NOAA Technical Rep_o_rt_N_M_F_S_l_2_4 o_c_to_b_er_I_99_5

Effects of the Cessation of

Sewage Sludge Dumping

at the 12-Mile Site

12-Mile Dumpsite Symposium

Long Branch, NewJersey, June 1991

Anne L. Studholme

John E. O'Reilly

Merton C. Ingham (editors)

U.S. Department of Commerce
u.s. Departnlent

of Conunerce

Ronald H. Brown

Secretary

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Atmospheric Adlninistration

D.James Baker

Under Secretary for Oceans and

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National Marine

Fisheries Service

Rolland A. Schmitten

Assistant Administrator for

Fisheries

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NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

A Technical Report of the Fishery Bulletin

Effects of the Cessation of Sewage

Sludge Dumping at the 12-Mile Site

Proceedings ofthe 12-Mile Dumpsite Symposium

Ocean Place Hilton Hotel, Long Branch, NewJersey

18-19June 1991

Anne L. Studholme

John E. O'Reilly

Merton C. Ingham (editors)

Sponsored by:

Environmental Processes Division

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA

Woods Hole, Massachusetts

October 1995

U.S. Department of Commerce

Seattle, Washington

CONTENTS

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

SESSIONI: BACKGROUND AND PIAN OF STUDY

iv

vii

R. A. MURCHElANO

J. KEITH

R. CASPE

R. PIKANOWSKI

Introduction

Keynote Address

Historical background of the 12-mile dumpsite

Experimental design of the 12-mile dumpsite study

1

3

9

13

SESSIONII: PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

M.C.INGHAM

D. G. MOUNTAIN

L. ARLEN

J. MANNING

W. R. DAVIS

R. McKINNEY

W. D. WATKINS

R. F. BOPP

D. W. ROBINSON

H.J. SIMPSON

P. E. BISCAYE

R. F. ANDERSON

H. TONG

S.J. MONSON

M. L. GROSS

Introduction

Oceanographic conditions in the inner New York Bight

during the 12-mile dumpsite study

Observations of bottom currents and estimates of resuspended

sediment transport in the vicinity of the 12-mile dumpsite

Response of the Hudson Shelf Valley sewage sludge sediment

reservoir to cessation of disposal at the 12-mile site

Recent sediment and contaminant distributions in the

Hudson Shelf Valley

19

21

33

49

61

SESSIONIII: SEDIMENT PROCESSES

J. E. O'REILLY

V. S. ZDANOWICZ

S. L. CUNNEFF

T. W. FINNERAN

A. D. DESHPANDE

P. M. POWELL

Introduction

Reductions in sediment metal contamination in the New York

Bight apex with the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping

Organic contaminants in sediments of the New York Bight

apex associated with sewage sludge dumping

85

89

101

iii
J. O'REILLY

I. KATZ

A. F. J. DRAXLER

A. F.J. DRAXLER

W.C.PHOEL

S. FROMM

K. SHARACK

C. ZETLIN

D. PACKER

T. FINNERAN

L. ARLEN

R. KOCH

S.FROMM

J. FINN

S.A. FROMM

A. F.J. DRAXLER

SESSIONW: BIOTA

A. L. STUDHOLME

S.J. WILK

R. A. PIKANOWSKI

A. L. PACHECO

D. G. McMILLAN

L. L. STEHLIK

B. A. PHELAN

A. L. PACHECO

J. C. RUGG

F. W. STEIMLEJR.

R..REID

S.A. FROMM

A. B. FRAME

D.JEFFRESS

J. J. VITALlAN0

D.J. RADOSH

J. R. FINN

iv

Changes in the abundance and distribution of Clostridium perfringens,

a microbial indicator, related to cessation ofsewage sludge dumping

in the New York Bight

Changes in sediment biogeochemistry resulting from cessation of

sewage sludge dumping in the New York Bight

Changes in sediment oxygen consumption in relation to the phaseout

and cessation of dumping at the New York Bight sewage sludge

dumpsite

Fundamental and mass properties ofsurficial sediments in the inner

New York Bight and responses to the abatement of sewage sludge

dumping

Introduction

Response offish and megainvertebrates of the New York Bight apex

to the abatement ofsewage sludge dumping-an overview

Patterns of winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, abundance and

distribution in relation to the 12-mile sewage sludge dumpsite in the

New York Bight

Disease prevalence of inner New York Bight winter flounder,

Pleuronectes americanus collected during the 12-mile dumpsite study,

1986-1989

Effects ofsewage sludge disposal cessation on winter flounder, red

hake, and lobster feeding and diets in the New York Bight apex

Limited responses of benthic macrofauna and selected sewage

sludge components to phaseout of sludge disposal in the inner

New York Bight

113

133

145

155

171

173

185

195

203

213
J. GAINES

R. REID

PANEL DISCUSSION

R. TUCKER, CHAIR

J. CHAMBERS

W.GORDON

F.GRASSLE

J. O'CONNOR

J. PEARCE

C. ZIPF

Reduction in Clostridium perfringens and fecal coliform bacteria in

the shellfish closure area of the New York Bight

Future research directions in ocean disposal of waste in the New

York Bight-fisheries implications

227

233

EXECUTWE SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

12-MILE DUMPSITE STUDYPARTICIPANTS

251

255

257

v
PREFACE _

This study owes its inception to the wisdom and experience of the staff of the Northeast Fisheries Science

Center who, after several decades of surveys in the

New York Bight, recognized a unique opportunity to

capitalize on the decision to stop ocean dumping of

sewage sludge and designed an innovative field study

to evaluate effects on living marine resources and

their habitats. For decades ocean dumping was viewed

as a cheap and effective means for disposal of wastes

generated by urbanized coastal areas. Even after the

12-mile site was closed, sewage sludge continued to

vi

be dumped at Deepwater Dumpsite 106. The 6-mile

site off the NewJersey coast is still used as a dumpsite

for dredged material from New York Harbor areas.

Discussions continue on the propriety of using the

deep ocean spaces for disposal of a variety of material including low level radioactive wastes. Consequently, managers are still faced with critical decisions in this area. It is to be hoped that the results

from the 12-mile study will provide the necessary

information on which these managers can evaluate

future risks associated with ocean waste disposal.
INrRODUcrION _

In antiCipation of the closure of the 12-mile sewage

sludge dumpsite in the New York Bight, inJuly 1986 the

Northeast Fisheries Science Center of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) proposed a major interdisciplinary program to evaluate the effects of the

removal of a major source of contaminants on the

region's marine resources and their habitats (Studholme, 1988). As described in the plan for study prepared

by the Environmental Processes Division (EPD, 1988), for

over six decades, as many as 200 municipalities in New

York and New Jersey had used the Bight as a relatively

inexpensive disposal site, not only for sewage sludge but

also for dredge materials and other wastes (Fig. 1). Paradoxically, although the number of municipalities using

the 12-mile site had decreased to as few as nine in recent

years, the amount ofsludge dumped had increased from

approximately 4.2 x 106 wet tons in 1974 to 8.3 x 106 wet

tons in 1983 primarily because of the upgrading ofwaste

treatment facilities in the New York and NewJersey areas

(Fig. 2). Thus, during the 1980's, the 12-mile site received

larger volumes ofsludge than any other site in this country or abroad (Norton and Champ, 1989).

The decision by the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) in 1985 to discontinue use ofthe site was

the culmination of over 15 years of controversy. Beginning in 1970, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration

(FDA) acting under the auspices of the National Shellfish Sanitation program closed a 380 km2 area around

the dumpsite to commercial shellfishing following the

discovery of elevated levels of coliform bacteria in sediment and shellfish (Fig.l;Verber, 1976). Furthermore,

there was evidence that sewage sludge dumped at the

site was a significant source of contaminants to the

adjacent Christiaensen Basin and Hudson Shelf Valley

(HSV). As a result, EPA, acting under an amendment

to the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries

Act (MPRSA), denied any further permits for dumping

after December 1981 (Erdheim, 1985; Santoro, 1987).

Although both New York and New Jersey brought

suit to continue use of the 12-mile site, EPA, in April

1985, denied further requests for its redesignation, attributing a number of ecological effects to the dumping

of municipal sludge including 1) the introduction of a

variety of pathogens, 2) elevated levels of heavy metals

and organic compounds, 3) reduced catch of fish, 4)

reduced levels of bottom dissolved oxygen, 5) significant changes in benthic communities, particularly the

appearance of polychaete species indicative of pollutant stress, 6) a variety of sublethal effects including

decreased reproductive potential, increased incidence

offish disease, and decreased survival of offspring, and

7) increased carbon and nutrients contributing to plankton blooms and potential hypoxia (Anderson1). SubseFigure 1

Location of Ihe 12-mile dumpsite, dredge materials

dumpsite, and area closed to commercial shellfishing in the

New York Bight (after Verber, 1976). MPN=most probable

number.

COLIFORMS

IN SEDIMENTS

MPN/100g

0100

CD 1.000

® 10,000

e 100,000

:>::<::::::'j •.'i'#'P:'-:-",-,-, I

/

/ /

" 40°20' ..- ..,

Oepth In meter.

I Statement of Dr. Peter Anderson at the Public Hearing on the

Tentative Denial to Redesignate the 12-Mile Sewage Sludge

Dumpsite, Monmouth College, NJ, 18June 1984.

Figure 2

Estimated volumes of sewage sludge dumped in the New

York Bight. Annual means for 1972-85; quarterly totals for

1986-87 (after Swanson et aL, 1985; Santoro, 1987). Sources

of data: Suszkowski and Santoro, 1986, and USEPA Region

11, Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch, New York, NY,

1988.

vii
40'20'

RS

•

;==

o kilometers 5

A6

•

NY11 ........-.,.

,/F// R1

...

...J • ':,:-" NY3

',\ .

••

:.;, ..,····.··:;·8m .-.: . . (~6~CbR2 A2~\ ' .. _ .. I Chrisr;aellsell.

18";;"'\ ,.... Baslll .'_ 27m':

'" ieA';3 • NY6f.J'EJ··A19 M31 N~22 ,'. I' -.: NYS q' , • , A42:' .A44 12·MI!e

~~ '. M109;'0':. Dredged, A41. ·:43 ASO. ~~~a~e D g.\ (/ Material;' umpsi e

." Dumpsite j" • •

18m .---.-. Ii • , R3 M49 ......__ co: AS4':·' R4'.

-';-: : H"dsoll Shelf Valley

27m A~6 (3 M~

Sandy Hook NJ

5. Provide a basis for comparison to evaluate

EPA's decision to activate the 106 Deepwater

Dumpsite.

1. Dispersion of sewage sludge and cleansing of

the Christiaensen Basin would be influenced

by local windfield conditions and resultant

changes in bottom-water circulation in the

upper HSV.

2. Changes in water and sediment chemistry

would occur, including reduction ofsediment

trace metals in sludge depositional areas. However, concentrations of certain organic compounds (e.g. PCB's) might be more stable.

Seabed oxygen consumption and nutrient regeneration rate should be reduced as benthic

community metabolism and organic loading

decrease.

,/

.-- -""~'"

" -", "-'~'8m

74'00' 73'40'

A number of changes at the site were anticipated

during and following closure (EPD, 1988; Studholme

et aI., 1991). The following lists some of the anticipated

changes formulated as working hypotheses:

quently, in March 1986, a scheduled phasing out of

sludge disposal was begun and the site was closed by

December 1987 (Santoro, 1987).

Apart from surveys made by NMFS, EPA, and FDA

before and after closure of the Philadelphia dumpsite

(Devine and Simpson, 1985) little information existed

about "recovery" of disposal sites. The Philadelphia site

was in a highly dispersive system that precluded any

substantial sludge accumulation and after only 4 years,

microbial contamination had returned to background

levels (Lear and O'Malley, 1983). In sharp contrast,

areas adjacent to the 12-mile site are highly depositional and there was uncertainty whether cessation of

dumping would eventually result in significant changes

in water and sediment chemistry, microbial contamination, benthic community structure, distribution and

abundance of demersal finfish, changes in food habits,

or other ecological effects (Swanson et aI., 1985).

A number of considerations had to be taken into

account in the design of the study (Studholme et aI.,

1991). The first was the long history of degradation in

the Bight that precluded the availability ofa predumping

baseline. The second difficulty stemmed from separating sludge effects from those attributable to other major sources of pollution entering the Bight, including

contributions from the Hudson-Raritan plume and the

dredged material disposed at a site midway between the

sludge dumpsite and the New Jersey coast, i.e. the 6-

mile site. The survey design addressed these problems

by including two types of complementary surveys that

would provide both repeated measurements at three

stations representing a gradient of sludge influence

(replicate surveys) and a more extensive descriptive

survey (broadscale survey) covering nearly 350 km2 of

the Bight (Fig. 3).

A wide range of physical, chemical, and biological

variables was selected based on their relevance to fishery resources and their habitats (Table 1; EPD, 1988). It

was expected that results obtained from such an extensive array of measurements would document the degree to which the site would recover. As described in the

third annual report (Studholme et aI., 1991), it was also

expected that these results would provide information to

1. Define if and when the area could be reopened for shellfishing;

2. Assess changes in distribution and abundance

of resource species in the vicinity of the site;

3. Better resolve sediment resuspension and

transport of sludge components out of the

Christiaensen Basin;

4. Quantify areal response to changes in pollutant loading in order to permit prediction of

response rates for future waste disposal sites;

and

Replicate Surve~ s

•••••••••••••••••••••••• BrC'adscale SurY~ys

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Se:lbt:d Metabolism (Transect)

....................................... Seabed Metabolism IApex)

S~C131 Hydrographic/Sediment SUI'"\'ey's

•• •• •• Current Meiers• A A A.A A A A A A A A A A

J .-\ S 0 \ D J F /\1 ,-\ \1 J J ,-\ S 0 \ D J F M :\ \1 J J .-\ S 0 \J D J F \1 .-\ "-I J J .-\ S

1986 1987 1988 1989

Figure 3

Replicate, broadscale, and seabed metabolism stations and

survey schedule for the 12-mile dumpsite study.

viii
Table 1

Variables measured during the 12-mile dumpsite study.

Habitat

Water

Bottom water

Dissolved oxygen (R,BI )

Temperature (R,B)

Salinity (R,B)

pH (R,B)

Sulfide (R,B)

Nutrients (R,B)

Turbidity

Water column

Temperature

Salinity (CTO)

Oxygen

Current measurements

(moored meters)

I R = replicate survey; B = broadscale survey.

2BOO = biological oxygen demand.

Sediment

Chemist.ry

Heavy metals (R,B)

Organic contaminants (R,B)

Sulfide, pH profiles (R)

Redox potential (R,B)

Sediment B002 (R)

Chlorophyll pigments (R,B)

Tot.al organic carbon (R,B)

Characteristics

Grain size (R,B)

Erodibility

Rates

Seabed oxygen consumption

Sedimentation

Biota

Resource species

Distribution/abundance (R,B)

Diet (R)

Winter flonder

Red hake

American lobster

Gross pathology (R)

Winter flounder

American lobster

Tissue organics (R)

Winter flounder

American lobster

Migration (tagging) (B)

Winter flounder

American lobster

Benthos

Macrofauna abundance/diversity (R,B)

Meiofauna abundance/diversity (R,B)

Bacteria - sediments

Fecal & total coliform (R,B)

C. perfringens (R)

ViiJrio spp. (R)

Total count (R)

3. Microbial concentrations should be reduced,

and bacteria indicative of sewage contamination should decrease to acceptable levels that

would permit shellfish beds to be reopened

for harvesting.

4. In heavily polluted areas, numbers of benthic

macrofaunal species should increase; populations of Capitella capitata, an opportunistic polychaete found in disturbed areas, should decrease.

5. While dumping continued, abundance, distribution, and species composition of finfish

and invertebrate communities would differ

among areas which were bathymetrically similar but which represented a gradient ofsludge

influence. Following cessation ofdumping and

expected shifts in sediment contaminants and

benthic forage species, these spatial differences should be reduced.

These as well as other working hypotheses were addressed during the three-year field study. The results

were presented at a symposium in Long Branch, New

Jersey, in June 1991 and form the basis for the papers

presented in this volume.

Literature Cited

Devine, M., and O. Simpson.

1985. Impact of and recovery from sewage sludge dumping at.

the Philadelphia dumpsite. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. OS OMA-15, 37 p.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight. to abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFSF/ EC-55, 34 p.

Erdheim, E.

1985. United St.ates marine waste disposal policy. In B.H.

Ketchum, J.M. Capuzzo, W.V. Burt, I.W. Ouedall, P.K. Park,

and D.R.Kester (eds.), Wastes in the ocean, Vol. 6, Near-shore

waste disposal, p. 42] -460. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Lear, D. W., and M. L. O'Malley.

1983. Effects ofsewage sludge dumping on continental shelf

IX
benthos. In I.W. Duedall, B.H. Ketchum, P.K. Park, and

D.R. Kester (eds.), Wastes in the ocean, Vol. I, Industrial

and sewage wastes in the ocean, p. 293-312. John Wiley

and Sons, New York.

Norton, M. G., and M. A. Champ.

1989. The influence of site-specific characteristics on the effects of sewage sludge dumping. In D. W. Hood, A.

Schoener, and P. K. Park (eds.), Oceanic processes in marine pollution, Vol. 4, Scientific monitoring strategies for

ocean waste disposal, p. 161-183. Robert E. Krieger Co.,

Malabar, FL.

Santoro, E. D.

1987. Status report-phaseout of ocean dumping of sewage

sludge in the New York Bight apex. Mar. Pollut. Bull.

18:278-280.

Studholme, A. L.

1988. Phaseout and closure of the 12-mile sewage sludge

dumpsite: a case study on ecosystem response. Proc. 7th Int.

x

Ocean Disposal Symp., Wolfville, Nova Scotia, p. 68-92.

Studholme, A. L., M. C. Ingham, and A. Pacheco (eds.).

1991. Response of the habitat and biota of the inner New

York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge dumping. Third

annual progress report-1989. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/NEC-82, 57 p.

Swanson, R. L., M. A. Champ, T. O'Connor, P. K. Park,

]. O'Connor, G. F. Mayer, H. M. Stanford, E. Erdheim,

and]. Verber.

1985. Sewage sludge dumping in the New York Bight apex: a

comparison with other proposed ocean dumpsites. In B. H.

Ketchum,]. M. Capuzzo, W. V. Burt, I. W. Duedall, P. K. Park,

and D. R. Kester (eds.), Wastes in the ocean, Vol. 6, Near-shore

waste disposal, p. 461-488. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Verber,]. L.

1976. Safe shellfish from the sea. In M. G. Gross (ed.),

Middle Atlantic continental shelf and the New York Bight.

Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr., Spec. Symp. 2, p. 433-441.

Anne L. Studholme

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

John E. O'Reilly

Merton C. Ingham

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882
SESSIONI:

Introduction

ROBERT A. MURCHELANO

Environmental Processes Division

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543

Background and Plan ofStudy

On behalf of the Environmental Processes Division,

Merton Ingham, Anne Studholme, John O'Reilly, and

most importantly all the members of the Environmental Processes Division that conducted this study for the

past three years, I welcome you to the Symposium. This

is a milestone which was planned when we began this

investigation in 1985. We thought it would be the legitimate outcome of three years of intensive activity at the

12-mile dumpsite. It is fitting that we discuss our findings, with you, help you interpret what we have done,

and give you an opportunity for questions.

A little history ofthe genesis ofthis particular study is

in order. In 1986, a NOAA document on the most

important ocean pollution issues identified ocean dumping as one of the top four priorities. Dr. Jack Pearce

would be among the first to remember that ocean dumping research in the Middle Atlantic Bight began many

years ago. In 1968, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

funded research that was conducted at the former Fish

and Wildlife Service Laboratory at Sandy Hook, New

Jersey; that research continued until about 1971. Subsequent to that, the Marine EcoSystem Analysis (MESA)

Project ofNOAA funded ocean dumping research from

1973 to 1980.

The location of Sandy Hook provides convenient

access to the area called the New York Bight, and if you

look at the history of the laboratory in terms of involvement in habitat or environmental science, it certainly

focused on the Bight apex and coastal problems. Ocean

dumping-an activity that took place for over 60 yearsits magnitude, and the fact that it was to stop, provided

a unique opportunity to look at the course of events

biologically, chemically, and physically. That is really

what made the study an imperative for us.

I have given you a little perspective as to why; let me

now tell you who. NOAA/NMFS is the principal, but

not the only organization involved in the 12-Mile

Dumpsite Study. I would like to express our sincere

appreciation to those who were involved, including:

1. The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)-specifically Dr. Robert

Tucker. All he did for us for three years must

be acknowledged and is appreciated. In particular, DEP's help enabled us to construct a

Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectrometer

Laboratory and conduct organic analyses.

2. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) at Narragansett, Rhode Island-particularly Dr. Wayne Davis. Dr. Davis evaluated

the possibility of sludge resuspension, a fundamental factor affecting transport of the

sludge reservoir.

3. Dr. Irwin Katz at the U.S. EPA Laboratory in

Edison, New Jersey. Dr. Katz quantified

Clostridium perfringens, a bacterial indicator of

the presence of sewage. He conducted an

importan t bacteriological study that has

helped enormously in defining the distribution ofsewage sludge in t.he Bight.

4. Mr. Jack Gaines of the U. S. Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) at Davisville, Rhode Island. He addressed the fundamental question ofwhether bivalve molluscs at the 12-mile

dumpsite that are used for food can be safely

put on the market again. A very basic question was to determine whether these shellfish have been purified so that they can be

marketed.

5. Dr. Richard Bopp of Lamont-Doherty Earth

Observatory. He looked at the distribution of

organic chemical contaminants in sediments

to determine whether they are waterborne or

airborne and where they are transported.

Without these collaborators our efforts would have

been missing significant interpretive elements. They

have added essential components to the overall study.
2 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

All three branches of the Environmental Processes

Division were involved in the study. Oceanographic

data were acquired by the Physical Oceanography

Branch led by Dr. Merton Ingham. The Branch conducted an oceanographic survey of the area, a prerequisite for the chemistry and biology. The information

the Branch provided made it possible to determine

whether the hydrography ofthe area was characteristic,

or whether it deviated substantially from normal, a

fundamental consideration before interpretation of

other events could be made.

The Physical Oceanography Branch also determined

the direction of water movement, particularly near the

bottom. With the use of current meters they determined where materials could be transported by water

and what related events, i.e. atmospheric and meteorologic, could influence water movement.

The Chemical Processes Branch, under the direction

ofMr.John O'Reilly, evaluated metal concentrations in

sediments and determined whether concentrations

and distributions of metals are persistent. One of the

issues cited as a reason for closure of the site related to

metals and their elevated concentration and pervasive

distribution.

The acquisition of the Gas Chromatograph/Mass

Spectrometer made it possible to conduct analyses for

persistent toxic chemicals and determine their prevalence

and importance as contaminants causing biological effects. After standardizing procedures, we have just begun

to evaluate specimens that came from the NewYorkBighttwo species in particular: winter flounder and lobster.

We have studied sediment biogeochemistry and measured changes in redox potential to determine how

healthy the sediments are and whether they are aerobic

or anaerobic. Redox potential is a useful integrator of a

number of chemical and biological activities.

The Environmental Assessment Branch, led by Anne

Studholme, looked at the changes in the abundance of

various species, both finfish and shellfish-the

megabenthos. They looked at patterns of movement

and migration of winter flounder, an important recreational species which is also useful as a biological indi··

cator. They looked at disease prevalence in winter

flounder, changes in diets of fish and shellfish, and

changes in the composition of the macrobenthos.

From the outset we proposed a study design that

would make it possible to use this large data set in a

matrix fashion to interrelate parameters in the scale

that was necessary for such a large study.

This investigation is not complete. Three years of

study is a short period of time when compared with the

64 years of ocean dumping. There may be valid reasons

to return to the area at some future time and make

additional biological, chemical or physical measurements. What that intervening time is remains to be

seen. First we must review our available data.

A point to note is that we have a massive data set that

at present has been examined only superficially. We

have only looked at changes during the first year and a

half after dumping stopped. The process of synthesizing the data will continue.

Finally, I have to acknowledge that the Environmental Processes Division stayed the course for this study

for over three years despite numerous difficulties within

the Fisheries Service. The last three years, as you all

know, have been traumatic ones with respect to federal

budgets, federal climates, and personnel changes. We

have had seven changes within NOAA of either the

Director of NOAA or the Director of the Fisheries Service. We have had the impact of Gramm-Rudman legislation. We have sustained incremental budgetary cuts

each year. We started with a staff of 82 at Sandy Hook

and ended with 47. Yet 39 monthly cruises were completed successfully. We acquired our samples and stayed

the course!

With that by way of background, I would like to

introduce our first guest speaker. I am honored to have

Mr. John Keith of the Department of Environmental

Protection of the State of New Jersey as our keynote

speaker. John is Assistant Commissioner for Environmental Management and Control for the State of New

Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. He

directs the activities of some 1,500 personnel in the

Divisions of Environmental Quality, Water Resources,

and Solid Waste Management. He has a bachelor's

degree in civil engineering from the University ofMichigan and a master's degree in environmental engineering from New Jersey Institute of Technology. He has

over 19 years experience in environmental science, acquired during his tenure positions in state government

and industry.

It is my pleasure this morning to present as our first

speaker, Mr. John Keith.
SESSIONI:

Keynote Address

JOHN KEITH*

Assistant Commissioner

NewJersey Department ofEnvironmental Protection

Trenton, NewJersey 08625

Background and Plan ofStudy

It is particularly appropriate that we have this conference on the effects of cessation of ocean dumping. In

New Jersey we are in the midst of major changes in

policy directions, and sometimes we need to stop and

think about what is the effect of what we are doingwhat is the effect of what we have done.

I would like to focus my remarks today on perceptions versus reality. As I am sure you are all aware, we in

government deal to a large extent with perceptions.

What does the public perceive as the public good or the

problems that government needs to address? What gets

votes? What causes political controversy or creates a lot

of press? Those are all based on perceptions.

You in this room are scientists. You deal with reality.

We in the Department of Environmental Protection

find ourselves in the unusual circumstance of trying to

balance perceptions versus reality: to address what the

public, public leaders, and the press are concerned

about from a perception point of view, and yet keep in

mind what the reality is and what the real problems are.

I think that ocean dumping of sludge at the 12-mile

site or the lO6-mile site is a perfect example of perceptions versus reality. Ocean dumping ofsludge started in

1924 at the 12-mile site, six miles off the coast. The

perception then was very clear. The ocean is an unlimited disposal resource. There is no way that humans can

affect the integrity of the ocean.

The reality, which we are going to study in this conference and we are going to continue to study as a

result of ongoing research, is that we certainly can

affect the ocean. We can kill or do enormous damage

to portions of it.

The 12-mile site, located 12 miles southeast of Sandy

Hook, comprises 6.6 square miles with water depths

between 22 and 27 meters. Over the years ocean dumping of sludge and other material increased. By 1970

approximately 200 sewage treatment plants were dumping approximately 5 million wet tons of sewage sludge

per year at the 12-mile site. Before passage of the Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA)

on 23 October 1972, there were almost no legal controls, either inside or outside the United States, of the

dumping of wastes at sea. Under MPRSA, the U. S.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was authorized to administer and enforce the Ocean Dumping

Code, an ocean dumping program, and to issue permits. Still ocean dumping went on, and there was not

much work to determine what the effects were.

In 1977, President Carter signed into law an amendment to the Act, legislating that by 31 December 1981,

there would be an end to ocean dumping of sewage

sludge that could cause unreasonable environmental

impact. The problem, of course, was a definition of

what constitutes an unreasonable ennvironmental impact. The public had not perceived that there was a real

problem. Therefore, the dumping went on.

There was a famous court case where New York City

sued EPA in Federal court arguing that Congress had

only barred dumping which unreasonably degrades a

marine environment. The City further argued that there

was no evidence that the dumping at the 12-mile site

had indeed unreasonably degraded the environment.

So the ocean dumping at the 12-mile site went on.

In 1984, EPA designated the 106-mile site, and in

April of 1985, the Agency took formal action to finally

close the 12-mile site. In 1985, EPA imposed the following schedule on New Jersey ocean dumpers: that by

1986, 25 percent of the sludge dumped by the six New

Jersey ocean dumpers would be moved out to the 106-

mile site, and that by December 1987 all of the New

Jersey sludge would be moved out to the 106-mile site.

Of course, the lO6-mile site had not been evaluated

to determine what the impact would be on the ecological system out there. True, it is a much bigger site (a

hundred square miles) and in much deeper water (1,500

* Present address: Pfizer, Inc., 235 East 42nd Street, New York, NY

10017.

3
4 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

to 2,700 meters). But still, had anybody evaluated the

impact? Basically the perception was that it had to be

better than the 12-mile site.

We have made much progress since 1986 when the

106-mile site began operation. In advance of State or

Federal legislation, New Jersey's six ocean dumping

authorities were required in the spring of 1989 to develop long-term and interim land-based sludge management plans that would handle all sewage sludge

after 17 March ofthis year. In July 1988, Governor Kean

signed the Ocean Dumping Elimination Act, prohibiting all New Jersey municipal treatment works from

disposing sludge in the ocean after 17 March 1991.

Over the last several years the Department of Environmental Protection, interested parties, environmental groups, and most notably the sewer plants and the

sewer authorities have worked very hard in cooperation

with the courts and EPA to end ocean dumping of all

sludge from New Jersey. It certainly was a great day on

17 March when we could announce that indeed all

ocean dumping of New Jersey sludge had ended.

There was some perception that the problem has been

solved. Unfortunately, as I am sure most of us are all too

painfully aware, the sludge problem has not been solved.

And I would like to get back to where we are going with

sludge and address some of both perception and reality

problems that we now have with sludge management.

Let me turn back to the idea of perceptions versus

reality. Initially ocean dumping was thought to be good;

gradually the perception shifted that ocean dumping of

sludge was bad. But, what indeed were the actual effects

of this practice; was it indeed good or bad? That is what

I am hoping to hear at this conference and from the

research discussed here. It is only by conducting this

type of study that we are going to learn in reality what

makes good policy as opposed to only addressing the

perceptions of the public or the politicians.

Let me review some of the perception problems we

have had with dumping the sludge at the 12-mile site.

In 1976 there were hypoxic conditions offshore resulting in a widespread fish kill. The perception was originally that nutrient enrichment of near-coastal waters

was attributable to sludge dumping at the 12-mile site.

We may never be able to determine the causes or to

what extent the hypoxic event was attributable to sludge

dumping. Certainly sludge dumping deserves a portion

of the blame. But for the 1976 hypoxia event the probable reason, as far as the Department can determine,

was a continental shelf-wide bloom of Ceratium tripos, a

species native to the northern oceans. Quiescent summer conditions with strong and persistent thermoclines

in the ocean resulted in benthic hypoxia and subsequent fish kills.

In 1984, 1985, and again in 1986, indicator coliform

bacteria in the near-shore coastal areas of Monmouth

and Ocean Counties exceeded recreational bathing

guidelines for our public health criteria. The public

attributed this to onshore intrusions of sludge discharged at the 12-mile site. We believe now that the

probable source of most, though not all, of that problem was storm-water discharge in the immediate vicinity of the bathing areas.

Storm water, as you are aware, picks up waste materials from roads and other areas, and, with combined

sewer problems and improper connections ofthe storm

sewers, the runoff during the storms can result in closure of beaches.

In 1986, there were widespread reports of materials

washing up on our beaches: hypodermic syringes, tampon applicators, and other materials that we certainly

find unsightly and unpleasant. It caught a lot of press.

Once again, sludge dumping at the 12-mile site was the

immediate target of concern. We believe now that, like

the bacterial contamination, combined sewer overflows

and storm water discharges, combined with northeast

winds and wind currents, transported this material to

our beaches. A large portion of that material came into

the New York Bight, particularly from New York City

and the Fresh Kills landfill.

In May 1987, we had a rash of plastic medical-type

waste and grease balls. Grease chunks covering human

waste washes up on beaches in Ocean and Monmouth

County. This was originally attributed to sludge dumping, particularly the digester washout from barges. We

now believe that the major cause was related to the

combined sewer overflows in New York and New York/

Newark Harbor, combined with wind and current conditions that brought it south to Monmouth and Ocean

Counties.

Trash and other floatable debris again hit our beaches

in 1987 and 1988 with widespread press coverage. Over

a billion dollars of tourism was lost due to the adverse

press and the perception that NewJersey beaches were

somehow dirty. Although sludge dumping was identified as one of the causes, it was not attributed as the

major cause. Fresh Kills landfill was named very frequently as a possible source, as well as boats offshore. It

now appears that the largest source ofthe floating trash

debris that hit our beaches was the resuspension of

floatable debris from estuary and harbor shorelines

during extreme high tides and during storm water surges.

Contributors also included combined sewer discharges

and some sloppy practices at the Fresh Kills landfill and

other areas where trash is handled along our coastline.

A final example of the problem of perception versus

reality is that in the period that we have been discussing

there were multiple dolphin deaths. It was reported to

the press that dolphins were swimming in the sludge

dumpsite and caught a disease. I do not think anybody

is really sure of the full cause of those dolphin deaths.
We are aware that there is a naturally occurring bacterium infecting dolphins which compromises their immune system. That only answers half the question. If it

is a natural cause why do we have this rash of dolphin

deaths greater than at other times.

New Jersey is trying to do a number of things to

address these problems of perception and reality. First,

it is important that we realize that the public responds

to visual action. When they perceive a problem, they

want something done. We would like to think that what

we are doing is addressing fundamental problems. It

does no good to take a visible action, that is not addressing the ,real problem. Otherwise we are only going to

have the problem resurface. We would have more garbage wash up on the beaches in a subsequent season.

Let me discuss some of the things that we are doing

right now to keep New Jersey beaches clean. First, we

have Operation Clean Shores. That is a program where

we hire convicts to go around and clean up debris on

our beaches. It starts every spring. They are picking up

the litter and wood. Most of what we pick up, however,

is not from beaches at all. It is in Raritan Bay, in the

Arthur Kill, and in the back waters where, during periods of storm surges or high tides, material washes off

the shoreline out into the ocean, and then under the

right current or wind conditions, washes back onto our

beaches.

In addition to the cleanup activities, we have instituted the Coastal Monitoring Program. Twice a week

the water is sampled at every beach, along the bays and

ocean, and monitored for coliform and other indicators. This is the most extensive coastal and beach monitoring program in the nation. It is done on a cooperative

basis by the County Health Departments and the local

departments.

We maintain an information network to advise the

public of where problems are found. Based on this

cooperative Coastal Monitoring Program we have been

able to conclude that the major cause of bacterial contamination on our beaches is indeed storm water and

combined sewer overflows.

This program has gotten us into some trouble. You

see, NewJersey tells people when there are beach problems. With the most aggressive beach-monitoring program in the nation and with easy access to it, the press

picks up reports and says we have problems at our

beaches. This leads to a perception that New Jersey

beaches, therefore, are somehow dirtier than other

beaches. The reality, of course, is quite the opposite.

We believe that our beaches and our coastal waters are,

if anything, cleaner than many other resort areas.

We noted with great interest last year, when Congressman Hughes introduced a measure for a Coastal

Monitoring Program similar to ours throughout the

east coast in all resort areas that there was widespread

Session I: Background and Plan ofStudy 5

resistance to instituting this sort of program. Florida

led that resistance. I do not think there is any problem

with Florida's water, but it is interesting that they are

scared about perceptions that may imply there is something wrong.

We do a couple of other things in New Jersey that

relate to keeping beaches clean. Most of you are probably aware that we fly a helicopter four days a week, and

EPA flies one day a week for us, inspecting our beaches

and looking for slicks offshore. We maintain contracts

with various cleanup services, fishing boats, and the

Coast Guard so that when slicks are spotted we can go

out there and clean them up. We have teams of people

on call, who can go out and clean up materials when

and if they hit the beaches. The result is that every

beach in New Jersey during the summer season is

combed by inspectors looking for debris. You can be

assured that the beaches in New Jersey will be cleaned

every morning. We have some ofthe best beaches there

are.

What we are doing right now is overcoming the perception that there is a problem. It is gratifying to see

that tourism bookings are up and the press is favorable.

People are recognizing the quality of the water that we

have at the shore. However, we are still very vulnerable.

When the Asbury Park Press reports that there is material

washing up, for example three drums on a coastline of

112 miles, due to somebody apparently knocking them

off a pier, this gets front page press. The perception

that there is a problem in NewJersey continues, much

to the detriment of all of us, to the Department, to our

economy, to the beach users, and to the communities.

And I think it is also to the detriment of scientists

because that sort ofstatement does not represent good

science. It represents a form of yellow journalism.

Let me return to the issue of sludge. I have been

working with sludge policies over the last year. We

recognize that when 17 March came, the problem with

sludge management would not end. Right now in New

Jersey roughly 55 percent of our sludge (this is after

ocean dumping ends) is hauled to other states for

disposal. Most of this is landfill, some ofit to as far away

as Texas. The Passaic Valley Sewage Commissioner has

a train leave Newark everyday for Tyler, Texas, with 55

cars filled with sludge. You can imagine how that is

received and perceived in Texas. Approximately 23

percent of our sludge is used beneficially either in land

application or as landfill cover. Finally, about 22 percent of our sludge is incinerated.

We realized that when ocean dumping of sludge

ended we could not rely forever on hauling it out of

state, but there is a perceptual problem about sludge.

Just the word conjures up human waste in people's

minds. Never mind the fact that with secondary treatment, sludge is not human waste; it has become a
6 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

processed product. It is a bacterial cell mass. It settles

out after the biological treatment of sewage. Nevertheless, it is conceived of as human waste and as intrinsically evil; nobody wants it and nobody wants to let us do

anything with it.

I will call your attention to some ofthe headlines that

just occurred over the last several weeks. In the

Trentonian, my favorite paper, "Sludge dumping; Governor Florio allows sludge dumping in the Pine Barrens." No such thing actually happened. It is true that

some of the sludge is composted from Camden County

Municipal Utilities Authority and is land-applied for

the restoration of certain sand quarries in the Pinelands.

We look at that as a good thing.

I had the opportunity last week to fly over the Pine

Barrens and most of southern Jersey on a perfectly

clear, beautiful day. What I saw surprised me. Throughout southern NewJersey there are vast areas of deserts,

sand quarries, contaminated sites, construction sites,

thousands of acres on which nothing is growing. Why

not? It is because we have removed the top soil which

was precariously thin to begin with. Nobody has replaced

or rebuilt that top soil, and vegetation can not survive.

We have, with sludge, a product that has valuable

capabilities as fertilizer, which after composting can

rebuild soil structures and rebuild the top soil. I would

love to be able to use that on these deserts in southern

Jersey.

But I am faced with a perceptual problem-i.e. that

the Trentonian would report that Governor Florio dumps

sludge on the Pinelands. How do we overcome this

perceptual problem and allow the use of sludge that

has beneficial properties? It is going to take a massive

effort. It will take more than simply good science. It

certainly does take good science, however, to insure

that what we are doing, and what we want to do, does

not create new problems. It also takes public education

and a concerted effort from a lot of concerned people

recognizing that this is not a waste and that this is the

right thing to do. When we dump sludge in the ocean,

when we incinerate it, when we apply it to a landfill,

we are not recovering the valuable properties of this

material.

The Department is in the midst of implementing a

beneficial use policy. As many of you are aware, last

November the Department issued a white paper on

sludge management, perhaps the most comprehensive

paper on a state's sludge problems ever issued in this

country. Basically, it was so comprehensive because we

know more about sewage sludge than any other state.

Subsequent to the issuance of the white paper, we

received many favorable comments and a lot of interest. We held a series ofroundtable discussions in February and March 1991 with interested parties from all

sides of the sludge management issue to develop new

policies for the state. Consensus was achieved in those

round-table discussions on a wide range of subjects.

The first major consensus was that we should treat

sludge as a material that has beneficial properties and

that can be recycled; we can recover the nutrients in

the soil-enhancing value of that material. In other words,

we should not dispose of it. We should focus on beneficial reuse.

A second major policy consensus was that the entire

state needs a consistent high-quality sludge standard

which is defined as acceptable for perpetual application on land without degrading it. That way we would

not create new contaminated sites. Further, until sewer

authorities achieve that quality of sludge, they must

have aggressive pretreatment programs. They must examine sources other than industry that contribute to

sludge contamination, e.g. homeowner practices, background concentrations in the water, and the leaching

out of copper and lead from plumbing systems.

We further said that New Jersey should lead the way

in beneficial reuse of sludge. We should encourage

other people to use sludge beneficially on our own

lands, i.e. construction sites ofthe Department ofTransportation, as cover material over Superfund sites under

our control, and application on state-owned agricultural lands. There is one additional consensus that I

should mention and that is that if sludge meets this

high quality for perpetual use, then we should deregulate the material and not count it as a waste. We should

also actively start removing the stigma attached to this

material and have it considered to be comparable to

the compost that comes out of these 240 leased

composting centers across the state.

We are now in the process of implementing this new,

policy. Commissioner Weiner in his remarks to the

House Appropriation Committee on 29 May specifically endorsed these policy initiatives-initiatives agreed

upon at the sludge roundtable discussions. Our timetable is such that we will be developing the high quality

standards and regulatory proposals over the next several months. We will probably have them out for public

review and discussion within the next several months.

Our goal is to adopt regulations by the end of this year

to implement the sludge management policies.

Again, let me point out another perception and a

small advertisement for the Department. There has

been a perception that the Department is a problem

agency, with criticism of permit delays and lack of direction. I would like to make everybody aware that there is

a lot going on in the Department of Environmental

Protection. In the six-month period between May and

October 1991, there will be more regulations and more

standards in the water area by the Department than in

its history or the history of its predecessor, the Division

of Water Resources.
Every one of these regulations will be presented in a

public forum. We will hold public meetings and solicit

input from the public; we need the input of good scientists in NewJersey and throughout the region as well.

The regulations will include surface water standards,

particularly the adoption of new quality standards for

all surface waters including the ocean and estuary. They

will include toxic contaminants. We will be issuing or

reissuing ground water standards for the entire state.

We will be issuing standards in policies related to practical quantifiable levels. Practical quantifiable levels

(PQL's), are those levels oftoxic contaminants that can

be reliably and accurately measured. They are differentiated from method detection limits, which are lower

than PQL's. Method detection limits indicate that we

can detect it, but we can not reliably quantity it.

PQL's are particularly important for application of

surface water and ground water standards and the regulation of discharges. We need to adopt policies on

processes when the surface water or ground water standard is below the PQL. How you regulate discharges in

that case is an interesting policy to debate, and certainly needs the input from the scientific community.

We now have cleanup standards, for the first timeuniform, consistent cleanup standards for the entire

state for contaminated sites. They address both how

clean we expect the soil to get and how clean we expect

the ground water to get, and the thorny problem of

what happens ifyou can not attain them. In some cases,

you could pump and treat forever and never achieve

the cleanup standard. How do you address that? What

do we do about areas where there is existing widespread

contamination within the state? These are addressed in

the cleanup standards, and there is a series offour public

meetings which are ongoing in this topic area.

The Clean Water Enforcement Act, which was signed

by Governor Florio last year, is coming into effect on 1

July 1991. Regulations that were proposed in April for

enforcement of this Act will be adopted in July. Further

regulations coming up to implement the Act are in the

area of pretreatment and delegation of pretreatment

programs to sewer authorities.

Session I: Background and Plan ofStudy 7

In September, we expect to have an extensive regulatory change reforming our New Jersey Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NJPDS) permit system;

cleaning it up and making it more reasonable, which

will expedite the process while at the same time protecting environmental quality.

We are now issuing combined sewer mapping standards. We are issuing new regulations on Discharge

Pollution Control and Containment (DPCC) Plans. This

is in response to the Oil Spill Prevention Act signed last

July. They are one of the most aggressive sets of regulations in the country, designed to prevent discharges of

hazardous substances and contaminants both from stationary facilities and marine transfer activities.

We will be proposing sewer ban and treatment work

approval reform regulations, a frequently criticized program. When we review it, the perception of what good

this program is doing may mesh with the reality of

programmatic good.

That is quite a list of regulations, all of which affect

water quality. Taken collectively, this set ofreforms will

basically overhaul the entire system of regulation in

New Jersey. This is a critical juncture for regulation of

water discharges and regulation ofwater quality throughout our state. The Department is doing this in the midst

of a severe state budget crisis, hiring freezes, and the

perception that we are somehow an embattled Department. I hope that some of what I have said has put that

perception to rest.

To return to my theme about perceptions versus

reality, we need the help of the scientific community to

tell us what is reality. What are the problems on which

we should be focusing? What will be the impact of

regulatory programs that the state is proposing?

We also need the help of a broader community to

change perceptions. And I think that when you consider results of your research, you should spend time

thinking how to get the message not only to the scientific community but to the regulators and public both

in terms of how we regulate the environment and the

policies we adopt. Do not let the journalists and politicians control the day.

SESSIONI: Background and Plan ofStudy

Historical Background of the 12-Mile Durnpsite

RICHARD CASPE

Water Management Division

United States Environmental Protection Agent)', Region II

26 Federal Plaza

New York, New York 10278

In the mid 80's and then in the late 80's, I headed

teams to deal with the statutory deadlines for getting

sludge moved from the 12-mile site and then out of the

ocean. Consequently, I have looked at this symposium

talk as a labor oflove and have tried to come up with some

historical facts that I thought might be interesting.

