U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

census.gov

Characteristics of Selected Sub-Saharan 

African and Caribbean Ancestry Groups 

in the United States: 2008–2012 

American Community Survey Reports

By Stella U. Ogunwole, Karen R. Battle, and Darryl T. Cohen 

Issued June 2017

ACS-34

INTRODUCTION

The population reporting Ethiopian, Nigerian, 

Haitian, Jamaican, and Trinidadian and 

Tobagonian ancestry in the United States is 

relatively small yet rapidly growing (Table 1).1

For example, in 2000, there were 737,000 

people with Jamaican ancestry compared with 

about 1 million estimated in the 2008–2012 

American Community Survey (ACS). The 

population reporting Ethiopian ancestry 

more than doubled in size from 87,000 in 

2000 to an estimated 195,000 based on the 

2008–2012 ACS. Moreover, they are not all 

foreign born. The 2008–2012 ACS estimated 

that almost three-quarters of the population 

reporting Ethiopian ancestry (72 percent) was 

foreign born, but that was highest among 

all the selected ancestry groups (Figure 7). 

The proportion that was foreign born among 

the population reporting Nigerian, Haitian, 

Jamaican, and Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

ancestry was lower (about 60 percent). 

Although the growth of these populations is 

beginning to attract the attention of researchers, studies of these ancestry groups, which 

include immigrants and their descendants, 

1 Note that these are the largest sub-Saharan African and

Caribbean ancestry groups with estimated total populations of at 

least 150,000 at the national level in the 2008–2012 ACS 5-year 

estimates. Spanish-speaking Caribbean ancestry groups were not 

included.

How Ancestry Is Determined

The American Community Survey includes an 

ancestry question that asks each individual 

his or her “ancestry or ethnic origin.” From 

the responses collected, the U.S. Census 

Bureau considers anyone who reported 

being Ethiopian, Nigerian, Haitian, Jamaican, 

and Trinidadian and Tobagonian (including, 

Trinidadian or Tobagonian responses) to be of 

each respective ancestry group. 

The Census Bureau defines ancestry as the 

ethnic origin, descent, roots, heritage, or 

place of birth of the person or of the person’s ancestors. Ancestry is a broad concept. The ancestry question is not intended 

to measure the degree of attachment to a 

particular group, but simply to establish the 

ethnic group(s) with which the respondent 

self-identifies.

Largest Sub-Saharan African or 

Caribbean Ancestry Group

The report focuses on the population reporting Ethiopian, Nigerian, Haitian, Jamaican, and 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian ancestry groups in 

the United States. These selected sub-Saharan 

African and Caribbean ancestry groups each 

had 150,000 or more total population in the 

2008–2012 American Community Survey. 

The report does not include Spanish-speaking 

Caribbean ancestry groups.
2 U.S. Census Bureau

are still relatively rare.2, 3, 4, 5

See text box on previous page 

for the Census Bureau’s definition of ancestry and notes on 

the selected groups.

IMMIGRATION PATTERNS 

AND TRENDS

Ethiopians began to come to 

the United States for technical training and further education, from a handful in the 

1920s to thousands by the 

1970s.6 Usually these individuals returned to Ethiopia after 

completion of their education. 

2 Angela B. Buchanan, Nora G. Albert,

and Daniel Beaulieu, “The Population With 

Haitian Ancestry in the United States: 

2009,” American Community Survey Briefs, 

ACSBR/09-18, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington, DC, 2014. 3 Christine P. Gambino, Edward

N. Trevelyan, and John Thomas Fitzwater,

“The Foreign-Born Population From Africa: 

2008–2012,” American Community Survey 

Briefs, ACSBR/12-16, U.S. Census Bureau,

Washington, DC, 2014. 4 Migration Policy Institute, Select

Diaspora Populations in the United StatesEthiopian; Haitian; Nigerian, Washington,

DC, 2014, accessed August 26, 2014,

<http://migrationpolicy.org/research

/select-diaspora-populations-united-states>. 5 Randy Capps, Kristen McCabe, and 

Michael Fix, Diverse Streams: Black African 

Migration to the United States, Migration 

Policy Institute, Washington, DC, 2012. 6 Solomon Addis Getahun, The History 

of Ethiopian Immigrants and Refugees in 

America, 1900–2000: Patterns of Migration, 

Survival, and Adjustment, LBF Scholarly

Publishing, New York, 2007.

The 1974 revolution in Ethiopia 

made it difficult for many of 

the Ethiopian students, business leaders, government 

officials, and other temporary 

visitors who were already in 

the United States to return 

to their country of origin. 

They became the first wave 

of Ethiopian immigrants. The 

next wave included those who 

came starting in the 1980s as 

refugees, as well as victims of 

famine and drought. They also 

came because of the efforts of 

international and U.S. organizations such as the Lutheran 

Church, which had a relationship with Ethiopians that dated 

back to the late 19th century. 

These post-1970s migrants had 

a more diverse socioeconomic 

background compared with 

the first wave, many of whom 

shared more of a privileged 

past.7, 8

Nigerian migration to the 

United States began in the 

1920s, as with Ethiopians, 

beginning with a handful 

that came to attend American 

universities and eventually 

returned home. In subsequent 

decades, Nigerians became 

7 Kebede Haile, The Ethiopian Experience 

in America, AllWrite, Atlanta, 2008. 8 See footnote 6.

more exposed to the United 

States through the Peace 

Corps, oil trade, and college 

recruitment. American higher 

education grew more popular 

in comparison to the British 

and other European models 

to which Nigerians had been 

accustomed due to their prior 

experience of British rule.9

Most students came to acquire 

an education and eventually 

returned home. This pattern 

changed during the Nigerian 

civil war (1967 to 1970). Many 

Nigerians in the United States 

chose not to return to their 

country. They and others who 

left the country formed the first 

wave of Nigerian immigrants.10

During the oil boom years of 

the 1970s, the Nigerian government sponsored thousands 

of students for undergraduate 

and advanced studies in the 

United States. Other students 

came with the financial support 

of their family or community, 

all indicative of the economic 

prosperity of the country and 

the high premium placed on 

education during this period. 

