SMITHSONIA N CONTRIBUTION S T O ANTHROPOLOG Y • NUMBE R 34 

The Folk Biology of the Tobelo People 

A Study in Folk Classification 

Paul Michael Taylor 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS 

Washington, D.C. 

1990 
ABSTRAC T 

Taylor, Paul Michael The Folk Biology of the Tobelo People: A Study in Folk Classification. 

Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, number 34, 187 pages, 11 figures, 1 map, 

1990.—This ethnographic study of folk biology among the Tobelo (a West Papuan-speaking 

ethnic group of Halmahera Island, Maluku, Indonesia) outlines local cultural presumptions 

about classifying flora and fauna, describes the system of folk biological nomenclature in terms 

consistent with the morphology and syntax of the Tobelo language, and analyzes the local 

system of folk classification within a posited semantic domain of "biotic forms." 

In the local linguistic context, dialectal differences, multilingualism, an apparently strict 

in-law name taboo, and particular speech registers for which Tobelo consider their own language 

inappropriate are shown to affect word formation, the adoption of foreign plant and animal 

names, and other aspects of ethnobiological classification. Culturally, the belief that names for 

plants and animals were set down by ancestors vastly more familiar with local biota than are 

their descendants, the notion that there is a "proper" name for virtually all easily visible plants 

and animals, and that much knowledge is and should remain esoteric, justify several alternative 

ways in which the Tobelo may reconcile individual or dialectal variation to determine "proper" 

details of classification consistent with these presumptions. 

Nomenclature is considered in detail. The importance of recognizing the lexemic status of 

homonymous and polysemous terms is illustrated; and means of recognizing lexemes having the 

same form as non-lexemic expressions are detailed. A morphosyntactic classification of lexemic 

types is here applied to the formation of terms in this domain. 

Unlabeled classes within this semantic domain (including the highest-level class BIOTIC 

FORM) are posited, and new methods are presented for determining and evaluating such "covert 

categories." A critique of other procedures based on perceived similarities among plants and 

animals shows that the only local cultural significance of those classes may be their sudden 

appearance as a result of tests designed to find them, that similarities observed may not be those 

used in hierarchically relating folk taxa, and that such classes do not in any case belong in a 

linguistic description. From a systematic review of Tobelo lexemes it is possible to avoid these 

difficulties. 

The analysis of Tobelo folk biological classification (the system of semantic relations among 

usually lexically labeled classes) provides various types of evidence for the distinctiveness of a 

"basic" level, and details methods for distinguishing basic terms. Taxonomic relations order the 

set of hierarchically related folk classes into eleven levels: the widest or "basic" level, along with 

six above and four below. Non-"regular" elements of this folk taxonomy include nonsymmetric 

and disjunctive contrast, "residue" of higher-level classes, ambiguous subclass-superclass 

relations, and dual structural positions of a single class in the overall hierarchic structure. 

Also analyzed are other types of semantic relations among folk classes, including a 

'mother'-'child' relation among FAUN AL FORMS, crosscutting and intersecting subclasses of 

the basic class, and classification by growth stage and size. The Tobelo are able to use these 

methods of classifying local fauna and flora to justify the observed differences among 

themselves (or among Tobelo dialects) in how they classify the same plants and animals. They 

even sometimes use this classificatory system to productively predict the existence of plants and 

animals that have not yet been observed, much as our chemists once used the Periodic Table of 

the Elements to predict the existence of elements that had not been observed. 

Detailed folk classificatory, nomenclatural, and systematic botanical and zoological 

information for all recorded BIOTIC FORMS is given in the appendixes, which are based upon 

extensive collections of Halmaheran terrestrial and marine animals and plants, along with their 

associated ethnographic information. 

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is 

recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. COVER DESIGN: Two Tobelo 

decorative winnowing baskets, made at Kampung PasirPutih in 1981. Plaited o todoku bamboo 

strips (Bambusa atra Lindl.), with frames of o iwi (Calamus sp.) wrapped in strips of o buho 

(Pandanus sp.). Left, human figure (seen from convex side, as basket would be displayed if hung 

in a house). Right, quadripartite geometric pattern (seen from concave side, as would be seen if 

winnowing rice). 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Taylor, Paul Michael 

The folk biology of the Tobelo people: a study in folk classification / Paul Michael Taylor. 

p. cm. - (Smithsonian contributions to anthropology ; no. 34) 

Includes bibliographical references. 

Supt of Docs, no.: SI 1.33:34 

1. Tobelo (Indonesian people)—Folklore. 2. Folklore—Indonesia—Maluku—Classification. 3. Human ecology— 

Indonesia—Maluku. 4. Tobelo language—Classification. I. Title. II. Series. 

GN1.S54 no. 34 

[GR 3245.T62) 89-600388 

301 s-dc20 CIP 

[306.4'5] 
Contents 

Page 

PREFACE v 

Acknowledgments v 

Note on Pronunciation vii 

1. Introduction 1 

1.1 The Description of Tobelo Folk Classification 1 

1.2 Field Methods 4 

2. Tobelo Folk Biology in Its Sociolinguistic and Cultural Context 11 

2.1 The Tobelo Language Situation 11 

2.1.1 The Tobelo Dialects 11 

2.1.2 Multilingualism and the Use of Other Languages in Special 

Registers 13 

2.1.3 Ethnicity, Religion, and Language in Halmaheran Villages 15 

2.1.4 The In-law Name Taboo and Its Practical Effects 19 

2.1.5 Conclusion: The Tobelo Language Situation and Tobelo Folk Classification 20 

2.2 The Cultural Importance of Local Biota 21 

2.2.1 Subsistence and Diet 21 

2.2.2 Ethnogeography 21 

2.2.3 Technology 22 

2.2.4 Magic and Medicine 22 

2.3 Tobelo Cultural Presumptions about Their Folk Biological Classification . . 22 

3. Plant and Animal Nomenclature 24 

3.0 Introduction 24 

3.1 The Identification and Importance of Lexemes 24 

3.1.1 Forms, Lexemes, and Expressions 24 

3.1.2 The Lexemic Status of Homonymous and Polysemous Terms 25 

3.1.3 Recognizing Lexemes That Have the Same Form as Non-lexemic 

Expressions 28 

3.1.4 Conclusion: The Identification of Lexemes 30 

3.2 Types of Lexemes 30 

3.2.1 Words and Phrasal Lexemes 31 

3.2.2 Types of Word and Phrasal Lexemes 32 

3.2.2.1 Simple Words, Including Foreign Compound Borrowings . . 33 

3.2.2.2 Types of Complex Words 33 

3.2.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Compound Words and Phrasal 

Lexemes 34 

3.3 Foreign Borrowings in Tobelo Nomenclature 39 

3.4 A Note on Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven's Classification of Lexemes ... . 40 

4. The Domain of the BIOTIC FORM, and Other Posited Unlabeled Classes ... . 42 

4.1 Why Posit Unlabeled ("Covert") Classes? 42 

4.2 The Quest for "Perceived Similarity" Is Not a Quest for Unlabeled 

Classes 44 

4.3 The Method of Co-hyponymy 46 

4.4 The Method of Definitional Implication 47 

4.5 Conclusion and Summary 51 

5. The Tobelo Folk Classification of BIOTIC FORMS 52 

m 
IV 

SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

5.0 Introduction 52 

5.1 The "Basic"-ness of the Basic Term • • 52 

5.1.1 The Limited Applicability of Nomenclatural Criteria for Distinguishing "Basic" Tobelo Terms 52 

5.1.2 "Contextual" or "Cultural" Reasons For Distinguishing the "Basic" 

Level 54 

5.1.3 The "Sequencing" of Hierarchically Related Forms as an Indicator 

of the Basic Level 54 

5.1.3.1 Acceptable and Unacceptable Sequences of Terms 55 

5.1.3.2 Foreign Compounds in the Sequencing Rule 57 

5.1.3.3 Restraints on the Freedom of Occurrence (Non-boundness) of 

Single Lexemes *° 

5.1.4 Conclusion: Distinguishing the Basic Terms 59 

5.2 The Classificatory Framework 59 

5.2.1 Taxonomic Relations 60 

5.2.1.1 "Model" and "Non-model" Features of a Taxonomy 60 

5.2.1.2 The Taxa and Their Definitions 60 

5.2.1.3 Some Signs of Tobelo Preference for "Ideal" Features of 

Taxonomies 61 

5.2.2 The Integration of Non-"ideal" Features into the Taxonomic Framework 63 

5.2.2.1 "Residue" and "Residual Taxa" 64 

5.2.2.2 Non-symmetry and Immediate Disjunctive Contrast 66 

5.2.2.3 Ambiguous B+1 Class Membership 68 

5.2.2.4 Dual Structural Positions for the Same Class 69 

5.2.3 Non-taxonomic Structural Relations 71 

5.2.3.1 Cross-cutting Subclasses of the Basic Class 71 

5.2.3.2 The 'Mother'-'Child' Relation 73 

5.2.3.3 Growth Stages (Size Classes) 79 

5.2.3.4 Intersecting Subclasses of a Folk Class 82 

5.2.3.5 Folk Classes Posited without Ever Having Been Observed . . 82 

5.3 Conclusion 83 

APPENDKES 

Appendix 1: The Tobelo Classification of FLORAL FORMS 84 

A1.0 Introduction and Explanation of Symbols 84 

Al.l Tobelo FLORAL FORMS 87 

Appendix 2: The Tobelo Classification of FAUNAL FORMS 119 

A2.0 Introduction 119 

A2.1 o totaleo 'bird' 119 

A2.2 o dodiha 'snake' 125 

A2.3 o nawoko 'fish' 126 

A2.4 o bianga 'mollusk' 133 

A2.5 o aewani2 'mere animals' and unaffiliated FAUNAL FORMS 135 

Appendix 3: The Tobelo Classification of the Other BIOTIC FORMS 141 

A3.0 Introduction 141 

A3.1 (Sexual BIOTIC FORMS:) NON-BREATHERS 141 

A3.2 Other (Unaffiliated) BIOTIC FORMS 141 

Appendix 4: Systematic List of Botanical Taxa, with Index to Tobelo Basic (B°) 

Classes 142 

Appendix 5: Systematic List of Zoological Taxa, with Index to Tobelo Basic (B°) 

Classes 165 

NOTES 183 

LITERATURE CITED 185 
Preface 

Acknowledgments 

I can only begin to list the many individuals who lent their time and expertise to this 

multidisciplinary study, and the institutions that have helped me carry it through. 

Preliminary library and archival research in the Netherlands was supported by a Sigma Xi 

Grant-in-aid of Research (1976) and a Yale University Council on Southeast Asian Studies 

research grant (1976). The first of three seasons of field research among the Tobelo was 

funded by a Social Science Research Council Fellowship for Doctoral Dissertation 

Research in Southeast Asia (October 1977-July 1979), supplemented by later grants from 

the Yale Concilium on International and Area Studies and from the Yale Council on 

Southeast Asian Studies. Joint institutional sponsorship for that trip was arranged by Keith 

Thomson (Yale University Peabody Museum of Natural History) and Aprilani Soegiarto 

(Lembaga Oseanologi Nasional, Jakarta). A second field season (December 1980-

November 1981) was supported by grants from the National Geographic Society, and 

carried out under the local sponsorship of Universitas Khairun (Ternate). My third field 

season (October 1984-March 1985), part of which was spent among the Tobelo, was 

supported by grants from the Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and 

from the Scholarly Studies Program of the Smithsonian Institution, and locally sponsored 

by Universitas Pattimura (Ambon). 

Although die Indonesian Institute of Economic and Social Sciences (LEKNAS) was 

never officially my local sponsor, that Institute's Halmahera Research Project (later named 

Maluku and Irian Jaya Research Project), under the dynamic leadership of E.K.M. 

Masinambow, has coordinated and assisted research by a dedicated group of foreign 

(mostly Dutch) scholars and their Indonesian counterparts, which in the past ten years has 

vastly increased our knowledge about the peoples of that region. 

Far too many individuals have generously given of their time and expertise for me to list 

all of them by name. I will always be grateful to the many Tobelo and other Halmaherans 

who so graciously accepted me as a student of their languages and their ways, and who so 

patiently and hospitably shared with me their unique vision of the world around them. I 

extend my heartfelt thanks especially to my hosts, my "brotfier" Demianus Nalande and his 

wife at Loleba, and die families of Yunus Candua and Wuhi Biang at Loleba, as well as the 

village chiefs (kepala kampung) of botfi towns (Karunia Nalande and Welem Taya). 

Virtually die entire population of Kampung Pasir Putih, and most Tobelo people at 

Kampung Loleba, Kampung Wasile, and elsewhere, must be thanked for providing me 

with information about tfieir culture, often including secret medical or magical knowledge. 

Several research assistants in charge of collecting and preserving animal and plant 

specimens and recording other types of information also deserve special mention (at 

Loleba: Habel Singou, Sem and Joni Tumbia, Enos Lopa, Yohanis Loliaro, Nataniel Kato, 

Silas Burdam; at Pasir Putih: Elkana Maratana, Leonar Boletimi, Nikanor Dodowor, 

Ruben Tatu, Yohanis Momou, Esau Tjandua, Yordan Gogus, Uria Ngangangor, 

Melkianus Tjandua, and Siber Sasamulare). I especially thank Siber Sasamulare of Pasir 

Putih for braving the trip with me from his Halmaheran village to New Haven, 

Connecticut, and Los Angeles, California, where he helped me continue studying the 

Tobelo language, and helped prepare and distribute the animal and plant specimens. I 

appreciate the hospitality he and his wife have given me on my subsequent trips to their 

village, and his determination to find and send me information I needed, even after I 

returned from die field. 
VI 

SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Many local residents of Ternate (including the family of Lukas Yauwhannes of Ternate 

and Surabaya, and the family of Tang Kong-Hwa of Ternate and Wasile) were generous 

with their hospitality; and others greatiy assisted with the logistics of obtaining and 

processing field data, especially A.R. Bhigali and Saleh Sahib of Ternate's General 

Hospital, A. Radjiloen of the Cultural Section of Ternate's Office of the Ministry of 

Education and Culture, J. Keith Jiesral, Zainal Abidin Thuguis, Mayor Laut Firman 

Dakpahan, and the Navy of the Republic of Indonesia, and the staffs of Ternate's offices 

of the Forestry Department, Ministry of Education and Culture, Police Office, Office of 

Statistics, Department of Religion, Fisheries Service, and especially of the offices of 

Halmahera's local governments: Bupati Kepala Daerah Tingkat II Maluku Utara (Ternate), 

and Bupati Kepala Wilayah Halmahera Tengah (Tidore). The Pasar Minggu Agricultural 

Research Station (Jakarta), the Agricultural Advisor of the U.S. Embassy (Jakarta), and 

Franklin Martin (Department of Agriculture, Federal Experiment Station, Mayaguez, 

Puerto Rico) aided in the shipment of living and preserved plant materials for scientific 

study. The missionaries Mr. and Mrs. J. Douglas Copp, who with their family were the 

only other Americans in me northern Moluccas when I began my fieldwork, provided 

invaluable help and encouragement in Ternate. 

The staffs of the Herbarium Bogoriense (Bogor, West Java), the Rijksherbarium 

(Leiden, Netherlands), and the United States National Herbarium, Department of Botany, 

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution (Washington, D.C.) experdy 

provided plant determinations from my first field trip. Of the many who helped with the 

study of those plants, Mien Rifai of the Herbarium Bogoriense deserves credit for most of 

the determinations used here. Peter Stevens of the Harvard University Herbaria kindly 

coordinated the distribution and study of plant specimens from later trips, and personally 

did most of those plant determinations himself. In total, over forty herbaria have received 

plant vouchers I collected on Halmahera, and too many specialists have generously worked 

on them for me to tiiank all by name. 

For zoological assistance, my first debt is to Leslie Knapp of the Smithsonian 

Oceanographic Sorting Center (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C): witiiout his 

unfailing help in all details of biological collecting, and of die transportation and 

distribution of specimens, my initial investigation of ethnobiology would have been 

impossible. My friend Adam C. Messer, then a just-graduated Yale University biologist, 

deserves gratitude and praise for bearing with me during nine montiis of biological 

collecting on Halmahera and neighboring islands (December 1980-August 1981). Only 

his skills and dedication, along witii tiiose of our Tobelo friends, who always helped us, 

made it possible to gatiier die vast collections of fauna and flora which that trip produced. 

J. Phillip Angle of die Smitiisonian's Department of Vertebrate Zoology coordinated 

distribution of mammals, birds, and herptiles; Gary Hevel and Wdliam Rowe distributed 

tiiose terrestrial invertebrates tiiat have been distributed; Gordon Hendler distributed 

internationally the marine invertebrates and meticulously followed up correspondence 

witii all die specialists who have provided identifications. Smidisonian scientists David 

Challinor, W. Ronald Heyer, Storrs Olson, S. Dillon Ripley, and Paul Spangler all 

provided encouragement as well as Smithsonian funds for special collections of 

Halmaheran fauna. Special thanks are also due to Christopher Davidson, James Dean, 

Linda Gordon, Robert Gustaffsen, Gordon Hendler, Fran McCullough, Charles Meister, 

Harald Rehder, Charles Remington, James Rodman, George Russel, David C. Schmidt, 

Dale Schweitzer, Thomas Soderstrom, Dieter Wasshausen, George Watson, Addison 

Wynn, George Zug, and also to many others who helped widi particular specimens. 

Halmahera's diverse and culturally important fish fauna were distributed to specialists 

internationally by die Smithsonian's Oceanographic Research Center. While most fish 

collected, unfortunately, have still not been identified even to genus, many individuals did 

yeoman's duty identifying species in the areas of tiieir specialization, including Kunio 

Amaoka, Kurt A. Bruwelheide, Kent E. Carpenter, Bruce B. Collette, C.E. Dawon, Janet 

C. Gomon, Victor Haley, Dannie A. Hensley, Walter Ivantsoff, Leslie W. Knapp, J.M. 
NUMBER 34 vii 

Leis, John D. McEachran, Rowley J. McKay, Frank McKinney, Edward Murdy, Garedi J. 

Nelson, Theodore W. Pietsch, John E. Randall, Barry C. Russell, Joseph Russo, WUliam 

F. Smidi-Vaniz, Victor J. Springer, Wayne C. Starnes, James C. Tyler, Richard P. Vari, 

and Peter J. Whitehead. 

Otiier important assistance was provided at various times by Donna Culpepper, Akmal 

Klana, J. Riley Sever, and otiier staff members of die Educational and Cultural Exchange 

Office of die United States Information Service (U.S. Embassy, Jakarta),and by S.C. Chin, 

J. Collins, J.M. Conklin.C. Darsono,B. Hess.D. Kiphuth.MJ. Paolisso, H.A. Peters,and 

S. Yoshida. I thank Smidisonian Press editor Donald C. Fisher for carefully editing the 

manuscript and for typesetting/designing this book. 

Widiin the Smithsonian's Department of Andiropology, Michael C. Lambert, 

Annamarie L. Rice, and James D. Rubinstein ably served as research assistants through 

various phases of writing up results of die Halmaheran studies. Museum volunteers 

Georgia Reilly, Robert and Dimphena Alford, and Melville Gilliam also helped in many 

ways, as indeed did Belle E. McQuail, a university student intern who, years later, became 

Belle E. Taylor (after our marriage). 

I also sincerely thank Harold C. Conklin, Rufus Hendon, and Leopold Pospisil of Yale 

University, who were readers of a much earlier version of tiiis book, presented as my 

doctoral dissertation (Taylor, 1980b). R.H. Ives Goddard III and Robert Laughlin of die 

Smidisonian, Brent Berlin of die University of California, Berkeley, and Janet Keller of die 

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign also deserve thanks for comments on later 

drafts and for advice on die analysis and presentation of results. The work of Harold 

Conklin has been especially inspirational, as readers of tiiis book who are familiar with his 

work will quickly see. 

Note on Pronunciation 

Tobelo terms are written here in a phonemic transcription using die following nineteen 

consonants: b, c (as ch in church), d, f, g (as in good), h, j , k, I, m, n, ng (as in singer), ny 

(as in canyon),p, r (as in Spanish pero), s, t, w, and y. 

Vowels (a, e, i, o, u) have allophonic distributions particular to each Tobelo dialect, but 

may roughly be pronounced as in Spanish or Italian. 

The symbols used in Hueting's (1908c) nonphonemic transcription of Tobelo District 

dialect pronunciation are herein replaced by letters reflecting Boeng dialect pronunciation 

(i.e., his y (uvular fricative) is lost or becomes g; and his X (palatal lateral) becomes y or 

/)• 

Stress is indicated witii the acute accent ('); e.g., -pdaka 'scream,' -podka 'already 

poured out.' However, stress may optionally be left unmarked in die following "regular" 

cases: where die penultimate vowel is different from die final vowel, stress is generally on 

die penultimate syllable (e.g. -leha (-Uha) 'ask,' bole (bdle) 'banana'); and where die 

penultimate vowel is the same as die final vowel, stress is on die antepenultimate syllable 

(e.g., -poaka (-pdaka) 'scream,' baluhu (bdluhu) 'adult') unless mere are only two 

syllables, in which case it is on the penultimate (e.g.,peke (p4ke)). 
The Folk Biology of the Tobelo People 

A Study in Folk Classification 

Paul Michael Taylor 

1. Introduction 

1.1 The Description of Tobelo Folk Classification 

This description of Tobelo folk biological classification 

presents data gatiiered during approximately thirty-seven 

montiis of ethnographic field research in Tobelo-speaking, 

largely Christian, coastal villages of Halmahera Island (Moluccas, Indonesia). The scope of this study resulted in a highly 

comprehensive survey of die folk biological knowledge of one 

human culture—probably die most comprehensive such study 

ever undertaken by a single individual. Yet any study of such a 

topic is inherently collaborative, because an intelligible 

description of folk biology must relate folk classification to our 

scientists' Linnaean taxonomy. To document die conclusions 

presented here, die autiior assembled die world's largest 

collections of Halmahera's fauna and flora, and distributed 

diem to specialists at many institutions. For a fauna and flora as 

rich and as littie-known as Halmahera's, tiiis requires an 

international effort on die part of hundreds of specialists. 

Despite the yeoman efforts of many biologist colleagues, 

that effort is still far from complete, as is indicated by this 

book's Appendixes' many annotations like "sp. or spp. undet." 

(one or more undetermined species), followed only by the name 

of the biological family to which specimens can be assigned. 

Many specimens that were distributed to specialists more than 

nine years ago remain unidentified. Some groups (such as 

birds) were quickly identified, the taxonomy regularly updated, 

and die collections widely used for ongoing research on 

Wallacean avifauna. For otiier groups (mollusks, arthropods, 

some fish), identifications below family level have been much 

more difficult to obtain. Yet I believe that enough time has 

already elapsed, and enough identifications already obtained, to 

Paul Michael Taylor, Department of Anthropology,National Museum 

of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560. 

justify die publication of this overview of Tobelo folk 

classificatory knowledge. As later identifications become 

available, tiiey can be incorporated into more specific studies of 

folk classification and uses of particular groups, which can in 

turn refer back to die generalizations presented here about die 

patterns of Tobelo nomenclature, and about the structure of 

Tobelo folk biological classification. 

This study begins by considering, in tiiis chapter, the local 

linguistic context in which folk classification occurs (including 

dialect differences, bilingualism and multilingualism, die 

in-law name taboo, and particular speech registers for which 

Tobelo consider tiieir language inappropriate). In Chapter 2, 

Tobelo cultural presumptions about die origin and die nature of 

folk biological classification are reviewed. Then (Chapter 3) an 

investigation of folk nomenclature details methods for die 

identification of lexemes, proposes a new typology of lexemic 

types diat differs from typologies used by omer authors, and 

discusses die advantages of mis new typology. Data from folk 

nomenclature are among those considered in positing culturally 

relevant unlabeled ("covert") classes (Chapter 4), including die 

class BIOTIC FORM, die semantic domain whose classificatory structure of inter-articulated taxonomic and nontaxonomic relations is considered below in detail (Chapter 5). 

"Folk biology" (or "etiinobiology") here refers to die 

"conceptualisation and classification of plants and animals, and 

knowledge and belief concerning biological processes" (Bulmer, 1974:9) by individuals widiin an ethnic unit (e.g., "die 

Tobelo"). The semantic and classificatory emphasis of tiiis 

analysis is justified primarily because Tobelo decisions about 

dietary, technological, medical, and other uses of plants and 

animals (see 2.2 below) are presumably based on criteria tiiat 

can be linguistically expressed and discussed, and on a system 

of grouping plants and animals into classes used in natural 

language. "Folk classification" (cf. Conklin, 1980:7-13) here 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

refers to the culturally shared set of relationships of these 

usually lexically labeled classes to one anotiier; "nomenclature" refers to the system of naming these classes, and 

"identification" refers to the processes or techniques by which 

particular objects are placed in classes (cf. Lawrence, 1951:3-

4). 

Of course, a quite different type (or "level" (Bulmer, 

1974:9)) of etiinobiological inquiry would instead study the 

relationship between humans witiiin an etiinic unit and die 

biological species with which tiiey interact; or study witiiin a 

larger ecological framework the interaction of humans and 

otiier species in a region. While to some extent data bearing on 

such topics are inseparable in die field from data on folk 

conceptualizations and classification, the description of die 

latter can be heuristically separated from die description of 

"edinobiology" in tiiis second sense. Though some would 

undoubtedly prefer tiiat I concentrate here on reporting and 

analyzing field data regarding Tobelo cultural uses of plants 

and animals, ratiier tiian on Tobelo conceptualizations and 

classification of diem, I can only respond tiiat no study's autiior 

can satisfy all tiiose who will later wish he had taken up die 

study of somediing else. 

This apparendy cavalier attitude toward all folk biology that 

is seemingly not folk classification may worry tiiose (e.g., 

Martin, 1975) who correctly criticize etiinobiological studies 

mat have become divorced from die edinographic context in 

which folk classification occurs. Yet hopefully it will be clear 

from die text below diat die attempt has been made, in die 

holistic tradition of ethnography, to bring togetiier evidence 

from many various areas of Tobelo culture wherever tiiey are 

relevant to die topic at hand. It will be reassuring to note tiiat 

though this study stands alone as an analysis of data on an 

isolable topic, it is presented as part of a continuing program of 

field research on related topics in die region. Finally, as stated 

above, this overview of the classification of all Tobelo "Biotic 

Forms" is a necessary prodromus for more specialized studies 

of classification and uses of particular groups of animals and 

plants, or of animals and plants used in particular contexts 

(medicine, material culture, etc.). 

The study of edinobiology in this particular geographic area 

presents some special problems. Not least is the great species 

diversity of Wallacea's fauna and flora tiiat is familiar to the 

Tobelo in their tropical marine and terrestrial environments. 

The biological taxa present and their geographic distributions 

in this relatively unstudied region are in most cases still little 

known. Thus at several points in tiiis investigation, and 

systematically in the Appendixes, Tobelo terms are translated 

using some biological species names, die product of an 

identification (by myself or by a specialist in a subfield of 

biology) of a particular specimen or (most often) a group of 

specimens collected by me and named by Tobelo using the 

term in question. But as Bulmer (1970:1075) has noted: 

.. .one cannot say of any tax on that it corresponds to species 'X' unless one 

knows of all other locally occurring species which could conceivably be 

identified or confused with 'X.' And even if the investigator is aware of the 

local occurrence of certain species, he may find it difficult or even impossible 

to observe these sufficiendy frequently in the company of his informants, or to 

collect them, for him to be able to be certain as to how they are classified. 

Thus not only does Halmahera's species diversity present a 

complex problem for folk classifiers, but the relative lack of 

biological investigation into this region's many species makes 

the task of "translating" folk terms especially difficult. 

Identifications of biological species or other taxa offered 

throughout the text and in die Appendixes below will indicate 

only the gloss tiiat appears most accurate given current 

information about the organisms to which particular Tobelo 

terms may be applied, and given the still incomplete 

identification of specimens collected. 

Besides facing the complexity of local fauna and flora, a 

study of this kind must face the complexities of Tobelo culture. 

The Tobelo, who number approximately 25,000, originated 

somewhere in the Galela or the Tobelo district of Halmahera, 

but tiiey now inhabit extensive areas of tiiat and otiier islands 

(each area of settlement having its own fauna and flora), 

speaking at least three mutually intelligible dialects and now 

generally also bilingual, often in villages with mixed ethnic 

populations (see 2.1.2 below). 

Yet despite die great variation in Tobelo dialects, in names 

for plants and animals, and also in die distribution of fauna and 

flora tiiroughout the range of Tobelo-speaking areas, we may 

still posit here a "Tobelo" classification system because: (1) all 

Tobelo-speakers share the same language, which seems to use 

die same rules of nomenclature for all dialects even tiiough 

labels ("names") for die same class vary; and (2) (most 

importantly) because the characteristics of the classification 

system outlined below appear to be the same. (If some 

Tobelo-speaking populations are discovered using a substantially different system of classification, as may be the case 

among Tobelo-speaking "Tugutil" hunter-gadierers of upriver 

Dodaga River in Wasile District (cf. 5.2.3.2), it seems best 

simply not to consider that communalect or dialect one of tiiose 

presenUy being described. Eventually, more adequate data wdl 

show either that die system of folk classification used by die 

Tugutil is best described separately, or that particular generalizations require modifications in order to include that dialect in 

the present description.) 

Within particular subdomains die "defining features" of 

classes may differ among dialects. A class's "defining features" 

(collectively constituting that class's "significatum") are "the 

necessary and sufficient conditions for membership in a class" 

(Scheffler and Lounsbury, 1971:4). This may cause, as one of 

its effects, particular biological species to be classed under a 

term in one dialect with species different from those with which 

it is classed (perhaps under die same term) in anotiier dialect. In 

other cases, two distinct "basic" classes (see 5.1) in one dialect 

are brought together as subclasses of a single "basic" class 

in another dialect (see, e.g., in Appendix 1.1, 

o bobaharama). A great number of such small differences exist 

within the general scheme of "the" Tobelo classification 

system. 
NUMBER 34 

Even if we were to limit our description to a single Tobelo 

dialect, we would not solve die problem of variation among 

speakers, because variation among individuals also occurs. 

Neither a complete description of "the" Tobelo language nor a 

complete description of "the" domain of BIOTIC FORMS 

among die Tobelo would describe any particular individual's 

knowledge or competence. Not only are many plants and 

animals unidentifiable by, and their names unfamiliar to, most 

Tobelo, but there is also considerable apparent disagreement 

over the correct names for specimens shown them (less often 

for those seen in their natural context), despite die widespread 

Tobelo cultural presumption (see 2.3) that each plant and 

fair-sized animal should have (or should have formerly had) a 

name. 

From die ethnographic fieldworker's point of view, tiiere are 

two kinds of causes for tiiis disagreement: the "exasperating" 

and the "interesting." "Exasperating" causes of informant 

disagreement include the methodological problems of identifying plant classes from parts of plants when specimens must be 

removed from context, or of informants who proffer names 

without conviction but with misleading certainty. Social 

conventions also play a role, such as those that dictate that 

younger Tobelo should concede to tiieir elders' opinions in 

public, just as hosts should defer to guests; or that most 

medicinal uses of plants (including tiiose that can be inferred 

from names for some plant types) are not freely discussed. 

Though exasperating, these sources of the vast majority of 

cases of apparent disagreement are not insurmountable. Many 

social conventions can be overcome in private, and names 

mistakenly assigned are often entiiusiastically corrected when 

new possibilities are presented. Corrections by the more expert 

are accepted by otiiers (even in private) as "learning something 

new." 

The disagreement that remains is "interesting," and may lead 

to discoveries of synonymy, of dialectal differences, of marked 

and unmarked senses of terms, or of polysemous terms tiiat 

include plant or animal names among tiieir senses. All these 

possibilities, however, can be investigated only if we continue 

to posit, just as a working hypothesis, that a single structural 

description of die domain under investigation can be derived, 

and then try to determine if and how both of two terms applied 

to the same object (or even class) might be predictable with 

reference to the same structural description. 

Perhaps Hays (1976:489) is arguing against such an 

approach when he writes: 

.. .the descriptive problem raised by informants' disagreements has more often 

been sidestepped by adopting either of two models of die culture (or a limited 

domain of it) to be described. One is that which views a culture as "the common 

element which all members share, or the set theoretical INTERSECTION of 

individual competences" (Werner, 1969:333), or ...the "shared" model. 

According to a second view, an ethnographic description is "an attempt to 

characterize the set theoretical UNION of all individual competences" (Werner, 

1969:333), an approach commonly used in folk biology .. .where the notion of 

an -omniscient informant" is employed; this model of a culture I will refer to as 

a "composite." 

Uncritical adoption of either approach can lead to descriptions which are 

incomplete, misleading, or simply reifications 

Hays has instead (1976, 1979) commendably attempted to 

document the degree of intra-cultural variation in plant 

classification among a sample of Ndumba informants. Aside 

from some methodological problems (particularly that study's 

complete reliance on a controlled naming response using only 

pressed herbarium vouchers as stimuli), it still appears from his 

discussion of the Ndumba data that at least one point about 

documenting such variation remains to be considered: either all 

informants do share a single system of classification or they do 

not. If they do, then we may adequately describe it with a single 

model. If tiiey do not, we still need a model witiiin which 

individual, dialectal, or otiier variation can be described (or 

more ideally, "predicted"). If "composite model" is meant to 

imply a model tiiat fails to predict variation wherever it occurs, 

then I join in rejecting it; but if it could provide a structural 

explanation for and an adequate description of dialectal (and, 

ideally, even individual) variation, I would see no choice but to 

adopt it. 

Of course, one might instead try to document die knowledge 

of each individual, treating that as his own system of 

classification. Though there are methodological difficulties, 

such an effort among Tobelo would undoubtedly produce 

interesting results; however, to leave the description there 

seems to deny many facts of language in general and of Tobelo 

language and culture in particular. 

1. In every specialized area of language some native speakers 

must rely on others for terms in that specialized domain, about 

which tiiey can inquire for "correct" terms much as we might 

search for them in an encyclopedia. 

2. Speakers of a language themselves generally have a 

definite idea that some terms are correctly and others 

incorrectly applied to objects, including the various BIOTIC 

FORMS. Witiiin die restraints of local etiquette (which frowns 

upon correcting hosts, guests, or those older than oneself), 

Tobelo generally appear wdling to (and frequendy do) discuss 

die "proper" terms for particular organisms. There are also 

certain cultural presumptions about the existence of "proper" 

terms (see 2.3). 

3. Finally, despite these cultural presumptions about die 

existence of an already established system of folk classification 

laid down by ancestors, there is considerable evidence that 

when individuals or groups of individuals do revise die 

classification system, tiiey do so by productively applying to 

new situations the classificatory relations used throughout the 

system. This shared system is the source of die particular 

"appropriateness" of such revisions, though they may be made 

by an individual or a small group, and may in fact be "esoteric" 

or idiosyncratic (see 5.2.2.4 below). Revisions tiiat are 

"esoteric" or "idiosyncratic" (see 2.3 and 5.2.2.4) are such 

precisely because tiiey are recognized, even by tiiose who use 

them, to be variations within the context of a more generally 

accepted non-"esoteric" folk classification (though of course 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 1.—Yohanis Loliaro and Joni Tumbia preparing pressed plant vouchers on the banks of the Loleba (or 

"Tulawi") River. Kampung Loleba, Wasile District. 

not all informant variabtiity is due to this cause). This fact can 

also best be expressed by noting these kinds of variation within 

a larger model of "the" Tobelo classification of BIOTIC 

FORMS. 

Thus my goal has not been to travel throughout the range of 

Tobelo speakers recording variations in the names applied to 

plants and animals; nor has it been to compile an exhaustive 

inventory of those names, or even of all classes known 

throughout the region (see Map 1). If the goal of this study were 

large numbers of folk classes, however, I would have felt that 

a point of greatly diminishing returns had been reached in die 

particular villages in which I spent the most time (Pasir Putih in 

Jailolo District (Dodinga dialect) and Loleba in Wasile District 

(Boeng dialect)). I was much more interested in accounting for 

the variation and describing the principles of folk classification 

witiiin these regions of intensive field research, where fauna 

and flora were relatively well known to informants whose 

reliability I could gauge from long personal acquaintance, 

rather than in immediately expanding the study area. Insofar as 

the methods presented here are successful in describing Tobelo 

ethnobiology, the description presumably could be expanded to 

include still other Tobelo dialects and regions using the same 

nomenclatural and classificatory principles, though after 

traveling throughout much of northern Halmahera it seems to 

me that the two regions chosen are linguistically and (in terms 

of terrestrial species) biogeographically as diverse as any two 

Tobelo regions could be. (Collections were made, and 

comparative fieldwork carried out in many other villages, 

however.) 

1.2 Field Methods 

This investigation of folk biology was undertaken within the 

context of a wider ethnography of Tobelo culture, as well as die 

study of that language and of the local dialect of Malay/ 

Indonesian, which I have elsewhere (Taylor, 1983) dubbed 

"North Moluccan Malay." I arrived in Halmahera speaking 

some standard Indonesian; but as I went alone on my first trip, 

conversing almost entirely with local villagers for twenty-two 

months, I became proficient in both North Moluccan Malay and 

Tobelo, and I have continued using both languages during later 

fieldwork. Tobelo, in fact, remained a daily language of 

conversation when I returned to the United States with a Tobelo 

(Dodinga dialect) research assistant, who helped me for over a 
NUMBER 34 

FIGURE 2.—Fish samples, obtained by spreading rotenone in a coral area, being sorted for identification and 

preservation. Kampung Pasir Putih, Dodinga District 

year in the task of distributing the biological specimens 

collected. Only the first seventeen months of fieldwork were 

carried out primarily in Boeng-dialect-speaking villages; after 

that, my primary fieldsite was a Dodinga-dialect village (Pasir 

Putih). My exposure to Dodinga dialect has not only lasted 

longer, but also has occurred during the most productive phases 

of fieldwork, after I had learned the language, had gained the 

trust of Tobelo friends, and had focused on particular research 

problems. Thus the Dodinga dialect terminology and classificatory structure is the "standard" to which other dialects are 

compared, and the data summarized in the Appendix is at least 

valid for Dodinga dialect unless noted otherwise. 

My field methods were simple if sometimes inconvenient 

Much of the time involved in the study of folk biology is spent 

in making adequate collections of local fauna and flora. I 

trained several villagers in biological collecting techniques. In 

addition, difficult-to-find items (such as rare animals or 

flowering specimens of some bamboos) brought rewards or 

prizes to those who found them. In this way, local people were 

encouraged to take part in die collection of specimens and in 

die discussion of diem, while I was free to record more of tiiose 

discussions, botii in die vdlage and on collecting trips, in 

addition to doing otiier types of ethnographic work. 

The village involvement was essential. Rain and constant 

humidity wreaked havoc on all early plant collections—of the 

first 2000 vouchers, only a handful could be saved. Finally one 

Loleba villager said he could not understand why I pressed and 

bound plants in die rainy season, and suggested drying them as 

the Tobelo dry their copra and sliced fish at that time: by laying 

them out over a fire, a few at a time, on a flat, very hot surface 

(ideally of corrugated iron), so that a non-succulent plant would 

dry to a fine museum specimen in less than twenty minutes, be 

removed, and another placed on die long sheets in its place. 

Though die unconventional technique required full-time tending, it allowed fine herbarium specimens to be produced in all 

weather. A fisherman on a small island off Halmahera's coast 

was provided with instructions and a small drum of formaldehyde and occasional updates on fish already in the collection. In 

short, the community became involved in the collection of 

animals and plants perhaps more tiian in any of die other areas 

of my research, greatly increasing my famdiarity with 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 3.—Ruben ("Benny") Tatu preparing a skeletal specimen of o ngoku (Ducula bicolor). Kampung Pasir 

Putih, Dodinga District 
NUMBER 34 

FIGURE 4-Bir d specimens, brought from mist nets in plastic bags, being searched for ectoparasites, then 

cataloged and prepared as skins or skeletons. Kampung Pasir Putih, Dodinga District 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 5.—Bird skins being wrapped for shipment Kampung Pasir Putih, Dodinga District. 
NUMBER 34 

FIGURE 6.-Isak Rajangolo trying to be more helpful about local classification of insects by getting a better look. 

Kampung Pasir Putih, Dodinga District 
10 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Halmahera's fauna and flora as well as with Tobelo conceptualizations of it 

Even after I left the field, Tobelo preparators whom I had 

trained organized an expedition to Obi Island, with the help of 

the local branch of the Indonesian Nature Conservancy, to 

sample that island's avifauna and record information about it. 

On my return to Pasir Putih at the start of each new field season, 

I found more rare and unique animals properly cataloged and 

preserved for me in formaldehyde. Even though I wtil 

undoubtedly never obtain specimens of all Tobelo folk classes 

of animal and plant, many Tobelo seem anxious to help me do 

so. 

With the help of Adam Messer (during the 1980-1981 field 

season) and of course local Halmaheran preparators, I weighed 

die needs of my biologist colleagues alongside tiiose of my own 

research priorities, often favoring the former. Knowing the 

difficulties of sampling Halmahera's fauna and flora, and die 

scarcity of information known about it, I was anxious to 

prepare faunal and floral samples in die way biologists would 

find most useful. Thus I insisted on taking ectoparasites from 

the vertebrates collected, even though all lice and ticks are 

called o gani, and are of litde cultural importance. I also 

prepared multiple specimens of the same species in a variety of 

ways, thus some males and females of birds were made into 

study skins, otiiers skeletonized, others kept in formaldehyde, 

and so on. This emphasis on anatomical specimens was, in part, 

to correct the past bias among ornithologists toward relying 

solely on skins. My own emphasis on skeletal collections also 

reflects a sincere hope that we wtil eventually be able, with the 

help of archeology, to study the history of man's interaction 

witii other species on tropical islands of die Southwest Pacific. 

Such a study would need strong reference collections of die 

skeletons of local vertebrates. In die case of plants, I did collect 

many vouchers of sterile material that a botanist would have 

shunned, because I had to collect samples of plants for which 

Tobelo could provide cultural information even rf tiiose plants 

were not in flower. 

The study of local material culture also involved collection 

and annotation of local technology (some specimens of which 

have been accessioned to the collections of the Yale Peabody 

Museum, Anthropology Division (numbers 248739 to 

248876)), and detailed notes on choices of raw materials, 

methods of manufacture, cultural significance of the objects, 

and of course the linguistic forms appropriate to these realms. 

Esoteric information, however, was gathered in quite a 

different way. I studied "medicine" from Saul Rafane, the 

former Tobelo village chief of Loleba, and to a lesser extent 

also from otiier people whose trust had been gained over many 

months. 

Information was also recorded in formal interviews, in which 

a detailed discussion of a particular topic could take place; 

notes were typed onto file cards as the interviews were held. 

The Tobelo seemed to enjoy being studied; they waited 

patiently as lines were typed, and then said the next few lines 

for typing. Other texts were recorded in their entirety and 

transcribed later. I once very apologetically asked to record a 

trial for adultery. Soon otiier parties wanted their cases 

recorded as well, as if to emphasize the importance they 

attached to them. And once when I asked a vtilage minister if I 

could photograph die service in his church, I was embarrassed 

to find tiiat, when he saw it was time for my photograph, he 

stopped everything and lined up the entire congregation for die 

photo. At Pasir Putih, vdlage assistants were jacks-of-alltrades, helping in any chore that needed done; but most 

assistants still became chairmen of some department of their 

labor (there was die Head of Birds, Head of Genealogy 

Transcription, Head of Sea Life, etc.). 

In short, etiinobiological classification is an important and 

integral part of Tobelo culture, tiiough the topic is here to some 

extent heuristically isolated from otiiers, and its adequate study 

in its natural context requires, to die extent to which it is 

possible, a holistic or properly "ethnographic" investigation. 
2. Tobelo Folk Biology in Its Sociolinguistic and Cultural Context 

2.1 The Tobelo Language Situation 

The Tobelo speak one of a group of eleven closely related 

languages of die North Halmaheran group or "family," which 

Wurm (1971, following Cowan, 1957) places in the West 

Papuan Phylum. Van der Veen (1915) had recognized the 

distinctiveness of the closely related North Halmaheran 

languages, which he showed to be non-Austronesian. As Wurm 

(1971:614-615) notes, "in all studies and discussions of tiiese 

languages... tiiey are treated as very closely interrelated 

languages of a single family displaying far-reaching lexical, 

structural and typological agreements." 

Two of the languages of this North Halmaheran group, 

Ternatese and Tidorese, have been written using a modified 

Arabic script since at least the end of die fifteentii or die early 

sixteentii century (Clercq, 1890:193ff), while literature on other 

languages of this famtiy was recorded by missionaries of die 

Utrechtse Zendingsvereeniging, who began mission work on 

the island in 1866 (L.P.S.D.G.I., 1976:3-21). According to 

Laycock and Voorhoeve (1971:514-515), tiiey produced, in 

addition to "mission literature," 

... wordlists of Galela (Baarda, 1895), Tobelo [Boeng dialect—PMTJ (Roest 

1905), Pagu and Modole (E31ca, 1916a,b), Tabaru, Waioli, Ibu, Galela, Loda, 

and Ternate (Fortgens, 1905, 1917); a Tobelo-Dutch dictionary (Hueting, 

1908c, [supplement:] 1935); a grammatical sketch and a manual of Galela 

(Baarda, 1891, 1908) a grammatical sketch of Tabaru (Fortgens, 1928) and 

Tobelo (Hueting, 1936); a comparative study in Loda and Galela grammar 

(Baarda, 1904) and texts in Galela ([Baarda and Dijken], 1895), Tobelo 

fllueting, 1908b) Pagu and Modole (Ellen 1916c,d) and Tabaru (Fortgens, 

1928); Hueting (1908a) gave a survey of the North Halmahera languages 

together with comparative vocabularies. It was later corrected and supplemented by Adriani (1912:300). Further have to be mentioned die history of 

Ternate, written in the Ternate language (Crab, 1878), the Ternate wordlist 

texts, and a few grammatical notes by de Clercq (1890), the notes on Galela 

grammar by Kern (1891), and an article on word taboo in Galela (Kern, 1893). 

References cited above are found with corrections in Literature 

Cited. 

Recently, fieldworkers from the National Museum of 

Ethnology at Osaka, Japan, have recorded unpublished Galela 

texts; and by using computerized compilations of Dutch 

missionary materials, have prepared in manuscript a DutchGalelan index from Baarda's (1895) Galela wordlist, a general 

index of 67,000 Dutch entries for North Halmaheran language 

materials, a semantic group index for Galela, and "K.W.I.C." 

(Key Word in Context) indices for Galela, Ternate, Pagu, Loda, 

and Tabaru (see Wada, 1979). 

2.1.1 The Tobelo Dialects 

The Tobelo language is divided by Hueting (1908c:3ff.) into 

the northern dialect (spoken by Tobelo of the Tobelo district), 

which he calls "genuine Tobelo," the Boeng Dialect (B), 

spoken by Tobelo of the Kao district (elsewhere Hueting 

(1921) called speakers of this dialect the "Kao Tobelo"), and 

the "Dodinga dialect" (D). I shall here use the abbreviation "H" 

(for heleworuru, see below) for die "genuine" Tobelo dialect of 

the Tobelo district, contrasting with the D and B dialects of die 

south. Hueting also writes (1908c:4) that words of "genuine" 

(Tobelo district) Tobelo—the dialect of the area to which he 

personally ministered—are used throughout these dialect 

ranges, but die B and D dialects have additional words not used 

farther north (though in fact many current common northern 

dialect words were unknown to my B and D informants). As D 

dialect is only spoken in two villages (see below), he is 

probably correct in noting that "the B [dialect] words are also 

in use among the D [speakers], but the reverse is not true" 

(Hueting, 1908c:4). 

Aside from the "not large" number of words specific to any 

particular dialect, Hueting (1908c:4) notes only two phonological differences distinguishing dialects: "die use by B and D of 

/for the [H dialect] Tobelo h, and sometimes by the D of s for 

the [otiier 'dialects'] h" In die absence of any more adequate 

study of Tobelo dialectology, it may be sufficient to point out 

tiiat tiiis difference is locally considered striking. The following 

examples of folk terms for BIOTIC FORMS Ulustrate the 

correspondence: 

H 

o hahihuku 

o ngohaka ma 

iyo-iyoko 

o heleheku 

B 

ofahihuku 

o ngohaka ma 

iyo-iyoko 

o helehekH 

D 

o hafisuku 

o ngofaka ma iyoiyoko 

ofeleheku 

The distinctiveness of the Dodinga dialect, tiiough it may be 

justifiable on phonological grounds, is not recognized by its 

speakers, who call tiiemselves Tobelo Boeng. Hueting's use of 

the term "Dodinga" could not refer to die village of that name 

(a Ternatese-speaking vdlage populated primarily by Islamic 

speakers of tiiat language until Makianese and Sangir/Talaud 

immigrants forming separate adjacent kampungs changed its 

ethnic makeup in the late 1970s). According to old informants 

at Pasir Putih (Jailolo District), the Tobelo (Tbl) word o 

todingana (= "Dodinga") was formerly used to refer to a large 

area encompassing die present villages of Dodinga (Tbl: o 

todingana), Bobaneigo (Tbl: o baneigo), Tetewang (Tbl: o 

tetewanga)#nd Pasir Putih (whose vUlagers resetded to die 

place given this Malay name by missionaries in the 19th 

century); but only these last two villages speak Tobelo, and die 

area occupied by them may be considered die full range of die 

"Dodinga" dialect (which thus now only has some 900-1400 

speakers). At Pasir Putih I was told tiiat in former times, when 

11 
12 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TERNAT^gL 

TJDOREC^/ 

MAfUEP 

MMMHQ 

0 5 WftW»W bo 90 tio IsolOn 

i. GaUla 

2. Tobelo 

4. Ibu 

5. Tabaru 

6. WaioU [Sahul 

7. TuguxiL [Tob«u] 

S.MadoleiModoui 

9. Kau 

JO. Tolohlcu 

11. Isam[Pas«i 

12. Ternate 

13. Ti<W 

Mindanao 

[itUlmahera Is. 

Sulawesi 

V.e.K 
NUMBER 34 13 

inhabitants of tiiese vdlages arrived by canoe at Tobelo (some 

70 miles to the north), they seldom referred to tiieir village 

names, but rather said, in their distinctive dialect, tiiat they were 

from "o todingana" (i.e., "Dodinga" in tiiis wide sense). This 

perhaps explains why Hueting called die dialect the "Dodinga" 

dialect, and for convenience I shall use that designation here. 

The northern boundary of the Boeng (B) dialect, on the 

northern peninsula of Halmahera, may roughly be drawn at die 

present border between the Kao and Tobelo districts (see Map 

1). It was thus drawn by Hueting (1921) and is still recognized 

locally today. Throughout the Tobelo-Boeng-speaking regions, 

the Tobelo of the area north of this are referred to as Tobelo 

"Heleworuru" (<helewo *stone'-i- ruru '?crushed to bits, worn 

to bits'—tiiis latter verb root is not used today by my B 

informants except in this compound, nor is helewo, which is 

hakaru 'stone' in B and D). This designation for the northern 

dialect is not mentioned by Hueting. (It is surprising that he 

gives what appears to be another form of this name,"Seleruru," 

for one of the hoana (traditional tribal divisions) of die "Kao" 

(= Boeng) Tobelo, not one of die group known in die soutii as 

"Heleworuru" speakers.) For convenience, I shall refer to the 

northern dialect as die Heleworuru dialect (H), to contrast it 

with the Boeng (B) and die Dodinga (D) dialects. As noted 

above, despite Hueting's claims, many H words are not in fact 

recognized by B and D speakers, though of course all these 

dialects are mutually intelligible. 

Based on a few diagnostic phonemic differences (including 

die distinctive /h/-/f/, or /h/-/s/) we may provisionally draw die 

boundary between B and H dialects on die east side of Kao Bay 

between die villages of Wasile (nordiernmost B-speakers) and 

Fayaul (southernmost H-speakers) in WasUe district (Halmahera's northeast peninsula). This dialect boundary here 

proposed tiius lies just north of the Wayapiakal (or WasUe) 

River on the coast, and qualifies Hueting's (1921:218) 

statement that the Tobelo who "inhabit die villages lying on the 

east side of Kau [= Kao] Bay generally belong to the Kau [B] 

Tobelo." 

Finally, because the Tugutil or highland groups have often 

been considered etiinically distinct tiiere have been references 

by Hueting to "TuguuT" expressions in some of his dictionary 

entries or even to the "Tugutil language" (e.g., by Hueting, 

1908a; Salzner, 1960). However, Tugutil do not anywhere have 

a single Tugutil language. I have briefly visited Tugutil from 

upriver Dodaga (1979) and inland from Dorosago (1981); both 

groups refer to their language as Tobelo, and indeed we spoke 

only Tobelo in die time I visited them. There are also Tobelo 

speakers on Bacan and Obi Islands, and throughout southern 

Halmahera. As the dialectology of this language becomes 

better known, we wtil undoubtedly find that it is more 

complicated than the tripartite division (accurate, at least, for 

MAP 1.—Halmahera Island, showing North Halmaheran languages (after 

Hueting. 1908a). (Tobelo dialect boundaries proposed: H = heleworuru, B = 

boeng, D = dodinga) 

the Tobelo "hearthland" around Kao Bay and in Tobelo 

District) of die H, B, and D dialects, as given here. 

For die Tobelo tiiemselves, who claim one can always 

recognize a person's home village by his speech, intonation and 

a few habitual local expressions provide die major criteria for 

comparison, discussion, or imitation of dialect differences 

witiiin their language. 

2.7.2 Multilingualism and the Use of Other Languages in 

Special Registers 

Halmahera's geographical position at the source of the spice 

trade historically made the region an important trade emporium; and die long subordination of die Tobelo and otiier 

Halmaheran groups to the Sultanates of Ternate and Tidore, as 

well as die temporary expansion of die 'Tobelo" (in fact, 

Tobelo witii other Halmaheran ethnic groups) into eastern 

Indonesian piracy as tiiose Sultanates later declined in power 

(Lapian, 1979), have left a legacy of two widespread languages 

used as lingua franca: Ternatese and die local dialect of Malay 

or Indonesian1, which I have called North Moluccan Malay. In 

addition, high mobility of many Halmaherans and continuing 

migration of outsiders to die island has encouraged die present 

great intermixture of ethnic groups and languages in many 

Halmaheran coastal villages. 

The two trade languages serving as North Moluccan lingua 

franca (Malay and Ternatese), though genetically quite 

unrelated, have botii apparendy diverged gready from whatever 

tiiey might have been when they first came into contact If we 

can consider more western or "standard" dialects of MalayIndonesian as closer to a hypotiietical pre-contact Malay, and 

die "mainland" North Halmaheran languages (i.e., those 

spoken on Halmahera itself) as retaining features of pre-contact 

Ternatese, tiien we could consider both of these languages in 

"convergence," though it must also be admitted tiiat borrowing 

of non-Austronesian terms by all North Halmaheran languages 

has been strong2. 

To briefly summarize a conclusion stated more fully, and 

illustrated by texts, elsewhere (Taylor, 1983), Nortii Moluccan 

Malay (NMM) is locally considered a substandard dialect of 

Indonesian, in die sense that speakers of NMM consider 

tiiemselves speakers of an admittedly inferior and "unrefined" 

(kasar) or "marketplace" (pasar) dialect of tiiat language. 

Furtiiermore, as is often the case for dialects elsewhere 

considered "inferior" (Cortelazzo, 1976), any "standard" 

Indonesian word or usage is "acceptable" in NMM, even 

though it may be clearly recognizable as a non-local form. The 

insertion of "standard" speech forms may involve the simple 

expression of concepts (e.g., from die fields of international 

events, politics, law, medicine) for which no NMM terms are 

available; on the otiier hand, the frequent use of "standard" 

speech by a North Moluccan in everyday contexts may be 

interpreted by listeners as a sign of arrogance or self-styled 

superiority on die part of a local person. One might contend tiiat 
14 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

it would be difficult to pinpoint any truly "standard" dialect of 

Indonesian; or that such a standard would in fact contain 

considerable variation. Yet it remains a fact tiiat North 

Moluccan vtilagers believe that there is a proper form of 

Indonesian, sometimes referred to as bahasa Indonesia asli 

'genuine Indonesian (language),' used in books (including die 

Bible) and taught in schools; when they speak their everyday 

dialect tiiey believe they are speaking something substandard. 

It should be noted that many North Moluccans (especially 

from Ternate Island) are educated modern Indonesians who 

pride tiiemselves on their command of "standard" speech. 

Furthermore, every Halmaheran vdlager admires tiiose of his 

small village who command "genuine" Indonesian words and 

phrases for use on appropriate occasions, such as Christian 

church services, marriage ceremonies conducted in Indonesian, 

and village government meetings. 

Today die Tobelo do not seem to feel tiieir language is 

inferior to the otiier local languages around diem (Ternatese, 

Tidorese, Galela, etc.). Yet many Tobelo are eager to learn 

words or phrases of Ternatese. Some of this may be due to 

whatever oratorical tradition makes some Tobelo want to 

incorporate a few basic words of several languages into tiieir 

conversation. Yet the main reason seems to be that, altiiough 

there is no longer need to speak Ternatese, this is die main 

language of several speech "registers" (Cardona, 1976:182-

190) requiring memorized phrases in a mixture of languages— 

most important of which is tiiis language of the Ternatese 

Sultanate, which once ruled most of Halmahera. Ternatese 

predominates, specifically, in the language of of traditional 

chants, of magical formulae, and of die give-and-take of 

marriage consultations between famdies of the bride and 

groom. 

One proper setting for the traditional chants is die proud 

festivity of die last step of die marriage process, when die new 

daughter-in-law arrives at die house of her groom's parents and 

(traditionally, for tiiree consecutive nights) she is "displayed" 

perfecdy motionless in her finest regalia of heirlooms 

(borrowed for die occasion from as many relatives as possible), 

constandy waited upon by her new sisters-in-law, while the 

older generation among her new male in-laws, chewing the 

slightly narcotic betel nut and drinking die palm-wine mat 

ideally should flow freely on such occasions, sing tiieir chants 

in Ternatese to die hearty beating of gongs and deer-skin 

drums. 

Altiiough anyone may freely learn to chant—tiiis involves no 

esoteric information—only elders generally take much interest 

in it; younger enthusiasts reaching middle-age will learn as they 

beat the drum or gong for the chanters. At other times too, when 

a combination of good cheer, palm wine, and betel nut recalls 

something of this atmosphere, individuals may stumble home 

from the sugar palm chanting, or strike up a chant among 

friends. 

Magical formulae, on the other hand, appear to embody the 

most esoteric of Tobelo knowledge (Taylor, 1988). A magical 

formula in transparent Tobelo, like a chant in transparent 

Tobelo, would be quite inappropriate. Unlike chants, an 

effective formula allows no impromptu change to any of its 

parts. Like the chants, however, the formulae are in a so-called 

"Ternatese," though bits and pieces of otiier languages are 

mixed into them. The net effect of the carefully memorized 

formulae is often to convey some tantalizing references to the 

purpose of the formula using familiar Ternatese or other words 

tiiat are apparent Tobelo cognates, though the juxtaposition of 

these with apparendy meaningless morphs, and die seemingly 

intended convolutions of syntax, make the formulae quite 

difficult for the Tobelo to understand. Understanding the 

formula, however, is irrelevant to its effectiveness, and 

shamans who taught me some of their well-guarded formulae 

generally could not tell me tiieir meaning; or, if tiiey guessed at 

die meaning, could not tell me how it was derived from the 

words spoken. 

Interestingly, some slight variations are considered acceptable, and in one case a person to whom I told a formula said he 

tiiought it would be better said anotiier way. These and otiier 

indications hint that there is some idea of proper syntax in these 

formulae that, on die surface, seem to recall Hueting's 

(1922:287) comment about the so-called "Ternatese" chants: 

"The language [of die chants] is an exceptional hodgepodge of 

almost all die Ternatese-Tidorese-Nortii Halmahera languages, 

mixed here and tfiere with Malay." 

Thus a greatly modified "ritual language," locally identified 

with Ternatese, is used for proverbs and chants associated witii 

marriage ceremonies, and for magical formulae. Ternatese, in 

short, is die Latin of die North Moluccas. The comparison 

derives not only from die two languages' use in modified form 

for rituals, and from a former administrative use at die height of 

die Sultanate's power, but also from what we may call 

Neo-Ternatese word formation, which occurs botii in die 

naming of plants and animals (see 3.3) and in the naming of 

places, technological items, and even personal names (cf. 

Fortgens, 1911, on die latter). "Neo-Ternatese," like die 

"Neo-Latin" of modern scientific word-formation (Marchand, 

1960:6-8), treats compound-parts of varied origin as if they 

were Ternatese stems and combines them according to 

modified Ternatese rules of word formation. Unfortunately, 

present sources on die Ternatese language are quite insufficient 

for adequate investigation of this topic (for examples in the 

domain of names for BIOTIC FORM, see 3.3 below). 

In conclusion, Tobelo are by no means ashamed of their 

language, but they do seem to consider it inappropriate for 

many speech registers. 

Galela, on the other hand, is a language used in a context 

dominated by Tobelo youtiis, who rarely concern themselves 

with the chants or the formalities of official match-making, but 

who celebrate their status at the apex of a life-cycle in which 

children look forward to growing up, and elders enjoy 

remembering tiieir youth. Their finest days are those of tiieir 

own festivals, where, to die accompaniment of die hand-made 
NUMBER 34 15 

bass guitar (whose wooden top doubles as a drum) and 

hand-held guitars, which every young male in most villages can 

play, rotating pairs of old and young dancers dance the 

European-influenced North Moluccan "ronggeng" until dawn. 

Though increasingly pushed aside by popular Indonesian 

music learned from radio or cassettes, the moving love-songs 

that accompany the local ronggeng are most appropriately 

sung in the Galela language, even where protagonists of the 

songs are of another ethnic group. Only rarely are such songs in 

Tobelo. These songs constitute the only register in which 

Galela seems preferred. This current popularity of Galela in 

festival songs of the Tobelo youth is of questionable antiquity, 

and may merely reflect the common opinion that the Galela do 

write die most moving love songs set to the slow beat of the 

ronggeng dance. 

2.1.3 Ethnicity, Religion, and Language in Halmaheran 

Villages 

Four important factors strongly influence the distribution of 

etiinic groups in Halmaheran villages. 

1. The first is that, since the late nineteentii century, 

Halmaherans have generally adopted one of die region's two 

great religions (Christianity and Islam) along etiinic group 

lines; almost all Tobelo, Galela, Buli, Pagu, Sahu, and Loloda 

people, for instance, are Christian; while effectively all etiinic 

Tbrnatese, Tidorese, Makianese, or Maba are Moslem. 

2. Although marriage across ethnic boundaries is frequent, 

marriage of Christians with Moslems is rare. 

3. In addition, Halmahera has attracted immigrants from 

otiier islands for several reasons. Certainly die most significant 

for many groups (Sangir, Talaud, Makian, Tidore) has been die 

ease of opening up choice new land in Halmahera's uncut 

jungles, while for otiiers (including Bugis, Makassarese, and 

Chinese) opportunites for commercial profit as traders seem the 

most significant factor. There were also intensive Dutch efforts 

to transport workers from Tanimbar, Kei, Flores, and otiier 

places (including Talaud) for wage labor on Halmaheran 

plantations such as the coconut plantation at Akeselaka (Wastie 

District), from which many nearby towns (including Wasile 

Vtilage and Loleba) added to tiieir populations. These Christian 

newcomers worked on die plantations only until they were able 

to establish their own farms. 

4. Finally, such historical and continuing sources of ethnic 

admixture are coupled with the high mobility of individual 

Tobelo, especially males, though even small groups of females 

also often travel to other villages seemingly at a moment's 

notice and without escort to take part in any festivities. Girls are 

often escorted to relatives in a distant vtilage, sometimes to stay 

for several months. I have often heard Tobelo parents tell their 

sons who ask permission to go to anotiier vdlage that "a male 

child can always wander." This freedom of movement 

impressed nineteenth-century missionaries. As Hueting 

(1921:240) wrote: 

The Tobelo yearn for wandering; they move away with ease, and whenever they 

deem themselves wronged their first expression is, "Then I'll go away!" One 

could naturally call diis a lust for freedom, but it rather degenerates into 

lawlessness, and makes them difficult to rule, even for their own adat 

[customary] chiefs. 

The Islam-Christian division is generally visible in die 

layout of Halmahera's ethnically and religiously mixed coastal 

villages' populations, witii the Islamic section of die village 

invariably placed "seaward" of die Tobelo (Christian) section 

in tiiose areas considered originally populated by Tobelo. In 

such areas the Tobelo consider tiiemselves and are considered 

ma tonaka ma dutu, which direetiy translates die widespread 

Indonesian term tuan tanah 'lord of die land.' The largely 

Christian Chinese traders may live in eitiier section of the 

village, but many Islamic traders (such as Bugis, Makassarese), 

also attracted to Halmahera by its commerce, generally take up 

residence in Islamic sections of divided villages. Whtie many 

villages have only one of these religions (including Loleba 

(witii two Christian sects) and Pasir Putih), those witii botii 

Christian and Moslem populations (e.g., Wasile, Lolobata, 

Ekor, Fayaul in WasUe District) maintain tiiis divided 

setdement pattern. 

Wasde Village (Wastie District, Halmahera; resident population approximately 400) provides an example of such an 

ethnically and religiously integrated 'Tobelo" community (i.e., 

a vdlage in an area in which Tobelo are "lords of die land" and 

in which there is a sizeable Tobelo community "landwards" of 

die line of Islamic houses on the shore). The village is (like 

Kao, direetiy across Kao Bay from Wasile) locally known for 

its long tradition of ethnic admixture. It was also formerly die 

site of the district capital, and so it may be contrasted below 

witii Loleba Village (Wastie District) and Pasir Putih ViUage 

(Jatiolo District) in its ethnic admixture and especially its 

language use. 

In April 1978,1 surveyed heads of households and tiieir 

wives at WasUe Village, asking among other questions which 

languages they "commanded" (see responses, Table 1). 

(Indonesian government censuses are also by "household head" 

(kepala keluarga), and whUe it is possible for a woman, whose 

husband has divorced her or died, to maintain her own 

household as "household head," tiiere were no such instances at 

Wasile, where aU household heads were male.) 

In considering die question, many respondents spontaneously noted die difference between "knowing" (Ind: tahu) and 

"commanding" (Ind: menguasai) a language. When tiiey were 

unsure about which languages to count, I pointedly noted tiiat 

die question referred to languages "commanded," not "known." 

Six persons claimed to be monolingual Indonesian-speakers 

(note tiiat by comparison no one in Loleba vtilage except die 

Chinese trader was monolingual, nor was anyone except one 

newcomer in Pasir Putih vdlage). The majority of respondents 

are bilingual (75.6%); speakers bilingual in Tobelo and 

Indonesian account for 58.5% of the total number of 

respondents (or 78.3% of aU bilingual respondents). 
16 

SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 7.—Setting out copra (the meat of ripe coconuts) on a drying platform at Loleba Village. Copra is the 

mainstay of Halmahera's cash economy. 
NUMBER 34 17 

FIGURE 8.—Village house at Pasir Putih, showing nipa palm roof, "lawn" completely cleared of vegetation, 

flagpole (required for displaying the flag at certain government holidays), and "fence" of o balontas (Pluchea 

indica Less.). Pandanus mats from the rooms inside have been hung out to dry and reduce bedbug infestation. 

Reported language use in die home (as opposed to reported 

language competence) is more complex, though fewer languages are involved. Data on language use at Wasile Village 

are derived from survey questions asking (1) what language do 

die household head and his wife normally use when speaking 

witii one anotiier, (2) what language do they normaUy use when 

speaking to tiieir chUdren, and (3) what language do their 

children use among themselves. The responses in Table 2 have 

been separated into those from households in which neither 

"spouse" (i.e., head of household or his wife) or parent, one 

spouse or parent, and both spouses or parents are Tobelo. Heads 

of household and tiieir wives who have no children responded 

only to the first question. Note that five pairs of parents claimed 

to speak botii Tobelo and Indonesian equally and one pair to 

speak Tidorese and Indonesian equally (total six pairs or 9.8%). 

In one case a 70-year-old man and his 60-year-old wife stated 

tiiat he always spoke to her in Tobelo, and she spoke to him in 

Pagu (otiiers verified that this was the case): they both usually 

speak Tobelo to their children. (In Loleba village, at least three 

couples have such Tobelo-Pagu linguistic "arrangements.") In 

cases where two languages were used about equally by parents 

when speaking to their children, botii parents used botii 

languages, except in one case where both parents are Tobelo 

and die father speaks to the children in both languages whUe die 

modier speaks only in Indonesian. 

At first sight die figures seem to suggest tiiat local language 

use is disappearing. Among households in which one or botii 

parents are Tobelo, the parents speak Tobelo among themselves in 19 households (37.2%), but transmit die language to 

tiieir children by primarily speaking Tobelo in only five 

households (10.6% of households witii chUdren). Of households witii more than one child, in only one (2.3%) is Tobelo 

said to be die language normally used in communication 

among children. By including households in which both 

Tobelo and Indonesian or botii Tobelo and Pagu are used, die 

figures even more strongly contrast die older and younger 

generations: 25 households (51.0% of aU Tobelo or pardy 

Tobelo households) use Tobelo among spouses; in 10 
18 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TABLE 1. Language competence among household heads and their wives, 

Wasile Village Survey, April 1978 (N = number. Lid = Indonesian, Tdr = 

Tidorese, Tbl = Tobelo, Tte = Ternatese). 

Languages spoken 

Ind 

Ind, Tbl 

Ind, Dutch 

Ind, Maba 

Ind, Tte 

Ind, Larat 

Ind. Gorap 

Ind, Tdr 

Ind, Adonara 

Ind, Yamdena 

Ind, Pagu 

Ind, Sangir 

Ind, TbL Larat 

Lid, Tbl, Maba 

Lid, Tbl, Sawai 

Lid, Tbl, Kao 

Ind, TbL Pagu 

Lid, Tbl, Galela 

Lid, Tte, Galela 

Lid, Tte, Gorap 

Ind, Tte, Kao 

Lid, Bugis, Kalabahi 

Lid, Tdr, Maba 

Ind, Talaud, Sangir 

Total monolingual 

Total bilingual 

Total trilingual 

Ind, Tbl, Galela, Maba 

Lid, Tte, Tdr, Maba 

Lid, Tte, Galela, Maba 

Lid, Tbl, Tte, Tdr, Maba 

Lid, TbL Tte, Tdr, Kao 

Lid, Tbl, Tte, Tdr, Pagu 

Ind, Tbl, Tte, Tdr, Kao Galela, Sangir, Maba 

Ind, Tbl, Tte, Tdr, Sawai, Gorap, Kao, Galela, Maba, 

Bull 

Other 

N 

72 

1 

5 

3 

3 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

93 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

16 

4.9% 

75.6% 

13.0% 

6.5% 

Total household heads responding, plus wives of 123 100.0% 

married household heads 

households (21.3%) parents speak Tobelo to children; and still 

in only one household (2.3%) is Tobelo used among chUdren. 

A major cause for this apparent lack of local language use 

among children is probably the prohibition, said to be enforced 

by school teachers throughout Halmahera, against speaking 

anything but the national language during school hours, at 

study or play. 

It would be premature, though, to conclude that local 

TABLE 2.—Language use at Wasile Village, Wasile Village Survey, April 1978 

(see Table 1 for abbreviations). 

Language usually spoken among spouses 

(per pair of spouses) 

Neither spouse Tobelo 

One spouse Tobelo 

Both spouses Tobelo 

Language usually used by parents to their 

children (per nuclear family) 

Neither parent Tobelo 

One parent Tobelo 

Both parents Tobelo 

Lid: 10 

Tte:l 

Lid: 16 

Tbl: 7 

Lid: 8 

Tbl: 12 

Lid: 11 

Lid: 22 

Ind:15 

Tbl: 3 

Lid: 8 

Lid: 22 

Lid, Tdr: 1 

Lid, Tbl: 2 

TbL Pagu: 1 

Ind, Tbl: 3 

Tbl: 2 

Lid, Tbl: 5 

Lid. Tdr 1 

Tbl:l 

3. Language usually used among full sib 

lings (per set of full siblings) 

NeiUier parent Tobelo 

One parent Tobelo 

Both parents Tobelo Lid: 19 

languages are disappearing in this village. Wasile, like Kao, has 

always been an emporium of ethnic groups, yet a knowledge of 

Tobelo has been maintained among teenage and older 

residents. Unfortunately tiiis survey did not ask parents whetiier 

tiiey spoke Indonesian or Tobelo in die home when tiiey were 

chUdren, which might have helped to detect whetiier, like the 

Kao language at Kao, Tobelo at WasUe has for some time been 

relegated to a subordinate but stable position. 

It is nevertheless a fact that, even in this very ethnicaUy 

mixed viUage, some individuals who had always primarily 

used Indonesian in die home as children and who continued to 

use Indonesian to tiieir own chUdren were quite fluent in 

Tobelo. In certain contexts Tobelo seems to be the preferred 

language. These include conversations accompanying 

women's cooking and kitchen tasks, by men out fishing or 

drinking palm-wine beneath die sugar palm (Arenga pinnata 

Merr.) from which it is made, or by all Tobelo during the 

month-long festivities that take place during the Christmas and 

New Year season. Important speeches at adat (customary) 

festivals must be given in Tobelo. Marriage arrangements are 

made in Tobelo (though appropriate proverbs, to which 

response is made witii otiier proverbs, are in neo-Ternatese). 

This "subordinate but stable" status of the Tobelo language at 

Wasile seems also to describe die Kao language at Kao vtilage, 

direetiy opposite Wasile across Kao Bay. This recaUs Hueting's (1921:223) statement about Kao in die mid-19tii century, 

but still valid today, that "Kao" (Boeng) dialect Tobelo is not 

spoken at Kao vtilage, where "the inhabitants of that head 

viUage of the district are a hodgepodge from everywhere, witii 

very few Tobelo." These facts, then, actually indicate that 

Halmahera's languages are amazingly stable and resistant to 

extinction. Fluency in the Kao language is still maintained 
NUMBER 34 19 

(even at Wasile)—even though no "hearth" villages use Kao as 

a first language, while others relegate it to subordination. 

(Tobelo, at least, has "heardi" villages all of whose inhabitants 

speak Tobelo.) 

Thus Wasile (and also, perhaps, the smaU city of Tobelo, 

itself) may be considered extremes, in which the use of Tobelo 

is limited to a subordinate role even in the Tobelo communities. 

At the opposite extreme, upriver Dodaga or otiier Tugutil 

hamlets consist only of monolingual Tobelo speakers. Other 

vUlages can not simply be ranked between the extremes like 

numbers on a number line. At Pasir Putih (Jatiolo District), the 

center of die "Dodinga dialect," almost everyone in die village 

of about 450 resident population (1979) spoke (minimaUy) 

both Tobelo and Indonesian. The one person who (in July 

1979) neitiier spoke nor understood Tobelo is die wife of a local 

resident who very recendy brought her back to live in tiiis 

village, and die 25 otiiers who understand but speak rather 

halting Tobelo are in all cases recent migrants, or apparendy 

less linguistically gifted people who migrated to the village as 

adults but whose chUdren all speak fluent Tobelo though their 

parents' speech remains halting. Sangir, Tabaru, and otiier 

immigrants have learned to speak Tobelo, and fuU siblings who 

have grown up togetiier in this vdlage, though chUdren of 

Sangir parents (for example), speak Tobelo among tiiemselves. 

Such adjustments of immigrants to what we may call die 

"host" language is common in the North Moluccas: small 

groups of immigrants arriving in the territory of another ethnic 

group consider tiiemselves "guests" in the area (bound to some 

extent, for example, by local customary law), and accommodate tiiemselves to die host language upon intermarriage. 

A greater variety of individual adjustments to bUingualism 

and multtiingualism could undoubtedly be documented by 

considering otiier viUages, yet the state of linguistic usage and 

competence illustrated here shows how complicated the 

necessary task of documenting the distribution of North 

Moluccan ethnic groups and local languages will be. 

2.1.4 The In-law Name Taboo and Its Practical Effects 

Anotiier sociolinguistic phenomenon that may affect folk 

classification is the Tobelo customary prohibition against 

saying the names, or words containing the names (or certain 

parts of the names), of "in-laws" (moyoka). Certainly this 

in-law name taboo affects the ability of individual Tobelo to 

pronounce the names of local fauna and flora in some contexts. 

It is also credited by the Tobelo themselves as the cause for 

some synonymy in their language. This phenomenon is 

partially related to the historically strong presence of many 

languages in this area (discussed above), because those other 

languages provide options to the use of Tobelo words that must 

be avoided. "In-laws" (moyoka) include the spouses of one's 

close blood relatives in one's own or descending generations 

and the close blood relatives of one's spouse. 

The Tobelo usually shorten personal names to either one or 

two syllables, or may shorten or lengtiien diem to a three 

syUable (C)Vj(C)V2CV2 pattern. For example, Yohanis (official name used on documents, formal occasions, etc.) —> Hdnihi 

or Anis or Anihi; Pinina, given a simtiar nickname Pondso -> 

Pondco -> Oco; Sdul -> Aulu. All forms of these transformations are prohibited in die speech of Yohanis's or Penina's or 

Saul's in-laws. Also, unlike die examples given here, many 

nicknames have no phonological relation to "official" names. 

They may instead be given to commemorate events surrounding die individual's birth, or in memory of a relative who died 

not long before his namesake was born (see Fortgens, 1911). 

These nicknames, too, may be shortened or lengthened like 

personal names. 

It is as if, in English, my spouse's sister were named "Ann," 

and consequendy I would, under most circumstances, avoid 

saying "Ann" and also such words as "man," "chance," 

"antidote," and "land." I would obey similar prohibitions for all 

names of all in-laws whenever I spoke. If my own name were, 

say, "Andy," die prohibition would even extend to die utterance 

of my own name. 

As explained to me within a few days of my arrival, die 

in-law name taboo impressed me for die sweeping effects it 

must have on language, and die implications it might have for 

the speed of language change. In practice, however, several 

factors make die taboo quite tolerable. The most important of 

tiiese are (1) while aU in-laws are theoretically included, not all 

tiieir names are prohibited witii equal force, and (2) die 

prohibition is generally less strictly observed when no affected 

in-laws are present As later became clear, tiiese early "rules of 

tiiumb" about die in-law name taboo inadequately describe die 

complexity of this phenomenon. When everyday exceptions to 

such generalizations are pointed out to diem, Tobelo tiiemselves readily agree tiiat these "exceptions" (to their own 

abbreviated generalizations) normally occur. Individuals may 

vary also in tiieir day-to-day concern for such signs of etiquette, 

for not all in-laws can legally enforce tiiis prohibition, altiiough 

minimaUy "true" (Tobelo ma dutu) parents-in-law, chUdren-inlaw,or siblings-in-law may legaUy fine offenders. (That is, one 

may fine one's spouse's full siblings or one's spouse's true 

parents, and reciprocally one's full sibling's spouse, or one's 

true child's spouse.) 

The prohibition, tiien, primarily applies to die relation 

between a man or woman on die one hand, and his or her 

spouse's parents on the other; it is most strictly forbidden for 

one of tiiese parties to say the name of the otiier. Names of more 

"distant" (ikwutikdka 'already far') in-laws (including full and 

especially even more distant siblings-in-law) are more negotiable. The names of such in-laws are often said when parties who 

might potentially be offended (including otiier in-laws) are not 

present. The name itself will not be used in reference to die 

individual involved (unless, after some circumlocution, die 

listener still does not know who is intended by die speaker),but 

words in which die sequence of phonemes making up one of 

die "distant" in-law's name occurs may be given normal 
20 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

pronunciation. 

When full siblings-in-law or others who might be offended 

are present, speakers are more likely to use circumlocutions for 

any words in which die name of another (absent) in-law 

appears. Four main forms of circumlocution are available. To 

name an in-law one may name one's own kinsman through 

whom one is linked to tiiat in-law, or alternatively the unrelated 

spouse of the in-law; thus the husband of my sister Meri wUl 

simply be called "Meri's husband" (o ngo Meri ami rokata), 

botii in direct address (to be more specific than geri -» eri 

'brother-in-law') and in reference. Second, spontaneously 

invented descriptions may make clear the individual or die 

object tiiat may not be denoted by a term too like an in-law 

name. Third, submorphemic parts of words may be pronounced, or certain sound sequences of an in-law's name may 

simply be hummed or skipped when pronouncing otiier words 

in which tiiey occur. Finally, one frequently uses hohono 

(so-called in Tobelo District and in die Tobelo Boeng dialect; 

fosono in die Dodinga dialect) 'substitution words said to avoid 

saying an in-law name.' These hohono (cf. Galela saali) are 

formed in Tobelo in very much die same way as tiiat described 

by die missionary van Baarda for die neighboring Galela 

language, in a letter to H. Kern (1893:199-200). 

[1] For some words the Galela language possesses synonyms [Dutch: 

dubbelgangers], which make die saali [substitution word] easy; for example, 

baba and ema 'fatiier'.. .but these words are nevertheless few in number. [2] 

Other words are changed in such a way that they come to have a closely-related 

meaning,for example,/*? tagi 'go' [becomes]pa tjobo 'depart' [3] For some 

an independent noun is made from die action [of the verb], in order to name die 

implement of it; for example, o ngau "ear* [becomes] o gogise 'hearer' 

(implement of hearing).... [4] For general appellations, one can name a part 

which is contained in that meaning; for example, o igo 'coconut' [becomes] o 

gopoa 'unripe coconut' [5] In still other cases, a word may be exchanged 

with another one which implies a similarity of motion; for example, po odo 

'eat' [becomes] po magese 'take toward oneself [6] Odier objects that must 

be named can be named by some noticeable characteristic or quality; for 

example, o lupu 'mouse' [becomes] o uru susuwo 'pointed snout'.... [7] For 

some, words are also taken from Ternatese or from another related dialect 

Yet even for relatively close in-laws, such circumlocutions 

are not always necessary. In some cases certain "potential" 

in-laws individuaUy decide (as an agreement between die two 

of diem) to avoid die mutual obligations of brothers-in-law, and 

not to concern tiiemselves with the in-law name prohibition. 

Such "potential" in-laws are said to yo-ma-hi-ko-bohon-ua 

'they do not use avoidance [of saying each other's names].' 

They may do this as individuals, witiiout implications for kin 

linked through them, or members of their family linked in die 

same way as tiiey by die same marriage. 

Finally, if an individual simply finds the sequence of 

phonemes making up the name of his in-law difficult to avoid, 

but still wishes to avoid using die name itself (as a sign of his 

respect for the in-law bond), he may "pay" (literally, Tobelo: 

-fangu) for the right to use that sequence of phonemes in other 

contexts only. Because of the many factors that make the in-law 

name-taboo less draconian that it seems, this option is very 

rarely used. When it is used, a person only "purchases" uie 

privUege of using his or her in-law's names in non-naming 

contexts. To address or refer to them (die "naming" contexts), 

he still wUl use circumlocution, and he wUl expect appropriate 

reciprocal obligations. Thus die effect of the in-law name taboo 

is to encourage circumlocutions to avoid saying the names of a 

manageable number of close in-laws without goood reason, 

especially when tiiey are present. 

The Tobelo themselves credit this name-taboo with producing some of tiieir language's high number of synonyms. We 

can witness this process of synonym-production on a small 

scale, as at Kampung Pintatu (Wasile District, Halmahera), 

where die Tobelo word for 'coconut' (o igono) has been 

completely replaced by North Moluccan Malay kalapa ('coconut') because, according to residents tiiere, kalapa had long 

been used as a hohono ('substitution-word') by many closely 

related residents to avoid a former in-law's name, and 

continues to be used now tiiough no longer necessary. 

More commonly, hohono are clearly recognized as such, and 

informants can state for a given hohono which word it replaces. 

It is difficult to study now die effects tiiat die name-taboo 

originally had on die production of synonyms; in any case, it 

presumably tends to reinforce synonymy by slowing die 

disappearance of eitiier alternative. As further evidence for die 

hypodiesis that this custom is a source of historical vocabulary 

change, we may note that some words listed as hohono in 

Hueting's (1908c) dictionary (which emphasized die dialect 

spoken in Tobelo District), are now standard (no longer 

circumlocutory) in die Boeng and Dodinga dialects. An 

example is daluku, defined by Hueting as palm-wine from die 

sugar palm, but also (he says) used as a hohono for die palm 

itself (Arenga pinnata). This second hohono meaning in die 

Tobelo dialect has become a standard meaning of daluku in die 

Boeng and Dodinga dialects; the original word hepata—for 

which daluku should merely substitute to avoid naming 

in-laws—has been lost in die south. Hueting also, on many 

occasions, suggests the hohono in positing etymologies of 

analyzable words whose meanings seem only distantiy related 

to that of their root, apparendy because hohono words are likely 

to have specific relations to die words tiiey replace, such as 

those identified by van Baarda in his letter to Kern quoted 

above (e.g., -hionoko Hueting, 1908c: 158; cf. also Hueting 

1910). 

2.15 Conclusion: The Tobelo Language Situation and Tobelo 

Folk Classification 

This brief review of some diverse topics in die linguistic or 

sociolinguistic setting in which Tobelo folk classification 

occurs, in addition to providing background relevant to later 

specific examples of dialect differences, North Moluccan 

Malay influence, Neo-Ternatese word formation, etc., has 

suggested several admittedly diverse observations regarding 

local presumptions about the nature and appropriate usage of, 
NUMBER 34 21 

and about contact between, the languages of die North 

Moluccas. 

1. The Tobelo think of themselves as an ethnic group and 

consider tiiemselves to speak a single language, whose details 

vary from one viUage to another, but which is locally divided 

into heleworuru (H) dialect of die nortii and boeng (B) dialect 

of the south. Following Hueting (1908c), we may further 

distinguish the divergent "Dodinga" (D) dialect, though it is 

considered "Boeng" by its own speakers. Thus Tobelo have a 

clear idea of both "dialect" and "language"; and if linguists 

should choose to call, e.g., Pagu and Kao die same language 

(based perhaps on percentages of cognation in basic vocabulary), tiiis would not affect die fact that die two are locaUy 

considered distinct languages. 

2. Consistent witii this assumption that Tobelo is a single 

language, its speakers are anxious to "align" their own folk 

classification systems with those of other Tobelo (see 5.2.1.3 

below). They frequendy try to explain dialectal differences 

when tiiey come across them. There is no such concern for die 

clearly divergent folk taxonomies of otiier ethnic groups. 

3. The long North Moluccan history of constant outside 

contacts has encouraged many foreign borrowings into Tobelo 

and other regional languages. In die particular case of North 

Moluccan Malay borrowings, there appear to be two stages, 

which it is tempting to treat as historical phases: in die first 

(presumably before NMM was commonly spoken by Tobelo), 

NMM words were assimilated into a Tobelo phonological 

pattern; but now tiiat bilingualism is common ("phase two"), 

NMM terms are pronounced in Tobelo precisely as tiiey are 

pronounced in NMM. 

4. Whtie die strong influence of NMM may be invoked to 

explain particular details of Tobelo folk classification, and is a 

source of considerable synonymy, even monolingual speakers 

of North Moluccan Malay must borrow heavdy from Halmahera's indigenous languages for terms in die BIOTIC 

FORM domain where "proper" or "standard" Indonesian terms 

are locally rarely known. Halmahera's many immigrants from 

otiier etiinic backgrounds frequendy borrow Tobelo terms to 

classify Halmahera's unique fauna and flora. 

5. The in-law name taboo, which might be considered a 

sociolinguistic phenomenon of sweeping effect, turns out on 

examination to have a bark much fiercer tiian its bite. Because 

there are so many ways to avoid the taboo's apparendy severe 

limits on the pronunciation of certain sound sequences, die 

prohibition in fact has relatively little effect on die free 

transmission of information, even if in-laws are present. 

MinimaUy, it encourages the use of circumlocutions, and 

diereby may speed up die creation of new terminology. It also 

probably encourages the high degree of synonymy in the 

language, because alternative forms from Tobelo or other 

languages can substitute for any word which would be 

disrespectful to pronounce. 

Finally, die in-law name taboo has some practical effects on 

any analyst's description of Tobelo nomenclature. It requires a 

very particular exception to most generalizations made below 

(3.2) about word boundaries, "acceptable" and "nonacceptable" compounds, etc. For example, one may stricdy 

define, and loosely tiiink of, a "simple" word as one which 

cannot be subdivided into parts (see 3.2.2.1 for nomenclatured 

definitions). Yet a person who is trying to avoid saying an 

in-law name may regularly say any simple word leaving out (or 

just humming) only die syllables he must avoid, even tiiough 

die latter constitute a submorphemic part of the word. I once 

heard a woman refer to her son-in-law named "Leo" by simply 

pronouncing and holding die sound "L" (die initial sound in 

tiiat word) until die person addressed figured out whom she 

meant, and pronounced Leo's name for her. 

2.2 The Cultural Importance of Local Biota 

This study primarily focuses on aspects of folk classification. 

Neverdieless, this system of folk biological classification 

cannot be studied (tiiough to some extent it can heuristically be 

described) in isolation from die many areas of Tobelo cultural 

life in which tiieir folk biological knowledge plays a major role. 

2.2.1 Subsistence and Diet 

Subsistence activities are important to folk biological 

knowledge, partly because so much of a culture's attention to 

animals and plants is directed toward important subsistence 

products. Each activity tiiat exploits those products is a source 

of cultural information about local biota. Even tiiough there are 

few local staple crops (manioc, bananas, sago, and in some 

areas rice), die great many non-staple cultivated or tended 

varieties require considerable familiarity with each type and 

witii its preparation and use. Extensive forest-product gatiiering, most often done by males on wdd pig and deer hunts, 

requires anotiier kind of specialized knowledge, as does 

off-shore fishing. Variations in each individual's familiarity 

witii these areas of subsistence activity are reflected in 

knowledge of folk classification in those domains. 

Cultural notions about a "proper" meal (here consisting of a 

starchy base (rice, manioc, bananas, or sago) plus hiode, i.e., 

meat or vegetables to accompany starchy food), and about 

eating (among Tobelo, food is often summarily eaten to quickly 

achieve a feeling of being "satisfied" or "full" (Tbl: inaapunuhoka)) also affect animal and plant exploitation. 

2.2.2 Ethnogeography 

The intensive local familiarity witii the coasts and jungles of 

tiiis region is enriched by folk tales and myths about die 

man-named places tiiat make up the jungles' cultural topography (cf. Hueting, 1908b). These geographical names are in 

most cases die names of plants or animals. The name may be of 

a plant prominent in die area, or of a plant or animal associated 

with the region in folklore. The coUection and mapping of 
22 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

ethnogeographic locations and of the folk tales associated with 

them is in this region an important aspect of folk biology. 

2.2.3 Technology 

Some recendy outdated local manufactures (such as prenylon fishing line or bark cloth) apparently required a 

specialized etiinobiological knowledge involving die choice of 

raw materials, and of technique to match the raw materials 

chosen. Still-active basketry and mat-making, and manufacture 

of otiier utensils, houses, boats, and decorative technology, aU 

require knowledge of particular local fauna and flora: the best 

salt-water-resistant vine with which to tie an outrigger float to 

its connector and to die boom (and also die second best and 

third best, since one cannot always have first choice); the best 

(and second best, etc.) material for powerful deer-hunting bows 

and bow-strings, and for the tighter less-powerful bows for 

killing birds—and simtiar specialized connoisseurship for 

hundreds of particular items. 

2.2.4 Magic and Medicine 

Magic and medicine, undifferentiated in die single Tobelo 

word o houru, are areas of carefully guarded esoteric 

knowledge heavUy associated witii an accurate knowledge 

especially of the plants used in curative and otiier magic, and 

witii a good memory for die secret, suggestive but superficially 

nearly meaningless magical formulae in die heavUy mixed 

neo-Ternatese "hodgepodge" of languages mentioned above 

(Taylor, 1988). Because folk medicine is esoteric, the names of 

medicinally useful plants are seldom freely discussed. 

This field is especially rich for etiinobiological research, not 

only because so many illnesses are cured by plants, but because 

sicknesses tiiemselves are often given the names of animals and 

plants to which tiiey are likened. In tiiese cases the animal or 

plant name is reduplicated and used as a passive verb to mean 

one has die sickness witii characteristics of that animal or plant 

For example: o hilowana means 'garfish' (Tylosurus sp.),tiie 

sleek, long-bodied and long-jawed fish tiiat sometimes races 

short distances along the sea's surface, rapidly beating only its 

tati in the water whde keeping most of its body and its long, 

sharply tootiied jaws above die surface, after which it 

disappears again into die sea. Reduplicated and used as a 

passive verb i-naa-ho-hilowana means to have die ear ailment 

characterized by occasional sharp pulsing pain in the ear which 

lasts a short whde tiien disappears. SimUarly, o wungama refers 

to die 'hermit crab,' die crab which, at die slightest 

provocation, puUs its body deep into die univalve mollusc shell 

it usuaUy borrows (not having a strong carapace of its own), 

and patiently waits out any such disruption before again 

reappearing. I-naa-wunga-wungama refers to having die 

ailment characterized by muscle (?) pains in die back, shoulder, 

or chest, which disappear quickly in response to otiier folk 

remedies but wUl always reappear until treated witii die 

medicine specific to tiiis ailment. In tiiese and otiier examples, 

die metaphorical identification of an ailment with a biotic form 

may extend to the cure. Thus one cure for i-naa-ho-hilowana 

(the first example above), requires heating some plant products 

between two smaU young leaves of a pineapple plant, held 

togedier so that (as the curer pointed out) the serrated edges of 

the pineapple leaves resemble die tootiied jaws of the garfish. 

Then the heat-released juices are allowed to run down the tips 

of these leaves into the patient's affected ear. (Both tiiese 

ailments, and tiieir symptoms and remedies, constitute esoteric 

information; knowledge of most remedies especially is carefully guarded.) 

Each of these areas of cultural endeavor requires some 

specialized etiinobiological knowledge; any one of them could 

be the subject of major investigations. Though no systematic 

attempt is made here to outiine conclusions or summarize data 

on tiiese topics, tiieir mention should indicate die local 

necessity of such an elaborate folk classification of BIOTIC 

FORMS. The fact that individual Tobelo specialize in 

particular fields clearly leads to a differential knowledge of 

many details of the classification system. But one of die Tobelo 

cultural presumptions about BIOTIC FORMS, to which we 

now turn, is tiiat most such differences of detati should be 

reconcUable. 

2.3 Tobelo Cultural Presumptions about Their Folk 

Biological Classification 

Presumptions underlying a system of classification can be 

inferred from the comments and behavior of die Tobelo, witii 

whom we may talk about tiiese presumptions after we have 

inferred diem. These very basic, shared presumptions tiiat 

underlie folk biological classification are so fundamental that 

tiiey are rarely if ever locally stated or discussed in die 

summary form in which tiiey may be listed here. 

1. Plants and animals were named at some time past by "die 

Elders"—ancestors of die Tobelo who are considered to have 

been vastiy more familiar with nature, magic, and all aspects of 

traditional knowledge than are tiieir descendants today. Asked 

why a plant is given a particular name, Tobelo often simply 

respond, "The Elders named it tiiat; since then we foUow after" 

(i.e., continue using that name). 

2. Thus tiiere is popularly tiiought to be or to have been a 

correct name for any plant or animal (i.e., at least tiiose large 

enough to be easUy visible with the naked eye must have had at 

least one correct name). 

3. Tobelo consider tiiat the knowledge of die Elders is 

progressively diminishing, and today think they have relatively 

little of tiieir ancestors' magical and otiier powers—not just 

because many do not botiier to study them, but because magic 

itself gets weaker as it is used, especially in return for payment 

Though surprising at first, it tiius makes sense when, as often 

happens, old-timers who can barely stiU stand up answer an 

etiinographer's question saying, "You have to ask the old 
NUMBER 34 23 

people" (i.e., the Elders); they may honestly add, "We chUdren 

nowadays don't know anymore." 

Once at Loleba viUage, as I brought out and asked about 

smaUer and smaller insect specimens, trying to reach die limits 

of my informants' classificatory competence (or of their 

patience), one friend squinted down at a tiny beetle I produced 

in my hand and said, "You'd have to find someone who was 

friendly with Adam and Eve to teU you die name of that!" 

4. Tobelo (witii some exceptions) are generaUy careful not to 

give the "wrong" name to animals or plants, and wUl seldom 

proffer a name for an unfamiliar form. 

5. Tobelo generally are, and feel tiiey should be, willing to 

learn more about die proper classification of local biota (as weU 

as about uses, habitat or behavior, and otiier characteristics of 

biotic forms). They also usually stand ready to be corrected by 

die more knowledgeable on details of tiieir folk systematics. 

Though this seems to accurately portray die wUlingness of 

individual Tobelo to revise and correct details of nomenclature 

and classification, there are also local conventions of etiquette 

that make younger people deferent toward and reluctant to 

correct tiieir elders, and hosts similarly more likely to defer to, 

rather than correct, tiieir guests. 

6. Rarely, an unfamiliar plant (FLORAL FORM) (not 

reported for 'animal') name may be revealed (by a former 

"Elder" or by an individual's spirit-helper) to a person in a 

dream, along with a "medicinal" use to which it should be put 

The resulting personal "medicine" is regarded as exceptionally 

powerful; by custom, this medicinal use must be tried before 

anyone is told about its origin. But note tiiat tiiose who have 

this experience say that only die name is revealed—tiiey must 

seek die plant correctly so designated by inquiring of otiiers, 

without giving any reason for tiieir inquiry. 

7. Because folk medicine is esoteric, names of medicinally 

useful plants are seldom freely discussed. Thus many plants are 

only identifiable by practitioners of folk medicine, who are the 

best Tobelo folk botanists. In several cases no other viUagers at 

a particular place knew the name for certain plant-types. In 

cases of disagreement about a plant's proper identification, die 

most convincing argument for presenting a name as die 

"proper" one is, "Ahi houru de!" 'It's my medicine!' 

On die otiier hand, a village and church elder in one 

kampung of Tobelo District once told me that he used certain 

grasses I found there as his "medicine" but did not know tiieir 

names. Other Tobelo who did not know him later simply 

concluded he must have lied. They reasoned privately to me 

tiiat die elder was either only pretending die grasses were his 

medicine, or tiiat he purposely withheld die name. 

8. Widely varying names for small arthropods or aewani2 

'mere animals' may also be known only to a few, simply 

because of the cultural insignificance of these animals and not 

because tiiey are "esoteric." Yet die local presumption tiiat even 

tiiey must have names is undaunted. 

Finally, note tiiat we have here considered only some of die 

Tobelo cultural presumptions tiiat seem to underly folk 

classification, not presumptions about die classes of BIOTIC 

FORM tiiemselves (cf. 4.4); some consequences of these 

presumptions wUl be noted when appropriate throughout die 

text tiiat foUows (see especially 5.2.2.4 and 5.2.3.5 on some 

effects of esoteric knowledge on classification; and 5.2.1.3 and 

5.2.2.4 on local attempts to reconcile die assumption of a 

"proper" Tobelo classification with observed dialectal differences). 
3. Plant and Animal Nomenclature 

3.0 Introduction 

Our first and most continuous information about "native" 

ideational forms (among die Tobelo, die Americans, or any 

otiier culture) derives from die linguistic expression of those 

ideas in natural contexts, including conversations overheard 

(and later joined in) every day. Tobelo frequendy discuss their 

everyday decisions about technological, medicinal, or otiier 

uses of plants and animals, lexicaUy expressing die criteria for 

such decisions in their discussions. In such contexts (including 

but not limited to die naming of particular items) the many 

Tobelo groupings of plants and animals into classes are often 

lexically realized. Whtie "folk classification" refers to the 

culturally shared set of relationships of these usually lexicaUy 

labeled classes to one anotiier, "nomenclature" refers specificaUy to the system of naming these classes (cf. Lawrence, 

1951:3-4). Nomenclature is here considered first because data 

from animal and plant nomenclature, and from other linguistic 

forms employed to describe local biota, wiU be among tiiose 

used to investigate the system of classification (Chapter 5) and 

even to more precisely specify the limits of the semantic 

domain investigated here (Chapter 4). 

In tiiis chapter, I use examples from English and Tobelo to 

provide a tiieoretical basis for distinguishing lexemes, and to 

indicate tiieir importance (3.1 below), in order to oudine a 

typology of lexemes (3.2) that is based on morphosyntactic 

criteria. I argue that this typology accounts for observed 

lexemic Tobelo plant and animal names more adequately tiian 

do the typologies based on semantic criteria tiiat are generally 

used today in studies of folk biological classification. Word and 

phrasal lexemes are distinguished witii furdier subtypes and 

Ulustrated witii examples. 

3.1 The Identification and Importance of Lexemes 

Our first task in understanding die chains of speech tiiat form 

our primary data on ideational forms is tike the task of the 

lexicographer: to separate them into their analyzable units and 

explore die interrelationships among and die definitions of die 

classes those units designate. To describe the results of this 

process is to describe parts of a language; and in describing 

language, the most parsimonious description is the most 

preferred. In die "lexicon" or dictionary part of a linguistic 

description, for example, one should not find a lexical entry 

such as die English "birds," since this plural form should be 

predictable from the singular entry "bird." Similarly, we can 

slash phrases like "a large bird" witii Occam's same razor,since 

the meaning of the phrase is predictable from that of its 

component lexemes "a," "large," and "bird," and die productive 

grammatical rules of English. In otiier words, a lexicon 

(dictionary) should contain only lexemes1, which are "roughly" 

defined by Lyons (1977:23) as "the words and phrases that a 

dictionary would list under a separate entry." If a lexeme, tiien, 

is a minimum dictionary entry, it follows tiiat a lexeme's 

"meaning cannot be deduced from its grammatical structure" 

(Conklin, 1962:121). A good knowledge of die language and 

consideration of die fuU range of uses of particular forms is 

often necessary to determine tiieir lexemic status. Certainly any 

researcher's attempts to guarantee "objectivity" by confining 

himself to strict interview situations or "elicitation techniques" 

seriously hamper such determinations. 