The last barge went to the 12-mile site on 31 December 1987. This ended over 50 years of use that started in

1924.John Keith has described what sludge is; the only

thing I would add is to remind you that it is around 96

percent water, i.e. the volume is predominantly water,

not solids. In 1884, New York City built their first sewage treatment plant. It was the first in the area, and by

the early 1900's it was a growing business. So much so

that by 1927, New York City had built the world's largest

[plant] atJamaica Bay.

The first ocean dumping in this area actually occurred at a local site in 1917 but it was not sewage

sludge. There were no Federal regulations within the

Bight and in Coney Island Sound, and dumping consisted of street sweepings, garbage, and refuse largely

from New York City. They went out and dumped it, and

the winds blew in the wrong direction. You can guess

what happened. There were washups on the Long Island beaches and the City was taken to court. In 1931,

the U.S. Supreme Court ordered the dumping of garbage and street sweepings stopped. The last barge went

out on 28 June 1934, some three years after the statute.

While all this was happening with the garbage, the

metropolitan area of NewJersey was developing as well.

The area covered by the Passaic Valley Sewage Commission had a population of around a half a million people,

and sewage disposal was becoming a problem. Sometime around 1910, Passaic Valley came up with the

proposal that they wanted to discharge sewage into the

inner harbor. Obviously, New York City's sanitation

district, the Health Department in those days, became

upset. So they went to the Supreme Court to stop New

Jersey. Although there were attempts throughout that

period by both states to arrive at a mutual solution most

of these efforts were futile.

The Supreme Court came out with a decision in 1921

with regard to this court suit on the Passaic Valley,

which basically said, "Guys, go solve your problem; we

have got better things to do; try to cooperate." So the

states started to cooperate, and as a consequence a site

was designated for sludge dumping.

The sewage sludge site was in approximately 90 feet

ofwater, 6.6 square nautical miles in area, 10 miles east

of Highlands, NewJersey, and 9.9 nautical miles south

of Long Island. Obviously, the criteria for its location

was to insure that it was outside of the navigation lanes

and in an area where the beaches would be protected

from sludge materials washing back on to the shore.

Meanwhile business was still growing. By 1927, New

York City had 11 so-called "filtration plants." Interestingly in 1927, much of that sludge was not dumped in

the ocean. As late as the early 1940's for example,

Coney Island sludge was taken to Marine Park and put

in shallow lagoons where it dried and was then used as

humus on park lands in the City of New York. The idea

ofland-based use ofsludge is not really something new;

certainly not new in this area, and I think the rest of the

country has been going in that direction a long time.

The product unfortunately grew. It grew in size and

complexity and simpler solutions became a desired path.

In 1937, an estimated 11 dry tons of sludge was produced in the city ofNew York. By 1947 that number had

risen to 300 dry tons. During World War II fat was

skimmed off the sludge and recycled, and sold at 80

cents per hundred pounds. Whether they used the fats

for lubrication or soap, I am not sure.

At peak use, there were almost 200 sewage treatment

plants discharging at the 12-mile site. However, by December 1981, there were only nine: in New Jersey,

Bergen County, which jointly treated sludge from Essex

and Union Counties, Linden, Roselle, Middlesex

County, Passaic Valley Sewage Commissioners, and

9
10 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Rahway Valley; in New York, Nassau County, Westchester

County, and New York City.

Let us review the more recen t history concerning this

site. Under the 1972 Marine Protection Research and

Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA), the site was designated as an

interim disposal site in 1973. That basically meant we

did not have an Environmental Impact Statement for

the site, but since it had been used historically, we

allowed its continued use. In 1973, we started issuing

the first of our permits for dumping. These were issued

through 1976 with cessation required by the end of

1981. Again, EPA had taken a rather strict interpretation of the Act as far as what was and was not harmful.

Basically the Agency was saying that unless you could

prove there were no other alternatives, you had to get

out of the ocean. We started having hearings on the

designation of the site as well, including an Environmental Impact Statement. History began repeating itself in 1976.

Some interesting things happened in 1976. One, there

was a series of pier fires; I think three piers burned

down at the beginning of the year. Two, there was a

massive explosion. Some kids had decided to see what it

would sound like if they dropped a firecracker into a

sludge holding tank in Bay Park, Long Island, and two

ofthe tanks blew up, spilling a million gallons ofsludge

into the bay. These events coupled with a lot ofrain and

sustained southerly winds tended to drive everything

back on shore and the politics of the situation started

taking over.

Congress was quick to act. We already had issued

permits that required cessation by 31 December 1981.

That not withstanding, in November of 1977, under

President Carter, Congress reaffirmed that 31 December 1981, was the date to close the site. However, there

was no clarification as to what was reasonable and unreasonable degradation. The Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) had to balance the environmental impact of sludge dumping versus the environmental impact of land-based solutions. One of the reasons this

conference is so interesting is to consider how these

findings relate to all the monitoring that is now conducted at the 106-mile site. When you start debating the

impacts on land, they are easy to grasp; you can figure

out the impact, whether it is an air impact from an

incinerator or other source. It is relatively simple and

usually relatively localized. The problem with dumping

in the ocean is that you can not figure out impacts. You

think you know what they might be, but you are never

really sure. You keep saying it might be this, or it might

be that, and people ask "Well, is it definitely?," and you

can not answer. The old quote is that people do not live

in the ocean, so the constituency in the past has been

rather obscure. In 1976 the politics were such, however,

that the statute was changed.

In May 1979, we approved the 12-mile site as a legal

site. At this stage, the impact statement was completed

and we scheduled that use of the site would expire on

31 December 1981. We continued in earnest to provide

grant as well as regulatory assistance to municipalities

to get the nine dumpers out by 1981.

On what did we base the .decision not to redesignate

the site? There were shellfish bed closures because of

bacterial problems. There were elevated heavy metals

and toxic organic compounds in the bottom sediments.

There was reduced dissolved oxygen in the area and

there were reported changes in diversity and abundance of the marine life. We used these effects as our

key reasons not to redesignate the site.

As mentioned earlier, in 1981 New York City and a

couple of other municipalities took us to court and we

lost. The decision was that EPA had no right to presume unreasonable degradation. It barred us from initiating any action until we looked at the whole issue and

basically required us to do a balancing act.

In December 1982, EPA agreed to reopen the site

and keep the process going, requesting comments on

the redesignation. In May 1984, we announced our

tentative decision to deny the redesignation and started

the process of designating the Deep Water Municipal

Sludge Dumpsite which had been previously called the

106-mile site. The designation recognizes other ocean

sites in that area where industrial dumping occurred.

In April 1985, we formally denied the existing permits

and established a phase-out schedule by 31 December

1987. On November 1986, Congress took what we already had in the consent orders as a basis and adopted

it as a requirement of the law.

One of the problems, to give you a little insight into

negotiations, was that to get to and from the 12-mile

site and dump a load of sludge was a relatively simple

event. Weather problems were not great; the distance

obviously was not great. You could get a barge back and

forth in one day with no problem whatsoever, nor did

you need an ocean-going barge. Moving to the 106-mile

site required larger ocean-certified barges, and the passage of time to and from the site took about three days.

We had to start looking at barge capacity and to bring

in new barges.

New York City at this point is the only sludge dumper

and, for the last several years, has been the only one

that owns its own fleet. Everybody else dumps by contractor. New York City used self-propelled vessels, about

140 feet long-nothing too large. Those vessels are no

longer used to go out but are used for lightening operations within the City. The replacement barges are hugemore than 300 feet long. Vessel acquisition became a

problem and was a factor in the negotiations.

From 1973 to 1987, it is estimated around 90 million

wet tons of sludge were dumped at the 12-mile site.
That interval was the only time it was dumped via a

Federal permit. Before that, remember, it was dumped

without a Federal permit because there was no Federal

requirement.

The site was finally de-designated on 2 February 1990

and no longer exists as a site. Ofthe dumping that went

on within the apex and within the Bight as well, all the

sites except for the one designated for dredge spoil

have been or will be closed shortly. Even the sludge

dumpsite at the 106-mile site actually expires on 31

December 1991. New York City will dump a bit longer.

They will be dumping under court order. Ifthey go into

violation of that court order the site could theoretically

disappear on them as well. That was a strategy that EPA

used with the Department ofJustice in negotiating the

agreements. Now you are up to date on the 12-mile site.

On the 106-mile site, you can watch political effectsin 1987 from the NewJersey washups and in 1988 from

the Long Island washups. On the Long Island washups,

I received a frantic call on 6 July 1988 that medical

waste was washing up bountifully on the shoreline.

The estimate was that they had bags ofmedical waste.

I said, "Do not do anything, I will be right there." (I

happen to live in Nassau County in the town of

Hempstead.) A helicopter picked me up and I was out

there in an hour, walking the beach. Most of what was

reported as medical waste were firecrackers, the tops of

rockets from the 4th ofJuly. The medical waste from a

10-mile stretch of beach might have filled one baggie. It

was a very slight amount of medical waste. But between

what J:1appened in New Jersey in '87 and what happened on Long Island in '88, this was the fatal blow to

sludge dumping. Our estimate is that basically none of

Session I: Background and Plan ofStudy 11

it came from sludge. It comes from combined sewer

overflows (CSO) for the most part. To bring you up to

date, in the spring of 1989, EPA brought together a

joint task force of the states, EPA, the Coast Guard,

NOAA, and the Corps of Engineers, and said between

all of us we had some resources. I guess some of us had

some idea at the time of coping with a resuspension

problem at high tides and a combined sewer overflow

problem. We developed something with the Corps of

Engineers that had two vessels out there, actually three,

where they would use those vessels to buy new nets with

a smaller mesh and basically skim the harbor. Through

a network, with EPA as central command, EPA and DEP

helicopters would basically fly the harbor shorelines,

identify slicks, and direct Corps of Engineers vessels to

skim those slicks. New York City agreed to allow us to

take that waste and put it in the Fresh Kills landfill. And

it has worked amazingly well but does not solve the

problems. We have provided to the City of New York

funds for two of these vessels at a cost of roughly six

million dollars. These ships will operate on the Sandy

Hook/Rockaway transect. New York City will provide

for their operation and maintenance on a regular basis.

So, that coupled with storm water strategies and CSO

strategies are being put in effect as well with the states.

We hope to solve the floatables problem. The sludge

cessation really has all been related to the scare and

perception that floatables on the shoreline have been

brought on by sludge dumping. It is not true and the

advantage of the situation is such that we have gotten

the sludge out of the ocean.

It has been a long and torturous history for some of

us, and I am glad to see it coming to an end.

Audience QJ.testiQ1lS

Question: Richard, I notice that neither you norJohn

[Keith], mentioned George Whidden and the Coalition to Cease Ocean Dumping. Any comments on the

role that played in public perception?

R. Caspe: There are a lot of people saying a lot of

things. It played a role; there is no question about that.

A lot of people had the perception that terrible things

were happening as a result of sludge dumping. The

arguments on why sludge dumping should end were

not really based on technical [facts]. The public policy

view of what should and what should not be done with

sludge probably came out the right way from my perspective. The end result was good, but if you listened to

how the decision came about, there were a lot of things

being said by both sides. I heard people from New York

City testify that sludge was a valuable resource to the

area; that without that there would not be any fish in the

area. They considered it a nutrient-starved regime without

sludge. There were different people saying different things.

SESSIONI: Background and Plan ofStudy

Experimental Design of the 12-Mile Dwnpsite Study

ROBERT PlKANOWSKI

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

ABSTRACT

The study of effects of cessation of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site used a

sample design based upon the technique of replication in time. This design yields unbiased

estimates of the ecological effects of sewage sludge by precluding the confounding effects

innate in many environmental impact studies. Three sites were selected for intensive

subsampling based upon an assumption that they represented a gradient (maximum,

intermediate, minimum) of exposure to sewage sludge. In odd-numbered months plus

August, eight complete subsamples were taken at each of the sites (the Replicate Study, 576

samples). A complete sample consisted of a bottom-trip hydrocast, a benthic grab, and an

otter trawl. In even-numbered months, single complete samples were collected at 22 sites

distributed about the dumpsite area (the Broadscale Study, 415 samples). This part of the

study was conducted to allow extrapolation of the experimental results to a wider area. The

experimental design was developed to maximize information in the context of the constraints and caveats of both the statistical model and the availability of experimental

resources. The essence of this particular design is that the likelihood of the results being

biased (by random effects or by the confounding due to nonrandomized sampling) is

minimized, thereby yielding useful management information.

Introduction

Previous studies of the fate and effects ofsewage sludge

disposal on the benthic ecosystem of the New York

Bight have relied on correlative techniques to determine relationships between sediment characteristics and

infaunal community structure (Pearce et aI., 1981; Reid

et aI., 1982; Reid et aI., 1987). Although the demonstrated relationships between chemical/physical properties and indicator species assemblages are likely to be

true, the strength of these relationships with respect to

disposal cannot be determined quantitatively. When

the structure of a study lies outside the paradigm of an

experiment, it cannot be assumed that all the possible

variables or cofactors which may confound an analysis

have been measured or taken into account. For example, assume samples are post-stratified such that contaminated depositional sites are compared statistically

to uncontaminated depositional sites. There are

unresolvable innate differences between the treatment

groups. The distribution of disposal materials is contiguous; thus the groups are likely to engender different base communities or differential exposure to other

sources of contamination. Such a comparison is confounded by location. The only way to quantify the effects of disposal is through experimentation.

Although it is impractical to conduct a classical field

experiment on the effects of sewage sludge on the

benthic ecosystem of the New York Bight, the planned

closure of the 12-mile dumpsite afforded the Environmental Processes Division (EPD) an opportunity to design an experiment using the method of replication in

time (RIT) 1. A general description of RIT is given by

Stewart-Oaten et al. (1986); a detailed statistical description of the application to the 12-mile dumpsite

study is given by Pikanowski (unpub. data). Besides the

usual resource constraints, there are constraints on the

sample design imposed by the method. These constraints or caveats are explicated in Pikanowski (unpub.

at all of the individual sub-studies are included in this design

strategy.

13
14 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Rockaway Point

M49 •

A6

•

20

,'.;

,'. -- Rl.

-..:..... NY3

\'-. ·R2·······.. .' <RS. ® , ';,'.2,0,:- r .~ Christiaensen e A20\

20···.,/ Basin W M31 NY22

:.. : : NY5. NY6 •• A19 __ ., •

~~ :., \ A42": .A44 : 12-Mile

',f'" -.. tIi -A43 : Sewage

M109. ~.I I:,; Dredged ~41 ,;: A50 I Sludge

I :1 Material Dumpsrle

__ Dumpsile

-----.,."".': A54 R4 • : R3 •

3~ A5~ 8\. M54

NYll ...

Figure 1

Locations ofstations sampled on the replicate and broadscale

surveys during the 12-mile dumpsite study.

of released material because it was proximal to the

ports of origin. Net transport of sludge followed the

gravitational gradient west into the Christiaensen Basin, thus accumulating at NY6.

Selection of the uncontaminated, or reference, site

was not as straightforward. It is implicit in RIT that the

reference site will respond similarly to common large

global events (in the sense of affecting the whole study

area) unrelated to the treatmen t. Storms, climate

change, or recruitment success are examples of such

events. There is no certainty, beforehand, that a reference site will be a good one in this respect. Thus, two

sites were selected as possible reference sites. Station

NYll (Fig. 1) is located south of NY6 on the eastern

shoulder of the Christiaensen Basin and showed little

evidence ofsludge con tamination. Station R2 (Fig. 1) is

north of NY6 and evidenced an "enriched" benthic

community with high biomass ofseveral tolerant, though

not necessarily pollution-indicator, species. It was not

clear if this enrichment had a dumpsite or estuarine

origin (or a combination of both). Station R2 served a

dual purpose; it was either an alternative reference site

or represented a treatment site at an intermediate level

of overall contamination (derived from disposal and

estuarine sources or both). The three stations were

similar in depth and underlying sediment type (fine

sand), and they were unlikely to be affected significantly by dredged spoil disposal (Fig. 1) on the western

side of the Christiaensen Basin.

One of the caveats of RIT is that results apply specifically to the contaminated site (NY6). This site repredata) and are presented here without justification. Although the theory behind RIT may be somewhat complex, the execution is quite straightforward.

A contaminated site and an uncontaminated site are

selected. At intervals, before and after termination of

disposal, samples are collected simultaneously at the

selected sites. The difference between the values measured at each site is calculated, yielding a replicate in

time. Assuming no confounding effects are operant

(Pikanowski, unpub. data), a comparison of the "before-closure" and "after-closure" replicates yields an estimate of the effect of termination of disposal. If an

ecologically significant difference is specified a priori,

the comparison yields a test of the null hypothesis that

there is no effect of termination on a particular response variable. In fact, the intensity of disposal declined from 1.72 million wet tons in the third quarter of

1986 (the first samples were collected in July 1986) to

0.69 million wet tons in the fourth quarter of 1987,

prior to cessation of all dumping in December 1987.

Thus the treatment was not "switched off' but rather

stepped down. Likewise, there is a possible lag in "recovery" with respect to the end of disposal. Linear

trends due to this variable treatment intensity may be

detectable by tests for serial correlation (see below).

Two qualitative judgments must be made as to the

validity of the results. First, a variable that evidences no

significant change may have been altered irreversibly

by the introduction of sludge. Because the treatment

materials (nutrients, contaminants, pathogens) have

limited lifetimes and the geographical extent of the

population pool of New York Bight species is much

larger than the affected area, this possibility is unlikely

in the long run. However, it is possible that some effects

(for example, recruitment oflong lived benthic species

such as the surf clam, Spisula solidissima) may not be

reversed during the short-term course of the study.

Second, the response of the ecosystem to an onset of

disposal is not necessarily the inverse ofthe response to

cessation (particularly in the short term). Whether it is

valid to extrapolate the results to an onset of disposal

must be judged qualitatively.

The first step in the design process is site selection.

Details of site characteristics are given in the Plan for

Study (EPD, 1988). Based upon the historical studies

previously cited, selection of the contaminated site was

obvious. This site (NY6, Fig. 1) was found to be maximally contaminated; sludge accumulation was sometimes manifested by an observable layer of flocculent

material. NY6 is near the northwest corner ofthe sludge

dumpsite (Fig. 1); this area received a large percentage

Site Selection _
sents only a small portion of the affected area; an areawide extrapolation of the point estimate at NY6 requires additional information. To this end, a suite of

broadscale stations was selected for study (Fig. 1). These

sites were chosen to provide a comprehensive overview

(geographically and in terms of treatment gradients) of

the area of the inner New York Bight potentially affected by disposal (EPD, 1988).

Sample Allocation _

Preliminary cruises indicated that four complete samples

could be reasonably collected per cruise day. A complete sample consisted of a bottom water sample, a

benthic grab, and an otter trawl. A complete list of

variables and a description of sampling protocols is

given in the Plan for Study (EPD, 1988). All variables

were measured synoptically for two reasons: first, synoptic collection would provide a standard, efficient correlative data base in the event that the experimental

aspect of the design failed; second, it is difficult to

optimize sample allocation at sea. Logistic constraints

would allow at least six days of sampling per month.

Thus, 24 complete samples could be collected reliably

per month. The study was scheduled to begin in July

1986 with the dumpsite scheduled to close at the end of

December 1987; thus, 18 months would be available for

sampling in the before-closure period. Sampling was

scheduled to continue through September 1989; thus,

21 months would be available in the after-closure period. The design problem was to maximize the information generated under these constraints.

Ideally, one would like to sample for a much longer

time, both to increase the chance that responses within

the sampling period would be representative of the

long-time average and also to allow the system to equilibrate to the absence of sludge inputs. Because this

option was not available, sampling needed to be intensive. For reasons developed by Pikanowski (unpub. data),

monthly samples at a site were averaged; the difference

between these site averages yielded a monthly replicate

in time. Although statistically less efficient than calculating a replicate for each sample pair, the loss in efficiency is minimized for measures that evidence high

sampling variability within sites (for example, abundances of finfish or macroinvertebrate infauna). Thus,

for stations NY6, R2, and NYll, eight subsamples could

be collected per month per site, yielding one replicate

per month for each sample pair (NY6-NYll and NY6-

R2, the Replicate Study) .

If the effect of disposal at NY6 were the sole interest,

18 before-closure and 21 after-closure replicates could

be generated. However, a measure of the area-wide

response is useful in calculating the total environmenSession I: Background and Plan ofStudy 15

tal costs. Thus, it was decided to sample 21 stations

once per even-numbered month (the Broadscale Study).

The three replicate sites would be sampled in oddnumbered months plus August. The doubling of effort

in August should be worthwhile; low dissolved oxygen

concentration in late summer causes the reducing sediment layer to rise toward the surface. This may contribute to dramatic changes in the infaunal community

structure and possibly affect fish and epibenthic

megainvertebrate distributions as well.

A trade-off was made between the power of the study

to resolve changes at NY6 (a reduction in total replicates from 39 to 24) and the ability to extrapolate

results (via correlative techniques) in an informed manner to a broader area. It remains to be seen whether

this was a wise choice. It should be noted that, for

variables that have a smallsampling variance or evidence a

large response to termination of disposal, the method of

RIT can be usefully applied to the Broadscale stations.

Allocation Details _

Sampling at the same place eight times within two

weeks is likely to lead to nonindependence between

samples due to removal of both sediment and biomass

(sampling without replacement). Thus, it was desirable

to designate a site more extended than the footprint of

the sampling devices (trawl and benthic grab). The

extended replicate sites that were chosen are represented by ellipses (Fig. 1). These ellipses are large

enough to accommodate one km trawl tows and are

oriented with the local bathymetry to minimize variability in depth. Extending a site has the drawback of increasing within-site variance. A design compromise was

struck between these conflicting practicalities. Three

complete samples would be taken at the center of the

site (designated as "radial" samples). Certain sediment

chemistry and bacteriological measurements were collected only in these radial samples. The remaining five

samples would be taken at points on the perimeter of

the ellipse (designated as "distal" samples). Initially,

the five points were selected at random, within the

constraint of being uniformly distributed about the

perimeter. Modifications to the initial site selection

were made to allow unhindered trawling. These points

were revisited on subsequent sampling occasions to

reduce within-site variability and ensure unhindered

trawling.

For variables with highly heterogeneous distributions

within sites, significant responses may best be detected

by using only the three radial samples. For those measures that are not very heterogeneous, or are so heterogeneous that the radial samples are as dissimilar to

each other as they are to the distal samples, using all
16 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

eight samples should be most efficient. This partitioning also allows an ancillary study of the scale of heterogeneity for various environmental measures.

The RIT method assumes that samples are collected

simultaneously at both the contaminated and uncontaminated sites. Obviously, this cannot be done from a

single sampling platform. In fact, the time constraint of

day trips allowed for two samples to be collected at a

site in the morning and two samples collected at another site in the afternoon. Some variables (for example, stomach contents or distributions of fish and

megainvertebrates) are likely to vary within and between days. This diel and daily variability cannot be

removed; however, it can be made unbiased by blocking out the effects of morning/afternoon, first weeki

second week, and site-pair sampled as shown in Table 1.

Statistical Methods _

Whether the before-closure and after-closure means

differ significantly can be tested simply with either the

Student's-t or Mann-Whitney U tests (Zar, 1984). In

most cases, the tests will give the same result. Contradictory results may occur if borderline cases are otherwise

suspect or if the data are severely non-normal. Unfortunately, there are too few replicates to test reliably for

normality, thus the choice between parametric and nonparametric testing is not deterministic. Regardless, ecological and statistical significance may not be equivalent.

It is possible for an ecologically important difference to

be declared statistically nonsignificant because the standard error of the difference between means is large

compared to the treatment effect. Conversely, trivial

ecological differences can be declared statistically significant when the standard error of the difference between means is relatively small. It may be more useful to

Table 1

Sample schedule used in the 12-mile dumpsite study

(replicate survey) to block out effects of morning/

afternoon, first week/second week, and site-pair

sampled (modified from EPD, 1988).

Sample day Week Morning site Afternoon si te

NYlI NY6

2 NY6 R2

3 R2 Yll

4 2 Yll R2

5 2 NY6 NYll

6 2 R2 NY6

generate confidence intervals about the difference between means (parameter estimation rather than hypothesis testing) or, for a manager, to post-calculate

the power of the experiment to detect a difference that

may be deemed ecologically or socially significant

(Pikanowski, 1992). In the latter case, the manager can

then decide whether the experiment was successful and

the results are acceptable.

The results of RIT can be confounded if there is

significant serial correlation between replicates within

a period (before or after closure). This can occur if the

treatment level changed during the study or if a large

event caused an effect (such as differential recruitment

of an infaunal species) at one site only and this perturbation carried over to succeeding replicates. An event

of this kind may well bias a period mean. By using the c

or runs test as given by Zar (1984), serial correlation

may be detectable. For some variables, serial correlation may be expected in the after-closure period because the system needs time to equilibrate. In the

presence of this type of correlation, the real difference

between period means is likely to be larger than the

experiment indicates. For some variables (for example,

total organic carbon), there may be an approximate

linear trend in the before-closure period corresponding with the stepped phasingout of disposal. Removing

this trend by factoring in the disposal rate will decrease

the variance estimate and will improve the precision of

the test. If serial correlation is detected in the beforeclosure period but cannot be explained by a covariate,

results should be interpreted guardedly; it is not reasonable to predict the course of trends unrelated to the

treatment.

Some variables may be seasonally nonadditive; that

is, the difference between sites may be correlated to the

magnitude of the site values. The results will not be

biased if the before and after periods cover the same

calendar intervals; however, the increase in variance

due to seasonal nonadditivity will diminish the precision of the test. The 12-mile dumpsite study time frame

does not encompass similar calendar intervals in the

before and after periods. The study time span is too

short to allow filtering ofseasonality; thus, if this effect

is detectable (Pikanowski, unpub. data), a reduced data

set encompassing similar calendar intervals must be

used. If a species occurrence is highly seasonal, the

number of nonzero data points may be insufficient to

allow for a test (Pikanowski, 1992).

Conclusions _

Correlative studies and post-stratified environmental

impact designs are invariably confounded. That is, quantitative estimates of an environmental impact are invari-
ably biased and are thus unreliable. The essence of the

replication in time design is that it is an experiment;

the treatment is replicated over virtual experimental

units. These virtual experimental units are not "true"

experimental units-they are the same micro-environments sampled at different times. However, the possibility of confounding events is minimized both by the

reference site, which eliminates global random effects,

and by testing for serial correlation, which guards against

local random effects. The results are quantitative estimates of the effect of the environmental impact that

are not likely to be confounded (when serial correlation is not detected). Thus, reliable management information is generated.

Literature Cited

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge

Session I: Background and Plan ofStudy 17

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer.. NOAA Tech. Memo., NMFSF/NEC-55, 34 p.

Pearce,j. B, D.j. Radosh,j. V. Caracciolo, and F. W. SteimleJr.

1981. Ben thic fauna. MESA New York Bigh t Atlas Monograph

14. New York Sea Grant Institute, Albany, NY, 79 p.

Pikanowski, R. A.

1992. The effects of ocean disposal of sewage sludge on the

relative abundance of benthic megafauna. Chern. Ecol.

6:199-212.

Reid, R. N., M. C. Ingham, andj. B. Pearce (eds.).

1987. NOAA's Northeast Monitoring Program (NEMP): a

report on progress of the first five years (1979-1984) and a

plan for the future. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.

MFS-F/NEC-44, 138 p.

Reid, R. N.,j. E. O'Reilly, and V. S. Zdanowicz (eds.).

1982. Contaminants in New York Bight and Long Island Sound

sediments and demersal species, and contaminant effects

on benthos, summer 1980. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo. NMFS-F/NEC-16, 96 p.

Stewart-Oaten, A., W. W. Murdoch, and K. R. Parker.

1986. Environmental impact assessment: "Pseudoreplication

in time?" Ecology 67:929-940.

Zar,j. H.

1984. Biostatistical analysis, 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, NJ, 718 p.

Audience Q!.lestions

Question: Obviously, substrate life or ocean floor habitat life has a great bearing on the structure and the

species of life. How do you wrestle with that factor in

dealing with control versus experimental sites where

you have got 10 or 20 feet of depth difference? Have

you looked at that aspect of the problem?

R. Pikanowski: We have selected our sites so that the

depths would not be that different. You are right; I

think there may be a ten foot difference between one of

the controls and the impact station. The key to this is

that the stations do not have to be exactly alike,just that

they respond in a similar manner. In other words, if

there is a natural increase in abundance of a particular

species, it will settle in the two sites somewhat equally.

This may not happen for everything. Some of our data

indicate certain species, such as Capitella, are not found

anywhere but at the impacted station. So you do not

even need a control in that case; you can just compare

the before and after data. No two pieces ofthe environment, no matter how close they are, whether they are

land or sea, are ever exactly alike. And that is one ofthe

problems you have in doing environmen tal experiments.

You cannot make the assumption that the things will be

alike-we are making an easier assumption, that they

respond alike.

Ifyou examine the plot of bottom temperature at our

three study stations, the interesting feature is that the

summer of 1988 was very cold. Now, had we done a

simple before and after study, just comparing NY6 or

some other contaminated station, our results for variables influenced by temperature would have been confounded by this cold summer. If you examine a plot of

the replicate stations and examine the difference between the control and impact areas, you see that effects

of the cold summer of 1988 really do not appear anywhere. The hope is that whatever its influence was on

the ecology and the variables that we have measured, it

had somewhat the same impact at both our control and

contaminated stations. However, it may not have the

same impact, and that gets into the nuts and bolts of

statistics. We have ways of testing for that to some degree.

Question: I have a question about the location of the

three replicate stations. It seems they are a bit west of

the sludge disposal site and I wonder if it might be

affected by anything that might have happened at the

dredged material disposal site? Why were they west of

the 12-mile site instead of right on top of them?

R. Pikanowski: From historical studies we found that

sludge did not accumulate very much at the actual

dumpsite. It is not hard to imagine that by following the

bathometric gradient-it settled into the Christiaensen

Basin. We found that NY6 was at the focus ofwhere the

sludge resided. NYll and R2 are both on the other side
18 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

of the Christiaensen Basin from the dredged disposal

area and we hoped that this would be somewhat of a

barrier to dredge effects.

Question: If that was your hope, do you know whether

the dredged material disposal site is still being used?

R. Pikanowski: Yes.

Question: What kind of criteria do you have to determine whether you have a clean site?

R. Pikanowski: We used all the data developed during

the MESA program. It may be possible that somebody

will tell us that NYll was not as clean as we thought.

Question: Could you say a few words about the platform that was used for the sampling?

R. Pikanowski: Our sampling platform is the nowdecommissioned research vessel R/V Kyma. The crew,

Fritz Farwell, Captain, and Sherman Kingsley, Mate,

made this study far less of a horror show than it could

have been. I once ran a listing ofthe Loran readings for

our broadscale stations and I noticed that they were

almost identical. One month, we got fairly large deviations and then I realized that that was the month Fritz

did not sail the boat: he is extraordinary. He and

Sherman Kingsley made life bearable.

One reason that we called the eight monthly samples

at each station "subsamples" and "replicates," which has

some statistical implications, is because we had the one

platform. We really could notsample thingssimultaneously,

and there was a certain amount of lag time between

collecting the samples at one station and then cruising

and starting at another. With time lag and tide changes,

simultaneity goes out the window. So, we did block the

experiment with week 1, week 2, morning, and afternoon,

which is described in the Plan for Study [EPD, 1988].
SESSION II: _

Introduction

MERTON C. INGHAM*

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882

Physical Oceanography

This first set of four papers addresses just one hypothesis, which states

'The cleansing ofsewage sludge from the Christiaensen Basin will be accomplished by episodic downvalley transport ofsludge which can be related to

windfield conditions."

The state of our knowledge concerning factors related

to this hypothesis at the outset ofthe study was as follows.

Bathymetry _

The Christiaensen Basin, located at the head of the

Hudson Shelf Valley and defined by the 30-m contour,

served as a sink for a large portion ofthe sewage sludge

dumped in the 12-mile dumpsite (12-MDS) immediately to the southeast of the Basin. It was unknown at

that time whether the sink was permanent, but it was

suspected that the Basin was serving only as a temporary sludge sink. A 1982 study of the concentrations of

Clostridium perfringens spores found levels on a transect

from the Basin along the axis of the Hudson Shelf

Valley to be higher than levels on the shelf and showed

that spore concentrations decreased exponentially with

increasing distance down the valley to the shelf edge,

about 140 km (Cabelli and Pedersen, 1982). This finding clearly indicated that sewage sludge components

were being transported down the Hudson ShelfValley,

but it did not indicate the proportion ofthe sludge material moving along that path or the rates ofmovement.

Hydrography

The water mass in the inner New York Bight is strongly

vertically stratified in summer and early fall but only

weakly so in late fall-spring. In winter, the water column is nearly isothermal and isopycnal, and there is an

onshore-offshore temperature gradient, with the coldest temperatures found nearshore. At all times of the

year, the water column is susceptible to rapid changes

induced by meteorological factors: wind-driven upwelling, downwelling or mixing, and seasonal increases

of run-off, producing a low-salinity surface layer.

Bottom Currents _

Average currents in the inner New York Bight are westward off Long Island and southward off NewJersey for

both the surface and bottom. The mean bottom current speed is about 0.5 cm/s with a standard deviation

of ±15 cm/s. In the Hudson Shelf Valley, average bottom currents were found to be 2-5 cm/s upvalley, but

reached 20-50 cm/seither up- or down-valley during

periods of strong winds, with strong up-valley flows

related to strong, persistent west winds.

Sediment Transport

Little was known about sediment transport, either measured, inferred, or computed. Estimates indicated that

shelf sediments at 30 m depth could be transported

about 30% of the time by currents and 8% of the time

by wave action (McClennen, 1973).

This base of information was the springboard from

which four studies were launched into hydrography,

bottom currents, sediment deposition, and sediment

resuspension and transport.

* Present address: RR-1,]im Noyes Hill Road, Lisbon, NH 03585.

19
20 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Literature Cited

Cabelli, V.j., and D. Pedersen.

1982. The movement of sewage sludge from the New York

Bight dumpsite as seen from Closttidium perfringens spore

densities. In Oceans '82 conference record, p. 995-999.

InsL Eleetr. Electron. Eng., Piscataway, Nj.

McClennen, C. E.

1973. New Jersey continental shelf near-bottom current meter

records and recent sediment activity. j. Sed. Petrol. 43:

371-380.
SESSION II: _ Physical Oceanography

Oceanographic Conditions in the Inner New York Bight

During the 12-Mile Dumpsite Study

DAVID G. MOUNTAIN

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543

LINDA ARLEN

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

ABSTRACT

Oceanographic observations made in support of the 12-mile dumpsite study are used to

characterize the spatial and temporal variability of water properties in the inner New York

Bight. Comparisons with other long-term data sets indicate that the oceanographic conditions in the inner New York Bight during the period of the 12-mile dumpsite study were

representative of the region, except during the summer and fall of 1988 when bottom water

temperatures were 2-4·C cooler than normal. The summertime near-bottom oxygen gradient decreased during the study, suggesting a reduction in the seabed oxygen demand.

Introduction

An interdisciplinary study was conducted from 1986 to

1989 in order to document the response of the habitat

and biota in the inner New York Bight after the cessation of sludge dumping at the 12-mile dumpsite (12-

MDS) in 1987 (Fig. 1). Oceanographic data were

collected during three separate sampling programs in

support ofthe 12-MDS study. First, seven oceanographic

survey cruises were conducted between May 1987 and

August 1989 to collect temperature and salinity data

through the water column in the inner New York Bight.

Second, near-bottom temperature and dissolved oxygen measurements were made as part of the monthly

sampling at the three replicate stations (NY6, NYll,

and R2) (see Pikanowski, 1995, for a description of the

replicate sampling design and the location of the replicate stations). Third, time series of temperature one

meter above the bottom were recorded by current

meters deployed during the study (Manning, 1995).

With these data, the temporal and spatial variability of

the water properties in the inner New York Bight are

described to assist in the analysis and interpretation of

the physical, chemical, and biological processes investigated in the 12-MDS study.

Hydrographic properties of the waters in the New

York Bight and their annual cycle have been well described in the literature (e.g., Bowman and Wunderlich,

1977; Sherman et aI., 1988; EPD [Environmental Processes Division], 1989). Generally, the water column is

vertically uniform in winter because of surface cooling

and wind mixing. Beginning in the spring, surface warming results in thermal stratification which intensifies

through the summer. In fall, with the onset of cooling

and increased winds, the stratification eventually breaks

down and the water column becomes vertically uniform

again. The distribution ofsalinity in the New York Bight

is dominated by outflow from the Hudson-Raritan estuary. With peak outflow in the spring, a plume of lowsalinity water extends southward from the estuary along

21
22 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Figure 1

Location of the 12-mile sewage sludge dumpsite in the inner

New York Bight.

the coast of northern NewJersey. The spatial extent of

this plume 'and the salinity contrast between waters in

the plume and the rest of the Bight is dependent upon

the amount of runoff passing through the estuary.

The Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Marine Resources Monitoring, Assessment, and Prediction

(MARMAP) program, collected temperature and salinity data across the northeast continental shelf for the

period 1977-1987. These data provide a basis for comparing the water properties during the 12-MDS study

with long-term conditions. The MARMAP observations

in the New York Bight have been described by Manning

(1991) and Mountain (1991).

Data and Methods _

Survey Cruises

The sampling activities conducted on each of seven

survey cruises are summarized in Table 1. On three of

the cruises (ALB87-02, ALB88-03, and ALB88-10) the

primary objective was to deploy or recover current meter

moorings for the 12-MDS, and only a few transects of

hydrographic stations were occupied.

The cruises in May 1987 and in June 1989 used an

i<;lentical grid of stations to survey the water properties

in the inner New York Bight. Two distinct surveys of the

area were completed on each cruise. The cruises in

August 1987 and August 1989 used a different grid of

stations. Due to requirements of other sampling programs on the August cruises, the entire grid of stations

was not completed before portions ofit were resampled.

Although many stations were occupied more than once,

the sampling did not result in distinct surveys, separate

in time. The first occupation of each station was used to

form a single survey of the region for each August cruise.

Two different Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth

(CTD) profiling instrument systems were used on the

survey cruises. In 1987 and 1988, a Neil Brown Instrument Systems Mark III instrument with a rosette water

sampler was used. In 1989 an internally recording SeaBird Electronics, Inc., SBE9 instrument was used. The

procedures used to process the data from both CTD

systems are described in Taylor and Mountain (1991).

Replicate Stations

As part of the sampling protocol for the replicate stations R2, NY6, and NYU, three bottom temperature

measurements were made each month at the center of

Table 1

Summary of oceanographic measurements collected during the 12-mile dumpsite study survey cruises.

Vessel Cruise Sampling Dates No. Stations Coverage

ALBATROSS IV ALB87-02 09-11 May 1987 20 2 Transects

ALBATROSS IV ALB87-03 13-20 May 1987 153 2 Surveys

ALBATROSS IV ALB87-06 18-26 August 1987 71 1 Survey

ALBATROSS IV ALB88-03 04-06 May 1988 25 3 Transects

ALBATROSS IV ALB88-10 16-17 November 1988 22 3 Transects

DELAWARE II DEL89-04 06-17 June 1989 118 2 Surveys

OREGON II ORE89-04 12-21 August 1989 133 1 Survey
each station site fromJuly 1986 to November 1989 (Fig.

1) (Pikanowski 1995). The observations at the three

stations generally were made within one or two days.

Water samples were collected one meter above the

bottom with a Niskin bottle. Water temperatures were

measured with an Omega 866 digital thermistor inserted into the top of the bottle upon recovery. The

thermistor was compared each day with an NBS traceable total emersion thermometer housed in a wellstirred cylinder of water. Because the sampling bottle

passed through the entire water column both before

and after collecting the sample, and was exposed on

deck during the actual temperature measurement, the

procedure introduced additional possible sampling error. Tests suggest that the accuracy of the measurements is :to.2'C (Draxler1). For each month the three

replicate measurements at each of the three stations were

averaged to yield a single temperature value for the month.

The oxygen concentration one meter above the bottom was measured each month at station NY6 from

1983 to 1990. From 1985 to 1990, the oxygen concentration approximately 0.1 m above the bottom was also

measured at the same time to provide a measure of the

near bottom oxygen gradient. During the 12-MDS study

Guly 1986-August 1989) two observations usually were

made on two successive days, and the four values were

averaged. During the other periods, generally only a

single observation was made. Water samples were collected by Niskin bottles, and the oxygen concentration

was determined by a modified Winkler titration method.

Current Meter Temperature Measurements

Current meters deployed in the 12-MDS study were

equipped with thermistors to measure water temperature. Even after biofouling interrupted the measurement

of currents, the thermistors continued to function properly. Deployments M3 (1987-88) and M4 (1988-89) were

within about 5 km of each other (Manning, 1995). When

combined, these measurements provide a nearly continuous time series of temperature one meter above the bottom from May 1987 to June 1989. The bottom depth at

M3 was 36 m; at M4, 27 m. The accuracy of the temperature measurements is :to.2·C. The data were averaged to

yield a time series of daily bottom water temperatures.

Other Data Sources

The MARMAP sampling program included one station

within the inner New York Bight. Station 55 (40'26'N,

I A. Draxler. NMFS Sandy Hook Laboratory, Sandy Hook, NJ 07732.

Pers. comm.,june 1991.

Session II: Physical Oceanography 23

73'50'W) is within about 5 km of the replicate stations

and the locations of moorings M3 and M4, and it is at

approximately the same water depth (30 m). From

1977 to 1987, station 55 was occupied 40 times. Annual

cycles ofthe bottom temperature and the average water

column temperature and salinity were calculated from

these observations using the method described by Mountain and Holzwarth (1989).

Hourly-averaged observations of surface water temperature, air temperature, and wind velocity were obtained from the Ambrose Tower at the entrance to New

York Harbor.

Results _

To illustrate and compare the water properties observed in the different surveys, volumetric temperature

and salinity distributions were calculated for each survey. While the various surveys covered slightly different

areas, volumetric analyses were done for the area north

of 40'09'N and west of 73'36'W, which was common to

all surveys. The volumetric calculations were made following the method of Mountain and Jessen (1987),

using a cell size of O.5'C and 0.2 Practical Salinity Units

(PSU).

Volumetric temperature and salinity distributions for

the six complete surveys of the inner New York Bight in

1987 and 1989 are presented in Figures 2a-f. The volume-averaged temperatures and salinities for each distribution are listed in Table 2. The surface and bottom

distributions of both temperature and salinity during

the two June 1989 surveys are presented in Figures 3-6.

Surface and bottom distributions of temperature and

salinity, and the vertical distribution of temperature,

salinity, and density at each station for all seven cruises

in Table 1 are presented in Taylor and Mountain (1991).

Table 2

Volume-averaged temperature and salinity for six surveys of the inner New York Bight. The volumetric distributions ofwater properties for these surveys are shown

in Figure 2a-f.

Dates Temperature CC) Salinity (PSU)

14-17 May 1987 8.27 31.24

18-20 May 1987 8.74 31.43

18-26 August 1987 17.13 31.50

7-10June 1989 10.72 31.41

15-17June 1989 12.59 31.26

12-21 August 1989 18.74 30.90
24 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Figure 2

Volumetric temperature eC)-salinity (PSU) distributions for

hydrographic surveys of the inner ew York Bight: (a) 14-17

May 1987, (b) 18-20 May 1987, (c) 18-26 August 1987, (d) 7-

10June 1989, (e) 15-17 June 1989, (f) 12-21 August 1989.

Volumes in km3.

1989

(f)

(e)

(d)

o

30

temperature 28

temperature 28

1987

(a)

§2

g

0

30

temperature 28

§2

g

0

30

temperature 28

(C)

4O.•r_-----rr-J'=C7""""""',..-~--------------,

LONG ISW/D

4().'

40.2

,...

4().'

40.2

39.6

(a) (b)

"'1'OL...--~"..,...---rn-----.",-r----..,.... .•r-------,r1T------..-l.o "1'OL...--~<T..----rn-----.",-r----..,....r---.,..".---____.._l.o

Figure 3

Surface temperature eC) distributions for two surveys in June 1989: (a) 7-10 June 1989 and (b) 15-17 June 1989.
Session II: Physical Oceanography 25

40 8.-------rJ,.---,;=-r--=-,-.---------------,

l1lNG ISUIIO

40.'

40.2

40.0

19.6

(a)

191\,'-,. .-----,.~---n-.---rrr--__nrz.•--~n---......I.O 19.,.,.n.----,.tl•. ,.----~rn---_rl..---..,-n.•--~n---......I.O

Figure 4

Surface salinity (PSU) distributions for two surveys inJune 1989: (a) 7-10June 1989 and (b) 15-17June 1989.

The monthly bottom temperatures, averaged from

the observations during each monthly replicate sampling at stations R2, NY6, and NYll, are presented in

Figure 7 for January 1986 to November 1989. The annual cycle of bottom temperature at MARMAP station

55 is included in Figure 7 as an indication of the longterm, characteristic temperature conditions in the area.

The values from the replicate stations generally were

similar to the annual curve for station 55 except for the

summer of 1988, which was consistently about 2-4°C

cooler than the annual curve.

The bottom-temperature time series obtained from

the current meter observations in mooring deployments

M3 and M4 is presented in Figure 8. The data show that

large fluctuations in bottom temperature occured over

short periods of time, particularly in summer. The data

also indicate that bottom temperatures in the summer

ofl988 were 2-4°C cooler than in 1987.

