

rocks; but relatively few samples of a single province 

were analyzed to determine the distribution of niobium in an individual differentiated rock series. 

This paper presents a summary of new data on the 

niobium conterit of 62 sAmples of related igneous 

rocks from three different petrographic provinces: 

the southern California batholith; the Shonkin Sag 

laccolith of Montana; and the White Mountain plutonic-volcanic series of New Hampshire. 

The analyses for niobium were made by a modified niobium thiocyanate spectrophotometric procedure (Grimaldi, 1960) adapted to the determi'-

nation of niobium in the parts~per-million range in 

rocks. The method yields results reproducible to 

better than ± 5 percent as determined by replicate 

analyses on 22 samples containing different amounts 

of niobium. Satisfactory agreement was obtained 

on the niobium content of standard granite G-1 

between this method and spectrographic analyses 

(Ahrens and Fleischer, 1960). 

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BATHOLITH 

This batholith has been studied in great detail 

by Larsen (1948) both in the field and in the laboratory. The igneous rocks range in composition from 

calcic gabbro to granite and constitute a calc-alkalic 

batholith typical of the great Mesozoic batholiths of 

western North America. Twenty-two chemically 

analyzed igneous rocks were analyzed spectrophotometrically for niobium. The average niobium content for each of the major rock types is given in 

table 1. Figure 108.1 is a variation diagram showing 

the relation of niobium content of the rocks to their 

chemical composition. The position of each rock is 

calculated from its chemical analyses by the method 

described by Larsen ( 1938). 

Niobium is low in the mafic rocks, averaging 4. 7 

ppm in the gabbros, and shows only a small upward 

trend in the tonalites and granodiorites, which average 5.3 and 5.6 ppm niobium, respectively. The most 

siliceous rocks of the batholith, the quartz monzonites 

and granites, average 7.4 ppm of niobium. The 

data show a considerable variation in niobium content for rocks of nearly the same composition. On 

the average, however, niobium shows an enrichment 

of about 11/2 times in the most siliceous rocks over . 

the gabbroic rocks. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-257 

TABLE 1.-Niobium ·in ig1woltS 1·ocks j'1·om the southern 

Ca.lifornia batholith. 

~:~:::1 ;~\< :.:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : (o~·anolhontl' .................. . 

Quart?. monwnite and granite ... . 

Niohium (ppm) 

Number of ----------------

samp(('S Range Average 

G 

5 

I 

4 

2.2- 7.7 

:L:~- G. 9 

4.4- 7.5 

4.H-10.5 

4.7 

5.:3 

5.fi 

7.4 

THE SHONKIN SAG LACCOLITH 

This laccolith provides an excellent opportunity 

to follow the behavior of niobium during differentiation of a subsilicic-alkalic magma. Chemically 

these rocks are unusually high in potassium for 

rocks containing from about 45 to 50 percent silica. 

The laccolith consists mainly of four ro~k types: 

shonkinite, syenite, aegirine syenite, and transition 

rock which separates shonkinite and syenite. Also 

present are small aplitic and minette dikelets. Fourteen samples of rocks representing successive stages 

of differentiation have been analyzed for niobium. 

The samples were provided by the Department of 

Mineralogy and Petrography of Harvard University. 

The results are given in table 2. The chilled shonkonite is represented by two samples from the lower 

contact. One sample contains 22 ppm niobi~m and 

another that was in contact with the underlying 

sandstone contains 15. ppm niobium. The mafic 

phonolite is transitional to the lower shonkinite, two 

samples of which contain 13 and 15 ppm niobium. 

The transition rock ranges from 17 to 23 ppm and 

the syenite 25 ppm niobium. The aegirine syenite 

is intrusive into the enclosing rocks as thin horizontal dikes. Two samples of this rock contain 28 

and 56 ppm of niobium. The minette and aplitic 

syenite contain 23 and 43 ppm niobium respectively. 

12. 

10 

i 8 a. 

Q. 

2 6 • :::> 

Ill 

~ 4 z 

·30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 

FIGURE 108.1.-Distribution of niobium in igneous rocks of the 

southern California batholith. 

TABLE 2.-Niobium in igneous 1·ocks of the Shonkin Sag 

laccolith. 

tiamplt· Rock type and location t Niobium (ppm) 

21 ...... Upper part of Upper shonkonite....... 24 

450...... Upper shonkonite.................... 15 

15 .... ' . s,,·cnite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

1044 ...... Aegirine syenite..................... 28 

1067. . . . . . Aegirine ~yenite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 

10G5. . . . . . Minette (:3 inehes thiek). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2:3 

1 OGG. . . . . . Aplitie s~·enite.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -t:3 

a 1 . . . . . . Transition roek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

a ....... Transition roek...................... 20 

451 . . . . . . Transition roek... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2:3 

h . . . . . . Lower shonkinite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

1008 ...... Lower shonkinite.................... 15 

415. . . . . . Basal mafie phonolite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 

1081...... Basal mafic phonolite next to r.ontad 15 

with sandstone. 

1 Samples nre listed in approximate order from top to bottom of the lacco- lith. 

According to Hurlbut (1939), most of the rocks of 

the laccolith were derived from a magma which 

differentiated in place. The niobium content of the 

initial magma, based on the niobium content from 

the chilled mafic phonolite,. is probably about 15 to 

20 parts per million. There is a small increase in 

niobium in the transition rocks and syenite, and a 

relatively large increase of niobium in the latest 

differentiates. Our data on niobium distribution are 

as yet too few to use the distribution guide to support or reject Hurlbut's (1939) proposal of differentiation in place. 

WHITE MOUNTAIN PLUTONIC-VOLCANIC SERIES 

This series contains a considerable variety of plutonic rocks which have definite alkalic characteristics (Chapman and Williams, 1935). The plutonic 

rocks (in order of decreasing age) consist of gabbro, 

diorite, nepheline syenite, syenite, quartz syenite, 

and a variety of amphibole and biotite granite. The 

syenite and granitic rocks are predominant. Quartz 

is a late mineral in the series and is important only 

in the quartz syenites and granites. Chemically these 

rocks are relatively high in Na:!O and low in CaO 

and MgO. 

Twenty-six samples of some of the plutonic rocks 

were analyzed for niobium. These samples were 

made available by Arthur P. Butler of the U.S. 

Geological Survey. The results (table 3) show that 

the plutonic rocks of this province contain much 

more niobium than the rocks of southern California. 

The granitic. rocks from the main intrusive mass 

average about 100 ppm niobium and those from 

the outlying masses contain about 80 ppm niobium. 

Only a few of the other rock types were analyzed. 

The gabbro contains 55 ppm and the nepheline 
B-258 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 3.-Niobiunt content of plutonic 1·ocks of the White 

Mountain plutonic-volcanic series. 

Rock types 

Gabbro .............................. . .\fonzodiorite ......................... . X epheline s~·enite ...................... . S~·cnitc ............................... . Quartz s~·enite ......................... . Biotite granites (main intrusive mass) .... . Amphibole granites (main intrusive mass). 

Biotite granites (outl~·ing masses) ....... . 

Niobium (ppm) 

Numher ----------- of 

samples Range Averages 

1 55 

1 119 

1 ........ 179 

1 . . . . . . . . 120 

J .. 102 

8 70-1-!8 105 

-l 72-126 101 

8 -lG-120 82 

syenite 179 ppm of niobium. One sample not included in the table, a riebeckite granite cut by 

veinlets, contains 330 ppm niobium. The composition of the veinlets is as yet unknown. 

DISCUSSION 

Just as each of the petrographic provinces discussed here has distinct mineralogic and chemical 

characteristics, the niobium content of each province 

is distinctly different. From the available data, 

there is very little overlap in the niobium content 

of the rocks of one suite as compared to another. 

The lowest niobium content in the rocks of the 

southern California batholith is in a gabbro which 

contains 2.2 ppm niobium. The maximum content 

is 10.5 ppm in a granite. In the Shonkin Sag laccolith the minimum value is 13 ppm in the mafic 

shonkonite and the maximum is 56 ppm in the 

aegirine syenite. Except for two samples of granite 

from outlying masses, the gabbro of the White Mountain plutonic-volcanic series contains 55 ppm of 

niobium and most ·of the late differentiates contain 

more than 100 ppm. The results also indicate that, 

on the average, niobium is concentrated in the later 

differentiates of each of the series. 

Of the three provinces discussed, only the rocks 

of the southern California batholith can be considered typical major crustal igneous masses. Hence, 

it is of interest to compare the. niobium content of 

this batholith with the estimates of the average 

abundance of niobium in igneous rocks. According 

to Rankama the average niobium content of igneous 

rocks is 24 ppm, whereas the average niobium content of the southern California batholith is probably 

between 5 and 6 ppm. Assuming that this divergence is not due to analytical procedures, either the 

batholith of southern California is abnormally low 

in niobium, or, as pointed out by Fleischer and 

Chao ( 1960), estimates of the abundance of many 

elements, including niobium, are of questionable 

value unless regional variations are taken into 

account. 

REFERENCES 

Ahrens, L. H., and Fleischer, Michael, 1960, Report on trace 

constituents of the granite G-1 and the diabase W-1, in 

Stevens, R. E., and others, Second report on a cooperative 

investigation of the composition of two silicate rocks: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1113, p. 83:--1113. 

Chapman, R. W., and Williams, C. R., 1935, Evolution of the 

White Mountain magma series: Am. Mineralogist, v. 20, 

p. 502-530. 

Fleischer, Michael, and Chao, E. C. T., 1960, Some problems 

in the estimation of the abundances of elements in the 

earth's crust: Internat. Geol. Cong., 21st, Copenhagen, 

1960, pt. I, p. 141-148. 

Grimaldi, F. S., 1960, Determination of niobium in the parts 

per million range in rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 32, p. 

119-121. 

Hurlbut, C. S., Jr., 1939, Igneous rocks of the Highwood 

Mountains, Montana, pt. I, The laccoliths: Geol. Soc. 

·America Bull., v. 50, p. 1043-1112. 

Larsen, E. S., Jr., 1938, Some new variation diagrams for 

groups of igneous rocks: Jour. Geology, v. 46, p. 505-520. 

--- 1948, Batholith and associated rocks of Corona, 

Elsinore, and San Luis Rey quadrangles, southern California: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 29, 182 p. 

Rankama, Kalervo, 1948, On the geochemistry of niobium: 

Acad. Sci. Fennicae Annales, ser. A, III. Geol.-geog., no. 

13, p. 1-57. 

·~ 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-259 

109. BEHYLLIUM CONTENT OF CORDIERITE 

By WALLACE R. GRIFFITTS, and ELMO F. COOLEY, Denver, Colo. 

The abundance of information about the beryllium 

contents of many rock-forming minerals contrasts 

sharply with the lack of data on the beryllium content of cordierite. This is especially odd in view of 

the structural similarity between cordierite and 

beryl, and the occurrence of cordierite in contact 

metamorphic rocks, pegmatites, and veins, al.l of 

which are types of deposits that may contain 

beryllium minerals. We have made beryllium determinations on 16 cordierite specimens, both fresh ':'lnd 

altered, from several geologic environments. The 

beryllium contents of these specimens range from 

less than one to 2,000 parts per million (table 1). 

The well-known abundance of beryllium in some 

pegmatites needs no discussion. The veins that contain beryllium-rich cordierite are in pegmatite districts, though not necessarily districts of berylbearing pegmatites; they may represent deposits 

from solutions that escaped from the pegmatite 

magmas. Igneous and sedimentary rocks rich 

enough in magnesium to yield cordierite-bearing 

gneisses by isochemical metamorphism are unlikely 

to contain much beryllium, because beryllium and 

magnesium tend to be separated by either magmatic 

or sedimentary processes. Formation of gneiss in 

which cordierite is rich in beryllium, thus would require an introduction of beryllium before or during 

metamorphism. 

.TABLE l.-Be1·yllium, content of co1·die1·ite. 

[Sample 262664 analyzed by J. C. Hamilton, all others by E. F. Cooley) 

Beryllium content Laboratory No. (parts per million) Type of occurrcnc.e Locality 

-------1---------------------

60-40n .... . 

262G64 ..... . 60-4007 .... . 

60-4017 .... . 60-4015 .... . 60-400:3 .... . 

60-4008 .... . 60-4004 .... . 60;_4005 .... . 60-4006 .... . 60-4014 .... . 60-4016 .... . 60-4011 .... . 

I 2,000 

I 2,000 

2,000 

1,500 

I 1,500 

1,000 

700 

50 

:30 

:30 

20 

15 

10 

10 

1.5 1 <1 

Pegmatite ..... . . . . . do ......... . Quartz vein or pegmatite. 

Quartz vein .... . Pegmatite ..... . Quartz vein .... . . . . . do ......... . Pegmatite ...... . Gneiss ........ . 

. . . . do ......... . . . . . do ......... . . . . . do ......... . . . . . do ......... . . . . . do ......... . Vein .......... . Homfels ....... . 

1 Cordierite that has been altered to micaceous minerals. 

Colorado. 

Do . Connecticut. 

South Dakota. 

Finland. 

Colorado. 

Do . Norway. 

New 

Hampshire. 

Finland . Sweden . Norway . Wyoming . Czechoslovakia . Colorado. 

Japan. 

110. GERMANIUM CONTENT OF ENAHGITE AND OTHER COPPER SULFIDE MINERALS 

By MICHAEL FLEISCHER, Washington, D. C. 

The principal source of germanium has for many 

years been as a byproduct of zinc smelters, although 

some has been recovered in England from flue dusts 

Jrom the burning of coal, and germanium has been 

produced in recent years as a byproduct of copper 

ores at Tsumeb, South West Africa, and at Kipushi, 

Congo. At these mines, much of the germanium is 

present as germanite, probably .Cua (Fe,Ge) S,., and 

the related mineral renierite, perhaps (Cu,Fe):{ 

(Fe,Ge)S,.. 

It has long been known (Papish, Brewer, and Holt, 

1927; Goldschmidt and Peters, 1933; · Noddack and 

Noddack, 1931) that appreciable amounts of germanium may be present in other copper sulfide minerals, and especially in enargite, but very little work 

seems to have been done on the possibility of recovering germani urn as a byproduct of the smelting of 

su~h ores. 

The U.S. Geological Survey has been interested in 

analyzing such ores, especially those rich in enargite. 

In 1954, Earl M. Irving, then with the U.S. Geological Survey at Manila, obtained from Mr. C. B. Foster, Superintendent, Lepanto Consolidated Mining 

Co., a suite of ores from the Lepanto mine, where 
B-260 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 1.-Spect?·og?·aphic analyses of O'tes f?'o?n Lepanto 

Consolidated Mines, Philippines 

Sa-mple 

No. 1 

Ge 

(ppm) 

Sn 

(ppm) 

Ag 

(percent) "b (pe~~ent) Bi (percent) 

90 

EXPLANATION 

-------------------------------- 80 D sphalerite ( 1386 samples) 

I. ~~0 90 O.OOX X. O.X 

2. . . 0 20 .OX 0 .X 

:~. 20 200 . OX X . .X 

4. . . 1oo· 300 .OX X. .X 

5. . . .. -tO 90 . ox X . .X 

6. .. 40 200 . OX X . .X 

7. ... . . no 80 . OX X . ':x· 

8. .. 0 .1)00 . OOX X . .OX 

9 .. .. 0 2000 . OX X . .OX 

10 ... .... 0 800 . OX X . .OX 

1 ( 1) Enargite and luzonite, hanging wall, 1030 level; (2) chalcocite with luzonite, hanging wall, 1030 level; ( 3) luzonite, enargite, and chalcocit~. ha~ging wall, 1030 level; (4) enargite, hanging wall, 1000)evel; (5) enargtte wtth luzonite, footwall, 1070 level; ( 6) luzonite with enargite, footwall, 1070 level; 

( 7) enargite, footwall, 950 level; ( 8) enargite, footwall branch vein, 1030 level; (9-10) luzonite, footwall branch vein, 1030 level.· 

the ore consists predominantly of enargite and luzonite (Gonzales, 1956). These were analyzed quantitatively for germanium and tin, and semiquantitatively for other elements by Harry Bastron, and the 

results are given in table 1. 

All samples contained major Cu, and all but No. 2 

(O.X percent As) contained major As. Nos,7 and 9 

contained Au; Nos. 3, 7, and 9 contained Pb; No. 7 

contained Zn X. percent and Fe X. percent. Gallium 

was riot found in any. 

-It will be noted that antimony, arsenic, tin, germanium, and silver are present in nearly every 

l?ample. The presence of such large amounts of tin 

had not been noted previously in enargite or luzonite. The germanium contents are lower than in 

most samples of enargite analyzed (table 2) ; data 

are as yet too scattered to permit any generalizations between germanium content and geological 

conditions of formation of enargite. 

Table 2 is a summary of available analyses, including some unpublished determinations, of the 

germanium content of some sulfides. Those for 

sphalerite, wurtzite, and chalcopyrite are mainly 

from Fleischer (1955),_plus later data, especially by 

Burnham (1959), El Shazly and others (1957), and 

H;aranczyk ( 1957). The distribution of the germanium contents in sphalerite, enargite, and chalcopyrite is shown graphically in figure 110.1. 

Other copper sulfides that have been reported to 

contain germanium include chalcocite (sec9ndary?) 

up to 300 ppm Ge, colusite (up to 200 ppm), covellite 

(up to 60 ppm), stannite (up to 50 ppm), tetrahedrite (up to 200 ppm), and chalcostibite (0.5-1 percent). It is possible that germanite or renierite 

might have been present in some of these samples. 

Except for the samples analyzed by Bur,nham 

·10 

U) 

ILI;_6Q 

...J 

n. 

:::e 

<( 

U) 

l:> 50 

1--

z 

ILl 

0 f5 40 n. 

30 

20 

10 

~ 

1-

1-

1-

1-

1-

~ enargite (44 samples) 

[]I chalcopyrite (244 samples) 

II 

0.1-

0.504 

rrn. 

0.05-

0.1% 

rbt!/.1 

100-

SOOppm 

r-

~~ 10-

IOOppm 

r--

:·:=·· 

·:::·: 

~ 

( 10 

ppm 

-

-

-

-

FIGURE 110.1.-Distribution of germanium content of sphalerite, enargite, and chalcopyrite. 

( 1959), only a few of the analyses summarized in 

table 2 refer to coexisting minerals, and therefore 

do not indicate the preferential takeup of germanium 

by one mineral or another. Burnham's analyses show 

clearly that germanium is much more ·concentrated 

in sphalerite than in chalcopyrite from the same 

deposit. A few analyses indicate that enargite and 

luzonite contain more germanium than sphalerite 

from the same deposit, and analyses by Arsenijevic 

( 1959) show higher contents of germanium in bor- · 

nite than in enargite from the Bor deposit, Yugoslavia. 

It is evident that further study should be made 

of the distribution of germanium among the minerals 

of major deposits containing enargite and bornite. 

Scattered analyses have been published of material 

from Butte, from Bor, and from Tsumeb, but no 

data have been published for the remaining major 

deposits. Studies of the fate of germanium during 

the smelting of such ores are· also needed; analy-ses 

by Arsenijevic (1959) showed contents of 150 to 860 

ppm germanium in various flue dusts obtained during the smelting of ore from Bor. 

I thank Harry Bastron for the spectrographic 

analyses, Mr~ C. ·B. Foster of the Lepanto Consoli-

.• 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-261 

TABLE 2.-Smnmm·y of data on gennaniuut content of va'rious sulfides 

~umber of samples reported in each concentration range 

-----·----------------·----------,---------.--·------.-·--·---c-·--·---.----,-------

:\lin('rnl 

:\laximum 

(ppm} I perc('nt 

or more 5000-!1999 

(ppm) 

1000-

·1999 

(ppm) 

500-999 200-499 100-lll9 

(ppm) 

50-99 

(ppm) 

10-·19 

(ppm) <10 

(ppm) 

Not 

found 

Total 

number of samples 

(ppm} (ppm) 

Sphalcl'ite ....... . 1000 50 l!l 

"'ul'tzite ........ . 5000 (i I 

Qhalc'<;>P.\'I'it:e ..... . l~.nnl'gt t:e ........ . Bot·nite ......... . 200 

> 1000 2 l 

1000 1 2 

dated Mining Co., who furnished the samples, and 

Mr. V. E. Lednicky, President, Lepanto Consolidated 

Mining Co., who kindly gave permission to publish 

the results. 

REFERENCES 

Arsenijevic, M., 1959, Germanium in the Bor copper mines: 

Srpskog geol. Drushtva, Zapisnici for 1957, p. 149-151. 

Burnham, C. W., 1959, Metallogenetic provinces of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico: New Mexico 

Bur. Mines and Mineral Resources Bull. 65, p. 1-76. 

El Shazly, E. M., Webb, J. S., and Williams, David, 1957, 

Trace elements in sphalerite, galena, and associated minerals from the British Isles: Inst. Mining and Metallurgy 

Trans., v. 66, p. 241-271. 

Fleischer, Michael, 1955, Minor elements in some sulfide minerals: Econ. Geology, 50th anniversary Volume, p. 970-

1024. 

!li 105 121 t:32 86 ii6 1:386 

2 ] 2 5 :3 21 

I 2 :3 i 18 21:3 244 

12 8 5 6 2 8 4-l2 ] 1 J • 0. 0 •••• () 1-lGoldschmidt, V. M., and Peters, Cl., 1933, Zur Geochemie des 

Germaniums: Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen N achr., Math.-

phys. Kl., Heft 2, p. 141-166. 

Gonzales, Arsenio, 1956, Geology of the Lepanto copper mine, 

Mankayan, Mountain Province, in Copper Deposits of the 

Philippines, Part 1, Text: Manila, Philippine Bur. Mines, 

Spec. Projects Ser., Pub. No. 16, p. 17-50. 

Haranczyk, Czeslaw, 1957, Trace elements in ore minerals 

from Silesian Cracovian zinc lead deposits: Inst. geol. 

(Poland), Buil. 115, p. 63-126 (Polish with English 

summary). 

Noddack, Ida, and Noddl:l,ck, Walter, 1931, Die Geochemie des 

Rheniums: Zeitschr. physikal. Chemie, v. 154 A, p. 207-

244. 

Papish, Jacob, Brewer, F. M., and Holt, D. A., 1927, Germanium, XXV, Arc spectrographic detection and estimation of germanium. Occurrence of germanium in certain 

tin minerals. Enargite as a possible source of germanium: Am .. Chem. Soc. Jour., v. 49, p. 3028-3033. 

111. CHLORINE AND FLUORINE IN SILICIC VOLCANIC GLASS 

By HowARD A. POWERS, Denver, Colo. 

The chlorine and fluorine content of 120 samples 

of silicic volcanic glass is plotted on figure 111.1 1• 

Five of the samples are matrix glass separated frorri 

blocks of. vitrophyric pumice, and 115 samples are 

vitric shards from beds of volcanic ash. The chlorine 

content differs from ash bed to ash bed independently 

of the fluorine content, and differences in both 

chlorine and fluorine content have no apparent relation to geologic age. The Galata ash in Montana 

and Alberta (Horberg and Robie, 1955, p. 949) is 

postglacial, the Pearlette ash in Kansas (Carey and 

others, 1952, p. 13) is late Kansan, the Reager and 

1 Chlorine content was determined by a method described by Peck and 

Tomasi (1969). 

Reamsville ash beds in the central Great Plains 

(Swineford and others, 1955, p. 254), the Peters 

Gulch and the Narrows _ash layers in Idaho (Powers 

a'nd Malde, Art. 70), the Wray ash in Colorado, a·nd 

five .beds labeled· "X" on figure 111.1 are all of 

Pliocene age from the Snake River Plain, Idaho. The 

content of Cl and F is fairly constant in different 

samples from the same ash bed except in those from 

the Pearlette; 14 samples from the type Pearlette 

localities range in Cl from 0.12 to 0.15 percent and 

in F from 0.13 to 0.17 percent. Even greater ranges 

are found in samples of the glass from three blocks 

of pumice collected by R. L. Smith and R. A. Bailey 

from different parts of the Bandelier tuff from the 
B-262 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

8 + 

+0+0 2. 

+0 

+~ 0 

C0 + 0 

8 M:to 

0 -f6 

Cb 0 

Iz • LLJ 

u 

a:: 

~ 0.10 

~ C9 u..i 

z 

a: • 0 • :::> 

...J 

L.L.. 

• @ ~ 

.. ~ • 

• • • @..:. 

• ~ •. 

• 

0 

~ ~· • • • • • 

• • • 

• 

EXPLANATION 

+ Known individual ash beds. 

Sample known to be from named ash bed 

0 

1 Galata 5 Peters Gulch 

2 Pearlette 6 Narrows 

Sample similar physica:ly and chemically to named ash bed 3 Reager 7 Wray 

• 4 Reamsville 8 Sand PointIsolated sample known to be different from other known beds 9 Recent pumice. Saint Helens 

• X Unnamed ash bed of Pliocene age 

Sample of unknown relation 

D 

Pumice from Bandalier rhyolite tuff (Smith, 1938) 

FIGURE 111.1.-Chlorine and fluorine content in silicic volcanic glass. 

Valles caldera in New Mexico (R. L. Smith and 

R. A. Bailey, oral commul)ication, 1960); these 

samples contain Cl 0.20 and F 0.14, Cl 0.09 and F 

0.05, and Cl 0.14 and F 0.04 percent, respectively. 

In contrast, 2 samples of glass fro1p blocks of R.ecent pumice from St. Helens volcano in the Washington Cascades (D. R. Mullineaux, oral communication, 1961) are very similar in their content, Cl 0.0,7 

and F 0.03 and Cl 0.08 and F 0.03 .percent, r~­

spectively. 

More data are available from U.S. Geological 

Survey analytical laboratories on fluorine content 

than on chlorine. The fluorine content of 555 samples 

(including the 120 mentioned above) of silicic volcanic glass of late Cenozoic age collected from many 

places in the western United States is summarized 

as follows: 

Percent F: 0.01 .02-.06 .07-.08 .09-.12 .13-.17 .19-.30 

No. of samples: 20 295 40 105 80 15 

The source area from which many of these samples 

were erupted is knowii~"and some of the data support 

the conclusion of R. R. Coats (1956, p. 76) that the 

abundance of fluorine, and of several other elements 

present in trace amounts, differs in different igneous 

provinces. For instance, 75 samples known to be 
i.. 

~ -

SHORT PAPE~S IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-263 

from the H.igh Cascade volcanoes range from 0.005 

to 0.065 percent F; 30 samples of early Pliocene 

age from a proxince overlapping the Idaho-Nevada 

border range from 0.065 to 0.14 percent F;. and 7 

samples of the younger silicic tuffs in the Thomas 

Range in west-central Utah (M. H. Staatz, written 

communication, 1960) range from 0.14 to 0.32 percent F in contrast to 4 samples of the older series 

of rhyolite-latite rocks that contain from 0.04 to 0.07 

percent F. However, the different content of fluorine 

in the 3 blocks of pumice from the Bandelier rhyolite 

tuff does not support the generalization. 

Friedman and Harris (written communication, 

1961) have determined that hydration of volcanic 

glass does not drive out a measurable part of the 

fluorine contained in the original glass, but no similar tests have been made in respect to chlorine. 

REFERENCES 

Carey, J. S., Frye, ,J. C., Plummer, N., and Swineford, Ada, 

1952, Kansas volcanic ash resources: Kansas State Geol. 

Survey Bull. 96, pt. 1, p. 1-68. 

Coats, R. R., 1956, Uranium and certain other trace elements 

. in felsic volcanic rocks of Cenozoic age in western United 

States, in Contributions to the geology of uranium and 

thorium by the United States Geological Survey and 

Atomic Energy Commission for the United Nations International Conference on Peaceful uses of atomic energy, 

Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. ·Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 300, p. 75-78. 

Horberg, Leland, and Robie, R. A., 1955, Postglacial volcanic 

ash in the Rocky Mountain Piedmont, Montana and 

Alberta: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 60, p. 949-956. 

Peck, L. C., and Tomasi, E. J., 1959, Determination of chlorine 

in silicate rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 31, p. 2024-2026. 

Swineford, Ada, Frye, J. C., and Leonard, A. B., 1955, 

Petrography of the late Tertiary volcanic ash falls in the 

central Great Plains: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 25, p. 

243-261. 

. 112. ELECTRONPROBE ANALYSIS OF SCHREIBERSITE (RHABDITE) IN THE CANYON DIABLO METEORITE 

By I. ADLER and E. J. DWORNIK, Washington, D. C. 

W01·k done in coope'ration with the National Ae'ronautics and Space Agency 

The problem of the mode of formation of metallic 

meteorites requires thorough and detailed knowledge 

of their composition. The many existing analyses 

made by conventional methods are essentially 

analyses of composites; many problems, however, 

such as the distribution of nickel and cobidt between 

two different phases in contact, require analyses of 

specific localized areas definable only under high 

magnification. For example, analyses exist of kamacite (alpha-Ni-Fe), taenite (gamma-Ni-Fe), schreibersite (Fe,NO:~P and cohenite (Fe,Ni)aC from 

meteorites, but nearly all of them represent composite samples. It is of great interest to analyze 

individual grains to determine the constancy or 

variation in composition of each phase, and the constancy or variation of ratios of ~lements (such as 

Ni :Fe) in two adjacent phases. Such studies could 

yield valuable information on whether equilibrium 

conditions prevailed .. 

The electronprobe is ideally suited to this type 

of· analysis as it can be used to provide point by 

point analysis of microscopic volumes of the order 

of several cubic microns which in the ideal case 

correspond to absolute amounts of 10-11 to 10-t:! 

grams of an element. 

The electronprobe microanalyzer was developed in 

France by Castaing (1951, Application of electron 

probes to local chemical and crystallographic analysis, ·Paris Univ. Thesis). This device })as been described in a number of reports dealing in the main 

with metallurgical applications. 

A particularly appealing feature is the nondestructive nature of the technique which enables the researcher to reexamine the specimen in the light of 

the compositional data obtained. The tedious preparation of any constituent phase for analysis by conventional methods can be circumvented. 
B-264 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

·'' ~. l

i . . JI I.. . . .. . ····I 

. ·, j 

ff 

a D · 

E 

F 

I 

200 }l 

FIGURE 112.1.-Photomicrograph of polished specimen of 

Canyon Diablo meteorite. Rhabdite grains, E, D, F, 

and G. 

Briefly, in principle, a focused beam of electrons is 

made to impinge on a selected area of the specimen. 

The X-rays which are excited are diffracted by 

analyzers, which are various single crystals with 

characteristic interplanar spacings to cover the range 

of elements of atomic number 12 and greater. The 

intensity of the X-radiation is measured by radiation detectors such as Geiger or proportional counters and scalers. The intensities measured are compared with those given by standards, and corrections 

are made for fluorescence and absorption in order to 

relate the intensities to concentration. A probe similar in principle to the Castaing probe, but somewhat 

modified in design, is now in operation in the U.S. 

Geological Survey laboratories. 

Maringer, Richard, and Austin (1959) have studied the Widmanstatten structure in the Grant meteorite from New Mexico with an electronprobe and 

reported on the nickel-iron content of kamacite, taenite, and plessite-a fine-grained mixture of both 

phases. David B. Wittry (written communication, 

1959), using the electron probe, reported on the 

nickel-iron content of kamacite and taenite in the 

Canyon Diablo meteorite. He also described an individual crystal within a taenite band and tentatively 

identified it as Ni Fe~P • Presumably, this is similar 

to the rhabdite rhombs of this study. 

A one-quarter by one-eighth inch fragment was 

carefully removed from the edge of the Canyon 

Diablo meteorite specimen 841, generously provided 

• • 

• 

I • 

1 

• 

100 J.L 

li 

li 

• 7 

I 

FIGURE 112.2.-View enlarged from figure 112.1 to show pointby-point traverses I and II. 

TABLE !.-Analytical 1·esults fo1 · t1·averses I and II 

Kam acite ..... 

Gray phase. 

Rha 

Gra} 

bdite . . .... • phase. ... 

Kam acite ... ... 

I In percent; precision of measurements approximately 5 percent of the amount present I 

Traverse I Traverse Il 

--------------------------- ---

Spot. ::-<i Fe Ni+Fe Spot ::-<i Fe ::-<i+Fe 

----- --------------------

1 7.8 88 06 Kamaeitc .... I 6.5 89 96 

2 7.9 88 !)(i 2 6.6 90 !J/ 

:3 7.\J 91 \H) 

4 7.4 86 n:3 

5 1.4 48 -l9 Gray phase. :3 :3. 1 -l(i 49 

6 2.0 -16 -l8 

7 :38 40 78 Rhabdite. ..... 4 -12 4:) 85 

8 2.5 41 H Gra.1· phase. 5 3.9 ..JO H 

9 1.4 46 47 

10 2. 4 47 49 

11 7.4 90 U7 Kamacitc .... .. 6 7.2 90 U7 

12 7.6 89 97 7 7 .2 8\J 96 

13 7.2 89 96 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GE.OLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCE~, ARTICLES 1-146 B-265 

TABLE 2.-New analyses of 1·habdites, Canyon Diablo 

?neteo?·ite 

[In percent; precision of measurements approximately± 5 percent of the amount p1·esent] 

C:rnin 

A .... ···················· B ....................... . 

c ...................... . D ....................... . 

g, ... ···················· F ........................ . 

n. ······················ 

Size (microns) 

10 

31 

21 

5 

20 

18 

35 

Ni 

22 

41 

37 

48 

45 

H 

44 

Fe 

63 

~6 

~2 

36 

39 

39 

38 

Ni:Fe Ni+ Fe (ratios) 

85 

87 

79 

84 

8~ 

83 

R2 

.34 

.89 

.88 

1.33 

1.15 

I. 12 1.15 

by E. P. Henderson of the U.S. National Museum, 

and the fragment was prepared for examination in 

the conventional bakelite polished-section mount. 

Fragments of pure iron, pure nickel, and stainless 

steel (National Bureau of Standards standard sample no. 101d) were also mounted for use as reference 

standards. Figure 112.1 illustrates the general area 

studied. The various phases present, as described in 

metallographic studies of ~eteoritic irons by Perry 

(1944), include a kamacite matrix, irregularly 

shaped gray bodies (probably iron oxides with some 

carbon in the form of graphite), and schreibersite, 

an iron-nickel phosphide, (Fe,Ni)HP, as rhombs or 

squares and referred to as rhabdites. 

The gourd-shaped gray mass in the upper right 

of figure 112.1 is the site· of two separate point by 

point traverses for which analytical data are given in 

table 1. The small regularly spaced spots on a line 

through the area are contamination spots formed by 

the electron beam. The spots are normally of the 

order of i to 3 microns but appear somewhat enlarged because of prolonged exposure to the beam. 

In figure 112.2 these spots are numbered so that the 

analyses can be related to the particular area. Also 

shown in figui.·e 112.1 are 4 of the 7 additional rhabdites for which . Ni-Fe contents were determined 

(table 2). Appreciable amounts of phosphorus in 

these rhabdite grains were demonstrated by spectrometer traces but the element was not determined 

quantitatively. The theoretical content of phosphorous for (Fe,Ni)HP with Fe :Ni = 1:1 is 15.27 percent. 

The magnetism of the meteorite made it necessary 

to recenter the beam with· respect to the optical microscope in moving from point to point and accounts 

for the unnumbered beam spots appearing in the 

micrographs. The rhabdite grain D (figs. 112.1 and 

112.2), approximately 5 microns across and the 

smallest of the 9 crystals analyzed, has been concealed by the contamination spot. 

No clear-cut chemical relationship between the 

rhabdites and the surrounding gray areas could be 

established. The total Ni + Fe in rhabdite grain 

F, exhibiting virtually no oxide halo, corresponds 

closely to the total in other rhabdites. Grains A and 

D, which show the maximum variation in Ni and 

Fe content, both show good agreement with the formula (Ni,Fe)HP used by Perry· (1944) for schreibersite. Henderson and Monnig ( 1956), analyzed 

rhabdite needles removed from the Richland, Tex., 

and Coahuila, Mex., meteorites by dissolving the 

k~macite matrix in dilute hydrochloric acid. They 

report 33.17 and 31.71 percent Ni, respectively. The 

average nickel content of the 9 rhabdites analyzed 

in this study is 40.1 percent. 

The present study clearly demonstrates the variation in content of iron and nickel in rhabdites in' 

one single meteorite specimen .. The nickel in these 

rhabdites ranges from· 22 percent in grain A to 48 

percent in grain D ; the: NJ :Fe ratios range from 

0.34 to 1.33. The sum of the. weight percents of 

nickel and iron range from 79 to 87 percent. Two 

analyses of schreibersite from the Canyon Diablo 

meteorite are given by Palache, Berman, and Fronde! ( 1944, p. 125) as follows: Fe 58.54, Ni 26.08, 

and Ni :Fe 0.44 percent; and Fe 54.34, Ni 31.48, and 

Ni :Fe 0.57 percent. 

Eleven analyses of the kamacite phase adjacent to 

the gourd-shaped area show average contents of 7.3 

percent nickel and 89 percent iron; the range in 

compositi.on is strikingly less than in the rhabdites, 

namely, Ni 6.5 to 7.9 and Fe 86 to 91 percent. The 

gray phase has the lowest nickel content, 1.4 to 3.1 

percent; its iron .content is 46 to 48 percent. 

REFERENCES 

Henderson, E. P., and Monnig, 0. E., 1956, The. Richland, 

Navarro County, Texas,· meteorite (CN=0964,319)-A 

new hexahedrite: Meteoritics, v. 1, .no. 4, p. 459-467. 

Maringer, R. E., Richard, N. A., and Austin, A. E., 1959, 

Microbeam analysis of Widmanstatten structure in meteoritic iron: Am. Inst. Mining Metall. Engineers, Metall. 

Soc. Trans., v. 215, p. 56-68. 

Palache, Charles, Berman, Harry, and Jrrondel, Clifford, 1944, 

Th~ system of mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and 

Edward Salisbury Dana, Volume 1, Elements, sulfides, 

sulfosalts, oxides. 7th ed.: New York, John Wiley and 

Sons, 834 p. 

Perry, S. H., 1944, The metallography of meteoric iron: U.S. 

Natl. Mus. Bull. 184, 206 p. 
B-266 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

113. THE SYNTHESIS OF LARGE CRYSTALS OF ANDERSONITE 

By ROBERT MEYROWITZ and DAPHNE R. Ross, Washington, D. C. 

Andersonite, Na:!CaUO:! (COHL•6H:!O, was first 

synthesized by Axelrod and others (1951) from a 

solution containing uranyl nitrate, potassium carbonate, sodium nitrate, and calcium nitrate. Microscopic crystals were formed by allowing the solution 

to evaporate at room temperature. The procedure 

described below was developed to prepare large 

crystals (0.5 to 1 mm and occasionally some slightly 

larger) of synthetic andersonite. 

An aqueous solution (10 ml) containing 7.53 g 

UOANOH):!•6H2 0 (0.015 mol UOH) is added slowly 

with constant stirring (magnetic stirrer) to an 

aqueous solution ( 100 ml) containing 4. 77 g anhydrous Na 2CO;{ (0.045 mol C02 ). An aqueous solution (10 ml) containing 3.54 g Ca(N03 ) 2 •4H2 0 

(0.015 mol CaO) is added slowly with constant 

stirring to the uranyl carbonate solution. Dilute 

sodium carbonate is added dropwise with constant 

stirring until the pH of the solution is 8.0. The solution is allowed to stand after sealing the beaker with 

plastic film so that no evaporation takes place. The 

crystals which form on standing are detached from 

the sides and bottom of the beaker and washed by 

decantation with water. Most of the excess water is 

removed by rolling the crystals on absorbent paper. 

The crystals are then allowed to air dry. They were 

identified as andersonite by their powder X-ray diffraction patterns (Axelrod and others, 1951). 

The help of Alan L. Meyrowitz is acknowledged. 

REFERENCE 

~ 

Axelrod, J. M., Grimaldi, F. S., Milton, C., and Murata, K. J., 

1951, The uranium minerals from the Hillside Mine, 

Yavapai County,. Arizona: Am. Mineralogist, v. 36, p. 

1-22. 

U4. UNIT-CELL DIMENSION VERSUS COMPOSITION IN THE SYSTEMS: 

PbS-CdS, PbS-PSe, ZnS-ZnSe, and CuFeS~.~~~-CuFeSe~,~ ... 

By P~ILIP M. BETHKE and PAUL B. BARTON, JR., Washington, D. C. 

As part of an extensive experimental investigation 

of the distribution of minor elements between coexisting sulfide minerals (Bethke and Barton, 1959), 

the relationship between unit-cell edge and composition was established with· high precision for PbSPbSe and ZnS-ZnSe solid solutions and cadmiumbearing galenas. The relationship between a and composition for CuFeSuw-CuFeSu10 solid solution was 

also established, but with less precision. 

Shirley K. Mosburg made and measured a number of the X-ray diffraction runs. Jean Bethke measured and computed all the PbS-PbSe diffraction 

patterns. 

SAMPLE PREPARATION 

Pure PbS, fbSe, ZnS, ZnSe, and. CdS were prepared from high-purity elements. The metals were 

heated for several days at about 750°C in evacuated 

silica glass tubes with a slight excess of sulfur (or 

selenium) over the stoichiometric proportions. Excess sulfur or selenium was removed by repeated 

washing with warm carbon disulfide in a soxhlet 

extractor. 

Solid solutions of various compositions were prepared by sintering mechanical mixtures of the above 

end members in evacuated silica glass tubes until a 

single homogeneous phase was formed. CuFeS1.110-

CuFeSe1 .llo solid solutions were prepared directly 

from mixtures of the elements. 

The iron, zinc, and sulfur are the same reagents 

used by Skinner, Barton, and Kullerud (1959). The 

sources and analyses of the selenium, cadmium and 

lead used in this study are given in table 1. 

Reagents were weighed to ± 0.05 mg and the 

total weight of the charges ranged between 100 and 

500 mg. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-267 

X-RAY DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUES 

All X-ray diffraction data were gathered on a 

N orelco diffractometer using copper radiation 

(A = ~.54050A). The ZnS-ZnSe and PbS-CdS systems were analyzed at our laboratory in Washington 

using the counting rate computer. The bulk of the 

PbS-PbSe data were gathered at the Missouri School 

of Mines and Metallurgy at Rolla, Mo., using an 

oscillating technique. The chalcopyrite data· were 

gathered in Washington, also by the oscillating technique. In all cases the peaks of the samples were 

measured against those of various internal standards 

that had been mutually calibrated against silicon 

powder supplied by Dr. Gunnar Kullerud of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The cell edge of a = 5.4301A for silicon, 

given by Swanson and Fuyat (1953), was used. Precision of measurement by either method was ± 

0.005° 20, and various checks indicate that data 

gathered by either method, in Washington or Rolla, 

are mutually comparable, within the limit of precision of measurement. 