3.1.1 Forms, Lexemes, and Expressions 

In a dictionary, lexemes or "minimal dictionary entries" wtil 

usually be cited in only one "form" (die "citation-form"). (This 

distinction of forms, lexemes, and expressions here follows 

Lyons, 1977:18-25.) A "form" refers to one of die ways in 

which the lexeme may be realized in die language; for example, 

die lexeme find ('discover,' 'come upon') is cited in its present 

form "find," but may be expressed or "realized" in otiier forms: 

"finds," "found," "finding," etc. Lexemes may be phrases as 

well as words, as in die idiomatic phrases cited as "red herring" 

or "kick die bucket." In tiiis sense, one may say that a lexeme 

is an abstract entity with no particular form, though it is 

generaUy cited witii only one of its forms (the citation-form). 

Occasionally there may be variation in the choice of citationforms (as in Latin, where verb lexemes are sometimes cited 

witii the infinitive, sometimes with die first person singular). In 

practice, tiiough, it seldom leads to confusion if we refer to "the 

lexeme find" rather than "the lexeme with the citation-form 

find;" or even if we say tiiat in the sentence "he kicked die 

bucket," "kicked the bucket is lexemic" (rather than saying that 

it is "a form of the lexeme whose citation-form is kick the 

bucket"). 

In addition to lexemes and die forms of each lexeme, tiiere 

are in any language "indefinitely many complex expressions, 

which are clearly not lexemes, but whose meaning is 

determined by die meaning of tiieir component lexemes and die 

productive grammatical rules of the language" (Lyons, 

1977:24). Examples include "good child," "die box over there 

a moment ago," etc. Expressions also have forms ("good 

chUdren" is a form of "good chtid")—tiiough in other 

languages tiiere may be many more forms of one expression 

than is likely in English (e.g., die five cases of Latin).2 

A minimal dictionary entry must contain information about 

24 
NUMBER 34 25 

its inflectional class; thus the entry for the verb "find" must 

include a statement that it is a (transitive) verb. There is also a 

noun "find" ('a tiling which has been found'), but unless aU 

verbs of die same class as "find" form nouns in a simtiar way, 

tiiis noun must have a separate entry along with information 

about its own inflectional class. Thus unless the members of 

one inflectional class are predictable from tiiose of another 

(e.g., verbs and participials in English), then these are best 

considered separate lexemes. 

Each item occurring in the domain of Tobelo BIOTIC 

FORMS is a noun; but we may illustrate a practical problem 

with determining whetiier sets of members of one inflectional 

class (in this case, a set of Tobelo verbs) are predictable from 

members of another (Tobelo nouns in the FLORAL FORM 

domain). Tobelo nouns and verbs can easdy be distinguished 

tiiroughout the language (see 3.2.1 below). Yet Tobelo 

informants do vary as to whetiier they consider it acceptable to 

form verbs from some nouns for FLORAL FORMS. The 

details of tiiis case iUustrate one method of interpreting 

informant "variability" or apparent "disagreement." The question in this example is: Can aU nouns for (i.e., names of) 

FLORAL FORMS become verbs having the meaning 'to tiirow 

(that FLORAL FORM, or a part of that FLORAL FORM)'? 

Some informants maintain that it is possible to form from 

almost any plant name 'X' a verb meaning 'to throw X (or a 

part of X) at someone,' on the model of o guawe 'mango' 

to-ni-guawe (T + 'you' + 'mango') 'I throw mangoes at you'; 

o lukama 'lansat fruit (or tree)' mo-hi-lukama ('she'+ *me'+ 

'lansat fruit') 'she throws lansat fruits at me,' etc. This 

construction is normaUy used only for cultivated fruits, yet 

names for vines, smaU herbs, trees, aroid plants, etc., were also 

accepted as possible verb roots by one informant at Loleba 

village, though he realized tiiey were rarely thrown, and in 

some cases virtually impossible to tiirow. "If we happen to 

reach the point where we tiirow them," he said, "we could say 

it tiiat way." Otiier informants disagreed, tiiough the boundary 

between what definitely could and could not be dirown was not 

clear. 

In fact, though, no informant could accept the construction as 

meaning 'to throw X at someone' for some plant terms which, 

used as transitive verb roots, have other specific meanings, 

such as tiba (noun) 'Schizostachyum lima (Blanco) Merr.' (a 

bamboo); -tiba (verb) 'to cook inside tiba bamboo'; biawa 

(noun) 'Donax sp.,' -biawa (verb) 'to spear (sometiiing) with 

die sharpened stem of a biawa plant' etc. For this reason, it 

seems impossible to treat the transformation of plant names 

into roots of verbs meaning 'to throw (that plant)' as a general 

rule throughout the full range of plant terms, especially since 

die construction's use for cultivated fruits seems so central to 

its meaning, and since die transformation does not occur for 

most nouns other tiian plant names. More likely, we may 

consider the terms for 'banana,' 'mango,' 'citrus fruit' etc., to 

have the same forms as the roots of verbs (which are different 

lexemes) meaning 'to throw (the fruits of those plants).' For 

some Tobelo speakers these may be the only nouns that form 

verbs in this way. Some Tobelo, though, are simply more 

wtiling than otiiers to accept use of this transformation to 

spontaneously coin new lexemes having other plant-names as 

their roots. In the same way, some speakers of English may find 

it more acceptable tiian others to form verbs from "container" 

nouns like "tube" or "jar" on the analogy of verbs like "(to) 

can," "(to) bag" or "(to) bottle." 

The other ways in which noun lexemes in the domain of 

Tobelo FLORAL FORMS may have the same form as verbs 

(the only other inflectional class which nouns might become) 

are clearly very specific to particular plants or smaU sets of 

plants, and clearly best handled as separate lexemes. An 

example already mentioned (2.2) would be die reduplication of 

some animal and plant names to form die root of die passive 

verb meaning 'to have die disease with die characteristics of 

(that animal or plant).' 

3.1.2 The Lexemic Status of Homonymous and Polysemous 

Terms 

Any particular form (even one that is monomorphemic) may 

also be the form of a different lexeme (e.g., "bank of a river" 

and "die bank on Main Street"). It is essential to separate out 

die different homonymous or polysemous "meanings," which 

me forms in a semantic domain may have, tiiough examples 

below wdl Ulustrate that (fortunately!) it is usually not 

necessary to decide how many lexemes can be labeled by a 

particular form occurring in a domain to adequately describe 

that domain. 

Two lexemes may be said to be homonymous if aU their 

forms are the same, but they have unrelated meanings. Hunn 

(1977:36), in describing Tzeltal folk zoology, instead considers 

different etymologies to be die determining factor. But die 

etymology of words has little to do witii whether or not they 

should be considered homonyms in a structural description of 

the language as it is currendy spoken. In some cases (e.g., die 

two senses of "found" in die example above) homonymy is 

historically a result of different etymologies, but in otiier cases 

(e.g., a part in a play vs. the part in one's hair; tack, 'insert a 

smaU nati into, and tack, 'sad in a zig-zag fashion') die two 

words derived historicaUy from die same root must neverdieless be treated as different lexemes in a description of modern 

English. In any case, in languages such as Tobelo (or Tzeltal) 

without a long written historical tradition or extensive 

comparative data, it is at present difficult to recognize or prove 

etymological relationships. 

Polysemy, on the other hand, refers to related meanings of 

die same lexeme, as in die example of container words "glass," 

"bowl," etc., which also mean 'glassful (of some substance),' 

'bowlful,' etc. (as in the sentence "I already drank tiiree 

glasses"). 

There wiU clearly be some variation among those who 

describe a language (in this case, dictionary writers) about 
26 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

whether the meanings of words having the same form are 

sufficiendy dissimilar so that the words may be considered 

different lexemes, or sufficiendy related tiiat they may be 

considered particular related senses of a single polysemous 

lexeme. For example, one might present evidence for or against 

considering die moutii of a river or basket, or the eye of a 

needle, so different from die mouth or eye of one's face that 

they should be different lexemes. Fortunately, tiiough, in die 

analysis of particular domains it is often unnecessary to 

distinguish how many lexemes can be realized by a form 

occurring in that domain (tiiough the problem must be taken up 

in a complete dictionary). For example, in describing die 

partonomy of die face, die lexemic statuses of moutii in "mouth 

of a river" and of eye in "eye of a needle" need not be 

considered, since tiiey are irrelevant to the senses of "mouth" 

and "eye," which occur in die domain of investigation. 

In many cases, though, the polysemy of such terms must be 

sorted out to avoid confusion even in analyzing a single 

domain. In American English, for example, 'fruit' and 

'vegetable' seem to contrast as types of 'food' or 'prepared 

food': but some informants may refer to 'tomato' or 'cucumber' as 'fruits' and 'vegetables,' because in a partonymy of die 

plant botii are in fact 'fruits' (not 'stems,' 'leaves,' etc.),but in 

a taxonomy of 'foods' tiiey are 'vegetables' (see 4.3 below). 

In such cases an important method of examining tiiese 

different meanings in their contexts involves noting the various 

contrast-sets that include die same form. Such cases of possible 

confusion due to polysemy of terms for types of FLORAL 

FORM proliferate in Tobelo witiiout bothering native speakers 

in the least. A few may serve as examples of the use of 

contrast-sets to sort out polysemous meanings. 

The three major or most inclusive named Tobelo groupings 

of FLORAL FORM are o gota 'tree,' o gumini 'vine' and o 

rurtibu 'herbaceous weed.' Each of tiiese terms involves such 

polysemy that die membership of the lower-level "basic" (B°) 

terms in these three major (B+1) classes can initially be quite 

confusing (n. = noun; vb. = verb): 

gota5 

(i)-gota 

n. 'woody tissue, wood' vs. kai 'bark,' 

ngomaha 'tiiroat (i.e., central stem 

tissue),' etc. 

gota1 

gota2 

gota3 

gota4 

n. 'tree' (including saplings) contrasts 

witii gumini! 'vine' and rurtibux 

'herbaceous weed' (excludes palms, 

cycads) 

n. 'large tree' (excluding undergrowth of 

saplings) vs. rurtibu^ 'weeds, uncultivated undergrowtii' and various cultivated plants 

n. 'lumber' (wood from a gotax 'tree' 

used for manufactures) contrasts witii 

other materials of manufacture, e.g., 

katu 'thatch,' paku 'nails,' etc. 

n. 'firewood' vs. rage-rage 'kindling 

wood' 

vb. 'to be woody, to have woody tissue' 

(from gota5) 

(ho-maa)-gota-gota vb. 'to gather firewood' (from gota^) 

gumini n. 'vine' vs. gotax 'tree' and rurtibux 

'herbaceous weed' 

gumini2 n. 'rope' 

Note: gumini n. is also often used as a substitution-word to 

avoid in-law names; it may be used for either o kahitela-tonaka 

'sweet potatoes' (Ipomoea batatas) or for o bidoho 'sirih' 

(Piper spp.). 

rurtibu, n. 'herbaceous weed' vs. gotavtiee and 

gumini1 'vine' (cf. H-dialect synonym momo 'herbaceous weed') 

rurtibu2 n. 'weed, uncultivated undergrowtii' (including 'tree' saplings, moss at die 

bases of small plants, vines growing 

among undergrowtii, etc.) vs. gota2 

and various cultivated plants. 

-rurtibu-^ vb. 'to be tiiick, dense (of hair, leaves, 

trees, undergrowtii, houses, etc.)' 

(The noun rurtibu in senses 1 and 2 

above probably derived from die 

abstract noun rurtibu 'tiiickness, density' from this verb in the B and D 

dialects, which do not use momo in 

die sense of rurtibu^ 

-rurtibu2 vb. 'to be fuU of undergrowth or weeds' 

(from rurtibu^ 

(Each verb above also may form one abstract noun tiiat is 

predictable from the verb and need not be considered.) 

As one might suspect from a glance at die definitions above, 

one can easUy find cases where die same object (or "token") 

may be designated by two or more of tiiese B1 terms. In its 

sense of 'firewood,' tree-like palm or cycad "trunks" may be 

caUed o gota^ yet palms and cycads are emphatically not in die 

'tree' (gotaj class. If die same palm "trunk" is to be used in any 

manufacture, however (such as making the floorings or walls of 

houses, gutter pipes, drum bases, etc.) it wUl not be called 

"gota" in that context—that is, it wiU be stricdy distinguished 

from gota3 (here translated 'lumber' to emphasize its connection with manufacture, though in fact die product may be quite 

smaU), even tiiough that palm may be said to -gota (vb.) 'be 

woody,' or to have gota5 'woody tissue.' 

Similarly, any young sapling may be called o rurtibu2 in tiiis 

word's sense of 'weed, uncultivated undergrowtii.' Thus one 

often hears of a particular small sapling, o rurtibu nenanga o 
NUMBER 34 27 

gota 'this weed (rurtibu^ is a tree (gotaxY\ or, of die same 

smaU sapling, nenanga o rurubuua, o gota ho 'tiiis is not a 

herbaceous weed (rurtibu^it is a tree (gotaj.' If our informant 

were to tiien turn to his task of clearing forest or undergrowtii, 

one might hear him say of the same steadfast sapling nenanga 

ma rurubu toparihohi, botino daha ma gota totoyanga 'Now 

I'll just cut down tiiis undergrowth [rurubu2, i.e., the sapling], 

later I'll cut down the trees (gota^S Needless to say, without 

considering die polysemy of these terms (especially if the 

sapling specimen were only produced in a "controlled" 

interview context), one might be puzzled at how a particular 

specimen could seem to be placed in both die "herbaceous 

weed" and die "tree" classes in one sentence, tiien said to be in 

die "tree" but not in die "herbaceous weed" class in die next 

sentence, then in the third breath apparently called a "herbaceous weed" again, and distinguished from surrounding 

"trees." But by considering die polysemy of die terms, and 

recognizing die contrast-sets likely to be used in particular 

situations, aU three sentences make good sense. 

In die example above, relatedness of meaning is the basis for 

considering tiiese words polysemous rather than homonymous. 

As Lyons (1977:522) points out, there are several problems in 

the application of this criterion. 

The first of these is that relatedness of meaning appears to be a matter of degree; 

and it has yet to be demonstrated, and may in fact not be demonstrable, that the 

intuitions of native speakers coincide sufficiendy for it to be worthwhile 

looking for some universally applicable and clear-cut distinction between 

polysemy and homonymy in the language-system. It has often been pointed out 

that some native speakers will claim to see a connexion between an ear of com 

and die part of die body that is denoted by the noun 'ear,' whereas odier native 

speakers will deny that any such connexion exists. 

Lyons notes that one might solve die problem either by 

considering each sense a different lexeme (giving far more 

lexical entries than usual, and forcing decisions about whetiier 

one or more lexemes constitute the verbs in sentences like "She 

plays chess," "He plays Hamlet" etc.), or by simply considering any such forms that have the same inflectional class to be 

forms of a single lexeme. Finally (as is usually done), one can 

compromise between tiiese extremes of maximizing for 

homonymy and maximizing for polysemy by weighing botii 

die demands of parsimony and die demands of convenience for 

die dictionary's users. 

Thus whUe admitting tiiat the theoretical basis for distinguishing polysemy from homonymy (and thus for distinguishing lexemes) is problematic, die distinction should be made 

(insofar as it is useful or convenient) on die basis of relatedness 

of meaning. On this basis, the nouns gota, gumini, and rurtibu 

above are clearly polysemous. Their senses as defined above 

are distinguishable not only on the basis of native speaker's 

intuition (a difficult-to-use criterion that may vary with the 

informant), but also on the basis of die fact that the same forms 

occur in different contrast-sets (cf. 4.4). Each contrast-set 

reflects die use of the term (and others of the set) in a particular 

kind of cultural context 

The same phenomenon of a single term belonging in more 

tiian one contrast set occurs in the 'animal' domain too, as in 

die 'fish' class. In a taxonomy of Mode 'cooked fish, meat, or 

"vegetables" eaten along witii the starch staple at a meal,' o 

nawoko 'fish' contrasts with o ngafi 'anchovies,' as well as o 

ode 'pork,' o mainjanga 'deer,' etc. But in die taxonomy of 

'animal' types, o ngafi 'anchovy' is a type of o nawoko 'fish,' 

locaUy contrasting with over 150 other B° classes (see 

Appendix 2.3). Thus at mealtime one might say mia nawoko 

koiwa, ka o ngafi ho 'we have no fish,only anchovies'; but this 

could never be said (except as a joke) by people returning after 

catching anchovies with lift-nets, for example, at sea. 

One interesting type of meaning "transfer" among the senses 

of one lexeme, or among identical forms of two or more 

lexemes tiiat can be realized by identical forms, involves 

metonymy. Words are metonymously related when "we use 

[one] word not in its established sense but to name a category 

in contextual association with the category usually named by 

the word" (Waldron, 1967:186), such as "blood" to mean 'kin 

ties,' or "house" to mean 'family.' 

Examples of metonymous transfer of meaning include die 

above examples of plant names used as verbs (e.g., tiba n. 

Schiztostachyum 'bamboo' -tiba vb. 'cook inside tiba bamboo'). 

A quite different example of two metonymous nouns (here 

considered homonyms) involves o raix (a kind of 'tree') and o 

rai2 (a kind of edible 'mushroom,' which in its short season is 

found growing only on die lower parts of die raix 'tree') (see 

Appendix 1). There is also o ginenex (a type of 'owl') 

(uncollected) and o ginene2 (a ghost tiiat only takes the form of 

die ginene owl). Of course, at any particular sighting one never 

knows whether he is seeing o ginenex or o ginene2\ 

Many of the cases of metonymy that might cause confusion 

in determining classificatory relationships involve die identification of the whole plant with the most culturaUy significant 

part or product of the plant Thus the tree called o fenga 

(Alangium griffithii (Clark) Harms) was often pointed out to me 

as o fenga ma dutu 'genuine fenga.' Usually tiiis construction 

would imply a kind of markedness (see below), where *fenga 

might be die superclass, having die subclasses o fenga (ma 

dutu) '(genuine) fenga' contrasting with some other "marked" 

or individually named subclass. In fact tiiey were pointing out 

the unmarked or 'genuine' fenga, but not in a taxonomy of 

'trees,' because fengax (die kind of 'tree') is distinct from 

fenga2 'shoulder straps for carrying basket' It is in die latter 

sense offenga2 tiiat tiiere are many subtypes based on die 'tree' 

or 'vine' used to make mis strap. Of these, die unmarked (and 

locaUy considered best) is die inner bark of die fengax 'tree' 

(this part is also called thefenga3 'inner bark' of the tree). Thus 

occasionaUy even die tree type itself (as weU as die strap made 

from this tree) may be called o fenga2 ma dutu 'genuine 

carrying-basket strap.' 

Ignoring this kind of polysemy or homonymy brought about 

by a part-whole metonymic transfer may sometimes lead to 
28 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

positing named intermediate classes between die basic B° and 

major plant group B1 terms (though I have found no such 

intermediate classes in Tobelo). For example, o hilox designates a class of 'dammar frees' (Agathis spp.), and hilo2 denotes 

the 'dammar' (resin from the dammar tree). (Since dammar was 

formerly used in the manufacture of long-burning torches, the 

word o hilo3 also has come to mean 'lantern,' including 

kerosene pressure-lanterns.) In the taxonomy of 'trees,' o hilox 

has two subclasses, o iru and o molefaono (see Appendix 1). 

But in the taxonomy of o hilo2 'dammar (resin),' which is 

subdivided on the basis of the kind of 'tree' from which the 

dammar is tapped, several otiier 'trees' that are not types of o 

hilox 'dammar tree' are referred to in die same o X o Y 

construction used, for example, in o hiloxo iru 'die iru dammar 

(tree).' The use of that construction, which uses the tree names 

to name the types of 'dammar (resin),' might mistakenly be 

considered evidence for including tiiose trees in the hilox class. 

In fact they refer to types of dammar resin only, not to types of 

'tree.' 

There are many otiier such cases, including die rattan known 

as riwotox, which is different from riwoto2 'frame for a flat or 

bowl-shaped open basket' This sense of riwoto2 apparendy 

derives from die preferred use of riwotox for the frames of 

winnowing baskets, though the word is used for frames of 

basketry sieves, which are seldom if ever made from o riwotox. 

Thus one might hear ma riwoto nenanga o iwi 'this basket 

frame (riwoto^ is (i.e., is made of) iwi (anotiier kind of rattan, 

Calamus sp.)'; tiiis is certainly not evidence tiiat iwi is in die 

riwotox class! 

In conclusion, more than one lexeme can be realized by die 

same form. Though it is sometimes difficult to distinguish 

polysemy (related meanings of a single lexeme) from homonymy (unrelated meanings of more tiian one lexeme where aU 

forms of each lexeme are the same), the criterion of distinction 

should be relatedness of meaning. The separation of homonymous lexemes from polysemous senses of the same lexeme is 

an important (though problematic) task of the lexicographer. 

Neverthelesss, it is (fortunately) seldom necessary when 

analyzing a particular domain to distinguish the lexemic status 

of every possible "meaning" of a form that occurs in that 

domain, as long die analyst separates out all tiiose "meanings," 

which, if conflated, might confound die analysis. A useful way 

to separate such senses of terms is to examine the various 

contrast-sets in which they occur in natural contexts. In many 

cases (including examples reviewed above), failure to distinguish the polysemous or homonymous meanings of terms may 

lead to misinterpretation of classificatory relationships. 

3.1.3 Recognizing Lexemes That Have the Same Form as 

Non-lexemic Expressions 

Having waded through the problems of distinguishing 

multiple senses of die homonymous or polysemous lexemes, 

let us now turn to otiier difficulties tiiat arise when we try to 

identify lexemes, in tiiose cases where the formation of the 

word or phrasal lexeme paraUels in morphological and 

syntactic structure die formation of "expressions." Berlin et al. 

(1974:51) caU tiiis the problem of recognizing "descriptive 

phrases." In English, stress is often considered indicative of 

lexemes in such cases, as in Bloomfield's well-known example 

black bird (an expression, 'bird tiiat is black') vs. blackbird (a 

lexeme). Modification of a lexeme's attributive is also 

restricted, thus "the word black in die phrase black bird can be 

modified by very (very black birds), but not so die compoundmember black in blackbirds'- (Bloomfield, 1933:232). The 

former criterion only distinguishes compound words, but die 

latter criterion also distinguishes lexemic phrases. Thus one 

may not say *very black market, *very Black Sea, etc., even 

tiiough the stress in die lexemic phrases black market Black 

Sea does not follow die blackbird stress of compound words 

(Marchand, 1960:11-20). 

Nevertiieless, though a few questionable potential lexemes 

would remain uncertain, most lexemes can be identified by 

morphological or syntactic criteria in English, such as 

compound-word stress (blackbird), unacceptable phrasal syntax (easy-going, lack-luster), or unacceptable modification of 

attributives (*very black market). 

It is by no means certain, however, that such indicators wtil 

be found in every language, and considering die long, faltering 

history of attempts by native-speaker linguists to find diem in 

English and German (Marchand, 1960:11-20), and the 

continuing debates on such criteria in these well-studied 

languages, ethnographers may be forgiven for fading to find 

diem in otiier languages. Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven 

(1974:51) admit that they "have not been ingenious enough to 

discover simple, nonarbitrary linguistic criteria by which such 

expressions may be distinguished"; tiius tiiey posit the lexemic 

status of such terms partly based on "die reliability and stability 

of a particular linguistic designation over time and across 

informants," asserting tiiat "descriptive phrases are considerably less stable." 

Among die Tobelo such "naming responses" do seem more 

reliable in the case of lexemes as determined by otiier 

tests—tiiough many of the attributive, non-lexemic phrases 

might be considered reliable too. A plant-type said to have a 

name like "die red X" or "die X," for example, could be called 

either "the red X" or "die X" whetiier or not the term "red X" 

were lexemic (so long as this plant is in fact red in color). 

Non-lexemic phrases may also appear to be "stable" and 

lexemic when tiiey are commonly used to disambiguate terms, 

such as tiiose associated with a marked/unmarked distinction 

(Greenberg, 1966). For example, totaleox 'bird' may be 

distinguished from totaleo2 'chicken' by phrases such as o 

totaleo ihohoho 'die (bird) which flies' vs. o totaleo hotofo-tofo 

'the (chicken) which one feeds'; or alternatively, o totaleo o 

fonganika 'die jungle (bird)' vs. o totaleo hopopaliara 'die 

(chicken) which we tend,' and otiiers. Suppose we try one 

common test for lexemic status, tiiat is, changing "the state or 
NUMBER 34 29 

characteristics of the referent to require a change in the 

attributive" (Berlin et al., 1974:51). In this test one asks 

whether "blackbirds" and "white oaks," for example, would 

still be "blackbirds" and "white oaks" if tiiey were painted red. 

So, we may conclude tiiat the words or phrases might be 

lexemic. Tobelo may similarly be asked about descriptive 

phrases used to disambiguate "totaleo." If, for example, a 

(chicken) flies or lives untended in die jungle, is it still a 

'(chicken) we feed' or '(chicken) we tend'? They sometimes 

answer yes—though both expressions are not lexemic— 

because they are trying to make us understand that they are 

distinguishing two classes of animal, rather than just distinguishing "the class of aU birds that can fly" from "the class of 

all birds which we feed." Otiiers may try to be more helpful or 

explanatory, saying, "WeU, it lives untended in the jungle but 

it's just it, the (chicken/bird), but we don't tend it anymore; we 

would tend it but it..." and so on. They are trying to make die 

etiinographer understand tiiat they are distinguishing two 

classes of animal (birds and chickens), which botii happen to be 

labeled by die same form totaleo in their language. The phrases 

are not lexemic, but neither do tiiey just distinguish two logical 

sets, 'the set of aU birds that regularly fly' from 'the set of aU 

birds which we feed.' 

In otiier cases where similar markedness occurs, the 

non-lexemic descriptive phrase to disambiguate die lower-level 

unmarked form is almost "implied" by die marked form. Thus 

tf the marked one of two subclasses is referred to as "die jungle 

X," die unmarked subclass "X^' witii which it contrasts may 

reliably be disambiguated from die higher-level "Xx" using an 

attributive which is die local "opposite" of 'jungle' (such as 

'shore'). 

It might seem tiiat since tiiese "opposite" characteristics are 

usually predictable, tiiere is no reason to distinguish predictable 

and reliable expressions from lexemic (tiiough unmarked) 

terms. Yet any analysis mat fails to distinguish such "predictable and reliable" expressions from truly lexemic terms implies 

mat some unified definition of those expressions could be 

found. In fact the only common defining feature such 

expressions may have when tiiey are applied to disambiguate so 

many unmarked classes is that they are not the attributive 

locally considered tiiat expression's "opposite." Thus informants may say that a plant type "X" is subdivided into "the red 

X" and "the white X." On die one hand, "red" might here be an 

attributive because some part of die plant or animal so 

designated is in fact reddish in color. But it might also be given 

as an attributive to disambiguate a polysemous, unmarked "X" 

term, simply because die otiier subclass with which "red X" 

contrasts is called "white X" (perhaps because of exceptionally 

light coloration of plants in tiiat subclass), and "red" is locaUy 

die most likely opposite of "white." The alternative interpretations are shown in die diagram in die next column. 

If diagram (B) iUustrates the relationship of these classes, it 

is very likely that the unmarked X2 wiU 'reliably' be 

disambiguated by the "opposite" of 'white'—which, in Tobelo 

plant nomenclature, is 'red.' (Exceptions occur in classes such 

as those labeled o bangata and o gurabati, where parts of die 

plants designated clearly have anotiier color strongly different 

from 'white'; thus 'black' vs. 'white' bangata and 'white' vs. 

'green' gurabati; see Appendix 1.1). 

X -X 

red X white X -x2 white X 

(A) (B) 

A similar pattern occurs in die classification and naming of 

Tobelo plants as 'male' and 'female.' Eitiier the 'male' or die 

'female' class may be unmarked, though in some cases no 

marked/unmarked distinction occurs. Several plant characteristics tiiat emphasize the "strength" of the plant seem generaUy to 

be considered properties of 'male' forms (including thorniness, 

hirsuteness of the leaves, and usefulness in houru 'magic/ 

medicine,' as well as elongation or pointedness of leaves, 

redness of the medicinaUy important growtii-point, and 

uprightness of the stem). Other characteristics seem archetypally 'female' (especiaUy fruit-bearing, also other productive 

uses as food and twine, roundedness and smoothness of leaves, 

"whiteness" of (i.e., paleness of the greenish) growth-point, and 

non-uprightness of die stem). 

In some groups such as grasses and sedges (die smaller 

'herbaceous weeds'), die "usual" or unmarked subclass is die 

female one, die more common or difficult-to-find of die two is 

male (tiiough information on the 'male' forms is often esoteric 

in tiiese cases), as tiiough these 'herbaceous weeds' should be 

female, and die unusual or occasional species that form die 

marked subclasses wUl be considered—by tiiose famUiar with 

such esoteric tilings—to be male, and presumably of medicinal 

value. 

Some descriptive definition of both the color terms and die 

term for 'male' and 'female' may eventually be found (such 

tiiat aU these terms may be considered to be applied to objects 

because tiiose objects fit die criteria of die terms' definitions, 

not just because tiiey are convenient "opposite" of another 

term). For this reason, and because terms optionally used to 

disambiguate unmarked classes can usefully be included in a 

description of those classes, all these terms are treated as 

lexemic here. 

Berlin et al. (1974:50) also offer some morphological and 

syntactic tests for the lexemic status of some Tzeltal 'plant' 

names, specifically the distribution of possessive pronoun 

affixes and die shortening of attributive expressions in that 

language. Hunn's (1977) analysis of Tzeltal folk zoology, by 

contrast makes virtuaUy no attempt to distinguish lexemes on 

a linguistic or even semantic basis, perhaps due to unfamiliarity 
30 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

with the Tzeltal language. He states, for example (1977:26), 

that the distribution of possessive affixes as an indicator of 

lexemes is "of limited use in folk zoology, since die possession 

of wdd animals is a semantic absurdity." This assertion is 

surprising since the test had been applied to wild plants. 

Instead, Hunn (1977:26-27) most heavUy relies on anotiier 

test of lexemic status. 

A technique not discussed by Berlin and his colleagues involves the assumption 

dial most taxa are characterized by multiple criteria — Descriptive phrases, on 

the odier hand, refer to categories defined more simply, i.e., by the addition of 

die features implied by the parts of the phrase. Thus a black bird is a bird that 

is black. Nothing more is implied. However, the term blackbird, for me at least, 

implies a bird that is typically black, tiiough not necessarily so, with a 

characteristic range of shape and size, distinctive vocalizations, distinctive 

habits, and perhaps other characteristics of which I am not aware. 

One can test this factor in ambiguous cases by enquiring about attributes other 

than those implied by the informant's naming response. 

Thus, rather than ask if a 'yellow butterfly' dyed red would 

be a 'red yeUow butterfly,' Hunn inquires about characteristics 

of the butterfly odier tiian yellowness, on die assumption that a 

natural subclass of animals wUl be defined by many features. 

But die additional assumption seems to be that all die features 

wUl be at die tip of the informant's tongue, though in fact only 

the "yellowness" may come to mind (as in English, not every 

Californian can state die defining features of a gray squirrel 

other than grayness). 

Hunn's predominant means of testing whether a designated 

subclass of animals is defined by many features (and is tiius a 

"natural" grouping labeled by a "lexeme") is to determine 

whetiier the subclass corresponds to a recognized biological 

taxon in our Linnaean classificatory system. Hunn's fatiure to 

use linguistic or semantic tests to try to distinguish lexemes 

from non-lexemic "expressions" has the effect of guaranteeing 

that data wUl be pressed into die service of his conclusions. 

Thus, since die "yeUow butterfly" term fits no biological taxon, 

it is considered a "deductive category" ratiier tiian a "name" 

(i.e., a label for a "taxon" which, as Hunn defines it, should be 

"inductively" defined). But when similar attribute + head 

constructions label scientificaUy recognized taxa, as in die 

Tzeltal terms for types of 'robin' ('red robin,' 'yellow robin,' 

etc.), which are said to correspond to recognized species of die 

genus Turdus, Hunn considers them "names" (i.e., lexemes). If 

we define types of linguistic signs in terms of die types of 

objects tiiey denote, it is useless to then study die relationship 

between die types of signs and die types of objects, since die 

relationship has been defined by fiat Thus Hunn's conclusion 

tiiat names for folk taxa also generally label scientificaUy 

recognized biological taxa, insofar as tiiis conclusion refers to 

"names" ("lexemes") as he distinguishes them by this method, 

is as vacuously as it is obviously true. 

3.1.4 Conclusion: The Identification of Lexemes 

In summary, lexemes are here considered die minimal 

entries needed in an adequate dictionary of a language, and 

must be distinguished from the "indefinitely many complex 

expressions... whose meaning is determined by die meaning of 

tiieir component lexemes and die productive grammatical rules 

of the language" (Lyons, 1977:24). Whde recognizing that a 

dictionary could arrive at an adequate representation of a 

language by maximizing polysemy or by maximizing homonymy, the fact that either a polysemous lexical entry or a set of 

homonymous lexical entries wUl always designate more tiian 

one class of objects implies that definition of each of those 

classes should be entered in an adequate dictionary. Exceptions 

occur (1) when extension of the designatum from one class of 

objects to anotiier is completely predictable for all classes of 

objects designated by a class of terms (in which case one could 

more parsimoniously write a general rule for the class of terms 

than a separate lexical entry for each extended sense of every 

term); and (2) when the extension from one class of objects to 

another might be considered spontaneously metaphorical, and 

presumably die product of some otiier complex rules about 

possible metaphoric formation (one could hardly hope to list all 

such utterances). While tiiese special problems of polysemy 

arise for lexemes labeled by die same form, the problems are 

often quite irrelevant to the analysis of particular contrast-sets, 

where only one sense of the form usually appears. 

The recognition of lexemes whose structure parallels tiiat of 

non-lexemic phrases or compounds may depend partly on 

morphological criteria (such as stress in English or possessive 

affixation in Tzeltal), and also on syntactic criteria such as the 

unacceptable phrasal syntax of die English compounds 

"easy-going" and "lack-luster," or die unacceptable modification of attributives (*very black market). Where no such criteria 

are avaUable, one may "change die state or characteristics of die 

referent... in such a way as to require a change in the 

attributive" (Berlin et al., 1974:51). Thus (to invent an extreme 

example) a baby 'great blue heron' dyed yeUow is at best a 

"small yeUow great blue heron"! Since such analyzable (3.2.2) 

lexemes usually have a limited number of ways most are 

constructed, one may, in practice, recognize whether phrases 

constructed in one of tiiese ways is lexemic by noting "die 

reliability and stability of a particular linguistic designation 

over time and across informants" (Berlin et al., 1974:51), but 

tiiis latter is a less-than-reliable general "rule of thumb," not a 

true test of lexemic status. As shown above, this rule of tiiumb 

is quite misleading when applied to die non-lexemic expressions tiiat are regularly used to disambiguate polysemous (e.g., 

unmarked) terms. 

3.2 Types of Lexemes 

In this section, a typology of lexemes based on tiieir 

morphosyntactic structure is presented. This typology is 

compared witii those offered by Conklin (1962) and Berlin, 

Breedlove.and Raven (1974), botii of which involve consideration of semantic relations of the classes designated to odier 

classes, as well as morphosyntactic structure of die lexemes. 
NUMBER 34 31 

Reasons for not considering semantic relations among classes 

in die typology proposed wiU be enumerated. Finally, some of 

die non-lexemic ways of disambiguating polysemous Tobelo 

terms wiU be reviewed. 

3.2.1 Words and Phrasal Lexemes 

Lexemes may be immediately subdivided into two types: 

words (word lexemes) and phrases (phrasal lexemes), each 

subdivided into odier types based on morphologicaUy and 

syntactically acceptable ways to form compound words or 

phrases (see diagram below). This immediately raises die 

question of how one recognizes word boundaries in Tobelo. 

Almost all Tobelo words are eitiier nouns or verbs. The former 

are recognized by a noun marker (o or ma)', die latter have 

minimally eitiier a passive prefix or one prefix from eitiier of 

two sets of nine subject prefixes (most verb roots can take both 

sets of subject prefixes as weU as many more affixes in this 

highly synthetic language). 

When Tobelo who have learned to write Indonesian turn to 

writing Tobelo, tiiey, themselves, like Dutch translators of 

Bible stories (Nederlandsch Bijbelgenootschap, 1905; G. EUen, 

1933) have great difficulty consistendy separating die chain of 

spoken morphs into written words. Often (perhaps on die 

analogy of Indonesian subject pronouns?) die subject prefixes 

(not other prefixes) are written as separate words, except when 

tiiey are elided before some vowels. The o and ma nounmarkers are very often written as prefixes (if this transcription 

is accepted, tiiey would be die only prefixes tiiat did not elide 

like die otiiers). 

In general, we can consider aU root words plus verb affixes 

to be single words (verbs). We can also consider tiiat all 

particles that (1) can elide eitiier with the verb or witii an affix 

that elides witii the verb, or (2) can come between two such 

eliding particles or between such a particle and die verb root 

are affixes (ratiier than separate words) with respect to the word 

boundaries of the verb. As described more fuUy elsewhere 

(Taylor, 1984a), die locative pronouns such as -ika 'in a yonder 

direction' and -oko 'in a seaward direction' are here considered 

suffixes witii respect to the word boundaries of die verb. 

In general we may also consider tiiat a noun is the unit that 

takes a noun marker (o or ma) or one of the possessive 

pronouns. Nouns can then be consistently written as words. 

Noun phrases of more tiian a single noun can be recognized 

because (unlike compound words) tiiey have complete verbs, 

participials, locative and otiier participials or other nouns (with 

their own noun-markers) in diem. Thus constructions like o 

wakomumu (< wako 'intertwine [vb.]' + mumu 'leaf axis [of 

palm leaf]') 'hand-held lift trap for small fish made of 

palm-leaf axes' will be considered a compound noun (because 

mumu has no separate noun-marker and wako is incomplete 

because it has no verb prefix). Compare die phrase o peda ma 

hoka ma mumu (X sago-palm [poss.] leaf [poss.] leaf-axis) 'die 

leaf-axis of die leaf of die sago palm.' This must be considered 

a phrase, not a compound word, because tiiere are separate 

possessives or noun-markers for each noun in the phrase. Here 

again, the paradigm of locative morphs (-ika 'in a yonder 

direction,' -oko 'in a seaward direction,' etc.) may attach to die 

noun or noun phrase. When tiiey do so, however, die locatives 

must be considered a separate paradigm of enclitics (not 

suffixes) attached to die word (o tau-ika 'to die house') or 

phrase (o tau ma ago-agom-ika 'to die big house') (see Taylor, 

Lexeme 

Word lexeme Phrasal lexeme 

i 

Simple 

(word) 

Analyzable 

(word) 

Endocentric 

(Phrasal lexeme) 

Complex 

(word) 

Compound 

(word) 

Endocentric 

(compound) 

Exocentric 

(compound) 

Exocentric 

(Phrasal lexeme) 
32 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

1984a, for further explanation and examples). 

This metiiod of separating (noun) words from phrases wUl 

adequately delimit word boundaries for all but a residual class 

of nouns in the language. As it happens, though, that residual 

class involves die most common type of compound construction in the domain of 'BIOTIC FORMS'—and, though it 

commonly occurs in other domains, seems nowhere else to be 

so frequently selected. Like die last exaAple above, it involves 

noun + possessive pronoun + noun constructions. Where these 

are lexemic, they might either be considered compound words 

or phrases. This construction is commonly used for place 

names and names for artifacts, as well as plants and animals. 

o ingiri ma gegehe 

o ngo bao ami 

bahuku ma otini 

o dodiha ma 

kobongo 

(X 'tooth' [poss.] 'scrubber') 'tootiiscrubber' Leucosyke capitellata 

(Poir) Wedd. 

(X [feminine proper name marker]'Bao [woman's name]' [poss.] 

'axe' [poss.] 'handle') 'Bao's axehandle' Euodia aromatica Bl. 

(X 'snake' [poss.] 'bones') 'snake's 

bones' Ipomoea quamiclit L. 

Where tiiey are lexemic, such names wtil here be considered 

compound words rather tiian phrases for die following reasons: 

1. Many of the elements making up the compounds with this 

kind of construction—especially in the area of animal and plant 

names—have lost their meaning, and are only preserved as 

compound-parts. Under such circumstances it seems difficult to 

consider diem independent words, ratiier than elements of a 

compound. 

2. Though no inflectional pattern can mark die word 

boundary of tiiese nouns, other analogous constructions of the 

type "possessor + possessive preposition + possessed object" 

are treated as single roots in die formation of verbs. Two 

examples from the set of terms for ripening fruit are 

Ax (phrase-like con- o kabingi ma iyoko (X goat [poss.] 

struction) feces) 'goat droppings' 

A2 (used as verb ma hohoko i-kabingi-ma-iyok-oka (the 

root) fruit X-goat-[poss]-feces-already) 

'the fruit (buds) are already die size 

of goat droppings' 

Bj (phrase-hke con- o hiba ma gogo (X '[green parrot] 

struction) Geoffroyus geoffroyi' [poss.] 'feathers') 'feathers of the parrot G. 

geoffroyi' 

B2 (used as verb ma hohoko i-hiba-ma-go go-oka (the 

root) fruit X-green.parrot-[poss.]-feathers-already) 'the fruit has already 

turned die color of die green parrot's feathers (i.e., almost ripe)' 

3. FinaUy, tiiese may be considered compounds ratiier than 

noun phrases because they may not be interpolated, nor may 

otiier morphs be inserted into diem. For this reason they can be 

distinguished from noun phrases witii similar construction. 

Whtie the previous two reasons for considering such constructions compounds only applied to possessive constructions, this 

applies to subordinate phrases and participials. Two of die very 

few examples of tiiese in Tobelo folk biological nomenclature 

are the following (lexemic) compound words. They may not be 

interpolated nor can morphs be inserted in diem. 

(1) o ngutuku ma gogurati (X root X which.is.yeUow) 

'yeUow-root' Fatoua pilosa Gaud. 

(2) o gaili ma doka-dokara (X worm X X-which.is.red) 

'red-work' (a type of 'rice') Oryza sativa L. var. 

Examples of noun phrases having similar construction (and 

which are also lexemic) are 

(3a) o hulahi ma doka-dokara 'red(-flowered) hulahi' Ocimum 

sanctum L. 

(3b) o hulahi ma gare-garehe 'white(-flowered) hulahi* 

Ocimum sanctum L. 

(4a) o digo ma beka 'female digo' Sida acuta Burm. f. 

(Malvaceae) 

(4b) o digo ma nauru 'male digo' Sida rhombifolia L. 

(Malvaceae) 

(4c) o digo ma gilaongo 'digo's servant' Pseudelephantopus 

spicatus (Aubl.) CF. Baker (Asteraceae) 

(5) o bangata o dotoika 'bangata (tree) found at capes' 

Plectromia sp. 

These noun phrases may aU undergo interpolation or insertion 

of other morphs (unlike the compound words in examples 1 and 

2),e.g.: 

(3') o HULAHI kanohioriki? Nenanga moi MA DOKADOKARA, dokaanga moi MA GARE-GAREHE 'Do 

you know (recognize) the hulahi (tree)? This is the red 

(one), the one over there is the white (one)' 

(Though not necessary to show here, this test of interpolation or 

insertion of morphs also wtil not contradict our previous 

hypotheses regarding word-boundaries of verbs and nouns.) 

In conclusion, Tobelo word boundaries can consistentiy be 

distinguished for verbs and nouns (and—though not shown 

here—for other words as well). Both word lexemes and phrasal 

lexemes can further be subdivided into types. 

3.2.2 Types of Word and Phrasal Lexemes 

We may first distinguish "simple" words (tiiose that cannot 

be analyzed into constituent parts—i.e., in which only die stem 

and no odier morph is present), from odier ("analyzable") 
NUMBER 34 33 

words. "Analyzable" words may be eitiier complex (i.e., 

derived from a single stem by die addition of a derivational 

affix or by systematicaUy modifying die stem in some way), or 

compound (combining two or more stems) (Lyons, 1977:521-

550). 

simple 

tight 

sing 

name 

release (vb.) 

complex 

tightiy 

sang 

naming 

release (n.) 

compound 

tight-rope 

sing-along 

nickname 

hair-release 

The example 'release' above (acceptable tf we consider tiiat 

'release' in modern English is no longer analyzable into die 

etymologicaUy important morphs 're' + 'lease') indicates tiiat 

"simple" here is stricdy different from "unsegmentable" (cf. 

Conklin, 1962:122 ), because (1) "frozen" segments, which are 

no longer meaningful but which are etymologicaUy recognizeable, are considered part of die stem (cf. also Marchand, 

1960); and (2) words derived by die addition of a zero-morph 

("zero-derivation") are complex, though homonymous witii die 

simple stem from which they were derived. According to Lyons 

(1977:523), nouns like 'release' and 'attempt' can be considered derived from the verbs 'release' and 'attempt' by the 

suffixation of a zero-morph, because 

... they belong to die same subclass of nouns as 'extension,' 'justification,' 

'arrangement,* etc., which are clearly deverbal and derived by suffixation: 

deverbal nominalization is characteristically a matter of suffixation in 

English |TJtis usually, though not always, clear which of die pair of lexemes 

related by [zero-derivation] is simple and which is complex in terms of the 

general patterns of derivation manifest in the language. 

3.2.2.1 Simple Words, Including Foreign Compound Borrowings 

Since simple words (by definition) are not buUt up from 

simpler forms, tiiere are no "types" of simple word-formation 

as tiiere are for complex or compound words. Nevertheless, 

tiiere are foreign compound words tiiat have been borrowed 

from other languages and may be treated as simple words in a 

typology of Tobelo word formation. The degree to which these 

original compounds are recognized as of compound origin may 

vary. Examples include 

o ate-jawa (< Ternatese compound hate 'tree' + jawa 'Java, 

Javanese'; 'Javanese tree') 

o baru-bongana (< baru '[a tree, Hibiscus tiliaceusY + 

bongana, said to be from Tabaru 'jungle') 'jungle 

baru' (N.B.: not in the baru class in Tbl) 

o pala-patani (< Indonesian pala 'nutmeg (Myristica frangrans)' + patani 'Patani district (probably Patani, 

Halmahera [?]),' 'Patani nutmeg' 

We can clearly consider die first example a simple word, 

because the original Ternatese hate jawa has been modified to 

ate-jawa, and die foreign component ate- has no Tbl cognate. 

The second example is more problematic, because bongana is 

locaUy recognizable as 'jungle' (cf. Tbl H: o hongana, B and D: 

o fongana). The tiiird can scarcely be caUed a simple word, 

because die Indonesian head pala is now a synonymn (o pala) 

for die original Tbl o gohora 'nutmeg.' Such problems in die 

"degree of foreignness" of foreign compounds are common in 

typologies of English word-formation also (Marchand, 1960: 

6-8). 

A similar area of uncertainty involves reduplicated words, 

which morphologically seem like complex ratiier than simple 

words. But some probably are borrowed into Tbl as reduplicated forms. For example, Tbl: o efi-efi 'Avicennia sp. (a 

mangrove tree)' might presumably be a reduplicated Tbl noun 

or verb *efi or *-efi (such a word was unfamiliar to Tbl 

informants); but more likely it is cognate witii the term api-api 

widely used tiirough Malaysia, Indonesia, and die Phdippines 

to designate members of this genus. The "original" term 

api-api reflects its preferred use as firewood (cf. Malay api 

'fire'). Such cases must be considered simple until proven 

otherwise, though in cases of word compounding involving a 

"possessor + possessive particle + possessed" construction, die 

compound structure is so clear that such words may be 

considered compounds even if die meaning of a compound-part 

is not locally known. 

Though we may Ulustrate "degree of foreignness" by 

informants' abtiity to recognize parts of words, we can not rely 

(at die descriptive level of dictionary-writing, at least) entirely 

on local recognition to determine types of word formation. 

Odierwise we would have to consider certain word-lexemes 

"simple" for some people and "complex" or "compound" for 

otiiers. Thus die grass caUed o aerani (see Appendix 1.1) was 

thought to be labeled by a simple term by my B- and D-dialect 

informants, tiiough in H dialect die word appears to be a noun 

from die verb -aerani 'to be strange, wonderful'; as such, it 

may be considered a complex word (Type 4 below, formed by 

zero-derivation). 

3.2.2.2 Types of Complex Words 

Complex words may be distinguished into several types, 

here illustrated witii examples: 

Complex, Type 1. Reduplication of die verb X (or its participial) 

to form die subordinate clause meaning 'which does X.' 

Examples: 

o maa-maata (< vb. -maata 'to be cold') 'which is cold' 

(several species, see Appendix 1.1) 

o bo-bobira (< vb. -bobira 'to have pimples' [cf. n. 

bobira 'pimple']) 'having pimples' Jussiaea suffruticosa L. 

o gare-garehe (< participial of reduplicated verb -arehe 
34 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

'to be white') 'which is white' Peperomia pellucida 

(L.) H.B.K. 

Complex, Type 2. Reduplication of noun X to mean 'rather like 

(an)X' 

Examples: 

o kaca-kacanga (< n. kacanga 'peanut' Arachis hypogaea L.) 'rather like a peanut[-plant] (Phaseolus 

group, cf. Appendix 1.1) 

o lobo-loboro (< n. loboro 'one-tentii gutider coin [of die 

Netiierlands East Indies]') 'ratiier like a one-tenth 

guilder coin' (refers to small size and coin-like shape 

of leaves) 

o pine-pine (< n. pine 'rice' Oryza sativa L.) 'rather like 

rice' Brachiaria paspaloides (Presl.) C.E. Hubb. 

Note that in a very few cases, however, the reduplicated and 

non-reduplicated forms of a noun are synonymous. For 

example, o do-dataiti is a synonym of die simple word o dataiti 

(see Appendix 1.1 for species determinations). 

Complex, Type 3. Agentive ("one-syllable") reduplication of 

verb X forming an agentive noun meaning "die tiling 

used to do X." (See Appendix 1.1 for species determination of examples below.) 

Examples: 

o ciciru (< vb. -ciru 'to scrape, gouge') 'scraper, gouger' 

(so-called because of leafs resemblance to coconutscraping tools) 

o gogiooko (< vb. -Idooko 'to be tired, sleepy') 

'sleep-inducer' (so caUed because die entire small 

plant is placed under die pUlow to induce sleep) 

o doddfo (< vb. -tdfo 'to feed') 'tiling used to feed' (i.e., 

a fire) (i.e., botii 'tree' and 'vine' doddfo are used to 

feed a fire to drive out ghosts) 

Complex, Type 4. Abstract noun formed from verb root X, 

meaning "X-ness." (Note tiiat the Tobelo abstract noun is 

often translated by die English adjective, tiius o ngohaka 

ma iteteke [literaUy: 'the chUd's smallness'] 'die small 

child'). 

Examples: 

o gurati (< vb. -kurati 'to be yeUow') 'yellowness' 

Curcuma longa L. ('ginger') 

o riidi (< vb. -riidi 'to be silent') 'silence' (see Appendix 

1.1) 

o aerani (< vb. -aerani 'to be wonderful, strange') 

'wonder, strangeness' (two forms, see Appendix 1.1) 

o biru (< vb. -bint 'to be blue') 'blueness' Indigofera 

tinctoria L. 

Complex, Type 5. Causative prefix (-fa") and verb root X 

meaning "to cause to do X" (Only two definite examples, 

both in die FLORAL FORM domain). 

Examples: 

o hitadi (< hi- ["causative" prefix]-!- -tadi 'slam down') 

'slam down' (so caUed because die banana fronds wUl 

drop from die stalk of tiiis variety if die stalk is 

slammed down on die ground) (a type of o bole 

'banana') 

o hijai-jai (< hi- ["causative" prefix] + reduplicated vb. 

-jai 'rush, hurry') 'rush, hurry' (a type of 'banana') 

(refers to fast growth and quick ripening of this 

banana) 

Complex, Type 6. Negative suffixation of verb or participial X 

meaning "(does) not X" 

Examples: 

o kokihua (< vb. -kokihi 'to have an inflorescence (said of 

banana plants)' (cf. n. kokihi 'banana inflorescence')+ 

-ua 'not') 'not having any inflorescence' ('horn 

plantain'—a type of o bole 'banana'). 

o ngoerua (< participial ngoere 'dried out (e.g., in tiie 

sun)' + -ua 'not') 'not dried out (in die sun)' (a type of 

'rice') (so called because this variety need not be 

sun-dried before storage). 

Note tiiat die first example above is most likely formed from a 

verb, not a noun. Though noun + -ua can be used in Tbl word 

formation (e.g., Nyawaua 'not a human' (name of an islet at 

0°53'N, 127°42/E)),this construction does not occur in any Tbl 

term for a BIOTIC FORM. 

3.2.2.3. Endocentric and Exocentric Compound Words and 

Phrasal Lexemes 

Though die definition of "endocentricity" and "exocentricity" for phrases may differ from that for compound words, it 

seems reasonable to use die same terms for this opposition in 

reference to words or phrases, because of the fact that in both 

types of construction, "endocentricity" implies tiiat one part is 

syntactically equivalent to the entire construction, while any 

such construction (word or phrase) that is not endocentric is 

termed "exocentric." Specifically, "a phrase is said to be 

endocentric if it is syntacticaUy equivalent to one of its 

immediate constituents" (Lyons, 1977:391). A compound 

word, simdarly, is endocentric if one stem of die compound (its 

"head") is syntactically equivalent to die entire compound. 

Phrases (and words) tiiat are not endocentric are exocentric by 

definition. 

Examples of endocentric phrases include "the white house," 

"the horse they both bet on," "walk slowly"; examples of 

syntactically endocentric compound words include "White 
NUMBER 34 35 

House," "race-horse," and "sidewalk." The heads of these 

compounds (House, horse, walk), tf substituted for the 

compounds in every sentence in which tiiey occur, wUl be 

syntactically acceptable. An exocentric phrase like "at his 

farm," on the other hand, has no such substitutable part; die 

phrase could instead be replaced by a locative adverb (e.g., 

"there"). 

One might also use semantic criteria to define endocentricity 

(Conklin, 1962; Nida, 1951). Thus whtie "stiverfish" is 

morphosyntacticaUy endocentric, it might be considered 

semantically exocentric, because a stiverfish is not a type of 

'fish.* One might object that this use of the term ignores the 

etymological meaning of the word "endocentricity" (which 

refers to a phenomenon "centered" or located within the 

compound), but tiiis would only be an objection to die use of 

the term, not to the distinction being made. 

A more serious difficulty witii the distinction, for which I do 

not use it here, involves its dependence on hyponymic 

(taxonomic) relations. Though applicable to many Tobelo 

compounds, tiiis distinction is difficult to apply to many otiiers, 

even in a domain consisting only of nouns constructed in a 

limited number of ways, such as the set of plant and animal 

names. 

In many cases, die semantic relationship of the class 

designated by a morphosyntacticaUy endocentric Tobelo 

compound to tiiat designated by its head is not clear. We would 

not want to consider halale ma ngutuku ('bad luck' + [poss.] + 

'root') 'bad luck's root' (Oxymitra sp.), so caUed because its 

root is used to ward off bad luck brought about by a personal 

misdeed, a "semantically endocentric" compound because die 

plant class designated is not a class of 'root' But what of 

buhuru ma houru (o buhuru 'sweUing in die lower stomach 

area' + [poss.] + 'medicine') buhuru's medicine' (a shelf 

fungus, not in die FLORAL FORM class), which is used as 

medicine for buhuru? Or aunu ma dodogumu ('blood' + [poss.] 

+ 'stopper') 'blood stopper' (Ageratum conyzoides L.), used to 

stop die flow of blood from a wound? These plants might be 

considered subclasses of a class of 'medicine' or stopper,' tiius 

"semanticaUy endocentric"; on die odier hand, it might be 

considered tiiat only part of the organism is used in tiiese cases 

also (as in o halale ma ngutuku above), so they should be 

semantically exocentric. 

Trying to decide such questions for the many compounds in 

die domain considered here can become a metaphysical chase 

after die "true natures" of die objects denoted, and seems to 

deny language's habit of always singling out specific aspects of 

things. Thus even if we call a plant die 'X-plant' this is, in a 

way, stiU as incomplete as the 'X-decorative-flower'—the 

latter fails to note many other parts of the plant; the former fails 

to note that the plant is also food, medicine, and other things, 

has certain characteristics, etc. 

Finally, it is difficult to include both semantic and 

morphosyntactic criteria of endo- and exocentricity in a more 

comprehensive classification of lexemic types. Some compounds can clearly be caUed "semanticaUy exocentric" but 

"morphosyntacticaUy endocentric," e.g.: 

o kuho ma haeke 'kus-kus's head' (type of 'banana') 

o totaleo ma uru 'chicken's beak' (type of 'banana') 

o karafe ma gumi 'rat's whiskers' Fimbristylis ovata (Burn, f.) 

Kern. 

o ngohaka ma iyo-iyoko 'baby's feces' Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) 

Kurz. 

(The first two examples refer to die shape of die banana fruit 

die tiiird (at Loleba) to the whisker-like pairs of opposite leaves 

on stems of this fern, die fourth is said to refer to die yeUowish 

color of die exuding sap of tiiis tree.) 

Other compounds are clearly botii "semanticaUy" and 

"morphosyntacticaUy" endocentric, such as die second of each 

pair in the examples below. 

o ngulu [simple] 

o kaho ma ngulu 'dog's ngulu1 

o bidoho [simple] 

o tokata ma bi- "ghost's sirih' 

doho 

Spondias pinnata 

(L.f)Kurz 

Spondias cf. dulcis 

Saoland ex Park, 

(several Piper spp.) 

'sirih' 

Piper caninum Bl. 

Botii tiiese examples designate classes of inedible fruits 

closely related to edible ones (cf. BurkhiU, 1935:1742, for 

Malay term sireh hantu 'ghost sireh' Piper caninum). (Though 

a voucher of o kaho ma ngulu has been tentatively identified as 

Spondias cf. dulcis, die fruits of plants so designated are not 

locaUy considered edible.) 

Finally, die following examples wUl iUustrate morphosyntacticaUy and "semantically" exocentric compounds. 

o ngoerua ('dried' + 'not') 'not dried' (a type of 'rice') 

o ngofawoe ('chtid' + 'many') '(having) many children' 

o kokihua ('have inflorescence' + 'not') '(having) no inflorescence' ('horn plantain') 

o lakodoto ('eye' + 'to be sharp') 'eye (is) sharp' 

(The first refers to a variety of rice said not to need drying in die 

sun before storage; the second refers to a tree tiiat generally has 

many sprouts ('chUdren') at die base, and by imitative magic is 

considered a cure for childless women; die tiiird refers to die 

'horn plantain'; informants consider it ldcely tiiat the fourth 

refers to a medicinal use of tiiis plant, though I did not discover 

the medicine involved). 

Note, however, tiiat it is impossible to have a morphosyntacticaUy exocentric but "semantically endocentric" Tobelo 

compound word, despite die fact tiiat the criteria for determin-
36 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

ing endocentricity are different. This follows, however, from 

die definition of a semantically endocentric compound as a 

compound some part of which designates a super-class of the 

class designated by die compound. Because morphosyntacticaUy exocentric but semantically endocentric compounds are 

precluded by tiiis definition, it follows tiiat aU morphosyntacticaUy exocentric compounds must be semantically exocentric as 

well by definition (i.e., exocentric is defined as "not endocentric"). It thus seems tautological to try to include botii criteria in 

a more comprehensive classification of compounds, a possibility displayed below. 

Compound word 

(MorphosyntacticaUy) 

Endocentric 

(MorphosyntacticaUy) 

Exocentric 

(Semantically) 

Endocentric 

(Semantically) 

Exocentric 

the modifier, but in some cases these have been reduced to 

compound words of tiiis type; thus the noun phrase o X o Y has 

been lexicalized as a compound o X-Y. For example, o lulewi 

o papua (Casuarina cf. equisetifolia) is a phrase sometimes 

reduced to die compound o lulewi-papua (which is tiien 

synonymous with the R_x term o papua). The conditions under 

which such non-lexemic phrases or die compound can be used 

to designate die same class (as in tiiis lulewi-papua example) 

wtil be considered below (5.1.3.3). 

Examples: 

o lulewi-papua (< n. lulewi 'Casuarina spp.' + o papua 

(here: 'C. cf. equisetifolia')) Casuarina cf. equisetifolia 

o hale-gumini (< n. hale '(a 'tree') Eugenia sp.' + gumini 

'vine') 'vine hale' (so caUed, presumably because of 

its resemblance to die hale 'tree,' tiiough not now 

considered in die hale class; tiius *o hale o gumini is 

not now considered acceptable) Derris trifoliata Lour. 

o bete-beloho (< n. bete 'Colocasia spp.' + beloho 'stake, 

pole') 'stake Colocasia' (Colocasia sp.) (alternatively: o beloho or o bete o beloho) 

Because of these problems with applying the notion of 

"semantic endocentricity," die term wtil no longer be used here. 

Thus "endocentric" and "exocentric," used alone, here only 

refer to morphosyntactic endo- or exocentricity of either 

compound words or phrases. 

Finally, it should be noted tiiat since all (but one) phrasal 

lexemes in the BIOTIC FORM domain consist of a noun + 

subordinate phrase, all tiiese phrasal lexemes are endocentric. 

Here as elsewhere, tiiough, the Tobelo seem to abhor a rule 

without an exception: of all terms for animals and plants, only 

one term, which is in die 'snake' (o dodiha) domain, is an 

exocentric phrasal lexeme: o gohi ilahi-lahiri (X egg xwhich.swaUows) 'which swaUows eggs'; tiiis term is a 

common synonym (at Loleba) for o ngohokumu (simple word 

lexeme); both terms designate only the single biological 

species Boiga irregularis. Non-lexemic exocentric phrases are 

often used to refer to plants whose names cannot be 

pronounced because of the in-law name taboo; this single 

exception may be a lexicalized phrase originaUy used for tiiat 

purpose. 

A few types of endocentric and exocentric compounds, and 

of endocentric phrases, can be distinguished on morphosyntactic grounds: 

Endocentric Compound, Type 1. Head noun + modifying noun 

Though this type of endocentric compound formation is very 

common in Indonesian (and apparently also in Ternatese), it is 

ratiier rare in Tobelo, except in foreign words. As a phrase, the 

head noun + modifying noun would keep the o noun-marker of 

Endocentric Compound, Type 2. Possessor (noun) + (possessive pronoun) + possessed (noun) 

By far die most common compound, tiiis type might be 

separated into two subtypes on purely morphosyntactic 

grounds, as follows: 

(A) (simple possessor + poss. + possessed) (most common 

subtype) 

Examples: 

o dodiha ma kobongo (X snake [poss.] bone) 'snake's 

bones' (Ipomaea quamiclit L.) 

o moholehe ma yaho (X maiden [poss.] calf) 'maiden's 

calf (of leg)' (a type of 'banana') 

o halale ma ngutuku (X bad.luck [poss.] root) 'bad luck's 

root' Oxymitra sp. 

o ngo beye ami sogo (X [feminine proper name marker] 

grandmodier [poss.] pubic.hair) 'Grandma's pubic 

hair' (a reference to die long, pure white "hairs" 

surrounding the seeds of tiiis 'vine') (Cynanchum sp. 

and otiiers, cf. Appendix 1.1) 

In some cases, die 'possessed noun' designates a superordinate class. 

o ode ma bidwa (X pig [poss.] 'Donax canniformis') 

'pig's biawa' (a type of biawa) 

o nyawa ma biawa (X human [poss.] biawa 'Donax 

canniformis') 'human's biawa' (a type of biawa) 
NUMBER 34 37 

o jara ma rurtibu (X horse [poss.] herbaceous.weed) 

'horse's herbaceous weed' Zoysia matrella (L.) Merr. 

var. pacifica (a type of rurtibu 'herbaceous weed') 

o kaho ma ngulu (X dog [poss.] (ngulu, unmarked: 

'Spondias pinnata (L.f) Kurz')) 'dog's ngulu (Spondias cf. dulcis Soland. ex Park.) 

(B) "Possessed noun" reduplicated 

Lexemic reduplication of nouns seems to generaUy indicate 

a widening of tiieir meaning such that particular attributes of 

die objects denoted are emphasized. This expansion of meaning 

and emphasis of particular attributes seems to emphasize the 

metaphoric nature of the term. Thus o dodiha ma kobongo 

('snake's bones,' subtype A above) is also sometimes caUed o 

dodiha ma kobo-kobongo (literally: 'snake's bones-bones'). 

Reduplication of 'bones' seems to attenuate die identification 

of this plant's pronounced leaf-axes of its regularly-spaced 

leaves witii a snake's bones; i.e., to emphasize the fact that this 

vine (Ipomoea quamiclit L.) is only metaphorically somewhat 

like a snake's bones. 

This explanation seems much more likely than the alsopossible 'snake's separate (or individual) bones' (anotiier 

possible but non-lexemic meaning of the reduplicated noun); 

die latter interpretation would not explain otiier examples, such 

as 

o busu ma dalu-daluku (X (a red parrot, Lorius garrulus 

garrulus) [poss.] palm-wine-[redup.] ) 'red parrot's 

palm-wine', Mucuna sp. (refers to this bird's habit of 

congregating at the tree when its flowers are in bloom, 

as people congregate to drink at die tapped Arenga 

pinnata palm). 

Exocentric Compound, Type 1. Noun + verb root 

This is die only type of exocentric compound in the domain 

of BIOTIC FORMS. Since only the verb root is present 

(without subject prefix) these can not be mistaken for phrases. 

The most common compound-parts involve a noun that 

designates a plant part (or object in association with the plant) 

and a verb tiiat indicates a state or quality of that part or object 

Examples: 

o ngofawoe (o ngofa (abbrev. of Tbl-D ngofaka) 'child, 

shoot, sucker' + -woe vb. 'to be many') 'many 

children (i.e., shoots at base of tree)' (Lithocarpus sp.) 

o hokaregi (o hoka 'leaf + -regi 'to be lobed') '(its) 

leaves are lobed' 

o gagilamo (< gagi (truncation of gagini) 'dew' + -lamo 

(trunc. of -lamoko) 'to be much') (having) much dew' 

(two types, see Appendix 1.1) 

In a few cases, however, die noun indicates a human body 

part, die verb a quality for which the plant so designated 

presumably has some medicinal association (according, at 

least, to die folk etymology of such terms) 

o guluihuputu (o gului 'buttocks' + -huputu 'come 

undone, come out') 'buttocks come out' (a malady; 

hemorrhoids?) 

o lakoddto (o lako 'eye' + -doto 'sharp') 'eyes (are) 

sharp' 

Endocentric Phrase, Type 1. Head + reduplicated "participial." 

Phrasal lexemes having this form can almost always take the 

form of Type 2 (subordinate clause) also. Thus o baya ma 

doka-dokara 'red baya' may also be realized as o baya 

itoka-tokara 'red baya' (i.e., 'baya which is red' (Amaranthus 

hybridus L.)). The only cases in which Type 2 endocentric 

phrases can not be realized as Type 1 reduplicated participials 

is when the head is not a subject of die subordinate clause (e.g., 

o balibi hadato-datomo 'cultivated balibi,' but literally: 'balibi 

which we plant,' Averrhoa bilimbi L.). 

In calling such phrases "participial," one can emphasize the 

analogy between participle and subordinate clause reflected in 

English "the chopped wood" vs. "the wood which he chopped." 

In fact, tiiough, there are many simtiarities of tiiis "participial" 

to the abstract noun. For example, the verb 'to be red' -tokara 

forms its abstract noun dokara 'redness' is die same way the 

subordinate clause -toka-tokara 'which is red' forms die 

so-called "participial" doka-dokara. Thus the "participial" 

may, after further research in Tobelo verb morphology, be 

shown to be an abstract noun '(its) being red.' Since this 

interpretation is problematic, however, die construction may 

temporarily be called a "reduplicate participial" here. 

Since the same lexeme may be realized eitiier as a Type 1 or 

Type 2 endocentric phrase, the latter wUl also be considered 

before examples are given. 

Endocentric Phrase, Type 2. Head + subordinate clause 

In Tobelo, clauses are made subordinate by reduplication of 

part of die verb stem (e.g., o gota wo-toyanga 'he chops down 

die tree' vs. o gota wo-toya-toyanga 'the tree which he chops 

down'). 

A Type 1 "Reduplicated participial" may be derived from 

tiiis head + subordinate clause construction if the head is die 

subject of the clause, as in tiiese examples which relate to 

"surface quality" or color; each pair here represents two 

realizations of the same lexeme (not contrasting lexemes): 

Type 1: ofahihuku ma doka-dokara 'red fahihuku (tree)' 

Type 2: ofahihuku itoka-tokara 'fahihuku (tree) which is red' 

Type 1: o ligua ma gare-garehe 'white ligua (tree)' 

Type 2: o ligua iare-arehe 'ligua (tree) which is white' 
38 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Also a reduplicated participial may be formed from other 

subordinate clauses within the phrase, the subject of the clause 

then becoming the head of the participial phrase (like 'trunk' or 

'leaves' in examples below; each pair again represents two 

realizations of the same lexeme: 

Type 1: o mayoro ma roehe ma doka-dokara 'mayoro (tree) 

(with) red trunk' (or): 'red-trunked mayoro' 

Type 2: o mayoro ma roehe itoka-tokara 'mayoro whose trunk 

is red' 

Type 1: o gamonua ma hoka ma alu-aluhu 'small-leaved 

gamonua (tree)' 

Type 2: o gamonua ma hoka ialu-aluhu 'gamonua whose 

leaves are small' 

Finally, in a few cases, which seem best considered 

non-lexemic, die subject of die subordinate clause is 'we 

(inclusive),' which may be translated by die impersonal 'one.' 

This seems to be used primarily to disambiguate polysemous 

words; tiius totaleo2 'chicken' is often called o totaleo 

ho-tofo-tofo (literally: 'die chicken which we [incl.] feed') 

'domesticated chicken,' to distinguish it from totaleox 'bird.' In 

die FLORAL FORM domain, such phrases include ha-datodatomo ('which we plant' i.e., 'cultivated'). Of course, 

extremely long non-lexemic phrases may spontaneously be 

coined to disambiguate terms on particular occasions ('the X 

which we find over tiiere by the path that goes ...' etc.). 

Endocentric Phrase, Type 3. Locative Phrase. 

This commonly used type of phrase indicates "normal" 

habitats of die plant- or animal-types that it designates. It 

consists of die head word plus attributive; the latter consists of 

a habitat term plus a locative enclitic. Different Tobelo dialects 

use die same set of six locative enclitics in slighdy different 

ways for tiiis purpose. The system in use at Loleba viUage 

(B-dialect) seems most widespread for forming lexemic 

phrases, so it may be considered first That used at Pasir Putih 

represents die D-dialect 

In B-dialect die habitat-noun (such as gahi 'shore, sea,' 

hongana atfongana 'jungle, forest,' etc.) takes a suffix -ika 'in 

tiiat direction,' which is unmarked witii respect to odier 

suffixes. In order to more specifically emphasize die "normal" 

direction towards habitats of objects in that class, the noun may 

alternatively take another (marked) suffix implying movement 

in the direction toward die habitat (-ika implies this only in a 

general way). Thus 'jungle X' may be realized as eitiier o 

fongan-ika 'jungle in that direction' (unmarked) or, tf die 

speaker is in a coastal vtilage, ofongan-iha 'jungle landwards' 

(marked); cf. also o aker-ika 'in (fresh) water tiiat direction' vs. 

o aker-iha 'in (fresh-)water landwards.' In die latter example, 

die marked o aker-iha appears to be more commonly realized 

tiian the unmarked form, presumably because die 'landwards' 

suffix disambiguates which of many bodies of 'water' might be 

referred to. The marked fongan-iha 'jungle-landwards' is less 

common, and die marked gahi-oko 'sea seawards' is very rare, 

apparendy because die sea's direction is least ambiguous. 

The above is true for all habitats that humans can reasonably 

reach (thus excluding only die "deep" sea and die sky). The 

tree-top habitat of epiphytes, and die habitats of worms or grubs 

underground or inside dead-wood are treated as "reachable." 

For "unreachable" domains, the appropriate suffix has the 

meaning 'from (that domain),' that is, the suffix for movement 

away from that domain in a direction towards die speaker. Thus 

'deep sea X' (where X is a plant- or animal-type) is rendered 

(literally) '(sea's) depth landwards X' (oXo luku-iha) (but cf. 

"reachable" 'seaX' literally 'the sea in that direction X' oXo 

gahi-ika, or die more specific but seldom-used oXo gahi-oko 

'die sea seawards X'). 

In D-dialect, on the other hand, the normal form for these 

attributive phrases for terrestrial habitats uses the habitat noun 

and the suffix -ino 'in this direction.' To more specificaUy 

emphasize die direction from which die organisms of tiiat type 

"normally" come, die direction suffix from that habitat towards 

die speaker is used; thus 'jungle X' is normaUy rendered 

'jungle-in.tiiis.direction X' (o X ofongan-ino) (unmarked); or, 

if die speaker is on die coast 'jungle-seawards X' (o X o 

fongan-oko) (marked). Note that in these cases (terrestrial 

habitats), the directional enclitics used are exactiy die opposite 

of tiiose used in B dialect! (This is true even if die speaker is 

inland, in die jungle—where only die unmarked and not die 

'seawards' suffix are generaUy used.) 

For non-terrestrial habitats in D dialect, die -ika 'tiiat 

direction' suffix is usually used of 'sea' creatures (o X o 

gahi-ika *sea-diatdirection X'); and die -iha 'landwards' suffix 

is used to refer to "freshwater" creatures (o X o aker-iha 

'water-landwards X'), probably for die same reasons as tiiose 

suggested for die B-dialect D dialect speakers more generally 

distinguish die two senses of gahi '(1) sea; (2) shore' tiirough 

the locative enclitic. For Dodinga dialect speakers, die 'sea' is 

a non-terrestrial habitat usually rendered o gahi-ika 'seathatdirection'; the 'shore' a terrestrial habitat rendered witii die 

unmarked o gahi-ino 'shore-tiiis.direction' (i.e., 'from shore'). 

More commonly, however (perhaps to disambiguate the 

polysemous gahi), 'shore X' is rendered by die marked oXo 

gahi-ie (D. -ie is equivalent to B. -iye 'upwards'; tiius 

'shore-upwards X'). This presumably is because the Tobelo 

'upward' and 'downward' refer to movement southward and 

northward (respectively) along or parallel to the coast (see 

Taylor, 1984a). 

Finally, some fish in die Kao Bay are recognized as coming 

(especially during heavy nortii winds) from die much stronger 

seas of the Moluccan Passage, Weda Sea, or the Pactfic, 

coUectively referred to as o gahi ma nauru 'male sea,' in 

contrast to Kao Bay's relatively tranquil o gahi ma beka 

'female sea'). In all dialects such fish are referred to witii die 

attributive o gahi ma naur-ino 'male sea-this.direction' (i.e., 
NUMBER 34 39 

'from die male sea'). When Tobelo cross the six-ktiometer 

isthmus of Dodinga and catch such fish in die 'male' seas of die 

Moluccan Passage, they refer to these fish with the fish-type 

name X and die attributive phrase,e.g.,0X0 gahi ma naur-ika 

'male sea-thatdirection X' (i.e., 'die X (fish) normaUy found in 

the male sea')—thus using a different suffix depending on 

where die animal is located, though both locations seem 

"reachable" by man. 

The preceding discussion should show once again that a 

single lexeme can be realized in several predictable forms, botii 

within the same dialect and among dialects. We have already 

seen tiiat this was true of endocentric phrasal lexemes, which 

can be realized eitiier as reduplicated participials or as 

subordinate clauses. These locative or "directional" enclitics, 

which distinguish subclasses of BIOTIC FORM ('sea X' vs. 

'jungle X,' etc.), are part of the lexeme that designates each 

subclass, altiiough each lexeme may be realized in several 

forms by the attachment of (predictably) different directional 

enclitics. 

Because -ika 'that direction' seems unmarked relative to 

otiiers, it is generally used as die citation-form (except, e.g., o 

aker-iha 'fresh.water-landwards') as in die foUowing examples: 

o tarate o tonak-ika (orchid ground-thatdirection) 'ground 

(-dweUing) orchid' 

o oaha ofongan-ika (oaha jungle-thatdirection) 'jungle oaha' 

Diospyros cf. leterocarpa 

o oaha o gah-ika (oaha shore-that.direction) 'shore oaha' 

Endocentric Phrase, Type 4. 'Male' and 'female,' 'good' and 

'bad' 

These might or might not be considered morphosyntacticaUy 

die same as phrases of Type 5 below, because the words for 

'male,' 'female,' 'good,' and 'bad' here might be considered 

nouns and die headwords of die phrase. However, we wUl here 

consider tiiese as a separate type, and consider tiiat the phrasal 

parts meaning 'good,' 'bad,' 'male,' or 'female' are "attributives" rather than the heads of die phrases, while Type 5 phrases 

are not. This is because (1) abstract nouns (e.g., ma oa 'good') 

seem to be used as attributives; and (2) tiiis difference is 

underscored by die fact tiiat these phrases are semanticaUy 

quite different from those of Type 5. Unlike phrases of Type 5, 

tiiese phrases all have "classificatory significance," tiiat is, they 

label the subdivisions of a class into a pair of contrasting 

subclasses. Some of the classificatory significance of these 

forms wiU be considered below (5.2.1). FinaUy, (3) phrases of 

this type behave differendy in the rule for "sequencing" 

lexemes (5.1.3 below) tiian do tiiose of Type 5. 

Examples: 

o digo ma nauru 'male digo' Sida rhombifolia L. ssp. 

rhombifolia 

o digo ma beka 'female digo' Sida acuta Burm. f. 

o rukiti ma oa 'good ruldti' Gnetum sp. 

o rukiti ma dorou 'bad rukiti' Gnetum gnemonoides 

Brongn. 

Endocentric Phrase, Type 5. Possessor (noun) + (possessive 

pronoun) + possessed (noun) 

These phrases have a construction like tiiat of a Type 2 

endocentric compound word. The fact that the headwords of 

tiiis type can substitute in sentences to designate die same class 

designated by die whole phrase, however, indicates tiiat (unlike 

words) tiiese phrasal lexemes can be interpolated, and tiiat odier 

morphs can be inserted in diem. The "possessor" here, though, 

is always a BIOTIC FORM, and only tiiree "possessed 

(nouns)" occur: (ma) gilaongo '(its) servant' and (ma) dofa 

'(its) counterfeit' in either FLORAL FORM or FAUNAL 

FORM domain; and (ma) ayo '(its) motiier' in the FAUNAL 

FORM domain.3 

It wtil be shown below (Chapter 5) tiiat die relations of a 

class to its 'servant,' 'counterfeit' and sometimes 'motiier' 

class is not a taxonomic one, and in die case of 'servant' and 

'counterfeit' is only a metaphorical relation. These endocentric 

phrases are die only ones tiiat can function as "basic" (B°) 

terms; and tiiey are the only ones that are not "attributive 

phrases." 

Examples: 

o kane-kane 'weaver-ant' Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr. 

o kane-kane ma ayo 'weaver-ant's mother' (i.e., the 

winged forms of weaver-ants) 

o digo 'Sida spp.' 

o digo ma gilaongo 'digo's servant' (Pseudelephantopus 

spicatus (Aubl.) CF. Baker 

o cengke 'clove' Syzygium aromaticum Kuntze 

o cengke ma dofa 'clove's counterfeit; false clove' 

Syzygium sp. 

3.3. Foreign Borrowings in Tobelo Nomenclature 

As noted in Chapter 2 above, Ternatese is die language to 

which Tobelo often turned for naming places, persons, animals, 

and plants. Here some observations about such "foreign" 

influences on Tobelo nomenclature may be briefly mentioned. 

1. Several examples above iUustrate that it is sometimes 

difficult to distinguish Tobelo from Ternatese compounds. 

Whde tiiis matter cannot yet be fuUy explored (in die absence 

of any adequate dictionary of Ternatese), die observation is 

based on die fact tiiat many Ternatese words are predictably 

like Tobelo words. A Tobelo word with a final [... VaCVa#] 

(where Va is the same unstressed vowel), especially, often has 

a Ternatese cognate witfiout the final syllable. 
40 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Tobelo 

glama 

-Idmoko 

ngduku 

dunu 

Ternatese 

gla 

-Idmo 

ngdu 

du 

English 

hand, arm 

big 

ear 

blood 

In Tobelo compounding, this dropping of die final unaccented syllable occurs even for Tobelo roots. For example, a 

folk class of 'bat' (comprising several species) is caUed o 

ngunuhago ('ngunu < Tbl ngunungu 'nose' + hago to be 

twins') 'twin nose' (so called for the strongly cleft snouts of 

these bats). 

In such cases it seems likely that dropping die unaccented 

final syUable is done in imitation of Ternatese, even when 

Ternatese stems are not known. Compounds of tiiis form, then, 

are examples of what I have called "neo-Ternatese," the widely 

used "language" also used in magical formulae and ceremonial 

chants. 

2. The languages of Tobelo borrowings vary from one area 

to another. Heuting's (1908c) dictionary, based on die northern 

H dialect near Galela, lists many Galela words witii which 

informants at Loleba were unfamiliar. At Loleba, on the odier 

hand, die many migrants from Pagu and Modole areas from die 

opposite side of Kao Bay had brought some of die folk terms 

from these languages into currency at Loleba. In examples 

below the "true" Tbl term known throughout the region is on 

the left, the term alternatively used at Loleba (originating from 

Pagu-speaking areas) is in the center (English at right). 

o gilitopa 

o kaahdho 

o lefere 

o papaceda 

o boto-bdto 

o dadaka 

'Scaevola taccada 

(Gaertn.) Roxb.' 

'grasshopper' 

'(certain) mtihpedes' 

In D-speaking Pasir Putih (the closest Tobelo viUage to 

Ternate), however, Ternatese compounds are more often used 

to name folk biological taxa. 

Nevertheless, Tobelo emphasize that these are just foreign 

synonymns for the "true" Tobelo names. Daily use of such 

synonyms is probably much higher tiian my data indicate, 

because Tobelo usually tried to use "proper" animal or plant 

names witii me. In general, synonymy seems high due to high 

mobUity and multiUnguaUsm, and to in-law name taboos. 

3. Two clearly distinct phases of borrowing from Indonesian 

are distinguishable. These may have to do witii borrowings that 

took place before and after biUnguahsm became common. 

In Phase I (one can hardly resist calling tiiis the "first 

phase"—though the relation of these modes of borrowing to 

historical time has not been proven), Malay-Indonesian words 

are assimilated to Tobelo phonology: /s/ becomes /h/, CC is fit 

into die CVCV pattern of Tbl, and so on. Today, however, 

(Phase II), this is very seldom done, and die Indonesian word is 

simply pronounced as it would be pronounced in NMM, though 

unfamiliar words may be changed in die process. The few 

exceptions may be considered accidental; for example, a new 

variety of 'pineapple' (o manahi), said to be developed by 

researchers at Bogor (West Java), and caUed in Indonesian 

nanas Bogor 'Bogor pineapple,' became metadiesized in many 

Tbl viUages as o manahi o borgo 'borgo pineapple,' probably 

due to unfamtiiarity with the word "Bogor" rather man 

assimilation to Tbl phonology (to which *o bogor, or *o 

bogoro, would have been closer). 

3.4 A Note on Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven's Classification of Lexemes 

Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven's (1974; cf. Hays, 1983) 

typology of lexemic types is widely used by etimobiologists 

interested in presenting a semantic analysis of die domain of 

plants or animals, or of some subdomain of tiiese. The 

distinctive, contrasting set of "basic" (their "generic") terms, 

which had long been identified in folk biological domains (see 

5.1 below) was there largely defined with reference to the type 

of lexeme with which die "generic" terms were labeled. 

The typology tiiey proposed may be summarized using die 

diagram below (from Berlin et al., 1974:29). 

Lexeme 

Primary Secondary 

Simple 

(Unanalyzable) 

Complex 

(Analyzable) 

Productive Unproductive 

As more succincdy defined in a later article by Berlin 

(1976:397), "secondary lexemes" are 

... linguistically analyzable expressions which (1) include one constituent that 

labels an immediately superordinate taxon and (2) occur in contrast sets whose 

members are also labelled by secondary lexemes which include an identical 

superordinate constituent 

"Primary lexemes" are aU the other lexemes. They may be 

"simple" (term used as in this chapter), or "complex" (Berlin, 

1976:397): 

At least two types of linguistically complex lexemes have been recognized. One 

type includes constituents none of which mark a category superordinate to the 

form in question, e.g.,poison oak.hens-and-chickens,..., etc. Such expressions 

can be called unproductive (complex) primary lexemes. A second type of 

complex lexeme includes expressions in which one of die constituents marks a 

category superordinate to the form in question but which nonetheless contrasts 
NUMBER 34 41 

directly (occurs in the same contrast set) with simple or unproductive complex 

lexemes, e.g., tulip tree (which contrasts with oak, maple, etc.), puncture vine 

(which contrasts widi ivy, passion flower, eta), or creosote bush (which 

contrasts with rock apple, broom, etc.). Such expressions can be called 

productive (complex) primary lexemes. Some productive primaries may be 

abbreviated (e.g., pine tree —» pine); others may not (eg., tulip tree -» *tulip). 

The major problems with this set of definitions are as 

foUows: (1) These definitions are introduced only for "etiinobiological lexicons," a limitation that seems to unnecessarily 

isolate one domain, as if it necessarily functioned unlike otiier 

domains of language. (2) The definitions rely on taxonomies, 

and may therefore be misleading when applied to die many 

non-taxonomic areas of folk biological classification, including 

cross-cutting classes, paradigms, and otiiers (see Chapter 5). 

(This defect may have adversely affected Berlin, Breedlove, 

and Raven's discussion of one non-taxonomic area of Tzeltal 

folk biological classification, die developmental stages of 

plants (1974:64-68); it seems tiiat uieir data may include many 

non-lexemic forms). (3) The failure to determine word 

boundaries, or distinguish compound words from phrases— 

tiiough tiiey appear enviably easy to distinguish in Tzeltal— 

leads to no interpretation of die "abbreviation" of "primary 

lexemes." If as a group the primary lexemes are more 

"psychologicaUy sahent" than secondary lexemes (more 

readily elicited, more easily recalled, learned eariier by 

children, and so on) (Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven, 1974:31-

32), tiiis may simply be because "primary" lexemes are more 

likely to be words ratiier tiian phrases. 

FinaUy, (4) it is unfortunate dial, as tiiis typology has become 

more widespread, die terms "primary," "secondary," "productive," and "unproductive," which already have precise meanings, come to have confusingly different meanings when 

applied to types of lexemes within "etiinobiological lexicons." 

This is not a criticism of the lexemic typology, but rather of the 

terms used for types of lexeme. The problem is heightened by 

use of die same term in different senses in Beriin, Breedlove, 

and Raven's (1974) book; tiius "productive" and "nonproductive" are also used, apparendy in anotiier non-standard 

sense, to mean 'applicable to many referents' vs. 'applicable to 

one or few referents' (Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven, 1974:69): 

Some forms [for plant part names] are productive in mat they may refer to a 

certain appropriate area of any plant part with total freedom of occurrence. 

Odiers are nonproductive and are restricted to a particular plant part or parts. 

In view of problems witii this classification of lexemes, and 

further problems in applying this classification to data in die 

field (see especially Hays, 1983, and 5.1.1 below), it may be 

simpler to use anotiier classification than to change the terms 

for this one. We may especially hope that otiier systems 

proposed for classifying lexemes on semantic grounds wUl 

avoid over-reliance on taxonomic relations, which are difficult 

to use in die many languages like Tobelo in which a single 

"basic" class may belong to more tiian one superordinate class, 

and in which odier types of relationship among classes may 

always be conveyed by regular nomenclatural patterns (cf. 

Ellen, 1979). 
4. The Domain of the BIOTIC FORM, and Other Posited Unlabeled Classes1 

It is possible to present a description of a folk taxonomic 

system tiiat includes only lexemicaUy labeled classes. It is even 

possible to define either "semantic classes" or systems of 

"classification" such that each class must be designated by a 

single lexeme (e.g., Conklin, 1962:128). Yet students of folk 

classification have long recognized several cogent reasons for 

considering "covert" or unlabeled "categories" or classes 

witiiin descriptions of folk taxonomies. 

In a paper that inaugurated the study of "covert categories" in 

folk taxonomies, BerUn, Breedlove, and Raven (1968) emphasized that tiieir attempts to identify "covert categories" of 

Tzeltal plants consisted of formal metiiods for uncovering 

categories tiiat, though unlabeled, were recognized and used by 

natives. The inclusion of covert classes in a description of folk 

classification thus had die primary advantage of representing 

more precisely the shared set of structured relations among 

classes. Two further advantages of formally identifying covert 

classes were that (1) where the highest-level taxon or "unique 

beginner" is unlabeled, a covert taxon can establish the domain 

of classificatory structures; and (2) recognition of covert 

groupings of labeled classes could structure relations among 

die very wide contrast sets of basic ("generic") classes. Covert 

categories continue to be posited primarily in folk biological 

taxonomies, although the methods for positing diem and die 

ontological or "psychological" status of the posited categories 

have been a subject of debate (Brown, 1974, and reply by 

Berlin, 1974; Hays, 1976; Hunn, 1976, 1977; Atran, 1983, 

1985). 

In my own investigations of folk biological classification 

among the Tobelo, I have also attempted to identify covert 

classes and have posited diem using metiiods described below. 

I have not, however, based my analysis on metiiods used by 

odier autiiors (Beriin, Breedlove, and Raven, 1968; Hays, 

1976; Hunn, 1977). Though their methods differ, these aU share 

the goal of identifying covert classes based on tests for 

perceived similarity among plant and animal classes. I have 

argued elsewhere (Taylor, 1984b) tiiat (1) sometimes the only 

local "cultural significance" of "covert categories" produced by 

such tests may be tiieir sudden appearance precisely as a result 

of die tests designed to find diem; (2) similarities observed may 

not be tiiose used in hierarchically relating folk taxa, and (3) 

such classes do not in any case belong in a linguistic 

description. It is not my purpose to argue tiiat categories posited 

on die basis of such tests are necessarily wordiless, only that 

tiieir status as culturally recognized groupings of plant or 

animal classes is questionable, and tiiat in any case tiiey do not 

belong in a linguistic description of a semantic domain. Of 

course, much odier interesting folk biological information (e.g., 

"symbolic" associations, medicinal and technological uses of 

folk taxa, techniques of cultivation, etc.) also does not belong 

in descriptions of semantic domains. 

By contrast, die two main techniques I have used in tiiis 

study are derived from die two major areas of structural 

semantic investigation (Tkegami, 1967:49,60): (1) the description of die relations among lexemes in terms of tiieir meanings, 

which leads to die method I caU co-hyponymy, and (2) the 

description of die meaning of a single lexeme, which leads to 

die metiiod I call definitional impUcation. The classes posited 

as a result of applying these methods to die Tobelo case are, at 

the very least, useful heuristic devices that point up relations 

among labeled classes in ways that the Tobelo themselves 

might recognize. At most, tiiey represent covert classes used by 

the Tobelo themselves, comparable perhaps to similar classes 

used by otiier ethnic groups. 

4.1 Why Posit Unlabeled ("Covert") Classes? 

Undoubtedly one of die most vexing problems for an 

edinographer attempting to study folk classification of fauna 

and flora occurs when it is discovered tiiat, for speakers of 

many languages, no "unique beginner" or highest-level term 

exists (such as 'animal' 'plant,' or 'living thing') that can 

define die domain of his investigation (Levi-Strauss, 1966:1-

2). Of course, it is possible to study plant and animal 

nomenclature by identifying die types of lexemes used to 

designate classes of aU organisms that biologists consider 

"plants" or "animals." It is also possible to study man-plant or 

man-animal interactions without concerning oneself with the 

establishment of domains like "animal" or "plant" that have 

any relevance for die native speaker. But one cannot discuss 

"folk" classification—that is, die shared, structured set of 

relationships that members of a culture posit among those 

classes—without considering whetiier this assortment of terms 

for "plants and animals" names classes of objects grouped 

togetiier or even considered similar by native speakers 

tiiemselves. 

The highest-level Tobelo terms designating classes of what 

we consider animals and plants ('animal,' 'tree,' 'herbaceous 

weed,' etc.) have multiple senses, and tiiere is no named 

higher-level "plant" class or named class of "living tilings." I 

have also been unable to find any distinctive grammatical 

treatments of plants or animals, altiiough these can be found in 

some other languages. If we only consider lexicaUy labeled 

classes in our study of Tobelo folk classification, we must 

content ourselves witii one of two alternatives: (1) studying die 

relationship among tiiose Tobelo classes that happen to contain 

42 
NUMBER 34 43 

objects biologists consider "biological"—and calling this the 

study of "Tobelo" etiinobiological classification, or (2) 

considering each highest-level term in die language—including 

'tree,' 'vine,' 'rice,' and many "basic" classes—a separate 

"unique beginner" establishing a separate domain. The serious 

problems witii eitiier alternative leave us no recourse except to 

posit covert higher-level classes, for die foUowing reasons: 

1. The first alternative is adopted in one of its forms by 

Hunn (1977) and implicitiy conceded by many etiinobiological 

studies tiiat delimit the subject-matter of "folk" biology as the 

range of "folk" ideas about die subject matter of our Western 

biological science (i.e., die animal and plant kingdoms). Any 

analysis, however, which claims to be "semantic" or to study 

meanings of terms and relationships among native classes 

cannot take as its point of departure a class whose membership 

is based entirely on a translation from another language or 

system of thought. To do so in tiiis case would risk analyzing 

relationships among "native" ideational forms coUected together in a way that is foreign to Tobelo language and culture. 

Hunn (1977:44), however, argues that since the choice of a 

"unique beginner" is "arbitrary," we might as well use die 

domain of Western biology to investigate folk concepts of 

plants or animals. We can, of course, investigate classification 

of objects grouped togetiier on any analyst's criterion, whetiier 

we take as our domain die set of all "animals and plants" or die 

set of all "objects smaller tiian a breadbox," if we consider such 

study useful. But we would have to leave aside any claim tiiat 

such a grouping forms a culturally significant unit or domain to 

die "natives" whose classification system is under study. And 

die terms witiiin such a domain can hardly be said to "contrast," 

because most definitions of semantic contrast (e.g. Conklin, 

1962, cf. Kay, 1971) refer to contrast among subclasses of a 

semantic (not an "arbitrary" or contrived) class. 

2. The second alternative—considering each highest-level 

term in die language a separate domain of investigation—is not 

acceptable in die Tobelo case for four reasons, which may be 

listed in order. 

(1) The Tobelo themselves, as has been reported for many 

otiier cultures, seem to refer to groupings at levels higher than 

tiiose labeled in die folk taxonomy. In me area of what we 

consider "plants," for example, there are minimally uie named 

groups of 'tree,' 'vine,' and 'herbaceous weed,' and also tiiere 

are more than 80 "basic" classes (having over 200 "terminal" or 

lowest-level subclasses) that are unaffiliated with these major 

plant groups. Yet Tobelo refer to groupings of such plants in 

everyday discourse. Thus an unfamiliar or distant bamboo can 

be denoted a hoka o tiba-oli '(an object) ratiier like a tiba 

(Schizostachyum sp.; a bamboo).' This whole phrase is 

sometimes substituted in sentences for the name of some 

particular bamboo species, or even used to refer to more tiian 

one species. Such regular non-lexemic phrases might be 

considered evidence for the existence of a covert class; that is, 

die phrase in this example may be a non-lexemic realization of 

the covert BAMBOO class.2 While this is an important 

argument for the existence of covert classes, it is not 

reliable—in the Tobelo case—as a method of finding or 

positing diem, because similar phrases ('rather like an X') are 

frequently made up for special purposes and witiiout reference 

to generaUy used covert classes. 

(2) A second frequendy cited argument for positing covert 

classes has produced metiiods tiiat wUl be criticized below; this 

is the argument of perceived simUarity among classes, and it 

may briefly be paraphrased here. There are, after all, so many 

simUarities among classes not grouped togetiier under any 

higher-level term tiiat we would expect tiiose similarities to be 

conceptually recognized in any system of classification. 

Continuing the above example, the various labeled species of 

what we call "bamboo" are more like each otiier than ltice 'rice,' 

'sugar palm,' 'cycad,' and die odier basic plant classes witii 

which tiiey seem to contrast This simUarity is recognized in 

biology and seems so obvious that it must be clear to folk 

classifiers, and could underlie local references to higher-level 

groupings noted above. It has been argued, tiierefore, tiiat our 

analysis should posit covert classes like BAMBOO based on 

tests for tiiis perceived simUarity. 

Though tiiey suggest that positing covert classes could be 

worth whde, botii these arguments are hardly sufficient reason 

in themselves to posit such classes. Nor do tiiey provide 

techniques for reliably delimiting the boundaries of tiiose 

classes, as the critique below will argue. There are, however, 

two other reasons for considering tiiat covert classes can be 

posited for Tobelo BIOTIC FORMS—and that they are 

required by die data: 

(3) Polysemous terms which form a contrast set in one of 

tiieir senses are "co-hyponyms" (Lyons, 1977:291) and must be 

considered contrasting subclasses of a higher-level class. As 

summarized more fully below, this requires analysis of die 

lexemic status of polysemous terms, similar to that undertaken 

above (3.1.2) for die Tobelo terms for 'tree,' 'vine,' and 

'herbaceous weed.' Thus, in tiiat example, tiiose polysemous 

terms form a co-hyponymous contrast set in one of their senses 

(the senses that contrast witii each otiier, labeled o gotax 'tree,' 

o rurtibux 'herbaceous weed,' and o guminix 'vine'). This 

implies that they are immediate subclasses of an unlabeled 

higher-level domain, which we can caU die PLANT or 

FLORAL FORM domain. Though these facts do not delimit 

me boundaries of any such FLORAL FORM domain, tiiey do 

indicate tiiat any analysis of these data must posit such a 

domain containing (minimaUy) these three named subclasses. 

(4) Finally, die metiiod of "definitional implication" that I 

outiine in detati below can be justified by recognizing tiiat an 

adequate description of Tobelo animal or plant classification is 

only part of the larger task of describing die entire Tobelo 

lexicon. Many Tobelo words that are not names for animals or 

plants nevertheless have classes of biotic forms implied in die 

definitions of tiiose words. We can use these related words to 

posit die covert classes implied in tiiose definitions. It may be 

more parsimonious to posit a set of covert classes and tiien use 
44 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

them in the definition of "related" terms, than to independendy 

define the set of objects to which each of those "related" terms 

may apply. Thus we may conclude tiiat, though positing covert 

classes may seem to violate the requirement of parsimony in a 

linguistic description, it is not only required by the data, but 

may also be the more parsimonious path to a complete 

description of lexical structure witiiin the language. 

4.2 The Quest for "Perceived Similarity" Is Not a Quest for 

Unlabeled Classes 

In their seminal article mentioned above, Berlin, Breedlove, 

and Raven (1968) suggested techniques for discovering "many 

meaningful and culturally revealing categories related by 

inclusion tiiat are not conventionally, monolexemically labeled" (1968:209). With the exception of evidence for the 

"unique beginner" PLANT class drawn from a distinctive 

Tzeltal numeral classifier used only for members of tiiis 

domain, aU die techniques proposed were based on tests for 

perceived similarities among organisms. 

Yet upon examining the classes produced by tiiese tests, we 

quickly discover tiieir important differences from anything we 

would otherwise consider a class witiiin the same semantic 

domain. We should consider die position of die "covert" class 

witiiin a description of language in die light of die normal 

relation between a Unguistic sign and die objects tiiat it denotes. 

This is often expressed as a triadic relation or "triangle of 

signification" (Lyons, 1977:96-99; cf. Ogden and Richards, 

1923:11), in which die tiiree angles A, B, and C of a triangle 

represent (A) die Unguistic "sign," e.g., a lexeme, and (C) die 

object denoted by tiiat sign, which are mediated in some sense 

by (B) some concept of die "class" of objects tiiat may properly 

be denoted by die sign. "The members of any naturaUy 

conceived class of tilings, arrived at pragmatically by stimulus 

generalization, have some distinctive quality or combination of 

qualities in common, that furnishes the basis for their common 

designation" (Scheffler and Lounsbury, 1971:4). Those distinctive qualities of a natural class are "the significant features of 

the objects and die defining features of die class" (Scheffler and 

Lounsbury, 1971:4). Following Scheffler and Lounsbury's 

(1971:3-6) terminology, we may say tiiat die sign denotes die 

object or objects, and at die same time designates die class of 

such objects, and signifies die defining features of die class. 