The dissolved oxygen concentration one meter above

the bottom at station NY6 generally was high (>8 mg/I)

in the winter when the water column was well mixed

and low in the summer «6 mg/I) when the column was

stratified (Fig. 9a). The summer minimum value in

both 1985 and 1989 was extremely low «3 mg/I). No

trend in dissolved oxygen concentration associated with

cessation of dumping in 1987 is evident in the data. The

magnitude of the near bottom gradient in oxygen concentration, however, did exhibit a significant trend (Fig.

9b). Before dumping was phased out, oxygen concentrationjust above the bottom in summer was about 0.5

mg/I lower than the concentration one meter above

the bottom. By the summers of 1988 and 1989, the

difference in concentration between the two levels was

essentially zero.

Discussion _

The hydrographic data help provide answers to two

questions important in the interpretation of data from
26 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

4Q.8 4Q.8,---------rT-,;;""',.......V<T~------------__,

4Q4

4Q.7

4Q.O

JU

LONG ISWD

/

r

(a)

4Q.4

4Q.O

30.6

LONG ISWD

(b)

3O~f-..----nnr--."....--~rr---'TIT--"_,___--n.o

Figure 5

Bottom temperature ee) distributions for two surveys in June 1989: (a) 7-10June 1989 and (b) 15-17 June 1989.

other components of the 12-MDS study. First, what is

the temporal and spatial variability of the physical environment in the region around the dumpsite? Second,

were the environmental conditions during the dumpsite

study representative of the long-term conditions in the

region, or were they significantly unusual?

A view of the spatial variability in water properties is

provided by the 1987 and 1989 surveys (Table 1). The

May-June surveys occurred after seasonal warming had

begun, coastal runoff had peaked, and the water column had begun to stratify. The August cruises occurred

after stratification was well established. The surface and

bottom distributions of temperature and salinity during 7-10 June 1989 (Figs. 3a, 4a, 5a, 6a) illustrate the

spatial distribution ofwater properties under these conditions. While the surface temperature is relatively uniform across the area, the surface salinity distribution

distinctly shows the Hudson-Raritan plume as a nearshore band of low-salinity water. As the water moves

southward along the New Jersey coast, the plume extends an increasing distance from shore. The salinity

contrast between the plume and the other surface waters is greater than 2 PSU. The bottom distributions

show increasing salinity and decreasing temperature as

the water depth and distance from the coast increase. A

tongue of low-temperature, high-salinity bottom water

is evident, extending into the northern part of the

inner Bight along the axis of the Hudson Shelf Valley.

Data from each of the three sampling programs also

provide insight into the temporal variability of water

properties in the New York Bight. This variability occurs on short-term (daily or weekly), seasonal, and

interannual time scales-each ofwhich is evident in the

data sets, as described below.

Short-term Variability

The short-term variability of water properties is best

illustrated by the time series of bottom water temperature obtained from the current meters (Fig. 8). Increases and decreases of more than 4'C may occur in
Session II: Physical Oceanography 27

JU

(a)

4O.6r-~--rr-7O-= --=--r-.-------------,

LONG ISl-U/D

40.4

40.7

40.0

JU

(b)

Figure 6

Bottom salinity (PSU) distributions for two surveys in]une 1989: a) 7-10]une 1989 and b) 15-17]une 1989.

"

5 \>o,.~ ",.·,'D~ ,/

" '? .... .._-~',p "\

, ....A.. ' 6,,~" 6 • '0, ''', _,- 0 ."0 • '- "

~/' • 0 \~ \

20

15 - Q)

2ro

10

E .. ,'1/ • •

o

"

20

16

Q)

:s 12 +J

Q)

0-

E

Q) 8 I4

100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Calendar day

50

0,+--.,------,---,---..--.----,---..--,

150 200 250 300 350 o

Calendar day

50 100

Figure 7

Bottom temperature CC) calculated from the observations at

the replicate stations R2, NY6, and NYll for 1986 (6), 1987

(C'), 1988 (e), and 1989 (0). The annual cycle of bottom

temperature at MARMAP station 55 is indicated by the solid

curve, and + and - one standard deviation from the annual

cycle are indicated by the dashed curves.

Figure 8

Bottom temperature CC) measured by current meters at

mooring sites M3 and M4 from May 1987 to]une 1989: 1987

(--),1988 (-), 1989 (...).
28 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Figure 9

(a) Dissolved oxygen concentration one meter above the

bottom at replicate station NY6. The solid line segments

represent the stratified season (May-October). (b) The difference in dissolved oxygen concentration between 0.1 m

and 1.0 m above the bottom during the stratified season. The

dashed line represents the linear regression of the near bottom oxygen gradient against time (years). The regression

equation is given in the figure.

less than a day. Most of these events are associated with

wind events and the subsequent upwelling or

downwelling ofwater in the region ofthe Hudson Shelf

Valley (Manning, 1991). For example, during the period of largest variability in the 1987 data (calendar

days 150 to 300), the change in daily averaged temperature is significantly correlated with the daily averaged

eastward wind stress measured at the Ambrose Tower

on the previous day (R= -0.53, P<O.OI). Winds toward

the east are associated with subsequent decreases in

bottom temperature, while winds toward the west are

associated with increases in temperature, consistent with

wind-driven upwelling and downwelling, respectively

(Manning, 1995). In summer, large temperature gradients exist vertically through the water column (the

thermocline) and horizontally along the bottom with

increasing bottom depth (Figs. 3, 5). As a result, windinduced displacements of water along the bottom

through upwelling or downwelling can result in rapid

changes in bottom temperature, as indicated in Figure 8.

Data from the survey cruises illustrate short-term

changes in water properties throughout the water column and across the whole inner New York Bight. The

two surveys of the inner Bight in May 1987 occurred

only a few days apart (14-17 May and 18-20 May). The

volumetric temperature and salinity distributions (Figs.

2a,b) indicate little change in water properties over

that period. However, the disappearance of the small

volume of low-salinity «29 PSU), high-temperature

The characteristic seasonal change in water properties

in the inner New York Bight is indicated by the observations at MARMAP station 55. The annual cycles ofwater

column average temperature and salinity at station 55

are shown in Figure 10. Both the mean cycle and ±1

standard deviation about the mean are plotted. There

is about a 14·C range in temperature from the minimum in late winter to the maximum in late summer.

The range of the annual cycle in salinity is 0.6 PSU with

the maximum in winter and the minimum in summer.

Seasonal Variability

(>12.5·C) water that was present on the first survey

(Fig. 2a) and the appearance of a peak at about 31.4

PSU and llSC on the second survey (Fig. 2b) may

have resulted from mixing caused by strong winds before and during the second survey (M. Ingham, NOAA/

NMFS, Narragansett, RI, personal communication). The

two surveys in June 1989 occurred a week apart (7-10

June and 15-17June). A comparison of the volumetric

temperature and salinity distributions indicates significant change in the water properties between the surveys (Figs. 2d,e). In the first survey a large portion of

the volume occurred in a relatively narrow temperature

and salinity range and represented the cooler, more

saline waters below the thermocline. The warmer and

fresher water in and above the thermocline occurred

over a wide range of values, but amounted to a relatively small volume of water. In the second survey the

volumetric distribution was more bimodal, and most of

the low-salinity water «29.5 PSU) evident in the first

survey had disappeared.

Comparing the bottom temperature and salinity distributions of the two June 1989 surveys (Figs. 5, 6)

shows an increase in the area of warm, lower salinity

water along the coasts and a general southeastward

retreat ofthe isotherms and isohalines between surveys.

These changes suggest the occurrence of either a

downwelling event between the surveys or an upwelling

event before the first survey with relaxation to preupwelling conditions between the surveys.

An upwelling or downwelling event could be driven

by a strong eastward or westward wind stress, respectively. The wind direction during this period, however,

ranged from northeastward to southeastward, with no

strong, sustained event to cause significant upwelling

or any westward component of windstress to drive

downwelling. Also, the current measurements do not

indicate the occurrence of either a sustained upwelling

or downwelling event (Manning, 1995). No obvious

explanation exists for the change in water properties

that occurred in the week between the two June 1989

surveys (Figs. 3-6).

0.5

0.7

0.9

·0.9

-

(b) Bonom Oxygen Gradient

(O.lm-lm)

----------'+---..-.+l.l

1983 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

(al 12 Dissolved Oxygen

I Meter Off Bottom

11

O.L..---__-+ _ 1983 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Sessiun II: Physical Oceanography 29

A specific example ofseasonal change in water properties is illustrated by the difference in water properties

between the first survey in June 1989 and the survey in

August 1989 (Figs. 2d, e; Table 2). As expected, the

water column was warmer in August than inJune. The

water column in August was also somewhat lower in

salinity. This lowering of salinity probably reflects the

continued accumulation in the shelfwaters ofthe spring

and summer river runoff.

Interannual Variability

The bottom temperature data from the monthly observations at the replicate stations indicate that 1986, 1987,

and 1989 were similar to the long-term average conditions at MARMAP station 55 (Fig. 7). The summer of

1988, however, was 2-4°C cooler than the other years.

The time series of bottom temperature measured by

the current meters also shows the summer of 1988 to be

cooler than 1987 (Fig. 8).

The interannual variability in the inner New York

Bight, as a whole, is indicated by comparing the average

water property values for the 12-MDS surveys (Table 2)

with the water column average temperature and salinity

at station 55 (Fig. 10). The data in Table 2

represent the entire region and not just one station.

Still, the data in Table 2 (plotted as filled circles in Fig.

10) agree quite well with the annual cycle for station 55,

falling within one standard deviation of the calculated

annual cycles. The average salinity values for the 12-

MDS surveys are somewhat low compared to the salinity

at station 55 because the surveys include the low salinity

Hudson-Raritan plume along the New Jersey coast. No

hydrographic surveys ofthe inner New York Bight, however, were conducted in 1988, when the other data sets

considered here indicate unusually cold temperatures.

Unusually cold conditions in 1988 were also reported

byJossi and Benway (1990). Using a long time series of

monthly expendable bathythermograph (XBT)

transects across the shelf from New York Harbor, they

show the summer and fall of 1988 (June to October) to

be 2_4°C cooler along the bottom up to 50 km distance

from shore. They also show the surface temperatures to

be I-2°C cooler at the same time.

The unusual conditions in 1988 appear to have persisted from about calendar day 150 to day 300 (Figs. 7,

8). The average values of air and water temperature

and wind data measured by the current meters and at

Ambrose Tower during this period in 1987 and 1988

are listed in Table 3. The bottom water temperature

was 2.9°C cooler, the surface temperature was 1.3°C

cooler, and the air temperature was 0.5°C cooler in

1988. The smaller differences in the air and surface

temperatures suggest that surface atmospheric cooling

was not the primary cause of the observed low bottom

temperatures in 1988. The average eastward wind stress

during the period of interest in 1988 was more than

double that of 1987. The greater eastward stress could

drive upwelling circulation, which would bring cooler,

deeper, offshore water into the Bight. The average

bottom current along the axis of the Hudson Shelf

Valley was 0.4 cm/s (down valley) in the summer of

1987 and -1.0 cm/s (up valley) in the summer of 1988

(table la in Manning, 1995). A wind-driven upwelling

would be confined near the coast and not affect conditions on the outer, deeper parts of the shelf, consistent

with the observations ofJossi and Benway (1990).

30 L-.._...L-_--"-_-"'_----L_O~'--_ _'___ _'__ _J

o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Calendar day

/-6'-

__ / 0 0

o 5W-' ,,0

(b)

o

o 0

-e-'_' 00

33 ", 0

34

32 11l

Q:;

a.

E

31

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Calendar day

o

Figure 10

Annual cycle of water column average (a) temperature CC) and (b) salinity (PSU) observed at MARMAP station 55. The

calculated annual cycle for each property is indicated by the solid curve and ±1 SD of the original observations from fitted curve

are shown by the dashed curves. The small open circles are the original MARMAP observations. The large, filled circles are the

data from the survey cruises in 1987 and 1989 listed in Table 2.
30 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Year

Table 3

Average values for parameters measured at Ambrose

Tower and bottom temperature measured by current

meters during the period calendar day 150 to day 300

in 1987 and 1988.

1987 1988

Conclusions

The oceanographic conditions observed during the 12-

MDS study were representative of the characteristic

conditions for the area, except for the summer of 1988.

From about calendar day 150 to day 300 in 1988 the

bottom temperature in the inner New York Bight was

2-4"C cooler than generally observed in other years.

The cause of the cooler conditions is believed to be

upwelling, driven by unusually strong eastward wind stress.

The temperature deviations in 1988 were great enough

to have affected some biological and chemical processes

studied by other components of the 12-MDS study.

Near-bottom oxygen values typically decrease in the

summer because of the development of density stratification in the water column and the decay by nearbottom processes of settled organic material (Fig. 9£1).

In the New York Bight, with anthropogenic nutrient

loading, this oftens results in hypoxic conditions

(Swanson and Parker, 1988). The near-bottom gradient in oxygen concentration is an indication of the rate

of bottom decay processes relative to the rate of vertical

mixing near the bottom. The summer near-bottom oxygen gradient in the 12-MDS region decreased during

the study (Fig. 9b). The existence of the gradient in the

earlier years suggests that the seabed oxygen demand

was sufficiently large that the time scale of oxygen uptake was shorter than the time scale of mixing within

the bottom one meter of the water column. The disappearance of a gradient after dumping had ceased suggests that the seabed oxygen demand was greatly reduced,

assumedly because of a reduced flux of material to the

bottom, and that mixing maintained nearly uniform conditions in the bottom meter of the water column. This is

consistentwith the direct measurements ofseabed oxygen

consumption reported by Phoel et £II. (1995).

Ambrose Tower

Air temperature eC)

Surface temperature eC)

Eastward wind stress (dynes cm-2)

Current meter

Bottom temperature eC)

19.6

19.2

0.24

11.5

19.1

17.9

0.57

86

Acknowledgments _

We would like to thank the many persons who helped

to collect and process the data used in this report. In

particular, M. Taylor and T. Holzwarth processed and

assisted in the analysis of the CTD data. J. Manning

kindly provided the temperature data from the current

meters. J. O'Reilly provided the oxygen data and performed the initial analysis showing the decrease in the

near bottom oxygen gradient over time.

Literature Cited _

Bowman, M.]., and L. D. Wunderlich.

1977. Hydrographic properties. MESA New York Bight Atlas

Monograph no. I. New York Sea Grant Institute, Albany,

NY, 78 pp.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1989. Response of the habitat and biota of the inner New

York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge dumping, 2nd

year progress report. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo. NMFS-F/NEC-67, 47 p.

Jossi,]. W., and R. L. Benway.

1990. Surface and bottom temperatures, and surface salinities: Massachusetts to Cape Sable, N.S., and New York to the

Gulf Stream, 1988. AFO SRC Doc. 90/26,18 p.

Manning,]. P.

1991. Middle Atlantic Bight salinity: sources of interannual

variability. Cont. Shelf Res. II :123-137.

1995. Observations of bottom currents and estimates of resuspended sediment transport in the vicinity of the 12-mile

dumpsite. In A. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C.

Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 33-47. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Mountain, D. G.

1991. The volume ofshelfwater in the Middle Atlantic Bight:

seasonal and interannual variability, 1977-1987. Cont. Shelf

Res. 11:251-267.

Mountain, D. G., and T.]. Holzwarth.

1989. Surface and bottom temperature distribution for the

northeast continental shelf. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/NEC-73, 32 p.

Mountain, D. G., and P. F.Jessen.

1987. Bottom waters of the Gulf of Maine, 1978-1983.]. Mar.

Res. 45:319-345.

Phoel, W. C., S. Fromm, C. Zetlin, S. A. Fromm, K. Sharack,

and G. Gray.

1995. Changes in sediment oxygen consumption in relation

to the phase out of dumping at the ew York Bight sewage

sludge dumpsite. In A. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and

M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage

sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-

mile dumpsite symposium, p. 145-154. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Pikanowski, R. A.

1995. Experimental design of the 12-mile dumpsite study. In

A. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.),

Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge dumping at the

12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 13-18. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep.

NMFS 124.
Sherman, K., M. Grosslein, D. Mountain, D. Busch,]. O'Reilly,

and R. Theroux.

1988. The continen tal shelf ecosystem off the northeast coast

of the United States. In H. Postma and JJ. Zilstra (eds.),

Continental shelves, p. 279-337. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Swanson, R. L., and C. A. Parker.

1988. Physical environmental factors contributing to recurring hypoxia in the New York Bight. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.

117:37-47.

Session II: Physical Oceanography 31

Taylor, M. H., and D. G. Mountain.

1991. Oceanographic observations in the inner New York

Bight in support of the 12-mile dumpsite study 1987-1989.

NOAAjNMFSjNFSC Ref. Doc. 91-05.

SESSIONII: _ Physical Oceanography

Observations of Bottom Currents and Estimates of Resuspended

Sediment Transport in the Vicinity of the 12-Mile Dwnpsite

JAMES MANNING

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543

ABSTRACT

Current meter moorings were deployed in the vicinity of the 12-mile sewage sludge

dumpsite in water depths ranging from 20 m (near the mouth of New York Harbor) to 53 m

(within the Hudson Shelf Valley) and at various times of the year, from July 1986 through

June 1989. A total of 10 usable instrument records ranging from one month to one year in

duration were obtained. Eight of the ten are near-bottom records.

Both seasonal and geographic variability of wind-induced flow were examined. The wind

is most efficient in driving the low-frequency (2-10 day) current during winter when the

water column is well mixed and when the eastward component of the wind often induces

and sustains an up-valley (northward) bottom flow. Maximum efficiency occurs for wind

from 300' (WNW) and at those sites located within the Hudson ShelfValley.

A continental shelf bottom boundary layer model is applied to estimate resuspended

sediment transport. Model inputs include the bottom currents (observed), orbital wave

velocities (estimated), and sediment grain size (from the literature). Model output indicates that sediment resuspension occurs approximately 5% of the year, primarily during

winter months. Given an along-valley gradient in sediment transport that changed sign

depending on the timing and degree of a) wave-induced resuspension and b) wind-induced

flow, episodes of both deposition and erosion occurred. The estimate of net deposition/

erosion for the Christiaensen Basin (+0.02 mm) for the particular six month focus of

investigation was no greater than that for individual storms.

Introduction

For more than half a century, municipalities of New

York and New Jersey dumped sewage sludge at a site

located approximately 12 nmi south of Ambrose Light

Tower, east of Sandy Hook, NewJersey (Fig. 1). In late

1987, after several years oflitigation, the site was closed

owing to elevated levels of pollutants found in both the

sediment and biota (Environmental Processes Division

(EPD),1988).

In July 1986, the National Marine Fisheries Service

(NMFS) began a three-year multi-agency observational

program to monitor the response of habitat and biota

to cessation of sewage sludge dumping (EPD, 1988).

Biological, geological, and chemical samples were collected on several space and time scales to assess environmental change.

One component of this multi-disciplinary effort was

the deployment of bottom current meters. In an attempt to document storm events that may induce sediment erosion and transport, moorings were anchored

at several locations in the vicinity of the dumpsite from

July 1986 throughJune 1989 (Fig. 1). This paper attempts

to a) explain the current variability in terms of meteorologic forcing functions and b) make order of magnitude

estimates of the resuspended sediment transport.

Much of the pre-1986 physical oceanography pertaining to the New York Bight was conducted during

the NOAA Marine EcoSystem Analysis (MESA) Program in the mid to late 1970's. Using data from a set of

33
34 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Long Island, New York

+ Ambrose Light

1986

• 1987

• 1988-1989

D 12~mile Dumpsite

New Jersey

Figure 1

Current meter mooring locations relative to NewJersey, Long

Island, the Hudson ShelfValley, and the I2-mile dumpsite.

current meter moorings deployed for two months during fall 1973 within the upper Hudson Shelf Valley

(HSV) , Nelson et a\. (1978) were the first to present

quantitative evidence ofwind-induced along-valley flow.

They were able to estimate an up-valley flow from October to April and a down-valley flow the remainder of

the year by means of a simple model with local wind

conditions as input. A more detailed model, including

three-dimensionality and both wind- and density-driven

dynamics, is presented in Han et a\. (1980). Mayer et a\.

(1982) summarized a more extensive set of current

observations, from spring 1974 to spring 1977, in order

to present direct evidence of the wind-induced variability: eastward winds driving up-valley flow and westward

winds driving down-valley flow. They were able to show

differences in the variability due to the cross-shelflocation, depth, frequency, and the degree ofstratification.

In addition to supplementing the existing MESA database, the data reported in this paper provides time

series of bottom currents throughout the year at a

location which is closer to the dumpsite near the shallow head of the HSV. While MESA observations of

wintertime currents were limited to sites further offshore (LT6 and LT7 in Mayer et a\., 1982), our new

dataset documents the dynamic and often substantial

winter flow that, with the addition of wave-induced

resuspension, may govern the annual transport ofsediment in the vicinity of the dumpsites. While MESA

studies reported bedload transport estimates (Gadd et

a\., 1978; Lavelle et a\., 1978; Vincent et a\., 1981), our

study focuses on an important mechanism of pollutant

dispersion, the resuspended component of sediment

transport.

Methods _

Data Collection

The vector averaging current meter (VACM) deployments for this study began with a single pilot mooring

in summer 1986 (Fig. 1). This mooring (site 9) had

three instruments at depths of 14, 28, and 44 m; although the bottom meter failed due to an electronic

problem (Table 1). In May 1987, a set of seven moorings with bottom meters (approximately 1 m off bottom) was deployed. Owing to both fish trawling and

bio-fouling, parts of the 1987 records were lost, including two complete mooring records. Records were recovered from sites 1,2,4,5, and 6. Three more moorings

(sites 1, 3, and 9) were deployed in May 1988, cleaned

in November 1988, and recovered successfully in June

1989.

The moorings were deployed near the head of the

HSV in water depths ranging from 20 to 53 meters. The

sites were chosen based on a) distance to the 12-mile

dumpsite and b) direction of local bathymetric gradients. The objective was to document the degree of

spatial variability that may be due to topographic and

hydrographic conditions. Those moorings closer to the

New Jersey shore, for example, were expected to show

the effects of the Hudson-Raritan estuarine plume.

Environmental data, collected at offshore NOAA

tower and buoy stations, were obtained from either the

National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) or the National

Oceanographic Data Center (NODC). Hourly average

wind velocities were available for the entire study period from Ambrose Light Tower, located a few miles

north of the study area (Fig. 1). Surface wave information was also available for the entire study period from

either Delaware (Buoy 44012) or Nantucket (Buoy

44008). Surface wave information from Ambrose Light

Tower and the Nantucket Buoy, collected concurrently

for the first six months of 1990, was obtained as well.

Analyses

Currents-Since low-frequency storm events (2-10 day

band) that may transport sediment in or out of the

study area are ofmost interest, the current meter records

were filtered to remove the diurnal and semi-diurnal

tides (Manning, 1991). A 33-hour low-pass filter described by Flagg (1977) was used. All of the subsequent

wind-current analyses, unless otherwise stated, were conducted on the filtered dataset. The raw current meter data

(unfiltered), however, are used in sediment transport

calculations in order to include the full effect of the tide.

Standard spectral-analysis techniques (Bendat and

Piersol, 1986) were applied to the current-meter and

wind data to compute the coherence and phase be-
Session II: Physical Oceanography 35

Table I

Current meter (a) and wind statistics (b) from the I-hour averaged time series.

Water Instr Good Data Eastward Northward Speed

Sta Depth Depth North West Start Stop Mean Std Mim Max Mean Std Min Max Mean Std Max

# (M) (M) Lat Lon (Time MM/DD/yy) (CM/S) (CM/S) (CM/S)

IA 20 19 40 27.6 73 52.2 07/11/87-08/18/87 0.77 4.77 -15 25 -0.32 6.18 -20 36 6.13 4.90 37

B 06/27/88-10/10/88 -0.28 8.70 -25 26 -1.17 11.61 -24 32 1338 5.73 38

C I1/16/88-06/26/89 -1.04 7.14 -28 28 1.17 10.50 -33 31 11.68 5.22 35

22 21 40 23.4 73 52.2 05/09/87-07/08/87 -2.01 6.98 -21 18 -2.24 9.49 -27 21 10.98 5.21 31

3A 36 35 40 25.8 73 48.0 05/06/88-08/31/88 -1.02 5.36 -17 15 0.20 8.03 -18 23 8.89 3.88 24

B 11/16/88-06/26/89 -0.70 5.58 -27 16 5.08 9.81 -23 45 10.56 6.50 45

4 27 26 40 26.4 73 44.4 05/09/87-08/16/87 0.37 6.55 -16 18 -0.42 6.19 -20 17 830 3.56 20

5 26 25 40 24.0 73 44.4 05/09/87-07/09/87 -1.01 6.06 -15 20 -2.63 7.98 -26 17 9.46 4.32 27

6 53 52 40 19.2 73 47.4 05/09/87-08/27/87 -0.14 232 -10 9 1.08 9.25 -35 25 7.95 5.38 35

9AI 44 14 40 21.0 73 47.4 06/30/86-09/28/86 1.63 10.40 -27 38 3.79 1375 -40 43 15.40 8.77 46

9A2 28 06/30/86-10/31/86 0.03 5.77 -19 26 5.98 9.81 -20 64 10.08 7.99 65

B 41 06/26/88-06/07/89 -0.72 390 -30 13 4.11 13.41 -50 54 1222 7.94 55

Water Instr Good Data Eastward Northward Speed

Sta Depth Hght. North West Start Stop Mean Std Mim Max Mean Std Min Max Mean Std Max

# (M) (M) Lat Lon (Time MM/DD/YY) (MIS) (M/S) (M/S)

Ambr 25 49 40 30.0 73 48.0 05/01/86-10/30/86 1.56 4.77 -16 13 0.22 4.98 -17 14 6.29 3.23 18

Lght 01/01/87-12/31/87 0.84 5.55 -19 17 -110 5.46 -21 20 7.00 3.70 23

Towr 01/01/88-12/31/88 2.45 4.93 -21 17 -0.57 5.82 -20 18 7.15 3.66 22

01/01/89-06/30/89 096 5.62 -22 15 -0.52 5.47 -20 18 6.98 3.73 22

01/01/90-06/30/90 2.15 5.83 -18 16 -0.16 6.15 -20 18 7.81 3.94 22

tween sites, including both current-current and windcurrent relationships.

Winds-Hourly-averaged wind speed and direction, recorded at 49 m above sea level at Ambrose Light Tower,

were first filtered to remove spurious data by replacing

any values greater than two standard deviations from a

lO-hour running mean with that same mean. The filtered values were then converted to wind stress at the

air-sea interface according to the method of Large and

Pond (1981). Computed wind stress (dynes/cm2) values were then used to compute wind-current relationships. To test the efficiency of wind in driving the

subtidal bottom flow (V), a transfer function (H) was

calculated as a linear response to the Ambrose Light

Tower wind stress (R):

V(f) = H(f) W(f)

where f represents frequency. H(f) is non-zero only at

frequencies for which the input (R) and the output (V)

are significantly coherent.

Waves-Linear wave theory was used to estimate nearbottom wave characteristics. The entire wave spectrum

for each hourly observation was supplied by NODC. It

was then possible to determine the dominant wave

heights and frequencies. Given the water column depth,

the resultant root-mean-square (rms) orbital wave velocity and excursion amplitude were calculated for each

hourly observation.

Because wave information was not recorded at

Ambrose during the deployment period, remote observations were used. A correction factor (gain) and a lead

(phase) time were applied to measurements made at

the Nantucket Buoy based on six months of observations made during 1990 and were simultaneous with

Ambrose measurements. Gain factors of 0.45 and 0.59

for rms orbital velocity and excursion amplitude, respectively, were applied with a 9-hour lead time. These

figures were obtained for the 2-10 day band (unsquared

coherence=0.64) .

Sediments-Sediment samples were taken at several

sites on a bimonthly basis during the study period in
36 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

order to monitor levels of bacteria, toxic metals, and

grain size. Because the grain size information was not

available at the time of this writing, earlier samples

reported by Hathaway (1971) were used as input to the

bottom boundary layer model. Reported distributions

at each site were proportioned into a maximum offour

sediment phi classes (see Table 2).

Sediment Resuspension and Transport-In order to

estimate the amount of resuspended sediment transport at individual sites, a bottom boundary layer model

(Grant and Madsen, 1979; Glenn and Grant, 1987) was

applied to the data from the second and third deployments. Inputs to the model include 1) estimated amplitudes (1.41 times rms) of bottom orbital wave velocity,

2) amplitudes of bottom wave excursion, 3) observed

currents at one meter above the bottom, and 4) sediment grain-size distributions. The angle between the

currents and the waves is assumed to be zero. The

model accounts for the non-linear wave and current

interaction, sediment-induced stratification, variable fall

velocities for different grain sizes, changes in bottom

friction due to the formation of ripples and moveable

bedforms, and the associated modifications of velocity

in the near-bottom layer. A detailed description of the

model is given in Glenn and Grant (l983) and sensitivity studies are reported in Goud (1987). Outputs of the

model include estimates of 1) bottom roughness, 2)

sediment concentrations above the bottom (categorized

according to grain size and distances above the bottom) and, given the estimated velocity profile, 3) the

vertically-integrated sediment transport.

Results _

Currents

Basic current statistics, i.e. mean, standard deviation,

and range at each site, are listed for both the eastward

and northward unfiltered raw velocities as well as the

vector speed for the entire deployment period (Table

1). The maximum flow is shown to be an order of

magnitude greater than the mean and, sometimes, in

the opposite direction. At mooring 6, for example, the

mean flow is to the north at about 1 cm/s, but the

maximum flow was recorded to the south at 36 cm/s.

The standard deviations are also much greater than the

means.

Time series of the low-pass filtered bottom currents

for all deployment periods are plotted along with the

estimated eastward wind stress at Ambrose Light Tower

(Fig. 2). The two upper water column records (9A1 at

14 m and 9A2 at 28 m) from the 1986 deployment show

that as the season progressed into fall, the currents

increased. While both instruments recorded primarily

northward flow, there appears to be a counter-clockwise turning of current with depth. For the summer of

1987 (lA, 2, 4, 5, and 6), the channelized flow of the

deeper HSV site is depicted by the north/south (alongvalley) orientation of the lowermost stick plot (6). The

large event, for example, on 21 May 1987, indicating

strong down-valley flow, is apparent at sites 2, 4, and 5,

although in a less intense, multi-directional sense. For

the full year deployment ofJune 1988 through June

1989 (lB, Ie, 3A, 3B, and 9B), the largest events are

directed up-valley in the winter and appear to persist

for several days. Examples of this persistent up-valley

flow can be seen at all three moorings around 1 December 1988 and 8 February 1989.

The distribution of currents are presented with respect to direction (Fig. 3), speed (Fig. 4), and frequency (Fig. 5). Polar bar charts were made for current

measured during the full year (June 1988-June 1989)

current meter deployment and for wind measured at

Ambrose during that same time (Fig. 3). The first column (Fig. 3a) represents the directional distribution

(in percent time) of "all" observations while the second

(Fig. 3b) and third columns (Fig. 3c) represent the

directional distribution of "extremes" during summer

and winter. Extremes are defined as percent time of

>20 cm/s current and >20 knot (kt) wind. The extreme

current at mooring 9, for example, was directed along

valley (north or south) for approximately 20% of the
Session II: Physical Oceanography 37

I lOCM/S

4

3

2

1~~~~",JJ!.~~~~~~NbjHMJI\A~~~~rJJJ.!4W 1 N

E0 c "1

,2

-3

-4 Current

(Detided: northward up)

4

~"...

fltA(j~~···J ,~ .r'~ll·

lA

Westward 2

Jul Aug Sep Oct May Jun Jul Aug May Jun Jul Aug Sep Ocl Nov Dec Jan feb Mar Apr May Jun

1986 1987 1988 1989

Figure 2

Low-passed current vectors for all current meter deployments (stick plots) and the eastward/westward wind stress from

Ambrose Light Tower (top panel) all subsampled four times daily. Eastward wind stress refers to wind blowing from the

west off the NewJersey shore.

Figure 3

Distribution of unfiltered current with respect to direction at

sites 1b, lc, 3a, 3b, 9b, and Ambrose Light Tower for June

1988 through June 1989 including (a) all, (b) extreme summer, and (c) extreme winter observations. "Extreme" represents observations of>20 cm/s current and >20 kt wind. The

arrow, as shown in legend on the right, refers to % time.

Extreme current is usually northward and occurs in winter.

time. A complete distribution of current speed (unfiltered hourly averaged) vs. percent time for mooring 9

indicates that the peak in this distribution lies in the

5-10 cmls range due to the presence of tides (Fig. 4).

However, it is the less frequent extreme currents that

are the focus of this investigation. The distribution of

current variability vs. frequency is presented in terms of

spectral density (Fig. 5). While the spectrum peaks as

expected for the semi-diurnal tides and its harmonic,

the highest energy is associated with the lower frequency (wind-driven) cycles.

Progressive vector diagrams for all three current meter

deployments are plotted (Fig. 6). (To fit the complete

record, the scale is different from the mapped area.)

The two good records from 1986 indicate a northeastward and northward flow for the surface (14 m)

and mid-depth (28 m) layers, respectively, with most of

the distance covered during the last two months, September and October (Fig. 6a). Records from summer

1987 demonstrate the spatial variability that may be

observed over one to three summer months and the

relatively stagnant conditions of that season (Fig. 6b).

In the final deployment shown in the rightmost panel,

mooring records 1C, 3B, and 9B depict strong northward flow from December through February (Fig. 6c).

At site 9B, for example, approximately 500 km of water

3

9

Wind

(0) (b)

Summer

ALL Extremes

I

./

(c)

Winter

Extremes

I 10% of time
38 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Period (days) 104'r-~~~~....,---_~~........-~__~"-_~~~'""C

P 30 E

R

C 25 E

N

T 20

0

C

C 15

U

R

R 10 E

N

C 5 E

o

o 15 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 6p

CURRENT SPEED (cm/s)

10 5

/

/

/

/

/

/

Figure 4

Distribution of unfiltered current speed at site 9 for the full

yearJune 1988 through June 1989.

100L~~~~.....L-_~_~.......J.-::-~~~~.L-~_~~~

10.2 10" 100 101 102

cycles/day

Figure 5

Distribution of unfiltered current frequency at site 9 for the

full yearJune 1988 throughJune 1989. Power spectral density

units are (cm/s)2/cpd. cpd=cycles per day.

(b) Summer 1987 (c) Spring 1988-Spring 1989

Actual size of boxes

below relative to

prog ressive vector D

scale

73.7

Q 29° KILOMETERS

Progressive Vector

Scale

73.9

(a) Summer 1986

40.0 l:..JL_.L-_-'---_-'---_...1-_...1-_-, C..lL---'-_--'-__--'-_---l._--l._.......J

74.1

40.6

CT

(28m) OCT Sif ",,'>l

.... 40.4

JUN i) jl

40.2

Figure 6

Progressive vector diagrams for (a) summer-fall 1986, (b) summer 1987, and (c) spring 1988-spring 1989. Arrows indicate the

general direction of flow. Note that vectors have a different scale than the map area, and the starting point for 1986 mooring is

offset to prevent clutter (see Table 1 for dates data were collected).
Session II: Physical Oceanography 39

flowed by the spot in three months. Apparently, there is

a region ofstrong divergence north of the study area.

The current ellipses are depicted with the length of

their axes associated with the standard deviation offlow

in the respective directions (Fig. 7). Filtered current data

was used in this calculation. The wind stress variability,

represented by the hatched ellipses, is shown to be multidirectional (low ellipticity) unlike the current variability

which is shown to have a larger N/S component.

The coherence and phase of current meter deployments lC, 3B, and 9B is presented for the 2-10 day

band (Table 3). The values above the diagonal refer to

the (N/S) flow and those below the diagonal refer to

the cross-valley (E/W) flow. While the along-valley flow

is fairly coherent among the three mooring locations,

the cross-valley flow coherence is far less. Consequently,

while the cross-valley flow is small compared with the

along-valley flow, it is evidently more sensitive to the

different bathymetric gradients. The phases computed

for each pair (relative to the 2-10 day band) are given

in hours where, for example, the value "9.5 (5.8)" indicates that the east/west flow at mooring 9B leads that at

mooring lC by 9.5 hours ± 5.8 hours with 95% confidence. Since this is the largest lag(-)/lead(+) between

moorings, it appears that the mooring sites respond

almost concurrently within this frequency band. Table

4 includes the coherence, gain, and phase between the

eastward wind stress and the northward flow at all sites.

Values are listed for low-frequency «0.5 cycles/day)

currents only because higher frequency relationships

were not significant.

Sediment Transport

Estimates of resuspended sediment transport are given

in Table 5. The units are vertically integrated sediment

concentration times velocity. This may be written as

(cm3 of sediment/cm3 of water) x (cm/s) layer thickness which reduces to cm2/ s.

The results indicate a very sporadic occurrence of

transport that occurs primarily during the winter months

and most often towards the north. As discussed below

however, the "mean" values are the result of only a few

I~ 5 cmjs Il .5 dynjcm2

(a) Summer-Fall 1986 (b) Summer 1987 (c) Winter 1988-Spring 1989

40.0 .......---'----::-:'~---'----::-:'-=---'---:::_".!=!!--I.--....L...-- ......-....l..--..!.-----IL..I.I-....L..----I--....i....---l--...L---.J

74.' 73.9 73.7

40.6

,

El

•

, ,

•

,...r' 40.4 ,

\ , ,i·

I

40.2

Figure 7

Directionality of current variability represented by the current ellipses for (a) summer-fall 1986, (b) summer 1987, and (c)

winter 1988-spring 1989. The length of the major and minor axes of each ellipse correspond to the standard deviation of

the flow in their respective directions. The hatched ellipses are associated with the wind stress for the Ambrose Tower site.
40 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

events that are orders of magnitude larger than other

events and may not be representative of the long-term

character of the entire region.

Nevertheless, both the episodic (event-driven) and

seasonal nature of the estimated transport can be depicted in a stick plot presentation (Fig. 8). The uppermost panel is the orbital wave velocity measured off

Delaware and Nantucket for the second and third deployments, respectively (Fig. 8a). (Note that values <20

cmls are not plotted.) In order to depict more than a

few large events, it was necessary to log-transform the

sediment transport data (Fig. 8b). (Note that values less

than 10-7 cm2/s are not plotted.) During the second

deployment there was evidently a single event in late

Table 3

Coherence and Phase (hours) between current meter

mooring sites for 2-10 day band. Values above and

below the diagonal refer to along-valley (N/S) and

cross-valley flow (E/W), respectively. Values within parenthesis refer to the 95% confidence interval.

Station IC 3B 9B

IC Coho .83 (.33) .83 (.33)

Phase -5.5 (2.8) -1.8 (2.5)

3B Coho .54 (.33) .94 (.33)

Phase -1.8 (6.3) 3.0 (1.3)

9B Coho .57 (.33) 63 (.33)

Phase 9.5 (5.8) 8.5 (5.0)

May 1987, mentioned above, during which the orbital

wave velocities exceeded 20 cmls simultaneous with a

strong downwelling event (Fig. 2). The third deployment documents another relatively quiet summer period followed by several up-valley (northward) transport

events that occurred in the winter of 1988-89. If the

arithmetic values for sediment transport are plotted in

this way (rather than order of magnitude), the smaller,

multi-directional events, such as those observed in October 1988, appear insignificant compared with the upvalley winter events. Whether they are indeed

"insignificant" or not is left for the discussion below.

Discussion _

Wind-Current Relationship

Coherence estimates indicate that nearly half of the

low-frequency current variability is explained by the

wind. Gain factors range from approximately 4.0 at

mooring 1 to 13.0 at mooring 6, indicating that the

wind forcing is several times more efficient at the deeper,

HSV site. Phase factors range from 0 to 85 degrees,

indicating that there is a quick setup time (usually less

than one day) between the wind and current velocity in

the 2-10 day frequency band.

To determine the wind direction that was most efficient in driving the along-valley flow, the coherence

and phase between the flow and wind rotated around

the compass in 15° intervals were calculated. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of winds from the

west-northwest (or towards the east-southeast) (Fig. 9).

Table 4

W/E wind stress and N/S current relationship averaged over 2-10 day cycles.

Coherence Transfer Function

Record

95% Confidence Confidence Phase Confidence Length

Mooring Estimate Level Gain Interval (deg.) Interval (days)

IA .77 .44 4.3 1.7 29. 27. 27

IB .51 .38 3.1 2.2 65. 25. 103

IC .71 .17 5.0 .9 50. 20. 220

2 .78 .34 7.4 22 37. 14. 49

3A .48 .24 6.5 2.9 78. 28. 114

3B .59 .24 6.5 1.7 85. 26. 187

4 .73 .26 5.2 1.3 9. 16. 88

5 .70 .34 9.2 3.4 O. 14. 55

6 .66 .24 13.0 3.8 3. 15. 88

9B .63 .13 11.6 1.9 71. 23. 337
Session II: Physical Oceanography 41

Table 5

Estimates ofVertically-Integrated Sediment Transport in (cm2Is).

Eastward Northward

5ta # pts Mean 5td Min Max Mean 5td Min Max

lA 837 0.000000 0.000000 -0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 -0.000000 0.000000

IB 1660 -0.000003 0.000045 -0.001633 0.000067 0.000002 0.000034 -0.000003 0.001l65

Ie 5283 -0.001448 0.093110 -6.759000 0.008456 -0.000142 0.008543 -0.602000 0.023240 I

3A 711 0.000000 0.000000 -0.000000 0.000001 0.000000 0.000000 -0.000000 0.000006

3B 4501 -0.000194 0.002481 -0.054550 0.001362 0.000187 0.003582 -0.038760 0.063280 1

4 2293 0.000000 0.000005 -0.000108 0.000060 -0.000007 0.000111 -0.003973 0.000000

5 1384 -0.000004 0.000039 -0.001033 0.000000 -0.000010 0.000103 -0.002605 0.000001

6 2568 0.000019 0.000229 -0.000088 0.005868 -0.000325 0.003781 -0.089830 0.000004

9B 7427 -0.000011 0.002537 -0.033610 0.072400 0.001506 0.022900 -0.088630 0.565000 1

I Includes winter observations.

(a) RMSorbital wave velocity

70

60

50 off Delaware

E 40 U

~~U~ ..L---

70

off Nantucket 60

50 Vl

........

40 Eu

30

20

(b) Sediment transport

1B

IR

,

Up = northward

1 16 31 IS 30 IS 30 1ij 29 Jij 29 13 28 12 27 111 29 13 28 13 28 RUG SEP aCT Hav DEC JRN fE8 "RR RPR MRT 1988 1989

1-;;;-

-3

-7

-3 g

-'

3R

1

II 26 10 25 10 25 9 2~

MRT JUN JUL AUG 1987

2

I ;;-- ·3 E -7

en -3 0

-'

/

Figure 8

(a) Root-mean-square (RMS) orbital wave velocities (>20 cmls) and (b) sediment transport estimates (loglo [cm2Is]).
42 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

To determine whether the winds recorded during

the study period were representative of the historical

mean wind, the winds recorded at Ambrose Light Tower

(1987-89) were compared with those recorded at New

York City (NYC) and JFK Airport (JFK) (1948-65;

NCDCI). Using a definition of "strong" winds as those

exceeding 11 kt at NYC orJFK and 12.2 kt at Ambrose,

strong winds occurred approximately 11 % more frequently (52% vs. 41 % of the time) during the study

(Fig. 10). It is impossible to claim a significant difference in the magnitude, however, since the relationship

between the three different recording stations (NYC,

JFK, and Ambrose) is uncertain. Given the difference

in the long-term mean ofthe two datasets, a gain of 1.11

(Ambrose, NYC, andJFK) was used nevertheless. While

winds during the study period included anomalous

strong southwesterlies, most of the time, as in the historical case, strong winds came from the northwest quadrant, which are most effective in driving upvalley flow.

Resuspended Sediment Transport

Determining the dominant forces governing bottom

flow is only the first step in a multi-phased project to

estimate sediment transport in and around the 12-mile

dumpsite. The estimated orbital wave velocities, an important sediment resuspension mechanism, along with

low-frequency bottom current records at all sites (except for summer 1986 when near-bottom current was

OAA, NESDIS, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC

28801-2696,July 1991.

""....---........... N

15

/- ...... E / ............ u

........

(1)

V1 14 / /

"

, c

" >,

-0

, 13 , V1

.......--------, " ........

E 12 /- ............ , c 11 / "" ·2 /

"" u

c 10 /"

", ::>

'+- 2-10 day band, mooring #9 9

" (1)

'+-

V1

c 8

" I- ,

unavailable) were input to an empirical bottom boundary layer model.

Before interpreting the results (Table 5, Fig. 8), there

are several considerations to take into account. The

first is that since the standard deviations of transport

estimates are at least an order of magnitude greater

than the means, it is impossible to claim that the mean

values are representative ofthe long-term (climatologic)

mean. The "means" calculated in this study are highly

influenced by a few events that mayor may not be

characteristic of the area. The single storm event which

exhibited 71 cm/s orbital wave velocities on 14 December 1988, for example, resulted in maximum westward

transport of 6.8 cm2/ s at mooring 1C. This single event

produced a "mean" transport over the entire deployment

period that was larger than the mean at any other site by

an order of magnitude. Only after a careful use of the

historical wind data and both wind-eurrent and wind-wave

relationships (beyond the scope of this report) will it be

possible to build a dynamical model accurate enough to

integrate and define the long-term sediment transport.