Diffraction slides were prepared by evaporating a 

slurry of the sample and internal standard in amyl 

acetate onto a microscope slide. Oscillation tracings 

were made at a scanning rate of %, o 28 per minute 

with a chart speed of half an inch per minute. The 

step scan interval was 0.01 o 28. Two sets of measureTABLE l.-Spect'rog1·a.phic a.na.lyses of 1·ea.gents (in weight 

pe1·cent) 

I N.D., looked for but not detected: ... not specifically looked for; V.F. Tr., very faint trace.] 

Element Lead 1 Cadmium 2 Selenium 2 

Ag ...... .. 0.001 0.0001 X.D. 

AI. . . X.D. . . . . . . . . X.D . As ...... ... X.D. X.D. 0.0001 

Bi. .. 0.000:.3 0.001 S.D. 

Ca ....... . . X.D. X.D. X.D . Cd ...... ... X.D. (3) X.D. 

Cr· ....... . . X.D. X.D. X.D . Cu ...... .. o.ooa 0.001 V.F. Tl'. 

Fe ... 0.001 0.001 X.D. 

Hg ....... . . X.D. X.D. X.D . In .. . . ... . . X.D. 0.001 X.D. ~lg. . . o.oooo:~ 0.00001 X.D . .:\·tn ..... X.D. S.D. X.D. 

Sn ......... X.D. . . . . . . . . . . X.D . Xi ....... . . 0.001 S.D. X.D . Pb ..... . . . (3) o.om X.D . Sh ... .. . . . . . X.D. X.D. X.D. 

Si. .. X.D. S.D. S.D. 

Sc. ·.::::: ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. c~) 

Sn ....... S.D. 0.0001 X.D. 

Tc ..... X.D. X.D. 0.0001 

\' ........... 0.0001 . . ... . . . . . . . . 0 ••• 

Zn ..... • • 0 •• X.D. X.D. S.D . 

1 National Bureau of Standards melting point standard 49d. Semi-quantitative spectrograph analysis by K. V. Hazel, U.S. Geological Survey. 2 Spectrographic analysis by supplier: American Smelting and Refining Co. 3 Major constituent. 

ments were made for each sample, the slide being 

rotated 180° in its own plane between each set. At 

least three complete oscillations were made in each 

set when using the oscillation technique. Measurements were made at 25 ± 2°C. The values of the 

cell edges given are numerical averages of all measurements on a given sample. The plus or minus at~ 

tached to the cell edges is the standard deviation 

computed from the deviations from the average 

values for all the samples in a given system, regardless of composition. 

Because galena deforms on grinding, giving rise 

to diffuse X-ray reflections, the galena crystals were 

reduced in size by giving them several sharp "raps" 

with a pestle. The sample was then sized and only 

those fragments smaller than 200 mesh used to 

prepare the slide. The galena reflections were very 

sharp, even at high angles, using this procedure. 

CELL EDGES OF PbS, ZnS, PbSe, AND ZnSe 

The cell edges of pure PbS, PbSe, ZnS, and ZnSe 

were determined from a large number of individual 

measurements, all from oscillation tracings. These 

values, together with the peaks measured, internal 

· standards used, and number of measurements made 

are given in table 2. The plus-minus attached to each 

value is the standard deviation computed from all 

the measurements. 

The value of a for ZnS determined in this study 

is in exact agreement with that reported by Skinner 

and Barton (1960) and Skinner, Barton, and Kullerud · ( 1959). Our value of 5.9358 ± 0.0002 A for 

PbS is in excellent agreement with that of Wasserstein (1951) (5.9360 ± 0.0004 A1 ) and of Swanson 

and Fuyat (1953) (5.9362). Our val~e of 6.1255 ± 

0.0004 A for the cell edge of PbSe is in only fair 

agreeme~t with that of 6.1243 A reported by Swan-. 

son and others (1955), but is much more consistent 

with our data on PbS~PbSe solid solutions. Our 

value of 5.6685 ± 0.0004 A for ZnSe is in good 

agreement with the less precise value of 5.667 A 

TABLE 2.-Cell edges of PbS, PbSe, ZnS, a.nd ZnSe 

:-.iumbcr of 

Com- Average a in A Standards ReAections measured measurepound used ments 

-----------------------------

PhS .5 . !):358 ± 0 . 0002 CaF2 (600) (620) (5:3:3)(-!H) 1-ll 

PbSe fi . 1255 ± 0 . 000-l CaF2 (620) (6-tO) (7 1 I) 128 

and PbS 

ZnS 5 . -!09:3 ± 0 . 0002 CaF2 ((i20) 30 

ZnSe 5 . ()()85 ± 0 . 000-l CaF2 (()20) :n 

1 Converted from kX units by the kX/ A conversion factor of 1.00202. 
B-268 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

~ 

0 

a:: 

~ 

en 

(!) 

z 

<( 

~ 5.880 

<::l 

Cubic cleava~ __________ ..... 

Conchoidal fracture ····-----------·-- :.::........;c ___ _ 

5 10 15 

MOL PERCENT CdS IN GALENA 

FIGURE 114.1.-a versus composition for cadmium-bearing 

galenas. Size of circle equals 2 times standard deviation 

of individual a determinations. 

reported by Swanson and others (1954). Again our 

value is entirely consistent with our data on ZnSZnSe solid solutions. 

PbS-CdS SOLID SOLUTIONS 

A series of solid solutions in tpe system PbS-CdS 

was prepared from the pure end members by holding 

carefully weighed mixtures of t'he end members at 

860°C for a period of two w~eks. The limit of solid 

solution at this temperature is ap-proximately 17.5 

mol percent CdS. The cell edges determined for these 

compositions are given in table 3.' The relationship 

TABLE 3.-Cell edges of cadmium-bearing galenas 

:'llol p<'reent Cd::' a measurl'd ± 0.0002.\ I a ealeulated I Dit1'l'rene!' 

------------------------·------

0 

.28. 

.40 ... .li-L .. 

.80 ..... . .!18. 

1 .u7 .... . 

2. 77 ... . 7 .Oii. 

!1.!18. 

Jli. 21. 

5. !l:t58 

,j. !):~41 

5.!1:)-!0 

.s. !););){j 

5. !):~27 

5. !J:) II 

5.!)28!1 

.s. !124-J. 

5. !IOI:i:3 

.5.8!1-1-2 

5.8ulu 

1 

5. !);~.5!1 

5.!l:HI 

5. 9:{42 

5. 9:):)2 

5.!):{25 

5. !):)18 

5. !)28!1 

5. !124:) 

5. !lOG:) 

5.8!1JI 

5. !Hill 

-0.0001 

.0000 

.0002 

+ .0004 + .0002 

.0001 

.0000 

+ .0001 

.0000 

+ .0001 

.0001 

TABLE 4.-Cell edges of ZnS-ZnSe solid solutions 

:'llol 

Linear cell t>dge 

assumption Linear cell volume 

assumption 

percent "' measured ZnSe ±0.0004A a calculated Difference a calculated Difference 

0 ..... ·. .5. 409:3 •• 0 0 ••••• • 0 ••••••• 0 . ........ . .......... 

7. 72 ... .5. 4290 5.429:3 -0.000:3 5.-t-:302 -0.0012 

H. :30 ... 5.H58 5 . .J...l64 -.0006 5.H7H -.0021 

30.04 ... 5.4865 5.4872 -.0007 5.48H8 -.00:3:3 

3:3.35 5.4H39 5.4957 -.0018 5. 498.5 -.0046 

49.84 5. 5:375 5.5385 -.0010 5.5415 - .0040· 

69.22 5.5870 5.5887 -.0017 5.5415 -.0044 

77.11 5.6096 5.6092 +.0004 5.611:3 -.0017 

100.00 5.6685 • • • • • 0 •• 0 .......... • • 0 0 •• 0 •• • • 0 0. 0 ••• 

of cell edge to composition is illustrated in figure 

114.1. 

The best fitting straight line determined by least 

squares analysis of the solid solution data intersects 

the a axis at a value of a= 5.9359 A, almost exactly 

that determined for pure PbS. The equation of this 

line is 

a = 5.9359 - 0.004194 mol percent CdS 

where a is in A units. The standard deviation of 

the measured values of a of PbS-CdS solid solutions 

from those calculated through the above relationship 

is less than ± 0.0002 A. The extrapolated value of 

a for a hypothetical pure CdS having the galena 

structure is 5.516 A. 

An interesting feature of the PbS-CdS solid solutions is the relationship between cleavage and (or) 

fracture and composition. Low cadmium-bearing 

galenas retain a cubic cleavage and break along this 

cleavage almost exclusively. At compositions above 

about 6 mol percent CdS, however, a conchoidal fracture appears in addition to the cubic cleavage. With 

increasing CdS content the number of cleavage surfaces seen in a crushed sample decreases, until for 

CdS concentrations over 15 mol percent only the 

conchoidal fracture is seen. These comments are 

TABLE 5.-Cell edges of PbS-PbSe solid solutions 

I Linear c~ll ~dg~ Linear cell volume 

:'llol I _ ----~~~~~:__ _____ -----~~mptiot~----- perrent a nwusured I Pb:ie ±0 0004A "calculated Difference a calculated Diff~rence 

_____ , _____ -----1---------------

0. 5.\1:358 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • 0 •••••• 0 • 

IO.Oti .. 5. !15-1-7 5.!15-J.H -0.0002 5.055-J. -0.0001 

20.10 ... 5. !1758 5. !1751 + .0001 5. 91(11 - .00o:3 

:{0.15 ... 5.!l9-J.l 5. ~)9:30 + .0011 5. 9\)4:3 -.0002 

:3!1. 8:.3 ... (:i.0126 6.0114 +.0012 6.0128 -.0002 

l:iO.IO ... 6.0507 6.04!)8 + .oom) 6.0512 -.0005 

79.08 .. 6.0811 6.0858 + .001:3 6.0868 + .000:3 

\10.72 6. 101!) 6. 1079 .0000 6.1084 -.0005 

100.00 ... l:i.l255 . . . . . . . . . • • • • 0 0 0 ••• . . . . . . . . . . ........ 
'- SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-269 

based on· observation of the spacing curve runs as 

well as others prepared for other purposes. 

ZnS-ZnSe AND PbS-PbSe SOLID SOLUTIONS 

Complete series of ZnS-ZnSe and PbS-PbSe solid 

solutions were prepared from mixtures .of the end 

members at 900°C and 750°C, respectively. The 

· ZnS-ZnSe runs equilibrated in one month, the PbSPbSe in two weeks. The cell edge data for these series 

are given in tables 4 and 5. 

The ZnS-ZnSe data fall slightly below a straight 

line drawn between the values of a for the pure end 

members. Least squares analysis of the solid solution data yields a linear relation between cell edge 

and composition essentially parallel to the line drawn. 

between the pure end m'embers. This least squares 

line extrapolates to values of a:~.uH _:_ 5.4086 A and 

a:~.uH:· = 5.6679 A. Because of the larger .number of 

measurements used in calculating the cell edges of 

the end :members and because of the minimum compositional uncertainty, a linear relationship between 

cell edge and composition passing through the a 

values of pure ZnS and ZnSe is preferred. The 

equation of such a line isa= 5.4093 + 0.002592 mol percent ZnSe 

where a is in Angstron units. The small deviation 

of the solid solution data from this relationship is 

not considered significant. 

In contrast, the cell edges of PbS-PbSe solid 

solutions are not linear functions of composition. 

Rather, they indicate a linear relationship between 

cell volu-rne and composition. The differences between measured Yalues of a and those calculated as5.390 

(/') 

!:: . z 5.370 :::> 

:::!E 

0 

I= 5.350 (/') 

(.!) 

z 

<( 

~ 5.330 

c:s 

20 30 

MOL PERCENT CuFeSe 1.90 

FIGURE 114.2.-a versus composition for CuFeS~,~.,-CuFeSe1.11n 

solid solutions. Size of circle equals standard deviation of 

individual a. determinations. 

TABLE 6.-a of CuFeSI.!Iti-CuFeSe~.9o solid solut-ions 

Mol percent 

Cul'\'lc::let.uu 

0 .............. 0 

5.26. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

10.5:3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

25.:32. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

:36. 8-l-. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

a+O.OOI5A 

50 2987 

5.:n:3o 

5.:3265 

50:3672 

5. :3n66 

Calculated 

5. 2H8.8 

50:3128 

5. :32m) 

5.:366-l5 0:3971 

Difference 

-0.0001 

+ .0002 - .000-l-

+ .0008 

-.0005 

suming both linear cell edge and linear cell volume 

relationships are given in tables 4 and 5 for both 

ZnS-ZnSe and PbS-PbSe data. It is immediately 

obvious from these differences that a linear volume 

asRumption much better describes our data for 

PbS-PbSe solid solutions, whereas a linear cell. 

edge assumption much better describes our data for 

ZnS-ZnSe solid solutions. The relationship adopted 

between cell edge and composition for the PbS-PbSe 

solid solution isa = 3y209.140 + 0.20699 mol percent PbSe, 

where a is the cell edge in Angstrom units. 

Earley ( 1950) found an apparently linear relationship between cell edge and composition for the PbSPbSe series. Earley's study was of broad scale and 

neither his cell edge measurements nor c.ompositional 

control were of sufficient precision to differentiate 

between a linear cell volume or linear cell edge relationship with composition. · 

Coleman ( 1959) has determined the cell edges 

of 20 analyzed galena-clausthalite solid solutions, 

mostly from the Colorado Plateau. H.is objective 

was to establish the existence of such a series in 

nature, and his data seem to confirm such a conclusion. However, the wide scatter of his data allow 

only the most general conclusions as to the way in 

which ce1l dimension varies with composition. 

Bloss (1952) and Zen (1956) have emphasized that 

for ideal solid solutions partial molar volumes are 

additive. Thus, a linear relationship between cell 

volume and composition would be predicted, were 

the solid solutions ideal. Our work on the distribution of selenium between sphalerite and galena 

(Bethke and Barton, 1959) strongly indicates that 

at least above 740°C both ZnS-ZnSe and PbSPbSe solid solutions behave ideally. The cell edge 

measurements reported in this study were made at 

approximately 25°C, however, and it is possible that 

the PbS-PbSe solid solutions are ideal, or nearly 

so, at this temperature, whereas ZnS-ZnSe solid 

solutions are not. 
B-270 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

A great deal of precisiOn of measurement was 

necessary to establish the additivity of cell volumes 

for PbS-PbSe solid solutions as opposed to th~ additivity of cell edges (Vegard's Law) for ZnS-ZnSe 

compounds, even though the difference in molar volumes of the end members is very large. Most measurements made on solid solutions are not this precise and few complete solid solution series exhibit 

such a large volume difference. Further, most naturally occurring solid solutions contain other elements as structural impurities in sufficient concen~ 

trations to mask the detailed relations between cell 

edge and concentrations of the major components. 

Finally, almost all precise lattice parameter measurements are made at room temperature where it is 

quite likely that solid solutions, although possibly 

ideal under the conditions of their formation, may 

show a measurable departure from ideality. For 

most systems the difference between Vegard's Law 

(additive cell edge) and ideal behavior (additive 

cell volume) is too small to be detectable by standard 

procedures. 

CuFe~.oo - CuFeSeuo SOLID SOLUTIONS 

Solid solutions up to 36.8 mol percent CuFeSe1 .110 

were prepared in 2 weeks at 600°C starting directly 

from the elements. Runs with higher selenium content produced spurious phases. The poor quality of 

the X-ray diffraction patterns of chalcopyrite at high 

angles, particularly with copper radiation, necessitated the use of low-angle lines in establishing the 

relationship between cell edge and composition for 

selenium-bearing chalcopyrites. Correspondingly, 

,the precision of measurement was much lower, in 

terms of cell edge, than for the above-described systems. Although the chalcopyrites measured were 

tetragonal, only the a dimension, as computed from 

the (220) reflection is reported here. It should be 

noted that the chalcopy:rite solid solutions were 

specifically prepared to be anion deficient and with 

a 1 :1 Cu :Fe ratio in order that they would be within 

their compositional stability ranges under the conditions of the distribution experiments. The results of 

our study are, therefore, not directly comparable to 

those obtained on chalcopyrites of different cation: 

anion or Cu :Fe ratios. 

The cell edge and compositional data are listed in 

table 6 and illustrated in figure 114.2. Within the 

limits of precision, the a dimension of chalcopyrite 

is seen to be a linear function of selenium content. 

The data are not sufficier1tly precise to define the 

details of the relationship, but it is approximately 

given by the expression--

a= 5.298H + 0.00266>< mol percent CuFeSe 1.nu 

where a is in Angstrom units. 

REFERENCES 

Bethke, P. M., and Barton, P. B., Jr., 1959, Trace-element 

distribution as an indicator of pressure and temperature 

of ore deposition [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70, 

no. 12, pt. 2, p: 1569. 

Bloss, F. D., 1952, Relationships between density and composition in mol percent for some solid solution series: Am. 

Mineralogist, v. 37, p. 966-981. 

Coleman, R. G., 1959, The natural occurrence of galenaclausthalite solid solution series: Am. Mineralogist, v. 44, 

p. 166-175. 

Earley, J. W., 1950, Description and synthesis of the selenide 

minerals: Am. Mineralogist, v. 35, p. 337-364. 

Skinner, B. J., and Barton, P. B., Jr., 1960, The substitution 

of oxygen for sulfur in wurtzite and sphalerite: Am. 

Mineralogist, v. 45, p. 612-625. 

Skinner, B. J., Barton, P. B., Jr., and Kullerud, Gunnar, 1959, 

Effect of FeS on the unit-cell edge of sphalerite. A revision: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 1040-1046. 

Swanson, H. E., and Fuyat, R. K., 1953, Standard X-ray 

diffraction powder patterns: U.S. N atl. Bur. Standards 

Circ. 539, v. 2, p. 6-9, 18-19. 

Swanson, H. E., Fuyat, R. K., and U grinic, G. M., 1954, 

Standard X-ray diffraction powder patterns: U.S. NatL 

Bur. Standards Circ. 539, v. 3, p. 23. 

Swanson, H. E., Gilfrich, N. T., and Ugrinic, G. M., 1955, 

Standard X-ray diffraction powder ·patterns: U.S. Natl. 

Bur. Standards Circ. 539, v. 5, p. 38-39. 

Wasserstein, )3., 1~51, Pr~cision lattice measurements of 

galenayi.m. Mmeralog1st, v. 36, p. 102-115. 

Zen, E-an, 1956, Validity of "Vegard's Law": Am. Mineralogist v. 41, p. 523-524. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-271 

115. UNIT-CELL EDGES OF COBALT- AND COBALT-IRON-BEARING SPHALERITES 

By WAYNE E. HALL, Washington, D. C. 

Pure ZnS, •"CoS", and FeS were prepared by 

combining high-purity elements in sealed, evacuated 

silica glass tubes. The iron, zinc, and sulfur are the 

same reagents used by Skinner, Barton, and Kullerud (1959). The cobalt reagent was obtained from 

Johnson, Matthey and Co., Ltd., catalogue no. J. M. 

870, who supplied the following spectrographic 

analysis: 

Percent Percent 

Ag <0.0001 Mg <0.0001 

AI Mn 

As Mo 

Ba Na .0001 

Bi Ni 

Ca .0002 Pb 

Co Major Sb 

Cr Si .0002 

Cu < .0001 Sn 

Fe .0005 V 

Ge Zn 

ZnS was prepared by heating zinc with sulfur in 

slight excess of stoichiometric proportions for 10 

days at 650°C. Excess sulfur was removed by washing with carbon disulfide. FeS and "CoS" were prepared by combining stoichiometric mixtures at 

650°C for at least 7 days. Stoichiometric CoS was 

not formed, but the resulting intergrowth of Co1_xS 

and probably Co11Sx was so fine and uniform that it 

had the bulk composition CoS in the quantities used 

for individual runs. Definite identification of' the 

two phases has not been completed, and the intergrowth will be referred to hereafter as "CoS". 

All X-ray data were obtained using Ni-filtered 

CuKa 1 radiation (A = 1.54050A). An oscillation technique was used, and all peaks were repeated at least 

4 times at a scanning speed of 14 o 20 per minute 

and a chart speed of half an inch per minute. The 

peaks were measured against those of the same CaF:! 

or N aCl internal standards used by Bethke and Barton (Art. 114). Several checks were made by using 

a counting-rate computer at a step-scanning rate of 

0.01° 20, and the unit-cell edge measurements by 

both techniques are comparable. Shirley K. Mosburg 

made most of the X-ray diffraction patterns and calculated the unit-cell edges. 

The unit-cell edge of ZnS determined as 5.4093A 

in this investigation is the same as that determined 

by Skinner and others ( 1959, p. 1043), Skinner and 

Barton ( 1960), and Bethke and Barton (Art. 114). 

COBALT-BEARING SPHALERITE 

A series of cobalt-bearing sphalerites was prepared from "CoS" and pure ZnS by holding known 

proportions of the two at 850°C for 21 days. At the 

end of one week the silica glass tubes were opened 

and the samples reground in acetone. The charge 

was then reheated at 850°C until homogeneous. 

The cell edges of the cobalt-bearing sphalerites 

are listed in table 1, and the relation of cell edge to 

composition is shown in figure 115.1. The relation 

is linear, and the best fitting straight line by least 

squares analysis intersects the a axis for pure ZnS 

at 5.4093A. The equation for the line is: 

a= 5.4093 - 0.00700Y where Y is the mol 

percent "CoS". 

The maximum amount of CoS that can substitute in 

ZnS is 33 mol percent at 850°C. The precision given 

for each unit-cell edge measurement is the IJlaximum 

deviation from the numerical average of 4 to 6 repeated measurements. A comparison of the measured 

and calculated unit-cell edges based on a linear relationship between a and composition is also given 

in table 1. The standard deviation of the measured 

values of a and those calculated by the above formula is 0.0003A. 

COBALT-IRON -BEARING SPHALERITES 

A series of cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites were 

prepared from known proportions of pure ZnS, FeS, 

and "CoS", and were heated at 850°C for 4 weeks. 

IJ) 

1--

z 

::::> 

~ 5.400 

a: 

1--

IJ) 

(!) 

z 

ct 5.395 

~ 

<::! 

FIGURE 115.1.-Relation of a and ~omposition in cobalt-bearing 

sphalerites. 
B-272 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 1.-Unit cell edges of cobalt-bearing sphalerite 

CoS content 

\reight Mol percent percent 

0.57 .... 0.60 

2.21 .... 2.:36 

:3.70 .... :3.95 

5.90 .... 6.28 

7.23 .... 7.70 

9.75 .... 10.36 

1-±.:H .... 15.19 

19.94 .... 21.05 

23.32 .... 2-±.56. 

Unit-cell 

edge in A 

(rneasurrd) 

5 . 4090 ±.o . ooo:~ 

5.4078 ± .0002 

5.4068 ± .0003 

5.4045 ± .0003 

5.4042 ± .000-± 

5. 4025 ± .0005 

5.3990 ± .0002 

5.3948.± .0002 

5.3918± .0003 

Unit-cell ·edge in A (calculated) 

5.-±089 

5.4076 

5.4065 

5.4049 

5. 40:39 

5.-±020 

5.3987 

5.:39-±6 

5.:3921 

Difference 

-0.0001 

- .0002 

-.000:3 

+ .0004 

-.000:3 

-.0005 

-.000:3 

-.0002 

+ .000:3 

The charges were regroqnd in acetone after 2 weeks. 

The measured unit-cell edges are listed in table. 2. 

These are compared wit~ a calculated unit-cell edge 

based on a linear relation between a of cobalt-bearing 

sphalerite and a of iron-bearing sphalerite. The effect of FeS on the unit-cell edge of sphalerite was investigated by Kullerud. (1953) and by Skinner and 

others (1959). The latter derived the linear 

function: 

a = 5.4093 + 0.000456X (where X is the mol 

percent FeS and a is in Angstrom units). 

This equation. was combined with the one determined in this investigation for cobalt-bearing sphal~ 

erite to give the a for cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites 

as follows: 

a = 5.4093 + 0.000456X - 0.000700Y 

The relation between a and composition of cobaltiron-bearing sphalerite is shown in figure 115.2. 

a, IN ANGSTROM UNITS 

Unit cell edge of iron-bearing 

sphalerite from Skinner, Barton, 

and Kullerud (1959) 

FIGURE 115.2.-Relation of a (in angstrom units) and composition (mol percent) of cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites. 

The unit-cell edges are approximately additive, but 

the calculated unit-cell edges tend to be slightly 

smaller than measured ones in cobalt-iron-bearing 

sphalerites containing more than 75 mol percent 

ZnS, and larger in ones containing 65 to 75 mol percent ZnS. 

The a is one parameter used by the writer in conjunction with an Fe :Zn ratio to determine composiTABLE 2.-Unit-cell edges of· cobalt-and-iron-bearing sphale'rites 

Composition of sphalerite 

-----------~~:::::~--------1----------~~~~:~~----------

Zn8 CoS Fe::: Zn~ Co::: Fe::i 

---------------------------· ------------

HO .87 4. 6:3 4.50 90.15 4.91 4.9-± 

86 . :30 4.60 !) . 10 85' 19 4.86 9.95 

85 .!l8 !) . 4:3 4.59 85.00 !) . !)8 5.02 

82 .01 1:3.68 4.:31 80.85 14.44 4.71 

81 .6() 4.51 I:L8:3 80.22 4.7-± 15.04 

80 .82 !1. !11 \1.27 7!l.47 10.4:3 10.10 

76 .81 18.70 4.4!l 75.45 ]!). ()6 4.89 

76 .76 14.24 !).00 75.28 14.!15 !1.77 

76 . 7.5 !1.47 1:3.78 75.1:3 H.!l2 14.95 

76 .20 5.52 18.28 74.H 5. 77 19.79 

72 .:34 4.:30 2:3' :36 70.:3.5 4 . ..J-7 25.18 

71 .64 J!l. 19 9.17 70.00 20.07 9. 9:3 

71 .26 9.60 19' 14 69.:35 10.00 20.65 

71 .06 1-1.76 14.18 69.15 15.:37 15.28 

70 .60 24.40 5.00 69.0:~ 25.55 5.41 

65 .77 28.82 .5' 41 64.09 :30.07 5.84 

a, in angstrom units (measured) 

---------

5.408-± ±0.0002 

5.4109 ± .0002 

5.4042 ± .000:3 

5. 401-! ± .0002 

5.41:30± .000:3 

5.406D ± .0005 

5.:3977± .0002 

5.40:30 ± .0003 

5.4084 ± . 000:3 

5.41:34± .0007 

5.4169 ± .0006 

5' :3!)92 ± .0005 

5. 411:3 ± .0005 

5.4046 ± .0005 

5' :3928 ± .0007 

5.:390:3 ± .0002 

a, in anstrom units (calculated) 

-------

5.4082 

5.-±104 

5.4046 

5.4013 

5.-±129 

5.4066 

5.:3977 

5.403:3 

5.4092 

5. 414:3 

5.4177 

5.3998 

5. 4117 

5.4055 

5.3939 

5.3910 

Differenee 

------

0.0002 

-.0005 

+ .0004 

-.0001 

- .0001 

-.000:3 

.0000 

+ .0003 

+ .0008 

+ .0009 

+ .0008 

+ .0006 

+ .0004 

+ .0009 

+ .OOll 

+ .0007 
SHORT· PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-273 

tion of cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites in the phase 

studies. 

REFERENCES 

Kullerud, Gunnar, 1953, The FeS-ZnS system. A geological 

thermometer: Norsk g·eol. tidsskr., v. 32, p. 61-147. 

Skinner, B. J., Barton, P. B., Jr., and Kullerud, Gunnar, 1959, 

Effect of FeS on the unit-cell edge of sphalerite. A revision: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 1040-1046. 

Skinner, B. J., and Barton, P. B., Jr., 1960, The substitution 

of oxygen for sulfur in wurtzite and sphalerite: Am. 

Mineralogi_st, v. 45, p. 612-625. 

116. X-RAY DIFFRACTOMETER METHOD FOR MEASURING PREFERRED ORIENTATION IN CLAYS 

By ROBE~! H. MEADE, Menlo Park, Calif. 

The preferred orientation of clay minerals is a 

key to the understanding of the deposition and compaction of clayey sediments. This orientation is not 

always· susceptible to measurement by optical means 

because (a) individual clay-mineral particles are 

generally too· small to be studied, and (b) many 

clays, particularly those rich in montmorillonite, 

have swelling properties that make the preparation 

of thin se'ctions difficult. X-ray diffraction provides 

a way to overcome these difficulties. 

X-ray diffractometer methods of petrofabric study 

have been described by Higgs and others ( 1960), 

Silverman and Bates ( 1960), and Kaarsberg (1959, 

p. 453-454). The method to be described in this 

article is similar to the one used by Kaarsberg. Its 

main advantage over previously described methods is 

that a numerical index is obtained that can be used 

to compare the orientation of different phyllosilicate 

minerals in rock specimens from different terranes. 

BASIS OF METHOD 

The use of X-ray diffraction in petrofabric study 

depends on the fact that the intensity of the reflection from any crystallographic plane varies dir~ctly 

with the mass of material oriented so that the plane 

reflects X-rays according to th.e Bragg relation. 

This is illustrated by X-ray diffraction patterns 

from two specimens of the same clay-mineral fraction (fig. 116.1). The first specimen was prepared 

by allowing the clay-mineral particles to settle out 

of suspension and lie with their basal planes parallel; 

the preferred orientation of these clay particles is 

ne~rly perfect. All the peaks in the diffraction pattern from this specimen (lower pattern, fig. 116.1) 

represent reflections from basal planes. In the other 

specimen, prepared with random rather than preferred orientation of the clay minerals, the reflections 

from the basal planes are less intense. Other crystallographic planes within the minerals reflect X-rays, 

and their peaks also appear in the pattern (upper 

pattern, fig. 116.1). 

In the pattern from the specimen that has preferred orientation, the ( 001) reflection from basal 

planes of montmorillonite (at 15 A) is much enhanced and the ( 020) reflection from planes perpendicular to the basal planes (at 4.4 A) is absent. 

On the other hand, in the pattern from the specimen that is oriented at random, the 4.4-A peak is 

nearly as high as the one at 15 A. These two peaks 

are the ones whose heights are used to measure the 

preferred orientation of montmorillonite particles. 

Because montmorillonite is the most abundant clay 

mineral in the sediments that were examined by this 

method, this article will describe the measurement 

of its preferred orientation. The same principle, 

however, can be used to measure the preferred orientation of other clay minerals. 

The samples illustrated in figure 116.1 were taken 

from a clay-mineral fraction that is especially rich 

in montmorillonite. The X-ray patterns are ideally 

simplified because most of the nonclay minerals haye 

been removed, and· the orientation of the clay particles was produced artificially. Patterns from 

natural sediments are not so well defined. 

PREPARATION AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION 

From a block of air-dried sample, three small cylinders are cut in such a way that their circular ends 
B-274 

ANGSTROMS 

RANDOM ORIENTATION 

PREFERRED ORIENTATION 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

4.4 

5 

15 

10 20 30 

001 

FIGURE 116.1.-Effects of particle orientation on X-ray diffraction patterns of clay minerals. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

4.4 

92 

42 

5 

62+69 

84+83 

10 

=2.8 

PREFERRED ORIENTATION 

15 

20 

ANGSTROMS 

HORIZONTAL 

VERTiCAL 

I 

VERTICAL 

II 

4.4 

5 

113 

74 

103+ 110 

72+71 

10 

= 1.0 

RANDOM ORIENTATION 

B-275 

15 

20 

FIGURE 116.2.-Measurement of horizontal preferred orientation by comparison of X-ray 'diffraction peak heights. 

form mutually perp~ndicular planes, one horizontal 

(parallel to the bedding) and two vertical. The 

cylinders have diameters of about 2 em so that they 

fit snugly into a low-angle rotating specimen holder 

I 

(Norelco type 52184-A) on the Norelco X-ray diffractometer. The plane sections are polished on 

I 

progressively finer frosted-glass plates without 

added abrasives as suggested by Weatherhead (1940, 
B--276 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

p. 530). The polished specimens are then placed in 

the rotating specimen holder, which is mounted on a 

wide-range goniometer, and exp~sed to radiation. 

ORIENTATION RATIO 

For each section, the (001) and (020) reflections 

are recorded three times, and average values are 

used for the peak heights. From the average values 

the ratio between the heights of the 15-A peak 

and 4.4-A peak is computed for each section. The 

peak-height ratio for the horizontal section is then 

divided by an average ratio for the two vertical sections. The quotient is taken as a measure of the 

horizontal· orientation of the basal planes of montmorillonite, and is called the orientation ratio. Other 

factors that affect the intensities of X-ray reflections 

-particle size, chemical composition, degree of 

crystallinity-are cancelled out of the orientation 

ratio when the h<;>rizontal peak-height ratio is divided by the vertical peak-height ratios. 

Figure 116.2 shows the measurement of the orientation ratio in two samples, one having preferred 

orientation and the other having random orientation. In contrast with those in figure 116.1, the patterns are complicated by reflections from illite, chlorite, and by stronger reflections from quartz and 

feldspar. The peak heights of montmorillonite have 

been adjusted ("noise corrected") to eliminate the 

effects of background reflections. Peak-height ratios 

are given for each section, and the orientation ratios 

are computed from them. An orientation ratio of 

1.0 indicates completely random orientation with 

respect to the horizontal; clays having preferred 

horizontal orientation have orientation ratios larger 

than 1.0. The orientation ratios given in figure 

116.2 measure only. the preferred orientation parallel 

to the bedding. The planes may be adjusted, however, to measure the orientation in any directionsparallel to cleavage, schistosity, or other planar 

elements. 

The most precise measurements of the orientation 

ratio are obtained from materials in which one 

phyllosilicate predominatt !S over ·all others to the 

extent that X-ray reflections from the other minerals 

do not interfere seriously with the reflections from 

the principal mineral. Reflections from montmorillonite, for example, can be masked or modified by 

(020) reflections from illite at 4.4 A or by (001) 

reflections from chlorite at 14 A. This method, 

therefore, should be applied cautiously to rocks that 

contain heterogeneous mixtures of clay minerals and 

other layer silicates. 

REFERENCES 

Higgs, D. V., Friedman, Melvin, and Gebhart, J. E., 1960, 

Petrofabric analysis by means of the X-ray diffractometer, in Rock deformation (a symposium): Geol. Soc. 

America Mem. 79, p. 275-292. 

Kaarsberg, E. A., 1959, Introductory studies of natural and 

artificial argillaceous aggregates by sound-propagation 

and X-ray diffraction methods: Jour. Geology, v. 67, p. 

447-472. 

Silverman, E. N., and Bates, T. F., 1960, X-ray diffraction 

study of orientation in the Chattanooga shale:· Am. Mineralogist, v. 45, p. 60-68. ' 

Weatherhead, A. V., 1940, A new method for the preparation 

of thin sections of clays: Mineralog. Mag., v. 25, p .. 529-

533. 

117. MOLYBDENUM CONTENT OF GLACIAL DRIFT RELATED TO MOLYBDENITE-BEARING BEDROCK, 

AROOSTOOK COUNTY, MAINE 

By F. C. CANNEY, F. N. WARD, and M. J. BRIGHT, JR., Denver, Colo. 

A recent survey by Riddell (1960) of the experience of 24 Canadian companies engaged in mineral 

exploration disclosed a lack of unanimity of opinion 

concerning the usefulness of soil-sampling techniques in glaciated areas. Although. widely used, 

opinion on the value of applied geochemistry ranged 

from "extremely useful and valuable tool" to "no 

value whatsoever." At least part of the negative 

attitude· is attributed to the scarcity of published 

studies that provide useful data for guiding mineral 

exploration programs in glaciated areas. The molybdenum anomaly described in this paper provides 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-277 

SE 100 

Approximate location /molybdenite-bearing zone 

-?--?-

NW 

0.5"-------------------------------------------

0 100 200 FEET 

FIGURE 117.1.-Geochemical profile showing lateral distribution of molybdenum in glacial drift over molybdenite-bearing zone. 

Land surface along sample traverse is nearly level. 

another positive illustration of the usefulness of 

geochemical prospecting techniques in a glaciated 

area. 

A zone of silicified limestone containing easily 

visible but sparse molybdenite as flakes and thin 

seams is poorly exposed in a group of prospect pits 

about 6 miles north-northeast of Houlton, Maine. 

Detailed mapping by Louis Pavlides (oral communication, 1960) in the Houlton quadrangle has shown 

this zone to be satellitic to a small intrusive plug of 

granite. The bedrock in this test area is almost 

completely covered with glacial ground moraine, 6 

to 24 inches thick. Although . glacial-fluviatile deposits are very common in the Houlton quadrangle, 

the available exposures were insufficient for us to 

classify the cover as till or stratified drift. The 

brief investigation described here· was designed to 

determine whether anomalous amounts of molybdenum occurred in the soil in the vicinity of this 

metallized zone. 

A line 800 feet long was surveyed across the projected trend of the mineralized zone. Soil samples 

were collected along this line at intervals of 5 feet 

above and near the suboutcrop of the zone and the 

spacing between samples was increased progressively 

to 50 feet as the distance from the dep9sit increased~ 

The samples were· taken from a depth of 8 to 12 

inches below the land surface. Becaus~ the area had 

once been cultivated, no original soil profile is present, but we believe that the samples were from undisturbed soil below plow depth. Most of the 49 

samples collected along this line contained a large 

percentage of material in the silt- and clay-size 

range. 

All samples were ·dried and sieved through a 100-

mesh sieve, and the fines analyzed for molybdenum 

by a geochemical prospecting field method utilizing 

a carbonate fusion to decompose the sample (Ward, 

1951). 

The molybdenum contents e;>f the soil samples (fig. 

117.1) show that the soil both over and on either 

side of the exposed part of the mineralized zone 

contains anomalous amounts of molybdenum (background in ·this area is 1 to 2 ppm molybdenum). For 

a distance of more than 80 feet the soil contains more 

than 8 ppm, and the soil contains 30 ppm or more 

in one stretch of 35 feet. The soils containing the . 

most molybden urn occur just to the southeast of the 

exposed .zone.· Because this zone, which seems to 

trend northeasterly, is exposed in only a few small 

trenches, its maximum dim~nsions as well as the 

possible presence of other molybdenite-bearing zones 

are unknown. The rather abrupt decrease in a 

southeasterly direction from the peak value of 90 

ppm to background in less than 150 feet. suggests 

little, if any, glacial drag. In this part of Maine 

the ice movement ·was prob~bly in a south-southeasterly direction. If the anomaly were formed by diffusion of soluble molybdenum up'Yard into the glacia1 

cover after retreat of the ice, no ;asymmetry due(to 

ice movement would be present. I I • 

. The form in which the molybdenum occurs in the 
B-278 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

soil is not known. Several samples containing 

anomalous amounts of molybdenum were leached 

with hot water, but no molybdenum was found in 

the leachate; this apparent lack of water-soluble 

molybdenum could be interpreted as weak evidence 

that this anomaly is not a superimposed diffusion 

pattern. 

Although certain questions about the genesis of 

this p~articular anomaly remain unanswered, the 

point of greatest significance to those engaged in 

mineral exploration is that this is another example. 

of the usefulness of soil sampling techniques in the 

search for mineral deposits concealed beneath a 

thin cover of glacial materials. 

REFERENCES 

Riddell, J. F., 1960, Geochemical prospecting methods employed in Canada's glaciated Precambrian terrains: Mining Eng., v. 12, no. 11, p. 1170-1172. 

Ward; F. N., 1951, Determination of molybdenum in soils and 

rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 23, p. 788. 

118. ANOMALOUS HEAVY MINERALS IN THE HIGH ROCK QUADRANGLE, NORTH CAROLINA 

By AMOS M. WHITE and ARVID A. STROMQUIST, Washington, D. C., and Denver, Colo. 

Work done in cooperation with North Carolina Division of Mineral Resources 

Heavy-mineral concentrates obtained by panning 

alluvial sediment from streams in the High Rock 

71j2-minute quadrangle, North Carolina, contain 

minerals anomalous to the known bedrock of the 

quadrangle. The area investigated lies west of the 

Atlantic Coastal Plain in Davidson, Rowan, Stanly, 

and Montgomery Counties, N. C., and is underlain 

by rocks of the so-called Carolina slate belt, a volcanic and sedimentary sequence probably of Precambrian and Paleozoic ages in the eastern part 

of the North Carolina Piedmont (fig. 118_.1). 

Geologic mapping of the area has established for 

the first time a stratigraphic sequence for the Carolina slate belt (Stromquist and Conley, 1959). Outcropping rocks in the High Rock quadrangle are 

largely tuffaceous argillite interbedded with and unconformably overlain by metamorphosed tuffs, lapilli 

tuffs, and minor flows, all of rhyolitic to andesitic 

composition. Diabase dikes and dacitic ( ?) to gabbroic intrusive bodies are also present. Regional 

· metamorphism of these rocks is low grade, nowhere 

exceeding the greenschist facies. Metamorphic 

grade increases west of the slate belt in rocks comprising the adjoining Charlotte, Kings Mountain, 

and Inner Piedmont belts (King, 1955, p~ 346-356). 

Forty-pound samples of sand and gravel deposited 

by the modern streams were collected at 57 localities 

in the High Rock quadrangle. Each sample was collected from the channel of a stream having a drainage area of 2 square miles or less, and was collected 

at a point outside the flood plain of the present 

Yadkin River, the major stream in the quadrangle 

(fig. 118.1). All the concentrates contain one or more 

minerals characteristic of the almandine-amphibolite facies of regional metamorphism (Fyfe, Tur~ 

ner, and Verhoogen, 1958, p. 228-232). These minerals are staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite, and garnet. 

Kyanite is present in 55 of the concentrates, staurolite is in 4 7 concentrates, and sillimanite or probable 

sillimanite is in 23. Garnet is present in 48 concentrates and is abundant in many of these. Relatively 

coarse-grained zircon, much of which shows some 

degree of rounding, is present in· 35 of the concentrates. At least 13 concentrates contain monazite or 

probable monazite. In general, the concentrates with 

the largest suites of anomalous minerals are from 

streams in the west half of the quadrangle. 

Most of the kyanite shows some degree of rounding, and the monazite is well rounded, which suggests transport from some fairly remote source. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-279 

81° 

.---------

cbr 

cbr 

I 

I 

I 

I CAROLINA I 

CA ROi:'iN A0 10 20 

80" 

EXPLANATION 

Rocks of 

~ 

~ 

the Coastal Plain 

Volcanic and 

~ sedimentary rocks 

of the Carolina slate belt 

GJ 

Rocks of the Charlotte, Kings Mountain, 

Inner Piedmont, Brevard, and Blue 

Ridge belts 

,.----""' 

Approximate eastern limit of rocks with 

staurolite, kyanite, and sillimanite 

(almandine-amphibolite facies) 

5" 

FIGURE 118.1.-Index map of west-central North Carolina 

showing location of the High Rock quadrangle. Geology 

generalized from King (1955) and from the geologic map 

of North Carolina (Stuckey and Conrad 1958). 