From this perspective we can see that, in order to integrate 

covert classes into die classification systems we describe, and 

to treat diem alongside labeled classes (i.e., taxa) in a 

hierarchicaUy arranged classtfication scheme, we must have aU 

the elements of the "triangle of signification" except the 

Unguistic sign. Alternatively we may insist on finding some 

non-lexemic phrase or expression used to refer to the covert 

class, and consider tiiat to be the sign, functioning tike a lexeme 

to denote members of die class and to designate die class. In 

eitiier case, we should recognize die need for distinctive 

features if we wish to integrate such a class into die same 

taxonomic model used for labeled taxa. 

One alternative to tiiis view is presented by Hunn, who 

prefers to consider the folk taxon "a set of real objects, in die 

present case, a set of animal organisms" (Hunn, 1977:42), 

ratiier than the class of tiiose objects. The taxon or class, 

however, is not the same as its members; by Hunn's definition, 

every time a housefly anywhere dies or is born, die taxon 

(rather than its membership) changes! We do not define the 

EngUsh-language taxon housefly by this shifting set of 

organisms, which are the temporary members of the class, but 

rather by the constant attributes (or "features") of that class 

itself.3 

Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven (1968), however, recognize 

the importance of discovering distinctive features in positing 

covert categories. They commendably combine tests of 

perceived simUarity among organisms witii tests to determine 

whether distinctive features can be found to define die classes 

posited. The two major techniques used to determine candidates for covert categories are (1) card sorting, and (2) tests of 

triads, botii of which test the informant's perceived simUarity 

among organisms. In die card sorting technique, names of 

labeled plant classes are written on separate pieces of paper and 

informants are instructed to group them together. As Atran 

(1983:58) has pointed out, tiiis method of elicitation seems 

designed to find only taxonomic relations, because only names 

of plant classes within the higher-level ("Ufe form") classes are 

presented to die informant. "Thus, the method of elicitation 

may have unduly restricted recognition of complexes only to 

those tiiat happened to fall entirely within the range of a given 

life-form" (Atran, 1983:58). 

Furthermore, as Brown (1974:327) notes of both sorting 

tests and triads tests: "Such tests often present informants with 

culturally irrelevant options coercing them to sort items 

together which tiiey rarely, if ever, group together on an 

ordinary day to day basis. Such groupings can hardly be 

considered culturally relevant" Brown also argues tiiat many 

of die unlabeled groupings of plants and animals which can 

result from such tests are not covert classes at ad, but labeled, 

culturally recognized categories which cross-cut the folk 

biological taxonomy. Atran (1983:55-56) cites examples from 

the Bunaq of Timor (Friedberg, 1970; see also Friedberg, 1979) 

and die Brou of Cambodia (Matras and Martin, 1972) to 

Ulustrate that cross-cutting classifications relating to cosmology, cultural usefulness, or ecological affinities between plants 

may intersect die proper folk taxonomy under study. 

In short, die major problem with using sorting tests to 

determine folk taxa is tiiat one can never be sure that die 

principles on which the sorting task is carried out correspond to 

culturally relevant principles used in hierarchicaUy relating 

semantic classes. In using a card-sorting technique to investigate Navaho principles of classification, for example, Perchonok and Werner (1969) discovered that "people evidendy 

felt no compulsion to use die same principle of classification 

consistently throughout the [taxonomic] tree," and that indi-
NUMBER 34 45 

viduals not only differ in the classifications produced by this 

method, but also that they without exception "agree to the 

rightness of another person's classification, even though it 

differs considerably from their own" (1969:234), indicating 

that categories formed on die basis of such tests are not stable. 

Hunn (1977:55) has correcdy recognized that perceived 

simUarity among such naturally diversified organisms as 

animals and plants is not just a simple matter of similarities 

among whole well-defined groups of classes ("covert categories"). Instead, he envisions handling tiiis problem by recognizing that the degree of differences among named classes forms 

a continuum, which he proposes to represent by Unking them 

into "chains" or "complexes." Such "chains" of organisms, in 

which "a" is linked to "b" and "b" is linked to "c" but "a" and 

"c" are not linked, are very difficult to reconcde witii the 

notions of semantic class (or "concept") underlying the 

"triangle of signification" model of die relationship between a 

sign and its denotata, and tiius must function very differentiy 

from die taxa discovered in die lexically labeled portion of die 

folk taxonomy, and should not be integrated witii those taxa in 

the same model. Hunn gives die example (1977:55) of the 

'slug' class, which is allegedly perceived by his informants to 

"link" the 'snati' class (or "complex") with that of the 'worm.' 

Though the tiiree are not sub-classes of any higher-level named 

class, tins worm-slug-snaU "chain" is allowed to creep into die 

posited taxonomy of named forms, leaving its trad of fragile 

posited link-ups so unlike die clear-cut taxonomic classinclusion relationships that it and die odier "chains" have 

infiltrated. If investigation of such "chains" may serve to give 

us more information about the way natives perceive or "feel 

about" these taxa, tiien they might usefully be included in 

etiinobiological studies alongside information on how the 

plants and animals are used, where tiiey grow, how often 

natives see them, etc.; however, all tiiat information does not 

have to be forced into a description of the natives' classificatory 

system, alongside die clear relationships of class inclusion 

which are expressed (even if all those other tilings are not) in a 

folk taxonomy.4 

We may also consider die use of "folk keys" constructed by 

informants as a technique to determine die distinctive features 

of categories posited on die basis of perceived simUarity (see, 

e.g., Berlin et al., 1968:293). It is important to note that in folk 

as in biological keys more tiian one of tiiese artificial 

arrangements of binary oppositions can be used to "key out" or 

arrive at the same set of items. More importantly, even if die 

keys did represent die way "folk" actually identify classes of 

organisms (tiiat is, tf the binary oppositions used, and die order 

in which tiiey occur, were actually tiiose natives used to 

identify objects), it still does not foUow that the higher-order 

oppositions are those tiiat form the most inclusive classes. 

In biological systematics, where classification attempts to 

represent phylogenetic relationships among organisms, it is 

possible to write a "natural key" (Simpson, 1961:15-16) in 

which the key first "keys out" higher-order taxa, then keys out 

the lower-order taxa in die order in which tiiey subdivide the 

highest-level taxon. But most biologists who want to use keys 

to identify specimens would never botiier with such a 

cumbersome arrangement (nor, probably, would folk classifiers). 

Among die Tobelo—and I suspect others too—it seems that 

informants' stated reasons for grouping organisms together 

(whether for a folk key or for some other purpose) are often not 

really statements of the distinguishing features of that class, but 

rather "rules of thumb" (Goodenough, 1951) that wtil be found 

not to hold true in aU circumstances; just as an American asked 

to Ust die defining features of a "door" might give answers 

without taking "sliding doors" into account. 

In natural conversations, Tobelo regularly wanted to figure 

out what kind of unfamiliar animal or plant was sighted by 

someone who did not recognize it. Where no hint was available 

except tiiat it was a 'bird,' for example,questions might involve 

the animal's behavior, time of day sighted, how it moved, and 

similar queries, which clearly could not aU be references to the 

distinctive features of the class, because, for example, a night 

bird (such as an owl) is still an owl at noon. If such queries are 

a guide to folk keys actually used, tiiey bear much more 

resemblance to die multiple-approach keys sometimes included 

in field guides, in which oppositions need not be binary, the key 

need not key out all possible taxa, and an observer may key out 

specimens in more than one way with each of several types of 

key (see, e.g., Fitter, 1953:178-179). If such non-binary, 

multiple-approach keys represent one way Tobelo might 

identify specimens, as natural conversations indicate tiiey 

might, then clearly folk keys constructed by informants may 

not be aimed at keying out taxonomic groups in their 

hierarchical order, but instead may, if properly representative of 

folk identification, only provide one of several ways natives 

identify specimens and place them in terminal or near-terminal 

classes in their taxonomy. An adequate folk key could yield 

interesting results for the study of folk identifications, but tiiose 

results would still not constitute a classificatory structure such 

as a folk taxonomy. 

Many of the same criticisms can be made for die "metiiod of 

paired comparisons" used to identify covert classes, in which 

informants are requested "to compare aU logical pairs of any set 

in terms of all die similarities and differences tiiat he felt were 

relevant for any pair" (Berlin et al., 1968:293). As in the 

card-sorting techniques, the apparent lack of overlap crosscutting higher taxonomic levels is possibly a result of die fact 

that paired comparisons are generally tested only witiiin (not 

across) labeled taxa. In any case, we may suspect tiiat, as with 

features found dirough construction of folk keys, features 

found by this means are quite different from die distinctive 

features used in componential definitions of labeled classes, 

because (1) informants' statements about similarity among 

members of a class often reflect "rules of thumb" rather tiian the 

features which actually discriminate die class; and (2) die 

features used and referred to most often are not necessarily 
46 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

those which are "judged important by the informant" for 

defining classes. In order to relate frequency of occurrence with 

importance for componential definitions, the technique requires that all die attributes distinguishing one class from 

anotiier be equally "weighted" or distinctive (as well as equaUy 

likely to be verbahzed), and tiius that they can be compared by 

simply counting die number of times they are invoked in 

judging die dissimUarity of classes (cf. also Beriin et al., 

1974:61). 

The assumption that native information-processing rules are 

like "natural keys," processing information about the taxa to 

which particular objects belong, in order from the most 

inclusive to the least inclusive taxon, also underlies die metiiod 

Hays (1976:503) has introduced to identify covert classes in 

folk taxonomies. 

Assuming mat my informants perceive tiieir world and conceptualize it 

according to similar, though not identical, information-processing rules ..., 

much of the variability in their statements and acts is likely to be patterned in 

discoverable ways. I suggest that one of die patterns in plant naming responses 

is that, far from indicating random guesses, the diverse names offered tended to 

form relatively small sets whose members tended to co-occur regularly. 

Multiple instances of such co-occurrences, I propose, may be taken as evidence 

of conceived similarity among the categories designated by the names such mat 

their tokens were readily "confused" with each other The categories 

designated by these co-occurring names, then, may be considered conceptually 

grouped, whether the grouping itself is habitually named or not; when it is not, 

it may be referred to as a covert category or complex. 

Yet mere is no evidence tiiat information processing rules 

function like natural keys; if they function like non-natural keys 

the "co-occurrences" will not represent hierarchicaUy related 

groupings. In any case, understanding such information 

processing rules would not help us describe language as a 

system (Saussure's langue) rather than as behavior (parole). 

A final argument for the existence of covert "mid-level" 

categories witiiin folk taxonomies derives from die notion tiiat 

men cannot store and process enough information at the same 

time to simultaneously consider contrast sets of large numbers 

of taxa such as those found in folk taxonomies. This argument 

for die existence of "covert categories" is quite distinct from die 

tests of perceived simUarity tiiat were used to posit diem, and is 

not invoked by some writers who use those tests. Yet it 

dlustrates the extent to which such tests rely on the implicit 

assumption that folk classification must work like folk 

identification, and on die analogy between folk identification 

and the decision-trees of cybernetics. The argument follows 

Wallace's (1961) hypothesis that sets a limit of 64 items within 

a contrast set (Berlin et al., 1968:297). Without positing "covert 

categories" within folk taxonomies, tiiat limit would clearly be 

exceeded. 

However, Wallace's (1961; cf. MiUer, 1956) Umitation only 

concerns the storage and processing of information in 

short-term memory. Anyone can certainly imagine more ways 

to explain how Tobelo, for example, might "store and process" 

information about over tiiree hundred basic classes tiiat 

subdivide the Tobelo 'tree' class without stuffing them aU into 

tiieir short-term memories at the same time. (Note, for example, 

D'Andrade's (1962) notion of "cross-indexing" or die multiple-approach keys described above, which are used in field 

guides.) Nor do informants need to consider at once die entire 

definition of any particular class. Not all the features used in 

defining a class need to be used to identify any particular 

member of the class. A type of 'tree' may be defined by 

characteristics of die bark, flower, leaves, etc.—but in fact die 

Tobelo and otiiers can, for many kinds of 'tree,' identify its 

leaves or its bark or its wood, without reference to the whole 

tree. Of course, as less information is available, misidentification becomes more likely. 

In any case, a description of a particular semantic domain is 

part of die total description of a language, and language should 

be described in terms acceptable to some metatiieory of 

linguistics or semantics. Any adequate linguistic description 

risks presenting explanations that a psychologist neurophysiologist, or cybernetician will have difficulty interpreting in die 

Ught of his specialization; but we need not choose one of his 

many possible interpretations and tatior our Unguistic description to fit it We should instead first describe language in 

Unguistic terms, then consider relationships to other types of 

interpretation, rather tiian risk jumbUng them togetiier from the 

start 

Considering aU die problems with the attempts to posit 

covert classes by testing for perceived similarities among 

classes, one might wish to simply ignore any unlabeled classes 

in the description of an etiinobiological domain. But for reasons 

stated in die preceding section we must still try to posit them, 

though witii techniques otiier than those reviewed here. Any 

class so posited must have at least one distinctive feature that 

makes it acceptable as a semantic class, and which is shared by 

its subclasses. 

4.3 The Method of Co-hyponomy 

It was noted above that many of the highest-level terms in 

Tobelo folk biological classification have multiple senses. It is 

one of the tasks of anyone describing die Tobelo language to 

distinguish those senses of polysemous terms. If, however, we 

were to study only Tobelo "plant" classification separately 

from die larger task of describing die Tobelo language, we 

might ignore most otiier senses of terms like 'tree,' 'vine,' or 

'herbaceous weed,' and include in our analysis only tiiose 

senses that occur in the domain of investigation. In 3.1.2, for 

example, several senses of each of the tiiree highest-level 

Tobelo terms for "plant" were Usted. Considering only thenuses as nouns, there were five senses of gota: gotax 'tree,' gota2 

Targe tree,' gota3 'lumber,' gota4 'firewood,' and gotas 'woody 

tissue.' Similarly, two senses of gumini (guminix 'vine' and 

gumini2 'rope'), and two of rurtibu (rurtibux 'herbaceous weed' 

and rurtibu2 'weed, uncultivated undergrowtii') were detaUed. 

Examples were given of cases in natural Tobelo conversation 

where the same object may be denoted by two or more of tiiese 
NUMBER 34 47 

terms. Without considering die polysemy of tiiese terms and 

witiiout recognizing tiiat separate contrast-sets are being 

utilized, one might be puzzled by tiiese superficially contradictory applications of terms. Such examples of polysemous terms 

can be sorted out only by isolating the senses of those terms and 

noting die contrast-sets in which they occur. Where this can be 

done, as in this example of the contrast between gotax 'tree,' 

guminix 'vine,' and rurtibux 'herbaceous weed,' it is possible to 

argue tiiat, in these senses, the tiiree terms are co-hyponyms; 

that is, that they are terms labehng conttasting subordinate 

classes tiiat are included in some superordinate class. Lyons 

(1977:298) has noted that "lexical gaps" in English frequendy 

occur in which terms seem to contrast but have no superordinate term in a taxonomy. 

In cases such as that of 'tree,' 'vine,' and 'herbaceous weed' 

in die Tobelo language, we must posit a higher-level class, 

which we may call PLANT or FLORAL FORM, which has 

tiiese senses of each of the Tobelo terms listed above as its 

subclasses. The method of co-hyponymy consists essentially of 

identifying a set of terms tiiat can be shown to direetiy contrast 

in at least one of tiieir senses, but which have no superordinate 

term to label the entire set Having posited a FLORAL FORM 

domain by this method, we stiU have not resolved die problem 

of die boundaries of the domain, altiiough it must minimally 

include die fuU range of die tiiree subordinate terms on whose 

basis die FLORAL FORM class was posited. To more direetiy 

establish the boundary of die FLORAL FORM domain, we 

may turn to the method of "definitional implication." 

4.4 The Method of Definitional Implication 

The method of "definitional implication," which is introduced here as a method for the determination of certain kinds of 

lexical domains, is based upon the assumption that the 

description of any set of lexemes in a language is only a part of 

die larger task of describing die entire lexicon of tiiat language. 

In some cases, the description of certain lexemes requires 

positing covert classes of objects to which those lexemes are 

presumed to apply. Some of the Tobelo terms discussed below 

(such as 'male,' 'female,' or 'fat') seem to be partly defined by 

the classes of objects to which they are presumed to apply, and 

cannot be identified by any characteristics of objects properly 

labeled by die terms tiiemselves. 

The results of making these assumptions about positing 

unlabeled classes may be seen in die next diagram, which 

represents aU die basic or "generic" terms witiiin the posited 

BIOTIC FORM domain as if they were on the same "basic" (or 

B°) level. This is consistent with die fact tiiat the distinctiveness 

of these terms has long been recognized in folk biological 

nomenclature, and, as wUl be detaUed below (see 5.1 below), it 

is possible to distinguish, on nomenclature! grounds, Tobelo 

terms below die basic level (i.e., B- terms) from terms at basic 

and higher levels (B° or B+ terms). Levels below B° are not 

represented in the diagram. The highest lexically labeled 

classes in the FLORAL FORM (or "PLANT") domain are only 

at me B+1 level, whde some FAUNAL FORMS are labeled two 

levels above die basic terms. The large numbers of named basic 

classes cannot be included on this diagram; die line extending 

to die right of most contrast sets of basic terms, and die dots 

foUowing die examples Usted, wUl substitute for die odier basic 

terms not listed (tiiere are, for example, approximately 146 

basic classes of 'fish,' though only two are Usted). The 

significance of die broken hne connecting the 'human being' (o 

nyawa) class to FAUNAL FORM wiU be discussed below. 

Alinei (1974; cf. Taylor, 1977), whose tiieory of lexical 

structure has suggested tiiis view of a lexical domain (Alinei, 

1974:69-151), offers a systematic attempt to identify the 

underlying structure of lexemes in one domain in terms of 

sense-components drawn from die entire Italian lexicon. Unltice 

AUnei, however, I have here restricted die analysis of a 

particular domain to an example (BIOTIC FORM) established 

by a sense-component tiiat is not itself realized by any lexeme 

in die language, altiiough it is required in die definition of odier 

lexemes. I have further restricted die analysis to outiining the 

hyponymic relations of this posited BIOTIC FORM domain to 

otiier labeled and unlabeled classes within the domain. 

It is clear from definitions of lexemes witiiin folk taxonomies 

tiiat a superordinate class may appear in die definition of 

subordinately related classes. Thus, for example, "bird" wtil 

probably have "animal" as a feature in its definition, just as 

"owl" and "robin" wdl probably have die notion of "bird" in 

tiieir definitions. More importandy, "bird" wdl probably also 

be found in die definition of at least the primary senses of other 

words too. It is die implied class of subjects of verbs like tweet 

or chirp (compare hoot and its implied subject owl); it is also 

likely to be found in a definition of beak, (to) perch, or feather. 

If, in EngUsh, we happened to have names for die various types 

of bird (robin, sparrow, etc.) but no word for "bird," we could 

stiU posit a BIRD class because the occurrence of a 

sense-component BIRD in the definition of so many lexemes in 

EngUsh would aUow us to posit a covert BIRD class implied in 

die definitions of tiiose terms. It is more parsimonious to posit 

the class and tiien use it in those terms' definitions tiian it would 

be to repeat in each term's definition a more detaUed statement 

of die class of objects (i.e., birds) to which each of tiiose terms 

can apply. 

Similarly, I have posited biotic classes apparendy implied in 

die definitions of the rich Tobelo lexicon dealing witii animal 

and plant forms. Etiinobiologists have often noted die wealth of 

terms applying to animals or plants, but have seldom used these 

to derive covert classes. In die case of Tobelo terms, I 

systematically reviewed all entries in Hueting's (1908c) 

Tobelo-Dutch dictionary as well as my own data on terms 

relating to plants and animals, first with a key informant 

familiar with my semantic analyses, and later witii other Tobelo 

at Kampung Pasir Putih (Jailolo District Halmahera). We 

selected as potentially productive several hundred terms for 

plant and animal parts and products; for cutting, processing, 
48 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

opahi 'coral' 

o tali ma tdarono '(certain) sponges' 

o gauku 'mushrooms, shelf fungi' 

o lulumiti 'moss, mould, bryozoa, 

smaller algae' 

o kalibaharu "black coral' 

o rurubu 

o gahika 

'seaweed' 

4° 

l— o 

w 

— o bunga 

'decorative flower' 

H 

< — 

PQ 

BAMBOO 

PANDAN 

keketuku 

o guhungiri 

o bico 'Cycas sp.' 

o kahitela 'maize' 

o boboro 'nipa palm' 

/er *— o 

-t 

-t: 

bunga-tanjung 

bunga-popohu 

o tuwiki 

o tiba 

liliama 

o buho 

GRAIN - E 

1— o 

ed' I— o 

o gumini p- ° 

'vine' *— o 

o guapo 

o boteme 

o pine 

— orurubu 

'herbacceous weed1 

takiu 

hae-haeke 

bidoho 

hurutu 

1

 o gota 

'tree' 

1— ofahihuku 

I— o namo-namo 

i—s i 

<? /wfo ma totodenge 'starfish' 

o mumuru 'sea urchin' 

o bianga 

'mollusk' 

o bato-batoko 

>- o guguli 

o aewani, 

'animal' 

o gohomanga 'crocodile' 

o gaeru sea anemone' 

o manjanga 'deer' 

I— o aili 'centipede' 

o aewani p- o hohagi 2 1- o hohagaleke 'gecko' 

'mere (insignificant) *— o iuru 'ant' 

animal' 

o totaleo 

"bird' 

o dodiha 

'snake' 

o nawoko 

'fish' 

-t: 

-t 

—i-ol 

*— oi 

meleu 

o hohonotoko 

opakaka 

o lakoiwa 

hilowana 

iafa 

- o nyawa 

'human being' 
NUMBER 34 49 

cultivating, or handling plants, animals, or tiieir products; for 

sounds or actions done by, or for characteristics of, plants or 

animals—in short, any terms tiiat seemed related to living 

things and which might possibly contain some subclass of 

tiving things as part of their definition. These were quickly 

narrowed down to a smaU fraction of die number originaUy 

investigated, because rough attempts to develop componential 

definitions of such terms quickly indicated that it was not 

necessary to posit any covert classes in order to define most of 

die terms. 

Ideally, sense-components witiiin definitions in the Tobelo 

lexicon would be given using Tobelo lexemes for sensecomponents that are realized in the Tobelo language. Any 

metalanguage (including potentially one derived from Tobelo) 

could be used for tiiose sense-components not direetiy realized 

in Tobelo. This goal of developing a fuUy "emic dictionary" 

remains extremely difficult for many practical reasons (Pawley, 

1970), altiiough we can still analyze individual domains or 

portions of domains using assumptions tiiat would make up 

such a dictionary. 

Upon examination, the great majority of terms relating to 

plants and animals do not when adequately defined, turn out to 

contain any classes of BIOTIC FORM in their definitions. It is 

important to emphasize that we should posit covert classes of 

objects in die definitions of terms only if alternative definitions 

cannot suffice to define die term in question. It is insufficient to 

argue that, because terms like 'leaf or 'wing' apply only to 

plants or animals, they presume the existence of a PLANT or 

ANIMAL class. If those structures can be defined by reference 

to shape or function they do not require notions of PLANT or 

ANIMAL in their definitions. 

We may consider in order die four features or sensecomponents (living vs. non-Uving, sexual vs. non-sexual, 

breathing vs. non-breathing, and fatty vs. non-fatty) that allow 

us to posit covert classes above the B+2 level, then we wUl 

consider the covert B+1 classes of FLORAL FORM implied in 

die definitions of otiier terms. No evidence has been found for 

positing covert subclasses of FAUNAL FORM. 

1. Living vs. Non-living (+L vs. -L) 

Organisms that may be said to 'live' (-wangox) or 'die' 

(-honengex) constitute the class of BIOTIC FORMS, the class 

of all organisms that are the implied subjects of 'live' and 'die,' 

a class implied in the definition of these lexemes. Only this 

primary sense of the verbs 'live' and 'die' can be used in die 

participial form ma ngango 'living' or ma honenge 'dead.' 

However, several otiier senses of these terms must be 

distinguished. Thus a motor or a fire may be said to -wango2 

'hve' ('to run,' 'to burn') or 'die' ('stop running,' 'stop 

burning'), but the participial forms ma ngango 'living' and ma 

honenge 'dead' can refer only to BIOTIC FORMS and not to 

tiiese special cases. A disease or recurrent sickness, as well as 

any of over a dozen locally named varieties of o tokata 'ghost' 

may be said to -wango3 'act up, flare up' (i.e., be temporarily 

active), though the form -honenge 'die' is not applied to the 

apparent disappearance of tiiese entities and tiiey may never be 

considered ma ngango 'living.' There is in addition another 

sense, -wango^ 'to grow (of its own accord without being 

planted),' contrasting with -datomo 'be planted, cultivated.' 

This is a special sense tiiat again does not form die participial, 

and cultivated plants can of course be said to -wangox 'live.' 

The class of BIOTIC FORMS may be posited as the 

highest-level covert class establishing the domain of investigation. 

2. Sexual vs. Non-sexual (+S vs. -S) 

A class of SEXUAL BIOTIC FORMS may be posited on the 

basis of die lexemes (ma) nauru 'male' and (ma) beka 'female'; 

that is, the class of SEXUAL BIOTIC FORMS contains all 

those BIOTIC FORMS expected to have 'male' and 'female' 

subclasses. It includes botii FAUNAL and FLORAL forms as 

weU as 'seaweeds' and 'black coral.' Only o pahi 'coral,' o 

gauku 'mushrooms and shelf fungi,' o lulumiti 'moss, mould, 

bryozoa, smaller algae,' and o tali ma Harono '(certain) 

sponges' are not expected to possess tiiis distinction. 

While the male-female distinction is recognized as one 

associated witii mating and reproduction at least among aewani 

'animals' (and of course humans), male and female plants are 

not considered to mate for reproduction. The local definitions 

of 'male' and 'female' do not coincide witii a biologist's notion 

of sexual difference in animal and plant species; very often 

plants considered 'male' and female' forms of the same basic 

(B°) folk class are from different botanical families (Taylor, 

1980a:224-225). Tobelo informants from several vtilages have 

volunteered die information that "aU" 'trees' 'vines,' and 

'herbaceous weeds' have botii 'male' and 'female' forms of 

each basic class tiiough they were not famUiar with all the male 

and female plant forms. In fact however, basic plant classes 

whose 'male' and 'female' subclasses are known are far from 

die majority; informants also differ in tiieir famdiarity with the 

often esoteric knowledge of 'male' and 'female' forms. Among 

'animals' (aewanix), Tobelo seem to assume there is mating 

and reproduction among 'male' and 'female' forms of each of 

these FAUNAL FORMS, and sometimes they are perceptive 

enough to recognize valid morphological signs of these 

organisms' sex (e.g., the widened abdominal segments on die 

undersides of female crabs). For most insects, worms, fish, and 

odier animals, however, tiiey are quite at a loss to recognize 

whether any particular organism is in fact 'male' or 'female,' 

tiiough the presumption again is that there must be 'male' and 

'female' forms. 

3. Breathing vs. Non-breathing (+B vs. -B) 

The BREATHERS, including all FLORAL and FAUNAL 

FORMS, form a subclass of SEXUAL BIOTIC FORMS 
50 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

defined by the ability to 'breatiie' (-womaha). AbiUty to breatiie 

implies possession of a 'tiiroat' (ma ngomaha). Apparendy 

considered die breaming organ, the ngomaha 'tiiroat' refers to 

the esophagus and windpipe of vertebrates and to die 

esophagus of other animals, and to die stem cavities or the 

central core of stem tissue in vascular plants. It seems to be 

considered an organ of central importance to die survival of 

plants and animals. 

I have tentatively noted in die preceding diagram die posited 

existence of a class of organisms, the NON-BREATHERS, 

which may contrast with BREATHERS as die subclass of aU 

SEXUAL BIOTIC FORMS that cannot 'breathe' and have no 

'throat' This class, the most tentative of all tiiose posited here, 

is not required by or implied in die definition of any lexeme. It 

unites seaweeds, sea grasses,and 'black coral.' All members of 

this class are plant-like organisms living attached in similar 

ways to the sea floor or to objects on the sea floor, and are 

considered to have 'male' and 'female' forms but to lack 

'throats.' The Tobelo B+1 term o rurubu o gahika 'seaweed' is 

anomalous in that it does not contrast with any other B+1 term; 

it is also nomenclaturaUy anomalous and can be shown to be a 

recent introduction translating the North Moluccan Malay term 

rumput laut 'sea weed.' 

4. Fatty vs. Non-fatty (+F vs. -F) 

The Tobelo noun haki 'fat,' and verb -hold 'to have fat' are 

otiier lexemes that seem to be defined pardy by die class of 

objects presumed to possess diem, and we may caU tiiat class 

FAUNAL FORMS. All aewani 'animals' and bianga 'molluscs' are presumed to have hold 'die layer of substance 

occurring between the outer skin and die flesh of FAUNAL 

FORMS'—even tiiose FAUNAL FORMS (such as tiny 

insects) that are too small for Tobelo to physically determine 

whetiier such a layer is present 

The BREATHERS that are not FAUNAL FORMS may be 

caUed the class of FLORAL FORMS (or PLANTS). We have 

seen that such a class must be posited because of die 

co-hyponymy of the contrast set 'tree'-'vine'-'herbaceous 

weed.' Several lexemes appear to be candidates for having the 

FLORAL FORM class in their definition, but perhaps the 

strongest would be die word utu, which may be glossed 'die 

body or entirety of a PLANT on which a PLANT part is 

located.' Thus leaves, roots, flowers, etc., may be said to be ma 

utu-oka 'on die plant' (even though they are not on the main 

stem of the plant). No "part" of any loose branch, bamboo, or 

wooden vessel, or of any non-FLORAL FORM such as 

mushroom or seaweed, or other object may be said to be ma 

utu-oka, except parts of FLORAL FORMS. In this sense die 

term does not label a taxon or function Idee die noun aewani 

'animal,' but it is often correcdy translated 'plant' in EngUsh. 

Thus to distinguish die 'tobacco plant' (o tabako) from die 

'cigarette' (also o tabako) Tobelorese may add ma utu 'its 

entirety of plant,' i.e., "the plant" 

To summarize the discussion of classes tentatively posited at 

die B+3 level and above, we may offer componential definitions 

of tfie covert classes posited (Table 3). The fact that such 

definitions can be arrived at indicates tiiat these are classes that 

could be used by die Tobelo tiiemselves. AU of tiiese classes 

except the NON-BREATHER class were found necessary to 

posit in order to define lexemes in die Tobelo language. The 

NON-BREATHER class has so many distinctive features, and 

die separation of its 'seaweed' from its 'black coral' subclasses 

seems so atypical and probably intrusive, that die class has been 

posited here for tiiose reasons. Because no such argument could 

be sustained for grouping togetiier die asexual biotic forms into 

one class, die four "basic" classes having the features +L 

(living) and -S (non-sexual) have not been grouped into one 

posited class, and do not appear in tiiis summary. 

In addition to tiiese classes at level B+3 or higher, there is 

evidence for tiiree covert classes of FLORAL FORM: 

BAMBOO, GRAIN, and PANDAN. Each of these covert 

classes has been observed lexicalized in some phrase of die 

form 'ratiier like an X,' where 'X' is some particularly focal 

member of the covert class. 

It should be noted tiiat the form o bunga 'decorative flower,' 

seen at die B+1 level in die diagram on page 48, seems to be a 

recent intrusive term from Indonesian, just as the concept of 

planting and cultivating flowers around die home for purely 

decorative purposes is apparendy a recent phenomenon. 

Although this term bunga is polysemous in Tobelo, it is 

apparendy used to designate tiiis subclass of FLORAL 

FORMS; thus it is not necessary to posit a covert DECORATIVE FLOWER class in this case. 

The covert B+1 classes of FLORAL FORM, along with the 

evidence for positing them, may now be considered. 

1. BAMBOO 

The posited BAMBOO class is lexically realized by die form 

hoka o tiba-oli 'rather lika a tiba (Schizostachyum sp.) 

bamboo,' and includes ten basic (B°) classes. Like die 

non-lexemic phrases tiiat realize die otiier covert classes of 

FLORAL FORM, die phrase means "ratiier tike" the most 

culturally important basic class of plants within the covert 

class. 

The class must be posited because only the young shoots of 

members of this BAMBOO class may be termed o dibtiru 

TABLE 3.—Unlabeled classes of Tobelo BIOTIC FORM above B+2 level. 

Level Unlabeled class Componential definition 

B*5 

B

+s 

B + 4 

B*» 

B

+3 

B

+3 

BIOTIC FORM 

SEXUAL BIOTIC FORM 

BREATHER 

NON-BREATHER 

FAUNAL FORM 

FLORAL FORM (= PLANT) 

+L 

+L 

+L 

+L 

+L 

+L 

+S 

+S 

+S 

+s 

+s 

+B 

-B 

+B 

+B 

+F 

-F 
NUMBER 34 51 

(Dodinga dialect, cf. ojibtiru in Boeng dialect of Tobelo). Thus 

this lexeme must be defined as 'young shoot of BAMBOO,' 

and die covert class is implied in die definition of the lexeme. 

Hueting's (1908c:22 and 325) Tobelo-Dutch dictionary lists 

die terms o badiku and o tabadiku, which he notes are of 

Ternatese origin, and which he translates "bamboo, general 

name" and "bamboo" respectively. These words were unfamtiiar to my Boeng and Dodinga dialect informants, however. 

2. GRAIN 

The "basic" class o pine 'rice' is subdivided into fifteen B- 2 

subclasses. Though undoubtedly otiiers could be found if aU 

villages were investigated specifically for 'rice' varieties, these 

represent aU varieties known at my two field site vUlages 

(where rice is not a major staple). The only other known 

subclasses of GRAIN are o boteme Ttatian mtilet' (Setaria 

italica (L.) Beauv.) and o guapo '(probably) sorghum' 

(Sorghum bicolor Moench). The GRAIN class may be realized 

by die phrase hoka o pine-oli 'ratiier like rice.' It appears to be 

necessary to posit this class in order to define die term (ma) afa 

'chaff of GRAIN.' Despite die large vocabulary associated with 

rice and miUet cultivation, I found no otiier term requiring 

GRAIN in its definition. 

3. PANDAN 

PANDAN is here posited as a covert class, containing five 

basic classes of pandanaceous plants, because it is required in 

die definition of at least one of die terms used to describe die 

handling of pandanaceous leaves: -hakoto 'to gather PANDAN 

leaves.' The apparent lexical realization of this class is quite 

commonly used, i.e., 'ratiier like a buho (Pandanus sp.)' (buho 

is the most culturaUy important form of pandanaceous plant). 

The verb -hakoto cannot even be used for die superficially 

similar action of gathering boboro (Nipa palm) leaves. As with 

the lexical realizations of other covert classes posited here, die 

phrase 'ratiier like an X' could hardly be considered sufficient 

evidence for die class \f it were only used to describe otiier 

plants; instead, it is used as a noun to designate die whole class. 

Before concluding, it is necessary to comment on die 

placement of the o nyawa 'human being' class within this 

scheme of Tobelo BIOTIC FORMS. Only this class stands out 

as having no basic ("generic") terms. If one considers (as I do 

not) tiiat the purpose of positing higher-level covert classes is 

only to show the classificatory associations of aU the basic 

terms in the domain, men we need not concern ourselves with 

the position of this class, as it is not labeled by a basic term. 

Because it seems in some contexts to contrast with aewanix 

'animal,' we may tentatively place it at level B+2 in the diagram 

on page 48. In any case, tiiese levels are only important insofar 

as they indicate relations of class inclusion among subclasses of 

BIOTIC FORM; no claim is made for particular characteristics 

of terms or classes at any level except the basic one, and 

presumably those who do make such claims for characteristics 

of particular levels (e.g., Beriin et al., 1974; Brown, 1977, 

1979,1984) wiU have means of recognizing the levels to which 

their generalizations apply. 

Nevertheless, the 'human being' class does meet die defining 

features of the FAUNAL FORM class, and thus of all the 

superordinate classes, and must be included in this diagram and 

in our analysis for that reason. The broken line is used to 

indicate tiiat, whde included for those reasons, this 'human 

being' class is sufficiendy different from other BIOTIC 

FORMS to be distinguished in tiiat fashion on the diagram. 

Witii that addition, we may say that the diagram summarizes 

die posited relations among labeled and unlabeled classes tiiat 

form the Tobelo system of classification of aU BIOTIC 

FORMS above the "basic" (or "generic") level. 

4.5 Conclusion and Summary 

This chapter has criticized some metiiods for positing 

unlabeled classes ("covert categories") in folk classification, 

and introduced some otiiers. In particular, the disadvantages of 

positing covert categories on the basis of tests for perceived 

simUarity among organisms has been emphasized Categories 

derived from such tests may prove useful in describing local 

perceptions about animals and plants but cannot produce 

classes of the sort that belong in a linguistic description of a 

semantic domain. 

By instead focusing on co-hyponymous contrast sets within 

folk taxonomies, and by examining a wide range of vocabulary 

items for classes implied in their definitions, it may be possible 

to avoid some of tiiese difficulties. The methods of cohyponymy and of definitional implication used here do produce 

classes tiiat seem to have some "psychological reahty" because 

tiiey can be shown to underly lexemes used in the language 

under study. Nevertheless, it is also possible to consider diem 

purely heuristic devices tiiat may be used to describe locaUy 

perceived similarities among named animal and plant forms. 

I prefer to consider die metiiods of co-hyponymy and 

definitional implication techniques for establishing a lexical 

field (cf. Lehrer, 1974:15-45>—in the example considered 

here, die field of die BIOTIC FORM in Tobelo. The usefulness 

of the covert classes so posited depends primarily on tiieir 

abtiity to assist in adequately describing the classificatory 

relationships among all the labeled classes tiiat divide up that 

field. This is die task to which we now turn in the next and final 

chapter. 
5. The Tobelo Folk Classification of BIOTIC FORMS 

5.0 Introduction 

This final chapter at last takes up matters of everyday Tobelo 

conversational interest, and present conclusions which (if tiiey 

could adequately be translated) Tobelo tiiemselves would, I 

tiiink, happily discuss and experdy argue without even the 

shghtest training in any methods of analysis used here. While 

nomenclature is so basic as to be taken for granted, and 

unlabeled classes do not easUy become topics of conversation, 

the "proper" names for and boundaries of folk segregates (cf. 

2.3) and die classificatory relationships among classes of plants 

and animals—especially tiiose at or closest to the "basic" (B°) 

level—are matters of intense local concern. 

Much of the discussion to this point has referred to die 

"basic" term or level. The first section (5.1) of this chapter 

presents the evidence for its distinctiveness; the second (5.2) 

presents an overview of die Tobelo "classificatory framework," 

or die framework of structural relations among Tobelo folk 

classes. That framework consists of a wide, shaUow set of 

taxonomic relations. Those taxonomic relations vary considerably, tiiough, from "model" taxonomies (5.2.1.1) because of 

the "residue" of higher-level terms (5.2.2.1), non-symmetric 

contrast (5.2.2.2), ambiguous class membership (5.2.2.3), and 

die occasional dual position held by a single class in die same 

classificatory structure (5.2.2.4). Within that framework, other 

non-taxonomic relations among classes occur, such as crosscutting subclasses of the B° term (5.2.3.1), 'mother*-'chdd' 

relations (5.2.3.2), growtii stages (5.2.3.3), intersecting subclasses of a folk class (5.2.3.4), and some classes tiiat seem only 

to be "posited" by die Tobelo—i.e., predicted by tiieir own 

complex system of folk biological classification but never yet 

observed (5.2.3.5). Evidence below from specific subdomains 

of FLORAL and FAUNAL FORM wdl Ulustrate the cooccurrence of these various types of classificatory relation. 

5.1 The "Basic"-ness of the Basic Term 

The apparently universal distinctiveness of one "level" of 

terms (which we may call "basic terms" (Conktin, 1954:163)) 

in folk biological classification has long been recognized (e.g., 

Bardett, 1940; Berlin, 1976:385-386).1 There is ample 

evidence tiiat the Tobelo also recognize this level as distinct. 

However, attempts to define the "basic" level by nomenclatural 

properties of the basic term are of limited applicability in die 

Tobelo case (5.1.1). Furdier evidence for die distinctiveness of 

die "basic" term and level is suggested by die usage of these B° 

terms in natural contexts (5.1.2), and especially by die 

distinctive treatment of the basic term in Tobelo noun 

"sequencing," or noun post position modification by otiier 

nouns (5.1.3). 

5.1.1 The Limited Applicability of Nomenclatural Criteria for 

Distinguishing "Basic" Tobelo Terms 

Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven (1974:29) suggest that in folk 

taxonomies of plants and animals the basic ("generic") terms 

can be identified on the basis of tiieir distinction between 

"primary" and "secondary" lexemes: 

Some taxa marked by primary lexemes are terminal or immediately include 

taxa designated by secondary lexemes. Taxa satisfying these conditions are 

generic; their labels are generic names. 

Though I have expressed some reservations above (3.4) 

about this distinction between "primary" and "secondary" 

lexemes, more immediate problems witii relying on this 

distinction to recognize the basic level are (1) tiiat it cannot 

determine die level of terms such as Tobelo 'starfish,' 

'mushroom,' or 'black coral,' which have no named superclass 

or subclasses (this, however, is a problem for any nomenclatural basis for distinguishing the B° level, including die 

generalization proposed below); and (2) it admits exceptions in 

cases where, for example, a single culturaUy important class of 

plants may have many "species" (B_1 classes) labeled by 

primary terms—witiiout providing directions on how such 

exceptions may be recognized (odier tiian the easily recognizable exceptions such as those of unmarked terms (Berlin's 

(1976:391-393) "type specifics")): 

Type specific monomials, however, do not exhaust the inventory of monomial 

specific names in Aguaruna. In several important cultivated plants, specific taxa 

labeled by primary lexemes have been elicited which cannot be analyzed as 

examples of type species. This nomenclatural feature is especially common for 

die critical cultigens banana, manioc, yam, and cocoyam (Xanthosoma).... 

Data from Terrence Hays on the Ndumba of New Guinea and Nancy Turner's 

materials from the Pacific Northwest also include cases of monomial specific 

names which are not analyzable as labels for type species. However, such 

expressions occur in a predictable fashion, and it now appears that where a 

generic taxon is further partitioned into specific classes, and one or more of die 

included species are monomiaUy designated (type specifics excluded), the 

monomial(s) will invariably refer to a taxon of major cultural importance. One 

will not find, in light of this hypothesis, monomial, non-type-specific names for 

organisms which lack major cultural significance. [Emphasis in original.] 

But any prospective basic ("generic") class's degree of 

"major cultural importance" seems difficult to quantify and 

compare witii tiiat of otiiers in order to determine its level. Thus 

die o noara 'ray' class (clearly a basic term, contrasting with 

158 other terms as immediate subclasses of o nawoko 'fish') is 

immediately subdivided, in B dialect into 13 B_1 terms, all 

52 
NUMBER 34 53 

labeled by primary lexemes; yet it is difficult to judge to what 

major cultural importance tiiey owe this honor. They are 

sometimes eaten but so are other fishes. (Several odier basic 

'fish' classes are also subdivided into B_1 classes labeled by 

primary terms; see Appendix 2.3.) Based on this criterion, the 

'crab' and 'shrimp' classes (whose B_1 terms are also labeled 

by primary lexemes) would be at the B+1 level, unless we 

considered die fact tiiat they are sometimes eaten evidence of 

overwhelming cultural importance. But then what of die 'bat' 

class (o manoko)! It is immediately subdivided (in B dialect) 

into seven subclasses labeled by primary terms (one unmarked 

subclass, two subclasses labeled by terms tiiat have die 'bat' 

term as head of the compound or phrase, and four sub-classes 

in which the higher-level 'bat' term does not appear). The bats 

in only two of these subclasses are occasionally eaten (the 

unmarked subclass (simple word) and one labeled by an 

endocentric compound having manoko 'bat' as its head). The 

otiiers have no apparent cultural importance or use. One might 

argue that o manoko 'bat' is then a B+1 term, and tiiis would 

explain die "primary lexemes" at die level of its subclasses; but 

die fact that one of tiiose subclasses is labeled by an endocentric 

phrase and tiiat o manoko 'bat' behaves like a basic term in 

noun "sequencing" (5.1.3; e.g., o aewani o manoko [Uterally:] 

'bat animal'), mUitate against such an interpretation. 

A similar argument could be made in tiie FLORAL FORM 

domain for considering Tobelo 'banana' (o bole) a B+1 

(Berlin's "life form") rather tiian a B° (basic) term. Yoshida 

(1980) has argued precisely tiiis point for the banana class (also 

Galela o bole) in the very closely-related Galela language. 

Whde tiiat might be true of Galela, it is as tempting for me to 

read Tobelo information into his largely cognate Galela data, as 

it undoubtedly would be for any student of tiiat language to find 

Galela echoes in Tobelo data presented here. Based on such a 

reading, I can only suggest that if the same evidence presented 

tiiere for Galela were simUarly presented for die Tobelo 

'banana' class, it would remain unconvincing. Aside from otiier 

evidence from the Tobelo "sequencing" of nouns (which may 

not apply to Galela), Yoshida's data indicate that Galela 

'banana' (o bole) is immediately subdivided into 'cultivated' 

and 'wild' bananas (as are Tobelo forms). Unlike this class in 

Tobelo, however, 'cultivated banana' is immediately subdivided into 'male' and 'female' varieties (respectively, Gal: o 

bole ma nau and o bole ma bedeka). Ignoring anotiier level of 

covert categories that Yoshida inserts into the taxonomy, it 

should be clear tiiat, unless other B+1 classes in Galela (such as 

'tree') can be subdivided into the cultivated/wild and die 

male/female dichotomies, which they apparendy cannot (and 

certainly cannot in Tobelo), then positing 'banana' as a B+1 

class would mean that this is die only B+1 class for which such 

dichotomies, normaUy used only to subdivide die "basic" 

terms, may apply to a higher-level plant group! Comparing 

Galela with Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven's (1974:415,432-8) 

Tzeltal data, Yoshida (1980:130) notes: 

The differences between die Galela and the Tzeltal cases appear to depend on 

the number of terminal taxa (IS terminal taxa in the Tzeltal case) and the 

abbreviation of die labels of the varieties of banana. 

As noted above (3.4), die distinction between "primary" and 

"secondary" lexemes insufficiendy handles die phenomenon of 

so-called "abbreviation." But even though Yoshida's evidence 

tiiat 'banana' is a B+1 term is considered unacceptable here, he 

is quite correct in asserting that, if Berlin's own nomenclatural 

basis is our criterion for distinguishing the "basic" level, then 

our only evidence for placing a class luce Galela (or Tobelo) o 

bole 'banana' at either the B° or B+1 level consists in counting 

subclasses (the "number of terminal taxa") of tiiese "culturaUy 

important" types. But classificatory relations among folk 

segregates should surely be determinable witiiout reference to 

the number of subclasses any folk class has. (Other evidence 

for con-sidering o bole 'banana' a basic term in Tobelo can be 

derived from die "sequencing rule" below (5.1.3).) 

In order to distinguish basic terms on a nomenclatural basis, 

a hypothesis is here proposed tiiat appears vahd for Tobelo, and 

which does not use die "primary"-"secondary" distinction. Of 

course, tiiose who prefer to use the latter distinction wdl 

undoubtedly prefer to interpret tiiis generaUzation in die tight of 

tiiat typology of lexemic types. Even tiiough in most cases die 

same terms would be determined to be at die basic level, defects 

witii that dichotomy of lexemic types (see above, 3.2.2.3) 

would require that any nomenclatural hypothesis presented 

here be rephrased. 

The nomenclatural hypothesis to be proposed is in fact 

derived by generalizing from all tiiose cases in die Tobelo 

BIOTIC FORM domain in which basic (B°) classes can be 

recognized by any otiier (non-nomenclatural) linguistic criteria. 

The latter include die "sequencing" rule (5.1.3), as weU as die 

fact tiiat most basic terms clearly stand out as those belonging 

to the very "wide" contrast sets, which immediately subdivide 

the labeled B+1 classes of FAUNAL and FLORAL form ('fish,' 

'bird,' 'tree,' 'vine,' etc.). 

THE TOBELO NOMENCLATURAL RULE.—As a generalization 

tiiat holds for aU cases in which die level of Tobelo terms is 

known, and as a hypothesis extended to handle tiiose terms 

whose level would otiierwise be indeterminate, we may state 

dial, among Tobelo terms labeling subclasses of BIOTIC 

FORM, lexemic phrases that are morphosyntacticaUy endocentric, and in which the head consists of a term for a class 

superordinate to die class labeled by tiiat endocentric phrase, 

can only be used to label B- classes (i.e., subclasses of "basic" 

(B°) classes). Thus, continuing a previous example, endocentric 

phrases such as o bole ofonganika 'jungle banana,' in which 

die head (bole 'banana') consists of a term labeting a class 

superordinate to tiiat labeled by die phrase, are hypotiiesized to 

occur at B~ levels only. Thus the class immediately superordinate (o bole 'banana') cannot be a B+1

 term (and is presumably, 

then, a B° term). 

This generaUzation assumes that yeha or ayo 'motiier' is die 
54 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

head in phrases such as o iuru ma yeha 'ant's mother' (most 

winged forms of Formicidae),just as the 'servant' is the head in 

basic terms such as o digo ma gilaongo 'servant of digo' 

(Pseudelepanthopus spicatus (B. Juss. ex Aubl.) CF. Baker) 

(3.2.2.3). Examples of endocenttic phrases in die BIOTIC 

FORM domain were given above (3.2.2.3), where it was noted 

tiiat such phrases typicaUy are used only below die B° level. 

There is some truth to the possible objection that when 

emphasis is here placed on die "endocentric phrases," which 

label subclasses of a basic class, I am simply substituting one 

classification of lexemic types (based on slighdy different 

distinctions) for die admittedly suggestive "primary" vs. 

"secondary" distinction frequendy used. This may be true for 

many cases in which a B" term is labeled by an endocentric 

phrase tiiat would also be considered a "secondary lexeme" in 

Beriin's typology. It is not, however, relevant to cases (such as 

the 'bat' example above) in which some terms of a contrast-set 

are simple words and otiiers are endocentric phrases. In such 

cases, Beriin's criteria would require that aU the terms of such 

a contrast set be considered "primary lexemes" and of 

indeterminate level. The rule proposed here indicates tiiat 

endocentric phrases having higher-level terms as heads in 

Tobelo are found only at levels below B°, indicating tiiat such 

a contrast-set must consist of B- terms. 

As presented here, this generaUzation also clarifies how the 

"cross-cutting" classes (5.2.3.1) (which would otiierwise be at 

indeterminate levels) should be placed in die classificatory 

structure. For example, the apparently basic-level class o rukiti 

'Gnetum spp.' is divided into two subclasses, one of which (o 

rukiti o gota 'tree rukiti') may alternatively be referred to as 

'good rukiti' (o rukiti ma oa), while die odier, 'vine rukiti,' may 

also be called 'bad rukiti' (o rukiti ma dorou). Botii these terms 

using 'good' and 'bad' as attributives are endocentric phrases 

labeling B- classes. The fact tiiat in tiiis and odier cases tiiey are 

synonymous with phrases such as o rukiti o gota 'tree rukiti' 

indicates tiiat the latter phrases must also label B- classes, even 

when they have no synonymous endocentric phrases using 

attributives like 'good' or 'bad.' Though terms for cross-cutting 

subclasses can be identified on morphosyntactic grounds as 

endocenttic or exocentric phrases, note tiiat it would be difficult 

to determine if they are "primary" or "secondary" lexemes, 

since mat distinction is based on ideaUy taxonomic relations 

among classes, and may not apply when non-taxonomic 

"cross-cutting" (5.2.3.1) principles intersect with a taxonomy. 

Admittedly, however, tiiough the hypothesis presented here 

can determine die level of many terms, it (like die primarysecondary lexeme distinction) is Umited in appUcation, because 

some terms of indeterminate level may not have any subclasses 

lexemically labeled by endocentric phrases witii that superclass 

as their head. 

5.1.2 "Contextual" or "Cultural" Reasons for Distinguishing 

the "Basic" Level 

During everyday fieldwork, a most strikingly distinctive 

characteristic of the Tobelo basic (B°) terms recalls that which 

BerUn, Breedlove, and Raven (1974:31-32) have described for 

Tzeltal: 

[0]ur research indicates that generic taxa form the basic core of Tzeltal plant 

taxonomy. The names for such fundamental categories are those most readily 

elicited from Tzeltal informants and most easily recalled by them, suggesting 

dial they are highly salient psychologically. 

In natural conversation and odier contexts, the basic term is 

the one most commonly used by Tobelo to refer to plant and 

animal types (except aewani2 'insignificant animal') unless the 

basic type is unrecognized (e.g., a distant 'bird'), or some 

lower-level term is specifically required. In die latter case die 

basic term is still often introduced in the conversation first, then 

quaUfied by introducing its subtype (e.g., 'for that medicine 

one uses o totabako—but it must be the male (ma nauru)'). 

Also, informants seem unperturbed by die fact tiiat some basic 

classes (e.g.,0 digo (Sida spp.)) can ambiguously be considered 

eitiier in the 'tree' or the 'herbaceous weed' superclass; nor do 

tiiey seem to mind tiiat they are unfamdiar with the 'male,' 

'female,' or other subclasses of so many local FLORAL 

FORMS. Yet they can and do wiUingly argue about the "name" 

(i.e., the basic term) that properly denotes any particular 

organism. It is as if "the Elders" were especiaUy careful to 

name all the organisms with basic terms, and now tiieir 

less-gifted descendants are expected to carefully learn those, 

but often just to fend for tiiemselves at the higher and lower 

levels. 

The basic level is also distinctive because it contains contrast 

sets with far more classes than any other level of die BIOTIC 

FORM domain. While some of die contrast sets below die basic 

level may contain over a dozen classes, tiieir size is paltry 

compared to die basic level contrast-sets in such domains as 

'fish' (159 basic classes), 'bird' (86), 'moUusk' (73), 'tree' 

(315), 'vine' (88) or 'herbaceous weed' (115) classes. This 

characteristically wide, shaUow, "basic" level is common 

(probably universal) in etiinobiological classification, and tiiis 

fact clearly emphasizes that level's distinctiveneness. Yet it 

does not determine the level at which terms not found in such 

contrast-sets should be placed (e.g., terms like 'banana,' or 

'rice,' unaffiUated with any named B+1 class). 

5.1.3 The "Sequencing" of Hierarchically Related Forms as 

an Indicator of the Basic Level 

In Tobelo, there seems to be an expected order of what we 

may call die "chaining" of hierarchicaUy related terms for 

BIOTIC FORMS; just as, in English, there is an expected order 

of juxtaposed locational terms for which "Chicago, IUinois," is 

acceptable while "Chicago, America," or "Omaha, United 

States," seems unacceptable. In naming hierarchically related 

location names, the county level may optionally be "skipped," 

while the state level may not 

Of course, comparison witii location terms in English is only 

meant as an Ulustration, and the expected order of Tobelo 
NUMBER 34 55 

hierarchicaUy related, terms is a phenomenon of the Tobelo 

language, regardless of die validity of any EngUsh examples. In 

fact, Tobelo is less restrictive than English in allowing the 

juxtaposition of terms for BIOTIC FORM. Though there are 

occasional cases in English in which a basic term may precede 

its hierarchicaUy superordinate class label (e.g., "pine" or "pine 

tree") any Tobelo basic term may be preceded by any of its B+ 

class labels. Thus the dove called o ngoku (Ducula bicolor),ih& 

hawk caUed o kawihi (Accipiter spp. and otiiers, see Appendix 

2.1), or die rati called o hetaka (two kinds, see Appendix 2.1) 

may also be referred to witii o totaleo 'bird' preceding tiieir 

basic label (e.g.,o totaleo o ngoku,o totaleo o kawihi, o totaleo 

o hetaka); or alternatively may be preceded by o aewani (o 

aewani o ngoku; 'ngoku animal'), or even by botii in order from 

highest to lowest levels (e.g., o aewani o totaleo o ngoku), 

whereas English does not permit *dove bird, *dove animal, 

•dove bird animal. Below die basic level, also, die higher-level 

term precedes die lower-level one: o wama 'Citrus spp.' (or 

alternatively, o gota o wama 'Citrus tree') and o wama o 

giranga ('giranga (variety of lemon) Citrus'), or o gota o wama 

o giranga ('giranga (a variety of lemon) Citrus tree'). 

5.1.3.1 Acceptable and Unacceptable Sequences of Terms 

The distinctiveness of the basic term is clearly shown by the 

fact that in this ordering of terms from highest to lowest level, 

only the "basic" level may not be omitted between higher- and 

lower-level terms. To continue the last example, *o gota o 

giranga 'giranga (variety of lemon) tree' is not acceptable. 

Thus in this case, if we consider die B+1 term "W," die B° term 

"X," and the B"1 term "Y," the following are acceptable: 

o X o Y 

o W o X 

o W o X o Y 

—but the combination of o W o Y is not acceptable, any 

more than, e.g., English *coltie animal. 

Frequently only two or three terms are ordered in tiiis way. In 

the BIOTIC FORM domain, it is rare to find even four lexicaUy 

labeled, hierarchically related terms other than phrases or 

compounds tiiat use a higher-level term as the head of die 

phrase or compound. Phrases and compounds of that kind must 

be excluded from any sequencing rule, because Tobelo does not 

allow orderings of the form, e.g., *o bole o bole ofonganika 

'•jungle banana banana.' I have not found any clearly 

acceptable juxtaposition of five such terms (i.e., 

0V0W0X0Y0Z , 

where "X" is the basic term), but there are very few candidates 

for such a line-up; up to three at a time is common. Since only 

the FAUNAL FORM class has named B+2 terms witiiin it, one 

should expect to find such chains of terms tiiere. Though data 

are insufficient for the o bianga 'mollusk' class, only a few 

types of o nawoko 'fish' in the o aewanix animal' class have B"2 

terms that are not phrases or compounds having higher-level 

terms as heads. Of these, all but one involve growth stages (size 

classes) of fish (5.2.3.3); it might be argued tiiat die B"2 term 

(o Z) may not be appended to die chain because of tiiis fact 

(i.e., the growth-stage or size class is not a "normal" subtaxon). 

This leaves the one questionable exception: the record is held 

(in B dialect only, not D dialect—see Appendix 2.3 under o 

noara 'ray') by the B-2 term o gorohutu 'blue-spotted fantati 

ray (Taeniura lymma),' which is considered in B dialect a type 

of o gugudai (B_1), which in turn is a type of 'ray' (o noara) 

(B°), which is a type of 'fish' (o nawoko) (B+1), which is a type 

of 'animal' (o aewanix) (B+2). Thus none of five hierarchically 

related terms contains a higher-level term as compound or 

phrasal-part within it. 

Some but not aU informants at Loleba and Pasir Putih do not 

accept o gorohutu as a type of o gugudai, instead apparently 

considering it a separate B-1 term. The alternatives can be 

diagrammed (see diagram, p. 56; die horizontal line extended to 

die right indicates tiiat some other class or classes of the 

contrast set indicated by tiiat line are not included in die 

diagram). 

Informants who do consider o gorohutu to be a type of o 

gugudaix (as in A in the following diagram) say they wdl 

accept the four-term expression o nawoko o noara o gugudai o 

gorohutu; but others insist that (as in B in the diagram) o 

gugudai and o gorohutu contrast as types of 'ray.' The latter 

opinion (B) is normally expressed by a sentence such as 

idadiua hato o noara o gugudai o gorohutu 'one cannot say o 

noara o gugudai o gorohutu.' Note that any other way of 

expressing the same point (e.g., o gorohutu o gugudai-ua 'a 

gorohutu is not a gugudai') would be ambiguous because a 

listener could mistakenly understand die word gugudai in tiiat 

sentence to refer to a presumed lower-level unmarked sense 

(gugudai2 of A in the diagram), which (the speaker is saying) 

would be incorrect; tiius the expression would be insufficient to 

make his point. This example iUustrates how, in this and otiier 

cases, the juxtaposition of hierarchically related terms seems 

often to be contextuaUy related to expressing an opinion 

about—or clearing up—ambiguities of some kind. This fact 

may explain the apparent redundancy of tiiese expressions. If 

disambiguation is the function of such expressions in natural 

contexts, this may also explain why "chains" of four terms 

(e.g., o V o W o X o Y) are so rarely heard 

(tiiough nevertheless considered acceptable): offhand, it is 

difficult to imagine what term or combination of terms would 

need disambiguation at all four levels. 

By considering all tiiose sequences of terms that can occur, 

it appears that though the B° term may not be omitted between 

terms of levels higher and lower than it, any other term at any 

other level may be so omitted. Thus if we indicate die basic 

term by "X" (as above), the following are possible sequences of 
56 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

o nawoko 

'fish' 

o nawoko 

'fish' 

o noara 

'ray' 

o noara 

'ray' 

o gugudai j o gorohutu ogugudai 

o gorohutu- o gugudai 

(A) (B) 

FIGURE 9.—These two species of fish have two alternative ways of being placed in die classification of o noara 

'rays.' The ray at left (Dasyatis kuhlii) is everywhere called by the B"1 term o gorohutu (= gorofutu) in Tobelo; 

mat at right (Jaeniura lymna) is everywhere called o gugudai. Some Tobelo feel that o gugudai and o gorofutu 

are contrasting B_1 terms; others that o gorofutu is a B~2 subclass of the B"1 term o gugudaiv whose unmarked 

B~2 subclass would dien be o gugudai^ illustrated at right See discussion (5.1.3.1) and summary under the B° 

term o noara 'ray' in Appendix 2.3. 
NUMBER 34 57 

hierarchicaUy related terms, excluding phrases or compound 

words having higher-level terms as tiieir heads: 

o V o Wo X o Y 

o V o Wo X 

o Wo X o Y o Z 

o V o X 

o Wo X 

o X o Y o Z 

o X o Y 

o X o Z 

also: o V o W 

o Y o Z 

The foUowing, however, are unacceptable: 

o V o Y 

o Wo Y 

o Wo Z 

(Because, as stated above, tiiere are very few (all questionable) 

cases of five such labeled hierarchically related classes, and 

apparent contextual restrictions on their use would be great no 

information is available on the unobserved sequences 

0V0X0Z , oVoZ , oroVoWoXoYoZ. ) 

By displaying die possible sequences as above, the distinctiveness and "centrality" of die basic term ("X") can be visuaUy 

emphasized; tiiough of course it is not necessary for Tobelo to 

memorize any rule in this form. The same information on 

acceptability of sequences could be stated in several odier 

ways, all equaUy capable of saying the same thing, and aU 

equally without any justifiable claim to representing the 

"process" by which Tobelo store this rule in their memories or 

with which they make any particular utterance. 

As noted above, an important restriction on die applicability 

of tiiis rule is that it does not apply to any phrase or compound 

tiiat uses a higher-level term as the head of die phrase or 

compound. Thus, for example, the basic 'tree' class o hulahi 

(Ocimum sanctum L.) is subdivided into two B"1 classes: die 

'red hulahi' (o hulahi ma doka-dokara) and the 'white hulahi' 

(o hulahi ma gare-garehe); if the rule for sequencing B° and 

B

_1

 terms were aUowed to apply to such cases, sequences such 

as *o hulahi o hulahi ma doka-dokara (*'the red hulahi 

hulahi') could occur. 

Though the rule above was formed specifically for classes of 

BIOTIC FORM, it could presumably be considered one of 

many cases covered by some more general rule regarding die 

modtfication of nouns by postpositioning. Thus each of several 

types of cudass or long knife (o did) may be referred to by 

sequencing, e.g., o dia o humoranga 'humaranga long-knife' 

(where such phrases indicate types of o dia 'long-knife'). It 

should also be noted that phrases of the sort o gota o rukiti 

'rukiti tree' (Gnetum sp.) (i.e.,B+1 followed by B°) do not seem 

syntactically different from o rukiti o gota 'die tree rukiti' (B° 

followed by B+1'). The former names a type of 'tree' (i.e., the 

rukiti tree), while the latter names a kind of rukiti, i.e., die 'tree 

rukiti' (which contrasts witii one other subclass oi rukiti, i.e.,o 

rukiti o gumini 'the vine rukiti' Gnetum gnemonoides). Thus 

both cases exempUfy the modification of nouns by die 

postposition of other nouns. These observations are made to 

indicate tiiat the "sequencing" of hierarchically related nouns is 

not restricted to die BIOTIC FORM domain and, in a more 

complete explanation (which is not offered here), would be 

considered in die wider range of its use. 

Two further comments are required about die sequencing of 

nouns in the BIOTIC FORM domain: die first (5.1.3.2) regards 

die degree to which foreign compounds may be treated as 

compounds having a hierarchically superordinate class as tiieir 

head (for purposes of the above rule); die second (5.1.3.3) 

considers tiiose conditions under which the sequence of B° 

followed by B_1 term may be made into a Type 1 endocentric 

compound (see 3.2.2.3 above) synonymous witii the B_1 term 

(i.e., the sequence o X o Y becomes the compound o X-Y, 

synonymous witii o Y). 

5.1.3.2 Foreign Compounds in die Sequencing Rule 

It was noted above (3.2.2.1) tiiat some foreign compounds 

are best considered simple Tobelo words, ratiier than compounds, in a description of Tobelo; but that the "foreignness" of 

these foreign compounds is a matter of degree. This is direetiy 

related to die extent or degree to which such foreign 

compounds fit the conditions of the rule for "sequencing" of 

hierarchicaUy related nouns. Whereas Tobelo compounds and 

endocentric phrases tiiat have the higher-level term as their 

head cannot be sequenced Idee odier terms, the degree to which 

foreign compound words may be similarly sequenced depends 

upon die degree to which such compounds are considered 

foreign (as opposed to Tobelo) words. 

Thus, for example, the originally Ternatese compound o 

ate-jawa (< Tte hate 'tree' + jawa 'Java, Javanese'; 'Javanese 

tree') may be considered a simple Tobelo word, botii on 

nomenclatural grounds (cf. 3.2.2.1) and because it is possible to 

say o gota o ate-jawa 'atejawa tree' (if the form ate were 

recognizable as the hierarchically related 'tree' it could not be 

used in tiiis way). But in some cases the degree of "foreignness" 

is not so clear. For example, die Ternatese compound-part 

gorango- of gorango-huhu (literaUy, 'milk shark') is easdy 

recognizable as die Ternatese word for die cognate Tobelo 

garangoto (or dialectally gorangoto) 'shark.' Thus one is 

unlikely to hear the phrase *o garangoto o gorango-huhu, 

although some informants say that this phrase is possible. 

Similarly, several recently introduced subclasses of the cash 

crop o gohora 'nutmeg' (Myristica fragrans) (sometimes 

referred to by its Indonesian synonym pala) include die 
58 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Indonesian word pala 'nutmeg.' Yet because pala is sometimes 

used as a Tobelo word and is in any case an easdy recognizable 

Indonesian word, it is very unlikely (tiiough, according to some 

informants, not impossible) that one would hear a phrase such 

as * o gohora opala-patani (< Tbl: gohora 'nutmeg,' Ind: pala 

'nutmeg' (Myristica fragrans) + patani 'Patani district' 

(probably Patani, Halmahera?)). The phrase could well be 

translated 'patani-nutmeg nutmeg.' In short the degree to 

which such compounds (or phrases) are considered unacceptable varies with the degree to which die heads of such 

compounds (or phrases) are considered Tobelo terms (and tiius 

not affected by tiie "sequencing" rule above) rather tiian foreign 

forms. 

5.1.3.3 Restraints on the Freedom of Occurrence (Nonboundness) of Single Lexemes 

The preceding discussion has been concerned witii outiining 

a rule by which terms for hierarchically related classes may be 

"juxtaposed" or "sequenced" in Tobelo. It has been presumed 

(as one might expect since each term is here considered 

lexemic) tiiat any term at any level can also stand alone (e.g., 

o W, o X, or o Z). Even tiiis, however, is subject to some 

restraints. We may consider tiiese 'restraints' ratiier tiian rules 

following Bazell's (1964; quoted in Lyons, 1977:549) distinction between 'constraints' "imposed by die language system" 

and 'restraints' "to which users of the language-systems wdl 

normally conform" (cf. also Haas's (1973) distinction between 

rules and tendencies). 

By treating die generalizations to be made below as 

restraints, moreover, we can explain the fact that some (but not 

all) speakers wUl consider die use of certain lexemes in 

isolation to be unacceptable: such non-bound lexemes are, in 

effect acceptable in limited contexts, but highly "restrained." 

Such restraints should explain die fact that some simple word 

lexemes below the level of the basic term seem bound to the 

basic term (o X o Y). In some cases the B"1 term (o Y) is so 

closely bound to die B° term mat it is most frequendy said as a 

compound (o X-Y). An example is die B_1 class o papua (or o 

lulewi-papua) 'die papua [subclass of] lulewi' (Casuarina cf. 

equisetifolia) that contrasts with the unmarked o lulewi2 

(alternatively designated by die phrase o lulewi o akeriha 

'freshwater (i.e., riparian) lulewi') (Casuarina sumatrana 

Jungh ex de Vriese) as a subclass of the "basic" class labeled o 

lulewix (Casuarina spp.). In this case, the B"1 term o papua is 

so closely tied to the B° term that the simple word o papua is 

almost never heard. Informants much more readily accept (as 

they often do in tiiese cases of rather highly bound B_1 terms) 

the endocentric compound o lulewi-papua, tiian die B_1 simple 

word o papua, as a label for die class. This subclassification of 

o lulewix (Casuarina spp.) is diagrammed below (the acceptable sequence o lulewi o papua is in brackets because such a 

sequence is predictable for every such term, and is tiierefore 

neither lexemic nor limited to tiiis case). 

o lulewi 

(Casuarina spp.) 

o lulewi2 

(or:) o lulewi o akeriha 

'riparian lulewi' 

{Casuarina sumatrana 

Jungh ex de Vriese) 

+ 

opapua 

(or:) o lulewi-papua 

(or:) [o lulewi o papua] 

(Casuarina cf. equisetifolia) 

The B_1 term o papua, men, is here considered one of the B_1 

terms labeling this class—though in fact it is only lucely to be 

used when the two types of o lulewi are being compared. The 

facts (1) that even in this restricted context the simple word o 

papua is considered acceptable by Tobelo, and (2) that each 

lexeme has its own noun-marker (o) indicate tiiat o lulewi o 

papua is a sequence of the B° B_1 type (o X o Y) described 

earUer. Yet die fact tiiat o papua is used alone in so few 

contexts can be explained by die foUowing restraints (note tiiat 

these restraints, like the sequencing rule, do not apply to 

phrases or compounds in which die head of die phrase or 

compound is the term for some superordinate class). 

1. All else being equal, a B- term tiiat denotes a relatively 

more familiar organism is less bound to its superordinate B° 

term than one that denotes a relatively less familiar organism. 

"Famitiar" organisms are those commonly known and used in 

a wide variety of cultural contexts (e.g., eaten, cultivated, or 

tended). Thus o giranga (a cultivated lemon variety) or die 

names of varieties of 'banana' are B- terms tiiat are less bound 

to die higher-level term than terms for die wUd plants, such as 

(o lulewi) o papua (Casuarina sumatrana Jungh ex de Vriese), 

a tree found only in high jungles. The latter terms are tiie most 

bound, and in some cases, such as (o lulewi) o papua, die 

normal designation of die class takes die form of a compound 
NUMBER 34 59 

(o lulewi-papua). 

2. All else being equal, a B_1 term is least bound when it is 

least polysemous; these terms are most bound when tiiey are 

most highly polysemous. (This is a powerful restraint throughout the language, not just in this domain.) 

Eitiier or both restraints may operate in any particular case. 

The form o papua, for example, has the additional structuraUy 

unrelated meaning 'New Guinea' (as in several Eastern 

Indonesian languages from which die English word "Papua" 

originates; see Anonymous, 1883). However, the apparent 

"boundness" of tiiis word seems to be due primarily to die 

relative unfamdiarity of die plant rather than to its slight 

polysemy. 

Other examples wiU illustrate the necessity for positing these 

restraints on the freedom of occurrence of a single lexeme, and 

die apparent boundness of some forms to tiieir hierarchically 

superordinate terms (die B° term witii its noun-marker (o) 

precedes a B" term in examples below; see Appendix 1.1 for 

species determinations). 

1. o dowora o papua 

2a. o gofasa o hakaru 

2b. o gofasa o utongo 

3. o oenge o kofere 

4a. o bidoho o wera 

4b. o bidoho ofongoro 

'Papuan (?) dowora' 

'stone gofasa' 

'sagodeaf-staUcpetiole gofasa' 

(unanalyzable simple words) 

(unanalyzable simple words) 

(unanalyzable simple words) 

Examples 1 and 2 (a,b) consist of contrast-sets of types of tiie 

basic 'tree' class o dowora and o gofasa (see Appendix 1.1) 

respectively. The B_1 terms are very unlikely to be used alone 

except specificaUy in die context of speaking about types of 

dowora or gofasa (whde cutting wood, for example), because 

each is polysemous and could cause confusion if used alone 

(komene (lb) for example, is a basic term for anotiier plant type, 

to which this subclass of dowora is nomenclaturally being 

compared). Examples 3 and 4 (a,b), by contrast, involve B_1 

terms tiiat are unanalyzable and unlike 'rock,' 'flask,' etc., in 

die first two examples, do not denote objects unrelated to die 

class in question. Thus these may eastiy be isolated from die 

basic term, and often do occur in conversation without being 

preceded by die basic term. Though there are few such cases to 

consider, die restraints involved here apparendy apply to basic 

(B°) terms as well as the B- terms we have been considering. 

Even basic terms tiiat have other common meanings are likely 

to appear more bound to the B+1 term. For example, the 'tree' 

caUed o kafo (Rhus taitensis GuiUemin), because that term is 

homonymous with the word for 'ash,' is more Ukely to be 

referred to witii die full phrase o gota o kafo 'kafo tree.' 

5.1.4 Conclusion: Distinguishing the Basic Terms 

This section has reviewed several justifications for treating 

the "basic" (B°) level as distinctive within the Tobelo 

classification of BIOTIC FORMS. It has also introduced some 

methods for determining whetiier particular terms or expressions are "basic" or non-"basic," including die nomenclatural 

criterion that endocentric phrases having terms for superclasses 

as heads only occur in the levels below that of the basic term. 

It has also discussed some characteristic uses of the basic terms 

in natural contexts, particularly the "sequencing" of terms for 

BIOTIC FORM, where the B° term serves a distinctive 

function. FinaUy, the discussion of restraints on tiie free 

occurrence of certain lexemes, though it may have seemed Idee 

a detour from this section's discussion of the "basic"-ness of 

basic terms, Ulustrated how some apparent exceptions to the 

preceding generaUzations (e.g., the B- terms, which seem 

bound to die B° term) are really not exceptions at aU. It also 

provided anotiier example of how apparent disagreement 

among informants (in this case, about the acceptabiUty of 

certain expressions) can be treated as variations explained 

witiiin the same wider framework, ratiier than dismissed as 

"idiosyncratic" variation (though the latter, of course, also does 

occur). 

Though the distinctiveness of the basic level has been 

shown, it may be noted tiiat some "fringe" classes of BIOTTC 

FORM.especiaUy the asexual classes (such as o lulumiti 'moss, 

mould, bryozoa, smaUer algae,' and o pahi 'coral'—but not o 

gauku 'mushrooms, shelf fungi'), and even some FLORAL and 

FAUNAL FORMS (such as o hilo ma totodenge 'starfish,' o 

bico 'Cycas sp.'), which have no named superordinate or 

subordinate classes, cannot definitely be considered "basic" or 

non-"basic" terms by any of die means discussed above. I treat 

diem as basic here simply because the objects denoted by tiiese 

terms can only be denoted by tiiese terms (not by any higher- or 

lower-level label). If anyone should prefer to consider classes 

such as o lulumiti 'moss, mould, etc.' or o pahi 'coral' to be at 

some higher level, perhaps contrasting witii FLORAL and 

FAUNAL FORMS, or with BREATHER and NONBREATHER, for example, it can be done without jeopardizing 

any of die present generalizations about basic terms or classes. 

Since these few terms might conceivably be placed at any level, 

die change would at best effect a merely aesthetic difference in 

tiiis semantic description, and would also require further 

exceptions to only one admittedly rough generalization (to 

which die aewanix 'mere (nondescript) animal' term already 

serves as an exception), which states that in most natural 

contexts, objects that are members of the BIOTIC FORM class 

are usually denoted witii the basic term unless a term at some 

other level is specificaUy required. 

5.2 The Classificatory Framework 

In this section the classificatory "framework," by which I 

mean the total set of structural relations that classes of BIOTTC 

FORM may have with each other, is oudined. Of these, the 

taxonomic relations (5.2.1) stand out as those that constitute a 

wide (i.e., having many members of contrast-sets at the B° 

level) and shadow (i.e., having few levels) structure within 

which other types of regular relations among classes occur. 

Though taxonomies are often defined and could heuristicaUy 
60 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

be restricted to those of a "model" type (5.2.1.1), which can be 

represented by logical statements of class inclusion, the Tobelo 

apparently were never properly informed of how such model 

taxonomic structures should work. Among tiieir system's 

non-"model" elements we find "residue" as well as "residual 

classes" (5.2.2.1), non-symmetric and disjunctive contrast 

(5.2.2.2), ambiguous superclass-subclass relations (5.2.2.3), 

and dual structural positions of a single class in the taxonomic 

structure (5.2.2.4). In addition to such modified taxonomic 

relations, Tobelo also use several non-taxonomic relations to 

structure relationships of folk classes to each other, including 

cross-cutting subclasses of the B° term (5.2.3.1), the 'mother'-

'chtid' relation (5.2.3.2), growth stages (or size classes) 

(5.2.3.3), and intersecting subclasses of a basic class (5.2.3.4). 

Finally, in a few cases, aU tiiese taken together may lead diem 

to posit classes of BIOTIC FORM that they have never actuaUy 

observed (5.2.3.5). 

5.2.7 Taxonomic Relations 

Conklin (1962:128) defines a folk taxonomy as "a system of 

monolexemically-labeled folk segregates related by hierarchic 

inclusion." Because this definition requires taxa to be "monolexemically labeled," covert classes of Tobelo BIOTIC 

FORMS posited here could not be considered part of die folk 

taxonomy. Otiiers (Keesing, 1966; Berlin, Breedlove, and 

Raven, 1968) have questioned tiiat restriction. As the discussion above (Chapter 4) noted, unlabeled classes are here 

considered necessary in die description of die BIOTIC FORM 

domain and of the Tobelo language. Such classes have also 

been shown to exhibit taxonomic relations (i.e., hierarchic 

inclusion) with non-covert and witii other covert classes. 

Whether or not we define "folk taxonomy" so as to include 

diem, we must in any case present them (as we have here) in an 

adequate description of Tobelo folk classification. 

5.2.1.1 "Model" and "Non-model" Features of a Taxonomy 

Some of die otiier characteristics of "model" or "regular" 

taxonomic systems that may distinguish diem from folk 

taxonomies, include (ConkUn, 1962:128) 

.. .(1) at die highest level, diere is only one maximal (largest, unique) taxon 

which includes all other taxa in the system; (2) die number of levels is finite and 

uniform through-out the system; (3) each taxon belongs to only one level; (4) 

there is no overlap (i.e., taxa at the same level are always mutually exclusive). 

Folk systems vary widely with respect to tiiese more specific "requirements," 

but the presence of hierarchically arranged tiiough less "regular'' folk 

taxonomies is probably universal. 

As for the first requirement of an "ideal" taxonomy, die class 

of BIOTIC FORM—here considered to deUmit die boundary of 

a domain under consideration—is covert and as such little 

discussed by Tobelo. But among lexemically labeled taxa, 

Tobelo do not botiier to conform consistently to the otiier three 

requirements of such "model" taxonomic systems. 

Nevertheless, the Tobelo folk classification of BIOTIC 

FORMS can be described as a system of hierarchicaUy related 

folk classes having eleven levels: die widest or "basic" (B°) 

level, along with six levels above (4.4) and four below that 

basic level. Levels B+3 through B+6, however, contain only 

posited covert classes; the FLORAL FORM subdomain, in fact, 

has no named class above B+1. Some classes at each level 

(except of course the lowest (B-4)) may be subdivided into 

hierarchicaUy subordinate classes, every member of which wUl 

also be a member of die superordinate class. Thus this 

hierarchic structure represents an (admittedly non-"ideal") 

framework of taxonomic relations witiiin which odier types of 

relation may also occur. 

5.2.1.2 The Taxa and Their Definitions 

Considering die hierarchic structure in which these classes of 

BIOTIC FORM occur, it is very likely that each class (except 

the highest) wUl contain the immediately superordinate class as 

a distinctive feature of its definition. Thus the o noara 'ray' is 

a kind of 'fish' (o nawoko),but it is also very likely to contain 

'fish' as a distinctive feature of tiiat term's definition (e.g., a 

'ray' is a 'fish' witii certain other characteristics). Those 

characteristics might be enumerated as otiier additional 

features, or even defined as a single gestalt-like feature 

"ray-fish-ness"—but (tiiough the attempt to define diem is not 

made here) it is stiU very lticely that 'ray' and aU die otiier basic 

terms that immediately subdivide die 'fish' class wdl contain 

'fish' in tiieir definitions. 

One could argue that the B° classes having ambiguous 

superclass membership (5.2.2.3) (e.g., a basic plant type that 

can be considered eitiier a 'tree' or a 'herbaceous weed'), even 

tiiough such classes are relatively rare, nevertheless prove that 

at least those few B° classes could not be defined using die 

features of one immediately superordinate class as distinctive 

features. (Thus neither 'tree' nor 'herbaceous weed' can be a 

distinctive feature of a class tiiat "cross-cuts" both those 

higher-level classes.) If this argument is correct, one could still 

treat these classes as aberrant and consider tiiat the objection is 

irrelevant to the great majority of cases in which a basic class is 

unambiguously included in only one superordinate class. 

Alternatively, one may treat these classes as aberrant only 

because the distinctive features of two (or more) B+1 classes 

(rather than those of just one B+1 class) are likely also to be 

distinctive features of the B° class; thus members of the latter 

may be members of more than one B+1 class. This explanation 

(offered in 5.2.2.4 below) aUows die treatment of "ambiguous" 

membership in die same terms of hierarchic class inclusion 

used in describing taxonomic relations. Such cases, however, 

are not ideally taxonomic and indicate that contrast sets occur 

in which each member (e.g., 'tree,' 'herbaceous weed,' etc.) is 

defined such that die sets in contrast are "not quite" mutually 

exclusive (see 5.2.2.4). 
NUMBER 34 61 

5.2.1.3 Some Signs of Tobelo Preference for "Ideal" Features 

of Taxonomies 

Two types of evidence may be adduced indicating tiiat 

tiiough the Tobelo do use non-taxonomic features in their folk 

classification, tiiey still seem to overwhelmingly prefer a 

taxonomic structure. At levels below die basic term, in fact we 

shall see mat they try hard to "straighten out" several non-ideal 

features of their folk taxonomic system. The two types of 

evidence are (1) die number of classes related in non-taxonomic 

ways (e.g., having "cross-cutting" subclasses) is small relative 

to the number of those only taxonomically related; and (2) 

when, as often happens, Tobelo individuals are faced witii more 

tiian one way of subdividing a basic class, tiiey consciously try 

(and discuss their attempts among themselves) to arrange the 

variants in taxonomic fashion. They may do tiiis, for example, 

by considering some terms synonyms, or by positing that one 

of the variant contrast-sets must subdivide anotiier. 

1. A comparison of basic FLORAL FORM classes by B+1 

superclass wtil illustrate the relative un-commonness of 

non-taxonomic features. Of 689 basic classes of FLORAL 

FORM, 605 (or 87.8%) are either unaffiliated witii any named 

B

+1

 class, or are subclasses of one of the named B+1 classes 

('tree,' 'vine,' or 'herbaceous weed'). Only 36 of the basic 

classes (5.2%) have subclasses that cross-cut the B+1 classes (a 

non-taxonomic feature). And only 9 of die basic classes (1.3%) 

can ambiguously be considered to be included in more tiian one 

B

+1

 superclass. Other non-taxonomic or non-ideally taxonomic 

features of the Tobelo folk classification are also relatively 

quite uncommon (though often culturally important), such as 

the dual structural positions of a single class (5.2.2.4). 

Intersecting subclasses of the basic class (5.2.3.4) have only 

been observed in one case. Thus, though Tobelo seem 

unconcerned about the lack of some "model" taxonomic 

features (such as maintaining a uniform number of levels 

tiiroughout the system), tiiey clearly prefer that each taxon 

belong to only one level and tiiat taxa in the same contrast-set 

be mutually exclusive. 

2. Although Tobelo are generaUy quite famdiar with a few 

of the non-taxonomic features of their classificatory system 

(e.g., die cross-cutting subclasses of a basic term (5.2.3.1)), 

they generally try to assimdate newly observed types of plant 

or animal or newly learned terms for BIOTIC FORMS into a 

taxonomic framework. Some examples wiU dlustrate their own 

attempts to do so (tiiough in several cases biological species 

determinations are incomplete (cf. Appendix 1.1)). 

After arriving by boat in Fayaul village from Dodaga 

(Wasile District) in May 1979,1 left three local assistants (who 

had family at Fayaul) to collect plants tiiere, whde I walked 

alone to a festival at WasUe village five ktiometers to die south. 

After returning by way of the beach during low tide die next 

day, I reviewed die previous day's vouchers and field 

notebook, finding die new term o homooko o ngairiha 'riparian 

homooko' Usted (V #2635, Premna odorata Blanco). Upon 

inquiring, I got back a flood of information from my assistants 

(from D-speaking Pasir Putih in the south) and tiieir Hspeaking families at Fayaul. The problem had arisen in my 

absence tiiat the homooko class of 'trees' is divided at Pasir 

Putih into 'shore homooko' and 'jungle homooko'; but tiie 

specimen from Fayaul was neither. Inquiring about its name, 

my assistants discovered tiiat their families called it 'jungle 

homooko,' contrasting apparendy witii an unmarked homooko 

in tiiat region. After their families at Fayaul had heard of Pasir 

Putih's 'shore homooko' the two had to be reconciled. 

In short, aU had agreed tiiat the Fayaul specimen must be 

another kind of 'jungle homooko,' thus introducing a new B~2 

level into the classification of this basic plant class, in which 

the 'true jungle homooko' (the unmarked form at Fayaul, or die 

'jungle homooko' of Pasir Putih) contrasted witii the 'riparian 

(or river-bank) homooko,' a new term invented tiiat night to 

distinguish the specimen caUed 'jungle homooko' at Fayaul 

from the 'jungle homooko' familiar at Pasir Putih). 

(The minus (-) signs in the diagram below indicate unmarked 

forms; die plus (+) indicates marked forms.) 

o homooko 

I 

o homooko o gumini 

'vine homooko ' 

o homooko o gota 

'tree homooko' 

o homooko o gahika 

'shore homooko' 

o homooko ofonganika 

'jungle homooko' 

+ i 

o homooko o ngairiha 

'river-bank homooko' 

o homooko ofonganika 

'jungle homooko' 
62 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

I regret that I was not present for this local "revision" of the 

homooko (?Premna spp., cf. Appendix 1.1) group, but it is 

quite possible that if I had been present inquiring about the 

"proper" name for the newly observed type die hosts might not 

have wanted to contradict tiieir guests (or the younger assistants 

their family elders) in my presence, and die revision would 

perhaps never have been made. Though stiU probably not 

widespread, the subdivision of die B_1 'jungle homooko' into 

two B-2 classes is clearly preferable to the unreconciled 

dialectal alternatives for these Tobelo who decided upon it; and 

the example Ulustrates how they generaUy try to assimdate new 

data into a taxonomic structure. 

Another example involves the Tobelo preference not only for 

"neat" taxonomic subdivisions but also for dichotomous 

oppositions ('male* vs. 'female,' 'good,' vs. 'bad,' etc.). The 

subclassification of the basic plant class o roringohana may be 

diagrammed as below (this was carefully checked at Pasir Putih 

village; there may be variations elsewhere). 

o roringohana 

+ 

o roringohana ma dorou 

'bad roringohana' 

o roringohana ma nauru 

'male roringohana' 

(or:) o roringohana o 

fonganika 

'jungle roringohana' 

o roringohana [ma oa] 

'[good] roringohana' 

o roringohana ma beka 

'female roringohana' 

(or.) o roringohana 

ma gare-garehe 

'white roringohana' 

o roringohana ma 

daro-daromo 

'black roringohana' 

(A) (B) ( Q 

(No markedness has been observed among die tiiree sub-classes 

of the '(good) roringohana') 

Ltice o homooko, tiiis term o roringohana is a basic term 

having subclasses that cross-cut the B+1 groups; the "normal" 

(unmarked) o roringohana is a 'tree,' while die marked o 

roringohana ma dorou 'bad roringohana' (Justicia sp.) is a 

'herbaceous weed.' 

Note tiiat if the three subclasses of the 'tree' or 'good' o 

roringohana are labeled A, B, and C (as on die diagram above), 

we have more tiian one dichotomous opposition: 

A vs. B 'male' vs. 'female' 

B vs. C 'white' vs. 'black' 

A vs. B & C 'jungle' vs. [not-jungle] (informants said the 

habitat of B and C was o kapongoka 'in die 

vdlage [area]') 

The first opposition would lead us to suspect A and B are 

subclasses of a superclass contrasting with C; the second would 

instead lead us to suspect that B and C are subclasses of a 

superclass contrasting with A. 

Though clearly not "neat," the diagram and terms correcdy 

represent die classification of tiiis class at Pasir Putih, as 

discussed witii local people with the plants themselves (or 

specimens from them) nearby. To try to solve the problem I 

asked several elders once, when we collected die "A" form 

(Pittosporum ferrugineum W. Ait), whether C was male or 

female; and what was die color of A? They re-described die 

classification as shown above, then after some silence one man 

unexpectedly said, "There must be in the jungle, landwards, a 

female roringohana." The comment was met witii a reaction 

showing it was plausible to die otiiers, although no one had 

observed such a female form. The man's comment, however, 

indicated not only tiiat he reaUzed a problem with die 

classification of roringohana then known in the viUage, but 

also proves he was independendy attempting to find a solution 

that would predict die terms used in die vdlage by means of a 

very neat, taxonomically related group of paired dichotomous 

oppositions. His own posited solution as fully expressed in die 

quotation above is diagrammed on page 63. 

(The class he posited is shown witii an asterisk (*) and upper 

case letters. Note tiiat his solution would imply tiiat the 'black 

roringohana' is also 'male.') 

There are many otiier local indications of a preference for 

formaUy "neat" taxonomies, which can supplement tiiese field 

observations of Tobelo working out "revisions" or positing 

details of tiieir system (such observations are very rare even 

though in this case fieldwork in tiieir viUages was intensive and 

relatively long-term). Thus in an experiment recounted below 
NUMBER 34 63 

o roringohana 

I 

'bad [herbaceous weed] 

roringohana' 

'good [tree] 

roringohana' 

'jungle roringohana' 

1 

'[village] roringohana' 

I 

'male *FEMALE 'white [female] 'black 

roringohana' roringohana roringohana' roringohana' 

(5.2.2.4), I asked a group of viUage elders at Pasir Putih about 

'male' and 'female' subclasses of many basic terms recorded at 

Loleba, implying that Loleba villagers could distinguish 'male' 

from 'female' of aU these classes (in fact they cannot). 

Among the frequent responses, Pasir Putih viUagers often 

tried to "line up" local dichotomous oppositions (such as 'red' 

vs. 'white,' or 'good' vs. 'bad') by trying to equate them with 

Loleba's aUeged distinctions of 'male' and 'female.' 

This discussion clearly has imptications for die study of 

Tobelo antinomy. We find tiiat, as in the case of Walbiri 

antinomy, represented in a specialized Walbiri speech form 

called tjiliwiri or "upside-down" Walbiri (Hale, 1971), Tobelo 

"opposites" seem generally to be based on a principle of 

polarity of a general sort tiiat can be related to universal 

semantic notions (e.g., 'male'-'female,' Tand'-'sea'). Yet 

again as in Walbiri, it seems that some antinomies "can be fuUy 

understood only in reference to odier aspects of Walbiri 

[Tobelo] culture" (Hale, 1971:481). Thus the most usual 

"color" opposition is 'white' vs. 'red'; indeed, though 'white' 

vs. 'black' may seem to be more natural to us, die o 

roringohana above is one of only two occurrences in Tobelo 

folk biological classification (the other is the 'tree' o bangata). 

In both cases the classes so subdivided can be labeled witii 

other antinomies as weU. I cannot explain these exceptions, 

except to say that an overwhelming surface 'color' difference, 

or difference in hue (of bark?) might be at work in these 

'white'-'black' exceptions. The more usual antinomy is of 'red' 

(ma doka-dokara), which includes tiie area of the color solid we 

would caU 'brown,' vs. 'white' (ma gare-garehe), which 

includes all colors that are of very light, pale hue. Such an 

antinomy seems related to die medicinal uses of plants, which 

frequendy specify whetiier to look for a 'white' growth-point of 

a plant (indicating paleness, freshness, and life-giving and thus 

curative potential), or the 'red' growth-point of a plant 

(indicating strength, power, and dominance, e.g., for warmagic). 

This discussion also has implications for the interpretation of 

the many "loose terms," that is, terms which are recognized as 

plant or animal names (or probable names) by Tobelo 

informants, but whose denotata are unknown to everyone I 

asked about tiiem. ("Loose terms" are not included in die 

Appendixes.) One must carefuUy resist die tendency of Tobelo 

informants to try to make such loose terms fit the folk taxa with 

which they are famUiar; in this area too Tobelo are likely to 

suggest that an unknown subclass of a basic term is "probably" 

the same as a known subclass. 

5.2.2. The Integration of Non-"ideal' 

Taxonomic Framework 

Features into the 

In treating taxonomic relations as the "framework" within 

which other types of structural relations among classes occur, 

no attempt is made to say tiiat "ideal" taxonomic relations are 

somehow more "correct" Nor do I consider tiiem signs of 

widespread clear thinking despite occasional native lapses into 

non-ideal "aberrations" like ambiguous class membership or 

cross-cutting subclasses of basic terms. 

The folk taxonomy is instead here treated as die general 

framework for Tobelo etiinobiological classification for these 

reasons: (1) From a heuristic point of view, the complex Tobelo 

classificatory structure can more easily be described by first 

caUing up a model taxonomic structure and then substantially 

modifying it by non-"ideal" elements and otiier non-taxonomic 

structural principles. (2) From a structural point of view, if we 

set up an initial "framework" of any other structural principle, 

such as the cross-cutting sub-classes of the B° terms (5.2.3.1), 

not only would die framework contain very few classes, but 

also adequate discussion of it would presuppose ideas of 

taxonomic class-inclusion (because each cross-cutting B_1 

class is a subclass of the same B° class, even though the former 

are subclasses of different B+1 classes; see 5.2.3.1). Thus 

taxonomic (even if not "model" taxonomic) relations are not 

only the most common kind of relation among classes; they 

appear to be structurally primary as weU. (3) Furthermore, the 

covert classes posited here (Chapter 4) are also taxonomically 

related although this is perhaps largely due to die metiiod used 

to find them, which emphasized die vaUdity of positing 

super-classes for a particular contrast-set and rejected positing 
64 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

covert classes (for this domain) mat cross-cut named taxa (see 

4.2.3 above). Those who accept die previous justifications for 

positing such covert classes wdl recognize that they add more 

justification for considering die basic framework of die 

eleven-level Tobelo classificatory hierarchy a taxonomic one, 

albeit one in which otiier non-taxonomic principles operate. 

Lest anyone suppose that non-taxonomic principles, or 

non-"ideal" features of a taxonomy, indicate aberrational lapses 

into fuzzy thinking, examination of these cases wiU hopefully 

reveal their clear "alternative" logic. 

5.2.2.1 "Residue" and "Residual Taxa" 

If we think of a class of BIOTIC FORMS (at any level) as 

designating a set of "objects" or "tokens" (organisms), tiien 

each of its subclasses designates a subset of that set (this can be 

diagrammed by means of die box diagram below, where tx is a 

taxon and \^, tj, and t4 are subtaxa; ^ is further subdivided into 

Ljandtg): 

tl 

t2 t3 

t5 t6 

u R 

The diagram Ulustrates a frequent non-"ideal" occurrence in 

folk taxonomies: the contrast-set t^-t, does not adequately 

subdivide die tx domain; die "residual" area representing tiiose 

objects that are members of a set designated by tx, but not of 

any of its subsets, is marked "R." When we consider die size 

and variation within certain groups (such as the Insects) it 

appears likely that any folk taxonomy contains contrast-sets 

that inadequately subdivide die animal kingdom, leaving 

residual organisms to be designated by high-level terms such as 

'animal' or 'bug' rather than by basic terms. 

As coastal people the Tobelo are famiUar with marine and 

terrestrial fauna and flora of die large area of great biological 

species diversity tiiat they inhabit New organisms recognizable 

as members of die 'fish' or 'moUusk' or 'mere animal' class, 

but for which no local names are known, are constandy 

observed and (for lack of a more specific term) simply referred 

to as 'fish,' 'moUusk,' or '(mere) animal.' In otiier cases, 

particular subclasses are "singled out" witiiin a larger basic 

class. For example, out of all the vast array of biological 

species, genera, famUies, and even phyla in die folk class o 

lulumiti 'moss, mould, bryozoa, smaUer algae,' only one is 

singled out a light green moss (species undetermined) that 

hangs from trees and is referred to as a aunu ma dodogumu 

'blood stopper.' It apparendy is distinguished because of its 

medicinal importance (imptied by die name) in stopping die 

flow of blood from cuts (cf. die 'herbaceous weed' class of tiiis 

name). All other o lulumiti are simply referred to by die 

higher-level term. 

Another example is die basic class o ardra 'spider' (witiiin 

die B+1 o aewani2 "mere animal' class). There are only two 

subclasses of 'spider,' however, and tiiese seem "singled out" 

because they are exceptional in some way, whde die vast 

majority of Arachnids are simply caUed by die higher-level 

'spider' term. Those subclasses (indicated in the Venn diagram 

below left as A and B) are: o oanga 'wolf spider' (Lycosidae), 

locaUy known for its especiaUy painful bite, and o guhuru ma 

dadagoko (literally: 'fly (Muscidae) catcher') 'jumping spider' 

(Salticidae), tiiough the reason for this spider's own distinguished name is less clear.2 

The Venn diagram (below, left) presents one way of 

interpreting die relations among tiiese three classes, expressing 

the presumption tiiat tiiere is only one o ardra 'spider' class, 

witii two subclasses that inadequately subdivide it; remaining 

'spiders' are simply called by die higher-level term. The 

alternative taxonomic tree diagram at right posits tiiat the 

spiders tiiat are neither 'wolf spiders' nor 'jumping spiders' 

form an unmarked taxon o ardra2 'spider (other than wolf or 

jumping spiders).' In particular cases it may be difficult to 

decide which is die more accurate representation of relations 

among die folk classes. But the two diagrams clearly represent 

structurally different alternatives. To posit a second lower-level 

o ararc^ "residual class" (as at right) impUes that this is in fact 

a semantic class having distinctive features, and likely to be 

sometimes lexicaUy realized. Whde it is logically possible to 

o arara 

'spider' 

© ® 

o arara 

spider 

B o arara2 

spider 

[other than A or B] 

(A) (B) 
NUMBER 34 65 

posit such features as (1) spider, (2) not 'wolf spider,' and (3) 

not 'jumping spider'; a residual class so defined would be 

"logically quite different from most taxa, i.e., it is defined by 

die absence of any distinctive perceptual unity" (Hunn, 

1976:511). Under such circumstances it seems that the only 

reason to posit such a residual class would be to maintain the 

ideal taxonomic structure, rather than represent semantic 

classes used by Tobelo. Since the Tobelo themselves seem less 

concerned about the idealness of tiieir folk taxonomy it seems 

best not to posit such a class for reasons external to Tobelo 

semantics (like filting out a taxonomic diagram on paper), 

unless some more appropriate unifying features of any *ardra2 

class can be found. 

Such features need not be consciously reahzed by Tobelo, 

but neither could we expect to always find tiiem by an 

"objective" examination of the organisms in question (this was 

also the case for distinctive features of covert categories posited 

in Chapter 4). For example, it may be noted tiiat both jumping 

spiders and wolf spiders do not spin "normal" webs for 

catching tiieir prey (though they spin small cocoon-tike webs 

for sleeping). This might suggest that we could posit a class 

containing all spiders except wolf and jumping spiders, i.e., o 

arara2 * web-spinning spider'. If it could be shown that Tobelo 

diink that all other spiders spin webs (tiiough in fact many 

spiders do not), and tiiat they consider die *web' (ma igutu) of 

jumping spiders or wolf spiders to be of a different kind or to 

serve a different purpose than the *web' (ma igutu) of aU the 

other "residual" spiders (though in fact Tobelo whom I asked 

did not point out any such difference), tiien we would have a 

good argument for considering tiiat *o ardra2 * web-spinning 

spider' contrasts witii o guhuru ma dadagoko and o oanga as 

types of o ararax 'spider.' This example illustrates kinds of 

evidence to consider when looking for distinctive features of 

folk classes; if some unifying features of an *ardra2 "residual" 

class do happen to be found later, this still wiU affect only the 

interpretation of relations among these folk classes, though the 

validity of die distinction between "residue" and "residual 

taxa" should stiU be clear regardless of die validity of this 

particular example. (D dialect informants, also, do not consider 

o oanga a subclass of o ordrax; this wdl not affect the argument 

here because the other subclass (o guhuru ma dadagoko) is still 

"singled out," leaving either the residue or die residual class of 

'spiders.') 