The subsequent economic 

9 Kalu Ogbaa, The Nigerian Americans, 

Greenwood, Westport, 2003. 10 Ezekiel Umo Ette, Nigerian Immigrants 

in the United States, Lexington, New York, 

2012.

Table 1.

The Population Reporting Selected Sub-Saharan African and Caribbean Ancestry:

1980 to 2008–2012

(Numbers in thousands. Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, 

and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Population group1 Census ACS Change 1980 to

2008–2012

1980 1990 2000 2008–2012 Number Percent

Total U.S. population. . . . . . . . . . . 226,546 248,710 281,422 309,139 82,593 36

Ethiopian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 35 87 195 187 2,453

Nigerian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 92 165 263 215 449

Haitian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 290 548 868 777 862

Jamaican. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 435 737 998 744 294

Trinidadian and Tobagonian. . . . . . 44 76 165 196 153 348

1

 Selected sub-Saharan African and Caribbean ancestry groups of 150,000 or more total population in the 2008–2012 American Community Survey.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 1980 Census, 1990 Census, 2000 Census, and 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 3

downturn in Nigeria resulted in 

many Nigerian students being 

unable to leave the United 

States. These students as well 

other Nigerians who could 

afford to leave the country 

formed the next wave of 

immigrants to the United 

States.11, 12 Although there 

had been successive waves of 

migration by people of Haitian 

ancestry to the United States 

during the Haitian revolution (1791 to 1804) and the 

American occupation of Haiti 

(1915 to 1934), the majority arrived beginning around 

1957—when migration to the 

United States was encouraged, 

following political and economic change in Haiti. Prior 

to that time, emigration flows 

from Haiti were primarily to 

France, former French colonies in Africa, and the Frenchspeaking parts of Canada. An 

additional wave of Haitian 

migrants came to the United 

States around 1964. The 1965 

Immigration Act allowed them 

to bring close relatives in the 

late 1960s and 1970s. Many 

Haitians migrated to the United 

States in the late 1970s and 

early 1980s due to political and 

economic conditions in 

Haiti.13, 14, 15

The initial migratory flows 

for people with Jamaican and 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

ancestries were to other 

11 See footnote 9.

12 See footnote 10.

13 Alex Stepick, Pride Against Prejudice, 

Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1998. 14 Flore Zéphir, Haitian Immigrants in 

Black America, Bergin & Garvey, Westport, 

1996. 15 Rose-Marie Cassagnol Chierici, Demele: 

“Making It:” Migration and Adaptation Among 

Haitian Boat People in the United States, AMS, 

New York, 1991. 

territories in the Caribbean 

such as Guyana, Cuba, and the 

Dominican Republic, as well as 

to Central America, Panama, 

and Britain.16, 17 The first wave 

of Jamaicans and Trinidadians 

and Tobagonians arrived in 

the United States between 

1900 and the early 1920s. The 

United States allowed unlimited immigration from the 

Western Hemisphere during 

this period.18

Following a series of restrictive immigration laws, there 

was a second smaller immigration wave of Jamaicans and 

Trinidadians and Tobagonians 

between the mid-1920s and 

1965. In spite of restrictive immigration policies, 

Jamaicans and Trinidadians 

and Tobagonians were still 

able to enter the United States 

as British colonial subjects. 

However, following World 

War II, new immigration laws 

prohibited colonial subjects 

from using home country 

quotas. The implementation 

of the 1965 Immigration Act 

produced a large third wave of 

immigrants from Jamaica and 

Trinidad and Tobago, as well as 

other parts of the Caribbean.19, 

20, 21 These immigrants, particularly from Jamaica, tended 

to be skilled workers who 

16

Black Bostonians, Indiana University Press, 

Bloomington, 2006. 17 Suzanne Model, West Indian 

Immigrants: A Black Success Story?, Russell 

Sage Foundation, New York, 2008. 18 Mary C. Waters, Black Identities: West 

Indian Immigrant Dreams and American 

Realities, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 

1999. 19 See footnote 16.

20 See footnote 17.

21 See footnote 18.

 Violet Showers Johnson, The Other 

looked abroad for expanded 

opportunities.22

This report uses 2008–2012 

5-year ACS estimates to present and compare selected 

geographic, demographic, and 

socioeconomic characteristics 

of these groups in the United 

States, including size and geographic distribution, age and 

sex composition, marital status, household size and type, 

nativity status, year of entry, 

citizenship, English-speaking 

ability, educational attainment, 

labor force participation, occupation, income, poverty, and 

homeownership. 

POPULATION SIZE 

AND GEOGRAPHIC 

DISTRIBUTION

Nation

About 2.5 million people 

reported Ethiopian, Nigerian, 

Haitian, Jamaican, or 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

ancestry in the 2008–2012 

ACS, or around 0.8 percent 

of the total U.S. population 

(Table 1). The population in 

these selected ancestry groups 

increased by about 2.1 million 

between 1980 and 2008–2012, 

or about 469 percent. The geographic distribution of these 

groups varied considerably, 

owing to the distinct migration 

and settlement history of 

each group.