Rounded detrital kyanite denotes a stream of low 

velocity according to Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938, 

p. 436), but many of the streams from which the 

concentrates were obtained have steep gradients and 

are relatively short and fast moving, particularly 

those draining the highest points in the quadrangle . 

The nearest known occurrence of rocks of the 

almandine-amphibolite metamorphic facies is approximately 30 miles to the northwest, and the Yadkin is the only stream in the area that extends westward to these rocks (fig. 118.1)- Presumably the 

higher grade metamorphic minerals were deposited 

in sediments along former courses of the Yadkin, 

possible remnants of which are now preserved on 

topographically high surfaces in the quadrangle. 

The small streams in eroding these surfaces pick 

up the anomalous minerals and redeposit them a,t 

lower elevations. The presence of heavy minerals 

in the surficial materials in the High Rock quadrangle suggests that regional studies of heavy mineral distribution would provide data for tracing the 

former major drainage systems in the region. 

REFERENCES 

Fyfe, W. S., Turner, F. J., and Verhoogen, John, 1958, Metamorphic reactions and metamorphic facies: Geol. Soc. 

America Mem. 73, 259 p. 

King, P. B., 1955, A geologic section across the southern 

Appalachians-an outline of the geology in the segment 

in Tennessee, North Carolina, and South Carolina, in 

Russell, R. J., ed., Guides to southeastern geology: Geol. 

Soc. America, p. 332-373. 

Krumbein, W. C., and Pettijohn, F. J., 1938, Manual of sedimentary petrography: New York, Appleton-CenturyCrofts, Inc., 549 p. 

Stromquist, A. A., and Conley, J. F., 1959, Geology of the 

Albemarle and Denton quadrangles, North Carolina: 

Carolina Geol. Soc. Field Trip Guidebook, Oct. 24, 1959, 

Div. Mineral Resources, Raleigh, N. C., 36 p. 

Stuckey, J. L., and Conrad, S. G., 1958, Explanatory text for 

geologic map of North Carolina: North Carolina Dept. 

Cons. and Devel., Div Mineral Resources, Bull. 71, p. 

3-51, map. 

~ 

119. IRON CONTENT OF SOILS AND TREES, BEAVER CREEK STRIP MINING AREA, KENTUCKY 

By EUGENE T. 0BORN, Denver, Colo. 

In the Beaver Creek strip mining area, Kentucky, 

trees growing on the soil through which the mine 

waters percolate extract iron from the drainage 

water. This is shown by samples of soil from the 

root feeding zone and samples of vegetation collected at two locations, one upslope and one downslope from a strip mine opened in May 1955. 

Sampling of vegetation was restricted to the white 
B-280 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

'fABLE !.-Analyses of white oak plant parts, strip-mine area 

Location of tree. sampled Material analyzed 

Above mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leaves .................. ·. Do.................... Trunk before 1955 ........ . Do.................... Trunk 1955-60 ........... . Do .................... Bark .................... . 

Below mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leaves .................. . Do.................... Trunk before 1955 ........ . Do.................... Trunk 1955-60 ........... . Do ........ f ........... Bark .................... . 

Iron per gram dry matter (milligrams) 

0.07. 

.05 . .07 

.13 

.29 

.04 

.10 

.32 

Iron in ash (percent) 

0.11 

1. 72 1.25 

.13 

.47 

1.40 

1. 79 

.35· 

oak, Quer·cus alba L. Wood and bark were sampled 

in duplicate with a large-diameter increment borer. 

Analyses of the samples are given in tables 1 and 2; 

the results are· summarized below. 

TABLE 2.-Analyses of soil in the root feeding zone, strip mine 

area 

Location of sample 

Above mine, in treeroot feeding zone ............ 

Below mine, in treeroot feeding zone ............ 

Moisture 

(percent) 

6.0 

9.6 

Organic 

matter 

(percent) 

6.13 

5.37 

Total iron content of dry soil (milligrams 

per gram) 

6.81 7.28 

5.96 6.28 

Iron in fresh soi I extract 1 

(parts per million) 

0.11 0.07 

.04 .02 

pH of extract 

6. 7 

4.3 

1 Extract made by mi~ing 100 ml of distilled water and 1.0 g of fresh 

soil. Filtered after 1 hour. 

Iron content, on a dry-matter basis, in the wood plants that leaves and bark have a greater concenof trees growing both upslope and downslope from tration of iron than does the wood. Leaves and bark 

the mine is greater in wood produced from 1955 to slough off regularly, hence only recent accumulations 

1960 than in wood produced earlier. The iron con- of iron are shown by the analyses of these plant 

tent is greatest in the 1955 to 1960 wood of the parts. 

downslope tree which received drainage from the The soil sample taken from the root feeding zone 

mine: The iron content in ash of the wood from the below the strip mine contained less iron than the 

tree above the mine is greater for the period pre- sample taken from the slope above the mine. At 

ceding 1955 than it is for the period 1955 to 1960. both sites the ferrous-iron concentration in the freshThe reverse is true for the downslope tree. These soil extracts is about double the corresponding ferricdata indicate that from 1955 to 1960 iron was more iron concentration. The water-soluble (and thus 

readily available and absorbed by the downslope tree readily leachable and physiologically available) iron 

than was the case with th~ upslope tree. in soil from the root feeding zone of the tree below 

As determined by analyses of the dry matter, the mine is only about one third that of the soil 

in the downslope trees the iron content of the leaves from the root-feeding zone of the tree above the 

is four times, and the bark is more than two times, mine. This was true in spite of the fact that the 

the iron content of the corresponding parts of the extract of soil from below the mine had a pH of I , 

upslope trees. Analyses of the ash of the leaves and 4.3 whereas the soil extract from above the mine had 

bark also shows a greater concentration of iron in a pH of 6.7. The moisture content of the soil sample 

the ash of these parts of the downslope trees than taken below the mine was greater than that of the 

in the upslope trees. It is usually true in woody sample taken from the upslope location. 

~ 

120. MINERALOGY OF THE OLIVE HILL CLAY BED, KENTUCKY 

By.JOHN W. HOSTERMAN and SAM H. PATTERSON, Beltsville, Md. 

Work done in cooperation with the Kentucky Geological Survey 

The Olive Hill clay bed of Crider (1913) in northeastern Kentucky contains three types of clay-flint, 

semiflint, and plastic-in irregular lenses of variable thicknesses. Boundaries between types of clay 

are usually sharp and well defined, and the clay bed 

is nonbedded except for the superposition of one 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYD.ROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-281 

type of clay above the other. Typically, the flint clay 

overlies the semiflint clay, but at many places this 

order is reversed. Where plastic clay is .present it 

is usually in the lower part of the bed, but ther~ 

are exceptions. 

Much of the clay is medium gray to brownish gray, 

but colors may range from very light gray to almost 

black. The darker gray colors are due to carbonaceous material of fossil roots, and occur at the top 

of the clay bed which underlies a thin coal bed. The 

lighter colors occur toward the base of the bed. 

Reddish-brown staining of iron oxides along joints 

is quite common. 

Flint clay in the Olive Hill clay bed is hard, resistant, and nonplastic. It possesses the flintlike characteristics of almost complete homogeneity and conchoidal fracture. Oolites are very abundant in some 

of the flint clays. The flint clay weathers to shardlike fragments having sharply curved knife edges 

and pointed corners. It is composed of more than 85 

percent kaolinite and less than 15 percent illite and 

mixed-layer clay minerals. Boehmite has been found 

in the flint clay at only one locality. 

Plastic clay in the Olive Hill clay bed is quite 

plastic after it has been exposed to weathering for 

a short time, but the fresh clay requires grinding 

before maximum plasticity is developed. Abundant 

slickensides are present in the fresh plastic clay, 

but after the clay weathers the slickensides become 

sealed and disappear and the clay becomes a homogeneous mass. The plastic clay is composed of less 

than 60 percent ~aolinite; illite and mixed-layer 

minerals make up the balance. 

Semiflint clay is intermediate between flint and 

plastic clay in physical properties and mineral composition. Nearly all semiflint clays contain abundant 

randomly oriented slickensides along which partings 

may occur. When exposed to the weather, semiflint clay breaks down into rubble of irregular polyhedra having a slickenside surface on each face. 

Semiflint clay consists of 60 to 85 percent of kaolinite; illite and mixed-layer minerals form the 

balance. 

The sedimentary nonclay minerals are quartz, 

tourmaline, garnet, ilmenite, and magnetite. Authigenic minerals are siderite and pyrite. Fine-grained 

anatase is also present, but the time of its formation 

is not known. 

The mineralogy of the Olive Hill clay bed has 

been interpreted primarily from X-ray diffraction 

traces supplemented by differential thermal anaiysis 

and petrographic microscope studies . .The diffraction 

traces of oriented and random specimens of several 

, I 

R 

A 

20• I 1o· 2e 

FIGURE 120.1.-X-ray diffraction traces using CuKa radiation. 

· A, well-crystallized kaolinite in flint clay; B, kaolinite and 

boehmite in flint clay; and C, poorly crystallized kaolinite 

and illite in plastic clay. 

samples were obtained using CuKa radiation. Oriented specimens were heated to 550°C for 30 minutes, heated to 300°C for 30 minutes, treated with 

ethylene glycol, and X~ray dried. 

Kaolinite in the Olive Hill clay bed ranges from 

well crystallized in the flint clay to poorly crystallized in the plastic clay, with intermediate stages of 

crystallinity in the semiflint clay. Well-crystallized 

kaolinite has a narrow basal (001) peak, which has 

an area-to-height ratio that approaches 1 in the 

X-ray diffraction trace at 7.14A (fig. 120.1A). 

Poorly crystallized kaolinite or "fireclay" (Brindley 

and Robinson, 1947) has a broad basal (001) reflection at about 7.20A and the area-to-height ratio of 

the peak is almost 2 in the X-ray diffraction trace 

(fig. 120.1C). The well-crystallized kaolinite occurs 

in samples having a small amount of other clay 

minerals, and the poorly crystallized kaolinite is 
B-282 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

-~ ( 

~-_) \B 

-~---

1oo• 2oo• 3oo· 4oo· soo· Goo· ?oo· soo· goo· 1ooo•c 

FIGURE 120.2.-Differential thermal-analysis curves. A, wellcrystallized kaolinite in flint clay; B, kaolinite with 

boehmite in flint clay; C, medium-crystallized kaolinite in 

semiflint clay; and D, poorly crystallized kaolinite in 

plastic clay. 

associated with abundant illite and mixed-layer clay 

minerals. · 

Differential thermal-analysis curves support the 

above determinations of the kaolinite. The endothermic peak of kaolinite occurs at approximately 

600°C for flint clay (fig. i20.2A) and at about 580°C 

for plastic clay (fig. 120.2D). Also, the exothermic 

reaction at about 975°C occurs over a 25° interval 

for flint clay and over a 75 o interval for plastic clay. 

The differential thermal curve for semiflint clay 

is intermediate between flint and plastic clay (fig. 

120.2C). The temperature of ,the endothermic peak 

indicates that more energy is required to break the 

hydroxyl ion bonds in the flint clay than in the 

plastic clay. The exothermic peak suggests that the 

strength of the bonds holding the final structure 

of the kaolinite is more uniform and tends to release suddenly in the flint clay but not in the plastic 

clay. 

Boehmite, a mineral usually found in bauxite, but 

also found in the flint clays of central Pennsylvania 

(Bolger and Weitz, 1952), has been recognized in 

two samples taken from the strip mine on Grassy 

Creek about 1 mile west of Kehoe, Greenup County, 

Ky. It occurs as nodules V:! to 1 millimeter in diameter in a matrix of flint clay. The major X-ray diffraction peaks of boehmite (fig. 120.1B) are 6.23A, 

3.53A, 3.16A, and 2.34A. The differential thermalanalysis curve (fig. 120.2B) s~ows a single endothermic peak at 525°C. 

Illite is the second most common clay mineral in 

the Olive Hill clay bed .. The amount ranges from a 

trace in the flint clay to about 40 percent in the 

plastic Clay. Illite is recognized on the X-ray diffraction traces by its basal (001) peak at about lOA 

(fig. 120.1C). Only the clay mineral that gives this 

sharp peak and does not expand when treated with 

ethylene glycol is considered to b~ illite. The presence 

of illite is shown on the differential-thermal-analysis 

curves by the broad weak endothermic reaction 

between 100°C and 200°C and by the small endothermic reaction beginning at 450°C (fig. 120.2D). 

Mixed-layer clay minerals consist of a heterogeneous mixture of illite, montmorillonite, chlorite, and 

probably some vermiculite. X-ray diffraction traces 

of these minerals have a broad diffuse peak in the 

lOA to 14A range, and the position of this peak is 

changed very little with ethylene glycol or heat 

treatments. These mixed-layer clay minerals are 

present in all types of clay but are most abundant in 

the plastic and semiflint clay. 

REFERENCES 

Bolger, R. C., and Weitz, J. H., 1952, Mineralogy and origin 

of the Mercer fire clay of north-central Pennsylvania, in 

Problems of Clay and Laterite Genesis: Am. Inst. Mining 

Metall. Engineers Symposium, p. 81-93. 

Brindley, G. W., and Robinson, K., 1947, An X-ray study of 

some kaolinitic fire clays: British C~ramic Soc. Trans., 

. v. 46, p. 49-62. 

Crider, A. F., 1913, The fire clays and fire clay industries of 

the Olive Hill and Ashland districts of northeastern 

Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 4, v. 1, pt. 2, p. 

592-711. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-283 

121. . FOUH ENVIRONMENTS OF THORIUM-, NIOBIUM-, AND RARE-EARTH-BEAHING MINERALS IN THE 

POWDERHORN DISTRICT OF SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO 

By D. C. HEDLUND and J. C. OLSON, Denver, Colo. 

Geologic mapping and radioactivity investigations 

in the Powderhorn district, Gunnison County, Colo., 

show that the thorium, rare earths, and niobium 

deposits of the district are related to alkalic intrusive 

rocks, probably of Precambrian age, that cut diverse 

Precambrian rocks. The alkalic rock complex of 

Iron Hill, which has been mapped and described by 

Larsen (1942), occupies an elliptical area of about 

12 square miles and is economically the most important intrusive body in the district. The rocks in 

the complex from oldest to youngest are pyroxenite, 

uncompahgrite, ijolite, diverse hybrid pyroxenitesyenite rocks, nepheline syenite, gabbro, and carbonatite. Locally at the borders of the complex is 

a syenite that is interpreted to be fenite, or metasomatically altered granite. The carbonatite, the 

youngest rock of the intrusive series, underlies an 

area of 2 by 114 miles at Iron Hill. Many carbonatite 

dikes radiate from the main carbonatite mass and 

cut all the other rock types of the complex. 

Four rock types in the Powderhorn district (fig. 

121.1) that have radioactivities appreciably higher 

than background and contain thorium, niobium, or 

rare earths in abnormal amounts are (a) carbonatite, (b) magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite bodies, (c) 

tho rite veins, and (d) trachyte porphyry dikes. 

Carbonatite dikes are the most radioactive rocks 

within the alkaline complex of Iron Hill. Of 214 

carbonatite dikes examined; 132 have radioactivities 

ranging from 0.05- 0.70 mr per hr or 2 to 35 times 

background. These more radioactive dikes generally 

contain layers of siderite or ankerite alternating 

with layers of dolomite, calcite, or biotite. They also 

contain pyrite and moderate to very minor amounts 

of barite, apatite, monazite, quartz, bastnaesite, and 

synchisite, artd commonly weather to a chocolatebrown color. In contrast, the less radioactive carbonatite dikes, with radioactivity less than twice 

background, generally are homogeneous, contain 

dolomite, quartz, calcite, and biotite with only sparse 

pyrite and apatite, and weather to buff or rusty 

yellow colors. The thorium in the carbonatite 'is, 

in part at least, in reddish-brown monazite which 

has an equivalent thoria content of 0.5 - 0.6 percent. 

Rare earths occur as monazite, as the fluocarbonates 

.synchisite and bastnaesite, and substitute for calcium in the apatite. Analyses of the carbonatites 

are summarized in figure 121.2. 

The carbonatite stock of Iron Hill is less radioactive than the carbonatite dikes and has a maximum radioactivity of about 0.10 mr per hr, or 5 

times background. The radioactivity is due chiefly 

to thorium in monazite ( ?) , pyrochlore, and perhaps· 

other minerals. 

The magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite veins, dikes, 

and segregations make up a very small percentage 

of the total outcrop area in the pyroxenite, ijolite, 

and uncompahgrite of the alkaline complex of Iron 

Hill, chiefly in the parts of the complex north of Iron 

Hill. The magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite veins and 

dikes are discontinuous and generally occur in 

swarms; most are less than 2 feet thick but some 

are as much as 150 feet thick. The magnetite, ilmenite, and perovskite also occur as disseminated discrete grains within the pyroxenite, ijolite, and uncompahgrite and are generally more abundant in the 

coarser grained rocks. 

The radioactivity of the magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite bodies at 128 localities ranges from 0.05 to 0.25 

mr per hr or 2 to 12 times background. This radioactivity is attributable to thorium in the perovskite, 

concentrates of which have an equivalent thoria content of 0.12 to 0.15 percent. In transmitted light the 

perovskite is dusky purple, strongly twinned, and 

·anisotropic. The perovskite content of the magnetiteilmenite-perovskite bodies is highly variable and 

locally is as much as 50 percent. 

The thorite veins, which occur outside the complex 

of Iron Hill, constitute the third and most radioactive type of rare-metal concentration in the Powderhorn district. About 217 thorium-bearing veins 

have been examined, and 96 of these veins have 

radioactivities in th.e range of 0.15 to 5.0 mr per hr 

or 5 to 250 times background. These veins cut the 

amphibolite, quartz-biotite schist, granite, and other 

Precambrian rocks outside of the complex· of Iron 

Hill and tend to be more abu·ndant in the vicinity of 

the complex and outlying syenitic bodies. The thorite 

veins are generally less than a foot thick and commonly occur in anastomosing shear or breccia zones 

up to 10 feet wide. The veins are discontinuous, 

rarely as much as 3,500 feet long, and preferentially 

strike N. 45°-60° W. and N. 60°-80° E. 
B-284 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

38° 20' 

Deposits with radioactivity greater 

than 0.1 mr per hour 

A + 

Thorite vein Trachyte porphyry dike 

X 

Carbonatite 

0 

Magnetite-ilmeniteerovskite rock 

0 I· 2 MILES 

\ 

(··. f'... . "·. ·.. '1\ \Vulcan I . . \ 

I \. \ 

) ~ 

\~ :~ \ 

c? \~ 

\ 

\Q 

\~ ·.~ 

.. / ·'-. 

FIGURE 121.1.-Generalized map of part of Powderhorn district, Colorado, showing locations of thorium-bearing deposits. 

The thorium-bearing veins consist of orthoclase, 

quartz, barite, specular and earthy hematite, goethite, 

thorite, thorogummite, calcite, dolomite, fluorite, biotite, sodic amphibole, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, 

and sphalerite. Commonly the wall rocks have been 

partly replaced by orthoclase, and fragments of the 

resulting syenitic rock have locally been incorporated in the veins. · From the analyses (fig. 121.2B) 

it is apparent that the thorite veins are characterized by relatively large amounts of Th, Ba, Sr, rare 

earths, Nb, and alkalies, an assemblage that is also 

characteristic of the radioactive minerals of the alkalic rock complex of Iron Hill. 

The fourth type of radioactive deposit consists of 

pink to red fine-grained trachyte porphyry dikes 

which also cut various Precambrian rocks of the 

district outside the complex of Iron Hill. Abouf 100 

dikes have been mapped, chiefly in the vicinity of . 

the complex. The dikes, which are generally less 

than 50 feet thick but locally as much as 75 feet 

thick, are discontinuous, branching, and locally follow joint planes in the country rock. The trachyte 
\, 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

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2 

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Atomic No. 11 12 15 19 20 22 26 38 39 41 56 57 58 59 60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 ~ 

~ 

A. CARBONATITES FROM IRON HILL COMPLEX (21 ANALYSES) 

3 1.1 ? 7 

1,5 ~ 1.4 : r--- Rare-earth elements~ 5 4 ~ ? II ! 2.0 

4 2 2 9 3 2 5 ~ I I 

? ~-'- ? ? 9 2 3 I 2 

1p 1.2 7 13 5 4 8 I ? I ~ 3 8 

II 6- 4 8 a 2 6 8 3 4 4 2 4 

4 II 3 9 I~ a 4 4 9 10 ~ 15 6 4 4- 8 

-7 4 1.0 ? 5 4 1.3 ·lp -~- ? I? -~-1.1 8 7 

3 2' 5 II 15 3 7- 3 2 5 7 6 9 5 

I ? ? 4 2 ~ -~-?- ~-

2 8 9 4 4 

2 2 9 

12 

4 2 3 -6-

00®@0®0®0000@@0@@@@@@@@ ;e &.PK~TIA&YM&~~~~~~~Th~~&~Th~~ 

Atomic No. 11 12 15 19 20 22 26 38 39 41 56 57 58 59 60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 ~ 

~ 

B. THORIUM-BEARING VEINS (47 ANALYSES) 

M 

0.007 

0.0015 

0.0007 

0.0003 

0.00015 

M 

7 

3 

1.5 

0.7 

0.3 

1-

z 

L&J 

(.) 

a: 

L&J 

Q.. 

0.15 1-

0.07 z 

L&J 

(.) 

0.03 a: 

L&J 

Q.. 

0.0007 

B-285 

FIGURE 121..2-Distribution of semiquantitive spectographic analyses and radiometric (eThO~) analyses of carbonatite 

(A) and thorium-bearing veins (B) front Powderhorn district, Colo. The numbers indicate the number of analyses in 

which a given element is present in the percentage shown. The approximate limit of detection by this analytical method 

is shown by a horizontal dash, although a few determinations were made below this limit; the number of samples in which 

percentages are below this threshold amount and too low to determine is indicated by number in circle. Equivalent thoria 

was determined radiometrically and adjusted to scale of percentages used for spectrographic data. 
B-286 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

porphyry dikes are generally radioactive with readings of 0.04 - 0.08 mr per hr or 2 to 4 times baJ~kground. About 20 of the dike.l? have radioactivities 

between 0.05 and 0.3 mr per h·r, and one has as much 

as 5.0 mr per hr. In the rock studied, the radioactivity is concentrated in hematite pseudomorphs 

after pyrite pyritohedrons and may be due to extremely fine-grained intergrown thorogummite. 

Features that characterize most ofHhe four types 

of radioactive deposits and indicate their genetic 

relation include (a) the amounts of such elements 

as Th, rare earths, Nb, Ba, Sr, which are well above 

that of most igneous rocks; (b) the spatial relation 

to the environs of the complex of Iron Hill and 

smaller bodies of syenitic rock in the district; (c) a 

fetid odor like garlic that locally characterizes freshly 

broken rock from thorite veins, trachyte dikes, and 

fenitic rocks; and (d) alkali ·metasomatism or replacement of wall rocks by orthoclase, wpich is 

especially characteristic of the thorite veins and less 

so of the trachyte dikes. Along the borders of the 

alkaline complex of Iron Hill the granitic country 

rocks are locally feldspathi~ed to form soda syenite 

(fenite), implying the introduction of Na rather 

than K. 

The four types of thorium-rare-earth-niobium concentrations are thought to have been formed during 

the late stages of emplacement of the Iron Hill stock 

and related syenitic rocks. Within the complex of 

Iron Hill, the magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite bodies 

are among the youngest rocks, and the stock and 

dikes of carbonatite are the youngest. Inasmuch as 

the thorite veins and trachyte dikes are known only 

outside the complex, their age in relation to the main 

mass. of the complex is uncertain, but the similar 

features mentioned above suggest they also formed 

late in the sequence of the alkalic rocks. 

REFERENCE 

Larsen, E. S., Jr., 1942, Alkalic rocks of Iron Hill, Gunnison 

County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 197-A, 

p. 1-64. 

122. RHENIUM IN PLANT'SAMPLES FROM THE COLORADO PLATEAU 

By A. T. MYERS and J. C. HAMILTON, Denver, Colo. 

In a recent review of the geochemistry of rhenium, 

Fleischer (1959) pointed out that our present knowledge rests almost entirely on the work of the Noddacks (1931), with the exception of new analyses of 

molybdenite arid a few other determinations. He 

pointed out that no mineral other than the molybdenul? minerals, molybdenite and wulfenite, has 

been reported to contain as much as 2 ppm (parts 

per million) rhenium. The close association of 

rhenium with molybdenum is further confirmed by 

the fact that in nearly 1,000 analyses of ores and 

smelter products, Kaiser, Herring, and Rabbitt 

(1954) found rhenium in only three, all of which 

were molybdenite ores or concentrates. 

Rhenium was discovered for the first time in 

urani urn ore from Triassic sedimentary rocks of the · 

Colorado Plateau by Peterson, Hamilton, and Myers 

(1959); it was associated with the molybdenum minerals jordisite ( ?) and ilsemannite. Helen Cannon 

(oral communication, 1960) had noted that Ast1·agalus and other plants from the Yellow Cat area of 

Grand County,. Utah, . contained relatively large 

amounts of molybdenum, in addition to toxic 

amounts of selenium. These are the so-called "indicator" plants used by her as a prospecting guide to 

uranium mineralization. With the above geochemical 

association in mind, several plants from soils rich 

in uranium and molybdenum were analyzed and 

found to contain rhenium in the ash. This is the first 

time rhenium has been found in plants. 

Helen Cannon provided many plant samples she 

collected from the Yellow Cat area in Utah. Other 

plant samples were collected by P. F. Narten, C. M. 

Mobley, Frank Kleinhampel, Fred Ward, Harry 

Nakagawa, and Henry Bell, III. A preliminary statement of the results presented below has been published (Myers and .Hamilton, 1960). 

The analyses, reported by numbers on a semiquantitative basis, were obtained by the method of Myers 
~-

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 "B-287 

TABLE 1.-Rhenium and some other elements in plant ash 1 

[In parts per million; ... , not looked for; d, detected, but concentration uncertain] 

Laborntory 

No. Plant Plant part I (percent) Ash I He I Mo I Cu u I •· I Locality 

Yellow Cat area, Grand County, Utah 

- 56-2:308 Grindel-ia fastigiata (gum weed) ... Tops ... 8.2 150 1500 150 7 30 10 100 McCoy group 

(schroeckingerite 

56-2309 . . . . do ......................... Roots .. 6.4 <50 1500 300 

deposit). 

15 150 . . . . . . ...... Do. 

59-:3.t7B Astragalus preussi (poisonvetch) ... Tops ... . . . . . . . 150 700 150 15 70 . . . . . . • 0 •••• Do. 

.57-1811 Astra(Jalus pattersoni (locoweed) .. .. do .... 21.8 70 300 70 30 70 61 1500 Do. 

32-60 J!Jphedm viridis (Mormon tea) .... .. do .... 9.6 150 150 15 15 70 ...... ••••• 0 Do. 

:33-60 Atriplex confertifolia (shadscale 

salt bush) ................... .. do .... 26.3 300 300 15 15 30 . . . . . . •• 0 ••• Do. 

Gypsum V,alley, Montrose County, Colo. 

D-7.1417 Astragalus pattersoni (locoweed) .. Tops ... 18.7 70 30 70 7 70 4 400 Gypsum claim. 

D-7141!) .... do ......................... .. do .... 15.2 70 7 70 7 70 1 400 Do. 

D-71420 . . . . do ......................... .. do .... 18.4 300 7 70 7 70 2 1900 Do. 

D-714:38 .... do ......................... .. do .... 28.6 d 300 70 15 300 33 1800 Terrible claim. 

DD-7.1441 .... do ......................... .. do .... 16.8 70 70 70· 15 30 4 36 Do. 

D-714:35 Eriogonu·m ·injlatum (desert 

trumpet) .................... .. do .... 7.4 70 15 150 15 70 3 0.5 Do. D-71~~:36 .... do .. ·: ...................... .. do .. :. 6.2 150 15 150 15 70 3.2 l.O Do. 

D-71437 . . . . do ......................... .. do .... 7.5 70 15 150 7 30 4 28 Do. 

Grants area, Grant County, N.Mex. 

D-7.1142 ... ;tstragalus con.fertijloms ('?) ...... Tops ... 8. ~) 

D-71146 M entzelia pumilis (stick leaf) ..... . . do .... 1:3.4 

D-71147 Onothera caespitosa (primrose) .... . . do .... 17.6 

1 Semiquantitative spectographic analyses, J. C. Hamilton, analyst, method 

of Myers and others (1961). Chemical analysis for U, E. Fennelly, 

G. Burrow, and C. Huffman, analysts; method of Grimaldi and others ( 1954, 

p. 195). Chemical analysis for Se reported on a dry weight basis, H. Crow, 

and others ( 1961). The plant samples were origi-

.nally ashed overnight in a muffle furnace at 550°C. 

Ashing experiments made on a number of plant 

samples for a shorter time interval (3 hours instead 

of overnight) indicated very little if any loss by the 

longer ashing period.· Analyses of th~ rhenium-bearing samples are listed on table 1. 

Mr. J. D. Stephens, Kennecott Copper Corp., Salt 

Lake City, Utah, has advised us (written communication, 1960) that rhenium oxide begins to volatilize 

at 375°C. Therefore, it is possible that there may 

be a slight loss of rhenium during the ashing process 

at 550°C if it is present. as the oxide. When the 

ashing temperature was lowered to 450 o C for one 

hour, the final result for rhenium content showed 

little if any change. 

Spectrographic and chemical results are shown on 

table 1 for 5 different plant samples, including 4 

different plant species, growing in a small schroeckingerite deposit in the Yellow Cat area of Utah. Rheni urn was detected in all 5 different plant tops and 4 

different plant species; it was detected in the tops, 

d 30 150 15 70 2.5 560 

d 15 300 30 300 25.2 100 

150 70 300 30 :300 :33.6 300 

C. Thompson, E. Smith, W. Bowles, Jr., G. Burrow, and W. Meadows, analysts; methods of Association of Official Agricultural Chemists ( 1950, J>. 

416-419). . 

but was not detected in 'the roots of 1 sample of 

G1·indelia (gum weed). The rhenium content ranges 

from about 50 to 500. ppm in the ash of these plants. 

'An At1·iplex (shadscale salt bush) plant contains 

about 300 ppm rhenium. The data show little apparent correlation of rhenium content with other elements listed on table 1. 

Analyses are shown on table 1 for 8 plants, including 5 Astragalus and 3 E1·iogonunt, growing in 

uraniferous ground in the Gypsum Valley area of 

Colorado. The rhenium content ranges from about 

· 50 to 500 ppm in the ash of these plants. One 

AstTagalus pattersoni plant contained about 300 ppm 

in the ash. There is no apparent correlation of 

rhenium with any of the other elements listed on 

table 1. With the exception of one Astragalus sample 

( D-71438), the plants all contained significantly less 

molybdenum than the plants that grew in the 

schroeckingerite deposit in the Yellow Cat area. 

Table 1 shows analyses for three rhenium-rich 

plants growing in mineralized ground in the Grants 

area, New Mexico. These samples, like the Gypsum 
B-288 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE 2.-Samples in which rhenium was not detected 

[Rhenium less than 50 parts per million] 

N1tmber of analyses Area 

Uranium-mineralized ground (105 plants analyzed) 

6 plants (5 species) ______ Yellow Cat area, Grand County, Utah. 

73 plants (7 species) ______ Gypsum Valley, San Miguel and Montrose Counties, Colo. 

17 plants (11 species) .... Grants area, McKinley County, N. 

Mex. 

3 plants (3 species) ______ Paradox Valley, Montrose County, 

Colo. 

3 plants (1 species) ______ Marysvale, Piute County, Utah. 

3 plants (1 species) ______ Elk Ridge, San Juan County, Utah. 

Barren ground (39 plants analyzed) 

34 plants __________________________ Death Valley, lnyo County, Calif. 

3 plants (2 species) ___ · ___ Southern Black Hills, Fall River 

County, S. Dak. 

2 plants (2 species) ______ Paradox Valley, Montrose County, 

Colo. 

Valley plants, contained significantly less molybdenum than the plants from the schroeckingerite 

de.posit. 

Samples that contained no detectable rhenium are 

grouped on table 2 according to locality. Six plants 

that are listed as growing in uranium-mineralized 

ground at the Yellow Cat area were not growing over 

the schroeckingerite deposit; plant species analyzed 

in this group included Astragalus confertiflorus. 

Rhenium could not be detected in 73 plants from 

mineralized areas at Gypsum Valley (table 2). Included in these plants were 7 different species. including Astragalus from the ·following claims: 

Pooch,. Pay Day, Terrible, .Rambler, Gypsum, and 

American Eagle. 

In order to test the repeatabilit:y; of both the ashing and spectrographic method, four of the plant 

samples were reashed and analyze~. a second ti~e 

for Re, Mo, Cu, V, and Ni. The results are shown in 

table 3 for samples 56~2308, 59-317B, D-71417, and 

D-71438. 

TABLE 3.-Coul-parison of results from duplicate 

asking of plant samples 

(In parts per million; ... not looked for; d, detected but concentration un- certain] 

Ash Sample No. (percent) Rc Mo Cu Ni v 

---------

56-2308A ........ 8.2 150 1500 150 7 :30 

56-2308B ........ 8.5 150 1500 150 7 30 

59-317BA ....... • 0. 0 •••••• 150 700 150 15 70 

59-317BB ....... 11.3 150 700 300 15 70 

D-71417A ....... 18.7 70 30 70 7 70 

D-71417B ....... 19.8 d 30 150 7 30 

D-71438A ....... 27.:3 d :300 70 15 :300 

D-71438B ....... • •••• 0 •••• d :300 70 15 300 

The data so far gathered seem to indicate that the 

plant tops (or leaves) are more likely than the stems 

or roots to show the presence of rhenium in mineralized soil. 

REFERENCES 

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1950, Official 

methods of analysis, 7th ed.: Washington, D. C., 910 p. 

Grimaldi, F. S., and others, compilers, 1954, Collected papers 

on methods of analysis for uranium and thorium: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 1006, 184 p. 

Fleischer, Michael, 1959, The geochemistry of rhenium with 

special reference to its occurrence in molybdenite: Econ. 

Geology, v. ·54, p. 1406-1413. 

Kaiser, E. P., Herring, B. F., and Rabbitt, J. C., 1954, Minor 

elements in some rocks, ores, and mill and smelter products: U.S. Geol. Survey TEI-415, 119 p., issued by U.S. 

Atomic Energy Comm. Tech. Inf. Serv., Oak~idge, Tenn. 

Myers, A. T., Havens, R. G., and Dunton, P. J. 1961, A, 

spectrochemical method for the semiquantitative analysis 

of rocks, minerals, and ores: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1084-1. 

Myers, A. T., and Hamilton, J. C., 1960, Rhenium in plant 

samples from the Colorado Plateau [abs.]: Geol. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 71, p. 1934. 

Noddack, Ida, anq Noddack, Walter, 1931, Die Geochemie des 

Rheniums: Zeitschr. phys. Chemie, v. A154, p. 207-244. 

Peterson, R. G., Hamilton, J. C., and Myers, A. T., 1959, An 

occurrence of rhenium associated with uraninite in Coconino County, Ariz.: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 254. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-289 

123. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN COLORADO PLATEAU URANIUM DEPOSITS AND MULTIPLE 

STAGES OF MINERALIZATION 

By A. T. MIESCH, Denver, Colo. 

Chemical elements in sandstone-type uranium deposits of the Colorado Plateau have been classified 

into two broad groups: (a) dominantly intrinsic 

elements, or elements whose presence in the deposits 

is largely unrelated to the process of uranium mineralization, and (b) dominantly extrinsic ·elements, 

or elements whose presence in the deposits is largely 

a result of uranium mineralization or related processes (Shoemaker and others, 1959, p. 35). Elements 

that are dominantly intrinsic and those that are 

dominantly extrinsic can generally be distinguished 

empirically by their relative abundances in uranium 

ore and unmineralized sedimentary host rocks. Extrinsic components of various elements were introduced into the host sandstone and mudstone to form 

the present deposits epigenetically, but were not 

necessarily introduced at the same time nor by 

exactly the same process. Elements that are dominantly intrinsic in uranium deposits in t~e Salt 

Wash member of the Morrison formation include 

silicon, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, sodium, 

potassium, antimony, boron, beryllium, carbon, 

chlorine, chromium, fluorine, gallium, manganese, 

phosphorus, scandium, strontium, and titanium. 

Dominantly extrinsic elements in these deposits, in 

addition to uranium, include arsenic, cobalt, copper, 

molybdenum, nickel, lead, selenium, silver, vanadium, 

yttrium, and zinc. Several elements, including iron, 

barium, and zirconium, seem to be about equally int~insic and extri.nsic in deposits. in the Salt Wash 

member. 

Examination of the co-variation of extrinsic elements among uranium deposits in the Salt Wash 

member shows that they may be classified further 

into geochemically coherent groups and subgroups 

(fig. 123.1). Deposits rich in one of the elements 

tend to be rich in the other elements of the same 

subgroup. The classification of extrinsic elements 

into coherent groups and subgroups has been accomplished through computation of linear correlation coefficients between logarithms of element concentrations in samples from· 215 deposits. Every element within a subgroup has a moderate or higher 

correlation with each of the other elements in the 

subgroup (fig. 123.1). Elements in the same group, 

but in different subgroups, have moderate or weaker 

correlations with each other. All correlations between elements in different groups are less than 

moderate. Elements in Group I (fig. 123.1) have 

moderate or nearly moderate correlations with iron, 

and none has a moderate or higher correlation with 

aluminum. Elements in Group II have moderate or 

nearly moderate correlations with aluminum,- but 

their correlations with iron are lower than moderate. 

Elements in Group III and IV, yttrium and uranium 

respectively, do not have moderate or higher correlations with any of the other dominantly extrinsic 

/ / / / 

Fe,.. 

' ' ' ' 

/ 

/ .... / 

/ 

' 

AI:_.... ............... 

' ' ' ' 

' ' ' 

,..,-

' ' " { 

l 

Group I 

Subgroup A 

Group I 

Subgroup 8 

Group II 

Subgroup A 

Group II 

Subgroup 8 

Gro<.~p Ill 

Group IV 

CoX~i ., 

I 

I 

/ I 

As-------Mo 

_,/' ' 

_,/' \. 

\ 

\ 

Zn 

Group I 

Subgroup C 

===-Ag 

Cu~~ Pb 

I 

I 

I , 

v' 

y 

u 

Very high correlation (r>0.75) 

High correlation (0.75>r>0.50) 

Moderate correlation (0.50>r>0.35) 

FIGURE 123.1.-Groups of coherent elements in uranium ores 

from the Salt Wash member of the Morrison formation. 
B-290 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

elements studied. Examination of the low correlation coefficients, however, indicates that both yttrium 

and uranium in the deposits have greater affinities 

for the Group I elements than for the Group II 

elements. 

All elements in Group I, in addition to iron, tend 

to be more highly concentrated in uranium deposits 

of the Salt Wash member of the Morrison formation 

on the western and northwestern parts of the Colorado Plateau, and in this respect their distributions 

correspond to the distribution of tuffaceous materia~s 

in unmineralized sandstone of the Salt Wash, as 

determined from lithologic data of R. A. Cadigan 

(written communication, 1958). Copper, silver, and 

lead, in Group II, are distinctly more highly concentrated in uranium deposits in the structurally deformed region of the salt anticlines in western Colorado and eastern Utah, a region where vein-type 

copper-silver deposits are known to occur and where 

the sandstone of the Salt Wash member tends to contain more copper (and possibly other elements) than 

sandstone of the same unit elsewhere on the Plateau. 

Zinc, in addition to being more highly concentrated 

in deposits on the western and northwestern parts 

of the Plateau, also tends to be highly concentrated 

in deposits within the salt anticline region. Vanadium is, in general, more highly concentrated in deposits on the eastern part of the Plateau. The regional distribution of uranium in the deposits has 

not been determined; the samples which were studied 

are biased with respect to uranium grade, and the 

distribution· of uranium assays on a map appears 

random. 

Recent study of the abundances and distributions 

of the elements in uranium deposits and in the 

altered sandstone that encloses the deposits in a 

typical mining district (Legin area, San Miguel 

County, Colo.) shows that the amount of each element added to t];le deposits, except urani urn and 

vanadium, could have come from the altered sandstone, without the sandstone having had unusually 

high original concentrations of the elements. However, the· regional distributions of the elements in 

uranium deposits of the Salt Wash member, considered together with the hydrologic arid structural 

history of the Salt Wash and the occurrence of some 

elements in veins, indicate that sources external to 

the Salt Wash host rock contributed some elements, 

and that at least two periods of mineralization 

occurred. 

The broad features of the regional distribution of 

elements in ura.nium deposits of the Salt Wash member of the Morrison formation might be explained by 

the hypothesis outlined below. 

After burial of the Salt Wash member by the 

Brushy Basin member of the Morrison formation, 

ground water within the Salt Wash was confined 

and discharge probably minor. As a result, the 

ground water became nearly stagnant. It is postulated that precipitation of iron and minute amounts 

of other elements near carbonaceous material caused 

concentration gradients to be established within the 

stagnant ground water, and diffusion of iron and 

other elements toward the carbonaceous material 

began in response to the gradients. In the chemical 

environments likely to occur near carbonaceous material (Hostetler and Garrels, written communication), the solubility of iron is highly sensitive to Eh 

and pH differences. This implies that the concentration gradients of iron in solution were steep and that 

diffusion of iron may have been relatively rapid. 

Boundaries or interfaces between nearly stagnant 

solutions near and more distant from carbonaceous 

material were established owing to contrasting 

chemistry of the solutions, and could have remained 

relatively stable because of the nearly stagnant 

ground-water conditions. The interfaces were 

marked by the precipitation of pyrite and other 

sulfides; these formed roll-type structures. Iron and 

most other Group I elements that accumulated during 

this early stage of mineralization could have. been 

derived from devitrification of tuffaceous material in 

the sandstone within a few hundred feet of the deposits. Deposits on the western part of the Plateau 

may be richer in these elements because the sandstone there contained. more tuff. 

At a later stage in the history of the deposits, 

structural deformation of the Salt Wash and assqciated rocks occurred on a regional scale in the Salt 

Valley region of western Colorado and eastern Utah. 