Some treatments of folk classification (e.g., BerUn, 1976; 

Hays, 1976) treat any case in which a folk taxon is inadequately 

subdivided by its subclasses as if the residue of that taxon were 

necessarily a "residual taxon." Thus even whde he recognizes 

that such taxa are logicaUy different from otiiers in the 

structure, Hunn (1976:511) writes, "In stricdy taxonomic 

terms, residual taxa must be treated as specific [i.e., B_1] 

taxa " Beriin (1976:391) also considers tiiat such residue 

always form a taxon whose label is polysemous with the 

higher-level term. If our "strictly taxonomic" structure requires 

tiiat every class be completely subdivided, tiien we are forced to 

posit residual taxa ratiier than just note the residue; but when 

we also admit (as Hunn has) that no distinctive feature can be 

found (and from this must conclude tiiat the class is required by 

our method but could not be a semantic class used by die 

Tobelo), it seems simpler and more consonant with ideas of a 

semantic class (1) to consider such cases residue ratiier than a 

residual class; and (2) to consider dierefore that the higher-level 

term denotes "residual" organisms simply because there is no 

lower-level term to denote tiiem, not because the higher-level 

term is polysemous with a lower-level "residual" semantic 

class. 

It is ironic, men, that those who encourage treating the 

residue of inadequate subdivision among subclasses as a 

residual subclass (or taxon) are often those who emphasize 

"cognitive vatidity" of die structures they propose. It may seem 

reasonable to think that Tobelo can remember a three-feature 

definition of any posited residual 'spider'2 class (e.g., (1) 

spider, (2) not wolf spider, (3) not jumping spider). But even 

the best folk classifier could scarcely remember how to 

recognize a basic (B°) residual 'tree'2 taxon (in English: (1) 

'tree'^ (2) not oak; (3) not pine; etc., etc.). Such a definition 

would also vary gready among informants depending on die 

number of basic classes of 'tree'j with which each is famdiar. 

The discussion above indicates tiiat, while "residual folk 

classes" are a logical possibiUty, we should only posit tiiem (1) 

if there is clear evidence tiiat the "residue" left after removing 

one subclass from another is in fact treated Idee a semantic class 

by speakers of die language (e.g., lexically realized and referred 

to, since such evidence would force us to presume it is a 

semantic class even if we were not yet able to find odier reasons 

for doing so); (2) if die proposed class appears to be capable of 

definition by a set of features that is not just a simple statement 

of the features of the higher-level class, plus a statement of die 

latter's subclasses that have been removed from it to leave only 

"residue." 

An example of such a residual class is found in the Tobelo o 

iuru 'ant' basic class (iUustrated here for B dialect, cf. D 

dialect, see Appendix 2.5). This term denotes wingless forms of 

all ants except 'weaver ants,' which are in the contrasting basic 

class o kane-kane 'weaver ant' (Oecophylla smaragdina), as 

well as winged forms of certain species (possibly Monomorium 

spp.?, see below). The o iurux basic class is subdivided into at 

least four B-1 subclasses: two labeled by simple words, one by 

an endocentric phrase, and finaUy one residual class o iuru^ 

(See 5.2.3.2 below for further discussion of the o iurux 'ant' 

class and die 'motiier'-chdd' relations between its winged and 

unwinged forms.) In this case, the residual class is recognizable 

because it is divided into two subclasses plus "residue" (not 

another residual class) at the B- 2 level. The o iuru^ class may be 

considered residual for two reasons: (1) it is clearly treated as a 

semantic class, because only such a class could have 

subclasses; and (2) die distinctive feature of the class is the tiny 

size of these ants. Thus the "larger" ant types are removed from 

die higher-level *ant' class but there remains the residual B_1 

class which we may gloss 'tiny ant' 
66 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

5.2.2.2 Non-symmetry and Immediate Disjunctive Contrast 

Contrary to any "model" taxonomy of die sort used by 

biologists, die number of levels in tiie Tobelo folk classificatory structure is not "finite and uniform throughout die system" 

(Conktin, 1962:128). Whtie most basic classes are terminal, 

some (often tiiose with great cultural significance, as weU as 

morphological variabUity of the organisms being classified), 

may be subdivided by ratiier large contrast sets at the B-2 level 

(see e.g.,in Appendix 1: o bole 'banana,' opine 'rice,' o tahubi 

'manioc'). Only one basic class (o bole 'banana') has any 

subclasses at the B-4 level, and B-3 terms are also rare. 

Above die basic level (as seen in die diagram on page 48, 

Chapter 4), several cases of non-symmetric contrast occur. The 

greatest contrast sets are only found at die basic level; above 

tiiat there are many subdivisions of die domain in which a 

disjunctive contrast of from one to five levels occurs. For 

example, the posited SEXUAL BIOTIC FORM class (B+5) 

does not contrast with any class otiier man die four non-sexual 

basic (B°) classes glossed '(certain) sponges,' 'moss, mould, 

bryozoa, smaller algae,' 'mushrooms, shelf fungi,' and 'coral.' 

Since definitions of terms used in taxonomies (e.g., by Kay, 

1971) so often presume some kind of symmetry, alternative 

definitions are offered here specificaUy for non-symmetric 

taxonomies such as that of the Tobelo BIOTIC FORM. We 

may call such contrasts both disjunctive and immediate. 

Immediate Contrast: If T is a set of two or more taxa, [tx, 

t^, tj,... L,)}, all of which are subclasses of a higher-level taxon 

ta; and if no otiier taxon t^ can be found tiiat is botii a subclass 

of ta and a superclass of any of the taxa in set T, tiien tiiat set T 

of taxa is in immediate contrast (For purposes of tiiis and die 

following definition we exclude considering a class a subclass 

or superclass of itself.) 

From this definition it can be seen that, in a symmetric 

taxonomy, immediately contrasting taxa wdl be at die same 

level, but in a non-symmetric taxonomy they might not be. 

Thus, in both diagrams below, tj,, tc, and td immediately 

contrast. 

t: 

tb td tb 

(ti)(tj)t c t d 

(A) (B) 

Disjunctive Contrast: A set of two or more taxa [tlt t^, 

t3... tj are in disjunctive contrast if no taxon in die set is a 

subclass of any other (see note above on the exclusion of 

treating a class as sub- or super-class of itself), and all taxa in 

the set are subclasses of some other taxon ta, and some pair of 

taxa t^ and tj can be found such tiiat ^ is at a different taxonomic 

level from tj. For example, in the diagram below, only die 

foUowing are in disjunctive contrast: {t^ t4}; [t^ t5}; {t^ tg); 

(VVj; {t2.t4.t5}; {t^.g ; {t^.t*}; (tj,!^^) : 

tl 

t2 t3 

t^l t 

t4 *5 t6 

By combining these definitions we may arrive at the 

definition of a type of contrast tiiat often occurs in die Tobelo 

BIOTIC FORM domain, and which is apphcable to nonsymmetric taxonomies. We shall say that taxa are in immediate 

disjunctive contrast if tiiey are in immediate contrast and in 

disjunctive contrast (In the last diagram above, only die taxa 

{t2.t3.tg} are in immediate disjunctive contrast.) 

By defining die number n of an "n-level immediate 

disjunctive contrast" as die difference in die number of levels 

between the highest taxonomic level and die lowest taxonomic 

level in which taxa in immediate disjunctive contrast occur, we 

may measure and describe die asymmetry of the nonsymmetric taxonomy. For example, note there is one set of taxa 

in 5-level immediate disjunctive contrast (highest level B+5; 

lowest level B°; see diagram on facing page, top). 

There is also one case of two-level immediate disjunctive 

contrast (see diagram on facing page, middle). 

FinaUy there are two cases of one-level immediate disjunctive contrast one within the FLORAL FORM class (where B+1 

classes tike 'tree' and 'vine' are in disjunctive contrast witii B° 

classes like o boboro 'nipa palm,' which are unaffiliated with 

any B+1 class), and die otiier is in die aewanix 'animal' class 

(where B+1 classes like 'fish' and 'bird' are in disjunctive 

contrast with B° classes luce 'crocodUe' or 'crab'). Botii these 

cases involve lexemicaUy labeled classes (and, in die case of 

die aewanix 'animal' subclasses, even the superclass is 

labeled). For those who commendably consider any argument 

that draws heavily on covert classes suspect, tiiese lexemicaUy 

labeled subdomains (e.g., o aewani, 'animal') should reassuringly confirm that immediate disjunctive contrasts are at least 

possible in the Tobelo BIOTIC FORM domain. 

In die above cases of 5-level and 2-level immediate 

disjunctive contrast, at least one of the higher-level subclasses 

(SEXUAL BIOTIC FORM in the first example, or aewanix 

'animal' in the second) is further subdivided at each level down 

to die basic (B°) one. This raises a question tiiat is partly only 

one of drawing aestiieticaUy pleasing diagrams, but also one of 

accurately characterizing contrasts among folk classes: If a 

non-symmetric taxonomy allows immediately contrasting 
NUMBER 34 

(B+6) 

67 

(B°) 

B

+

3 

B+2 

BIOTIC FORM 

(B+5) SEXUAL BIOTIC 

FORM 

I 

1 

o nyawa 

'human being' 

[see 4.4 for 

significance of 

broken line] 

o pahi 

'coral' 

i 

o aewani 1 

'animal' 

ogauku < 

'mushrooms, 

shelf fungi' 

FAUNAL FORM 

1 1 

o bianga 

'mollusk* 

o tali ma kiarono o lulumiti 

'(certain) 'moss, mould, 

sponges' bryozoa, smaller algae' 

B< o hilo ma totodenge o tali-tali o mumuru 

'starfish' 'crown-of-thorns 'sea urchin' 

starfish' 

classes to be disjunctive, then at what level do we place classes 

that are immediately subdivided at die second descending 

level? The 'moUusk' (o bianga) class, for example, has been 

placed at die B+2 level, but it is immediately subdivided at die 

second descending level, having "skipped" one level (B+1) 

entirely (diagram below left). Though 'moUusk' seems to 

contrast with 'animal,' a non-symmetric taxonomy could allow 

die 'animal'-'moUusk' contrast to be disjunctive (diagram 

below right). 

B

+ 3 

B + 2 

FAUNALFORM 

o aewani l 

'animal' 

o bianga 

'moUusk' 

B

+1

 o nawoko o totaleo 

n m 

(A) 

FAUNALFORM 

o aewani ± 

'animal' 

o nawoko o totaleo o bianga 

rm rm n 

(B) 
68 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

A similar case could also be made for placing the FLORAL 

FORM class at level B+2 rather than letting it "skip" that level 

(as depicted in Chapter 4, diagram on page 48, in which it 

shares level B+3 with FAUNAL FORM). 

In fact, however.that alternative is not adopted here for die 

o bianga 'mollusk,' the FLORAL FORM, or the NONBREATHER classes (these are the only three classes immediately subdivided at a descending level greater tiian one), for 

three reasons: (1) In the case of o bianga 'moUusk,' evidence 

has been presented to show it is naturally used in contrast witii 

o aewanix 'animal'; this close contrast expressed in natural 

language can be expressed in an analysis by considering die 

two classes at die same level. (2) More importandy, die covert 

NON-BREATHER and FLORAL FORM classes were posited 

on die basis of distinctive features that distinguished each of 

tiiese from the other class it contrasts with; since those features 

distinguish these other classes at levels B+4 (BREATHER) and 

B

+3

 (FAUNAL FORM), die close relationship of die classes in 

question can be better expressed by considering diem in 

immediate contrast at the same level. (3) FinaUy, the only 

reason there can be immediate disjunctive contrasts at all in this 

domain is tiiat we are presuming a recognizable "basic" (B°) 

level of labeled classes; die level at which immediate 

superclasses are placed is more an artifact of our analysis of the 

entire domain than it is an expression of any characteristic of 

that superclass. 

Thus, for example, if only the 'moUusk' subdomain were 

being described, we would not need to point out that in a 

complete analysis of the BIOTIC FORM domain, 'moUusk' 

must be two levels (rather than one) above the basic terms. On 

the other hand, if die Tobelo were to suddenly start dividing aU 

'fish' into, say, 'cartilaginous fish' and 'teleostean fish,* every 

level from B+1 to B4* would simply be "moved up one" to make 

room for die new level containing only tiiose two new 

subclasses of the 'fish' class. (Thus 'snake,' 'bird,' and other 

B

+1

 terms would be moved to level B+2 along witii 'fish,' and 

FLORAL FORM would have to be moved up along witii its 

contrasting FAUNAL FORM; all subclasses of FLORAL 

FORM, however, would be unaffected.) This would not affect 

any of the posited relations among the otiier classes, because no 

claim for the "distinctiveness" of any level above the basic one 

is made here, and because die number of levels "skipped" 

between a superclass and its immediate subclasses is here 

intended to be irrelevant to die class inclusion relation. Those 

who do claim some distinctive characteristics of levels above 

the basic class (e.g., C. Brown, 1977,1979,1984) presumably 

can identify tiiose levels to which their generalizations apply. 

In conclusion, all sets of classes in immediate disjunctive 

contrast in this domain include one or more classes at die same 

non-basic level and one or more basic classes; in odier words, 

no more tiian two levels (one of which is die basic level) are 

involved.3 

5.2.2.3 Ambiguous B+1 Class Membership 

One of the exceptional characteristics of the "basic" level 

noted above (5.1.2) is that Tobelo seem most concerned about 

the proper "name" of a plant at the basic level, though it does 

not seem to bother tiiem if a particular basic class is 

ambiguously a member of either one of two higher-level 

classes. Thus if someone holds up the branch of a Cassia 

occidentalis L. and asks die 'name' of that plant, he will be told 

it is a dadatara. Though informants agree on the basic term for 

this plant class, tiiey do not agree on a single B+1 class to place 

it in. Because of its small but woody stem, die dadatara may be 

considered eitiier a 'herbaceous weed' (o rurubu) or a 'tree' (o 

gota). Perhaps because of a dialectal difference in die definition 

of the 'tree' class, this Cassia is more ldcely to be considered a 

'tree' at Loleba viUage (Boeng dialect) tiian at Pasir Putih 

(Dodinga dialect); but it is stiU interesting that at both vdlages 

some informants recognize its ambiguous superclass status 

and, in tiiis and odier instances, discuss such ambiguity as a 

matter of interest 

A ratiier simtiar example involves o tahube' (Canna coccinea 

Mill.), considered a 'herbaceous weed' at Pasir Putih, where it 

grows wild, but considered a 'decorative plant' (o bunga) at 

Loleba, where it was recently introduced as a cultivated 

ornamental. After I pointed it out, this discrepancy became a 

matter of some local interest, though its cause was obvious (i.e., 

the same plant grew wdd in one vdlage but was a cultivated 

ornamental in another). Some such "discrepancies," however, 

are locally well known; especiaUy cases like o dadatara 

(Cassia occidentalis L.), o kokereehe (Crotalaria retusa L.), o 

ngutuku ikokurati (Fatoua pilosa Gaud.), and odier such 

sUghdy woody small suffrutescent plants that can ambiguously 

be considered 'tree' or 'herbaceous weed.' "We can caU it tree 

or herbaceous weed, it doesn't make any difference," one 

informant said of one o digo (Sida sp.) at Loleba. 'Vines,' 

however, are clearly labeled o gumini 'vine' no matter how 

woody tiieir stems become; in this case, the stem habit takes 

precedence over woodiness in die definition of die terms 'tree' 

and 'vine.' 

Otiier cases of ambiguity are brought about by one of die 

defining features of o rurtibu 'herbaceous weed,' which states 

tiiat plants in tiiat class are not cultivated or culturaUy 

important. Minimally tended and occasionally cultivated 

medicinal or marginally edible plants, such as o maa-maata o 

gota 'tree maa-maata'* (medicinal), or die edible o bibiti (see 

Appendix 1.1 for determinations), both of which morphologicaUy appear to be rurubu 'herbaceous weeds,' are often locaUy 

placed in that class. Nevertheless, some informants point out 

tiiat tiiey are cultivated and should be considered unaffiliated 

witii die 'herbaceous weeds.' As in the previous examples,such 

cases do not represent any substantive "informant disagreement," since informants can quickly point out why o bibiti (for 

example) might or might not be caUed a 'herbaceous weed.' 
NUMBER 34 69 

This fact recaUs one informant's comment regarding a 

decorative flower: "If we saw it in the jungle we would caU it 

a 'herbaceous weed'; but we cultivate it so we cad it a 

'flower.'" 

Within die FAUNAL FORM domain, note that any 

ambiguity of membership in the aewani2 'insignificant animal' 

class is more difficult to inquire about than is its FLORAL 

FORM counterpart because any animals that are ambiguously 

"significant" or "insignificant" wiU still be in the o aewanix 

'animal' or higher-level class labeled by die same form. Thus, 

when asked if a particular plant such as o bibiti is a 'herbaceous 

weed,' informants may distincdy say no. But when asked if a 

'crocodde' is an "aewani," informants could eitiier say "yes" 

(because it is an aewanix 'an animal') or "no" (because it is not 

an aewani2 *a mere animal'). 

Finally, it should be noted tiiat ambiguity caused by die 

polysemy of die B+1 terms tiiemselves must be distinguished 

from ambiguous class membership. This problem frequently 

arises when unaffiliated plant types (tiiose said not to belong to 

any named B+1 class) are referred to in natural conversations as 

rurtibu—not in that word's sense of 'herbaceous weed,' but 

rather 'undergrowth.' Tobelo tiiemselves are of course familiar 

with the polysemy of their terms and can easily disambiguate 

tiiem upon inquiry. For example, the unmarked or 'female' 

form of die B° class o jara-jara (Spinifex littoreus (Burm. f.) 

Merr.), a plant of sandy beaches apparendy excluded from die 

'herbaceous weed' class because of its unusual shape, might 

stiU be caUed rurubu 'undergrowtii,' though not e.g., *o 

rurubu o jara-jara '*jara-jara herbaceous weed,' certainly not 

o jara-jara o rurubu 'die herbaceous weed jara-jara' (die latter 

term instead denotes its 'herbaceous weed' male or unmarked 

counterpart (Rhynchospora rubra (Lour.) Makino), also called 

o jara-jara ma nauru 'male jara-jara'). 

5.2.2A Dual Structural Positions for the Same Class 

There are few definite cases of dual structural position for a 

single Tobelo folk class in which the subclassification of that 

class is widely known or agreed-upon by Tobelo. But even if 

we include some additional "esoteric" or "idiosyncratic" 

examples of this phenomenon (i.e., those that are not widely 

known or agreed upon), the smaU number of cases that occur 

beties the great importance of the structural principle involved. 

The 'tree' class labeled o dikahuka (see Appendix 1.1 for 

determinations) exempUfies this dual structural positioning, for 

it appears to have two structural positions consistent with the 

two widely known terms labeling die same class: die basic (B°) 

class labeled by die basic term o dikahuka, and die B_1 class 

labeled o gohora ofonganika 'jungle nutmeg.' The latter is a 

B

_1

 subclass of the o gohorax 'nutmeg' class, and contrasts 

witii the other (cultivated) unmarked gohora2 'nutmeg' 

(Myristicafragrans L.). In the diagram below die symbol <=> 

connects die two structural positions of the same folk 

segregate.5 

o gota 

'tree' 

o dikahuka 

'[jungle nutmeg]' 

ogohora 1 

'nutmeg' 

\ 

[other B ° 'tree' classes] 

o gohora ofonganika 

'jungle nutmeg* 

1 

ogohora 2 

'[cultivated] nutmeg' 

Before considering die characteristics of this anomolous 

'jungle nutmeg' class, we should first dismiss two incorrect 

interpretations that, if adequate, would admittedly be simpler 

and preferable to any offered here. First this dual structural 

position does not result from dialect or idiolect differences or 

disagreements among informants, though superficially similar 

situations could be interpreted in tiiat way (cf. the alternative 

placement of o gugudai 'blue-spotted fantati ray [fish]' at B_1 

or B-2 level, though this class does not have a dual structural 

position, see 5.1.3.1). Further research may turn up dialectal 

differences in the specific 'jungle nutmeg' example given, or 

even find tiiat such "anomalous" features of the taxonomic 

structure vary greatly among dialects; but this example was 

nevertheless investigated in the field at Pasir Putih, where many 

informants agreed with die evidence presented here. 

Secondly, it does not seem possible to interpret o dikahuka 

as a B_1 term (synonymous with o gohora ofonganika) rather 

than B°, an alternative which is diagrammed below: 

o gohora x 

'nutmeg' 

o dikahuka (or:) 

o gohora ofonganika 

'jungle nutmeg' 

ogohora 

'[cultivated] nutmeg' 
70 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

This interpretation is unacceptable, as proven by the fact tiiat 

it is impossible to form die phrase *o gohora o dikahuka 

'*dikahuka nutmeg.' That phrase would be possible if the 

interpretation diagrammed here were correct, because a basic 

term can always precede a term for its subclass (within tiie 

timits of restrictions mentioned above (5.1.3)). If dikahuka 

were not a basic term, one could not form die phrase o gota o 

dikahuka 'dikahuka tree,' though in fact that expression is 

possible. In short, the two terms o dikahuka and o gohora o 

fonganika do not act like they should be at the same structural 

position, tiiough they botii label the same class. In this case, the 

discrepancy could be partly explained as influence from NMM, 

in which this folk segregate is designated pala utang (literally: 

'jungle nutmeg'). Historically it may be that some formerly 

distinct B° class labeled o dikahuka is now becoming a B_1 

subclass of the gohora 'nutmeg' class due to NMM influence. 

Whether or not this was the case in the past a synchronic 

description must now note tiiat it seems to retain its B° status as 

well. Other widely-known examples of dual structural position 

are similar to die 'nutmeg' example above: a basic (B°) class 

subdivided into marked and unmarked B_1 classes, of which 

die marked B_1 class is alternatively referred to by a basic (B°) 

term. Thus one marked B_1 subclass of o hitakono (a 'tree' 

type) is both a B_1 class referred to as a o hitakono o gahika 

'shore hitakono' as weU as a B° class labeled by the term o 

kapuraca (see Appendix 1.1). 

Note, however, tiiat "dual structural position" of any class 

should refer to structural positions (like tiiose in the examples 

above) of a class recognized in a single dialect There are 

several cases Usted in Appendix 1.1 in which, for example, folk 

classes of FLORAL or FAUNAL FORM are treated as basic 

terms in B dialect but as B-1 terms in D dialect (see e.g., 

Appendix 1.1, FLORAL FORMS o dodofo, o bobaharama); 

such cases are different from tiiose being considered here. 

Some admittedly more "esoteric" examples wdl illustrate die 

same dual structural position but (unltice the 'nutmeg' example 

above) cannot be interpreted as influenced by translation, and 

may provide uTustrations of how such dual structural positions 

might originaUy have come into use. 

By "esoteric" examples I am referring to examples of tiiose 

structural relations among classes, or of those classes tiiemselves (and die terms mat label them), that are "esoteric" or 

known only to a few. Such classes or relations among classes 

are especiaUy tikely to be found among plants having medicinal 

value. Though Tobelo seem to presume a "male" and "female" 

form for every basic class of BREATHER, they cannot always 

be sure which is the 'male' or 'female' of aU animals or plants. 

Since the male-female opposition is associated witii "strengtii" 

of medicinal uses of plants (cf. 4.4), and since medicine is an 

esoteric matter (cf. 2.3), the male and female members of a 

basic class may be esoteric information. 

Thus, for example, die grass called o gohomanga ma aehe 

'crocodUe's lair* (Oplismenus sp.) is commonly known, but a 

distinction between its 'male' and 'female' forms is not At 

Pasir Putih, only a minority of people recognized 'male' and 

'female' forms of die common grass called o jela-jela 

(Paspalum conjugatum Berg.) One elderly woman at Pasir 

Putih told me, however, that the 'male' jela-jela was in fact o 

gohomanga ma aehe. She was in effect expressing her 

particular "esoteric" or idiosyncratic solution to the problem of 

the 'male' and 'female' forms of tiiese basic classes. Yet she 

stiU considered botii of tiiese basic classes, as shown by die fact 

tiiat she (like others) could not accept the phrase *o jela-jela o 

gohomanga ma aehe (just as dikahuka could be caUed 'jungle 

nutmeg' but not 'dikahuka nutmeg'). Thus the folk segregate 

labeled o gohomanga ma aehe by aU die Tobelo had (in die 

idiosyncratic and esoteric knowledge of tiiis individual) two 

structural positions (one commonly shared but one esoteric), 

each witii its own label: 

o rurubu 

'herbaceous weed' 

o gohomanga ma aehe 

'crocodile's lair' 

— I 

o jela-jela 

X 

o jela-jela ma nauru 

'male jela-jela' 

o jela-jela (ma beka) 

'(female) jela-jela' 

(Such idiosyncratic information is not included in Appendix 

1.1, which lists more widely held opinions about die subclasses 

of o jela-jela.) Because she was especiaUy weU known for her 

curing skills, others tiiought tiiat the plants she called 'male 

jela-jela' might have some medicinal importance for her. 

Soon after arriving at die D-dialcct-speaking vdlage of Pasir 

Putih (after I had been studying at Loleba (B-dialect) for over 

a year), I tried an experiment Witii many of die vdlage elders 

gadiered around, I asked about die local presence of 'trees' 

from a long list of tiieir B-dialect names from Loleba, in an 
NUMBER 34 71 

effort to compare dialects. After some time I began to add 

'male' and female' to each tree name, as tiiough die local 

villagers' Boeng-speaking colleagues had fuUy solved die 

problem of determining die 'males' and 'females' of each kind. 

Though this slowed down progress through the lists, it 

enlivened discussion. In general, Tobelo elders are reluctant to 

categoricaUy state tiiere is "no" 'male' or 'female' of a plant 

type, just as they are reluctant to state tiiat a plant has "no" 

medicinal value. But faced witii an apparendy overwhelming 

knowledge of the various male and female 'tree' forms, tiiese 

particular Tobelo did not seem to want to be outdone. (More 

tiian simple competition was involved; tiiere are also presumptions about "proper" names, handed down by elders, see 2.3 

above.) 

For some of die familiar basic terms I listed, tiiey either 

pointed to a locaUy used opposition (e.g., 'red' vs. 'white' or 

'shore' vs. 'jungle'), suggesting this might correspond to 

Loleba's 'male'-'female' distinction. For others, they claimed 

die plant simply must not grow in die Pasir Putih region 

because they were not familiar witii it. For many of the classes 

I named, they merely admitted that the plant was not normally 

subdivided into 'male' and 'female' forms. 

Most interestingly, though, they tried to resolve some of die 

disparity between their classification and die one I was 

experimentaUy offering them by suggesting basic (B°) classes 

as the possible 'male' and 'female' forms of otiier basic classes! 

As they made such suggestions, villagers made it clear they 

were trying to imagine what Lolebans must mean by the 

elaborate 'male' and 'female' subdivisions of die basic classes 

I was presenting. But note that they were inventing or 

imagining dual structural positions for die same folk class (as in 

the jela-jela example above), perhaps because this structural 

principle is heavUy reUed upon for "esoteric" idiosyncraticaUy 

posited relations among odier "basic" classes. It also seems to 

provide part of die locaUy presumed solution to the "problem" 

of locating all the missing "male" and "female" plants. Any 

individual Tobelo may already know two basic 'tree' classes, 

for example, witiiout realizing one is "male" or "female" of the 

other. Perhaps tiieir awareness that such esoteric dual structural 

positions can always occur may help to encourage the common 

Tobelo presumption (held in the face of relatively tittle 

evidence) that all FLORAL FORMS have a male and a female 

form. 

Finally, not all examples of dual structural position involve 

die 'male'-'female' opposition. Based apparendy on a morphological similarity of die two classes, one elder at Pasir Putih 

told me he diought that o ngo beye ami sogo (a 'vine' type) was 

die 'red hero ma rako' (i.e., the "red" form of anotiier vine 

type). It is not known how he fit this idiosyncratic association 

of die two 'vines' into the already-complex subclassification of 

o hero ma rako in tiiat village and elsewhere (cf. Appendix 1.1, 

also for problematic species determinations). 

In conclusion, as a source for continued credibility for die 

folk notion of 'male' and 'female' plants, and as an expression 

of idiosyncratic esoteric knowledge, this principle of dual 

structural position of the same folk class seems more 

significant to Tobelo thought tiian die few widely shared 

examples would indicate. The surprising tiling about tiiose few 

examples, (including o dikahuka 'jungle nutmeg') is less that 

they have dual structural position, than that they are not 

esoteric. 

5.2.3 Non-taxonomic Structural Relations 

This section briefly reviews several types of non-taxonomic 

structural relations: the cross-cutting subclasses of the B° class 

(5.2.3.1); the 'mother'-'child' relation (5.2.3.2); growth stages 

(5.2.3.3); and a case of intersecting subclasses of a basic class 

(5.2.3.4). AU these non-taxonomic relations are of much more 

restricted appUcation than the (admittedly non-"model") 

taxonomic ones considered above. For tiiis reason, these 

non-taxonomic structural relations among classes are best 

diought of as a few exceptional special relationships connecting 

particular subclasses of the BIOTIC FORM domain within the 

context of the wider structure of modified taxonomic relations 

considered above. 

5.2.3.1 Cross-cutting Subclasses of the Basic Class 

We have already seen tiiat Tobelo use several pairs of 

opposites, such as 'male'-'female,' which neatly subdivide die 

basic class into two subclasses. Nevertheless, tiiese certainly 

cannot always fit into a broadly based taxonomic structure, 

because in several cases, altiiough both subclasses are clearly 

members of the same superclass labeled by die "basic" term, 

each subclass wtil belong to a different major B+1 plant group 

('tree,' 'herbaceous weed,' or 'vine'). Of course, such relations 

must be distinguished from simple homonymy, in which a kind 

of 'tree' and a kind of 'vine,' for example, both happen to be 

named witii the same term, but witiiout implication of 

classificatory significance. In the cases under consideration 

here, simple homonymy must be ruled out because (1) die 

'male'-'female' and color distinctions used lexemicaUy always 

have classificatory significance; (2) Tobelo tiiemselves can 

distinguish such homonymy from cross-cutting classes; and (3) 

die (admittedly non-taxonomic) logic of such arrangements can 

be seen by examining unifying distinctive features of the class, 

regardless of die features of the major plant group classes. 

Thus although many basic classes of FLORAL FORM in 

Tobelo are not subdivided at all, tiiere are 34 basic classes (or 

only 5.8% of the total basic classes of FLORAL FORM) with 

tiiis non-taxonomic internal complexity, in which subclasses of 

tiie B° class cross-cut the B+1 classes of die wider taxonomic 

structure. An example diagrammed here involves four terminal 

classes, which in this case happen to label four different 

biological species of Orchidaceae. Note tiiat die tiiree B_1 

subclasses of o tarate 'orchid' are included witiiin different B+1 

classes; thus the subclasses of o taratex may be said to 

"cross-cut" die larger folk taxonomy: 
72 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

B 

B< 

+ 1 o gumini 

'vine' 

B" l o tarate o gumini 

Vine orchid' 

Bulbophyllum sp. 

(unaffiliated with 

any B+ 1 class) 

o tarate \ 

'orchid' 

o tarate 2 (or:) 

o tarate o gotaika (or:) 

o tarate ma dutu 

'orchid' (unmarked) 

(alternatively): 

'tree orchid' (or:) 

'real genuine orchid' 

Dendrobium sp. 

o rurubu 

'herbaceous weed' 

o tarate o tonakika 

'ground [-living] orchid' 

o tarate ma nauru 

'male 

[ground-living]- orchid' 

o tarate ma beka 

'female 

[ground-living]-orchid' 

Eulophia javanica J.J.S Eulophia sqaulida Lindl. 

Though the o taratex term is here translated 'orchid,' not aU 

the Orchidaceae are in tiiis class. Note also that the 'male' and 

'female' of tins basic class refer to only one of its three B_1 

subclasses: o tarate o tonak-ika [< tarate ground-tiiatdirection] 

'ground[-living] orchid' (so caUed because these forms grow 

direetiy from the ground and are not epiphytic on trees). In 

addition to a superficial morphological similarity and a 

similarity of habitat, die two forms may be classed togetiier 

because a convenient locally used glue can be made from die 

slighdy tuberous root of both the taller 'male' form (which has 

long, thin leaves), and from that of the shorter, more ovately 

leaved 'female' form. 

In many cases, one of the cross-cutting B_1 classes wdl be 

the 'male' or 'female' form, or the 'good' or 'bad' form. An 

example cited above is die basic class o rukiti (Gnetum spp.), in 

which die cross-cutting feature of Tobelo folk classification 

allows die system to reunite two biologicaUy closely related 

species, one of which happens to be a 'vine' and one a 'tree': 

o rukiti 

o rukiti o gumini 

'vine rukiti' 

(or:) o rukiti ma dorou 

'bad rukiti' 

Genetum gnemonoides Brongn. 

LB*** o gumini 'vine'] 

o rukiti 2 

(or:) o rukiti o gota 

'tree rukiti' 

(or:) o rukiti ma oa 

'good rukiti' 

Gnetum sp. 

[B+ 1 : o gota 'tree'] 

Note tiiat in this case the endocentric phrases meaning 'good 

rukiti' and 'bad rukiti' are synonymous with the phrases 'vine 

rukiti' and 'tree rukiti.' This is further confirmation that 0 

ru\dtix, the superclass containing both 'vine' and 'tree' forms, 

is tiie basic term, because the endocentric phrases can only 

occur at levels below the basic term (5.1.1). (The "good" rukiti 

can be used for twine and as food, die "bad" rukiti cannot; 

usefulness is a common criterion of the "good"-"bad" 

opposition.) 

Though in some cases (as in the above examples) phylogenetically closely related taxa may be brought together by this 

cross-cutting feature, in other cases taxa from quite different 

biological famiUes are brought together because of locaUy 

perceived simtiarities, such as the elongated and similarly 

pointed leaf shape of botii the unmarked '(female) roma' 

(Flagellaria indica L.) (a 'vine') and die 'male roma' 

(Spathoglottisplicata Bl.) (a 'herbaceous weed'). The former is 

of the famtiy FlageUariaceae, the latter of the Orchidaceae (cf. 

also Appendix 1.1, e.g., o tutulaka (Orchidaceae, ?Euphorbiaceae), o guleuld (Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae), o haiti 

(Leguminosae, Incacinaceae)). 

Since the cross-cutting classes are clearly B- classes in each 

example where they occur as synonyms of endocentric phrases, 

we can assume that tiiey are probably all B- classes in other 

cases (where no endocentric phrases are used) as well. One 

example of that is the basic class of plants labeled 0 haiti (see 

diagram, facing page). 

In this case, there are no synonyms for die classes, no 

equivalence to 'male' and 'female' forms, and in fact tiiere is 

very little evidence for any markedness. The superficial 

morphological simUarity of leaf shape and position is far from 

overwhelming, but the two plants are very closely associated in 
NUMBER 34 73 

o haiti 

o haiti o gumini 

lodes philippinensis 

o haiti o gota 

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. 

"medicine" as plants used (with equal strength—note the 

absence of a "stronger" male form) to exhort ghosts from a 

possessed individual. 

Similarly, both the o doddfo o gumini ('vine doddfo') and the 

o doddfo o gota ('tree dodoTb' (see Appendix 1.1)) have the 

same cultural utilization: as plants burned so that smoke will 

keep away ghosts of all kinds. Here again the superficial 

morphological simUarity is not overwhelming, but there might 

be some more culturally relevant similarity, such as sameness 

of scent when burned, which overrides morphological differences or at least reinforces die minimal morphological lflceness. 

In most cases, though, only morphological simdarity 

provides a unifying feature to the class. Of course, there might 

always also be an esoteric use shared by cross-cutting 

subclasses; but when morphological similarity is clear and no 

evidence for such a cultural use is found, we do not need to 

invoke similarities of esoteric usage. Sometimes, also, tiie 

morphological similarity of the cross-cutting subclasses is 

imptied in the basic term itself (e.g., o tutulaka in Appendix 

1.1). 

5.2.3.2 The 'Mother'-'Cltild' Relation 

Almost aU Tobelo use die distinction between 'mother' 

(dialectaUy H: ma Xeha; B, D: ma yeha; or B: ma ayo) and 

'chtid' (unmarked; or dialectaUy B, H: ma ngohaka, D: ma 

ngofaka) classes only in reference to animals. However, die 

Tugutil of upriver Dodaga (whose folk classification is not 

considered here because of insufficient data on tiiis and odier 

differences between Tugutil and "coastal" populations) use this 

distinction for plant classes as weU. Coastal Tobelo, even tiiose 

at Dodaga vdlage, were uniformly amazed tiiat any plant could 

have a 'motiier' form among die Tugutil, so it seems clear that 

for coastal Tobelo the distinction only applies to FAUNAL 

FORMS, and it wiU only be considered in relation to FAUNAL 

FORMS here. 

The same forms used to mean 'motiier' and 'child' in tiiis 

special sense are used to mean 'motiier' and 'child' in die more 

normal sense of die progenitrix and her offspring. These two 

senses of the term 'mother,' however, do appear to be quite 

different lexemes labeled by die same forms. One of the three 

Tobelo dialects distinguishes these more clearly than the 

others. If we consider only die normal usage of the term for 

'mother,' we find that D-dialect prefers ayo 'mother* in die 

sense of progenitrix but yeha 'mother' for this special 

mother-chdd relation among FAUNAL FORMS. In the sense 

of 'progenitrix' any animal or human being can and indeed 

must have had a 'motiier' (ayo). Thus in D-dialect a deer fawn 

is o mainjanga ma ngofaka 'baby [child] deer'; its true motiier 

is ma ayo ('its mother') or o mainjanga ma ayo ('mother deer'). 

If more tiian one have the same mother the set of sibUngs (tike 

human siblings) can be referred to as o ayo moi (literally: 'one 

mother'). Nevertheless, the D-dialect word for 'mother' in the 

'modier'-'child' classification of animals is the non-cognate 

yeha; thus the rhinoceros beetie is considered die habeta ma 

yeha 'motiier of habeta [its larvae].' To use ayo in die latter 

sense, or yeha in die sense of 'progenitrix,' would be 

recognizable as eitiier in-law name avoidance or as die usage of 

anotiier dialect. (Of course such usage would be "acceptable," 

since aU Tobelo dialects are "acceptable" to each otiier). 

Even in the B (and perhaps also H) dialects, where botii 

senses are labeled by die same form6, mere are stiU clearly two 

different lexemes involved, and no cultural presumption tiiat 

die 'motiier' in the special classificatory sense of 'mother' vs. 

'chtid' animals is actuaUy the progenitrix. 

'Chtid' (ma ngohaka, ma ngofaka) may also denote die 

young of any animal, 'as locally interpreted' (for example, 

small adults of miUipede species tiiat in fact wdl never get any 

larger are locaUy erroneously thought to be ngohaka 'young, 

juveniles' of the local giant juloid miUipedes). This sense of ma 

ngohaka, however, contrasts with ma baluhu 'adult'; die 

'motiier' term has no sense of age or growth class for the 

animal. Thus a fully grown bird may be referred to as ma 

baluhu 'adult' but it can be referred to as ma ayo 'mother' only 

in that word's sense of 'progenitrix.' 

Though its dialectal forms may vary (henceforth the citation 

forms are die B: ma ayo 'motiier' and ma ngohaka 'chtid'), die 

classificatory relation between 'mother' and 'child' FAUNAL 

FORM taxa seems everywhere related to die sense of 'motiier' 

as progenitrix. Thus a true mother (progenitrix) produces 

chUdren "in her own image," and yet also derives from die child 

she once was. Similarly, die 'child' class of FAUNAL FORM 

is presumed to derive from die ('motiier') class of FAUNAL 

FORM by some transformation (other than reproduction); in 

turn, the 'mother' FAUNAL FORM produces the 'chtid' by 

some process like reproduction. The 'child' furthermore is 

smaUer in size, though closely associated by some simdarity of 

morphology and/or habitat 

When the producer is a FLORAL FORM, and a FAUNAL 

FORM class is considered derived from it by transformation (as 

in the case of the 'walking stick,' 'walking leaf,' and 'praying 

mantis' insects (Phasmatidae and Mantidae; Tbl: o peo-peoto) 
74 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 10 (above and right).—"Strangling figs" (Ficus spp.), an interesting case of a basic class cross-cutting B+1 

classes, and of dialectal differences in classification. The large Ficus trees such as those at right grow from vines 

that have strangled the trees they grew up encircling (see Ficus vine above). In B-dialect both forms are 

designated by the B° term o bobaharama. The term o bobaharama o gumini 'vine bobaharama' labels the 

subclass above; o bobaharama o gota 'tree bobaharama' labels the subclass exemplified in the photo at right. 

Thus the B° class o bobaharama cross-cuts the B+1 classes o gota 'tree* and o gumini 'vine.' Li D-dialect, by 

contrast, the 'vine' forms such as those above are known by a distinct basic term, o gumiraga; only the 'tree* 

forms are properly called o bobaharama. Both dialects further subdivide the 'tree* forms into growth stages (see 

Appendix 1.1). Tobelo generally do not consider the 'tree* forms to have developed out of the 'vine' forms. 
NUMBER 34 75 

locally thought to derive from twigs of trees; or die o babanga 

(Rhizophora sp.) mangrove whose long fruits, falling into 

shallow tidal mangrove zones, are though to sometimes give 

rise to certain garfish (Tylosurus sp.; Tbl: o hilowana)), that 

plant class is never considered die 'motiier' form. 

If this 'motiier' and 'child' relation seems to cross-cut die 

wider, more general taxonomic structure, die reader may 

wonder why it is not treated as a special case of cross-cutting 

subclasses of a basic term (5.2.3.1). In fact this 'mother'-

'chtid' opposition must be defined by die type of relationship 

culturally presumed to occur between the two classes (e.g., 

transformation of die 'child' into die 'mother,' or particular 

association of die two), and not by die structural relationship of 

die classes in die classificatory system. Those structural 
76 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 11.—In some cases the distinction between 'mother' and 'child' FAUNAL FORMS is associated with the 

idea that 'mother' produces 'child,' or that some individuals of the 'child* class become 'mother.' In cases such 

as that of the "walking leaf insect" (Phasmatidae) illustrated here, however, part of a FLORAL FORM (leaves of 

trees) is presumed to have produced the FAUNAL FORM (a 'walking leaf insect,' Tbl: o peo-peoto). The 

transformation is recognized, yet no classificatory relationship is posited or lexicalized, and no plant class is 

considered the 'mother' form. See discussion (5.2.3.2); the range of the B° term o peo-peoto is given in Appendix 

2.5. 

relationships may be of many types; of the eight paired 

examples discussed below, die first tiiree involve examples in 

which both the 'chtid' and die 'motiier* contrast as basic (B°) 

terms; the fourth example below involves a B° class of 'fish' 

whose 'mother' form is a B_1 class of 'crab'; the fifth through 

eighth examples below involve cases in which the basic class 

has the same linguistic form as its unmarked ('child') B_1 

subclass, which contrasts witii its otiier (marked) B_1 'motiier' 

subclass. 

Perhaps the local concept of die modier-chUd relation can 

best be iUustrated by some examples. Examples discussed 

below are all widely known. It is interesting that even though 

folk biological classification in general is diought to have been 

laid down by "The Elders" (2.3), this particular area of 

mother-chdd relations seems to be more direetiy tied to 

observation. Tobelo can say "why" (in each particular case) one 

form is called die 'motiier' (e.g., by noting some association of 

the two—not of course, by defining die conditions of die 

'motiier'-'child' relation in the abstract), and back up tiiat 

statement with personal experience. I even observed one 

Tobelo say in conversation tiiat he diought the edible 

Holodiurian caUed o taripanga ('sea cucumber'; cf. Ind: 

tripang) "must be" (!) the 'motiier' of the o ugaka ma hoka 

'hairtail fish' (Trichiurus spp.), because, when that Holodiurian 

is split open, long, tiny slivers of material come out of the sea 

cucumber into the water that (though too small to examine) 

appeared to him to be like die tiny hairtad fish into which (he 

diought) they would develop. 

It will be interesting to observe whether, now that Japanese 

investors have begun trading in Halmahera's rare butterflies 
NUMBER 34 77 

and encouraging locals to raise them from caterpillars, this 

presendy unrecognized association between 'caterpdlar' and 

'butterfly* wdl come to be termed and diought of by Tobelo as 

a 'chtid'-'motiier' relation. In fact, I could scarcely believe— 

but confirmed beyond doubt—tiiat in 1978 at Loleba viUage (as 

probably also throughout Tobelo regions of Halmahera), the 

'caterpillar' (o pipiti, a term apparendy used tiiere only for 

Lepidopteran larvae) was not thought to become transformed 

into the 'butterfly' (o Mule). The pupa is caUed o Mule ma 

gohi 'butterfly egg.' I once kept a Graphium euphrates 

caterpillar in a jar tiirough its golden pupal to die spectacular 

adult butterfly stage at Loleba, in f idl dady view of several local 

people. They seemed interested, and when presented witii my 

result certainly wondered how it came about And yet, in a 

reaction reminiscent of occurrences in Western science, they 

seemed generally reluctant to abandon centuries of wisdom and 

observation on die basis of evidence from an isolated 

occurrence under admittedly unnatural conditions. 

In aU cases of tiiis opposition in the FAUNAL FORM 

domain, die 'child' form is unmarked, and here designated only 

by die class's unmarked term (without the emphatic ma 

ngohaka 'chUd,' which may optionally be used to disambiguate 

tiiis unmarked class). 

(1) o iuru 'ant' (Formicidae, except 'weaver ants,' see 2 

below) 

o iuru ma ayo 'winged ant' (Formicidae, except 

weaver ants' winged forms) 

The gloss 'winged ant' or potential gloss o iuru '(wingless) 

ant' is perhaps misleading because there is one subclass of o 

iuru 'ant,' which has wings; it is called o iuru ihoo-hoho 'flying 

ant' (B-dialect otiier dialects have cognate forms), and denotes 

tiiose winged ants (possibly Monomorium spp.; specimens not 

yet identified) tiiat swarm in droves to kerosene lamps during 

Halmahera's rainy nights. This pest is quite widely known but 

only in this specific context (thus in NMM the widespread 

creature is caUed bifi hujan or bifi ujang 'rain ant'), and no 

wingless forms are associated witii it 

The subclasses of this basic term include one residual class 

(o iuru^ 'tiny ant') recognizable as a class because it in turn has 

two lexemicaUy labeled subclasses, in addition to die "residue" 

(labeled below by "R") of the class (biological identifications 

for specimens taken are not yet avadable). 

o iuru i 

ololiowaha o goguhulo o iuru ihoo-hoho o iuru 

o iuru o iuru [R] 

ma doka-dokara ma daro-daromo 

Except for tile 'flying ant' (o iuru ihoo-hdho), for which only 

tiiat single form is known, aU of tiiese sub-classes of 'ant' (o 

iurux) have 'mother' (winged) forms (o loliowaha ma ayo, o 

goguhulo ma ayo, o iuru ma ayo), tiiough until identifications 

of specimens are avadable, it wdl be difficult to know whether 

Tobelo have observed or guessed "correcdy" about the 

relationships of these winged and unwinged forms. The 

'motiier' of any subclass can be termed die 'motiier' of o iurux 

'ant' thus o loliowaha ma ayo 'mother of loliowaha' is also o 

iuru ma ayo 'mother of ant,' because o loliowaha is a subclass 

of o iurux. But it is sometimes difficult to know whether o iuru 

ma ayo involves iurux 'ant' or iuru2 (those 'ants' that are not in 

odier named B_1 classes). 

In all tiiese cases, tiiere is no local presumption tiiat die 

winged forms procreate die wingless forms, but rather tiiere is 

a presumption tiiat though not aU wingless forms become 

winged, winged forms necessarily somehow come from 

wingless ones, and preserve their basic morphological form 

despite die larger size and their new wings. UnUke 'weaver 

ants' modiers' (below), the 'mother' form can generaUy be 

observed along with the 'chtid.' 

(2) o kane-kane 'weaver ant' (unwinged forms of Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr.) 

o kane-kane ma ayo 'weaver ant's mother (winged 

form)' (winged forms of Oecophylla smaragdina 

Fabr.) 

These culturally useless winged ('motiier') forms can 

sometimes be found independendy of die weaver ants' nests 

(which anyone would be foolish to search through braving 

these creatures' stinging bites), and are recognized by tiieir 

generaUy similar morphology despite die larger size and wings 

of die 'motiier.' 

(3) o habeta '(larvae of) large weevd, esp. coconut 

weevil' 

o habeta ma ayo '(adult) large weevil, esp. coconut 

weevil' 
78 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

The edible coconut weevil larvae (o habeta) are found in die 

pitii of various fallen palm trees (sometimes faUen palm trunks 

are sectioned into roughly one-meter sections to encourage a 

rapid, thorough infestation by these edible larvae). Tobelo are 

fuUy aware tiiat after entering a pupal stage these larvae become 

the adult forms (they were not sure whether the adults in turn 

produced die larvae). Some weevil larvae are not considered 

edible, however. As a rule of thumb Tobelo often say that 

habeta found in o gota ('wood, tree') are not edible, while 

larvae found in the various palms may be eaten (a few viUagers, 

however, claimed tiiat some larvae found in wood might be 

edible). This local presumption or rule of thumb is consistent 

with the subclassification of the B° o habetax: 

o habeta l 

'coconut weevil larva' 

I 

o habeta o gotaika 

'coconut weevil larva 

[found] in wood' 

o habeta 2 

'coconut weevil larva 

[found in palms]' 

Unltice those of 'ants,' Tobelo do not distinguish die 'motiier' 

forms of the subclasses, however. All are simply o habeta ma 

ayo 'habeta's motiier.' 

(4) o nikere (a tiny goby fish (Gobiidae); specimens not 

yet identified) 

o nikere ma ayo (smaU megolops stage of a crab; 

specimens not yet identified) 

The B° term o nikere designates a subclass of 'fish' (o 

nawoko)', but its 'mother' form, alternatively designated o 

kapunane, is a subclass of 'crab' (o koru). Since evidence has 

been presented (5.1.1) tiiat 'crab' is a basic term, it follows that 

this o kapunane or o nikere ma ayo subclass must be a B_1 

term. 

These two classes may be considered 'motiier' and 'chtid' 

because the fish shoals upriver into freshwater streams from its 

marine environment predictably witiiin one week of die time 

mat the megalops stage of the crab "sets" or comes upriver in 

huge schools in the same freshwater streams; both species soon 

retreat again out into the ocean, where the tiny creatures are 

rarely found by Tobelo. 

(5) o wawoko2 '(smaUer) palolo worm' (a small marine 

polychaete worm that predictably comes to shore in 

large numbers once or twice a year) 

o wawoko2 ma ayo '(larger) palolo worm' (a much 

larger marine polychaete worm always observed 

witii the seasonal arrival of o wawoko). 

My information is scarce on these widely known edible 

creatures, whose annual arrival in huge schools is said to be 

predictable to witiiin one day (e.g., at Bobale Island (Kao 

District), and Kampung Lolobata (Wasile District)), though I 

never observed diem. Local people (at least tiiose interviewed 

at villages where die organisms do not occur) do not speculate 

on reproduction of the 'chtid' from die 'motiier,' but again 

assume the 'mother' must have derived in some way from the 

much smaller 'child' witii which it is clearly associated. Here 

(and in die next three examples) 'mother' and 'chtid' are 

subclasses of die B° class having die same form as the 

unmarked ('child') subclass (glosses are in parentheses for lack 

of data on the organisms involved): 

o wawoko 

'palolo worm' 

I 

o wawoko 2 

('small [normal] edible 

palolo worm') 

o wawoko ma ayo 

('larger [rarer] edible 

palolo worm') 

(6) o bilama2 '(small) elongated bioluminescent centipede' 

o bilama2 ma ayo '(large) elongated bioluminescent 

centipede' 

Both die 'child' and 'motiier' forms are highly elongated, 

bioluminescent centipedes. The minimally- or nonbioluminescent common 'centipedes' (o aili) contrast witii o 

bildmax 'bioluminescent centipede' as B° subclasses of o 

aewani2 'mere animal.' Length relative to diameter of die body 

appears to be a further feature distinguishing tiiese two 

myriapod types. Also, note tiiat common 'centipedes' (o aili) 

are locally represented by some extremely large species (e.g., 

die pesty tropicopolitan genus Scolopendrd) and a wide variety 

of rather small species. Yet the 'mother'-'child' distinction 

does not apply even though die class seems "naturally" 
NUMBER 34 79 

divisible into die "ratiier smaU" versus "very large" genera. For 

some reason, the Tobelo speak of tile common 'centipedes' (o 

aili) as just "growing" from chtid to adult (i.e., as a normal 

growtii of the organism, undivided into named growtii stages), 

whde the 'bioluminescent centipede' (o bilama) is apparendy 

diought to undergo some odier kind of transformation such that 

some but not aU 'chtid' forms (o bilama^ become die rarer 

large 'motiier' variety. Both 'child' and 'motiier' forms are B_1 

terms labeling the only subdivisions of the B° class o bilamax: 

o bildma 

o guguli x 

I 

r 

o bildma 2 o bildma ma ayo 

(7) o dangdnga2 'tiiin-bodied rice bug' (several species of 

dun-bodied Hemiptera often found on rice plants) 

o dangdnga2 ma ayo 'tiiick-bodied rice bug' (several 

species of thick-bodied Hemiptera often found on 

rice plants) 

Glossing tiiese terms 'rice bug' may be misleading because, 

tiiough the greatest cultural significance of both 'chtid' and 

'motiier' forms is the role of some species as seasonal pests of 

rice, other morphologically similar species found in rain forest 

and otiier habitats are placed in tiiis class, even tiiough they 

clearly are not rice pests. In this case I found no evidence of any 

belief tiiat die dangdnga2 "became" or "transformed into" its 

'mother' form, altiiough the two morphologically similar types 

of organism were always associated in their seasonal appearance at rice fields. Botii forms are subclasses of the B° 

aangangax class of 'mere animal' (o aewani^. 

(8) o guguli2 '(small) turreted gastropod' 

o guguli2 ma ayo 'very large turreted gastropod (e.g., 

Triton spp.) used to make sheU trumpets to call die 

wind' 

The Triton-shell or odier sea-sheU "trumpet" used here as 

throughout the Moluccas to "caU the wind" for better saiting 

during doldrums is called o guguli 'shell trumpet' (cf. specimen 

of Tobelo shell trumpet, Yale Peabody Museum (Antiiropology) No. 248807; made from Chicoreus ramosus). As a class of 

BIOTIC FORM (rather tiian a technological item), however, o 

guguli has two subclasses: the large gastropods of several taxa, 

which are turreted (die "trumpet" hole is drilled into one whorl 

of the turret) are called die 'mother' form; and die smaller 

gastropods (including juveniles of the same species used to 

make trumpets) are die unmarked 'child': 

o guguli. o guguli 2 ma ayo 

Though die 'motiier' forms are recognized as necessarily 

derived from die smaller guguli2 Tobelo realize that not all 

smaU turreted gastropods that survive wiU become 'mother' 

forms. In fact, there is a common belief that spines and 

projections on some gastropods (such as Murex) develop as die 

moUusk grows, so that even very small gastropods are 

considered 'adult' (but of course not 'mother') if they are quite 

covered witii projections or spines. Such spiny-shelled organisms are 'adults' in the 'chtid'-'adult' opposition but 'children' 

in the 'chdd'-'motiier' opposition. In most places gugulix 

adequate to make into a good wind-calling trumpet are rare, and 

valuable if found. This fact and die fact tiiat so many guguli2 

become adults witiiout becoming the 'mother' form, may give 

credence to die notion of a special kind of transformation into 

the 'mother' form that seems impUed by tiiis classificatory 

distinction. 

In conclusion, all these examples indicate tiiat die 'motiier* 

may be related to her unmarked 'chdd' in many ways; while all 

members of one 'chtid' class (o habeta 'coconut weevd larva') 

are assumed to become 'motiiers' if tiiey survive, other 

examples seem to show only a relation of association between 

smaU- and large-bodied insects (o danganga 'rice bug') or 

earner- and later-arriving small stream animals (o nikere), 

without any presumption of the reproduction of one from die 

otiier, or die transformation of one into die other. 

In general, then, this opposition seems to relate two folk taxa 

tiiat are closely associated by eitiier morphology or habitat in 

which one taxon ('child') is smaller in size and/or substantiaUy 

distinct in morphology from die otiier ('mother'); often die 

unmarked ('chtid') form is presumed to sometimes be 

transformed into die 'motiier' form. 

5.2.3.3 Growth Stages (Size Classes) 

Here we may briefly consider another type of contrast-set 

which in every case subdivides a single subclass of die BIOTIC 

FORM domain (usually a basic class): die named growtii stage 

or size class. Though I wdl here use "Gl, G2, G3, etc." to 

number these named Growtii stages, "size class" seems a more 

appropriate term to use for some of diem. Consider, for 

example, die size classes of 'o hamu^ [true] grouper fish' 

(Serranidae), diagrammed below. (The notations Gl, G2, G3, 

etc., in the diagram below denote die smaUest to largest size 

class; approximate total lengths are shown. See Appendix 2.3 

for some species identifications.) 
80 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

o hamu1 

'grouper fish' 

i 

o goropa-ginene o hamu 2 

'[true] grouper fish' 

- Gl: o kaidau (up to ca. 10 cm.) 

— G2: oburi (ca. 10-30 cm.) 

— G3: okokofa (ca. 30-50 cm.) 

- G4: o hamu 3 (ca. 50-100 cm.) 

1—G5: o hapatanga (or:) o roto (over 1 meter) 

Tobelo realize that some types of '[true] grouper fish' wiU 

never grow to be the largest forms, because they often come 

across easUy-recognized strikingly-colored smaller species of 

Serranidae, which of course are never seen to be of large size, 

even tiiough other species grow to become giant potential 

man-eaters. Thus Tobelo realize that not aU members of the 

smaller size class, even if they survive, wiU ever become the 

largest size class (for this reason the term "size class" seems 

more appropriate than "growth stage"). If we consider tiiis area 

of folk classification in terms of the biological species 

involved, tiiis of course means that the adults of the largest 

grouper species are in a class that contrasts witii a class 

containing the juvenUes of those same large species as well as 

the adults of various smaller species. 

Several odier 'fishes' have size classes ratiier like those of 

the 'grouper fish.' In some cases a basic class is subdivided into 

its regular taxonomic subclasses, and also subdivided into 

named size classes, as in the case of the 'barracuda' 

(alternatively: o suo, or o huo, or o huoto, see Appendix 2.3): 

o suo (o huo) (o huoto) 

'barracuda' 

o suo ma o dodoma o suo-buri 

gare-garehe 

- Gl: o hagalu 

— G2: [unmarked; e.g. o suo2] 

— G3: o rawo-rawo 

Thus any particular member of the three B_1 sub-classes of 

o suo 'barracuda' could also be a member of any of the three 

size classes. The second of tiiose size classes designates 

mid-sized, "normal" barracuda: because it is unmarked, eitiier 

the term o suo2 could be used to designate any mid-sized 

barracuda (suox), or die term for one of the B_1 subclasses 

could be used. Thus the subclass labeled o dodoma has die 

foUowing size classes: o hagalu (or o dodoma o hagalu), o 

dodoma2 ('mid-sized dodomax), and o rawo-rawo (or o 

dodoma o rawo-rawo). 

In some cases, such named stages can instead be more 

appropriately considered "growth stages," because not only are 

the members of the final growth-stage all expected to have 

grown through each stage, but also all die members of die first 

growth-stage are expected (unlike, e.g., the 'grouper fish' 

above) to grow under normal circumstances to the final stage (if 

they survive). Surprisingly, none of the domesticated animals 

have such stages, but one of the few animals other than 'fish' 

subdivided into a named series is a local megapod (o meleu; 

Megapodius freycineti) often hunted and eaten but rarely also 

kept in cages until it is killed for its deUcious meat. The stages 

are: o puka (juvende) and die unmarked o meleu^ (adult); the 

former can be more elaborately referred to as o meleu ma puka 

'juvenile megapod'; die latter could be explicidy distinguished 

by a phrase such as o meleu ma baluhu 'adult megapod' 

(tiiough the unmarked o meleu2 would normally be used). In the 

next diagram, Gl and G2 refer to growth stages. 
NUMBER 34 81 

o meleu 

Megapodius freycineti' 

L G l: opuka 'juvenile megapode' 

G2: o meleu2 '(adult megapode)' 

All previous examples of growth stages or size classes have 

dealt only with FAUNAL FORMS. That is because several 

such series occur in that domain. There is only one, 

questionable example in the domain of FLORAL FORMS: die 

problematic B° class o bobaharama ('banyan,' several genera 

including Ficus spp.). Specimens of this (especially the large 

banyans locaUy believed to be haunted by ghosts) are difficult 

to obtain in flower and fruit, and adequate investigation of the 

variety of species in this class is incomplete. Neverdieless, die 

folk 'banyan' class is subdivided into the cross-cutting 

subclasses 'vine banyan' (o bobaharama o gumini) and die 

unmarked 'tree banyan' (o bobaharama [on] o bobaharama o 

gota). The 'tree banyan' (or 'banyan tree') is subdivided into 

two growth stages, of which die second is in turn commonly 

subdivided into two further stages (see diagram below). 

o bobaharama 

'banyan' 

o bobaharama 2 (or:) 

o bobaharama o gota 

'tree banyan' 

1 

o bobaharama o gumini 

'vine banyan' 

L G l: obiorongo 

G2: o bobaharama^ 

— Gl: o bobaharama iti-tirii 

'run-aground banyan [as of a ship]' 

1— G2 o bobaharama ma ngutuku ilage-lage 

'buttress-rooted banyan' 

Finally, the differences between such growth or size classes 

and subtaxa of any particular class of BIOTIC FORM should be 

emphasized: 

1. As tiiese examples have shown, the cultural presumptions about how two growtii stages contrast are different from 

tiiose held about die contrast between two subtaxa of a 

higher-level taxon. In the former case one stage is expected to 

become (or to have regularly been derived from) die otiier 

witiiout major transformation odier tiian simple growth (cf. 

modier-chdd relation, 5.2.3.2). In die latter case such growth or 

derivation is not presumed. 

2. Subtaxa of any higher-level taxon of BIOTIC FORM, at 

whatever level, adequately subdivide tiiat higher-level taxon 

such that (aside from "residue" and some exceptional cases) 

any member of that higher-level taxon should clearly be a 

member of only one of its subclasses. Growth stages and size 

classes are approximately-bounded subdivisions of a continuum, e.g., from neonate to old adult or from smaU to large. 

3. The linguistic treatment of growth stages or size classes 

of a taxon is usually not die same as for mat taxon's subtaxa. In 

die case of the 'barracuda' (o suo) above, botii subtaxa and size 

classes are treated Unguistically in very much the same way; 

thus in "sequencing" the terms (5.1.3) one may say eitiier o suo 

o dodoma ('the dodoma [subtaxon of] barracuda') or o suo o 

rawo-rawo ('die rawo-rawo size class of barracuda'). But in 

many other examples, such sequencing is impossible, indicating tiiat die Unguistic treatment (and probably cultural 

perception) of growth or size series is not the same as for 

subtaxa in the BIOTIC FORM hierarchy. Thus the 'muUet' (o 

goruo2 example above) has three growth stages, but sequences 

like *o goruo o gorofea or *o goruo ma gorofea are impossible. 

In fact informants say that any gorofea "can never be caUed a 

goruo." If a fisherman returns after fish-poisoning or some 

other technique lUcely to produce more than one growth-stage, 

he wdl say he caught "o gorofea and o goruo" (ratiier than just 

o goruo) if he caught both. But when asked what a gorofea is 

tiiey will answer o goruo ma ngohaka 'a chUd [baby] goruo,' or 

o goruo ma alu-aluhu duru 'a very small goruo.' 

Because die gorofea is tiius realized as a type of goruo, 

tiiough in tiiis very restricted context, there seems no reason to 

posit "MULLET" as a truly covert class containing aU its 

named growth-stages. Though restricted in opportunities for its 
82 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

lexical realization,tiiese examples iUustrate tiiat goruo2 '[good] 

mullet' is a labeled (not a covert) class. For each such example 

in which a class is subdivided into lexicaUy labeled size or 

growtii series I have found some cases in which the class is 

reaUzed (albeit under restricted conditions as in the case of die 

goruo2 'good mullet'). For that reason, it has not been 

necessary to posit covert classes of BIOTIC FORM due to tiiese 

commonly used growtii or size series. 

5.2.3.4 Intersecting Subclasses of a Folk Class 

We have seen in the 'barracuda' example above tiiat die 

series of tiiree growth stages intersected die three sub-taxa, 

allowing nine (3 x 3) possible combinations of subtaxon and 

growtii stage. 

It is surprising that with so many possible oppositions used 

to distinguish subtaxa of plant and animal ('male' vs. 'female,' 

'good' vs. 'bad,' contrasts of color and of habitat, etc.), I have 

found only one case of a folk class subdivided into intersecting 

subtaxa. This is further evidence that die Tobelo prefer more 

"regular" mutuaUy exclusive subtaxa (5.2.1.3.2). This exceptional case, however, involves one of the most culturaUy 

significant FLORAL FORM classes: o igono 'coconut palm.' 

There are several non-local varieties recently introduced to die 

North Moluccas, but these remain unknown to most Tobelo. 

Even in a copra-dependent vdlage luce Loleba, only a few 

locally successful (and locaUy considered indigenous) B_1 

varieties are known: 

o igono1 

'coconut' 

I 

o igobula o niara o tukuru o igono2 

The B_1 class o igono2 (tiie coconut palm normaUy planted 

in die region) however, is commonly subdivided into a 'white' 

and 'red' subclasses (o igono ma gare-garehe, o igono ma 

doka-dokara). Though the vast majority of coconut palms are 

considered 'female,' mutant forms occasionally occur in which 

the leaves never fuUy separate and tiius appear joined at die 

edges (just as they are "joined" in the first stages of a frond's 

unfolding). Such mutants, perhaps because tiiey produce fewer 

fruits, are locaUy considered die 'male' (ma nauru) form. Thus 

despite tiieir seeming penchant for Uning up oppositions so tiiat 

subtaxa do not intersect Tobelo apparendy cannot help but 

notice that both the 'red' and die 'white' igono2 'coconut 

palms' around diem can be eitiier 'male' or 'female.' 

5.2.3.5 Folk Classes Posited witiiout Ever Having Been 

Observed 

No Tobelo folk biologist presumes to completely know or to 

be able to name aU the subclasses of the BIOTIC FORM 

domain. Each folk classifier is aware of tiie important fact that, 

despite die extent or complexity of his or her knowledge of folk 

classification, tiiere are far more forms of plants and animals in 

the classifier's environment than he or she can adequately 

account for (or know the "name" of even at the basic level). 

This provides die context for otiierwise scarcely tenable 

assumptions, such as the notion that FAUNAL and FLORAL 

FORMS "aU" have 'male' and 'female' forms—though in fact 

tiiere is little opportunity to confirm this either for the great 

majority of animals or for most plants. 

Thus there are at any time many classes that are presumed to 

exist, but have never been observed. An individual Tobelo may 

become aware of a new variety of a famdiar class; if that new 

variety is said to be 'male' he may surmise tiiat the familiar one 

must be 'female.' Or occasionaUy he may discover an esoteric 

dual structual position relating one of a pair of familiar classes 

to die otiier (5.2.2.4). Such experiences reinforce die presumption that any individual's knowledge about folk classification 

could be expanded by discovering new types, as he learns more 

about the various famdiar BIOTIC FORMS, their uses, and 

tiieir "proper" relationships—in short, as a Tobelo man or 

woman becomes an elder. Thus many relations among classes, 

and many classes of plants and animals, are "posited" by 

individuals in the sense that tiiough they have not been 

observed, it seems reasonable to suspect their existence based 

on the clearly imperfect knowledge tiiat any single person has 

of tiie set of "names" and uses of organisms laid down by The 

Elders. (We may compare tiiis to some entomologists' 

suspicion that only half the world's living insect species have 

been described, based on die rate at which new species are 

encountered in unexplored regions.) 

A much rarer but especially interesting kind of posited but 

never-observed folk class may be said to be "required" by die 

classificatory system,ratiier man just posited by individuals. In 

such cases, the classificatory structure includes a posited class 

even tiiough it is common knowledge tiiat (unlike the 

"undiscovered" plants posited by individuals) no members of 

die class wiU be found, eitiier because none are present in the 

Tobelo region or because the class is assumed to contain no 

members. An example of die first case is die B° class 'tea' (o 

te). The drink is widely known, as are tea leaves which are 

obtained in tiieir dried and shredded, packaged form tiirough 

traders. Yet the class is assumed to be a class of BIOTIC 
NUMBER 34 83 

FORM even though only the dried shredded leaves have been 

observed: it is subdivided into die posited unmarked 'tea' 

(assumed to be a 'tree') and die marked locally known 'jungle 

tea,' which is also used to make a potable drink witii hot water. 

ote} 

'tea' 

* o te 

* ('cultivated tea') 

o te ofonganika 

'jungle tea' 

Thus the local plant known as 'jungle tea' is the only observed 

subclass of the basic 'tea' class. 

Though there are a very few problematic examples that may 

involve posited classes witii no members, only one case was 

carefuUy investigated in the field at Pasir Putih, and it must 

suffice (since it is the only clear example) to illustrate the 

phenomenon. As noted above (3.2.2.2) Tobelo uses the 

nomenclatural device of reduplication of die basic term to 

indicate tiiat the class so designated has some feature similar to 

die class labeled by die non-reduplicated term. Thus, for 

example, die 'herbaceous weed' labeled o pine-pine (Ut: 

'rice-rice') (Brachiaria paspaloides (Presl.) C.E. Hubb) is 

ratiier tike the basic class o pine 'rice' in the shape and position 

of its seeds, though the reduphcation implies no classificatory 

(only a "metaphorical") relationship between them. 

The term o ugaka 'sugar cane' is also redupUcated to 

designate a smaU 'herbaceous weed' (Dendrobium cf. lancifolium A. Rich.). But although the weed is sometimes caUed 

simply o uga-ugaka ('sugar.cane-sugar.cane'), the class is 

more commonly labeled o uga-ugaka ma nauru 'male 

sugar.cane-sugar.cane.' An elderly woman at Pasir Putih 

explained tiiat she knew it was that (the male sugar.canesugar.cane) because it was her medicine. I asked if die 'female 

sugar.cane-sugar.cane' was also a 'herbaceous weed.' She and 

others said, "There is no female sugar.cane-sugar.cane; there is 

only sugar-cane [o ugaka]." StiU anotiier said, "We do not 

know of die female sugar.cane-sugar.cane." It seems tikely that 

by botii reduplicating the name for sugar cane, and calting die 

plant 'male' (productive cultivated fruits and edible plants 

should instead be 'female'), Tobelo have expressed die great 

difference between tiiis herbaceous weed and real sugar cane. 

But the fact that it is considered 'male' impties mat an opposing 

'female' subclass must be posited. 

For lack of anotiier alternative interpretation it appears now 

(as it appeared to me at die time) that when the Tobelo elder 

insisted "tiiere is no female sugar.cane-sugar.cane," she was not 

saying tiiere was no female uga-ugaka class (since mere must 

be one to have a "male" uga-ugaka class), but ratiier that the 

(posited) class of female uga-ugaka, about which she and die 

otiiers had been talking, has no known members. In short, there 

must be a 'female' counterpart (though admittedly witiiout any 

members that have ever been observed) in die classificatory 

structure. 

The interpretation offered here seems to be anotiier case of 

the Tobelo habit (frequently observed in this study) of 

productively using their patrimony of nomenclatural devices 

and principles of folk classification to posit and name new 

relationships among plants and animals around diem. In tiiis 

case, they even extend those same principles of classification 

for positing as-yet-unobserved classes of FAUNAL or FLORAL FORM, just as chemists once used principles underlying 

die Periodic Table of die Elements to posit die existence of 

elements tiiey had never known. 

5.3 Conclusion 

The important role of local biota in subsistence, technology, 

material culture, medicine, and otiier fields of Tobelo cultural 

Ufe relies upon a complex folk classification of plants and 

animals, whose main features are locaUy presumed to have 

been correcdy laid down by "ancestors," whose former great 

knowledge in tiiis and otiier fields is thought to be progressively diminishing among tiieir less gifted descendents. 

That system of folk classification has here been described by 

positing a culturaUy relevant covert domain of BIOTIC 

FORMS. That domain's covert and labeled subclasses were 

examined witiiin a wide, locally distinct folk taxonomic 

framework of up to eleven levels (including six levels above 

and four below the quite distinctive "basic" level of named folk 

classes), as weU as several non-taxonomic classificatory 

structures (cross-cutting and intersecting subclasses, growtii or 

size series, die 'mother' -'chtid' relation), aU of which articulate 

with the larger, gready modified folk taxonomy. 

The Tobelo tiius have an array of potential structural 

relations among classes, and of Unguistic representations 

("names") for those classes. They also have many local 

presumptions about the origins, usage, and transmission of 

"proper" Tobelo folk classification; and tiiey have a large local 

choice of contrasting features on which to sub-divide "basic" 

classes ('male' vs. 'female,' 'good' vs. 'bad,' color, habitat 

etc.). Individual Tobelo (who recognize die inadequacy of tiieir 

personal classificatory knowledge and die limits of tiieir own 

observation, and who generally stand ready to be corrected on 

most details by die more knowledgeable) can not only study 

from each other, but can productively use their language's 

modes of expressing tiieir culturally shared presumptions about 

classificatory relations to posit "new" relationships (i.e., to 

propose rediscovery of a logical relationship presumably 

familiar to ancestors) among the various folk classes of 

BIOTIC FORMS. 
Appendix 1 

The Tobelo Classification of FLORAL FORMS 

Al.O Introduction and Explanation of Symbols 

This appendix records information about the 689 Tobelo 

basic classes of FLORAL FORM (labeled by 746 basic terms) 

and tiieir subclasses totaling 1122 terminal classes (labeled by 

1517 total terms). (Of course this tally of terms excludes the 4 

terms above the basic level.) In addition to tiiose Usted here, 

several dozen "loose terms" tiiat are recognized as plant names 

or probably plant names by Tobelo informants, but whose 

denotata are unknown to them, have not been included,because 

it was diought better to include reUable data on a more 

restricted area of folk classification rather than a greater 

quantity of unreUable information. (Such "loose terms" may in 

fact merely be more synonyms for terms presented here.) The 

"intrusive" class of DECORATIVE FLOWERS, also, is here 

represented by only the ten "basic" types cultivated at Loleba 

and Pasir Putih, though it might be gready expanded witii other 

introduced decorative cultigens from throughout Halmahera. 

This appendix tiius summarizes data on (1) B+1 class 

membership, (2) B° and B- classes, listed alphabeticaUy by one 

of the basic terms (the "citation term") that designates each 

basic class, (3) nomenclatural information about each term,and 

(4) scientific determinations of species denoted by die folk 

terms. FinaUy, (5) in a few cases additional notes or comments 

(e.g., on dialectal deferences in detatis of die classification) 

may be noted after those entries to which they apply. 

The first four components of each entry may be summarized 

in order. 

1. B+l Class Membership 

The B+1 class membership of each basic class is indicated 

witii upper-case letters, and tiiat of B~ classes is indicated witii 

lower-case letters, in the far left column of each entry. The 

abbreviations used are indicated below: 

H,h 'herbaceous weed' (o rurtibu) 

0,0 (Odier) (not a subclass of any named B+1 class) 

T,t 'tree' (o gota) 

V,v 'vine' (o gumini) 

The foUowing tabulations wdl summarize data on each of 

these subclasses of FLORAL FORM. Totals shown for each 

B

+1

 class include (1) die number of basic (B°) classes (thus 

there are 88 basic classes of 'vine'); (2) the number of basic 

terms (thus those 88 vine classes are labeled by a total of 96 

terms, some of which must be considered synonymns of 

others); (3) the total number of terminal classes; and (4) die 

total number of terms (lexemes) tiiat occur within that domain 

(this figure also counts separately two lexemes having the same 

form, such as the separate senses of the same term in cases of 

markedness). 

class 

T 

H 

O 

V 

B° classes 

315 

115 

87 

88 

B° term 

341 

123 

97 

96 

Terminal 

classes 

435 

152 

210 

118 

Terms 

(total) 

579 

199 

278 

158 

The posited covert subclasses of the "Other" or unaffiliated 

group are shown by the foUowing symbols enclosed in 

parentiieses (where the class is contained in no B+1 class a 

hyphen (-) may optionaUy be used): 

Symbol 

0(B) 

0(F) 

0(G) 

0(P) 

O(-) 

B

+1

 class 

BAMBOO 

DECORATIVE FLOWER 

GRAIN 

PANDAN 

(no posited B+1 

unlabeled class) 

B° classes 

10 

10 

3 

5 

B° terms 

10 

11 

3 

5 

Terminal 

classes 

13 

12 

3 

5 

Terms 

(total) 

16 

15 

3 

5 

Each basic class whose subclasses cross-cut these B+1 groups 

(see 5.2.3.1) is indicated by a lower case "x" between die 

symbols of die B+1 classes cross-cut by that basic class 

(numbers of such basic classes, basic terms, terminal classes, 

and total terms are again indicated at right). Note tiiat die 

common and highly subdivided basic class 'rice' (o pine) is 

Usted in die next tabulation rather tiian above under "GRAIN" 

because it 'cross-cuts' GRAIN and 'herbaceous weed.' 

84 
NUMBER 34 

Symbol 

HxV 

TxH 

TxV 

VxO(-) 

HxO(-) 

HxO(G) 

VxHxO 

TxHxV 

B* Class 

'herbaceous weed' and 'vine' 

'tree' and 'herbaceous weed' 

'tree' and 'vine' 

'vine' and "other" 

'herbaceous weed' and 

"other" 

'herbaceous weed' and 

GRAIN 

"vine' and 'herbaceous weed' 

and "other" 

'tree' and 'herbaceous weed' 

and 'vine' 

B° Classes 

2 

5 

21 

1 

3 

1 

2 

1 

B° Terms 

2 

6 

21 

1 

4 

I 

2 

1 

Terminal 

classes 

4 

13 

47 

2 

10 

18 

7 

5 

Terms 

(total) 

6 

23 

82 

4 

21 

21 

10 

7 

85 

In cases such as those above, the B+1 class membership of 

one B_1 subclass may be indicated, e.g., by lower-case "t" 

('tree'), that of the other by "v" ('vine'). 

Ambiguous B+1 class membership (see 5.2.2.3) is indicated 

by an equal sign (=) between symbols for the B+1 classes 

(numbers in the "B° column" again indicate die number of B° 

terms having this characteristic): 

Symbol 

T=H 

H=0(-) 

H=0(F) 

T=0 

B+1 Class 

either 'tree' or 

'herbaceous weed' 

either 'herbaceous 

weed' or "other" 

either 'herbaceous weed' 

or DECORATIVE FLOWER 

either 'tree* or "other" 

B° Classes 

4 

2 

1 

2 

B° Terms 

4 

2 

1 

2 

Terminal 

classes 

6 

6 

1 

5 

Terms 

(total) 

8 

10 

1 

8 

Note that aU basic (B°) and aU B~ classes Usted above are 

treated as having only one structural position. Those very few 

classes, which clearly have widely known dual structural 

positions as B° classes labeled by one term and B~ classes 

labeled by anotiier (see 5.2.2.4), are here counted and listed 

only as B- classes, tiiough notation of the B° alternative is 

made in each case (e.g., o gohora 'nutmeg'). "Esoteric" and 

idiosyncratic cases of such dual structural positions (5.2.1.3) 

are not recorded here. 

By tiiis method of counting, as noted at die beginning of tiiis 

Appendix, die total numbers of classes and terms in the 

FLORAL FORM domain, at the basic level and below, are 

B° classes 

689 

B° terms 

746 

Terminal 

classes 

1122 

Terms 

(total) 

1517 

2. B° and B~ Classes and Their Labels 

Basic (B°) terms are alphabeticaUy Usted as die main entry 

immediately to die right of B+1 class symbols, which appear at 

die left margin; B_1 terms appear at die first indent; B-2 terms 

appear at the second indent; B-3 terms appear at die tiiird 

indent; and, finally, B- 4 terms appear at die fourtii indent One 

term (eitiier the most common or, where borrowed terms are 

commonly used as synonyms, mat term locaUy diought to be 

"original" Tobelo) has been chosen as die citation-form for 

each class, and its synonyms are Usted after it in the same entry. 

Thus each entry lists one class, not one term. Locative 

morphological suffixes are included in die citation forms of the 

phrases in which tiiey occur, though such suffixes are 

recognized as non-lexemic (see 3.2.1). 

Markedness of subclasses is indicated by die minus (-) sign 

for the unmarked subclass, the plus (+) sign for the marked 

subclass. Where no markedness occurs, the tilde (~) precedes 

each class. Where none of tiiese symbols occurs, data on 

markedness are incomplete for tiiat contrast-set Words tiiat 

may optionaUy be appended to die unmarked subclass to 

disambiguate it from the higher-level class are here enclosed in 

parendieses; thus die entry o aerani has unmarked and marked 

subclasses designated witii "-" and "+" respectively; die 

unmarked B_1 term o aerani may optionally be disambiguated 

witii the addition of ma beka 'female,' here enclosed in 

parendieses. 

3. Nomenclatural Information 

Nomenclatural information (within brackets) includes die 

following abbreviations for types of lexemes (see 3.2): 
86 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

SL Simple Word 

CX Complex Word 

CD Compound Word 

CD-EN Endocentric Compound Word 

CD-EX Exocentric Compound Word 

P Phrase 

P-EN Endocentric Phrase 

P-EX Exocentric Phrase 

(indet) (of indeterminate type), e.g., CD-(indet) 

Compound (indeterminate type) 

(Where unmarked subclasses have the same form as their 

super-class, the lexemic type and some other nomenclatural 

information is not repeated for die lower-level class.) 

Wherever possible, detaded etymologies have been given for 

word lexemes; etymologies are followed by a semicolon (;) 

tiien (where possible) by a gloss of the entire term. Endocentric 

phrasal lexemes, however, have only been glossed (more 

complete etymologies of die few types of such phrases have 

been given in 3.2.2.3). 

Other abbreviations or symbols used in providing nomenclatural information include die following: 

(period) used between words in glosses to 

indicate tiiat more than one English word is 

used to translate one Tobelo word or morpheme; e.g., una-ika hoikohi 'himthatdirection we.go.first' 'we wdl go to him 

first' 

(hyphen) used between words in glosses to 

indicate correspondence of the gloss to 

separation of Tobelo morphemes, and in Tbl 

terms to separate morphemes; thus, e.g., 

mi-oik-oka 'we.(excl.)-go-already* 'we already went' 

used in glosses as a "place-keeper" to indicate 

tiiat a morph or word is untranslated, e.g., 

ho-ma-ohiki 'we.(incl.)-X-batiie' 'we bathe.' 

derived from 

(asterisk) used to indicate tiiat a term or 

expression is unacceptable or unobserved 

noun 

verb 

possessive pronoun 

reduptication (of die noun or verb) 

translation of a word or morpheme is unclear or 

unknown 

etymology unclear or unknown 

(Latin, quod vide) 'which should be seen (under 

entry for that term)'; e.g.,babanga (q.v.) "see 

separate entry under basic term babanga." 

n 

vb 

poss. 

(redup.) 

'?' 

(etym.?) 

q.v. 

Eng EngUsh 

Ind Indonesian ("standard" Indonesian) 

NMM "North Moluccan Malay" (Melayu pasar of 

Maluku Utara) 

Pagu Pagu 

Tbl Tobelo (= "Tobelorese") 

B (or Tbl-B) Boeng dialect of Tobelo 

D (or Tbl-D) Dodinga dialect of Tobelo 

H (or Tbl-H) Heleworuru dialect of Tobelo (Hueting's "genuine Tobelo") 

Tbr Tabaru 

Tdr Tidorese 

Tte Ternatese 

4. Species Determinations 

Scientific names for plants denoted by folk terms were 

preferably obtained from herbarium vouchers (symboUzed by 

"V"), for which the foUowing herbaria are in each case credited 

with kindly helping to find determinations: 

BO 

LD 

US 

HA 

Herbarium Bogoriense (Bogor, West Java) 

Rijksherbarium (Leiden, Netherlands) 

Herbarium of the United States National Museum 

of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution 

(Washington, D.C, USA) 

The Harvard University Herbaria (Herbarium of 

the Arnold Arboretum,Farlow Herbarium, Gray 

Herbarium) (Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA) 

Abbreviations for languages and dialects are as follows: 

Where no determinations are avadable, die abbreviation 

"det not avati." follows die field number of the herbarium 

voucher. If the authority for a species designation (as 

determined by one of die herbaria) is not known, die 

abbreviation "a.u." (authority unknown) is used in its place. 

The field numbers are also used where two herbaria have 

provided contradictory determinations, or where more than one 

voucher for the same folk class indicates more than one 

botanical taxon is labeled by tiiat folk class. The prefix of tiie 

field number distinguishes vouchers collected on my first 

(1977-1979) trip to the North Moluccas ("NM1") and my 

second (1980-1981) trip ("NM2"). (It is hoped that my own 

reference collection of herbarium sheets now temporarily 

stored at die Smidisonian Institution can someday be accessioned to a permanent coUection so that adequate, permanent 

herbarium voucher numbers can be used tiiroughout a revision 

of this appendix.) The abbreviation "(uncoU.)" indicates tiiat no 

voucher was taken. 

Less frequently used (and less satisfactory) sources of 

scientific determinations are abbreviated as follows: 

Ph Photographic recognition of the folk class by 

Tobelo viewing drawings or photographs in 
NUMBER 34 87 

PT 

books (e.g., W. Brown (1951), Hargreaves and 

Hargreaves (1970a,b), and die extensive series of 

smaU color pamphlets "Kebesaran di Alam Semesta," edited by M. Maradjo and M.S. Widodo 

(various authors; published in many editions from 

1976 to 1978 by P.T. Karya Nusantara, Jakarta); 

Grant (1978) was also used in the field to eUcit 

some local terms for fishes). 

Recognition of the species by the author. 

(Where either of the above sources confirms a botanical 

determination from a voucher, only the voucher is normally 

Usted as evidence. A few cases in which specimens photographed in the field were later identified by botanists are noted 

in die text below.) 

Where a scientific determination and its source are given for 

a higher-level class but not for its subclasses, then unless a note 

such as "all subclasses" accompanies it, the voucher or other 

source was obtained in the field witiiout reference to the 

subclasses (often before I discovered die latter). Such a 

determination may be inferred to be correct for at least one of 

die subclasses involved. 

Finally, note tiiat all botanical determinations are here 

presented tike English glosses for Tobelo words. Just as 

translations are offered with full realization that they inadequately express concepts of one language in terms of another, 

so botanical taxa are here offered as "translations" of folk taxa, 

without any presumption that all organisms included in die 

former are possible denotata of die latter or vice-versa. 

Al.l Tobelo FLORAL FORMS 

O o abete [SL] V [HA] Uncaria sp. (Naucleaceae) 

H o aerani [CX, abstract n < vb -aerani '(to be) 

wonderful, strange'; cf. Hueting 1908c:10 (vb 

unknown to my B and D dialect informants)] V 

[NM1-2059] [BO] Borreria laevis (Lam.) Grisb. 

(Rubiaceae) (but cf. other V numbers below) 

h - o aerani (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) aerani' V 

[NM1-2478] [BO] Hemigraphis bicolor (Bl.) 

Hall. f. (Acanthaceae) [but cf. LD, same 

voucher:] Strobilanthes sp. (Acanthaceae) 

h + o aerani ma nauru [P-EN] 'male aerani' V 

[NM1-2494] [BO, LD] Asclepias curassavica 

L. (Asclepiadaceae) 

V o ai-aili [CX, aili 'centipede' + (redup.); 'rather like a 

centipede' (a reference to the small opposite leaves 

of me "centipede-like" cUmbing vine)] V [BO] 

Micrechites serpyllifolia (Bl.) Kosterm. (Apocynaceae) 

T o aili ma ditoko (or) o alu ma ditoko [CD-EN, < aili 

'centipede' + poss. + ditoko 'deviated (off die 

path)'; 'centipede off the path' (alternative alu '?,' 

possibly same meaning)] V [NM1-2328] [US] 

Justicia sp. (Acanthaceae) 

T o akar-paniki [SL, but < NMM CD, 'bat's-root'] V 

[BO] Allophylus cobbe Raeusch. (Sapindaceae) 

T o aluo [SL] V [HA] Mallotus sp. (Euphorbiacae) 

T o amo [SL, cf. Ind & NMM amo] 'breadfruit' Ph: 

Artocarpus sp. or spp. (Moraceae) (botii subclasses) 

t - o amo '(cultivated) breadfruit' Ph: Artocarpus 

sp. (uncoU.) (Moraceae) 

t + o amo ofonganika 'jungle breadfruit' (uncoU.) 

T o asang-jdwa (or) o asam-jdwa [SL, but < Ind & 

NMM CD 'Javanese tamarind'] 'tamarind' Ph: 

Tamarindus indica L. (Leguminosae) 

T o atebehi [SL, but < Tte CD?, cf. Tte hate 'tree' + besi 

'metal, iron'; 'iron tree, iron wood'] or o goge [SL] 

t " o atebehi ma dubo iare-arehe [P-EN] 'atebehi 

witii white growdl-point' V [BO] Homalium 

foetidum Bentii. (Flacourtiaceae) 

t " o atebehi ma dubo itoka-tokara [P-EN] 'atebehi 

with red growtii-point' V [BO] Homalium 

foetidum Bentii. (Flacourtiaceae) 

T o ategou [SL, possibly < Tte CD, cf. Tte hate 'tree'] V 

[BO] Desmodium umbellatum DC. (Leguminosae) 

T o atejdwa [SL, but < Tte CD; hate (Tte) 'tree' +jawa 

*Java(nese)'; 'Javanese tree'] (uncoil.) 

T oau [SL] (uncoil.) 

0(B) o auloto [SL] V [BO] Gigantochloa after (Hassk.) 

Kurz ex Munro. (Gramineae) (Note: At Loleba, an 

occasionally used synonym for tiiis term is o 

gaawo; the latter word at Pasir Putih, however, is 

an occasionally used synonym for the widely-used 

term o kakale (q.v.)). 

H o aunu ma dodogumu [(Tbl-B) CD-EN, < 'blood' + 

poss. + agentive n of vb -togumu 'hold back'; 'tiiat 

which holds back blood' (name refers to this 

plant's medicinal use to stop tiie flow of blood 

from cuts)] [cf. Tbl-D form:] o awunu ma 

dodogumu (same etymology) V [BO, LD] Ageratum conyzoides L. (Compositae) 

T o aunu ma gilioro [(Tbl-B) CD-EN, < 'blood' + poss. 

+ abstract n of vb -kilioro 'turn back'; 'the turning 

back of blood' (name refers to tiiis plant's 

medicinal use to stop the flow of blood from cuts)] 

or o kulemana [(Tbl-B, Tbl-D) SL] V [BO] 

Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blanco) Merr. 

(Anacardiaceae) 

T o baa-babanga [CX, < n babanga (q.v.) 'Rhizophora 

mangrove tree' + (redup.); 'ratiier Idee Rhizophora 

mangrove' (so caUed because of a gross simdarity 

of fruit shape)] V [BO, LD] Syzygium sp. (Myrtaceae) 

T o baacai [SL, cf. NMM & Ind balacai] 

t " o baacai ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red baacai' V 

[BO.LD] Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae) 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

t ~ o baacai ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white baacai' 

V [NM1-2211,NM1-2801] det not avail. 

T o babanga [SL] 

t - o babanga (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) babanga' 

V [BO] Rhizophora apiculata Bl. (Rhizophoraceae) 

t + o babanga ma nauru [P-EN] 'male babanga' V 

[HA] Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. (Rhizophoraceae) 

O(-) o baburu [SL] V [BO] Arundo donax L. (Gramineae) 

H o badaewa [SL] V [NM1-2656] det. not avail. 

T o badenga [SL] (uncoil.) 

H o bae-bae [SL,< CXI] 

h - o bae-bae (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) bae-bae V 

[HA] Boerhavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae) 

h + o bae-bae ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad bae-bae' V 

[BO] Lindernia Crustacea (L.) F.v.M. (Scrophulariaceae) 

T o bafdsa [SL] (or) o bafesa [SL] (or) o gayoko [SL] 

t ~ o bafdsa ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red bafdsa' 

(uncoU.) 

t " o bafdsa ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white bafdsa' 

V [NM1-2679] det. not avail. 

H o bahi-bahi (or) o bahi-bahihi [both SL, but < CX?] V 

[BO] Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Bl. (Loranthaceae) 

H o balakama [SL] V [NM1-2397] det not avad. 

H o baldkang-babiji [SL, but < NMM CD ' (its) back has 

seeds,' a reference to seeds on "backs" (undersides) 

of leafy branches] 

- o baldkang-babiji (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

balakang-babiji' V [BO] Phyllanthus urinaria 

L. (Euphorbiaceae) 

+ o baldkang-babiji ma nauru [P-EN] 'male 

baldkang-babiji' V [NM1-2498] no det. avail. 

T o balibi [SL; cf. NMM balimbing] 

t o balibi ihuo-huoto [P-EN] 'pointed balibi' (a 

reference to die elongated fruits of this cultigen) 

V [BO] Averrhoa bilimbi L. (Averrhoaceae) 

t ofelehekti [D; cf. B: o helehekti] [SL, ?< Dutchfles 

or flesje 'flask'; 'bottle, esp. old gin-bottle' (a 

reference to die fact tiiat the fruits are shaped 

like Dutch gin bottles)] V [HA] Averrhoa 

carambola L. (Averrhoaceae) 

T o balontas [SL] V [LD] Pluchea indica Less. 

(Compositae) 

T o bangata [SL] 

t - o bangata (o fonganika) [P-EN] '(jungle) bangata' 

t o bangata ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white bangata' (or) o bangata ma beka [P-EN] 'female 

bangata' V [NM1-2336] [BO] Plectromia 

sp. [but cf. LD] Canthium sp. (Rubiaceae) 

t o bangata ma daro-daromo [P-EN] 'black 

bangata' (or) o bangata ma nauru [P-EN] 

'male bangata' (uncoU.) 

t + o bangata o gahika [P-EN] 'shore bangata' (or) 

o bangata o dotoika [P-EN] 'cape bangata' V 

[NM1-2500] [BO] Plectronia sp. (Rubiaceae) 

[but cf. NM2-0399] [HA] Memecylon sp. (Memecylaceae) 

O(-) o bangilie (B; cf. D: o bangil€) [SL, < Ind bangle] V 

[NM1-2212.NM1-2873] det. not avail. (Zingiberaceae) Ph: Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) 

T o baru [SL] (uncoU.) Ph: Hibiscus tiliaceus L. 

(Malvaceae) 

O(-) o baru [SL] (or) [D only] o pangota (this latter term is 

considered by D speakers die "original" Tbl term; 

cf. NMM baru) (uncoU. palm) (Palmae) 

T o baru-bongana [SL, but ? < Tabaru CD-EN baru 

(q.v.) Hibiscus tiliaceus L. + bongana 'jungle'; 

(Tbr:) 'jungle baru (tree)'] V [LD] Acalypha sp. 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

O(-) o bawanga [SL, cf. Ind bawang] 'onion' (uncoU.) 

o(-) o bawanga ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white onion' 

PT: Allium cepa L. (AlUaceae) 

o(-) o bawanga ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red onion' PT: 

Allium ascalonicum L. (AlUaceae) 

H o bawa-bawanga [CX, < bawanga (q.v.) 'onion' + 

(redup.); 'rather like an onion'] 

h - o bawa-bawanga (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

bawa-bawanga' V [NM1-2348, NM1-2775] 

det. not avail, 

h + o bawa-bawanga ma nauru [P-EN] male bawabawanga' V [BO] Pancratium zeylanicum L. 

(AmarylUdaceae) 

HxO o baya [SL] (or, occasionally:) o bayam [SL, cf. NMM 

bayam 'Amaranthus spp.'] 

o - o baya (ma oa) [P-EN] 'good baya' 

o + o baya-manado [CD-EN, baya + manado 

'Menado (city in North Sulawesi)'; 'Menado 

baya'] (uncoU.) 

o - o baya [SL] 

o "o baya ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white baya' 

V [BO] Amaranthus hybridus L. 

(Amaranthaceae) 

o " o baya ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red baya' V 

[HA] Amaranthus tricolor L. (Amaranthaceae) 

h + o baya ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad baya' V [BO] 

Celosia argentea L. (Amaranthaceae) 

h + o mainjanga ma bayam [CD-EN, 'deer' + poss. 

+ baya (or) baya (q.v.); 'deer's baya'] Note: this 

term and tiiose of its subclasses obtained only at 

Kampung Wari, Tobelo District (Tbl-H dialect). 

- o mainjanga ma bayam (ma oa) [P-EN] 

'(good) mainjanga ma bayam' (or) o mainjanga ma bayam ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 

'white mainjanga ma bayam' V [NM2-0664] [HA] 
NUMBER 34 89 

Heliotropium indicum L. (Boraginaceae) 

+ o mainjanga ma bayam ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad 

mainjanga ma bayam' (or) o mainjanga ma 

bayam ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red mainjanga ma bayam' V [NM2-0670] [HA] 

Amaranthus spinosus L. (Amaranthaceae) 

V o beka [SL] V [NM1-2458] det. not avati. 

T o bee ma giofiki [apparendy CD but CD parts 

unfamiliar at Kampung Pasir Putih] (uncoU.) 

T o behelo [SL] V [NM2-0501] (det not avail.) 

V o beka [SL, cf. beka 'female' (etym.?)] V [NM1-2458, 

NM2-0333] det. not avati. 

VxT o bere-berete [SL, but ? < CX] 

v + o bere-berete o gumini [P] 'vine bere-berete' 

t - o bere-berete (o gota) [P] '(tree) bere-berete' 

O(-) o biawa [SL] V [BO, LD, HA] (probably o nyawa ma 

bidwa subclass): Donax canniformis (B. Forst) K. 

Schum. (Marantacea) 

o + o manjanga ma bidwa [CD-EN, deer + poss. + 

bidwa (q.v.); 'deer's bidwa'] 

o + o ode ma bidwa [CD-EN, pig + poss. + bidwa; 

'pig's biawa'] 

o - o bidwa [SL] (or) o nyawa ma bidwa [CD-EN, 

human + poss. + bidwa (q.v.); 'human's bidwa'] 

H=0 o bibiti [SL] (uncoil.) 

h=o o bibiti ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red bibiti' 

h=o o bibiti ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white bibiti' 

0 o bico [SL] V [BO] Cycas cf. rumphii (Cycadaceae) 

T o bido-bidoho [CX, < n bidoho (q.v.) 'sirih-pepper' + 

(redup.); 'rather like sirih-pepper' (so called because of a gross resemblance of this mangrove's 

fruits to sirih-pepper fruits)] (uncoU. mangrove 

tree) (Rhizophoraceae) 

V o bidoho [SL] 'sirih-pepper' V [below] Piper spp. 

(Piperaceae) 

v +o bidoho ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad sirih-pepper' 

v " o fongoro [SL] V [BO] [NM1-2318] Piper 

insignilimbun (Sprang.) Merr. [but cf. NM1-

2784] Piper fragile Benth. (Piperaceae) 

v " o tokata ma bidoho [CD-EN, ghost + poss. + 

sirih-pepper; 'ghost's sirih-pepper'] V [BO] 

Piper caninum Bl. (Piperaceae) 

v - o bidoho (ma oa) '(good) sirih-pepper' V 

[NM1-2114; subclass ?] det. not avati. 

v " ofoftiru [CX, < vb -ftiru '(to be) wUd, savage' 

+ (redup.); 'wild, savage'] (or) o karianga 

ma akiri [CD-EN, < karianga 'Varanus 

indie us (a large Uzard)' + poss. + tongue; 

'tongue of Varanus indicus (lizard)'] V 

[NM1-2264] det not avati. 

v " o kulowa [SL] V [NM2-0350, NM2-0558] 

[HA] Piper sp. [cf. NM1-2343] det. not avail. 

(Piperaceae) 

v 

H 

T 

H 

T=H 

t=h 

t=h 

H 

O 

VxT 

H 

VxT 

" o wera [SL] (uncoU.) 

o bidolika [SL] V [BO] Piper tomentosum (a.u.) [cf. 

NM2-0387] [HA] Piper sp. (Piperaceae) 

o bihi [CX, < vb -bihi '(to be) black'; 'blackness'] 

(uncoil.) 

o bihibdo [SL] (uncoil.) 

o biniari [?CD-EX, < NMM bird 'wife' + Tbl -ari 

'cry'; 'wife cries' (etym.?)] V [NM1-2621] [BO] 

Timonius rufescens Boerl. [but cf. LD] Timonius 

timon (Spreng.) Merr. (Rubiaceae) 

o biorongo [SL] V [NM1-2235] det not avail. 

o bira-bira [CX, ?< Tbl-H bira 'husked rice' + redup. 

(etym.?)] V [NM2-0144] det. not avail. 

o biraro [SL] (uncoU.) Ph: Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. (Leguminosae) 

o biru [CX, < vb -biru '(to be) green (or) blue'] 

- o biru (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) biru' V [BO] 

Indigofera tinctoria L. (Leguminosae) 

+ o biru ma nauru [P-EN] 'male biru' V [NM2-

0223] [HA] Tephrosia sp. (Leguminosae) 

o bitumu [SL] V [BO] Tectaria crenata Cav. 