The population with Jamaican 

ancestry was the largest of the 

five selected groups, although 

22 Douglas S. Massey, Margarita Mooney, 

Kimberly C. Torres, and Camille Z. Charles, 

“Black Immigrants and Black Natives 

Attending Selective Colleges and Universities 

in the United States,” American Journal of 

Education, 113, (February): 243–271, 2007.
4 U.S. Census Bureau

Percentage of U.S. total

for each ancestry group

Haitian

Ethiopian Nigerian

Jamaican

Trinidadian and Tobagonian

Percentage Distribution of the U.S. Population of Ethiopian, Nigerian, Haitian, Jamaican, 

and Trinidadian and Tobagonian Ancestry by State: 2008–2012

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 5

it was the slowest growing, 

adding about 744,000 people 

between 1980 and 2008–2012, 

an increase of about 294 

percent. The population of 

Haitian ancestry had the largest 

numeric change over the same 

period, with an increase of 

about 777,000 (862 percent). 

The population of Ethiopian 

ancestry was the smallest of 

the selected ancestry groups, 

but was also the fastest growing from 1980 to 2008–2012, 

growing by around 2,400 

percent. 

State

The population with Haitian 

ancestry was the most geographically concentrated of 

the five selected groups in 

2008–2012 (Figure 1), with 

heavy concentrations in the 

states of Florida (47 percent of the total U.S. Haitian 

population) and New York 

(22 percent of the U.S. total). 

Florida has a climate similar to 

Haiti’s, and Miami is the closest major U.S. city to Haiti. 

New York is a global city and 

has historically drawn many 

immigrants.23 There were 

lesser concentrations of people 

reporting Haitian ancestry in 

Massachusetts (8 percent), New 

Jersey (7 percent), and Georgia 

(3 percent). 

The Jamaican and Trinidadian 

and Tobagonian ancestry 

groups followed a similar 

pattern, with high concentrations in Florida (26 percent of 

the U.S. Jamaican population, 

and 15 percent of the U.S. 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

23 See footnote 13.

population) and New York (31 

percent of the Jamaican population and 46 percent of the 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

population). Noticeable concentrations (greater than 1 percent) of these two groups were 

also found in Virginia, North 

Carolina, Texas, and California 

(Figure 1).

New York was an especially 

popular destination for 

Caribbean immigration because 

of already established migration by earlier immigrants during the first few decades of the 

twentieth century. These earlier 

immigrants chose New York 

because of the jobs available 

during and after World War I, 

and by the existence of a thriving Black community, especially 

in Harlem. New York’s service 

economy also meant that there 

were relatively many jobs 

available.24

The Ethiopian and Nigerian 

ancestry groups were more 

geographically dispersed 

than the other three ancestry groups, with relatively 

high percentages living in the 

Midwestern states of Ohio, 

Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, 

and Missouri. California 

(13 percent) had the largest 

percentage of the population with Ethiopian ancestry, 

while Texas (17 percent) had 

the largest percentage of 

Nigerian ancestry population. 

The geographic distribution of 

the Ethiopian ancestry group 

was chiefly a result of refugee 

resettlement efforts by government and nongovernmental 

organizations, as well as later 

24 See footnote 18.

internal migration for family 

reunification and job opportunities. For the Nigerian ancestry group, favorable 

educational, economic, 

and climatic conditions, 

especially in Texas, were 

salient factors.25, 26, 27

Metropolitan Statistical 

Area

As shown in Figure 2, there 

were 18 metropolitan statistical areas (metro areas) with 

at least 10,000 population in 

one or more of the selected 

ancestry groups based on the 

2008–2012 ACS. While some 

metro areas (e.g., New York 

and Atlanta) had sizeable populations in three or four of the 

selected groups, others (e.g., 

Minneapolis and Seattle) had 

only one group with 10,000 or 

more population. Among the 

largest concentrations of the 

selected ancestry groups were 

the population of Jamaican 

ancestry in the New York metro 

area (330,944) and the population of Haitian ancestry in the 

Miami metro area (291,963). 

The New York metro area 

also had a large population of 

Haitian ancestry (226,294); 

the Miami metro area also had 

a large Jamaican population 

(167,208). None of the other 

selected ancestry groups had a 

population of 100,000 or more 

in any metro areas. Among the 

selected metro areas, the largest population of Trinidadian 

and Tobagonian ancestry 

was in New York (97,270), as 

25 See footnote 6.

26 See footnote 10.

27 John A. Arthur, Invisible Sojourners:

African Immigrant Diaspora in the United 

States, Praeger Publishers, 2000, 45–47.
6 U.S. Census Bureau Dallas-Fort Worth Atlanta Seattle Minneapolis-St. Paul Baltimore Los Angeles Washington Philadelphia Naples Tampa Houston Chicago BostonHartford New York Bridgeport Miami Orlando

Trinidadian

and Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

(Data are shown for the 18 metropolitan statistical areas that have at least 10,000 population in any one of the selectedancestry groups. Metropolitan statistical area titles are abbreviated. For full titles of metropolitan statistical areas, see www.census.gov/population/metro. Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection,sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Note: Metropolitan statistical areas delineated by the Office of Managementand Budget as of December 2009. 

Figure 2.

Selected Sub-Saharan African and Caribbean Ancestry Groups by Metropolitan Statistical Area: 2008–2012

0 100 Miles 0 100 Miles

0 100 Miles

150,000100,00050,000

Source: U.S. Census Bureau,

2008–2012 American Community Survey,

5-year estimates. 