A second consideration is that these vertically-integrated transport estimates are not the same as the net

sediment transport. Estimates reported in this paper

simply represent a "flux" of sediment that passed a

single point. The spatial gradients of these transport

estimates, however, give us the deposition/erosion rate.

HISTORICAL

(1948-1965)

I 1% of time

STUDY PERIOD

(1987-1989)

270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350

Figure 9

Transfer function ([cm/sl/[dynes/cm2]) of the wind-current relation for mooring 9, with one point per 15· of the

compass. Dashed lines represent the 95% confidence limits.

W

Wind (direction from)

WNW NW NNW

Figure 10

Directional distribution of historical (1948-1965, New York

City [ YCl and JFK airport UFKl) strong winds vs. study

period (1987-1989, Ambrose Light Tower) strong winds.

"Strong" winds for NYC andJFK are those greater than 11 kt.

"Strong" winds for Ambrose Light Tower are those greater

than 12.2 kt. A gain factor of 1.11 came from the difference

in the long-term mean wind speeds of the two data sets. Most

strong winds are from the northwest towards the southeast.
In order to obtain a more realistic representation ofthe

spatial gradients (i.e. divergence), it will be necessary to

apply numerical box modeling techniques to a dense

station grid that accurately represents changes in

oceanographic and bathymetric environments. Spatial

derivatives (due to the changes of surficial sediments,

orbital wave velocities, and currents) are needed to

accurately estimate sediment deposition/erosion

throughout the region. A preliminary investigation of

deposition/erosion is presented in a subsequent section.

Finally, the sediment transport estimates have not

included a correction for a depth of erosion limit. As

the fine grain deposits are depleted during a particular

event, there is inevitably a change in the magnitude of

resuspension as the composition ofthe bedload is modified to include mostly larger sand grains. (Estimates of

bedload transport are not included in the numbers

reported here.) It is therefore possible that the smaller

events depicted in the stick plot (Fig. 8b) may be as

"significant" as the larger events in terms of reworking

the available fine-grained material.

These results do suggest, however, the frequency, the

direction, and the order of magnitude transport to be

expected at the mooring locations themselves. Although

several sensitivity tests were conducted (i.e. alterations

were made in the model input variables such as a) not

applying the nine-hour phase lag for Ambrose vs. Nantucket waves, b) allowing sediment grain size distributions to be 100% silt, c) applying a correction factor for

the cohesiveness of the sediment, and d) using nonfiltered current velocities), the final results were affected by less than an order of magnitude. Since the

spatiotemporal variability of the estimates spans several

orders of magnitude, it appears that the model is sufficiently robust for purposes of this study.

The seasonality ofsediment transport (Table 5) is in

fact what one might expect from the wind-current relations described above. Estimates from moorings deployed during the winter of 1988-89 (Ie, 3B, and 9B)

are at least an order of magnitude larger than the

estimates from summer deployments. (The only exception to this observation is the case of mooring 6 which,

because ofa single down-welling event in late May 1987,

has a mean southerly transport of 0.000325 cm2/s.)

The model estimates zero transport, in fact, for the

month-long deployment at lA in summer 1987.

The conclusion that winter storm events dominate

the overall annual transport is in agreement with other

recent findings on the northeast continental shelf.

Tracer studies conducted in this area (Lavelle et aI.,

1978) found that for over 135 days in the fall of 1973

nearly 90% of the transport occurred within a single

two-day December storm.

Session II: Physical Oceanography 43

Event Analysis

It is instructive to take a closer look at a few of the

"events" that are so important to the long-term sediment transport, beginning with a wind event (Fig. lla).

When the eastward winds apply stress that moves the

surface waters to the right (southward), a compensating return flow at depth (dashed line in Fig. llb) is

directed up the HSV to the north with a lag time of

approximately 18 hours. It so happened that, for the

up-valley events on 29 December and 4January and the

down-valley event of 7January, the surface waves simultaneously generated orbital velocities at the bottom on

the order of20 cm/s (solid line in Fig. llb). Synergism

resulted in considerable sediment transport (Fig. llc).

If, however, the surface wave energy had been completely out of phase with the along-valley flow event,

little or no transport would have occurred. The events

shown have a typical duration of less than 24 hours.

Deposition/Erosion

As mentioned earlier, there is an important distinction

to be made between the sediment transport estimates

and actual deposition or erosion at individual sites reported in this paper at the respective sites. A simple box

model was used to calculate the important cross-shelf

gradients. Increasing water depth in the offshore end

of the box for exampIe (Fig. 12), decreases wave-induced resuspension which, in most cases, tends to decrease the amount of sediment transport. (Because we

are only interested in cross-shelf gradient in this highly

idealized model, the alongshelf gradients are set to

zero so that the model "boxes" are actually two-dimensional rectangles.) In this way it is possible to make

estimates of deposition or erosion since what comes

into one side of the box is not the same as what exits

from the other side. The difference is what gets deposited or eroded to or from the bottom. Since the errors

that have accrued thus far in the transport modeling

processes likely exceed any estimates of net sediment

transport, this last calculation is not attempted here. A

single example is presented, however, to make estimates of deposition/erosion.

A single box extends from mooring 3 (36 m) to

mooring 9 (44 m) over a 8.5-km cross-shelf distance.

Given the characteristics of this idealized box representing the area of the Christiaensen Basin, the model

estimates episodes of both deposition and erosion. While

deposition slightly exceeds erosion during this period

ofinvestigation (November1988-May 1989) by 0.02 mm,

the difference is no greater than the storm-to-storm

variability.

Three different storms were examined in detail. On
44 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

1.5

1.0

0.5

N 0.0

Eu -0.5 :::::::: V1

c:

»

0 -1.0

-1.5

-2.0

-2.5

50

40

V1 30 ........

Eu 20

10

o

-10

-20

-30

8

Eastward

Up-Valley

, \ , \ ~0f'n-Valley

..-....

.. , .......'

(a) Wind stress

(b) Detided current (dashed)

Orbital wave velocity (solid) ,-.\

\

\

\

\

\

\

\

\

..

'"

\ , \ , " ........--_...... ' ..

(c) Sediment transport (northward=u p)

50

40

30

20

10 V1

........

E

0 u

-10

-20

-30

V1

N........

E

en

o

--'

-8

23

DEC

1988

26 29 1

JAN

1989

4 7

Figure 11

Example of three sediment transport events including (a) the wind stress, (b) the root mean square (RMS) orbital wave velocity

and the subtidal flow near the bottom, and (c) estimate of log-transformed resuspended transport in cm2 js.

10 """"" E......

:5 20

Cl.

Q)

-C 30

o

o

o

o

10 20 30

distance offshore (kmJ

Figure 12

Schematic of cross-shelf differences in wave-induced resuspension with the lighter stippled area representing resuspended sediment especially heavy in the shallower sites. Crossshelfgradients in wave-induced resuspension and other model

input parameters are needed to estimate net sediment transport (see text).
Session II: Physical Oceanography 45

(a) (b) (c)

5

K;;",;,I site 3 (36m)

site 9 (44m)

17th

April 1989

21st 14th

January 1989

21st 23rd 19th

November 1988

19th

-5

15

DEPOSITION

/ EROSION

CM/HR

(1E-4)

ORBITAL 60

WAVE

VELOCITY

CM/S 20

60

OBSERVED

CURRENT 20

VELOCITY

CM/S

-20

Figure 13

Examples of (a) mixed, (b) depositional, and (c) erosional events due to cross-shelf gradients in orbital wave velocity and

observed currents,

21 November 1988, the model estimates an event (Fig.

13a) that was at first depositional and later erosional

(total = +O.Olmm). During the first half of this storm,

the observed current was significantly less at mooring 3.

Despite the larger orbital wave velocities at mooring 3,

the sediment was deposited because the sediment flux

leaving the basin was less than that entering. Later in

the storm, however, the sediment was eroded because,

while the current speeds at the two locations were similar in magnitude, the increased wave-induced

resuspension at the shallower site tended to carry more

sediment out of the basin than that which entered. The

storm that occurred on 21 January 1989 (Fig. 13b) was a

depositional event (total =+0.021 mm) while that which

occurred on 14 April 1989 (Fig. 13c) was an erosional

event (total = -0.0016 mm).

If the orbital wave velocity decrease offshore was the

only cross-shelfgradient ofinput parameters, one would

expect deposition and erosion during periods of downvalley and up-valley flow, respectively, but, as close examination of these events indicates, the cross-shelf

gradient in bottom flow may be important as welI. In

order to resolve the spatial variability of the model

input parameters, it will be necessary to implement the

three-dimensional circulation models (wind-driven,

time-dependent) currently under development at various agencies (Blumberg and Galperin, 1990; Scheffner

et aI., 1991; O ey2).

Conclusions _

The subtidal flow field in the vicinity of the 12-mile

dumpsite is coherent among sites, especialIy for the

along-valIey flow (0.83-0.94) and less so for the crossvalIey flow (0.54-0.63). Phases between sites are all less

than a half day for the 2-10 day storm band.

West-northwest winds, dominant during the winter

months, are most efficient in forcing northward flow

2 Gey, L-Y. 1991. Development of a three-dimensional model for

prediction of transport of acciden tal spills and hazardous waste

through New Jersey coastal waters. Year II: final report to the New

Jersey Dept. of Environmental Protection.
46 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

both within the Hudson Shelf Valley (40-60 m) and at

sites on the shallower flanks (20-40 m), often in excess

of 25 cm/s for several days duration. During the remainder of the year, the magnitude of the flow is approximately half as large and the direction of flow is

more variable.

A continental shelf bottom boundary-layer model

was applied to the observations of bottom currents,

bottom wave characteristics, and sediment grain size

data in order to obtain order of magnitude estimates of

resuspended sediment transport at all sites. The most

significant conclusions in terms of sediment transport

are that a) very few events contribute to the annual

transport at anyone site, b) the resuspended transport

estimates are dependent on the simultaneous occurrence of wave-induced resuspension and wind-induced

flow, c) the frequency and magnitude of the transport

increases in the winter and is usually directed up-valley,

and d) the transport of sediment past a single location

is not the same as the net sediment transport.

Only with careful attention to the direction of bottom flow events, the statistical probability offlow events

occurring simultaneously with wave-induced resuspension events, and the spatial gradients ofthese events

throughout the inner New York Bight, may one continue the very difficult task of estimating the net transport of sediment in this very complex environment. It

will be necessary to apply a three-dimensional circulation model that may eventually be coupled to both

surface wind-wave and bottom boundary-layer models.

Literature Cited

Bendat,J. S., and A. G. Piersol.

1986. Random data: analysis and measurement procedures.

John Wiley and Sons, NY, 566 p.

Blumberg, A. F., and B. Galperin.

1990. On the summer circulation in the New York Bight and

contiguous waters. In RT. Cheng (ed.), Coastal and estuarine studies, Vol. 38, Residual currents and long-term transport, p. 451-468. Springer-Verlag, NY.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. MFSF/NEC-55, 34 p.

Flagg, C. F.

1977. The kinematics and dynamics of the New England continental shelf and shelf/slope front. Ph.D. diss., Mass. InstilUte of Technology/Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionJointProgram, MA. WHOI ref No. 77-67,207 p.

Gadd, P. E.,J. W. Lavelle, andJ. P. Swift.

1978. Estimates of sand transport on the New York shelf

using near-bottom current meter observations.J. Sediment.

Petrol. 48:239-252.

Glenn, S. M., and W. D. Grant.

1983. A continental shelf boltom boundary layer model, Vol.

3., Users manual, Technical report. Am. Gas Assoc., Arlington, VA, 186 p.

1987. A suspended sediment correction for combined wave

and current flows.J. Geophys. Res. 92(C8):8244-8264.

Goud, M. R.

1987. Prediction of continental shelfsediment transport using

a theoretical model of the wave-eurrent boundary layer. Ph.D.

diss., Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, MA. 211 p.

Grant, E. G., and O. S. Madsen.

1979. Combined wave and current interaction with a rough

bottom.J. Geophys. Res. 84(C4):1797-1808.

Han, G. C., D. V. Hansen, andJ. A. Galt.

1980. Steady-state diagnostic model of the ew York Bight.J.

Phys. Ocean. 10:1998-2020.

Hathaway,J. C.

1971. Data ftle continental margin program Atlantic coast of

the United States, Vol. 2: Sample collection and analytical

data. Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst. Tech. Rep., WHOI71-15,496 p.

Large, W. G., and S. Pond.

1981. Open ocean momentum flux measurements in moderate to strong winds. J. Phys. Ocean. 11:324-336.

Lavelle,J. W.,J. P. Swift, P. E. Gadd, W. L. Stubblefield, F. N. Case,

H. R. Brashear, and K. W. Haff.

1978. Fair weather and storm sand transport on the Long

Island, New York, inner shelf. Sedimentology 25:823-842.

Manning,J. P.

1991. Circulation: current meter observations. In A. L.

Studholme, M. C. Ingham, and A. Pacheco (eds.), Response

of the habitat and biota of the inner New York Bight to the

abatement ofsewage sludge dumping, Third annual progress

report-1989, p. 4-7. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo. NMFS-F/NEC-82.

Mayer, D. A., G. C. Han, and D. V. Hansen.

1982. Circulation in the Hudson Shelf Valley: MESA physical

oceanographic studies in the New York Bight, 1.J. Geophys.

Res. 87(C12):9563-9578.

elson, T. A., P. Gadd, and T. Clarke.

1978. Wind-induced current flow in the upper Hudson Shelf

Valley. J. Geophys. Res. 83(CI2) :6073-6082.

Scheffner, N. W., K. W. Kim, S. R. Vemulakonda, D.J. Mark,

and H. L. Butler.

1991. The New York Bight hydro-environmental investigation, Report 1: hydrodynamic modeling. Dept. of Army,

Waterways Experimental Station, Vicksburg, MS, 150 p.

Vincent, C. E., R. A. Young, andJ. P. Swift.

1981. Bed-load transport under waves and currents. Mar. Geol.

39:71-80.

Audience Q!testions

Question: The theme of this conference is recovery,

and part ofwhat controls recovery is the turnover time of

the water column. Based on your model, can you give us

an idea ofwhat the turnover time is ofwater north ofNYll
(the reference site) or somewhere around your station 3?

J. Manning: Approximately one or two times per

month, a strong wind-induced event could cause an

advection of the water mass outside of the study area,

particularly in the wintertime. Depending also on the

position in the water column, a parcel in the upper

layer can be advected more easily. In the bottom layer,

depending on which way the wind is blowing, you may

get advection out of or into the New York Bight. From

this information, I would estimate the turnover time is

a couple of weeks.

Session II: Physical Oc~anography 47

Question: Can you say whether the wave and wind

energy over the study period were typical for the area?

Were there more or fewer storms-bigger or smaller

storms-than you would expect in the inner Bight?

J. Manning: A lot of these storms that occurred once

or twice per month were about the same magnitude in

terms of stress at the air-sea interface. I would not say

that anyone particular storm was anomalous. They

were in the range of two to three dynes per square

centimeter, typical of the inner Bight.

SESSION II: _ Physical Oceanography

Response of the Hudson Shelf Valley Sewage Sludge-Sediment

Reservoir to Cessation of Disposal at the 12-Mile Site

WAYNE R. DAVIS

u.s. Environmental Protection Agency

Atlantic Ecology Division

Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882

RICHARD McKINNEY

u.s. Environmental Protection Agency*

Atlantic Ecology Division

Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882

WILLIAM D. WATKINS

u.s. Public Health Service

Food and Drug Administration

Davisville, Rhode Island 02852

ABSTRACT

One consequence of sewage sludge disposal at the 12-mile dumpsite in the New York

Bight was accretion of a regional sediment-sludge reservoir. An assessment ofits precessation

extent and postcessation fate was undertaken to study the dynamics of this reservoir as a

consequence of'changing input. This assessment involved annual cruises to gauge the status

of the reservoir through physical erosion experiments and measurement of chemical and

microbiological contamination ofrepresentative stations. The key stations, chosen to represent the central stable reservoir, or near field, were distributed along the Hudson Shelf

Valley from the northern extreme of the Christiaensen Basin to the southeasterly extreme

of the Valley or entrance to the Hudson Canyon. A combination of sediment erodibility,

Clostridium perfringens spore counts, and sterol chemistry were useful in portraying reservoir

changes.

Assessment of the reservoir before cessation of disposal indicates major accumulation in

the Christiaensen Basin as a watery, black sediment (i.e. sewage sludge), often covered with

a Beggiotoa spp. network, growing to several centimeters above the sediment surface. However, some cruises indicated an apparent loss of this accumulation, which left behind a

stable, anoxic silty sand. This pattern suggests that the area is a major deposition site for

sludge, and periodic events resuspend that reservoir. It is hypothesized that down-valley

turbidity plumes are the source of sludge deposition. Stations radiating out from the basin

appear to have similar temporal patterns of accumulation but have smaller extremes in

accumulation and loss. Deposition and temporary accumulation of silt-sized particles from

other sources may continue along the valley after cessation of disposal.

It appears that continuous disposal resulted in a temporary sludge-dominated surface

reservoir, primarily in upper valley depressions, that was highly susceptible to resuspension.

*Formally with Science Applications International, Corporation.

49
50 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

ABSTRACT (continued)

An underlying anoxic sludge-sand reservoir was gradually winnowed and aerated over 1-2

years, following cessation, to an oxic silty sand. Disposal at the 6-mile dredged material

(mud) dumpsite to the west of the sewage sludge dumpsite confuses the interpretation of

survey results because of probable input of contaminants as well as bacterial spores from

New York Harbor sediment. Deposition of contaminated fine sediment, from the mud

dumpsite and the Hudson-Raritan Estuary, are likely to keep contaminants and biogeochemical rates at elevated levels in the uppermost surface sediments in the Christiaensen Basin.

However, biological recovery is likely due to lower mass deposition and less severe hypoxic

conditions, the postulated mechanism of damage ofshallow water sludge disposal.

Introduction

For 64 years (1924-87), up to 8 million wet tons of

sewage sludge was deposited annually at the 12-mile

dumpsite (l2-MDS) in the New York Bight (Fig. 1). The

planned closure of the 12-MDS by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) by 31 December 1987

was seen by the National Marine Fisheries Service

(NMFS), Environmental Processes Division (EPD), and

the EPA's Atlantic Ecology Division at Narragansett

(EPA-AED), as an opportunity to study the fate of sewage sludge-contaminated sediments in the area (EPD,

1988).

The EPA-AED has focused on those sediment-chemical reservoirs perceived to impact regional water quality

and its biotic resources and on those processes responsible for changes in these reservoirs. In addition to local

seabed problems such as degraded habitats and reduced productivity, the redistribution of particulate

and dissolved components of these reservoirs may affect regional water and sediment quality. Reservoir solids, including vertically distributed microbes and

low-solubility compounds (Fig. 2), represent the key

exposures to marine biota, especially particle feeders.

For instance, the transient fluid mud layer may contain

the richest concentrations of organic carbon and pollutants, and the layer is commonly ingested by suspension and surface deposit feeders.

A bathymetric map of the New York Bight and limited lithologic studies (Freeland and Swift, 1978) suggest that fine-grained particles are likely to accumulate

in the Hudson Shelf Valley (HSV) , especially in the

wider and deeper regions. Thus, it has been assumed

and verified that sewage sludge disposed at the 12-MDS

would settle and accumulate in the central Christiaensen

Basin (CB) and portions of the upper HSV. Key indicaCHRlSTlAENSf.N / BASIN

-33

1~~

Figure 1

Map of New York Bight indicating sampling

transect along axis of Christiaensen BasinHudson ShelfValley-Hudson Canyon. The 12-

mile dumpsite is located between NY-6 and

AL-86 and the 6-mile dredged material (mud)

dumpsite is located west of the Al.r66/Al.r39

transect (1-2 km).
Session II: Physical Oceanography 51

Figure 2

Near-bottom particle transport and exposure compartments

(C=suspended solids concentration, U =water velocity). Sewage sludge on the sediment surface behaves much as the fluid

mud layer and, when mixed into the bioturbation layer, as

anoxic sand-silt.

cated by bulk chemical inventory. Consequently, recovery, recruitment, and growth of endemic benthic fauna

may occur independently of any changes in bulk

chemistry.

The objective of this study was to identify the sludgesediment reservoir prior to and following cessation of

disposal and to interpret the results in a transport context. Transport and fate of the sludge-sediment reservoir, following cessation of disposal, was interpreted

from studies ofsediment erodibility and its inventory of

sludge markers (chemistry and microbial spores). A

shift from unstable (e.g. highly erodible watery silt) to

stable (e.g. sand-silt) could mean loss of a silty cap by

resuspension, bedload transport ofsand, or bioturbation

mixing with underlying sand (Davis, 1993). Knowledge

of chemical and microbial spore concentrations can

add such new information, as would knowledge of recent storm events or dumping activity.

Methods _

The study approach included assessment of sediment

erosion potential and sediment inventory of sludge

markers (c. perfringens spores, sterols, PCB's, and trace

metals). Annual sampling cruises (1987-89) were made

to determine temporal and spatial erodibility patterns

of surface sediments and related patterns in sediment

sludge markers. The final sampling cruise of the study

area was made in June 1989, one and a half years

following cessation of sludge disposal. The cruises assessed a sediment transect of the inner Bight, including

the Christiaensen Basin (CB) and the Hudson Shelf

Valley (Fig. 1). On each location along the transect,

samples were taken for sediment chemistry (metals,

PCBs and sterols), microbiology (c. perfringens spores),

and physical erosion tests.

Sediment erodibility was measured with shear tests performed with an oscillating perforated grid shearing

device termed a Particle Entrainment Simulator (PES,

Fig. 3) (Rouse, 1938; Davis et ai, 1984; Tsai and Lick,

1986; Lavelle and Davis, 1987; Abdelrhman et ai, in

press). An undisturbed core taken from an undisturbed

grab (no visible disturbance or resuspension) is subjected to a low shear level (2 dynes/cm2) for up to an

hour. Resuspension or erodibility is measured by the

temporal accumulation of suspended solids over the

sediment. The core is then similarly subjected to higher

shear levels. A single test measures overlying suspended

solids concentration with respect to time, permitting

calculation of resuspension rates with respect to time

Sediment Erosion

Nepheloid

Fluid Mud I

I

I

Suspension

VERTICAL

COMPARTMENTS

PHOTOCHEMISTRY

HETEROTROPHY

VERTICAL FLUX I

PHYSICAL TRANSPOR1 -

~~r-=-.:..:.:.:.::~:.:.:.J

Concentration, C Velocity, U

Jr / SETTLING/ENTRAINMENT

1- ¥-f-----------------i

tors ofsludge-contaminated sediment are the presence

of Clostridium perfringens spores (Cabelli and Pedersen,

1982) and elevated levels ofthe fecal sterol coprostanol

(Hatcher and McGiIlivary, 1979; Venkatesan and Kaplan,

1990). Understanding the distribution of these sludge

indicators is critical to differentiating sludge contamination from that resulting from other sources of silt,

such as the Hudson-Raritan Estuary plume and the

dredged sediment disposal site (the 6-mile mud

dumpsite), just west of the Basin (Fig. 1).

While the regulatory focus of sludge disposal at the

12-MDS is the contamination ofsediment and shellfish

with human pathogens, ecological effects may be the

consequence of high deposition of fine particles and

the biogeochemical consequences of the resulting reservoir of organic matter (i.e. high biological oxygen

demand, low dissolved oxygen and sulfate, and the

resulting mortality to postlarval and adult fauna). This

hypothesis for ecological damage suggests that the impact of sludge disposal could be far greater than indi-
52 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

vertical rod

400

Stallon AL-36 1989

5 dyne. cm·2 A

N 300 E

s

c

0

· . 'iii . .. C

Gl

a. · . 4 dynes cm-2 VI 200 . :::I

VI

C

Gl

E

:0

Gl aOc D c en 100 0 BOD

C 3 dyne. cm·2

.. ... •• . • l: :j:

t flU + + 2 dynes cm·2

+++++ + + +

0

0 10 20 30 40

Time during experiment (min)

Figure 4

Experimental results of a Particle Entrainment Simulator

(PES) test (AL-36-89: R/V Albatross IV Station 36, 1989). The

test began at time zero and continued until suspended solids

concentration were at or near steady state. Included in Fig~

ure are results from 3 replicate cores, each tested at 2, 3, 4,

and 5 dynes/cm2.

Sediment Chemistry

Lighl diode

: Period:

L

•

Waler f1.37 I)

o

sample porI

S" (12. em)

c:t==:j::== G rid

r---~-___:~__:_....,u___:----J,l_-r h eo s laI

conlrol

sliding hold-down plale

2" (5.08 em

from sedime I

1" amplilude

(2.54 em)

I

Figure 3

The Particle Entrainment Simulator, or PES. The grid is 0.25

in plexiglass, 11.0 em diameter, with 36 1.20-cm holes drilled

1.50 em apart.

and shear (Abdelrhman et aI, in press). The PES is

empirically calibrated with an annular flume (Fukuda

and Lick, 1980). The experimental stress levels (a function of oscillation frequency) were calibrated over a

range including 2, 3, 4 and 5 dynes/cm2 (0.16, 0.12,

0.10 and 0.08 sec/cycle). Since most experiments reach

steady state (resuspension = deposition), net resuspension with respect to shear can be estimated. A series

ofshear tests was performed and total flux in g/m2 was

measured at several sites, including the inner Bight and

the HSV transect (Fig. 1). Three cores from each site

were tested during each cruise. An example of three

core experiments is shown in Figure 4.

Sediment samples were extracted for PCB's using an

acetonitrile/pentane extraction scheme described by

Pruell et al. (1990). The internal standards included

octachloronaphthalene for PCB's and 7, (5a-) cholesten35-01 for sterol analysis. The concentrated extracts were

fractionated using a 0.9 cm x 45 cm column which

con tained 11.5 g of BioSil A silicic acid (BioRad Laboratories) that had been fully activated, then 6.75% deactivated with water. The first fraction (f) was eluted

with 45 ml of pentane. A second fraction of 35 ml of

30% methylene chloride in pentane was discarded, and

a third fraction (f3) was collected using 35 ml of 30%

methanol in methylene chloride. The f) fraction was

treated with activated copper powder to remove sulfur

and then the f) and f

3 fractions were reduced in volume

and exchanged to 1 ml of hexane.

The fl fractions were analyzed for PCB's as Aroclor

1242 and Aroclor 1254 (Pruell et al. 1990). Each sample

was injected (1 ml, splitless mode) into a Hewlett Packard

5890 gas chromatograph with an electron capture detector and a 30 m DB5 fused silica capillary column (J +

W Scientific). Helium was the carrier gas at a flow rate
Session II: Physical Oceanography 53

of 1.5 ml/min; a flow of a 95:5 mixture of argon:methane

to the detector was maintained at 35 ml/min. The oven

temperature was held at 60·C for 1 min and then programmed from 60· to 315·C at 10·C/min. The injection

port temperature was 275·C, and the detector was held

at 325·C.

The f3 fractions were analyzed for sterols as above

with the following modifications: the gas chromatograph was equipped with a flame ionization detector,

and the oven temperature was held at 150·C for 1 min

and then programmed from 60· to 315·C at 10·C/min.

Measurement oftotal coprostanol (sum of coprostanol

[5B-eholestan-3B-ol] and epicoprostanol [5B-eholestan3a-ol]) was made by comparing component/internal

standard peak height ratios in chromatograms of the

sample extracts to those of the quantitative sterol

standards.

Trace metals were extracted from sediments by ultrasonic agitation with 2M HN03, and the extracted metals were separated from the sediment residue by

centrifugation. Inductively-coupled plasma emission

spectrometry was used to quantify the extracted metals.

The extraction procedure dissolves metals present in

the sediment in most chemical forms but does not

attack the sediment mineral matrix; consequently, the

concentrations measured provided an estimate of the

maximum environmentally available metal concentrations, rather than the absolute total concentrations of

metals in the sediment.

Microbial Sludge Indicators

Clostridium perfringens spores in station grab samples

were determined using a sonicate and settle extraction

procedure (Emerson and Cabelli, 1982) coupled with a

membrane filtration enumeration method (Bisson and

Cabelli, 1979). Briefly, sediments were suspended in

sterile distilled water, pulse-sonicated for 10 sec using a

Branson Sonifier model 350 fitted with an 1/8 inch

microtip at a 2-mil amplitude, and allowed to settle.

Supernatants were examined by filtering through

0.45mm membranes, which were anaerobically incubated on MCP agar plates at 45·C for 20-24 hours.

Colonies of C. perfringens on the surface of the membranes were confirmed by an in situ phosphatase assay.

Spores of C. perfringens per gram wet weight ofsediment

are calculated from confirmed colony counts, and the

densities shown are the means from triplicate determinations for each sample.

2000,------------------------,-

1987

AL·39 + 2 dynes cm-2

• 3 dynes cm-2

a 4 dynes cm-2

... 5 dynes cm-2 2000 r-------------------~ 1988

Figure 5

A summary of 1987 sediment erodibility in relation to

Hudson Shelf Valley bathymetry. Each data set is labeled

with the station prefix (AL-, l\TY-, R- or BS-), the station

number (e.g. -39), and the cruise year (87,88, or 89). The

zero value is AL-83 (see Fig. I).

Distance along Hudson Shelf Valley (km)

150

Al·1

(no data).

50 75 100 125

AL·36

Distance along Hudson Shelf Valley (km)

AL-69 25

AL·71

C)I

E

S

t:

o

.~ 1000

GI

C.

CIl

:J

CIl

!!

~.

+ 2 dynes cm-2

• 3 dynes cm-2

Q 4 dynes cm·2

... 5 dynes cm-2

1500

Al-83

Figure 6

A summary of 1988 sediment erodibility in relation to Hudson

ShelfValley bathymetry (see Fig. 4 legend).

150

AL·1

100 125

AL-21

1500

N

E

s

t:

0

·iii

t: 1000 GI

C.

CIl

:J

CIl

!!

"iii

'0

I-
54 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

1989

1500

1000.------------------------,

.1 +---~--__r-------r---~---j

2

NY·6

Mar 1987

til

E

S

c

o 10 'iii

c

Gl

a.

Ul

:::l

Ul

f!

19

100 125 150

Al·21

2000,----------------------,

til

E

S

c

o

'iii

c

8. 1000

CI) AL·71

:::l

Ul

f!

19

o Al·39

I-

+ 2 dynes cm-2

• 3 dynes cm-2

D 4 dynes cm-2

.to 5 dynes cm-2

Distance along Hudson Shelf Valley (km) Benthic shear stress (dynes cm-2)

Figure 7

A summary of 1989 sediment erodibility in relation to

Hudson ShelfValley bathymetry (see Fig. 4 legend).

Figure 8

Summary erosion response at NY-6 (steady-state suspended solids concentration with respect to applied shear).

1000.,..-----------------------,. R·2

3 4 5

.1 +---~--__,_--~--__._-----__+

2

10

100

Benthic shear stress (dynes cm-2)

Figure 9

Summary erosion response at R-2 (steady state suspended

solids concentration with respect to applied shear).

the upper rim of a shallow depression and sediment

varied between sand and sand-silt, with occasional silt

(lowest erosion values in inner Bight) (Fig. 1). Mid CB

stations (e.g. NY-6) varied between watery, anoxic silt,

Results of each erosion test provide a measure of resus··

pended sediment (g/m2) with respect to time (up to 60

min) and applied shear (2, 3, 4, and 5 dynes/cm2; see

Fig. 4). The slope of a best-fit asymptotic curve for each

stress level is an experimental estimate of time-depen··

dent resuspension rate (g/m2·sec2), and the final steady

state value is an experimentally determined estimate of

total resuspension at each shear stress level (Abdelrhman

et ai, in press). Sediment erodibility along the Christiaensen

Basin and Hudson Shelf Yalley Transect (Fig. 1) is sum·

marized for representative stations along this transect for

1987 (Fig. 5; precessation) and for 1988 (Fig. 6) and 1989

(Fig. 7; postcessation). Each curve estimates the steady

state value of the quantity of sediment resuspended as a

function of experimentally applied shear stress.

Erodibility ofinner New York Bightstations was highly

variable in both space and time (Table 1). The sediment ranged from highly erodible (watery anoxic silt)

to highly stable (medium to coarse sand and trace silt).

Station erodibility along the CB-HSY transect varied

according to depth and basin characteristics, valley width

and distance from the 6 and 12-mile dumpsites and

Harbor entrance. Upper CB stations (AL-83, R-2) are at

Sediment Erosion

Results _
Session II: Physical Oceanography 55

Table I

Replicate station sediment features and experimental erodibility (g/m-2 at steady state).

STATIONS

2 3

NY-6

4 5 2

R-2

3 4

dynes/cm2

5 2 3

NY-II

4 5

10/20/86

Erodibility

2.1

18.6

2.1

2.8

93.2

7.7

9.2

149.0

93.0

121.0

294.0

192.0

(too porous to run)

Sediment features

Anoxic sand-silt; large detritus (100-200 I-t flakes);

non-cohesive; Cerianthiopsis

3/18/87

Sand w/silt; shell frag. Coarse, oxic sand, trace silt

78.0

166.0

153.0

310.0

228.0

480.0

326.0

650.0

1.0 2.1

2.7

8.8

12.1

33.4

44.4

(too porous to run)

Watery anoxic silt w/Beggiotoa sp.

5/12/87

Coarse, oxic sand; trace silt

8/18/87

13.8 25.6 54.2 314.0 1.4

4.3

5.4

15.9

29.4

53.0

99.5

128.0

(could not sample)

3.7

0.1

2.1

9.7

1.0

4.2

19.2

31.0

6.6

45.2

93.0

12.6

0.5

1.1

4.0

4.1

16.8

22.6

62.6

67.4

1.2 7 33 82

Anoxic silt, trace sand; large fibrous material

detritous; hard sand-silt below 2 cm; dense

Beggiotoa

6/27/89

Anoxic sand; trace silt; black flakes Coarse, oxic sand; trace silt

(100-300 I-t) Pherusa, Nepthysdominant;

Celianthiopsis

Aerobic sand; dense worm tubes above interface Coarse, oxic sand; trace silt

0.3 (too porous to run)

0.5

1.0

6/6/89

3.2

0.4

2.6

4.2

7.0

2.2

7.5

7.3

19.0

12.2

39.8

21.7

44.1

5.6 18.8 58.0 128.0

4.5 26.9 76.8 310.0

2.2 9.0 36.3 135.0

2.1 19.8 90.7 203.0

Aerobic sand

9.9 20.8 49.0 118.0

5.1 34.2 69.0 148.0

13.3 39.0 70.0 120.0

8.5 13 23 51

Aerobic sand; very porous Aerobic sand; anoxic sand-silt

below 1 cm; [R] sill sand below 6 cm;

mature Nepthys

Coarse, oxic sand; trace silt

and semi-stable anoxic flakes (both essentially sewage

sludge) in 1986-87 but shifted to anoxic sand-silt and,

finally, oxic sand in 1988-89. Sediments at CB-HSV

transition stations (e.g. AL-71), nearest to the 6-mile

site, were generally silt-clay (unstable) throughout the

study. Stations in the upper HSV (AL-69 and AL-66)

consisted of semi-stable silt-clay throughout the study,

suggesting slow accumulation of fines and minor

resuspension events. The mid-upper HSV (AL-39, AL36) was deeper, wider, and highly unstable in 1987
56 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

(watery anoxic silt and high spore levels) and was probably a sludge deposition area. Stabilization and reduced

spore concentration after cessation (still silt) suggest that

de-watering and cohesion followed reduced sludge deposition. Stability and sand content increased down valley

(e.g. AL-31) and remained unchanged at AL-21 and AL-1.

Total resuspension with respect to shear stress for

three inner Bight stations (NY-6, R-2, and NY-ll, "replicate" stations) is summarized in Table 1 and Figures 8 and

9 (EPD, 1988; Pikanowski, 1995). Station NY-6 (Fig. 8),

located in the Christiaensen Basin, was most contaminated by sewage sludge (as indicated by C. perfringens

spores). Prior to cessation, NY-6 was periodically found

to consist ofmostly deposited sludge (25 cm grab depth).

This condition (e.g. March 1987) was characterized by

black, watery silt, covered with Beggiotoa spp., and high

erodibility (Fig. 8; Table 1). On other occasions NY-6

was characterized by a stable and homogeneous anoxic

sand-silt (e.g. September 1987); intermediate conditions were just as likely (e.g. October 1986). Temporal

variability suggests strongly that NY-6 rapidly accumulated sludge during calm periods and, possibly, lost its

silty cap reservoir during storm events. Since cessation

(December 1987) NY-6 has gradually lost its anoxic silt,

to become characterized by an aerobic sand with a

minor silt fraction (1988) and a well-sorted sand with

just a trace ofsilt (1989).

Station R-2 is located at the northern edge of a shallow depression in the Christiaensen Basin. The major

pattern found at R-2 included (1) a precessation anoxic

and stable sand-silt, (2) little evidence of accumulation

ofsludge-dominated sediments (anoxic watery silt), and

(3) a gradual shift to oxic sand, consistent with high

energy winnowing (Table 1, Fig. 9).

Sediment characteristics at stations not located on

the CB-HSV transect were spatially patchy and suggest

caution when interpreting any station. AL-86, located

in the northeast section of the 12-MDS, consisted of

aerobic coarse to medium sand throughout the study

(Fig. 1). The only evidence for sludge was occasional

deposits of anoxic sand-silt 2-5 cm beneath the surface.

Station AL-76, located between the CB and the mouth

of the Hudson-Raritan Estuary, varied between stable

clean sand (precessation) and highly erodible silt-clay

(postcessation). Station AL-73, located outside ofthe northwest comer of the 6-mile site, varied between semi-stable

silt-clay (cohesive) and unstable silt-clay. Sampling (n=6)

at the 6-mile site in 1989 gave erodibility results similar to

the trend in AL-73 (Davis, unpublished data).

Sediment Chemistry

The decrease in levels of organic contaminants (as seen

in May 1987) as a function of distance down-valley is

consistent with a near coastal source of contaminants

and subsequent transport and dispersal down-valley.

The highly erodible sediments found at station AL-39,

20,-----------------~ 500 ,----------------------r

AL-39

1987

1

125 150

Al·'

+ PCB1242,1989

• PCB1254,1987

D PCB1254, 1989

• TOIPCB.1989

50 75 100

AL·39

25

AL·69

oU---'-=:-;=::::::::;~~~--l- o

100

::-

c: 400 ..

E

:c

..

l/l

"C 300 ....

C!

Cl

oS

l/l

llJ

o 200 Q.

10

AL·69

y ••

5

f" AL·21

AL·'

Al·31

0

0 25 50 75 100 125 150

....

C!

Cl

.:..

'0

c:

S

l/l

e

Q.

o

o

Distance along Hudson Shelf Valley (km) Distance down Hudson Shelf Valley (km)

Figure 10

Total coprostanol concentration as a function of distance

along the Hudson Shelf Valley.

Figure 11

Total PCB concentration as a function of distance along the

Hudson ShelfValley.
Session II: Physical Oceanography 57

300 ,---------------------, 100000,..-------------------,

y.,

l-71

.. 1987

• 1988

o 1989

.. 1982

• 1988

D 1989

AL·39

i 80000

125 150

AL·21

50 75 100

Al-66

Al·69

AL·71

o 25

20000 0 ~36 AL."

AL..:'L' :39~ o~

40000

-

Gl

==

125 150

AL·15

25 50 75 100

R·'

50

250

i 200 "'CI

...

c,

Cl

2-

... 150 Gl

Q.

Q.

o

U

C

Gl

E

'6

Gl

en

Distance along Hudson Shelf Valley (km) Distance along Hudson Shelf Valley (km)

Figure 12

Summary mean copper concentration (1887, 1988,

1989) as a function of distance along the Hudson Shelf

\1!Rlley (Warren Boothman, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Narragansett, RI, August 1992).

Figure 13

Trends in Clostridium perfringens spores along the CBHSV transect prior to 1982, and after cessation in sludge

disposal (1988, 1989).

where the valley deepens, had elevated total coprostanol

concentrations ranging from 12 to 27 mg/gm (ppm)

(Fig. 10). These values are consistent with those reported

for sediments contaminated with sewage sludge (Hatcher

and McGillivary, 1979) and suggest the presence of a

significant amount of material offecal origin. Concentrations of PCBs and coprostanol for 1987 and 1989 along

the CB-HSV transect follow a similar pattern (Fig. 11).

Concentrations oftrace metals in sedimen ts from the

Christiaensen Basin were highly variable, both between

stations and among individual grabs at single stations

(e.g. copper, Fig. 12). Mean concentrations of copper

varied over two orders of magnitude within the basin

area. At some stations, concentrations varied by as much

as 100% between replicate grabs. The high degree of

variability indicates a very patchy distribution of metals in

the basin sediments. The highest concentrations ofmetals

were generally found at stations AL-73 and AL-71, adjacent to the dredged material dump site (Boothman I). In

addition to high contaminant metal concentrations,

these sediments had substantially higher iron and manganese concentrations, indicating a high fine-grained

material content typical of many dredged sediments.

Somewhat elevated concentrations of metals were also

found in some ofthe 1988 samples from the NY-6 station,

possibly demonstrating a contribution from sewage sludge;

such elevated levels were not, however, apparent in 1989

sediments. Likewise, sediments from station AL-86, also in

close proximity to the 12-mile site, contained very low

concentrations of metals. Values peaked near the &-mile

site (AL-71) and the wide depositional area (AL-39) but

were reduced to less than halfofl987 levels by 1989 (e.g.

copper; Fig. 12). Statistical analysis of relationships between metals concentrations and distance along the mid

and lower Valley transect indicates that there was no significant difference among the years studied. Although

some of the data from station NY-6 suggest the possibility

that sludge from the 12-MDS could be contributing metals to the sediments ofthe HSV, the low metals concentrations found in sediments in the vicinity ofthe 12-MDS and

the generally higher concentrations of metals in sediments from the dredged sediment disposal site (1-2 nm

west of AL-66 and AL-39) implicate that site rather than

the 12-MDS, as a likely source for the transport of metals

to the HSV. Therefore, cessation ofsludge dumping at the

12-MDS is unlikely to produce any significant change in

metals concentrations in HSV sediments.

Microbiological Sludge Indicators

1 Boothman, Warren. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

Narragansett, RI. Pel's. comm., August 1992.

Because the 1987 sediment collection was lost, a 1982

survey (Cabelli and Pedersen, 1982) is used to repre-
58 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

sent the "steady state" dumping levels of Clostridium

perfringens spores (Fig. 13). The 1982 survey measured

decrease in spores with distance down the channel and

represents steady state sediment contamination after

years of sludge disposal. A survey approximately six

months after complete cessation of dumping in December 1987 showed a complex distribution indicating (l)

a 100-fold decrease in spores in the Christiaensen Basin

and upper Hudson ShelfValley, (2) a graded change to

an order of magnitude decrease in the middle Valley,

and (3) a gradual merging to 1982 background values

at the base ofthe Valley. One year later (June 1989) the

down-ehannel trend showed (l) a return to 1982 values

in the CB, (2) wide fluctuations between 1982 highs

and 1988 lows at the CB-HSV transition, (3) upper HSV

values intermediate between 1982 and 1988 levels, and

(4) a return to 1982 levels in the mid and lower HSV.

Discussion _

Precessation

The observed patterns in erodibility in the Christiaensen

Basin (e.g. NY-6) suggest that sewage sludge accumulated (possibly at a rate of 1 cm/day) during quiescent

periods and was then resuspended by storm events.

This temporary cap of black, watery silt (essentially

sludge) apparently does not compact possibly owing to

lack oftime or bioturbation. When energy intensity and

duration were sufficient, this watery cap was apparently

resuspended, exposing an underlying base of anoxic

sand-silt. This stable matrix may represent the longterm sludge-sediment reservoir thatwas regularly capped

with dumped sewage sludge or with any source of siltsized particles. It is hypothesized that down-valley deposition may originate from turbidity plumes moving from

the Christiaensen Basin into the HSV, although no

evidence exists.

Postcessation

Following cessation ofsewage sludge disposal this cycle

of accumulation and resuspension probably continues,

but because the temporary silt cap is aerobic, the underlying base shifts toward aerobic sand-silt and, finally,

to sand from combined resuspension and winnowing.

A peak in measured erodibility shifted about 25 km

down the HSV from 1987 to 1989, and measured erodibility declined in amplitude to about 30% of its 1987

values (Figs. 5-7). The key change may be a smaller

quantity of silt-sized particle deposition, a less labile

carbon reservoir, and thus an oxidizing state. The relic

and future grain size of the CB-HSV may be sand (CB),

with a transition to sandy silt in the upper-middle HSV,

finally reversing toward sand in the lower HSV with

deposition of fines consistent with suspended solids

and quiet conditions.

Changes in the CB-HSV transect spore distribution

after cessation suggest certain possibilities: (l) shallow

stations in the Christiaensen Basin may lose their sludge

markers rapidly due to greater resuspension activity,

especially with the loss of the black, watery cap (a shift

toward silty sand or sand support this contention) and

(2) the upper HSV, while of similar depth, may have

lost much less of its spore reservoir, as suggested by

studies of Phoel et 0.1. (1995), who have shown that this

area has received more dredged sediment (New YorkNewJersey harbor origins) and possesses a greater oxygen demand than expected; and (3) a depth-related

down-valley spatial gradient in spore concentration may

continue, but with a shifting baseline.