(Aspidiaceae) 

o biworo [SL] V [BO, HA] Alpinia nutans (L.) Rose. 

(Zingiberaceae) 

o bobaharama [SL] 

+ o bobaharama o gumini [P] 'vine bobaharama' 

(Note: D speakers at Pasir Putih label this class 

o gumiraga [CD-EX, gumi 'vine' + '?'], and 

consider it a basic class contrasting with o 

bobaharama (i.e., o bobaharama o gota)). V 

[NM1-2128] det not avati.; V [NM1-2611] 

[BO] Prainea papuana Becc. (Moraceae) [but 

cf. LD] Ficus sp. (Moraceae) 

- o bobaharama (o gota) [P] '(tree) bobaharama' 

V (Of seven vouchers, four [NM1-2245, NM2-

0376, NM2-0397, NM2-0522] identified [by 

LD, HA] as Ficus sp. (Moraceae); otiiers 

[NM1-2131, NM1-2235, NM1-2892] det not 

avail.; each of these seven vouchers apparently 

of a different species) 

+ Gl: o biorongo [SL] 

- G2: o bobaharama [SL] 

Gl: o bobaharama iti-tirii [P-EN, 'runaground banyan (as of a ship)'] 

G2: o bobaharama ma ngutuku ilage-lage 

[P-EN, 'buttress-rooted banyan'] 

o bobahiha [SL, ?< CX] V [BO] Securinega flexuosa 

M.A. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o bobarai [SL, ?< CX] V [BO] Cassia tora L. 

(Leguminosae) 

o bobihingo [SL, ?< CX] 

+ o bobihingo ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad bobihingo' 

(or) o bobihingo o gumini [P] vine bobihingo' V 

[NM1-2477] (lost) 
90 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

O 

T 

O 

H=0 

H 

0(P) 

O 

- o bobihingo (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) bobihingo' 

(or) o bobihingo (o gota) '(tree) bobihingo' V 

[NM1-2321] [BO] Aphonia senegalensis Radlk. 

(Sapindaceae) [but cf. NM1-2666] [BO] Ormosia calavensis Asaolo ex Blanco (Leguminosae) 

o bobobira [CX, < vb -bobira 'to have pimples' + 

(redup.); 'having pimples'] V [NM1-2562] [BO] 

Jussiaea suffruticosa L. (Onagraceae) [but cf. LD] 

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven (Onagraceae) 

o boboro [SL] V [BO] Nypa fruticans Wurmb. 

(Palmae) 

o bobungekomo [SL, ?< CX] (uncoU.) 

o boci [SL] V [BO] 'peanut' Arachis hypogaea L. 

(Leguminosae) [Note: the Indonesian & NMM 

word for 'peanut' or 'bean,' kacang, is occasionaUy 

used in Tbl for die nut or rarely even die entire 

plant of this species (thus: o kacanga); however, 

the latter term was borrowed witii a different 

meaning in Tbl (see die 'vine' o kacanga below).] 

o bold ma bikini [CD-EN, 'cat' + poss. + 'tail'; cat's 

tad'] V [NM1-2297] (lost) 

o bold ma gumi [CD-EN, 'cat' + poss. + 'whiskers'; 

'cat's whiskers'] V [BO, LD] Orthosiphon aristatus Miq. (Labiatae) 

o bokumu [SL] V [NM2-0422] [HA] Pandanus sp. 

(Pandanaceae) [cf. NM 1-2864] det not avail. 

o bole [SL] 'banana' (uncoU.) PT: Musa spp. 

(Musaceae) (aU subclasses) 

+ o bole ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad banana' (or) o bole 

ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle banana' 

" o kokawahi [SL] V [US] Heliconia indica 

Lam. (Heliconiaceae) 

" o popaya [SL] 

- o bole (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) banana' 

" o amarei (B; cf. D: o kilotini) [botii SL] 

" o bacan [SL] (or) o mas-bacan [SL, but < 

NMM mas (cf. Ind emas) 'gold' + bacan 

'Bacan (Island)'; NMM 'Bacan gold'] 

" o bahuku ma otini [CD-EN,axe + poss. + shaft; 

'axe shaft'] 

" o bitoanga [SL] 

" o bole-ahere [CD-EX, bole (q.v.) 'banana' + 

-akere '(to be) watery'; 'watery banana'] 

" o capato [SL,< NMM capato 'shoe'] (B; cf. D: 

o banda [SL]) 

' o dukono [SL] 

~ o guguli [SL, 'sea-shell trumpet'] 

" o gugtinu [SL] (sometimes designated by the 

NMM pisang tambaga 'copper/brass/bronze 

banana') 

" o gumda [SL, 'fish hook'] 

" o halenawo [SL] 

~ o hanape [SL] 

o " o harangoto [SL] 

o " o hawod [SL] 

o ~ o hitadi [CX, < -hi (causative) + -tadi 'slam 

down'; 'slam down' (so caUed because the 

fronds of tiiis variety break off the fruit stalk 

when it is hit on the ground a few times)] 

o ~ ojouronga [SL] 

o ~ o kohutda [SL] 

0 + o kohutda-galela [CD-EN] 'Galela kohutda' 

o - o kohutda [SL] 

o o kohutda ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white 

kohutda' 

o o kohutda ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red 

kohutda' 

o " o kokihua [CX, < vb -kokihi 'to have an 

inflorescence (said of banana plants)' + -ua 

'not'; 'not having an inflorescense'] 'horn 

plantain' 

o " o kuho ma haeke [CD-EN, < 'kus-kus' + poss. 

+ 'head'; 'kus-kus's head'] 

o ~ o leleko [SL] 

o ~ o memekana [SL, '(bamboo) fishing-pole' (so 

caUed because this banana variety's fruits 

curve Idee a bamboo fishing-pole does)] 

o ~ o mdraka [SL] 

o ~ o ngoheka ma oa [CD-EN, 'woman' + X + 

'good'; 'good woman' (etym.?)] 

o " o ngowaro ma jiburu [CD-EN, '?' + poss. + 

'(bamboo) shoot'] 

o " o pihanga [SL, cf. Ind & NMM pisang 

'banana'] 

o " o puungu [SL] 

o ~ o raja [SL, < Ind & NMM 'king'] 

o - o raja [SL] 

o + o raja ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white 

raja'(B; cf. D: o raja ma kafo-kafo [P-EN] 

'gray raja') 

o " o susu [SL, 'milk'] 

o " o takoapi [SL, but < NMM CD-EX tako 'afraid 

of + api 'fire'; NMM 'afraid of fire' (so 

called because this variety's fruits cook very 

quickly)] 

o " o taratibi [SL] 

o " o totaleo ma uru [CD-EN, chicken: + poss. + 

'mouth, beak'; 'chicken's beak' (so called 

because of die small fruits of tiiis variety)] 

T o bole ma gomu-gomuku [CD-EN < banana X 

which.is.ripe; 'ripe banana (fruit)'] V [BO] Sterculia rubiginosa Vent v. rubiginosa (Sterculiaceae) 

V o bonata ma unqfa [CD-EN, < 'Ttiapia fish' + poss. + 

'scales'; 'Tilapia fish scales' (so caUed because of 

the similarity in shape between this vine's leaves 

and TUapia fish scales)] V [NM1-2277] det not 

avail. 
NUMBER 34 91 

T o bonata ma unafa [CD-EN, < 'Tilapia fish' + poss. + 

'scales'; 'Tilapia fish scales' (so caUed because of 

the simdarity in shape between tiiis tree's leaves 

and Ttiapia fish scales)] V [BO] Phyllanthus sp. 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

H o bongo-bongo [SL, ? < CX] V [NM2-0214] det not 

avail. 

T o bongono [SL, 'club for beating bark cloth'] (uncoil.) 

V o bori [SL] V [NM1-2261] det. not avail. [NM2-0089] 

det. not avail. (Menispermaceae) 

O o botara [SL] (or) o gedi [SL, cf. NMM gedi] 

o " o botara ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white botara' 

'okra' V [BO] Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. 

(Malvaceae) 

o " o botara ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red botara' V 

[BO] Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae) 

0(G) o boteme [SL] (Ph of Uving specimen det by H. 

Conklin:) 'Italian mtilet' Setaria italica (L.) 

Beauv.; V [NM2-0364, NM2-0565] [HA] Setaria 

sp. (Gramineae) 

T o boulamo [CD-EX, < bou (cf bounu 'smeU') + -lamo 

(cf. -lamoko) 'big, strong'; Tte? 'strong smeU'] 

(or) o behe [SL, cf. NMM bohe] V [BO] Anisoptera thurifera (Blanco) Bl. (Dipterocarpaceae) 

t ~ o boulamo ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white boulamo' 

t " o boulamo ma gogurati [P-EN] 'yellow boulamo' 

T o bua-jdrak [SL, but < Ind CD bua(h) 'fruit' + '?'] 

'castor od plant' PT: Ricinus communis L. [cf. V 

below] (Euphorbiaceae) 

t " o bua-jdrak ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red buajdrak' V [BO] Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae) 

t " o bua-jdrak ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white 

bua-jdrak' (uncoil.) 

T o bua-nd [SL, but < Ind CD bua(h) 'fruit' + '?'] V 

[HA] Crescentia cujete L. (Bignoniaceae) 

T o bua-nona [SL, but < Ind CD bua(h) 'fruit' + '?'] V 

[BO] Annona squamosa L. (Annonaceae) 

0(G) o buapo [SL] V [NM2-0519] [HA] 'Sorghum series 

Sativium' (Gramineae) 

V o bua-putri [SL, but < Ind CD bua(h) 'fruit' + puteri 

'princess'; 'princess's fruit'] V [LD] Passiflora 

foetida L. (PasstiToraceae) 

T o bua-yakis [SL, but < Ind CD bua(h) 'fruit' + yaHs 

'monkey'; Ind 'monkey fruit'] V [BO] Anacardium 

occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae) 

0(P) o buho [SL] V [LD] Pandanus sp. (Pandanaceae) 

V o buhuru ma ngongokutu [CD-EN, 'abscess' + poss. + 

'cover'; 'abscess covering' (i.e., poultice); term 

recorded at Pasir Putih (Tbl-D)] V [NM2-0511] 

[HA] Cissampelos parieria L. (Menispermaceae). 

Note: the following term for a B° class of 'vine' 

(uncollected), may be synonymous. Recorded at 

Loleba (Tbl-B): o buhuru ma dadamunu [CD-EN, 

'abscess' + poss. + 'cover' (agentive n < vb 

-tamunu 'cover'); 'abscess cover (i.e., poultice)'] 

O o buko-buko [SL, ?< CX] V [NM2-0315, NM2-0642] 

[HA] Hydnophytum sp. (Rubiaceae) [but cf. NM2-

0268, NM2-0317] [HA] Myrmecodia sp. (Rubiaceae) (all epiphytic plants on mangrove trees; 

lower stem greatly swoUen and having cavities 

inhabited by ants) 

V o bukuru [SL] V [NM1-2295] [BO] Dioscorea 

bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae) [but cf. NM1-2358] 

det not avail, (different species) 

T o bukuwini [SL] V [NM1-2881] det not avail. 

0(B) o bulu-baldnda [SL, but < NMM CD-EN, NMM bulu 

'bamboo' + NMM & Ind balanda 'Dutch'; 'Dutch 

bamboo'] V [BO] Arundo donax L. (Gramineae) 

O o bunga-bdyam [SL, but < Ind & NMM CD: bunga 

'flower' + bayam (cf. Tbl baya, q.v.) 'amaranth'; 

'amaranth flower'] V [HA] Celosia cristata L. 

(Amaranthaceae) 

V o bunga-biru [SL, but < Ind CD 'blue flower'] 

'butterfly bean' V [BO] Clitoria ternatea L. 

(Leguminosae) 

T o bunga-biru [SL, but < Ind CD 'blue flower'] V [BO] 

Melastoma affine D. Don. (Melasomataceae) 

H o bunga-ddra [SL, but ?< Ind & NMM CD: bunga 

'flower' + '?' (cf. NMM dara 'blood') (etym.?)] 

h - o bunga-ddra [SL, as above] 

h - o bunga-ddra (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

bunga-ddra' V [NM1-2466] [BO] Lepidogathis sp. (Acantiiaceae) [but cf. LD.same 

voucher:] Peristrophe sp. (Acanthaceae) 

h + o bunga-ddra ma nauru [P-EN] 'male bungaddra' V [NM2-0258] [HA] det. not avail. 

(Acantiiaceae) 

h + o bunga-ddra o gahika [P-EN] 'shore bungaddra' V [NM1-2075] [BO] Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. (Verbenaceae) 

T o bunga-haji [SL, but < Ind CD 'flower' + haji 

'(person who has made die ptigrimage to Mecca)'; 

'haji's flower'] V [BO] Caesalpinia pulcherima 

(L.) Swartz (Leguminosae) 

0(F) o bunga jam duablds [SL, but < Ind CD 'twelve 

o'clock flower'] V [NM1-2349] det not avati. 

0(F) o bunga jam sembilan [SL, but < Ind CD 'nine o'clock 

flower'] V [NM1-2826] det. not avati. 

V o bunga-kartds [SL, but < NMM CD 'paper flower'] 

PT: Bougainvillea sp. (Nyctaginaceae) 

V o bunga-kondp [SL, < NMM CD, 'flower' + 'button' 

(NMM kndp < Dutch knoop or knop); 'button 

flower'] V [NM1-2797] det. not avati. 

T o bunga-mantega [SL, but < NMM 'butter flower'] V 

[BO] Allamanda cathartica L. (Apocynaceae) 
92 

0(F) 

0(F) 

0(F) 

0(F) 

0(0 

o(f) 

0(F) 

0(F) 

o(f) 

o(0 

H 

0 bunga-pagi-sore [SL, but < NMM 'morningevening flower,' so caUed because its flowers open 

at those times of the day] V [HA] Calliandra 

surinamensis Bentii. (Leguminosae) 0(F) 

o bunga-penesilin [SL, but < Ind CD 'penicUUn 

flower' (so caUed because of medicinal use of die 

sap for healing wounds)] V [NM1-2778] det. not V 

avail. 

o bunga-popohu [SL, ?< NMM CD, 'flower' + '?'] V 

[BO] Ipomoea fistulosa Mart ex Choisy (Convolvulaceae) 

o bunga-pdt [SL, but < NMM or Ind CD 'pot(ted) 

flower'] 

~ o bunga-pdt ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red bungapdt' ('redness' here refers to flower color only) 

V [BO] Gomphrena globosa L. (Amaranthaceae) 

~ o bunga-pdt ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white V 

bunga-pdt' ('whiteness' here refers to flower 

color only) V [BO] Gomphrena globosa L. v 

(Amaranthaceae) 

o bunga-rampa [SL, but ?< NMM CD 'spice flower'] 

(or) o bunga rampe" [SL, but ?< NMM CD 'flower' v 

+ '?'] V [BO] Acacia farnesiana (L.) Wdld. 

(Leguminosae) T 

o bunga-saloi [SL, but < NMM 'saloi (carrying- t 

basket) flower' (so caUed because the flower shape 

resembles the Halmaheran "backpack"-type carry- t 

ing baskets)] (or) o kiarono [SL; this is the Tbl 

translation of the NMM word saloi 'carryingbasket' This term appears to be used only in tiie 

phrase o bunga o kiarono 'carrying-basket flower.' T 

The phrase implies that the B° word is o kiarono, 

however, and it must be listed as such. However, H 

this phrase is so seldom used that I think it may 

have been invented for me, as a "correct" Tbl 

translation of the NMM term bunga-saloi commonly used as a Tbl word at Pasir Putih.] V [HA] 

Ipomoea crassicaulis (Bentii.) B.L. Robinson 

(Convolvulaceae) H 

o bunga-tanjung [SL, but < NMM CD 'cape flower'] h 

V [BO or LD] (both subclasses, see below) 

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. (Apocynaceae) 

o bunga-tanjung ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red h 

bunga-tanjung' V [BO, LD] Catharanthus 

roseus (L.) G. Don. (Apocynaceae) 

o bunga-tanjung ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white 

bunga-tanjung' V [LD] Catharanthus roseus 

(L.) G. Don. (Apocynaceae) 

o bunga-te" [SL, but < NMM or Ind CD 'flower' + 

'tea'; 'tea flower'] V [BO] Carmona retusa (Vahl) T 

Masamune (Ehretiaceae) 

o bunga-ti [SL, but < NMM or Ind CD 'flower' + 

'tea'; 'tea flower'] V [NM1-2499] [BO] AlternanSMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

theraficoides (L.) R. Br. ex R. & S. [but cf. LD] 

Alternan t her a bettzickiana (Reg.) Nichols 

(Amaranthaceae) 

o bunga-ular [SL, but < NMM or Ind CD 'flower' + 

'snake'; 'snake flower'] V [HA] Sanseviera sp. 

(Agavaceae) 

o busu ma dalu-daluku [CD-EN, < busu 'Lorius g. 

garrulus (a parrot)' + poss. + 'palm-wine' (redup.); 

'Lorius g. garrulus''s palm-wine'] (or) o busu ma 

daluku [CD-EN, (same as above but daluku 

'palm-wine' not redupUcated) (or) o luri ma daluku 

[CD-EN, same etym. as above, but Tbl busu is 

substituted by its NMM translation, luri (so called 

because of this parrot's habit of congregating 

where this vine's flowers are in bloom)] V 

[NM2-0327, NM2-0706] [HA] Mucuna sp. (Leguminosae) 

o cade-cade [CX, < vb -cade 'to show off, caU 

attention (to oneself)' + (redup.); 'show off] 

- o cade-cade (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) cadecade' V [BO] Acacia pluricapitata Stend. 

(Leguminosae) 

+ o cade-cade ma nauru [P-EN] 'male cade-cade' 

V [HA] Croton hirtus Herit (Euphorbiaceae) 

o capdka [SL, cf. NMM & Ind cempaka] 

- o capdka [SL] V [NM2-0346] [HA] Plumeria sp. 

(Apocynaceae) 

+ o capdka ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle capdka' V 

[BO] [NM1-2457] Cerbera floribunda K. 

Schum. (Apocynaceae) [but cf. NM1-2850] 

Kopsia arborea Bl. 

o cengke [SL, cf. Ind & NMM cengke(h)] Ph, PT: 

Syzygium aromaticum Kuntze (Myrtaceae) 

o ciciru [CX, agentive n < vb -ciru 'scrape'; 'scraper, 

gouger' (so called because of the single leafs 

resemblance to a coconut-gouging tool of the same 

name)] V [BO] [NM1-2379] Caesalpinia globulorum Bakh. f. & van Royen (Leguminosae) [but cf. 

NM1-2786] Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. 

o cinga-cinga [SL, ? < CX] 

- o cinga-cinga (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) cingacinga V [US] Wollastonia biflora DC. (Compositae) 

+ o cinga-cinga ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad cingacinga' V [NM2-0663] [HA] Note: Unfortunately two plants were accidentally mixed in 

tiiis voucher; one (given no. NM2-0663) is 

Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.-Bip. 

(Compositae); the otiier is Ageratum conyzoides 

L. (Compositae) 

o dadaromo ma hohakai [CD-EN, 'blackener' (< 

-taromo 'black' + agentive redup.) + poss. + 'tiling 

used for cooking' (< -hakai + agentive redup.); 

'(plant) used to cook black dye'] V [BO, LD] 
NUMBER 34 93 

Alchornea rugosa Muell. (Euphorbiaceae) o 

T=H o dadatara [SL, ? < CX] V [BO] Cassia occidentalis 

L. (Leguminosae) 

T o dadayongo [SL, ? < CX] (uncoil.) o 

O o daluku [SL] (or:) o hepata [SL] Note on dialectal 

variants: o daluku used in Tbl-B and Tbl-D; 

Hueting (1908c: 135) gives o hepata as the Tbl-H 

form. He elsewhere (1908c: 53) states (apparendy 

for Tbl-H) that o daluku refers to die palm-wine 

from tins plant (as I know it does also in the other 

dialects), but tiiat the latter word is sometimes used H 

(presumably in Tbl-H) as a hohono (substitution 

word to avoid saying an in-law name) for die plant V 

itself. V [BO] Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. 

(Palmae) V 

T o dao [SL] (uncoU.) (Note: at Loleba tiiis is said to be 

a class of mangrove tree different from male and 

female babanga (q.v.), but at Pasir Putih die class 

is unknown; this term is mere used only for die fruit T 

of the babanga (q.v.)) 

T o dedoro [SL] V [NM2-0413] [HA] Kleinhovia 

hospita L. [cf. also NMl-2144,det not avail.; and 

NM1-2554, same voucher identified by BO as t 

Kleinhovia hospita L. (Sterculiaceae) and by LD as 

Hibiscus sp. (Malvaceae)] 

T o deri-derihi [CX, < derihi 'cup/bowl made of 

fan-palm leaf + redup.; 'ratiier like a cup/bowl t 

made of fan-palm leaf (name is said to refer to die 

leaf shape of this cultivated 'tree')] V [NM2-0250] T 

det not avail. 

VxT o dia-dia [SL, ? < CX] T 

v + o dia-dia o gumini [P] 'vine dia-dia' V [BO] 

Monarthrocarpus securiformis Merr. (Leguminosae) T 

t - o dia-dia (o gota) [P] '(tree) dia-dia' V [BO] 

Pongamia pinnata Merr. (Leguminosae) 

o diba [SL] V [NM2-0442] det. not avati. (Palmae) 

o digo [SL] 

" o digo ma beka [P-EN] 'female digo' V [BO,LD] 

Sida acuta Burm. f. (Malvaceae) 

" o digo ma nauru [P-EN] 'male digo' V [BO] Sida 

rhombifolia L. (Malvaceae) VxT 

o digo ma gilaongo [P-EN, digo (q.v.) 'Sida spp.' + 

poss. + 'servant'; 'digo's servant'] V [BO] Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Aubl.) CF. Baker (Compositae) v 

O o dilago [SL] (or) o bete [SL, cf. NMM bete] 

o + o bete-balanda [SL, < NMM CD bete (q.v.) 

'Colocasia sp.' + 'Dutch'; 'Dutch Colocasia'] 

Ph, PT: Xanthosoma sp. (Araceae) 

o - o dilago [SL] (or) o bete [SL] Ph, PT: Colocasia 

sp. or spp. (Araceae)

 l 

o o beloho [SL, 'stake'] (or) o bete-beloho [CDEN, 'Colocasia' + 'stake'; 'stake-Colocasia'] 

0 

T=H 

t^h 

t=h 

H 

o cere [SL, < NMM 'pitcher'] (or) o bete-cere 

[CD-EN] 'Colocasia'+ 'pitcher'; 'pitcherColocasia'] 

o irian [SL, < Ind 'Irian (West New Guinea)'] 

(or) o bete-irian [CD-EN, 'Colocasia' + 

'Irian'; 'Irian Colocasia'] 

(Note: though o dilago and o bete are considered 

synonymous in B dialect, tiiey perhaps label 

distinct B° classes in D; classification shown here 

is for B dialect.) 

o dilago-bunga [CD, indet 'Colocasia' + 'flower'; 

'?'] V [NM1-2657] det. not avail. 

o diti-diti [SL, ? < CX] V [BO] Marsdenia tenacissima W. et Arn. (Asclepiadaceae) 

o dobe-dobele [CX, < n dobele '(a Dutch coin)' + 

(redup.); 'rather like a dobele (coin)' (so called 

because of leaves' resemblance to small coins)] V 

[NM1-2834] det. not avail. 

o dodataiti [CX, < -taiti 'be fast, in a hurry' (etym.?)] 

(or) o dataiti [CX, < -taiti (as above)] V [NM2-

0140, NM2-0641] [HA] Claoxylon sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o dodataiti ma beka [P-EN] 'female dodataiti' V 

[NM1-2793] [BO] Premna obtusa (a.u.) [but cf. 

LD, same voucher:] Clerodendrum sp. (Verbenaceae) 

o dodataiti ma nauru [P-EN] 'male dodataiti' V 

[NMl-2512,NMl-2836] det not avail. 

o dode ma lako [CD-EN, 'shrimp' + poss. + 'eye(s)'; 

shrimp's eyes'] (uncoU.) 

o dode ma panga [CD-EN, 'shrimp' + poss. + 'pincer 

appendage'; 'shrimp's pincer'] V [BO] Ophiorrhiza cf. neglecta Bl. (Rubiaceae) 

o dodiha ma kobongo [CD-EN, snake(s) + poss. + 

bonefs); 'snake's bones'] (or) o dodiha ma kobokobongo [CD-EN, snake(s) + poss. + bone(s) + 

(redup.); 'snake's bones' (emphasizing separate, 

individual bones by means of me reduplication) 

(botii terms refer to leaf placement along this vine's 

stem)] V [BO] Ipomoea quamoclit L. (Convolvulaceae) 

o doddfo [CX,agentive n < vb -tdfo 'feed'; 'tiling used 

to feed' (i.e., to feed a fire to drive out ghosts, so 

caUed because of the use of both classes for this 

purpose)] 

o doddfo o gumini [P] 'vine dodofo' [alternative B° 

term in B dialect:] ojurdlo [SL] (Note: D dialect 

considers tiiis only a B° class labeled by die B° 

alternative o juroto, thus not a subclass of o 

doddfo) (uncoU.) 

o doddfo o gota [P] 'tree doddfo' [alternative B° 

term in B dialect:] o paiyongifi [SL] (Note: D 

dialect considers this only a B° class labeled 

eitiier by o dodofo or by its synonym o 
94 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

H 

h 

h 

h 

H 

paiyongifi) V [NM1-2022] [BO] Aglaia elaeagnoidea Benth. (Meliaceae) [but cf. NM1-2201] 

[LD] Dysoxylum sp. (seedUng) 

V o dodopongono [CX, n < vb -topongono 'hard of 

hearing'; 'deafener?' (etym.?)] V [HA] Gymnopetalum chinense (Lour.) Merr. (Cucurbitaceae) 

O o dokoto [SL] V [NM1-2027] [BO] Daemonorops or 

Calamus [cf. NM2-0403] det not avad. (Palmae, 

seedUng) 

T o doo-dooyo [probably CX, < dooyo '(a large crab)' + 

(redup.)] V [NM1-2035] [BO] Cynometra ramiflora L. (Leguminosae) [but cf. V NM 1-2269 (det. 

not avail.), possibly different species] 

T o dowora [SL] 

t - o dowora [SL] (or) o helehekti [SL, '(Dutch) gin 

bottle'] (uncoU.) 

t + okomene [SL,a 'tree' type (q.v.)] V [NM1-2152] 

det not avail, 

t + o papua [SL] (uncoU.) 

T o dudike ma gohi [CD-EN, 'puffer fish' + poss. + 

egg(s); 'puffer fish eggs'] V [BO] Sophora 

tomentosa L. (Leguminosae) 

o duga [SL] (uncoil.) 

o duga ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red duga' 

o duga ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white duga' 

o duga ma gogurati [P-EN] 'yeUow duga' 

o dug ay a ma iyoko [CD-EN, < dugdya 'skin infection 

caused by Tinea imbricata' + poss. + 'feces (also, 

waste product including skin shed after infection 

by Tinea imbricata)1; 'skin shed after infection by 

Tinea imbricata' (apparendy so caUed because of 

the pale, whitish color of this plant)] V [NM1-

2561] det not avail. 

o duo-duono [SL, but ?< CX] 

o duo-duono ma beka [P-EN] 'female duo-duono' 

V [NM1-2839] det not avail. 

o duo-duono ma nauru [P-EN] 'male duo-duono' V 

[LD] Dysoxylum sp. (Meliaceae) 

o duriana [SL, cf. Ind durian] (uncoil.) Ph, PT: Durio 

zibethinus Murr. (Bombacaceae) 

o efi-efi [SL, cf. Malay api-api] V [HA] Avicennia sp. 

(Avicenniaceae) 

o eldka [SL] V [BO, LD] Lawsonia inermis L. 

(Lytiiraceae) 

ofahihtiku [SL] (B; cf. D: ofafistiku [SL]; cf. also H: 

o hahihtiku [SL]) V [NM 1-2020] [BO] Elattostachys zippeliana Radlk. (Sapindaceae) [but cf. V 

NM1-2293 [BO] Euphorianthus obtusa Radlk. 

(LD) Lepisanthes tetraphylla Radlk. 

t ofahihtiku ma doka-dokara [P-EN] "redfahihuku' 

t o fahihtiku ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white fahihtiku V [NM1-2738] [BO] Elattostachys zippeliana Ridlk. [cf. NM2-0262] [HA] Clausena sp. 

(Rutaceae) 

O 

H 

H 

T 

T 

VxT 

H 

h 

ofafistiku ma daro-daromo [P-EN] 'blackfafisuku' 

(recorded only at Pasir Putih, thus Tbl-D form is 

used as citation-form for this subclass) V [HA] 

Clausena excavata Burm. (Rutaceae) 

o fenga [SL; cf. fenga 'carrying-basket strap'] (or) o 

giba ma kolano [SL, but < Tte CD-EX 'carry the 

sultan' (so named because strips of tiiis tree's inner 

bark were used for carrying the sultan's bier)] V 

[NM1-2440] [BO] Alangium griffithii (Clarke) 

Harms (Alangiaceae) [but cf. V NM1-2132 (det 

not avail.), different species] 

ofisa [SL,cf.fisa (Tbl-D) 'bark cloth' (such cloth can 

be made from this tree)] V [NM2-0661] [HA] 

"probably Artocarpus sp. (Moraceae)" 

oforofiaha [SL] V [BO, HA] Riedelia sp. (Zingiberaceae) 

ofuusu [SL] V [NM2-0576] det. not avail. (Zingiberaceae) 

o gaaluri [SL] V [BO] Croton hirtus L'Her. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o gaapaho [SL] V [NM2-0169] det not avail. 

o gacuaka ma inomo [CD-EN, < gacuaka 'Hypsipetes 

affinis (a bird)' + poss. + 'food'; 'food of 

Hypsipetes affinis'] V [NM1-2584] [HA] Melisoma pinnata L. (Meliosmaceae) 

o gagawi [CX, redup. + -gawi 'to caU (by waving the 

arm)'; 'calling by waving die arm' (etym.?)] V 

[NM2-0363] det. not avail. 

o gagilamo [CD-EX, < gagini 'dew' + -lamoko 

'much, great'; 'much dew' (said to be so caUed 

because the leaves of both subclasses collect much 

dew)] 

+ o gagilamo o gumini [P] 'vine gagilamo' V 

[NM1-2476] det. not avail. 

- o gagilamo (o gota) [P] '(tree) gagilamo' V 

[BO] Breynia cernua (Poir.) M.A. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o gaguru [SL] 

+ o manjanga ma gaguru [CD-EN] 'deer's gaguru' V [NM1-2034] [BO] Sphenomeris retusa 

(Cav.) Maxon (Lindsaeaceae) [but cf. V NM1-

2203] [LD] Thelypteris sp. (Thelypteridaceae) 

- o gaguru [SL] 

+ o gaguru ma nauru [P-EN] 'male gaguru' (or) 

o gaguru ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad gaguru' V 

[NM1-2006] [BO] Cyclosorus sp. 

(Thelypteridaceae) [but cf. V NM1-2250] 

[LD] Davallia sp. (DavaUia) 

- o gaguru (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) gaguru' 

(or) o gaguru (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) 

gaguru' V [BO] Diplazium esculentum SN. 

(Anthyriaceae) 

o gahi-gahi [CX, < vb -gahi 'to be salty' + (redup.); 

'salty'] V [NM1-2126.NM1-2599] det not avad. 
NUMBER 34 95 

T o galdla [SL] (or) o ngoda [SL?] V [LD] Erythrina sp. O 

(Leguminosae) 

H o gambindha [SL, but < Tte CD, cf. Tte gam 'town, 

village' + Tbl -bindha 'destroy' (cf. Tte, NMM o 

binasa); 'destroys town' (folk etymology alludes to 

a presumed war medicine made using this plant)] V o 

[NM1-2610] [BO] Pogonatherum paniceum T 

(Lamk.) Hack. (Graminae) [but cf. LD] Pogonatherum crinitium (Thunb.) Kunth (Graminae) T 

T o gamonua [SL] V [NM1-2736] [BO] Litsea sp. 

(Lauraceae) 

t o gamonua ma nauru [P-EN] 'male gamonua' (on) T 

o gamonua ma hoka ma guru-gurutu [P-EN] 

'long-leafed gamonua' V [NM 1-2807] det not t 

avail. 

t o gamonua ma beka [P-EN] 'female gamonua (or.) 

o gamonua ma hoka ma do-dipdko [P-EN] t 

'short-leafed gamonua' V [NM2-0193] det not 

avail. T 

T o gamurdma [SL] V [NM1-2320, NM2-0188] det. not 

avail. T 

H o gandaruha [SL] (or) o gandarusa [SL] V [NM2-

0368] [HA] Chloranthus sp. (Chloranthaceae) [cf. 

NM1-2528] det. not avad. 

H o ganyimo ma rurubu [CD-EN,'?' + poss. + rurubu T 

'herbaceous weed' V [NM1-2581] (lost) 

T o gapdha [SL] V [NM1-2346] det not avail. 

H o gare-garehe [CX, participle from vb -arehe 'white'; 

'white'] V [BO] Peperomia pellucida (L.) H.B.K. 

(Peperomiaceae) 

V o gari-gari [CX, < vb -ari 'cry, crying'] V [NM1- t 

2345] [BO] Dioscorea triphylla L. (Discoreaceae) 

[but cf. LD, same voucher:] Dioscorea cf. cumingii 

(Discoreaceae) [cf. NM2-0615] [HA] Dioscorea cf. t 

triloba (a.u.) (Discoreaceae) 

T o gawi [SL] V [NM1-2140] det. not avad. 

T o gemihi [SL] t 

t + o gemihi ma beka [P-EN] 'female gemihi' V t 

[BO] Glochidion philippicum (Cav.) C.B. Rob. 

(Euphorbiaceae) t 

t - o gemihi ma nauru [P-EN] 'male gemihi' 

(uncoU.) t 

H o gie-giete [CX, < vb -iete 'laugh'; 'laughing (at)' t 

(etym.?)] 

h o gie-giete ma amo-amoko [P-EN] 'big gie-giete' t 

(or) o gie-giete ma nauru [P-EN] 'male giegiete' V [BO, LD] Begonia sp. (Begoniaceae) 

h o gie-giete ma alu-aluhu [P-EN] 'small gie-giete' 

(or) o gie-giete ma beka [P-EN] 'female 

gie-giete' V [BO] Ophiorriza canescens Bl. 

(Rubiaceae) H 

T o gihaoro [SL] V [BO, HA] Commersonia bartramia 

(L.) Merr. (Sterculiaceae) 

o gihdro [SL] 'ginger' V [NM1-2889] det. not avail. 

Ph: Zingiber officinale Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) 

(both subclasses) 

o gihdro ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red gihdro, V 

[US] Zingiber sp. (Zingiberaceae) 

o gihdro ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white gihdro' 

o gilitopa [SL] (or) o papaceda [SL] V [US] Scaevola 

taccada (Gaert) Roxb. (Goodeniaceae) 

o giwa-giwanga [CX, < vb -giwanga 'to move about 

(in place)'; 'moving about (in place)'] V [NM1-

2306] det not avail. 

o gobiti [SL] V [NM1-2503] [BO] Baccaurea 

racemosa (Reinw. ex Bl.) M.A. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o gobiti ma beka [P-EN] 'female gobiti' V 

[NM2-0330] [HA] Baccaurea sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o gobiti ma nauru [P-EN] 'male gobiti' V [NM2-

0297] [HA] Ryparosa sp. (Flacourtiaceae) 

o gobu-gobu [SL.but ?<CX] V [NM1-2096] det. not 

avail. 

o gobu-gobu ma gohi [CD-EN, gobu-gobu '?' 

(perhaps an unrecorded animal name; cf. 'tree' 

gobu-gobu q.v.) + poss. + 'egg(s)'] V [NM1-2712, 

NM1-2720] det. not avad. 

o gofdsa [SL, cf. NMM gofdsa] (Note: die B dialect 

subclass o kufu-kufu below is considered a B° class 

in D, and in die latter dialect is not referred to as o 

gofdsa ma dorou. Odier superordinate and subordinate class relations remain die same in botii 

dialects.) 

+ o gofdsa ma dorou [P-EN, 'bad gofdsa'] (B; cf. 

B and D:) o kufu-kufu [SL.but ?< CX] (B° term 

(see note above regarding D dialect) 

+ o kufu-kufu ma hoka ialu-aluhu [P-EN] 

'small-leaved kufu-kufu' V [BO] Lagerstroemia ovalifolia T. & B. (Lytiiraceae) 

- o kufu-kufu [SL,but ?< CX] 

+ o kufu-kufu ma beka V [NM1-2568, NM2-

0228] det not avail. 

- o kufu-kufu ma nauru V [BO] Alangium 

villosum (Bl.) Wangerin (Alangiaceae) 

- o gofasa (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) gofasa' 

o hakaru [SL, 'stone'] (or) o gofasa ma darodaromo [P-EN] 'black gofasa' (uncoil.) 

o utongo [SL, 'sago leaf-stalk'] (or, occasionally:) o gofasa-gaba [SL.but clearly < NMM 

gofasa gaba 'sago leaf-stalk gofasa'] (or) o 

gofasa ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white gofasa' 

V [BO] Vitex cofassus Reins, ex Bl. (Verbenaceae) 

o gofosonyinga [SL] V [NM1-2774] [BO] Boerhavia 

mutabilis R. Br. (Nyctaginaceae) [but cf. LD] 

Boerhavia diffusa L.(Nyctaginaceae) 
96 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

H 

H 

H 

H 

VxT 

0(B) 

H 

o gogerehi [CX,< vb -gerehi '(a disease)' (etym.?)] V 

[BO] Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. R.Br, ex R. & 

S. (Amaranthaceae) 

o gogiooko [CX,<vb -kiooko 'to be drowsy'; 'drowsiness (or sleep) inducer' (so caUed because of this 

plant's medicinal use to keep babies asleep 

soundly)] V [NM1-2776] [BO] Biophytum reinwar ddi (Zucc.) Klotzsch var. (Oxalidaceae) [but cf. 

LD] Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. (Oxalidaceae) 

[cf. also V NM1-2415, apparendy same species as 

NM1-2776] 

o gogitifiri [CX, < gitifiri 'fingernad, toenail' + 

redup.; 'having nails'] V [NM2-0572] [HA] det 

not avail. (Zingiberaceae) 

o gogoa [CX, ?< n goa 'tuber* + (redup.); Tike a 

tuber' (folk etymology: so called because of fruit 

shape, i.e., 'rather tuber-ldce' fruit of this cultivated 

fruit tree) 

- o gogoa (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) gogoa' V 

[NM1-2216] det not avail.; Ph: Syzygium 

malaccenses L. (Myrtaceae) 

- o gogoa ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red gogoa' 

+ o gogoa ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white 

gogoa' (Note: in D dialect tiiis subclass is 

sometimes referred to by die NMM gora, 

tiius o gora) 

+ o gogoa ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad gogoa' V [LD] 

Barringtonia sp. (Barringtoniaceae) 

o gogowdya [CX < gowdya (q.v.) 'Psidium guajava' 

+ (redup.); 'rather like a gowaya'] V [NM 1-2539] 

[BO] Garoinia sp. (Guttiferae) [but cf. LD] 

Syzygium sp. (Myrtaceae) 

o goguhungiri [CX, < guhungiri '(a sea grass)' + 

redup.; 'ratiier Idee guhungiri sea grass'] V [HA] 

Vittaria sp. (Vittariaceae) 

o gogurati [CX, < vb -kurati 'yeUow'; 'yeUow'] 

o gogurati o gumini [P] 'vine gogurati' V [NM2-

0225, NM2-0569] det not avad. (Menispermaceae) 

o gogurati o gota [P] 'tree gogurati' (uncoU.) 

o gohi ma hahawo [CD-EN, 'egg' + poss. + 

'wrapper'; 'egg wrapper'] V [BO] Sterculia urceolata Sm. (StercuUaceae) 

o gohoboro [SL] V [NM1-2854, NM2-0134, NM2-

0248] det not avail. (Bamboo) (Bambusa) 

o gohomanga ma aehe [CD-EN, 'crocodile' + poss. + 

'nest'; 'crocodile's nest'] V [NM1-2315] [HA] 

Oplismenus sp. (Gramineae) 

o gohora [SL] 'nutmeg' 

+ o gohora o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle nutmeg' 

(or B° alternative) o dikahuka [SL] 

- o dikahuka (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

dikahuka' V [NM1-2274] det not avail. 

T=0 

t=o 

t=o 

H 

T 

t 

t 

O 

o 

o 

o 

+ o dikahuka ma nauru [P-EN] 'male dikahuka' 

V [NM1-2627] det not avail. 

- o gohora [SL] V, Ph, PT: Myristica fragrans 

Houtt (Myristicaceae) (all subclasses) 

+ o gohora ma nauru [P-EN] 'male gohora' V 

[BO] Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Myristicaceae) (male individuals of tiiis dioecious 

species) 

- o gohora (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) gohora' 

(female of this dioecious species; note only 

the 'female' or fruit-bearing 'nutmegs' are 

subdivided into lower-level classes) 

~ o pala-banda [SL, but < Ind or NMM CD; 

Ind pala 'nutmeg' + banda (place name); 

'Banda nutmeg'] 

" o pala-botol [SL, but < Ind or NMM CD; Ind 

pala 'nutmeg' + botol 'bottle'; 'bottle 

nutmeg'] (or) o boto [SL.Tbl 'bottle' (cf. 

NMM botol)] 

" o pala-patani [SL, but < Ind or NMM CD; 

Ind pala 'nutmeg' + patani (place name); 

'Patani nutmeg'] 

" o pala-jdwa [SL, but < Ind or NMM CD, Ind 

pala 'nutmeg' +jdwa 'Javafnese)'; 'Javanese nutmeg'] 

o gohubda [SL] V [BO] Cassia alata L. (Leguminosae) 

o gohubda ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red gohubda' 

o gohubda ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white gohubda 

o goini [SL] V [BO] Ochrosia glomerata Val. 

(Apocynaceae) 

o golioa [SL] (uncoil.) 

o gomo-gomono [CX, < gomono (a 'tree', q.v.) + 

redup.; 'rather like a gomono (tree)'] V [HA] 

Morinda citrifolia L. (Rubiaceae) 

o gomono [SL] V [BO] Artocarpus altilis (Park.) 

Fosberg (Moraceae) 

- o gomono [SL] 

+ o gomono ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle gomono' 

o godbe [SL] V [NM2-0573] [HA] IHornstedtia sp. 

(Zingiberaceae) 

o giranga [SL] (or) o godbe-giranga [CD-EN] 

o goto [SL] (or) o godbe-goto [CD-EN] 

o huuhu [SL] (B; cf. D dialect:) o fuusu [SL, cf. 

'herbaceous weed' of same name, q.v.] 

o gogitihiri [SL, '(finger- or toe-) nail, claw'] [CX, 

< vb -gitihiri 'to have nads, claws'; 'clawed'] 

(uncoil.) (Note: at Pasir Putih (D dialect), o 

gogitifiri is a B° term contrasting witii o godbe; 

the latter is subdivided as above into die o 

giranga, o goto, and o fuusu subclasses; at 

Loleba (B dialect), however, die cognate o 
NUMBER 34 97 

gogitihiri is also a B_1 term and a subclass of o 

godbe) 

T o goroftitu ma houru [CD-EN, 'eyebrow' + poss. + 

'medicine'; 'eyebrow medicine'] V [NM1-2519] 

[LD] Ribara sp. (Solanaceae) [but cf. BO] Mathaea 

sp. (Solanaceae) 

0(P) o goroko ma ngauku [CD-EN, 'Otus magicus (an 

owl)' + poss. + 'ear'; 'ear of Otus magicus owl'] 

(uncoU.) 

T o goruo ma mirimi [CD-EN, 'muUet (fish)' + poss. + 

'bile'; 'muUet's btie' (folk etymology: so caUed 

because the bark of this tree tastes bitter like a 

muUet's bde)] V [NM1-2676] det not avad. Note: 

B and D dialect subclasses considered separately: 

(1) B dialect subclasses: 

t o goruo ma mirimi ma beka [P-EN] 'female goruo 

ma mirimi' V [NM1-2174] det. not avail. 

t o goruo ma mirimi ma nauru [P-EN] 'male goruo 

ma mirimi' V [NM1-2112] det. not avail. 

(2) D dialect subclasses: 

t " o goruo ma mirimi ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red 

goruo ma mirimi' V [NM1-2620] det. not avail. 

t " o goruo ma mirimi ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 

'white goruo ma mirimi' (uncoU.) 

T o gota ma amoko [CD-EN, 'tree' + poss. + 'largeness'; 

'large (big) tree' V [LD] Gardenia cf. pterocalyx 

Val. (Rubiaceae) 

V o gotimono [SL] (or) o timu [SL] (the latter term may 

be used in place of gotimono in compounds and 

phrases below) V [NM1-2461] det not avad. 

v + o gotimono o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle gotimono' V [NM2-0365] [HA] Cucurbita sp. 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

v + o manjdnga ma gotimono [CD-EN, 'deer' + 

poss. + gotimono (q.v.); 'deer's gotimono'] V 

[NM1-2170] det. not avad. 

v + o ode ma gotimono [CD-EN, 'pig' + poss. + 

gotimono (q.v.); 'pig's gotimono'] (uncoil.) 

v - o gotimono [SL] 

v + o timu-todore [CD-EN, timu (synonym of 

gotimono) + todore 'Tidore (Island)'; 'Tidore timu'] V [NM2-0377] [HA] det. not 

avail. (Cucurbitaceae) 

v - o timu [SL] V [NM2-0301] Cucurbita sp. 

V o gotoaka ma paka [CD-EN, < gotoaka 'white 

cockatoo (Cacatua alba)' + poss. + paka 'stick to, 

attach to'; (etym.?) (folk etymology: ma paka 

'attached closely* refers to tiiis vine's habit of 

attaching to tree trunks as it climbs)] V [BO] 

Rhaphidopnora pinnata (L.) Schott (Araceae) 

(specimen from Pasir Putih). (Note: die term o 

gotoaka ma paka is considered by some at Loleba 

to be synonymous with o migi ma nauru 'male 

migi' (q.v.), tiiough at Pasir Putih and by some at 

Loleba those two terms are considered to label 

distinct B° classes,) 

T o gowdya [SL] V [BO] Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) 

V o goyoko ma kikihingi [CD-EN, 'eel' + poss. + '?'] V 

[BP] Scindapsus sp. (Araceae) 

V o goyoko ma pokoro [CD-EN, 'eel' + poss. + 

'stomach, belly'; 'eel's belly'] V [NM1-2570, 

NM1-2905, NM2-0129] [HA] det not avail. 

(Flacourtiaciae) 

H o guabibe [SL] 

h - o guabebe [SL] V [US] Impatiens sp. (Balsaminaceae) 

h + o guabebe ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle guabebe' 

V [HA] Mirabilis jalapa L. (Nyctaginaceae) 

0(G) o guapo [SL] (uncoil.) (B dialect) Note: this B term 

labels a fine grain, no longer cultivated (but 

possibly same as D o buapo; at Pasir Putih, 

however, o buapo was apparently considered a 

subclass of o boteme (q.v.) 'Italian miUet' [Setaria 

italica L. (Gramineae)]). (Sorghum?) 

T o guawe [SL] 'mango' V [BO] Mangifera indica L. 

(all subclasses) (Anacardiaceae) 

o banga [SL] 

o dodo [SL] 

~ o gole [SL] 

" o hilo [SL, Tamp, dammar resin'] 

~ o hitingki [SL] 

" o ido [SL] 

" o malaka [SL, cf. Ind Malaka 'Malacca'] 

" o puniti [SL, 'coconut husk, so caUed because of 

fibrous meat of this mango's fruits'] 

t " o salo [SL] 

T o guihi [CX, < vb -uihi 'flood'; n 'flood'] V [BO] 

Ficus adenosperma Miq. f. angustifolia (Moraceae) 

TxH o guleuld [SL] 

t + o guleuld o gota [P] 'tree guleuld' V [BO] 

Drypetes cf. mucronata Wright ex. Griseb. 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

h - o guleuld (o rurtibu) [P] '(herbaceous weed) 

guleuld' V [BO] Lepidagathis robinsonii Merr. 

(Acantiiaceae) 

O o guluaha [SL] V [NM1-2861] [BO] Languas 

galanga (L.) Stuntz. (Zingiberaceae) [but cf. 

NM2-0283] [HA] Alpinia sp. 

O o gulubenge [SL] V [NM1-2010] det. not avail. 

(Palmae) 

T o guluihuputu [CD-EX, < gului 'buttocks' + -huputu 

'come apart come out'; '(a disease, hemorrhoids?)' (presumably so called because this plant 

is medication for tiiis disease)] V [LD] Cerbera sp. 

(Apocynaceae) 

T o guluitokara [CD-EX, < gului 'buttocks' + -tokara 
98 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

VxT 

O 

0(P) 

H 

H 

'red'; 'red buttocks' (etym.?)] V [NM1-2608] det 

not avad. 

o gulumahi [SL] (uncoil.) 

o gumiguraci [CD, indet < gumi 'vine' or 'stem (of T 

vine)' guraci 'gold'; 'gold(en) vine?* (etym.?)] V 

[HA] Cassytha sp. (Lauraceae) T 

o gumoanga [SL] 

- o gumoanga (o gumini) [P] '(vine) gumoanga' V 

[NM1-2194] det not avad. VxT 

+ o gumoanga o gota [P] '(tree) gumoanga' v 

- o gumoanga [SL] V [LD] Timonius sp. 

+ o gumoanga haddto-datomo 'cultivated gu- t 

moanga' (occasionally cultivated as decorative plant) V [BO] Bauhinia cf. acuminata L. 

(Leguminosae) 

o gumtiru ma gohi [CD-EN, '(type of bird)' + poss. + 

'egg(s)'] V [NM1-2662] [BO] Mathaea sp. [LD] 

(Solanaceae) Kibara sp. (Monimiaceae) 

o gurabati [SL] 

o gurabati ma biru-biru [P-EN] 'blue gurabati' (or) 

o gurabati ma hoka ibiru-biru [P-EN] 'blueleafed gurabati' V [NM1-2818] det. not avad. 

o gurabati ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white gurabati' 

(or) o gurabati ma hoka iare-arehe [P-EN] T 

'white-leafed gurabati' V [BO] Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms. (Araliaceae) T 

o gurabati ma gogurati [P-EN] 'yellow gurabati' T 

(or) o gurabati ma hoka ikokurati [P-EN] 

'yellow-leafed gurabati' V [BO] Polyscias 

fruticosa (L.) Harms. (Araliaceae) 

o gurdma [SL] V [BO] Inocarpus fagiferus (Parkinson) Fosb. (Leguminosae) T 

o gurati [CX, < -kurati 'yeUow, orange'; 'yeUow, 

orange'] 'turmeric' Ph Curcuma longa L. (Zingib- V 

eraceae) (both subclasses) 

- o gurati (ma dutu) [P-EN] '(genuine) gurati' V 

[NM1-2437] det. not avad. V 

+ o gurati ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad gurati' (Note also 

B dialect synonym o puaha [SL], and D dialect v 

synonym o lipaha [SL]—both tiiese synonyms 

are also B"1 terms,) V [NM1-2259] det not v 

avad. 

o gutuhuru [SL] V [LD] Debregeasia sp. (Urticaceae) 

o haawaku [SL, '(long, thin) shield' (etym.?)] v 

o haawaku ma beka [P-EN] 'female haawaku' 

(uncoU.) T 

o haawaku ma nauru [P-EN] 'male haawaku' V 

[BO] Duabanga moluccana Bl. (Son- V 

neraitiaceae) 

o habana [SL] V [NM1-2536] [BO] Parinari sp. T 

(Chrysobalanaceae) [but cf. LD] Alphitonia sp. [cf. 

NM2-0014] [HA] Alphitonia incana (Roxb.) Kurz 

(Rhamnaceae) VxT 

o hae-haeke [CX, < n haeke 'head', or perhaps vb v 

-haeke 'to have a head'; tiius 'many-headed'?] V 

[BO] [NM1-2042] Hyptis rhomboidea Mart & 

Gal. (Labiatae) [but cf. NM1-2719, NM1-2821] 

Hyptis capitata Jacq. (Labiatae) 

a hahahini [CX,< vb -AaAvu 'to be hungry'; (etym.?)] 

V [BO] Pleomele angustifolia N.E. Brown 

o hai-haiti [CX, < n fow'ft' (q.v.) + (redup.); 'rather Idee 

a Zia/ri (tree)'] V [BO] Desmodium heterocarpum 

(L.) D.C. (Leguminosae) 

o haiti [SL] 

0 /tairi o gumini [P] 'vine /ia/ft" V [BO] /odes 

philippinensis Merr. (Icacinaceae) 

o fciift' o £0fa [P] 'tree Aat'ft' V [NM1-2334] [BO] 

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Leguminosae) ([cf. NM1-2827] [BO] Desmodium umbellatum (L.) DC. (Leguminosae) [cf. NM1-2226] 

[LD] Desmodium sp. (Leguminosae) [cf. NM1-

2331] [BO] Canarium sp. (Burseraceae) 

0 hakaru ma booteke [CD-EN, 'stone' + poss. + '?'] V 

[NM2-0284] [HA] Pandanus sp. (Pandaceae) 

0 fca£aru ma OK/iga [CD-EN, 'stone' + poss. + 

'flower'; 'stone's flower'] Elatostema sp. (Urticaceae) 

0 haketa [SL] V [BO] Wrightia calycina D.C. 

(Apocynaceae) 

0 Wa£a [SL, 'silver'] V [NM1-2725] det. not avad. 

o halale ma ngutuku [CD-EN, 'bad luck caused by 

wrongdoing' + poss. + 'root' (name aUudes to die 

medicinal use of this tree's root to ward off die bad 

luck brought on oneself by some wrong action)] V 

[BO] Oxymitra sp. (Annonaceae) 

0 hale [SL] (or) o mantoongo [SL] V [BO] Syzygium 

sp. (Myrtaceae) 

0 hale-gumini [CD-EN, < hale (q.v.) + 'vine'; 'vine 

hale'] V [BO] Derris trifoliata Lour. (Leguminosae) 

o hamdka [SL, cf. NMM samangka or Ind semangka 

'watermelon'] 'watermelon' 

- o hamdka [SL] V [BO] Citrulus lanatus 

(Thunb.) Mansf. (Cucurbitaceae) 

+ 0 hamdka ikuru-kurutu [P-EN] Tong[-fruited] 

hamdka' V [NM2-0524] [HA] det not avail. 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

+ 0 iafa [SL, 'dolphin' (so called because of large 

size of fruits on these melons)] (uncoU.) 

0 hamangau [SL] V [BO] Randia oppositifolia Koord. 

(Rubiaceae) 

o hambiki [SL, cf. NMM sambikt] V [HA] Cucurbita 

sp. (Cucurbitaceae) 

0 /lame/w? [SL] V [NM1-2535] det. not avail, [cf. 

NM2-0139] [HA] Macaranga tanarius (L.) M.A. 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

0 hamete [SL] 

+ 0 /iam<?te 0 gumuu [P] 'vine /jamete' V [BO] 

Dalbergia parviflora Roxb. (Leguminosae) 
NUMBER 34 99 

t - 0 hamete (o gota) [P] '(tree) hamete' (uncoil.) HxO 

VxT o hararoko [SL] h 

v + 0 hararoko o gumini [P] 'vine hararoko' V 

[NM2-0090, NM2-0096, NM2-0581, NM2-

0713] [HA] Uvaria sp. (Annonaceae) [but cf. 

NM1-2403] [BO] Oxymitra cuneiformis ZoU. 

t - 0 hararoko (o gota) [P] 'tree hararoko' (see 

determinations of subclasses below; also:) V o 

[NM2-0299] [HA] C/voria sp. [cf. NM2-0431] 

[HA] det not avad. (Annonaceae) [cf. NM2-

0512] [HA] Mallotus sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

t + 0 hararoko ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle hara- T 

roko' (or) o hararoko o akeriha [P-EN] 

'freshwater/river hararoko' (or) o hararoko 

ma hoka ialu-aluhu [P-EN] 'small-leafed O 

hararoko' V [BO] /nteia fr|/uga (Colebr.) O 

O.K. (Leguminosae) [but cf. NM1-2739] 

[BO] Mitrephora polypyrena Miq. (Annonaceae) 

v - 0 hararoko [SL] (or) 0 hararoko o gahika 

[P-EN] 'shore hararoko' (or) 0 hararoko ma V 

/w?£a /na ngoa-ngoata [P-EN] 'broad-leafed 

hararoko' V [NM1-2247] [LD] Polyalthia 

sp. (Annonaceae) v 

O 0 hari-harimi [CX, < harimi *oar' -1- redup.; 'ratiier 

like an oar' (refers to leaf shape of tiiis small, 

uncultivated, edible plant)] V [HA] Ophioglossum v 

sp. (Ophioglossaceae) v 

T 0 hatobu [SL] V [BO] [NM1-2665] Canarium 

hirsutum WiUd. f. scabrum Bl.fBurseraceae) [but 

cf. NM1-2011] Pometia tomentosa (Bl.) T. et B. 

(Sapindaceae) [cf. also NM2-0349] [HA] Apha- v 

namixis sp. (MeUaceae) 

VxT 0 Ziauyo [SL] 

v + 0 Aauya 0 gumini [P] 'vine hauyo' V [BO] H 

Marsdenia tenacissima W. et A. (Asclepiadaceae) 

t - 0 hauyo (o gota) [P] '(tree) hauyo' V [BO] V 

Dysoxylum sp. (Metiaceaa) 

T 0 hawo-hawoko [CX, < n hawoko 'cup' + (redup.); T 

'ratiier Idee a cup'] (or) 0 deri-derihi [CX,< n aeri/ii 

(H dialect cf. B and D bayae) 'cup or bowl made 

of fan-palm leaf + (redup.); 'rather like a fan-palm 

leaf bowl or cup'] V [NM1-2136] (lost) T 

T 0 haya [SL] V [NM1-2740] [BO] Diospyros pilosan- t 

thera Bl. [NM2-0645] [HA] Diospyros sp. (Ebenaceae) [but cf. NM2-0194] [HA] Uvaria sp. (Annon- t 

aceae) 

T 0 hayamami [SL] (see determinations for subclasses; 

also:) V [NM1-2198] [LD] /xora sp. (Rubiaceae) T 

t - 0 hayamami (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) hayamami' T 

t + 0 hayamami ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red /iayamam/' (uncoil.) 

0 hehewehe [SL] 

+ 0 hehewehe ma nauru [P-EN] 'male hehewehe' 

(or) 0 hehewehe ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad /tetewerte' V [NM1-2504] det not avail, [cf. 

NM2-0146] [HA] Mapania macrocephala 

(Gaud.) K. Schum. (Cyperaceae) [cf. NM2-

0292] [HA] Hypolytrum sp. (Cyperaceae) 

- 0 hehewehe (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) hehewehe' (or) 0 hehewehe (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) 

hehewehe' V [NM1-2419] det not avail. 

(Cyperaceae) 

0 heHri [SL] V [NM1-2545] [BO] Anthocephalus sp. 

(Naucleaceae) [but cf. LD] Nauclea orientalis L. 

(Naucleaceae) 

0 nefaW [SL] (uncoU.) 

0 hemu [SL] (or) o/cm« [SL] V [NM1-2446] [BO] 

Hydriastele rostrata Biuret (Palmae) [but cf. V 

NM1-2857] [BO] Pinanga sp. [cf. NM1-2310] 

[BO] Cary^to sp. [cf. NM1-2012] det not avail. 

(Palm) 

0 fe/v? ma rafca [CD-EN, < hero 'guiding-barrier fish 

trap' + poss. + rako 'weave'; '(vine used to make 

die) weave of a guiding-barrier fish trap'] 

+ 0 hero ma rako 0 gahika [P-EN] 'shore hero ma 

rako' V [NM1-2642] [BO] Tristellateia australasiae A. Rich. (Malpighiaceae) 

- 0 tew ma rako [CD-EN] 

0 Aero ma rako ma beka [P-EN] 'female hero ma 

rako' V [NM2-0010, NM2-0102] [HA] Aficrechites polyantha (Bl.) Miq. (Apocynaceae) [NM1-2715] det not avail. 

0 hero ma rako ma nauru [P-EN] 'male hero ma 

rako' V [NM2-0517] det not avail, (fern) 

[NM1-2078] det. not avad. 

0 hibu-hibulu ma iyoko [CD-EN, 'morning wind from 

die land' + poss. + 'excrement, waste product'; 'die 

waste left by die morning land-wind'] V (lost) 

0 hide-hidete [CX, vb -hidete 'to sad' or perhaps n 

hidete 'sail'] V [NM1-2258] det not avail. 

0 hilti [SL] (or) 0 ngofawoe [probably CD-EX, ngofa 

'chddren, suckers, shoots (from base of a plant)' + 

-woe 'many'; 'many shoots'] V [BO] Lithocarpus 

sp. (Fagaceae) 

0 hilo [SL] 'dammar' 

+ 0 iru [SL] V [NM1-2254] det not avail, [cf. 

NM2-0400] [HA] ISterculia sp. (Sterculiaceae) 

- 0 hilo (ma dutu) [P-EN] '(genuine) hilo' (or) 0 

molefaono [SL] V [NM2-0527] [HA] Aga/Aw 

sp. (Araucariaceae) 

0 hinangiri [SL] V [BO] Villebrunea rubescens (Bl.) 

Blume (Urticaceae) 

0 hinianga [SL] V [NM1-2830] [BO] Caesalpinia 

sappan L. (Leguminosae) [cf. NM2-0113] [HA] 

Cassia surattensis Burm. f. (Leguminosae) 
too SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

H 

H 

0 hitakono [SL] 

+ o hitakono o gahika [P-EN] 'shore hitakono' (or 

alternative B° term:) 0 kapurdca (uncoil.) t 

+ 0 hitakono ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle hitakono' 

(uncoU.) 

- 0 hitakono [SL] V [BO] Calophylum sulatri 

Eeden. (Guttiferae) VxT 

0 hitakono ma hoka ialu-aluhu [P-EN] 'smaU- v 

leafed hitakono' (uncoU.) 

0 hitakono ma hoka ipako-pako [P-EN] Targeleafed hitakono' V [NM1-2436] det not 

avad. 

T 0 hoboobo [SL] V [BO] Acalypha cf. amentacea t 

Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae) 

T 0 /i0g*7i [SL] (uncoil.) 

T 0 hohaldka [SL] V [NM2-0182] det. not avad. 

T 0 hohardna [SL, but ?< CX] V [BO] Callicarpa 

bicolor Juss. (Verbenaceae) T 

T 0 hohiaboro [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM1-2572] [BO] 

Alangium hirsutum Bloemb. (Alangiaceae) [but cf. t 

LD] Ficus sp. (Moraceae) 

T 0 hohobdbo [SL] V [NM2-0276] [HA] Acalypha cf. 

centromalayca Pax & Hoffm. (Euphorbiaceae) t 

0 /w/wooa [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM1-2652] det. not 

avad. 

0 hohoklki [CX, < n ft0&/%/ 'unpronged spear (or its H 

tip)' + (redup.); 'rather Idee a hoklH spear tip' (so H 

caUed because this plant's leaf shape recaUs the 

spear tips' shape)] V [LD] Emilia sp. (Compositae) H 

V 0 hohononga [CX,< hononga 'side' (so caUed because 

this vine creeps along a tree or ground surface with T 

the undersides of all leaves flat against the surface, 

tiius only one "side" is visible; cf. 0 hohononga 

'flounder (fish)' (also one-"sided")). 

v + 0 hohononga o tonakika [P-EN] 'ground-

(dwelUng) hohononga' V [BO] Ficus punctata 

Thunb. (Moraceae) VxT 

v - 0 hohononga [CX] V [NM1-2052] det. not avail. v 

T 0 hokaregi [CD-EX, < hoka 'leaf + -regi 'to be 

lobed'; 'leaves (are) lobed'] V [NM1-2272] det. t 

not avad. 

T 0 homomara [SL] V [BO] Ficus ampelas Burm. f. H 

(Moraceae) 

TxV 0 homooko [SL] H 

v + 0 homooko 0 gumini [P] 'vine homooko' V 

[NM1-2675] det. not avad. H 

t - 0 homooko (o gota) [P] '(tree) homooko' V [BO] 

Premna foetida Reinw. ex Blume (Verbenaceae) 

t + 0 homooko 0 gahika [P-EN] 'shore homooko' 

(uncoU.) T 

t - 0 homooko (o fonganika) [P-EN] 'jungle 

homooko' T 

t + 0 homooko o ngairiha [P-EN] 'riparian t 

homooko' V [BO] Premna odorata 

Blanco (Verbenaceae) 

- 0 homooko o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle 

homooko' (uncoil.) Note: please see 

5.2.1.3 above on the origin of this B~2 

distinction of subclasses of 0 homooko. 

o hooro [SL] 

+ 0 hooro 0 gumini [P-EN] 'vine hooro' V 

[NM 1-2031] [BO] Strychnos colubrina L. 

(Strychnaceae) [but cf. NM1-2799] Strychnos 

axillaris Colebr. (Strychnaceae) [cf. also NM1-

2872] [LD] Pternandra sp. (Melastomatae) 

- 0 «00r0 (0 gora) [P-EN] '(tree) hooro' V 

[NM1-2091, NM1-2727, NM1-2865] [BO] 

CWftt philippensis var. wightii Planch. (Ulmaceae) [but cf. NM1-2441] [LD] Ce/ft'5 latifolia (Bl.) Planch. (Ulmaceae) 

0 horobiingi [SL] V [BO] Euodia rosea Merr. & Perry 

V (Rutaceae) [NM1-2449] det. not avad. 

- 0 horobiingi (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) horobiingi' V [NM1-2283] £M0O7a ro.yea Merr. & 

Perry (Rutaceae) 

+ 0 horobiingi ma nauru [P-EN] 'male horobiingi' 

V [NM2-0237] Acronychia trifoliata ZoU. & 

Mor. (Rutaceae) 

0 horofiasa [SL] V [NM2-0202] det not avail. 

0 horowai [SL] V [BO] Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC) Craib. (Umbelliferae) 

0 /wye [SL] (or) 0 /Vw-fou [SL, but ?< CX] V [BO] 

Paspalum commersonii Lamk. (Gramineae) 

0 huaono ma guguriti [CD-EN, '(type of fish)' + poss. 

'stringer (used to string fish together for transporting them'; 'huaono fish stringer'] V [NM1-2189, 

NM1-2654, NM1-2915] det not avail, [cf. NM2-

0302, NM2-0712] [HA] Cynometra sp. (Leguminosae) 

0 hugerongo [SL] 

0 hugerongo 0 gumini [P] 'vine hugerongo' V [US] 

?Grewia sp. (Tdiaceae) 

0 hugerongo 0 goto [P] 'tree hugerongo' V [BO] 

Luvunga sarmentosa (Bl.) Kurz (Rutaceae) 

0 ««m< ma dara [CD?,'?'] V [BO] Eulophia squalida 

Lindl. (Orchidaceae) 

0 «M«U ma liliara [CD (indet),'?' + poss. + 'tie'] V 

[NM1-1071] (tost) 

0 huhuteongo [CD-EX, ?< huhu 'breast' + teongo 'to 

drip/ooze liquid'; 'die breast oozes milk' (etym.?)] 

V [NM2-0164] [HA] Borreria sp. (Rubiaceae) [but 

cf. NM1-2400] [LD] Euphorbia sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

0 hukupote [SL] V [BO] Semecarpus cf. longifolius 

(Anacardiaceae) 

0 /w/aw' [SL] (probably same as 0 .s«/a« (q.v.)) 

0 /la/aw* ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red hulahi' V 
NUMBER 34 101 

t 

H 

H 

T 

t 

t 

T 

T 

T 

T 

V 

v 

v 

V 

v 

H 

0 

o 

0 

o 

o 

[BO] Ocimum sanctum L. (Labiatae) o 

0 hulahi ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white hulahi' V 

[BO] Ocimum sanctum L. (Labiatae) o 

0 hulahi ma dofu [CD (indet)] V [BO] Ruellia sp. 

(Acantiiaceae) T 

0 hulahi ma dowa [CD (indet)] V [NM1-2092] det V 

not avad. 

0 huleele [SL] V [BO] Solanum torvum Swartz. T 

(Solanaceae) 

0 huleele ma beka [P-EN] 'female huleele' V [BO] 

Solanum sp. (Solanaceae) 

o huleele ma nauru [P-EN] 'male huleele' V [BO] 

Solanum sp. (Solanaceae) 

0 hulumutu [SL] V [NM1-2559] det. not avad. [cf. 

NM2-0100] [HA] Macaranga sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

0 /tumu ma boboha [CD-EN, < humu '(water) weU' + 

poss. + 'hitter'; 'well-hitter' (etym.?)] V [BO] V 

Jaegera sp. (Sapindaceae) T 

0 humuliti [SL] (uncoU.) 

0 hurudai [SL] V [NM1-2176] det not avail. T 

0 huru-hurutu [CX, < hurutu (q.v.) + (redup.); 'ratiier 

like hurutu vine'] 

- 0 huru-hurutu [CX, same etym.] (uncoil.) T 

+ o huru-hurutu ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad /mrunuruf«' V [NM2-0222] det not avail. 

0 hurutu [SL] 

- o /lurufu (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) Aifriffij' V H 

[NM1-2125] det. not avad. 

+ o hurutu ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad hurutu' V T 

[NM1-2625] [BO] Millettia sp. (Leguminosae) 

[but cf. LD] De/ris sp. 

0 igo-igono [CX, < n igono 'coconut'; 'rather Uke a HxO 

coconut' (a reference to the shape of this plant's h 

smaU fruit?)] 

- 0 igo-igono (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) igoigono V [NM1-2569] (lost) [cf. NM2-0311] o 

[HA] Physalis sp. (Solonaceae) 

+ 0 igo-igono ma nauru [P-EN] 'male igo-igono' 

V [NM2-0668] [HA] Pny^a/w cf. minima L. 

(Solonaceae) 

0 igono [SL] 'coconut' Ph, PT: Cocos nucifera L. 

(Palmae) (aU subclasses) 

+ 0 igo-bula [SL, but ?< Tte CD, cf. Tte igo 

'coconut'] 

+ 0 niara [SL] (or) 0 pinaau [SL] 

+ 0 tukuru [SL] 

- 0 igono [SL] Note: Intersecting subclassification 

(see 5.2.2.4 above) h 

(1) 'male'-'female' 

+ 0 igono ma nauru [P-EN] 'male coconut palm' 

- 0 igono (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) coconut 

palm' H 

(2) 'red'-'white' 

H 

H 

h 

0 igono ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red coconut 

palm' 

0 igono ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white coconut 

palm' 

0 iko [SL] V [BO] Cryptocarya sp. (Lauraceae) 

0 imara [SL] (or) 0 guhuongo [SL] V [NM1-2357] 

det not avail. 

0 mgiW ma gegehe [CD-EN, 'toodi' + poss. + 

'polisher'; 'tooth poUsher' (a reference to the use of 

leaves of this tree to rub or potish tops of the teeth 

after tooth fiting)] (or) 0 ingiri ma yeyehaka 

[CD-EN, same meaning] V [NM1-2713] [BO] 

Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. (Urticaceae) 

[but cf. NM1-2319] [LD] ?Pueraria sp. (Leguminosae) [but cf. also NM1-2179 (det not avail.) 

different species] 

0 iwi [SL] V [BO] Calamus sp. (Palmae) 

ojabaoto [SL] V [BO] Abroma mollis DC. (StercuUaceae) 

0 jaga-jaga [CX, < -jaga 'to branch, fork' + redup.; 

'(the one) which branches, forks'] V [NM2-0381] 

[HA] Diospyros sp. (Ebenaceae) 

0 jajame [CX, < vb -jame 'pleasandy scented'] V 

[NM1-2138] det. not avail, [cf. NM2-0595] [HA] 

Dolichandrone spathacea (L. f.) K. Sch. (Bignoniaceae) 

0 jalu-jalu [SL, but ?< CX] V [BO] Sesuvium 

portulacastrum (L.) L. (Aiizoaceae) 

ojambula [SL] V [NM1-2560] [BO] Syzygium cumini 

Druce (Myrtaceae) [cf. NM2-0217] [HA] Syzygium 

cumini (L.) Skeels. 

o jara-jara [SL.but ?< CX] 

+ 0 jara-jara ma nauru [P-EN] 'male jara-jara' 

[P-EN] Rhynchospora rubra (Lour.) Makino 

(Cyperaceae) 

- 0 jara-jara (ma beka) [P-EN] 'female jara-jara' 

V [BO] Spinifex littoreus (Burm. f.) Merr. 

(Gramineae) 

0 yara ma rurtibu [CD-EN, 'horse' + poss. + 

'herbaceous weed'; 'horse's weed'] V [BO, LD] 

Zoysia matrella (L.) Men*, var. pacifica Goudswaard (Gramineae) 

0 jela-jela [SL,but ?< CX] 

- 0 jela-jela (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) jela-jela 

V [NM1-2082, NM1-2794] [BO] Paspalum 

conjugatum Berg. (Gramineae) [but cf. NM2-

0132] [HA] Digiraria sp. (Gramineae) 

+ 0 jela-jela ma nauru [P-EN] 'male jela-jela' V 

[NM2-0510] [HA] Brachiaria sp. (Gramineae) 

[cf. NM2-0604] [HA] Brachiaria cf. paspaloides (Presl) C.E. Hubb. (Gramineae) 

07'ere ma ownga [CD-EN, 'grave' + poss. + 'flower'; 

'grave's flower'] V [BO] Sambucus canadensis L. 
102 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

(Sambucaceae) 

T ojobirono [SL] 

t - ojobirono (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female)jobirono' 

V [BO] Zanthoxylum avicennae (Lamk.) DC. 

(Rutaceae) 

t + o jobirono ma nauru [P-EN] 'male jobirono' V 

[LD] Securinega sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

O ojojibdbo [SL] V [NM1-2912] det not avad. 

T 0 kaba-kaba [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM1-2325] det not 

avad. 

T o kabi-kabingi [CX, < n jfcafcingi 'goat' + (redup.); 

(etym.?)] (uncoU.) 

H o kabingi ma gouru [CD-EN, 'goat' + poss. + 

'testicles'; 'goat's testicles' (a reference to shape of 

the rhizome)] (or) o kabingi ma diliki [CD-EN, 

'goat' + poss. + 'penis'; 'goat's penis' (same 

reference)] V [BO] Homalomena cordata Schott 

(Araceae) 

V o kaca-kacanga [CX, < n kacanga (q.v.) + (redup.); 

'ratiier like a kacanga'] 

v o kaca-kacanga ma beka [P-EN] 'female kacakacanga' V [NM1-2239] det. not avad. 

v o kaca-kacanga ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kacakacanga' V [NM1-2279] det. not avad. 

V o kacanga [SL, cf. Ind & NMM kacang 'peanut, 

bean'] Note: addition to the subclasses noted 

below, die Ind & NMM borrowing o kacanga is 

occasionally used to designate die nuts, or even the 

plants, of the peanut, which is properly called o 

boci (q.v.) in Tbl. 

v ~ o pooho [SL] V [NM2-0585] [HA] Lablab 

purpureus Sweet (Leguminosae) 

v " o tanuma [SL] V [NM2-0586] [HA] Lablab 

purpureus 

V o kacang-pdnjang [SL, but < Ind & NMM CD-EN, 

kacang 'bean' + panjang 'long'; 'long bean'; tiiis 

term is used to designate die same species in NMM 

(& Ind?)] V [NM2-0360] [HA] Vigna sesquipedalis (L.) Fruw. (Leguminosae) 

T o kadateke [SL] V [BO] Antidesma celebicum Miq. 

(Stilaginaceae) 

T o kafo [CX, abstract n < vb -kafo 'to be gray'; 

'grayness'] V [BO] Rhus taitensis Guillemin 

(Anacardiaceae) 

O o kahitela-gota [CD-EN, 'tree kahitela' (cf. o kahitela-tonaka (q.v.) 'groundedwelling) kahitela' 

'sweet potato')] Ph, PT Zea mays L. (Gramineae) 

'maize' (both subclasses) 

o + o todore [SL, 'Tidore (Island)'] 'Tidore maize' 

o - o kahitela-gota [CD-EN] 'maize' 

o o kahitela-gota ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red 

maize' 

o o kahitela-gota ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white 

maize' 

O 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

T 

H 

h 

H 

H 

H 

0(B) 

o(b) 

o(b) 

H 

V 

o kahitela-tonaka [CD-EN, 'ground (-dwelUng) kahitela'; cf. 0 kahitela-gota (q.v.)] Ph, PT: Ipomoea 

batatas L. 'sweet potatoes' (Convolvulaceae) (all 

subclasses) 

" o abongo [SL, 'Ambon'] 

o goriHno [SL?] 

" o hagalati [SL] 

" o hijai-jai [CX, < -hi- (causative) + vb -jai 'fast 

hasty' + (redup.); 'speed up' (refers to this 

variety's fast growth and maturity)] 

~ o hurubaya [SL, 'Surabaya (city)'] 

" ojobtibu [SL] 

" o komene [SL, cf. o komene (q.v.) (a 'tree' type)] 

" o nasi [SL, ? < Ind nayi 'cooked rice'] 

~ o fa/awd [SL, 'Talaud (Islands)'] 

" o tedenge [SL] 

" o tupu-tupu [SL, but ?< CX; '(a type of fish)'] 

" o ula-ula ma gohi [CD-EN, < n ula-ula '(type of 

tern)' + poss. + 'egg(s)'; '(type of) tern's eggs'] 

o kahobikini [CD-EN, 'dog' + 'tad'; 'dog's tail'] V 

[NM1-2134.NM2-0186] det not avail, 

o kaho ma gina-gina [CD-EN, 'dog' + poss. + 

gina-gina (redup. + gina Toad, tilings carried'); 

'dog's load' (or) 'rather Idee a dog's load'] 

o kaho ma gina-gina ma beka [P-EN] 'female kaho 

ma gina-gina' V [NM2-0408] [HA] Acalypha 

indica L. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o kaho ma gina-gina ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kaho 

ma gina-gina' (uncoil.) 

o kaho ma lego-legoro [CD-EN, 'dog' + poss. + '?'] 

(or) 0 kaho ma go-gamaoro [CD-EN, 'dog' + poss. 

+ '?'] V [BO] Leptaspis urseolata (Roxb.) R. Br. 

(Gramineae) 

o kaho ma rio [CD-EN, 'dog' + poss. + 'track*; 'dog's 

tracks' (refers to leaf shape)] V [BO] Pseudarthria 

viscida (L.) W. & A. (Leguminosae) 

o kaildka [SL] V [BO] Premna sp. (Verbenaceae) 

o kailupa [SL] 'kapok' 

+ o kailupa ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle kapok' (or) 

o kakawehe [SL] V [NM1-2726] det. not avail. 

- o kailupa (ma dutu) [P-EN] '(genuine) kapok' 

(uncoil.) PT: Ceiba pentandra Gaertn. (Bombacaceae) 

o kakakara [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM1-2153] det. not 

avail, 

o kakale [SL] 

- o kakale [SL] V [BO] Schizostachyum sp. 

(Gramineae) 

+ o kakale iho-hurewene [P-EN] 'striped kakale' V 

[BO] Schizostachyum sp. (Gramineae) 

o kakanoko [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM1-2105, NM1-

2492] det not avail, 

o kalapa-honenge [Ind and Tbl compound-parts, 

CD-EX?, < kalapa (Ind & NMM) 'coconut palm' + 
NUMBER 34 103 

V 

T 

t 

t 

H 

T 

O 

T 

H 

H 

-honenge (Tbl) 'die, kiU'; '?' (etym.?) (folk H 

etymology: so caUed probably because this vine is 

planted to kill Imperata sp. and odier weeds in 

coconut fields)] V [NM1-2553] [BO] Centrosema T 

pubescens Bentii. (Leguminosae) [cf. LD, same 

voucher:] Clitoria sp. 

o kamalenga [SL] (uncoil.) 

o kamayua [SL] (or) o jama [SL, this latter term is 

locally thought to be the original Tbl word, now 

largely replaced by the NMM borrowing kamayua] 

+ o tataleka [SL] (uncoU.) 

- o kamayua (or) o joronga [SL] V [BO] Aglaia 

sp. (Meliaceae) V 

o kamo-kamoro [SL, perhaps < CX but *-kamoro 

apparently unacceptable; 'distant low-lying cloud' 

(reference to "misty" effect of die many hair-like 

panicles projecting from the unmarked 'female' H 

plant] 

- o kamo-kamoro (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

kamo-kamoro' V [BO] Eragrostis tenella (L.) H 

Beauv. ex R. & S. (Gramineae) 

+ o kamo-kamoro ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kamo- V 

kamoro' V [BO] Cyrtococcum accrescens 

Stapf. (Gramineae) 

o kandnga [SL] V [BO] Cananga odorata (Lamk.) v 

Hook. f. & Thorns. (Annonaceae) 

o kangkong [SL, but apparendy very recent borrowing v 

< NMM & Ind kangkong, same meaning] V 

[NM2-0345] [HA] Ipomoea sp. (Convolvulaceae) 

o kapasa [SL, cf. Ind kapas] 'cotton' V [BO] 

Cossypium acuminatum Roxb. (Malvaceae) 

o kapongo ma rurtibu [CD-EN, 'viUage' + poss. + T 

'herbaceous weed'; 'herbaceous weed of die 

village'] Note: at Pasir Putih this name is lexemic. 

I was assured tiiat this is die plant's only name, 

even though the plant grows in second-growdi 

forest rather than in villages. V [NM1-2518] [BO] H 

Croton hirtus Herit (Euphorbiaceae) 

o karafe-gumi [CD-EX, < n karafe 'mouse, rat' + 

-gumi 'to have whiskers/moustache'; 'mouse/rat T 

has whiskers' (a reference to this fern's leaf shape 

and placement of leaves along die stem)] 

+ 0 karafe-gumi o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle 

karafe-gumi' V [NM1-2249] [LD] (Voucher 

unfortunately mixed two species: Thelypteris 

sp. (Thelypteridaceae) [given no. NM2-2249-A] T 

and Medusanthera laxiflora (Miers.) Howard 

(Icacinaceae) [cf. NM2-0567] det. not avail. 

- o karafe-gumi [CD-EN] H 

+ o karafe-gumi ma nauru [P-EN] 'male karafe- h 

gumi' V [BO] Asplenium excisum Presl. 

(Aspleniaccae) 

- o karafe-gumi (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) h 

karafe-gumi' V [NM1-2106] det not avail. 

(Fern) 

o karafe ma gumi [CD-EN, 'mouse, rat' + poss. + 

'whisker(s)'; 'rat's whiskers'] V [BO] Fimbristylis 

ovata (Burm. f.) Kern (Cyperaceae) 

0 karianga ma akiri [CD-EN, 'Varanus indicus (large 

Uzard)' + poss. + 'tongue'; 'tongue of the large 

lizard V. indicus' (so caUed because the large 

lizard's forked tongue is like die cleft leaves of this 

tree)] V [NM1-2023] [BO] Celtis philippensis var. 

wightii Planch (Ulmaceae) [but cf. NM1-2426] 

[LD] Celtis latifolia (Ulmaceae) [cf. BO, same 

voucher:] Ziziphus angustifolius (Miq.) Hats. 

(Rhamnaceae) 

o karianga ma hoata [CD-EN, 'Varanus indicus 

(large Uzard)' + poss. + 'palm (of hand), flat (of 

foot)'; 'die flat of die V. indicus lizard's paw'] V 

[NM1-2127] det. not avad. 

o karo ma bunga [CD-EN, 'coral' + poss. + 'flower'; 

'coral flower'] V [BO] Lycopodium carinatum 

Desv. (Lycopodiaceae) 

o kastroli [SL, cf. NMM kastroli, same meaning] V 

[NM1-2465] det. not avad. 

o kate-kate [SL, but ?<CX] V [NM2-0247] [HA] 

Caesalpinia major (Medic.) Dandy & ExeU (Leguminosae) 

+ o kate-kate ma beka [P-EN] 'female kate-kate' V 

[BO] Taxotrophis ilicifolia Vid. (Leguminosae) 

- o kate-kate (ma nauru) [P-EN] '(male) kate-kate' 

V [NM1-2048] [BO] Caesalpinia crista L. 

(Rutaceae) [but cf. NM1-2098] [LD] Zanthoxylum sp. (Leguminosae)[cf. NM1-2225] [LD] 

Dalbergia sp. (Leguminosae) 

o kdtok [SL, recognized as a non-Tbl recent borrowing] V [NM2-0185] det. not avad. (Note: die 

individual who had recendy introduced tiiis cultivar to Pasir Putih from the Sangir Islands was still 

remembered at that viUage in 1981.) 

o katuri ma boboko [CD-EN, 'palm-civet (Paradoxorus hermaphroditusy + poss. + '?'] V [BO] 

Adenostemma lavenica (L.) O.K. (Compositae) 

o kayu-puti [SL.but < Ind CD; Ind 'wood' + 'white'; 

'white wood'] (or sometimes) o minya-kayu-puti 

[SL, but < Ind 'oti' + 'wood' + 'white'; 'white 

wood oti' (i.e., die commerciaUy sold scented oil 

made from tiiis tree)] V [BO] Melaleuca leucadendron (L.) L. (Myrtaceae) 

o kayu-manis [SL, but < Ind CD; Ind kayu 'wood' + 

Ind manis 'sweet'; 'sweet wood'] 'cinnamon' Ph: 

Cinnamomum sp. (Lauraceae) 

0 keketuku [SL, but ?<CX] 

+ o keketuku o dalukika [P-EN] 'sugar-palm 

(-dweUing) keketuku' V [BO] Asplenium adiantoides Raoul (Aspleniaceae) 

+ 0 keketuku ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle keketuku' 

V [US] Davallia trichomanoides Bedd. (DavalUaceae) 
104 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

h - o keketuku [SL] 

h + o keketuku ma nauru [P-EN] 'male keketuku' 

V [NM1-2422.NM2-0305] det not avail, 

h - o keketuku (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) keketuku' V [NM1-2580] [BO] Selaginella 

willdenowii Baker (Selaginellaceae) [cf. 

NM2-0151] [HA] Selaginella sp. (Selaginellaceae) [cf. NM2-0516] [HA] Microsorium 

sp. (Polypodiaceae) 

T o keledongo [SL] V [NM1-2145] [LD] Aceratium sp. 

(Elaeocarpaceae) 

t + o keledongo ma nauru [P-EN] 'male keledongo' 

(Uncollected, unless NM1-2145 above is the 

'male'—subclass information not recorded at 

time of collection) 

t - o keledongo (ma beka) [P-EN] 'female keledongo' V [NM1-2030] [BO] Timonius rufescens Boerl. (Rubiaceae) 

T o kelo [SL] 

t + o kelo ofonganika [P-EN] 'jungle kelo' (uncoU.) 

t - o kelo [SL] V [NM2-0705] [HA] Cassia sp. 

(Leguminosae) 

T o kiahu [SL] V [NM1-2588] det not avail. 

H o kidwa [SL] 

h - o fooiva (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) fa'awa' (uncoU.) 

h + 0 fcirfwa ma abrou [P-EN] 'bad kidwa' V 

[NM2-0294] [HA] det. not avail. (Araceae) 

T o kikihi [SL] (uncoil.) (not same as o Jb'jbri) 

T o jb'&ri [SL] V [BO] Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) 

Wedd. (Urticaceae) 

T o kitoere [SL] (uncoil.) 

T o jfcrfana [SL] (uncoil.) 

T o kobo-kobongo [CX, < vb -kobongo 'to have 

(marked) leaf axes' (< n kobongo 'bone, leaf axis')] 

V [NM1-2529,NM2-0175] det not avail. 

H o kocubo [SL] Ph: Datura sp. V (Solanaceae) 

[NM1-2404] det. not avad. 

T okofi [SL] 'coffee' V [BO] Coffea arabica L. var. 

(Rubiaceae) 

T o kofi-kofi [CX, < n £07? 'coffee' + (redup.); 'rather 

like a coffee (plant)'] V [NM1-2543] [BO] Pavetta 

cf. sylvatica Bl. (Rubiaceae) [cf. NM2-0115] [HA] 

/Wtf a sp. (Rubiaceae) [but cf. NM2-0157] [HA] 

Casearia sp. (Flacourtiaceae) [NM2-0191] [HA] 

Casearia halamaheriensis v. Slooten (Flacourtiaceae) [but cf. NM1-2178] [LD] Garcinia sp. 

(Guttiferae) 

H 0 koha-koha [SL, but ?<CX] V [NM 1-2906] det. not 

avad. 

h - 0 koha-koha (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) jfcona-

*ona' V [NM2-0505] [HA] Hedyotis biflora 

(L.) Lamk. (Rubiaceae) 

h + 0 koha-koha ma nauru [P-EN] 'male koha-koha' 

V [NM2-0504] [HA] Oldenlandia dichotoma 

Hook. (Rubiaceae) 

H 

H 

TxHxV 

t 

H 

H 

0 kohe-kohe [SL,but ?<CX; cf. feme 'hornbtil (bird)'] 

(uncoU.) 

0 Aone ma kakoto [CD-EN, 'hornbill' + poss. + 

'eyelashfes)'; 'horabill's eyelashes'] V [BO, LD] 

Bidens pilosa L. (Compositae) 

0 kokabela [SL] 

+ 0 kokabela o gota [P] 'tree kokabela' V [LD] 

Timonius sp. (Rubiaceae) 

+ 0 kokabela o gumini [P] 'vine kokabela' V 

[NM2-0570] [HA] cf. Lindsaea sp. (Lindsaeaceae) 

- 0 kokabela (o rurtibu) [P] '(herbaceous weed) 

£o£aoe/a' 

+ 0 kokabela 0 fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle ifcoAaoe/a' V [NM2-0515] [HA] />ter« sp. (Pteridaceae) 

+ 0 kokabela 0 dalukika [P-EN] 'sugar palm 

(-dweUing) kokabela' (so called because it 

grows on the "trunk" of 0 daluku (q.v.) 

'sugar palm') V [NM1-2355] [BO] Nephrolepisfalcata (Cav.) C. Chr. (Oleandraceae) 

[cf. NM2-0583,NM2-0602] det. not avad. 

- 0 kokabela [SL] V [BO] [NM1-2083] Ateprtrolepis hirsutula Presl (Oleandraceae) [but 

cf. NM1-2762] Nephrolepisfalcata (Cav.) C. 

Chrr. (Oleandraceae) [cf. NM2-0101.NM2-

0189, NM2-0402] [HA] Nephrolepis sp. 

(Oleandraceae) 

0 kokailupa [CX, < n kailupa (q.v.) 'kapok' + 

(redup.); 'ratiier like kapok'] 

+ 0 kokailupa ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kokaUupa' 

V [NM1-2542] [BO] Ec/i/>ta a/oa (L.) Hassk. 

(Compositae) [but cf. LD] Eclipta prostrata (L.) 

L. (Compositae) 

- 0 kokailupa (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) ifcoifcai-

/wpa' (uncoil.) 

0 kokareboko [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM2-0095, 

NM2-0662] [HA] Syzigium sp. (Myrtaceae) 

+ 0 kokareboko o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle 

kokareboko' V [NM1-2146] [LD] Garcinia sp. 

(Guttiferae) 

- 0 kokareboko [SL, but ?< CX] 

0 kokareboko ma beka [P-EN] 'female kokareboko V [NM1-2418] [LD] Phyllanthus semirachus JJ. Sm. (Euphorbiaceae) [cf. NM2-

0279] [HA] Syzygium sp. (Myrtaceae) 

0 kokareboko ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kokareboko V [NM1-2420] [LD] Syzygium sp. 

(Myrtaceae) [cf. BO, same voucher:] Syzygium jambos (L.) Alst (Myrtaceae) [cf. also 

NM 1-2544] [BO] Harpulia sp. (Sapindaceae) [cf. also NM2-0278] [HA] Phyllanthus sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

0 kokayiyu [SL] V [BO] Mapania cuspidata ((Miq.) 

Uitt) var. petiolata (Clarke) Uitt (Cyperaceae) [cf. 
NUMBER 34 105 

NM2-0430.NM2-0443] [HA] Pandanus sp. (Pandanaceae) [cf. also NM2-0142] det. not avad. 

T=HxH 0 kokereehe [SL, but ?<CX] (or) o gogirotaka [SL] 

(tiie latter term may be substituted for kokereehe in 

phrases below) 

t=h - o kokereehe (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) kokereehe' V [BO] Crotalaria retusa L. (Leguminosae) 

h + 0 kokereehe ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kokereehe' 

V [HA] Desmodium sp. (Leguminosae) 

V 0 kokobtibu [SL] V [BO] Psychotria sarmentosa Bl. 

(Rubiaceae) 

T o kokocubo [CX, < n kocubo (q.v.) 'Datura sp.' + 

(redup.); 'ratiier like a kocubo (plant)'] V [NM1-

2733] det not avail. 

H o kokomomoko [SL] 

Note: in addition to the 'male' and 'female' subclasses 

below, V [NM1-2350] [BO] Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. [but cf. LD] Triumfetta pilosa Roth 

(TiUaceae) was identified by informants as "a kind 

of kokomomoko" (o kokomomoko o hara moi-oli), 

tiius in the B° class, but not in either 'male' or 

'female' sub-class, 

h + o kokomomoko ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kokomomoko' V [BO] Urena lobata L. f. tomentosa 

(Bl.) Borss. (Malvaceae) 

h - o kokomomoko (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

kokomomoko' V [BO] C/rena /<?bata L. f. /ooafa 

(Malvaceae) 

o JkoAori [SL] V [NM2-0352] [HA] Acalypha sp. 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

0 kokuanyi [SL] V [NM1-2081] [BO] Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Compositae) (Sw.) Sch. Bip. [but cf. 

NM1-2067] [BO] Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. 

(Compositae) 

T 0 kokultibu [SL] 

t " o kokultibu ma beka [P-EN] 'female kokultibu' V 

[BO] Clausena harmandiana Pierre ex GuiU. 

(Rotaceae) 

t " o kokultibu ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kokultibu' 

(uncoU.) 

H 0 kokunyinga [SL] V [BO] Ageratum conyzoides L. 

(Compositae) 

T o koledukuru [SL] V [BO] Lepidopetalum perrottetii 

Blume (Sapindaceae) 

T o jtomene [SL] V [NM2-0207, NM2-0238] det not 

avail, [cf. NM2-0635] [HA] Morinaa citrifolia L. 

(Rubiaceae) 

t o komene ma beka [P-EN] 'female komene' V 

[NM1-2156] det. not avad. 

t o komene ma nauru [P-EN] 'male komene' V 

[NM1-2237] [BO] Morinda bracteata Roxb. 

(Rubiaceae) 

0(F) 

H 

T 

V 

T 

t 

H 

H 

O 

v 

T 

H 

o korehdra ma gumini [CD-EN, 'nortii wind' + poss. 

+ 'vine'; 'vine of the north wind'] V [NM1-2129, 

NM1-2207.NM1-2594] det not avail, 

o kori [SL] (uncoU.) 

o kowa [SL] V (lost) 

o kowehe [SL] 

+ o todore [SL, 'Tidore'] V [BO] Harpullia 

arborea Radlk. 

- o kowehe [SL] V [BO] Cyrtococcum patens (L.) 

A. Camus (Gramineae) 

0 koyoba ma gihoro [CD-EN, 'eagle (q.v.)' + poss. + 

'sharpening-stone'; 'eagle's sharpening-stone'] V 

[NM2-0203] det. not avail, 

o koyoba ma toimi [CD-EN, 'eagle (q.v.)' + poss. + 

'arrow,bow and arrow'; 'eagle's (bow and) arrow'] 

(or) o koyoba ma toi-toimi [CD-EN, (as above, but 

toimi reduplicated, tiius 'rather like an eagle's bow 

and arrow')] V [BO] Dendrobium cf. lancifolium 

A. Rich. (Orchidaceae) 

o kucai [SL] (or) o ganda [SL; perhaps because tiiis 

plant is kucai in NMM, the variant o ganda was 

locaUy suggested as "original" Tbl—but cf. W. 

Brown, 1951,3:373, both terms widely used in die 

Philippines for Allium tuberosum Roxb.] V [BO] 

Allium retrofractum (a.u.) (AlUaceae) 

o kugete [SL] V [NM1-2377, NM2-0221] det not 

avail, 

o kugete ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red kugete' 

o kugete ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white kugete' 

o kuhawiri [SL] V [NM1-2430] det. not avad. [cf. 

NM2-0588] [HA] "cf. Actinedaphne sp." 

o kuho ma gouru [CD-EN, 'kus-kus' + poss. + 

'testicles'; 'kus-kus's testicles'] V [BO] Nervilia 

aragoana Gaud. (Orchidaceae) 

0 kuho ma hoata [CD-EN, 'kus-kus' + poss. + 'flat (of 

foot, paw'; 'flat of die kus-kus's paw'] (uncoU.) 

o kuho ma huhuhumu [CD-EN, 'kus-kus + poss. + '?'] 

(uncoil.) 

o kuho ma rio [CD-EN, 'kus-kus' + poss. + 'track(s)'; 

'kus-kus's tracks'] V [BO] Kleinhovia hospita L. 

(StercuUaceae) 

o kuhu-kuhu [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO] Scheffiera sp. 

(AraUaceae) 

o kuruhu [SL] V [BO] Koordersiodendron pinnatum 

(Blanco) Merr. (Anacardiaceae) 

0 kuto [SL] 

" o kuto ma hoka ialu-aluhu [P-EN] 'small-leafed 

kuto' V [NM1-2150] det not avail, 

o kuto ma hoka iregi-regi [P-EN] Tobed-leafed 

kuto' V [NM1-2360] det. not avail, 

o kuuhu ma didu [CD-EN, < '?' + poss. + 'perch/ 

perching-place,' 'kuuhu's perching (resting) 

place'] (or) o kuhu ma didu [CD-EN, same 

etymology] V [NM1-2596] [BO] Octomeles suma-
106 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

H 

tranus Miq. (Tetramelaceae) [cf. NM1-2754] [BO] 

Terminalia microcarpa Decne. (Combretaceae) t 

H o lage-lage [CX, < vb -lage 'tift' (etym.?)] V [BO] 

Pronephrium sp. (Thelypteridaceae) t 

VxT o laimusa [SL] (B; cf. D:) o maimusa 

t + o laimusa o gota [P] 'tree laimusa' V [BO] T 

Lantana sp. (Verbenaceae) 

v - o laimusa o gumini [P] 'vine laimusa' HxV 

v + o laimusa ma beka [P-EN] 'female laimusa' V 

[BO] Mimosa invisa Mart (Leguminosae) h 

v - o laimusa (ma nauru) [P-EN] '(male) /aimusa' V [BO] Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) 

V o lake-lakeme [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM2-0342] [HA] v 

Hoya sp. (Asclepiadaceae) [cf. NM2-0173] det. not 

avail. 

H o lakoddto [CD-EX, 'eye' + 'to be sharp'; 'sharp eyes' 

(apparendy a reference to a medicinal use of the 

plant for improving vision)] 

h + o lakodoto ma beka [P-EN] 'female lakodoto' V 

[NM2-0148] [HA] ?Hemigraphis sp. (Acanthaceae) 

h - o lakodoto (ma nauru) [P-EN] '(male) lakodoto' 

h o lakoddto ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red lakodoto' V [BO] Hemigraphis cf. ceramensis 

Bremek. (Acantiiaceae) 

h o lakoddto ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white /afa)-

aofo' V [BO] Orthosiphon aristatus (Bl.) 

Miq. (Labiatae) 

T o /a/oo* [SL, but ?<CX] V [NM2-0395] [HA] 

Antidesma sp. (Stilaginaceae) 

T 0 lame [SL] V [BO] Neolitsea cassiaefolia (Bl.) Merr. 

(Lauraceae) 

V o lantdro [SL, < Ind?] (Note: this 'vine' class is 

homonymous with the foUowing 'tree' class; in h 

both cases, the name is a recent borrowing not yet 

assimdated to Tbl phonology.) V [NM1-2101] det 

not avad. [cf. NM1-2168] [BO] Solanum sp. 

(Solanaceae) O 

T o lantoro [SL, < Ind] (See note under 'vine' of same o 

name, above) V [NM1-2886] [HA] Leucaena 

leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit (Leguminosae) 

T o lardnga [SL] (uncoU.) 

V o leelile [CX, < n. lele (q.v.) + (redup.), 'ratiier Idee o 

lele'] V [NM1-2412] [BO] Piper retrofractum 

Vahl (Piperaceae) [but cf. LD, same voucher:] 

Dichondra repens Forst (Convolvulaceae) H 

V o lele [SL] V [NM1-2913] det not avail. 

T 0/e/e*0[SL,but?<CX] 

t + o leleko o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle leleko' V 

[LD] Aceratium sp. (Elaeocarpaceae) T 

t - o leleko [SL] Note: at Pasir Putih (Tbl-D) I was 

told tiiat tiiis class of 'tree' is commonly caUed V 

o huma-huma [SL, but ?< CX] in Tobelo 

0(P) 

H 

h 

District (Tbl-H) (unconfirmed). 