Population
U.S. Census Bureau 7

was the largest population of 

Nigerian ancestry (40,549). The 

largest population of Ethiopian 

ancestry was in the Washington 

metro area (37,924).28

28 Note that the margin of error for the 

estimated populations of Jamaican, Haitian, 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian, and Nigerian 

ancestries in the New York metro area was 

± 6,983, ± 6,832, ± 3,491, and ± 2,483, 

respectively. It was ± 8,034 and ± 5,628, 

respectively for Haitian and Jamaican ancestry 

populations in the Miami metro area. It was 

± 2,493 for the estimated population of 

Ethiopian ancestry in the Washington metro 

area. The margin of error is a measure of an 

estimate’s variability. The larger the margin 

of error in relation to the size of the estimate, 

the less reliable the estimate. When added to 

and subtracted from the estimate, the margin 

of error forms the 90 percent confidence 

interval.

DEMOGRAPHIC AND 

SOCIOECONOMIC 

CHARACTERISTICS

Age and Sex Composition

The median age (half of the 

population is older than the 

median age and half of the 

population is younger) of the 

U.S. population was 37 years 

in the 2008–2012 ACS (Figure

3). The corresponding median 

ages among the selected ancestry groups were lower, since 

young adults are the ones most 

likely to migrate, and ranged 

from a low of about 30 years 

for Ethiopian, Nigerian, and 

Haitian to a high of 36 years for 

those reporting Trinidadian and 

Tobagonian ancestry.

The populations reporting 

Ethiopian, Haitian, and Nigerian 

ancestries especially had a 

young age structure compared 

with the nation. Almost onehalf of people with Ethiopian 

ancestry (46 percent) were aged 

20 to 44 years compared with 

one-third (34 percent) for the 

general population. Nationwide 

there were three times as many 

people aged 65 and older 

(13 percent) as those reporting Ethiopian and Nigerian (3 

percent each) ancestries.

The sex ratio is a measure of 

sex composition, and is defined 

as the number of males per 

100 females.29 A sex ratio of 

exactly 100 would indicate 

an equal number of males 

and females, with a sex ratio 

29 Barry Edmonston and Margaret 

Michalowski, “International Migration,” In The 

Methods And Materials Of Demography, ed. 

Jacob S. Siegel and David A. Swanson, Elsevier, 

New York, 2004, 455–492.

 Under 20 20–44 45–64 65+ Median age 

 

37.2

29.6

29.1

29.8

34.5

35.8

 

97

102

113

90

86

80

Sex ratio1

 

Figure 3.

Age and Sex Composition: 2008–2012

(Percent distribution. Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection, 

sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

population 26.9 33.6 26.3 13.2

 33.0 45.7 18.3 3.1

 35.0 40.2 21.8 3.0

 33.1 38.1 21.6 7.4

 28.3 37.3 25.1 9.4

 24.0 40.1 27.0 8.9

1 The sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.
8 U.S. Census Bureau

over 100 indicating a greater 

number of males. People of 

Nigerian ancestry (who traditionally tend to provide more 

resources including an education at home or abroad to the 

male child) had the highest sex 

ratio (113), while with a sex 

ratio of 80, there were relatively more females than males 

among the population reporting Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

ancestry. Especially during the 

third West Indian immigration 

wave (between 1968 and 1976) 

to the United States, it was 

easier for those who did not 

qualify for the top preference 

of family reunification to obtain 

labor certification and immigrate if they were nurses or 

domestic servants, two occupations dominated by women.30, 

31, 32

Marital Status

Figure 4 presents the incidence of marriage, separation, divorce, and widowhood 

among males for the selected 

ancestry groups compared 

with the general population. 

Because of a relatively younger 

age structure, at least 39 

percent of males among the 

selected ancestry groups were 

never married compared with 

35 percent of males nationwide. Of those males who were 

married, the highest proportion 

was among those with Nigerian 

ancestry as well as the general 

population (51 percent). Men 

30 See footnote 10.

31 See footnote 17.

32 See footnote 18.

among all the selected ancestry 

groups (3 percent) were more 

likely to be separated from 

their spouses than those in the 

general population (2 percent). 

On the other hand, they were 

less likely to be divorced compared with males in the general 

population (10 percent). There 

were more widowers nationwide than among the selected 

ancestry groups (3 percent for 

the total population compared 

with 1 percent for Ethiopian 

and Nigerian and 2 percent 

for Haitian, Jamaican, and 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

ancestries).

There were also higher proportions of females who were never 

married among the selected 

groups compared with the 

general population (Figure 5). 

Nationwide, the percentage of 

never-married females was 29 

percent but was as high as 44 

percent for the Haitian population. All women in the United 

States and those who reported 

a Nigerian ancestry (47 percent each), as well as women 

of Ethiopian ancestry (45 percent), were more likely to be 

married compared to those of 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian (37 

percent), Haitian (35 percent), 

and Jamaican (33 percent) ancestries. The proportion of married 

women of Ethiopian ancestry was 

not significantly different from 

Nigerian women.

Women nationwide were least 

likely to be separated (3 percent), 

while women who reported a 

Nigerian ancestry were least 

likely to be divorced (7 percent). Women in the selected 

ancestry groups were less 

likely to be widowed than all 

women in the United States.

Average Household 

Size and Household 

Composition

Figure 6 shows that in 

2008–2012, the average 

household size, which is determined by dividing the total 

household population by the 

total number of households in 

the United States, was 2.6 people per household. This was 

also the average household 

size for the population reporting Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

ancestry, which had the smallest household size among 

the selected ancestry groups. 

Haitian ancestry group average 

household size was the largest 

at 3.5 people per household. A 

household ancestry classification is based on the ancestry 

of the householder. A householder is an individual, at least 

15 years old, in whose name 

the housing unit is rented or 

owned.