Numerous northwest.:.trending faults were developed 

on the flanks and crests of the anticlines, and the 

rocks of Early Cretaceous and older age were intruded by laccoliths which are now partially exposed 

in the La Sal Mountains. The structural deformation opened channels of recharge and discharge and 

activated ground-water flow. within the Salt Wash 

member. Solutions bearing copper, silver, lead, and 

zinc (Fischer, 1936, p. 575) deposited these elements 

as sulfides In several formations along faults in the 

salt anticline region, and may have enriched the 

ground waters in these elements. Enrichment of 

ground water in the Salt Wash member by addition 

of solutions from an external source may account 

for the relative high copper content of sandstones 

, 

·~ 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-291 

from the Salt Wash in this region, and may also 

explain why the uranium ores from the .. Salt Wash 

member in the salt anticline region contain more 

copper, silver, lead, and zinc~ than ores from the Salt 

Wash in other areas. ··~ 

Inasmuch as uranium .·and vanadium could not 

have been derived from altered sandstone adjacent 

to the deposits, they must have been derived from 

more distant sources, and the transporting. m.~chanism was probably flowing solutions, rather· than 

diffusion. Uranium and vanadium may have been 

deposited during the second stage of mineralization, 

along with copper, lead, silver, and some of the zinc, 

but this is uncertain. According to this hypothesis, 

the forms of the deposits were established by the 

first stage of mineralization, when pyrite and other 

sulfides of Group I elements accumulated in rollstructures. Uranium may have been precipitated 

from solution by the reduction of hexavalent uranium 

in a complex carbonate ion by the earlier formed 

pyrite, thereby preserving the roll-structures as 

uraniferous ore ·}?odies. In the laboratory,. uraninite 

has been precipitated from aqueous solutions by the 

reduction of uranium with pyrite (Vickers, 1956). 

This mechanism explains the common abundance of 

limoriffe adjacent to uraniferous ore bodies. 

REFERENCES 

Fischer, R. P., 1936, Peculiar hydrothermal copper-bearing 

veins of the northeastern Colorado Plateau: Econ. Geology, v. 31, no. 6, p. 571-599. 

Shoemaker, E. M., Miesch, A. T., Newman, W. L., and Riley, 

L. B., 1959, Elemental composition of the sandstone-type 

deposits, in Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Colorado 

Plateau uranium ores, compiled by R .. M. Garrels and 

E. S. Larsen, 3d: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 320, p. 

25-54. 

Vickers, R. C.,. 1956, Syntheses of pitchblende, in Geologic 

investigations of radioactive deposits-Semiannual progress report, June 1 to November 30, 1956: U.S. Geol. 

Survey TEI-640, p. 305, issued by U.S. Atomic Energy 

Comm. Tech. lnf. Service, Oak Ridge, Tenn., P: 305. 

124. HYDROGEOCHEMICAL ANOMALIES, FOURMILE CANYON, EUREKA COUNTY, NEVADA 

By R. L .. ERICKSON and A. P. MARRANZINO, Denver, Colo. 

Results of analyses of spring waters in Fourmile 

Canyon, Cortez quadrangle, Eureka County, Nev., 

show marked metal anomalies in a little-prospected 

area. Spring waters near the head of the canyon 

are acid sulfate waters that contain as much as 300 

ppb (parts per billion) heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Pb); 

waters near the mouth of the canyon are slightly 

alkaline bicarbonate-sulfate waters that contain as 

much as 60 ppb molybdenum. 

The springs occur in siliceous clastic rocks of 

Silurian age in the upper plate of the Roberts Mountains thrust fault (James Gilluly, oral communication, 1960). A quartz monzonite mass intrudes the 

clastic rocks near the head of the canyon and the 

strongest base-metal anomaly occurs in springs near 

the contact of quartz monzonite and clastics (fig. 

124.1). Sufficient water issues from these springs to 

maintain permanent flow a few hundred yards downstream. Between sample localities W -52 and W -52B 

the pH and heavy metal content of the water were 

determined at 100-foot intervals; the pH ranges from 

4 to 5, sulfate is the principal anion, and the heavy 

metal content determined with dithizone ranges from 

100 to 300 ppb (background in Fourmile Canyon is 

less than 20 ppb). Spectrographic analyses of the 

residue after evaporation of the waters show that 

the chief heavy metal is zinc, but that manganese, 

nickel, copper, and cobalt are also anomalously high. 

Coatings of red iron oxide on stream-bottom sediments contain as much as 1,500 ppm arsenic and 20 

ppm molybdenum. The source of the acid, high 

sulfate, and high base metal content of the springs 

and also the high arsenic content of the iron-oxide 

precipitate on the stream bottom probably is a concealed oxidizing sulfide deposit .. 

Bicarbonate-sulfate spring water contains 60 ppb 

molybdenum at locality W -50 and 15 to 20 ppb 

molybdenum in adjacent springs (background in 

Fourmile Canyon is about 2 ppb). There are no 

rock exposures in the vicinity of W -50 and the 

source of the molybdenum is unknown. 
B-292 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

\ 

\ ~~!b-··---.. _ . '-~-----···--··.__....··· ~Ho-:_~g ···-

~, HM~O 

··."·· 

l .... ~ '·· ···-··--···-... , 

~: Rocks of Silurian age 

:\\ W-50 ·.E. ... - pH-7.1 

'-. \ Mo-60 / 

\ ···-....... HM-30 · 

··y··· ~:"·· . ._ ________ __,----<:=:_ ! 'k ·..._ __ _ 

~~~o.~pH-7.9 ··<-.. --.. -' -· : Mo-15 ·. 

/.· \_HM-100 ·'-... 

... ·........... ' I -.. W-57 .. r .. :.:.o 

.-. J ... · .. W-53 W 58 --pH 7 4 

____ ./' -\ /'"pH-6:8\ / •• -----~H-:'7~1"··-··· H;~<- 20 J :' Mo-20 \ · · Mo-8 

: I HM-<20 y.: HM-40 

j /_/,... .. / ... i .. / \ ... ___ __... 

';"""··--

.A 

-----··.:~'"'··· ... \., ..... __, ... - (pH-7.0 ·~ ... ..L.·.·~----- W-51 / Mo-10 ·/ ·-. - ... _ 

'- -, < > L ~-· ·. HM-2~./ \ -..J 1 v \...- 7 v '1 ~ • • ;_ • 

< < v > < < > I > -.J .<./t.- ...1 r- ~--. . 

...1 v o( > '- L.- " ~ "' 7 \ -J ..l - .......... 

L 7 L- 1.- \ > '7 ~- ,.,_p ( V r- /.... ,._ .• • 

-..J ~..; Quartz monzonite l..: ...1 ...; " ;/ •• pH-6.6 

'- £.. ' ...1 7 I ./" . L 1 < ..l ,,>; " \.w.528 Mo-<2 < L.- 7 v 1 . t< .::. ...; Y' , · ~'- HM-1~ ., > r- > -.J < L.- /.... v 'L ( > <. -. · . ...._ . { pH-4.7 L.- <; L .., 7 ...1 , L <: _,.-(;."-;_ /.... 11 'pW-521fC Mo-<2 

7 ...1 "' > " ' 1.- ...1 .:~-L_;:L. < l...l r- ~ 0W-59 HM-240 

1 

L <:. ..J . 'v ...1 .0 ,..., 'X L h_ pH-4.6 

" " ~ > " ~- W-52\1 Mo-<2 1 <. " > 1

'-·· -.J ~ H-6 2: ·: HM-300 , • ...1 ~~ p .• , .., >. v ,... . Mo-4 } 

0 

" . HM-20. /,...... / 

Y.? lMILE 

Geology modified from unpublished geologic map of ~ortez 

quadrangle by James Gilluly and Harold Masursky 

FIGURE 124.1.-Map showing sample locality (W), pH, molybdenum (M-o) arid heavy metal (HM) content, in parts per 

billion, ~f some· spring waters in Fourmile Canyon, Eureka County, Ner. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-293 

125. GHANTSITE, A NEW HYDRATED SODIUM CALCIUM VANADYL VANADATE FROM NEW MEXICO AND 

COLORADO-A PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTION 

By A. D. WEEKS, M .. L. LINDBERG, and ROBERT MEYROWITZ, Washington, D. C. 

Grantsite, a new hydrated sodium calcium vanadyl I 

vanadate, is a dark dive-green to greenish-black 

mineral which occurs in fibrous aggregates that coat 

fractures or form thin seams in sandstone or limestone in vanadiferous uranium ores of the Colorado 

Plateau. It very rarely forms microscopic bladed 

single crystals. It is soft and smears easily when 

rubbed-a characteristic of most of the vanadyl 

vanadate minerals or "corvusite" group to which it 

belongs. 

A small amount of this mineral was first found 

in an ore sample collected in 1952 by T. W. Stern 

from an early prospect of the F-33 mine (Anaconda 

Company, Sec. 33, T. 12 N., R. 9 W.) in Valencia 

County, near the town of Grants, N. Mex. It comes 

from the Todqto limestone of Late Jurassic age. 

Grantsite was also collected in 1954 by A. D. Weeks, 

R. B. Thompson, and R. F. Marvin from the La Salle. 

Mining Company's shaft on Club Mesa, Montrose 

County, Colo. and in.1956 by.A. D. Weeks and A. H. 

Truesdell fr<;>m the Golden Cy.cle mine on Atkinson 

Mesa, near Uravan in Montrose County, Colo. The 

two Colorado samples are from the Salt Wash sandstone member of the Morrison formation of Late 

Jurassic age. In 1957 during a detailed study of the· 

F-33 mine near Grants, N. Mex., Weeks and Truesdell found much more material ·~nd observed the 

paragenesis and oxidation sequence, which will not 

be discussed here. 

Grantsite is monoclinic with the elongation of the 

fibe'i-s parallel to the b-axis. It usually forms aggregates of extremely fine fibers or ··narrow blades, similar in habit to the hewettite group of vanadates which 

are also elongated parallel to the b-axis. Its luster is 

silky or pearly to subadamantine. The optical prop- , 

erties cannot be determined accurately or completely ~. 

because of its very fine grain size and high refraction 

and absorption. The blades or fibers are "length 

slow." The indices of refraction are a between 1.81 

::;tn.d. 1.83, {3 > 2.0, and y > 2.0. The orientation and 

pleochroism are · X normal to the blade, green, Y 

parallel to the intermediate dimension of the blade, 

greenish .brown, and Z = b parallel to the length of 

the blade, brown. The absorption is. Z · > Y > X. 

The mineral is biaxial negative. 

The strongest lines of the X-ray diffraction powder 

pattern for sample A W -43-56, Golden Cycle mine, 

with Cr-radiation, Y-filter (Ka 1 = 2.2897) are as 

follows in order of decreasing d-spacings in Angstrom units and intensity given as strong S, medium 

strong MS, and medium M: 12.4 MS, 8.7 S, 4.34 M, 

3.719 M, 3.607 MS, 3.008 MS, 2.866 M, 2.715 M, 

2.275 M, and 2.240 M. A partially completed set of 

single-crystal pr·ecession and rotation patterns indicates grantsite is monoclinic: a = 17.54, b = 3.60, 

c = 12.45; {3 = 95°15'; unit cell volume = 781Aa, 

The. b-axis is the fiber axis; individual fibers are 

tabular parallel to (100). 

Chemical analyses have been complet.ed on sample 

AW-47-54 from the La Salle mine, AW-43-56. from 

th.e Golden Cycle mine, and A W -20-57 from the 

F ~33 mine. All are essentially hydrated sodium 

calcium vanadyl vanadates but the amount of calcium and V+4 varies slightly in the samp·l~~. The 

ratio of the oxides is close to 2Na:.!O•Ca0·V:.!04• 

5V:.!Or;•8H:.!O. The gram-formula-weight as derived 

from the unit cell volume and the observed density 

of 2.94 gcmx·is 1383. This corres:ponds .. closely to the 

weight of the oxides as derived f~ok the chemical 

analysis and e.quals 1400. . 

The name grantsite is for the town of Grants, 

N. Mex., near which the: miperal was discovered and 

later found inore abundaritiy in partly oxidized vanadiferous uranium ore. · · 

~· 

;i 

:·:·. 

i''·' 
B-294 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

126. INSOLUBLE RESIDUES AND Ca:Mg RATIOS IN THE MADISON GROUP, LIVINGSTON, MONTANA 

By ALBERT E. ROBERTS, Denver, Colo. 

The Madison group is exposed prominently in the 

lower canyon of the Yellowstone River near Livingston, Mont. It includes the Lodgepole limestone, 

which is partly Kinderhook and partly Osage in age, 

and the oyerlying Mission Canyon limestone, which 

is partly Osage and partly Meramec in age. Age 

assignments are similar, in part, to those suggested 

by Sloss and Moritz ( 1951, p. 2155) and Sando and 

Dutro (1960, p. 118). The Lodgepole is 575 feet 

thick; the Mission Canyon is subdivided into a lower 

member 330 feet thick, and an upper member 325 

feet thick. 

Generally, the limestone in the Madison group is 

massive to thick bedded, finely to coarsely crystalline, 

light olive· gray ( 5Y5/2) t, fossiliferous, oolitic, and 

·contains less than 5 percent insoluble residues. The 

dolomite is generally medium to thin bedded, microcrystalline, variable in color, but usually light olive 

gray (5Y6/1) to yellowish brown (10YR6/2), commonly brecciated, and contains more than 5 percent insoluble residues. A few. dolomite units are 

. fossiliferous, but most of the fossils are in limestone units. Oolites occur only in massive limestone 

containing very little insoluble residues. The lithology of the formation is shown on figure 126.1. 

Chert is common throughout the carbonate sequence in thin layers along bedding planes or, less 

commonly, in nodules or lenses. The thin laye·rs have 

irregular shapes in cross section and they stand out 

in etched relief on weathered surfaces. The relative 

amounts of Ghert and insoluble residues in individual 

stratigraphic units have no apparent relation. 

Dolomite beds in the Madison group include some 

intraformational breccias and some local breccias 

caused· by readjustment during folding. Laterally 

persistent breccia beds in the Mission Canyon limestone may be solution breccias resulting from removal of soluble minerals such as anhydrite or gypsum. Similar laterally continuous breccia beds in the 

Mission Canyon have been described by McMannis 

(1955, p. 1400) in the Bridger Range, and by Klepper, Weeks, and Ruppel (1957, p. 19) in the Elkhorn 

Mountains. A bed 51/i feet thick of limestone conglomerate forms the base of the upper member of 

the Mission Canyon at Livingston. A similar con1 Designation as shown on the Rock-Color Chart of the National Re· 

search Council, 1948. 

glomerate is found at the same stratigraphic horizon 

in the Gallatin Basin, Mont. (Laudon, 1948, p. 295; 

Andrichuk, 1955, p. 2179) and a breccia zone is found 

at this horizon in north-central Wyoming (Denson 

and Morrissey, 1952, p. 40) and in western Wyoming 

(Strickland, 1956, p. 54). 

Calcium-magnesium ratios and percentages of insoluble residues are given on figure 126.1. The Lodgepole limestone has relatively few dolomite or dolomitic limestone strata; the Mission Canyon has considerable dolomite and dolomitic limestone. The 

Ca :Mg molal ratio curve illustrates a cyclic alternation of carbonate rocks of varying CaCoa-MgCoa 

composition. The cycles are imperfect or are not 

apparent in the lower part of the Lodgepole but become better defined in the Mission Canyon, and in 

the upper member of the Mission Canyon they are 

easily demonstrated. The intimate interlayering of 

dolomite and limestone, as well as the finer crystal-

. Iinity of tpe dolomites and a larger content of insoluble residues in the dolomites relative to the limestones are systematic variations that seem most 

easily explained if most of the limestone and dolomite was deposited directly from sea water. Cyclic 

deposition of limestone and dolomite in Mississippian 

rocks is excellently illustra~ed by Laudon and Severson (1953, p. 509-512) in the Bridger Range, Mont., 

and cyclic deposits of this age at Logan, Mont., have 

been observed by G. D. Robinson (1961, oral communication). The fossil assemblages in these rocks indicate normal marine benthonic faunas that probably 

lived in relatively shallow, well-aerated waters on 

extensive shelves or in epeiric seas (Dutro, Sando, 

and Yochelson, 1958, written communication). 

The percent-carbonate curve (fig. 126.1) shows, 

in general, an increase of insoluble residues in the 

dolomite compared to the limestone. Recent studie~ 

by Roy and others (1955), Fairbridge (1957), Dunbar and Rodgers (1957), and Bisque and Lemish 

( 1959) discuss or demonstrate this same relation for 

dolomites in general. 

Insoluble residues in the Madison group at Livingston consist predominantly of clay minerals, fossil 

fragments, quartz, feld.spar (mostly microcline), and 

chert, and lesser amounts of pyrite, magnetite, tourmaline, zircon, garnet, biotite, and sphene. The clay 

minerals, identified by X-ray diffraction, are illite, 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC ·SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 

~ a.. 

~ ;:) 

0 (/) 0: 

~ ·~ 

en zl g~ 0: a.. c: ~ ~ ~ 

z:~:g 

gv;~ 

a:!!? 

()~ 

I 

: 

I 

I 

~lffi ~>-~~(/) UJUJoi=z l-en 

c(~ ~~~uQ ~UJ ctb~~!;( ~~ ::)(/)~8~ ~ 

FEET 

1200 

llOO 

~I 

Cl) "lmu:t c: 

£ 

Ill 

Cl) 

.5 

c: 

~--.900 c: 

~ 

c: 

0 

'iii 

Ill 

~ 800 

... 

Cl) 

~ ...J 

700 

600 

17769-PC 

17768-PC 

17767-PC . 500 

17766-PC 

400 

li1 

17765-PC 

117764-PC :.:1 : 300 

I_!! I 117763-PC 

·R 

ICI), 

100 

~ 

I I 200 

I 

100 

0 

Limy 

~ 

~ 

siltstone 

~ 

fE2El 

Silty limestone 

>-

8 

...J 

0 

J: 

1-

:J 

/ 7 

/ / 

7 / /' 

/ /A/ / /c./ / /A 

/A/ / A / /A/ 

A A 

"""' ...... /NW 

"""' """" - /"""' 

-

-J 

A A A A A /;.~ A A 

~ 0 

0 

-. ? 

MOLAL RATIO Ca:Mg 

Limestone ~agnesian hmeston~ 

3 •. :19 17.!67 

·-

- ' :-- :l __ k-~ 

...... I 

\ 

~: -~: 

Dolomitic 

limestone 

--

PERCENT CALCITE 

1 Calcitic :.~ 

: dolomite :..§ 'R'i I~ 

"" ~ I 

-l' 

"''' e I 

I 

ii'"'-- I 

:. i 

~ 

I 

~;:::.. 

t-- : :--~ .. I •:::-i' I ~.I 

I 

I 

-01 

: \ ~----:· I I 

I 'I 

1 1-t:::: ·: 

PERCENT CARBONATE 

50 75 100 

i 

'*' .c 'V' 

--; 

~: . ol 

-· ! 

1 

' ri. 

i 

-~ I 

i 

i 

.~: 

! 

·<:: 

·: 

\ 

I 

\ 

i 

! .-........... 

I 

\ 

) 

--· oC:: 

~-\ 

., 

I 

! 

\ 

i 

./ 

\ 

·----~· 

0 75 1( 0 

Section measured i~ section 351 T. 2 ~·· R. 9 E., and sections 1 and 2, T. 3 S., R. 9 E. 

EXPLANATION 

Limestone 

~ Dolomitic § 

limestone 

~ Dolomite 

Magnesian 

~ limestone Silty_ dolomitic ~ limestone Calcitic ~ dolomite 

t::. C!:: 

Chert · · Samples containing phosphatesulfate mineral 

Silty 

~ 

~ 

dolomite 

-~ 

~ 

Conglomeratic dolomite 

h. ,' 

FIGURE 126.1.-Stratigraphic section of the Madison group near Livingston, Mont. 

B-295 
B-296 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

kaolinite, and mixed clays. Illite ranges from 60 to 

100 percent of the total clay minerals and averages 

approximately 90 percent. A few insoluble residues 

contain as much as 30 percent kaolinite, but most 

contain 10 percent or less. About half the insoluble 

residues from the Mission Canyon limestone contain 

mixed clays (illite and· montmorillonite), ranging 

from a trace to as much a·s 20 percent. Only one insoluble residue from the Lodgepole limestone contaii1ed mixed clays. In the upper member of the 

Mission Canyon six insoluble residues contained an 

unidentified hydrous double salt (probably of the 

beudantite group) very similar to woodhousite [Ca.--. 

A1x (P04 ) (SO.t) (OHH)]. This mineral was found 

in the dolomites or calcitic dolomites that contained 

less than 15 percent insoluble residues. Samples containing this mineral generally were rich in kaolinite 

or mixed clays and poor in illite. Phosphate and sulfate radicals in. this mineral suggest incipient deposition· of evaporites. The solution-breccia . zones 

and presence of' this mineral are consistent with a 

tentative correlation of the upper member of the 

Mission Canyon Fmestone at Livingston with· interbedded carbonates and evaporites that elsewhere in 

Montana make up· the Charles formation. 

REFERENCES 

Andrichuk, J. M., 1955, Mississippian Madison group stratigraphy arid sedimentation in Wyoming and southern 

Montana: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 39, 

no. 11, p. 2170-2210 .. 

Bisque, R. E., and Lemish,· Johri, 1959, Insoluble residue-. 

magnesium content relationship of carbonate rocks from 

the Devonian Cedar Valley formation: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 29, no. 1, p. 73-76. 

Denson, M. E., Jr., and Morrissey, N. S., 1952, The Madison 

group (Mississippian) of the Big Horn and Wind River 

Basins, Wy?ming, in Wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook, 

7th Ann. Field Conf., p. 37-43. 

Dunbar, C. 0., and Rodgers, John, 1957, Principles of stratigra·phy: New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 356 p. 

Fairbridge, R. W., 1957, The dolomite question, in Le Blanc 

and Breeding, eds., Regional aspects of carbonate deposition-a symposium: Soc. Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. no. 5, p. 125-178. 

Klepper, M. R., Weeks, R. A., and Ruppel, E. T., 1957, Geology of the southern Elkhorn Mountains, Jefferson and 

Broadwater Counties, Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 292, 82 p. 

Laudon, L. R., 1948, Osage-Meramec contact, in Weller, J. M., 

ed., Symposium on problems of Mississippian stratigraphy 

and correlation: Jour. Geology, v. 56, no. 4, p. 288-302. 

Laudon, L. R., and Severson, J. L., 1953, New crinoid fauna, 

Mississippian, Lodgepole formation, Montana: Jour. 

Paleontology," v. 27, no. 4, p. 505-536. 

McMannis, W. J., 1955, Geology of the Bridger Range, Montana: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 66, no. 11, p. 1385-1430. 

Roy, C. J., Thomas, L~ A., Weissmann, R. C., and Schneider, 

R. C., 1955, Geologic factors related to quality of limestone aggregates: Hi.ghway Research Board Proc., v. 34, 

p. 400-412. 

Sando, W. J., and Dutro, J. T., Jr., 1960, Stratigraphy. and 

coral zonation of the Madison group and Brazer dolomite 

in northeastern Utah, western Wyoming, and southwestern Montana, in Wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook, 

15th Ann. Field Conf., p. 117-126. 

Sloss, L. L., and Moritz, C. A., 1951, Paleozoic stratigraphy of 

southwestern Montana: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Bull., v. 35, no. 10, p. 2135-2169. 

Strickland, J. W., 1956, Mississippian stratigraphy, western 

Wyoming, in· Wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook, 11th Ann. 

Field Conf., p. 51..:...57. 

127. MANGANESE OXIDE MINERALS AT PHILIPSBURG, MONTANA 

By WILLIAM. C. PRI~Z, Washington, D. C. 

·r 

The Philipsburg district is underlafn by· sedime-~­

tary and metamorphic rocks of Precambrian ·and 

early Paleozoic age that" have been intruded· by a 

granodiorite batholith .of Tertiary age. The. sedi- · 

mentary rocks consist of limestone, dolomitic and 

calcitic marble, shale, and quartzite that have been 

folded into a broad rit>~'th-::Plun.ging anticiine (Goddard, 1~40, pl. 26). Hydrothermal veins containing 

I . 

~ .1 ':''. 1 

quart'z, sphaJerite, galena, silver- and copper-bearing 

sulfides,. ·barite, and late rhodochrosite cut both the 

granodiorite and the sedimentary rocks:· These veins 

strike· west or northwest and have steep southerly 

dips or are vertical. Late hydrothermal rhodochrosite has partly replaced some favorable limestone 

and marble v·beds ·adjace'nf to some veins. In thin 

lim.~stone or marble beds, the replacement deposits 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-297 

follow bedding closely and form tabular ore bodies. 

In massive or thick-bedded marble they tend to be 

irregular vertical pipes that swell in more favorable 

beds and pinch in less favorable ones. Sphalerite, 

some silver, and sparse galena accompany rhodochrosite in the primary replacement deposits in parts 

of the district. · 

Oxidation of rhodochrosite by ground water has 

produced various manganese oxide minerals. The 

following have been identified by X-ray and microscopic techniques : 

Todorokite ( (Ca,Na,Mn11,K) (Mnn·,Mn n,Mg)nOt:! 

•3H:!O) until recently was considered rare as it had 

been observed only at its type locality in Japan, but 

in the last year it has been identified at numerous 

localities. At Philipsburg it is widely distributed- in 

the oxidized replacement deposits where it forms 

aggregates of irregular or fibrous grains. It is commonly pseudomorphous after carbonate minerals or 

in bands with cryptomelane, .gamma-Mn02, or pyrolusite. 

Cryptomelane (KRs01u, R = Mnu,Mnn·) was first 

identified in the Philipsburg oxide ore by Richmond 

and Fleischer ( 1942, table 1). It is probably one of 

the more abundant oxide minerals in the district, 

but to date I have done little chemical work on the 

mineral and some of the material that I have identified as cryptomelane may. be one of the other members of the psilomelane group. Cryptomelane. and 

gamma-MnO:! comprise the bulk of the material 

called "psilomelane" in hand specimen. 

Gamma-MnO:! is hard (about 6), anisotropic, and 

white with a faint cream tint .in polished section. 

It gives X-ray patterns similar to those of synthetic 

gamma- and rho-Mn0 2 and is probably the same 

mineral described by Sorem and Cameron (1960) 

as Nsuta Mn02• It is in bands with cryptomelane 

and todorokite, forms pseudomorphs after carbonate 

minerals, and is in late veinlets that cut earlier 

formed manganese oxides. 

Pyrolusite (MnO:!) is ~·ommonly a late mineral that 

lines vugs in quartz or earlier formed oxide minerals. Some also formed with the other oxides and 

has a habit similar .to theirs. 

. Chalcophanite. ( (Mnu, Zn')Mni'))r.•2H2 0) is com:-

monly late and fills vugs, but it is also in bands with 

cryptomelane, in tiny prisms in a fine~grained ,matrix 

of todorokite, and in stalactite.s with.hetaerolite arid 

todorokite. , . 1 

Hetaerolite (ZnMn:!0 4 ) was found in only a few 

samples from oxidized veins where it is associated 

with chalcophanite. 

Manganite ( Mn:!Oa• H:!O) is rare. In one place it 

formed early and is cut by later manganese oxide 

minerals; in another it was formed late and lines 

vugs in earlier formed oxides. 

Wad, the soft, dark brown to black earthy material, was shown by X-ray analysis to consist of one 

or more of the following minerals : todorokite, cryptomelane, chalcophanite, pyrolusite, or goethite. 

Cryptomelane, todorokite, gamma-Mn02 , and pyrolusite are the most a~undant. manganese oxide 

minerals at Philipsburg (probably in that order), 

chalcophanite is locally abun<;Iant, hetaerolite and 

manganite are rare. Todorokite is restricted to 'the 

oxidized replacement deposits, probably because of 

the availability of calcium in these deposits and its 

absence in the veins. The zinc-bearing manganese 

oxides, chalcophanite and hetaerolite, are fo~nd in 

or adjacent to oxidized veins or in oxidized replacement deposits only in areas where the primary rhodochrosite is accompanied by sphalerite. These two 

minerals may prove to be valuable g1:1ides to the 

exploration for deeper primary rhodochrosite deposits that also contain sphalerite. 

The depth of oxidation ranges from as little as 

100 feet in some impure limestone beds to more than 

850 feet in massive coarse-grained marble where 

open cavities and water courses are common. Unoxidized remnants of rhodochrosite are preserved 

within some oxidized ·ore bodies or below impermeable beds. 

I agree with the suggestion of Pardee (1921, p. 

155) that the formation of the manganese oxide 

minerals was accompanied by only limited migration 

a_nd secondary concentration of manganese. 

REFERENCES 

Goddard, E. N., 1940, Manganese deposits at Philipsburg, 

Granite County, Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 922-G, 

'p, 157-204. • •,' 1 

Pardee, J. T., 1921, Deposits of manganese ore in Montana, 

Utah, Oregon, and Washington: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

725-C, p. 141-177 . 

Richmond, W. E, and Fleischer, M., 1942, Qryptomelane, a 

new name for the commonest of the "psilomelane" minerals: Am. Mineralogist, v. 27, p. 607-610. 

Sorem, R .. K., and Cameron, E. N., 1960, Manganese o'Sddes 

and associated minerals of the N suta manganese d~posits, 

Ghana, West Africa: Econ. Geology, v. 55, p. 278~·310. 
B-298 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

128. URANIUM AND RADIUM IN GROUND WATER FROM IGNEOUS TERRANES OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST 

By FRANKLIN B. BARKER and ROBERT C. SCOTT, Denver, Colo. 

Water samples from the igneous terranes of the 

Pacific Northwest were collected and analyzed for 

uranium and radium as part of a study of the 

geochemistry of radioelements. For this work these 

igneous terranes were divided into those developed 

on the Idaho batholith (silicic intrusive terrane), 

Columbia River basalt, Snake River basalt, and 

silicic-subsilicic volcanic rocks. The data on radium 

and uranium concentrations in water from each 

terrane were analyzed statistically so that characteristic parameters could be obtained and compared. 

The concentrations of uranium in· water from each 

terrane except the Snake River basalt are in excellent agreement with log-normal distributions. The 

samples from the Snake River basalt showed a 

uranium-concentration distribution that was skewed 

to the left (lower concentration). The concentrations 

of radium in all of these terranes were so low that 

only small portions of the distribution curves were 

above the detection limit, 0.1 pc/1 (picocuries per 

liter; 1 pc = 10-l:! curies), and could readily be 

examined. In all instances, however, these portions 

were found to agree with log-normal distributions; 

therefore, these distributions have been assumed to 

be valid for the entire range of concentrations. The 

statistical parameters applicable to the radium and 

uranium concentrations in water from th-e various 

terranes are given in table 1. The geometric means 

are those obtained from the assumed log-normal distributions. No value is reported for the geometric 

mean of uranium concentrations in water from the 

Snake River basalt because a log-normal distribution 

does not fit the data. 

TABLE 1.-Statist·ical parameters relating to concentrations of 

uranium and radium in water from igneous terranes 

Uranium ,.gfli Radium pc/1 

Number --------------------

Terrane of Geo- GeoSilicic-suhsiliric 

rocks ......... 

Idaho batholit~ .. 

Snake River 

basalt .. ...... 

Columbia River 

basalt ......... 

samples Range Median metric Range Median metric 

73 <0.1-10 0.2 

41 <0.1-13 .1 

82 <0.1-2.6 1.4 

30 <0.1-0.6 .1 

mean mean 

0.3 <0.1-62 

.07 <0.1-6.0 

········· <0.1-17 

.1 <0.1-10 

0.1 

<.1 

<.1 

<.1 

0.1 

.03 

.03 

<.01 

1 ,ug/1 =micrograms per liter or (approximately) parts per billion. 

The relative abundances of uranium in igneous 

rocks are generally in the order: silicic extrusive > 

silicic intrusive > basic extrusive. The relative 

abundance of radium should roughly parallel the 

abundances of uranium. The concentrations of uranium in the water samples were in the order: Snake 

River basalt > silicic-subsilicic volcanic rocks > 

Columbia River basalt ~ Idaho batholith; the concentrations of radium, on the basis of the estimated 

geometric means, were in the order: silicic-subsilicic 

volcanic rocks > Idaho batholith ~ Snake Rive~ 

basalt > Columbia River basalt. The apparent disorder of concentrations of uranium in water with 

respect to the abundances of uranium in rocks has 

been attributed partly to climatological and topographical factors for the Idaho batholith, and to 

man's agricultural developments on the Snake River 

Plain. 

The Idaho batholith is a mountainous region that 

receives much more precipitation than the other 

terranes, with an annual average of more than 20 

inches over the entire area, compared with less than 

10 inches for most of the area underlain by the 

silicic-subsilicic volcanic rocks and the Snake River 

basalt (Visher, 1954). Except for joints and other 

fractures, the permeability and porosity of the rocks 

of the batholith are lower than those of the other 

terranes. Thus, as ground water moves more rapidly 

through the jointed granitic rocks it· has only a 

limited degree of rock-water contact, and, hence, has 

less opportunity to dissolve mineral matter. The 

concentrations are further reduced by dilution with 

the relatively large quantities of recharge resulting 

from the high precipitation rates. The· flushing action of the large volumes of flow also contributes to 

the low concentrations in that much of the readily 

soluble material has already been dissolved and carried out of the area. As might be expected on the 

basis of this reasoning, the concentrations of alJ 

dissolved matter tends to be lower than in water 

from the other terranes. Variations in composition 

of the rocks probably contribute also to the observed 

differences in uranium concentrations. · 

The Snake River Plain, which includes most of 

the area of the Snake River basalt, has been developed agriculturally in many areas, and both 

ground water and surface water are used extensively for irrigation. Irrigation water dissolves ad-
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-299 

ditional mineral matter from the soil and is further 

concentrated by evapotranspiration during its use; 

the unconsumed water then returns to the groundwater reservoir as a more concentrated solution. 

·Much of the water tributary to the Snake River 

Plain originates in the adjacent silicic volcanic rock 

terranes, thus the recharge to the Snake River basalt 

has uranium concentrations greater than would be 

expected to be derived from the basalt. Another factor that, possibly, contributes uranium to solution 

is that small amounts of uranium are present in 

some commercial high-phosphate fertilizers. The 

skewness. of the observed distribution could have 

arisen if a few of the samples were from low-uranium 

water, representing a normal basalt terrane, and if 

a larger number of samples were from sources affected by one or more of those factors leading to 

abnormal concentrations of uranium. The water 

samples from the Columbia River basalt probably 

are more representative of the normal uranium content in ground water from basalt terranes. 

The concentrations of radium in water from the 

Idaho batholith are less than those in water from 

the silicic-subsilicic volcanic rock terrane in about 

the same ratio as the differences in uranium concentrations. This phenomenon might be explained 

partly by the large differences in annual precipitation; however, variations in co~position of the 

rocks may also ~ontribute to the differences in 

concentrations. 

The concentrations of radium in water from the 

Snake River basalt are higher than tl].ose from the 

Columbia River basalt, but they are not so anomalous 

as the uranium Goncentrations in water from the 

Snake River basalt. Radium is subject to the same 

concentrating processes as uranium, but it has not 

been enriched in the water of the Snake River basalt 

to the same extent as uranium. The basalt underlying the Snake River plain contains many intercalated lacustrine and other sedimentary beds of 

clastic material. Clays in this sedimentary material 

may have adsorbed some of the radium by cation 

exchange, thus reducing its concentration. The uranium, which probably exists in solution as an anionic 

uranyl carbonate complex, is not adsorbed effectively 

by this mechanism. Removal of radium from solution in this or some other manner would partly compensate for the factors tending to cause enrichment. 

The observations discussed in this report are not 

definitive; however, they do indicate some general 

trends regarding the concentrations of uranium and 

radium· to be expected in water from igneous terranes. More detailed examination of possible interrelations, both among samples from individual terranes and among parameters characteristic of the 

different terranes, may define better the roles of 

various geologic, hydrologic, and geochemical factors 

in controlling the occurrence of uranium and radium 

in water. 

REFERENCE 

Visher, S. S., 1954, Climatic atlas of the United States: Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Univ. Press, p. 197. 

129. SBORGITE IN THE FURNACE CREEK AREA, CALIFORNIA 

By JAMES F. McALLISTER, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Work done partly in coope1·ation with the California Divis·ion of Mines 

Sborgite ( N a:!0•5B:!0:~·10H:!.O), which Cipriani 

( 1957) described as a new mineral from Larderello, 

Italy, has been found in a different environment in 

the Furnace Creek area, Death Valley region, California. The sborgite at Larderello is in fine-grained 

mixtures of borax and thenardite that encrust artificial conduits for natural steam; samples were recovered from depths between 104 and 256 meters some 

time after eruption of steam at 180° to 200°C had 

ceased (Cipriani, 1957, p. 520). In contrast, sborgite 

in the Furnace Creek area is unrelated to steam vents 

or thermal springs, but forms virtually at the surface 
B-300 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

by common processes that redistribute constituents 

of borate minerals under the control of the present 

desert climate. At three separate places near the 

Twenty Mule Team Canyo_n road, sborgite has been 

found locally concentrated within a few centimeters 

of the surface of the ground iiJ debris weathered 

from the underlying Furnace Creek formation. In 

the Widow N 6. 3 mine 1, 10 miles southeast of 

Twenty Mule Team Canyon, sborgite is a constituent 

of small stalactites on an ore chute near the surface. 

At two localities near the Twenty Mule Team Canyori road, concentrations of sborgite are localized in 

surficial debris around weathering colemanite and 

priceite veins in altered fragmental basalt. The 

veins lie stratigraphically above a zone that contains 

commercial deposits of colemanite and ulexite. Relationships of other borate minerals in the varied 

assemblages associated with sborgite and derived 

'from the same veins have been briefly described-

(Erd, · McAllister, and Vlisidis, 1961). Sborgite, 

like · sassolite or ginorite, generally is dis'ttibuted 

farther from the decomposing vein, whereas meyerhofferite, gowerite, and nobleite generally remain 

nearer the vein .. No other hydrous sodium borate 

mineral has been identified in these assemblages, 

which contain minerals consisting or boric acid or 

a hydrous borate of calicu~, sodium-calcium, calcium-magnesium, or magnesium. 

Concentrations of sborgite at the third locality 

are limited to a strip about a meter wide along the 

strike of tilted beds of saline, tuffaceous siltstone 

and sandstone. Much of .this sborgite is associated 

with halite and thenardite in a layer as much as 15 

em thick that lies on bedrock. Above the bottom 

layer, a conspicuous efflorescence of thenardite, like 

that left by the dessication of mirabilite, makes an 

incoherent but more persistent layer about 8 em 

thick, which in turn is covered by a thin crust of 

very fine-grained debris. The underlying siltstone 

and sandstone, in contrast .to the. basaltic rpcks, do 

not contain veins of cole~anite and priceite or· 

other obvious accumulations of borate minerals. 

The source of the sborgite, thenardite, and· halite 

seems to be minerals disseminated in the clastic 

rocks and secondarily encrusted ~:m minor joint 

surfaces. . · · 

Sta!actites that contain sborgite were formed at 

the foot of an ore chute ..in· the Widow No. 3 mine .t: . ' . . • . . . ' J . i ~ • ' J. ~ 

._about 25 met~~s. below tl)e stp:·face . where storm. 

water could seep down through colemanite . ore. in 

· l'Property 'or ·the United States .. Borax & Chemical ·corp., Los Angele·s, 

Calif., which ·owns also the other' specified ;ites. within the· boundary ·of Death Valley National Mon\1~~nt .. , 

TABLE !.-Comparison of X-1·ay diffraction_data fo1' sbo1'g·ite 

,h·oJn Califm·nia and Italy 

[Only reflections having d-spacings between 10.0 and 2.000 A and having 

intensities greater than 1/2 are listed I 

Furnace CrrEc'k, Synthetic 

Larderello, Italy; 

salllple 10; 

chart X-92:3' Na~O · 5B~03 'IOH20 sborgitl', borax. and sborgite (Cipriani, 1957) · · thenarditr 

(Cipriani, 195i) 

---------------------,----------------------

d-spacing d-spacing d-spacing 

(A) Intensity. (A) lntensity2 (A) lntensity2 

-----

... -------------------------

8 .. 59 2 8.62 2 8.58 2 

8. 19 2 8.22 2 8.21 2 

7. 7!) 1 

7 .1-t- 2 

6.86 2 6.88 -t- G.84 2 

6.24 2 6.24 1 6. 2:3 2 

6. 11 I 6.12 1· 

5.97 1 

5.()9 : :3 

5.:H 1 

5.15 ] 

5. 11 2 5.10 1 5.11 1 

4.80 1 4.81 1 4.8-1 5 

4.60 10 4.60 10 4.5\J 10 

4.35 2 4.:35 2 . 4.:34 2 

4.29 :3 4.29 :3 4.28 :3 

4.11 2 4.11 1 4.0\J ] 

:3.9:3 2 

... :3.8:3 2 

3.74 5 :3.74 2 :3.7:3 4 

:3.56 :3 :3.56 4 :3.55 :3 

:3.52 3 :3.54 4 :3.52 4 

:3.44 1 

:3.:3:3 1 :3.:35 2 :3.:34 l 

:3.30 8 :3.:30 8 :3 .2H 8 

:3.20 7 :3.20 8 

3.18 5 :3. 18 7 

3.12 1 :3. 1:3 :3. 1:3 2 

:3.07 5 

:3.04 2 :3.04 2 :3.04 :3 

2.95 2 2.95 1 2. !)4 2 

2. H:3 :3 2. !1:3 2 2.!)2 :) 

2.86 2 2.865 2 2.827 4 

2.784 5 

2.676 2 2.GG!) I 

2.64 1 2.fi4() :3 

2.57 2 2.572 4 2.5li-t- 5 

2.40 ] 2.409 I 2.40(i l 

2. :3.5 1 2.350 1 

2.:32H 2 

.. 2.274 1 

2.25 2.253 1 2.253 I 

2.21 2.215 2 2.210 2 

2.17 2.177 1 

2. 1()!) 1 2.17:3 I 

2. J-t-· 2. 1:3!) I 2.140 2 

2.0!l 2.090 1 2.08.5 1 

. .. 2.on 1 

2.0G4 1 

2.0:37 1 

2.02.5 2 

1 CuK a (Ni filter), A::::: 1.5418A !! Intensities recorded by Cipriani have been rounded to the nearest whole number, maximum 10. 

• ; . . . . r . . , . . 

the; chute. Several· nearby openings to the surface 

oh ·the sallje. ·level_ as: the stalactites pro.v1ded good 

circtilation o{ desert air for evaporating the saline 

sol~tion that. d~posited a· highly soluble fin~-grail).ed 

~i)(hire of thenard.it~, s]?orgite,· and. il~iite. rh~se 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-301 

minerals go into solution readily in water at 26°C. 

'I'he larg~st stalactite is 20 mm in diameter; a 

slender one, ovate in section, is from 5 to 10 mm 

in diameter. The stalactites consist of a shell of 

sborgite, thenardite, and some halite, from a fraction of a millimeter to about 3 mm thick, that encloses a more friable mixture of. thenardite, halite, 

and an unidentified borate. The rate of growth is 

not known, but the age is no more than 35 years, 

which is the length of time since mining stopped in 

the mid-1920's. 

The sborgite occurs in sugary-textured crystal aggregates and mesh-work in loosely coherent weathered materials. Anhedral to euhedral crystals are 

colorless and generally 0.05 to· 0.2 mm in diameter, 

but some are nearly 1 mm. The following combination of optical properties distinguishes sborgite from 

other known borate minerals: biaxial positive, moderately small optic angle, lowest measured index of 

refraction 1.432 ± 0.002, and highest measured index of refraction 1.488 ± 0.003. R. C. Erd (written 

communication, 1958) has provided X-ray powder 

d.iffraction data given on table 1, and pointed out 

the close similarity to data for sborgite and synthetic Na:!0•5B:!0:~·10H:!O as reported by Cipriani 

(1957, table 1). 

REFERENCES 

Cipriani, Curzio, 1957, Un nuovo minerale fra i prodotti 

boriferi di Larderello: Accad. naz. Lincei, Atti, classe sci. 

fis., mat. e nat., Rend., v. 22, p. 519-525. 

Errl, R. C., McAlliste:r, J. F., and Vlisidis, A. C., 1961, Nobleite, another new hydrous calcium borate from the 

Death Valley region, California: Am. Mineralogist, v. 46, 

p. 560-571. 

GEOLOGY AND, HYDROLOGY APPLIED 1'0 ENGINEERING AND PUBLIC HEALTH 

130. ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF A BURIED BEDROCK BENCH BENEATH THE MISSOURI RIVER FLOOD 

PLAIN NEAR COUNCIL BLUFFS, lOW A 

By ROBERT D. MILLER, Denver, Colo. 

Industrial plants are beginning to dot the flood 

plain of the Missouri River in ever-increasing numbers since the completion of several flood-control 

dams along the Missouri River north of Omaha, 

Nebr. and Council Bluffs, Iowa. Availability of large 

tracts of levelland, ample cheap water for industrial 

uses, and access to transportation are major factors 

in building on the flood plain. Absence of bedrock 

near the surface of the flood plain can, at place~, 

require costly types of foundation construction. 

Bedrock configuration was studied as part of an 

investigation of the gf..Jogy of the Omaha-Council 

Bluffs area. In most places bedrock is more than 

100 feet below the flood plain. Southeast of Council 

Bluffs, however, a well-defined bedrock bench lies 

within 100 feet of the surface. The northern edge 

of the bench is about 3 miles southeast of Council 

Bluffs, about ll/2 miles east of Lake Manawa, and 

about 1 mile east of the channel of the Missouri 

River (fig. 130.1). The bench underlies the southern 

part of sec. 20, and all of sec. 29 and 32, T. 74 N., 

R. 43 W., and sec. 5 and part of sec. 8, T. 73 N., 

R. 43 W. This bench is more than 3 miles long and 

1 mile wide, is 80 to 90 feet below the floqd plain, 

and has a nearly level surface. On the west the 

bench slopes gradually to depths of about 130 and 

141 feet. 

The bedrock surface east of the bench proper is 

lower-more than 95 feet below the surface-which 

may indicate the presence of an old channel. The 

channel ( ?) may cross the northern. part of sec. 20, 

T. 7 4 N., R. 43 W., but this is not definitely established. Bedrock is only 80 feet below the surface 

in the southeastern part of sec. 17, T. 74 N., R. 43 

W.; bedrock at this depth suggests that there may 

be a northern remnant, or perhaps an extension, of 

the bedrock bench. Bedrock in the northern part of 

sec. 17, T. 74 N., R. 43 W. is more than 95 feet below 

the surface of the flood plain. 
B-302. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

7 

EXPLANATION 

, Edge of flood plain 

0 90 

882 

Depth and altitude of bedrock 

Upper figure, depth to bedrock; 

Lower flfJure, altitude of bedrock 

.? 