" o leleko ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red leleko' V 

OLD] Pisonia sp. (Nyctaginaceae) 

" o leleko ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white leleko' 

V [NM1-2143] det. not avail, 

o /ioirini [SL] V [BO] Pipturus argenteus (Forst) 

Wedd. (Utricaceae) 

o lifi-lifiti [CX, < vb -/i/ift" 'sprain' + (redup.); 

'sprained'] 

- o lifi-lifiti (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) lifi-lifiti' 

V [BO] [NM1-2057] Centotheca lappacea (L.) 

Desv. (Gramineae) [butcf. NM1-1232] Commelina sp.(Commelinaceae) 

+ o lifi-lifiti ma nauru [P-EN] 'male lifi-lifiti' V 

[NM2-0143] [HA] Pollia sp. (Commetinaceae) 

o /#i-/i/ift' ma dofa [P-EN] 'counterfeit (of) lifi-lifiti' 

(q.v.) V [NM1-2107] [BO] det not avad. (StercuUaceae) 

o lifofoko [SL] V [NM1-2604] det. not avad. 

o ligoere [SL] (uncoil.) 

o /igua [SL, < NMM linggua] 

o ligua ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red ligua' 

(uncoil.) 

o ligua ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white ligua' V 

[NM1-2434] [BO] Pterocarpus indicus Willd. 

(Leguminosae) 

o /igua ma gogurati [P-EN] 'yellow /igua' V 

[NM2-0329] [HA] Pongamia pinnata (L.) Merr. 

(Leguminosae) 

o liliama [SL, but ?<CX] V [NM2-0252] [HA] 

Pandanus sp. (Pandanaceae) 

o limaduku [SL] 

+ o limaduku ma beka [P-EN] 'female limaduku' V 

[BO, LD] Cyperus iria L. (Cyperaceae) 

- o limaduku (ma nauru) [P-EN] '(male) /imaduku' V [NM 1-2046] [BO] Scleria scrobiculata Nees & Mey. ex Nees [cf. NM2-0082] [HA] 

Scleria sp. (Cyperaceae) 

0 /iri [SL] 

- o /iri [SL] (or) o nyawa ma /iri [CD-EN, 

'human' + poss. + liri; 'human's liri' V 

[NM2-0561] [HA] Cymbopogon cf. cifra/uj 

(DC.) Stapf (Gramineae) 

+ o Aano ma liri [CD-EN, 'dog' + poss. + liri; 

'dog's liri] V [NM2-0560] [HA] Cymbopogon 

cf. citratus (DC) Stapf (Gramineae) 

o liri-liri [CX, < n ftVi (q.v.) + (redup.); 'rather Idee 

liri'] V [BO] [NM1-2646] Themeda gigantea 

(Cav.) Hassk. (Gramineae) [but cf. NM1-2040] 

Cyperus javanicus Houtt. (Cyperaceae) 

o /oofri [SL] V [NM2-0179] [HA] Clerodendrum sp. 

(Verbenaceae) 

o lobo-loboro [CX, < n /oooro 'one-tenth guilder 

(Dutch) coin' + (redup.); 'rather Idee a one-tenth 
NUMBER 34 107 

V 

v 

H 

H 

h 

guilder coin' (refers to smaU size and "circular" 

coin-lttee shape of leaves)] V [NM1-2507] det not 

avail, 

o lolapdka [SL] 

+ o lolapdka ma beka [P-EN] 'female lolapdka' V 

[NM1-2653] det not avad. 

- o lolapdka (ma nauru) [P-EN] '(male) lolapdka' 

V [BO] Dischidia imbricata (Bl.) Steud. (Asclepiadaceae) 

o lolardnga [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO] Cynanchum 

ovalifolium Wight (Asclepiadaceae) 

o loldro [SL] 

+ o loldro ma nauru [P-EN] 'male loldro' V [BO] 

Vigna marina (Burm. f.) Merr. (Leguminosae) 

- o loldro (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) loldro' 

(uncoU.) 

o lore [SL] V [NM2-0160] [HA] Coix lachryma-jobi 

L. (Gramineae) 

o luja [SL] 

+ o /u/a ma aorow [P-EN] 'bad luja' V [BO] 

Asystasia nemorum Nees (Acanthaceae) 

- o luja (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) luja' V [NM2-

0648] [HA] det not avail. (Acanthaceae) 

o luka-lukama [CX, < n lukama (q.v.) 'lansat fruit 

(tree)'+ (redup.); 'rather Idee a lansat tree'] 

- o luka-lukama (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

luka-lukama' V [NM1-2802] det not avad. [cf. 

NM1-2790] [BO] Endiandra sp. (Lauraceae) 

[cf. NM1-2735] [LD] IDysoxylum sp. (MeUaceae) [cf. BO, same voucher:] Aglaia sp. 

(Meliaceae) 

+ o luka-lukama ma nauru [P-EN] 'male lukalukama' V [NM2-0326] [HA] det. not avail. 

(Sapotaceae) 

o lukama [SL] (uncoil.) PT: Lansium domesticum 

Jacq. 'lansat' (Meliaceae) 

o lulewi [SL] 

t + o papua [SL] (or) o lulewi-papua [CD-EN, 

'papua (variety of) lulewi'] V [LD] Casuarina 

cf. equisetifolia (Casuarinaceae) 

t - o /w/ewi [SL] (or) o /u/ewi o akeriha [P-EN] 

'riparian lulewi' V [BO] Casuarina sumatrana 

Jungh ex de Vriese (Casuarinaceae) 

VxHxO o maa-maata [CX, < vb -maata 'cold' + (redup.); 

'(one) which is cold' (refers to this plant's 

medicinal use in reducing fevers)] 

v + o maa-maata o gumini [P] 'vine maa-maata' V 

[NM1-2575.NM2-0197] det not avail. 

o + 0 maa-maata o ugaka [P] 'sugar cane maamaata' (so called because of its long, upright 

though slightly spiralled stem) V [NM1-2859] 

[LD] Costus sp. [cf. NM2-0249, NM2-0624] 

[HA] Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E. Sm. 

(Costaceae) 

h=o - o maa-maata (o gota) [P] '(tree) maa-maata' (so 

caUed because, though small, it has a straight, 

upright stem) V [NM1-2091,NM1-2623,NM2-

0172] [BO, US] Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) 

Pers. (Crassulaceae) [but cf. NM1-2197] [LD] 

Costus sp. (Costaceae) 

T 0 mabanoka manga hikata [CD-EN, 'Maba (person of 

Maba ethnic group of Halmahera) + poss. + 'pin 

(for boat planks)'; 'Maba boat pin'] V [NM2-0380] 

[HA] Colubrina cf. beccariana (a.u.) (Rhamnaceae) 

H o mai-maihi [SL, but ?<CX; cf. -maihi 'to divine'] V 

[NM2-0584] [HA] Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 

(Gramineae) 

h - o mai-maihi (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) maimaihi' V [NM1-2482] [BO] Sporobolus diander (Retz.) Beauv. (Gramineae) [but cf. LD and 

J. Reeder:] Sporobolus indicus (L.) R. Br. 

(Gramineae) 

h + o mai-maihi ma nauru [P-EN] 'male mai-maihi' 

V [NM1-2257] det not avad. 

H o mainjanga ma hilawoto ma ngangaiH [CD-EN, 

'deer' + poss. + 'pickings (from teeth)' + poss. + 

'remover' (< vb.aiJti 'remove'); 'deer's toothpick'] 

V [NM2-0370] [HA] Pouzolzia sp. (Urticaceae) 

T o make [SL] (or) o make-make [possibly CX < make 

(q.v.)?] 

t + o make ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad make' (uncoil.) 

t - o make (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) make' V 

[NM1-2275] det. not avad. [cf. NM2-0369] 

[HA] det. not avail. (Lauraceae) 

T o mako-makoro [CX, < -makoro Targe male wild 

hog'] (or) o cengke ma dofa [P-EN] 'counterfeit of 

(the) clove (tree)' V [BO] [NM1-2655] Syzygium 

aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry (Myrtaceae) [butcf. 

LD, same voucher:] Syzygium sp. 

T o malepuutu [SL] V [BO] Sa/ix tetrasperma Roxb. 

(Salicaceae) 

T o mali-mali [CX, < vb -ma/i 'bitter' + (redup.); 'which 

is bitter'] V [NM1-2326] [BO] Sloetia elongata 

Koord. (Urticaceae) 

T o mamu [SL] V [NM2-0566] [HA] "cf. Sloanea sp." 

(Elaeocarpaceae) 

O o manahi [SL] PT, Ph: Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. 

'pineapple' (BromeUaceae) 

Note: Subclassification at Loleba (Boeng dialect) 

and Pasir Putih (Dodinga dialect) are considered separately here. 

Subclassification at Pasir Putih (Dodinga dialect): 

o - o manahi [SL] 

o o manahi ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red manahi' 

o o manahi ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white manahi' 
108 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

0(P) 

H 

T 

t 

+ 0 boboha [CX,agentive n < vb -poha 'hit'; 'club, 

bat (for hitting)'] 

+ o bogor [SL, 'Bogor (West Java)'] 

+ o gurade [SL] 

+ o kuluri [SL] 

Subclassification at Loleba (Boeng dialect): 

- o manahi [SL] 

o manahi ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red manahi' 

o manahi ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white manahi' 

+ o borgo [SL, probably < bogor 'Bogor (West 

Java)'] 

+ o /uri [SL] 

+ o tamo-tamo [SL, but ?<CX; 'earthenware 

cooking vessel'] 

o manarama [SL] V [NM2-0255] [HA] Pandanus sp. 

(Pandanaceae) 

o manoko ma babahana [CD-EN, 'bat' + poss. + '?'] 

V [BO] Decaspermum sp. (Myrtaceae) 

o manoko ma boboha [CD-EN, 'bat (flying mammal)' 

+ poss. + 'club, bat (for hitting)'; 'club for hitting 

bats'] V [BO, LD] Decaspermum bracteatum 

(Roxb.) Schott (Myrtaceae) [cf. LD, same voucher:] Decaspermum cf. rubrum Bl. (Myrtaceae) 

[cf. NM1-2647] [BO] Garcinia parviflora (Miq.) 

Miq. (Guttiferae) [cf. NM2-0406] [HA] Decaspermum cf. bracteatum (Myrtaceae) [NM2-0232] 

[HA] Decaspermum sp. 

o manuru [SL] V [BO] Jasminum sambac Soland. 

(Oleaceae) 

o mayoro [SL] 

+ o mayoro ma roehe itoka-tokara [P-EN] 'redtrunked mayoro' V [BO] Syzygium racemosum 

Bl. (Myrtaceae) 

- o mayoro (ma roehe iare-arehe) [P-EN] '(whitetrunked) mayoro' (uncoU.) 

o mea/a [SL] V [NM1-2301] [BO] Micromelum 

diversifolium Miq. (Rutaceae) [but cf. NM 1-2432] 

[BO] Garcinia celebica L. (Guttiferae) [NM2-

0542] [HA] Garcinia sp. 

o meha-mehanga [CX, < vb -mehanga 'to be hirsute'; 

'hirsute' (so caUed because of hirsute leaves)] V 

[BO] Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. (Moraceae) 

o mefew ma gifi/iri [CD-EN, 'meleu megapode bird 

(q.v.)' + poss. + 'claw'; 'megapode's claw'] V 

[NM2-0502] [HA] det. not avail, 

o melumu ma gule [CD-EN, 'melumu (fish)' + poss. + 

'necklace'; 'melumu fish's necklace'] V [BO] 

Euonymus javanicus Bl. (Celastraceae) 

0 migi [SL] 

+ o migi o tonakika [P-EN] 'ground(-dwelUng) 

migi' V [NM1-2228,NM1-2251] det. not avail. 

- o migi [SL] 

+ o migi ma nauru [P-EN] 'male migi' (or) o 

migi ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad migi' (so caUed 

O 

o 

o 

T 

T 

O 

H 

VxT 

because this vine cannot be used for tying) V 

[NM 1-2060] [BO] Rhaphidophora sp. 

(Araceae) [cf. NM2-0263, NM2-0383] [HA] 

Pothos sp. (Araceae) [cf.NMl-2804] [BO] 

Scinaapsus cf. pictus Hassk. (Araceae) [cf. 

NM1-2141, NM1-2164, NM1-2214, NM1-

2243] det not avail. 

- o migi (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) migi' (or) 

o migi (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) migi' (so 

called because this vine can be used for 

tying) V [NM1-2858] [BO] Rhaphidophora 

pinnata (L. f.) Schott (Araceae) 

o moa-moana [CX, < vb -moana 'to spUt open (of 

fruit)'] V [NM1-2177] det. not avail, [cf. NM2-

0244] [HA] Ervatamia sp. (Apocynaceae) 

o moata [SL] V [NM2-0404] [HA] det. not avail. 

(Monimiaceae) 

o monara [SL] V [B0] Drypetes globosa P. et H. 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

- o monara [SL] V [NM1-2765] [BO] Drypetes 

globosa P. et H. (Euphorbiaceae) 

+ o monara o gahika [P-EN] 'shore monara' V 

[NM2-0597] det. not avad. 

o mokuru [SL] (uncoil.) Ph, PT: Areca sp. or spp. 

'areca palm' (Palmae) 

+ o dipongo [SL] 

- o mokuru [SL] 

o moliorata [SL] V [NM1-2016] [BO] Chilocarpus 

sp. (Apocynaceae) [but cf. NM1-2428] [LD] 

Garcinia sp.(Guttiferae) 

o mologotu [SL] (uncoil.) 

o momongere [SL, but ?<CX] V [NM1-2907, NM2-

0518] det. not avail. Ph: Kaempferia sp. (Zingiberaceae) 

o momortitu [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM2-0578, 

NM2-0672] det not avad. (Zingiberaceae) 

o mongdyo [SL] 

+ o mongdyo ma nauru [P-EN] 'male mongdyo' V 

[NM1-2382] [BO] Pfm'j ensiformis Burm. 

(Pteridaceae) [cf. NM2-0166] det not avail. 

- o mongdyo (ma beka) [P-EN] 'female mongdyo' 

V [NM1-2044] [BO] Lygodium circinnatum 

(Burm. f.) sw. (Schizaeaceae) [cf. NM2-0568] 

[HA] Lygodium sp. (Schizaeaceae) (Note: both 

subclasses apparently same genus, possibly 

same species.) 

o mongdyo ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white 

mongdyo' (name refers to light color of stem 

used in basket-weaving) 

o mongdyo ma daro-daromo [P-EN] 'black 

mongdyo' (name refers to dark color of stem 

used in basket-weaving) 

o moowoete [SL] 

o moowoete o gumini [P] 'vine moowoete' V 

[NM2-0098, NM2-0640] [HA] Mussaenda sp. 
NUMBER 34 109 

(Rubiaceae) t 

t " o moowoete o gota [P] 'tree moowoete' V 

[NM1-2195] [LD] Mussaenda sp. (Rubiaceae) 

[cf. NMl-2484] [BO] Carmona sp. (Ehre- H 

tiaceae) 

VxT o morihuhuku [SL] h 

v + 0 morihuhuku o gumini [P] 'vine morihuhuku' V 

[NM1-1158] (lost) 

t - o morihuhuku (o gota) [P] '(tree) morihuhuku' V 

[NM1-2573] [BO] Pycnarrhena manillensis h 

Vidal (Menispermaceae) [cf. NM1-2835] [LD] 

Kibara sp. 

V o muroraha [SL] V [LD] Clematis sp. (Ranunculaceae) T 

T o muru/u [SL] V [BO] Melochia umbellata Stapf 

(Sterculiaceae) T 

T o namo-namo [SL, but ?<CX] (uncoU.) t 

T o namo-namo ma dofa [P-EN] 'counterfeit namonamo' V [BO] Intsia bjuga (Colebr.) D.K. (Legu- t 

minosae) 

T o nanalingi [SL] O 

t o nanalingi ma beka [P-EN] 'female nanalingi' V 

[NM2-0630] [US] Xylocarpus moluccensis 

(Lamm.) Roem. (Meliaceae) 

t o nanalingi ma nauru [P-EN] 'male nanalingi' 

(uncoU.) V 

T o nangka-baldnda [SL, but < Ind CD 'jackfruit' + 

'Dutch'; 'Dutch jackfruit'] V [BO] Annona muri- T 

cataL. (Annonaceae) 

T o nawoko ma lako [CD-EN, 'fish' + poss. + 'eye(s)'; t 

'fish eye'] 

t o nawoko ma lako o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle t 

nawoko ma lako' V [BO] Thespesia populnea 

(L.) Soland. (Malvaceae) T 

t o nawoko ma lako o gahika [P-EN] 'shore nawoko 

ma lako' V [LD] Hernandia nymphaeifolia H 

Kubitzki (Hernandiaceae) 

V o ngabao [SL] h 

v o ngabao ma beka [P-EN] 'female ngabao' V [BO] 

Stemona curtisii Lour. (Stemonaceae) h 

v o ngabao ma nauru [P-EN] 'male ngabao' V [BO] 

Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae) 

T o ngaefo? [SL] V [NM2-0328] [HA] Pometia pinnata T 

J.R. & G. Forst (Sapindaceae) 

T o ngahiri [CX, ? < vb 'swallow'; 'swaUow'] V 

[NM1-2361] det not avad. 

T o ngalumu [SL] V [NM1-2200] [LD] Macaranga sp. V 

[cf. NM2-0219] [HA] M allot us mollissimus (Giesel) Airy Shaw (Euphorbiaceae) 

T o ngamene [SL] (uncoU.) 

T o ngami-ngamiri [CX, < vb -amiri 'to be rotten (of 

fish, prepared foods)'] 

t o ngami-ngamiri ma beka [P-EN] 'female ngamingamiri' (uncoil.) 

o ngami-ngamiri ma nauru [P-EN] 'male ngamingamiri' V [BO] Garcinia parvifolia (Miq.) 

Miq. (Guttiferae) 

o ngangangoro [CX, < vb -wangoro 'sparkle'; 

'sparkUng'] 

+ o ngangangoro ma nauru [P-EN] 'male ngangangoro' V [NM1-2475] [LD] Centotheca latifolia Trin. (Gramineae) [cf. NM2-0181, NM2-

0271] det not avail. 

- o ngangangoro (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

ngangangoro' V [NM1-2352] [LD] Alpinia sp. 

(Zingiberaceae) [cf. NM2-0145] [HA] Ottochloa sp. (Zingiberaceae) 

o ngapo [SL] V [BO] Diospyros maritima Bl. 

(Ebenaceae) 

o ngasdfa [SL] 

o ngasdfa ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red ngasdfa' 

(uncoil.) 

o ngasdfa ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white ngasafa' 

V [NM1-2236] det. not avail, 

o ngauku ma hahakara [CD-EN, 'ear' + poss. + 

'picking tool, pick'; 'ear-pick'] V [NM1-2515] 

[BO] Oplismenus compositus (L.) Beauv. (Gramineae) [cf. NM2-0657] [HA] Digitaria sp. (Gramineae) 

o ngau-ngauku [CX, < n ngauku 'ear(s)'; 'rather Idee 

ears'] V [BO] Rhaphidophora sp. (Araceae) 

o ngeceda [SL] [B dialect cf. D:] o ngeteda [SL] V 

[NM2-0110] det. not avail, 

o ngeceda ma dubo ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 

'ngeceda witii red growtii tip' (uncoU.) 

o ngeceda ma dubo ma gare-garehe (P-EN] 

'ngeceda with white growth tip' (uncoil.) 

o ngeyehaka [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO] Canarium sp. 

(Burseraceae) 

o ngiuru [SL] V [NM2-0445] [HA] Gleichenia sp. 

(Gleicheniaceae) 

- o ngiuru (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) ngiuru' V 

[NM1-2630] det. not avail. 

+ o ngiuru ma nauru [P-EN] 'male ngiuru' V 

[NM1-2524] [BO] Gleichenia linearis (Burm.) 

Clarke (Gleicheniaceae) 

o ngo oao ami bahuku ma otini [CD-EN, (feminine 

name marker) + 'Bao (personal name)' + poss. + 

*axe' + poss. + 'shaft'; 'Bao's axe-handle'] V [BO] 

Euodia aromatica Bl. (Rutaceae) 

o ngo beye ami hogo (H, B; cf. D cognate:) o ngo beye 

ami sogo [CD-EN, (feminine name marker) + 

'grandmother' + poss. + 'pubic hair'; 'Grandmother's pubic hair' (refers to long white "hairs" 

on the seeds of this vine)] V [NM1-2351] [BO] 

Cynanchum ovalifolium Wight (Asclepiadaceae) 

[but cf. NM1-2352] Parsonsia cumingiana D.C. 

(Apocynaceae) [cf. also NM2-0119] [HA] Mars-
110 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

H 

H 

H 

TxV 

O 

T=H 

denia sp. (Asclepiadaceae) t 

o ngo bold ami pine [CD-EN (feminine name marker), t 

+ 'Boki (name, meaning 'cat')' + poss. + 'rice'; 

'cat's rice'] V [LD] Themeda sp. (Gramineae) T 

o ngoddro [SL] V [BO] Microcos ceramensis Burret T 

(TiUaceae) 

o ngohaka ma iyo-iyoko (B, H; cf. D cognate:) o T 

ngofaka ma iyo-iyoko [CD-EN, 'child, baby' + 

poss. + 'excrement' + (redup.); 'rather tike a baby's 

excrement' (a reference to the "yellow" color and T 

the consistency of the sap)] V [NM1-2810] [BO] t 

Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz [but cf. LD] Calophyllum sp. (Guttiferae) t 

o ngohaka manga buku ma didino [CD-EN, 'chtid, 

baby' + poss. + 'knee' + poss. + 'massage oil'; t 

'massage oil for babies' knees'] V [NM1-2566] 

det. not avad. 

o ngotiri ma emanga [CD-EN, 'boat' + poss. + '?'] V 

[BO] Terminalia sp. (Combretaceae) T 

o nguhumu [SL] V [NM1-2113] det. not avail. 

[NM2-0094] [HA] Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. T 

(Gramineae) 

o ngulu [SL] 

+ o kaho ma ngulu [CD-EN, 'dog' + poss. + ngulu; 

'dog's ngulu'] (or) o ngulu ma dorou [P-EN] 

'bad ngulu' V [BO] Spondias cf. dulcis (= T 

purpurea) L. Soland. ex Park. (Anacardiaceae) 

- o nyawa ma ngulu [CD-EN, 'human being' + T 

poss. + ngulu; 'human's ngulu' (or) o ngulu (ma t 

oa) [P-EN] '(good) ngulu' V [BO] Spondias 

pinnata (L. f.) Kurz (Anacardiaceae) t 

o nguna-ngunanga [CX, < vb -wunanga; (etym.?)] V 

[BO,LD] Fatoua pilosa Gaud. (Moraceae) 

o ngunguningi [CX, < vb -wuningi 'to watch, look at' 

(etym.?)] 

- o ngunguningi (o gota) [P] '(tree) ngunguningi' 

V [BO] Grewia laevigata Val. (Tdiaceae) 

- o ngunguningi o gumini [P] 'vine ngunguningi' 

V [NM2-0242] [HA] Grewia acuminata Juss. 

(TiUaceae) 

o ngura [SL] V [NM2-0644] det not avad. Note: tiiis 

is a wild banana (apparently Musa sp. (Musaceae)). t 

Though other such plants are placed in the o bole 

'banana' class (q.v.), this one is not (at Kampung 

Pasir Putih). T 

o nguroto ma doa [CD-EN, 'tendon' + poss. + '?'] V T 

[NM 1-2205] det. not avad. t 

o ngutuku ma gogurati [CD-EN, 'root' + X + 

'yellow'; 'yeUow root'] V [BO] Fatoua pilosa 

Gaud. (Moraceae) 

0 niara [SL] 

+ o nia-mdra [SL?] t 

- o niara o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle niara' V 

[NM1-2151] det. not avad. V 

O 

T 

T 

t 

+ o hibtiru [SL] (or) o hubtiru [SL] 

- o niara [SL] V [NM2-0534] [HA] Canarium 

sp. (Burseraceae) 

o nongu [SL] (uncoU.) 

o nouku [SL] V [BO] Ficus melinocarpa Bl. (Moraceae) 

o nututu [SL] V [NM1-2787] [BO] Melochia umbellata [cf. NM2-0580] [HA] M. umbellata (Houtt) 

Stapf (Apocynaceae) 

o oaha [SL] 

- o oana (ofonganika) [P-EN] '(jungle) oana' V 

[BO] Diospyros cf. heterocarpa (Ebenaceae) 

+ o oana o dotoika [P-EN] 'cape oana' V 

[NMl-2230,NMl-2233] det not avail. 

+ o oana o ganiifca [P-EN] 'shore oana' (or:) o 

oaha o pekeika [P-EN] 'mud(-flat) oaha' V 

[NM1-2218, NM1-2267, NM1-2100] det. not 

avail, 

o ode ma futu [CD-EN, 'pig' + poss. + 'night?'] V 

[BO] Diospyros cauliflora Bl. (Ebenaceae) 

o ode ma gitihiri [CD-EN, 'pig' + poss. + 'claw(s)'; 

'pig's claws' (a reference to the turned-down 

"claw-tike" growtii tips of branchlets)] V [NM1-

2026] [BO] Maniltoa sp. (Leguminosae) [cf. 

NM1-2199] [HA] Cynometra sp. (Leguminosae) 

o ode ma iyoko [CD-EN, 'pig' + poss. + 'feces'; 'pig's 

feces'] (uncoU.) 

o oenge [SL] 

+ o kofere [SL] (or:) o oenge ma nauru [P-EN] 

'male oenge' V [NM1-2241] det not avail. 

- o oenge (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) oenge' V 

[NM1-2202] det. not avad. 

o oldri [SL] V [NM1-2874] det not avail. 

o padte [SL] V [NM1-2184, NM2-0226] det not 

avail. 

o pacikdra [SL] 

o pacikdra o gahika [P-EN] 'shore pacikdra' V 

[NM1-2470] [BO, LD] Pittosporum moluccanum (Lamk) Miq. (Pittosporaceae) [NM2-0375] 

[HA] (same det) [but cf. NM2-0553] [HA] 

Linociera sp. 

o pacikdra ihohihika [P-EN] 'tiiorny pacikdra' V 

[BO.LD] Pittosporum ferrugineum Ait (Pittosporaceae) 

opaiyongihi [SL] V [NM1-2878] det. not avad. 

o pangdha [SL] 

- o pangdha (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) pangdha' V 

[NM2-0550] [HA] Discocalyx sp. (Myrsinaceae) [cf. NM2-0158] [HA] det not avail. 

(Sapotaceae) [cf. NM2-0158] [HA] flarringtonia sp. (Barringtoniaceae) 

-f- o pangdha ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad pangdha' V 

[NM1-2565] det not avad. 

o papaita [SL, but cf. folk etymology: so caUed 
NUMBER 34 111 

because of bitter taste of this vine; Ind: pahit or HxO(G) 

NMM pait 'bitter'] V [BO] Tinospora crispa (L.) 

Miers ex Hook. f. & Thorns. (Menispermaceae) 

T 0 papaooto [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO] Erythrina 

orientalis (L.) Murr. (Leguminosae) 

V o papare [SL] V [NM2-0382] det. not avad. (Cucurbi- h 

taceae) 

T=0 o papuddo [SL] 

t + o papuddo ofonganika [P-EN]'jungle papuddo' o(g) 

(uncoU.) 

t=o - o papuddo [SL] o(g) 

t=o o papuddo ma hoka inou-nouhu [P-EN] 'smoothleafed papuddo' V [BO] Acanthus ebractea- o(g) 

fus Vahl (Acantiiaceae) 

t=o o papuddo ma hoka iho-hihika [P-EN] 'thorny- o(g) 

leafed papuddo' V [BO] Acanthus ilicifolius 

L. (Acantiiaceae) o(g) 

V o paro/a [SL] V [NM2-0359] [HA] det not avad. o(g) 

(Cucurbitaceae) Note: probably Trichosanthes sp.; 

cf. widely used Malay (orig. Sanskrit) term patola 

'snake gourd' (Trichosanthes). 

T o pea-pea [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO, LD] Endospermum o(g) 

moluccanum Becc. (Euphorbiaceae) o(g) 

O o pedd [SL] (uncoU.) Ph, PT: Metroxylon sp. or spp. o(g) 

'sago palm' (Palmae) o(g) 

o + o peda ihohihika [P-EN] 'sago palm having o(g) 

thorns' o(g) 

o - o peda [SL] o(g) 

o " o bawehe [SL] 

o " o oejfca [SL] o(g) 

o " o fr/bm/ [SL] 

o " o bobarai [SL] [q.v.] 

o " o ootora [SL] [q.v.] 

o " o gotoaka ma paka [CD-EN; a 'vine,' q.v.] o(g) 

o " o hepata [SL, 'sugar palm' (synonym of o o(g) 

daluku, q.v.) (thus this sago is compared to o(g) 

die sugar palm)] 

o " o hoama [SL] o(g) 

o - o /o/ioro [SL, but ?<CX] 

o " o lungunu ma tau [CD-EN, 'grave' + poss. + H 

'house'; 'grave house (i.e., smaU structure 

built over a grave)'] 

o ~ o mamou [SL] T 

o " o papittiu [SL] 

H o peoa ma ora [CD-EN, 'sago' + poss. + '?'] V T 

[NM2-0150] [HA] det not avad. (Fern) 

V o peda-peda [CX, redup. + 'sago'; 'rather Idee sago' 

(due to simdarity of habitat?)] V [NM2-0177] [HA] T 

Capparis sp. (Capparidaceae) 

O o pehana [SL] (uncoil.) T 

0 o pepetingi [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO] Arenga obtusifolia Mart (Palmae) V 

O o petele [SL] V [NM1-2210] det. not avati. T 

T o pilawana [SL] V [BO] Vi/ex trifolia L. (Verbenaceae) 

opine [SL] V [BO] 'rice' 

Note: some B speakers consider die cross-cutting 

subclass o pine o fonganika 'jungle rice' a type of o 

pine 'rice'; other B and D speakers are not famdiar 

witii the former, or do not consider it a type of 'rice.' 

+ o pine o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle rice' V 

[NM 1-2624] det not avail, (see note above 

under B° term o pine). 

- o pine [SL] V [BO] 0ryza saliva L. (Gramineae) 

(ad subclasses) 'rice' 

" o air-mdta [SL, but < Ind CD (literaUy) 'eye 

water,' i.e., 'tear (drop)'] 

~ o bugihi [SL, 'Bugis (ethnic group from 

southern Sulawesi)'] 

" o bunga-nasi [SL, but < Ind CD (literaUy) 

'cooked.rice flower'] 

" o deba [SL] 

~ o gaili [SL, 'maggot'] (B; cf. D:) o gaili ma 

doka-dokara [CD-EN, 'maggot' + X + 'red'; 

'red maggot'] (botii names refer to smaU size 

of rice grains of this variety) 

" o goobe [SL, q.v.] 

" o gugunu [SL] 

" o kolano [SL, 'Sultan'] 

" o mamuya [SL] 

" o manyanyi [SL, 'incense'] 

" o meldso [SL] 

~ o nawoko ma gohi [CD-EN, 'fish' + poss. + 

'egg(s)'; 'fish eggs'] 

" o ngoerua [CX, < ngoere 'dried out' (< -woere 

'to dry out') + -ua 'not'; 'not dried out' (so 

called because this variety of rice can be 

stored after harvest witii tittle sun drying)] 

" o pudaka [SL, q.v.] 

" o pulo [SL] 

• o sianga (B; cf. D:) o siam [SL, 'Siam 

(Thailand)?'] 

" o tau-taulu [CX, < vb -taulu 'stick' + (redup.); 

'stick, attach'] 

o pine-pine [CX,n pine (q.v.) 'rice' + (redup.); 'ratiier 

tike rice'] V [BO, LD] Brachiaria paspaloides 

(Presl.) C.E. Hubb. (Gramineae) 

opipiddro [SL] V [BO] Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl. 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

o pogihoro [SL] V [NM1-2162] [BO] Maesa tetrandra (Roxb.) DC. (Myrsinaceae) [butcf. NM1-2648] 

[BO] Maesa sp. (different species) (Myrsinaceae) 

o pohi-pohi [SL, but ?<CX] V [HA] Sonneratia alba 

J. Smith (Sonneratiaceae) 

o poko-pokoro [CX, < n pokoro 'stomach' + redup.; 

'?'] V [NM1-2080.NM2-0196] det not avail, 

o pooho [SL] (uncoU.) 

o poo-pooto [CX, < vb -poofo 'throw, throw away'; 

'that which is thrown away (?)'] (or) o boboluturu 

[SL, but ?<CX] V [NM2-0520] [HA] Ficus sp. 
112 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

(Moraceae) 

t o poo-pooto ma dubo ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 

'poo-pooto with red growtii point' (uncoil.) 

t o poo-pooto ma dubo ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 

'poo-pooto with white growth point' V [LD] 

Ficus sp. (Moraceae) 

V o poparaaka [SL, but ?<CX] (uncoil.) 

T o popewi [SL] (or) o pupewi [SL] V [NM1-2868] 

[BO] Albizia saponaria Bl. (Leguminosae) [but cf. 

LD, same voucher:] Pithecellobium sp. [NM2-

0234] [HA] Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Bl. ex Miq. 

(Leguminosae) 

T o popopara [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO] Diospyros nigra 

Pen. (Ebenaceae) 

T o poro-poroho [probably CX] V [BO] Adenanthera 

pavonina L. (Leguminosae) 

O o pudaka [SL] V [BO] Panaanus amaryllifolius Roxb. 

(Pandanaceae) 

T o pugu-pugutu [probably CX] 

t - o pugu-pugutu (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

pugu-pugutu V [BO] Claoxylon longifolium 

(Bl.) Endl. ex Hassk. (Euphorbiaceae) 

t + o pugu-pugutu ma nauru [P-EN] 'male pugupugutu V [NM2-0147] [HA] Lunasia amara 

Blanco (Rutaceae) 

O o puhelingi [SL] V [NM 1-2472, NM2-0198] det not 

avail. 

V o pu*u [SL] V [NM1-2472, NM2-0198] [BO, LD] 

Cissampelos pareira L. (Menispermaceae) [cf. 

NM2-0571] [HA] Pueraria cf. pulcherrima Merr. 

ex Koord.-Schum. (Leguminosae) 

T o pulahari [SL] V [NM2-0153] Lepiniopsis ternatensis Val. (Apocynaceae) 

T o putidna ma gitifiri [CD-EN, 'ghost (of a woman 

who died in childbirtii; cf. Malay pontianak)' + 

poss. + 'claws, (finger- or toe-) nails'; 'putidna 

(ghost)'s claws'] V [NM1-2855] det. not avail. 

[NM2-0393] Schefflera sp. (AraUaceae) 

o puungu [SL] (uncoU.) 

o puusu ma gumi [CD-EN, 'cat' + poss. + 'whiskers)'; 'cat's whiskers'] V [BO] Vernonia cinerea 

(L.) Less. (Compositae) 

o rabdnga [SL] V [NM1-2848, NM2-0436] det not 

avail. 

T o rabatingo [SL] (B; cf. D dialect:) o rabatigo 

(uncoU.) 

T o rai [SL] (uncollected 'tree'; cf. NON-BREATHER 

'mushroom' of same name) 

H o rai-rai [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO] Cenchrus brownii R. 

& S. (Gramineae) 

T o rambutan [SL, Ind rambutan 'Nephelium sp.'] 

t + o ace [SL] (or) o rambutan-ace [SL, but < Ind or 

NMM rambutan aceh 'Aceh (North Sumatra) 

rambutan] V [NM 1-2755] det. not avad. 

O 

H 

0(B) 

t - o rambutan [SL] PT: Nephelium sp. (Sapindaceae) 

T o ranga [SL] (uncoil.) 

H o rautengo [SL, but Tte CD?; Tte rau 'leaf,' fengo 

'single'; 'single leaf (?)] V [BO] Nervilia aragoana Gaud. (Orchidaceae) 

O o rica [SL, cf. NMM rica] V (for subclasses o 

manado, o helehekti, o gopu; aU these definitely, 

and otiiers apparendy, same species) [BO] Capsicum frutescens L. (Solanaceae) 

o - o rica [SL] 

o + o gopu [SL] (or) o go/u [SL] 

o + o helehekti [SL, 'case bottle'] 

o + o manado [SL, 'Menado (City)'] 

o + o matdga [SL] 

T o riidi [CX, n < vb -riidi 'to be silent'; 'stience'] V 

[NM1-2809] [BO] Agrostistachys cf. gaudichandii 

(Euphorbiaceae) [but cf. LD, same voucher:] 

Gardenia cf. pterocalyx Val. (Rubiaceae) [NM1-

2639] det not avail, 

t o riidi ma nauru [P-EN] 'male riidi' V [NM1-2429] 

det not avail, 

t o riidi ma beka [P-EN] 'female riidi V [NM1-2487] 

Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl. (Euphorbiaceae) 

V o riwoto [SL] 

v + o dongara [SL] (or) o riwoto ma dorou [P-EN] 

'bad riwoto' (uncoil.) 

v - o riwoto [SL] (or) o riwoto (ma oa) [P-EN] 

'(good) riwoto' (or) o riwoto (ma dufu) [P-EN] 

'(genuine) riwoto' V [NM 1-2424] det. not avail. 

T o ro/iji [SL, cf. vb (from tiiis noun?) -rofisi 'to twist, 

gnarl'] V [NM1-2102] [LD] Syzygium sp. [cf. 

NM2-0334] [HA] Syzygium sp. (Myrtaceae) [cf. 

NM1-2808] det not avad. 

VxH o roma [SL] 

v - o roma (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) roma' V 

[US] Flagellaria indica L. (FlageUariaceae) 

h + 0 roma ma nauru [P-EN] 'male roma' V [BO] 

Spathoglottis plicata Bl. (Orchidaceae) 

TxH o roringohana [SL, but ?<CX] 

h + o roringohana ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad roringohand V [US] Justicia sp. (Acantiiaceae) 

t - o roringohana [SL] V [NM1-2054] [BO] Gendarussa vulgaris Nees (Acantiiaceae) [NM2-

0083] det not avail. 

(Note: for discussion of the classification shown 

here, see 5.2.1.3.) 

t o roringohana ma nauru [P-EN] 'male roringohana' (or) o roringohana o fonganika 

[P-EN] 'jungle roringohana' V [NM1-2516] 

Pittosporum ferrugineum Ait. (Pittosporaceae) 

t o roringohana ma beka [P-EN] 'female roringohana' (or) o roringohana ma gare-garehe 
NUMBER 34 113 

[P-EN] 'white roringohana' (uncoU.) 

t o roringohana ma daro-daromo [P-EN] 'black 

roringohana' V [NM2-0389] det. not avail. 

(Acanthaceae) 

T o rortimu [SL] (or) o rurtimu [SL] V [BO] Heritiera 

littoralis Dryand. ex Ait (StercuUaceae) 

V o rotu-rotu [CX, < vb -rotu 'crackle'; 'crackle' (so 

caUed because this vine makes a sharp crackling 

sound if twisted)] V [NM1-2389] [BO.LD] Cissus 

nodosa Bl. (Vitaceae) [cf. NM2-0362] [HA] Coyratia sp. (Vitaceae) 

T o rubu [SL] V [LD] ?Walsura sp. (MeUaceae) 

H o ruju-ruju [CX, cf. vb. -ny'i* 'rub'] (uncoil.) 

T o ruhu [SL] V [NM1-2354] [BO] Trema orientalis 

(L.) Bl. [but cf. LD] Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) Hara 

(Ulmaceae) 

t - o runu (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) runu' V 

[NM2-0126] [HA] Trema cannabina Lour. 

(Ulmaceae) 

t + 0 runu ma nauru [P-EN] 'male ru/iu' V 

[NM2-0240] [HA] Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. 

(Ulmaceae) 

H o ruju-ruju [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM2-0104] [HA] 

Cyperus cyperoides (L.) O.K. (Cyperaceae) [cf. 

NM2-0331] [HA] Plectranthus sp. (Labiatae) 

VxT o ru&ri [SL] 

v + 0 rukiti ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad rukiti' V [BO] 

Gnetum gnemonoides Brongn. (Gnetaceae) 

t - o rukiti (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) rukiti' V [LD] 

Gnetum sp. (Gnetaceae) 

O o sayur-cina [SL, but < Ind & NMM CD-EN sayur 

'vegetable' + cina 'Chinese'; 'Chinese vegetable'] 

(or) o cinaka manga uge [CD-EN, 'Chinese 

people' 4- '(human plural) poss.' + 'vegetable'; 

'Chinese people's vegetable' (this is a rarely used 

Tobelo translation of die more common Ind & 

NMM term given previously)] V [NM2-0220] det 

not avail. 

V o siafu [SL] V [NM2-0587] [HA] Dioscorea sp. 

(Dioscoreaceae) 

H o sike-sike [SL, but ?<CX] (or:) o hike-hike [SL, but 

?<CX] V [NM1-2462] det. not avail. [NM2-0507] 

[HA] Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Labiatae) 

V o sone-kodiho [SL, but ?< Tte CX, cf. sone Tte 'kill, 

die' + '?'] V [NM2-0503] [HA] Tetracera cf. 

nordtiana F. v. M. (Ddleniaceae) 

T o ttwtffo [SL] V [BO] Acalypha hellwigii Warb. 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

VxT o sosonyinga [SL, but ?<CX] 

v + 0 sosonyinga o gumini [P] 'vine sosonyinga' 

(uncoU.) 

t - o sosonyinga (o gota) [P] 'tree sosonyinga' V 

[BO] Trema cannabina Lour. (Ulmaceae) 

H o su/asi [SL] (Note: probably same as o hulahi, q.v.) 

V [BO] Ocimum basilicum L. (Labiatae) 

O o tooafco [SL] PH, PT: Nicotiana tabacum L. 

(Solanaceae) 'tobacco' (all subclasses) 

o + o cinga-cinga [SL, but ?<CX] (so called because 

this tobacco variety's leaves bear a similarity to 

the cinga-cinga (q.v.) 'herbaceous weed') 

o + o hekiri [SL, cf. 'tree' called o hekiri (q.v.)] 

o - o tabako [SL] 

T o tabidonga [SL] V [NM1-2221, NM1-2270, NM1-

2469] det not avail, 

t - o tabidonga [SL] V [NM2-0130] [HA] Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. (Sapinaceae) 

t + o tabidonga o gahika [P-EN] V [NM2-0208] det 

not avail. 

H=0 o tabihahu [SL] (in Tbl-D often pronounced:) o 

tabisasu [SL] 

h + o tabihahu ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad tabihahu' V 

[NM1-2617] [BO] Bauhinia cf. acuminata L. 

(Leguminosae) [but cf. NM1-2482] [BO] Sporobolus diander (Retz.) Beauv. (Graminaeae) 

[cf. LD & J. Reeder, same voucher:] Sporobolus 

indicus (L.) R. Br. (Graminaeae) 

h=o - o tabihahu (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) tabihahu' 

(or) o tabihahu (ma dutu) [P-EN] '(genuine) 

tabihahu' V [NM1-2613] [BO] Acriopsis javanica Reinw. (Orchidaceae) [but cf. NM1-2598] 

[BO] Dendrobium calceolum Roxb. (Orchidaceae) 

h=o - o tabihahu (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) tooinanu' V [NM2-0412, NM2-0539] [HA] 

Dendrobium sp. (Orchidaceae) 

h=o + o tabihahu ma nauru [P-EN] 'male tabihahu' 

V [NM2-0709] Dendrobium sp. (Orchidaceae) [NM2-0343] det not avail. 

H o tadauru ma houru [CD-EN, 'hair' + poss. + 

'medicine (incl. cosmetic preparation)'; 'cosmetic 

preparation for the hair' (so called because die 

leaves are used as shampoo)] V [NM1-2517] det 

not avail. 

T o taehe mafutu [CD-EN, 'piglet' + poss. + 'night (?)'] 

V [NM1-2546] det not avail. 

T o taehe ma gitifiri [CD-EN, 'piglet' + poss. + 

'claw(s)'; "piglet's claws'] V [BO] Maniltoa sp. 

(Leguminosae) 

T o taehe ma huhuhumu [CD-EN, 'piglet' + poss. + '?'] 

V [LD] Drypetes sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

H=0(F) o tahubi [SL] V [NM1-2849] [BO] Canna coccinea 

Mdl. (Cannaceae) [but cf. V NM1-2408] [BO] 

Canna coccinea MiU. [cf. LD] Canna indica L. 

(Cannaceae) 

O o tahubi [SL] (or) o kaboja [SL] Ph, PT: Manihot 

esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae) (PT: all subclasses) 
114 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

T 

V 

H 

h 

T 

t 

t 

V 

o 

o 

o 

O 

O 

+ o inggerehe [SL, 'English'] V [NM2-0078] [HA] 

Manihot esculenta Crantz. 

- 0 tahubl [SL] 

+ 0 karet [SL, < Ind karet 'rubber'] 

- o tahubl 

~ o botara [SL, q.v.] 

" o digol [SL] (or) o jawa [SL, 'Java(nese)'] 

" ofoli [SL, 'Foli (ViUage, Wasile District)'] 

(or) o gorua [SL, 'Gorua (Village, Wasile 

District)'] 

" o gamulaha [SL, but < Tte CD?] 

" o gedi [SL, cf. gedi (synonym of o botara, 

q.v.)] 

" o gogaapoko [SL?] 

" o irian [SL, 'Irian'] 

" o kanari-gula [SL, but < Ind CD ?] 

" o foryoa [SL, 'Kayoa (Island, Nortii Moluccas)'] 

" o leleko [SL, q.v.] 

" o lolobdta [SL, 'Lolobata (Vdlage, Wasile 

District)'] 

" o majioli [SL] 

" o nitong [SL, 'nylon'] 

~ o to/toapi [SL, but from NMM CD-EX, 

NMM toko 'fear' + api 'fire'; 'is afraid of 

fire' (so caUed because this variety cooks 

quickly)] 

o tajdngo [SL] V [NM2-0589] [HA] det. not avail. 

(Palmae) 

o take [SL] [NM1-2002] aff. Calamus sp. [US] 

VxHxO 

V 

h 

h 

h 

0 

T 

T 

t 

t 

T 

T 

T 

T 

T 

(Palmae) 

o takiu [SL] t 

4- o takiu ma nauru [P-EN] 'male takiu' V 

[NM1-2481] [LD] Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) 

Hassk. (Cyperaceae) [but cf. BO]: Cyperus t 

kyllingia Endl. (Cyperaceae) T 

- o takiu (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) takiu' V 

[NM1-2792] [LD] Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyper- V 

aceae) [but cf. BO] Cyperus kyllingia Endl. 

(Cyperaceae) 

o toifcupoa [SL?] T 

+ o takupoa o dotoika [P-EN] 'cape takupoa' V [BO] 

Rapanea cf. rawacensis (DC.) Mez. (Myrsinaceae) 

- o takupoa V [BO] Psychotria leptothyrsa Miq. 

(Rubiaceae) 

o to/i [SL] V [BO] Piper insignilimbun DC. (Piper- 0(B) 

aceae) 

o tamate [SL] Ph, PT: Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. 0(B) 

(Solanaceae) 'tomato' (all subclasses) 

+ o balibi [SL, q.v.] T 

- o tamate [SL] 

o tamelo [SL] Ph: Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Leguminosae) T 

o tanuma [SL] Ph: Phaseolus radiatus L. (Legumino- t 

sae) 

o torafe [SL] 'orchid' 

4- o rarafe o gumini [P] 'vine tarate' V [BO, US] 

Bulbophyllum sp. (Orchidaceae) 

4- o tarate o tonaHka [P-EN] 'ground(-living) 

tarate' 

o tarate ma beka [P-EN] 'female tarate' V [BO] 

Eulophia squalida Lindl. (Orchidaceae) 

o tarate ma nauru [P-EN] 'male tarate' V [BO] 

Eulophia javanica J.J.S. (Orchidaceae) 

- o torato (ma dutu) [P-EN] '(genuine) farafe' V 

[NM1-2637] det. not avail. [NM2-0433] [HA] 

Dendrobium sp. (Orchidaceae) 

o totoma [SL] V [NM1-2421] det not avail, 

o totou/u [CX, < vb -taulu 'stick (to), attach (to)' (cf. 

also n o tataulu 'jeUyfish'; possibly given same 

name because both cause itchy swelUngs when 

they come in contact with die skin.] 

-i- o hinangiri [SL] V [NM1-2771] det. not avad. 

- o tataulu [CX] V [BO] Ficus adenosperma Miq. 

(Moraceae) 

o tataulu ma amoko [CD-EN, tataulu (the 'tree'? q.v.) 

+ poss. -I- 'size,bigness'; 'the big tataulu (tree) (?)'] 

V[NM1-1190] (lost) 

o tato ma gohi [CD-EN, 'trigger fish' + poss. + 

'egg(s)'; 'trigger fish eggs'] V [BO.LD] Colubrina 

asiatica (L.) Brongn. (Rhamnaceae) 

o taulate [SL] V [BO] Canarium hirsutum WUld. var. 

hirsutum f. scabrum (Bl.) (Burseraceae) 

o tawa [SL] V [NM1-1106] (lost) 

*o te [SL] 'tea' (See 5.2.2.5 for discussion of this 

"posited" basic class) 

o te o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle tea' V [BO] 

Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masamune (Ehretiaceae) 

*o te [SL] 'tea' 

o /e/a-fe/a [SL, but ?<CX] V [NM2-0211] [HA] 

Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco (Myrsinaceae) 

o re/e/ifa? [SL] (or) o totofora [SL, but ?<CX] V 

[NM1-2313] [BO] Secamone villosa Bl. (Asclepiadaceae) [LD] Sarcolobus sp. (Asclepiadaceae) 

o teleme ma ngongopuru [CD-EN, 'vagina' + poss. + 

'medicine deUvered by spitting'; 'vaginal medicine 

delivered by spitting' (informants were unaware of 

any such medicinal use of tiiis plant)] V [NM1-

2590] det not avail, 

o tetewanga [SL] V [BO] Schizostachyum sp. (Gramineae) 

o tiba [SL] V [BO, US] Schizostachyum lima (Blanco) 

Merr. (Gramineae) 

o tiba ma mehanga [CD-EN, 'tiba bamboo (q.v.)' + 

poss. + 'small spicules'; 'bamboo's spicules'] V 

[NM1-2157] det. not avad. 

o tifiriki [SL] 

4- o tifiriki ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white tifiriki' 

V [NM1-2161] det not avail. 
NUMBER 34 115 

t 

t 

V 

T 

T 

H=0 

0(B) 

o(b) 

o(b) 

H 

0(B) 

0 

o 

- o tifiriki (ma doka-dokara) [P-EN] '(red) tifiriki' 

V [BO] Palaquium lobbianum Burck. (Sapotaceae) 

o tigo-tigono [CX, < vb -tigono 'to flow (of plant 

sap)'; 'flowing sap'] V [BO] Pimeleodendron 

amboinicum Hassk. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o tiingi [SL] (uncoil.) (indet mangrove) 

o fi/ino [SL] 

+ D 

V 

o tiliho-huhuku [CD; -nunufcu '?'] (B; cf. 

dialect:) o tiliho-fusuku (same as above) 

[NM1-2130.NM1-2242] det not avail. 

+ o fi/ino o ganifca [P-EN] 'shore tiliho V 

[NM1-2219] det not avad. 

- o ft/ino [SL] V [NM2-0372] Terminalia catappa 

L. (Combretaceae) 

o tiliho-gumini [CD-EN, 'tiliho (a tree,q.v.)' 4- 'vine'; 

'vine tiliho'] V [BO] Agrostistachys maesoana 

Vidal (Euphorbiaceae) 

o timilongo [SL] V [NMl-2256,NMl-2530] det not 

avail, 

o ftoua [SL] V [NM1-2182] det. not avail, [cf. 

NM2-0084, NM2-0631] [HA] Micromelum sp. 

(Rutaceae) 

o fif/oi [SL] V [US] Zingiber sp. (Zingiberaceae) 

o todoku [SL] 

4- o todofa* ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad todoitu' V [US] 

Bambusa atra Lindl. (Gramineae) 

- o todo/tu (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) todofcu' V [US] 

Bambusa atra Lindl. (Gramineae) 

o tomato ma gole-gole [CD-EN, 'ghost' 4- poss. 4-'?'] 

V [NM2-0593] Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae) [but cf. NM2-0403, NM2-0509] [HA] 

Cyathula prostrata (L.) Bl. (Amaranthaceae) 

o tome-tome [SL.but ?< CX] 

- o tome-tome [SL, but ?< CX] V [NM1-2709] 

[BO] Scolopia spinosa (Roxb.) Warb. (Flacourtiaceae) [cf. NM2-0286] [HA] Flacourtia sp. 

(Flacourtiaceae) 

4- o tome-tome o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle tometome' V [NM1-2248] [LD] Gonocaryum littorale (Bl.) Sleum. (Icacinaceae) 

o tonga-jdwa [SL, but Ind CD?] V [BO] Schizostachyum brachycladum Kurz (Gramineae) 

o topdya [SL] (uncoil.) Ph, PT: Carica papaya L. 

(Caricaceae) (all subclasses) 

4- o topdya ma nauru [P-EN] 'male papaya' (Note: 

this includes die male individuals of all varieties 

of Carica papaya L. listed below) 

- o topdya (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) papaya' 

(Note: this includes die female individuals of all 

varieties of die usually dioecious Carica papaya 

L.; only females are subclassified as below) 

o angguru [SL, < Ind & NMM anggur 'wine'] 

(or) o topaya-anggur [CD-EN, 'anggur papaya'] 

o o topdya ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white papaya' 

o o topdya ma popoltilu [P-EN] 'round (spherical) 

papaya' 

T o torobtiku [SL] 

t 4- o torokowehe [SL] V [NM1-2238] det. not avail, 

t - o torobtiku (ma dutu) [P-EN] '(genuine) toroori&u' V [LD] Guettarda speciosa L. (Rubiaceae) 

V o tordfuku [SL] (or) o to-tordfuku [CX, < n tordfuku 

(q.v.) + (redup.)] V [NM1-2004] [BO] Trichosanthes sp. (Cucurbitaceae) 

T o totabako [CX, < n tooafc? 'tobacco'; 'rather tike a 

tobacco (plant)'] V [NM2-0105] [HA] Solanum sp. 

(Solanaceae) 

t 4-o totabako ma nauru [P-EN] 'male totabako' V 

[NM1-2497] det. not avail, 

t - o totabako (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) totabako' 

V [NM1-2308] det. not avail. [NM2-0178] [HA] 

Blumea sp. (Compositae) 

H o totaleo ma hohorene [CD-EN, 'chicken* 4- poss. 4-

'comb or wattle (of chickens)'; 'chicken's comb'] 

h 4-0 totaleo ma hohorene ma nauru [P-EN] 'male 

totaleo ma hohorene' V [BO] Acalypha wilkesiana M.A. (Euphorbiaceae) 

h - o totaleo ma hohorene (ma beka) [P-EN] 

'(female) totaleo ma hohorene' V [NM1-2117] 

det not avail, [cf. NM2-0559] [HA] Plectranthus scutellarioides (L.) R. Br. (Labiatae) 

T o totaleo ma ruoho [CD-EN, 'chicken' 4- poss. 4-'?'] 

t + o totaleo ma ruoho o fonganika [P-EN] 'jungle 

totaleo ma ruoho' V [NM1-2171] det. not avail, 

t - o totaleo ma ruoho (haaato-datomo) [P-EN] 

'(cultivated) totaleo ma ruoho' 

t o totaleo ma ruoho ma beka [P-EN] 'female 

totaleo ma ruoho' V [BO, LD] Codiaeum 

variegatum (L.) Bl. (Euphorbiaceae) 

t o totaleo ma ruoho ma nauru [P-EN] 'male 

totaleo ma ruoho' V [NM1-2695] det not 

avail. 

V o toto/ora [SL] V [NM1 -2313] [BO] Secamone villosa 

Bl. (Asclepiadaceae) [cf. LD, same voucher:] 

Sarcolobus sp. 

T o totopdya [CX,< n topdya, (q.v.) 'papaya'; 'rather 

tike a papaya'] V [BO] Euodia latifolia DC. 

(Rutaceae) 

V o totorofuku [SL] V [NM1-2871] [BO] Momordica 

cochinchinensis Spreng. (Cucurbitaceae) 

VxO o totufufungu [SL, but ?<CX] 

v + o totufufungu o gumini [P] 'vine totufufungu' V 

[NM1-2480] det. not avail. 

o - o totufufungu [SL, but ?<CX] (or) o totufufungu 

(ma dutu) [P-EN] '(genuine) totufufungu' V 

[NM 1-2785] [BO] Microsorium punctatum 
116 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Copel. (Polypodiaceae) [but cf. NM1-2388 (det. o(b) 

not avad.) possibly different species] 

H o totufufungu ma dofa [P-EN] 'counterfeit to- o(b) 

tufufungu' 

h o totufufungu ma dofa ma beka [P-EN] 'female 

totufufungu ma dofa' V [NM1-2548] det not 

avad. 

h o totufufungu ma dofa ma nauru [P-EN] 'male 

totufufungu ma dofa' V [NM1-2547] det not 

avad. V 

V o totufufungu ma ngutuku [CD-EN, totufufungu (q.v.) v 

4- poss. + 'root'; 'totufufungu's root'] V [LD] 

Pyrrosia sp. (Polypodiaceae) 

V o toyogata [SL] V [BO] Dioscorea alata L. (Di- v 

oscoreaceae) Note: Tugutil (upriver Dodaga) consider tiiis a subclass of o ubi (q.v.) (thus o uoi o 

toyogata, though that phrase is unacceptable to B 

and D speakers); o toyogata is considered a basic 

term by B and D speakers. T 

T o toyomo [CX, n < vb -toyomo 'sharp'; 'sharpness, 

pointedness'] V [NM2-0274] [HA] Osmoxylon sp. O 

(Araliaceae) 

t o toyomo ma beka [P-EN] 'female toyomo' V [BO] 

Trevesia sundaica Miq. (Araliaceae) 

t o toyomo ma nauru [P-EN] 'male toyomo' V o 

[NM1-2438] det. not avad. 

T o f uo"da [SL] V, PT: Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. o 

(Moraceae) (ad subclasses) 

t o cuaraka [SL] o 

t o 6a/u/a [SL] (or) o /uadd iko-karau [P-EN] 'tough 

jackfruit' 

t o tudda iwede-wedere [P-EN] 'rotting jackfruit' (so o 

caUed because of the very soft pith of the fruit) 

T o tui [SL] V [BO] Embelia sp. (Myrsinaceae) 

T o turi [SL] V [BO] Sesbania javanica Miq. (Leguminosae) o 

V o turi-turi [CX, turi (q.v.) 4- (redup.); 'ratiier like a /uri 

(q.v.) tree' V [BO, LD] Abrus precatorius L. H 

(Leguminosae) 

TxH o tutulaka [CX, < vb -tulaka 'sexuaUy aroused' 4-

(redup.); 'which is sexually aroused' (so caUed h 

because the succulent leaf in both subclasses is 

thought to resemble an erect penis)] 

t - o tutulaka (o gota) [P] '(tree) tutulaka' V h 

[NM1-2904] (damaged) det. not avail. ^Euphorbiaceae) T 

h + o tutulaka o rurubu [P-EN] 'weed tutulaka' t 

(uncoU.) (Photographs of specimen [PMT 79-3- t 

1, nos. 32, 33] det. by US:) Luisia sp. 

(Orchidaceae) V 

T o tuuru [SL] (uncoil.) v 

T o tuuru ma diaoto [CD-EN, tuuru (q.v.) 4- poss. + '?'] v 

V [NM1-2273] det. not avail. 

0(B) o tuwiki [SL] 

- o tuwiki SL] V [BO, US] Schizostachyum lima 

(Blanco) Merr. (Gramineae) 

4- o tui-bisa [SL, but < NMM CD-EX, NMM tui = 

Tbl tuwiki (q.v.), NMM bisa 'to be poisonous, 

venomous'; 'venomous tuwiki' (so called because this bamboo can be made venomous to 

anyone whom it pierces using a war-magic 

incantation)] V [BO] Schizostachyum brachycladum Kurz (Gramineae) 

o ubi [SL] 

4- o ubi ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad ubi' V [BO] 

Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burk. (Dioscoreaceae) 

- o ubi (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) u6i' (uncoil.) Ph: 

Dioscorea hispida Dennstedt (Dioscoreaceae) 

Note: see note under o toyogata (q.v.) regarding 

variant subclassification of o ubi among Tugutil 

(upriver Dodaga). 

o ubo-ubo [SL,but ?<CX] V [NM1-2124,NM1-2169] 

det. not avail. Ph, PT: Hibiscus sp. (Malvaceae) 

o ugaka [SL] (uncoil.) PT: Saccharum officinarum L. 

(Gramineae) (all subclasses) Note: Subclassification shown is that of Loleba Village (unchecked 

elsewhere) 

o boki ma diliki [CD-EN, 'cat' + poss. 4- 'penis'; 

'cat's penis'] 

o dode ma gulumu ['shrimp' 4- poss. 4- 'pincer(s)'; 

'shrimp's pincers'] 

o gadwo mapuku [CD-EN. gadwo (= o auldto, q.v.) 

+ poss. + 'septum (of bamboo)'; 'septum of 

gaawo (bamboo)'] 

o moholehe ma yaho [CD-EN, 'maiden' 4- poss. 4-

'calf (of leg)'; 'maiden's calf (of leg)' (cf. B"2 

subclass of o bole 'banana' also having this 

name)] 

o ternate ma ugaka [CD-EN, 'Ternate (Island)' 4-

poss. + 'sugar cane'; 'Ternatese sugar cane'] 

*o uga-ugaka [CX, < n ugaka 'sugar cane' (q.v.) 4-

(redup.); 'ratiier like a sugar cane'] (For discussion 

of this posited class see 5.2.3.5.) 

4- o uga-ugaka ma nauru [P-EN] 'male uga-ugaka' 

V [BO] Dendrobium cf. lancifolium A. Rich. 

(Orchidaceae) 

- *o uga-ugaka ma beka [P-EN] 'female ugaugaka' (Locally posited class, see 5.2.3.5.) 

o uhele [SL] 

o uhele ma beka [P-EN] (uncoU.) 

o uhele ma nauru [P-EN] 'male uhele' V [BO] 

Baccaurea macrophylla M.A. (Euphorbiaceae) 

o ulo [SL] 

o ulo ma beka [P-EN] 'female ulo' (uncoil.) 

o ulo ma nauru [P-EN] 'male ulo' V [BO] 

Merremia umbellata (L.) HalUer f. (Convolvulaceae) 
NUMBER 34 117 

H o uungu [SL] V [NM2-0313] det not avad. 

T o wada-wada [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO, LD] Murraya 

paniculata (L.) Jack (Rutaceae) 

T o wama [SL] PT: Citrus spp. (Rutaceae) 'citrus tree' V 

t " o giranga [SL] v 

t " o hangkari [SL] V [HA] Citrus sp. 

t o lemon-cina [SL, but < Ind /emon 'Citrus sp.' 4-

Ind cina 'Chinese'; Ind 'Chinese citrus'] 

t " o lemon-cui [SL, but < Ind lemon 'Citrus sp.' + v 

cui'?'] 

t ~ o lemon-manis [SL,but < Ind lemon 'Citrus sp.' 

4- manis 'sweet'; 'sweet citrus'] 

t " o lemon-puru [SL, but < Ind lemon 'Citrus sp.' 4- T 

puru '?'] 

t " o nawoko ma wama [CD-EN, 'fish' 4- poss. + 

wama (q.v.); 'fish's citrus'] t 

t " o nipis [SL] 

T o wama-wama [CX, < n wama (q.v.) 4- (redup.)] V 

[BO] Drynaria sparsisora T. Moore (Polypodiaceae) t 

V o wange ma dingoto [CD-EN, 'sun' + poss. 4- '(object 

sent)'; 'object sent by the sun'] V [BO, LD] t 

Freycentia sp. (Pandanceae) t 

H o wange ma duga [CD-EN, 'sun' + poss. 4- 'measure'; 

'sun's measure'] (or) o wange ma duduga [CD-EN, 

'sun' 4- poss. 4- 'measurer'; 'sun's measurer'] V T 

[NMl-2587,NMl-2586] det not avail. 

T o watagooko [SL] V [BO] Claoxylon longifolium (Bl.) 

Endl. ex Hassk. (Euphorbiaceae) 

V o wato-wato ai koworo [CD-EN, 'Wato-wato (a 

mytiiical Tobelorese culture-hero)' + poss. + 

'pitcher'; 'Wato-wato's pitcher'] (uncoU.) Ph: h 

Nepenthes sp. (Nepenthaceae) 'pitcher plant' 

T o wee-wee [SL] V [BO] Macaranga involucrata T 

(Roxb.) BaiU. (Euphorbiaceae) 

O o weka [SL] TxH 

o 4-o weka ma nauru [P-EN] 'male weka' V [BO] t 

Licuala sp. (Palmae) t 

o - o weka (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) weka' Ph: 

Corypha sp. (Palmae) 'emperor palm' V [NM2-

0176, NM2-0605] det. not avail. (Palmae) t 

V o weka-weka [CX, < n weka (q.v.) 4- (redup.); 'rather 

like a weka (palm, q.v.)'] 

v - o weka-weka (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) weka- h 

weka V [NM1-2391] det not avail, [cf. NM2-

0404] [HA] Microsorium sp. (Polypodiaceae) T 

v 4-0 weka-weka ma nauru [P-EN] 'male weka-weka t 

V [NM2-0312] det not avail. (Fern) 

O o widara [SL] (uncoil.) Ph: Alocasia sp. or spp. 

(Araceae) t 

o 4- o lea [SL] (or) o widara ma dutu [P-EN] 

'genuine widara' V 

o - o widara [SL] Note: the phrasal part ma dutu 

'genuine' is here used for die marked subclass 

H 

h 

rather than the unmarked one; cf. also simtiar 

cases in the o nawoko 'fish' subdomain, esp. o 

nogi-nogi (q.v.) 

o wile-wile [SL.but ?<CX] 

4- o wile-wile ma nauru [P-EN] 'male wile-wile' 

(or) o wile-wile ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad wilewile' V [BO] Hemigraphis cf. ceramensis 

Bremek. (Acanthaceae) 

- o wile-wile (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) wilewile' (or) o wile-wile (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) 

wile-wile' V [BO] Hemigraphis bicolor (Bl.) 

Hall. (Acantiiaceae) 

o woki-woH [SL] V [BO] Solanum melongena L. 

'eggplant' (all subclasses?—but see note following 

first subclass below) 

4- o woki-woki ma popolulu [P-EN] 'round (spherical) woki-woki' V[NMl-2852] [BO] Solanum 

melongena L. (Solanaceae) [but cf. NM2-0344] 

[HA] Solanum verbascifolium L. (Solanaceae) 

+ o hamu ma ohu [CD-EN, 'grouper (fish)' + poss. 

4-'?'] 

- o woki-woki [SL] 

o woki-woki ma bihi-bihi [P-EN] 'black wokiwoki' o woki-woki ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 

'white woki-woki 

o wowe [SL] V [NM2-0425] [HA] Dracaena sp. 

(Agavaceae) 

o wugu-wrfgu [SL.but ?<CX] 

- o wugu-wtigu (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) 

wugu-wu*gu' V [BO, LD] Cyathea sp. (Cyatheaceae) 

- o wugu-wu*gu ma nauru [P-EN] 'male wuguwtigu' V [NM2-0574] det. not avail. (Fern) 

o wuhi-wuhi [SL, but ?<CX] V [BO] Planchonella 

oxyedra Auct non Dub. (Sapotaceae) 

o wuu [SL] 

- o wuu (ma oa) [P-EN] 'good wuu' 

o wuu ma doka-dokara [P-EN] 'red wuu' V [BO] 

Cordyline fruticosa (L.) A. Chev. (Agavaceae) 

o wuu ma gare-garehe [P-EN] 'white wuu' V 

[BO] Pleomele angustifolia (Roxb.) N.E. 

Brown (Agavaceae) 

4- o wuu ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad wuu' V [BO] Po/Zid 

secundiflora (Bl.) Bakh. f. (Commelinaceae) 

o yane [SL] 

4- o yahe-bigingo [CD-(indet), yahe (q.v.) 4- *?'] V 

[BO] Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Back. 

(Leguminosae) 

- o yane [SL] V [BO] Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosb. 

(Leguminosae) 

o yahe-gumini [CD-EX, ya/ie '(a 'tree,' q.v.)' + vb. 

-gumini 'to be a vine, rope-like'; 'the rope-tike/ 

vine-ldee yahe (tree)'] (Note: at Pasir Putih, die 
118 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

'tree' yahe and tiiis class are not considered ferruginea Roxb. (Leguminosae) 

subclasses of some higher-level class. Conse- T o yangere [SL] V [BO] Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. 

quendy tiiis class may not be referred to as *yahe.) (Apocynaceae) 

V [NM2-0125, NM2-0596] [HA] Dalbergia cf. T oyuyu [SL] V [NM1-2253.NM2-0224] det not avail. 
Appendix 2 

The Tobelo Classification of FAUNAL FORMS 

A2.0 Introduction 

This appendix records information about aU known Tobelo 

basic classes of FAUNAL FORM and tiieir subclasses. As in 

the Appendix for FLORAL FORMS, "loose terms" are not 

included, because it was thought better to include reliable data 

on a more restricted area of folk classification rather than a 

greater quantity of unreliable information (such terms may in 

fact merely be more synonyms for terms presented here). 

Any non-local animal whose name occurs in the Bible 

(camels, asses, etc.) or in local publications or mass media, can 

be discussed in Tobelo using the animal's Indonesian name, 

preceded by die o noun-marker. In such cases, no attempt is 

made to assimilate die Indonesian term to Tobelo phonology, 

and we can therefore consider such terms intrusive. Only when 

such animals actually occur in the regions where I did field 

work are tiiey included here, even if (as in the case of the 

'turkey,' o ayam-baldnda) they were known during my stay by 

only a single, prized, individual bird kept on Halmahera. 

This appendix summarizes data on B+1 class membership by 

Usting the subclasses of each B+1 class separately. Within each 

B

+1

 class, tiie B° and B- classes are Usted alphabetically by the 

basic terms that designate tiiem. This is a more "traditional" 

taxonomic arrangement than that used above for FLORAL 

FORMS. It reflects die fact tiiat the Tobelo classification of 

FAUNAL FORMS has far fewer irregularities like die 

cross-cutting classes and ambiguous superclass memberships 

so common among the FLORAL FORMS listed in Appendix 1. 

Nomenclatural information about each term is recorded 

using the same conventions that were explained in die 

introduction to the Appendix on FLORAL FORMS. Additional 

notes or comments (e.g., on dialectal differences in details of 

die classification) may be noted after tiiose entries to which 

tiiey apply. Where tiiose comments have not already made clear 

die scientific determinations of species denoted by die folk 

terms, each entry concludes witii die scientific name and, 

wherever possible, an EngUsh gloss for die term. 

Within each B+1 grouping, basic (B°) terms are alphabeticaUy Usted as die main entry immediately to the right of B+1 

class symbols, which appear at the left margin; B-1 terms 

appear at the first indent; B~2 appear at the second indent; B-3 

terms appear at die tiiird indent; and, finaUy, B- 4 terms appear 

at the fourth indent. One term (either the most common or, 

where borrowed terms are commonly used as synonyms, that 

term locaUy diought to be "original" Tobelo) has been chosen 

as the "citation-term" for each class, and its synonyms are listed 

after it in die same entry. Thus each entry tists one class, not 

one term. Locative morphological suffixes are included in die 

citation forms of the phrases in which they occur, though such 

suffixes are recognized as non-lexemic (see 3.2.2.3). 

As in the FLORAL FORM Appendix, markedness of 

subclasses is indicated by die minus (-) sign for die unmarked 

subclass, the plus (+) sign for the marked subclass. Where no 

markedness occurs, die tilde (~) precedes each class. Where 

none of tiiese symbols occurs, data on markedness are 

incomplete for tiiat contrast-set 

The other symbols used in providing nomenclatural information are the same as tiiose used in Appendix 1. 

The foUowing tallies wUl summarize data on each of die five 

subclasses of FAUNAL FORM: o totaleo 'bird,' o dodiha 

'snake,' o nawoko 'fish,' o bianga 'moUusk,' and, finally, aU 

"unaffiUated" animals "(OTHER)." Numbers at far left indicate 

die section numbers of this Appendix. 

B

+1

 class 

2.1 'bird* 

2.2 'snake' 

2.3 'fish' 

2.4 'mollusk' 

2.5 (OTHER) 

B° classes 

86 

11 

159 

73 

91 

B° terms 

123 

12 

190 

73 

102 

Terminal taxa 

110 

14 

250 

74 

148 

Terms (total) 

174 

16 

358 

82 

195 

TOTAL 420 500 596 825 

A2.1 o totaleo 'bird* 

[SL; tiiis B+1 term may be considered o totaleo\ 'bird,' 

homonymous with o totaleo2 (q.v. below, tiiis Appendix) 

'chicken'] 

o agemeleko [CD-EN, < trunc. agere 'stump' + -meleko 'to 

have one for each'; 'having (only) one (of these birds) on 

each stump'] or o peleagere [CD-EN, ?< trunc. -peleke 

'to trip (on something)' 4- agere 'stump'; 'to trip on a 

stump'] [Etym. disc: agemeleko ratiier than peleagere 

generaUy used in D dialect peleagere recorded among 

Tbl speakers on Obi Island (1983) and one informant 

from K. Tobe (Tobelo District, Halmahera) responded 

tiiat F. moluccensis is caUed peleagere tiiere. The 

association with stumps, apparently referring to F. 

moluccensis, derives from two facts: (1) tiiis bird usually 

nests in dead, broken-off stumps of o daluku (Arenga 

pinnata) and o baru (q.v.) palms; (2) it is commonly seen 

119 
120 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

in cleared, recendy burned and planted fields, and is said 

to prefer tiiat habitat because its food consists of die 

eardiworms, tizards, and grasshoppers commonly found 

tiiere; it is thus usuaUy seen resting on dead trees or 

palms or their stumps.] Disc.: The focus of this type, 

based on etymology, on consistency of appUcation of the 

term, and on die fact tiiat Falco moluccensis is die only 

species to which die term is applied familiar to many Tbl, 

seems to be F. moluccensis. The speckled appearance of 

tiiat falcon, however, may contribute to the fact that 

several rather rare members of die cuckoo famUy were 

also given this name, including die only specimen found 

of Cuculus saturatus, and one of die two specimens of 

Eudynamys scolopacea (the other specimen was called o 

luo-luo, q.v.). Gloss: 'Falcon (Falco moluccensis), and 

simtiarly sized, generally speckled cuckoos frequenting 

swidden areas.' 

o awana ma gagawi [CD-EN, < 'rain' + poss. + 'caUer (< -gawi 

vb. 'to caU from a distance by signalUng witii one's arm' 

4- redup.)'; 'caUer of rain'] [Etym. disc.: So named 

because of this bird's habit of flying in large numbers just 

before rain starts and in light rain. This bird is said to be 

especially active before and during rains, flying in aU 

directions. However, S. Somaddearta (pers. comm.) notes 

that some members of the genus Collocalia are associated witii the coming of the rainy season in Java. Hueting, 

1908c:21 translates this term zwoluw 'swallow.' This 

bird is occasionally referred to by Tbl using die NMM 

term burung gareja 'church bird,' due to its habit of 

nesting under eaves of tall buildings, of which churches 

are the most familiar local examples.] Disc.: This term 

was applied to Collocalia vanikorensis and C. esculenta, 

as well as Hirundo tahitica javanica and //. rustica 

gutturalis; no specimen of tiiese genera was called by any 

odier Tbl term. Gloss: 'swallows and swifdets' (all local 

spp. of Hirundo and Collocalia). 

o ayam-baldnda [SL in Tbl, but clearly < Ind & NMM CD-EN, 

Ind & NMM ayam 'chicken' + NMM balanda (cf. Ind 

Belanda) 'Dutch'; 'Dutch chicken' (common Ind & 

NMM term for 'turkey')] 'turkey' Meleagris gallopavo 

o bebe [SL, < NMM bebe 'duck' (see etym. of "Batavian 

Malay" term bebek, Burkdl, 1935:883)] 'domesticated 

duck & goose* 

- o bebe [etym. as above] Anas spp. 'domesticated duck.' 

+ o bebe-gansa [CD-EN, < bebe (q.v.) 'duck' + gansa < Ind 

& NMM gangsa 'goose'; 'goose-duck'] '(domesticated) 

goose' Anser spp. 'domesticated goose.' 

+ o bebe-australia [CD-EN, < bebe (q.v.) 'duck' 4-

'Austraha(n)'; 'Austratian duck'] Disc.: AppUed only to 

Pelecanus conspicillatus, a peUcan tiiat reached Halmahera briefly in 1979 (when I salvaged one dead 

specimen) due to drought conditions elsewhere, and has 

not been sighted since. Local radios reported tiiey had 

flown in from Australia. These birds elicited intense 

interest among Tobelo who had never seen pelicans 

before. A few viUagers used the name o bebe-amerika or 

o bebe-jerman ('American duck,' 'German duck') before 

generaUy settling on 'Australian duck,' die name tiiese 

well-remembered birds maintain today. Pelecanus conspicillatus. 

o bidwa ma totaleo [CD-EN, bidwa (plant, q.v.) 'Donax 

cannaeformis' + poss. 4- 'bird'; 'bird of Donax cannaeformis'] [Etym. disc.: This bird is said to frequent 

Donajc stands.] This term is difficult to gloss because 

each bird to which it was applied belongs to a species 

generaUy referred to by anotiier term. The term seems to 

indicate tiiose flycatchers frequenting Donax stands, and 

it is possible tiiat some Tobelo simply assume that 

flycatchers frequenting tiiose stands are of a different 

kind. Yet die term is not merely descriptive of birds from 

a location; it is treated as a true contrasting B° class of 

birds. All denotata of both terms are flycatchers 

(Muscicapidae). The term o bidwa ma totaleo was used 

in only one case for Myiagra galeata (otherwise called o 

gumi-gumi, q.v.), in two cases for Monarcha trivirgatus 

(otherwise called o gumi-gumi, q.v.), and in one case for 

Piezorhynchus alecto (otiierwise called o motiwdwo, 

q.v.). (Perhaps, mistakenly, it was also recorded once on 

Obi Island [where a different dialect is spoken] as a term 

for Zosterops atriceps, which is generaUy put in the o 

ciciulu (q.v.) class by Dodinga dialect speakers.) 

o boa [SL] or o hilidoro [SL] or o filidoro [Etym.: aU tiiree 

terms are used in D dialect [Etym. disc. At Wari (H. 

dialect), a single very immature specimen of D. hottentottus was given the name o biHhago [CD-EX, < trun. 

bikini 'tail' 4- -hago '(be) twins'; 'twin (double-splayed) 

tad'; this term was unfamiliar to D dialect speakers, and 

in any case its referent is suspect because of die 

immaturity of die specimen; cf. also o bikihaanga under 

o gie-giete (q.v.)]. Dicrurus hottentottus. 

o boke-bokeke [CX, (redup.) 4- vb. -bokeke '(to have) scar(s), 

scab(s)'; 'having scars (or) scabs'] [Etym. disc: die name 

refers to die patches of color on die chest and underside 

die wing of E. orientalis (which, though a migrant, is 

more common than die endemic E. azureus). The 

distasteful name also corresponds to the offensive smell 

of this bird, locally considered to be inedible even by 

dogs.] Disc: The name was appUed to botii E. orientalis 

and E. azureus, die former generaUy green in color and 

die latter generaUy blue. For purposes of collecting birds 

it became necessary to distinguish the two species, which 

is difficult in Tbl, because tiiat language has only one 

word for botii 'blue' and 'green.' Thus we invented die 

subclasses o boke-bokeke i-biru-daun [P-EN] and o 

boke-bokeke i-biru-langit [P-EN] (using NMM-derived 

terms to distinguish tiie kinds of 'blue/green'): 'die 

leaf-blue/green boke-bokeke' (E. orientalis), vs. 'die 

sky-blue/green boke-bokeke' (E. azureus). These terms 
NUMBER 34 121 

may still be in use on Halmahera, but they were invented 

by me, and quickly assimilated by die Tobelo, purely for 

my collecting activities. Eurystoma spp. 

o botikouku [SL] Oriolus phaeochromus. 

o busu [SL] (also known by the Ind & NMM borrowing:) o luri 

[SL, < Ind NMM luri] [Etym. disc: The Ind/NMM term 

is esp. used in die context of capturing for sale, or seUing, 

these domesticated lories]. Lorius garrulus garrulus. 

o butuimi [SL, cf. fish o butuimi (q.v.)] (also known as:) o 

madaama ma dofa [CD-EN, 'frigate-bird' 4- X 4- 'false 

(counterfeit)'; 'false frigate-bird'] Oceanodroma matsudairae. 

o caongo [SL] (or) o cao-caongo [CX, < caongo (q.v.) 4-

redup.] [Etym. disc: Cf. o cao-caongo ma ngofaka (q.v.) 

'child of cao-caongo, used for Myzomela obscura; this 

fact impUes that o caongo could have ma ayo 'parent' 

added to it However, die term o (cao-)caongo ma ayo 

was never observed, tiiough informants agreed it could be 

said (invented?) to distinguish this class from the 'child' 

class. See discussion of the 'parent-child' relation under 

die 'chtid' term.] Melitograis gilolensis. 

o cao-caongo ma ngofaka [P-EN, < cao-caongo (q.v.) + poss. 

+ child' 'chtid of caongo'] (also, less commonly:) o 

cao-caongo ma gilaongo [P-EN, 'servant of caocaongo]. [Etym. disc: This term is used only for 

Myzomela obscura, which frequendy feeds witii Melitograis gilolensis, and which has similar body coloration, 

and which is incidentaUy in die same avian famtiy 

(Meliphagidae). It is possible tiiat there may also be a 

mimicry relation between die two species, with the 

smaller species imitating the larger for protection. Use of 

die 'child' designation here and elsewhere in Tbl 

classification does not imply that die Tbl consider the 

'chtid' to be die physical offspring of the 'parent' 

form—it is merely a nomenclatural device indicating tiiat 

in some way a smaller form is closely associated witii a 

larger one (cf. White and Bruce, 1986:396, which 

misinterprets my pers. comm. on mis point). This class is 

generaUy considered a B° term; however, some people 

consider it a subclass of o ciciulu (q.v.)] Myzomela 

obscura. (Note: This term was also recorded on Obi 

Island for a single specimen of Myzomela obscura 

rubrotincta, which does not occur on Halmahera.) 

o ciciulu [SL] (or) o cucuili [SL] (both terms used in B and D 

dialects; cf. H dialect) o kaaibi [SL]. [Etym. disc: die H 

dialect term is rarely used in the South; however, the 

NMM term burung-cui is occasionaUy heard, tiius: o 

burung-cui. Disc: This "complex" of very small birds 

clearly has die common Nectarinia spp. as its focus, both 

N. sericea auriceps and N. jugularis frenata. The term is 

also used for Zosterops atriceps, a species of similar size 

witii a back colored greenish yellow like die backs of 

(female) Nectarinia. The naming of Zosterops typifies 

die variabili ty of forms of phrasal names; all variations of 

die name are endocentric phrases, with ciciulu as the 

head, and all variations emphasize the difference in chest 

color between Z. atriceps and die spp. of Nectarinia on 

Halmahera, thus (see below) 'the white ciciulu,' 'die 

gray/dusky ciciulu,' or 'die ciciulu witii the white (or 

gray/dusky) chest' Presumably also because of its small 

size, and its extended beak, o cao-caongo ma ngofaka 

(q.v.) 'Myzomela obscura' is considered by some people 

to be a subclass of o ciciulu, and tiiat species is 

occasionally simply referred to as o ciciulu. 

+ o ciciulu iare-arehe [P-EN, 'white ciciulu'] (or) o ciciulu 

ma ale ma ngunungie iare-arehe [P-EN, 'ciciulu having 

a white chest'] (or) o ciciulu ikafo-kafo [P-EN, 'gray/ 

dusky ciciulu'] (or) o ciciulu ma ale ma ngunungie 

ikafo-kafo [P-EN, 'ciciulu with the gray/dusky chest'] 

Zosterops atriceps. (However, die two terms with 

'gray/dusky' were applied on two occasion to Myzomela 

obscura tiiough other informants, who admitted tiiat M. 

obscura could be considered a ciciulu, still considered 

both cases mistaken.) 

- o ciciulu [SL, as above] Nectarinia spp. 

- o ciciulu [SL.as above] AU male and female Nectarinia 

spp. mat are not in black adult male plumage. 

4- o ciciulu-taluke [CD-EN, ciciulu (q.v.) 4- taluke '?'] (or) o 

taluke [SL] the Nectarinia sericea auriceps in the 

beautiful dark black plumage (usuaUy only of adult 

males) having a bright iridescent green crown and bright 

iridescent blue back and tiiroat 

(Note: see also o cao-caongo ma ngofaka (q.v.) for its 

relation to die ciciulu class, as posited by some Tobelo.) 

o ciciulu ma dofa [P-EN, 'counterfeit ciciulu'] Dicaeum 

erythrothorax schistaceiceps. 

o cicoro [SL, onomatopoeic] Eos squamata 

o ciungu [SL] Centropus goliath 

- o ciungu [SL] C. goliath in normal plumage 

+ o ciungu ma heheke [P-EN, 'ugly (dirty) ciungu albino 

form of C. goliath 

o cucupaanga [CD-EX, < NMM cucu 'to poke (something)' + 

paanga 'elbow'; 'poke the elbow' (name is said to refer 

to tiiis bird's habit of never staying still when perched, 

moving body and tail around tiius resembling a person 

constantly being poked in die elbow)] (or) o baikole [SL, 

cf. NMM burung baikole Rhipidura leucophrys. 

o culuku [SL, onomatopoeic] (or) o puluku [SL, onomatopoeic] 

Centropus bengalensis 

o duma-duma [CX, < NMM duma (cf. Tbl dugama) 'to pole 

(one's way in a raft/boat along a river or coast)'] Disc: 

This term is appUed to botii Puffinus leucomelas and Sula 

leucogaster, and no otiier term was obtained for either 

species. The term may thus be glossed 'large, black (or 

dark) and white seabird.' The name apparendy characterizes (or caricatures) both birds' metiiod of swimming 

along the surface. 

o foo-fdo [SL, onomatopoeic, referring to the call of Pitta 

maxima. 

- o foo-fdo [SL, as above] Pitta maxima + o foo-fdo o 
122 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

fonganika [P-EN, 'the jungle foo-fdo'] (or) o gorotdongo 

[SL] Pitta erythrogaster 

o gacuaka [SL] (or) o gaacuaka [SL] Hypsipetes affinis 

o gie-giete [CX, < -giete 'to smde, laugh' (so called because of 

the two white stripes in the mouth area, which, when it 

lands, cause this bird to appear to be smiling or 

laughing)] (Synonym: In B dialect at Loleba (but not in 

D dialect), tins bird is named o bikihaanga [CD-EN, < 

trunc. bikini 'tail' + -haanga 'to be cleft/forked'; 'cleft 

tad' (a reference to tiiis bird's distinctive widely forked 

tad featiiers)]. (Note: On Obi Island (different Tbl 

dialect) several specimens of this species were termed o 

hambtiru ma dorou [P-EN, 'die evil/bad hamburu']. The 

word hamburu is unfamdiar to D-dialect informants.) 

Hemiprocne mystacea. 

o ginene [SL] (An owl, uncollected. However, cf. discussion of 

o wuku (q.v.) below, the latter term being used for Ninox 

connivens and N. scutulata; die term o goroko (q.v.) is 

used for Otus magicus; tiius the only owl on Halmahera 

that I have not collected is Mnox squamipila, and this is 

the most obvious candidate for die denotata of this Tbl 

term o ginene.) 

o gofotodano [SL, though possibly a CD from another 

language, trunc. gofotoro (q.v.) 4- dano '?'] Loriculus 

amabilis 

o gofotoro [SL] Lorius roratus vosmaeri, females. Note: Males 

of this species are termed o uboro (q.v.). Though Tbl 

recognize that one is male and die odier female and tiiat 

tiiey mate, each sex is accorded its own B° term. 

o gogotengaka [SL] Tanysiptera galatea browningi. Note: The 

following subclasses are not considered or recognized as 

growtii classes. 

- o gogotengaka [SL] T. g. browningi in adult generally 

blue, plumage 

4- o gogotengaka ipo-pereeke [P-EN, 'the dirty gogotengaka'] immature or adolescent T. g. browningi in mottled 

brownish plumage 

o goguhumutu [CX, < -guhumutu 'to prod, poke' 4- agentive 

redup.; 'die prodder, die poker' (refers to tiiese shorebirds' habit of poking their long beaks into die sand), 

'larger plovers, larger sandpipers' This term is used for 

Numenius phaeopus, Heteroscelus brevipes, and Xenus 

cinereus (cf. o pupu below for smaller plovers, smaller 

sandpipers, and knots). 

Note: On Obi Island (different Tbl dialect), Tbl speakers use 

their dialect's form, o gogusumutu, for the Moluccan 

woodcock (Scolopax rochussennii), another member of 

the same avian famtiy (Scolopacidae), which, tiiough not 

a shorebird, has feeding habits similar to plovers and 

sandpipers. Scolopax rochussennii is not found on 

Halmahera. The classification of plovers and sandpipers 

in Obi's dialect of Tbl remains unknown. 

o goroko [SL, onomatopoeic, referring to the sound made by 

tiiis owl (but cf. Tbl -guroko 'to snore)] Otus magicus 

leucospilus. 

o gotoaka [SL] (sometimes also known by an NMM 

borrowing:) o gatdla [SL, < NMM gatdla (Cacatua 

spp.),cf. Ind kakatua Cacatua alba. 

o gulelanga [SL] (or) o gogulelanga [ gulelanga (q.v.) 4- redup.] 

[Etym. disc: etymology uncertain, the expected root 

*-kulelanga does not occur in Tbl and is unknown to 

informants, but gogulelenga is (according to tiiose 

famdiar with such closely-guarded esoteric knowledge) a 

passive vb. generaUy meaning to be afflicted witii a 

disease tiiat leads to craziness or mental dlness; its 

position in die folk classification of diseases, and its 

relation (if any) to the bird so named, are unknown to 

me.] (Note on synonymy: ace to D dialect speakers, tiiis 

is known in H dialect as: o totoroa [SL]) Tanygnathus 

megalorhynchos. (Note: The Obi subsp., T. megalorhynchos obiensis, is known by the same Tbl terms, o 

gulelanga and o gogulelanga, on that island.) 

o gumi-gumi [CX, < gumi 'mustache' 4- redup.; 'having a 

mustache' (a reference to the prominent whisker-like 

barbless sensory feathers projecting from the base of die 

beak of these "flycatchefs'T 'flycatchers (except the 

brighdy-colored Piezorhynchus alecto)' 

- o gumi-gumi [CX, as above] Monarcha trivirgatus and 

Myiagra galeata (cf. discussion above of the problematic 

term o biawa ma totaleo; also, this name was assigned by 

some Tobelo to two examples (botii in dusky plumage) of 

Piezorhynchus alecto, though a large series of the latter 

species, collected over several years, was almost universally labeled o motiwowo, q.v.) 

+ o gumi-gumi iburi-buri 'mottled gumi-gumi' Monarcha 

pileatus 

o gumtiru [SL] (Synonyms: The same B° class of bird is 

sometimes referred to in D dialect witii die NMMderived term o kum-kum-biru [SL in Tbl, but < NMM 

P-EN, 'blue/green kum-kum [D. bicolor].' At Loleba [B 

dialect], D. bicolor was known eitiier as o gumtiru or by 

a Tbl translation of the NMM term: o ngoku ma biru-biru 

[P-EN, 'blue/green ngoku [D. bicolor,' although this 

phrase was considered unacceptable by D-dialect speakers.) Disc: The term gumtiru is used for Columba 

vitiensis and apparendy for aU local Ducula spp. except 

D. bicolor (the latter, termed o ngoku, has a distinctive 

non-iridescent black and white coloration). Unfortunately, I was never able to obtain a specimen of D. 

rosacea, altiiough one nineteenth-century specimen was 

coUected from NW Halmahera (White and Bruce, 

1986:207). This term, then, is definitely applied to 

Ducula basilica, D. perspicillata, and D. concinna, as 

well as Columba vitiensis, and may be glossed 'large 

iridescent-colored pigeon(s).' 

o habiana [SL] Megapodius wallacei 

o hayaniti [SL] (or) o hayangiti [SL] (or) o hohayaniti [CX, 

redup. 4- hayaniti (q.v.)] (or) o hohayangiti [CX, redup. 4-

hayaniti (q.v.)] Lycocorax pyrrhopterus pyrrhopterus 

(Note: cf. die Obi dialect term o tutubuuku (q.v., below) 
NUMBER 34 123 

used there for die Obi subspecies L. p. obiensis. If Tbl 

speakers from Obi were exposed to die Halmahera 

subspecies and Halmaherans to the Obi subspecies, these 

terms could more easily be considered synonymous.) 

o helewopoga [SL, but possibly from CD helewo 'stone' + 

-poga '?,' latter morpheme unfamiliar to D-dialect 

informants] (or) o heleopoga [SL?] (or) o leleopoga 

[SL?] Uncollected. 

o hetaka [SL] 'ground-dweUing large rails' 

o hetaka ma you iko-kurati [P-EN, 'yellow-legged hetaka'] 

Gymnocrex plumbeiventris. 

o hetaka ma you itoka-tokara [P-EN, 'red-legged hetaka 

(Note: According to one informant from Kampung 

Toniku, Jailolo District, tiiis bird is called o huwiha in the 

Tbl dialect spoken tiiere.) Habroptila wallacii 

o hetaka ma gilaongo [P-EN, 'false/counterfeit hetaka'] 

Rallina fasciata 

o hiba [SL, cf. NMM burung siba Geoffroyus geoffroyi 

cyanicollis 

4- o hiba ma dorou [P-EN, 'bad hiba'] (or) o hiba ma beka 

[P-EN, 'female hiba'] (or) o hiba ma dopongono [P-EN, 

'deaf hiba (so called because these "female" hiba do not 

react attentively to the human voice as "males" do)] 

Females of G. g. cyanicollis, and occasionally also die 

males, having a black beak and less red plumage; these 

birds are considered female by the Tobelo, and are in fact 

generaUy female although some males have this female 

plumage. 

- o hiba (ma oa) [P-EN, '(good) hiba'] (or) o hiba ma 

nauru [P-EN, 'male hiba'] Males of G. g. cyanicollis and 

occasional females having the typical male plumage 

including red cheeks and beak. These can be domesticated and taught to imitate the human voice, 

o hilidoro [SL] Dicrurus hottentottus (Note: Although many 

specimens were obtained, I am unsure of die subspecies 

on Halmahera (cf. White and Bruce, 1986:317), where 

tiiis term is used. Several specimens of die Obi 

subspecies D. h. guillemardi were also termed o hilidoro 

in the Tbl dialect of tiiat island.) 

o hiringiti [SL] (or) ofiringiti [SL] Caloenas nicobarica 

o hohonotoko [CX, < redup. 4- honotoko 'chisel'; 'rather Idee a 

chisel' (referring to chisel-tike shape of these nightjars as 

they fly)] 

- o hohonotoko [CX, as above] Caprimulgus macrurus 

+ o hohonotoko itoka-tokara [P-EN, 'red hohonotoko 

Aegotheles crinifrons] 

o horoga ma totoku [CD-EN, 'heaven (cf. Ind sorgaY + poss. 

4- n. < vb. toku 'to walk along (something)'; 'thing that 

walks along (some path of) heaven' (so named because it 

flies so high)] Lalage aurea 

o huma-huma [CX, < huma 'manta ray' (so called because the 

bird is perceived to fly with wings swept out Idee a manta 

ray's fins)] Artamus leucorhynchus 

o humu ma doporono [CD-EN, < 'weU' 4- poss. 4- n. < vb. 

-topdrono 'dig (witii a scratching motion), scratch out'; 

'the scrather-out of wells' (so called because tiiis bird 

frequendy scratches die soil up)] (or) o tokata ma 

huhuloko [CD-EN, 'ghost' + poss. 4- n. < vb. -huloko 'to 

send (on an errand), to order'; 'errand-runner of die 

ghosts' (so called because this bird is thought to 

occasionaUy be possessed by a ghost)] (or) o duulungu 

[SL, apparendy a Tabaru word but used in Tbl at 

Kampung Pasir Putih (D dialect)] (or) o guhulo [SL] 

Chalcophaps indica 

o idihi [SL, prob. onomatopoeic] (rarely called o idi-idi [SL, 

prob. onomatopoeic; cf. NMM burung idi-idi 'idi-idi 

bird')] 'starling' (Aplonis spp.). This term is used for botii 

Aplonis metallica and A. mysolensis. 

(Note: while die Tbl realize tiiat each o totaleox 'bird' may be 

eitiier 'male' or 'female,' die Tbl sexual subdivision of 

tins B° class is not biologically accurate:) 

o idihi ma beka [P-EN, 'female idihi'] The adolescents of 

both A. metallica and A. mysolensis, characterized by 

white breast plumage with thin stripes of black, 

o idihi ma nauru [P-EN, 'male idihi'] The adults of botii A. 

metallica and A. mysolensis, characterized by dark black 

breast plumage. 

o ilu-ilumu [SL,but ?< CX] (D and H dialects; cf. H dialect:) o 

tagiroi [SL] (or, also H dialect:) o tagiroi-roi [SL or 

irregular CX, tagiroi + apparently meaningless 

reduplication of final syUables] 'kingfishers' (Note: This 

term, applied to all local Halcyon spp. (see below), is 

sometimes used to refer to Tanysipetera galatea (usually 

caUed o gogotengaka, q.v.), altiiough most Tbl-D 

speakers consider that a mistake.) 

- o ilu-ilumu (ma oa) [P-EN, '(good) ilu-ilumu'] (or) o 

ilu-ilumu o gahika [P-EN, 'shore ilu-ilumu'] Halcyon 

sancta and Halcyon diops 

4- o ilu-ilumu ofonganika [P-EN, 'jungle ilu-ilumu'] (or) o 

ono [SL] Halcyon funebris 

4- o ilu-ilumu ma dorou [P-EN, 'bad/evil ilu-ilumu'] (or) o 

ilu-ilumu o akerika [P-EN, 'river ilu-ilumu'] (or) o 

ilu-ilumu o ngairiha [P-EN, 'creek ilu-ilumu'] Ceyx 

lepidus and Alcedo atthis 

o kapa-kapa [SL, but cf. NMM CX kapas-kapas ('cotton' 4-

redup.) in NMM burung kapas-kapas 'cotton-cotton 

bird' (same species)] Artamus leucothynchus leucopygialis 

o kawihi [SL] This term is apparendy used for aU local 

Accipiter spp., i.e.: A. griseogularis.A. erythrauchen, A. 

henicogrammus, and A. soloensis (altiiough I never saw 

or obtained A. meyerianus), and for Aviceda subcristata. 

Gloss: 'hawks' (Accipter spp. + Aviceda subcristata.) 

o kigi-kigini [SL, but ?< CX] uncollected (thought to generally 

be inhabited by a ghost; cf. o kou-kou below)] 

o kohe [SL] Aceros plicatus ruficollis 

o kou-kou [SL, but ?< CX] uncollected, and probably 

uncoUectable! This is always considered to be a ghost in 
124 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

the form of an invisible bird that is heard at night flying 

around vdlages crying "kou! kou!" to announce impending deatii. Unlike other birds tiiat can be inhabited by 

ghosts, this creature is a ghost yet it is also considered a 

totaleo^ 'bird' 

o koyoba [SL] 'eagle' Haliaetus leucogaster, Aquila gurneyi, 

and Pandion haliaetus (I came across a single dead 

Aquila gurneyi in 1979 at K. Loleba, and saw one kept as 

a pet; botii were called o koyoba; I am unsure how that 

species fits the subclassification below, because I 

discovered die subclasses much later and never came 

across anotiier A. gurneyi.) 

o koyoba ma dutu [P-EN, '(true) koyoba'] Haliaetus 

leucogaster 

o koyoba itumu-tumunu [P-EN, 'koyoba that dives; diving 

koyoba'] Pandion haliaetus 

o kukuhtiu [SL, onomatopoeic] or o kukutiu [SL, onomatopoeic] Reinwardtoena reinwardtii 

o loliowaha [apparendy CD-EX, *loli'?' + -owaha 'to whistie' 

(folk etym.: so called because this bird makes a whisding 

sound)] uncollected. 

o luluga [SL] Macropygia amboinensis 

o lungunu ma babaiti [CD-EN, 'grave' + poss. + n. babaiti 

'digger' (< vb. -faiti 'to dig'); 'grave digger' (so caUed 

for its habit of scooping up a mud nest and laying eggs 

inside)] Egretta sacra 

o luo-luo [SL, but not onomatopoeic] Eudynamis scolopacea. 

Gloss is based on identification of one specimen; the 

other specimen of E. scolopacea was identified as o 

agemeleko (q.v., above, for discussion). 

o madaama [SL] 'frigate bird' (Fregata minor and Fregata 

oriel, die only local spp. of Fregatidae) 

o meleu [SL] Megapodiusfreycinet (optionaUy subdivided into 

size classes:) 

+ Gl o puka [SL] (or, non-lexemicaUy:) o meleu ma puka 

[P-EN, meleu (q.v.) 4- poss. + puka (q.v.) 'pre-adult (of 

megapodes)'; 'pre-adult meleu'] hatchling to adolescent 

M. freycinet 

- G2 o meleu [SL, as above] (or, non-lexemicaUy:) o meleu 

ma baluhu [P-EN, meleu (q.v.) 4- poss. + 'adult'; 'adult 

meleu] adultM.freycinet 

o mogoyuku [SL] 'fruit dove' (Ptilinopus spp., see below). 