Almost one-half of all households in the United States and 

among people of Nigerian 

ancestry were composed of 

married-couple households 

compared with 35 percent 

of all households for people 

reporting a Jamaican ancestry, 

the lowest of all the groups. 

The population reporting 

a Haitian ancestry had the 

highest percentage of male 
U.S. Census Bureau 9

Never married Married Separated Divorced Widowed

Figure 4.

Male Marital Status: 2008–2012

(Percent distribution of the male population 15 years and over. Data based on sample. For information on 

confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

population 35.1 51.1 9.5 2.5

 43.7 45.4 7.4 0.6

 38.6 51.0 6.7 0.7

 46.2 42.9 5.9 1.8

 43.3 42.9 8.6 1.9

 41.0 45.9 3.7 7.8 1.6

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

1.8

2.9

2.9

3.2

3.3

Never married Married Separated Divorced Widowed

Figure 5.

Female Marital Status: 2008–2012

(Percent distribution of the female population 15 years and over. Data based on sample. For information on 

confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

population 28.7 47.4 12.0 9.3

 34.7 45.1 3.8 10.2 6.3

 36.8 46.9 3.9 7.1 5.3

 44.0 35.0 5.4 9.2 6.3

 42.2 33.1 5.2 13.0 6.5

 38.6 37.2 5.5 13.3 5.4

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

2.5
10 U.S. Census Bureau

householder, no wife present 

households (9 percent) and 

households composed of a 

female householder, no husband present (28 percent), but 

the lowest proportion of nonfamily households (20 percent).

Foreign Born, Period of 

Entry, and Naturalized 

Citizens

The 2008–2012 ACS estimated 

the proportion of the foreignborn population in the United 

States to be 13 percent 

(Figure 7). By comparison, 

almost three-quarters of the 

population reporting Ethiopian 

ancestry (72 percent) were 

foreign born, the highest 

among the selected ancestry groups. Approximately 

6 out of every 10 people 

among the other groups 

were foreign born, including 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian, 

Nigerian, Jamaican, and Haitian 

ancestries. 

The period of entry to the 

United States mirrors each 

group’s migration experience. Figure 8 shows that the 

overwhelming majority of all 

foreign born, as well as those 

among the selected ancestry 

groups, arrived before 2010 (at 

least 9 out of 10). At the same 

time, a significantly higher 

percentage of the foreignborn reporting Trinidadian 

and Tobagonian (99 percent), 

Jamaican (98 percent), and 

Haitian (96 percent) ancestries, 

the earliest immigrants among 

the selected groups, entered 

the country before 2010, 

while about 95 percent and 94 

percent of those with Nigerian 

and Ethiopian ancestry, respectively, arrived during the same 

period. 

Of all foreign born in the 

nation, 44 percent were naturalized citizens (Figure 9). 

The foreign born of Jamaican 

ancestry were most likely to be 

naturalized among the selected 

ancestry groups, followed by 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian, 

and Nigerian ancestries. The 

proportion of naturalized foreign born was lower for those 

with Ethiopian and Haitian 

ancestries. 

 Married couple Male householder, no wife present

 Female householder, no husband present Nonfamily households

Average

household size

 

2.6

3.1

3.0

3.5

2.8

2.6

Figure 6.

Household Type: 2008–2012

(Percent distribution. Households are classified by ancestry of the householder. Data based on sample. 

For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, 

see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

households 49.0 12.9 33.5

 42.5 8.0 16.3 33.1

 48.4 7.1 13.1 31.3

 42.0 9.1 28.3 20.6

 35.1 27.4 31.0

 37.4 25.9 30.3

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

4.6

6.4

6.6
U.S. Census Bureau 11

Language Spoken at Home 

and Ability to Speak 

English

Figure 10 shows that nationwide most people, aged 5 

and older, spoke only English 

at home (80 percent). As 

Anglophone or Englishspeaking Caribbean people, 

those with Trinidadian and 

Tobagonian (96 percent) and 

Jamaican (93 percent) ancestries were the most likely to 

speak only English at home. 

Even though English is the official language of Nigeria, less 

than half of people reporting 

Nigerian ancestry spoke only 

English at home (43 percent), 

as many also spoke their 

ethnic languages such as Efik, 

Igbo, Ijaw, Hausa, and Yoruba. 

Only about 19 percent of the 

Figure 7.

Percent Foreign Born: 2008–2012

(Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality 

protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, 

see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

 population 12.9

 72.3

 60.5

 59.5

 59.7

 63.8

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

Before 1990 1990–1999 2000–2009 2010 or later

Trinidadian and

Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

population

38.8 27.2 31.3 2.7

17.1 26.2 50.4 6.4

23.6 28.6 43.2 4.6

39.9 26.3 30.2 3.6

50.7 24.9 22.4 2.0

49.3 28.8 20.9 1.0

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

Figure 8.