~~~~~~~~~~----~~--T.74N. T. 73 N. 

:tlltif.l~r~r -

RIGURE 130.1.-Map showing location of area underlain by bedrock bench near Council Bluffs, Iowa. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-14:6 B-303 

The bedrock bench consists of limestone of Pennsylvanian age that would provide a stable foundation 

for piles. Water-saturated alluvium overlies the 

bench and consists of fine, medium, and coarse sand, 

as well as layers of fine to medi urn gravel; no consolidated layer intervenes between the bedrock bench 

and the ground surface. Access to the bench area 

is provided by U.S. Highway 275, Iowa State Road 

370, and the Chi.cago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad. 

Suitable foundation conditions, good accessibility 

into the area, and ample water from the underlying 

alluvium indicate this area to be a potential industrial site. 

131. RELATION OF SUPPORTS TO GEOLOGY IN THE HAROLD D. ROBERTS TUNNEL, COLORADO 

By E. E. WAHLSTROM, L. A. WARNER, and C. S. ROBINSON, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., and 

Denver, Colo. 

Geologic conditions played an important part in 

the location and engineering of the Harold D. Roberts 

Tunnel, which extends for 23.3 miles from near 

Dillon to near Grant, Colo. (fig. 131.1). Among the 

engineering problems directly due to the geologic 

conditions was the use of supports during construction of the tunnel. 

The purpose of the tunnel, which holed through 

in February 1960, is to bring water from the Blue 

River on the western side of the Continental Divide 

to the Platte River on the eastern side where it will 

be utilized as part of the water supply of Denver 

and environs. Construction was by the Blue River 

Constructors, Inc., under the supervision of Tipton 

and Kalmbach, Inc., for the Board of Water Commissioners of the City and County- of Denver. 

-The regional geology in the vicinity of the tunnel 

has been described by T. S. Lovering (1935). Geologic investigations from 1943 to 1960 (prior to and 

during construction of the tunnel) were made by 

E. E. Wahlstrom assisted by L. A. Warner and 

V. Q. Hornback. In 1960 the U.S. Geological Survey 

established a project to compile and publish the 

geology as related to the .engineering. This article 

is a preliminary report of that project. 

GENERAL GEOLOGY 

The geology of the Roberts Tunnel, as it affects 

engineering problems, can be divided into five sections: (a) a section of sedimentary rocks between 

the west portal and the Williams Range thrust, (b) 

the Williams Range thrust plate, (c) the sedimentary 

rocks between the Williams Range thrust and the 

Montezuma stock, (d) the Montezuma quartz monzonite stock, and (e) the Precambrian rocks between 

the Montezuma stock and the east portal. Figure 

D 

COLORADO I -------L __ _ 

0 5 10 30 MILES l_ __ __L_ _ __t__ __ __,_ _ _J 

FIGURE 131.1.-Index map showing location of the Harold D. 

Roberts Tunnel. 
Engineering stations 

w 0 + 00 50+ 00 nooo·j I 

12,000'-"4 

i 

100 + 00 

I 150 + 00 200 + 00 250 + 00 300 + 00 

I i I I 

Angle point 

11.000'--1 WILLIAMS. RANGE THRUST 

10,000' 

350 + 00 400 +00 450 + 00 

I I I 

I 

Angle point 

Access shaft 

500 + 00 550 + 00 

I I 600 +00 I 

~ 

..Q 

ll 

1 

8 

c: 

j 9QQQ'~'S, ------=--<<':<<::::--- --:..,<:::<2<2c::::><><._'(>-·cc;'>>< ( (> ":!:):S/bf"?>F.'S/i'/':?~~+T+T+T+·¥·¥ + .• 0 'ell I I I I I I I I $ i ~·~ 

8000' __L___ ~ --._ =:, 1 '> '> '> =::, =:,o =::, •• ' '> ..., 1=:, =::, --... ..,. " .., ' ' ' > 1 

MESOZOIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 

650 + 00 700 + 00 750 + 00 

I I 

Continental Divide 

~ ·II~~~\\,........___....../ 

I 800 + 00 850 + 00 

I I 900 +00 950 + 00 1000 +00 

I I I 

I I ,,~- ./' ../--- 1 \ I \ \ I \\ \ \.,." ~ ...-- ..r r ,..- / / 11 1 \ \ __ _,.,... _,.-/ ,...--/ /,.., \ \ I \ I ' " '>:., - -:::::-- .,-' /. / ......... ,..,.., ,./ / BOULDER CREEK(?) GRANITE 

II 

I\ II, I) '::.. 

I\\'-~"/--~~~ '\ \ \.. _,.. / -- ------ ,.-- --r//--' 

...- //// 1,':: ~~ ~:: .. ~-" ~ ,..,d ~..-,~' ....._) ,../ - - ----- ,-r / //;/If,='= /1 ;;;~"""' /1 ,, ~ ,.,.. \~ ,.-- _,.. ,..-- ----- --- , '. '''·"'"''·"~~==- IV ,..,~+ + "..-,"'\. , - .r-' .-- - "" 

\ / + + + + '\ /- - - ~ ~ ----

\V( + + ~· + 

. • ' ...J - ..___- - ----

PRECAMBRIAN SCHIST, 

GNEISS, AND QUARTZITE 

TERTIARY QUARTZ MONZONITE, MONTEZUMA STOCK 

1050 + 00 1100 +00 1150 + 00 1200 + 00 1250 + oo E 

I I I I 

13,000' 

SILVER PLUME(?) GRANITE 12,000' 

11,000' 

9000' 

8000' 

. 5000 0 5000 10,000 15,000 FEET Geology from maps prepared for Tipton and Kalmbach Inc . 

by E. E. Wahlstrom, L.A. Warner, and Quentin Hornback. 

Published with permission of the Board of Water 

Commissioners, City and County of Denver 

VERTICAL SCALE X 2 

FIGURE 131.2.-Generalized geologic section through the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel. 

to 

I 

Cl.:l 

0 

~ 

0 

tzj 

0 

~ 

0 

Q 

1-< 

0 

> 

~ 

rn 

~ 

~ 

<: 

tzj 

t-< 

~ 

tzj 

rn 

tr:l 

> 

~ 

0 

::q 

f-' 

CD 

m 

1-' 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 .B-305 

131.2 is a geologic section through the tunnel showing the dis~ribution of the principal rock types. 

· The shale, sandstone, and limestone of Mesozoic 

age between the west portal and the Williams Range 

thrust have been extensively folded and faulted. The 

Williams Range thrust plate is brecciated Precam·-

brian rock of uncertain original composition that 

was silicified and later extensively faulted. The 

metasedimentary rock east of the Williams Range 

thrust plate probably is equivalent to some part of 

the section west of the thrust plate, but it has been 

baked to a black brittle hornfels by the intrusion 

of the Montezuma stock. The Montezuma stock consists of fine- to medium-grained locally porphyritic 

biotite quartz monzonite, which probably was intruded during the Laramide orogeny. The Precambrian schist, gneiss, quartzite, and lime-silicate 

rocks between the Montezuma stock and the east 

portal are complexly interlayered and injected with 

large and small bodies of granite, granodiorite, 

pegmatite, and aplite. The rock of one of the 

larger plutons resembles the Boulder Creek granite 

(Lovering and Goddard, 1950, p. 25-27). Near the 

east portal is granitic rock, containing ~any bodies 

of schist and gneiss, similar to the Silver Plume 

granite (Lovering and Goddard, 1950, p. 28). 

SUPPORTS IN RELATION TO GEOLOGY 

The geologic factors that influenced the· use of 

supports are layering in the rock, spalling and popping rock, faults and joints, and squeezing and swelling rock. Table 1 summarizes the relation between 

supports and geology. 

The supports used are 6- and 8-inch steel horseshoe-shaped H ribs supported on wooden footblocks, 

with struts across the tunnel invert where necessary 

Tie rods were used between ribs, and wooden lagging 

and wedges were placed above and on the sides of 

the ribs as required. The steel supports will be left 

i!l the tunnel as part of the reenforcing for the 

concrete lining. 

LAYERING IN ROCK 

Two types of layering contributed to the.need for 

supports-stratification in the sedimentary rocks 

and layering in the schist and gneiss. 

The sedimentary rocks west of the Williams Range 

thrust (fig. 131.2) dip northeast at angles ranging 

from a few degrees to 30°. Consequently, the beds, 

especially in the shaly rocks, were flat enough in 

· the tunnel arch to tend to break a way from bedding 

planes if unsupported. Sets on 5-foot centers genTABLE 1 -Sum?1ta?'Y of ?'elation ol tunne suppO?' s o geology 

Section 

(stations) 

9+46 (west portal) 

to43+14 ............ 

43+ 1-1 to 180+20 ...... 

180+20 to 29!+50 ..... 

291+50 to 339+75 ..... 

339+75 to 3-17+50 ..... 

347+50 to 625+00 ..... 

625+00 to 636+85 ..... 

636+85 to 686+50 ..... 686+50 to 886+20 ..... 

886+20 to 977+00 .... 

977+00 to 1084+00 .... 

1084+00 to 1187+50 ... 

1187+50 to 1238+58 (cast portal) ......... 

Percent 

supported 

75.5 

100 

100 

100 

60.9 

88.0 

58.6 

72.4 

69.9 

52.3 

48.9 

24.0 

7.3 

Average 

spacing 

of sets (in feet) 

4.9 

3.9 

2.5 

4.2 

5.0 

4. 7 5.0 

5.0 

4.5 

5.1 

4.8 

4.8 

4.5 

Heruarks 

~1esozoic sedimentary rocks. Unsupported section in quartzite of Dakota 

grOUil only. Mesozoic sedimentary rocks below \Yilliams 

Range thrust. Mostly shales, limy 

shales, and sandy shales. Highly fractured and altered Precambrian schist, gneiss, and aplite in plate above 

Williams Range thrust. Baked shale below Williams Range thrust. 

Mixed quartz monzonite and baked shale 

in border zone of Montezuma stock. Quartz monzonite of Montc?.Uma stock. Quartzite roof pendant in Montezuma 

stock. 

Quartz monzonite of Montezuma stock .. Precambrian schist, gneiss, and quartzrte 

with minor aplite, pegmatite, and 

granite. Boulder Creek(?) granite (granodiorit~) 

with minor inclusions of metamorphic 

rocks. Precambrian schist and gneiss with minor aplite, pegmatite, and granite. 

Silver Plume(?) granite with numer~us 

inclusions of schist, gneiss, and quartzite. 

Prc~ambrian schist, gneiss, and lime ~ili- cates injected by granite and pcgmat1tc. 

erally proved adequate to· prevent detachment of 

slabs. The only section of sedimentary rock west of 

the Williams Range thrust that did not require support was massive quartzite of the Dakota group 

near the west portal. The stratification of the meta 

sedimentary rock east of the Williams Range thrust 

was largely obliterated and therefore little support. 

was needed. 

The layering in the schist and gneiss between the 

Montezuma stock and the east portal is commonly 

contorted, and the attitude of this layering in rela 

tion to the bearing of the tunnel determined to a 

large extent whether or not supports were needed 

Where the layering dips steeply, few or no supports 

were required, but where the layering is fiat, sup 

ports were required, usually on 5- or 6-foot centers 

The schist and gneiss in the Williams Range thrust 

plate were silicified so layering in these rocks was 

not a factor in the need for support. 

SPALLING AND POPPING ROCK 

Spalling and popping rock, although not a serious 

problem, was encountered chiefly in that part of 

the tunnel extending southeast from station 595 + 00 

in the Montezuma stock into the Precambrian rock 

·at about station 965 + 00 (fig. 131.2). The thickness 

of cover in this portion of the tunnel ranges from 

about 1,500 to 4,500 feet. Spalling in parts of the 

tunnel continued for several hours after the rock 

was exposed and supports were_ used to enable safe 

advance of the headin·g. 
B-306 GEQLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

The spalling or popping rock generally was fresh, 

brittle, competent rock, such as granite or quartz 

monzonite, or unaltered schist or gneiss in flat layers. 

Some of the popping and spalling sections were between less competent rock, or were bounded by 

faulted or fractured rock masses. The popping and 

spalling are attributed to the tendency of some of 

the rocks to establish a more stable arch ; to the 

release of asymmetric stresses in rigid rock masses 

subjected to unequal loading by incompetent, plastically behaving, surrounding rock masses; and, possibly, to residual stresses in rigid rock masses. 

FAULTS AND JOINTS 

The west portion of the tunnel, from the portal 

eastward to the west contact of the Montezuma 

stock, exposed jointed rock and numerous faults 

(fig. 131.2), including the Williams Range thrust. 

Faults in the Montezuma stock are not extensive, but 

locally they contributed to the development of several intersecting joint' systems. Southeast of the 

Montezuma stock, faults of large displacement are 

uncommon, but locally many small faults and complex joint systems are present. 

The faults causing the most difficulty in the tunneling operation were flat lying, contained considerable thicknesses of wet gouge, or were accompanied by hydrothermally altered zones. Especially 

· bad tunneling conditions prevailed where these conditions combined. Closely spaced joints, or closely 

spaced faults and joints, generally produced blocks 

that required support. Joints, particularly in the 

Montezuma stock, also localized hydrothermal alteration, which produced incompetent rock. 

SQUEEZING AND SWELLING ROCK 

Squeezing and swelling rock, which generally occurs in areas of extensive faulting and fracturing, 

caused considerable difficulty in several sections of 

the tunnel. Many faults, such as the Williams Range 

thrust, contain gouge that, where saturated with 

water, created heavy loads on the tunnel supports. 

Some of the faults, especially in the plate over the 

Williams Range thrust and in the Montezuma stock, 

were channelways for montmorillonitic alteration, 

which resulted in slow swelling of the rock on exposure to moisture. This swelling tendency required installation of considerable additional support and realinement of tunnel supports in several 

sections of the tunnel behind the headings. 

REFERENCES 

Lovering, T. S., 1935, Geology and ore deposits of the Montezuma quadrangle, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 178, 119 p. 

Lovering, T. S., and Goddard, E. N., 1950, Geology and ore 

deposits of the Front Range, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 223, 319 p. 

132. LANDSLIDES ALONG THE UINTA FAULT EAST OF FLAMING GORGE, UTAH 

By WALLACE R. HANSEN, Denver, Colo. 

Several factors in combination have produced 

abundant landslides along the Uinta fault east of 

Flaming Gorge, Utah, in the Antelope Flat-Clay 

Basin area. The Uinta fault is a large south-dipping 

high-angle thrust that trends east-northeast from 

th.e vicinity of Flaming Gorge toward and beyond 

the Utah-Colorado State line.· Precambrian rocks 

form the hanging wall; Mississippian to Tertiary 

rocks form the footwall. Drag has steepened and 

overturned the bedding as much as a mile or more 

from the fault trace, especially in the footwall. 

Landslides are common along or near the Uinta 

fault on north-facing slopes of relatively high relief; ex·amples are on the northeast slope of Boars 

Tusk, near the east end of Dutch John Mountain, 

and along the north slopes of Goslin Mountain, Mountain Home, and Bender Mountain (fig. 132.1). Slides 

in these areas range from small discrete slump blocks 

a few yards across to large complex masses of 

jumbled earth and rock covering hundreds of acres. 

Most of them appear to be relatively inactive or 

stabilized at the present time, although some show 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-307 

109" 15' 

-----------. --------- FLAT 

0 10 MILES · 

FIGURE 132.1.-Index map of Flaming Gorge area. 

evidence of recent .movement such as headward 

scarplets and disarranged vegetation. Some older 

slides are much dissected and evidently have ceased 

moving. Locally, large boulders of n~sistant rock 

far removed from their source formatjons are all 

that remain of ancient" slides. 

Landslides are most commor. where competent 

rocks, such as the Pref.!ambrian Uinta Mountain 

FIGURE 132.2.-Factors leading to slope failure along trace of 

Uinta fault (1) competent quartzite overlies incompetent 

steeply dipping shale; (2) oversteepened slope caused by 

differential erosion causes potential instability; ( 3 i 

northerly exposure minimizes insolation, resulting in ( 4) 

rank growth of vegetation and ( 5) rapid infiltration of 

moisture, which promotes sliding. 

group or the Red Creek quartzite, have overridden 

incompetent rocks, such as the Cretaceous Hilliard 

shale (fig. 132.2). At such localities differential erosion along the fault trace has locally produced high, 

steep north-sloping faultline scarps that are topographically unstable. Most important, the northerly exposure of slopes minimizes insolation and 

promotes a rank growth of vegetation, which encourages and is encouraged by infiltration of moisture from rainfall and snowmelt. The larger amount 

of water in the north-facing slopes is a major factor 

in causing slides. 

Saturated conditions on the slopes along the Uinta 

fault are indicated by many small springs. Most of 

these springs· are mere seeps, but some of them, 

such as Ford Spring, Edith Aspden Spring, and 

Fighting Spring, 11, 15, and 25 miles, respectively, 

east of Flaming Gorge, yield several gallons of 

water per minute. 

Virtually all landslides in the Flaming Gorge area 

are on northward-facing slopes-a few rockfalls excepted. Otherwise similar, southward-facing slopes 

are stable and lack landslides. In the Mesaverde formation, for example, where south-facing cliffs of 

competent sandstone overlie steep slopes of incom-

. petent Hilliard shale, intense direct insolation stabilizes the slopes by drying the shale, inhibiting the 

growth of vegetation, and pro.moting rapid runoff. 
B--308 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

EXPLORATION AND MAPPING TECHNIQUES 

133. GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR COPPER DEPOSITS HIDDEN BENEATH ALLUVIUM IN THE PIMA 

DISTRICT, ARIZONA 

By LYMAN C. HUFF and A. P. MARRANZINO, Denver, Colo. 

That important mineral deposits lie hidden beneath alluvium in the Basin and Range Province 

was convincingly demonstrated in 1951 by the discovery of the Pima copper deposit near Tucson, Ariz .. 

Since this discovery other important ore deposits 

have been found hidden beneath alluvium in the Pima 

district and exploration activity has markedly increased throughout the Great Basin where many 

potential host rocks are covered by only a thin 

alluvial cover. The studies described here were made 

to determine what chemical techniques can be of 

use in this exploration. 

GEOLOGIC SETTING 

The Pima mining district is in Pi:ma County about 

15 miles southwest of Tucson, Ariz., in the northeastern foothills. of the Sierrita Mountains-a low, 

maturely dissected range bounded on all sides by an 

extensive alluvium-covered pediment. 

The ore deposits are on the northeast margin o~ 

a large batholithic intrusion of granodiorite of Laramide age which forms the core of the Sierrita Mountains. Near these deposits the margin·al zone consists of sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic 

age that are metamorphosed, folded, complexly 

faulted, and intruded by various kinds of igneous 

rocks among which are small bodies of quartz monzonite porphyry believed to be genetically related 

to the ore deposits (Cooper, 1960, p. 74). The Pima 

ore deposit was found beneath about 200 feet of 

alluvium by exploratory drilling following magnetic 

surveys and geologic study (Heinrichs and Thurmond, 1956). The ore of this mine and that of the 

nearby Banner and Mission deposits consists of disseminated chalcopyrite and molybdenite in metasediments and hydrothermally altered porphyry. It is 

similar in many respects to other deposits of porphyry copper type of the Southwest• except for its 

alluvial cover. 

SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS 

To indicate whether geochemical anomalies were 

present in the vicinity of these concealed ore bodies, 

samples were collected of surface soil, surface alluvium, a carbonate-cement·~d zone at the base of the. 

alluvium, ground water, and vegetation. The soil 

and the alluvium samples were sieved to minus 80 

mesh when collected and the fines were used for 

analysis. The carbonate-cemented alluvium required 

crushing before sieving. Samples of these materials 

were obtained from the land surface, the open pit 

of the Pima mine, drill holes, and wells. The deeper 

zones of the alluvium and ground· water throughout 

much of the area of interest are not accessible for 

sampling. 

The samples were analyzed in the field or in a 

temporary field laboratory by standard geochemical 

prospecting tests. Copper determinations were made 

using the biquinoline test and molybdenum using the 

thiocyanate test. The field results were checked 

subsequently both ·with a spectrograph and by using 

standard wet laboratory methods. 

DISPERSION OF COPPER AND MOLYBDENUM 

Most of the samples of alluvium and alluvial soil 

collected at the land surface have copper contents 

ranging from 10 to 100 ppm (parts per million). 

Modern alluvium near the Pima and Mission ore 

bodies has a higher-than-average copper content, 

but these high values can be traced along washes 

upstream past the buried ore bodies to · exposed 

copper mines and prospects closer to the Sierrita 

Mountains. The distribution of copper-rich float and 

of copper in the modern alluvium, which is not described in detail here, is interpreted as being due 

primarily to mechanical erosion from the exposed 

copper deposits and as having no relation to the 

buried ore bodies. 

The carbonate-cemented zone at the base of the 

·alluvium locally contains very high concentration~ 

of copper. The samples highest in copper are at the 

extreme base of the alluvium. An area where the 

copper content ranges from 200 to 1,000 ppm can 

be traced for 2 or 3 miles to the northeast and down 

the pediment from the ore bodies (fig. 133.1). Because most of the copper is in th~ carbonate matrix 

of the alluvium it is believed that most of the 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-309 

0 

Sahuarita 

• 0 

0 

0 

T. 

16 

s. 

T. 

17 

5. 

0 • 

<SO PPB >50 PPB 

Molybdenum in ground 

water 

0 • 

<200 PPM >200 PP" 

Copper in basal alluvium 

FIGURE 133.1.-Geochemical map showing anomalies resulting from dispersion of ore metals in ground water, Pima district, 

Arizona. 

copper is a chemical precipitate from the ground 

water and is not detrital. 

The molybdenum content of the ground water 

ranges from less than 6 ppb (parts per billion) to 

over 200 ppb. Within the limitations imposed by 

distribution of wells, anomalous concentrations of 

molybden urn were traced from the mining area to a 

point about 8 miles northeast (fig. 133.1). The 

greater solubility of molybdenum in the ground 

water as compared to that of copper apparently 

permits it to be traced for a much greater distance. 

The molybdenum content of the plant samples 

ranges from about 10 ppm (parts per million in 

ash) to about 50 ppm. Among the species compared, 

molybdenum is highest in mesquite, a deep-rooted 

phreatophyte. The highest values were found in 

leaves of mesquite growing in the general area 

where ground water has a high molybdenum content 

(fig. 133.1), and we believe that most of the molybdenum content of the mesquite is derived chiefly 

from the ground water and not from the alluvium 

in which it grows. 

APPLICATION TO PROSPECTING 

Tracing the dissolved ore metals in. ground water 

appears to have more significance in prospecting 

than the other methods tried. Molybdenum in the 

ground water and in mesquite fed by ground water 

can be traced over 8 miles from the ore. The mobility of molybdenum observed here confirms the 
B-310 GEOLOGICAL SURV.EY RESEARCH 1961 

results of earlier studies in Russia (Ginzburg, 1960, 

p. 204). Copper deposited by ground water in the 

basal alluvium can be traced 2 to 3 miles from the 

ore. In the search for similar deposits, reconnais:.. 

sance studies along major drainage routes apparently 

can be used to locate large areas with an anomalously 

high molybdenum content. Widely spaced core drilling and chemical study of the basal alluvial conglomerate within these areas may be a useful local 

guide for buried ore. 

REFERENCES 

Cooper, J. R., 1960, Some geologic features of the Pima Mining 

District, Pima County, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1112-C, p. 63-103. 

Ginzburg, I. I., 1960, Principles of geochemical prospecting 

(English ~ranslation of Russian original) : Pergamon 

Press, 311 p. 

Heinrichs, W. E., Jr., and Thurmond, R. E., 1956, A case 

history of the geophysical discovery of the Pima Mine, 

Pima County, Arizona: Geophysical Case Histories, v. 2, 

. p. 600-612. 

134. MEASUREMENT OF BULK DENSITY OF DRILL CORE BY GAMMA-RAY ABSORPTION 

By CARL M. BUNKER and WENDELL A. BRADLEY,' Denver, Colo. 

The bulk density of drill-core samples can be 

determined by a nuclear irradiation technique involving gamma-ray absorption. Comparative data 

on a series of samples show that the gamma-ray 

absorption method is much faster and has about the 

same accuracy as fluid immersion methods for determining the bulk density of homogeneous core 

samples. 

EQUIPMENT 

The equipment for measuring bulk density ot"core 

samples (fig. 134.1) consists of the following: 

1. A 1-millicur.ie l;>arium-133 source which emits 

gamma radioactivity having an energy of 0.36 

million electron volts (Mev). 

2. A sample .holder for collimating the radiation 

from the source through, the sample and into 

the gamma-ray detector in a beam 1.6 centimeters in diameter. The sample holder is split 

and hinged to facilitate loading the samples. 

3. A scintillation-type detector consisting of a 

sodium iodide crystal optically coupled to a 

photoinultiplier tube. 

4. Electronic circuitry consisting of a high-voltage 

power supply, a linear pulse amplifier, a discriminator circuit, and a ratemeter. 

A gamma-ray spectrum of the barium-133 source 

(fig .. 134.2) was obtained to determine the pulseheight voltage that corresponds to the known energy 

peak of barium (0.36 Mev). The discriminator circuit is adjusted to accept gamma-ray energies that 

are within a 20-volt range, about ± 10 pulse-height 

volts, of the determined voltage at the energy peak 

to eliminate the measurement of scattered radiation 

and minimize the effect of natural background radioHigh-voltage power 

supply 

t 

..----=4!....1' Linear pulse amplifier 

Pulse-height analyzer - ~ 

Recorder 

Ratemeter 

Components (numbered) described in text 

FIGURE 134.1.-Diagrammatic sketch of instruments for 

measuring bulk density of core samples. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-311 

UJ 

(.!) 

<( 

t-

...J 

0 

> 

t-

:r: 

(.!) 

ijj 

:r: 

w 

C/) 

...J 

::> 

a.. 

70.0 

60.0 

50.0 

40.0 

30.0 

20.0 

10.0 

00.0 

0 

\ 

\ 42.0 volts 

......... 

---1----

~ 

33.6~ --... 

.- ...;.-

/ Radiation accepted by 

~ discriminator circuit m -~ this range of voltage · . 

\ 22.0 volts 

( 

~ 200 400 600 

COUNTS PER SECOND 

-

800 

the investigation. This. small error in .measurement 

does not affect the interpretation of density. 

METHOD 

The instrument was calibrated by determining 

the relation between percent of gamma radiation 

absorbed by the sample, sample length, and bulk 

t- 60.0 ~----+----/"'-----ll...f--,f--ld'.f--T-.f---?'l-->l7,__T-+--+---i 

z I 

~ ~ 0:: 0/ 

~ roi 

~ 

ci 

~ 50.0 1------+-__;_--1-++IH--+-..,.._,.~~~£...4,.~~:....__"7"----t 

0:: 

0 

(J) 

co 

<( 

FIGURE 134.2.-Gamma-ray spectrum of barium-133 and en- ~ 

ergy rang·e used for bulk-density measurements. ~ 

activity in the samples. The gamma-ray source, 

sample holder, and detector are enclosed in a cylindrical lead shield (fig. 134.1), 15.2 em in diameter, 

to minimize the radiation hazard to the operator and 

to reduce the effect of background radioactivity. 

The source-to-detector spacing without a sample 

in the sample holder is adjusted to yield a counting 

rate of 6,400 counts per second and the circuit is 

adjusted to accept photo peak pulses. This basic 

counting rate is used for determining the absorption 

in the samples. Because of drift in instrument response, slight adjustments in the nominal spacing, 

about 6.5 centimeters, are sometimes required to 

maintain the count rate. 

The average count rate for about a 1-minute interval is obtained to reduce the statistical error to 

less than 10 counts per second, which is the accura~y of reading the ratemeter and recorder. Repeated 

readings at successive 1-minute intervals show that 

the reproducibility of readings is·within these limits 

throughout the count-rate range observed during 

~ 40.0 ~-----IH-1'-III--I-f"-,l--,f+--,A-+-:~<......-y<----:;,.<-+--?'---"7"---t 

::::> 

0 

(.) 

...J 

<( 

z 

(3 

0: 

0 30.0 ~----~~-,t--r---,~--w-:--r----:~----h..:----,,£----t 

20.0 

0 

Control measurement point 

0

·

0

o.oo 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 

DENSITY BY STANDARD METHOD, IN GRAMS PER CUBIC CENTIMETER 

FIGURE 134.3.-Calibration chart relating bulk density, sample 

length, and percent of radiation absorbed by core 

samples. 
B-312 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

TABLE l.-Summa1·y of ?"ock types and experimental data 

[Analysts: R. W·. Babcock and G. R. Johnson] 

Sample Rock type Core diameter 

(inches) 

Length of 

sample 

(centimeters) 

Absorption Standard 

(:amma-ray 

absorption 

method 

bulk density 

Hemarks 

(percent) bulk 

density 

----------1----·------------ ----------------------...,..----:----------------· 

CZ-5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

1:3. 

14. 

15. . '• 

16. 

17. 

18. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

24. 

L-69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

7:3. 

74. 

75. 

76. 

77. 

78. 

79. 

80. 

81. 

82. 

83. 

8-1:. 

85. 

87. 

88. 

Siltstone. 

. do ... 

. do .. .do .. 

. do. 

. do ... 

. do. 

. do. 

. . do .. · .do. 

. do .. 

Oxidized iron formation . 

. do. 

. do .. 

. do .. . do .. 

. do. 

Ferruginous chert. 

Dolomite. 

. . do .... Quartzite .. 

Dolomite. 

. . . do ..... Quartzite .. 

Dolomite .. . . do ..... Quartzite .. 

Dolomite .. . do. 

. . do ..... Quartzite .. 

Dolomite. 

.. do ... 

Quartzite .. Dolomite. 

.do.. . . .do .. 

I%. 

do . 

.do . 

.do. 

.do . 

.do . 

.do . .do . 

.do . .do. 

.do ... 

. do. 

.do . 

.do . 

.do . .do . 

.do . 

.do. 

1. 

.do . .'do. 

.do. 

.do . 

.do. 

. do. 

.do . 

. do. 

.do. 

.do . .do . .do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do .. 

.do. 

.do .. 

.do. 

5.62 

:3.3:3 

6.14 

3.61 

3.12 

5.62 

5.62 

3.8:3 

5.8:3 

4.70 

4.72 

4.30 

:3.22 

4.60 

4.51 

2.27 

-1:.65 

:3.75 

2.-1-5 

2.4:3 

2 .. 50 

1. 92 

2. 4:3 

2.42 

2.02 

2.42 

1.85 

2.42 

2.48 

2.51 

2.45 

2. 4:3 

2.4:3 

1.89 

2.:37 

2.25 

l.GO 

density. The samples used for calibration were 

analyzed for bulk density by routine laboratory 

(fluid immersion) methods. The calibration was 

limited to sample sizes and densities normally processed by the mass physical-properties laboratory of 

the U. S. Geological Survey in Denver, Colo. Coresample diameters of 1 inch and 1%: inches, lengths 

from 1.0 to 6.0 em in increments of about 1 em, and 

densities from 0.92 to 3.78 gm per cc were used for 

calibration. Sample lengths were determined by 

making several measurements at the ends of the 

sample in the area penetrated by the collimated beam 

of gamma rays. Each of the core samples was placed 

in the sample holder in the collimated beam of gamma 

radiation, and the percent reduction in radiation as 

a result of gamma-ray absorption was determined. 

The absorption, in percent, of the gamma radiation passing through the samples was plotted as a 

function of sample length and density on a calibration chart (fig. 134.3). 

08.6 

51.() 

71.4 

54.0 

49.2 

68.0 

68.7 

55.9 

68.4 

61.7 

62.5 

59.5 

-1:8.9 

66.7 

68.3 

4:3.8 

G0.8 

57.1 

46.9 

44.5 

-1-5.3 

:3~). 2 

47.:3 

-1-4.5 

-1:0.9 

-1:6.1 

:36.7 

47.7 

46.9 

-1-8.5 

45.3 

-1:7.7 

-1:-1:.5 

37.9 

-1-1.4 

40.6 

:31 . 1 

2.40 

2.38 

2.62 

2.38 

2.36 

2.35 

2.38 

2.35 

2.31 

2.28 

2.34 

2.38 

2.30 

2.69 

2.84 

2.6-1: 

2.:H 

2.58 

2.81. 

2.64 

2.62 

2.77 

2.84 

2.61 

2.76 

2.75 

2.62 

2.85 

2. 7:3 

2.81 

2. o:3 

2.85 

2.62 

2.75 

2.42 

2.4-1 

2.40 

2.38 

2.40 

2.35 

2.39 

2.3-1 

2.38 

2.37 

2.36 

2.32 

2.29 

2.34 

2.35 

2.30 

2.69 

2.83 

2.72 

2.30 

2.50 

2.79 

2.63 

2.60 

2.7:3 

2.83 

2.62 

2.70 

2.74 

2.59 

2.85 

2.75 

2.83 

2.63 

2.85 

2.6:3 

2.72 

2.4-1: 

2.46 

2.40 

Sample fractured and vuggy. 

Fractures and vugs. 

Iron formation seams through 

sample. 

Fractures and vugs. 

Fractures and vugs. 

Fmctmed. 

RESULTS 

The calibration chart was used to compare bulk 

density measurements obtained by standard laboratory (fluid immersion) methods (table 1) with bulkdensity measurements obtained by the nuclear 

irradiation technique. The standard laboratory measurements were assumed to be correct for this comparison. The results are given on figure 134.4 .. Samples containing visible fractures or vugs were not 

used because preliminary measurements showed 

that the nuclear irradiation technique may give erroneous results for these types of samples. These 

samples can usually be recognized from outward appearances and are set aside for analysis by standard 

methods, which give more reliable results for this 

type of sample because of the larger volume of rock 

used for the measurement. 

Changes ·in counting rate related to density 

changes of as little as 0.01 gm per cc can be observed 

easily on the ratemeter or recorder. Interpretation 
I 

8 -

1-

CJ) 

UJ 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-313 

Density lower than II Density higher than 

laboratory laboratory 

measurement 

--measurement 

-

-

from the calibration chart is less accurate because 

·some bulk density values must ~e interpolated from 

the curves. 

cr6 - -

The measurement of bulk density by the nuclear 

irradiation technique-including the time required 

to obtain an accurate reading on the ratemeter, 

measure of the sample length, calculate the percent 

absorption, and inter.pret the density with these data 

-requires only 2 or 3 minutes. The standard laboratory procedure requires from about 4 to 20 minutes 

for the same analysis, depending on the method 

used. 

::E 

~ 

u... 

0 - - a: 

UJ 

en 

~4 1- - Although this investigation was limited to ~ample 

lengths between 1.0 and 6.0 centimeters, diameters 

up to l:J/8 inch, and densities from 0.92 to 3.78 gm 

per· cc, the method can be adapted easily to other 

sample sizes and densities. 

z 

f2-

1-

Note: Samples with visiblefractures or vugs were 

not used. 

II 

I -0.04 -O.Ot' 0.00 0.02 I O.b4 I 

DENSITY DIFFERENCE, IN GRAM PER CUBIC CENTIMETER 

-

-

FIGURE 134.4.-Comparison of bulk density measurements 

determined by gamma-ray absorption method and by 

standard laboratory methods. 

The equipment ·is portable and can be transported 

to field offices or well sites. Bulk density measurements of drill core can be completed within a few 

minutes after core is recovered from a drill hole. A 

major advantage of gamma-ray absorption method 

for field use is that it requires neither laboratory 

conditions nor laboratory apparatus such as analytical balances, water, or mercury, which are inconvenient to use in the field. 

135. MECHANICAL CONTROL FOR THE TIME-LAPSE MOTION-PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY OF GEOLOGIC 

PROCESSES 

By ROBERT D. MILLER, ERNEST E. PARSHALL, and DWIGHT. R. CRANDELL, Denver, Colo. 

A minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, or day-to-day 

photographic record can be made of certain geologic 

processes by the use of a mechanically controlled 

time-lapse motion-picture camera. Some of the processes ~hat are particularly suited for such a study 

are glacier motion (Miller and Crandell, 1959), mass 

wasting (Crandell and Varnes, Art. 57), and erosion 

of streams and beaches. Time-lapse cameras having 

an electronic interval-circuit and timer, operated by 

a solenoid-type plunger, have been used to study 

stream braiding and stream flow ( Fahnesto~k, 

1959). A major advantage of a mechanically controlled timing device is that the battery drain is so 

negligible that the ·camera can be left unattended 

for several months. 

Unfortunately, the camera shutter. cannot be 

tripped by a simple lever attached to a clock. Instead, provision~ must be made to (a) operate the 

exposure meter circuit for only a short time in order 

to prolong battery life, (b) protect the shutter from 

damage by.harsh tripping, and (c) reset the timing 

mechanism to insure the proper interval ·between 

exposur~s .. , . · 

In order to accomplish these things, the shutter 
/ 

-·· ;. 

Reset 

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3600:1 reduction gear assembly 

A c·omplete gear assembly 

from a 1-RPM motor;· rotor rings removed 

from high speed shaft. Mounted in a brass 

shell, the inside diameter to clear gear assembly, 

· outside diameter approximately 1.4 in. larger; 

gear assembly mounted on a round brass plate; 

diameter same as outside diameter of shell with 

a shoulder to match inside diameter. Hole 

·center-bored in alinement with and as bearing 

for Vs in. diameter slow speed shaft; back plate 

is the same except drilled for bearing of small 

high speed shaft. Gear case shell is of minimum 

length to allow maximum projections of shafts 

thru forward and rear plates. Motor shaft 

turned down to approximately 'Is in. diameter, 

coupled to gear shaft with flexible radio 

spaghetti-tubing. 

Cam shaft, 14 in. diameter, drilled to receive 

'Is in. shaft; drilled and tapped for set screws, 

and mounted on slow speed shaft. 

Oil filler hole and plug provided. Entire 

assembly held together by flat, hard aluminum 

plates and 3 equally spaced bolts. 

Seal gear case with liquid gasket material. 

Design and prototypes by E. E. Parshall 

FIGURE 135.1.-Mechanical time-lapse control for motion-picture photography. 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-315 

of the time-lapse camera is tripped by an arrangement of cams and levers activated by a 6-volt electric motor (fig. 135.1). Two 6-volt "hot-shot" batteries in parallel provide power for both the motor 

and a 6-volt magnetically wound, spring-operated automobile clock used as a timer. The clock is geared 

from the hour hand so that a shaft rotates once every 

24 hours. A timing cam placed on this shaft ·can 

vary the range of the exposure interval in hours, 

or a cam placed directly on the minute hand can 

vary the tripping interval in minutes. Projections 

on the timing cam close a single-pole, double-throw 

microswitch that .starts the electric motor. The 

motor drive shaft is attached to a gear reduction 

assembly taken from a 1-rpm motor. Snug-fitting 

tubing is telescoped to couple the gear shaft to the 

motor. Clamping is n.ot necessary if the fit is snug. 