(Note: I never obtained P. bernsteinii and am unsure how 

it fits into the subclassification below; aU other Halmahera spp. are termed o mogoyuku) 

o bobororoto [CX, redup. + -bororoto 'blotched, spattered 

(as witii paint)'; 'having blotches' (so caUed because of 

brilUant patches of color in plumage)] the male Ptilinopus superbus in "superb" plumage including purple 

crown and splashes of white, green, and bright purple 

" o motikalu [SL] (for most Halmaheran speakers of Tbl, this 

B

_1

 subclass includes only Ptilinopus hyogaster, but due 

to my collecting activities the folk classification was 

extended to Obi Island, and the new species found there 

incorporated as follows:) 

- o motikalu [SL] (or rarely:) Ptilinopus hyogaster 

4- o motikalu de ma hohorenoka [P-EN, 'die motikalu 

with the hohorene (comb, as on a chicken's head)'] 

Ptilinopus granulifrons Note: I am pardy responsible 

for die "creation" of the name for this species of bird 

unknown on Halmahera, because in 1983 I obtained 

funding and permits for Halmaheran Tbl collectors to 

visit Obi, and I sent them a picture of Ptilinopus 

granulifrons, saying it was unknown in American 

coUections, that we would like some, and tiiat it 

looked "Idee a motikalu" but had "something like a 

hohorene ('comb')" on its head (the distinctive 

granulation on die cere at die top of die beak of tiiis 

species). The bird is still talked about now in 

Halmahera, and die name coined seems destined to 

stay part of die Tbl folk classificatory system tiiere as 

long as this Obi Island bird is remembered. I am 

unsure of its classification by Tbl speakers on Obi. 

~ o motikalu ma dofa [P-EN, 'false/counterfeit motikalu 

(q.v.)'] females of Ptilinopus superbus 

o motiwdwo [SL] Monarcha alecto (but cf. o bidwa ma totaleo 

(q.v.) above) 

o muoto [SL] Alisterus amboinensus hypophonius 

o ngidili [SL] Charmosyna placentis 

o ngoku [SL] Ducula bicolor (Note: See under o gumtiru (q.v.) 

for an explanation of the use of o ngoku ma biru-biru 

('blue ngoku'),recorded at Loleba (B dialect),apparendy 

as a translation of an NMM term, to signify the class 

normally called o gumtiru. That usage of o ngoku, 

however, was considered unacceptable by D dialect 

informants, and since o gumtiru is also acceptable in B 

dialect, we may conclude tiiat this probably involves a 

B-dialect translation of the NMM term kum-kum that has 

not yet interfered witii the Tbl classificatory structure, 

and is in any case unacceptable in D dialect.) 

o ngoroko [SL] (or less commonly:) o ngoro-ngoroko [CX, 

redup. 4- ngoroko (q.v.)] Tadorna radjah 

o ori-ori [SL] Tachybaptus ruficollis 

opipitodihe [SL.but from Tte CD-EX,pipi 'money' 4- todeTie 

T ask for'; T ask for money'; (so called because of die 

folk belief tiiat this cuckoo's call portends die arrival of 

the tax collector)] (or) o tiwitodihe [SL, but from mixed 

Tbl & Tte CD-EX, tiwi (Tbl) 'money' 4- todeTie (Tte) T 

ask for'; T ask for money' (same etym.) Cacomantis 

variolosus 

opipo [SL, onomatopoeic] Pachycephala pectoralis 

o pole-pole [SL] Haliastur indus 

o pombo [SL, cf. NMM pombo, same meaning] 'city pigeon' 

Columba livia 

o pomboftiru [CD-EN, pombo (q.v.) 4- -ftiru '(to be) wild, 

untamed'; 'wtid pombo (pigeon)'] (or) o terktikur [SL, 

clearly a term borrowed from NMM terktikur, but used in 

Tbl despite its foreign phonology] Streptopelia chinensis 
NUMBER 34 125 

0 pupu [SL] 'smaller plovers, smaUer sandpipers, and knots' 

This term encompasses Calidris ruficollis, Charadrius 

leschenaultii, and Actitis hypoleucos. 

o tdktiru [SL] Ixobrychusflavicollis 

o tagahehaka [SL] 'cuckoo-shrikes' Coracina spp. (Note: 

Unfortunately I never obtained the rare endemic Halmahera Cuckoo-shrike C. parvula, known from very few 

specimens ever found, and I am unsure of its position in 

the subclassification below. Both other local spp. were 

famdiar to the Tbl.) 

- o tagahehaka [SL] Coracina papuensis melanolora 

4- o tagahehaka o fonganika [P-EN, 'jungle tagahehaka'] 

Coracina atriceps 

o tee-teeke [CX, redup. 4- -teeke 'to make a snapping sound'; 

'one that makes a snapping sound' (so called because of 

die sound of snapping [like snapping shut scissors] made 

by tiiis bird as it flies] Locustellafasciolata 

o toge [SL] 

- o toge [SL] Amaurornis olivaceus 

+ o toge iburi-buri [P-EN, 'mottled toge'] Rallusphilippensis 

o totaleo [SL] 'chicken' (or) o totaleo-berera [CD-EN, 

'chicken/bird' 4- berera 'vdlage'; 'viUage chicken/bird'] 

(Note: In tiiis work the term may also be written o 

totaleo2 'chicken,' as distinct from o totaleol 'bird.') 

'(domestic) chicken' Gallus gallus. 

o totoai [SL] Lonchura molucca 

o tumara [SL] (or) o wuu [SL, said to be onomatopoeic] (or, 

rarely:) o sutngko [SL, apparendy < NMM, occasionally 

borrowed and used in Tbl despite its foreign phonology] 

'herons, night-herons, and egrets' Nycticorax caledonicus hilli, Egretta sacra, Ardea alba, and Ardea sumatrana. 

o turi-turi [SL] (or, rarely:) o siru-siru [SL] Merops ornatus 

o tutubuuku [SL, but ?< CX] (Obi dialect of Tbl) Lycocorax 

pyrrhopterus obiensis (Note: cf. the D & B dialect term 

o hayaniti (q.v., above) used on Halmahera for that 

island's subspecies L. p. pyhrrhopterus. If Tbl speakers 

from Halmahera were exposed to die Obi subspecies and 

Obi Islanders to die Halmahera subspecies, these terms 

could more easily be considered synonymous.) 

o uboro [SL] 'female (of) Lorius roratus vosmaeri' (Note: cf. 

o gofdtoro (q.v. above) meaning male L. r. vosmaeri.) 

o ula-ula [SL] 'tern' Sterna hirundo longipennis 

o weka-weka [SL] Semeioptera wallacii 

o weu [SL] (uncoUected) 

o wewoho [SL] (uncollected) 

o wogono [SL] 'crows' (Corvus spp.) 

- o wogono [SL] Corvus validus 

+ o wogono-todore [CD-EN wogono (q.v.) + todore 'Tidore 

(Island)'; 'Tidore wogono'] Corvus orru 

o wuku [SL] '(some) hawk-owls' (Ninox spp., partial) (Note: 

This term is used for Ninox connivens and for the 

migratory Ninox scutulata. However, die only otiier 

hawk-owl occuring on Halmahera, Ninox squamipila, 

remains the only Halmaheran owl tiiat I never obtained. 

Eitiier N. squamipila, like the other two hawk-owls, is in 

the wuku class, or, more ltieely, it is the denotata of die 

one Tbl class of owls for which I obtained no specimen: 

o ginene (q.v.). If N. squamipila is considered o wuku by 

Tbl, tiien another owl, termed o ginene by die Tbl, may 

be present on Halmahera, unbeknownst to ornithologists.) 

A2.2 o dodiha [SL] 'snake' 

o biha [SL, n. biha 'venom, poison,' cf. vb. -biha 'to be 

venomous,' referring to die fact tiiat this is the region's 

most venomous and deadly snake] Candoia aspera 

(Note: This Tbl name was confirmed on Obi Island in 

1983, where a specimen was obtained; altiiough tiiis 

death adder is not found on Halmahera, its reputation is 

widespread.) 

o boboro ma diaoto [CD-?EN, boboro 'Nipa palm') 4- poss. + 

'?'] Acrochordus granulatus 

o gatu [SL] Macropophis halmaherica [Note: Because of its 

striking ability to "fly" (actually glide) tiirough die air, 

tiiis snake is weU known, and die many variations in tiiis 

species' coloration are often given distinct names in Tbl. 

This subclassification may also be important because of 

the local belief that any gatu snake wdl fly toward any 

human wearing clothes having die same color pattern as 

its own skin. Each subclass was collected, and all are of 

die same zoological species.] 

o gatu ma daro-daromo [P-EN, 'black gatu] 

o gatu ma gogurati [P-EN, 'yellow gatu] 

o gatu ikaba-kaba [P-EN, 'molded gatu'] 

o gatu ma kafo-kafo [P-EN, 'gray gafu'] 

o gumulamo [?CD-EN,?< gumu '?' + trunc lamoko 'big';'?'] 

Python reticulatus 

o kaingdo [SL] 'sea snake' Laticauda colubrina (collected, 

several localities) and Laticauda sp. (unobtained, but 

observed) 

o lakoiwa [CX, < lako 'eye' + -iwa 'be absent'; 'having no 

eye(s),' probably a reference to this snake's poor 

eyesight] Brachyorrhus albus 

o ngohokumu [SL] (or) o gohi yanahi-nahiri [CD-EN, 'egg(s)' 

4- redup. + 'it eats'; 'die one tiiat eats eggs'] (or) o 

totaruna [SL] Boiga irregularis 

o ngohabeloro [CD-EN, < ngoha (trunc. of ngohaka) 'child' 4-

-beloro 'to set stakes or poles'; (etym. uncertain)] (or) o 

tonaka ma dutu [CD-EN, < 'land' 4- poss. + 'lord, 

master"; 'lord of die land'] Stegonotus batjanensis 

o pakaka [SL] Candoia carinata 

o pocogtli [SL] Cerberus rhyncops 

o populegana [SL] Dendrelaphis caudolineatus modestus 
126 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

A23 o nawoko [SL] 'fish' 

Note: In addition to "fish," tiiis B+1 class includes whales (o 

hore), dolphins (o iafa), and die manatee (o kobo). 

o abda [SL] (or, to distinguish this freshwater fish from the 

'abda shark' [o garangoto o abda, q.v.]:) o abda o 

akeriha [P-EN, 'freshwater abda'] sp. undet (Rhyacichtiiyidae) 

o ado [SL] (or) o lado [SL,cf. NMM lado, same meaning] 'sea 

eel' (many collected, aU sp. undet of die famtiy 

Muraenidae, except as noted below, and two Neopomacentrus sp. of die family Pomacentridae) 

o ado itubu-ttibuku [P-EN, 'black-spotted ado'] uncoU. 

o ado ma doka-dokara [P-EN, 'red ado'] sp. undet 

(Scaridae) 

o ado iburi-buri [P-EN, 'mottled ado'] uncoU. 

o babanga ma kai [CD-EN, 'babanga (q.v.) mangrove' 4- poss. 

4- 'bark'; 'bark of the babanga mangrove tree'] sp. undet 

(Serranidae) 

o bai-baiti [SL,but ?< CX] 

- o bai-baiti [SL, as above] or o bai-baiti o dowongiika 

[P-EN, 'shore bai-baiti'] many coUections, most sp. 

undet (Gobudae); one Exyrias sp. (Gobiidae); one 

Belobranchus belobrancha (Eleotridae); one Exyrias sp. 

(Gobiidae); one sp. undet (Moringuidae); one sp. undet 

(Synodontidae) 

4- o bai-baiti ma kafo-kafo [P-EN, 'gray bai-baiti' sp. undet 

(NM1F350)] 

+ o bai-baiti ma lukuiha (or) o bai-baiti ma lukuika (or) o 

bai-baiti ma lukuino [all P-EN meaning 'bai-baiti from 

the deep (sea)'] two collections Valenciennea cf. v. 

longipinnis (Gobiidae); one Istigobius onatus (Gobiidae) 

4- o bai-baiti o ngigorika [P-EN, 'bai-baiti of rocky areas'] 

spp. undet (Gobiidae and Eleotridae) 

o balawai [SL] sp. undet (Drepanidae) 

o baru ma hoka [CD-EN, 'baru (q.v.) tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus)' 

4- poss. 4- 'leaf; 'leaf of die baru tree' (so caUed because 

this fish's shape resembles that tree's leaf)] Scatophagy 

or gus (Scatophagidae) 

o bega [SL] several coUections: Eleotris cf. melanosoma 

(Eleotridae); Ophiocara porocephala (Eleotridae); Butis 

butis (Eleotridae); Butis amboinensis (Eleotridae); Belobranchus belebrancha (Eleotridae); Callogobnius producta (Gobudae); Stigmatogobius sp. (Gobiidae); Bathygobius sp. (Gobiidae) 

o beene [SL] (or) o ptiuhu [SL]. Note: This class of fishes is 

termed (ikon) kobds 'kobds (fish)* in NMM, which 

distinguishes kobds air 'freshwater kobds' from kobds 

laut 'sea kobds.' Apparendy as a translation of this NMM 

classification into Tobelo, I once recorded the Tbl term o 

beene o akeriha 'freshwater beene' at Loleba in 1978. 

However, odier Tbl speakers at tiiat village said they 

considered die expression unacceptable, noting tiiat the 

NMM kobds air should be called o dungiri (q.v.) in Tbl, 

and not subsumed under die o beene class at aU. 

- o beene [SL] spp. undet. (Gobudae and Eleotridae); sp. 

undet. (Serranidae). 

4- o murumu [SL; cf. o murumu 'star, starfish'] Acentrogobius cf. janthinopterus 

o beletomo [SL] uncoil. 

o bido-bidoho [CX, < bidoho (q.v.) 'Piper spp. (betel-pepper)' 

4- redup.; 'rather like a betel-pepper' (so called because of 

this fish's elongated shape like that of the fruit of 

betel-peppers)] (or) o bobidoho [CX,< bidoho (as above) 

4- agentive redup.; here used as an alternative form of 

reduplication, apparendy on the analogy of the more 

usual bido-bidoho] 

o biha-biha [D dialect term; CX, < vb. -biha 'to be poisonous, 

venomous' + redup.; 'the one that is poisonous, 

venomous' (so called because of the venom in die 

prickling spines of mis fish)] (cf. B & H dialect term:) o 

hiringe [SL, term used in H & B dialects] sp. undet 

(Siganidae) 

o biwo ma ayo [CD-EN; note tiiis CD has the same form as die 

phrase 'mother of biwo,' but it is not a phrase (thus, for 

example, the class cannot be referred to as ma ayo 'its 

mother,' and tiiere is no 'child' subclass of biwo); < biwo 

'?' 4- poss. 4- 'mother'; 'biwo's motiier'] sp. undet 

(Gobiidae) 

o babooyo [SL] Sillago sihama (SiUaginidae) 

o bobdra [SL]. Note: In addition to die subclasses below, die 

fish termed o lakofuku (q.v.) is considered by some B 

dialect informants to be a subclass of o bobdra, and is 

indeed termed bobdra in NMM as weU. However, 

following die prevailing classification in D dialect it is 

Usted as a separate B° class here. 

- o bobdra [SL] sp. undet. (Carangidae) 

+ o gidi-gidi [SL, but ?< CX] uncoil. 

4- o bobdra imuu-mtimuru [P-EN, 'the bobara tiiat has 

mumuru (leaf-ribs of the sugar palm leaf)' (apparently a 

reference to prominent stripes tike leaf-ribs of the sugar 

palm leaf)] uncoU. 

4- o kokotu [CX, redup. 4- vb. -kotu 'to be black'; 'the one 

that is black'] sp. undet (Stromateidae), and sp. undet. 

(Acandiuridae) 

4- o lakolci [SL, but ?< Tte or otiier language CD, lako 'eye' 

4- id '?'] sp. undet. (Carangidae) 

4- o nyao-soremo [SL, but apparendy < Tte CD-EN, Tte 

nyao 'fish' 4- soremo '?'] uncoil. 

+ o tataulu [SL, 'jeUyfish'] (or) o tataulu ma nawoko 

[CD-EN, 'jeUyfish' 4- poss. 4- 'fish'; 'the jellyfish fish'] 

sp. undet (Carangidae) 

4- o bobara ma gare-garehe [P-EN, 'white bobara,' perhaps 

formed by analogy witii NMM bobara puti 'white 

bobara' (same meaning)] sp. undet (Carangidae) 

o boboro ma diaoto [CD-EN, < boboro (q.v.) 'Panaanus sp.' 4-

poss. + diaoto '?'] spp. undet (Ophichdiidae, Moringuidae, and AnguiUUdae) 
NUMBER 34 127 

o bole-bole [CX, < vb. -bole '(to be) soft flaccid'; 'the one tiiat 

is soft, flaccid'] spp. undet (Labridae) 

o bonata [SL] sp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

o botila [SL] sp. undet (Ledirinidae) 

o botila-haro [CD-EN, botila + haro *?'] 

o hikuda [SL] 

o bubuguraci [CD-EX, bubu 'roof-slat' 4- vb. guraci 'gold'; 

'golden roof-slat'] uncoU. 

o butuimi [SL] uncoil, 

o cara [SL] uncoil. 

o capadike [SL] sp. undet (Antennariidae) 

o cioongo [SL] 

- o cioongo [SL] Alepes vari (Carangidae) 

4- o ciong-papanga [CD-EX (cf. NMM ciong-papang, same 

meaning), ciong (truncated and NMM form of cioongo, 

q.v.) 4- vb. -papanga '(to be in die form of a) plank'; 

'cioongo in die form of a plank' (so called because this 

fish is more elongated and straight unlike the 'round 

cioongo' subclass below)] (or) o papanga [SL, 'plank' 

(cf. NMM papang 'plank')] botii subclasses below: sp. 

undet (Carangidae) 

Gl o ciong-sai [SL, but ?< CD in anotiier language (not 

NMM)] juvende forms of this fish 

G2 o ciong-papanga [CD-EN, as above] (or) o papanga 

[SL, as above] adult forms of this fish 

+ o ciong-polulu [CD-EX, ciong (truncated and NMM form 

of cioongo, q.v.) 4- vb. -polulu 'to be round'; 'die round 

cioongo'] sp. undet (Carangidae) 

o cooro [SL] (occasionaUy referred to by a borrowing from 

NMM gordra, tiius:) o gordra [SL, considered unacceptable by some Tbl though recognized as NMM] 

- o cooro [SL] (or) o gordra [SL] sp. undet. (Lutjanidae) 

+ o cooro de ma ingi-ingiroka (or) o gordra de ma 

ingi-ingiroka [botii P-EN, 'cooro I gordra with teeth' (or) 

o cooro iingi-ingiri (or) o gordra iingi-ingiri [P-EN, 

'toothed gordra]. Note: In B-dialect (Loleba), tiiough 

not in D-dialect tiiis subclass is referred to as o 

gordra ma nauru 'male gordra,' in contrast to the o 

c00ro-tomare(or)0g0rdra-rama/e(below),whichistermed 

'female'; botii contrasting with die unmarked subclass and 

with die otiiers.) sp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

4- o cooro-tamate (or) o gordra-tamate [botii CD-EN, cooro 

(q.v.) or gordra (synonym, q.v.) 4- 'tomato'; 'die tomato 

cooro/'gordra']. Note: In B dialect (Loleba), tiiough not 

in D dialect tiiis subclass is referred to as o gordra ma 

beka 'female gordra,' in contrast to the o cooro[lgordra] 

de ma ingi-ingiroka (above), which is termed 'male'; 

botii contrasting witii die unmarked subclass and with the 

others.) sp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

+ o cooro ihuo-huoto [P-EN, 'pointed cooro] (or) o gordra 

ihuo-huoto [P-EN, 'pointed gordra'] (uncoU.) 

4- o cooro-kilotini [CD, cooro (q.v.) 4- 'kilotini (q.v.)'] (or) o 

Hlotini [SL] sp. undet. (Lutjanidae) 

o dadaboa [SL] (or) o dodaboa [SL] Toxotes chatareus 

(Toxotidae) 

o dadiaanga [SL, in D dialect] (or) o dadidnga [SL, in B 

dialect] (botii forms may be used as head-words in terms 

for die subclasses below:) 

- o dadiaanga [SL] Abudefdufsp. (Pomacentridae) 

4- o dadiaanga o pahika [P-EN, 'coral(-dwelting) dadiaanga'] Dascyllus aruanus (Pomacentridae) 

+ o dadiaanga ma lukuika [P-EN, 'dadiaanga from the deep 

(sea)'] Abudefduf saxatilis (Pomacentridae) 

o deo [SL, cf. NMM deho (same meaning)] sp. undet 

(Scombridae) 

+GI o komo [SL]. Note: Tt Loleba (B dialect), I recorded 

die foUowing form for this class, though it is considered 

unacceptable by D dialect speakers: o deo-kdmo [CDEN, 'die komo (form of) deo'] 'juvende form of die deo 

fish' 

-G2 o deo [SL] 

o dobidono [SL] Zenarchopterus gilli (Hemiramphidae) 

o dolohi [SL] (or) o dolosi [SL] 

- o dolohi [SL] (or) o dolosi [SL] sp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

and Caesio cuning (Caesionidae) 

4- o dolohi-papanga [CD-EX dolohi (q.v.) + vb. -papanga 

'(to be in die form of a) plank'; 'dolohi in die form of a 

plank' (so called because this fish is more elongated and 

straight or plank-shaped, cf. die 'pointed dolohi' below)] 

sp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

4- o dolohi ihuo-huoto [P-EN, 'pointed dolohi'] (uncoU.) 

o dudeke [SL] 'puffer fish.' Note: See also o hundna 'porcupine 

fish' below, considered a contrasting subclass in D 

dialect but considered a subclass of o dudeke in B dialect 

o dudeke ma dorou [P-EN, 'bad/evd dudeke'] spp. undet 

(Tetraodontidae) 

o dudeke ma oa [P-EN, 'good dudeke'] (or) o youwdko [SL] 

sp. undet (Tetraodontidae) 

o dudeke o akeriha [P-EN, 'freshwater dudeke'] sp. undet 

(Tetraodontidae) 

o nomu [SL, hamu (q.v.), a reference to die large size of tiiis 

puffer fish, which is metaphorically compared to the 

hamu fish] (or) o dudeke-hamu [CD-EN, etym. as above; 

'die hamu dudtke) Arothron aerostaticus (Tetraodontidae) 

o duimi [SL] (or) o dui-duimi [CX, duimi (q.v.) 4- redup.] 

Hyporhampphus quoyi (Hemiramphidae) 

o dungiri [SL] 

- o dungiri [SL] (or) o dungiri ma kafo-kafo [P-EN, 'gray 

dungiri] Bostrychus sinensis (Eleotridae), Butis sp. 

(Eleotridae), Ophiocara porocephala (Eleotridae), Hypseleotris sp. (Eleotridae),£/eo^rw cf. melanosoma (Eleotridae), Glossogobius giurus (Gobiidae), Stomatogobius 

sp. (Gobudae) 

4- o dungiri ma gogurati [P-EN, 'yeUow dungiri' sp. undet 

4- o murumu [SL, 'star, starfish'; etym. uncertain] Ophiocara aporos (Eleotridae) 

ofajabau [CD-EX,faja 'dirty, foul' 4- NMM bau 'smell' 'foul 

smell'] sp. undet. (Haemulidae) 

o gaca [SL, cf. NMM ikan gaca ('gaca fish')] (or, alternate 
128 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

form from Kampung Wasde (B-dialect):) o sigdca [SL] 

Diodon sp. (Diodontidae) (cf. NM1F141 from Wasde:) 

sp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

o gaeru ma nawoko [CD-EN, 'sea anemone' + poss. + 'fish'; 

'sea anemone's fish' (so caUed because this fish Uves 

symbioticaUy with sea anemones) Amphiprion ocellaris, 

A. polymnus, and Amphiprion sp. (Pomacentridae) 

o gaka-gakana [CX, < n. gakana 'knife'4- redup.; 'ratiier Idee a 

knife'] sp. undet. (Centriscidae) 

o gao [SL] sp. undet. (Rachycentridae) 

o garangoto [SL] (or, occasionally:) o gorangoto [SL, cf. 

NMM gorango, same meaning] 'shark' 

o abda [SL, die name of a fish (q.v.)] 

o abda ma dorou [P-EN, 'evd/bad abda'] (or) o abda ma 

fugu [P-EN, etym.?] (uncoU.) 

o abda ma oa [P-EN, 'good abda'] (uncoil.) 

o delo [SL] sp. undet. (Carcharhinidae) 

o garagaji [SL, 'saw'] (uncoil.) (Based on description, this is 

the term for 'sawfish' (Pristiophorae)) 

o garangoto ma eebe youkutiku [CD-EX, 'shark' + poss. 4-

eeoe 'dorsal and anal (not pectoral or tail) fins' + 

yo-uku-uku vb. 'it burns downward'; 'die shark's dorsal 

and anal fins are burned' (so caUed because of the 

blackened color of tiiose fins on this species)] sp. undet 

(Carcharhinidae) 

o garangoto ma tukuru [?CD, garangoto 4- poss. 4- '?'] sp. 

undet (Sphyrnidae) 

o gorango-bintang [SL, but clearly a NMM CD, NMM 

gorango 'shark' 4- bintang 'star'; 'star-shark' (so caUed 

because of die white spots on die body of tiiis, the world's 

largest fish)] (uncoil, and unobserved, but from description this must be the 'whale shark' Rhincodon typus 

(Rhincodontidae)) 

o hawali [SL] sp. undet. (Carcharhinidae) 

o huhu [SL, cf. huhu 'milk'] (or) o gorango-huhu [CD-EN, 

< trunc form of garangoto (q.v.) 4- huhu 'milk'; 

'milk-garangoto'] sp. undet. (Orectolobidae) 

o huo-huoto [CX,< vb. -huoto 'to be pointed' 4- redup.; 'die 

pointed one'] sp. undet 

o leleko [SL] (uncoil.) 

o matupuru [SL] 'hammerhead shark'; sp. undet. (Sphyrnidae) 

o ngunubole [CD-EX, < trunc. form of ngunungu 'nose' + 

vb. -bole '(to be) weak'; '(its) nose is weak'] sp. undet 

(Carcharhinidae) 

o turuhi ma garangoto [CD-EN, turuhi (q.v.) (a type of fish) 

4- poss. + garangoto; 'die turuhi fish's garangoto'] sp. 

undet (Carcharhinidae) 

o gega [SL] sp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

o gehedemo [SL, but ?< foreign CD] spp. undet (Nemipteridae), also Scolopsis ciliatus (Nemipteridae) 

o gigo [SL] Remora remora and Echeneis naucrates (both 

Echeneidae) 

o goga [SL, name recorded at Loleba (B dialect) but unfamtiiar 

to D dialect speakers] sp undet. (Lutjanidae) 

o gogolebo [SL] sp. undet. (Carangidae) (not the same as o 

gogoldbo below, which is a B-dialect term for o 

gogdobo, q.v.) 

o gogdobo [SL, term in D dialect] (or, in B dialect at Loleba:) 

o gogoldbo [SL] Hemiramphus far (Hemiramphidae) 

o gogotdna [SL] sp. undet. (Chaetodontidae) 

o gohomanga ma hilawoto ma hahakara [CD-EN, 'crocodile' 

4- poss. 4- hilawoto 'teetii (?, translated as 'teeth' in this 

CD, though known to me only from this fish name)' + 

poss. 4- 'pick, picking tool'; 'crocodile's tooth-pick' (so 

caUed because of the elongated body-shape of pipefishes, 

though seahorses, which do not have that shape, are 

denoted by die same term)] (or) o gohomanga ma ngauku 

ma hahakara [CD-EN, 'crocodile' 4- poss. 4- 'ear* + 'pick, 

picking tool'; 'crocodile's ear-pick' (etym. same as 

above)] 'pipefish and seahorses' spp. undet of Syngnathidae, and: Oostethus brachyurus brachyurus, Syngnathoides biaculeatus, Choeroichthys brachysoma, and 

C. haematopterus (all Syngnatiiidae). 

o golemaka [SL] (uncoU., apparendy a ray fish; considered a B° 

term in D dialect, but cf. alternative B dialect placement 

of this class below, under o noara, q.v.) 

o golila [SL] spp. undet. (Teraponidae) 

o gopunu [SL] sp. undet (Acanthuridae) 

o gorara-jdwa [CD-EN, gordra (= cooro q.v., a fish) + 

'Java(nese)'; 'Javanese gordra']. Note: Despite its name, 

this is not considered a subclass of o gordra or o cooro by 

D dialect speakers. (uncoU.) 

o gorogoto [SL] (or) o go-gorogoto [CX, gorogoto (q.v.) + 

redup.] Mesopristes cancellatus (Teraponidae) 

o goruo [SL]. Note: The unmarked subclass below is further 

divided into growtii stages as shown: 

- o goruo [SL] (also referred to in B (not D) dialect as:) o 

goruo (ma oa) [P-EN, '(good) goruo'] sp. or spp. undet 

(MugiUdae). (Also subdivided into growtii stages, as 

follows:) 

Gl o pokodtke [(D dialect) CD-EX, trunc. pokoro 

'stomach' 4- -dike '(to be) inflated'; 'inflated stomach'] (cf. B dialect term:) o gorofea [SL] 

G2 o goruo [SL] 

G3 o copiloto [SL] 

G4 o moowo [SL]. Note: This is used in D dialect,but not 

B dialect for die largest goruo, -75 cm or more in 

length. 

4- o goruo ma puniti [CD-EN, goruo 4- poss. + 'coconut 

husk'; 'goruo's coconut husk' (so called because of tiie 

hardness of die dorsal region of tiiis goruo, making it 

difficult to spear from above)] (also referred to in B (not 

D) dialect as:) o goruo ma dorou [P-EN, 'bad/evd 

goruo'] sp. or spp. undet (MugiUdae) 

o goyoko [SL] 

- o goyoko (ma dutu) [P-EN, '(true) goyoko'] spp. undet 

(AnguiUidae) 

4- o beluku [SL] sp. undet. (AnguUUdae) 

+ o tuguihi [SL] sp. undet. (AnguiUidae) 
NUMBER 34 129 

o gosao [SL] (or) o gofao [SL] (uncoU.) 

o gumi-gumi [CX, < vb. -gumi 'to have a mustache' 4- redup.; 

'having a mustache' (a reference to the fleshy barbels on 

the snouts of these fish)] 

- o gumi-gumi [CX, as above] (or) o gumi-gumi o ngigorika 

[P-EN, 'rock(-dweUing) gumi-gumi'] spp. undet (MulUdae) and: Atherinomorus lacunosus (Atiierinidae); Upeneus sp. (Mulhdae) 

4- o gumi-gumi o gahi ma naurino [P-EN, (literally) 

'gumi-gumi from the male sea' (i.e., from the open sea of 

die Pacific, coming into Kao bay in seasons of strong 

North winds)] Pseudopeneus sp. (MuUidae) 

+ o gumi-gumi ma luku-ino [P-EN, 'deep-water gumigumi'] (uncoil.) 

o gumtiru [SL; cf. also the bird of die same name, no apparent 

connection] spp. undet. (Pomacentridae) 

o gutu-gete [SL] 

- o gutu-gete [SL,cf. NMM: ikan gete-gete 'gete-gete fish'] 

spp. undet (Ambassidae and Gerridae) and: Ambassis sp. 

(Ambassidae) 

+ o gutu-gete ma ayo (or) o gutu-gete ma yeha [botii P-EN, 

both meaning 'gutu-gete's mother'] spp. undet. (Apogonidae) 

o hahuru ma tatddaka [CD-EN, < hahuru 'white-water, rapids 

(in a stream or river)' 4- poss. 4- Teaper'; '(fish that) leaps 

dirough rapids'] (or) o hahuru ma dddomo [CD-EN, < 

'white-water, rapids' 4- poss. 4- 'peak'; 'peak of die 

rapids'] (uncoU.) 

o hakaru ma timi [(D dialect term) CD-EN, 'stone(s)' 4- poss. + 

'area underneath (something)'; 'underneath stones' (a 

reference to this fish's normal habitat)] (cf. B dialect 

term:) o urupirini [CD-EX, < uru 'mouth' 4- -pirini '(to 

be) tiuck'; '(its) mouth is thick'] Plectorhynchus gibbosus Lac. (Pomadasyidae), but cf. NM2D353 identified 

as Thryssa baelama (EngrauUdae), and NM1F035, sp. 

undet (HaemuUdae) 

o hama-hama [SL] Altiiough Tbl posit two subclasses, 

specimens of both subclasses proved to be die same 

biological species: Platycephalus indicus (Platycephalidae). The 'mud' subclass is said not only to be found in 

intertidal mudflat and mangrove areas, but also to be 

darker in color (blending in with that substrate), while the 

'sand' subclass is said to be tighter in color, and to prefer 

sandy areas, 

o hama-hama o pekeika [P-EN, 'mud(-dweUing) hamahama' 

o hama-hama o dowongiika [P-EN, 'sand(-dwelling) hamahama' 

o hamu [SL]. Note: The unmarked subclass below is further 

divided into growth stages as shown: 

- o hamu [SL] spp. undet. (Serranidae) 

Gl o kaidau (up to -10 cm in length) 

- o kaidau [SL] spp. undet (Serranidae) 

4- o kaidau ma doka-dokara [P-EN, 'red kaidau] spp. 

undet (Serranidae) 

G2 o buri [SL, cf. (homonymous?) vb. -buri 'to be 

mottled (in color)'] (-10-30 cm) 

G3 o kokofa [SL] (-30-50 cm) 

G4 o hamu [SL, as above] (-50-100 cm) 

G5 o hapatanga [SL] (or) o roto [SL] (>1 meter) 

4- o hamu-pakaka [CD-EN, hamu (q.v.) 4- -pakaka '(to be) 

splotched with colors like die pakaka (q.v.) snake'; 

'hamu that is splotched witii colors tike the pakaka 

snake'] sp. undet (Serranidae) 

4- o hamu-ginene [CD-EN, hamu (q.v.) 4- ginene (q.v., an 

owl)] (or) o goropa-ginene [CD-EN, same etym.; goropa 

is NMM word for hamu] sp. undet. (Serranidae) 

o hangu-hangu [SL] (uncoU.) 

o hanogaya [SL] spp. undet. (Lobotidae) 

o haradina [SL, cf. NMM: sardencis, probably < Dutch 

sardientjes (diminutive plural of Dutch sardine 'sardine') Tittle sardines'] spp. undet. (Clupeidae) 

o harimi ma beleti [CD-EN, 'oar' 4- poss. 4- 'blade (of oar)'; 

'blade of oar' (a reference to die shape of tiiis fish)] 

- o harimi ma beleti [CD-EN, as above] sp. undet 

(Pempheridae); but cf. NM1F049, identified as sp. undet 

(Monodactylidae) 

4- o harimi ma beleti o hakaruika [P-EN, 'rock(-dwelhng) 

harimi ma beleti'] Pempheris vanicolensis (Pempheridae) 

o hibihdwa [SL] spp. undet. (Carangidae) 

o hikuda [SL] sp. undet. (Letiirinidae) 

o hilowana [SL] spp. undet (Belonidae), and see identifications of specimens collected in subclasses (below): 

o yarusako [SL, but CD-EN in NMM?, apparendy < NMM 

yaru (NMM term for hilowana) + sako '?'] spp. undet 

(Belonidae) 

o bobarabete [SL] spp. undet (Belonidae) and: Tylosurus 

crocodilus crocodilus (Belonidae), Strongylura incisa 

(Belonidae) 

o hilowana ma lukuika [P-EN, 'deep(-water) hilowana'] 

Tylosurus acus melanotus (Belonidae) 

o guhungiika ma hilowana [P-EN, 'hilowana (dweUing in) 

guhungi (or guhungiri q.v., a 'seaweed') sp. undet 

(NM1F298) 

o hohodono [SL] spp. undet. (Gobiidae) and: Globiibius giurus 

(Gobiidae), Bostrychus sinensis (Eleotridae), and Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Syngnatiiidae) 

o hohomare [SL] sp. undet (Carangidae) and Caranx sexfasciatus (Carangidae) 

o hohononga [CX, < hononga 'half, (one of two) side(s)' + 

redup.; 'having one side'] spp. undet (Cynoglossidae) 

and spp. undet. (Soleidae) 

o hohononga ma niraka [P-EN, 'right(-sided) hohononga] 

'Cynoglossidae and Soleidae whose eyes develop on die 

right side of die body (die left side kept downward along 

die surface as the fish swims)' 

o hohononga ma gubadi [P-EN, Teft(-sided) hohononga'] 

'Cynoglossidae and Soleidae whose eyes develop on die 

left side of die body (the right side kept downward along 
130 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

die surface as tiie fish swims)' 

o hore [SL] (uncoU.) 'whale' (i.e., aU local whales, though this 

B° term does not signify dolphin/porpoise [o iafa, q.v.], 

or die manatee (o kobo, q.v.), botii also considered 'fish.' 

o huaono [SL] sp. undet (Scombridae) and Rastrellinger 

kanagurta (Scombridae) 

Gl omegi [SL] 

G2 o huaono [SL] 

G3 o udengo [SL] 

o hulutana [SL] (uncoil.) 

o huma [SL] (uncoU., apparendy a ray fish; considered a B° 

term in D dialect, but cf. alternative B dialect placement 

of this class below, under o noara, q.v.) 

o hundna [SL] (Note: B dialect informants at Loleba consider 

this class a subclass of o dudike (q.v.), though in D 

dialect it is a contrasting B° term.) spp. undet. (Diodontidae) and Diodon liturosus Shaw (Diodontidae) 

o iafa [SL] 'dolphin, porpoise' (Delphinidae; Tursiops sp. and 

otiiers) 

o ido [SL, D dialect term] (or) o kapdpo [SL, B dialect term] 

(uncoU.) 

o Ua [SL] spp. undet. (Kyphosidae) 

o iye [SL,D dialect] (or) o i/e [SL, B dialect] (uncoU.) 

o janga-janga [CX, redup. 4- -yanga 'to sparkle, gtitter'; 'one 

tiiat sparkles, glitters'] Subclassification different in D 

and B dialects: 

(1) Subclasses in D dialect 

- o janga-janga [CX, as above] (or) o janga-janga ma 

ngoa-ngoata [P-EN, 'die wide janga-janga'] sp. undet 

(Gerridae) 

4- o janga-janga ilebi-lebi [P-EN, (etym. uncertain)] sp. 

undet (Gerridae) 

4- o janga-janga ihuo-huoto [P-EN, 'pointed (sharp) jangajanga] sp. undet (Gerridae) 

(2) Subclasses in B dialect 

" o janga-janga ma nauru [P-EN, 'male janga-janga] sp. 

undet (Gerridae) 

" o janga-janga ma beka [P-EN, 'female janga-janga'] sp. 

undet (Gerridae) 

o kabi-kabingi [CX, < kabingi 'goat' 4- redup.; 'rather Idee a 

goat'] (uncoil.) 

o /fcoioo [SL] sp. undet. (Plotosidae) 

o kokucubili [SL] (specimens apparendy mixed under die same 

field number, one of the two identifications given is 

spurious:) (either) Pomacentrus sp. (Pomacentridae) (or) 

sp. undet (Labridae) 

o kolibdbo [SL, D dialect term] (or, in B dialect:) o pohi-pohi 

ma hoka [CD-EN, pohi-pohi (q.v., a mangrove tree) 4-

poss. 4- leaf; 'pohi-pohi leaf (a reference to this fish's 

shape)] (NM1F196 identified as:) Dascyllus trimaculatus 

(Pomacentridae) (but cf. NM1F488:) sp. undet. 

(Chaetodontidae) 

o koouno [SL] (or) o kolouno [SL] (Note: Either form may be 

used as headword to designate die subclasses below.) 

Various spp. (see below) of Atherinidae. Growth classes 

cross-cut the taxonomic subclasses based on differences 

in morphology or habitat: 

4- Gl o koouno ma boro [P-EN,koouno (q.v.) + poss. 4- boro 

'immature form of koouno'; the koouno's immature 

form'] 

- G2 o koouno [SL] 

Note also die taxonomic subclasses cross-cutting growth 

classes: 

- o koouno [SL] (or) o koouno (ma oa) [P-EN, '(good) 

koouno'] Atherinomorus cylindricus, Atherinomorus 

duodecimalis, and Atherion elymus (all Atiierinidae) 

4- o urupdro [CD-EX, uru 'mouth' 4- -pdro '?'] (or) o 

koouno o ngigorika [P-EN, 'rocky-area(-dwelling) 

koouno'] Atherinomorus endrachtensis (Atherinidae) 

o kuldla [SL] Scolopsis temporalis (Nemipteridae), Cryptocentrus sp. (Gobiidae), and Istiblennius sp. (Blennudae) 

o kuluri [SL] 

- o kuluri [SL] Zonogobius oliatus and Callogobius 

maculipinnis (botii Gobiidae), Neopomacentrus sp., 

Glyphidodontops sp. (botii Pomacentridae), and spp. 

undet. (Holocentridae) 

4- o kuluri-gdca [CD?, £u/u/7 (q.v.) 4- gdca or -gdca '?'] spp. 

undet. (Holocentridae) 

o £000 [SL] (observed but uncollected; clearly die manatee or 

dugong:) Dugong dugon 

o laaba [SL] (or, occasionaUy:) 0 lompa [SL, clearly a 

borrowing from NMM, cf. NMM ikan lompa 'lompa 

fish'] sp. undet. (Engraulidae) 

0 lakopeda [CD, lako 'eye' + peda'T] Scolopsis margaritifer 

(Nemipteridae), sp. undet (Nemipteridae), and sp. undet 

(Scolopsidae) 

0 lakoftiku [CD-EX, lako 'eye' + poss. 4- -ftiku '?'] sp. or spp. 

undet. (Carangidae) 

0 lakoria [SL] (or, occasionally:) 0 lakoriha [SL, but both 

?<CD in anotiier language, lako 'eye' + -ria or riha '?'] 

- 0 /aAoria [SL, as above] (or) 0 /aJtoria ma beka [P-EN, 

'female lakoria' (or) 0 iaforia ma dufu [P-EN, 'true/ 

genuine lakoria] Nemipterus hexodon (Nemipteridae) 

and sp. undet. (Nemipteridae) 

4- 0 lakoria ihuo-huoto [P-EN, 'pointed lakoria] (or) 0 

lakoria ma nauru [P-EN, 'male lakoria]. (Note: In 

referring to this subclass as 'male,' Tbl are making a 

nomenclatural distinction, not a judgment of die sex of 

the fish; as one informant from Pasir Putih told me, "We 

just call it male but sometimes the male has eggs in it") 

sp. or spp. undet. (Nemipteridae) 

4- 0 lakoria-ngdlo [SI, but ?< CD, lakoria (q.v.) 4- ngolo '?'] 

(term used in B dialect, unknown to my D dialect 

informants) sp. undet (Nemipteridae) 

0 lalanga [SL] sp. undet. (Carangidae) 

0 liguha [SL] sp. undet. (Lactariidae) 

0 litaimi [SL, cf. NMM ikan sumasi, term used for same fish] 

sp. or spp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

o litau-dolosi [SL, but ?<CD, '?' 4- dolosi (q.v., a kind of 
NUMBER 34 131 

'fish')] sp. undet (Lutjanidae) 

o lodi [SL] sp. undet (Serranidae) 

o lou-lou [SL, cf. also 'bird' witii this name] spp. undet 

(Lutjanidae) 

o Mule [SL, 'butterfly'] 

o lulule ma beka [P-EN, 'female lulule'] spp. undet. 

(Chaetodontidae) 

o lulule ma nauru [P-EN, 'male lulule'] spp. undet 

(Chaetodontidae) 

o maa-maana [CX, < vb. -maana 'to be agape, open-mouthed' 

4- redup.; '(the one) tiiat is open-mouthed, agape' (a 

reference to die fact that this fish is thought to swim with 

its mouth constantly wide open)] Pentapodus trivittatus 

(Nemipteridae) 

o makehe [SL] spp. undet. (Clupeidae) and Abudefduf lorenzi 

(Pomacentridae) 

o mako-makoro [CX, < n. makoro "male wild hog' 4- redup.; 

'rather tike a male wdd hog'] sp. undet. (Labridae) 

o mamini [SL] sp. undet. (Labridae) 

o mei [SL] sp. or spp. undet. (Chirocentridae) 

o melumu [SL] Amphiprion sp. (Pomacentridae) and spp. 

undet (Labridae) 

- o melumu [SL] (or) o melumu ma biru-biru [P-EN, 

'blue/green melumu'] (or) o melumu (ma oa) [P-EN, 

'good melumu'] Amphiprion sp. (Pomacentridae) and 

spp. undet (Labridae) 

4- o melumu ma kafo-kafo [P-EN, 'gray melumu'] (or) o 

melumu ma gilaongo [P-EN, 'servant of melumu (q.v.)'] 

(NM1F508:) sp. undet (Labridae) (but cf. NM1F510, 

collected at same place and seen by same informants, 

who agreed botii coUections should be labeled by tiiis 

term:) sp. undet. (Scaridae) 

o melumu ma dofa [P-EN, 'false melumu (q.v.)'] sp. undet 

(Labridae) 

o memehanga [CX, < vb. -mehanga 'hair-tike growtiis on stems 

or leaves of plants, often stinging or itchy to the touch' 4-

redup.; '(die one) having hair-like growths that cause 

stinging or itching when touched'] Cantherhines sp. 

(Monacanthidae) 

o mofi [SL] sp. or spp. undet. (Carangidae) 

o mudao [SL] sp. or spp. undet (Ephippidae) 

o mumuru ma nawoko [CD-EN, 'sea anemone' 4- poss. 4- 'fish'; 

'sea anemone's fish' (so caUed because tiiese fish live 

symbioticaUy with sea anemones)] spp. undet (Apogonidae) 

o nawoko ma hononga [CD-EN, 'fish* 4- poss. 4- 'half; 'fish's 

half (i.e., 'half of a fish*)] spp. undet (Bothidae, 

Psettodidae, and Cynoglossidae) 

o nawoko ma hononga ma gubadi [P-EN, Teft(-sided) 

nawoko ma hononga (so called becaues die eyes are on 

die left side of die fish, which swims right-side 

downward)] spp. undet. (Pleuronectidae and Bothidae) 

o nawoko ma hononga ma niraka [P-EN, 'right(-sided) 

nawoko ma hononga (so called becaues die eyes are on 

die right side of die fish, which swims left-side downward)] spp. undet (Psettodidae) 

o ngafi [SL] 'anchovies' spp. undet Clupeidae) 

o ngomu [SL] 

- o ngomu [SL] Pomacentrus sp. (Pomacentridae) 

4- o ngomu ma lukuika [P-EN, 'deep(-sea-dweUing) ngomu'] 

Neopomacentrus sp. (Pomacentridae) 

o ngowaro [SL] Hemiramphus lutkei (Hemiramphidae) 

o ngulungana [SL] (uncoU.) 

o nguti-nguti [SL.but ?>CX] (uncoil.) 

o nzTcere [SL] sp. undet (Gobudae) 

o noara [SL] 'ray-fishes.' Note: Six terms (o gogudai, o 

goroftitu, o golemaka, o huma, o mangihii, and o 

paapdaka) have been Usted in tiiis Appendix as B° terms 

contrasting with noara, following the classuTcation done 

in D dialect. However, in B dialect at Loleba, die terms o 

golemaka, o huma, o mangihii, and o paapdaka are 

considered subclasses of o noara. In addition, some 

B-dialect informants consider tiiat both die o gugudai and 

o gorohutu terms also label B_1 subclasses of o noara, 

while other B-dialect informants consider o goroftitu to 

be a marked subclass of o gogudai. Although all tiiose 

terms have been Usted elsewhere in this Appendix, to 

show die D dialect classuTcation, die alternative B dialect 

ways of classifying them are noted below as well. 

o hdpaya [SL] (uncoU.) 

o hubtiubu [SL] sp. undet 

o kekekere [CX, < vb. -kekere 'to abrade by rubbing with an 

abrasive substance' 4- redup.; '(one which) abrades' (a 

reference to die use of the skin of this ray as an abrasive 

for "sanding" wood, etc., to make it smootii)] sp. undet 

(Dasyatidae) 

o nenaha [SL] Observed but uncoil.; this is tiie Giant Manta 

ray (Manta birostris) 

o ngota-ngotara [CX, < ngotara (a frog) 4- redup.; 'rather 

tike a ngotara frog' (etym. uncertain)] (uncoU.) 

o populaana [SL] Himantura uarnak (Forskael, 1775) 

(Dasyatidae) and sp. undet. (Dasyatidae) 

o teroua [SL] (uncoU.) 

Note: In addition to the above subclasses found in D and B 

dialects, B also includes die following subclasses, which 

are considered B° terms in D, and so Usted elsewhere in 

this Appendix: 

o golemaka [SL] (uncoU.) 

o huma [SL] (uncoil.) 

o mangihii [SL] (uncoil.) 

o paapdaka [SL] (uncoil.) 

Note two alternatives in B dialect for die subclassification of 

die foUowing two classes, each of whose labels clearly 

denotes a single biological species. Eitiier both are 

contrasting B_1 subclasses, or o goroftitu is a B-2 

subclass; both alternatives are shown below: 

Alternative 1: 

o goroftitu [SL] (or, more rarely:) o gorohtitu [SL] Dasyatis 
132 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

kuhlii (Muller and Henle, 1841) 

o gugudai [SL] Taeniura lymma (Forskael, 1775) 

Alternative 2: 

o gugudai [SL] 

- o gugudai [SL] Taeniura lymma (Forskael, 1775) 

4- o goroftitu [SL] (or, more rarely:) o gorohtitu [SL] 

Dasyatis kuuhlii (Muller and Henle, 1841) 

o nogi-nogi [SL] all subclasses, spp. undet. (Tetraodontidae) 

- o nogi-nogi [SL] spp. undet (Tetraodontidae) 

4- o nogi-nogi ma lukuiha [P-EN, 'deep(-sea-dweUing) 

nogi-nogi'] (or) o nogi-nogi ma dutu [P-EN, 'true/ 

genuine nogi-nogi'] sp. undet. (Tetraodontidae) 

o noo/o [SL] 'venomous fish with poisonous spines' spp. 

undet (Scorpaenidae) and sp. or spp. undet. (Synancejidae) 

o hamu [SL, cf. the hamu (q.v.) fish of the same name] sp. 

undet (Scorpaenidae) 

o hiringe [SL] sp. undet. (Scorpaenidae) 

o kukihi [SL] sp. undet. (Scorpaenidae) 

o lulewi [SL] (or) o lelewi [SL] sp. undet. (Scorpaenidae) 

o noru [SL] Selaroides leptolepis (Carangidae) 

o nunukono [SL, but ?<CX] t//«a mentalis (Carangidae) and 

Ulua sp. (Carangidae) 

o nyaobelo [SL,but ?< Tte CD, Tte nyao 'fish' 4- belo 'stake'; 

(etym. uncertain)] 

o oci [SL] Selar boops (Carangidae) and sp. undet. (Carangidae) 

o ogama ma nawoko [CD-EN,'?' 4- poss. 4- 'fish'] spp. undet 

(Centriscidae) and Terapon sp. or spp. (Teraponidae) 

o paapaaka [CX, < vb. -paaka 'to slip on a sUppery surface' 4-

redup.; '(one) which slips'] (uncoU., apparendy a ray 

fish; considered a B° term in D dialect, but cf. alternative 

B dialect placement of tiiis class below, under o noara, 

q.v.) 

o pegi [SL] (or) o pegie [SL] (or) o lahi [SL, < NMM ikan lasi 

'lasi fish'] Scomberoides commersonnianus (Carangidae) and sp. or spp. undet. (Carangidae) 

o ponihi [SL] (uncoil.) 

o popayaama [SL] 'mudskippers' 

- o popayaama [SL] (or) o popayaama ma dutu [P-EN, 

'true/genuine popayaama'] (or) o popayaama o hokiika 

[P-EN, 'popayaama (dweUing in areas of) noiti (q.v., 

mangroves)] Periophthalmodon schlosseri and Periophthalmus sp. (Periophtiialmidae) and sp. or spp. undet 

(Periophtiialmidae) 

4- o popayaama ma dorou [P-EN, 'bad/evd popayaama'] 

(or) o rongo-rongoto [SL,but ?>CX] sp. undet. (Periophtiialmidae) 

o pulo-pulono [CX, < vb. -pulono 'stare' 4- redup.; '(the one) 

which is staring'] collected, but sp. undet. 

o puuhu [SL] collected, but sp. undet 

o ragu-ragumu [CX, < ragumu q.v. (a Uzard) 4- redup.; 'rather 

tike a ragumu lizard] spp. undet. (Synodontidae) 

o rajabau [CD-EX, < raja (Malay) 'king' 4- -bau 'to smell, 

stink'; 'king stinks'] Diagramma pictum (Haemulidae) 

o roi [SL] 

- o roi [SL] (or) o roi ma lukuiha [P-EN, 'deep(-seadweUing) roi'] Pomadasys argenteus Forsk. (Haemutidae) and sp. or spp. undet (HaemuUdae) 

4- o roi-guhungi [CD-EN, 'guhungi (sea-weed) (variety of) 

roi'] sp. undet (Serranidae) 

o sorini [SL] collected, but sp. undet. 

o sumasi [SL] Anodontostoma chacunda (Clupeidae) 

o .suo [SL, most common in D dialect] (or) o huo [SL, rather 

more common in B dialect] (or) o huoto [SL, ratiier more 

common in B dialect] 'barracuda.' Note: Growtii stages 

partially cross-cut the taxonomic subclassification, as 

shown below. Either of the other two forms of o suo (o 

huo or o huoto) may be substituted in the terms below: 

o dodoma [SL] (uncoil.) 

o suo ma bikini ikokurati [P-EN, 'suo having a yeUow taU'] 

sp. or spp. undet. (Sphyraenidae). Note: Members of this 

class are more frequendy denoted by die appropriate 

growtii stage term below than by tiiis phrase. 

Gl o hagalti [SL] 

G2 o rawo-rawo [SL] 

o suo-puti [D dialect term, SL but < NMM CD, suo 

'barracuda' 4- puti 'white'] (or, in B dialect) o huo ma 

gare-garehe [P-EN, 'white huo'] Sphyraena forsteri 

(Sphyraenidae) and sp. or spp. undet (Sphyraenidae). 

Note: Members of this class are more frequently denoted 

by die appropriate growtii stage term below tiian by this 

phrase. 

Gl o suo-buri [CD-EX, as above] 

G2 o ngelapa [SL] 

o suru [SL] Elagatis bipinnulata (Carangidae) 

o tambtiru [SL] sp. undet. (Fistulariidae) 

o tatameri [D dialect SL] (or) o totameri [B dialect SL] sp. or 

spp. undet (Leiognathidae) 

- o tatameri [D dialect SL] (or) o totameri [B dialect, SL] 

4- o tatameri-lelepa [D dialect, CD, tatameri (q.v.) 4-'?'] (or, 

in B dialect) o lelepa [SL?] (uncoil.) 

4- o tatameri-ftigu [D dialect, CD, tatameri (q.v.) 4-'?'] (or, 

in B dialect) o totameri-ftigu [same etym.] 

o tataulu ma nawoko [CD-EN, 'jellyfish' 4- poss. 4- 'fish'; 

'jellyfish's fish' (so called because tiiis fish Uves 

symbiotically with jellyfish)] sp. or spp. undet. (Carangidae) 

o tato [SL] 'triggerfishes and simdarly shaped fish' (spp. undet 

BaUstidae; also sp. undet Monacantiiidae) 

o kuhihe [SL] Abalistes stellatus (Balistidae) 

o tato-mia [SL, but ?<CD] (uncoU.) 

o dowongiika ma tato [P-EN, 'sand(-dwelUng) fato'] sp. 

undet. (Balistidae) 

o arukika ma tato [P-EN, 'cave(-dwelUng) tato'] (or) o 

haarika ma tato [P-EN, 'grotto(-dwelling) tato'] (or) o 

tato ma dutu [P-EN, 'true/genuine tato] sp. undet 

o telembaca [CD-EX, < trunc. teleme 'vulva, female pudenda' 
NUMBER 34 133 

4- -baca 'evenness witii, state of being on a level with' 

(said to be so called because of this fish's association 

with sea urchins, apparendy because at least some fish 

denoted by tins term hover witiiin the sea urchin's spines 

for protection, thus considered somehow on a level witii 

die mouth—locally called 'vulva'—of that animal)] sp or 

spp. undet (Apogonidae) and sp. undet (Labridae) 

o toni [SL, cf. NMM zTcan toni 'toni fish'] sp. undet 

(Exocoetidae) 

o torouro [SL] Megalaspis cordyla (Carangidae) and sp. undet 

(Carangidae) 

o totabako [apparendy CX, < tabako 'tabacco, cigarette' 4-

redup. (etym. uncertain)] spp. undet (Chaetodontidae). 

Note: 'Male' and 'female' are used as a nomenclatural 

devise to name the two subclasses, without regard to die 

sex of die fish, presence of eggs, etc. 

o totabako ma beka [P-EN, 'female totabako'] sp. undet 

(Chaetodontidae) 

o totabako ma nauru [P-EN, 'male totabako'] sp. undet 

(Chaetodontidae) 

o totaope [SL] Istiblennius sp. or spp. (Blenniidae), sp. undet 

(Blenniidae), Istigobius ornatus, Callogobius cf. oHnawae, and Cryptocentrus cf. strigilliceps (all Gobudae), 

and spp. undet. (Gobudae) 

o tudele [SL] (or) o tude [SL.cf. NMMzTcan tude 'tude fish'] sp. 

or spp. undet. (Carangidae) 

o tupa-tupa [SL] Ostracion tuberculatus (Ostraciontidae) and 

sp. or spp. undet. (Ostraciontidae) 

o turuhi [D dialect SL] (cf. B dialect form:) o taruhi [SL] 

Scombermorus commerson (Scombridae) 

4-G1 o koouno ma mho [CD-EN, 'koouno (q.v., a fish)' 4-

poss. 4-'?'] (from hatchling to -40 cm in length) 

-G2 o turuhi [SL] (from -40 cm to maximum length of 

over 1 m 

o tuta [SL] sp. undet (Sphyraenidae) and Anodontostoma 

chacunda and Nematalosa come (botii Clupeidae). Note: 

This B° class is also subdivided into growtii classes, as 

shown below: 

4-G1 o guemaya [SL] (or) o go-guemaya [CX, guemaya 

(q.v.) 4- redup.] 

-G2 o tuta [SL] 

o ugaka ma hoka [CD-EN, 'sugar cane' 4- poss. 4- 'leaf; 'leaf of 

sugar cane' (a reference to the shape of this fish), cf. 

NMM ikan daun tobu 'sugar-cane leaf fish'] Trichiurus 

lepturus (Trichiuiidae) 

o uili [SL] (uncoil.) 

o wange ma gurati [CD-EN, 'sun' 4- poss. 4- 'goldness'; 'sun's 

goldness' (or) 'golden sun'] (uncoil.) 

o wawaru [SL, but cf. baru in NMM term for tiiis fish, ikan 

daun baru 'baru (Hibiscus tiliaceus) leaf fish'] sp. or spp. 

undet (Scatophagidae) 

o wogo-wogono [CX, < 'wogono (q.v., a crow)' 4- redup.; 

'rather Idee a crow' (a reference to die black color of 

many kinds of tiiis fish)] 

- o wogo-wogono [CX, as above] Pomacentrus sp. or spp., 

Neopomacentrus sp. or spp., Eupomacentrus sp. or spp., 

and Paraglyphidodon sp. or spp. (all Pomacentridae) 

4- o wogo-wogono o pahika [P-EN, 'coral(-dwelUng) wogowogono] Dischistodus sp. or spp. and Abudefduf sp. or 

spp. (Pomacentridae) 

4- o wogo-wogono ma lukuika [P-EN, 'deep(-sea-dwelling) 

wogo-wogono] Pomacentrus sp. or spp. (Pomacentridae) 

o yaro [SL] (uncoil., said not to be die same fish as o yaru 

below) 

o yaru [SL] Observed but uncoUected; very large sailfish, 

martins, and swordfish. 

- o yaru [SL] (uncoU.) 

4- o yaru-popohu [apparendy CD, yaru (q.v.) 4-'?'] (uncoil.) 

A2.4 o bianga [SL, cf. NMM bia] 'moUusk' 

o aruho [SL] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchia) 

o baa-baana [SL, but ?< CX] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; 

Isognomonidae) 

o bulanga [SL] (or) o babulanga [SL ("ba" here is not a redup. 

prefix)] spp. undet. 

o bahu-bahuku [CX, < bahuku 'axe' 4- redup.; 'ratiier like an 

axe'] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalve) 

o bahu-bahuku ma nauru [P-EN, 'male bahu-bahuku'] spp. 

undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalve) 

o bahu-bahuku ma nauru [P-EN, 'male bahu-bahuku'] spp. 

undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalve) 

o bekere [SL] 

- o bekere [SL] spp. undet. (Marine Prosobranchia) 

4- o bekere ma yeha [P-EN, 'motiier of bekere' (a reference 

to die larger size of tiiese Prosobranchs)] spp. undet 

(Marine Prosobranchia, and Ovulidae) 

o bia-cina [CD-EN, < trunc. bianoa 'shell' (cf. NMM & 

Ternatese bia 'moUusk') 4- cina 'China, Chinese'; 

'Chinese moUusk' (Note: This CD is apparendy borrowed from anotiier language; tiiere is no vb. *-cina in 

Tbl, and die CD cannot be exocentric)] spp. undet 

(Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o bia-cina ma dofa [P-EN, 'counterfeit bia-cina (q.v.)'] spp. 

undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o bia-garo [SL, but probably NMM CD; 'moUusk' 4-'?'] spp. 

undet (Tridacnidae) 

o bia-haki [CD-EX, trunc. bianoa 'moUusk' (cf. NMM & 

Ternatese bia 'shell') 4- -hala 'to be fatty, to have much 

fat'; 'die shell is fatty')] (or) o moco-mocoro [SL, but ?< 

CX] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o bobili [SL] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Conidae) 

o bobongono [SL, but ?< CX] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine 

Bivalves) 

o bold ma gule [CD-EN, 'cat' 4- poss. 4- '?'] spp. undet. 

(Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchia) 

o boro-boroho [CX, < n. boroho 'boil, abscess' 4- redup.; 
134 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

'ratiier Idee an abscess' (alternatively:) < vb. -boroho 'to 

have a boil, abscess' 4- redup.; '(one) having a bod, 

abscess' 'sea anemones growing on the outer surfaces of 

Pragurid-inhabited Gastropod sheUs.' Note: Altiiough 

these anemones grow on the outer surface of sheUs, they 

are thought to be bianga 'mollusks' somehow associated 

witii the sheUs. Tobelo do not realize that the Gastropods 

have already died and left die shell before die anemones 

grow on tiiem. 

o bukuhiri [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o caparete [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o caparuku [SL] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o ciciru [CX, < -ciru 'to shave, scrape' 4- agentive redup.; 

'scraper, scraping tool' (a reference to the shape of this 

bivalve)] (or) o ciru-ciru [CX, < -ciru 'to shave, scrape' 

4- redup.; '(one) which scrapes' (same etymological 

reference)] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o dao-daoto [SL] spp. undet. (Arcidae) 

o daro-daro [SL] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchia) 

o difa-difa [SL] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchia) o dirihi [SL] spp. undet. (Neritidae) 

o dirihi [SL] spp. undet (Neritidae) 

o dodiaduku [SL] spp. undet 

o dodiha ma gogerena [CD-EN, < 'snake' 4- poss. 4- 'piUow (< 

-kerena 'to rest one's head upon')'; 'snake's piUow'] 

'smaU land snails' spp. undet. (Gastropoda, Land 

Prosobranchs) 

o doro-doro [SL] spp. undet. (Neritidae) 

o feene ma hoata [CD-EN, 'sea turtle' 4- poss. 4- 'footprint'; 

'sea turtle's footprint'] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine 

Bivalves) 

ofiri-firi [SL] spp. undet. (Pectinidae) 

o gaqiene [CX, n. < vb. -gagiene 'to be of many colors, 

polychrome'] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o gogihdro [SL, but ?< CX] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Marine 

Prosobranchia) 

o gogilQd [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o gogotoaka [CX, < gotoaka (q.v.) 'white cockatoo' 4- redup.; 

'ratiier like a white cockatoo'] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; 

Arcidae) 

o guewa [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o haoha [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o hege [SL] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Trochidae) 

o hege ma gilaongo [P-EN, 'servant of hege'] spp. undet 

(Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchia) 

o hihiri ma nqi [CD-EN, < hihiri (unknown to my informants, 

but recorded for H dialect Tbl in Hueting's dictionary 

(1908c: 149) as meaning 'gnat mosquito') + poss. 4-

'place (for something), container (for something)'] spp. 

undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o hohaijawi [SL] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o humani [SL] spp. undet (Gastropoda; Land Prosobranchs) 

ojojongo [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o kahorihiki [SL] spp. undet (Gastropoda; CrepiduUdae) 

o kekewoko [SL] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Isognomonidae) 

o kokadbo [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o kokori [SL] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o koli [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; CorbicuUdae) 

o korehdra ma tatadaka [CD-EN, 'north wind, north monsoon' 

4- poss. 4- 'tiling that makes blunt (< agentive redup. 4- vb. 

-tadaka 'to make (a pointed tiling) blunt')'; 'thing that 

makes the north wind blunt'] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; 

Trochidae) 

o kutu-kuturu [SL, ?< CX] spp. undet (Gastropoda; Freshwater 

Prosobranchs) 

o laji-laji [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Trochidae) 

o lakotaromo [CD-EX, < lako 'eye' + -taromo '(be) black'; 

'(its) eye is black' (a reference to the dark operculum)] 

spp. undet (Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchs) 

o lilingi [SL] spp. undet (Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchs) 

o lobi-lobi [apparendy SL, cf. lobi 'cloud,' no apparent 

relation] spp. undet (Littorinidae) 

o lolo [SL, cf. vb. -lolo 'to feel (witii the fingers or hand inside 

a closed cyUnder or similar container),' and cf. NMM 

lolo 'vagina'] (or) o bia-lolo [CD-ED, < trunc bianga 

'sheU' (cf. NMM & Ternatese bia 'moUusk') 4- lolo (q.v., 

the B° class of moUusk)] spp. undet. (Gastropoda, 

Cypraeidae) 

o lonokoi [SL] spp. undet (Gastropoda; Strombidae) 

o maildfo [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o makilihi [SL] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchs) 

o mede-mede [SL?, or CX? (cf. mede 'moon')] spp. undet 

(Gastropoda; Freshwater Prosobranchs) 

o mulaha ma bianga [CD-EN, 'mid-tide (die period between 

ebb tide and neap tide)' 4- poss. 4- 'moUusk'; 'the mid-tide 

moUusk'] spp. undet. (Conidae) 

o mulo [SL] spp. undet. (Tonnidae) 

o nagi-nagimi [CX, < -nagimi 'to be in debt' 4- redup.; '(one) 

which is in debt' (etym.?)] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; 

Marine Bivalves) 

o nikere [SL] spp. undet (Gastropoda; Marine Prosobranchs) 

o ofele [SL] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o oha-oha [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o paoto [SL] Targe land snail' spp. undet. (Gastropoda; Land 

Prosobranch) 

opapaco [SL] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Prosobranchia) 

o pea-pea [SL] spp. undet. (Pelecypoda; Isognomonidae) 

opopogane [SL] spp undet. (Pelecypoda; Neritidae) 

o taehe ma gitifiri [CD-EN, 'piglet' 4- poss. 4- 'claw'; 'piglet's 

claw'] spp. undet. (MytiUdae) 

o talupihi [SL] Pinna spp. (Pinnidae) (botii subclasses:) 

" o talupihi ma beka [P-EN, 'female talupihi'] 

" o talupihi ma nauru [P-EN, 'male talupihi'] 

o tataapa [SL] spp. undet (Pelecypoda; Marine Bivalves) 

o tolu-tolumu [CX, < n. tolumu 'sun hat (very wide 

cone-shaped hat)' 4- redup.; 'rather like a tolumu hat' (a 

reference to the similarity between the shape of these hats 
NUMBER 34 135 

and die limpet's shape)] spp. undet. (Gastropoda; 

Epitonudae) 

o totawda [SL] spp. undet (Chitonidae) (botii subclasses:) 

o wange-wange [CX, < n. wange 'day, daytime' 4- redup. 

(here redup. has idiomatic meaning:) 'during daytime'] 

(or) o totawange [SL but probably < CD, *tota '?' 

(probably related to totawda q.v.) 4- wange 'day, 

daytime' (cf. futu-futu subclass below)] spp. undet 

(Chitonidae) 

o futu-futu [CX, < n. futu 'night, nighttime' 4- redup. (here 

redup. has idiomatic meaning:) 'during nighttime'] spp. 

undet (Chitonidae) 

o uru-bututu [CD-EX, < uru 'mouth' 4- -bututu 'to be pinned 

up'; '(its) mouth is pinned up'] spp. undet (Gastropoda; 

Marine Prosobranchia) 

A2.5 o aewani} [SL] 'mere animals' and unaffiliated 

FAUNAL FORMS 

Basic (B°) subclasses of o aewani2 'mere animal' are here 

indicated by (M, m) at left. The basic (B°) subclasses of 

aewanil 'animal,' which are not 'mere animals' and are 

unaffiliated witii any B+1 class, are here indicated by (U, u) at 

left (As in Appendix 1.1, die upper case letters are used at left 

for basic classes, lower case for sub-basic classes.) 

M 

M 

M 

m 

m 

M 

M 

U 

u 

M 

o aili [SL] 'centipede (except for long, thin phosphorescent centipedes tiiat shine in the dark—see o 

bildma, q.v.)' Chdopoda (partial) 

o ai-aili [CX, < aili 'centipede'; 'ratiier tike a 

centipede'] Pohychaeta (partial) (spp. undet). 

(Marine polychaete worms having a large 

number of leg-tike projections resembling centipedes.) 

o ake-akeme [CX,< vb. -akeme '(to be) meaty, fleshy' 

4- redup.; '(one) which is meaty, fleshy' (a 

reference to the lack of hard parts on slugs)] 

- o ake-akeme (o dudungino) [P-EN, '(dry land 

[-dweUing]) ake-akeme'] '(terrestrial) slug' (terrestrial Pulmonates) 

4- o ake-akeme o gahika [P-EN, 'sea-waterdwelUng ake-akeme'] 'sea slug' (marine Pulmonates) 

o aoro [SL] uncoil. (Insecta?) 

o ardra [SL] 'spider (except wolf spiders (o oanga, 

q.v., and Salticidae (o gufuru ma dadagoko, 

q.v.)' Arachnidae (partial) 

o au [SL] 'heavy, short and stocky skinks (cf. o 

ragumu, q.v., for other skinks)' Tiliqua gigas 

and Eugongylus mentovarius 

o bengi-bengi [SL] Cuora amboinensis 

o bildma [SL, cf. o bildma 'phosphorescence in sea 

water, e.g., during a red tide'] 'long, diin 

phosphorescent centipedes that shine in the 

m 

m 

U 

M 

M 

M 

M 

m 

m 

M 

U 

u 

u 

U 

M 

U 

dark—cf. o aili,' q.v.) Myriapoda (partial) 

- o bildma [SL] (small, long, common phosphorescent centipedes) 

4- o bildma ma ayo [P-EN, 'motiier of bildma'] 

(occasionaUy found large phosphorescent centipedes, -6-7 cm or more in length) 

o bold [SL] '(domesticated) cat' Felis cattus L. 

o bum-btim [SL, onomatopoeic, referring to noise of 

wings] spp. undet (Hymenoptera, a wasp that 

nests in holes that it digs in die sand) 

o busu-busu [SL or possibly < busu ('a parrot, Lorius 

garrulus' 4- redup.; 'ratiier like a L. garrulus 

parrot' (possibly a reference to this bug's bright 

red color)] spp. undet (Hemiptera) 

o butiteke [SL] 'termite' (Isopoda) 

o dangdnga [SL] spp. undet. (Hemiptera) 

o dangdga [SL] (smaUer forms of tiiese Hemiptera) 

o dangdga ma ayo [P-EN, 'mother of dangdnga'] 

(larger forms of these Hemiptera) 

o dobi-dobiki [CX, < dobiki 'broken-off half (of a 

thing broken in two)' 4- redup.; 'ratiier Idee 

broken-off halves' (a reference to the way die 

click beede appears to be in two parts (head 4-

thorax and abdomen), and when disturbed 

makes a sudden movement with a clicking or 

snapping sound like breaking itself into two 

halves, tiiereby propelUng itself away to escape 

predators)] (or) o dapo-dapoko [SL?] 'click 

beede' (Coleoptera; Elateridae) 

o dode [SL] Decapoda (partial), 'shrimp, lobster' 

o dode-panangi [CD, dode (q.v.) 4-'?'] 

o gohihi [SL] 

o guluwoata [CD-EX, trunc gulumu 'pincer (e.g., 

of shrimp, crab)' 4- -woata 'to be wide'; '(its) 

pincer is wide'] 

o hakildro [D dialect, SL] (or, in B dialect) o 

hakirdro [SL] 

o hohoongana [SL] 

o mania 

Note: In B dialect o hoowene is also considered a 

B

_1

 subclass of o dode; it is here recorded here 

as a separate B° class in accordance witii its 

placement in D dialect, 

o domba [SL, cf. Ind domba 'sheep'] 'sheep' (never 

observed by Tobelo I met, but mentioned in 

Tobelo translations of Bible stories (EUen, 

1933)) Ovis sp. 

ofee-feene [CX,</eene 'sea turtle' 4- redup.; "ratiier 

tike a sea turde'] 'water-boatmen' (aquatic 

Hemiptera) (Corixidae) 

ofeene [SL] 'sea turde' (cf. turde found on land and in 

fresh water, called o bengi-bengi, q.v.) 

o haawaku [SL, cf. n. haawaku, a long shield 

having ridges lengtiiwise from top to bottom, 
136 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

U 

M 

M 

M 

M 

U 

M 

M 

similar to die ridges along die carapace of tiiis 

turde] Dermochelys coriacae 

o mataapa [SL] sp. undet. 

o wuhi [SL, cf. wuhi 'comb (traditionaUy made 

from die carapace of these sea turtles)'] (both 

subclasses:) Eretmochelys imbricata 

- o wuhi [SL] 

4- o nogi-nogi [SL, metanymic transfer from 

(unmarked) o nogi-nogi (q.v.) fish, which is 

considered inedible and poisonous; tiiis "variety" of wuhi sea turde is also considered 

inedible] 

o gaawuhi [SL] '(adult) dragonfly' (Odonata, adults) 

o gaeru [SL] 'sea anemone' (Anthozoa, partial) 

o gaili [SL] 'maggot (Diptera, larvae), endoparasitic 

worm (including nematodes and trematodes)' 

o gani [SL] 'ectoparasitic arthropod, including fleas 

(Siphonaptera), lice (MaUophaga, Anopleura), 

and ticks (Ixodidae)' Note: subclasses of questionable lexemic status can readily be formed 

for these, such as: o kaho ma gani 'dog ticks (or 

fleas)'; o ode ma gani 'pig ticks' o totaleo ma 

gani 'chicken (wing- and featiier-) lice; o 

karianga ma gani' Varanid lizard ticks'; and die 

(unmarked?) o gani or o nyawa nanga gani 

'[our head] lice (of people).' I would consider 

tiiese expressions non-lexemic, since such expressions can be formed for any animal on 

which ectoparasites occur. Tobelo apparendy 

consider head-lice a "normal" human ectoparasite, but when ticks occur on humans they are 

usually referred to as o ode ma gani 'pig ticks,' 

and diought to have come off a pig. These terms 

can not denote leeches (o gofoa, q.v.). 

o gilidanga [SL] '(adult) bluebottle fly' (Diptera; 

Sarcophagidae, adults) 

o gito [SL] Petaurus breviceps (Mammalia; Marsupialia) 

o gofoa [SL] 'leech' (Herodinia) 

o gogoapa [SL] (uncoil.; Insecta?) 

o gogomoma [CX, < gomoma 'mosquito' 4- redup.; 

'ratiier Idee a mosquito'] 'water scorpion' 

(Hemiptera; Nepidae) 

o goguhu [SL] 'cockroach (including unwinged early 

growtii stages) (Orthoptera; Blattidae) 

o gohomanga [SL] 'crocodde' Crocodylus porosus 

o gomoma [SL] 'mosquito' (Note: Aquatic larval 

forms are recognized by at least some Tobelo as 

early stages in die formation of a mosquito, and 

may be referred to as o gomoma ma ngofaka 

'chtid of mosquito') (Diptera; CuUcidae) 

o gorehe [SL] (or) o gore-gorehe [?SL (onomatopoeic?) or ?CX (gorehe + redup.)] (or, recorded 

in B dialect, where botii other terms are also 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

used:) o kokereehe [SL but ?< CX, cf. plant by 

same name] 'cicada' (Cicadidae) 

o gufuru [SL, D dialect; cf. B dialect] o guhuru [SL] 

'housefly' (Diptera; Muscidae, adults) 

o gufuru ma dadagoko [(D dialect) CD-EN, 'housefly' 

4- poss. + 'trap (i.e„ thing for trapping)'; 'trap for 

houseflies'] (or, two forms recorded in B 

dialect) o guhuru ma dadagoko [CD-EN, same 

etymology] (or) o guhuru ma lologuru [CD-EN, 

possibly same etymology; 'housefly' 4- poss. 4-

'?'] 'jumping spider' (Arachnida, Salticidae) 

o gumemene [SL] 'tiny insects or arachnids such as 

mites and chiggers (especially those obtained 

while walking through primary forest) that 

cause itchiness of the skin' (Trombicutidae, and 

otiier very small, minimally visible Arachnids 

or Insects causing itchiness). Note: This Tobelo 

word, in addition to this original meaning, is 

increasingly coming to correspond to die full 

range of meanings of the Indonesian word 

kuman, which includes 'germs (of disease),' as 

Tobelo learn the "germ theory of disease" from 

cosmopolitan medical practitioners Idee local 

doctors and nurses. Thus people now say they 

do not stay too close to people with serious 

Ulnesses because the fear the gumemene 'germs' 

of the iUness. Compare the definition of 

Indonesian kuman (from Echols and Shaddy, 

1983:202): "1 . tiny insects Idee mites (cause 

scabies, etc). 2. germ, microbe. 3. small 

particles." 

o guru [SL] 'tiny beedes tiiat bore into wood,bamboo, 

maize, etc.; borers' spp. undet. (Coleoptera). 

Note: It is possible to form many expressions of 

questionable lexemic status based on this term, 

including: o tiba ma guru 'bamboo (Schizostachyum spp.) borer,' etc. 

o habeta [SL] 'larvae of large weevtis' (Coleoptera, 

partial, larvae) 

- o habeta (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) habeta' 'edible 

large weevil larvae' 

o habeta o baruika [P-EN] 'habeta (found in) 

baru (q.v., a palm)' 

o habeta o dalukika [P-EN] 'habeta (found in) 

daluku (q.v., a palm, Arenga pinnata)' 

o habeta o igonika [P-EN] 'habeta (found in) 

coconut palms' 

o habeta o ketokika [P-EN] 'habeta (found in) 

sago palms' 

o habeta opepetingika [P-EN] 'habeta (found in) 

pepetingi (q.v., a palm)' 

o habeta o wekaika [P-EN] 'habeta (found in) 

weka (q.v., a palm)' 

4- o habeta (ma dorou) [P-EN] '(bad/evU) habeta' 
NUMBER 34 137 

(or) o habeta o gotaika [P-EN] 'large weevd 

larvae (found in) wood (i.e., not palm)' (considered inedible) 

M o habeta ma ayo [P-EN] 'habeta's mother' adult 

weevds (die adult form of the larvae called o 

habeta)' Note: These adult forms may not be 

termed o habeta, tiius the 'motiier' class may 

not be considered a "growtii stage" subclass, for 

it is not a subclass of some higher-level *habeta 

class. Nevertheless, Tobelo clearly recognize 

the relationship between these two. 

U o hapi [SL, < Malay sapi, same meaning] 'cow, buU' 

Bos taurus 

M o harawide [SL] Bronchocela cristatellus 

M o hari-harimi [CX, < n. harimi 'oar' 4- redup.; 'ratiier 

like an oar'] (term obtained only in B dialect; in 

D dialect tiiese Orthoptera are merged into the 

B° class o kahdho, q.v.) spp. undet. (Orthoptera, 

partial) 

M o hilo ma totodenge [apparendy originally a CD, 'star' 

4- poss. 4- '?'] 'starfish and crown-of-tiiorns 

starfish' Echinodermata; Asteroidea (partial). 

(Note: Some people include brittle stars 

(Ophiuroidea), otiiers tiiink brittle stars cannot 

properly be labeled by tiiis term, though no 

other term for 'brittle star' was obtained.) This 

does not include sea cucumbers (o taripanga, 

q.v.) or sea urchins (o mumuru, q.v.). 

M o hohagaleke [SL] 'smaU geckos' (Hemidactylus 

frenatus and Gehyra mutilata). (Compare o 

hohipohuku (q.v.) 'large geckos') 

M o hohipohuku [D dialect; SL] (or, in B dialect:) o 

hohipouku [SL] 'large geckos' Gekko vittatus, 

Gehyra marginata, and Lepidodactylus lugubris. 

U o hoowene [SL] (Note: This is considered a B° term in 

D dialect at Pasir Putih, but a B_1 subclass of o 

dode (q.v., 'shrimp') in B dialect at Loleba.) 

'large sea lobster' sp. or spp. undet. (Decapoda, 

partial) 

M o iuru [SL] 'ant (except weaver ants, see o kane-kane)' 

Note: Different subclassification obtained at 

Loleba (B dialect) and Pasir Putih (D dialect). 

Each is shown here. 

1. Subclassification in B dialect (Loleba): 

m 4-o loliowaha [SL] 

m - o loliowaha [SL] sp. or spp. undet (wingless 

forms) 

m + 0 loliowaha ma ayo [P-EN, 'mother of 

loliowaha'] 'winged forms of loliowaha 

ants' 

m 4-o goguhulo [SL] 

m - o goguhulo [SL] sp. or spp. undet (wingless 

forms) 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

4- o goguhulo ma ayo [P-EN, 'motiier of goguhulo'] 'winged forms of goguhulo ants' 

4- o iuru ihoo-hdho [P-EN, 'ant tiiat flies; flying 

ant'] possibly Monomorium spp. Note: This is 

the only subclass of 'ants' that is not further 

subdivided into 'winged' and 'unwinged' 

forms, die former being termed 'motiier' to the 

latter. This one subclass indicates tiiat the gloss 

of ma ayo 'mother' as 'winged forms (of an 

ant)' is inadequate, since this flying ant is only 

known in its winged form. These pesty winged 

ants swarm in vast droves to kerosene lamps 

(even tiirough mosquito nets) during Halmahera's many rainy nights, making most work 

impossible (cf. NMM terms bifi hujan or bifi 

ujang, botii meaning 'rain ant'). Thus this ant is 

anomalous because it is so clearly associated 

witii a single context the unwinged forms 

would not be recognized as related, because 

they are never seen in that context 

- o iuru 'tiny ant' (two named subclasses plus a 

large "residue" tiiat cannot be considered a 

subclass similar to die others; see 5.2.2.1) 

o iuru ma doka-dokara [P-EN, 'red ant'] sp. 

undet 

o iuru ma aaro-daromo [P-EN, 'black ant'] sp. 

undet 

m [R] [Residue of many otiier spp. of tiny ants] 

2. Subclassification in D dialect (Pasir Putih) 

m 4- o totuhulo [SL] (possibly synonymous with o 

totuhulo (q.v.) in B dialect, above) 

m - o totuhulo [SL] sp. or spp. undet. (wingless 

forms) 

m 4-0 totuhulo ma ayo [P-EN, 'motiier of totuhulo'] 'winged forms of totuhulo ants' 

m 4-0 bebanga [SL] 

m - o bebanga [SL] sp. or spp. undet (wingless 

forms) 

m 4-o bebanga ma ayo [P-EN, 'motiier of bebanga'] 'winged forms of o bebanga ants' 

m 4-0 ngago [SL] 

m - o ngago [SL] sp. or spp. undet. (wingless 

forms) 

m 4-o ngago ma ayo [P-EN, 'motiier of ngago'] 

'winged forms of ngago ants' 

m 4-o iuru ihoo-hdho [P-EN, 'ant mat flies; flying 

ant'] possibly Monomorium spp. (see explanation of tiiis anomalous subclass under entry for 

tiiis same term as used in B dialect subclassification of o iuru (q.v.), above) 

m - o iuru 'tiny ant' (two named subclasses plus a 

large "residue" tiiat cannot be considered a 

subclass similar to die otiiers) 
138 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

m o iuru ma doka-dokara [P-EN, 'red ant'] sp. 

undet 

m o iuru ma daro-daromo [P-EN, 'black ant'] sp. 

undet 

m [R] [Residue of many other spp. of tiny ants] 

M o kaahdho [SL, but possibly < CX in another 

language; cf. Tbl -hdho 'fly'] (or) o boto-bdto 

[SL, apparently borrowing from NMM botoboto or from another NH language (Pagu, 

Ternate) that uses this term] '(some) grasshoppers' spp. undet. (Orthoptera) (Note: cf. o 

hari-harimi (q.v.), a B° B dialect term for some 

grasshoppers; tiiose grasshoppers, however, are 

termed o kaahdho in D dialect) 

U o kaateko [SL] 'edible frog' Rana arfarki and Rana 

papua 

M o kabi-kabingi [CX, kabingi 'goat' 4- redup.; 'rather 

like a goat'] spp. undet (Coleoptera) 

U o kabingi [SL] 'goat' Capra hircus 

U o kaho [SL] 'dog' Canis familiaris 

M o kaho-kaho [CX, £a/io 'dog' 4- redup.; 'rather tike a 

dog'] spp. undet. (Coleoptera) 

M o kane-kane [SL, cf. NMM gunane] 'weaver ant' 

Oecophylla smaragdina 

m - o kane-kane [SL, as above] (unwinged forms of 

O. smaragdina) 

m 4-o kane-kane ma ayo [P-EN, 'motiier of jfcanekane'] (winged forms of 0. smaragdina) 

M o karafe [SL] 'rat, mouse, shrew' 

1. D dialect subclassification (at Pasir Putih) (note: the 

placement of Rattus exulans in this dialect remains 

unknown): 

m 4-o gugtinu ma dedetoro (term used in D & B 

dialect) [CD-EN, Tengtii of bamboo (used for 

baking and storing sago)' 4- poss. 4- 'tiling that 

sUces (< -tetoro 'to cut up with short sUcing 

strokes')'; '(animal) that slices up bamboos 

holding sago (e.g., by gnawing)'] (or) o gugtinu 

ma roreno (D dialect term) [CD-EN, Tengtii of 

bamboo (used for baking and storing sago)' 4-

poss. 4- 'tiling that nibbles (< -reno 'to nibble at 

something causing it to have holes in it')'; 

'(animal) that nibbles (puts holes into) bamboos 

holding sago'] (cf. B dialect term o gugunu ma 

ngongohama, q.v., below) Suncus murinus 

m 4-0 porogi [SL] Rattus rattus 

m - o karafe [SL, as above] 

m - o karafe [SL, as above] Murid sp. 

m 4-0 karafe o fonganika [P-EN, 'jungle karafe] 

(Tobelo refer to this very large karafe found 

in primary forest. The few specimens of tiiis 

group brought to me, however, have all been 

large specimens of Rattus rattus collected 

from locations near primary forest Yet this 

term is not considered synonymous with o 

porogi. This may indicate tiiat Tobelo are 

aware of some minor difference between R. 

rattus found in vdlages and tiiose from 

primary forest Alternively, the large specimens of R. rattus found in that context may 

be locaUy grouped witii another large, as yet 

undiscovered species of rat from primary 

forest areas.) 

2. B dialect subclassification (at Loleba) (note: inadequate 

numbers of specimens were found at Loleba, tiiough the 

subclassification's terminology is, to my knowledge, 

complete): 

m 4-0 gugtinu ma dedetoro (term used in D & B 

dialect) [CD-EN, Tengtii of bamboo (used for 

baking and storing sago)' 4- poss. 4- 'tiling that 

slices (< -tetoro 'to cut up with short slicing 

strokes')'; '(animal) that slices up bamboos 

holding sago (e.g., by gnawing)'] (or) o gugunu 

ma ngongohama (B dialect term) [CD-EN, 

'length of bamboo (used for baking and storing 

sago)' 4- poss. 4- 'thing that enters (< -wohama 

'to enter')'; '(animal) that enters bamboos 

holding sago'] Suncus murinus 

m 4-0 nguti-nguti [SL, but ?< CX] (This term 

unfamiliar to D dialect informants) Rattus 

exulans 

m - o karafe [SL, as above] Rattus rattus and Murid 

sp. 

U o karianga [SL] 'Varanid lizard.' Note: Altiiough die 

subclasses below are widely known, tiiere were 

too few collections, and (worse yet) far too Uttle 

agreement, to settle die question of how Tobelo 

actually subclassify the Varanid lizards of 

Halmahera. The inconclusive data is presented 

here in its entirety (USNM numbers refer to 

Herpetology Division catalog, Smithsonian Institution): 

u o biru [SL, cf. -biru 'to be green (or) blue'] Varanus 

indicus (USNM 215905, 215908, 237438, 

237441,237442, and 237693) 

u o hahoro [SL] Varanus indicus (USNM 215906) 

u o litini [SL] Varanus indicus (USNM 215907, 

216006), Hydrosaurus weberi (USNM 215804) 

u o pelo-pelo [SL] (Note: altiiough not recorded at die 

time tiiese specimens were collected, die foUowing term was also given to me as a synonym of 

tiiis B"1 class:) o hide-hidete [CX, < vb. -hidete 

'to sail' 4- redup.; '(one) which sails' (a 

reference to tiie sati-like crest along tiiis Uzard's 

back)] Hydrosaurus weberi (USNM 215805, 

237436, 237437), Hydrosaurus amboinensis 

(USNM 237667) 

U o katuri [SL] 'palm civet' Paradoxorus tangalunga 
NUMBER 34 139 

u 

M 

U 

U 

o koru [SL] 'crab' (Decapoda, partial). Note on 

subclassification: in B dialect at Loleba, o putati u 

(q.v.) 'coconut crab' and o wungama (q.v.) 

'hermit crab' are considered B_1 subclasses of o u 

koru 'crab.' However, with this annotation 

stated here and repeated at each of those two M 

entries, those classes are here Usted as B° terms, 

representing die D dialect subclassification. 

o aere ma gagawi [CD-EN, < 'high tide' 4- poss. 4-

'caUer (< vb. -gawi 'to caU from a distance by 

signaUing witii one's arm')'; 'caUer of high tide' 

(apparendy a reference to die fiddler crab's habit 

of frequendy moving its one overgrown pincer 

in a motion similar to calling (-gawi), and to its 

habitat of inter tidal flats)] 'fiddler crab' 

o boku-bokumu [SL.but ?< CX (cf. n. bokumu q.v., 

a pandanaceous plant)] 

o dooyo [SL] 

- o dooyo [SL] 

4- o tongooto [SL] 

o fee-feene [CX, < n. feene (q.v.) 'sea turtle' 4-

redup.; 'ratiier Idee a sea turde'] 

o hohonotoko [CX, < n. honotoko 'chisel' 4- redup.; M 

'rather Idee a chisel'] 

o kamanda [SL] M 

o kapunane [SL] (or) o niJfcere ma ayo [P-EN] 

'motiier 4- poss. 4- nikere '(a fish, Gobiideae, 

q.v.)'; 'motiier of nikere' 

o kokaregehe [SL, but ?< CX] M 

o kukupi [SL] 

o kumo [SL] 

o nanihi [SL] 

o nahini o gahika [P-EN, *sea(water) nahini' 

o nahini o akeriha [P-EN, 'fresh-water nahini' 

o ngangangoro [SL] 'ghost crab' M 

o penga ma hoka [apparently CD-EN, < '?' 4- poss. 

4-'leaf] 

o parito [SL] (or) o poparito [CX, parito (q.v.) 4-

redup.] 

o rujubi [SL] 

o tamalelara [SL] 

o «7ino ma no*a [CD-EN, 'tiliho (q.v., a tree)' 4- M 

poss. 4- 'leaf; 'leaf of tiliho'] (or) o «7ino ma kai 

[CD-EN, 'tiliho (q.v., a tree)' 4- poss. 4- 'bark'; 

'bark of fi/ino'] 

o kote-kote [SL,but ?> CX] (uncoU.; Insecta?) 

o kuda [SL, < Malay ifcuaa 'horse'] 'horse' 

o ifcuno [SL] 'cus-cus' Phalanger orientalis. Note: At 

Loleba (B dialect) I obtained names of two 

subclasses, altiiough at Pasir Putih (D dialect) U 

informants were unfamiliar with tiiose. Specimens of botii subclasses brought to me at Loleba M 

turned out to be die same species, P. orientalis. 

The subclassification at Loleba is represented 

below: 

o migi ma kuho [P-EN, 'migi (q.v.), a vine' 4- poss. 

4- kuho (q.v.); 'migi's cus-cus'] 

o mede ma kuho [P-EN, 'moon' 4- poss. 4- kuho 

(q.v.); 'moon's cus-cus'] 

o kulubati [SL] 'earthworm' (Annelida, partial). Note: 

In B dialect at Loleba, tiiis class is subdivided 

into an unmarked kulubati class (which labels 

all "usual" earthworms found in viUage and 

farm soils), and die marked subclass o tongotongo (q.v.), which I never coUected in a B 

dialect-speaking area. However, I did collect 

one quite large earthworm, locaUy called o 

tongo-tongo, in a forested area at Dorosago 

(Maba District) in 1981, and D dialect informants considered tiiat this tongo-tongo class, 

represented by die specimen I had found, was a 

separate B° term. Thus this appears to be an 

instance in which B dialect considers tongotongo a B_1

, and D dialect a B°, term. Witii that 

annotation, the D dialect is followed for purposes of listing both terms in this Appendix. 

o lefaiti [SL] 'sandfly' (Ceratopogonidae; esp. Culicoides spp.) 

o lefere [SL] (or) o dadaka [SL] 'mdUpede (having 

widened, relatively flat body segments, instead 

of round ones (cf. o mirimi, q.v.)' spp. undet 

(Myriapoda) 

o loliowaha [SL, no apparent association with 

'whisding' although folk etymology for the 

name of a bird witii the same name (o 

loliowaha, q.v.) stresses its abitity to -owaha 

'whistie'] (uncoil.—Insecta?; cf. bird of die 

same name) 

o longu-longu [SL, but ?> CX] Targe grasshopper' 

(probably distinguished from otiier grasshopper 

species (cf. o kaahdho) because tiiis very large 

species occasionaUy flies in vast swarms destroying crops in its path, and is thus of 

considerable economic importance, sp. undet 

(Ortiioptera). 

o lulule [SL] 'adult butterfly or moth' (Lepidoptera, 

adult). Note: In D dialect at Pasir Putih, this 

term designates aU adult Lepitoptera; cf. opipiti 

'caterpiUar (or otiier Lepidopteran larva), or 

similar larva.' Tobelo are often unaware of die 

fact tiiat caterpiUars become butterflies or 

moths; the pupa is termed o lulule ma gohi 

'butterfly's egg.' 

o mainjanga [(D dialect) SL] (or, in B dialect) o 

manjdnga 'deer' Cervus timorensis 

o mimiri [SL] 'mdUpede (having rounded body 

segments and a generally cylindrical shape, as 

contrasted witii o lefere, q.v.)' 
140 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

M o moloiru [SL] (uncoU.; Insecta?) 

M o mumuru [SL] 'sea urchin' (Asteroidea; partial) 

M o muru-murutu [CX, < -murutu 'to grunt (said of wdd 

pig)' 4- redup.; '(one) which grunts (Idee a wdd 

pig)'] spp. undet (Coleoptera) 

M o ngami-ngamiri [CX, < -amiri 'to be rotten'; 'rotten'] 

(uncoU.; Insecta?) 

U o ngotara [SL] (or, more commonly:) o ngotangotara [CX, < ngotara (q.v.) 4- redup.] 'larger 

tree frog' Litoria infrafrenata 

M o nipa-nipa [SL] '(kind of) wasp' sp. or spp. undet 

(Hymenoptera, Vespidae) 

U o nuhu-nuhu [SL] 'squid' (Cephalopoda) 

u o utubelo [SL] (or) o utuhaya [SL] spp. undet. 

u o utumare [SL] (or) o nuhu-nuhu o ngigorika 

[P-EN, 'squid (dwelling in) rocky places'] (or) o 

nuhu-nuhu o hakaruika [P-EN, 'rock 

(-dweUing) squid'] spp. undet. 

M o oanga [SL] 'wolf spider' (Arachnida,Lycosidae) 

U o ode [SL] '(wdd or domesticated) pig' Sus scrofa. 

M o ofungu [SL, cf. NMM o/u] 'wasp' Vespidae (partial, 

cf. o nipa-nipa, q.v. '(kind of) wasp') 

m o humungara [SL] spp. undet 

m o toi-toimi [CX, < -toimi 'to spear' 4- redup.; '(one) 

that spears' (a reference to the painfulness of 

this wasp's sting)] (or) o to-toimi [CX, same 

etymology] spp. undet. 

m o tubuyongo [SL] (or) o totubuyongo [CX, tubuyongo (q.v.) 4- redup.] spp. undet 

M o peo-peoto [SL, but ?> CX] 'praying mantis, walking 

stick, and walking leaf (Orthoptera, partial: 

Mantidae and Phasmatidae). 

M o pidiloongo [SL] 'mantis shrimp' (Stomatopoda) 

M o pipiti [SL] 'Lepidopteran larvae, and simtiar larval 

forms' (see note under o lulule (q.v.) on Tobelo 

lack of awareness tiiat caterpiUars become 

butterflies, etc) 

U o putati [SL] 'coconut crab' Birgus sp. Note: 

Considered a B-1 subclass of o koru 'crab' in 

Tbl-B; considered a B° class in Tbl-D. 

M o ragumu [SL] 'smaUer skink' This name was 

recorded for Lamprolepis smaragdina, Mabuya 

multifasciata, Emoia sorex, Emoia submetallica, Emoia atrocostata, Emoia keukenthali, and 

U 

M 

U 

u 

M 

M 

M 

M 

m 

m 

M 

Lipinia noctua 

o tali [SL] 'octopus' (Octopoda) 

o tali-tali [SL] 'crown-of-thorns starfish' (Echinodermata; Asteroidea, partial) 

o tataulu [CX, < vb. -taulu '1 . to stick to, 2. to be 

glue-ldce or sticky' 4- redup.; '(one) that is 

sticky, glue-ldee'] 'jellyfish, medusa' Coelenterata (partial) 

o tauja [SL] (or) o taripanga [SL,cf. Malay & NMM 

tripang] 'sea-cucumber' Holothurian 

4- o taripanga ma dutu [P-EN, 'true/genuine 

taripanga'] (Note: Malay name for this is used 

ratiier than conceptuaUy possible but never 

heard Tbl translation *o touya ma dutu 'true/ 

genuine tauja! probably because this Holothurian is gathered for sale to Malay-speaking 

traders, rarely eaten by the Tbl tiiemselves.) sp. 

undet. 

4- o mauahi [SL] (or) o taripanga-mauahi [CD-EN, 

'die mauahi (variety of) taripanga'] (Note: 

Again, the preference for the Malay term seems 

related to die fact that tiiese are gadiered for sale 

to Malay-speaking traders.) sp. undet. 

- o tauja [SL] (or) o taripanga [SL, as above] 

'non-saleable Holothurians' 

o tetete" [SL, onomatopoeic] (or) o teretete" [SL, 

onomatopoeic] 'small tree-frog (cf. o ngotara 

(q.v.) 'larger tree-frog')' Litoria spp. (excluding 

L. infrafrenata) and Oreophryne moluccensis 

o tii-tiihi [CX, < -tiihi 'to flatulate' 4- redup.; '(one) 

tiiat flatulates' (a reference to the sound made by 

its wing-beat as this beede flies)] spp. undet 

(Coleoptera) 

o totdfo [?SL, or possibly ?CX, < -tofo 'to feed' + 

redup.; 'one that feeds'] (uncoil.; Insecta?) 

o wawoko [SL] 'palolo worm' (Polychaeta,partial) 

- o wawoko [SL] '(smaUer-sized) palolo worm' 

sp. or spp. undet 

4- o wawoko ma ayo [P-EN, 'mother of wawoko] 

'(larger-sized) palolo worm' sp. or spp. undet 

o wungama [SL] 'hermit crab' (Praguridae). Note: 

Considered a B_1 subclass of o koru 'crab' in 

Tbl-B; considered a B° class in Tbl-D, as 

indicated here. 
Appendix 3 

The Tobelo Classification of the Other BIOTIC FORMS 

A3.0 Introduction 

This Appendix summarizes information on those few 

BIOTIC FORMS that are neither FLORAL FORMS (Appendix 

1) nor FAUNAL FORMS (Appendix 2). Nomenclatural 

information, and information on field collections, is summarized as in previous appendixes. These folk classes often 

cross-cut a biologist's taxonomies—one basic term (o lulumiti 

'moss, mould, bryozoa, smaller algae') even designates some 

representatives of both plant and animal kingdoms. 