Clostridium perfringens spores appear to be one of the

few reliable indicators available for assessing the "sanitary" quality of bottom sediments. Virtually all other

bacterial indicators of contamination are subject to

rapid density declines once deposited in the marine

environment. The maximum extent of spore survival

under such conditions is not known, however, viability

generally persists for many months, even in frozen sediment. The unexpected increases seen for C. peifringens

spores for the 1989 transect stations do not appear to

be errors. The impact is seen to varying degrees at all

stations along the HSV at a distance of more than 100

km. Analyses were carefully controlled, and because

spores are known not to divide in such environments,

these elevated levels are attributed to sewage sludge,

either recently deposited or resuspended. An alternative source of spores could J..,e from redistribution and

resuspension of dredged sediment disposed at the 6-mile

site. The U.S. Army Corps of Eligineers records show a

major increase in dumping ofspoils in spring-fall 1989.

A variety of variables interact to result in transportloss of sludge from area sediments including (1) the

dramatic shift in input, (2) storm and tidal shear stress,

and (3) a shift in biology (Davis and Means, 1989; Reid

et 0.1., 1995). However, chemical and spore data suggest

that other inputs (e.g. 6-mile site) continue to contaminate surficial sediments through resuspension and subsequent deposition. Site processes (e.g. sludge disposal)

and its related sediment condition (anoxic watery silt

cap) are described as events that proceed sequentially,

facilitating the next step of recovery (Fig. 14). It is

speculated that the key impact of sludge disposal was a

combination of high deposition of fines and hypoxic

conditions related to its labile carbon. Rapid biological

.recovery (infaunallarval recruitment) is therefore predicted. The recovery ofthe chemical inventory, although

beginning quite early, may be the last condition to

recover.
Session II: Physical Oceanography 59

(~ 1_2_M_'L_E_-S_I_T_E_R_E_C_O_V_E_R_Y ~) Figure 14

Possible trend in recovery of the 12-mile

dumpsite. The first shift following cessation in

sludge deposition is speculated to be

resuspension ofthe anoxic watery silt top layer

by storms and post-storm tides.

1990

Anoxic fluid mud

Anoxic sand-silt

Anoxic fiber matting

Reducing sediment

Anoxic, watery silt cap

1989

, ------:

Migratory fish & shellfish'

(SEDIMENT CONDITION)

--"'*.-----".7 Benthic community '-- 7

Sediment-chemical-spore reservoir

1988

1

1

1

:'1

I.- 1

I ;i: (.' ., I" , , , I ,

: <: 1 ·1

I " 1 1 1 ,

1 1

1 ,

1 .1 I .J

Cessation

1987

Start of,_-t!!~_,RecoYery

recovery c~mplete

( PROCESS)

Influence on

next condition

1986

Storm events

Benthic recruitment

Storm & tides

Sludge disposal

Silt winnowing +

bedload transport

Infaunal production

Pore-water irrigation

Conclusions

Erosion study results indicate that changes in sediment

structure (grain size, porosity, and biological cohesion)

have occurred in the HSV. The changes are consistent

with resuspension and redistribution of contaminated

particulates along the axis of the HSV. Long-term

changes in the sludge-sediment reservoir will be the

result of a complex interaction of various transport

.processes such as particle flux and in-sediment mixing

(bioturbation). The following summary conclusions are

justified at this time:

1. Evidence from measurements of erodibility, organic' chemistry, and fecal spores indicate a regional

sewage sludge-sediment reservoir with highest stability

in wide, protected depressions of the CB-HSV transect.

The reservoir rapidly declines with distance both away

from and down the transect. .

2. The surficial layer of the reservoir is highly transient because of major sludge accumulation followed

by event-related resuspension while deeper sediment is

a stable sand-sludge mixture.

3. Since cessation of sludge disposal, the sediment

regimes have shifted from reducing to oxidizing conditions, from silt-dominated to sand-dominated sediments,

and have shown a reduction in indicators of fecal contamination (sterols and spores).

4. Increased dumping of New York harbor sediments at the 6-mile site appears to have resulted in a

reversal in the declining trend in C. perfringens spores.

5. The experiments performed in this study suggest

that existing seabed maps oflithologic features (Freeland

and Swift, 1973) may be transformed to express resuspension potential or shear stress patterns.

Acknowledgments _

This work would not have been possible without the

support ofAnne Studholme throughout this study. Special thanks to Mert Ingham. The crews of the RjV

KY.MA, Albatross IV, and Delaware II made our experi-
60 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

ments at sea possible. Trace metal analyses were performed by Warren Boothman. Onboard lab work was

performed by Laura Schmidt and Karen Rudio. Special

thanks to Andy Draxler and Randy Ferguson for their

interest throughout the study; Jim Manning for useful

conversations on current meter results; Hal Walker for

encouragement early in the study; and Paul Ferri,

Mohamed Abdelrhman, and Ed Dettmann for editorial

assistance.

Literature Cited

Abdelrhman, M.A.,].F. Paul, and W.R. Davis.

In Press. Analysis procedure for and application of a device

for simulating sediment entrainment. Marine Geology.

Bisson,]. W., and]. V. Cabelli.

1979. Membrane filter enumeration method for Clostridium

pl!1fringens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37:55-66.

Cabelli, V.]., and D. Pedersen.

1982. The movement of sewage sludge from the New York

Bight dumpsite as seen from Clostridium perfringens spore

densities. In Oceans '82, conference record, p. 995-999.

Inst. Electr. Electron. Eng., Piscataway, N].

Emerson, D.]., and V.]. Cabelli.

1982. Extraction of Clostridium perfringens spores from bottom

sediment samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 44: 1144-1149.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., OAA Tech. Memo. NMFSF/NEC-55, 34 pp.

Davis, W. R.

1993. The role of bioturbation in sediment resuspension and

its interaction with physical shearing. ]. Exp. Mar. BioI.

Ecol.,171:187-200.

Davis, W., and]. Means.

1989. A developing model of benthic-water contaminant transport in bioturbated sediment. In KJekowski, R. Z., E.

Styczynska:Jurewicz, and L. Falkowski, Proceedings of the

21st European Marine Biology Symposium, p. 215-226.

Polska Academia Nauk, Wroclaw, Poland.

Davis, W., S. Mcintyre, and W. Lick.

1984. A particle entrainment simulator for measuring disposal site sediment transport. (Abstr.) Eos 65:934.

Freeland, G., and D. Swift.

1978. Surficial Sediments. MESA New York Bight Atlas Monograph 10, ew York Sea Grant Institute, Albany, NY, 93 p.

Fukuda, M., and W. Lick.

1980. The entrainment of cohesive sediments in freshwater.

]. Geophys. Res. 85(C5):2813-2824.

Hatcher, P. G., and P. A. McGilliv<lry.

1979. Sewage contamination in New York Bight: coprostonol

as indicator. Environ. Sci. Technol. 13:1225-1229.

Lavelle,]. W., and W. Davis.

1987. Measurements ofsediment erodibility in Puget Sound,

Washington. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.,

PMEL-72, 32 p.

Pikanowski, R. A.

1995. Experimelllal design of the 12-mile dumpsite study. In

A. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.).

Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-

mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p.

13-18. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Phoel, W. C., S. Fromm, C. Zetlin, S. A. Fromm, K. Sharack, and

G. Gray.

1995. Changes in sediment oxygen consumption in relation

to the phaseout and cessation of dumping at the New York

Bight sewage sludge dumpsite. In A. L. Studholme,]. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 145-154. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Pruell, R.]., C. B. orwood, R. D. Bowen, W. S. Boothman,

P. F. Rogerson, M. Hackett, and B. C. Butterworth.

1990. Geochemical study of sediment contamination in New

Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts. Mar. Environ. Res. 29:77-101.

Reid, R. N., S. A. Fromm, A. B. Frame, D.Jeffress,].]. Vitaliano,

D.]. Radosh, and]. R. Finn.

1995. Limited responses of benthic macrofauna and selected

sewage sludge components to phaseout of sludge disposal

in the inner New York Bight. In A. L. Studholme,]. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 213-225. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Rouse, H.

1938. Experiments on the mechanics of sediment resuspension. In Proceed. 5th Congr. for Applied Mechanics 55,

p. 550-554. John Wiley, NY.

Tsai, c., and W. Lick.

1986. A portable device for measuring sediment resuspension.

]. Gt. Lakes Res. 12:314-321.

Venkatesan, M. I., and I. R. Kaplan.

1990. Sedimentary coprostonol as an index of sewage addition in Santa Monica Basin, southern California. Environ.

Sci. Techn. 24:208-214.
SESSION II: _ Physical Oceanography

Recent Sediment and Contaminant Distributions

in the Hudson Shelf Valley*

RICHARD F. BOPP**, DAVID W. ROBINSON, H.JAMES SIMPSON,

PIERRE E. BISCAYE, ROBERT F. ANDERSON

Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory

Columbia University

Palisades, New Y01* 10964

HUAYI TONG, STEPHEN J. MONSON, and MICHAEL L. GROSS

Department ofChemistry

University ofNebraska

Lincoln, Nebraska 68588

ABSTRACT

Net sediment accumulation rates were determined in the vicinity of the nearshore

dumpsites (Area 1) through measurements of radionuclide tracers in sediment core sections. The highest rates of accumulation (a few cm/y) were found along the axis of the

Hudson ShelfValley (HSV) up to several kilometers down valley from the dredge spoil and

former sewage-sludge disposal sites. Observed levels of PCB's, chlordane, and DDT-derived

compounds in surface sediment samples were highest in cores characterized by fine-particle

deposition. Contaminant levels were much lower in samples of recent sediment from the

HSV at mid-shelf (Area 2) and on the continental slope (Area 3), reflecting minimal

influence of the nearshore disposals. Analyses of samples from the continental slope

indicated that DDT contamination of recent sediments from Areas 2 and 3 reflected

regional inputs of unaltered DDT derived from atmospheric deposition. Evidence of the

atmospheric DDT signal, a high ratio of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD, was also found in some

surface suspended particle samples from Area 1, near the dumpsites. This indicates that

analyses of DDT-derived compounds can provide useful information on the behavior and

fate of particle-associated contaminants in the nearshore environment. A few samples were

analyzed for 2,3,7,8-TCDD. The highest concentrations, a few hundred parts per trillion,

were found in the HSV between the sludge and dredge spoil dumpsites and were probably

derived from disposal of material dredged from the lower Passaic River and Newark Bay, the

site of a major incident of 2,3,7,8-TCDD contamination.

Introduction

This study was designed to provide information on the

distribution, fate, and sources of particle-associated pollutants in the vicinity of the nearshore dumpsites

through the application of a multi-tracer approach.

Both sediment core (Table 1) and suspended particle

samples were analyzed. The tracers employed included

radionuclides (Cs-137 and K-40) and persistent chlorinated hydrocarbons (PCB's, DDT-derived compounds,

chlordane, and dioxin).

The study area (Fig. 1) receives multiple, potentially

significant inputs of contaminants from a number of

sources. These include discharge from the Hudson,

*Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Contribution 0.5397.

**Current address: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Department of

Earth and Environmental Sciences, Troy, New York 12180.

61
62 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Table 1

Sediment core locations.

Water

Station Depth (m) Latitude Longitude

Area 1

NY5 35 40'24.9' 73'47.6'W

Y6 30 40'25.0' 73'45.6'W

A41 40 40'23.4' 73'46.S'W

A56 55 40'19.0' 73'47.4'W

HSV1 60 40'16.9'N 73'47.2'W

HSV2 60 40'15.4'N 73'46.S'W

HSV3 60 40'13.9'N 73'45.9'W

HSV4 50 40'12.0'N 73'45.4'W

HSV5 60 40'10.3'N 73'42.0'W

Area 2

HSV6 SO 40'02.3'N 73'26.4'W

HSV7 SO 40'00.9' 73'20.4'W

Area 3

HSVS 4S0 39'29.7' 1 72'20.1'W

HSV9 9S0 39'2S.4' 1 72'15.2'W

E -123 BC-E6 1640 39'45.S'N 70'55.4'W

Raritan, Passaic, and Hackensack Rivers (HudsonRaritan discharge), disposal of dredged material fr?m

the lower Hudson River, Newark Bay, Raritan Bay, and

contiguous waters (the New York Harbor complex) and

past disposal of sewage sludge from New York City and

New Jersey (Stanford and Young, 1988). Construction

and demolition wastes, often referred to as cellar dirt,

have also been dumped in the study area. Loadings of

contaminants associated with this activity are believed

to be negligible compared with the other sources

(Stanford and Young, 1988). For many contaminants,

the sources are closely related. For example, lower levels of DDT in sewage, resulting from the ban on domestic use in 1972, would lower not only the levels in

sewage sludge but also levels in wastewater discharge, a

major source of contaminants to the New York Harbor

complex (Mueller et a\., 1982). This would result in

lower levels of DDT in the Hudson-Raritan discharge

and in the recent sediments dredged from the harbor

and disposed of in the study area. Such considerations

make it difficult to quantify the relative importance of

these sources on the basis of contaminant analyses.

Only in the case of DDT-derived compounds and dioxins is some distinction ofsources possible. Evidence for

an atmospheric source of DDT-derived compounds is

presented below and dioxin contamination in the study

area is probably related to an industrial discharge in

the lower Passaic River that significantly contaminated

sediments in Newark Bay (Bopp and Simpson '). A specific indicator ofsewage-sludge-derived material in sediments of the HSV, the abundance of Clostridium

pnfringens spores, is discussed in detail elsewhere in this

volume (Davis et a\., 1995; O'Reilly et a\., 1995).

Accumulation of particle-reactive contaminants would

be greatest in areas of recent deposi tion offine-grained

sediment. Such areas are relatively uncommon on the

continental shelf off the northeast coast of the United

States where sandy surface sediments are the rule

(Schlee, 1973; Biscaye et a\., 1978). These considerations led us to focus our sediment core sampling on

specific areas along the axis of the HSV where the

surface sediments were known to be fine-grained.

It is common to establish the "recent" nature of finegrained sediment accumulation through the use of radion'..lclide tracers with known sources and input histories (Alderton, 1985). Cs-137 has been shown to be a

useful particle tracer in freshwater, estuarine, and coastal

systems (Olsen et a\., 1989; Mulholland et a\., 1992).

The major sources of Cs-137 to natural waters include

global fallout derived from atmospheric testing oflarge

nuclear weapons and effluent from nuclear reactors.

Sediment cores from areas of continuous, rapid net

particle accumulation (on the order of 1 cmly or more)

can often be dated by their depth profile of Cs-137

activity (Olsen et a\., 1981). In profiles that reflect the

delivery of fallout-derived Cs-137 to the sediment column, the initial appearance of that radionuclide corresponds to approximately 1952, the beginning of

large-scale atmospheric nuclear weapons testing. Maximum concentrations of Cs-137 would correspond to

the fallout maximum of the mid 1960's (Hardy, 1977).

Such detailed chronological information cannot be derived from sediment cores from the vicinity of the

nearshore dumpsites because ofthe mixing inherent in

the process ofdredged material disposal, a major source

of fine-grained particles to this area. For this study, the

presence of Cs-137 in a sediment core section has been

interpreted simply as an indicator of a post-1950 component in that sample. In cores with high net accumulation rates of fine particles, the Cs-137 penetration

depth, i.e. the depth to which Cs-137 activity c~m be

detected, would correspond to the amount of deposition since the early 1950's.

In areas of lower net sediment accumulation, it becomes more likely that biological mixing of the sediments will be an important factor in determining the

J Bopp, R. F., and H. J. Simpson. J 991. Sediment sampling and

radionuclide and chlorinated hydrocarbon analysis in Newark Bay

and the Hackensack and Passaic Rivers. State of NewJersey Department of Environmental Protection, Final report for contract P24096.
Session II: Physical Oceanography 63

73°50

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

XHSV4

XHSV5

\

,

:

I

,

I,.

I

,

,

.

..

SEEP I

TRANSECT

,_ ... _\

, '

·~NY5 NY6)

: XX'D' SEWAGE

DREDGED 0' X : SLUDGE MATERIAL A41' DUMPSITE

OUMPSITE, :

t----~--:-""':"'7":""""=--~~ I A56 '.

X \.,

,

XHSVI\

X HSV2', - ~::_- _ 27mXHSV3 ----~

40°40'

40°50'

Figure I

Location of Area 1 sampling sites. The axis of the Hudson Shelf Valley falls

within the area bordered by the 27 m contour line. The cellar dirt dumpsite

is located between the dredged spoil and former sewage sludge dumpsites.

Approximate locations of sediment coring sites in Area 1 are indicated by

the x's. The insert shows the general locations of Areas 2 and 3. Area 2

includes coring sites HSV6 and HSV7. Sites HSV8 and HSV9 are in Area 3,

on the axis of the Hudson Canyon. Coring 'site EN-123, BC-E6, and the

sediment trap moorings were located along the SEEP-I transect. Latitudes

and longitudes of all coring sites are listed in Table 1.

Cs-137 penetration depth, (Goldberg and Koide, 1962;

Guinasso and Schink, 1975; Robbins and Edgington,

1975; Olsen et aI., 1981). Biological mixing wil1 produce lower Cs-137 activities by the dilution of recent

deposition with sediments that accumulated prior to

1952. Similarly, lower concentrations of particle-associated contaminants would result.

Sediments with higher proportions ofsand-sized particles would also be expected to have lower Cs-137

activities and particle-associated contaminant levels than

their finer-grained analogs (O'Connor, 1988) . Two processes that could increase the fraction of coarser particles in a sediment sample are post-depositional winnowing offine particles and biological mixing of recent

fine-particle deposition into older coarser sediments.

In either case, this sediment type would be characterized by lower activities of K-40, a natural radioactive

tracer of the distribution of stable potassium. Since

potassium is enriched in clay minerals relative to quartz

sands, the activity ofK-40 in a sedimentsample provides

a useful first-order indication of grain-size distribution.

Based on the preceding discussion,sediment cores

were col1ected to determine the depth of Cs-137 penetration, average Cs-137 activity, average K-40 activity
64 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

and contaminant concentrations. The radionuclide data

provided an indication of the extent and degree of

influence of Hudson-Raritan discharge and sewage

sludge and dredged spoil disposal on contaminant levels in recent sediments of the study area.

Samples ofsuspended particles were collected to characterize Hudson-Raritan discharge and to investigate

the possibility of particle resuspension from the disposal sites. The ratio of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD was used

as a tracer of the atmospheric input of DDT-derived

compounds. Such inputs are characterized by a high

ratio of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD (Rapaport et aI., 1985).

pp'-DDT is the dominant isomer in technical DDT and

is degraded to pp'-DDD under anaerobic conditions

that can be found in soils, sediments, and sewage treatment plants.

Methods _

Sediment samples were collected by gravity or piston

coring. Cores were sectioned at 1 to 8 em intervals and

dried at 35·C under a flow of air filtered through Florisil

to minimize atmospheric contamination. Core sections

were ground with a mortar and pestle and stored in airtight aluminum cans. Radionuclide analysis was accomplished by non-destructive gamma counting, employing

lithium-drifted germanium and intrinsic germanium

detectors and multi-channel analyzers.

Suspended particle samples were collected with the

large volume in situ filtering system (LVFS) developed

by James Bishop of the Lamont-Doherty Geological

Observatory (Bishop et aI., 1985). The filters used were

25.4-cm-diameter quartz fiber (Whatman QMA) that

were pre-eombusted at 400·C for at least 42 hours.

Sediment trap samples were collected in traps deployed

on moorings, described in Biscaye et al. (1988), as part

of the first Shelf Edge Exchange Processes (SEEP-I)

experiment.

Subsamples ofsediment core sections and individual

filters were soxhlet extracted, cleaned, and analyzed for

PCB's, DDT-derived compounds, and chlordane byelec·

tron capture gas chromatography (Bopp et aI., 198]

and 1982). Dioxin analyses employed isotopic spikes,

chromatographic clean up, and high resolution gas

chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry as

described previously (Tong et aI., 1990). All contami··

nant concentrations and radionuclide activities are re··

ported on a dry weight basis.

Sediment cores were obtained from three general

areas (Table 1; Fig. 1). The first (Area 1) was in the

immediate vicinity of the dumpsites. Specific coring

locations were chosen on the basis of surface sediment

textures determined during the Northeast Fisheries

Center's 12 mile dumpsite Broadscale Survey (EPD [Environmental Processes Division], 1988). Our desire to

obtain fine-grained sediments led to the collection of

cores at stations NY5, NY6, A41, and A56 (Fig. 1). Field

observations of sediment types at these sites made during the 12-mile dumpsite surveys ranged from very soft

soupy mud (A41 and A56), to medium soft sludgy mud

(NY6) , to compact mud (NY5) (Reid et aI., 1989). Our

cores from station A56, in the axis of the HSV, about 6

km south of the dumpsites, were dominated by a fairly

homogeneous fine-grained mud throughout their entire length. This observation prompted our collection

of cores at five additional sites along the axis of the

valley up to about 18 km down-valley from A56 (HSVI -

HSV5).

The second coring area (Area 2) was located about

45 km down-valley from A56 (Table 1; Fig. 1). It was

chosen on the basis of grain-size maps prepared by one

of the authors (Biscaye) which indicated that it was one

of the few mid-shelf areas in this general region with

fine-grained surface sediments (40-60% <63 mm). Cores

were collected from stations HSV6 and HSV7 from

within this surface textural regime.

Sediment cores were also collected from the continental slope (Area 3; Table 1; Fig. 1), an area known for

its fine-grained surface sediments. Coring sites HSV8

and HSV9 were on the axis of the Hudson Canyon

about 150 km down-valley from A56. In addition, results from core EN-123-BC-E6 will also be discussed.

This core was collected on the continental slope about

200 km northeast of the Hudson Canyon as part of the

SEEP program. It has been described in detail in a

previous publication (Anderson et aI., 1988).

Results _

Radionuclide Activities in Sediment Cores

Available grain-size information supports our assumption that K-40 levels in our samples provide a first-order

indication of particle-size distributions (Table 2; Appendix Table 1). Average K-40 levels were highest (>18

pCi/g) in Area 3 cores from the Hudson Canyon (HSV8,

HSV9) where previous studies found that 80-100% of

the surface sediments were <63 mm (Schlee, 1973;

Biscaye et aI., 1978). Much lower average K-40 levels

(<12 pCi/g) were found in cores from Area 2 (HSV6,

HSV7) where 40-60% of the surface sediments were

<63 mm. Additional measurements relating grain size

to K-40 activities in sediments from our study area would

be quite useful.

Cs-137 penetration depths were greatest in Area 1

along the axis of the shelf valley, reaching a maximum

of 2 meters in a piston core from site A56 (Table 2).

The average Cs-137 and K-40 values at sites A41, A56,
Session 11: Physical Oceanography 65

Table 2

Radionuclide data on sediment cores. (Cores are listed by location starting from the head ofthe Hudson ShelfValley [I Y5,

NY6] to the Hudson Canyon [HSV8, HSV9]. See Fig. I for location; Appendix Table I for all core section values.)

Date of Cs-1372 Average Cs-1373 Average K-40

collection penetration (cm) (pCi/kg) (pCi/g)

10/30/87 16 54 10.7

10/30/87 12 38 8.5

10/30/87 20 290 13.9

09/01/87 >47'1 240 13.4

09/01/87 >48 240 13.4

09/26/88 >40 260 14.3

10/04/89 >40 220 14.6

09/26/88 >80 240 14.7

10/04/89 200 220 14.1

06/27/88 >19 330 15.7

06/27/88 >16 4 16.3

06/27/88 >21 140 13.3

10/04/89 20 59 11.7

06/27/88 >21 110 12.4

11/17/88 20 50 ILl

11/17/88 24 44 10.4

Core'

AREAl

Y5 #1

Y6 #1

A41 #1

A56 #3

#4

#5

#6

PI

P2

HSVI #1

#2

HSV2 #2

#3

HSV3 #1

HSV4 #2

HSV5 #1

AREA 2

HSV6 #1

#2

HSV7 #1

AREA 3

HSV8 #1

HSV9 #1

EN-123 BC-E6

N.Y. HARBOR

-1.7

NB13

RB 17

11/17/88

11/17/88

11/17/88

11/17/88

11/17/88

10/25/84

09/03/79

08/21/85

OS/20/80

6

6

20

6

o

40

32

>29

37

25

27

85

o

95

500

260

140

11.0

11.5

10.2

18.7

18.5

14.5

16.8

13.5

11.7

Ip indicates piston cores. All others were gravity cores except E -123 BC-E6 which was a subcore of a box core.

2Cs-137 penetration is defined as the bottom of the deepest core section that contained Cs-137 at a level at least two standard deviations

greater than zero. Using this two sigma statistical counting error criterion, our minimum detectable Cs-137 activities were typically 15 to

30 pCi/kg.

3Cs-137 and K-40 activities are mass weighted averages from the top section of the cores to the Cs-137 penetration depths. The only

exception is core HSV9 #1 which had no detectable Cs-137. The K-40 activity reponed for this core is the mass weighted average of the

0-1, 1-2 and 2-3 cm sections.

4> values indicate that Cs-137 was detected in the bottOm section of the core except in the case of core A56 PI where radionuclide

profiles indicated that a section of the core top was missing. While this is not uncommon in piston cores, OUf gravity cores all had

undisturbed sediment-water interfaces.

"Based on analyses of DDT-derived compounds, mixing in this core can be detected to a depth of about 7 cm, however, the Cs-137

activity was within two standard deviations of zero by the 4-5 cm section (24 pCi/kg with a standard deviation of 17 pCi/kg).
66 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

and HSVI are similar to those found in cores from

areas of fine-grained sediment deposition in the New

York Harbor complex (Table 2). These factors indicate

that the sedimentary regime is characterized by fine

particle accumulation. The rapid rate of recent net

fine-particle accumulation at A56 was confirmed by the

presence of significant Be-7 in the 0-2 cm sections of

several of the cores from this site (Appendix Table 1).

Be-7 is a cosmic-ray produced radionuclide with a halflife of only 53 days, which means that its detection in a

sediment core section is an indicator of deposition

within about a year of core collection.

Cores from the remaining sites in Area 1, those downvaHey from HSVI and those from sites NY5 and NY6,

generally have lower average values of both Cs-I37 and

K-40 (Table 2). This could be the result of post-depositional winnowing of fine-grained sediments or biological mixing ofrecent, fine-grained deposition into older,

coarser sediments. Lower average Cs-I37 and K-40 levels were also seen in the cores from the mid-shelf, Area

2. The consistent variation of average Cs-I37 levels with

average K-40 levels throughout Areas 1 and 2 (Fig. 2)

requires the blending of only two components; recent

fine particles (enriched in Cs-I37 and K-40) and sands

(with low levels ofCs-I37 and K-40).

Cores from Area 3, the continental slope, have much

higher ratios of average K-40 to Cs-I37 activities (Table

2) deviate significantly from the trend defined by cores

from Areas 1 and 2 and those from New York Harbor

(Fig. 2). At the site of core EN-I 23-BC-E6, the sedimentary regime has been described (Anderson et a1., 1988)

as consisting of low rates (on the order of one centimetel' per hundred years) of recent fine particle accumulation. Profiles with depth of natural and fallout-derived

radionuclides in the sediments were interpreted as resulting from biological mixing which typically occurs to

a depth of several centimeters. Over this interval, the

recent fines were mixed with much older, fine-grained

sediments, diluting the average Cs-I37 activity while

retaining the high levels of K-40. Additionally, the relatively low efficiency of Cs-I37 sorption onto particles

from ocean water and the possible desorption ofCs-I37

from particles into ocean water may contribute to the

relatively high K-40 to Cs-I37 activity ratios in Area 3

cores. Mulholland and Olsen (1992) have proposed

that the former was responsible for lower Cs-I37 activities observed on marine particles compared to particles

derived from a riverine drainage basin. They also concluded that desorption of Cs-I37 from the riverine particles upon transport into seawater was not significant

because most of the Cs-I37 was at nonexchangeable

interlayer sites on clay minerals.

Data from cores collected at three sites in the New

York Harbor complex, chosen on the basis of their Cs137 profiles, indicated continuous deposition since the

I

o 0

18

e x I 16 x -1.7

0" x x ....... 0

U x 0.141- x x

0 x x e , NBI3

<;t

I X

:::s::: 12 x e 0

OX \RB 17 x

OX x AREA I CORES

10 o AREA 2 CORES

o AREA 3 CORES

x e NY HARBOR CORES

8 I

100 200 300 400

Cs-137 (pCi/kg)

Figure 2

Average K-40 versus average Cs-137 activIties in sediment

cores. Area 3 cores have the highest ratios of K-40 to Cs-137

activity. Statistical counting errors for K-40 levels in individual core sections are on the order of ±1 pCi/g (see Appendix Table 1). This limits any attempt to distinguish between

Area 1 and 2 cores and New York Harbor cores on the basis of

this data.

early 1950's (Fig. 2; Bopp and Simpson, 1989; Bopp

and Simpson2; Bopp and Simpsonl ). Core -1.7 was

collected in 1979 from the Hudson River, 1.7 statute

miles down channel from the southern tip of Manhattan Island. NB 13 was taken inNewark Bay in 1985, and

RB 17 was from Raritan Bay in 1980. The three cores

plot along the trend defined by cores from Areas 1 and

2, suggesting a Hudson-Raritan influence (either

dredged spoil disposal or river discharge) on Area 1

and 2 sediments. The rapid rate of net sediment accumulation over the past three decades at some of our

Area 1 sampling sites (for example, the two meters of

recent sediment observed in piston core 2 at site A56;

Table 2), would be consistent with dredge spoil translocation. The large volume of dredged material disposed

annually (on the order of four miJIion m3/y; Gross,

1976, Stanford and Young, 1988) within 6 km of A56

suggest it is the likely source of sediment. We would

2 Bopp, R. F., and H.J. Simpson. 1984. Persistent chlorinated hydrocarbon contaminants in the New York Harbor complex. Hudson

River Foundation, First year final report for contract HUD 1183-

A38.
have difficulty arguing that such high net accumulation

rates could be supported by natural discharge of particles from the Hudson-Raritan Estuary.

Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Contaminants

Several core top sections were analyzed for chlorinated

hydrocarbon contaminants including PCB's, DDT-derived compounds, and chlordane (Table 3). As expected, the highest levels of contamination were found

in the cores from Area 1 that had the highest average

Cs-137 and K-40 levels (sites A41, A56, and HSV1). The

sections of the core from site A41 that contained measurable Cs-137 were composited and analyzed. This

sample (A41, 0-20 em, Table 2) should represent an

Session 11: Physical Oceanography 67

average of the sediment deposited at this site since the

early 1950's. Total PCB, pp'-DDD, and y-chlordane levels were significantly higher than in the 0-2 em section

from the same core. This core section would represent

the most recent deposition at this site. These results

indicate a recent decline in the concentrations of these

contaminants in sediments being deposited in Area 1.

Similar improvements have been reported for sediments

deposited in the lower Hudson River and were interpreted as the result of domestic restrictions on the use

of all of these substances during the 1970's and, for

PCB's, as a result of reduced transport from the upper

Hudson (Bopp and Simpson, 1989). These changes

would also decrease the concentrations of these contaminants in dredged material, sewage sludge, and

Hudson-Raritan discharge, and would explain the reTable 3

Contaminant concentrations in surface sediment core sections from areas 1, 2, and 3 (see Fig. 1 for location).

Depth y-chlordane J pp'-DDD pp'-DDT pp'-DDT PCB's2

Core (cm) (ppb) (ppb) (ppb) pp'-DDD (ppb)

AREAl

Y5 #1 0-2 7 22 5.0 0.23 (40W

NY6 #1 0-2 14 18 29 1.61 (400)3

A41 #1 0-2 19 38 10 0.26 (950)3

0-204 24 117 75 0.64 1650

A56 #3 0-2 9 25 19 0.76 820

#4 0-2 13 25 5.4 0.22 (750)3

HSVI #1 0-2 14 115 41 0.36 820

HSV2 #2 0-2 4 14 25 1.79 290

HSV3 #1 0-2 3 7 1.4 0.20 200

HSV4 #2 0-2 0.3 1.1 <0.2 <0.2 50

HSV5 #1 0-2 0.9 2.0 <0.4 <0.2 60

AREA 2

HSV6 #1 0-2 <0.1 0.5 <0.2 <0.4 <10

HSV7 #1 0-2 <0.1 0.5 <0.2 <0.4 <10

AREA 3

HSV8 #1 0-1 <0.1 1.3 <0.2 <0.2 <10

E 123 BC-E65 0-1 <0.1 0.11 2.95 27 <5

I Technical chlordane is a mixture containing over 100 compounds. y-chlordane, one of two major isomers, comprises about 15% of

technical formulations (Dearth and Hites 1991).

2Based on quantification of22 components resolved by packed-column gas chromatography (tri- through decachlorobiphenyl) (Webb

and McCall 1973).

3Chro'matograms contained significant interference from unidentified peaks. Concentration estimates are given in parentheses.

4 This sample is a mass weighted average of the sections of this core that contained detectable activity ofCs-137. It represents an average

of the sediments deposited at this site since the early 1950's. The 0-2 cm sample from this core should represent more recent deposition.

5 The profiles of DDT-derived compounds with depth in this core were reported and modeled by Anderson et al. (1988).
68 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

DDT-Derived Compounds on Particles from the

Continental Slope

Figure 3

pp'-DDT + pp'-DDD concentrations versus Cs-137 activities in sections of sediment cores from Areas 2 and

3. The Cs-137 data are plotted with error bars of ± one

standard deviation based on counting statistics.

in Areas 2 and 3. Our surface sediment samples from

near the dumpsites had much higher ratios, i.e. enhanced relative concentrations of DDT-derived compounds, which we interpret as an indicator of sources

related to dredge spoil and sewage sludge disposal and

Hudson-Raritan discharge. The most likely dominant

source of DDT-derived compounds to Areas 2 and 3 is

atmospheric deposition. Further evidence for the importance of atmospheric inputs of DDT to Area 3, the

continental slope, is presented below.

200

f--X---l

x EN 123 Be E6

o HSV6 #1

o HSV7# 1

o HSV8#=1

100

Cs 137 (pCi/kg)

I ppb f---x

60PCi/k9~

1---0

X--i

3

.0

0. 2 0.

0

0

0

-I

0.

0.

+

I0

0

I

-0.

0.

The profile of concentrations of DDT-derived compounds in core EN-123-BC-E6 has been described previously (Anderson et aI., 1988). This core, from 1640 m

depth on the continental slope, is particularly valuable

because of its well-defined and carefully sampled aerobic zone which provided a record of DDT deposition

unaltered by anaerobic conversion to DDD. The net

particle accumulation rate in the core was estimated to

be on the order of 0.01 cm/y. As a result of biological

mixing, DDT-derived compounds were found to a depth

of about 7 cm in the core. In situ conversion of DDT to

cent decline in chlorinated hydrocarbon levels in Area

1 sediments that was indicated by our results from site

A41.

Down valley from the sites of highest surface sediment contamination there is a decrease in contaminant

levels at Area 1, sites HSV2 through HSV5, that generally follows the drop in the average Cs-137 and K-40

levels (Table 3). This indicates a decreasing contribution of contaminated fine-particles.

In the uppermost section of cores from the mid-shelf

sites of Area 2, total PCB's and y-chlordane were not

detected at 10 and 0.1 ppb levels respectively. This

decrease in contaminant concentrations relative to levels observed at sites HSV4 and HSV5 is greater than

would have been predicted from the average Cs-137 or

K-40 activities in the cores. For example, the decrease

in average Cs-137 levels is at most a factor of two (Table

2), whereas the total PCB level drops by at least a factor

of five and y-chlordane drops by at least a factor of

three (Table 3). This indicates that the fine-grained

particles accumulating in Area 2 are significantly less

contaminated with chlorinated hydrocarbons than those

accumulating in Area 1.

Sediment core data from Area 3, the continental

slope, show similar evidence of a less contaminated,

recent, fine-grained component, i.e. undetectable lev-·

els of PCB's and y-chlordane in samples containing Cs137 (Table 3). Interpretation of the levels of

DDT-derived compounds in sediments from Areas 2

and 3 provides a means of characterizing this component. In areas of low net accumulation, but significant

biological mixing, the Cs-137 activity in individual sediment core sections should correlate with the levels of

DDT-derived compounds. Consider, for example, a core

with net fine-particle accumulation rate of 0.01 cm/y.

The entire history of DDT and Cs-137 accumulation

would be contained in the last half centimeter of sediment that was deposited. Biological mixing to depths

on the order of a few centimeters would obscure any

detailed differences in the Cs-137 and DDT input histories. Mixing would be the major determinant of the

depth profiles of these substances and, at sampling

intervals of one to two centimeters, a very good correlation would be expected between the activity of Cs-137

and levels of DDT-derived compounds. The picture is

complicated slightly by DDT geochemistry. Under

anaerobic conditions, pp'-DDT can be converted to

pp'-DDD (Guenzi and Beard, 1968). This can be taken

into account by seeking a correlation between Cs-137

activity and the sum ofpp'-DDT and pp'-DDD concentrations. Data from the upper six centimeters of core

EN-123-BC-E6 and the surface sections ofHSV 6, HSV7,

and HSV8 are presented in Figure 3. A ratio of approximately 1 ppb (pp'-DDT + pp'-DDD) per 60 pCi/kg of

Cs-137 is consistent with these data on recent deposits
DDD was observed at depths below 4 cm. Iron and

manganese pore water chemistry indicated that the

onset of anaerobic conditions occurred at about this

level (Buesseler, 1986). The total historical deposition

of DDT-derived compounds at this site was computed

to be 48 !-lg/m2 for pp'-DDT, 13 !-lg/m2 for pp'-DDE,

and 1.8 !-lg/m2 for pp'-DDD. Such dominance of the

parent compound, pp'-DDT, has been shown to be

characteristic of atmospheric inputs (Rapaport et aI.,

1985). Concentration data from EN-123-BC-E6 indicate that such inputs can supply parts per billion levels

of DDT-derived compounds to recent sediments. Other

possible inputs to our study area, including HudsonRaritan discharge and dredge spoil and sewage sludge

disposal, would be vastly different and would be characterized by pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD ratios less than unity, as

discussed below.

Assuming that most ofthe atmospheric input of DDT

recorded by core EN-123-BC-E6 occurred over the approximately twenty years of major domestic use, that

period would be characterized by average yearly atmospheric pp'-DDT fluxes of about 2.4 !-lglm2.y. This value

falls within the range of peak atmospheric inputs estiSessiun II: Physical Oceanography 69

mated from dated cores from peat bogs in central and

eastern North America (Rapaport et aI., 1985). That

study also indicated a continuing atmospheric input

estimated for the early 1980's at 10-20% of peak inputs.

Since the use of DDT was banned in the U.S. and

Canada in 1972, the source of the early 1980's deposition was suggested to be DDT used in Mexico and

Central America (Rapaport et aI., 1985).

An indication of the recent delivery of DDT to the

continental slope can be obtained by analyzing data

from sediment trap samples collected in 1984 as part of

the SEEP program (Biscaye et aI., 1988). The results

presented in Table 4 are from two moorings on the

continental slope, one at 1250 m water depth and the

other at 2300 m. The traps were deployed for 175 days,

from 23 April to 15 October 1984. Typically, only a few

hundred milligrams of sample were available, which

made ppb-Ievel DDT-derived compound analysis quite

challenging. Measured pp'-DDT fluxes ranged from

0.07 to 0.27 !-lg/m2.y (n=7) with an average of 0.18 !-lgl

m2.y. This estimate of mid 1980's flux is about an order

of magnitude lower than the flux during major domestic DDT use that was inferred from the data for core

Table 4

DDT and DDD in SEEP sediment trap samples.)

pp'-DDT pp'-DDD

Mooring #/ Trap depth/ cone.2 flux 3 cone. flux pp'-DDT

Trap # Water depth (m) (ppb) (I-Lg/m2/y) (ppb) (I-Lg/m2/y) pp'-DDD

Poisoned Traps4

5/5 167/1250 2.5±0.3 0.15 1.5±0.2 0.089 1.7±0.3

5/13 872/1250 2.9±0.4 0.21 1.2±0.1 0.090 2.4±0.4

5/14 1217/1250 1.9±0.2 0.27 0.68±0.06 0.10 2.8±0.4

6/8 468/2300 2.3±0.5 0.067 1.l±0.2 0.032 2.l±0.6

6/9 868/2300 3.l±0.4 0.17 1.3±0.2 0.070 4.l±0.8

6/12 1768/2300 2.8±0.4 0.18 0.69±0.08 0.044 6.3±1.1

6/17 2263/2300 2.4±0.3 0.18 0.38±0.05 0.028

Unpoisoned Traps5

4/3 158/500 1.3±0.4 2.6±0.3

4/20 498/500 0.1±0.1 1.3±0.1

I All samples were from the summer SEEP deployment described in detail in Biscaye et al. (1988).

2 Error estimates are based on the reproducibility of blanks and the precision of replicate analyses (about ±1 0%) as reported by Bopp et

al. (1982).

3 Flux calculations were based on the total mass fluxes, contaminant concentrations, trap openings (729 cm2), and deployment times

(175 days).

4 Traps were poisoned with a 10% solution ofsodium azide in filtered seawater to which sodium chloride was added. The sodium azide

was used to inhibit biological activity in the traps, including the conversion of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD. The sodium chloride was added to

increase the density of the trap solution to minimize mixing with the overlying water.

5 Because of the likelihood of conversion of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD in the unpoisoned traps during deployment and uncertainty about

the sampling period represented by the trap 20 sample, no flux calculations or computations of the pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD ratio were made

for these samples.
70 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

E -123-BC-E6 (2.4 ~g/m2.y). This decrease in pp'-

DDT flux is in reasonable agreement with the peat core

data cited above.

Fluxes of excess Pb-21O in the trap samples appear to

vary directly with pp'-DDT flux (Fig. 4). We attribute

this to similar sources and behaviors of the two substances. The excess Pb-21O originates from decay of

gaseous Rn-222 in the atmosphere and, similar to DDT,

Pb-210 is quite particle reactive in natural water systems. The average Pb-21O flux in these trap samples was

about 1 disintegration per minute (dpm)/cm2.y, similar to the long-term steady state average flux that would

be expected for core EN-123-BC-E6 based on other

cores taken along the SEEP transect (Biscaye et aI.,

1988). This suggests that these trap samples, on average, provide a good representation ofrecent accumulation at coring site EN-123-BC-E6.

The data from core EN-123-BC-E6 implied a total

flux of pp'-DDT (48 ~g/m2) about 25 times greater

than that of pp'-DDD (1.8 ~g/m2), whereas the trap

data (Table 4) indicate the recent flux of pp'-DDT

exceeds the flux of pp'-DDD by only about a factor of

three. In absolute terms, the total pp'-DDD flux requires an average yearly flux on the order of 0.05 ~g/

m2.y since the beginning of significant domestic DDT

use in about 1950. This long-term flux estimate for pp'-

DDD falls within the range of values determined for the

mid 1980's flux from the sediment trap samples (0.03

to 0.10 ~g/m2.y, Table 4). This suggests that the pp'-

DDD flux is an indicator of non-atmospheric input

which has not experienced a major (order of magnitude) change over the past three or four decades. The

cross-shelftransport of contaminants derived from river

discharge or dredge spoil and sewage sludge disposal is

a likely source. A relatively constant pp'-DDD flux to

32

I

>- 17pg • (\J -- I dpm E

(J

Cl • Q. •

16 •

X

:::>

LL

I0

0

0.8 1.6

Pb-210 FLUX (dpm cm- 2 y-l)

Figure 4

pp'-DDT flux versus Pb-21 0 flux derived from the sediment trap samples listed in Table 4.

sediments in Area 3 would suggest that the time between delivery ofpp'-DDD to Area 1 and deposition in

Area 3 sediments is many years. Such long transport

times or water column residence times would obscure

the recent decreases in pp'-DDD levels observed in New

York Harbor sediments (Bopp and Simpson, 1989).

While DDT-derived compounds may provide an indicator of cross-shelf contaminant transport, such transport

does not appear to be the dominant mid 1980's source

of these compounds to the slope environment. The

excess of pp'-DDT over pp'-DDD in the trap samples

indicates that atmospheric inputs continue to be most

important.

It is possible that there was some anaerobic conversion of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD within the traps. In an

effort to guard against this, the traps were initially poisoned with a 10% sodium azide solution in filtered

seawater to which sodium chloride was added in order

to increase its density to minimize mixing with the

overlying water. This treatment was at least somewhat

successful in that it prevented the foul H2S odor and

almost complete loss of pp'-DDT that was observed in

some unpoisoned traps (Table 4), however, some conversion of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD in our samples cannot

be ruled out. Even a worst case scenario, however, would

not drastically alter our general interpretations of the

data. If all of the pp'-DDD were produced from pp'-

DDT within the traps, our estimate of recent pp'-DDT

flux would increase by less than a factor of two, and the

argument that the principal input of DDT-derived compounds to the slope environment is derived from the

atmosphere would be strengthened. If (pp'-DDT + pp'-

DDD) levels were used to determine the flux of pp'-

DDT to the traps, the correlation with Pb-2l0 fluxes

(Fig. 4) would still be very good. We hope to address

the concern about conversion of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD

during trap deployment by analyzing samples of fresh

suspended particles from the shelf and slope that would

be collected by in situ filtration.

Sources of DDT-Derived Compounds to

Nearshore Particles

Data related to the pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD ratio in HudsonRaritan discharge, sediments dredged from the N. Y.