The motor must rotate at about 3,600 rmp in order 

to be reduced in the gear box to slightly more than 

1 rpm. Leading out of the gear assembly is a shaft 

to which are fixed an activating cam, a reset cam, 

and a cycle cam (fig. 135.1). As the activating cam 

turns, it lifts the activating lever, to which are fastened a tripping lever and a pressure-release bar. 

The shape of the activating cam causes the activating lever to rise slightly and to push the tripping 

lever anq, in turn, the camera tripping lever toward 

the camera. This inward movement closes, the camera's photoelectric cell circuit and operates a motor 

in the camera that opens or closes the camera lens 

opening in response to light conditions in front of 

it. ~ollowing closure of the photoelectric· cell .·circuit .for about 10 seconds, the activating lever is 

raised further, pushing the .tripping lever upward 

and t'ripping the camera shutter. Continued rotation ?f the' cam shaft lowers the activating lever and · 

turns the reset cam, which opens the clock microswitch circuit and shuts off the electric motor. The 

timing cam on the clock continues to turn· until the 

microswitch lever .is released ; this Closes th.e reset 

circuit and causes the cam shaft to rotate until the 

cycle cam opens the adjacent microswitch and breaks 

the circuit. The activating cam has ·now rotated 

180°. and is in position for the next exposure cycle. 

Damage to the shutter by excessive inward movement during the operation of the photoele.ctric cell 

circuit is prevented by adjustment of the upright 

position· of the tripping lever by means of the adjustable bolt on the activating lever. The pressurerelease bar is fastened to the tripping lever by an 

adjustable coil spring that absorbs excessive movement of the activating lever. Detailed dimensions of 

the activating mechanism are shown in figure 135.2 

(see p. B-316). 

Two frame counters provide cross checks for coordinated operation of the acti~ating lever and 

camera shutter. One, a ratchet counter, is attached 

by a metal strip and spring to the activating lever; 

the other, a rotary ·counter, is attached by a gear and 

friction spline to the shutter mechanism of the 

camera. 

The camera and timing mechanism are fastened 

to a magnesium plane table board. A protective 

aluminum cover with a slanted polished plate-glass 

window is bolted to the edges of the board. Spongerubber gaskets keep the cover tight and dustproof; 

the cover and plate can be fitted with latches for 

padlocks. 

Th~. planetable board is screwed and bolted to a 

planetable tripod head. The head is brazed to a 

tube, the sides of which are cut out to permit access 

to wingnuts on the underside of the tripod head. 

The tube slips over a slightly smaller tube which 

· can be placed in the ground a.nd embedded in concrete. While the upper tube is raised, the camera 

and planetable board can be adjusted to the desired 

viewing angle, and the wingnui:s tightened. When 

the tube is lowered, the tripod head and wingnuts 

are within it and cannot be reached. A latch fa·stens 

the tubes together and a padlock prevents tampering. 

The camera is operated by a spring-wound motor. 

The winding handle is extended in order to clear 

the rotary frame counter attached to the camera. 

The spring motor wiil expose about 1,200 frames 

after one full winding. We have fo~nd that. new 

6-volt batteries will run the elecb~ic .·motor in the 

timing mechanism unit at least 4 months,. and probably longer, exposing 2 frames e~ch day; 

REFERENCES 

Fahnestock, R.- K., 1959, Dynami~s of 'stream braiding as 

shown by means of time-lapse photography [abs.] :· Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 70, no. 12, p. 1599. . 

Miller, R. D., and Crandell, D. R., 1959, Time-lapse motionpicture technique applied to the study o{ geological· processes: Scie~ce, v. 130, no. 3378, p. 795-796. 
Timing 

e 

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 

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Counter linkage requires some overtravel (aosorbed by spring) 

Hole A~ ·1 

1+--!7"----i 1'132 11 

Hole Be> i 

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FIGURE 135.2.-Detail of activating and tripping mechanism of time-lapse control. 

1-56 screw with locknut 

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SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-317 

136. LIQUID-LEVEL TILTMETER MEASURES UPLIFT PRODUCED BY HYDRAULIC FRACTURING 

By FRANCIS S. RILEY, Sacramento, Calif. 

Wo1·k done in coope1·ation with the U.S. Atomic Ene?'gy Commission 

In September 1960 the Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducted an experiment to test the feasibility of disposing of radioactive wastes by injecting 

them into deep artificial fractures in nearly impermeable shale. The vehicle for the simulated 

wastes was a cement-bentonite grout, which was 

pumped down an injection well into fractures created by the hydraulic-fracturing technique that- js 

used to improve the yields of oil wells. 

At the suggestion of Wallace de Laguna (written 

communication, 1960), geologist with the Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory, three liquid-level tiltmeters of 

the kind described by Riley and Davis (1960) were 

used to detect land-surface uplift during the hydraulic fracturing and grout injection. 

INSTRUMENTATION 

The tiltmeter measures differential changes in 

elevation of the land surface, by reference' to a liquid 

surface that provides a level datum. This is accomplished by measuring water-level changes in two 

identical cylindrical pots commonly set 100 to 200 

feet apart, and connected by two hoses. One hose, 

filled with water, is connected to the bottom of each 

pot, permitting the water surfaces in the two pots 

to seek a common level. The other hose connects the 

air spaces above the water in the pots. Differential 

uplift, or tilting, causes a decline of the water level 

in the rising pot, and an equal rise of water level 

in the other pot. In these basic principles the instrument is similar to the tiltmeters used by Eaton 

· (1959), Green (Green and Hunt, 1960), and others 

in investigations of volcanic and tectonic tilting. It 

differs from these instruments in that measurements 

in both pots are obtained indirectly from a centrally 

located displacement device, consisting of a cylinder 

and micrometer-actuated piston connected at the 

middle of the water hose. By using a relatively small 

piston a magnification factor of about 20 is introduced, thus making the smallest readable division 

on the displacement micrometer (0.0001 inch) 

equivalent to a water-level change of approximately 

0.000005 inch in the pots. 

In the Oak Ridge test three tiltmeters were set up 

~t different distances from the injection well (fig. 

136.1), along lines approximately following the topo-

_graphic contours. As much as 18 inches of cut and 

· fill was required to provide level lines on which to 

lay the hoses. The pots rested on concrete piers imbedded 5 to 7 feet in the ground. 

For each tiltmeter the data were analyzed by 

plotting a pair of curves showing water-level change 

with time in each of the pots. When the water levels 

were influenc~d only by temperature-induced volume 

changes the curves remained parallel. Divergence 

from parallelism indicated tilting. Graphs of differential uplift with time were obtained by plotting 

the differences between the two water-level curves. 

GROUT INJECTION 

Two batches of grout were· injected into the Cambrian Conasauga shale, near Oak Ridge, Tenn. 

Around the injection site the shale on the average 

dips 20° southeast, but locally the beds are overturned (Wallace de Laguna, written communication, 

1960). 

The fractures were initiated by a high-pressure 

sand jet that was slowly rotated so as to erode a 

horizontal slot through the well casing and cement 

liner and a short distance into the surrounding 

shale. Before the grout was injected, fractures 

were extended some distance away from the well 

by pumping water at well-head pressures of 1,350 

to 2,500 psi. Pertinentllata on the injections (Wallace de Laguna, written communication~ 1961) are 

summarized in the table on the following page. 

--r"2o (average) I 

l 

l 

N 

I 100 I I 

200 FEET I 

~ lnjectionwell• 

· FIGURE 136.1.-Sketch map of injection site showing layout of 

tilt-meters along lines B, E, and F. 
B-318 GEOLOGICAL ·suRVEY RESEARCH 1961 

Injected fluid Injection 

Depth of ------------ Total \\'ell-head rate 

Date injection volume pressure (gallons 

(1960) (fe~t) Volume injected (pounds per per 

Composition percent (gallons) square inch) minute) 

Sept. 3 934 Water 100.0 1,200 1,350-1,500 80 (irout: 91,567 1 '700-2 '000 125-156 

Water 81.9 ··············· 139 1 

Cement 17.5 Bentonite 0.6 !I 694 \\'ater 100.0 16;000 1 '700-2 ,500 2801 

10 694 Water 100.0 4,000 ········,······· 250 

Grout: 132 '770 2,00,0-2,300 ?-280 

Water 76.8 ........... 2081 

Cement 22.6 Bentonite 0.6 

1 Average rate. 

OBSERVED UPLIFT 

The differential uplift between the tiltmeter pier 

closer to the injection well and the one farther away 

is plotted against time for each tiltmeter (figs. 136.2 

and 136.3). On figure 136.3 the slight eastward 

tilting along the B and F lines before the start of 

the grout injection at 1100 hours apparently is a 

~njecting water 

~ I 1 Injecting grout, 

I 

regional effect unrelated to the test and presumably 

due, at least in part, to earth tides. Minor tilting 

away from the well seems to have begun within 10 

to 20 minutes after the start of grouting at 1100 

hours, but the major effect, presumably representing 

the arrival of one or more grout sheets beneath the 

closer piers, was delayed 95 to 110 minutes. The 

pronounced downward inflection (westward tilting) 

of the F line at 1405 hours may represent passage 

of the edge(s) of the grout sheet(s) beneath the 

farther pier. 

When injection of the second batch of grout was 

begun (fig. 136.2), all three tiltmeters indicated 

almost immediate uplift of the closer piers, the most 

distant of which was 243 feet from the injection 

well. This may have been due to the existence of 

one or more extensive fracture planes created by 

injecting large quantities of water the day before. 

The absence of strong downward inflections of the 

curves (fig. 136.2) in the early part of the experi140 r-----------.-----------.------------.----------~------------~----------~--------~ 

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100 

80 

60 

40 

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0600 0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 

TIME (E. S. T.) 

FIGURE 136.2.-Graph showing uplift of closer piers relative to more distant piers, September 10, 1960. 

2000 

~. 
SHOH.T PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-319 

@Injecting water 

I 

Injecting grout\ 

-· . _j 

40~----------~--------~-----------.-----------.-----------.------~--~---------

·········· 0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 

.. ····· ················ 

1800 2000 2200 

TIME (E. S. T.) 

FIGURE 136.3.-Graph showing uplift of closer pier.s relative to more distant piers, September 3, 1960. 

ment suggests that the more distant piers on all 

three lines also· may have started to rise almost 

immediately, perhaps through the action of water 

trapped in the fractures ahead of the advancing 

grout. 

The observed tilting seems consistent with the 

. asumption that the grout spread out as one or several thin, sill-like sheets moving through and generating fractures that mostly tended to follow 

bedding planes. 

REFERENCES 

Eaton, J. P., A portable water-tube tiltmeter: Seismol. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 49, no. 4, p. 301-316. 

Green, G. W., and Hunt, C. B., 1960, Observations of current 

tilting of the earth's surface in the Death Valley, California, area: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, art . 

124, p. B275, B276. 

Riley, F. S., and Davis, S. N., 1960, A tiltmeter to measure 

surface subsidence around a pumping artesian wel1 

[abs.]: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 65, no. 5, p. 1637. 

137. A METHOD OF RECORDING AND REPRESENTING GEOLOGIC FEATURES FROM LARGE-DIAMETER 

DRILL HOLES 

By ELMER H. BALTZ and JAMES E. WEIR, JR., Albuquerque, N. Mex. 

Wo1·k done in coopemt1:on with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 

The Geological Survey is currently studying 

ground-water conditions and disposal of radioactive 

waste in the vicinity of Los Alamos, N. Mex., in support of activities on the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. As part of this work the writers examined 

the geologic features on the walls of large-diameter 

holes drilled in the Bandelier tuff of Pleistocene 

age. The holes, which were drilled with a bucket 

auger, ranged from 3 to 6 feet in diameter and from 

49 to 108 feet in depth. The methods and geological 

equipment described in this report were devised by 

the writers for quickly recording and representing 

features such as joints, cavities, and lithologic units. 

The drill holes were examined from a metal personnel cage (fig. 137.1) that was lowered and raised 

by a powered crane. The cage is 2 feet in diameter 

and is equipped with electric lights and a two-way 

portable radio for communication with the surface. 

Air circulation in the holes was maintained by an 

exhaust fan at the surface connected to a flexible 

tube extending nearly to the bottom of the holes. 

The writers decided that the geologic features 

exposed in the walls of the holes would be most easily 

recorded and most useful if they were plotted on 

diagrams representing cores from the holes, rather 
B-320. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

FIGURE 137.1.-Equipment used in recording geologic features in large-diameter drill holes. A, personnel cage; B, cardboard 

tube with graph paper attached; C, sighting bar; D, arc scale with bubble level. Photo by Roy Stone. 

than on flat diagrams representing the walls of the 

holes. For this purpose cardboard mailing tubes 

with outer diameters of 1.5, 2, and 3 inches were 

used to correspond to drill holes with diameters of 

3, 4, and 6 feet, respectively. Printed semitransparent graph paper, ruled in inches and tenths of 

inches, was fastened to the tubes with rubber cement 

or drafting tape. The line on the tube diametrically 

opposite the joint line of the paper was designated 

as north and was used as the reference from which 

all measured points were plotted. The north, south, 

east, and west lines were marked on the graph paper, 

and intervals of depth from the surface were marked 

to scale. Scale is automatically determined by ratio 

of the diameter of the tube to that of the hole. Thus, 

if the tube is 3 inches in. diameter and the hole is 6 

feet in diameter, the scales, both circumferential 

and vertical, are automatically 1 inch equals 2 feet. 

A sighting bar (fig. 137.1) and a Brunton pocket 

transit were used to determine the north and south 

points of the holes. Lower extensions of the metal 

leaves of the sighting bar fit into the hole; the 

leaves slide on the wooden bar and are adjustable 

to fit holes of different diameters. The north and 

south sides of the hole were determined by orienting 

the bar with the aid of a Brunton pocket transit. 

A steel tape, weighted at the end, was secured 

at the north point at the top of the hole and hung 

as a pendulum to the bottom of the hole. The tape 

was used as the north reference on the wall of the 

hole, and also for depth determinations. In some 

drill holes additional tapes were hung at the south, 

east, and west points of the holes. 

During the first "run" down the drill hole in the 

personnel cage the wall of the hole was marked with 

carpenter's crayon at standard intervals of depth. 

Measuring, recording, a,nd plotting of data usually 

were done bottom to top as the cage was raised. Most 

of the work was done by a two-man crew; one geologist plotted on the graph paper of the tube, while the 

other geologist measured and described geological 

features observed on the wall of the hole. A two-man 

crew proved to be considerably more efficient than 

one man. In the 3- and 4-foot diameter holes, measurements were made with a flexible 6-foot metal tape 

-but this was impractical in the 6-foot diameter 

holes because the distance to the wall from the cage 

suspended in the middle of the hole was too great. A 

graduated aluminum arc scale with a bubble level 

(fig. 137.1) was built to measure circumferential distances in these larger holes. The curvilinear length 

of the scale is 5 feet, and the radius of the arc is 

3 feet. To avoid confusion the observer gave all 

measurements to the plotter in terms of feet east 

or west of the north line at each station within the 

hole. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES·1-146 B-321 

FIGURE 137.2.-Sketch of core diagram showing methods of determining strike and dip of joints. 

The completed plot of geologic features is a threedimensional representation of a core of the rock 

penetrated by the drill hole. Strike of bedding, joints, 

veins, fissures, and other features may be obtained 

by orienting the tube on a flat piece of graph paper. 

Two points of equal depth on the geologic feature 

are projected ·down the ruled lines of the tube to 

the graph paper (fig. 137.2). The strike is determined with a protractor from a line drawn through 

the points on the flat paper. If a third point on the 

featt.1re at a different depth is proje·cted down the 

tube to the flat paper, the dip can be determined. 

graphically, or trigonometrically by means of a 3-

point equation. Probably this method of three-dimensional representation ·is applicable to other geologic and engineering problems. 

The diagrams of the cores can be drafted and 

reproduced flat so that they can be rolled and held 

together by paper clips or tape. If a flat representation of the wall of the hole is needed, the semitransparent graph paper is simply turned over and a 

tracing is made of the reverse side. The latter form 

of representation shows the wall of the hole as seen 

by a person inside the hole. 
B-322 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH Hl61 

ANALYTICAL AND PETROGRAPHIC METHODS 

138. METHODS FOR DECOMPOSING SAMPLES OF SILICATE ROCK FRAGMENTS 

By JOHN C. ANTWEILER, Denver, Colo. 

Three procedures are given below for the decomposition of silicate rock samples that have been 

neither crushed nor ground. In minor element analyses, crushing, grinding, sieving, and splitting procedures can introduce the following types of inaccuracies: (a) Errors of selective subtraction owing 

to loss of air-borne dust and spatter particles which 

may be greatly enriched in certain minor elements; 

(b) errors of addition from abrasion of grinding 

equipment, exposure to atmospheric dust, and handling; ( ~) chemical changes such as loss of sulfur 

from sulfides and oxidation ·of iron or copper to a 

higher valence state; and (d) inhomogeneities 

caused by unequal distribution and segregation of 

particles having different densities. Some of these 

errors can affect the accuracy of analyses for major 

elements (Hillebrand and others, 1953, p. 811; Kolthoff and Sandell, 1952, p. 242), but they may affect 

the accuracy of analyses for minor and trace constituents much more. To minimize some of these 

·uncertainties, G. J. Neuerburg prompted the author 

to devise techniques for decomposition of 4-gram, or 

larger, fragments of rock. Many profitable suggestions were received from L. C. Peck during the work. 

The procedures explained here lessen chances for 

selective subtraction and addition caused by grinding; they fail to lessen most of the errors of chemical 

change; they eliminate segregation and improper 

representation in a specific sample, but emphasize 

inhomogeneities in a series of samples. The procedures are useful for certain studies such as trace 

element distribut~on ; they are not intended to replace standard rock sampling and analytical procedures. 

Several standard methods for silicate decomposition will eventually decompose a 4-gram rock fragment, but reagent and time requirements generally 

are excessive. The hydrofluoric acid procedure and 

two fusion procedures described below readily decompose 4-gram fragments of rock in reasonable 

time and require only moderate quantities of reagents. The acid procedure has been used to decompose 50-gram and larger pieces of rock. Consumption of reagents per gram of rock in most cases is 

no greater than that required for a powdered sample. 

The final solution obtained by use of the three 

decomposition procedures described is designed for 

determination of uranium as uranyl nitrate. Determinations of some minor elements are preferably 

· made from chloride or sulfate solutions. If such 

determinations are contemplated, modification in the 

solution procedures after decomposition. is complete 

can ·readily be made. For example, in the hydrofluoric acid procedure the dry fluorides can be converted to sulfates by fuming with sulfuric acid, or 

they can be converted to chlorides by fuming with 

perchloric acid followed by solution in hydrochloric 

acid. 

HYDROFLUORIC ACID PROCEDURE 

The decomposition of finely divided silicates by 

HF is an extremely vigorous reaction. It is usually 

moderated by water and one or more strong acids 

such as HNOx, H:.!S04, HCl, or HCl04. On the other 

hand, the decomposition of rock chips by HF is a 

quiet reaction and other acids are preferably omitted. 

For example, a 4-gram diabase chip was completely. 

decomposed in 6 hours by 75 ml HF; a similar chip 

was not entirely decomposed in 4 days by the same 

volume of HF plus an eql}al volume of HNOx. 

Place a weighed rock fragment in a vessel resistant 

to HF, add 10 to 15 ml concentrated HF ( 48 percent 

or stronger) for each gram of rock. Place a closefitting cover over the vessel, and digest its contents 

24 hours at steam bath temperature C--85°C). After 

digestion remove the cover, stir occasionally, and 

evaporate to dryness. Add for each gram of sample 

about 30 ml of 50 percent ( v /v) nitric acid; digest 

the covered mixture, stirring occasionally, for 2 

.hours at steam bath temperature, then evaporate to 

dryness. Again add nitric acid, and repeat the digestion and evaporation procedures. Dissolve the nitrates in 25 ml of 7lj:! percent (vI v) HN Ox per gram 

of rock and filter. If any rock remains, repeat the 

hydrofluoric acid decomposition procedure. If the 

residue consists only of zircon or other HF -insoluble 

+ 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-323 

fine-grained minerals, fuse it with potassium pyrosulfate or sodium carbonate by conventional silicate 

analytical. procedures. 

Decomposition of chip samples by HF is usually 

preferable to decomposition by fluxes because (a) 

much larger samples can be handled and (b) greater 

concentration of minor elements in the analytical 

solution is possible; only volatile reagents are added 

and silicon is removed as gaseous tetrafluoride. It 

is therefore sometimes possible to lower the limit 

of detection of minor elements, and to improve the 

precision of their determination. 

It is not always possible to use the HF procedure 

because fluorine (which is probably never completely 

removed) interferes in some analytical schemes; 

rocks, of course, cannot be analyzed for trace ·"' 1

?. 

ments that form volatile fluorides. 

Addition of boric acid after the evaporation of 

HF somewhat facilitates conversion of fluorides to 

nitrates through formation of volatile BF x· Excess 

boron can subsequently be removed as methyl borate 

formed by the addition of methyl alcohol. 

Platinum, gold, polyethylene, and glassware lined 

with commercial wrapping plastics (A. P. Marranzino, written communication, 1961), can be used for 

the HF decomposition. Plastic-lined containers are 

not suitable, however, for conversion of fluorides 

to sulfates, perchlorates, or nitrates. 

SODIUM PEROXIDE FUSION PROCEDURE 

Sodium peroxide is a powerful rock disintegrator, 

but at high temperature it also attacks most of the 

. materials used in the manufacture of laboratory 

crucibles. Platinum· and gold cannot be used, and 

nickel ·is far from satisfactory for rock fragment 

fusion. Zirconium, however, resists sodium peroxide 

for prolonged periods of time at temperature of as 

much as 900°C. 

Weigh about 15 grams of sodium peroxide into a 

zirconium crucible, place a rock fragment weighing 

as much as 5 grams on top of the peroxide, and then 

sprinkle in enough additional peroxide to cover the 

sample completely. Cover the crucible and contents, 

heat over an open burner, slowly at first, and finally 

at red heat until the fragment is dissolved (usually 

V2 to 1 hour). Carefully add water to the cooled melt 

in a covered beaker. After subsidence of the vigorous 

reaction, dilute with enough water to make a volume 

of 100 ml per gram of rock. Quickly add enough 

concentrated nitric acid to yield a solution that has a 

nitric acid strength of 7lj2 percent by volume. Rapid 

addition of all the acid required eliminates effervescence, inhibits formation of gelatinous silica, and 

1 

yields a solution that is readily and quickly filtra1 ble (L. C. Peck, oral communication, 1957). Add 

I 0.1 grams sodium nitrite to reduce manganese which 

is often present in sufficient quantities to cause 

turbidity. Filter the solution and repeat the procedure on any undissolved residue. 

One zirconium crucible will last for at least 150 

sodium peroxide fusions (D. W. Richardson, written 

communication, 1956). Iron crucibles may be used 

for sodium peroxide fusions, but they introduce 

considerable iron to the sample, and they are not 

generally suitable for re-use. 

SODIUM CARBONATE-BORIC ACID PROCEDURE 

A carbonate-boric acid flux prepared as outlined 

below is more effective for silicate decomposition 

than either sodium carbonate, or boric acid alone, or 

mechanical mixtures of borax or boric acid and sodium carbonate (L. C. Peck, oral communication, 

1957)'. Prepare the flux by melting 3 parts by 

weight of sodium carbonate together with 1 part of 

boric acid. Break the cooled melt into pieces weighing 2 to 4 grams. Preheat the weighed rock sample 

to· 650°C to remove water. After cooling, add to the 

crucible containing the rock sample about 4 grams 

of flux for each gram of rock. Heat the crucible and 

contents rapidly to 900°C, and maintain this temperature for 111:! hours. If frothing occurs, lower the 

temperature until frothing subsides. Dissolve the 

cooled melt by digestion for 3 hours at steam bath 

temperature in 75 ml of 71/:! percent (v/v) HNOx. If 

there is any turbidity or rock residue, filter the solution, decompose the residue by standard analytical 

procedures, and add the solution to the above filtrate. 

This fusion procedure is fast, economical, and 

effective on many kinds of rocks. Loss of samples 

through intumescence is its greatest shortcoming; 

constant attention during the fusion is necessary. 

The method should be tested on each new rock type 

before using· samples that cannot be replaced or 

duplicated. The interference of boron in some analytical schemes is an important consideration before 

using this procedure. 

All three of the foregoing .PrO<;edures have been 

successfully used to decompose rocks as different in 

composition as basalt and granites. Their application 

and usef1.1lness to diabasic rocks is reported by 

Neuerburg and Granger (1960, p. 780-782). The 

HF procedure usually is preferable to the others 

unless the analyses are being made in the field, or 

unless subsequent analytical procedures will be 

hampered by the presence of fluorine. The sodium 

peroxide procedure is best in the field because it is 
B-324 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

the fastest, and is less apt to cause difficulty through 

intumescence. The sodium carbonate-boric acid procedure usually is preferable to sodium peroxide fusion in a laboratory because fusion conditions can 

be controlled to prevent intumescence, and complete 

decomposition is more likely to be obtained with the 

first fusion. Reagent pu-rification, which is essential 

in minor element analyses, is much simpler for the 

HF method than jt is for the fusion methods. 

REFERENCES 

Hillebrand, W. F., Lundell, G. E. F., Bright, H. A., and Hoffman, J. 1., 1953, Applied inorganic analysis: New York, 

John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1034 p. 

Kolthoff, I. M., and Sandell, E. M., 1952, Textbo9k of quantitative inorganic analysis: New York, The Macmillan Co., 

759 p. 

Neuerburg, G. J., and Granger, H. C., 1960, A geochemical test 

of diabase as an ore source for the uranium deposits of 

the Dripping Spring district, Arizona: Neues Jahrb. 

Mineralogie Abh., v. 94, Festband Ramdohr, p. 759-797: 

~-

i39. FATIGUE IN SCINTILLATION COUNTING 

By FRANCIS J. FLANAGAN, Washington, D. C. 

Wo'rk done in cooperation with the U.S. A totnic Ene'rgy Commission 

When National Bureau of Standards radium 

gamma-ray standards (Mann, 1956) were counted as 

reference points for normalizing data, variations 

were noted in the counting rates. It was soon established that the variations were due to photomultiplier fatigue, and that radium from other sources 

caused similar effects. Although many papers on 

photomultiplier fatigue have been published, neither 

the primary cause of the fatigue nor a method of 

avoiding it have been discussed. Caldwell and Turner 

(1954) suggest, however, that the effect may be due 

to the low-energy gamma radiation of the radium 

series. 

To determine the effect of gamma radiation a 2-

microgram ampoule of radium was· placed for 1 hour 

on a 2 inch by 2 inch crystal of sodium iodide coupled 

to a 6292 photomultiplier. The photomultiplier output was fed into a 100-channel analyzer whose gain 

was set so that the complete spectrum was taken 

in 55 channels. A 1-minute count was made during 

the first minute of each 1-minute interval for 1 

hour, the counts obtained being recorded on tape. 

The initial counting rate for each channel is shown 

in figure 139.1, and the losses for each channel in 

1 hour, expressed as percent of the first count in 

the channel, in figure 139.2. 

Losses occur in all channels except 53, and these 

losses (except for irregularities between channels 

45 and 55 due to low counting rates) increase with 

decreasing energy and with increasing counting 

rates. The relative error, however, decreases in 

most counting experiments with increasing counting 

rates. 

To decide whether the variations in the counting 

rates were significant, a statistical technique was 

selected in preference to some arbitrary percentage 

loss or gain not to be exceeded. The Poisson distribution, whose mean and variance are equal, is commonly used in radioactivity counting. The initial 

count in any channel can represent both the mean 

and variance of an infinite number of observations 

if no changes take place in the counting conditions. 

If changes do occur, as they do in the present study, 

the variance for any channel can be calculated and 

then compared with that expected if there were no 

change. The comparison is made by the statistic 

x:!fdf (chi squared over degrees of freedom), which 

is equal to the computed variance divided by the 

initial count. The computed values of the statistic, 

together with the upper limits for the 95-percent 

and the 99.95-percent probability level, are shown 

in figure 139.3. 

The computed statistic for only 8 of the channels 

is below the allowable limit for the 95-percent level, 

and hence the computed variances are not significantly greater than the Poisson variances. The 

.'I 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-325 

100.000 

10,000 

UJQl 

~--

ct~ 

o:::·e 

(.!).._ 

ZQl 

-o. 

I-III 

z-::>c: 

o::s u.§. 

1000 

500. 

300 

10 

~ I 

20 30 40 50 

CHANNEL NUMBER 

FIGURI<~ 139.1.-Initial counting rate per channel. 

statistic for 30 of the 43 channels exceeds the allowable value at the 99.95-percent level. This plot, 

like the one for counting-rate losses, shows that the 

most significant variations in counting rates occur 

in the low-energy part of the spectrum. 

CHARACTER OF THE SOURCES 

Of the gamma sources used in preliminary tests 

in this investigation ( Co60, Cs137, and radium solutions) only the radium sources cause significant 

10 20 30 40 50 

CHANNEL NUMBER 

FIGURE 139.2.-Counting rate loss per channel. 

losses and emit the low-energy gammas proposed 

by Caldwell and Turner (1954) as a possible cause 

of photomultiplier fatigue. If the effect is due to. 

these gammas, it should be noticeable when counting 

a radium-DEF solution, since Pb 210 is a source of 

low-energy gammas. One milliliter of a DEF solution was counted, but no loss was noted for this 

aliquot, which ·counted about 10,000 cpm under the 

same conditions that yielded 4,000 cpm for the 0.1 

microgram of radium. The main solution from 

which this aliquot was taken was then counted with 

similar results. These low-energy gammas, therefore, cannot be the sole cause of fatigue. 

100 

10 

2 X /df (12)0_ 999 =2.90 _____ l ______ t __ _ 

X2/df (12) 0 _

95 =1.75 

-----,------ ------

0.5 L_____L, _ _l___ji_~-J._---=~_l_-~_1----;f;:.:---'----' 

10 20 30 40 50 

CHANNEL NUMBER 

FIGURE 139.3.-Variation of counting rate per channel. 

On reexamining the character of the sources used, 

one sees that each was contained in glass and emits 

beta radiation, but that the radium solutions emit 

the large·st number. The question then arises 

whether bremsstrahlung, resulting from the interaction of the beta-rays with glass, could be responsible:Jor the fatigue. . 

BREMSSTRAHLUNG FROM BETA PARTICLES 

Two "gamma-free" beta-ray sources were available for testing this hypothesis. When a two-ounce 
B-326 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

glass jar containing nickel sulfate recrystallized 

with Ni 63 (E,B = 0.063 ·Mev) was counted with a 

crystal coupled to a 6342 photomultiplier, a loss of 

0. 7 percent of the initial counting rate of 268,000 

cpm was obtained. When a Tl 204 source in the 

original bottle shipped from Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory was placed on the same crystal-tube 

combination, it lost 11.4 percent of its original 

counting rate (350,000 cpm) in one hour. The same 

bottle, at a different time, lost 26 percent in one hour 

with the 6342 photomultiplier, and gained 9 and 12 

percent with a 6292 and 5819, respectively. Cathey 

(1958) attributes gains and losses for different 

photomultipliers to the amount of cesium on the 

dynodes. 

As a further test, one ml of an uncalibrated Co. 60 

source was placed in a vial and counted, using the 

same 6,342 photomultiplier; this gave 360,000 cpm 

with no noticeable loss in an hour. An aliquot of 

a solution of Tl204, a pure beta emitter, was added 

to the cobalt source in the vial. This addition increased the activity of the source by 35,000 cpm, 

and this mixed source lost 0.8 percent of its total 

counting rate in one hour. When a second equal 

aliquot of the thallium was added, the source lost 

2.3 percent in one hour. Another equal aliquot of 

the thallium source, dried on cellophane and placed 

on the same crystal, yielded 12,000 cpm with no 

noticeable loss. 

If bremsstrahlung _can cause fatigue, .X-rays 

should have similar .effects. A solid uncalibrated 

Co6° source taped to a crystal yielded 130,000 counts 

in 16 seconds. The crystal was then exposed to white 

X-rays with a peak at about 10 Kev for ten seconds. 

When the X-ray source was removed and the cobalt 

counted imm~diatdy, it yielded 63,700 counts-a 

loss in counting rate of 51 percent. After 15 minutes 

the photomultiplier had recovered so much that the 

loss in counting rate was only 12 percent. 

· The hypothesis ascribing fatigue to bremsstrahlung therefore appears tenable, and since bremsstrahlung and X-rays are similar, it is consistent 

with the observation of Marshall and others (1947) 

that "the presence of fatigue is a serious defect" in 

the use of photomultipliers as X-ray detectors. 

From these experiments it may be inferred that 

the photomultiplier fatigue may be primarily caused 

by bremsstrahlung resulting from the interaction 

of beta particles with the glass ampoules. 

REFERENCES 

Caldwell, R. L., and Turner, S. E., 1954, Gain variation of 

photomultiplier tubes: Nucleonics, v. 12, no. 12, p. 47-48. 

Cathey, L., 1958, Fatigue in photomultipliers, in Scintillation 

. Counter Symposium, 6th Washington, 1958, Proc: I R E 

Trans on Nuclear Sci., v. NS-5, no. 3, p. 109-114. 

Mann, W. B., 1956, The preparation and maintenance of 

standards of radioactivity: Internat. Jour. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, v. 1, p. 3-23. 

Marshall, F. H., Coltman, J. W., and Hunter, L. P., 1947, The 

photomultiplier X-ray detector: Rev. Sci. Instruments, 

. v. 18, p. 504-513. 

140. A SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF CONCENTRATING AND PREPARING CARBONATE SHELLS FOR 0' AGE 

DETERMINWATIONS 

By THOMAS C. NICHOLS, JR., Denver, Colo. 

· Because handpicking of carbonate shells from a 

field sa~ple is laborious and time consuming, a 

simpler method of concentrating and preparing these 

shells. for C14 age determinations was developed 

using already existing equipment .and reagents of 

the U.S. Geological Survey Laboratory at Denver. 

Three steps are. involved: determining the feasibility 

o.f rempving shell material from., the. sample matrix, 

. dis-aggregating_ the sample and co~centrating the 

shell material, cleaning the shell material. All reagents and containers coming in contact with the 

shells must be free of contaminating carbon. 

FEASIBILiTY OF REMOVING SHELLS FROM SAMPLE 

The feasibility of removing shells from a sample 

depends upon the size and condition of the shells 

and also the condition, texture, and composition of 

the matrix. It is difficult and tedious to process 
., 

'·· 

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-327 

shells smaller than 420 microns-but if necessary, a 

modified procedure will reclaim some of the smaller 

ones. The matrix must be reasonably free of ferruginous, siliceous, and carbonate cementing materials. 

These materials, if present in large quantities, are 

difficult to remove without destroying the shells. The 

size and sorting of the matrix are of concern only 

in actual separation techniques. 

SEPARATING SHELLS FROM MATRIX 

The sample is presoaked for 16 hours in a 3.5 percent solution of sodium polyphosphate in distilled 

water to disperse the clays and other fine materials 

which tend to cement the matrix together. These 

dispersed fine materials are discarded first by wet 

screening the sample through a U.S. Standard No. 

200 screen. The disaggregated portion remaining 

on the screen is dried and passed through a U.S. 

Standard No. 40 screen, thus concentrating the 

larger shells with the coarse fraction of the sample. 

The -40-mesh fraction is set aside in a closed 

container for possible further processing. The +40-: 

mesh fraction is now examined for sorting of grains 

rather than sorting for shells and shell fragments. 

Most of the shells and shell fragments are in the 

same size range as the accompanying sand grains 

and cannot be isolated by screening, but there 

are usually some large shells which can be isolated. 

Therefore, the +40-mesh fraction is sized with 

appropriate screens to isolate the larger shells and 

to divide the remaining portion into well-sorted 

fractions containing. the smaller shells and shell 

fragments. At this point, there might be a sufficient 

quantity of isolated shells for age determination. 

If not, it is necessary to isolate shell material from 

the finer of the +40-mesh fractions. 

By taking advantage of their shapes and relatively light densities, shells and shell fragments 

can be rapidly and completely separated from the 

heavier more equidimensional sand grains by air 

elutriation. A large elutriation apparatus similar 

to that described by Frost (1959, p. 886) is effective. 

Light-mineral impurities such as gypsum will separate with the shells, but these .can be eliminated by 

elutriating a second time, and readjusting the air 

stream velocity. Fractionation of shell material from 

the minus 40-mesh fractions by air elutriation is 

impractical because of the static electricity generated. This problem is overcome if distilled water 

is used as an elutriating medium. 

CLEANING SHELL MATERIAL FOR ~ DETERMINATIONS 

The concentrated shell material from the different 

fractions can now be added together and more closely 

scrutinized for impurities. There will probably still 

be clay imprisoned within the shells, and possibly 

some secondary lime encrustations on the outer 

surfaces. At this point, the shells should be gently 

fractured, but not pulverized, in a mortar with a 

pestle. The shells are placed in a beaker and allowed 

to soak in 3.5 percent solution of sodium polyphosphate in distilled water for 1 to 2 hours; then they 

are processed in an ultrasonic transducer for about 

15 minutes or until the shells appear to be clean. 

The ultrasonic transducer is very effective in breaking up clays and secondary encrustations ordinarily 

immune to other treatment. Very fragile shells must 

be treated sparingly in the ultrasonic transducer as 

they tend to disintegrate. After this . treatment, 

repeated washing and decanting with distilled water 

will remove impurities present as suspended fines. 

The clean shells remaining in the beaker are covered 

with a watch glass and allowed to dry slowly under 

a heat lamp. The dry shells are suitable for a C14 

age determination. 

There will be many problems peculiar to indLvidual'samples. The above procedure·is meant to be 

a general outline ·and can be revised to ·meet the 

demands of any individual sample. 

REFERENC~ 

Frost, I. C., 1959, An elutriating tube for the specific gravity 

~ 

separation of minerals: Am. Mineralogist, v. 44, p. 886-

890. 

·. ' 
B-328 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

141. COLORIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF IRON IN SMALL SAMPLES OF SPHALERITE 

By LEONARD SHAPIRO and MARTHA S. TOULMIN, Washington, D. C. 

The increased use of the "sphalerite geothermometer~' (Kullerud, 1953, and Barton and Kullerud, 

1958) that correlates the temperature of formation of the sphalerite with the amount of iron substituting for zinc in the crystal structure, has developed a need for a sjmple, rapid, and reliable 

procedure for determining the amount of iron -in 

sphalerite. Because natural sphalerite is commonly 

fine grained and/ or compositionally zoned, the analytical method used should be suitable for small samples, preferably single small fragments. The method 

described here has been utilized to trace changes 

in composition from the center to the margin of 

zoned sphalerite crystals. 

A method adapted _(Yoe and Jones, 1944) to meet 

these requirements is based on the use of disodium1,2-dihydroxybenzene-3,5-disulfonate (Tiron). It is 

a simple but flexible procedure, being suitable for 

visual estimation for greatest simplicity, or measurement in a photometer for increased accuracy. 

Samples from 0.6 to 30 mg have been used, and iron 

contents ranging from 0.1 to about 20 percent have 

been determined. The. procedure is described for 

a 10 mg sample for the range 0 to 1.1 percent iron. 

Smaller size sample may be used if necessary, and 

small aliquots of solutions may be used where iron 

concentrations are high. 

5. Concentrated nitric acid. Contained in a dropping 

bottle. 

6. Zinc chloride solution. Dilute 210 mg of ZnCl:! to 

100 ml in a volumetric flask. 

PREPARATION OF STANDARDS 

To a series of 22 X 175 mm test tubes add: 0.0, 

0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, and 1.1 ml of the standard 

iron solution with a graduated pipette. Add 6.7 

ml of zinc chloride solution, 3 drops of concentrated 

hydrochloric acid, and 10 to 20 mg. Tiron to each 

tube. With a graduate add- 20 ml of the buffer 

solution to each tube, and add water to make the 

volumes equal to 30 ml. Invert to mix. The resulting solutions correspond to 0.0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 

0.9, and 1.1 percent iron when a 10 mg sample is 

used, and are stable for a few days. 

PROCEDURE 

1. Crush a small crystal- of sphalerite with a mortar and 

pestle. 

2. Weigh 10 mg of the sample and transfer to a dry test tube. 

3. Add about 6 drops of concentrated nitric acid and 6 drops 

of concentrated hydrochloric acid. 

4. Evaporate to dryness over a Bunsen burner, then heat 

with the full flame of the burner for 10 to 20 seconds. 

5. Allow to cool for several minutes. 

6. Add 3 drops of hydrochloric acid and wet the bottom of 

the test tube by rotation, then arld 1.1 ml of water. The sphalerite is decomposed with aqua regia in . 7

_ 

a test tube, heated to drive off oxides of nitrogen 8. 

and sulfur that may have be.~n formed, and the re-:-· 

maining salts taken back into solution with hydr:o-, 9. 

chloric acid. Tiron and a buffer are added, and t~e 

purp]e color produced is ·compared with a set of 

standard iron solutions;- ~either visually or in a 

Add 10 to 15 mg of Tiron powder. 

Add 20 ml of buffer solution and water to 30 ml. Mix by 

inversion. 

Compare with the set of standards. A visual comparison 

can be made to obtain a value to the nearest 0.1 percent, 

or better results can be obtained by comparison in a 

photometer at a wave length of 550,u. 

The procedure may be modified by using smaller 

~amples or by dilution of the sample after step 6 

and use of a portion of the diluted. solution. If 

single fragments of 0.5 to 2 mg are used, it may 

be necessary to repeat steps 3 and 4 to obtain complete decomposition. 

photometer :using a wave le_ngth of 550f-t. 

·,· 

REAGENTS 

1. Standard iron solution. Dissolve 121 mg FeCI~ 

•6H:!O in water containing a few ml of hydrochloric acid ahd dilute to 250 ml in a volumetric 

flask. 

2. Buffer solution. Dilute 80 g of ammonium acetate 

and 30 ml of acetate acid to 2 liters. 

3. Tiron. · Pure powdered disodium-1,2-dihydroxybenzene-3,5-disulfonate. 

4. Concentrated hydrochloric acid. Contained in a 

dropping bottle. 