A3.1 (Sexual BIOTIC FORMS:) NON-BREATHERS 

As illustrated in the diagram on page 48 (Chapter 4), 

FLORAL FORMS and FAUNAL FORMS together comprise 

me unlabeled class of SEXUAL BIOTIC FORMS, which has 

here been caded BREATHERS because its members are 

associated witii a 'throat' or organ of breathing. The other 

subclass of SEXUAL BIOTIC FORM may be termed 

NON-BREATHER and contains the 'seaweed' (collectively 

called o rurubu o gahika) and o kalibaharu 'black coral.' 

Evidence has been given above (Chapter 4.3) tiiat the 

'seaweed' term is an intrusive recent borrowing, translating the 

Indonesian (or its related NMM) term rumput laut. The 

recorded subclasses of NON-BREATHER follow, listing o 

kalibaharu first 

o kalibaharu [SL] 'black coral' (Antipatharia) 

- o kalibaharu (ma beka) [P-EN] '(female) kalibaharu' 

4- o kalibaharu ma nauru [P-EN] 'male kalibaharu' 

(Below: members of the B+, apparently intrusive class of 

NON-BREATHER labeled o rurtibu o gahika:) 

o guhungiri [SL] (a sea grass) 

- o guhungiri [SL] (a sea grass) 

- o guhungiri (ma beka) [P-EN] 'female guhungiri' (a 

seagrass) 

4- o guhunqiri ma nauru [P-EN] 'male guhungiri' V [HA] 

Vittaria sp. (Vittariaceae) 

4- o guhungiri o akeriha [P-EN] 'freshwater guhungiri' V 

[HA] Potanogeton sp. 

o ogama [SL] (sea grass) V [NM2-0287] det not avad. 

R [Residue of odier sea grasses and large seaweeds] 

A3.2 Other (Unaffffiated) BIOTIC FORMS 

The remaining four unaffitiated subclasses of BIOTIC 

FORM are considered non-sexual (not considered to have 

'male* and 'female' forms) and are considered not to have 

'tiiroats' or organs of breathing. They do 'live' (-wango), 

however. 

o gauku [SL] 'mushroom, shelf fungi' 

Note: Mushrooms and shelf fungi are commonly distinguished 

as eitiier the marked o gauku ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad 

gauku' or die unmarked o gauku (ma oa) '(good) gauku.' 

The latter are considered edible. I was often told tiiat "all" 

mushrooms and shelf fungi can be eaten; there is no 

Tobelo tradition of poisonous Halmaheran toadstools, 

mushrooms, or shelf fungi. Only the "good" gauku, 

however, are considered tasty. That distinction between 

"good" and "bad" gauku cross-cuts the folk taxonomy, as 

shown below, because o rai 'shelf fungi' can be either 

"good" (edible) or "bad" (inedible/untasty). 

" o nagi-nagimi [CX, < -nagimi 'to be indebted'; 'indebted' 

(etym.?)] V [NM2-0318] det not avad. (Fungus) 

" o ngau-ngauku [CX, < ngauku 'ear' 4- redup.; 'ratiier like 

an ear' (a reference to the shape of this mushroom's cap)] 

V [NM2-0437] det not avail. (Fungus) 

~ o ngongawate [SL] V [NM2-0447, NM2-0439, NM2-

0209,NM2-0620] det not avad. (Fungus) 

" o ngunugogo [CX-EX, < ngunu (truncation of ngunungu 

'nose') 4- -gogo 'to be hairy'; 'nose is hairy'] V 

[NM2-0438] det. unavail. (Fungus) 

~ o rai [SL, cf. 'tree' of same name, q.v.] 'shelf fungus' 

- o rai (ma oa) [P-EN] '(good) rai' (so called because 

tiiis subclass contains edible rai) V [NM2-0310, 

NM2-0436] det not avail. (Fungus) 'edible shelf 

fungus' 

4- o rai ma dorou [P-EN] 'bad red.' (Note: Similar to 

'good' red, but very untasty, not eaten.) V [NM1-2119] 

det not avail. (Fungus) 'inedible shelf fungus' 

" o tegele [SL] V [NM2-0435, NM2-0436] det not avail. 

(Fungus) 

o pahi [SL, cf. NMM pasi 'coral, most sponges (except barrel 

sponges, cf. o tali ma kiarono)' 

o tali ma kiarono [CD-EN, 'octopus' 4- poss. 'carrying-basket'; 

'octopus's carrying basket'] 'barrel sponges' 

o lulumiti [SL] 'moss, mould, lichen, bryozoa, smaller algae' 

141 
Appendix 4 

Systematic List of Botanical Taxa, 

with Index to Tobelo Basic (B°) Classes 

Famtiy 

Species 

ACANTHACEAE 

Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl. 

Acanthus ilicifolius L. 

Asystasia nemorum Nees 

Gendarussa vulgaris Nees 

Hemigraphis bicolor Bl. Hall 

Hemigraphis cf. ceramensis Bremek. 

?Hemigraphis sp. 

Justicia sp. 

Lepidagathis sp. 

Lepidagathis robinsonii Merr. 

Peristrophe sp. 

Ruellia sp. 

Strobilanthes sp. 

undetermined 

AGAVACEAE 

Cordyline fructicosa (L.) A. Chev. 

Dracaena sp. 

Pleomele angustifolia N.E. Brown 

Sanseviera sp. 

ALANGIACEAE 

Alangium griffithii (Clarke) Harms 

Alangium hirsutum Bloemb. 

Alangium villosum (Bl.) Wangerin 

ALLIACEAE 

Allium ascalonium L. 

Allium cepa L. 

Allium retrofractum 

Allium tuberosum Roxb. 

AMARANTHACEAE 

Achyranthes aspera L. 

Alternanthera bettzicHana (Reg.) Nichols 

Alternantheraficoides (L.) R. Br. ex R. & S. 

Tobelo B° term 

o papuddo 

o papuddo 

o luja 

o roringohana 

o aerani 

o wile-wile 

o lakoddto 

o wile-wile 

o lakoddto 

o aili ma ditoko 

o roringohana 

o bunga-ddra 

o guleuld 

o bunga-ddra 

o hulahi ma dofu 

o aerani 

o roringohana 

owuu 

o wowe 

o hahahini 

o wuu 

o bunga-ular 

ofenga 

o hohiaboro 

o gofdsa 

o bawanga 

o bawanga 

o kucai 

o kucai 

o tokata ma gole-gole 

o bunga-ti 

o bunga-ti 

Appendix no. 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

142 
NUMBER 34 143 

Famtiy 

Species Tobel

o B° term Appendi

x no. 

Alternathera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex R. & S. 

Amaranthus hybridus L. 

Amaranthus spinosus L. 

Amaranthus tricolor L. 

Celosia argentea L. 

Celosia cristata L. 

Cyathula prostrata (L.) Bl. 

Gomphrena globosa L. 

AMARYLLIDACEAE 

Anacardium occidentale L. 

Pancratium zeylanicum L. 

o gogerehi o baya o baya o baya 

obaya o bunga-bdyam o tokata ma gole-gole o bunga-pdt o bua-yaHs o bawa-bawanga 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

ANACARDIACEAE 

Mangifera indica L. 

Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blanco) Merr. 

Semecarpus sp. 

Semecarpus cf. longifolius 

Spondias cf. dulcis Saoland ex Park. 

Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz 

Rhus taitensis Guillemin 

o guawe o aunu ma gilioro 

okuruhu o hehene o hukupote o ngulu o ngulu o kafo 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

ANNONACEAE 

Annona muricata L. 

Annona squamosa L. 

Cananga odorata (Lmk.) Hook f. & Thorns. 

Mitrephora polypyrena Miq. 

Oxymitra sp. 

Oxymitra cuneiformis Zoll. 

Polyalthia sp. 

Uvaria sp. 

o nangka-baldnda o bua-nona o kandnga o hararoko o halale ma ngutuku o hararoko o hararoko o hararoko 

ohaya 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

ANTHYRIACEAE 

Diplazium esculentum Sw. 

APOCYNACEAE 

Allamanda cathartica L. 

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. 

Catharanthus roseus L. 

Cerberafloribunda K. Schum. 

Cerbera sp. 

Chilocarpus sp. 

Ervatamia sp. 

Kopsia arborea Bl. 

Lepiniopsis ternatensis Val. 

Melochia umbellata (Houtt.) Stapf. 

Micrechites polyantha Miq. 

Micrechites serpyllifolia 

o gaguru o bunga-mantega o yangere o bunga-tanjung o capdka o guluihuputu o moliorata o moa-moana o capdka o pulahari o nututu o hero ma rako o ai-aili 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
144 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Famtiy 

Species 

Ochrosia glomerata 

Parsonia cumingiana DC. 

Plumeria sp. 

ARACEAE 

Alocasia sp. 

Colocasia sp. 

Homalomena cordata Schott 

Pothos sp. 

Rhaphidophora pinnata (L. f.) Schott 

Rhaphidophora sp. 

Scindapsus sp. 

Scindapsus cf. pictus Hassk. 

Xanthosoma sp. 

undetermined 

ARALIACEAE 

Osmoxylon sp. 

Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms. 

Schefflera sp. 

Trevesia sundaica Miq. 

Tobelo B° term 

0 goini 

o ngo beye ami hogo 

o capdka 

o widara 

o dilago 

o kabingi ma gouru 

o migi 

o gotoaka ma paka 

o migi 

o ngau-ngauku 

o goyoko ma kikihingi 

o migi 

o dilago 

o kidwa 

o toyomo 

o gurabati 

o kuhu-ktihu 

o putidna ma gitifiri 

o toyomo 

Appendix no. 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

ARAUCARIACEAE 

Agathis sp. o hilo 1.1 

ASCLEPIADACEAE 

Asclepias curassavica 

Cynanchum ovalifolium Wight 

Dischidia imbricata (Bl.) Steud. 

Hoya sp. 

Marsdenia tenacissima W et Arn. 

Marsdenia sp. 

Sarcolobus sp. 

Secamone villosa Bl. 

o aerani 

o lolardnga 

o ngo beye ami hogo 

o lolapdka 

o lake-lakeme 

o diti-diti 

o hauyo 

o ngo beye ami hogo 

o teleliko 

o totofora 

o teleliko 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

ASPIDACEAE 

Tectaria crenata Cav. o bitumu 1.1 

ASPLENIACEAE 

Asplenium adiantoides Raoul 

Asplenium excisum Presl. 

o keketuku 

o karafe-gumi 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 145 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

AVERRHOACEAE 

Averrhoa bilimbi L. 

Averrhoa carambola L. 

AVICENNIACEAE 

Avicennia sp. 

AEOACEAE 

Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. 

BALSAMINACEAE 

Impatiens sp. 

BARRINGTONIACEAE 

Barringtonia sp. 

BEGONIACEAE 

Begonia sp. 

BIGNONIACEAE 

Crescentia cujete L. 

Dolichandrone spathacea (L. f.) K. Sch. 

BOMBACACEAE 

Ceiba pentandra Gaertn. 

Durio zibethinus Murr. 

BORAGINACEAE 

Heliotropium indicum L. 

BROMELIACEAE 

Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. 

BURSERACEAE 

Canarium sp. 

Canarium hirsutum Wdld. f. scabrum Bl. 

o balimbi 

o balimbi 

o efi-efi 

ojalu-jalu 

o guabibe 

o gogoa 

o pangdha 

o gie-giete 

o bua-nd 

o jajame 

o kailupa 

o duriana 

o baya 

o manahi 

o haiti 

o ngeyehaka 

o niara 

o hatobu 

o taulate 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

CANNACEAE 

Canna coccina Mill. 

Canna indie a L. 

CAPPARIDACEAE 

Capparis sp. 

CARICACEAE 

Carica papaya L. 

o tahube" 

o tahubi 

o peda-peda 

o topdya 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
146 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Family 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

CASAURINACEAE 

Casaurina cf. equisetifolia 

Casaurina sumatrana Jungh. ex de Vriese 

CELASTRACEAE 

Euonymus javanicus Bl. 

CHLORANTHACEAE 

Chloranthus sp. 

CHRYSOBALANACEAE 

Parinari sp. 

COMBRETACEAE 

Terminalia catappa L. 

Terminalia microcarpa Decne. 

Terminalia sp. 

COMMELINACEAE 

Commelina sp. 

Pollia sp. 

Pollia secundiflora (Bl.) Bakh. f. 

COMPOSITAE 

Aaenostemma lavenica (L.) O.K. 

Ageratum conyzoides L. 

Bidens pilosa L. 

Blumea sp. 

Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 

Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch. Bip. 

Emilia sp. 

Pluchea indica Less. 

Pseudoelephantopus spicatus (Aubl.) CF. Baker 

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. 

Veronia cinerea (L.) Less. 

Wollastonia biflora DC 

CONVOLVULACEAE 

Dichondra repens Forst. 

Ipomoea batatas L. 

Ipomoea crassicaulis (Benth.) B.L. Robinson 

Ipomoea fistulosa Mart, ex Choisy 

Ipomoea quamoclit L. 

Ipomoea sp. 

Merremia umbellata (L.) Hallier f. 

o /u/ewi 

o /u/ewi 

o melumu ma gule 

o gandaruha 

o habana 

o tiliho 

o kuuhu ma didu 

o ngotiri ma emanga 

o lifi-lifiti 

o lifi-lifiti 

owuu 

o katuri ma boboko 

o aunu ma dodogumu 

o cinga-cinga 

o kokunyinga 

o kohe ma kakoto 

o totabako 

o kokailupa 

o kokailupa 

o cinga-cinga 

o kokuanyi 

o hohokiki 

o balontas 

o digo ma gilaongo 

o kokuanyi 

o puusu ma gumi 

o cinga-cinga 

o leelile 

o kahitela-tonaka 

o bunga-saloi 

o bunga-popohu 

o dodiha ma kobongo 

okangkong 

o ulo 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 147 

Family 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

COSTACEAE 

Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E. Sm. 

Costus sp. 

o maa-maata 

o maa-maata 

1.1 

1.1 

CRASSULACEAE 

Kalachoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers. 

CUCURBITACEAE 

Citrulus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf. 

Cucurbita sp. 

Gymnopetalum chinense (Lour.) Merr. 

Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng. 

Trichosanthes sp. 

undetermined 

o maa-maata 

o hamdka 

o gotimono 

o hambiki 

o dodopongono 

o totorofuku 

o patola 

o torofuku 

o papare 

o patola 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

CYATHEACEAE 

Cyathea sp. 

CYCADACEAE 

Cycas cf. rumphii 

CYPERACEAE 

Cyperus brevifolia (Rottb.) Hassk. 

Cyperus cyperoides (L.) O. Kuntze 

Cyperus iria L. 

Cyperus javanicus Houtt. 

Cyperus kyllingia Endl. 

Cyperus rotundus L. 

Fimbristylis ovata (Burm. f.) Kern 

Hypolytrum sp. 

Mapania cuspidata ((Miq.) Uitt.) var. petiolata 

(Clark) Uitt. 

Mapania macrocephala (Gaud.) K. Sch. 

Rhynchospora rubra 

Scleria sp. 

DAVALLIACEAE 

Davallia sp. 

Davallia trichomanoides Bedd. 

o wugu-wugu 

o bico 

o takiu 

o ruju-ruju 

o limaduku 

o liri-liri 

o takiu 

o takiu 

o karafe ma gumi 

o hehewehe 

o kokayiyu 

o hehewehe 

o jara-jara 

o limaduku 

o gaguru 

o keketuku 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

DlLLENIACEAE 

Tetracera cf. nordtiana F. v. M. o sone-kodiho 1.1 
148 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Family 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

DIOSCOREACEAE 

Dioscorea alata L. 

Dioscorea bulbifera L. 

Dioscorea cf. cumingii 

Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burk. 

Dioscorea hispida Dennstedt 

Dioscorea triphylla L. 

Dioscorea sp. 

DlPTEROCARPACEAE 

Anisoptera thurifera (Blanco) Bl. 

EBENACEAE 

Diospyros cauliflora Bl. 

Diospyros cf. heterocarpa 

Diospyros maritima Bl. 

Diospyros nigra Perr. 

Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 

Diospyros sp. 

EHRETIACEAE 

Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masamune 

Carmona sp. 

ELAEOCARPACEAE 

Aceratium sp. 

Sloanea sp. 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Acalypha cf. amentacea Roxb. 

Acalypha cf. centromalayca Pax & Hoffm. 

Acalypha hellwigii Warb. 

Acalypha indica L. 

Acalypha wilkesiana M.A. 

Acalypha sp. 

Agrostistachys maesoana Vidal 

Agrostistachys cf. pterocalyx Val. 

Alchornea rugosa Veil. 

Baccaurea macrophylla M. A. 

Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw. ex Bl.) M.A. 

Breynia cernua (Poir.) M.A. 

Claoxylon sp. 

Claoxylon longifolium (Bl.) Endl. ex Hassk. 

Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl. 

o toyogata 

o bukuru 

o ngabao 

o gari-gari 

o ubi 

o ubi 

o gari-gari 

o siafu 

o boulamo 

o ode ma futu 

o oaha 

ongapo 

o popopara 

o haya 

ojaga-jaga 

o bunga-ti 

o te 

o moowoete 

o keledongo 

o leleko 

omamu 

o hoboobo 

o hohobdbo 

o sosdlo 

o kaho ma gina-gina 

o totaleo ma hohorene 

o baru-bongana 

o kokori 

o tiliho-gumini 

o riidi 

o dadaromo ma hohakai 

o uhele 

o gobiti 

o gagilamo 

o dodataiti 

o pugu-pugutu 

o watagooko 

o riidi 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 149 

Famtiy 

Species Tobel

o B° term Appendi

x no. 

Croton hirtus L'Her. 

Drypetes globosa P. & H. 

Drypetes cf. mucronata Wright ex Griseb. 

Drypetes sp. 

Endospermum moluccanum Becc. 

Euphorbia sp. 

Glochidion philippicum (Cav.) CB. Rob. 

Macaranga involucrata (Roxb.) Badl. 

Macaranga tanarius (L.) M.A. 

Macaranga sp. 

Mallotus sp. 

Mallotus mollissimus (Giesel) Airy Shaw 

Manihot esculenta Crantz 

Phyllanthus sp. 

Phyllanthus tenuirachis J J.Sm. 

Phyllanthus urinaria L. 

Pimeleodendron amboinicum Hassk. 

Ricinus communis L. 

Securinega flexuosa M.A. 

Securinega sp. 

FAGACEAE 

Lithocarpus sp. 

FLACOURTIACEAE 

Casearia sp. 

Flacourtia sp. 

Homalium foetidum Bentii. 

Ryparosa sp. 

Scolopia spinosa (Roxb.) Warb. 

undetermined 

o totaleo ma ruoho o gaaluri o cade-cade o kapongo ma rurtibu o mohara o guleuld o taehe ma huhuhumu o pea-pea o huhuteongo o gemihi o wee-wee o hamehe o hulumutu o ngalumu 

oalou o hararoko o ngalumu o tahubl o bonata ma unafa o kokareboko o kokareboko o balakang-bablji o tigo-tigono o baacai o bua-jdrak o bobahiha 

ojobirono o hilii o kofi-kofi o tome-tome o atebehi o gobiti o tome-tome o goyoko ma pokoro 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

FLAGELLARIACEAE 

Flagellaria indica L. 

GLEICHENIACEAE 

Gleichenia linearis (Burm.) Clarke 

Gleichenia sp. 

GNETACEAE 

Gnetum gnemonoides Brongn. 

Gnetum sp. 

oroma o ngiuru o ngiuru o rukiti o rukiti 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
150 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

GOODENIACEAE 

Scaevola taccada (Gaert) Roxb. 

GRAMINEAE 

Arundo donax L. 

Bambusa atra Lindl. 

Bracharia cf. paspaloides (Presl) CE. Hubb. 

Cenchrus brownii R. & S. 

Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. 

Centotheca latifolia Trin. 

Coijc lachryma-jobi L. 

Cymbopogon cf. citratus (DC.) Stapf 

Cyrtococcum accrescens Stapf. 

Cyrtococcum patens (L.) A. Camus 

Digitaria sp. 

Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauv. ex R. & S. 

Gigantochloa atter (Hassk.) Kurz ex Munro 

lmperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. 

Leptaspis urseolata (Roxb.) R. Br. 

Oryza sativa L. 

Oplismenus sp. 

Oplismenus compositus (L.) Beauv. 

Paspalum commersonii Lamk. 

Paspalum conjugatum Berg. 

Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth 

Saccharum officinarum L. 

Schizostachyum sp. 

Schizostachyum brachycladum Kurz 

Schizostachyum lima (Blanco) Merr. 

Setaria sp. 

Setaria italica L. 

"Sorghum" series Sativium 

Spinifex littoreus (Burm. f.) Merr. 

Sporobolus diander (Retz.) Beauv. 

Sporobolus indicus (L.) R. Br. 

Themeda gigantea (Cav.) Hassk. 

Themeda sp. 

Zea mays L. 

Zoysia matrella (L.) Merr. var. pacifica Goudswaard 

undetermined Bamboo 

GUTTIFERAE 

Calophyllum sulatri Eeden. 

o gilitopa 

o baburu 

o bulu-baldnda 

o todoku 

o jela-jela 

o pine-pine 

o rai-rai 

o lifi-lifiti 

o ngangangoro 

o lore 

o liri 

o kamo-kamoro 

o kowehe 

o jela-jela 

o ngauku ma hahakara 

o kamo-kamoro 

o auldto 

o nguhumu 

o kaho ma lego-legoro 

opine 

o gohomanga ma aehe 

o ngauku ma hahakara 

o hoye 

o jela-jela 

o gambindha 

o ugaka 

o kakale 

o tetewanga 

o tonga-jdwa 

o tuwiki 

o tiba 

o tuwiki 

o boteme 

oguapo 

o buapo 

o jara-jara 

o mai-maihi 

o tabihahu 

o mai-maihi 

o tabihahu 

o liri-liri 

o ngo bold ami pine 

o kahitela-gota 

o jara-jara ma rurtibu 

o gohoboro 

o hitakono 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 151 

Famtiy 

Species Tobel

o B° term Appendi

x no. 

Calophyllum sp. 

Garcinia sp. 

Garcinia celebica L. 

Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz 

Garcinia parviflora (Miq.) Miq. 

Garcinia parvifolia (Miq.) Miq. 

o ngohaka ma iyo-iyoko o gogowaya o kofi-kofi o kokareboko 

omeata o moliorata 

omeata o ngohaka ma iyo-iyoko o manoko ma boboha o ngami-ngamiri 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

HELICONIACEAE 

Heliconia indica Lam. 

o bole 1.1 

HERNANDIACEAE 

Hernandia nymphaeifolia Kubitzki 

ICACINACEAE 

Gonocaryum littorale (Bl.) Sleum. 

lodes philippinensis Merr. 

Medusanthera laxiflora (Miers) Howard 

LABIATAE 

Hyptis capitata Jacq. 

Hyptis rhomboidea Mart & Gal. 

Ocimum basilicum L. 

Ocimum sanctum L. 

Ocimum tenuiflorum L. 

Orthosiphon aristatus (Bl.) Miq. 

Plectranthus sp. 

Plectranthus scutellarioides (L.) R. Br. 

LAURACEAE 

Cassytha sp. 

Cinnamomum sp. 

Cryptocarya sp. 

Endiandra sp. 

L/ttea sp. 

Neolitsea cassiaefolia (Bl.) Merr. 

undetermined 

LEGUMINOSAE 

Aoruj precatorius L. 

Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. 

Acacia pluricapitata Steud. 

Adenanthera pavonina L. 

A/oizia saponaria (Lour.) Bl. ex Miq. 

Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosb. 

Arachis hypogaea L. 

o nawoko ma /a&o o tome-tome o haiti o karafe-gumi o hae-haeke o hae-haeke o sulasi o hulahi o sike-sike o bold ma gumi o lakoddto o ruju-ruju o totaleo ma hohorene o gurmguraci o kayu-manis 

oiko o luka-lukama o gamonua o lame 

omake o turi-turi o bunga-rampa o cade-cade o poro-poroho o popewi 

oyahe o boci 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
152 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term 

Bauhinia cf. acuminata L. 

Caesalpinia crista L. 

Caesalpinia globulorum Bakh. f. & Van Royen 

Caesalpinia major (Medic.) Dandy & ExeU 

Caesalpinia pulcherima (L.) Swartz 

Calliandra surinamensis Benth. 

Cassia alata L. 

Cassia occidentalis L. 

Cassia sappan L. 

Cassia surattensis Burm. f. 

Cassia tora L. 

Centrosema pubescens Benth. 

Clitoria ternatea L. 

Clitoria sp. 

Crotalaria retusa L. 

Cynometra ramiflora L. 

Clitoria sp. 

Crotalaria retusa L. 

Cynometra ramiflora L. 

Cynometra sp. 

Dalbergia parviflora Roxb. 

Dalbergia cf. ferrugiana Roxb. 

Dalbergia sp. 

Denis trifoliata Lour. 

Derris sp. 

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. 

Desmodium heterocarpum 

Desmodium umbellatum (L.) DC. 

Erythrina sp. 

Erythrina orientalis (L.) Murr. 

Indigofera tinctoria L. 

Inocarpus fagiferus (Park.) Fosb. 

/nteia oi/uga (Colebr.) O.K. 

Lablab purpureus Sweet 

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit 

Maniltoa sp. 

Millettia sp. 

Mimosa invisa Mart. 

Monarthrocarpus securiformis Merr. 

Mucuna sp. 

Petalophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Back. 

Phaseolus radiatus L. 

Phaseolus vulgaris L. 

Pithecellobium sp. 

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Merr. 

o gumoanga 

o tabihahu 

o kate-kate 

o ciciru 

o kate-kate 

o bunga-haji 

o bunga-pagi-sore 

o gohubda 

o dadatara 

o hinianga 

o hinianga 

o bobarai 

o kalapa-honenge 

o bunga-biru 

o kalapa-honenge 

o kokereehe 

o doo-dooyo 

o kalapa-honenge 

o kokereehe 

o doo-dooyo 

o huaono ma guguriti 

o ode ma gitihiri 

o hamete 

o yahe-gumini 

o kate-kate 

o halegumini 

o hurutu 

o haiti 

o hai-haiti 

o ategou 

o haiti 

o galdla 

o papaooto 

o biru 

o gurdma 

o hararoko 

o namo-namo ma dofa 

o kacanga 

o lantdro 

o ode ma gitihiri 

o taehe ma gitifiri 

o hurutu 

o laimusa 

o dia-dia 

o busu ma dalu-daluku 

oyahe 

o tanuma 

o tamelo 

o popewi 

o dia-dia 

o ligua 

Appendix no. 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 153 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Pseudarthria viscida (L.) W. & A. 

Pterocarpus indicus Wtild. 

IPueraria sp. 

Pueraria cf. pulcherrima Merr. ex Koord.-Schum. 

Ormosia calavensis Asaolo ex Blanco 

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. 

Sesbania javanica Miq. 

Sophora tomentosa L. 

Tamarindus indicus L. 

Taxotrophis ilicifolia Vid. 

Tephrosia sp. 

Vigna marina (Burm. f.) Merr. 

Vigna sesquipedalis (L.) Fruw. 

o kaho ma rio 

o ligua 

o ingiri ma gegihe 

opuku 

o bobihingo 

o biraro 

o turi 

o dudeke ma gohi 

o asang-jdwa 

o kate-kate 

o biru 

o loldro 

o kacang-pdnjang 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

LINDSAEACEAE 

Lindsaea sp. 

Sphenomeris retusa (Cav.) Maxon 

o kokabela 

ogaguru 

1.1 

1.1 

LORANTHACEAE 

Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Bl. o bahi-bahi 1.1 

LYCOPODIACEAE 

Lycopodium carinatum Desv. 

LYTHRACEAE 

Lagerstroemia ovalifolia T. & B. 

Lawsonia inermis L. 

o karo ma bunga 

o gofdsa 

o eldka 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

MALPIGHIACEAE 

Tristellateia australasiae A. Rich. o hero ma rako 1.1 

MALVACEAE 

Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. 

Gossypium acuminatum Roxb. 

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. 

Hibiscus tiliaceus L. 

Hibiscus sp. 

Sida acuta Burm. f. 

Sida rhombifolia L. 

Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. 

Urena lobata L. f. tomentosa (Bl.) Borss. 

Urena lobata L. f. lobata 

o botara 

okapasa 

o botara 

o baru 

o dedoro 

o ubo-ubo 

o digo 

o digo 

o nawoko ma lako 

o kokomomoko 

o kokomomoko 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

MARANTACEA 

Donax canniformis (B. Forst) K. Schum. 

MELASTOMATACEAE 

Melastoma affine D. Don. 

Pternandra sp. 

o bidwa 

o bunga-biru 

o hooro 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
154 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

MELIACEAE 

Aglaia elaeagnoidea Bentii. 

Aglaia sp. 

Aglaia sp. 

Aphanamixis sp. 

Dysoxylum sp. 

Lansium domesticum Jacq. 

?Walsura sp. 

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem. 

MELIOSMACEAE 

Melisoma pinnata L. 

MEMECYLACEAE 

Memecylon sp. 

Plectronia sp. 

MENISPERMACEAE 

Cissampelos pariera L. 

Tinospora crispa Miers (L.) Miers 

ex Hook. f. & Thorns, 

undetermined 

MONIMIACEAE 

Ribara sp. 

Kibara sp. 

Pycnarrhena manillensis Vidal 

undetermined 

MORACEAE 

Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. 

Artocarpus sp. 

Artocarpus altilis (Park.) Fosb. 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. 

Fatoua pilosa Gaud. 

Ficus sp. 

Ficus adenosperma Miq. 

Ficus adenosperma Miq. f. angustifolia 

Ficus ampelos Burm. f. 

Ficus melinocarpa Bl. 

Ficus punctata Thunb. 

Prainea papuana Becc 

o dodofo o gota 

o luka-lukama 

o kamayua 

o hatobu 

o dodofo o gota 

o duo-duono 

o hauyo 

o luka-lukama 

o lukama 

o rubu 

o nanalingi 

o gacuaka ma inomo 

o bangata 

o bangata 

o buhuru ma ngongokutu 

opuku 

o papaita 

o gogurati 

o goroftitu ma houru 

o gumuru ma gohi 

o morihuhuku 

o morihuhuku 

o moata 

o meha-mehanga 

o amo 

ofisa 

o gomono 

o tudda 

o nguna-ngunanga 

o ngutuku ma gogurati 

o bobaharama 

o hohiaboro 

o poo-pooto 

o tataulu 

o guihi 

o homomara 

o nouku 

o hohononga 

o bobaharama 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 155 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

MUSACEAE 

Musa spp. 

MYRSINACEAE 

Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco 

Discocalyx sp. 

Embelia sp. 

Maesa tetrandra (Roxb.) DC. 

Maesa sp. 

Rapanea cf. rawacensis (DC.) Mez 

o bole 

o ngura 

o tela-tela 

opangdha 

o tui 

o pogihoro 

o pogihoro 

o takupoa 

MYRISTICACEAE 

Myristica fragrans Houtt o gohora 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

MYRTACEAE 

Decaspermum sp. 

Decaspermum bracteatum (Roxb.) Schott 

Psidium guajava L. 

Syzygium sp. [= Eugenia sp.] 

Syzygium aromaticum Kuntze 

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 

Syzygium jambos (L.) Alst 

Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. 

Syzygium racemosum (Bl.) DC. 

NAUCLEACEAE 

Anthocephalus sp. 

Nauclea orientalis L. 

Uncaria so. 

& Perry 

o manoko ma babahana 

o manoko ma boboha 

o rofisi 

o gowdya 

o baa-babanga 

o gogowdya 

o hale 

o kokareboko 

o mako-makoro 

o rofisi 

o cengke 

o mako-makoro 

o jambula 

o kokareboko 

o gogoa 

o mayoro 

o hekiri 

o hekiri 

o abete 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

NEPENTHACEAE 

Nepenthes sp. 

NYCTAGINACEAE 

Boerhavia diffusa L. 

Boerhavia mutabilis R. Br. 

Bougainvillea sp. 

Mirabilis jalapa L. 

Pisonia sp. 

o wato-wato ai koworo 

o bae-bae 

o gofosonyinga 

o gofosonyinga 

o bunga-kartds 

o guabebe 

o leleko 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
156 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Famtiy 

Species 

OLEACEAE 

Jasminum sambac Soland 

OLEANDRACEAE 

Nephrolepsis falcata (Cav.) C Chr. 

Nephrolepsis hirsutula Presl. 

Nephrolepsis sp. 

ONAGRACEAE 

Jussiaea suffruticosa L. 

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven 

OPHIGLOSSACEAE 

Ophioglossum sp. 

ORCHIDACEAE 

Acriopsis javanica Reinw. 

Bulbophyllum sp. 

Dendrobium calceolum Roxb. 

Dendrobium cf. lancifolium A. Rich. 

Dendrobium sp. 

Eulophia javanica JJ.S. 

Eulophia squalida Lindl. 

Luisia sp. 

Nervilia aragoana Gaud. 

Spathoglottis plicata Bl. 

OXALIDACEAE 

Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch var. 

Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. 

PALMAE 

Areca sp. 

Arenga obtusifolia Mart 

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. 

Calamus sp. 

aff. Calamus sp. 

Caryota sp. 

Cocos nucifera L. 

Corypha sp. 

Hydriastele rostrata? Burret 

Licuala sp. 

Metroxylon sp. 

Nypa fruticans Wurmb. 

Pinanga sp. 

uncollected palm 

Tobelo B° term 

o mantiru 

o kokabela 

o kokabela 

o kokabela 

o bobobira 

o bobobira 

o hari-harimi 

o tabihahu 

o tarate 

o tabihahu 

o koyoba ma toimi 

o uga-ugaka 

o tabihahu 

o tarate 

o tarate 

o huhu ma dara 

o tarate 

o tutulaka 

o kuho ma gouru 

o rautengo 

oroma 

o gogiooko 

o gogiooko 

o mokuru 

o pepetingi 

o daluku 

o iwi 

o take 

o hemu 

oigono 

o weka 

o hemu 

o weka 

opeda 

o boboro 

o hemu 

o baru 

Appendix no. 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 157 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

undetermined palm 

PANDANACEAE 

Freycentia sp. 

Pandanus sp. 

Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. 

PASSIFLORACEAE 

Passiflora foetida L. 

PEPEROMIACEAE 

Peperomia pellucida (L.) H.B.K. 

PIPERACEAE 

Piper caninum Bl. 

Piper fragile Bentii. 

Piper insignilimbun DC. 

Piper retrofractum Vahl 

Piper sp. 

PTTTOSPORACEAE 

Pittosporum ferrugineum Ait 

Pittosporum moluccanum (Lamk.) Miq. 

POLYPODIACEAE 

Drynaria sparsisora T. Moore 

Microsorium punctatum Copel. 

Microsorium sp. 

Pyrrosia sp. 

PTERIDACEAE 

Pteris sp. 

Pteris ensiformis Burm. 

RANUNCULACEAE 

Clematis sp. 

RHAMNACEAE 

Alphitonia sp. 

Alphitonia incana (Roxb.) Kurz 

Colubrina asiatica (L.) Brongn. 

Colubrina cf. beccariana 

odiba 

o dokoto 

o gulubenge 

o tajdngo 

o wange ma dingoto 

o bokumu 

o buho 

o kokayiyu 

o liliama 

o manarama 

opudaka 

o bua-putri 

o gare-garehe 

o bidoho 

o bidoho 

o tali 

o leelile 

o bidolika 

o pacikdra 

o roringohana 

o pacikdra 

o wama-wama 

o totufufungu 

o keketuku 

o weka-weka 

o totufufungu 

o kokabela 

o mongdyo 

o muroraha 

o habana 

o habana 

o tato ma gohi 

o mabanoka manga hikata 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
158 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Ziziphus angustifolius (Miq.) Hats. 

RHEOPHORACEAE 

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. 

Rhizophora apiculata Bl. 

uncoUected mangrove tree 

RUBIACEAE 

Borreria laevis (Lam.) Grisb. 

Borreria sp. 

Canthium sp. 

Coffea arabica L. var. 

Gardenia cf. pterocalyx Val. 

Guettarda speciosa L. 

Hedyotis biflora (L.) Lamk. 

Hydnophytum sp. 

Ixora sp. 

Morinda bracteata Roxb. 

Morinda citrifolia L. 

Mussaenda sp. 

Myrmecodia sp. 

Oldenlandia dichotoma Hook. 

Ophiorriza canescens Bl. 

Ophiorrhiza cf. neglecta Bl. 

Pavetta cf. sylvatica Bl. 

Pavetta sp. 

Plectronia sp. 

Psychotria leptothyrsa Miq. 

Psychotria sarmentosa Bl. 

Randia oppositifolia Koord 

Timonius rufescens Boerl. 

Timonius timon (Spreng.) Merr. 

Timonius sp. 

RUTACEAE 

Acronychia trifoliata Zoll. & Mor. 

Cifrus sp. 

Clausena excavata Burm. 

Clausena harmandiana Pierre ex Gudl. 

Euodia aromatica Bl. 

Euodia latifolia DC. 

Euodia rosea Merr. & Perry 

Lunasia amara Blanco 

Luvunga sarmentosa (Bl.) Kurz 

Micromelum diversifolium Miq. 

Micromelum sp. 

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack 

Zanthoxylum avicennae (Lamk.) DC 

o karianga ma akiri 

o babanga 

o babanga 

o bido-bidoho 

o aerani 

o huhuteongo 

o bangata 

okofi 

o gota ma amoko 

o riidi 

o torobtiku 

o koha-koha 

o buko-buko 

o hayamami 

o komene 

o gomo-gomono 

o komene 

o moowoete 

o buko-buko 

o koha-koha 

o gie-giete 

o dode ma panga 

o kofi-kofi 

o kofi-kofi 

o bangata 

o takupoa 

okokobtibu 

o hamangau 

o biniari 

o keledongo 

o biniari 

o kokabela 

o horobiingi 

o wama 

ofahihtiku 

o kokultibu 

o ngo bao ami bahuku ma otini 

o totopdya 

o horobiingi 

o pugu-pugutu 

o hugerongo 

omeata 

o tioua 

o wada-wada 

ojobirono 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 159 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendi

x no. 

Zanthoxylum sp. 

SALICACEAE 

Salix tetrasperma Roxb. 

SAMBUCACEAE 

Sambucus canadensis L. 

SAPINDACEAE 

Aphania senegalensis Radlk . 

Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. 

Elattostachys zippeliana Radlk. 

Euphorianthus obtusa Radlk. 

Harpullia sp. 

Harpullia arborea Radlk. 

laegera sp. 

Lepidopetalum perrottetii Blume 

Lepisanthes tetraphylla Radlk. 

Nephelium sp. 

Pometia pinnata J.R. & G. Forst. 

Pometia tomentosa (Bl.) T. et B. 

SAPOTACEAE 

Palaquium lobbianum Burck. 

Planehonella linggensis (Burck.) Pierre 

undetermined 

o kate-kate o malepuutu 

ojerema bunga o bobihingo o alcar-pantki o tabidonga 

ofahihuku 

ofahihuku o kokareboko o kowehe o humu ma boboha o koledukuru 

ofahihtiku o rambutan o ngaeke o hatobu o tifiriki o wuhi-wuhi o luka-lukama 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

SCHIZAEACEAE 

Lygodium circinnatum (Burm. f.) Sw. 

Lygodium sp. 

SCROPHULARIACEAE 

Lindernia Crustacea (L.) F.v.M. 

Torenia fragrans (Bl.) K. & V. 

SELAGINELLACEAE 

Selaginella willdenowii Baker 

Selaginella sp. 

SOLANACEAE 

Capsicum frutescens L. 

Datura sp. 

Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. 

Mathaea sp. 

Mathaea sp. 

Nicotiana tabacum L. 

Physalis sp. 

Physalis cf. minima L. 

o mongoyo o mongoyo o bae-bae o hayamami o keketuku o keketuku o keketuku o rica o kocubo o kokocubo o tamate o goroftitu ma houru o gumtiru ma gohi o tabako o igo-igono o igo-igono 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
160 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Family 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Solanum melongena L. 

Solanum torvum Swartz 

Solanum verbascifolium L. 

Solanum sp. 

o woki-woki 

o huleele 

o woki-woki 

o lantdro 

o totabako 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

SONNERATTIACEAE 

Duabanga moluccana Bl. 

Sonneratia alba J.Smith 

STEMONACEAE 

Stemona curtisii Lour. 

STERCULIACEAE 

Abroma mollis DC. 

Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merr. 

Heritiera littoralis Dryand. ex Ait. 

Kleinhovia hospita L. 

Melochia umbellata Stapf 

Sterculia rubiginosa Vent. 

Sterculia urceolata Sm. 

Sterculia sp.? 

undetermined 

STILAGINACEAE 

Antidesma celebicum Miq. 

Antidesma sp. 

STRYCHNACEAE 

Strychnos axillaris Colebr. 

Strychnos colubrina L. 

TETRAMELACEAE 

Octomeles sumatranus Miq. 

THELYPTERIDACEAE 

Cyclosorus sp. 

Pronephrium sp. 

Thelypteris sp. 

TILIACEAE 

?Grewia sp. 

Grewia acuminata Juss. 

Grewia laevigata Val. 

Microcos ceramensis Biuret 

Triumfetta pilosa Roth 

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 

o haawaku 

o pohi-pohi 

o ngabao 

ojabaoto 

o gihaoro 

o rortimu 

o dedoro 

o kuho ma rio 

o mututu 

o bole ma gomu-gomuku 

o gohi ma hahawo 

o hilo 

o lifi-lifiti ma dofa 

o kadateke 

o lalade 

o hooro 

o hooro 

o kuuhu ma didu 

o gaguru 

o lage-lage 

o gaguru 

o karafe-gumi 

o hugerongo 

o ngunguningi 

o ngunguningi 

o ngodoro 

o kokomomoko 

o kokomomoko 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
NUMBER 34 161 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

ULMACEAE 

Celtis latifolia (Bl.) Planch. 

Celtis philippensis var. wightii Planch. 

Trema cannabina Lour. 

Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. 

Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) Hara 

UMBELLIFERAE 

Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) Craib. 

URTICACEAE 

Debregeasia sp. 

Elatostema sp. 

Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. 

Pipturus argenteus (Forst) Wedd. 

Pouzolzia sp. 

Sloetia elongata Koord. 

Villebrunea rubescens (Bl.) Blume 

VERBENACEAE 

Callicarpa bicolor Juss. 

Clerodendrum sp. 

Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. 

Lantana camara 

Lantana sp. 

Premna foetida Reinw. ex Blume 

Premna odorata Blanco 

Premna sp. 

Vitex cofassus Reins, ex Bl. 

VITACEAE 

Cayratia sp. 

Cissus nodosa Bl. 

VITTARIACEAE 

Vittaria sp. 

ZINGIBERACEAE 

Alpinia nutans (L.) Rose 

Alpinia sp. 

Curcuma longa L. 

Hornstedtia sp. 

Kaempferia sp. 

Languas galanga (L.) Stuntz. 

Riedelia sp. 

o nooro 

o karianga ma atari 

ohooro 

o karianga ma akiri 

oruhu 

o sosonyinga 

oruhu 

o ruhu 

o horowai 

o gutuhuru 

o hakaru ma bunga 

o ingiri ma gegihe 

o kikiri 

o libirini 

o mainjanga ma hilawoto ma ngangaiki 

o mali-mali 

o hinangiri 

o hohardna 

o dodataiti 

o lobiri 

o bunga-ddra 

o laimusa 

o laimusa 

o homooko 

o homooko 

o kaildka 

o gofdsa 

o rotu-rotu 

o rotu-rotu 

o goguhungiri 

o biworo 

o guluaha 

o ngangangoro 

o gurati 

o goobe 

o momongere 

o guluaha 

oforofiaha 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

3.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 
162 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. 

Zingiber officinale Roxb. 

Zingiber sp. 

undetermined 

Famtiy undetermined 

o bangilie 

o gihdro 

o titfbi 

o fuusu 

o gogitifiri 

o momortitu 

o badaewa 

o bafasa 

o balakama 

o beka 

o behelo 

o biorongo 

o bira-bira 

o bonata ma unafa 

o bongo-bongo 

o bori 

o bukuwini 

o bunga jam duablas 

o bunga jam sembilan 

o bunga-kondp 

o bunga penesilin 

o deri-derihi 

o dilago-bunga 

o dobe-dobele 

o dugdya ma iyoko 

o gaapaho 

o gagawi 

o gahi-gahi 

o gamurdma 

ogapdha 

o gawi 

o giwa-giwanga 

o gobu-gobu 

o gobu-gobu ma gohi 

o goruo ma mirimi 

o gotimono 

o guluitokara 

o haldka 

o hide-hidete 

o hohaldka 

o hohodoa 

o hokaregi 

o horofiasa 

o hulahi ma dowa 

o hurudai 

o huru-hurutu 

o imara 

ojojibdbo 
NUMBER 34 163 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Algae, undetermined 

Fungi, undetermined 

o kaba-kaba o kaca-kacanga o kahobikini o kakakara 

okakanoko o karianga ma hoata o kastroli o katok 

okiahu o kobo-kobongo o korehdra ma gumini o koyoba ma gihoro o kugete o kuhawiri o lele o lifofoko o lobo-loboro o meleu ma gitifiri o ngahiri o ngasdfa o ngeceda o ngohaka manga buku ma didino o nguroto ma doa o ogama o okiri o paate o paiyongihi o peda ma ora o petele o poko-pokoro o puhelingi 

orabdnga o riwoto o sayur-cina o tabidonga o tadauru ma houru o taehe ma futu o tatama o teleme ma ngongopuru o tiba ma mehanga o timilongo o totufufungu ma dofa o tuuru ma diaoto o uungu o wange ma duga 

oyuyu o lulumiti o gauku o nagi-nagimi o ngongawate 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

3.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

3.2 

3.2 

3.2 
164 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Famtiy 

Species Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

o ngunungu 

oral 

o tegele 

3.2 

3.2 

3.2 

SYNONOMIES 

o babanga: Rhizophora apiculata Bl. = Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. 

o bahi-bahi: Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Bl. = Loranthus pentandrus L. 

o bangata: Plectronia sp. = Canthium 

o bi£wa: Thalia canniformis G. Forst. = Donax canniformis (G. Forst.) K. Schum. 

o bunga-bayam: Celosia cristata L. = Celosia argentea L. 

o cinga-cinga: Wollastonia bifiora (L.) DC. = Wedelia biflora (L.) DC. 

o forofiaha: Riedelia sp. = Lantana 

o gilitopa: Scaevola taccada (Gaertii.) Roxb. = Scaevola sericea Vahl 

o gofosonyinga: Boerhavia diffusa L. = Boerhavia mutabilis R. Br. 

o hahahini: Dracena angustifolia Roxb. = Pleomele angustifolia (Roxb.) N£ . Brown 

o hale ma ngutuku: Oxymitra sp. = Friesodielsia sp. 

o hararoko: Oxymitra sp. = Friesodielsia sp. 

o hinangiri: Villebrunea scabra = V. rubescens (Bl.) Bl. 

o homooko o ngairiha: Premna pubescens Blume = P. odorata Blanco 

o hulahi: Ocimum sanctum L. = O. tenuiflorum L. 

o ingiri ma gegehe: Leucosyke alba Wedd. = L. capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. 

o kabingi ma gouru: Homalomena aromatica Schott = H. cordata Schott 

o kacanga: Dolichos lablab L. = Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet 

o kamo-kamoro: Eragrostis plumosa Link = E. tenella (L.) Beauv. ex R. & S. 

o kapongo ma rurubu: Croton hirsutus L'Herit = C. glandulosus L. var. hiata 

o koha-koha: Oldenlandia biflora L. = Hedyotis biflora (L.) Lam. 

o kokaUupa ma nauru: Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. = E. prostrata (L.) L. 

o kokuanyi: Eleutheranthera ovata Poit et Steud. = E. ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.-Bip. 

o komene ma nauru: Morinda bracteata Roxb. = M. citrifolia L. 

o kucai: Allium tuberosum Roxb. = A. odoratum L. 

o kuho ma gouru: Nervilia aragoana Gaud. = N. flabelliformis L. 

o lolapaka: Dischidia collyris WaU. = D. imbricata (Bl.) Steud. 
Appendix 5 

Systematic List of Zoological Taxa, 

with Index to Tobelo Basic (B°) Classes 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

PORTFERA 

'except barrel sponges' 

'barrel sponges' 

SCHYPHOZOA 

'jeUyfish, medusa' 

ANTHOZOA 

'sea anemone' 

'sea anemones on pragurid-inhabited 

gastropod sheds' 

'coral' 

Antipatharia 

TREMATODA 

NEMATODA 

POLYCHAETA 

'palolo worm' 

Undetermined Polychaeta 

OLIGOCHAETA 

HlRUDINEA 

MOLLUSCA 

Chitonidae 

spp. undet 

Marine Prosobranchia 

spp. undet 

o pahi 

o tali ma kiaro 

o tataulu 

o gaeru 

o boro-boroho 

o pahi 

o kalibaharu 

o gaili 

o gaili 

o wawoko 

o ai-aili 

o kulubati 

o gofoa 

o totawda 

oaruho 

o bekere 

o bold ma gule 

o daro-daro 

o dodiha ma gogerena 

o gogihdro 

o hege ma gilaongo 

o lakotaromo 

o lilingi 

3.2 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.4 

3.2 

3.1 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

165 
166 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term 

Freshwater Prosobranchia 

spp. undet 

Land Prosobranchia 

spp. undet 

Conidae 

spp. undet 

Epitonudae 

spp. undet 

Trochidae 

spp. undet 

Tonnidae 

spp. undet 

Littorinidae 

spp. undet. 

Neritidae 

spp. undet 

CrepiduUdae 

spp. undet 

Cypraeidae 

spp. undet 

Ovulidae 

spp. undet. 

Strombidae 

spp. undet 

Nudibranchia 'sea slug' 

Terrestrial pulmonates 

Stylommatophora 'terr. slugs' 

Isognomonidae 

spp. undet. 

Neritidae 

spp. undet 

Arcidae 

spp. undet 

MytiUdae 

spp. undet 

Pinnidae 

Pinna spp. 

Pectinidae 

spp. undet 

CorbicuUdae 

o makilihi 

o nikere 

o uru-bututu 

o kutu-kuturu 

o mede-mede 

o humani 

o paoto 

o bobili 

o mulaha ma bianga 

o tolu-tolumu 

o hege 

o korehdra ma tatadaka 

o mulo 

o lobi-lobi 

o difa-difa 

o dirihi 

o doro-doro 

o kahorihiki 

o lolo 

o bekere 

o longkoi 

o ake-akeme 

o ake-akeme 

o baa-baana 

o kekewoko 

o pea-pea 

o popogane 

o gogotoaka 

o taehe ma gitifiri 

o talupihi 

ofiri-firi 

Appendix no. 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.5 

2.5 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 
NUMBER 34 167 

Taxon Tobel

o B° term Appendix no. 

spp. undet 

Tridacnidae 

spp. undet 

Marine bivalves 

spp. undet 

Gastropoda or Pelecypoda 

spp. undet 

Cephalopoda 

Decapoda 

Octopoda 

ARTHROPODA 

Arachnida 

'spider (except wolf spiders and Salticidae)' 

Salticidae 

Lycosidae 

'wolf spiders' 

Acarina 

Ixodidae 

Trombiculidae 

okoli o bia-garo o bahu-bahuku o bia-cina o bia-cina ma dofa 

obobongono o bukuhiri o caparete o caparuku o ciciru 

ofeene ma hoata o gagiene o gogiliki o guewa o haoha o hihiri ma ngi o hohaijawi 

ojojongo 

okokadbo 

okokori o maildfo o nagi-nagimi o ofele o oha-oha o tataapa o bia-haki o laji-laji o papaco o bulanga o nuhu-nuhu o tali o ardra o gufuru ma dadagoko o oanga o gani o gumemene 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

CRUSTACEA 

Malacostraca 

Stomatopoda 

Decapoda 

'shrimp, lobster' 

'lobster' spp. undet. 

o pidiloongo o dode o hoowene 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 
168 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

'crab' 

Birgus sp. 

Praguridae 

INSECTA 

'tiny insects or arachnids such as mites and 

chiggers which cause itchiness of the skin' 

Odonata 

'Dragonfly' 

Orthoptera 

Blattidae 

'(some) grasshoppers' 

'large grasshopper' 

Mantidae 

Phasmatidae 

Undetermined Ordioptera 

Isopoda 

'termite' 

Mallophaga 

Anoplura 

Hemiptera 

Corixidae 

Nepidae 

Undetermined Hemiptera 

Homoptera 

Cicadidae 

Coleoptera 

'Weevil' 

weevil larvae 

Curculionidae 

Elateridae 

Undetermined Coleoptera 

Lepidoptera 

'larvae and similar larval forms' 

'Adult butterfly or moth' 

Diptera 

Diptera larvae 

Sarcophagidae 

Muscidae 

Ceratopogonidae (esp. Culicoides spp.) 

Culicidae 

Hymenoptera 

Formicidae 

Oecophylla smaragdina 

Vespidae 

spp. undetermined 

o koru 

o putati 

o wungama 

o gumemene 

o gaawuhi 

o goguhu 

o kaahdho 

o longu-longu 

o peo-peoto 

o peo-peoto 

o kaahdho 

o butiteke 

o gani 

o gani 

ofee-feene 

o gogomoma 

o busu-busu 

o dangdnga 

o gorehe 

o habeta ma ayo 

o habeta 

o habeta ma ayo 

o dobi-dobiki 

o guru 

o kabi-kabingi 

o muru-murutu 

o tii-tiihi 

o pipiti 

o lulule 

o gaili 

o gilidanga 

o guhuru 

o lefaiti 

o gomoma 

o iuru 

o kane-kane 

o nipa-nipa 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 
NUMBER 34 169 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Undetermined Hymenoptera 

Siphonaptera 

UncoUected—Insecta? 

DIPLOPODA 

CHILOPODA 

BRYOZOA 

ASTEROIDEA (part) 

'crown of tiiorns starfish' 

OPHIUROIDEA 

ECHINOIDEA 

o ofungu 

o bum-bum 

o gani 

oaoro 

o gogoapa 

o kote-kote 

o loliowaha 

o moloiru 

o ngami-ngamiri 

o totdfo 

o lefere 

o mimiri 

o aili 

o bildma 

o lulumiti 

o hilo ma totodenge 

o mumuru 

o tali-tali 

o hilo ma totodenge 

HOLOTHUROIDEA 

PISCES 

'ray fish' ? (uncoUected; ?Dasyatidae) 

'ray fish' ? (uncoUected; ?Dasyatidae) 

Rhincodontidae 

Rhincodon typus 

Orectolobidae 

sp. undet 

Carcharhinidae 

spp. undet 

Sphyrnidae 

spp. undet 

Pristiophoridae 

'sawfish'? (uncollected) 

o mumuru 

o taripanga 

o tauja 

o golemaka 

opaapadka 

o garangoto 

o garangoto 

o garangoto 

o garangoto 

o garangoto 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

3.2 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 
170 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Dasyatidae 

Dasyatis kuhlii 

Himantura uarnak 

Taeniura lymma 

sp. undet 

Mobulidae 

Manta birostris 

AnguiUidae 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

Moringuidae 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

Muraenidae 

spp. undet 

Ophichtiiidae 

spp. undet 

Clupeidae 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

spp. undet 

Anodontostoma chacunda 

Anodontostoma chacunda 

Nematalosa come 

Chirocentridae 

spp. undet 

Engraulidae 

Thryssa baelama 

sp. undet 

Plotosidae 

sp. undet 

Synodontidae 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

Antennariidae 

sp. undet 

Exocoetidae 

sp. undet 

Hemirhamphidae 

Hemirhamphus far 

Hemirhamphus lutkei 

Hyporhamphus quoyi 

Zenarhopterus gilli 

Belonidae 

Strongylura incisa 

Tylosurus acus melanotus 

Tylosurus crocodilus crocodilus 

spp. undet 

Atherinidae 

Atherinomorus cylindricus 

Atherinomorus duodecimalis 

Atherinomorus endrachtensis 

o noara 

o noara 

o noara 

o noara 

o noara 

o boboro ma diaoto 

o goyoko 

o bai-baiti 

o boboro ma diaoto 

oado 

o boboro ma diato 

o haradina 

omakehe 

o ngafi 

o sumasi 

o tuta 

o tuta 

omei 

o hakaru ma timi 

o laaba 

okaibo 

o bai-baiti 

o ragu-ragumu 

o capadike 

o toni 

ogogdobo 

o ngowaro 

o duimi 

o dobibono 

o hilowana 

o hilowana 

o hilowana 

o hilowana 

o koouno 

o koouno 

okoouno 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 
NUMBER 34 171 

Taxon Tobel

o B° term Appendi

x no. 

Atherinomorus lacunosus 

Atherion elymus 

Holocentridae 

spp. undet 

spp. undet 

Fistulariidae 

sp. undet 

Centriscidae 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

Sygnadiidae 

Choeroichthys brachysoma 

Choeroichthys haematopterus 

Sygnathoides biaculeatus 

Sygnathoides biaculeatus 

spp. undet 

Scorpaenidae 

spp. undet 

Synancejidae 

sp. undet 

Platycephalidae 

Platycephalus indicus 

Echeneididae 

Echeneis naucrates 

Remora remora 

Ambassidae 

Ambassis sp. 

sp. undet 

Teraponidae 

Mesopristes cancellatus 

Terapon spp. 

spp. undet 

Serranidae 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

Apogonidae 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

spp. undet 

SUlaginidae 

Sillago sihama 

Lactariidae 

sp. undet 

Rachycentridae 

sp. undet 

Carangidae 

Alepes vari 

Caranx sexfasciatus 

Elagatis bipinnulata 

o gumi-gumi 

okoouno o kuluri o kuluri o tambtiru o gaka-gakana o ogama ma nawoko o gohomanga ma hilawoto ma hahakara o gohomanga ma hilawoto ma hahakara o gohomanga ma hilawoto ma hahakara o hohodono o gohomanga ma hilawoto ma hahakara o noofo 

onoofo o hama-hama o gigo o gigo o gutu-gete o gutu-gete o gorogoto o ogama ma nawoko o golila o babanga ma kai o beene o hamu o lodi o roi o gutu-gete o mumuru ma nawoko o telembaca o babooyo o liguha o gao o cioongo o hohomare o suru 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 
172 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Megalaspis cordyla 

Scomberoides commersonnianus 

Selar boops 

Selaroides leptolepis 

Ulua mentalis 

Ulua sp. 

spp. undet 

spp. undet. 

spp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

spp. undet. 

sp. undet. 

spp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

sp. undet 

spp. undet. 

Leiognatiiidae 

spp. undet 

Lutjanidae 

sp. undet. 

spp. undet 

spp. undet. 

sp. undet. 

sp. undet. 

sp. undet. 

spp. undet. 

sp. undet. 

spp. undet 

Lobotidae 

sp. undet 

Gerreidae 

sp. undet. 

sp. undet 

Haemulidae 

Diagramma pictum 

Plectorhynchus indicus 

Pomadasys argenteus 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

spp. undet. 

Ledirinidae 

sp. undet. 

sp. undet 

Nemipteridae 

Nemipterus hexodon 

Pentapodus trivittatus 

Scolopsis ciliatus 

Scolopsis margaritifer 

Scolopsis temporalis 

o torouro 

opegi 

ooci 

onoru 

o nunukono 

o nunukono 

o bobdra 

o cioongo 

o gogolebo 

o hibihdwa 

o hohomare 

o lakoftiku 

o lalanga 

o mofi 

ooci 

opegi 

o tataulu ma nawoko 

o torouro 

o tudele 

o tatameri 

o bonata 

o cooro 

o dolohi 

o gaca 

ogega 

ogoga 

o litaimi 

o litau-dolosi 

o lou-lou 

o hanogaya 

o gutu-gete 

o janga-janga 

o rajabau 

o hakaru ma timi 

oroi 

ofajabau 

o hakaru ma timi 

o roi 

o botila 

o hikuda 

o lakoria 

o maa-maana 

o gehedemo 

o lakopeda 

o kuldla 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 
NUMBER 34 173 

Taxon Tobel

o B° term Appendi

x no. 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

sp. undet 

MuUidae 

Pseudopeneus sp. 

Upeneus sp. 

spp. undet 

Monodactylidae 

sp. undet 

Pempheridae 

Pempheris vanicolensis 

sp. undet 

Toxotidae 

Toxotes chatareus 

Kyphosidae 

spp. undet 

Ephippididae 

spp. undet 

Drepanidae 

sp. undet 

Scatophagidae 

Scatophagus argus 

sp. undet 

Chaetodontidae 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

spp. undet 

Pomacentridae 

Abudefduf lorenzi 

Abudefduf saxatilis 

Abudefduf sp. 

Abudefduf spry. 

Amphiprion ocellaris 

Amphiprion polymnus 

Amphiprion sp. 

Amphiprion sp. 

Dascyllus aruanus 

Dascyllus trimaculatus 

Dischistodus spp. 

Eupomacentrus spp. 

Glyphidodontops sp. 

Neopomacentrus sp. 

Neopomacentrus sp. 

Neopomacentrus sp. 

Neopomacentrus spp. 

Paraglyphidodon spp. 

Pomacentrus sp. 

Pomacentrus sp. 

Pomacentrus spp. 

spp. undet 

o lakopeda olakoria o gehedemo o gumi-gumi o gumi-gumi o gumi-gumi o harimi ma beleti o harimi ma beleti o harimi ma beleti o dadaboa 

oila 

omudao o balawai o baru ma hoka o wawaru o gogotdna o kolibdbo o lulule o totabako 

omakehe o dadiaanga o dadiaanga o wogo-wogono o gaeru ma nawoko o gaeru ma nawoko o gaeru ma nawoko o melumu o dadiaanga o kolibdbo o wogo-wogono o wogo-wogono o kuluri o ado o kuluri o ngomu o wogo-wogono o wogo-wogono o kokucubili o ngomu o wogo-wogono o gumtiru 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 
174 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

MugiUdae 

spp. undet 

Sphyraenidae 

Sphyraenaforsteri 

spp. undet 

sp. undet 

Labridae 

spp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

Scaridae 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

Blenniidae 

Istiblennius sp. 

Istiblennius spp. 

sp. undet 

Rhyacichtiiydae 

sp. undet 

Eleotrididae 

Belobranchus belobrancha 

Belobranchus belebrancha 

Bostrychus sinensis 

Butis amboinensis 

Butis butis 

Butis sp. 

Eleotris cf. melanosoma 

Hypseleotris sp. 

Ophiocara aporos 

Ophiocara porocephala 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

Periophtiialmidae 

Periophthalmodon schlosseri 

Periophthalmodon sp. 

spp. undet 

Gobiidae 

Bathygobius sp. 

Callogobius maculipinnis 

Callogobius cf. oHnawae 

Callogobius producta 

Cryptocentrus cf. strigilliceps 

Cryptocentrus sp. 

Exyrias sp. 

Globiibius giurus 

o goruo 

o suo 

o suo 

o tuta 

o bole-bole 

o kokucubili 

o mako-makoro 

o mamini 

o melumu 

o melumu ma dofa 

o telembaca 

o ado 

o melumu 

o kuldla 

o totaope 

o totaope 

oabda 

o bai-baiti 

o bega 

o dungiri 

o hohodono 

o bega 

o bega 

o dungiri 

o bega 

o dungiri 

o dungiri 

o dungiri 

o bega 

o dungiri 

o bai-baiti 

o beene 

o popayaama 

o popayaama 

o popayaama 

o bega 

o kuluri 

o totaope 

o bega 

o totaope 

o kuldla 

o bai-baiti 

o hohodono 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 
NUMBER 34 175 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Glossogobius giurius 

Istigobius ornatus 

Istigobius ornatus 

Stigmatobius sp. 

Stomatogobius sp. 

Valenciennea cf. v. longipinnis 

Zonogobius oliatus 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

Acanthuridae 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

Siganidae 

sp. undet 

Trichiuridae 

Trichiurus lepturus 

Scombridae 

Rastrellinger kanagurta 

Scombermorus commerson 

sp. undet 

sp. undet 

Xiphiidae 

'very large swordfish' (observed) 

Istiophoridae 

'very large sailfish' (observed) 

'very large martins' (observed) 

Stromateidae 

sp. undet 

Psettodidae 

spp. undet 

Bothidae 

spp. undet 

Pleuronectidae 

spp. undet 

Cynoglossidae 

sp. undet 

spp. undet 

Soleidae 

sp. undet 

Tetraodontidae 

Arothron aerostaticus 

spp. undet ('puffer fish') 

spp. undet 

Diodontidae 

Diodon liturosus 

Diodon sp. 

sp. undet ('porcupine fish') 

o dungiri o bai-baiti o totaope o bega o dungiri o bai-baiti o kuluri o bai-baiti o beene o biwo ma ayo 

ohohodono o nikere o totaope 

obobdra 

ogopunu o biha-biha o ugaka ma hoka o huaono o turuhi o deo o huaono 

oyaru 

oyaru 

oyaru o bobdra o nawoko ma hononga o nawoko ma hononga o nawoko ma hononga o hohononga o nawoko ma hononga o hohononga o dudeke o dudeke o nogi-nogi o hundna o gaca o hundna 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 
176 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Balistidae 

Abalistes stellatus 

spp. undet 

Ostraciontidae 

Ostracion tuberculatus 

spp. undet. 

Monacantiiidae 

Cantherhines sp. 

sp. undet 

Undetermined species 

UncoUected 

o tato 

o tato 

o tupa-tupa 

o tupa-tupa 

o memehanga 

o tato 

o bai-baiti 

o noara 

o pulo-pulono 

opuuhu 

o sorihi 

o hilowana 

o beletomo 

o bobdra 

o butuimi 

o bubuguraci 

ocara 

o cooro 

o garangoto 

o gorara-jdwa 

o gosao 

o gumi-gumi 

o hahuru ma tatddaka 

o hangu-hangu 

o hore 

o hulutana 

o huma 

oido 

oiye 

o kabi-kabingi 

okobo 

o ngulungana 

o nguti-nguti 

o noara 

o ponihi 

o suo 

o tatameri 

o tato 

o uili 

o wanga ma gurati 

oyaro 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 
NUMBER 34 177 

Taxon Tobel

o B° term Appendi

x no. 

AMPHIBIA 

Ranidae 

Rana papua 

Rana arfarki 

HyUdae 

Litoria infrafrenata 

Litoria spp. 

Rhacophoridae 

Oreophryne moluccensis 

o kaateko 

okaateko o ngotara o teteti o teteti 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

REPTILIA 

Cheloniidae 

Cuora amboinensis 

Dermochelyidae 

Dermochelys coriacea 

Eretmochelys imbricata 

sp. undet 

Crocoddidae 

Crocodylus porosus 

Varanidae 

Varanus indicus 

Hydrosaurus weberi 

Hydrosaurus amboinensis 

Gekkidae 

Gehyra marginata 

Gehyra mutilata 

Gekko vittatus 

Hemidactylus frenatus 

Lepidodactylus lugubris 

Lacertidae 

Eugongylus mentovarius 

Tiligua gigas 

Emoia atrocostrata 

Emoia keukenthali 

Emoia sorex 

Emoia submetallica 

Lampropelis smaragdina 

Lipinia noctua 

Mabuya multifasciata 

Serpentes ('snakes') 

Boidae 

Candoia aspera 

Candoia carinata 

Python reticulatus 

Acrochordidae 

Acrochordus granulatus 

Colubridae 

Brachyorrhus albus 

Boiga irregularis 

Cerberus rhyncops 

Dendrelaphis caudolineatus modestus 

o bengi-bengi 

ofeene 

ofeene 

ofeene o gohomanga o karianga o karianga o karianga o hohipohuku o hohagaleke o hohipohuku o hohagaleke o hohipohuku 

oau 

oau o ragumu o ragumu o ragumu o ragumu o ragumu o ragumu o ragumu o dodiha o biha o pakaka o gumulamo o boboro ma diaoto o lakoiwa o ngohokumu o pocogili o populegana 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 
178 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Macrophis halmaherica 

Stegonotus batianensis 

Elapidae 

Laticauda colubrina 

Laticauda sp. 

AVES 

Podicipedidae 

Tachybaptus ruficollis 

ProceUariidae 

Puffinus leucomelas = Calonectris leucomelas 

Hydrobatidae = Oceanitidae 

Oceanodroma matsudairae 

Fregatidae 

Fregata oriel 

Fregata minor 

Pelecanidae 

Pelecanus conspicillatus 

SuUdae 

Sula leucogaster 

Ardeidae 

Ixobrychus flavicollis 

Nycticorax caledonicus hilli 

Ardea alba 

Ardea sumatrana 

Egretta sacra 

Anatidae 

Anser spp. 

Tadorna radjah 

Anas spp. 

Pandionidae 

Pandion haliaetus 

Accipitridae 

Aviceda subcristata 

Haliastur Indus 

Haliaeetus leucogaster 

Accipiter spp. 

Aquila gurneyi 

Falconidae 

Falco moluccensis 

Megapodiidae 

Megapodius freycinet 

Megapodius wallacei 

Phasianidae 

Meleagris gallopavo 

Gallus gallus 

RalUdae 

Rallus philippensis (= Gallirallus philippensis) 

Rallina fasciata 

Gymnocrex plumbeiventris 

Habroptila wallacii 

o gatu 

o ngohabeloro 

o kaingdo 

o kaingdo 

o ori-ori 

o duma-duma 

o butuimi 

omadaama 

o madaama 

o bebe 

o duma-duma 

o taku.ru 

o tumara 

o tumara 

o tumara 

o tumara 

o lungunu ma babaiti 

o bebe 

o ori-ori 

o bebe 

o koyoba 

o kawihi 

o pole-pole 

o koyoba 

o kawihi 

o koyoba 

o age-meleko 

o meleu 

o habiana 

o ayam-baldnda 

o totaleo 

o toge 

o hetaka ma gilaongo 

o hetaka 

o hetaka 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 
NUMBER 34 179 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Amaurornis olivaceus 

Charadriidae 

Charadrius leschenaultii 

Scolopacidae 

Actitis hypoleucos 

Heteroscelus brevipes 

Numenius phaeopus 

Xenus cinereus 

Calidris ruficollis 

Laridae 

Sterninae 

Sterna hirundo longipennis 

Columbidae 

Caloenas nicobarica 

Chalcophaps indica 

Columba livia 

Columba vitiensis 

Ducula basilica 

Ducula bicolor 

Ducula concinna 

Ducula perspicillata 

Macropygia amboinensis 

Ptilinopus spp. 

Reinwardtoena reinwardtii 

Streptopelia chinensis 

Loriidae 

Charmosyna placentis 

Eos squamata 

Lorius garrulus garrulus 

Lorius roratus vosmaeri (Male) 

Lorius roratus vosmaeri (Female) 

Cacatuidae 

Cacatua alba 

Psittacidae 

Alisterus amboinensis hypophonius 

Geoffroyus geoffroyi cyanicollis 

Loriculus amabilis 

Tanygnathus megalorhynchos 

CucuUdae 

Cacomantis variolosus 

Cuculus saturatus 

Eudynamys scolopacea 

Centropus bengalensis 

Centropus goliath 

Strigidae 

Ninox connivens 

Ninox scutulata 

Ninox squamipila (? uncoU.) 

Ninox squamipila (? uncoU.) 

Otus magicus leucospilus 

o toge 

opupu 

opupu o goguhumutu o goguhumutu o goguhumutu 

opupu o ula-ula o hiringiti o humu ma doporono o pombo o gumtiru o gumtiru o ngoku o gumtiru o gumtiru o luluga o mogoyuku 

okukuhtiu o pomboftiru o ngidili o cicoro o busu o gofdtoro o uboro o gotoaka 

omuoto o hiba o gofotodano o gulelanga o pipitodihe o age-meleko o age-meleko o luo-luo o culuku o ciungu 

owuku 

owuku 

owuku ? o ginene ? o goroko 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 
180 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Aegothelidae 

Aegotheles crinifrons 

Caprimulgidae 

Caprimulgus macrurus 

Apodidae 

Collocalia esculenta 

Collocalia vanikorensis 

Hemiprocnidae 

Hemiprocne mystacea 

Alcedinidae 

Alcedo atthis 

Ceyx lepidus 

Halcyon spp. 

Tanysiptera galatea browningi 

Merops ornatus 

Coraciidae 

Eurystomus azureus 

Eurystomus orientalis 

Bucerotidae 

Aceros plicatus ruficollis 

Pittidae 

Pitta erythrogaster 

Pitta maxima 

Hirundinidae 

Hirundo rustica gutturalis 

Hirundo tahitica javanica 

Campephagidae 

Coracina atriceps 

Coracina papuensis melanolora 

Coracina parvula (uncoil.) 

Lalage aurea 

Pycnonotidae 

Hypsipetes affinis 

Muscicapidae 

Locustella fasciolata 

Monarcha alecto (= Piezorhynchus alecto) 

Monarcha pileatus 

Monarcha trivirgatus 

Myiagra galeata 

Pachycephala pectoralis 

Rhipidura leucophrys 

T^ir"*QAlHo^* 

L/lWClK/llulC 

Dicaeum erythrothorax 

schistaceiceps 

MArf^tQTinilHllA 

IN CC uil LllllUaC 

Nectarinia jugularis frenata 

Nectarinia sericea auriceps 

o hohonotoko 

o hohonotoko 

o awana ma gagawi 

o awana ma gagawi 

o gie-giete 

o ilu-ilumu 

o ilu-ilumu 

o ilu-ilumu 

o gogotengaka 

o turi-turi 

o boke-bokeke 

o boke-bokeke 

okohe 

o foo-fdo 

o foo-fdo 

o awana ma gagawi 

o awana ma gagawi 

o tagahehaka 

o tagahehaka 

o tagahehaka ? 

o horoga ma totoku 

o gacuaka 

o tee-teeke 

o bidwa ma totaleo 

o gumi-gumi 

o motiwdwo 

o gumi-gumi 

o bidwa ma totaleo 

o gumi-gumi 

o bidwa ma totaleo 

o gumi-gumi 

opipo 

o cucupaanga 

o ciciulu ma dofa 

o ciciulu 

o ciciulu 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 
NUMBER 34 181 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Zosteropidae 

Zosterops atriceps 

Meliphagidae 

Myzomela obscura 

Myzomela obscura rubrotincta 

Melitograis gilolensis (= 

Estrildidae 

Lonchura molucca 

Sturnidae 

Aplonis metallica 

Aplonis mysolensis 

OrioUdae 

Oriolus phaeochromus 

Dicruridae 

Dicrurus hottentottus 

Artamidae 

• Philemon gilolensis) 

Artamus leucorhynchus leucopygialis 

Paradisaeidae 

Lycocorax pyrrhopterus 

Lycocorax pyrrhopterus 

Semioptera wallacei 

Corvidae 

Corvus orru 

Corvus validus 

UncoUected birds 

obiensis 

pyrrhopterus 

o bidwa ma totaleo 

o ciciulu 

o cao-caongo ma ngofaka 

o ciciulu 

o cao-caongo ma ngofaka 

o caongo 

o totoai 

o idihi 

o idihi 

o botikouku 

o boa 

o hilidoro 

o huma-huma 

o kapa-kapa 

o tutubuuku 

o hayaniti 

o weka-weka 

o wogono 

o wogono 

o helewopoga 

o kigi-kigini 

o kou-kou (bird?) 

o loliowaha 

o weu 

o wewoho 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 

MAMMALIA 

Phalangeridae 

Petaurus breviceps 

Phalanger orientalis 

Soricidae 

Suncus murinus 

Muridae 

Murid sp. 

Rattus rattus 

Rattus exulans 

Delphinidae 

Tursiops sp. 

'Whales' 

Canidae 

Canis familiaris 

o gito 

o kuho 

o karafe 

o karafe 

o karafe 

o karafe 

o iafa 

o hore 

o kaho 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

2.3 

2.3 

2.5 
182 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Taxon Tobelo B° term Appendix no. 

Felidae 

Felis cattus o boki 2.5 

Dugongidae 

Dugong dugon o kobo 2.3 

Equidae 

Equus spp. o kuda 2.5 

Suidae 

Sus scrofa o ode 2.5 

Cervidae 

Cervus timorensis o mainjdnga 2.5 

Bovidae 

Bos taurus o hapi 2.5 

Capra hircus o kabingi 2.5 

Ovis sp. o domba 2.5 
Notes 

Chapter 2 

1

 "Indonesian" was proclaimed the language of the nation of 

Indonesia (before that country achieved independence) at the 

Second Youth Congress held in Jakarta in October 1928. On 

that occasion, the country's youth movement set forth the 

role of an Indonesian language in their nationalist drive and 

first used die word "Indonesian" to name the language that 

had previously been caUed "Malay" (die same language is 

also spoken in Malaysia as weU as Indonesia). Not until the 

Japanese occupation of World War II, however, did 

Indonesian effectively replace Dutch as the language of 

national administration (see Alisjahbana, 1962:28-29). 

2

 Austronesian (AN) language vocabulary from various 

sources has been borrowed to such a great extent in the North 

Halmaheran (NH) languages that it may make determination 

of the relationships among members of the NH group 

difficult. C.L. Voorhoeve (pers. communication, letter of 5 

June 1980) estimates that about 35% of NH basic vocabulary 

consists of AN borrowings from various sources. Voorhoeve 

has explored tiiese borrowings for clues to the migrations of 

early AN-language speakers (see Voorhoeve, 1982). 

Chapter 3 

1

 For convenience of the users, however, a dictionary often 

contains irregular forms of a lexeme, such as "saw," the 

irregular past tense of "see." 

2

 The term "expression" here appears to have the same 

meaning as Berlin et al. (1974:79) or Hunn's (1977:26) term 

"descriptive phrases." Not aU non-lexemic expressions, of 

course, are "descriptive," but the term as used by tiiese 

autiiors seems to refer primarily to phrases used in naming 

plants and animals. 

3

 The Tugutil of upriver Dodaga use the (ma) ayo '(its) mother' 

relation among plants, rather than just among FAUNAL 

FORMS (see 5.2.3.2). Coastal Tobelo even at Dodaga were 

surprised when I told diem this. Tugutil dialect, however, is 

nowhere considered here. 

Chapter 4 

1

 This chapter is slighdy revised from the autiior's article 

(Taylor, 1984b) '"Covert Categories' Reconsidered: 

Identifying Unlabeled Classes in Tobelo Folk Biological 

Classification," Journal of Ethnobiology, 4(2): 105-122 (by 

permission). 

2

 Posited covert classes are here distinguished by being written 

in upper case letters (e.g., BAMBOO, BIOTIC FORM). 

3

 Hunn's argument against the use of distinctive features in 

this way is surprising (Hunn, 1977:42, and footnote): 

... I reject the alternative approach to taxonomic axiomatization that would 

define taxa as sets of features. Such an approach is not consonant with the 

postulate that taxa are related to one another by set inclusion [footnote:] 

If a taxon (t) is defined [by].. . features (a, b, c),then a taxon (/-l) which is 

immediately included in the taxon (/) must be defined as a set of features (a, 

b, c, d). Thus t-\ cannot be a subset of t. 

This argument seems to confuse the distinctive features used 

to define a class witii the members of that class (or tiie 

elements of a set). In defining classes of EngUsh "kin," for 

example, we might define parent with features like (a) Kin, 

(b) First ascending generation, and (c) Lineal. Fatiier would 

require a fourth feature, (d) Male. Yet father is clearly a 

subclass of parent. 

4

 Elsewhere Hunn (1976) has argued tiiat such "chains" more 

accurately reflect perceived differences among organisms 

than can be reflected in die taxonomic model, and tiiat 

taxonomic models do not distinguish between what he calls 

"deductively" and "inductively" defined categories (die 

former based on a smaU number of abstract features, die 

latter based on large numbers of naturally occurring shared 

characteristics). The aim of the semantic description of a 

domain is to describe die meaning of each Unguistic form 

occurring in the domain and to describe die sense relationships of those forms to each other. Taxonomic principles are 

valuable insofar as they can be used to structure classinclusion and contrast relations among linguistic forms, 

though they admittedly wiU not fully describe perceptions 

about the objects denoted by tiiose forms. As for the numbers 

of features defining "categories," his interesting distinction 

between "inductively" and "deductively" defined categories 

does not make it less necessary to assert tiiat the description 

of any semantic class should include at least one defining 

feature to distinguish that class from others in the domain. 

Chapter 5 

1

 The frequendy used terms "generic" (basic or B°) and 

"specific" (B_1) are avoided here because (1) this terminology invites confusion with the senses of these terms as used 

in biology; and (2) the normal everyday EngUsh meaning of 

a "generic" word is simply a term at a higher level than other 

terms in question (e.g., "furniture" is a generic word for 

tables, chairs, etc.; just as "tree" is a generic word for pine, 

oak, etc.). 

183 
184 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

2

 It may be because, as the Tobelo name impUes, tiiis spider 

catches flies (Muscidae); tiiough other spiders also catch 

tiiem. Paul Weatherly (pers. comm.) has pointed out that 

Salticidae are highly "visual" (relying on visual acuity to 

jump for and capture prey) and often brilUantiy colored; tiiey 

also do not bite. For tiiese reasons children often play witii 

them in other parts of Indonesia, watching the spiders jump 

from hand to hand—a feat unsafe or difficult to accompUsh 

witii other spiders. 

3

 This discussion has not conclusively shown the level of the 

anomalous o rurtibu o gahika 'seaweed' class, which has no 

same-level contrast with any other class. Because evidence 

has been presented strongly suggesting this class is a recent 

borrowing from Malay-Indonesian (4.4), and because it is 

anomalous in other respects, the indeterminacy of tiiis class's 

level does not seem to be a serious problem. It might as weU 

(and has here) been placed at B+1, nearest die basic classes it 

groups together, although, since it does not immediately 

contrast witii any other class (except for the immediate 

disjunctive contrast with o kalibaharu 'black coral'), it might 

be raised one or two levels without affecting the analysis. 

The subclass-superclass relations would stay the same; and 

again, no claim is here made for the distinctiveness of any 

level above B°. 

4

 The 'tree' in the phrase o maa-maata o gota 'tree 

maa-maata' is a metaphorical reference to die upright stem 

habit of this subclass of the cross-cutting subclasses of the B° 

class o maa-maata. The otiier two forms (bom also used for 

die same medicinal purpose of reducing simple headache 

(brought on by fever?)) are o maa-maata o gumini 'vine 

maa-maata' (a type of 'vine'), and o maa-maata o ugaka 

'sugar-cane maa-maata' (unaffiliated witii any B+1 class). 

For this use of o gota, compare o kahitela o gota 'tree 

kahitela' (i.e., maize) and o kahitela-tonaka 'earth (soil) 

kahitela' (sweet potatoes) (these terms do not label a 

cross-cutting class). 

5

 Alternatively, this could certainly be considered a case of two 

folk classes, both of which happen to have the same 

definitions and die same denotata, but which have different 

structural positions and different labels. I have instead here 

treated tiiis as a single class with multiple structural positions 

only to convey that, in this and especiaUy odier "esoteric" 

examples (see below), Tobelo tiiemselves seem to be 

positing new esoteric structural relationships for famdiar 

classes, ratiier than positing new classes. 

6

 B-dialect at Loleba commonly used only ma ayo for both 

senses, though yeha was of course recognized and used 

occasionally for die 'modier'-'cluTd' classification of animals. Hueting's (1908c) data indicate tiiat ayo is used for 

'progenitrix,' but are insufficient on yeha or on the other 

sense of the 'mother' term in the H dialect he spoke and 

studied. 
Literature Cited 

Adriani.N. 

1912. De Bare'e Sprekende Toradjas van Midden Celebes. Volume III. 

Batavia: Landsdrukkerij. 

Alinei, Mario 

1974. La Struttura del Lessico. Bologna: Mulino. 

Alisjahbana, (Sutan) Takdir 

1962. The Development of the Indonesian Language and Literature. In 

Indonesian Language and Literature: Two Essays, pages 1-40. New 

Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies. [Cultural Report 

Series, No. 11.] 

Anonymous 

1883. Over de Namen Papoea, Dajak en Alfoer. Indische Gids, 5(1):299-

301. 

Atran, Scott 

1983. Covert Fragmenta and the Origins of the Botanical Family. Man, 

18:51-71. 

1985. The Nature of Folk-Botanical Life Forms. American Anthropologist, 

87:298-315. 

Baarda, M J. van 

1891. Beknopte Sprakkunst van de Gallilareesche Taal. Utrecht: Kemink 

&Zoon. 

1895. Een Galelareesch-Hollandsche Woordenlijst. The Hague: Nijhoff. 

1904. Het Loda'sen in Vergelijking met het Galela'sch Dialect op 

Halmaheira. Bijdragen tot de Tool-, Land- en Vblkenkunde, 

56:317-496. 

1908. Leiddraad bij het Bestuderen van het Galela sch Dialekt. The 

Hague: Nijhoff. 

Baarda, M J. van, and H. Dijken 

1895. Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der Galalareezen. Bijdragen 

tot de Tool, Land- en Volkenkunde, 45:192-290,387-564. 

Bartlett, Harley Harris 

1940. The Concept of Genus, I: History of the Generic Concept in Botany. 

Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 67(5):349-362. 

BazelLGE. 

1964. Three Misconceptions of "Grammaticalness." Monograph Series on 

Language and Linguistics, 17:3-9. 

Berlin, Brent 

1974. Further Notes on Covert Categories and Folk Taxonomies: A Reply 

to Brown. American Anthropologist, 76:327-329. 

1976. The Concept of Rank in Etiinobiological Classification: Some 

Evidence from Aguaruna Folk Botany. American Ethnologist, 

3:381-399. 

Berlin, Brent, Dennis E. Breedlove, and Peter H. Raven 

1968. Covert Categories and Folk Taxonomies. American Anthropologist, 

70:290-299. 

1974. Principles of Tzeltal Plant Classification: An Introduction to the 

Botanical Ethnography of a Mayan-Speaking People of Highland 

Chiapas. New York: Academic Press. 

Bloomf ield, Leonard 

1933. Language. New York: Holt 

Brown, Cecil H. 

1974. Unique Beginners and Covert Categories in Folk Biological 

Taxonomies. American Anthropologist, 76:325-327. 

1977. Folk Botanical Life-forms: Their Universality and Growth. American Anthropologist, 79:317-342. 

1979. Folk Zoological Life-forms: Their Universality and Growth. 

American Anthropologist, 81:791-817. 

1984. Language and Living Things: Uniformities in Folk Classification 

and Naming. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. 

Brown, William H. 

1951. Useful Plants of the Philippines. 3 volumes. Manila: Department of 

Agriculture and Natural Resources [Technical Bulletin 10]. 

Bulmer, Ralph N.H. 

1970. Which Came First, the Chicken or the Egghead? In J. Pouillon and 

P. Maranda, editors, Echanges et communications, pages 1069-

1091. The Hague and Paris: Mouton. 

1974. Folk Biology in the New Guinea Highlands. Social Science 

Information, 13(4/5):9-28. 

Burkill,I.H. 

1935. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. 2 

volumes. London: Crown Agents for the Colonies. 

Cardona, Giorgio Raimondo 

1976. Introduzione all'Etnolinguist'ica. Bologna: Mulino. 

Clercq, S.A. de 

1890. Bijdragen tot de Kennis der Residentie Ternate. Leiden: Brill. 

Conklin, Harold C. 

1954. The Relation of Hanunoo Culture to the Plant World. Doctoral 

dissertation in (Anthropology), Yale University, New Haven. 

[Published by University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1967, 

no. 67-4119.] 

1962. Lexicographical Treatment of Folk Taxonomies. In Problems in 

Lexicography: Report of the Conference on Lexicography Held at 

Indiana University, November 11-12, 1960. International Journal 

of American Linguistics, 28.2(4):119-141. 

1980. Folk Classification: A Topically Arranged Bibliography of Contemporary and Background References through 1971. [Original, 1972, 

reprinting with author index, 1980.] New Haven: Yale University 

Department of Anthropology. 

Cortelazzo, Manlio 

1976. Awiamento Critico alio Studio delta Dialettologia Italiana, I: 

Problemi e Metodi. Pisa: Pacini 

Cowan, H.KJ. 

1957. Een Tweede grote Papoea-taalgroepering in Nederlands NieuwGuinea. Nieuw Guinea Studien, 1:106-118. 

Crab, P. van der 

1878. Geschiedenis van Ternate, in Ternataanschen en Malcischen tekst 

beschreven door den Ternataan Naidah met vertaling en aanteekeningen door P. van der Crab. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en 

Volkenkunde, 26:381-493. 

D'Andrade,R.G. 

1962. Aguacatenango Tzeltal Ethnobotany. [Unpublished ms., 1962]. 

Echols, John M., and Hassan Shadily 

1983. An Indonesian-English Dictionary. Second edition. Ithaca, New 

York: Cornell University Press. 

Ellen, G J. 

1916a. Woordenlijst van het Pagoe. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en 

Volkenkunde, 72:67-102. 

1916b. Woordenlijst van het Modole. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en 

Volkendunde,12:l05-139. 

1916c. Pagoe teksten. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 

72:143-195. 

1916d. Modole teksten. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 

72:199-232. 

1933. Ma Djooe-Lahatala Ai Boekoe ma Djarita. Amsterdam: Nederlandsch Bijbelgenootschap. 

185 
186 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Ellen, Roy F. 

1979. [Introductory Essay.] In R.F. Ellen and David Reason, editors, 

Classifications in Their Social Context, pages 1-29. New York: 

Academic Press. 

Fitter, R.S.R. 

1953. The Pocket Guide to British Birds. New York: Dodd, Mead. 

Fortgens, J. 

1905. Vier Weken onder de Tabaroe en Waioli van Noord-West 

Halmahera. Mededeelingen van Wege het Nederlandsch Zendelinggenootschap, 49:33-36. 

1911. Bijdrage tot de Kermis van de Naamgeving onder de Tobelo van 

Halemahera. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 

65:88-115. 

1917. Woordenlijst van het Ternatesch. Semarang: Van Dorp. 

1928. Grammaticale aantekeningen van het Tabaroesch: Tabaroesche 

Volksverhalen en Raadsels. Bijdragen tot de Tool-, Land-en 

Volkenkunde, 84:300-542. 

Friedberg, Claudine 

1970. Analyse de quelques groupements de vegetaux comme introduction 

a letude de la classification botanique Bunaq. In J. Pouillon and P. 

Maranda, editors, Echange et communications: Melanges Offerts d 

Claude Livi-Strauss d Voccasion de son 60eme Anniversaire, pages 

1092-1131. The Hague: Mouton. 

1979. Socially Significant Plant Species and Their Taxonomic Position 

among the Bunaq of Central Timor. In R.F. Ellen and D. Reason, 

editors, Classifications in Their Social Contexts, pages 81-101. 

Goodenough, Ward H. 

1951. Property, Kin, and Community on Truk. New Haven: Yale 

University [Publications in Anthropology no. 46]. 

Grant, E.M. 

1978. Guide to Fishes. Brisbane: Department of Harbours and Marine. 

Greenberg, Joseph H. 

1966. Language Universals. In Thomas Sebeok, editor, Current Trends in 

Linguistics, 3:61-112. The Hague: Mouton. 

Haas.W. 

1973. Meaning and Rules. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 

47:126-155. 

Hale, Kenneth. 

1971. A Note on Walbiri Tradition of Antonymy. In D. Steinberg and L 

Jakobovits, editors, Semantics: An Interdisciplinary Reader, pages 

472-482. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Hargreaves, Dorothy, and Bob Hargreaves 

1970a. Tropical Trees of the Pacific. Kailua (Hawaii): Hargreaves Co. 

1970b. Tropical Blossoms of the Pacific. Kailua (Hawaii): Hargreaves Co. 

Hays, Terence E. 

1976. An Empirical Method for the Identification of Covert Categories in 

Ethnobiology. American Ethnologist, 3:489-507. 

1979. Plant Classification and Nomenclature in Ndumba, Papua New 

Guinea Highlands. Ethnology, 18:253-270. 

1983. Ndumba Folk Biology and General Principles of Etiinobiological 

Classification and Nomenclature. American Anthropologist, 85: 

592-611. 

Hueting, A. 

1908a. lets over de 'Temataansch-Halmaherasche' taalgroep. Bijdragen tot 

de Taal,Land- en Volkenkunde, 60:370-411. 

1908b. O Tobelohoka manga totoade: Verhalen en vertellingen in de 

Tobeloreesche taal, met vertalingen. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en 

Volkenkunde, 61:1-318. 

1908c. Tobeloreesch-Hollandsch Woordenboek met HollandscheTobeloreesche Inhoudsopgave. The Hague: Nijhoff. 

1910. Woordverwisseling bij besmettelijke Ziekten onder de Tobeloreezen. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 63:109-

110. 

1921. De Tobeloreezen in nun denken en doen. [Part L] Bijdragen tot de 

Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 77:217-358. 

1922. De Tobeloreezen in nun denken en doen. [Part II.] Bijdragen tot de 

Taal, Land- en Volkenkunde, 78:137-342. 

1935. Supplement op het Tobeloreesch woordenboek. Bijdragen tot de 

Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 92:161-176. 

1936. lets over de spraakkunst van de Tobeloreesche taal. Bijdragen tot de 

Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 94:295-406. 

Hunn, Eugene S. 

1976. Toward a Perceptual Model of Folk Biological Classification. 

American Ethnologist, 3:508-524. 

1977. Tzeltal Folk Zoology: The Classification of Discontinuities in 

Nature. New York: Academic Press. 

Dcegami, Hiroshiko 

1967. Structural Semantics: A Survey and Problems. Linguistics, 33:49-

67. 

Kay, Paul 

1971. Taxonomy and Semantic Contrast. Language, 47:866-887. 

Keesing, Roger M. 

1966. [Comment on: B.N. Colby, 1966, Ethnographic Semantics: a 

Preliminary Survey. Current Anthropology, 7:3-32]. Current 

Anthropology, 7:23. 

Kern,H. 

1891. Opmerkingen over 't Galelareesch naar aanleiding der Beknopte 

spraakkunst van M. J. van Baarda. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en 

Volkenkunde, 40:493-530. 

1893. Woordverwisseling in het Galelareesch. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, 

Land- en Volkenkunde, 42:120-128. 

Lapian, A. B. 

1979. Beberapa pokok penelitian sejarah daerah Maluku Utara. [Paper 

delivered at the Lokakarya Proyek Penelitian Halmahera dan Daerah 

Sekitamya, Ternate, July 1979; distributed by Universitas Khairun, 

Ternate.] 

Lawrence, George H.M. 

1951. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. New York: Macmillan. 

Laycock, D.C, and GL Voorhoeve 

1971. History of Research in Papuan Languages. In T. Sebeok, editor, 

Linguistics in Oceania. In Current Trends in Linguistics, 8:509-540. 

Lehrer, Adrienne 

1974. Semantic Fields and Lexical Structure. New York: American 

Elsevier. 

Lembaga Penelitian dan Studi Dewan Gereja-gerejadi Indonesia [L.P.S.D.G.I.] 

1976. Suata Survey Mengenai Gereja Masehi Injili Halmahera. Jakarta: 

L.P.S.D.G.I. [Series "Benin Yang Tumbuh," no. 9]. 

Levi-Strauss, Claude 

1966. The Savage Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago. [Original French 

edition, 1962.] 

Lyons, John 

1977. Semantics. 2 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Fiess. 

Marchand, Hans 

1960. Categories and Types of Present-day English Word-formation: A 

Synchronic-Diachronic Approach. Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz. 

Martin, Marie Alexandrine 

1975. L'Ethnobotanique, science per se? A propos d'un livre de B. Berlin, 

D.E. Breedlove, PH. Raven "The Principles of Tzeltal Plant 

Classification." Journal d'Agriculture Tropicale et de Botanique 

Appliqude, 22.7-9:237-276. 

Matras, J., and M. Martin 

1972. Contribution a l'ethnobotanique des Brous (Cambodje-Province de 

Ratanakiri). Journal dAgriculture Tropicale et de Botanique 

Appliquie, 19:1-49,93-139. 

Miller, George A. 

1956. The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on 

Our Capacity of Processing Information. Psychological Review, 

63:81-97. 
NUMBER 34 187 

Nederlandsch Bijbelgenootschap 

1905. Nenanga ma Djou Lahatala Ai Buk ma Djarita. Leiden: Trap. 

Nida, Eugene A. 

1951. A System for the Description of Semantic Elements. Word, 7:1-14. 

Ogden, C.K., and LA. Richards 

1923. The Meaning of Meaning. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 

Pawley, Andrew 

1970. Are Ernie Dictionaries Possible? Kivung, 3(1):8-16. 

Perchonok, James, and Oswald Werner 

1969. Navajo Systems of Classification: Some Implications for Ethnoscience. Ethnology, 8(3):229-242. 

Roest, J.LD. van der 

1905. Woordenlijst der Tobelo-Boeng taal. The Hague: Nijhoff. 

Salzner, Richard 

1960. Sprachenatlas des Indopazifischen Raumes. Wiesbaden: Harrasowiiz. 

Scheffler, Harold W, and Floyd G. Lounsbury 

1971. A Study in Structural Semantics: The Siriono Kinship System. 

Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 

Simpson, George Gaylord 

1961. Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York: Columbia University 

Press [Columbia Biological Series, no. 20.] 

Taylor, Paul Michael 

1977. Review of: La Struttura del Lessico, by Mario Alinei. American 

Anthropologist, 79:704-705. 

1980a. Preliminary Report on the Ethnobiology of the Tobelorese of 

Halmahera (North Moluccas). Majalah Ilmu-ilmu Sastra Indonesia, 

8(1978/79)2:215-229. [Reprinted 1980 in E. Masinambow, editor, 

Halmahera dan Raja Ampat: Konsep dan Stralegi Penelitian. 

Jakarta: LEKNAS-LIPL] 

1980b. Tobelorese Ethnobiology: The Folk Classification of "Biotic 

Forms." Doctoral dissertation (Anthropology), Yale University, 

New Haven. [Published by University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, 

Michigan, no. 8109818.] 

1982. Plant and Animal Nomenclature in the Tobelorese Language. In 

E.KM Masinambow, editor, Halmahera dan Raja Ampat sebagai 

Kesatuan yang Majemuk. Bulletin LEKNAS, Tahun II, 3:41-

761982. [Special edition.] 

1983. North Moluccan Malay: Notes on a "Substandard" Dialect of 

Indonesian. In J. Collins, editor, Studies in Malay Dialects, Part II, 

page 14027. [NUSA Monograph Series, voL 17. Jakarta: Badan 

Penyelenggara Seri NUSA.] 

1984a. Tobelorese Deixis. Anthropological Linguistics, 6:102-122. 

1984b. "Covert Categories" Reconsidered: Identifying Unlabeled Classes in 

Tobelo Folk Biological Classification. Journal of Ethnobiology, 

4(2):103-120. 

1985. Ethnobiology and the Ethnography of Tobelo-speaking Peoples of 

Halmahera Island, Indonesia. National Geographic Research Reports, 21:475-480. 

1988. From mantra to matarda: Opacity and Transparency in the 

Language of Tobelo Magic and Medicine (Halmahera Island, 

Indonesia). In B. Pfleiderer, editor, Permanence and Change in 

Asian Health Care. [Special edition of] Social Science and 

Medicine, 27(5):425-436. 

In press. Tobelo Kin, Spouses, and In-laws (Halmahera Island, Indonesia). 

Indonesia Bagian Timur: Antara Sulawesi Utara dan Kepala 

Burung. [Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on 

Research in the Moluccas and Irian Jaya (Seminar Penelitian Maluku 

dan Irian Jaya). Jakarta: LEKNAS-LIPL] 

Veen, H. van der 

1915. De Noord-Halmahera se Taalgroep Tegenover de Austronesiese 

Talen. Leiden: Nifterik. 

Voorhoeve, C.L. 

1982. The Halmahera Connection: A Case for Prehistoric Traffic through 

Torres Straits. In A. Halim, L. Carrington, and S.A. Wurm, editors, 

Papers from the Third International Conference on Austronesian 

Linguistics, Tracking the Travellers. Pacific Linguistics, C-75:217-

239. 

Wada, Yuiti 

1979. Brief Comments on the Results of Fieldwork Conducted in 1976 by 

the Japanese-Indonesian Research Team. [Paper delivered at the 

Lokakarya Proyek Penelitian Halmahera dan Daerah Sekitamya, 

Ternate, July 1979; distributed by Universitas Khairun, Ternate.] 

Waldron, Ronald Alan 

1967. Sense and Sense Development. London: Deutsch. 

Wallace, A.F.C. 

1961. On Being Just Complicated Enough. Proceedings of the National 

Academy of Sciences, 47:458-464. 

Wemer, Oswald 

1969. The Basic Assumptions of Ethnoscience. Semiotica, 1:329-338. 

White, C.M.N., and [?] Bruce 

1986. Birds of Wallacea (Sulawesi, Molluccas, and Lesser Sunda Islands, 

Indonesia): An Annotated Checklist. London: London Ornothologists Union. 

Wurm, Stephen A. 

1971. The Papuan Linguistic Situation. In T. Sebeok, editor, Linguistics in 

Oceania. In Current Trends in Linguistics, 8:541-657. The Hague: 

Mouton. 

Yoshida, Shuji 

1980. Cultivated Bananas among the Galela. Senri Ethnological Studies, 

7:119-137.