Harbor complex, and New York City sewage sludge are

presented in Table 5. We interpret the suspended matter samples as representative of Hudson-Raritan discharge. ew York City sewage sludge is represented by a

single sample from the Ward's Island treatment plant

collected in the mid 1970's. Data on samples of raw

sewage and primary treated effluent from the Yonkers,

N.Y., sewage treatment plant are also included. These
Table 5

Ratio of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD in selected samples.

pp'-DDT

Sample pp'-DDD

Suspended Particlesl

N.Y. Harbor, Hudson R. (GFFl060, 1981) 0.22

Newark Bay (F1049, 1985) 0.22

Newark Bay (Fl054, 1985) 0.11

Newark Bay (Fl077, 1986) 0.22

Newark Bay (Fl091, 1986) 0.16

Arthur Kill (GFF1057, 1981) 0.19

Arthur Kill (F1089, 1986) 0.44

Kill van Kull (F1090, 1986) 0.25

Raritan Bay (GFF1055, 1981) 0.63

Sediment Cores from the N.Y. Harbor Complex2

-1.7 (CN1472, NY Harbor, Hudson R.) 0.05

NB13 (CN1964, Newark Bay) 0.18

RB17 (C 1533, Raritan Bay) 0.16

KvK1 (CN1959, Kill van Kull) 0.87

Sewage Samples

Secondary sludge from the NYC treatment

plant on Ward's Island 0.2

Raw sewage from the Yonkers, N.y'3 sewage

treatment plant 0.3

Primary treated effluent from the Yonkers, NY

sewage treatment plant 0.2

1 Suspended particle samples are identified by the Lamont

control numbers given in parentheses.

2 The ratio reported is the average pp'-DDT level in the core

sections divided by the average pp'-DDD level. Sediment cores

are identified by Lamont control numbers given in parentheses. Control Numbers of cores collected for this study are

given in Appendix Table 1.

3The city of Yonkers is located on the east bank of the

Hudson and is bordered on the south by NYC.

data can be used to investigate the possible sources of

DDT-derived compounds to the sediment cores from

Area 1 and to our suspended particle samples.

From the data in Table 3, we estimate that the surface

sedimentsamples from our Area 1 cores had an average

pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD ratio of about 0.5. It is tempting

to cite the much lower average pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD

ratio in cores 1.7, NB 13, and RB17 (Table 5) as evidence that atmospheric inputs contribute significantly

to the DDT-derived compounds in Area 1 sediments

and that dredge spoil disposal was not the dominant

source of contaminants to our Area 1 cores. We believe,

however, that this argument is seriously flawed. Sediment samples from the NY Harbor complex waters

Sessian II: Physical Oceanography 71

bordering Staten Island had the highest levels of pp'-

DDT that we have observed in NY Harbor sediments

and a relatively high ratio ofpp'-DDT to pp'-DDD (core

KvKl, Table 5). In the case of the Kill van Kull, which

forms the northern border of Staten Island, sections of

a core that records deposition from approximately the

mid 1970's to 1985 had an average pp'-DDD level of

580 ppb and an average pp'-DDT of 500 ppb (Bopp and

Simpson1). Comparable results have been obtained from

sediment core samples from the Arthur Kill, on the

western boundary of Staten Island (Bopp, unpublished

data). To put this in perspective, sediment deposited

along the main axis of the Hudson near the site of core

1.7 from approximately the mid 1970's to 1986 had an

average pp'-DDD level of approximately 50 ppb (core

1.65, CN1923, Bopp and Simpson, 1989) and an average pp'-DDT level of approximately 5 ppb (Bopp, unpublished data). We have found no published

information that indicates the source of the relatively

high levels of DDT-derived compounds in recent Kill

van Kull and Arthur Kill sediments. From the above

discussion, it is evident that even a small component of

sediment similar to that found in the Kill van Kull core

would significantly increase the ratio of pp'-DDT to

pp'-DDD in material dredged from the N. Y. Harbor

complex. Data from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

indicates that in 1986, projects in the Arthur Kill and

Kill van Kull contributed about 14% of the volume of

material disposed of at the dredge spoil dumpsite.3

This indicates that the pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD ratio in the

surface sediment samples from our Area 1 cores does not

require a significant atmospheric input nor does it rule

out the possibility that dredged material disposal is the

dominant source of these compounds to the sediments.

Strong evidence for atmospheric inputs of DDT-derived compounds to Area 1 was found in the pp'-DDT

to pp'-DDD ratios in our suspended particle samples

taken in Area 1 (Table 6). The fact that major inputs of

DDT-derived compounds to Area 1 with dredge spoil

and sewage sludge disposal and Hudson-Raritan discharge did not totally obscure the atmospheric signal

underscores the power of the pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD

ratio as a tracer in the coastal environment. Figure 5

shows station locations and all of the pp'-DDT to pp'-

DDD ratio data. The majority of the data is easily interpreted. At the Gl station, near Sandy Hook buoy Gl,

the ratio is consistent with Hudson-Raritan discharge.

It is likely that this source continues to be the major

influence at site SB (at the bell buoy off Shrewsbury

Rocks) which is located within the plume of discharge

from the Hudson-Raritan that follows the New Jersey

coast (Ingham, 1989). Further south along the coast, as

3 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York District, Mud Dump

Activity Listout, 1 December 1990.
72 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Table 6

Large volume filter samples.

Suspended pp'-DDT2 pp'-DDD pp'-DDT

Stationl Maller (mg/l) (ppb) (ppb) pp'-DDD

August 24, 1987

Gl (S), FI099 2.7 4.8±0.7 25±3 0.19±0.03

A54 (S), F]097 0.]6 24±3 7.2±1.5 3.3±0.8

A54 (D), Fl098 1.4 5.2±0.6 ]4±2 0.36±0.06

LB3 (S), FI094 0.41 ]4±2 ]O±] 1.4±0.3

LB5 (S), FI095 0.]9 ]5±2 ] 1±2 ] .4±0.3

A56 (S), Fl096 0.15 17±3 6.3±2.0 2.7±1.0

October 31,1987

Gl (S), FlI03 1.5 5.8±0.7 18±2 0.33±0.05

A44 (D), Fll02 0.80 6.9±1.0 9.9±1.1 0.70±0.13

SB (D), FllOO 1.3 8.7±1.1 22±2 0.40±0.07

A54 (D), FII01 1.0 3 3 0.23

June 27,1988

G] (S), Fll05 1.3 16±2 36±4 0.43±0.07

G] (D), FII06 1.4 9.6±1.1 25±3 0.38±0.06

SB (S), FlI07 0.87 9.3±1.4 31±3 0.30±0.06

I Station locations are shown on Fig. 5. A44, A54 and A56 are NOAA Broadscale designations. LB3 and 5 are along the NOAA Long

Branch transect. G1 is green buoy #1 off Sandy Hook and SB is the bell buoy off Shrewsbury Rocks. (S) indicates surface samples collected

at a depth of about 2 meters; (D) are deep samples collected at about 5 meters above bOllom. F designations are Lamont control numbers

used for sample identification.

2Error estimates are based on the reproducibility of blanks and the precision of replicate analyses (about ±1 0%) as reported by Bopp et

al. (]982).

31ndividual concentrations are not reported due to an uncertainty in the total extraction volume.

the plume is diluted by mixing, there is evidence of an

additional source of DDT-derived compounds. At sites

LB3 and LB5 (Long Branch) the pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD

ratio increases to greater than one as a result of higher

levels of pp'-DDT. Near the dumpsites at stations A44

and A54, the pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD ratios in the deep

suspended particle samples are similar to those in nearsurface sediments from our Area 1 cores (Table 3). We

interpret this as an indication ofresuspension. The pp'-

DDT to pp'-DDD ratios would also be consistent with a

Hudson-Raritan discharge source, although the great

difference between deep and surface samples makes

this unlikely. Surface suspended particle samples at

sites A54 and A56 had the highest levels of pp'-DDT

and ratios of pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD much greater than

one (Table 6) . Itshould be noted that all ofthe samples

used to characterize Hudson-Raritan discharge, dredge

spoil disposal, and sewage sludge disposal had pp'-DDT

to pp'-DDD ratios of less than one (Table 5) and so an

additional source is indicated.

As mentioned above, a most likely source ofenhanced

pp'-DDT is atmospheric input. The ratios of pp'-DDT

to pp'-DDD in the surface suspended particle samples

from sites A54 and A56 were similar to those observed

in sediment trap samples from the continental slope

(Table 4). However, the concentration of pp'-DDT

(Table 6) on these suspended particle samples was

much higher than in the trap material. The surface

suspended particles at A56 and A54 had about 20 ppb

pp'-DDT while the trap samples averaged about 2.5

ppb. This could reflect differences in sample type (traps

collect the larger, sinking particles), in location and

collection period, or perhaps in pp'-DDT sources. Analysis of suspended particle samples from the continental

slope environment would help to limit these possibilities.

For Area I, our data indicate that the contaminant

regime in surface waters can be vastly different than

that found near the bottom. The pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD

ratio on particles appears to have significant potential

in the nearshore environment as a tracer ofwater masses

and the fate of particle-associated contaminants. Specific application to onshore transport of pollutants and

deposition in coastal embayments and estuaries as discussed by Olsen et al. (1989) is indicated. At this point,

however, it must be remembered that our interpretations are based on a limited number of samples and

that other possible sources of pp'-DDT have not been

ruled out. While the collection and analysis of addi-
Session II: Physical Oceanography 73

ROCKAWAY PT.

, ,

- -" /8 ,- /1]'_ ......

\ -.. '\ \

\ , (, '--- ,~

Figure 5

pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD ratio on suspended particle sampIes from Area I. S=indicates surface

samples collected approximately 2 m below

sea surface. D = indicates deep samples collected at approximately 5 m above bottom.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

A44

181

0.70 (0) SLUDGE

L-__.JDUMPSITE

"\\

~', I I

1\,'- ' ......27m; ... ' ........... I I I ,.... -,.' ::

) '</8 \ \'\ , ' .. __ ) I \

\ rs.'-\," ,.. , .........

\ Q) : ' : ......... I I I

/: ,/

':, "'0:': DREDGE :

'_"""'''''''''''',''..'' //)~ DUMPSITE!

,:;, .30lS)':::~~____ ®,A54 i

c! 0.40(0)'- -:, ;3.3lS) '.

" 181 58 ,,:; /0.36(0)" ".,,' f \

,..." LB5 \

l.4(5) "" 1.4(5) \ ®A56 \, .- ", 2.7(5) " 181 (~' 181 -.... \ \

2,3,7,8-TCDD on Particles from Area 1

I NO indicates not detected and is followed by the detection

limit in parentheses.

Table 7

2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin concentrations in

area I samples.

tional samples is necessary, the potential for increasing

our understanding of pollutant behavior in this important

environment indicates that such an effort is warranted.

1991). It was estimated that sediments deposited in the

bay over the past four decades averaged between 600

and 1200 parts per trillion (ppt) 2,3,7,8-TCDD. This

study indicated that discharges from an industrial chemical manufacturing plant on the lower Passaic River (a

major tributary ofNewark Bay) could account for much

of the 2,3,7,8-TCDD contamination in the N. Y. Harbor

complex. Major inputs of 2,3,7,8-TCDD to Area 1 associated with Hudson-Raritan discharge and Newark Bay

dredge spoil disposal would be expected. The data in

Table 7 confirms the presence of significant levels of

2,3,7,8-TCDD on particles from Area 1.

Based on our analyses, it appears possible that levels

of 2,3,7,8-TCDD could provide a specific indicator of

the dredged material disposal source to the sediments

of Area 1. The 120 ppt level in the 1987 sample of

suspended matter from near Sandy Hook at the mouth

of the Hudson-Raritan estuary is an indicator of mid

1980's input from discharge. Samples of mid 1980's

particles from the vicinity of the dumpsites included

the deep suspended matter sample from site A56 that

contained <33 ppt 2,3,7,8-TCDD and the 0-2 cm section of core A56 #4 that contained 40 ppt. This sediment core section was among those mentioned above

that contained detectable levels ofBe-7 indicating deposition within about a year prior to collection (1987).

The concentration of 400 ppt 2,3,7,8-TCDD found in

the composite sample from site A41 indicates that past

inputs were significantly greater, an observation supported by the Newark Bay sediment data and chemical

120

NO(33)

400

41

NO(l8) I

2,3,7,8-TCOO

(parts per trillion)

A41 #1, 0-20 em

A56 #4, 0-2 em

A56 PI, 72-80 em

Core Sections

Sample

Suspended Matter

Gl (5), Fl099

A54 (0), Fl098

A major incident of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) contamination in sediments of

Newark Bay has been described recently (Bopp et aI.,
74 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

production records of the industrial facility (Bopp et

aI., 1991). Most interesting was the low level of 2,3,7,8-

TCDD in the 72-80 cm sample from piston core PI at

site A56. In this particular core, Cs-137 penetrated to 88

cm (Table 2). The 72-80 cm sample contained a significant recent component (1l5±16 pCi/kg of Cs-137).

This core section represents an attempt to sample sediment from approximately the late 1950's. Bopp et aI.

(1991) indicate that, compared to the mid 1980's, the

period between the mid 1950's and early 1960's would

be characterized by much higher levels of2,3,7,8-TCDD

contamination, both in sediments depositing in Newark Bay and the lower Passaic River and in HudsonRaritan discharge derived from the bay. It would be

difficult to explain the low level of2,3,7,8-TCDD in the

sample under consideration ifHudson-Raritan discharge

were the major contributor to the contamination observed in our cores from Area 1. Our observations are

consistent with dredged material disposal being a major source. Prior to 1970, material dredged from Newark Bay was disposed of primarily in upland sites adjacent

to the bay (Suszkowski, 1978). Only since 1970 has the

dumpsite located in our study area been the dominant

repository for Newark Bay dredged materials (Suszkowski,

1978; HydroQual, Inc.4). If A56 PI (72-80 cm) does indeed represent dredged material dating from approximately the late 1950's, it would not have a large Newark

Bay component and would be expected to contain a

relatively low level of 2,3,7,8-TCDD, consistent with value

reported (Table 7). At present, this interpretation is quite

speculative due to the limited amount of applicable data.

Conclusions

The conclusions of this study can be summarized as

follows:

1) High rates of fine particle and associated pollutant accumulation were found along the axis of the HSV

from the vicinity of the dredge spoil and former sewage

sludge dumpsites to sites several kilometers down-valley. The high rates of net particle accumulation, data

on 2,3,7,8-TCDD, and trends in Cs-137 and K-40 activities in sediments are consistent with the conclusion that

the major source of accumulating particles is the translocation of material dredged from the N.Y. Harbor

complex and dumped at the dredge spoil disposal site.

Other studies (Davis et aI., 1995) indicate that sewage

sludge derived material has also been deposited at these

sites. Any estimate of total recent particle and contaminant deposition down valley from the dumpsites would

require additional sediment cores from transects across

4 Hydroqual. 1989. Assessment of pollutant inputs to New York

Bight.Job No. DYNMOI00, Hydroqual, Inc., Mahwah, NJ.

the axis ofthe HSV to complement our along-axis samples.

2) Cs-137 and K-40 activities and contaminant analyses in sediment core sections indicate that fine particles

that have accumulated in a mid-shelf region (Area 2)

and on the continental slope (Area 3) over the past

four decades are relatively uncontaminated. Analyses

of DDT-derived compounds in these samples indicate a

dominantly atmospheric source. Cumulative and mid

1980's fluxes of DDT-derived compounds calculated

from sediment trap and core data are consistent with

other estimates of regional atmospheric inputs

(Rapaport et aI., 1985).

3) The pp'-DDT to pp'-DDD ratio on particles is a

useful tracer of atmospheric inputs and processes associated with particle-reactive pollutant behavior in the

continental slope and coastal environments. Indications

of atmospheric inputs have been found on suspended

particles collected within a few kilometers ofthe HudsonRaritan discharge and the dredge material and former

sewage sludge disposal sites. Further exploitation of

this tracer is recommended.

4) Based on four samples, there appears to be significant 2,3,7,8-TCDD contamination on particles from

Area 1 that is probably related to industrial discharges

to the lower Passaic River. Additional samples should

be analyzed to test this provisional conclusion.

Acknowledgments _

The authors would like to thank Guy Mathieu, Jordan

Clark, andJeanette Glover ofthe Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory of Columbia University; Fredrika

Moser of the State of New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection; and Master Fritz Farwell and

Sherman Kingsley ofthe R/V KYMA for their assistance

with sample collection. Ms. Glover and Adele Hanley of

Lamont also assisted with sample analysis and Ms. Moser

deserves recognition for initiating the collaboration

between Lamont and the NOAA/NMFS Sandy Hook

Laboratory. This study would not have been possible

without support and assistance from NMFS personnel,

including A. Studholme,]. O'Reilly, A. Draxler, R. Reid,

and D. Mountain. Their contributions are gratefully

acknowledged. We also thank M. Ingham, N. ValetteSilver, N. Cutshall, D. Suszkowski, J. Pearce, R.

Murchelano, and A. Neill for their reviews ofthe manuscript. Sediment trap samples and core EN-123-BC-E6

were collected under the SEEP program which was

supported by a U.S. Department of Energy grant to

Lamont. Financial support was provided by the State of

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection

under contract P 25404. This is Lamont-Doherty Earth

Observatory Contribution No. 5397.
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1989. Contamination of the Hudson River: the sediment

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1981. Polychlorinated biphenyls in the sediments of the tidal

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Bopp, R. F., H.j. Simpson, C. R. Olsen, R. M. Trier, and . Kostyk.

1982. Chlorinated hydrocarbons and radionuclide chronologies in sediments of the Hudson River and estuary, New

York. Environ. Sci. Techno!. 16:666-676.

Bopp, R. F., M. L. Gross, H. Tong, H.j. Simpson, S.j. Monson,

B. L. Deck, and F. C. Moser.

1991. A major incident of dioxin contamination: sediments

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Buesseler, K. O.

1986. The geochemistry of Pu-239 and Pu-240 in the pore

waters and sediments of the N.W. Atlantic shelf, slope and

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Davis, W. R., R. McKinney, and W. D. Watkins.

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p. 49-60. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

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1991. Complete analysis of technical chlordane using negative

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1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of the

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Goldberg, E. D., and M. Kiode.

1962. Geochronological studies of deep sea sediments by the

ionium-thorium method. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta

26:417-450.

Session II: Physical Oceanography 75

Gross, M. G.

1976. Waste disposa!. MESA New York Bight Atlas Monograph 26. 32 p.

Guenzi, W. D., and W. E. Beard.

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stability of DDT in soi!. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 32:522-524.

Guinasso, . L., and D. R. Schink.

1975. Quantitative estimates of biological mixing rates in

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Hardy, E. P.

1977. Final tabulation of monthly Sr-90 fallout data, 1954-

1976. U.S. Dep. Energy, Environ. Quart., HASL-329.

Ingham, M. C.

1989. Physical oceanography of the New York Bight-a review. In Response of the habitat and biota of the inner New

York Bight to abatement ofsewage sludge dumping: second

annual progress report-1988, p. 4-11. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/NEC-67.

Mueller,j. A., T. A. Gerrish, and M. C. Casey.

1982. Contaminant inputs to the Hudson-Raritan Estuary.

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. OMPA-21, 191 p.

Mulholland, P.j., and C. R. Olsen.

1992. Marine origin of Savannah River estuary sediments:

evidence from radioactive and stable isotope tracers. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 34:95-107.

O'Connor, T. P.

1988. A summary ofselected data on chemical contaminants

in sediments collected during 1984, 1985, 1986, and 1987.

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOS OMA 44.

Olsen, C. R., H.j. Simpson, T. -H. Peng, R. F. Bopp, and

R. M. Trier.

1981. Sediment mixing and accumulation rate effects on radionuclide profiles in Hudson estuarysediments.j. Geophys.

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A. L. Studholme,j. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.),

Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at the 12-

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76 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

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1973. Quantitative PCB standards for electron capture gas

chromatography.J. Chromo Sci. 2:366-373.
Session II: Physical Oceanography 77

Appendix Table I

Radionuclide data on sediment core sections. I

Depth Weight Cs-137 Be-7 K-40

Location (cm) (g) (pCi/kg) (pCi/kg) (pCi/g)

NY:> #1 0-2 51.2 49±14 167±103 10.9±0.9

C 2032 2-4 51.1 75±14 -26±104 1O.8±0.6

10/30/87 4--6 62.4 66±16 10.7±0.6

6-8 67.9 56±15 10.2±0.6

8-12 129.6 73±8 10.7±0.6

12-16 133.2 2l±7 10.9±0.6

16-20 130.3 1l±6 11.3±0.6

20-24 130.9 0±6 10.7±0.6

Y5 #2 0-0.5 15.0 50±20 178±209 11.6±0.7

CN 2033

10/30/87

NY6#1 0-2 40.0 54±12 195±95 8.6±0.5

CN 2030 2-4 67.5 37±7 7±60 8.3±0.4

10/30/87 4--6 70.0 47±10 8.l±0.4

6-8 66.7 37±14 8.7±0.5

8-12 145.1 29±9 8.7±0.5

12-14 66.9 8±7 9.0±0.5

NY6#2 0-0.5 7.4 55±31 335±341 10.2±0.7

C 2031 0.5-1.0 8.5 75±30 -33±338 10.7±0.7

A25 #1 0-2 26.3 418±31 127±143 16.7±0.9

C 2034 2-4 31.3 536±35 276±149 17.8±1.0

10/30/87 4--6 31.0 230±22 21±123 15.3±0.8

6-8 26.1 370±33 15.7±0.9

6-82 26.1 403±32 17.5±1.0

6-82 26.1 362±25 18.l±1.0

6-82 26.1 318±30 17.8±1.0

8-12 51.2 419±29 17.6±1.0

8-122 51.2 420±29 17.2±0.9

12-16 56.6 320±25 17.3±0.9

16-20 55.9 163±18 17.4±0.9

16-202 55.9 192±20 17.6±1.0

20-24 61.4 198±19 18.2±1.0

24-28 57.9 234±23 18.9±1.0

28-32 66.4 126±12 15.6±0.8

28-322 66.4 127±15 15.5±0.8

32-33 29.1 220±18 13.2",0.7

A25 #2 0-0.5 11.8 20l±31 33±261 14.9±0.9

CN 2035

10/30/87

A25 p3 0-4 77.6 27±7 -1l±61 10.6±0.6

C 2075 4--8 57.8 23±9 9.0±0.5

10/4/89 8-12 55.0 45±10 9.5±0.5

12-16 55.8 2l±10 10.l±0.6

16-24 60.6 192±14 14.l±0.7

24-32 58.2 180±15 12.5±0.7

32-40 90.4 39±7 7.6±0.4

40-48 60.9 32l±19 12.7±0.7

Continued
78 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Appendix Table 1 (continued)

Depth Weight Cs-137 Be-7 K-40

Location (em) (g) (pCi/kg) (pCi/kg) (pCi/g)

A41 #1 0-2 22.8 129±18 70±123 12.5±0.7

CN 2028 2-4 28.6 227±21 -77±120 12.9±0.7

10/30/87 4-6 19.0 387±37 17±369 14.5±0.9

6-8 17.3 394±34 16.l±0.9

6-82 17.3 420±46 15.4±1.0

6-82 17.3 351±34 15.7±0.9

8-12 39.3 342±28 13.2±0.8

12-16 40.8 361±30 14.0±0.8

16-20 51.0 180±18 14.6±0.8

20-24 80.4 13±1l 12.8±0.7

24-28 58.4 10±13 15.8±0.9

28-32 51.5 -10±1l 16.9±O.9

32-36 60.8 -5±9 15.8±0.8

36-40 99.4 17±ll 11.7±0.6

40-44 118.0 -7±9 11.5±0.6

44-47 111.8 4±7 11.2±0.6

A41 #2 0-0.5 4.4 162±60 -369±759 13.9±1.1

C 2029

10/30/87

A56 #1 0-2 16.3 151±25 386±205 13.0±0.8

C 2024 2-4 18.3 214±34 109±240 13.7±0.9

9/1/87 4-6 20.1 256±36 -55±236 14.3±0.9

6-8 21.6 229±29 12.9±0.8

8-12 36.8 158±18 12.0±0.7

40-42 18.2 196±26 14.6±0.9

A56 #2 0-2 16.2 157±20 1008±179 14.3±0.8

C 2025 2-4 13.9 191±29 65±244 15.6±0.9

9/1/87 4-6 14.6 173±20 -12±211 14.l±0.8

6-8 15.4 206±28 13.9±0.8

40-42 17.5 228±35 12.9±0.9

A56 #3 0-2 15.3 180±38 610±239 13.8±0.8

CN 2026 2-4 18.8 334±34 -200±252 14.0±O.9

9/1/87 4-6 20.0 188±30 -1l±253 13.3±0.9

6-8 18.8 217±29 13.1±0.8

8-12 32.7 304±25 16.2±0.9

12-16 32.2 278±25 13.5±0.8

16-20 40.1 280±19 12.8±0.7

20-24 32.7 267±25 11.8±0.7

24-28 30.4 408±30 12.0±0.7

28-32 29.9 338±28 14.6±0.8

32-36 36.8 252±23 14.2±O.8

36-40 53.0 148±13 13.l±0.7

40-44 42.0 19l±22 12.4±0.7

44-47 36.4 77±15 13.2±0.7

A56#4 0-2 15.2 186±21 636±193 14.2±0.8

CN 2027 2-4 15.8 249±29 -I 82±234 14.2±0.9

9/1/87 4-6 24.3 194±20 13.4±0.8

6-8 27.3 139±17 13.5±O.7

8-12 36.1 219±19 13.7±0.8

12-16 34.8 225±23 12.6±0.8

16-20 34.8 285±25 13.8±0.8

Continued
Session II: Physical Oceanography 79

Appendix Table 1 (continued)

Depth Weight Cs-137 Be-7 K-40

Location (em) (g) (pCi/kg) (pCi/kg) (pCi/g)

A56#4 20-24 30.1 365:t30 13.4:t0.8

C 2027 24-28 32.4 348:t26 13.4:t0.7

9/1/87 28-32 34.2 260:t20 14.8:t0.8

32-36 41.3 225:t19 13.9:t0.7

36--40 35.4 209:t17 13.8:t0.7

40-44 39.7 168:t19 l1.8:t0.7

44-48 44.5 123:t17 12.8:t0.7

A56#5 0-2 17.9 174:t23 302:t191 15.4:t0.9

C 2053 2-4 16.7 173:t21 -216:t177 15.0:t0.8

9/26/88 4-6 20.1 229:t26 15.2:t0.9

6-8 23.1 203:t20 14.2:t0.8

12-16 34.4 213:t23 13.7:t0.8

16--20 31.6 279:t26 15.2:t0.9

20-24 31.2 282:t27 14.6:t0.9

24-28 37.5 233:t23 14.3:t0.8

28-32 39.1 272:t25 15.0:t0.9

32-36 34.4 274:t26 13.5:t0.8

36-40 29.1 326:t30 13.4:t0.8

40-43 27.6 371:t30 13.4:t0.8

A56 #6 0-2 14.8 137:t24 702:t174 14.9:t0.9

CN 2076 2-4 17.5 133:t23 268:t206 12.1:t0.7

10/4/89

A56 P1 4 0-4 20.7 279:t29 -274:t210 14.6:t0.8

CN 2052 4-8 8.8 327:t37 14.0:t0.9

9/26/88 8-12 9.8 312:t38 12.9:t0.8

12-16 9.5 422:t42 14.6:t0.9

16--24 22.4 429:t29 14.1:t0.8

24-32 20.6 300:t27 16.4:t0.9

32-40 20.6 26l:t26 15.4:t0.9

40-48 25.3 207:t20 15.6:t0.8

48-56 19.9 194:t24 15.5:t0.9

56--64 25.3 184:t21 13.5:t0.8

64-72 26.2 157:t20 13.8:t0.8

72-80 31.6 115:t16 15.0:t0.8

80-88 28.2 36:t18 17.0:t0.9

88-96 34.4 28:t16 16.8:t0.9

96--104 35.9 -13:t13 16.5:t0.9

104-112 34.3 18±16 16.7:t0.9

112-120 38.1 -16±13 15.7:t0.9

136--144 53.9 -4:tl0 14.0:t0.7

160-168 46.7 7:t11 14.6:t0.8

A56 P2 0-4 10.1 158:t47 17.0:t1.2

CN 2077 4-8 12.8 188:t43 13.3:t1.0

10/4/89 8-12 19.8 110:t28 13.2:t0.8

12-16 14.3 101:t33 12.8:t0.9

16--24 22.6 215:t29 13.0:t0.8

24-32 18.2 25l:t34 14.6:t0.9

32-40 19.8 229:t29 15.5:t0.9

40-48 21.4 235:t30 14.9:t0.9

48-56 23.5 290:t30 14.8:t0.9

56--64 17.5 262:t32 14.5:t0.9

64-72 23.3 304:t23 14.6:t0.8

Continued
80 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Appendix Table 1 (continued)

Depth Weight Cs-137 Be-7 K-40

Location (em) (g) (pCi/kg) (pCi/kg) (pCi/g)

A56 P2 72-80 22.1 311±26 14.7±0.8

C 2077 80-88 16.1 315±28 13.7±0.8

10/4/89 88-96 14.5 315±33 13.7±0.8

(continued) 96-104 18.2 314±28 13.2±0.8

104-112 24.6 415±28 13.4±0.7

112-120 25.7 386±28 15.1±0.8

120-128 21.5 262±22 14.6±0.8

128-136 20.6 206±23 14.0±0.8

136-144 22.2 20l±22 15.7±0.9

144-152 22.0 170±22 15.3±0.9

152-160 21.5 192±23 14.5±0.8

160-168 28.8 162±18 13.l±0.7

168-176 40.2 63±11 11.6±0.6

176-184 26.7 182±21 13.8±0.8

184-192 25.2 92±17 14.2±0.8

192-200 31.0 143±17 14.2±0.8

200-208 26.1 24±16 15.3±0.8

208-216 33.2 22±12 15.6±0.8

216-224 38.3 -6±13 15.6±0.8

224-232 40.1 10±11 14.2±0.8

232-240 31.3 -2±13 16.2±0.9

240-248 30.7 -5±14 16.8±0.9

248-256 52.0 3±11 14.0±0.8

HSVI #1 0-2 24.5 202±18 180±140 14.7±0.8

C 2042 2-4 19.7 394±31 -311±279 16.9±1.0

6/27/88 4-6 25.0 423±29 17.2±0.9

6-8 24.8 382±25 17.0±0.9

8-12 43.4 435±32 15.7±0.9

12-16 57.7 314±23 15.0±0.8

16-19 42.6 228±22 15.2±0.9

HSVI #2 0-2 25.9 339±24 172±167 17.l±0.9

CN 2043 2-4 20.5 444±38 258±380 16.4±1.0

6/27/88 4-6 22.5 447±35 17.3±1.0

6-8 21.5 453±35 16.0±0.9

8-12 47.1 409±24 16.2±0.8

12-16 48.7 360±28 15.7±0.9

HSV2 #1 0-2 26.9 130±16 86±126 13.8±0.7

C 2040 2-4 25.4 156±19 -18l±217 15.0±0.8

6/27/88

HSV2 #2 0-2 23.0 132±17 159±159 15.l±0.8

C 2041 2-4 25.5 160±25 133±311 15.l±0.9

6/27/88 4-6 25.9 189±20 14.9±0.8

6-8 25.4 15l±20 14.9±0.8

8-12 62.1 202±18 13.7±0.8

12-16 71.9 14l±15 12.6±0.7

16-18 39.6 56±11 12.2±0.7

18-21 93.0 12l±13 12.3±0.7

HSV2 #3 0-2 32.4 70±13 12.3±0.7

C 2078 0-22 32.4 60±14 61±109 12.4±0.7

10/4/89 2-4 37.9 67±13 -101±123 12.5±0.7

2-42 37.9 66±16 14.2±0.8

Continued
Session II: Physical Oceanography 81

Appendix Table 1 (continued)

Depth Weight Cs-137 Be-7 K-40

Location (cm) (g) (pCi/kg) (pCi/kg) (pCi/g)

HSV2 #3 4--6 40.6 106±17 13.7±0.8

CN 2078 6-8 35.6 138±15 12.8±0.7

10/4/89 8-12 70.6 155±14 13.0±0.7

(continued) 12-16 90.9 90±9 l1.4±0.6

16-20 108.1 58±8 10.9±0.6

20-24 122.5 28±8 l1.7±0.6

24--28 124.0 16±6 1O.4±0.5

28-32 123.1 15±7 l1.0±0.6

32-36 126.8 4±7 l1.6±0.6

HSV3 #1 0-2 23.7 105±16 417±132 14.7±0.8

CN 2038 2-4 24.3 115±17 166±191 14.6±0.8

6/27/88 4--6 29.9 145±21 13.7±0.8

6-8 30.7 155±21 13.7±0.8

8-12 66.3 116±18 l1.5±0.7

12-16 73.2 104±16 12.0±0.7

16-19 67.6 98±15 12.2±0.7

19-21 47.7 106±16 l1.7±0.7

HSV3 #2 0-2 25.7 134±16 272±142 15.0±0.8

CN 2039 2-4 27.0 147±19 -2±214 12.6±0.7

6/27/88 4-6 28.7 134±16 14.7±0.8

24--26 53.9 53±9 l1.7±0.6

HSV4#1 0-2 48.0 53±10 118±78 11.3±0.6

C 2059 2-4 56.2 57±9 -35±77 11.l±0.6

11/19/88

HSV4 #2 0-2 39.6 48±11 156±100 12.4±0.7

CN 2060 2-4 41.1 77±11 54±98 12.3±0.7

11/19/88 4--6 52.4 50±10 12.2±0.6

6-8 55.0 72±1l 12.4±0.7

8-12 108.6 56±10 10.5±0.6

12-16 117.0 40±10 10.2±0.6

16-20 119.2 36±11 10.4±0.6

20-24 122.4 -9±9 10.0±0.5

HSV5 #1 0-2 43.9 53±13 -39±103 11.7±0.6

CN 2061 2-4 32.2 107±18 15±146 12.5±0.7

11/19/88 4-6 41.1 77±12 11.8±0.6

6-8 54.5 68±10 11.2±0.6

8-12 104.6 54±10 10.4±0.6

12-16 113.8 36±7 10.4±O.5

16-20 127.3 27±9 9.8±0.5

20-24 131.2 20±7 9.5±O.5

24--28 143.6 3±6 9.4±O.5

28-28.5 31.1 15±13 11.9±0.7

HSV6 #1 0-2 50.6 40±12 5±97 10.8±0.6

CN 2062 2-4 59.2 50±10 -16±87 11.3±0.6

11/19/88 4--6 72.3 23±8 10.8±0.6

6-8 71.1 12±8 10.7±0.6

8-12 145.7 6±6 9.8±0.5

12-16 134.6 -4±6 10.5±0.5

Continued
82 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Appendix Table 1 (continued)

Depth Weight Cs-137

Location (cm) (g) (pCi/kg)

HSV6#2 0-2 56.2 35±7

CN 2063 2-4 60.0 20±9

11/19/88 4-6 74.0 22±7

6-8 77.1 7±7

8-12 149.8 -5±6

HSV7 #1 0-2 54.5 52±10

CN 2064 2-4 50.9 42±13

11/19/88 4-6 59.2 42±12

6-8 66.0 42±11

8-12 125.6 34±9

12-16 142.7 16±6

16-20 139.5 15±7

HSV8#1 0-1 10.0 70±28

CN 2065 1-2 12.3 63±25

11/19/88 2-3 12.2 88±26

3-4 11.8 124±28

4-6 22.4 80±17

6-8 24.9 -15±24

HSV9 #1 0-1 8.7 4±49

CN 2066 1-2 10.7 33±41

11/19/88 2-3 9.8 0±31

NBS Std." 2675±136

2643±133

2656±134

Be-7

(pCi/kg)

-32±73

54±102

9l±284

106±259

148±306

358±455

-298±396

14.7±0.8

14.3±0.7

14.5±0.7

K-40

(pCi/g)

12.0±0.6

11.6±0.6

11.l±0.6

11.l±0.6

10.5±0.5

11.7±0.6

11.5±0.6

11.4±0.6

11.2±0.6

11.0±0.6

10.9±O.6

11.2±0.6

18.2±1.1

17.5±1.0

19.3±1.l

20.l±1.1

18.5±1.0

17.l±1.0

17.0±1.2

18.4±1.2

20.4±1.2

I Activities are reported with error bars of ± one standard deviation based on statistical counting errors.

2 These are results of replicate analyses.

3 Site A25 is on the dredge spoil disposal site. The relatively low Cs-137 and K-40 activities in the top 40 cm ofA25 P probably result from

emplacement of a sand cap at that site after our collection of cores A25 #1 and 2 (10/30/87) and prior to collection of the piston core

(A25 P, 10/4/89). Capping with relatively clean sand is known to have been performed at times at this disposal site. This procedure is an

attempt to stabilize contaminated dredge spoil deposits and isolate them from the overlying water.

4 This piston core overpenetrated. Based on the other cores from this site, we estimate that the top 60-120 cm were lost.

"These results are for NBS standard reference material 4350 (river sediment). NBS reported activities are 2703±122 pCi/kg for Cs-137

and 14.6±1.3 pCi/g for K-40.
Session II: Physical Oceanography 83

Audience Q}testions

Question: I wonder if you have any idea where the

atmospheric DDT comes from?

R. Bopp: Yes. It doesn't look like recycled DDT. If it

were recycled from soil applications, it would have significant DDD associated with it. What Rappaport et al.

(1985) suggested was that the current source was from

spraying in Mexico and Central America and atmospheric transport as nearly pure DDT. Our study looked

at areas near major sewage sludge and dredge spoil

dumpsites and we saw that influence in near-bottom

suspended particle samples and in the sediments. It's

astounding that the DDT signal in the surface water

right above the dumpsites at some times of the year

appears to be dominated by an atmospheric signal. I

find that incredible.

Question: Did you say that you had data from deep

ocean sites?

R. Bopp: At the shelfbreak. When you get to the deep

ocean, there is little net deposition. You only have to

look at the top few centimeters, and you can find cores

where this layer is aerobic. The DDT that gets there

doesn't get converted on site. And, yes, we have a superb

core from about 1,700 meters depth. So, we don't have

deep ocean data, but from the shelfbreak at 1700 meters.

Question: With respect to the DDT compounds found

in that core, how long ago would you say they were laid

on the surface of the ocean?

R. Bopp: The entire history of DDT deposition is

contained within the top four centimeters. The first

possible input would be 1939, but the maximum inputs

would have been in the fifties and sixties.

The only other thing that I'd like to leave you with is the

power of the atmospheric tracer, the DDD to DDT

ratio. You could be sitting on the top of the dredge

spoil sites in August 1987 looking at the particles that

are in that water column and barely recognize the

influence of either the disposal sites or the Hudson/

Raritan discharge in terms of the DDT signature. I was

amazed to find that it's predominantly atmospheric.

SESSIONm:

Introduction

JOHN E. O'REILLY*

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

Sediment Processes

The coastal waters in the apex of the New York Bight

(NYB) receive enormous anthropogenic inputs generated by the domestic and industrial activities of approximately 20 million people. During the early 1980's,

before the closure ofthe 12-mile sewage sludge dumpsite

(Fig. 1), the three largest sources of pollution to the

apex were the outflow from the Hudson-Raritan estuary, and the dumping of sewage sludge and dredged

material froIJ1 barges. R~1atively minor inputs came

into th'e apex from coastal NewJersey and Long Island

and from aerial Of atmospheric deposition (Fig. 2).

For some wastes, such -as nitrogen and organic carbon, the Hudson-Raritan estuarine plume overwhelmed

the contribution from other sources during the early

1980's. For example, approximately 58% ofthe anthropogenic organic carbon was from the estuarine plume,

and 5% from sewage sludge (Mueller et aI., 1976; Fig.

2). For other inputs such as lead, dredged material was

by far the largest source at 51 %, while sewage sludge

provided 21 % and the estuary about 24% of the loadings (Stanford and Young, 1988). The contribution of

sewage sludge to total loadings of PCB's was relatively

minor in comparison with inputs from the estuary and

dredged material (Fig. 2). Inputs of colliform bacteria

from the plume were more than 100 times the inputs

released by dumping of sewage sludge (Mueller et aI.,

1976). Inputs of the major contaminants from sewage

sludge were generally subordinate to those from the

estuary and from dumping of dredged material.

While the major sources of pollution to the apex

were reasonably well quantified, their fates in the NY

Bight were not well understood. A number of earlier

studies (e.g. Hatcher and McGillivary, 1979; Zdanowicz,

1991) documented highly elevated concentrations of

sewage-derived contaminants in the sediments of the

Christiaensen Basin, a topographic depression (the

Hudson Shelf Valley) between the sewage sludge and

dredged material dumpsites (Fig. 1). The proximity of

the dumpsites and the mouth of the Hudson-Raritan

Estuary to the basin makes these sources potentially

significant. Further, resolution of their relative importance to the habitat quality of the Christiaensen Basin

becomes even more difficult because sewage sludge,

dredged materials, and the estuarine plume share many

of the same sewage-associated contaminants. Young et

aI. (1985) suggest that the highly dispersive circulation

in the NYB results in particle-associated contaminants

from a variety of sources seeking the same naturally

muddy sediments, such as those in the Christiaensen

Basin, regardless of their point of introduction.

Studies ofLandsatsatellite images ofturbidity (Fedosh

and Munday, 1982) indicate that the seaward edge of

the estuarine plume extends over the basin and reaches

the 12-mile dumpsite 12% ofthe time. Despite the high

contaminant loadings in the estuarine plume, the

plume's influence on bottom habitat quality in the

Christiaensen Basin could be minor or major, depending on the location of the plume and the efficiency of

its delivery of particle-associated pollutants to the basin

seabed. Similarly, the delivery efficiency ofsewage sludge

and its contaminants to sediments in the Christiaensen

Basin wks not well understood. Sewage sludge contains

about 5% solids, is diluted several-thousand fold shortly

after release from the barge (Calloway et aI., 1976;

Proni, 1976; Draxler, 1979), and is rapidly dispersed

over an area much greater than the nominal size of the

dumpsite. The fate of the dredged material, the largest

source of contaminants to the apex, seems more certain (Fig. 2). It is generally believed that most of the

material remains at the site (Dayal et aI., 1981). Some

of the contaminated fine-grained sediments at the

dredge site may be resuspended and dispersed by storms

(Young et aI., 1985). How much ofthis finds its way into

the adjacent Christiaensen Basin is unknown.

The studies of seabed sediments reported in this

volume had several objectives. The first was to evaluate

twelve hypotheses formulated prior to the initiation of

* Present address: U.S. Department of Commerce, OAA, EFSC,

Narragansett, RI 02882.

85
86 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

74'00'

40'

30'

40'

25'

40'

20'

74'00'

73'50'

73'50'

s

73'40'

F;met::-1.

73'40'

40'

30'

40'

25'

40'

20'

Figure 1

The locations of the 12-mile sewage sludge (5) and dredge material (D) dumpsites, the Christiaensen Basin (depths

>25m), the mouth of the Hudson-Raritan Estuary, and the bathymetry of the inner New York Bight.

the study (EPD [Environmental Processes Division],

1988). These dealt with anticipated changes in sediment biogeochemical processes and contamination following the cessation of sludge dumping and were

evaluated by conducting statistical comparisons of data

from the dumping and post-dumping periods.

The second objective was to characterize the temporal and spatial changes in the contaminants and processes and to resolve abatement trends from seasonal

and other sources of variation. Investigators were most

optimistic about being able to quantify changes in sediments resulting from the closure of the site because 1)

historical data were particularly abundant and of high

quality, and 2) the pollution signal in the sediments was

exceptionally strong from many decades of dumping.

Another objective was to resolve sources ofsediment

contaminants in the Christiaensen Basin. What is the

relative importance of contaminants from sludge disposal activities, dredge disposal activities, and the contaminants brought into the area from the estuarine

plume? It was uncertain whether contaminants from

the estuarine plume and dredge disposal would mask

the responses from cessation ofsludge dumping.

The last major objective was to develop empirical

models relating sediment processes to carbon loading

and to benthic community responses. The unprecedented monthly sampling frequency and the

multidisciplinary nature of the study made this possible.

We expected changes in sediment biogeochemical

processes and that decreased contamination would accompany reductions in sludge inputs to the apex, but

many of the details of the response were uncertain or

unknown. A few of the questions investigators had in

mind in 1985 and 1986 were the following:

How long after cessation would change be evident?

How fast would the rates of "recovery" be (years,

decades) ?

How much of the NYB would be affected?

How deep in the sediment column would changes

be apparent?
Lead

Suspended Solids

Oil & Grease

PCBs

Session III: Sediment Processes 87

Organic Carbon*

LJ Sludge

• Estuary

Air

LJ NJ

LJ LI

• Dredge

-1980 Inputs

Figure 2

The distribution (%) of annual loads of various pollutants to the New York Bight apex. Data for lead, oil and grease,

suspended solids, and PCB's are from Stanford and Young (1988). The distribution of organic carbon loads includes

the entire New York Bight area (Mueller et al. 1976).

Could effects from sludge abatement be resolved

easily from seasonal variation?

How would bathymetry, sediment type, and distance from the dumpsite affect the responses?

Would the rates of change be similar for a number of indices ofsewage pollution?

What happens when one of the major sources of

pollution to the NY Bight ceases, as happened in

December 1987?

How significant was dumping at the 12-mile site to

sediment processes in the apex and in the

Christiaensen Basin?