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS 

Accuracy and precision of the procedure were 

studied using 1 to 2 mg of five synthetic sphalerites 

of known composition. The samples were analyzed 

at four different times to provide reproducibility 

data, and the averages obtained were compared 

with the known iron content. The samples also 

-· 

( 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-329 

TABLE 1.-Dete?··minat·ions of pe?·cent i1·on in synthetic 

sphale1·ite 

Snmplc 

55.''''''''' 4.5 

56 .. '' .. '''' i .8 

59 ....... '.' 2.4 l()J. ......... 15.1 10!1. ......... 13.8 

Proposed colorimetric 

method 

5.0 -1.9 9.2 8.6 2.5 2.8 

15.9 20.7 12.3 13.1 

5.0 

!l.-1 

2.2 

17.4 

13.3 

Average 

-1.9 

8.i 

2.5 

li .3 13 .I 

Known 

content 

... i 

8.6 

2.6 

17.7 

H.-I 

Conventionnl eerie titration 

.. . i 

8.5 

2.6 

17.6 

J-1.2 

were analyzed by C. A. Kinser with a conventional 

eerie sulfate titration procedure as an additional 

basis of comparison. The results are shown in 

table 1. 

Samples of approximately 1 to 2 mg were weighed 

directly into the decomposition test tubes. Such 

weighings may be expected to have an accuracy of 

about 10 percent. The replication of results shows 

a spread of about 10 percent from the known iron 

concentration, but deviations of the averages from 

the known are generally better, indicating that 

chance variations such as weighing errors can be reduced by replic:ation, or the use of larger samples. 

Manganese, sometimes present in significant 

amounts, was found to introduce no error up to 10 

percent manganese. Copper present in amounts 

greater than those found in natural sphalerites also 

had no effect . 

The ability to use very small samples, especially 

small single fragments, plus the simplicity of the 

procedure, provide a useful tool for determination _ 

of the iron content of sphalerite. The method is 

readily adaptable to use in the field. 

REFERENCES 

Barton, P. B., Jr., and Kullerud, Gunnar, 1958, The FeSZnS-S system: Carnegie Inst. Washington, Ann. Rept. 

Director, Geophys. Lab., Paper 1289, p. 227-229. 

Kullerud, Gunnar, 1953, The FeS-ZnS system, a geological 

thermometer: Norsk geol. tidsskr., v. 32, no. 2-4, p. 

61-147. 

Y oe, J. H., and Jones, L. A., 1944, Colorimetric determination 

of iron with disodium-1,2-dihydroxybenzene-3,5-disulfonate: Anal. Chemistry, v. 16, p. 111-115. 

142. INDIRECT SEMIAUTOMATIC DETERMINATION OF ALUMINA WITH EDTA 

By J. I. DINNIN and C. A. KINSER, Washington, D. C. 

In the course of investigating the application of 

EDTA ( disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate dihydrate) titrations to the determination of alumina in 

geological materials, a new indirect titration system 

has been developed. B~cause of the uncertainty of 

most of the methods available for alumina it is 

useful to have auxiliary procedures, as different in 

nature as possible, by which to check results. 

The new method involves the addition of a controlled excess of EDT A and titration of the excess 

with ferric chloride solution using Tiron ( disodium 

1,2-dihydroxybenzene 3,5-disulfonic acid) as an 

indicator. The Tiron-ferric chloride titration system 

has been used for the direct determination of iron 

(Haberli, 1954) and the indirect determination of 

zirconium (Manning, Meyer, and White, 1955) but 

as far as is known it has not previously been used 

for the determination of alumina. 

Other EDTA titration systems for aluminum 

tested in this laboratory have been unsatisfactory. 

Indirect titration with cupric sulfate using Pyrocatechol Violet as indicator (Suk and Malat, 1956) 

gives excellent results with pure aluminum s'olutions. 

The system is extremely susceptible to changes in 

the chemical environment however, and its use must 

be rigorously restricted. In titrations performed 

in pyridine-acetate buffered solutions, the presence 

of moderate concentrations of phosphate or sulfate 

prevent the formation of an end point; perchlorate 

or chloride have significant effects on the location 

of the end point. Indirect titrations with ferric 

chloride using salicylic acid (Milner and Woodhead, 

.1954) or sulfosalicylic acid (Patrovsky and Huka, 

1957) as indicators give indistinct end points under 

the conditions of the tests. 

The Tiron-ferric chloride titration system is less 

subject to interferences than the Pyrocatechol Violetcupric sulfate system and appears to have several 
B-330 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

advantages over other methods proposed for the 

determination of alumina with EDTA. The reaction 

appears to be stoichiometric, the solution does not 

have to be boiled, and the end point is very sharp. 

The sharpness of the end point can be ascribed in 

part to the use of elevated temperatures, but the 

use of an automatic colorimetric recording titrator 

is also a major contributing factor. 

The recording colorimetric titrator used in this 

investigation is similar to one described by Shapiro 

and Brannock (1955) but differs in several features. 

The titrating ~olution is fed by a motor-driven 

syringe rather than by gravity. The light beam from 

a. tungsten lamp, after being collimated by a planoconvex lens, passes through the sample solution, 

then through a narrow band interference filter with 

a transmission peak at 620 mu; it is detected by a 

barrier layer photocell. The output from the photocell is fed through a voltage dividing potentiometer 

to a recorder. A low value resistance in series with 

the voltage divider is electrically removed from 

the circuit by the same switch that starts the syringe 

drive motor. This effectively increases the input 

to the recorder by a small increment, causing a 

fiducial mark from which to measure the duration 

of the titration. 

The recording titrator affords a higher sensitivity 

than can be attained by visual titration. The effects 

of minor changes in titration conditions, not discernible by visual titration, can readily be ascertained by the titrator. The precision of the motordriven syringe, based on weight of solution delivered 

during varying distances of chart travel, was better 

than one part in two thousand. 

REAGENTS FOR TITRATION OF ALUMINA 

Alumina standard solution: 1.00 mg Al~ba per ml in 2 percent 

hydrochloric acid. . 

EDTA solution: 0.0100 M. 

Phenolphthalein solution: 0.1 percent in ethyl alcohol. 

Ammonia solution: 1 + 1 (v + v). 

Acetate buffer: 140 g sodium acetate and 60 ml acetic acid 

(cone.) per liter. 

Tiron solution: 2 percent in water. 

Ferric chloride solution: 0.2 mg iron per ml in water. 

PROCEDURE 

In a 400 ml beaker, treat a sample solution containing no 

more than 2.0 mg alumina as follows: 

. Add 10.00 ml EDTA solution. Using several drops phenolphthalein solution as indicator, adjust the pH of the solution to alkaline (pink) with ammonia. Add 25 ml of acetate 

buffer, 1 ml of Tiron solution, and sufficient hot water (80°-

90°C) to make a total volume of 300 ml. Titrate excess EDTA 

with ferric chloride solution. 

STANDARDIZATION PROCEDURE AND CALCULATION 

Titrate three solutions containing ( 1) 0 mg, (2) 

1.00 mg, and (3) 2.00 mg of alumina by the same 

procedure used for the samples. The titer of solution 

(1) furnishes the base value for 10.00 ml of EDTA 

solution. Subtract titer (2) from titer (1); this is 

the equivalent titer for 1.00 mg of alumina. Subtract titer ( 3) from titer ( 1) ; this is the equivalent 

titer for 2.00 mg of alumina. Calculate the titration 

factor by dividing the mg of alumina in solutions (2) 

and (3) by their respective equivalent titers. 

Subtract the titers of each of the sample solutions 

from the titer of solution ( 1). The net titer represents the EDTA complexed by alumina in each 

solution. 

Calculate the percent AbOH as follows : 

titration factor X net titer X 100 

percent ALQ.~ = - · · mg samp 1 e 

DISCUSSION 

The intermediate stability constant of the aluminum-EDTA complex (log K=16.1) allows the use 

of a rather low pH (3.7) for the titration. This 

precludes interference by elements such as the alkalies and alkaline earths, which are complexed at 

high pH only. However, this still leaves a major 

portion of the elements in the periodic table free 

to interfere by consuming EDT A. These elements 

must be separated if they are present in significant 

concentration. 

Among the anions, perchlorate interferes with 

the end point. Its effect in moderate concentration 

however, can be overcome by the addition of sodium 

sulfate. Phosphates must be absent. 

The method has thus far been applied to the 

determination of alumina. in chromite and chrome 

ore. A mercury cathode electrolysis was. used to 

separate chromium, iron, and nickel; a cupferron 

separation was used to separate titanium and vanadium when· present in significant concentrations. 

Excess cupferron had to be destroyed completely 

with su,lfuric and nitric acids before proceeding 

with the titration. The results given by the titration 

procedure were in good agreement with results obtained by a colorimetric procedure. Good agreement· 

with the certified analyses was obtained in the 

analysis of standard samples of chrome ore. 

REFERENCES 

Haberli, E., 1954, A method for the titrimetric. determination' 

of iron in blood by means of complexon: Experientia, v.' 

10, p. 34-35. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-331 

Manning, D. L., Meyer, A. S., Jr., and White, J. C., 1955, The 

compleximetric titration of zirconium based on the use of 

ferric iron as the titrant and Tiron as the indicator: U.S. 

Atomic Energy Commission ORNL-1950, 15 p. 

Milner, G. W. C., and Woodhead, J. L., 1954, The volumetric 

determination of aluminum in non-ferrous alloys: Analyst, v. 79, p. 363-367. 

Patrovsky, V., and Huka, M., 1957, Complexometric titration 

XXI. Volumetric determination of iron, aluminum, and 

titanium in silicates: Coli. Czechoslov. Chem. ·commun., 

v. 22, p. 37-42. 

Shapiro, L., and Brannock, W. W., 1955, Automatic photometric titrations of calcium and magnesium in carbonate 

rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 45, p. 725-728. 

Suk, V., and Malat, M., 1956, Pyrocatechol Violet; indicator 

for the EDT A titration: Chemist-Analyst, v. 45, p. 61-62. 

143. DETERMINATION OF COPPER IN PLANT ASH WITH NEO-CUPROINE 

By CLAUDE HUFFMAN, JR., and DWIGHT L. SKINNER, Denver, Colo. 

Smith and McCurdy (1952) first investigated 

neo-cuproine (2,9-dimethyl-1, 10-phenanthroline) 

as a new and more specific chelating reagent for 

copper. Neo-cuproine reacts with a cuprous copper 

solution buffered with acetic acid to form a yelloworange chelate extractable with water-immiscible 

alcohols at pH 7 or less. Since Smith and McCurdy's 

report, many applications of neo-cuproine to determinations of copper in diverse materials have 

been made, for example, for copper in uranium ores 

(Skinner and Goss, oral communication), for copper. 

in germanium and silicon (Luke and Campbell, 

1953), for copper in steels (Gahler, 1954), and for 

copper in titanium ore (Andrew and others, 1957). 

Thus the neo-cuproine reagent has become increasingly popular for the determination of copper in 

complex materials because of its unique specificity, 

stability, and sensitivity with copper. The method 

described here is an application of neo-cuproine to 

the determination of copper in plant ash. In developing this method analyses were made of plant samples 

collected by F. J. Kleinhampl and field party from 

the following areas: Circle Cliffs, Garfield County, 

Utah; Grants district, McKinley County, N. Mex.; 

and Elk Ridge, San Juan County, Utah. 

REAGENTS AND EQUIPMENT 

Neo-cuproine solution. 1.085 g neo-cuproine is dissolved in 

333 ml ethyl alcohol and diluted to 500 ml with water. 

Sodium citrate solution. 3 percent (w/v) solution in water. 

Sodium acetate solution. 20 percent (w /v) solution in water. 

n-hexyl alcohol, Eastman practical grade. This reagent can 

be reused after recovery by distillation. 

Hydroxylamine sulfate solution: 1 percent (w /v) solution in 

water, freshly prepared. 

Sodium hydroxide solution. 40 percent (w/v) in water. 

Standard copper solution. Stock solution 1 ml = 0.~ mg Cu. 

Dissolve 0.3929 g of clear unffloresced crystals of 

CuSo,·5H~O in water, add 10 ml of hydrochloric acid and 

dilute one liter. Dilute solution 1 ml = 0.005 mg Cu. 

Dilute 50 ml of the stock solution to one liter with water. 

Absorption cells, matched, 1 em. 

Beckman D. U. spectrophotometer. 

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE 

Dry and grind the plant material. Ash off 10 

g of the ground vegetation at 550°C in a tared 

porcelain dish. Calculate the ash content. Thoroughly mix the ash and reserve for analysis. 

PROCEDURE 

Accurately weigh about 100 mg of plant ash and 

transfer to a test tube (16 by 150 mm). Add 5 ml 

(1-1-4) hydrochloric acid and boil for one minute. 

Filter the solution through a retentive 9 em filter 

paper into a 60 ml separatory funnel. Wash the 

residue four times with demineralized water. Add 

5 ml of 3 percent sodium citrate solution to the 

filtered solution to complex the iron, then add 5 ml of 

20 percent sodium acetate solution. Mix thoroughly. 

Add 5 ml of freshly prepared one percent hydroxylamine sulfate solution to reduce the cupric ion; adjust 

the solution to pH 5 with approximately 10 drops 

of 40 percent sodium hydroxide solution, and mix 

again. Add 4 ml of neo-cuproine solution and mix 

the contents of the funnel again. Add 10.0 ml of 

n-hexyl alcohol, stopper the separatory funnel and 

shake for 30 seconds. Allow the solution to stand 

for 5 minutes until the two immiscible solutions 

separate. Drain the aqueous layer and discard. 
B-332 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

Draw off a portion of the n-hexyl alcohol into a 1-cm 

cell and measure the absorbance with the spectrophotometer at 454p., using a reagent blank carried 

through the entire procedure as a reference. 

STANDARDIZATION 

Portions of the standard. solution containing 1, 

3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 micrograms copper and one 

reference solution (reagent blank) were carried 

through the entire procedure to establish a working 

curve. A plot of data from the standards above 

gives a satisfactory working range of 10 to 400 

parts per million copper based on a 1 00-milligram 

sample of plant ash. 

REMARKS 

The neo-cuproine reagent is unique because it 

is specific for copper (Smith and McCurdy, 1952). 

T.he absence of interference by 56 metal ions at the 

50-microgram level was. shown by Luke and Campbell (1953). Tests for interference from 15 mg 

amounts of iron (III), aluminum, chromium· (III), 

manganese (II), molybdenum (VI), and vanadium 

(IV), showed that they could be tolerated except 

for the chromium. Only about 2 mg of chromium 

can be tolerated (Andrew and others, 1957). The 

interference from anions can be significant because 

they form a tighter complex with copper than does 

neo-cuproine. Gahler (1954) has shown that trace 

amounts of cyanide, sulfide, and large amounts of 

phosphate must be removed to prevent their serious 

interference. No interference from chromium or 

phosphate occurs in the analysis of plant ash beTABLE 1.-Swwmm·y of 82 plant samples used in the p1·eci-sion 

study 

Plant species 

.Junipel' ................. 

Pinon pine .............. 

Ponclel'osa pine ..... 

Number 

of samples 

:~5 

:~8 

~) 

Average 

ash 

(percent) 

5.:3 

:~. :3 

:).0 

Copper (ppm) 

Range Average 

15-120 60 

50-200 125 

65-150 108 

TABLE 2.-Comparison of copper values dete·rmined by the 

neo-cuproine ·method and the biquinoline method 

[Analysts: neo-cuproine method, Claude Huffman, Jr.; biquinoline method, J. H. McCarthy] 

::lample 

2:~6762 .......... . 2:3676:3 .......... . 2:.36764 .......... . 2:36765 .......... . 2:36766 .......... . 2:36767 .......... . 

Ash 

(percent) 

8.6 

-J..8 

5.7 

6.0 

5. 1 

2.H 

Average ................... . 

Copper in ash (ppm) 

Neo-cuproine Biquinoline 

15 

/.:') 

:~o 

65 

:)0 

uo 

51 

15 

80 

25 

55 

2.5 

80 

-1-7 

Difference 

none 

-5 

+5 

+IO 

+5 

+10 

6 

cause the concentration of both elements is well 

below the interference levels established by the 

above authors. 

The precision of the determination of copper by 

the method described was calculated. from paired 

data (Youden, 1951, p. 17) using replicated determinations on 82 samples of plan.t ash. The standard 

deviation of the determination is 9.6 ppm copper. 

The 82 samples used in the precision study consisted 

of branch tips from 35 juniper, 38 pinon pine, and 9 

ponderosa pine·. A summary of the 82 samples is 

shown in table 1. 

Table 2 compares the neo-cuproine method and 

the biquinoline method for the determination of 

copper in six plant ash samples. The agreement between methods is about the. same as the standard 

deviation of the determination. 

REFERENCES 

Andrew, J. F. Goulstone, A. B., and Deacutis, A. A., 1957, 

Spectrophotometric determination of copper in titanium: 

· Anal. Chemistry, v. 29, p. 750-753. 

Gahler, A. R., 1954, Colorimetric determination of copper with 

neo-cuproine: Anal. .Chemistry, v. 26, p. 577-578. 

Luke, C. L., and Campbell, M. E., 1953, Determination of 

impurities in germanium and silicon: Anal. Chemistry, 

v. 25, p. 1588-1593. 

Smith, G. F., and McCurdy, W. H., 1952, 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-

phenanthroline, n~w ·specific in spectrophotometric determination of copper: Anal. Chemistry, v. 24, p. 371-373. 

Youden, W. J., 1951, Statistical methods for chemists: New 

York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., p. 125. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-33'3 

144. DIRECT-READING SPECTROMETRIC TECHNIQUE FOR DETERMINING MAJOR CONSTITUENTS IN 

NATURAL WATER 

By JOSEPH HAFFTY and A. W. HELZ, Washington, D. C. 

Methods used by the Geological Survey for determining major cations and silica in natural water 

entail in most instances five separate determinations 

employing titrimetric, spectrophotometric, and 

flame-photometric procedures. The use of optical 

emission spectrography with multiplier phototubes 

to measure the radiant energy of the spectral lines 

can quickly establish the concentrations of the major 

constituents in one operation. The procedure ·is 

simple in that no complicated preparation of sample 

or standards is necessary. It is designed to determine the elements and compounds listed on table 

1 in the ranges of concentration indicated. A spectographic-residue method for determining minor 

elements in waters has been described previously 

(Hatfty, 1960). 

Potassium was not incJuded in the list of elements 

determined because a red-sensitive tube for measuring the very sensitive 7800 A (Angstrom units) line 

was not available. However, the writers feel that 

no difficulty would be encountered if this element 

were to be determined, as the behavior of potassium 

in the spark is analogous to that of sodium. The 

present work was exploratory, and was done on a 

spectrometer set up specifically for the analysis of 

major elements of rocks rather than natural waters. 

Standard solutions were prepared as follows: Calcium carbonate was dissolved in dilute nitric acid; 

sodium and potassium were added as the chlorides; 

magnesium added as the oxide was dissolved by 

addition of sulfuric acid; and silica was introduced 

by boiling commercial silica gel in distilled water, 

filtering, diluting the filtrate slightly and reboiling 

for a total time of four hours. All of the above 

substances, except silica gel, were of "specpure" 

grade. R. 0. Fournier prepared the silica solution, 

and Leonard Shapiro and J. J. Rowe analyzed it. 

TABLE 1.-Spect?"Wnt lines and concent?·ation 1·anges 

Element or com pound 

Calcium ............ 0 0 .....•• 0 

Sodium ... 0 0 0. 0 0. 0. 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 

:\'[ agncsium .... 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 

Silic:a ... 0 •• 0. 0 0 .• 0 0 •. 0. 0 0 0 0 0. 0 

Lithium ... 0. 0 0 0. 0. 0. 0 0 •. 0 0. 0. 

:\'fcrcury ..... 0 0 •. 0. 0 0 . 0 0 0. 0 . 0 0 

Wavelength 

(A) 

:317!) 0:3:3 

5889095 

2802070 

2881.58 

:32:32 0 61 

5460.74 

Concentration range (parts per million) 

:3 to :~16 

1 to :316 

00 a to 100 

:3 to :310 6 

Rcfercnec line 

Monitor line 

J. I. Dinnin made flame-photometric determinations 

for calcium and sodium in the water samples tested. 

The procedure .3onsists of mixing 9 parts by 

1000 r--------------------

100 

(/) 

(.!) 

z 

Ci 

<( 

lJJ 

a: 

...J 

<( 

Ci 

10 

1000r----------------------. 

CONCENTRATION IN ORIGINAL SOLUTION, IN PARTS PER MILLION 

FIGURE 144.1.-Working curves used for obtaining concentrations of major constituents in natural water. 
B-334 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

volume. of water sample with 1 part of a lithium 

solution, prepared by dissolving lithium carbonate 

in dilute nitric acid. Lithium is used as the reference 

element, and in the final mixture it is equivalent to 

1 gram per liter. The mixture is then poured into 

a porcelain boat and excited directly using the rotating disk method. The standards are treated in. 

the same way as the unknown samples. The radiant 

energy is measured by multiplier phototubes placed 

in back of slits so located as to select lines of wavelengths indicated in table 1. The output of the 

multiplier phototubes activate amplifiers which 

record the intensity of light on the tubes. The length 

of a "run" is determined by the output of the phototube for lithium. The response is adjusted to give 

a 60-second run by setting the de (direct current) 

supply voltage for the "lithium" multiplier phototube. The analytical range for the elements sought 

is subsequently adjusted by setting the corresponding de supply voltages. Working curves are constructed from the standard solutions by plotting 

parts per million of the element or compound versus 

the dial readings on log-log paper. Examples of 

such curves are shown on figure 144.1. The concentrations of the elements in the unknown samples 

are read from the working curves. 

The excitation source is a low-voltage underdamped repetitive discharge. having a sparklike 

character. The circuit parameters of a satisfactory 

unit used for this work are: capacitance, 14 microfarads;. inductance, residual; resistance, residual; 

discharge-point control, 30°; and output voltage, 

940. A 3-mm spark gap is maintained between an 

upper pointed graphite electrode 14-inch in diameter 

and a lower graphite disk, Vi-inch in diameter, which 

is partly immersed in the sample and rotated at a 

speed of 10 rpm. 

Sparse comparative data with chemical and flamephotometric methods indicate that acceptable agreement has been obtained for the elements determined 

in the lower range of concf'mtrations. However, the 

calcium line seems to be enhanced in higher concentrations (about 35 ppl(l and higher). The working curve for sodium shows that self-reversal of 

the 5890A line takes place, but acceptable agreement with flame-photometric results was realized 

in the range 2 to 10 ppm. ·Good comparisons were 

obtained for magnesium in the range 2 to 25 ppm 

and silica in the range 3 to 30 ppm. 

Dilution of the sample may solve the difficulties 

indicated above for calcium and sodium. However, 

this requires additional operations that defeat the 

purpose of the procedure. Further work may disclose that there are more suitable additives to the 

solutions, or that a selection of other spectral lines 

is necessary to determine accurately the concentrations of these elements. Our experience indicates 

that within a few minutes the procedure will provide determinations of the major constituents in 

natural waters. 

REFERENCE 

Haffty, Joseph, 1960 Residue method for common minor elements: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1540-A. 

145. HAPID QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF QUARTZ AND TOTAL IRON IN SILICATE ROCKS BY X-RAY 

DIFFRACTION 

By D. B. TATLOCK, Menlo Park, Calif. 

The relationships between diffraction, absorption, 

fluorescence, and density allow for rapid and reasonably accurate quantitative estimates of quartz 

and total iron in most holocrystalline silicate rocks, 

both fresh and altered, from X-ray diffraction patterns of whole-rock powders. Diffraction analysis 

has proved indispensable in the study of cryptocrystalline metasomatized rocks not amenable to 

rr.odal analysis by microscopic examination. No 

attempt .is made in this short paper to present details of instrumentation or of sample preparation. 

The reproducibility of quartz peak heights in 

quantitative diffraction work has been well demonstrated by many investigators (Klug and Alexander, 

1954, and Weiskirchner, 1960). Only a few (Black, 

1953, and v. Engelhardt and Haussiihl, 1960), how-
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-335 

~ 70 

:I 

~ 

(/) 

1-

z 

w 60 u 

u: 

u.. 

w 

0 

() 

6 so 

f= 

0.. 

CD 

0: 

0 

(/) 

~ 40 

(/) 

(/) 

< 

~ 

Matrix less (Fe203+Fe O) 

0 0 0 0 

a 0 

QUARTZ 

CALC-ALK CALC-ALK DACITE LATITE ANDESITE NORMAL 

RHYOLITE TRACHYTE THOLEIITIC 

BASALT 

FIGURE 145.1.-Mass absorption coefficients of matrices of 

average igneous rocks with and without ( Fe~Oa + FeO) 

and exclusive of normative quartz. 

ever, have applied diffraction to modal analysis of 

the common silicate rocks on a mass production 

basis, owing to the seemingly adverse effects of 

absorption and fluorescence. In comparing diffraction patterns of quartz-bearing whole-rock powders 

ranging from felsic to mafic in composition, absorption effects are present that usually prevent a direct 

comparison of the quartz peak heights (Leroux, 

Lennox, and Kay, 1953). Specifically, when a mixture contains both a weak and a strong absorber, 

peaks of the weakly absorbing component appear 

weaker, and those of the strongly absorbing component stronger, than expected from a linear relationship for each component (Klug and Alexander, 

1953, p. 411). In determining the quartz content 

of a whole-rock powder, the powder rp.ay be regarded 

as consisting of just two components, the quartz, 

and the sum of the other minerals which may be 

designated the matrix. Figure 145.1 shows that the 

mass absorption coefficients of the matrix por~ion 

of average igneous rocks (Nockolds, 1954), exclusiv~ 

of the iron oxides and normative quartz, are nearly 

constant, ranging from 43 for rhyolite to 48 for 

basalt. Wit.h iron oxides included in the matrix, 

however, the mass absorption coefficients range from 

49 for rhyolite to 7 4 for basalt. Hence, iron is shown 

to be the element chiefly responsible for appreciable 

differences in absorption in the matrix component 

of the common silicate rocks. 

Iron, also, is the only relatively abundant common rock-forming element whose fluorescence under 

copper radiation affects appreciable differences in 

background. The greater the iron content of a 

whole-rock powder, the greater the background intensity of its diffraction pattern. This relationship allows for an estimation of the total iron 

in a sample by reading the background at a given 

angle 20 after the diffraction unit has been calibrated. In figure 145.2 the total iron, calculated 

from chef11ical analyses of metasomatized rhyolitic 

and andesitic rocks and Franciscan graywackes, 

has been plotted against background intensities at 

the 4.26A quartz line as· recorded on diffraction 

patterns of splits of the chemically analyzed powders. 

The background intensity is the average of measurements on both sides of the selected line (Carl, 

1947). Such a curve can easily be extended for 

rapid and reasonably accurate analysis of lowgrade iron ores by preparing mixtures of quartz and 

hematite or magnetite; accuracy is within 10 percent of the amount of iron present in concentrations 

greater than 20 percent. 

Referring again to figure 145.1, the slightly 

strongly absorptive character of the matrix component (less iron) in mafic rocks relative to felsic 

rocks, and its consequent depressant effect on quartz 

26 

24 

iD 

C\1 

Co 22 

c::i 

~ 

< 

1.0 20 C\1 

.,f 

1-

< 

~ 18 u; 

z 

w 

1-

~ 

Q 16 z 

::> 

0 

0: 

(.!) 

X: 

() 14 < 

CD 

12 I 

I 

I 

10 0 2 3 4 5 6 

TOTAL IRON-WEIGHT PERCENT 

FIGURE 145.2.-Total iron, calculated from chemically an--

alyzed rocks, plotted against background intensity of 

20.8 o 28 ( CuKa; nickel filter). 
B-336 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

QUARTZ,WEIGHT PERCENT 

FIGURE 145.3.-Peak height curves and corresponding background curves for quartz mixed with materials having 

different mass absorption coefficients resulting chiefly 

from differences in iron content. Construction of interpolation curve is illustrated. 

peak intensities, is roughly compensated by density 

differences in quartz '(2.65) and total matrix (basalt 

2.97). This is because of the greater volume percent 

(and hence, greater percent of the surface exposed 

to radiation) of quartz relative to its weight percent 

when mixed with a denser material. This densityabsorption compensation permits an almost direct 

comparison of quartz peak intensities regardless 

of the matrix-except for the effects of iron. 

To compensate for the absorption and fluorescence 

effects of iron when analyzing for quartz, four peak 

height curves and their corresponding background 

curves were established from prepared powders of 

quartz mixed, in order of increasing absorptive 

strengths, with (a) natural pinite (muscovite), 

(b) biotite-actinolite greenstone, (c) chlorite, and 

(d) magnetite; the letters correspond with the curvesets in figure 145.3. The curves are based on the 

diffraction intensity of copper radiation from the 

(100) plane of quartz (Weiskirchner, 1960) and 

the background intensity in the immediate vicinity 

of the same line ( 4.26A or 20.8°20) at a scanning 

speed of 2° 20 per minute. Slower scanning speeds 

may be used, but with only slightly better accuracy. 

Differences in the mass absorption coefficients of 

matrices have been shown to be chiefly a function 

of iron content, and iron content is expressed by 

background intensity. As iron content increases, 

background intensity increases, and so, too, does 

iD 

N 

Co 70 

0 

~ 

<( 60 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 

QUARTZ.WEIGHT PERCENT 

FIGURE 145.4.-Peak height and background curve-set, with 

interpolation curves, for determining weight percent of 

quartz in silicate matrices containing 0 to 72.4 percent 

iron. 

the absorptive strength of the matrix which has 

the effect of depressing the peak height curve. Using 

.this relationship, the quartz content of a rockpowder can be determined from any combination 

w 

> 

f= 

<( 

~ 

0:: 

50 

Q 40 z 

N' 

f0:: 

<( 

:::> 

0 30 

20 

20 

• 

• 

•• 

• 

• 

• • •• 

• 

• • 

• 

• 

• Micro- and cryptocrystalline rocks 

0 

Granitic rocks 

30 40 50 60 

QUARTZ,X-RAY MODAL 

FIGURE 145.5.-Weight percent of quartz determined from 

diffraction patterns of splits of 32 chemically analyzed 

samples plotted against normative quartz. Scanning 

speed: 2°20 per minute. 
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-337 

of peak height (above background) and background 

(above base line) by interpolating between established sets of peak height and background curves. 

The greater the mass absorption coefficient of the 

matrix (as a function of iron, and expressed by 

background) the greater the quartz content for a 

given peak height. For example, in. figure 145.3, 

at a peak height above background of 40, the quartz 

content of a· powder having the absorption characteristics of curve-set (a) would be 35 percent, of 

curve-set (b) 43 percent, of curve-set (c) 51 percent, 

and of curve-set (d) 58 percent. This relationship 

establishes a so-called interpolation curve, the construction of which is illustrated in figure 145.3. A 

series of interpolation curves is shown in figure 

145.4, in conjunction with a peak height and background curve-set. Actually, any one of the sets of 

curves in figure 145.3 showir1g peak height and 

corresponding backg.rouYid intensity could be used 

in conjunction with the interpolation curves in preparing figure 145.4 .. To illustrate how the weight 

percent of quartz is determined from figure 145.4, 

assume a peak height above background of 50 and a 

background of 20; both are read in the same units 

on the ordinate scale. By following the dotted lines, 

the quartz content for this combination of diffraction and background intensities is shown to be 53 

percent. 

To substantiate the reliability of the curves 

established with prepared powder mixtures, the normative quartz values of 5 granitic rocks and 27 metasomatized rhyolitic and andesitic rocks, with iron 

contents ranging from 0.2 to 6.2 percent, were plotted 

against quartz determined from diffraction patterns 

of splits of the chemically analyzed powders (fig. 

145.5). The standard deviation of the modal quartz 

from the normative quartz is 2.2 percent. 

Similar curves have been established for determining amounts of feldspar, muscovite, andalusite, 

pyrophyllite, and chlorite, but in general these are 

applicable only to rocks of a given type from a 

given area. Curves for quartz and total iron, however, appear to work well with almost all the common holocrystalline silicate rocks, both fresh and 

altered, regardless of rock type or source area, and 

they can be readily established for use with any 

recent model diffractometer. 

REFERENCES 

Black, R. H., 1953, Analysis of bauxite exploration samples by 

X-ray diffraction: Anal. Chemistry, v. 25, p. 743-748. 

Carl, H. F., 1947, Quantitative mineral analysis with a recording X-ray diffraction spectrometer: Am. Mineralogist, v. 

32, p. 508-517. 

Engelhardt, W. von, and Haussiihl, S., 1960, Rontgengraphische Phasenanalyse grobcrystalliner Gesteine: 

Chern. Erde, v. 20, no. 3, p. 155-161. 

Klug, H. P., and Alexander, L. E., 1954, X-ray diffraction 

procedures for polycrystalline and amorphous materials: 

New York, John Wiley and Sons, 716 p. 

Leroux, Jean, Lennox, D. H., and Kay, Kingsley, 1953, Direct 

quantitative X-ray analysis by diffraction-absorption technique: Anal. Chemistry, v. 25, p. 740-743. 

Nockolds, S. R., 1954, Average chemical compositions of some 

igneous rocks: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 65, p. 1007-

1032. 

Weiskirchner, W., 1960, Untersuchungen zur quantitativen 

Bestimmung der Phasen mit Hilfe von Rontgenstrahlen: 

Soc. mineralog. italiana, v. 16, p. 363-378. 

146. THE KOBERG-DAUM WIND-DIRECTION AND WIND-VELOCITY RECORDER 

By G. E. KOBERG and C. R. DAUM, Denver, Colo. 

The conventional instruments for recording wind 

direction generally require four event markers or 

pens to record wind directions to 8 points of the 

compass, although one type of commercially available recorder has a single pen. Some recorders use 

electrically controlled event markers which tick at 

regular intervals of time, and the marker that makes 

the tick is selected by a switch attached to the wind 

vane. If wind direction is sampled once each minute, 

the desirable chart speed to insure legibility of the 

record is 3 inches per hour. 

The Koberg-Daum wind-direction and wind-velocity recorder uses a single pen to record wind· direction to 8 points of the compass, and for an 8-inch 

circular chart a chart speed of one revolution per 

week generally is suitable. The recorder, including 
B-3'38 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 

anemometer, costs about $350 to make, which is 

much less than the cost of most commercially available instruments. Other advantages are portability 

and ease of installation. All of these features make 

this an instrument to be used in preference to the 

conventional recording system. 

The Koberg-Daum recorder has a variable radius 

cam on the vertical shaft supporting the wind vane, 

so that the angular position of the cam is controlled 

by the vane. The variable radius cam is divided 

into 8 segments, each representing 40 degrees of 

the compass with 5 degree transition zones between 

segments. Each segment has a different radius. 

The transition zone is provided so that a roller 

pressed against the cam by a spring and held in 

place by an arm can move from one segment to the 

next with minimum friction. The variable-radius 

cam, through a suitable mechanical linkage, positions a stylus on a circular chart so that the distance 

from the center of the chart indicates the wind direction. The stylus uses an electric arcing system 

to burn a series of small holes in the surface of the 

chart paper, thus providing a legible trace. The 

chart paper is made specifically for this purpose; 

one side being impregnated with an electrically 

conducting material. If the wind direction should 

fluctuate rap~dly, for example between southwest 

and northwest, three directions will be recorded, 

namely southwest, west, and northwest. 

A noteworthy feature of this recorder is that 

during the tr~nsition from one segment to the next, 

a trace is not recorded because a switching device 

shuts off the marking device during transition. 

This feature prevents the recording of an unintelligible trace during periods of rapidly fluctuating 

wind direction. · 

The speed of the wind is recorded on the margin 

of the chart by an ink pen. Individual ticks are 

usually distinguishable if the event marker is regulated to record every 10 miles of wind. 

Koberg-Daum recorders now being used have a 

spring-wound 8-day clock to turn the circular chart. 

The torque needed to overcome the friction created 

by the marking devices on the chart is, so slight that 

very little trouble is experienced from clock stoppage. The drain on the batteries that supply power 

for the marking device is negligible. 

A patent application has been made for the 

Koberg-Daum recorder, with all rights reserved 

for the Government. 
SUBJECT INDEX 

!_Numbers refer to articles; finding Jist of article page numbers follows author index] 

A 

Article 

Abnormal bedding, sandstone and shale...... 49 

Age determinations. Sec 1Jarticular method. 

Alabama, Birmingham area, structural 

geology .......................................... 4 3 

Tnllapossa River, hydrology.................... 42 

Alnska, Kandik River, paleontology 

nnd stratigrnphy ........................ 90 

Kuiu Island, paleontology and 

strntigraphy ............ ....... ......... 101 

Nntion .River, vnleontology and 

str·ntigruphy !10 

Pr·incc of Wulcs Jslnnd, puleontology 

and stratigruphy ...................... 101 

Alluvial fana, compaction................................ 77 

tectonic shmiflcancc ................................ 75 

Alluvium, copper deposits benenth................ 133 

heavy-minernl studies .............................. 118 

Alteration, hydrothermal, cluy minerals .... 91 

greiaen 92 

i r·on or·cs................................................ 35 

r·elntion to mctuls in Iithosols ................... 5R 

supergene, iron orcs................................. 35 

Alumina, determination of with EDTA...... 142 

Alunite, Pu~rto Rico......................................... 91 

Anulog, clcctr·ic, of liquid flow......................... 28 

A ndersonite, synthesis ...................... ............... 113 

Anthozoa, Pennsylvanian, Alaska.. .............. 101 

Appalachians, fracture systems..................... 43 

Triassic dikes .............................. ............... 41 

See alBO BJ)(JcificJ Stat.cs. 

Archeology, use in Recent str-athnaphy........ 81 

usc of desert varnish in dating................ 80 

Arizona, Bisbee quadrangle, stratigraphy.. 53 

Fort A nache Indian .Reservation, soilmoisture studies ........................ 98 

Pima mining district, geochemical 

prosnecting .................................. 1.33 

Soc alBo Colorado Plateau. 

Aroostook limestone, age.................................. . 30 

. Arsenic, in soils.................................................. 58 

Ash, \'olcanic. Sec Volcanic ash. 

B 

Huritc r·epluccment, ·Fornminifera ............... 94 

· Hasnlt, ground-water barriers....................... 88 

petrology, Hawaii ...................................... 89 

Beach sands, ground water.............................. 85 

Belt series, Idaho-Montana.............................. 67 

Beryllium, in cordierite.................................... 109 

Bicarbonate, in surface water........................ 84. 

Bioherms, Mississippian, Kentucky.............. 89 

Ordovician, Nevada .................................. 97 

Bliss sandstone, stratigraphic relations...... 51 

Doggy shale, abnormal bedding...................... 49 

Borate minerals, Furnace Creek area, 

California .................................... 129 

Brachionoda, Pennsylvanian, Alaska........... 101 

Brazil, Serra de Jacobina, urani\Jm ............. 4 

Bremsstrahlung .................................................. 139 

Article 

Brfachiopoda, Pennsylvanian, Alaska.......... 101 

Bulk density, measurement by gamma-ray 

absorption 

c 

Calcium, 

in limestone 

in soils ..................................................... .. 

in surface water ........................................ .. 

California, Coast Ranges, stratigraphy 

Death Valley, climate ............................. .. 

Deep Spring Lake, mineralogy ............. . 

Furnace Creek at:ea, mine.·alogy ........... . 

Long Valley, geophysical 

134 

126 

22 

84 

78 

79 

83 

129 

investigations ---------~------------·------- 106 

Mojave Desert, structural geology.......... 82 

paleontology ................................................ 100 

Palo Alto, hydrology ................................. 22, 76 

Sacramento Valley, stratigraphy_........... 78 

~an Francisco Peninsula, hydrology______ 84 

San Joaquin Valley, geomorphology.... 75 

hydrology ...................................... 24-26, 77 

Sierra Valley, geophysical 

investigations .............................. 107 

southern California batholith, 

geochemical investigations ...... 108 

Canyon Diablo meteorite, analysis................ 112 

Carbonatites, radioactive and rare-earth 

minerals ........................................ 121 

Carboniferous. See Mississippian; 

Pennsylvanian. 

Carbon-14 age determinations, carbonate 

shells .......................................... :. 140 

peat 65 

Carolina Piedmont, Paleozoic history.......... 45 

Cation exchange, in soils.................................. 22 

Catskill formation, unconformity.................. 38 

Cephalopoda, Pennsylvanian, Alaska............ .101 

Chalcopyrite, germanium content.................. 110 

X-ray diffraction studies.......................... 114 

Channels. See 'streams. 

Chinle formation, cross-strata, origin............ 54 

Chloride, in surface water................................ 84 

Chlorine, in silicic volcanic glass.................... 111 

Clausthalite, X-ray diffraction studies.......... 114 

Clay minerals, effect on compaction ............. 77 

hydrothermal alterations ........................ 91 

Olive Hill clay bed, Kentucky................ 120 

preferred orientation ................................ 116 

Climax stock,· Nevada, age relations............ 73 

Coal, pH of mine water.................................. 87 

Coal balls, Kentucky.......................................... 95 

Coamo formation, ash-flow deposits.............. 93 

Coffinite, paragenesis ...................................... 2 

Collapse structures, Ogallala formation, 

New Mexico ................................ 52 

Spanish Valley, Utah................................ 72 

Yellowstone Plateau ................................ 104 

Colorado, Arkansas Valley, geomorphology 

and glacial geology.................... 56 

Badger Wash, hydrology.......................... 59 

Colorado River, geomorphology.............. 60 

Article 

Colorado-Continued 

DeBeque, stratigraphy ............................ 61 

Front Range, mineral deposits................ I, 2 

Gunnison County, paleobotany.............. 96 

Gunnison River, geomorphology............ 60 

Lake City, geomorphology........................ 57 

Leadville district, geomorphology and 

glacial geology ............................ 56 

paleontology ................................................ 99 

Piceance Creek basin, stratigraphy...... 61 

Powderhorn district, mineralogy............ 21 

Prairie Divide, mineral deposits ........... . 

Red Mountain area, geochemical 

investigations ............................ 58 

Roberts Tunnel, engineering geology.... 131 

Unaweep Canyon, geomorphology........ 60 

Uravan, mineralogy .................................. 125 

Sec alBa Colorado Plateau. 

Colorado Plateau, geochemical 

investigations .............................. 122, 123 

paleobotany .................................................. 55 

stratigr_aphy ................................................ 54 

See also S1Jecific StateR. 

Co)orimetric method, determination of iron 

in sphalerite ................................ 141 

(olumbia River basalt, barrier reservoirs.... 88 

tompaction, of aquifers ........................... 23, 25, 26 

recorder ...................................................... .. 

Conductivity bridge, direct-reading ............ .. 