Period of Entry: 2008–2012

(Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, 

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)
12 U.S. Census Bureau

Ethiopian and Haitian ancestry 

groups spoke only English at 

home. Creole and French are 

the two official languages in 

Haiti. In Ethiopia, Amharic is 

the official national language, 

while many other languages 

such as Oromo, Somali, and 

Tigrinya are spoken at the 

state and local levels. Thus, 

far more people of Haitian (38 

percent) and Ethiopian (35 

percent) ancestry who spoke 

a language other than English 

at home reported speaking English less than “very 

well” compared with those 

with Nigerian (9 percent), 

Jamaican, and Trinidadian and 

Tobagonian (about 1 percent) 

ancestries.33, 34, 35, 36

English-speaking ability varied 

by place of birth particularly 

among the population reporting Ethiopian, Nigerian, and 

Haitian ancestries (Figures 

11 and 12). The majority of 

native-born people (i.e., born 

in the United States) with 

Nigerian ancestry (77 percent) 

and Ethiopian ancestry (58 

percent) spoke only English 

at home. By comparison, less 

than one-half of the nativeborn with Haitian ancestry 

spoke only English at home 

(41 percent). About twice as 

33 Jeanne Batalova and Michael Fix, “A 

Profile of Limited English Proficient Adult 

Immigrants,” Peabody Journal of Education, 

2010, 85(4): 511–534 34 Sherrie A. Kossoudji, “English Language 

Ability and the Labor Market Opportunities 

of Hispanic and East Asian Immigrant Men,” 

Journal of Labor Economics, 1988, 6(2): 

205–228. 35 Christine P. Gambino, Yesenia D. Acosta, 

and Elizabeth M. Grieco, “English-Speaking 

Ability of the Foreign-Born Population in the 

United States: 2012,” American Community 

Survey Reports, ACS-26, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington, DC, 2014. 36 Central Intelligence Agency, The World 

Factbook 2013–14, Washington, DC, 2013.

Accessed September 3, 2014, <https://travel

.state.gov/content/dam/visas/policy_updates

/16-STATE-103720-DV-IV-2018.pdf>.

Figure 9.

Percent Naturalized: 2008–2012

(Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality 

protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, 

see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

 foreign born 44.3

 48.0

 52.1

 49.3

 61.0

 56.3

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

Figure 10.

Language Spoken at Home and Ability to 

Speak English: 2008–2012

(Percentage of population 5 years and over. Data based on 

sample. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, 

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

population

79.5

8.7

19.2

35.0

43.3

9.4

18.7

37.6

92.7

1.3

95.5

0.7

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

Spoke only English 

at home

Spoke a language other than English and 

spoke English less than “very well”
U.S. Census Bureau 13

many of the total foreign-born 

population (17 percent) spoke 

only English at home compared 

with the foreign-born reporting 

Ethiopian ancestry (9 percent) 

and Haitian ancestry (6 percent). About one-quarter of the 

foreign-born population with 

Nigerian ancestry spoke only 

English at home.

Educational Attainment 

Figure 13 shows that the proportion of the United States 

population 25 years and older 

that had a bachelor’s degree or 

higher was 29 percent. Since 

acquiring a college or other 

advanced degree was a major 

factor for many people of 

Nigerian ancestry coming to 

the United States, it is not surprising that twice as many 

(61 percent) had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher compared 

to all people and the other 

selected ancestry groups. 

The proportion of people 

who reported Trinidadian and 

Tobagonian ancestry and had 

a bachelor’s degree or higher 

was consistent with those 

who reported Ethiopian and 

Jamaican ancestries. The educational level for every other 

selected ancestry group was 

higher than for those who 

reported Haitian ancestry.

Labor Force Participation 

and Occupation

Nationally, about two-thirds 

of the population 16 years 

and older was in the labor 

force (Figure 14). People 

who reported Nigerian and 

Ethiopian (76 percent each) 

ancestries had the highest 

Figure 11.

Language Spoken at Home and Ability to 

Speak English, Native: 2008–2012

(Percentage of population 5 years and over. Data based on 

sample. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, 

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

population

89.6

1.9

58.2

6.6

76.6

2.2

41.0

6.7

93.5

0.6

93.5

0.8

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

Spoke only English 

at home

Spoke a language other than English 

and spoke English less that “very well”

Figure 12.

Language Spoken at Home and Ability to 

Speak English, Foreign-Born: 2008–2012

(Percentage of population 5 years and over. Data based on sample. 

For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, 

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

population

16.5

51.2

8.9

42.4

26.2

13.0

6.4

54.6

92.2

1.6

96.4

0.6

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

Spoke only English 

at home

Spoke a language other than English 

and spoke English less that “very well”
14 U.S. Census Bureau

participation rates among all 

the selected ancestry groups. 

At least 71 percent of people 

aged 16 and older with Haitian, 

Jamaican, and Trinidadian and 

Tobagonian ancestries participated in the labor force. 

Figure 15 shows that 36 percent of the civilian employed 

population aged 16 and older 

in the United States worked in 

management, business, science, and arts occupations, but 

as the most educated group, 

people with Nigerian ancestry 

had the greatest share of this 

type of occupation (52 percent). People reporting Haitian 

ancestry had the highest 

proportion employed in service 

occupations (38 percent), while 

the highest proportion engaged 

in production, transportation, 

and material moving occupations were Ethiopian ancestry 

workers (22 percent). 

Median Earnings

Figure 16 shows the proportions of the U.S. population and 

the selected ancestry groups 

by median earnings and sex. 

In general, male ($50,922) and 

female ($44,894) workers, 

16 years and older reporting 

Nigerian ancestry had higher 

median earnings in the past 

12 months compared with the 

total U.S. population—males 

and females ($48,629 for all 

males and $37,842 for all 

females)—and their counterparts among the other selected 

groups. On the other hand, 

Figure 13.

Bachelor’s Degree or Higher Educational 

Attainment: 2008–2012

(Percentage of population 25 years and over. Data based on sample. 

For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, 

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

 population

27.0

28.5

61.4

19.2

24.8

25.7

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

Figure 14.

Labor Force Participation: 2008–2012

(Percentage of population 16 years and over. Data based on sample. 