The following papers address these questions.

Literature Cited

Calloway, R]., A. M. Teeter, D. W. Brown, and G. R. Ditswonh.

1976. Preliminary analysis of the dispersion of sewage sludge

discharged from vessels to New York Bight waters. In M.G.

Gross (ed.), Middle Atlantic continental shelf and the New

York Bight, p. 199-211. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr., Spec.

Symp. 2. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.

Dayal, R, M. G. Heaton, M. Fuhrmann, and 1. W. Duedall.

1981. A geochemical and sedimentological study of the

dredged material deposit in the New York Bight. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. OMPA-3, 174 p.

Draxler, A. F.].

1979. Transient effects of ocean wastewater sludge dumping.

]. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 51:741-748.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.. MFSF/ EC-55, 34 p.

Fedosh, M. S., and]. C. Munday Jr.

1982. Satellite analysis of estuarine plume behavior. In Oceans

'82 conference record, p. 464-469. Inst. Elec. Electron.

Eng., Piscataway, N].

Hatcher, P. G., and P. A. McGillivary.

1979. Sewage contamination in the New York Bight:

coprostanol as an indicator. Environ. Sci. Techno!. 13: 1225-

1229.

Mueller,]. A., A. RJohnson, and]. S.Jeris.

1976. Contaminants entering the New York Bight: sources,

mass loads, significance. In M.G. Gross (ed.), Middle Atlantic continental shelf and the New York Bight, p. 162-170.

Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr., Spec. Symp. 2. Allen Press,

Lawrence, KS.

Proni,]. R, S. C. Newman, R. L. Sellers, and C. Parker.

1976. Acoustic tracking of ocean-dumped sewage sludge. Science 193:1005-1007.
88 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Stanford, H. M., and D. R. Young.

1988. Pollutant loadings to the New York Bight apex. In

Oceans '88 proceedings, p. 745-751. Inst. Elec. Electron.

Eng., Piscataway, N].

Young, R. A., D.]. P., Swift, T. L. Clarke, G. R. Harvey,

and P. R. Betzer.

1985. Dispersal pathways for particle-associated pollutants.

Science 229:431-435.

Zdanowicz, V. S.

1991. Determining the fates of contaminated wastes dumped

in the New York Bight apex by use of metal enrichment

factors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25:1760-1766.
SESSIONlli: Sediment Processes

Reductions in Sediment Metal Contamination in the

New York Bight Apex with the Cessation of Sewage Sludge Dumping

VINCENT S. ZDANOWICZ, SUSAN L. CUNNEFF,* and THOMAS W. FINNERAN

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, Newfersey 07732

ABSTRACT

Metal concentrations in sediments of the New York Bight apex were monitored to

determine whether changes in sediment contamination would accompany the phase-out

and cessation of sewage sludge dumping at a site 12 miles east of the NewJersey coast that

had been in use since 1924. Sediments were collected at 25 stations during a study conducted betweenJuly 1986 and November 1989. At a highly contaminated station nearest the

dumpsite (approximately 1.5 km to the west), metal levels in surface sediment decreased by

a factor of approximately two within one month of complete cessation of sludge dumping.

However, post-cessation concentrations in surface sediment remained elevated beyond preindustrial levels; concentrations in buried sediment were similar to post-cessation surface

sediment levels. Metal concentrations in surface and buried sediment from a moderately

contaminated station (approximately 4 km northwest) and a reference station (approximately 11 km south) did not change significantly with cessation. In the study area as a whole,

the spatial extent and degree of surface sediment pollution decreased during the phasing

out and after the cessation of sludge dumping.

Introduction

Sewage sludge has been dumped in the New York Bight

at a site 12 miles east ofthe NewJersey coast since 1924.

Because of the presence of this and other dumpsites in

the area, contaminant levels have been monitored in

sediment and biota of the Bight, and more extensively

in the Bight apex, since the late 1960's as a part of

numerous studies by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the U. S. Army Corps

of Engineers (COE), the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) and others (Carmody et aI., 1973; Reid

et aI., 1982; Zdanowicz, 1991; Boehm et aLl). These

studies have shown that high concentrations of organic

and inorganic contaminants have consistently been

found in and around the dredged spoils and sewage

* Present Address: 43 Maple Avenue, Fair Haven, NewJersey 07704.

I Boehm, P. D., W. Steinhauer, and]. Brown. 1984. Organic pollutant biogeochemical studies: Northeast United States marine environment. Final report for contract NA-83-FA-C-00022, Northeast

Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA,

Sandy Hook Laboratory, Highlands, NJ, 61 p.

sludge dumpsites, the Christiaensen Basin, and the upper reaches of the Hudson Shelf Valley (Fig. 1).

In 1985, EPA mandated that use ofthe 12-mile site be

terminated and that all sewage sludge be disposed of at

the lO6-mile dumpsite, a deep water disposal area 106

miles east of Cape May, NJ. Sludge dumping at the 12-

mile dumpsite was phased out beginning in March

1986 and was discontinued by December 1987. The

closure of the site provided an opportunity to study the

changes in levels of seabed contamination that might

occur with reductions in sludge inputs, as well as an

opportunity to monitor anticipated improvements in

benthic habitat quality.

Methods

The study area, monitoring schedule, and sampling

scheme have been described in detail (EPD [Environmental Processes Division], 1988; Pikanowski, 1995)

and only a brief summary is provided here. The study

consisted of two sampling strategies, denoted

"Broadscale" and "Replicate." During "Broadscale" sur89
90 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Figure 1

Locations of stations sampled during the 12-Mile

Dumpsite Study.

2 Zdanowicz, V. 5., S. L. Cunneff, and T. W. Finneran. In prep. 1995.

Metal concentrations in sediments of the New York Bight apex

before and after cessation of sewage sludge dumping. U.S. Dep.

Commer., OAA Tech. Memo. MFS-F/ EC, Woods Hole, MA.

veys, 22 stations situated throughout the Bight apex

(Fig. 1) were sampled every other month; one sediment

sample was collected at each station during each survey. The results of those surveys will be the topic of a

separate report. During replicate surveys, multiple sediment samples were collected monthly at three stations

(NY6, R2, and NYU; see Fig. 1). The results of the

replicate surveys are the subject of this report.

Sedimentsamples were collected using a 0.1 m2 SmithMacIntyre grab equipped with rubber flaps over the

doors to prevent disturbance of the sediment surface

during retrieval of the sampler. Core subsamples were

removed from the grab and stored frozen, upright. In

the laboratory, cores were thawed and sectioned into 1

cm thick layers, which were dried, homogenized, and

stored in polyethylene containers until analyzed.

A detailed description of the analytical methods is

given in Zdanowicz et al. 2 Briefly, a strong acid leach

(concentrated H 03' followed by dilute aqua regia)

was used to extract chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel

(Ni), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) from the dried

sediment samples. This type of extraction has been

shown to produce good recoveries for metals in polluted sediments (Forster and Salomons, 1980). Cr, Cu,

Ni, Pb, and Zn are contaminants generally found in

elevated concentrations in sewage sludge, while Fe,

although also present in sludge, is generally associated

3 Zdanowicz, V. 5., and T. W. Finneran. 1995. Pre-industrial metal

concentrations in ew York Harbor sediment. In prep.

EF = (metal/iron)NYB / (metal/iron)PIH

where "NYB" indicates sediments from this study and

"PIH" indicates the pre-industrial New York Harbor

sediment.

with the fine fractions of a sediment and can be used to

normalize trace element data '(Trefry and Presley, 1976;

Ackerman, 1980). Extracts were analyzed by flame

atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Trace metal concentrations are expressed as mean values in ppm (mg/

kg) dry weight, while iron values are in percent dry

weight.

One core from each ofthree grabs collected monthly

from three stations (NY6, R2, and NYll) was processed.

Two sediment strata were analyzed, the surface (0-1

cm) layer and a buried (4-5 cm) layer. Surface sediment samples were used to assess changes in the most

recent inputs of metals at each station and, in conjunction with buried sediment samples, to provide information on the vertical distributions of contaminants in the

sediment column. Vertical chemical distributions provide information on the depositional history of a site.

Trace metal concen trations in sediment are naturally

variable. They depend on the grain size composition of

the sediments, since trace metals are associated primarily with fine sediment fractions, such as clays and fine

silts (Forstner, 1983; Windom et aI., 1989). In the New

York Bight, grain size composition of sediments varies

widely (Stubblefield et aI., 1977). Trace metal data from

different sediment types can be made more directly

comparable by normalizing trace element concentrations to some other sediment variable associated with

the fine sediment fraction. Those most commonly used

are certain fine fractions (deGroot et aI., 1976; Forstner,

1982) or elements that are major sediment constituents

associated with fine sediment, usually iron (Trefry and

Presley, 1976; Ackerman, 1980) or aluminum (Bertine

and Goldberg, 1977; Goldberg etal., 1979; Klinkhammer

and Bender,. 1981; Finney and Huh, 1989). Normalization can also provide information on contaminant

sources (Anders, 1972; Keeler and Samson, 1989;

Poulton, 1989; Zdanowicz, 1991) and, if suitable reference data are available that describe metal levels in

uncontaminated sediment (Zdanowicz and Finneran3),

enrichment factors (EF's) can be derived from normalized data and used to assess the extent of contamination of a sediment. For this study, pre-industrial ew

York Harbor sediment (Williams et aI., 1978) was used

to estimate the degree of contamination of New York

Bight apex sediment. Using a modification of the formula given by Kemp eta!' (1976), EF'swere computed as

RS

•

o kilometers 5

AS6

...... M54 . . NY11 .

27m

Sandy Hook NJ
As an illustration of the utility of EF's, metal concentrations determined in this laboratory, metal/iron ratios, and contaminant metal EF'sfrom selected reference

sediments are shown in Table 1. EPA 2988 is a freezedried, municipal sewage sludge (obtained from EPA,

Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory,

Cincinnati, Ohio), used in this study to represent a

"typical" sludge. RB is fine, moderately contaminated,

surface sediment from Raritan Bay collected during the

mid 1980's (Zdanowicz and Gadbois, 1990), included

here because this estuary is a possible source ofsolids to

the Bight apex. PIH is the modern, pre-industrial New

York Harbor sedimenJ mentioned above. The computed EF's clearly demonstrate the high degree of contamination of sludge and the reduced degree of

contamination of Raritan Bay sediment.

Statistical procedures for investigating possible effects of the cessation ofsludge dumping were based on

a Before-After-Reference-Polluted design (Pikanowski,

1995). The experimental "treatment" was the removal

of sludge inputs. "Before" signifies the period before

cessation; "After" signifies the period after dumping

activities were terminated (the cessation period). There

were 18 surveys during the "Before" period and 23

during the "After" period. The three replicate stations

were each presumed contaminated to various degrees

(EPD, 1988), based on prior studies. Station NYll,

Session III: Sediment Processes 91

presumed least contaminated, was used as the reference station. The "most polluted" station was NY6; station R2 was intermediate in contamination. The "raw"

variables were metal concentrations, trace metal/iron

ratios, and trace metal EF's. The statistical variables

were the differences between means (DM's) of the raw

variables at a polluted station (NY6 or R2) and the reference station (NYll) for each survey. Statistical analyses

were performed on both the DM's and the raw variables.

Results

Results of metal analyses of surface and buried sediment samples are shown in Figures 2-4. Vertical lines in

the figures delineate different dumping periods. July

1986 toJune 1987 (left) will be referred to as the "70%"

period, because during this time approximately 70% of

all local sludge dumped at sea was dumped at the 12-

mile site. The period between June 1987 and January

1988 (center) will be referred to as the "phase-out"

period, because during that time the amount ofsludge

dumped at the 12-mile site was reduced stepwise from

approximately 70% to approximately 30% of all local

sludge dumped at sea.January 1988 to November 1989

(right) will be referred to as the "cessation" period,

because use of the site ended in December 1987.

Table 1

Composition of reference sediments.

Mean concentrations (ppm, dry weight)

Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn Fe(%)

EPA 29881 (n = 3) 220 1060 211 556 1140 1.92

RB2 (n = 12) 188 182 40 169 431 4.55

PIH3 (n = 6) 62 14 23 13 74 3.30

Trace metal/iron ratios (ppm / %)

Cr/Fe Cu/Fe Ni/Fe Pb/Fe Zn/Fe

EPA 2988 115 555 110 290 594

RB 41 40 9 37 95

PIH 19 4 7 4 22

Enrichment factors (see Materials and Methods for computation)

Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn

EPA 2988 6.1 139 16 72.5 27

RB 2.2 10 1.3 9.3 4.3

I EPA 2988 - freeze-dried, municipal sludge.

2 RB - fine surface sediment from Raritan Bay.

3 PIH - pre-industrial sediment from the 75-80 cm layer of a core collected at m.p. 0 in New York Harbor (see Williams et aI, 1978).
92 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

STATION NY11 - 0-1cm STATION R2 - 0-1cm

1~~1~ Zn

E60 ~Dn .P

fi:~ .:::~

':;I~~ JASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASON

1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989

Figure 2

Metal concentrations in surface and buried sediment

at station NYll (ppm dry weight). Vertical lines delineate the 70% dumping period (left), the phase-out

period (center), and the cessation period (right).

Station NY!!

Among the three Replicate stations, the lowest metal

concentrations were found at NYl1, the reference station (Fig. 2, Table 2). Metal levels were similarly low in

the surface and buried sediment layers and generally

comparable to metal levels in clean sediment, although

lead concentrations were moderately elevated. Metal

levels remained relatively constant throughout the study

and were consistently lower than those at stations NY6

and R2. The increases in contaminant metal concentrations observed in March and April 1987 in surface

sediment and in November 1988 in buried sediment

were accompanied by increases in iron concentrations,

suggesting that increases in contaminant concentrations were probably due to the presence of higher

proportions of fine sediment in those samples. No statistically significant differences were found among metal

concentrations, metal/iron ratios, or metal EF's observed during the dumping and cessation periods in

~:jl~

~'~I~ o

200

~:~~~-~~ 1

':~l~ o JASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASON

1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989

Figure 3

Metal concentrations in surface and buried sediment

at station R2 (ppm dry weight). Vertical lines delineate

the 70% dumping period (left), the ph'ase-out period

(center), and the cessation period (right).

either sediment layer. Statistical analysis of the DM's

yielded the same results.

Station R2

Metal concentrations in R2 sediment were intermediate between those at stations NY6 and NYll. Contaminant concentrations in surface sediment at station R2

(Fig, 3, Table 2) were greater than those in surface

sediment at NYl1 by factors of roughly 1.5 (iron) to 5

(copper) both before and after cessation, Metal levels

in buried sediment at R2 were greater than those in

buried sediment at NYl1 by factors of about 2 (iron) to

7 (copper). At R2, unlike both NY6 and NYl1, metal

levels in the buried layer were distinctly higher than in

the surface layer. This situation was previously observed

in sediment samples collected in 1982 and 1983 from

stations near R2; a fairly smooth gradient was observed,

with metal concentrations increasing with sediment
depth (Zdanowicz, unpublished data). This may be due

to higher proportions of fine sediment in buried sediment layers in this area, as evidenced by higher iron

levels in samples of buried sediment. Concentrations of

all six metals in both sediment layers were fairly consistent over the course of the study and there were no

statistically significant differences among metal concentrations, metal/iron ratios, or metal EF's observed

during the dumping and cessation periods in either layer.

Statistical analysis of the DM's produced similar results.

Station NY6

The highest metal concentrations observed at the Replicate stations were found in samples of surface sediment from station NY6 (Fig. 4, Table 2) collected during the 70% and phase-out periods. Levels of all five

contaminant metals were highly elevated relative to the

reference station (NYll): iron levels were only slightly

elevated. For example, before cessation, copper in surface sediment was almost 30-fold greater at NY6 than at

NYll, whereas after cessation copper was roughly 22-

fold higher. Surface sediment metal concentrations at

NY6 during the two dumping periods (the 70% and

phase-out periods) were higher than those in the buried layer by a factor of approximately 1.5 (iron) to 2

(copper). Mter cessation, metal levels in surface sediment had generally declined to levels similar to those

found in the buried layer, although both sediment

layers remained contaminated. Thus, both strata were

contaminated throughout the course of the study, with
94 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Metal concentrations indicate that both surface and

buried sediment at station NY6 were highly contaminated with sewage sludge. Surface sediment EF's at NY6

were the greatest of the study (Fig. 5, Table 2), ranging

from 4.1 for nickel to 74 for copper during sludge

dumping. Mter cessation, EF's decreased significantly,

but remained elevated, ranging from 3.1 for nickel to

49 for lead. In buried sediments, EF's both before and

after cessation were similar to surface EF's after cessation, ranging from 3.6 for nickel to 61 for lead, and did

not change significantly after cessation. Thus, with the

cessation of sludge dumping, the most contaminated

inputs to the Bight apex were eliminated and, with

them, the presence of a highly contaminated layer of

material at the sediment surface. However, a reservoir

of contaminants remains in NY6 sediment, having been

incorporated into the seabed during the years ofsludge

dumping. That metal concentrations and EF's during

the 70% and phase-out periods were indistinguishable

is of particular interest. This finding suggests that dumping as little as 0.7 million t per quarter year of all locally

generated sludge at the 12-mile site might be sufficient

to contaminate the benthic habitat at NY6.

A combination of processes is likely responsible for

the observed distributions. During a dumping event,

sludge, which is typically 95% water, is rapidly diluted

by a factor of 104 to 106 (Draxler, 1979; Jenkins and

Gibbs, 1988). Sludge solids fall to the sea floor at varying rates, depending on their size, density, and other

factors. Simultaneously, they may be transported by

local currents while still in the water column. Station

NY6 is situated in a depression (the Christiaensen Basin), adjacent to the 12-mile site, allowing some sludge

solids to settle. Once on the seabed, solids can become

mixed into the sediment column through mechanical.

sorting and bioturbation by resident benthic fauna.

Solids can also be resuspended through bioturbation

and/or storm-induced currents, and transported away

from the site. Resuspension, transport and redeposition

can also introduce solids from other areas to NY6. Other

investigations undertaken during this study show that

the hydrography of the Bight apex is complex (Mountain and Arlen, 1995) and that both upwelling and

downwelling events occur in the vicinity of the Hudson

SheifYalley and Christiaensen Basin (Manning, 1995).

These events can result in sediment transport (Davis et

aI., 1995). In addition, a diverse and abundant benthic

community is present throughout the study area (Reid

et aI., 1995). Of particular importance is the fact that

portions of the Christiaensen Basin are areas of net

deposition (Bopp et aI., 1995),4 mm/yr at NY6 since

1954.

Thus, the observed contaminant distributions and

enrichments are the results of a combination ofseveral

complex processes. During many years of dumping,

pulsed sludge inputs deposited contaminated solids on

Ni

Fe

--O-lcm

-0-- 4-5cm

STATION NY6

JASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASON

1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989

0.5

2

1.5

300

E 200

Q.

Q. 100

500

E 375

fr 250

125

50

40 8. 30

Q. 20

10

o '--'-~~~~~'--'--'~~--"---'"~~~~~~~~~.

450

E 300 Q.

Q. 150

1000

750

8. 500 Q.

250

Figure 4

Metal concentrations in surface and buried sediment

at station NY6 (ppm dry weight). Vertical lines delineate the 70% dumping period (left), the phase-out

period (center), and the cessation period (right).

surface sediment more highly contaminated than buried sediment during dumping.

Levels of all six metals were significantly «0.005)

lower in surface sediment at NY6 after cessation (Table

2). Metal/iron ratios and contaminant metal EF's also

were significantly lower in surface sediment after cessation. No significant differences were observed for buried sediment. Statistical treatment ofthe DM's produced

the same results. In a separate statistical analysis, the

70%, phase-out, and cessation periods were compared

(ANOYA, =0.05). Results indicated that metal concentrations in surface sediment during the two dumping

periods were indistinguishable and that concentrations

after cessation were significantly lower than during either the 70% or phase-out period. Again, no significant

differences were observed for buried sediment.

Discussion
Session Ill: Sediment Processes 95

STATION NY6 -....- 0-1 em

8°1~~~U~-O-:~ Cr 1

4

;:~:'

_ Q-lcm STATION R2

u.300 ~:~~I~ ~75mCu I:~~ 8200 ' 50" 100 Cu 25

100 25 80 20

(f 60 ~D-, 15 m

o 0 8 40 "'~---A 10 "

14 2 105 1 5

,f300 .75 m 1ool·~Pb1

25

:;; 200 50 " 80 20 0. it' m

100 25 60 15-n

o 0 40 10

i~I~~t:~~y;A~: ::~ "" JASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASON JASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASON

1986 I 1987 1988 1989 1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989

Figure 5

Metal/iron ratios and enrichment factors in surface and buried sediment at station NY6. Vertical lines delineate the 70%

dumping period (left), the phase-out period (center), and

the cessation period (right).

Figure 6

Metal/iron ratios and enrichment factors in surface and buried sediment at station R2. Vertical lines delineate the 70%

dumping period (left), the phase-out period (center), and

the cessation period (right).

the sediment surface, causing highly elevated contaminant concentrations and EF's. Since these materials

were unconsolidated and fairly easily transported, their

effects disappeared rapidly following the cessation of

dumping. However, each occurrence ofsludge settling

on the seabed may have resulted in the incorporation

of some contaminated material into the sediment column, such that, even after the removal ofsludge inputs

from the system, a contaminant reservoir at least 20 cm

deep remains (Bopp et aI., 1995).

Station R2 presents a situation quite different from

that of NY6 (Fig. 6). No statistically significant changes

occurred in metal concentrations or metal EF's with

the cessation ofsludge dumping. In fact, metal concentrations and EF's from the Before and Mter cessation

periods were remarkably constant (Table 2). Numerically, an EF > 1 indicates the presence of excess metal,

but, due to sample and measurement variability, a more

conservative criterion is to use an EF2:2 to indicate

enrichment. On this basis, chromium and nickel were

not enriched in R2 surface sediment, while copper,

lead, and zinc were enriched. EF's in surface sediment

were very similar to EF's ofRaritan Bay sediment (Table

1), suggesting the possibility that material from that

estuary is present in R2 surface sediment. It seems

unlikely, however, that there could be an appreciable

quantity of Raritan Bay material in R2 sediment, given

the distance from that estuary to R2, and the fact that

the Hudson plume hugs the New Jersey coast most of

the time (Fedosh and Munday, 1982). In buried sediment, although the nickel EF was similar to that in the

surface sediment, EF's for the other metals were higher.

Thus, material present in buried sediment at R2 is

more contaminated than material found in surface sediment. It is possible that a layer of contaminated material was deposited there earlier and is slowly being

winnowed out. This seems more likely than preferential

burial of contaminated material. If illegal dumping in
96 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Figure 7

Metal/iron ratios and enrichment factors in surface and buried sediment at station NYll. Vertical lines delineate the

70% dumping period (left), the phase-out period (center),

and the cessation period (right).

enrichment in chromium, nickel, and zinc was evident

in either surface or buried sediments. Copper was minimally enriched in surface sediment and slightly more

enriched in buried sediment, while lead enrichment

was moderate and comparable in both layers (Table 2).

The presence of Clostridium perfringens spores indicates

sludge contamination at this station (O'Reilly et aI.,

1995), but the source or sources and mode of incorporation into the sediment are uncertain. Sludge may

have been deposited directly at this station or transported from the dumpsite, or sludge-contaminated

material from the dredged spoils dumpsite or Hudson

Shelf Valley could have been deposited there during

one or more transport events. Ofthese possibilities, the

last is more probable, since the Hudson Shelf Valley is

known to be a conduit for contaminated materials between the Christiaensen Basin and the mid Shelf. The

strong similarities between metal concentrations in the

two sediment layers and EF's in the two layers suggest

that the same source contributed the enriched material

found in both layers, that the composition ofthat material was fairly constant, and that the net rate of input,

whether constant or pulsed, was slower than the rate of

mixing into the sediment column. These considerations

also favor the Hudson Shelf Valley as the source of

contaminated materials to NYll.

In order to place these results in a broader areal

context and provide additional evidence of changes in

sediment contamination that occurred with the cessation of sludge dumping, metal EF's of samples collected during "Broadscale" cruises were contoured.

Figure 8 shows four contour plots of lead EF's in surface sediment from the study area. The'surveys shown

were conducted during August 1986 (70% dumping

period, first "Broadscale" cruise), December 1987

(phase-out period, 30% of all local sludge dumped at

the 12-mile site), February 1988 (first cruise after cessation), and August 1989 (last cruise of the study). The

total area contoured covers 350 km2. The "most polluted" portion of the apex was where lead EF's exceeded 20. This area included NY6, where, before

cessation, lead EF's were >50. Of note are the steep

pollution gradients and the high degree ofheterogeneity in the study area.

The portion of the study area with EF >20 decreased

from about 17% (60 km2) of the total in August 1986

(average during the 70% dumping period) to about

8% (28 km2) in August 1989, indicating a reduction in

pollution of Bight apex surface sediment with time.

Variations in the percent ofthe study area with lead EF

>20 are plotted versus time in Fig. 9, along with the

volume of sludge dumped per quarter year; contour

plots of the area with lead EF >20 during the four

surveys shown in Fig. 8 are inset. During the first four

surveys in the 70% dumping period, an average of

--+- 0-1cm

--0- 4-5cm

STATION NY11

JASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASON

1986 I 1987 1988 1989

:5

"-n

---. 2.5

L.......~~~~.J-,~~-'--'-~~~~~ 0

48

'OJ 40 10

32 ?-/ 8 r;: .c

n.

24 --"6

16 4

66

If

- 44 c

N

22

30

40

" 20 u.

,

o 10

" 30 u.

U 20

the northern Christiaensen Basin ofsludge or dredged

spoils can be ruled out, the source ofthis contaminated

material is probably sludge dumped at the 12-mile site,

since alternate sources, including the Hudson-Raritan

outflow and the dredged spoils dumpsite, can be discounted with reasonable certainty. That is, Raritan Bay

sediments simply are not enriched with these metals to

this extent (Table 1). And, although dredged spoils

may be highly contaminated with metals, depending on

the area being dredged, they are not easily transported

after settling at the dumpsite. Most ofthe mass dumped

at the dredged spoils dumpsite has remained within its

confines (Dayal et aI., 1981).

At station NYll (Fig. 7), as at R2, no significant

changes occurred in metal concentrations or metal

EF's in either sediment layer with the cessation ofsludge

dumping. Metal concentrations and EF's from the Before and After cessation periods were surprisingly constant in both sediment layers (Table 2). Little or no
Session ill: Sediment Processes 97

Figure 8

Lead EF's in surface sediment during selected broadscale surveys.

roughly 23% (81 km2) of the study area was highly

polluted with lead, while during the last two surveys in

that period and the three surveys in the phase-out period, an average of approximately 13% (46 km2) of the

area was highly polluted with lead. Mter cessation, the

percentage of highly polluted area decreased with time.

A linear regression model produced the best fit to the

observed decrease and indicated that the "most polluted" area appears to be decreasing at a rate of 0.92

km2 per month. By extrapolation, this area should completely disappear within 48 months of cessation (by

January 1992). Similar analyses were performed using

data on the other contaminant metals. Time scales for

recovery from the "worst" pollution (highest degree of

enrichment) were all less then 48 months. The recovery

mechanism includes such processes as resuspension

induced by bioturbation and events related to weather,

tides, and currents, followed by transport. When these

resuspension events occur during periods of no net

export from the Christiaensen Basin, the contaminants

will merely be redistributed without any reduction in

total contaminant load. However, when the contaminated solids are resuspended and transported during

periods of net export from the Basin, the net contaminant load in Basin sediments will be reduced; these

events coupled with downwelling events would likely result in the deposition of contaminated material in the

Hudson ShelfValley.

These projections apply only to the surface layer of

sediment. The future of the buried contaminant reservoir cannot be predicted and one can only speculate

regarding its fate. If dredged spoils remain within the

boundaries of that dumpsite and the Hudson plume

contributes negligible amounts of contaminated solids

to the Bight apex, and if no new anthropogenic sources

of contamination materialize, the distributions of contaminants in apex sediments will be governed solely by

natural processes. Contaminant levels in areas ofno net

accumulation would be expected to decrease, due to

resuspension and transport of contaminated sediment,

resulting in an overall reduction of pollutant loads.

However, if contamination is present in these areas at

depths below the zone of appreciable bioturbation or

resuspension, a deep layer of contaminated sediment

would remain in place, covered with cleaner material.

In areas of net deposition, contaminant levels in sediments should also decrease, since newer materials deposited there should be cleaner than the sludgecontaminated materials deposited during dumping.

This, too, would produce a buried layer of contaminated sediment covered with clean material. Thus, it is

possible that sediment in buried strata might remain

contaminated.

Conclusions

Of particular importance are the magnitude and statistical significance of the decreases in surface sediment

metal levels at NY6 since the cessation ofsludge dump-
98 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Figure 9

Amount of sludge dumped and the observed and projected percentages of the study area with lead enrichment factor >20. Insets are contour plots of portions of

study area with Pb EF >20, derived from Fig. 8.

35 Aug '66

1 ....... % With Lead EF > 20

••••• Decreasing Trend

• WeI Tons

We thank R. Bopp for providing the PIH sample, P.

Fournier for database management, E. Leimburg for

data processing, and A. Draxler, J. O'Reilly, A.

Studholme, and several anonymous reviewers for providing helpful comments. And a special thanks to all

those who spent many days at sea during 41 months of

field work.

were higher in buried sediment than in surface sediment, possibly due to a layer of contaminated material

deposited earlier that is slowly being winnowed. At NYll,

metal concentrations and enrichments were relatively

constant and low, suggesting that this station may be

indirectly influenced by sludge dumping through transport to this site of enriched material. ofsludge origin.

Acknowledgments

ci 0.5 :::J

Cfl

1.5 5:

O·

:::J

Cfl

9,

4

....... -'---. a

3

.............

012

Years After Cessation

Dumping

a

5

30

25

.<>, 20 '0

:::J

en 15

15

'#. 10

ing. From the 70% dumping period to the phase-out

period, there was a two-fold decrease in the volume of

sludge dumped at the 12-mile site, yet surface sediment

metal concentrations during those periods were statistically indistinguishable-only after cessation were contaminant concentrations significantly lower. Before

cessation, metal concentrations did not change with

the decrease in volume of sludge dumped because the

sludges dumped presumably were contaminated to a

similar extent, and, as long as a sufficient quantity of

sludge was dumped to cause accumulation on the surface of NY6 sediment, metal concentrations remained

elevated. This situation would be expected to persist

until the volume of sludge dumped were reduced to

some level below which appreciable accumulation does

not occur. What this "critical" level might be, however,

cannot be computed from these data. .

In addition, the observed decreases occurred inJanuary 1988, within one month of cessation of dumping,

indicating rapid response to the removal of contaminant inputs. Of equal importance is that, even after the

elimination of the most polluted inputs to the system,

sediment at NY6 remained highly contaminated, apparently due to the incorporation into the sediment column

ofsludge derived materials introduced during dumping.

The percentage of the overall study area where surface sediment exhibited the "worst pollution" decreased

with the reduction in sludge dumping volume and appeared to be declining gradually after cessation. Based

on the observed rates of decline, it is estimated that the

worst pollution will have been eliminated within four

years of the cessation of dumping (by January 1992).

Also of interest are findings at stations R2 and NYU.

Sewage contamination is present at both stations, as

evidenced by metal EF's. Metal concentrations and levels of enrichment at R2 were higher than at NYll and

Literature Cited

Ackermann, F.

1980. A procedure for correcting the grain size effect in

heavy metal analyses of estuarine and coastal sediments.

Environ. Techno!. Lett. 1:518-527.

Anders, O. U.

1972. Ratio matching-a statistical aid for discovering generic relationships among samples. Ana!. Chern. 44:1930-

1933.

Bertine, K K, and E. D. Goldberg.

1977. History of heavy metal pollution in southern California

coastal zone-reprise. Environ. Sci. Techno!. 11:297-299.

Bopp, R. F., D. W. Robinson, H.j. Simpson, P. E. Biscaye,

R. F. Anderson, H. Tong, S.j. Monson, and M. L. Gross.

1995. Recent sediment and contaminant distributions in the

Hudson Shelf Valley. In A. L. Studholme,j. E. O'Reilly, and

M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage

sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-

mile dumpsite symposium, p. 61-82. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Carmody, D.j.,j. B. Pearce, and W. E. Yasso.

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Pollut. Bul!. 4(9):]32-135.

Davis, W. R., R. McKinney, and W. D. Watkins.

1995. Response of the Hudson Shelf Valley sewage sludgesediment reservoir to cessation of disposal at the 12-mile

site. In A. L. Studholme, j. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham

(eds.), Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at

the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 49-60. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep.

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Dayal, R., M. G. Heaton, M. Fuhrmann, and I. W. Duedal!.

1981. A geochemical and sedimentological study of the

dredged material deposit in the New York Bight. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. OMPA-3, 174 p.

deGroot, A.j., W. Salomons, and E. Allersma.

1976. Processes affecting heavy metals in estuarine sediments.

In j. D. Burton and P. S. Liss (eds.), Estuarine Chemistry,

pp. 13]-157. Academic Press, New York.

Draxler, A. F. j.

1979. Transient effects of ocean wastewater sludge dumping.

j. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 51:741-748.
EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of the

inner New York Bight to the abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFSF/NEC-55, 34 p.

Fedosh, M. S., and]. C. Munday Jr.

1982. Satellite analysis of estuarine plumes. In Oceans '82

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Piscataway, N]. .

Finney, B., and C.-A. Huh.

1989. High resolution sedimentary records of heavy metals

from the Santa Monica and San Pedro basins, California.

Mar. Pollut. Bull. 20(4):181-187.

Forstner, U.

1982. Accumulative phases for heavy metals in limnic sediments. Hydrobiologia 91 :269-284.

1983. Assessment of metal pollution in rivers and estuaries.

In I. Thornton (ed.), Applied environmental geochemistry,

p. 395-423. Academic Press, New York.

Forstner, U., and W. Salomons.

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Jenkins, A. w., and R.]. Gibbs.

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Kemp, A. L. W., R. L. Thomas, C. I. Dell, and].-M.Jaquet.

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Manning,].

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Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

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1995. Oceanographic conditions in the inner New York Bight

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Session III: Sediment Processes 99

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1977. Time and space variation in the surficial sediments of the

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1976. Heavy metal transport from the Mississippi River to the

Gulf of Mexico. In H. L. Windom and R. A. Duce (eds.),

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Zdanowicz, V. S.

1991. Determining the fates of contaminated wastes dumped

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1990. Contamiflants in sediment and fish tissues from selected estuarine and coastal sites of the northeast United

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100 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 . _

Audience QJtestions

Question: I understand you had a concern about

changes in metal concentrations not being related to

changes in mass-per-unit sediment but to mass-per-unit

silt. Can you speculate how much the reduction was

related to the change in silt-concentration chemistry

versus the percent silt in established samples?

v. Zdanowicz: Our greatest change was seen in metal

levels in surface sediment at NY6; there were almost no

changes at the other replicate stations.

Question: Does this represent a change in the silt

fraction? As we go from sand-silt to sand, the silt fraction is reduced approximately tenfold or something

like that. I am interested in the change in chemistry as

related to the change in the concentration of the silt

fraction.

V. Zdanowicz: Actually I am not sure that question

can be answered with these data. Iron is a good mea··

surement to make. It isjust one extra measurement on

the same digest of the sediments, and we have used it as

a substitute measurement for actual measurements of

fine sediment fractions, which are much more elaborate and time consuming.

Question: Why did you choose a lead enrichment of

20 as the cut-off of the original samples?

V. Zdanowicz: That was based on results of a 1983

survey in the Bight apex (our annual summer survey)

where we tried the same kind of techniques with normalization and enrichment factors. We were looking to

separate the effects of dredged spoil dumping from

sewage sludge dumping and the Hudson-Raritan plume.

We found that we could separate contamination due to

sludge and dredged spoil dumping only in sediment

with enrichments of 20 or more.
SESSIONill: _ Sediment Processes

Organic Contaminants in Sediments of the New York Bight Apex

Associated with Sewage Sludge Dumping

ASHOK D. DESHPANDE and PAMELA M. POWELL

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

ABSTRACT

Higher levels of semi-volatile organic contaminants were found in sediments from a

station located approximately 1.4 km northwest of the 12-mile sewage sludge dumpsite in

the New York Bight apex as compared with two other stations: a moderately contaminated

reference station 4.0 km north of the dumpsite and a reference station 11.0 km southsouthwest of the dumpsite. Among organic contaminants, concentrations of polynuclear

aromatic hydrocarbons general1y exceeded those of chlorinated pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. Intersample variations in contaminant concentrations were apparent at al1

stations. In general, the mean concentrations of organic contaminants were lower in

sediments col1ected in August 1989 than in those col1ected in August 1986 during dumping,

but, given the limited number ofsamples, the difference was not statistical1y significant.

Introduction

Over the past half century, trace organic contaminants

have entered the New York Bight apex (Fig. 1) by a

variety of transport mechanisms including 1) dumping

of sewage sludge from the New York metropolitan area

at the 12-mile dumpsite, 2) dumping of dredged material from the New York Harbor at the 6-mile dredged

material dumpsite, 3) incineration of wood at sea, 4)

the Hudson-Raritan estuarine outflow containing contaminated suspended sediments (including those from

storm water run-off), and 5) atmospheric deposition

(Gross, 1976; Mueller et aI., 1976; Stanford and Young,

1988; Gibson et aI., 1979; O'Connor et aI., 1982; Brown

et aI., 1985; Conner et aLl). Historical data (Boehm,

1982) have indicated that the sedimentary contaminant levels were highest in the sewage sludge accumulation area and at the dredged material dumpsite

compared with sedimentsfrom adjacent locations. Moreover, contaminant levels in demersal biota in the sewage sludge accumulation area were elevated compared

with concentrations reported outside the Bight (Boehm,

1982; Draxler et aI., in press).

After over 60 years of dumping of sewage sludge at

the 12-mile site (Fig. 1), a phased cessation of dumping

began in March 1986, and by 31 December 1987, this

site was closed for dumping (EPD, [Environmental Processes Division], 1988). The Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC) instituted a program to document changes in environmental and biological

conditions in and around the 12-mile dumpsite and

proposed several hypotheses regarding the recovery of

the dumpsite after the dumping was phased out (EPD,

1988; Draxler et aI., in press). The primary objective of

this portion of the study was to test the hypothesis that

levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), selected as

a marker for organic contaminants in sediment, would

remain essentially unchanged (EPD, 1988).

Materials and Methods

SednnentCollection

Sediments were collected using a Smith McIntyre grab

from the R/V KYMA during two complementary surveys-a replicate survey and a broadscale survey (EPD,

1988; Pikanowski, 1995). The top 1 cm layer of sediment was transferred to a dichloromethane-rinsed jar,

I Conner, W. G., D. Aurand, M. Leslie,]. Slaughter, A. Amr, and F. I.

Ravenscroft. 1979. Disposal of dredged material within the New

York District, Vol. 1, Present practices and candidate alternatives.

Mitre Corp., Metrek Division, McLean, VA, 384 p.

101
102 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

R1•

nants using a gas chromatography-mass selective detector (GC-MSD) instead of the gas chromatography-flame

ionization detector (GC-FID) and gas chromatographyelectron capture detector (GC-ECD) used in Krahn's

procedure. Briefly, a mixture of sediment, sodium sulfate, activated copper, and methylene chloride was rolled

in teflon-capped amber bottles for about 40 h in three

steps. At each step, the mixture was centrifuged, methylene chloride extract was decanted, and fresh methylene chloride was added. Methylene chloride extract

was precleaned by silica-alumina glass column chromatography. Biogenic and other interfering compounds

were further removed by size-exclusion chromatograI?hy (Phenogel, 250 x 22.5 mm, 10 mm particle size, 100

A pore size; Phenomenex, Torrance, California).

The analyte mixture was separated on two fused silica

capillary columns connected end-to-end (PTE-5, 30 m

x 0.25 mm ID, 0.25 mm fllm thickness; SupeIco,

Bellefonte, Pennsylvania) and was analyzed by a Hewlett

Packard 5970B mass selective detector operated in select ion monitoring mode (Tables 1, 3). Analytes were

identified by comparing retention times with reference

standards (reference peak window = ±0.15 min) and

quantified by the external standard method.

Appropriate internal standards were added to the

sample at each step. A blank and a spiked blank were

included with at least every 10 sediment samples. Recoveries of internal standards in blanks varied from 23

to 50% from analyte to analyte and experiment to experiment. Recoveries of PAH and PCB analytes spiked

in reference sediments that were analyzed in this study

generally varied from 12 to 80% while those for chlorinated pesticides varied from 0 to 60%. Estimates of

method detection limit were based on 1) instrument

detection limit, 2) sample injection volume, 3) final

sample volume, 4) percentspike recovery, and 5) sample

weight. With a GC-MS detection limit of about 200 pg/

mL with 1 mL sample injection from a 1 mL sample

concentrate and with approximately 30% analyte recovery, the method detection limit (approximately 10 g

sample size) was estimated to be about 250 ppb. The

analyte concentrations are expressed on a dry weight

basis, and they are not corrected for recoveries ofinternal standards or spiked analytes. All positive values are

reported and discussed in the results; however, those

near the instrument or the method detection limit

must be interpreted with proper caution.

There was considerable sample-to-sample variability

in concentrations of organic contaminants in replicate

sediments collected within a given station. This is evident in individual PAH concentrations in sediments

collected from three replicate grabs at station NY6 in

August 1987 (Fig. 2). Consequently, the temporal and

spatial comparisons are based on mean concentration

values for each station for each year. Also, to simplify

1149

•

'5•

"109 • IHIlEl

SI'lJ.S

Illf'\1IE

Analytical Method

with a Teflon-lined screw cap using a dichloromethanerinsed stainless steel spoon, and was stored at -20°C.

In the replicate survey, a total of eight samples per

station were collected from three replicate stations:

NY6, R2, and NYU (Fig. 1). Three of the stations were

at the center of a sampling "ellipse" and five were at its

perimeter; only samples from the three center stations

were analyzed in this study. The replicate stations are

bathymetrically similar, but they are different with respect to the levels of sewage sludge accumulation and

the biological contaminant effects. Based on historical

data on contaminant levels and benthic macrofauna,

NY6 was expected to be the most heavily degraded

station; R2, an organically-enriched station; and NYll,

a relatively unpolluted station (EPD, 1988; Pikanowski,

1995). In the broadscale survey, one sample per station

was collected from 25 stations in the New York Bight

apex, except for stations NY6, R2, and NIl, where three

samples were collected during each broadscale survey

(Fig. 1).

The present study focuses on the available results of

organic analyses of sediments from the three replicate

stations collected during four summer surveys: August

1986, August 1987, August 1988, and August 1989.

Figure 1

Replicate and broadscale station locations in and

around the 6-mile dredge spoil dumpsite and the 12-

mile sewage sludge dumpsite in the New York Bight

apex.

Sediments were analyzed for 24 polynuclear aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAH's), 24 polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCB's) and 13 chlorinated pesticides (Tables 1, 2).

The procedure of Krahn et al. (1988) was used for the

simultaneous analysis ofPAH's, PCB's, and chlorinated

pesticides with one modification. We analyzed contamiA6•
Sessicm III: Sediment Processes 103

Table 1

GC/MS analyses of sediment extracts in select ion monitoring (SIM) mode.