24 

29 

Copper,. deposits beneath alluvium................ 133 

in plant ash.................................................. 143 

in soils 58 

Corals, Devonian, Alaska................................ 90 

Permian, Colorado .................................... 99 

Silurian, Alaska ........................................ 90 

Cordierite, beryllium content.......................... 109 

Cretaceous, Alaska, east-centraL.................... 90 

Arizona, Mural HilL................................. 53 

California, Coast Ranges............................ 78 

Sacramento Valley ............................ 78 

Idaho, Clark Fork........................................ 67 

Montana,' Clark Fork.................................. 67 

Puerto Rico, east-centraL.......................... 92 

eastern .................................................. 91 

north-central ........................................ 93 

Tennessee, Highland Rim.......................... 40 

Utah, Spanish Valley.................................. 72 

Wyoming, Black Hills................................ 66 

Crinoidea, Pennsylvania, Alaska...................... 101 

Cross-strata, origin ..... ..... .............................. 54 

Crustal deformation, California, Long 

Valley ............ ............................ 106 

Idaho, Snake River Plain .... ................. 105 

Yellowstone National Park .... ............... 104 

D 

Depressions, closed............................................ 52 

thaw 

Desert varnish, origin ...................................... .. 

B-339 

65 

80 
B-340 

Article 

Devonian, New Mexico, Mockingbird Gap 

quadrangle------------------------------------ 51 

Pennsylvania, Anthracite· reg:ion____________ 38 

Diamictite, Fossil basin, Wyoming ________________ . 62 

Dikes, Triassic, Appalachian region._____________ 41 

Drill core, measurement of bulk density ........ , 134 

Drill holes, recording geologic features in.... 137 

Dry Union formation, geologic history~-------·- 56 

Dune sands, ground water in............................ 85 

E 

Earthflqws, movement........................................ 57 

Earthquakes, caused by nuclear explosions.. 103 

EDT A, determination of alumina-------·----------- 142 

El Paso formation, stratigraphic relations.... 51 

Elasticity, aquifers -------------------------------------------- 23 

rock salt and potash ore______________________________ 102 

Electronprobe analysis·------------------------------------ 112 

Enargite, germanium content__________________________ 110 

Engineering geology See State names. 

Erosion, control -------------------------------------------------- 14, 59 

effects of microclimate on·-----------------------·- 16 

laboratory analysis--------------------·----------------- 14 

streambank ------------------------------------ ------------ 14 

time-lapse photography in study of________ 135 

Evanston formation, age____________________________________ 64 

Evaporation, reservoir -------------------------------------- 50 

Evapotranspiration, control of losses----------- 18 

measurement ----------------------------------------·-------- 21 

F 

Faults and faulting, Birmingham, Ala., red 

iron-ore district ------------·------------- 43 

block mosaic, Clark Fork area, IdahoMontana --------------------------------·------- 67 

Mojave Desert, Calif ..... ----·------------------------, 82 

Uinta fault, Utah. _______________ ----------------------- 132 

Flood plains, formation------------------------------------- 48 

Floods. See Surface water. 

Fluorine, in silicic volcanic glass____________________ 111 

Folding, Black Hills, Wyo,________________________________ 66 

Foraminifera, Early Cretaceous, Alaska...... 90 

Paleocene, Kentucky ---------------------------------- 94 

Pennsylvanian, Alaska------------------------------ 101 

replacement --------------------------------------------·----- 94 

Fort Payne formation, reefs____________________________ 39 

Fracturing, hydraulic ---------------------------------------- 136 

Franciscan formation, specific gravity__________ 78 

G 

Galena, X-ray diffraction studies.___________________ 114 

Gamma-ray absorption, bulk density of 

drill core ---------------------------------------- 134 

Gastropoda, Permian, Alaska__________________________ 101 

Northwestern United States----------- 100 

Geochemical investigations. See 11articular 

method and State names. 

Geochemical prospecting, copper deposits 

beneath alluvium ------------------------ 133 

hydrogeochemical anomalies -------------------- 124 

molybdenum ____ ------------------------------------------- 117 

Geochronology. See particular method. 

Geomorphology, aggradation of channels___ 15 

alluvia,! fans ------------------------------------------------ 75 

channel dimensions ---·-------------------------------- 13 

drainage basins-------------------------------------------- 16 

slopes ---------------:-------------------------------------------~ 16 

See also State names. 

Geophysical investigations, seismograms of 

nuclear explosion and aftershocks -------------------------------------------- 103 

See also 1mrticular method and State 

names. 

Georgia, hydrology ---------------------------------------------- 46 

Germanium, in enargite and other copper 

sulfide minerals---------------------------- 110 

INDEX 

Article 

Glacial drift, ground water in._______________________ 17 

prospecting for deposits unaer --------------- 117 

Glacial lakes, Bonneville____________________________________ 69 

Western United States _________ ---------------- 47 

Glacial streams, competence______________________________ 87 

Glaciers, mass budget--------------------------------------- 86 

runoff characteristics --------------------------------

time-lapse photography in study of------- 135 

Gold, in quartzite-conglomerate, origin_______ 4 

Grantsite, description ---------------------------------------- 125 

Graptolites, Ordovician, Maine________________________ 30 

Grasslands, indicator of soil moisture .......... 76, 98 

Gravel, glacial lakes ---------------------------------------- 69 

Gravity studies, California, Long Valley____ 106 

Idaho, Snake River Plain ------------------------ 105 

Sierra Valley ______ ------------------------------ 107 

Yellowstone National Park -------------------- 104 

Green River formation, tongues ______________________ 62, 63 

Greisen, petrology _ ----------·------------------------------- 92 

Ground water, Arizona, Fort Apache--------- 22, 98 

barrier reservoirs __________ :___________________________ 88 

basalt aquifers ------------------------------------------ 88 

beach-deposit aquifers----------------------------- 85 

California, Palo Alto __________ ------------ _____ 22, 76 

San Joaquin Valley--------------------------- 24-26 

compaction of aquifers _________ ; _____ ·------------ 23-26 

conductivity bridge --------------------------------,--- 29 

constituents, determination of________________ 144 

dune-sand aquifers -------------·---------------------- 85 

evapotranspiration losses ______ ----------------- 18, 21 

flow and infiltration----------------------------------- 28 

fluctuations in wells--------------------------------- 46 

Georgia, Dawson County__________________________ 46 

glacial drift- aquifers ------------------------------ 17 

Nebraska, Fairmont -------------------------------- 21 

Ohio, northeastern ------------ ·----·----- ----------- 17 

Oregon, Columbia River area ---------------- 85, 88 

Pacific Northwest ---------------------------·85, 88, 128 

Pennsylvania, anthracite fields------------- 37 

pumping tests, analysis______________________________ 20 

quality ----------------------------------------------------29, 84, 144 

rad ioacti vi ty ------------------------------------------------ 128 

specific conductance --------------------------------·- 29 

specific yield ------------------------------------------------ 19, 20 

storage ---------------------------------------------------------- 19, 25 

tidal fluctuations of levels in wells__________ 46 

Utah, Sevier Valley____________________________________ 18 

H 

Halloysi te, Puerto Rico·-------------------------------------

Hawaii, petrology ----------------------------------------------

91 

89 

Heavy-mineral studies, alluvium·------------------- 118 

Hematite, Adirondack Mountains, N. Y,______ 35 

Highlandcroft plutonic series, 

radioactivity ------------------------------ 32 

Hydrology. See Ground water; Surface 

water; and State names. 

Hydrothermal alteration. See Alteration. 

Idaho, Clark Fork area, structural geology_ .67 

Columbia River area, hydrology______________ 88 

glacial Lake Bonneville----------------------------- 69 

Glenns Ferry, geomorphology ---------------- 17 

petrology and stratigraphy.___________ 70 

Hagerman, petrology· and stratigraphy 70 

Lemhi Range, glacial geolQgy__________________ 68 

pal eon to logy ------------------·-----------------------------99, 100 

Pocatello, glacial geology____________________________ 69 

Snake River Plain, geomorphology________ 71 

geophysical investigations---------------- 105 

Yellowstone area, geophysical 

investigations ------------------------------ 104 

Infiltration, calculation by electric analog____ 28 

Insoluble residues, in limestone--------------------- 126 

Iowa, Council Bluffs, engineering geology____ 130 

Article 

I ron, in pia nts ·------------------------------------------- ·--------- 119 

in silicate rocks·----------------------------------------- 145 

in soils ------------------------------------------------------------ 119 

in sphalerite ------------------------------------------------ 141 St. Lawrence County, N. ¥. ____________________ . 35 

Irrigation, Sevier Valley, Utah________________________ 18 

J 

Jointing, Birmingham, Ala., red iron-ore 

district ----------------------------------------.. 43 

Jurassic, Cal.fornia, Coast Ranges________________ 78 

Saclamento Valley ---------------------------- 78 

Colora< o Plateau ---------------------------------------- 55 

New Mexico, northwestern·---------------------

Utah, Spanish Valley________________________________ 72 

K 

Kandik formation, paleontology and 

stratigraphy -------------------------------- 90 

Kansas, Cimarron River, geomorphology______ 48 

Kaolinite, Puerto Rico .. --------------------·--------------- 91 

Kentucky, Bear Branch, paleobotany and 

paleontology -------------------------------- 95 

Beaver Creek, geochemical 

investigations ------------------------------ 119 

economic geology ---------------------------------------- 120 

Jackson Purchase area, paleontology____ 94 

Le~is Creek, paleobotany and 

paleontology -------------------------------- 95 

Shock Branch, paleobotany and 

paleontology ------------------------ ·------- 95 

south-central, stratigraphy·--------------------- 39 

Koberg-Daum wind-direction and windvelocity recorder -------------------------- 146 

L 

Lakes, Pleistocene, Western United States. 47, 69 

Lakota formation, folding·---------------------.---------- 66 

Landslides, cause ---------------------------------------------- 132 

Slumgullion earthflow, Colorado ---------- 57 

time-lapse photography in study of.·_______ 135 

Land subsidence, by compaction -----------------2-26, 77 

Lead, in soils·----------------------·------------·------;·____________ 58 

Lead-alpha age determination ........... : ........... 45, 73 

Lithosols, relation of metals content,to 

alteration -·--------·--------------------·----·- 58 

Lo~ell formation, stratigraphic relations-·- 53 

M 

Madison group, mineralogy.............................. 126 

Madera limestone, uranium .. ·-----·--·------------------ 3 

Magnesium, in limestone ............. --·-------·-·----·-· 126 

in soils -------·-------------------------·-·······-·---···-··----· 22 

in surface water-----------------------------·---------- 84 

Magnetite, Front Range, Colo......................... 1 

St. Lawrence County, N. ~----------------------- 35 

Maine, Aroostook County, geochemical 

investigations .............................. 117 

paleontology and stratigraphy........ 30 

Malta grav~l. geologic history........................ 56 

Manganese oxi·de minerals, Montana ---------- 127 

Mapping techniques, large-diameter drill 

holes .............................................. 137 

Massachusetts, Boston, stratigraphy.............. 34 

Meltwater, characteristics .............................. 7 

Meteorite, Canyon Diablo •. electronprobe 

analysis of .................................... 112 

Michaud gravel, definition................................ 69 

Mkroclimate, effect on erosion ...................... ,. 16 

Mineralogy. See particular mineral name 

and State names. 

Mississippian, Kentucky, south-central ....... 

New Mexico, Mockingbird Gap 

quadrangle 

Pennsylvania, Anthracite region ......... .. 

39 

51 

38 
Article 

Molybdenum,. in ~facial drift.......................... 117 

in ground water-------------------------------------------- 133 

ii~ :~i~~~-::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 1:~ Montanu, Clark Fork area, structural 

geology ------------------------------------------ 67 

Livingston, mineralogy .......................... 126 

Northern Rocky Mountains, glaciology. 

paleontology ........................................ 99 

Philipsburg, mineral deposits.................. 127 

Shonkin Sag laccolith, geochemical 

investigations .............................. 108 

Yellowstone area, geophysical 

investigations .............................. 104 

MontoyR dolomite, stratigraphic relations.... 51 

Morita formation, stratigraphic relations.... 53 

Morrison formation, folding........................... 66 

uranium ........................................................ 123 

Mural limestone, lower member........................ 53 

N 

Narrows ash layer, Idaho................................. 70 

Nebraska, Fairmont, hydrology........................ 21 

Omaha, engineering geology.................... 130 

Neo-cuproine, determination of copper........ 143 

Nevada, Aysees Peak, stratigraphy................ 97 

Cortez quadrangle, geochemical 

investigations .............................. 124 

Egan range, petrology................................ 74 

Ely, petrology ............................ :................. 7 4 

Fourmile Canyon, geochemical 

investigations ............................. 124 

Meiklejohn Peak, stratigraphy................ 97 

Nevada Test Site, petrology .. .'................... 73 

Oak Spring, stratigraphy.......................... 97 

paleontology ................................................ 100 

New England, hydrology.................................... 33 

New Hampshire, geochemical 

petrology ................................................... 31, 32 

investigations ............................ 108 

New Hampshire plutonic series, 

radioactivity -------------------------------- 32 

New Mexico, Caballo Mountains, 

stratigraphy ------------------------------·- 51 

economic geology ···················------------------- 3 

Fra Cristobal Mountains, stratigraphy.. 51 

Lea County, stratigraphy ........................ - 52 

Los Alamos, mapping techniques......... 137 

Grants, mineralogy .................................... 125 

Mockingbird Gap quadr~ngle, 

stratigraphy --------··---------------------- 51 

northwestern, mineral deposits................ 3 

structural geology.............................. 3 

Oscura Mountains, stratigraphy............. 51 

San Andres Mountains, stratigraphy... 51 

See also Colorado Plateau. 

New York, Adirondack Mountains, mineral 

deposits ·················-------------·····-····- 35 

East Homer, hydrology·····--------·--------·----

Oneida Lake, seiches .................... ~:............ 36 

St. Lawrence County, mineral deposits 35 

Newark group, dikes.......................................... 41 

Niobium, in igneous rocks ·----------------: ......... 108, 121 

Nitrate, in surface water.................................. 84 

North Carolina, High Rock quadrangle, 

mineralogy··---··········--------------------- 118 

piedmont, historical geOlogy.................... · 45 

Nuclear explosions, seismograms.................... 103 

0 

Ogalla formation, closed depressions.............. 52 

Ohio, glacial geology .......................................... · 17 

hydrology ------···········---------------··--················ 9, 17 

Ohio Creek conglomerate, fossil flora ............ · 96 

Oklahoma, McAlester district, stratigraphy 49 

Olive Hill clay bed, mineralogy........................ 120 

Oliverian plutonic series, radioactivity.......... 32 

INDEX 

Article 

Urnphalotrochus, occurrence, Northwestern 

United States .............................. 100 

Ordovician, Maine, Aroostook County............ 30 

New Mexico, Mockingbird Gap 

quadrangle ................... :.............. 51 

Nevada, southern ···············-----····---------------- 97 

Oregon, Columbia River area, hydrology ____ 8, 85, 88 

paleontology -------·------------------·--------------------- 1 00 

p 

Pacific Northwest, hydrologic trends.............. 8 

uranium and radium in ground 

water ···········--------------------------------- 128 Paleoclimatology, Wyoming ..... :...................... 65 

Paleobotany, Cretaceous, Wyoming.............. 64 

Jurassic, Colorado Plateau....................... 55 

Paleocene, Colorado ················-------------------- 96 

Pennsylvanian, Kentucky ------------------------ 95 

Tertiary, Colorado ------------------------------------·· 96 

Triassic, Colorado Plateau........................ 55 

Paleontology, Cretaceous, Alaska ----------------- 90 

Wyoming ----------------····--------,----------------- 64 

Mississippian, Kentucky .................... ..... 39 

Ordovician, Maine······-------------------------------- 30 

Nevada ····························--------------------·- 97 

Pennsylvanian, Alaska, southeastern... 101 

Kentucky --------------------------------·········--·-- 95 

Permian, Northern Rocky Mountains... 99 

Northwestern United States............. 100 

Tertiary, Kentucky ------------------------------------ 94 

Paleozoic, Carolina Piedmont.......................... 45 

Patterned ground, Beartooth Mountains, 

Wyo. -----------·--------············-------------- 65 

Glenns Ferry, Idaho.................................... 71 

Peat, coal balls ..... .... ...................................... 95 

permafrost and thaw depressions......... 65 

Pelecypods, Early Cretaceous, Alaska............ 90 

Pennsylvania, Anthracite region, historical 

geology -----------------------------------------· 38 

hydrology ---------------------··-------------------···· 37 

Pennsylvanian, Alaska, southeastern............ 101 

Kentucky, eastern ---------------···-------------------- 95 

New Mexico, northwestern........................ 3 

Mockingbird Gap quadrangle.......... 51 

Oklahoma, McAlester district------------------- 49 

Permafrost, in peat ------------------------------------------ 65 

Permian, Nevada, Nevada Test Site............. 73 

New Mexico, northwestern........................ 3 

Northern Rocky Mountains...................... 99 

Northwestern United States................... 100 

Petrofabric study, clay-mineral orientation 116 

Peters Gulch ash layer, Idaho.......................... 70 

Petrology. See State names. 

Photography, time-lapse, mechanical 

control ------------------------------------------ 135 

Photomultiplier fatigue ------------------·---------------- 139 

Pitchblende, paragenesis ---------------------------------- 2 

Plants, copper in·-----------------,----------------------------- , 143 

indicator of soil moisture ........................ 76, 98 

iron in ------------------------------------------------------------ 119 

rhenium in zoning of saline minerals_ 122 

Playas --·----------·.····-------------------·----------------------········ 83 

Pleistocene, Idaho, Glenns Ferry...................... 70 

Hagerman ------------------------·------------------- 70 

Lemhi Range ---------------------------------------- 68 

Pocatello ------------------------------------------------ 69 

Massachusetts, Boston .: .............. :............. 34 

Western United States.............................. 47 

Wyoming -----------------------------------··················- 65 

Pleistocene lakes, extent in Western United 

States ········------------------------------------ 4 7 

Pocono formation, unconformity.................. 38 

Pogonip group, bioherms.................................. 97 

stratigraphic relations ·----------------------------- 73 

Potash, elastic constants.................................. 102 

B-341 

Article 

Precambrian, Colorado, Front Range............ 1 

Idaho, Clark Fork........................................ 67 

Montana, Clark Fork.................................. 67 

New York, Adirondacks............................ 35 

Precipitation, effect on composition of surface water .................................... 84 

in correlation of runoff data................... 9, 42 

Prospecting, See Geochemical prospecting. 

Puerto Rico, Caguas, petrology .................... 92 

Ciales quadrangle, stratigraphy.............. 93 

eastern, . economic geology------------------...... 91 

Pulse repetition frequency method, measurement of stream velocities.... 27 

Pumping tests, analysis of................................ 20 

Pyrite, temperature of formation ....... ." ........ . 

Pyrrhotite, temperature of formation ---------

Pyrophyllite, Puerto Rico.................................. 91 

Q 

Quartz, rapid estimates by X-ray 

diffraction .................................... 145 

Quaternary, California, Mojave Desert........ 82 

Colorado, Arkansas Valley........................ 56 

Lead viii e ................................................. 56 

Idaho, Snake River Plain.......................... 71 

Western United States.............................. 81 

See also Pleistocene; Recent. 

R 

Radioactive minerals. See 1mrticular mineral name. 

Radioactive wastes, disposal, injection into 

shale .............................................. 136 

Radium, in ground water.................................. 128 

Rare earths, in igneous rocks ......................... 121 · 

Recent, Southwestern United States............ 80 

Western United States---------------------------·- 81 

Reefs, Mississippian, Kentucky..................... 39 

Replacement deposits, iron ore........................ 35 

Reservoirs, evaporation and seepage.............. 50 

structural barrier ...................................... 88 

Rhabdite, in meteorites................................... 112 

Rhenium, in plants.............................................. 122 

Rhyolite, petrology............................................. 74 

Ribbon rock, age............................................... 30 

Rocky Mountains. See Specific Staf.es. 

s 

Saline minerals, elasticity................................ 102 

zoning ---------------------------------------------------------- 83 

Salt, rock, elastic constants............................. 102 

Salt anticlines, collapse structures................ 72 

San Andres limestone, uranium ..................... . 

Sand, ground water......................................... 85 

Savanna sandstone, abnormal bedding.......... 49 

Sawtooth peat deposit, permafrost............... 65 

Sborgite, origin -------------------------------------------------- 129 

Sch;eibersite, in meteorites ....... ·................... 112 

Scintillation countinl(, fatigue........................ 139 

Seepage, reservoir .............................................. 50 

Seiches, characteristics ------------------------------------ 36 

Seismic ·waves, frequency content................... 103 

Shearing, relation to metals in lithosols...... 58 

Silica.te rocks, decomposition of samples..... 138 

rapid estimates of quartz and iron........ 145 

Sodium, in surface water................................. 84 

Soils, cation exchange........................................ 22 

erodibility .................................................... 14 

ion distribution ············-------------------------------- 22 

iron content --------------···· ·------------·---------------- 119 

metals distribution ------------------------------------ 58 

moisture, relation to vegetation ................ 76, 98 

mounds ------------------------:................................. 71 

texture, response of vegetation to......... 76 

water movement in...................................... 22 

South Carolina, piedmont, historical geology 45 

Waccamaw River, hydrology.................... 44 
B-342 

Article 

South Dakota, paleontology______________________________ 100 

Specific conductance, conductivity bridge.... 29 

Specific gravity, sandstone______________________________ 78 

Spectrography, determination of major constituents in natural water........ 144 

Sphalerite, germanium content._____________________ 110 

iron content .... ---------------------------------------------- 141 

temperature of formation__________________________ 1 

unit-cell measurements ---------------------------- 115 

X-ray diffraction studies............................ 114 

Stilleite, X-ray diffraction studies--------:-------- 114 

Stone pavements, origin__________________________________ 71 

Storage of water. See Reservoirs; Surface 

water. 

Stratigraphy. See ages, names of units, 

and State names. 

Streamflow, analysis ------------------------------------------ 10 

glaciers -------------------------------------------•------------ 7, 8, 87 

measurement------------------------------------------------- 27 

precipitation, effe~t ------------------------------------ 9 

trends in, Pacific Northwest.................... 8 

Streams, capture ------------------------------------------------ 60 

channels, aggradation -------------------------------- 15 

dimensions --------------------------------------13, 15, 48 

effect of rainfall and rock type on.......... 84 

erosion of banks____________________________________________ 14 

flood-plain formation -------------------------------- 48 

glacial, competence ---------------------------------- 87 

Structural geology. See Faults and Faulting; Folding; Jointing; and 

State names. 

Subsidence. See Land subsidence. 

Sulfate, in surface water ................................ .. 

Sulfides, temperature of formation, Precambrian rocks -------------------------··· Sundance formation, folding ___________________________ _ 

Surface water, 

Alabama, Tallapoosa River .................... .. 

artificial storage, effect on peak flow .. .. 

basins, effect of microclimate on development ------------------------------------------

relation to peak flows---------------------··· 

California, San Francisco Peninsula ...... 

Colorado, Badger Wash _____ ~--------------------

flood control, effect on aggradation _____ __ 

floods, relations between basins ............. . 

suburban areas -------------------------,----------

flow in artificially roughened channels_ 

84 

66 

42 

16 

33 

84 

59 

15 

33 

12 

geochemical investigations---------------------- 83, 84 

low-flow frequency analysis .. ·----------------- 10 

Maryland, Bethesda area ------------------------ 5 

minimum flow, relation to rainfalL...... 42 

Montana, Northern Rocky Mountains. 

Nevada, Fourmile Canyon........................ 124 

New England area.................................... 33 

New York, East Homer----------------~----------

Oneida Lake --------------------··---------- 36 

Ohio, Coshocton -------------------~--------------·····- 9 

Oregon, Columbia River__________________________ 8 

peak flow, effect of artificial storage ... 

precipitation, relation to runoff............ 9, 42 

quality --------------·--------------------------------~----29', 84, 144 

rainfall and rock type, effect O"n 

quality -----------------------~---------------_'__ 84 

runoff, glacial ----------------------------:............... 7, 86 

relation to· precipitation.................. 9, 42 

stu'dies -------------------------------------------------- 59 

seiches -------------------------------------------:______________ 3 6 

South Carolina, Waccamaw River........ 44 

stage-fall-discharge ratings, modified · 

conveyance slope ------------~-,--------

storage, effect on peak flows . 

~;::~ ~~~:~ty C r:e~a~-~~~=:::~::::·::::;:::::: 

11 

6 

27 

50 

INDEX 

Article 

Surface water-Continued 

tidal streams, measurement of 

velocity ---------------------------------------- 27 

water-temperature distribution______ 44 

ultrasonic method for measuring 

veloCity ---------------------------------------- 27 

Virginia, Alexandria . ____ ------------------------ 5 

Washington ------------------------------------------------ 7, 86 

Northern Cascade Mountains 

South Cascade Glacier...................... 86 

White River ............. ----------------------------

Wyoming, Fremont County _______ _-___________ _ 

T 

87 

87 

Tennessee, Highland Rim, stratigraphy______ 40 

western, Mississippi embayment 

syncline ---------------------------------------- 40 

Tertiary, Colorado, Arkansas Valley____________ 56 

De Beque ---------------------------------------------- 61 

Gunnison County ------------------------------ 96 

Leadville --------------------------------------------- 56 

Idaho, Glenns Ferry__________________________________ 70 

Hagerman -------------------------------------------- 70 

Kentucky, Jackson Purchase area.......... 94 

Montana, Philipsburg ----------------------------- 127 

Nevada, Ely ------------------------------------------------ 74 

New Mexico, High Plains ..... : .... -------------- 52 

Pacific Northwest -------------------------------------- 88 

Puerto Rico, east-centraL________________________ 92 

eastern ______ :___________________________________________ 91 

Utah, Spanish Valley---------------------------------- 72 

Wyoming, Fort Hill------------------------------····- 63 Fossil basin ______________ :_________________________ 62 

western __________ -------------------------------------- · 64 

Texas, Honey Creek basin, hydrology·__________ 50 

Thorium, in igneous rocks ........................ 31, 32, 121 

ratio to uranium .. -------------------------------------'- 31 

Tidal fluctuations, water wells in 

crystalline rocks ------------------------ 46 

Tidal streams. See Surface water 

Tiltmeter, liquid-level _____________________________ :.'..... . 186 

Tin, in soils ----------------------------------------------:---------- 58 Todilto limestone, uranium ____________________________ __ 

Transducers, measurement of stream 

velocities ---------------- _____________ :,______ · 27 

Triassic, Appalachian region ............... :.......... 41' 

Colorado Plateau -------------------------------------- 54, 55 

Nevada, Nevada Test Site·-----------'----'----- 73 

Utah, Spanish Valley________________________________ 72 

Tuff, welded -------------------------------------------------------- 7 4, 93 

Tungsten, in soils--------------------------------------------- 58 

Tunnels, relation of supports to geology____ 131 

Tuscalossa gravel, stratigraphic relations.. 40 

u 

Ult.rasonic method, measurement of stream 

velocities _________________ :: ___________ :_______ 27 

Unit-cell measurements, relation to como 

position _ _-_______ : ___________________ _-_~ ______ 1i4, 115 

sphalerite ---------------------------------------------------- 115 Uraninite __________________________________ _._________________________ 2, 4 

Uranium, andersonite, synthetic--------------------- 113 

carbonate rocks, New Mexico ............... :.. · 3 

in fossil wood, Colorado Plateau.............. 55 

in ground water.. .................... :.____________________ 128 

in igneous rocks---------------------------~----------- 31, 32 

in quartz-conglomerate, origin .. : ...... .'.... 4 

ratio to thorium ___________ : _____________________ : ________ , 31 

vein deposits ---------------------------------------------- : 2 

Uraniuin deposits;- classificati-on· of 

elements 123 

Article 

Utah, Flaming Gorge, engineering geology__ 132 

Moab anticline, stratigraphy ____ _'_____________ 72 

paleontology ------------------------------------------------ 100 

Sevier Valley, hydrology__________________________ 18 

Spanish Valley, stratigraphy____________________ 72 

Temple Mountain, paleobotany_____________ 55 

Uinta fault, landslides________________________________ 132 

Uinta Mounta-ins, structural geology____ 132 

See also Colorado Plateau. 

v 

Vanadium, Colorado and New Mexico____________ 125 

Vegetation. See Plants .. 

Volcanic ash, as stratigraphic marker........ 70 

chlorine and· fluorine content..________________ 111 

origin ------------------------------------------------------------ 93 

Volcanic glass, chlorine and fluorine content 111 

Volcanism, California, Long Valley______________ 106 

Idaho, Snake River Plain ----------------------- 105 

Yellowstone National Park ______________ _____ 104 

Volcanoes, Hualalai, Hawaii..___________________________ 89 

w 

Wasatch formation, diamictite facies 62 

tongues ------------------ ------------------------------------- 63 tripartition ________ ' _______ :__________________________________ 61 

Washington, Columbia River area, 

hydrology -------------------------------------- 88 

Northern Cascade Mountains, 

glaciology -------------------------------------- 7, 86 

South Cascade Glacier, glaciology--------- 7, 86 

White River, sedimentation____________________ 87 

Water-level fluctuations. See Ground water. 

Weathering, sborgite from colemanite and 

priceite ------------------------------------------ 129 

White Mountain plutonic-volcanic series, 

geochemical investigations· _____ : 108 

radioactivity ____________________________________ _. ____ ::..... 31 

w·ind direction and velocity recorder .. , __________ , 146 

Wyoming, Beartooth Mountains, 

geomorphology_ ---------------------------- 65 

Black Hills, st~u~tural grology________________ 66 

Cheyenne River basin, geomorphology.. 16 

Fort Hill, stratigraphy.............................. 63 

Fossil ·basin, stratigraphy.: .... ----------------- 62 

paleontology ------------------------------------------,-----99, 100 

· western, stratigraphy --------~----------------------- 64 

Wind River basin, geomorphology__________ 15 

Yellowstone area, geophysical . ' 

investig!lt!ons ------------------~---;------- 104 

x· 

X-ray diffraction ·studies,,. chalcopyrite........ 114 

clausthalite -------------"----------''------------------------ 114 

determination of cell .edges··-------------------114, 115 

galena ---------------------------------------------.--------------- 114 

sborgite -------------------------------------------------------- 129 

· · silicate rocks ------------------------------''------'----------- 145 

sphalerite --------------------------------------------'-------114, 115 stilleite _______________________________ _-___ , __________ ;:_,________ 114 

X-ray diffractometer, clay minerals ...... ,......... 116 

Xenoliths, nodules in basalt ------------------------- . 89 

y 

Yellowstone National Park, ·geophysical 

investigations ------------------·------"--- · . 104 

z 

Zeolite replacement, Foraminifera _____ , ________ :_ 94 

Zfnc, in soils ______________________________________ , ___ , ___ ; ___ , __ ,__ 58 

Zircon, lead-alpha age determination .. : ... :,_~ 45, 73 
Article 

Adler, Isidore ...................................................... 112 

Anlweiler, J. C................................................... 138 

A •·ndt, H. H......................................................... 38 

Bnchmnn, G. 0................................................... 51 

Bnldwin, H. L., Jr ........................................... 104, 105 

Bnltz, E. H........................................................... 137 

Bnrker, F. B......................................................... 128 

Bn•·ton, P. B., Jr............................................... 114 

Bell, Henry, 11!.................................................. 45 

Benson, M. A....................................................... 33 

Ber1·y, W. B. N................................................... 30 

Benyhill, H. L., Jr........................................... 93 

Bethke, P. M....................................................... 114 

B•·nbb, E. E......................................................... 90 

Brndley, W. A..................................................... 134 

B•·nnson, F. A ..................................................... 76:98 

131-ight, M. J., Jr................................................ 117 

Buddington, A. F............................................... 35 

Bull, W. 13 ........................................................... 75, 77 

Bunker, C. M....................................................... 134 

Butler, A. P., J1·. ............................................... 31 

Cnnney, F. C...................................................... 117 

Cn1·penter, C. H.,................................................. 18 

Cn1-r, W. J........................................................... 69 

Cn•·te•·. R. W....................................................... 5 

Cnttermole, J. M................................................. 39 

Cooley, E .. F......................................................... 109 

Co•·nwull, H. R................................................... 97 

Crnndell, D. n ..................................................... 57, 135 

Culler, R. C........................................................ 98 

Dnum, C. R ......................................................... 29, 146 

Dnvidinn, Jucob .................................................. 12, 33 

Dibblee, T. W., J1·............................................. 82 

Diment, W. H..................................................... 103 

Dinnin, J. I........................................................ 142 

Dodson, C. L....................................................... 72 

Donnell, J. R ................................................... :...... 61 

Douglnss, R. C.................................................... 101 

Duncnn, Helen .................................................. 99 

Dut1·o, J. T., Jr................................................... 101 

Dwo•·nik, E. J..................................................... 112 

El'ickson, U. L. .................................................. 124 

Fnhnestock, R. K............................................... 87 

Feth, J. H ............................................................. 47, 84 

Flnnngnn, F. J................................................... 139 

Fleischer, Michael .............................................. 110 

Gnskill, D. L....................................................... 96 

Gottfried, Dnvid ................................................ 108 

'G•·itnn, W. C...................................................... 11 

G•·itlltts, W. R..................................................... 109 

Gl'imnldi, F. S..................................................... 108 

Hnclley, R. F ............. :......................................... 16 

Hnffty, Joseph .................................................... 144 

Hnit. M. H., J1·. ................................................. 68 

Hull, W. E........................................................... 115 

Hnmilton, J. C..................................................... 122 

Hnmpton, E. R................................................... 85 

Jiunscn, \V. R..................................................... 132 

Hnn·ison, ,J. E..................................................... 67 

Hnvens. J·. S......................................................... 52 

Hayes. P. T .................................................. ~------ 53 

l{ed.lund, D. -C ............................. ~ ... -., ................. · 121 

Helz, A. W........................................................... 144 

Hendricks, T. A................................................... 49 

Herrick, S. M....................................................... 94 

Hildebl'llnd, F. A ............................................... 91, 92 

INDEX 

AUTHOR INDEX 

Article 

Hill, D. P. .......... ... ............................................ 105 

Hilpert, L. S....................................................... 3 

Hosterman, J. W. ............................................. 120 

Houser, F. N....................................................... 73 

Huff, L. C. ........................................................... 133 

Huffman, Claude, Jr........................................... 143 

Hunt, A. P. .......................................................... 81 

Hunt, C. B ........................................................... 79-81 

Irwin, W. P. ....................................................... 78 

Izett, G. A........................................................... 66 

Jackson, W. H ................................................ 102, 107 

,Jenkins, Lillie .................................................... 108 

Jobin, D. A......................................................... 67 

Jones, B. F........................................................... 83 

Kaye, C. A............................................................. 34 

Kennon, F. W. ................................................... 50 

King, Elizabeth .................................................. 67 

King, N. J. ........................................................... 15 

King, P. B............................................................... 41 

Kinser, C. A. ....................................................... 142 

Koberg, G. E......................................................... 146 

Koloseus, H. J. ................................................... 12 

Lambert, T. W................................................... 94 

Landis, E. R. .................. .................................... 53 

Leonard, B. F..................................................... 35 

Leppanen, 0. E. ................................................. 21 

Lewis, R. Q......................................................... 39 

Lichty, R. W. ..................................................... 48 

Lindberg, M. L. ................................................. 125 

Lofgren, B. E..................................................... 24 

Lohman, S. W .................................................... 23, 60 

Lusby, G. C......................................................... 59 

Lyons, J. B ............... :.......................................... 32 

MeA !lister, J. F. ............................................... 129 

McQueen, I. S ........................................... 14, 29, 76, 98 

Malde, H. E ......................................................... 70, 71 

Mapel, W. J......................................................... 66 

Marcher, M. V..................................................... 40 

Marranzino, A. P ............................................. 124, ~33 

Meade, R. H............................................................ 116 

Meier, M. F......................................................... 7, 86 

Meyrowitz, Robert .......................................... 113, 125 

Miesch, A. T. ....................................................... 123 

Miller, R. D ....................................................... 130, 135 

Miller, R. E. ....................................................... 26 

Miller, R. F ..................................................... 22, 76, 98 

Mitchell, W. D..................................................... 6 

Murata, K. J....................................................... 89 

Myers, A. T .. :...................................................... 122 

Neuman, R. B. .......... ........................................ 30 

Newcomb, R. C................................................... 88 

Nichols, T. C., Jr.............................................. 140 

Norris, S. E......................................................... 17 

Oborn, E. T......................................................... 119 

Olson, J. C............................................................. 121 

Oriel, S. S ............................................................. 62-64 

Overstreet, W. C................................................. 45 

Pakiser, L. C-. ................................ : .................. 104-107 

Parshall, E. E.................................................... 135 

Patterson, S. H.................................................. 120 

Pavlides, Louis .................................................... 30 

Pierce, W. G. ..................................................... 65 

Pillmore, C. L ................................................... .. 

Poland, J. F ........................................................ . 

Poole, F. G ......................................................... .. 

66 

25 

73 

B-343 

Article 

Powers, H. A-. ..................................................... 70, 111 

Prinz, W. C. ....................................................... 127 

Puffett, W. P........................................................ 72 

Ratzlaff, K. W. ................................................... 22 

Richter, D. H....................................................... 89 

Riggs, H. C ........................................................ 10, 42 

Riley, F. S............................................................. 136 

Roberts, A. E....................................................... 126 

Robinson, C. S. ................................................... 131 

Robinson, T. W................................................... 79 

Rose, H. J., Jr..................................................... 45 

Ross, D. R............................................................. 113 

Ross, R. J., Jr................................................... 97 

Rubey, W. W ...................................................... 62, 64 

Ruppel, E. T....................................................... 68 

Schneider, W. J ................................................. .. 

Schopf, J. M......................................................... 95 

Schumm, S. A ...................................................... 13, 48 

Scott, R. A............................................................. 55 

.Scott, R. C............................................................. 128 

Shapiro, Leonard ................................................ 141 

Sharp, W. N. ....................................................... 2 

Shawe, D. R........................................................... 74 

Shawe, F. R ..... ,................................................... 107 

Shen, John ............................................................ 36 

Simons, W. D....................................................... 8 

Simpson, T. A ....................................................... 37, 43 

Sims, P. K............................................................. 1, 2 

Skinner, D. L....................................................... 143 

Sohn, I. G............................................................... 94 

Stallman, R. W ............................................... 19, 20, 28 

Stern, T. W. ......................................................... 45 

Stewart, J. H ............................ _........................ 54 

Stewart, J. W....................................................... 46 

Stewart, S. W. ..................................................... 103 

Stromquist, A. A................................................. 118 

Stuart, W. T......................................................... 37 

Tangborn, W. V................................................... 7 

Tatlock, D. B......................................................... 145 

Taylor, A. R......................................................... 39 

Thaden, R. E....................................................... 39 

Theobald, P. K., Jr............................................. 58 

Thompson, C. E .................................. -................ 58 

Toulmin, M. S....................................................... 141 

Toulmin, Priestley, 3d........................................ 1 

Tracey, J. I., Jr ................................................... 62, 64 

Trexler, J. P .. : .................................................. ---- 38 

Trimble:' D. E....................................................... 69 

Tweto, Ogden ...................................................... 56 

Varnes, D. J......................................................... 57 

Wagener, F. W................................................... 44 

Wahlstrom, E. E ..................... :........................... 131 

Ward, F. N........................................................... 117 

Warner, L. A....................................................... 131 

Warrick, R. E..................................................... 102 

Weeks, A. D........................................................... 125 

Weir, G. W........................................................... 72 

Weir, J. E., Jr..................................................... 137 

White, A. M......................................................... 118 

White, G. W......................................................... 17 

White, M. G........................................................... 4 

Wires, H. 0........................................................... 27 

Wood, G. H., Jr................................................... 38 

Yochelson, E. L................................................... 100 

Young, E. J........................................................... 2 

Young, R. A......................................................... 18 
B-344 INDEX 

FINDING LIST OF ARTICLE PAGE NUMBERS 

Article Page .4rticle Page A1·ticle Page Article Page Article Page Article Page 

1. ............... B-1 26 .............. B-54 51._ __________ B-'119 76 ----------- B-184 101. ___________ B-239 126 ____________ B-294 

2 ________________ 3 27 ... ___________ 58 52 ____________ 123 77 ____________ 187 102 ............ 241 127 ········-··- 296 

3------···-···--- 5 28 .............. 60 53 ............ 125 78 ____________ 189 103 ............ 243 128 ............ 298 

4 ................ 8 29 ______________ 63 5-L .......... 127 79 ____________ 192 104 ............ 246 129 ............ 299 

5 ................ 9 30 .............. 65 55 ............ 130 80 ............ 194 105 ............ 248 130 ----------- 301 

6 ................ 12 31 .............. 67 56 ............ 133 81... _________ 195 106 ____________ 250 131.. __________ 303 7 ________________ 14 32 .............. 69 57 ____________ 136 82 ____________ 197 107 ____________ 254 132 ........ , ... 306 

8 ................ 17 33 .............. 71 58 ____________ 139 83 ____________ 199 108 ............ 256 133 ............ 308 9 ________________ 20 34 .............. 73 59 ____________ 141 84 ____________ 202 109 ............ 259 134 ....... , .... 310 

10 ..... ___________ 21 35 .............. 76 60 ----------- 144 85 ____________ 204 110 ............ 259 135 ____________ . 313 11 ________________ 23 36 .............. 80 61 ____________ 147 86 ............ 206 111 ............ 261 136 ............ 317 12. _______________ 25 37 ______________ 82 62 ............ 149 87 ............ 211 112 ............ 263 137 ··-·---·--·· 319 

13 ................ 26 38 .............. 84 63. ___________ 151 88 ____________ 213 113 ............ 266 138 ____________ 322 14 ________________ 28 39 ______________ 88 64 ............ 153 89 ____________ 215 114.. __________ 266 139 ............ 324 

15 ................ 29 40 .............. 90 65 ----------- 154 90. ___________ 218 115 ............ 271 140 ----------- 326 

16 ....... _________ 32 41. _____________ 93 66 ........... 156 91.. .......... 219 116 ____________ 273 141 ----------- 328 17. _______________ 34 42. _____________ 96 67 ..... _______ 159 92 ............ 222 117 ··---------- 276 142 ............ 329 18 ________________ 36 43. _____________ 98 68 ____________ 163 93 ____________ 224 118 ............ 278 143 ----------- 331 19 ________________ 39 44 ______________ . 100 69 ____________ 164 94 ____________ 227 119 ............ 279 144 ____________ 333 

20 ................ 41 45 ______________ 103 70 -··-------- 167 95 ............ 228 120 ----------- 280 145 ............ 334 21. _______________ 43 46 ______________ 107 71 ____________ 170 96 ____________ 230 121 .. __________ 283 146 ............ ~;37 

22 ________________ 45 47 ______________ 110 72 .... ________ 173 97 ...... ______ 231 122 ____________ 286 23 ________________ 47 48 ______________ 112 73 ____________ 176 98 ____________ 233 123 ____________ 289 24. _______________ 49 49 ______________ 114 74. ___________ 178 99 ____________ 235 124 ____________ 291 25. _______________ 52 50 ______________ 117 75 ----------- 182 100 ____________ 237 125 ____ _. ______ 293 

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