For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, 

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

 population 64.7

75.9

76.1

71.3

72.6

72.1

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 15

men and women with Haitian 

ancestry, and men and women 

reporting Ethiopian ancestry had the lowest median 

earnings. 

Poverty Rate

In Figure 17, the proportion 

of the nation living below the 

poverty level was 15 percent, similar to the shares of 

people reporting Jamaican and 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

ancestries. The population with 

Nigerian ancestry (13 percent) 

had the lowest poverty rate, 

while those reporting Haitian 

ancestry (21 percent) had the 

highest poverty rate, followed 

by 20 percent for people with 

Ethiopian ancestry.

Management, business,

science, and arts

Service

Sales and office

Natural resources, construction,

and maintenance

Production, transportation,

and material moving

Figure 15.

Occupation: 2008–2012

(Percent distribution of the civilian-employed population 16 years and over. Data based on sample. For information on 

confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Total U.S. Ethiopian Nigerian Haitian Jamaican

population

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

35.9

25.0

51.5

23.8

32.9 33.0

12.1

22.1

7.9 12.8 8.8 9.0

7.4 8.3 4.7

2.4

2.6

24.9

17.8

25.6

24.8 20.5

17.7

20.8

37.9 27.2 23.6

26.1 23.7

9.3
16 U.S. Census Bureau

Homeownership Rate

The homeownership rate is 

the percentage of all occupied 

housing units that are owneroccupied. The homeownership 

rate for the country was about 

66 percent, which was above 

the rate for all the selected 

ancestry groups (Figure 18). 

The rate for the population 

reporting Ethiopian ancestry 

was the lowest (35 percent), 

while it was highest for those 

with Jamaican ancestry (54 

percent). 

SUMMARY AND 

CONCLUSION

This report presents a portrait 

of the population reporting 

Ethiopian, Nigerian, Haitian, 

Jamaican, and Trinidadian and 

Tobagonian ancestries in the 

United States based on 2008–

2012 5-year ACS estimates. 

Each of the selected ancestry 

groups carved a distinctive 

path to immigrate to the United 

States. Also each group had 

economic and political ties 

to the United States prior to 

arrival. They represent different categories of international 

migrants including temporary 

migrants, asylum seekers and 

refugees, and immigrants with 

work permits. They also reflect 

a number of factors including United States immigration 

policies and the strength of the 

labor market within the historical period of arrival, economic 

and sociocultural globalization 

Figure 16.

Median Earnings by Sex: 2008–2012

(Earnings in the past 12 months for employed, full-time, year-round 

male and female workers 16 years and over. In 2012 inflation-adjusted 

dollars. Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality 

protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see 

www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

 population

$48,629

$37,842

$34,018

$30,253

$50,922

$44,894

$33,254

$30,841

$41,969

$39,155

$43,748

$40,552

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

Male Female

Figure 17.

Poverty Rate: 2008–2012

(Percentage of people in poverty in the past 12 months. Data 

based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection, 

sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see 

www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

Total U.S.

 population 14.9

19.7

12.8

21.3

14.8

14.3

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 17

and integration, and political 

instability around the world.37, 

38, 39, 40, 41

The report compares selected 

geographic, demographic, and 

socioeconomic characteristics 

of these groups in the United 

States. The population with 

Jamaican ancestry was the largest of the five selected groups 

and the slowest growing, while 

the Ethiopian ancestry group 

was the smallest but fastest growing. The geographic 

distribution of these ancestry groups varies considerably with those of Haitian, 

Jamaican, and Trinidadian and 

Tobagonian ancestries most 

concentrated in Florida and 

New York. The Ethiopian and 

Nigerian ancestry groups, 

on the other hand, are more 

widely dispersed across the 

United States. 

Since young adults are the 

ones most likely to migrate, 

the populations reporting 

Ethiopian and Nigerian ancestries were relatively younger 

37 Note that natives of Haiti, Jamaica, and 

Nigeria are no longer eligible to participate in 

the diversity immigration visa program as of 

2013, because each country has sent more 

than 50,000 immigrants to the United States 

in the previous 5 years. See <https://travel

.state.gov/content/dam/visas/policy_updates

/16-STATE-103720-DV-IV-2018.pdf>, as 

accessed February 1, 2017. 38 Philip Martin, “The Global Challenge 

of Managing Migration,” Population Bulletin, 

2013, 68(2): 2–16. 39 Douglas S. Massey, Joaquín Arango, 

Graeme Hugo, Ali Kouaouci, Adela Pellegrino, 

and J. Edward Taylor, “Theories of 

International Migration: A Review and 

Appraisal,” Population and Development 

Review, 1993, 19(3); 431–466. 40 Stephen Castles, “Understanding Global 

Migration: A Social Transformative 

Perspective,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration 

Studies, 2010, 36(10); 1565–1586. 41 Stephen Castles and Mark J. Miller, The 

Age of Migration: International Population 

Movements in the Modern World, Guilford, 

New York, 2009.

and had a higher sex ratio 

than the U.S. population. A 

younger age structure also 

means that higher proportions 

of males and females among 

the selected ancestry groups 

have never married, and lower 

proportions were widowed 

compared with the general 

population. The Haitian ancestry group had the largest average household size, while there 

was the same share of marriedcouple households among 

people of Nigerian ancestry as 

among all households in the 

United States.

There were at least four times 

the proportion foreign-born 

individuals among the selected 

ancestry groups as in the 

general population. The majority of people of Jamaican and 

Trinidadian and Tobagonian 

ancestries spoke only English 

at home, while one-fifth of the 

Ethiopian and Haitian ancestry 

groups spoke only English at 

home. However, these proportions rose to more than onehalf and more than one-third 

among native-born individuals 

of Ethiopian and Haitian ancestries, respectively. 

People of Nigerian ancestry 

outpaced all the other selected 

groups and the total U.S. population in educational attainment. People who reported 

Nigerian and Ethiopian ancestries had the highest labor 

force participation rates among 

all the ancestry groups. In 

addition, people with Nigerian 

ancestry had the greatest share 

of management, business, 

Figure 18.

Homeownership Rate: 2008–2012

(Percentage of occupied housing units. Households are classified by 

ancestry of the householder. Data based on sample. For information 

on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, 

and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www)

Trinidadian and

 Tobagonian

Jamaican

Haitian

Nigerian

Ethiopian

U.S. occupied

 housing units 65.5

35.2

47.5

45.0

53.7

47.8

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.
18 U.S. Census Bureau

science, and arts occupations, 

the highest median income, 

and the lowest poverty rate 

compared with all the other 

selected groups and the general population. However, those 

with Jamaican ancestry had 

the highest homeownership 

rate of all the selected ancestry 

groups.

The American Community 

Survey is the only source of 

small-area estimates for social 

and demographic characteristics. It gives communities the 

current information they need 

to plan investments and services. Retailers, homebuilders, 

and town and city planners are 

among the many private- and 

public-sector individuals who 

count on these annual results. 

Information from this report 

will help in documenting part 

of the growing diversity of the 

ethnic groups that have come 

to the United States throughout 

its history. 

Source and Accuracy 

The data presented in this 

report are based on the 

ACS sample interviewed 

from January 2008 through 

December 2012. The estimates 

based on this sample describe 

the average values of person, 

household, and housing unit 

characteristics over this period 

of collection. Sampling error 

is the uncertainty between an 

estimate based on a sample 

and the corresponding value 

that would be obtained if the 

estimate were based on the 

entire population (as from a 

census). Measures of sampling 

error are provided in the form 

of margins of error for key estimates included in this report. 

All comparative statements 

in this report have undergone 

statistical testing and comparisons are significant at the 90 

percent level, unless otherwise 

noted. In addition to sampling 

error, nonsampling error may 

be introduced during any of 

the operations used to collect 

and process survey data such 

as editing, reviewing, or keying 

data from questionnaires. For 

more information on sampling 

and estimation methods, confidentiality protection, and sampling and nonsampling errors, 

please see the ACS Multiyear 

Accuracy of the Data document 

located at<www.census.gov

/acs/www/Downloads

/ata_documentation

/Accuracy/multiyearACS

AccuracyofData2012.pdf>.

What is the American 

Community Survey? 

The American Community 

Survey (ACS) is a nationwide 

survey designed to provide 

communities with reliable and 

timely demographic, social, 

economic, and housing data 

for congressional districts, 

counties, places, and other 

localities every year. It has 

an annual sample size of 

about 3.5 million addresses 

across the United States and 

includes both housing units 

and group quarters (e.g., nursing homes and prisons). The 

ACS is conducted in every 

county throughout the nation. 

Single-year, 3-year, and 5-year 

estimates from the ACS are all 

“period” estimates that represent data collected within 

particular intervals of time—12 

months, 36 months, and 60 

months, respectively. For 

information on the ACS sample 

design and other topics, visit 

<www.census.gov/acs/www>.

For More Information 

For more information on these 

selected ancestry groups and 

other ancestry groups in the 

United States, visit the Census 

Bureau’s Internet site at 

<www.census.gov/population

/ancestry/>. The most recent 

data on ancestry can be found 

on American FactFinder located 

at <factfinder2.census.gov/>.
U.S. Census Bureau 19

Appendix Table 1.

Margin of Error for the Population Reporting Selected Sub-Saharan African and Caribbean 

Ancestry: 1980 to 2008–2012

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see www2.census.gov/prod2

/decennial/documents and www.census.gov/acs/www)

Population group1 Census ACS

1980 1990 2000 2008–2012

Total U.S. population. . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 0 0

Ethiopian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 1,167 1,626 5,571

Nigerian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,529 1,893 2,238 6,512

Haitian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,099 3,363 4,081 15,802

Jamaican. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,515 4,121 4,729 12,904

Trinidadian and Tobagonian. . . . . . 1,463 1,727 2,239 5,118

1 Selected sub-Saharan African and Caribbean ancestry groups of 150,000 or more total population in the 2008–2012 American Community 

Survey.

Note: Data are based on samples and are subject to sampling variability. A margin of error is a measure of an estimate’s variability. The larger 

the margin of error is in relation to the size of the estimate, the less reliable the estimate. When added to and subtracted from the estimate, the 

margin of error forms the 90 percent confidence interval.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 1980 Census, 1990 Census, 2000 Census, and 2008–2012 American Community Survey, 5-year estimates.

CONTACT

For questions related to the

contents of this report and the 

accompanying tables, contact

the authors:

Stella U. Ogunwole

<Stella.U.Ogunwole@census

.gov>

301-763-6141

Population Division

U.S. Census Bureau

Karen R. Battle

<karen.battle@census.gov>

301-763-2071

Population Division

U.S. Census Bureau

Darryl T. Cohen 

<Darryl.T.Cohen@census.gov>

301-763-6315

Population Division

U.S. Census Bureau

SUGGESTED CITATION

Ogunwole, Stella U., Karen R. 

Battle, and Darryl T. Cohen, 

“Characteristics of Selected SubSaharan African and Caribbean 

Ancestry Groups in the United 

States: 2008–2012,” American 

Community Survey Reports, 

ACS-34, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington, DC, 2017.