Group Ions Start

(N) (N) time Compound (retention time) SIM ions (% intensity)

4 26.0 naphthalene (31.053) 128(I00), 51(I3), 129(11), 64(Il)

2 4 36.0 2-methylnaphthalene (36.684) 142(I00), 141(85), ll5(31), 143(I1)

4 l-methylnaph thalene (37.445) 142(I00), 141(86), ll5(34), 139(11)

3 4 39.0 biphenyl (40.666) 154(100),153(31),152(28), 76(I7) ,. 4 2,6-dimethylnaphthalene (41.889) 156(100),141(74),155(34), ll5(I4)

4 acenaphthylene (43.952) 152(100), 151(20), 76(I7), 153(I4)

4 acenaphthene (45.439) 154(100), 153(86), 152(42), 76(23)

3 PCB #1 (1 CI) (45.981) 188(I00), 190(33.4), 189(I3.5)

4 4 47.5 2,3,5-trimethylnaphthalene (49.0ll) 170(I00), 155(94), 153(23), 169(18)

4 fluorene (50.161) 166(I00), 165(80), 167(I5), 163(12)

5 6 55.0 hexachlorobenzene (56.971) 284(100),286(81),282(55),142(52),288(37),249(33)

4 PCB #8 (2 Cl) (57.059) 222(100),224(66), 223(14), 226(ll)

6 4 59.5 phenanthrene (63.413) 178(100),176(17), 179(I6), 89(I4)

4 anthracene (64.293) 178(I00), 176(I7), 179(16), 89(I4)

7 lindane (61.379) 181(100), 183(98), 109(98), 51(91), 219(75), Ill(100), 85(54)

5 PCB #18 (3 CI) (63.092) 256(100),258(99),260(33),257(14),259(13)

7 7 66.0 heptachlor (72.731) 100(100),65(44),272(40),274(32), 102(34), 237(23), 270(I5)

5 PCB #29 (3 Cl) (68.043) 256(I00), 258(99), 260(33), 257(14), 259(13)

6 PCB #50 (4 Cl) (69.939) 292(100),290(76),294(49),293(13),291(10),296(11)

5 PCB #28 (3 Cl) (70.694) 256(100),258(99),260(33),257(14),259(13)

8 7 73.5 aldrin (78.591) 66(100),79(43),91(34),263(32),265(25),101(40),261(46)

5 PCB #104 (5 CI) (78.600) 326(100),328(66),324(61),330(22),327(14)

5 PCB #44 (4 Cl) (79.608) 292(100),290(76),294(49),293(13),296(11)

3 1-methylphenanthrene (75.096) 192(100),191(56),189(28)

5 PCB #52 (4 Cl) (76.474) 292(I00), 290(76), 294(49), 293(I3), 296(I I)

9 7 84.0 heptachlor epoxide (85.484) 81(100),353(94),355(72), 351 (48),151(13), 263(I3), 109(14)

4 fluoranthene (86.499) 202(100),203(19),200(17),101(14)

6 PCB #66 (4 Cl) (87.133) 292(100),290(76),294(49),293(13),291(10),296(11)

10 4 88.5 o,p'-DDE (90.708) 246(I00), 318(79),248(66),316(61)

5 alpha-chlordane (91.950) 373(100),375(95),371(50),377(54),237(58)

5 t-nonachlor (92.531) 409(100),407(85),237(70),411(48),239(53)

4 PCB #101 (5 CI) (91.375) 326(100),328(66),324(61),330(22)

3 pyrene (90.949) 202(100),203(26),200(21)

II 4 94.0 p,p'-DDE (96.703) 246(I00), 318(79), 248(66), 316(61)

3 PCB #77 (4 Cl) (97.524) 292(100),290(76),294(49)

12 4 101.0 p,p'-DDD (I05.227) 235(100), 237(65),165(41), 236(I7)

5 D,p'-DDT (105.509) 235(100),237(68),165(38), 236(I6), 176(38)

5 PCB #118 (5 CI) (102.930) 326(100),328(66),324(61),330(22),327(14)

5 PCB #188 (7 Cl) (105.550) 394(100),396(98),398(54),392(44),400(18)

5 PCB #153 (6 CI) (107.849) 360(I00), 362(82), 358(51), 364(36), 361 (I4)

5 PCB #105 (5 Cl) (I08.266) 326(100),328(66),324(61),330(22),327(14)

13 5 111.0 p,p'-DDT (I12.694) 235(100),237(68),165(38),236(16),176(38)

5 PCB#138 (6CI) (ll2.576) 360(100),362(82),358(51),364(36),361(14)

5 PCB #126 (5 Cl) (I14.180) 326(100),328(66),324(61),330(22),327(14)

continued
104 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Table 1 (continued)

Group Ions Start

(N) (N) time Compound (retention time) SIM ions (% intensity)

13 5 PCB #187 (7 CI) (114.909) 394(100),396(98),398(54),392(44),400(18)

5 PCB #128 (6 CI) (116.320) 360(100),362(82),358(51),364(36),361(14)

14 4 117.2 benz (a) anthracene (118.766) 228(100),229(20),226(20),43(18)

4 chrysene (119.260) 228(100),226(21),229(20),114(15)

6 PCB #200 (8 CI) (119.891) 430(100),428(87),432(66),426(33),434(27),431(13)

6 PCB #180 (7 CI) (121.432) 394(100),396(98),398(54),392(44),400(18),395(14)

15 6 122.6 PCB #170 (7CI) (124.198) 394(100),396(98),398(54),392(44),400(18),395(14)

7 PCB #195 (8 CI) (128.022) 430(100),428(87),432(66),426(33), 434(27),429(12),431(13)

7 mirex (124.903) 272(100),274(75),270(54),237(46),239(47), 235(43), 276(32)

16 4 130.0 benzo(b)fluoranthene (131.661) 252(100),253(23),126(23),250(19)

4 benzo(k)fluoranthene (131.941) 252(100),126(27),253(23),250(20)

4 benzo(e)pyrene (134.054) 252(100),250(24),253(21),125(16)

4 benzo (a) pyrene (134.480) 252(100),126(23),253(21),250(16)

4 perylene (135.205) 252(100),126(26),253(21),250(19)

17 4 141.0 indeno(1 ,2,3-cd) pyrene (142.870) 276(100),274(25),138(24),277(22)

4 dibenz(a,h)anthracene (143.172) 278(100),279(24),139(24),276(16)

4 benzo(ghi) perylene (144.667) 276(100),138(37),137(28),277(25)

the graphical representation of over 60 individual compounds, the results are composited into three classes:

PAH's, PCB's, and chlorinated pesticides (Table 2).

Results and Discussion

Concentrations of most organic contaminants in sediments from station NY6 were higher than those at station R2, which in turn were higher than concentrations

at station NYll. Concentrations of PAH's also were

generally higher than those of PCB's and chlorinated

pesticides.

PAH's

Many potentially carcinogenic PAH's, including

chrysene, benz(a) anthracene, benzofluoranthenes, benzopyrenes, perylene, indeno(l,2,3-c,d)pyrene, and

dibenz(a,h)anthracene, were found in a number of

samples, particularly in sediments collected from station NY6. These contaminants were present in sediments collected in pre-cessation (1986-87) as well as

post-cessation periods (1988-89).

For each of the August cruises, the individual PAH

concentrations were generally highest in sediments collected from station NY6, lowest in sediments collected

from station NYll, and intermediate in sediments collected from station R2 (Fig. 3), confirming our expectations about this trend (based on historical information). Mean concentrations of PAH's were lower in

1989 compared with 1986 for all three study stations

(Fig. 3). Total and individual PAH concentrations in

sediments from station NY6 in August 1986, August

1987, and August 1988 were comparable to the historical data (Boehm, 1982); however, they were lower in

1989 compared with previous years (Fig. 4a, b).

PAH concentrations in August 1988 deviated from

the expected temporal trend. Spikes or elevations in

certain compounds were observed at all stations and

were particularly distinct at station NY6 (Fig. 3). Similar

spikes were observed in August 1988 in bacteria and

trace metal levels at station NY6 (O'Reilly et al., 1995;

Zdanowicz et aI., 1995). These spikes could have been

caused by 1) unauthorized dumping of contaminated

sludge after December 1987, 2) unreported oil spills, 3)

suspension and redistribution of existing contaminants,

4) estuarine discharge of con taminated suspended sediments, 5) spatial heterogeneity, or 6) sampling of more

contaminated sub-surficial sediments instead of the

surficial sediments (top 1 cm layer) previously collected.

PCB's and Chlorinated Pesticides

For each study year, the PCB (Fig. 5) and chlorinated

pesticide (Fig. 6) concentrations were highest in sedi-
Sesnon Ill: Sediment Processes 105

Table 2

Designations of various analytes in Figures 2-6,

Number Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbon Number Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbon

All Naphthalene B42 PCB #104

A12 2-Methylnaphthalene B43 PCB #44

A13 I-Methylnaphthalene B44 PCB #66

A14 Biphenyl B45 PCB #101

A15 2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene B46 PCB #77

A16 Acenaphthylene B47 PCB #1l8

A17 Acenaphthene B48 PCB #188

A18 2,3,5-Trimethylnaphthalene B49 PCB #153

A19 Fluorene B50 PCB #105

A20 Phenanthrene B51 PCB #138

A21 Anthracene B52 PCB #126

A22 I-Methylphenanthrene B53 PCB #187

A23 Fluoranthene B54 PCB #128

A24 Pyrene B55 PCB #200

A25 Benz(a)anthracene B56 PCB#170

A26 Chrysene B57 PCB #195

A27 Benzo(b)fluoranthene B58 PCB #206

A28 Benzo(k)fluoranthene

A29 Benzo(e)pyrene P59 Hexachlorobenzene

A30 Benzo(a)pyrene P60 Lindane

A31 Perylene P61 Heptachlor

A32 Indeno (I ,2,3-c,d) pyrene P62 Aldrin

A33 Dibenz(a,h)anthracene P63 Heptachlorepoxide

A34 benzo (g,h,i) perylene P64 o,p'-DDE

P65 a-Chlordane

B35 PCB #1 P66 trans-Nonachlor

B36 PCB #8 P67 p,p'-DDE

B37 PCB #18 P68 p,p'-DDD

B38 PCB #29 P69 o,p'-DDT

B39 PCB #50 P70 p,p'-DDT

B40 PCB #28 P71 Mirex

B41 PCB #52

ments collected from station NY6, lowest in sediments

collected from station NYll, and intermediate in sediments collected from station R2.

Individual species of PCB's and chlorinated pesticides were not always present in every sample analyzed.

Therefore, to assess temporal changes in sediment contamination, analyte concentrations were totaled by class,

and the average concentrations of these classes of compounds were compared. For each station, the total PCB

(Fig. 7) as well as total DDT-related pesticide (Fig. 8)

concentrations were lower in 1989 than in 1986 and

1987. Similar to PAH results, a spike of total PCB's was

observed in 1988 (Fig, 7); however, no such spike was

observed for total DDT in 1988 (Fig 8),

Statistical Analyses

Representative compounds of the 24 PAH analytes are

depicted for each station (Fig. 9) for the examination

of 1) temporal trends, 2) mean individual contaminant

concentrations, 3) variance in contaminant concentrations and 4) results of Duncan's multiple range test

(a = 0,05). These charts and the results of Duncan's

multiple range test suggest (for these limited samples)

that the contaminated stations (NY6 and R2) did not

change significantly in the post-cessation period through

August 1989 (Fig, 9), These analyses tentatively support

our initial hypothesis that levels of PCB's (as a marker

for organic contaminants in general) in sediment will

remain essentially unchanged.

Comparison With Other Studies

In a related study, concentrations of trace metals in

surface sediments from the highly contaminated sta-

, tion NY6 decreased significantly within one month of

complete cessation of sludge dumping in December

1987; however, a buried reservoir of contaminants re-
106 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

PPB, DRY WEIGHT

Figure 2

Mean SD of PAH (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon)

concentrations in three replicate grabs at station NY6

in August 1987. Compound identifications are listed in

Table 2.

1 ± 1 SO

DMEAN CONe

...... #e;:;;;

".n'iS£E1

Temperature programming

56.33

106.33

146.33

TOlallime

(min)

10.0

10.0

10.0

Final time

(min)

40·C

10 min

1 min

3 min

146 min

170

210

300

Finallemp

(C)

3

1

3

Initial temperature

Equilibration time

Purge off lime

Iniliallime

Run lime

Initial values

Table 3

GC/MS operating parameters.

Heating rate

(Cmin-l )

1

2

3

Level

10 100 1000 10000

A11

A12

A13

A14

A15

A16

A17

A18

A191,

~~:I' . A26

A27

A28

A29

A30

A31

A32

A33

A34

NYU R2 NY6

2til

>i

\D

co

\D

2000

1000

3000

2000

oJU~la-""'~"

3000

2000

I I.. 1000

........ --l..IIdt....t. 0 ....1.aJ....__..

3000

2000

800

400

200

800

800

800

600

600

200

400

200

600

600

400

1000

II 1000

o.lAJ..........--h.JIdJJII... 0 ....IIJ... _

1000 3000

OJllJIIJ....---

1000

1000

400 _______L....1000

200

.lIl.I....L-_----'......---..__ ......1I._._ ...............--............__......II.-.III.-.Il-A

250

50

50

200

o.lAJII.AJ.....---__

250

150

200

150

50

o

250

100

o JAJ......... ~e_.JIlL.........

250

150

50

200

100

100

100

III 200

llo

llo 150

Figure 3

Mean PAH (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon) concentrations in New York Bight sediments (compound

identifications are listed in Table 2).
Session III: Sediment Processes 107

30

25

Only a few of the available samples were analyzed for

this paper relative to the larger New York Bight study

area. In addition, the temporal scale of the study was

relatively short. These factors combine to make detailed interpretations and conclusions difficult and risky.

Nevertheless, it can be shown that:

1. There was considerable sample-to-sample variability in the organic contaminant concentrations at each of the three replicate stations;

2. In agreement with historical data, organic contaminants in sediments were higher in samples

collected nearer the dumpsite (station NY6)

than in those from two reference stations (R2

and NYll) farther from the dumpsite. For all

samples, PAH levels were higher than PCB and

chlorinated pesticide levels;

3. There was no apparent convergence of values

between station NY6 and reference station NYll

by August 1989;

4. Spikes of PAH and PCB concentrations were

observed at station NY6 in August 1988; and

5. Although mean organic contaminant concentrations in August 1989 were generally lower

than those in August 1986, the difference was not

statistically significant. Completion of remaining

analyses may improve the statistical contrast between dumping and post-dumping periods.

Conclusions

mained at that site (Zdanowicz et al., 1995). Metal

concentrations in surface and buried sediment from

stations R2 and NYlI did not change significantly with

cessation. The mean organic contaminant concentrations in surface sediments were lower in the post-cessation period than the pre-cessation period, although not

significantly.

At the Philadelphia sewage sludge dumpsite, metal

concentrations were reported to have declined rapidly

after the cessation of dumping (Devine and Simpson,

1985). Similarly, subsequent to the cessation of dumping, metal concentrations in the surface sediments decreased at the sewage sludge dumpsite in Firth ofClyde,

Scotland, but like the 12-mile dumpsite, metal concentrations in the buried sediments remained high (Clark

et al., 1990). Organic analyses were not made in the

Philadelphia or the Firth of Clyde studies.

1987

1989

1980

A31

1986

A31

A31

A31

1989

A30

A30

A30

A30

A29

A29

1987 1988

A26 A27/28 A29

A26 A27/28 A29

A25

A25

1986

A24

A24

(a)

A23

1980

o

3000l.:.b)

2000

1000

o A23 A24 L.-... L3000

1000

2000

PPB (THOUSANDS), DRY WEIGHT

3000

1000

oLI--;-;;;:;-_:;;:~____;_;;;_-_::::;__~~~_:_::_:_----" ...."----~- A23 A24 A25 A26 A27/28 A29 A30 A31

2000

Figure 4

Time series for (a) total 4 and 5-membered PAH's

(polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) at NY6 and (b)

individual 4 and 5-membered PAH's at NY6 (1980 data

from Boehm (1982); compound identifications are

listed in Table 2).

35 -,-------------------.,.----,-_-----, ± 1 SO

OMEAN CON

20
108 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Acknowledgments

We thank the Captain and crew of the R/V KYMA and

colleagues in the Experimental Ecology Investigation,

for their efforts in obtaining sediment samples. The

analyses were partially conducted under contract

P50586, NewJersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy.

Literature Cited

Boehm, P.

1982. Organic contaminants (PCB's, polynuclear aromatic

hydrocarbons, and coprostanol) in sediments. In R. . Reid,

j.E. O'Reilly, and V.S. Zdanowicz (eds.), Contaminants in

New York Bight and Long Island Sound sediments and

demersal species, and contaminant effects on benthos, summer 1980, p. 32-36. U.S. Oep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.

NMFS-F/NEC-16.

Brown, M. P., M. B. Werner, R.j. Sloan, and K. W. Simpson.

1985. Polychlorinated biphenyls in the Hudson River. Environ.

Sci. Technol. 19:656-661.

Clark, G. K., O. C. Moore, and I. M. Davies.

1990. Recovery of a sewage sludge dumping ground. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. CM1990/

E:27. Marine Environmental Quality Committee, 7 p.

Devine, M., and O. Simpson.

1985. Impact of and recovery from sewage sludge dumping at

the Philadelphia dumpsite. U.S. Oep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo. NOS-OMA-15, 37 p.

Oraxler, A. F.j., P. Hauge, and A. O. Oeshpande.

In press. Organic contaminants in hepatic tissues of lobster

and flounder at the New York Bight 12-mile sewage sludge

dumpsite: 1987-88. U.S. Oep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.

NMFS-F-NEC-83.

EPO (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Oep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS/

F-NEC-55, 34 p.

Gibson, C. I., L. L. Ciaccio, B. Ketchum, and A. O. Michael.

1979. III. Petroleum hydrocarbon subpanel report, Sec. III.

In j. S. O'Conner and H. M. Stanford (eds.), Chemical

pollutants of the ew York Bight; priorities for research, p.

20-32. U.S. Oep. Commer., NOAA, Boulder, CO.

Gross, M. G.

1976. Sources of urban waste. In M. G. Gross (ed.), Middle

Atlantic continental shelf and the New York Bight, p. 150-

161. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr., Spec. Symp. 2. Allen

Press, Lawrence, KS.

Krahn, M. M., C. A. Wigren, R. W. Pearce, L. K. Moore,

R. G. Bogar, W. o. MacleodJr., S. L. Chan, and O. W. Brown.

1988. Standard analytical procedures of the NOAA National

Analytical Facility: new HPLC cleanup and revised extraction procedures for organic contaminants. U.S. Oep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS/F-NWC-153, 52 p.

Mueller,j. A.,j. S.Jeris, A. R. Anderson, and C. F. Hughes.

1976. Contaminant inputs to the New York Bight. U.S. Oep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. ERL MESA-6, 347 p.

O'Connor,j. M.,j. B. Klotz, and T.j. Kneip.

1982. Sources, sinks, and distribution of organic contaminants in the New York Bight ecosystem. In G.F. Mayer (ed.),

Ecological stress and the New York Bight: science and management, p. 631-653. Estuarine Research Federation, Columbia, South Carolina.

O'Reilly, j. E., I. Katz, and A. F. j. Oraxler.

1995. Changes in the abundance and distribution of

Clostridium perfringens, a microbial indicator, related to cessation of sewage sludge dumping in the New York Bight. In

A. L. Studholme, j. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.),

Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at the 12-

mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p.

113-132. U.S. Oep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. MFS 124.

Pikanowski, R.

1995. Experimental design of the 12-mile dumpsite study. In

A. L. Studholme, j. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.),

Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at the 12-

mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium,

p. 13-18. U.S. Oep. Commer., OAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Stanford, H. M., and o. R. Young.

1988. Pollutant loadings to the New York Bight apex. In

Oceans '88 proceedings, p. 745-751. Inst. Electr. Electron.

Eng., Piscataway, Nj.

Zdanowicz, V. S., S. L. Cunneff, and T. W. Finneran.

1995. Reductions in sediment metal contamination in the

New Vork Bight apex with the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping. In A. L. Studholme, j. E. O'Reilly, and M. C.

Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 000-000. U.S. Oep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.
SessiQ71 Ill: Sediment Processes 109

NYU R2 NY6

80

80

200

80

40

o

20,0

80

40

40

40

160

160

o J-LJlII........u... 200

120

120

120

o J..---IldJlll

200

160

160

120

60

40

oLLJWlaIJIUILUJL__

60

40'

20

20

60

40

20

40

0-'----------..1"-------

60

20

o -'--------------------

80

40

60

20

20

60

80

40

0-'------------------

80

40

60

20

60

40

0-'------------------

80

20

Figure 5

Mean PCB concentrations in New York Bight sediments (compound identifications are listed in Table 2),
110 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

NYU R2 NY6

10 10 600

400

200

2

0 0 • 0

10 10 600

400

Eo<

til 200

l!l

H

0 0 0

10 10 600 Q

lQ

Pot 400 Pot

200

0 0 0

10 10 600

8

400

200

0

'" 0 ... N

'" • on ... r- ... '" 0 ... '" 0 :: ... .. on '" ... .. = .. Ii: ... ::l : on :; I: .. 0 ... on '" '" '" '" '" '" ... '" '" '" r- r- on II: '" '" '" '" '" .. '" ... t .. .. '" '" r- r-

'" '" '" '" '" '" '" '" '" '" '" '" '" .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Figure 6

Mean chlorinated pesticide concentrations in New York Bight sediments (compound identifications are listed in Table 2).
be 195% Cl

e a BIPHENYL

b

a

a

a FLUORANTHENE :0

I\)

a

b BENZO(a)PYRENE

ab

ab

a

b PERYLENE

ab

b

0.1 10 100 1000 10000

PPB (DRY WEIGHn

1087

1888

10aa§~~

1080

1087

1088

10aa5~~~

18ao a

1987

Figure 7

1988 1989 18e7

1080

1888 10aa5~b=~ Time series for total PCB's.

1986

PPB, DRY WEIGHT

Session III: Sediment Processes 111

PPB, DRY WEIGHT 1888 a 195% Cl

1887 a 10,000 ::t 1 S 1888 BIPHENYL

lSlNY11 '088 a a

DR2 1088 a

18a7 a tzJ NY6 FLUORENE t088 1,000 10a8

.. a Z a 18a8 -< 1087 PYRENE 0'> 1088 .. 100 1080 I=>- a

1088 ab

1087 PERYLENE

t888 b a 1080

10 0.1 10 100 1000 10000

PPB (DRY WEIGHn

10,000 ,--------------------~:!:---:l:-:S:::J

DR2

[ZJ NY6

1,000

Figure 8

Time series for total DDT related pesticides.

100

10

1986 1987 1988 1989

,8a8 ab 195% Cl

1087 a 1088 ab NAPHTHALENE 18ao b

18a8 b 18S7 b BIPHENYL

1888 a Z 10a8 b -<-10.

,g88 a -10. 1087 a 1888 a FLUORANTHENE

10ao a

1888 a

1887 a PERYLENE H~88 a 1988 a

0.1 10 100 1000 10000

PPB (DRY WEIGHn

Figure 9

Time series for select PAR's (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) in New York Bight sediments. For a given PAR analyte,

within a set of four years, the mean concentrations designated

by the same letter, such as: a, b, or c are not significantly different
112 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Audience QJlestions

Question: You showed decreases in the PCB's over

time at the sludge dumpsite. I am following up on the

pointJay O'Reilly made earlier. He showed there was a

huge input of PCB's at the dredge disposal site due to

dredge dumping, whereas at the sludge dumpsite PCB's

are a very small proportion ofthe total. Do you have any

data from the dredge spoil site in terms of PCB trends

over time to relate to the cessation of the sludge dumping? Are the decreases that you see at the sludge site

also associated with decreases at the dredge disposal site?

A. Deshpande: No, I do not have any data based on

disposal of PCB's at the disposal site.

Question: If I understand you correctly, it looked to

me like you were saying there were very low concentrations of DDT found at NYll. That would seem to be

somewhat in contradiction with the discussion we had

earlier that the primary source of DDT was from the

atmosphere. If this is correct, I would expect the concentrations to be about the same at all the sites, assuming that the accumulative properties are about the same.

If they are not, it would give me some concern that this

was not a very good reference site.

A. Deshpande: Dick Bopp's work was on shelf break

and most DDT's in that area were from aerosol-based

material. I am not sure if he showed data on the ratio of

DDT's to DDD's at NYll.

R. Bopp: The levels were low, only a few parts per

billion, and you hit it right on the head. It is a netdepositional environment. It is a question of exactly

how deep the recent depositional layer goes and how

deep the bioturbation goes. But I saw no great difference. The lowest numbers are about a part per billion.

Atmospheric inputs would give you two or three parts

per billion.

A. Deshpande: The data were collected using gc/msd

[gas chromatograph/mass selective detector], which is

a little less sensitive than electron capture detection.

The concentration might be just under detection limits

and we might have missed it.

Question: You mentioned that you found essentially

no significant differences over time, and yet I think you

mentioned at the end that that may have been a function

of sample size. Bob Pikanowski mentioned at the beginning that your sensitivity to finding differences is very

much a function of the power of the test. I wonder if you

looked at how large are differences you might expect to

find given the samples that you have taken.

A. Deshpande: That is a very good question and we

will answer it based on the data we are collecting right

now. I did show these data to Bob Pikanowski, and he

believed that statistically it did not make any difference;

i.e., statistically the stations did not change, even though

the average values showed that they were considerably

lower in 1989 compared with those in 1986. Once we

have more data points, the power of statistical analysis

will be better exploited, and we will have a better understanding ofthe significance of cessation of dumping

at the 12-mile site.
SESSION III: Sediment Processes

Changes in the Abundance and Distribution of

Qostridium perfringens, a Microbial Indicator, Related to

Cessation of Sewage Sludge Dumping in the New York Bight

JOHN E. O'REILLY

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882

IRWINJ. KATZ

U.S. Environmental Protection Agenry, Region II

Edison, NewJersey 08837

ANDREW F.J. DRAXLER

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

ABSTRACT

Concentrations of Clostridium perfringens spores, specific indicators ofsewage contamination, were measured in surficial sediments from the 12-mile sewage sludge dumpsite and

surrounding area to characterize responses to cessation of sludge dumping. Intensive,

replicated sampling was conducted at three stations along a pollution gradient, at distances

of 1.4,4.1, and 11.1 km from the dumpsite. During dumping, C. perfringensspore concentrations were exceptionally elevated, generally 1.7 x 105 g-l, at station NY6, the most polluted

station nearest the dumpsite. These concentrations were 30 times greater than those

observed at the most distant reference station, NYll, and six times greater than at our

intermediate station, R2. Statistically significant decreases in spore concentrations, temporally related to the cessation of dumping, were observed at all three sites.

Decreases in spore abundance were also observed in surficial sediments collected over a

large area surrounding the dumpsite. During dumping, approximately 27% of the 350 km2

area surveyed had C. perfringens spore concentrations exceeding 1 x 104 g-l; 3.3 yr following

cessation, only 10% of the area surpassed these levels. The spatial distribution and temporal

trends in C. perfringens abundance paralleled those observed for other sewage tracers.

Variation in the 10glO of C. perfringens concentration was related directly to bottom depth

and inversely related to distance from the dumpsite and time elapsed from the reduced

dumping period. These associations were statistically highly significant and suggest that

concentrations of C. perfringens in surficial sediments might decrease to New York Bight

"background" levels 15-20 years after dumping ceased. While significant reductions in Co'

perfringens spore concent~ationswere observed in surficial sediments, subsurface concentrations, measured at depositional sites 3.3 yr after dumping ceased, were comparable to the

elevated values observed in the surficial layer during dumping.

113
114 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

ABSTRACT (continued)

The responses of C. perfringens and coliforms to the effects of dumping are contrasted.

Concentrations of coliform bacteria decreased more rapidly with distance from the dumpsite

than did C. perfiingens. Fecal coliform concentrations responded more rapidly to sludge

dumping, decreasing during the reduced dumping period, and falling markedly after the

dumpsite was closed. Concentrations of C. perfiingens spores declined relatively slowly,

persisting as a more conservative marker of residual sewage contamination.

Introduction

Coastal waters of the New York Bight (NYBight) (Fig.

1) receive anthropogenic wastes generated by domestic

and industrial activities of approximately 20 million

people (Gross, 1976; Young et a!., 1985). The three

main sources ofwastes are 1) outflow from the HudsonRaritan estuary, 2) dumping of sewage sludge, and 3)

disposal of dredged material from barges. Minor waste

loadings emanate from the NewJersey and Long Island

coastlines, and from aerial deposition (Stanford and

Young, 1988). For some ofthese wastes, such as organic

carbon, the Hudson-Raritan plume overwhelms the

contribution from other sources (58% from the estuary, about 5% from sewage sludge; Mueller et a!., 1976).

For others, such as lead, dredge material is the largest

source (51 %), while (during dumping) sewage sludge

(21 %) and the estuary (24%) provided comparable inputs to the NYBight (Stanford and Young, 1988).

The contribution to the NY Bight of microbial contaminants, such as fecal coliforms, from sewage sludge

barged to the 12-mile dumpsite (Fig. 1) is insignificant

«0.01 %) when compared with the contribution from

unchlorinated municipal wastewater discharges and

urban runoff from combined sewer overflows (>99%)

(Mueller et aI., 1976). This enters the Bight by the

Hudson-Raritan estuarine plume which closely hugs

the NJ coast. The plume is located over or seaward of

the 12-mile dumpsite only twelve percent of the time

(Fedosh and Munday, 1982). So, despite its large contribution of sewage contaminants to the NY Bight, the

role of the estuarine plume in the contamination ofsediments near the sewage sludge dumpsite is uncertain.

Dumping of sewage sludge began at the 12-mile site

in 1924 (Gross, 1976; Gunnerson, 1988). Since then, at

least 125 x 106 m3 ofsewage sludge was dumped, half of

which occurred recently, from 1977 through 1987 (Fig.

2). The volume disposed of annually was quite small

until 1958, when approximately 2.5 x 106 m3/yr were

barged to the site (Fig. 2). From 1958 through 1983,

the volume tripled, reaching 7.5 x 106 m3/yr, making it

the world's largest oceanic sludge waste dumpsite

(Devine et a!., 1986). Beginning in 1981, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) denied further

applications for disposal ofsewage sludge at the 12-mile

site. In 1986, dumping decreased decrementally as the

various permits for municipalities expired (Fig. 2, inset); on 31 December 1987, dumping ceased at the 12-

mile site.

Several earlier studies, conducted by various agencies and institutions, identified significant sewage contamination of sediments and biological effects in the

inner NY Bight (National Marine Fisheries Service,

1972; Pearce, 1972; Carmody et a!., 1973; Gross et a!.,

1976; MESA, 1976; O'Connor et a!., 1977; Mayer, 1982;

Murchelano and Ziskowski, 1982; Reid et a!., 1987).

Based on elevated concentrations of microbiological

indicators of sewage contamination, such as fecal

coliforms, the area within an 11 km radius of the 12-

mile site was closed in 1970 to the commercial harvesting ofshellfish (Verber, 1976; Gaines and Reid, 1995).

Considering the long history ofdumping and the known

accumulation of sewage-contaminated sediments adjacent to the dumpsite (Hatcher and McGillivary, 1979;

Cabelli and Pedersen, 1982; Reid et a!., 1982; Zdanowicz,

1991), decreases in the microbial contamination of

sediments near the 12-mile site were expected following the cessation ofsludge dumping (EPD, 1988). However, only a very rough guess was possible regarding the

rate of decrease or the extent of areal improvement.

The uncertainty was due to the abundance of microbial

tracers of sewage (fecal coliforms and Clostridium

perfringens) in the estuarine plume, in dredged harbor

sediments dumped on the western margin of the

Christiaensen Basin, and in sewage sludge. The exact

role and influence of sludge dumping on habitat quality in the adjacent Christiaensen Basin, though believed

predominant, could not be distinguished from these

other potentially important sources (see "Introduction

to Sediment Processes" in this volume; Wolfe et a!.,

1982). The closure of the dumpsite in 1987 provided

the opportunity to resolve the role of sludge through

time-series observations and resolve natural and seasonal variations from the anticipated responses related

to the cessation ofsludge dumping.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the temporal

and spatial changes in C. perfringens, a highly specific

tracer ofsewage contamination, accompanying the cessation of dumping of sewage sludge in the NY Bight.

Clostridium perfringens is a gram-positive, non-motile,
Session III: Sediment Processes 115

75' 74' 73' 72'

New York\Bighl

41'

39'

40'

Depth m . .<30

30 - 40

40 -50

50 - 60

60 - 80

80 - 100

100 ~. 200

200 -500

500 - 1000

1000 .. 2000

>2000

39'

40'

41'

75' 74' 73' 72'

Figure 1

The New York Bight, with its major bottom topographic features and the locations of the Apex, the Christiaensen Basin

(CB), and the 12-mile sewage sludge dumpsite (8).

rod-shaped bacterium, 0.9-1.3 ~m by 3.0-9.0 ~m in

size. It is a strict obligate anaerobe found in fecal material. Under moderately adverse conditions it produces

endospores that are less than 1.0 ~m in diameter and

can withstand extreme environmental conditions. For

instance, C. perfringens spore counts drop less than one

order of magnitude following chlorination typical of

most sewage treatment facilities, whereas coliforms (e.g.

Escherichia coli) and enterococci are reduced approximately four orders of magnitude (Miescier and Cabelli,

1982; DeBartolomeis, 1989). Previous field studies demonstrated that C. perfringens spores can be used as a

conservative tracer for following the movement ofsewage sludge (Bisson and Cabelli, 1979; Cabelli and Pedersen,

1982; Fujioka and Shizumura, 1983; Hill et al., 1993).

Methods

Sampling

This study was part of a multidisciplinary, multiagency

program to determine the responses of the habitat and

biota of the NY Bight to the cessation ofsewage sludge
116 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

8 8 Rate of Sludge Dumping 7 120

7 6

5

6 4 100

3 M

...... 2 S I

5 \0>... 1 80 0 M .-4

S 0 ;<

\0 1985 86 87 1988 Q)

0 4 ] .-4

;< ..' .' 60 .' 0 Q) .' :> § 3 .......

" ...... ..'.' 0 .'

40 ..... :> ...•..

2 .' ...... .'" .' ..' .' ..,.' 20 U 1 ..'

.' .'.' .... .' .' .'

0 ........

0

1950 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 1990

Figure 2

The rate of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-rriile site between 1953 and 1991. Estimates for 1953-59 redrawn from

Hatcher and McGillivary, 1979; estimates for 1960-72 from Mueller et aI., 1976; data for 1973-87 provided by D. Pabst,

US EPA, Water Management Division, Region II, New York, NY.

dumping at the 12-mile site (EPD, 1988). The study

began formally in July 1986 while sludge dumping was

decreasing (Fig. 2) and ended in September 1989, 21

months following the closure of the site. Sediment

samples collected before and after this period are also

included in our report. Two types of surveys, denoted

replicate and broadscale, were conducted. During

broadscale surveys, made every other month, sediments

were collected at 25 stations (Fig. 3). Single grab samples

of sediments were obtained at 22 stations and three

grabs were obtained near the center of sites NY6, R2,

and NYl1 (Fig. 3). This scheme was employed to quantify changes in the distribution of sediment contaminants throughout a large area surrounding the

dumpsite. Clostridium perfringens spore concentrations

were measured in sediments collected during four of

these broadscale surveys (April 1987, February 1988,

April 1989, and March 1991). Replicate surveys, alternating with broadscale surveys, were conducted every

other month, plus during August. During replicate surveys, eight grab samples were collected at each of three

stations, NY6, R2, and NYl1 (Fig. 3). Clostridium

perfringensspore concentrations were measured in three

of the replicate grabs which were taken at the center of

each sampling site. The purpose of the replicate sampling scheme was to permit accurate estimates of temporal change and statistically test the null hypothesis of

no change following cessation of sludge dumping

(Pikanowski, 1995). The replicate stations were chosen

to represent a pollution gradient within the Christiaensen

Basin. They are in comparable water depths (26--30 m)

but their distance from the dumpsite varies. Station

NY6 is 1.4 km from the northwest corner ofthe dumpsite

and represents the area where sewage sludge accumulated most heavily (Zdanowicz, 1991). The sediments

are highly enriched in organic carbon and contaminants associated with fine-grained sediments. Station

R2 is 4.1 km from the northwest corner of the sewage

sludge dumpsite and has organically enriched and moderately contaminated sediments. Station NYll, at the

southern end of the sampling area, is 11.1 km from the

northwest corner of the sludge dumpsite. Sediments at

NYl1 were considered to be the least polluted at the

start of the study (EPD, 1988).

Sediment samples were collected with a SmithMcIntyre grab (0.1 m2) deployed at 20-25 m/min and
40'

30'

40'

25'

40'

20'

74'00'

74'00'

73'50'

73'50"

Session ill: Sediment Processes 117

73'40'

,6.'=i$9 40' .. ,: .. 30'

40'

25'

40'

20'

73'40'

Figure 3

The locations of the 25 sampling sites in relation to bottom topography and the 12-mile sewage sludge (S), cellar dirt

(C), and dredged material (D) dumpsites (The alphanumeric station codes are centered over the site coordinates). The

"replicate" stations, NY6, R2, and NYII, are underlined. The Christiaensen Basin is delineated by the 25-m isobath.

retrieved at <10 m/min. If a coarse-grained sediment

was expected, draining of interstitial and overlying water was prevented by setting the grab in a receptacle

filled with water to provide back pressure. Disturbance

ofthe surficial sediment and the overlying water by the

ship's motion was minimized by placing a baffle in the

grab immediately after it was on board. The baffle was

prepared by breaking the bottom off of a sterile 125 ml

plastic specimen cup (e.g. Elkay, Shrewsbury, MA) while

it was still in its protective wrapper. This resulted in a

sterile cylinder with an approximate diameter of 6 cm

which was inserted approximately 2 cm (fractured side

up) into the sediment and extended approximately 5

cm above the sediment surface.

Mter all sampling was completed that required the

overlying water to remain in place, the jaws of the grab

were opened slightly and the overlying water surrounding the baffle was allowed to drain away slowly. The

baffle was then gently lifted and tilted slightly to permit

the overlying water within the baffle to drain without

disturbing the surface of the sediment. The baffle was

removed and a sterile plastic scoop was used to sample'

sediment to a depth of 1 cm from within the ring

formed by the baffle. Approximately 5 cm3 ofsediment

were transferred to a sterile tube (NUNC, Naperville,

IL), which was then stqred at a temperature below 5'C

until analyzed.

Vertical profiles of C. perfringens spore abundance

were obtained from sediments collected in April 1991.

A 3-cm diameter plastic core liner was inserted into the

grab. The sediment cores were extruded and sectioned

into l-cm layers starting at the sediment-water interface

and 1,3,5, and 7 cm below. Sections were placed in

sterile cups and treated as above.

Laboratory Procedure

The extraction-separation procedure presented below

follows the method outlined by Bisson and Cabelli

(1979) and Emerson and Cabelli (1982). This is a membrane filter (MF) method which provides a direct count
118 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

of the C. peifringens colonies that develop from spores

on the surface of the MF in contact with mCP medium

(Bisson and Cabelli, 1979). After thorough mixing,

sediment samples were prepared by weighing out 1-3 g

into 50-ml polycarbonate centrifuge tubes. Ten ml of

sterile distilled water was added to the sample which

was mixed using a vortex blender for 15 s. Particulates

in the sample were disaggregated using a 500 WTekmar

Sonic Disrupter with a 3-mm tip set at 18 W. The duty

cycle was set at 50% for intermittent operation and the

sample was sonicated for 20 cycles or pulses. Care was

taken and the controls were monitored to minimize

cavitation which would have resulted in a shearing action, disrupting the C. peifringens spores and rendering

them non-viable. Twenty-five ml of sterile distilled water was added to the centrifuge tube containing the

sediment. This was mixed a second time for 15 s. The

mixture was allowed to settle for 10 min whereupon

decimal dilutions of the supernatant were prepared,

using a phosphate-buffered solution (pH 7.2), to produce between 20 and 100 colonies per plate. The diluted samples were passed through a membrane filter

(Millipore type HA, 0.45-!J.m pore size) which retained

the spores. The MF were then placed on mCP growth

media and incubated at 44.5'C for 24 h under anaerobic conditions (anaerobic jar BBL). The yellow C.

peifringens colonies were counted using a stereo binocular microscope (Nikon SMZ-U) fitted with a fluorescent

light source. Typical colonies were circular, 2-5 mm

diameter, and slightly raised with a glossy surface. All

plates were inverted over an open jar of ammonium

hydroxide for a period of 30 s to confirm the presence

of C. perfringens by a change in colony color from straw

or yellow to pink or magenta. As a double confirmation, questionable colonies on filters were transferred

to a plate of gelatin agar and incubated under anaerobic conditions for 1-2 h at 37'C. The filters were then

removed from the gelatin medium which was flooded

with Frazier's Reagent. Zones of hydrolysis (clearing)

in the medium indicated the presence of gelatinasepositive C. perftingens colonies.

Sediment from the New York Bight collected in 1986

(sample NYB86) was used as a reference control, since

samples were collected and analyzed over a span of

several years. It was subjected to the same storage, extraction, separation, and counting procedures as the

survey samples and consistently gave repeatable results.

Clostridium perfringens concentrations are reported as

confirmed counts per gram (dry weight) of sediment

(also LoglO count·g-l ). Spore counts per gram of sedi··

ment (wet weight) were converted to a dry weight basis

using dry/wet conversion factors measured on parallel

sediment samples which were weighed wet then ovendried 24 h at 60'C and reweighed. Dry/wet conversion

factors were not usually measured for the second grab

from each of the three replicate stations (NY6, R2,

NYll). Instead, for each triplicate set of grabs, the

average dry/wet factor measured for the first and third

grabs was used to correct spore counts measured in the

second grab to a dry weight basis.

Results

Temporal Trends (Replicate Surveys)

Concentrations of C. perfringens spores in surficial sediments from the three replicate stations confirm the

initial pollution-gradient hypothesis (EPD, 1988), which

asserted that the degree of sewage con tamination was

greater at NY6 than at R2 and that R2 was more contaminated than the reference station NYll (Fig. 4).

Nearly all observations were made after mid-1986, when

decreases in sludge dumping had begun (Fig. 2). Large

variability among triplicate grab samples is evident during most surveys. The mean coefficient of variability of

C. perfringens densities was 45%,45%, and 66%, at NY6,

R2, and NYll, respectively. The precision ofthe method,

with no laboratory replicates, is expected to be about

25% (Bisson and Cabelli, 1979). The largest part of the

within-station variability was probably due to field variability. This is reasonable in light of the relatively large

variances observed over short distances in other geological, chemical, and biological properties (e.g.

Zdanowicz et aI., 1995). The seabed oxygen consumption data exemplify the variability that may occur over

very small distances in the study area. The mean coefficient of variation in the rate of seabed oxygen consumption for 130 sets of cores taken simultaneously

with a multiple corer, 1 m apart (Phoel et aI., 1995), was

33% at station NY6 (Fromml ).

At station NY6, concentrations of C. perfringensspores

were approximately 1.7 x 105 g-l during the reduced

dumping period, 1986-1987 (Fig. 4). By November

1991, nearly four years following cessation, spore concentrations had decreased one order of magnitude.

Spore concentrations at NY6 were lower in 1986 than in

1987, deviating from the temporal pattern expected to

accompany decreasing inputs ofsewage sludge (Fig. 2).

However, during the period of reduced dumping,

changes occurred in the density and water content of

sediments from NY6. The apparent increase from 1986

to 1987 may be an artifact resulting from these changes.

During dumping, these sediments were frequently unconsolidated, black, and watery. At times they were oily

muds having a consistency similar to mayonnaise (also

noted by Hatcher and Keister, 1976).

1 S.A. Fromm, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine

Fisheries Semce, NOM, Highlands, U. Pers. commun.,January 1992.
Session III: Sediment Processes 119

4

3

Y = 4:60 - O. 15(YEARS1986) 2-1---+---t---;----;----;-----i

1988 1989 1990 1991 6,-----~~~-~~--~~~~-~~~

4

5

iNY6

C. pelj'ringens Spores

6,-------~-----.,---____o--~-_____,

•

!NYll

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

· . . , - --_. -.- - _..... ----_. - - - _....-- -_. ---_. -. -_.-_. --- -- - - --- - _. - --_..... - --- ---- _.. ·· .'

.,", , , ,

• : .: ,

-----------~-----------~------------:-------.--~-----------+-------

: : ..: :.

: : : ! : ·-·--------j------------1------------1------------~--- ---------r-----------

!R=Q.76: Y = 5~66 -0.2~(YE~1986)

3

3 2

!R=Q.57 : : : : :

2 1

1986 1987 88 90 92 94 96 98 2000 02 04

6

5

4

r--.

C 3

"0

"-'

1::

v 2 S

:.a

v 6 {/)

00

E

==' 5 0

U

00

0

.....:l 4

Figure 4

Changes in the concentrations of Clostridium perfringens in surficial sediment at replicate stations Y6, R2, and NYlI

during the reduced dumping (1986-87) and post-dumping (1988-91) periods. The fitted line was obtained using the

least squares Y regression model (the units of the x-axis are decimal years elapsed since 1January 1986; R=correlation

coefficient). Data in 1986 at station NY6 were not included in the regression (refer to text).

Concentrations of C. perfringensin surficial sediments

from R2 were approximately 2.8 x 104 g-1 during the

reduced dumping period (Fig. 4). By November 1991,

spore concentrations had decreased to approximately

5 x 103 g-l. There is a suggestion of an increase in spore

counts at R2 during the first half of 1988. Possible

reasons for this are discussed below. Concentrations of

C. perfringensspores at station NYll were approximately

6 x 103 g-1 during the reduced dumping period and 6.8

x 102 g-I in November 1991 (Fig. 4).

The results of linear regression analyses of C.

perfringens concentration versus time, from the reduced

dumping period through November 1991, are given in

Table 1. The temporal decreases in spores were highly

significant at all three sites. The percent of variability

(.,2 x 100) explained by the linear regression model, for

stations NY6, R2, and NYIl, was 58%, 27%, and 32%,

respectively. Station R2 had a lower temporal rate of

decrease (slope = -0.15 y-I) in spore concentration

than that observed at NY6 (-0.28 y-l) and NYll

(-0.19 y-I). This analysis suggests that a 10-fold (IoglO)

decrease in spores in surficial sediments would require

from four to seven years.

Spatial Trends (Broadscale Surveys)

Clostridium perfringens spore concentrations in surficial

sediments were generally high throughout most of the

broadscale sampling area (Fig. 5). A similar pattern was

evident from surveys during the reduced dumping period (1986-1987) and 1.1, 2.3, and 3.2 yr following

closure of the site. The lowest spore concentrations

(101-102) were observed in the northeast corner of the

sampling area, at station R5, except during dumping,

when values were higher (103_104). Relatively low val-
120 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Table I

Analysis of variance of the temporal decreases in C. perfringens at the replicate stations NY6, R2 and NYl1.

Dependent Variable: Log10 C. peifringens spores / g sediment (dry weight).

Independent Variable: Years1986 (decimal years elapsed since] January ]986).

Analysis of Variance

Mean Oep. Correlation

Station Source OF Square FValue Prob >F Mean Squared

NY6 Model ] ]0.524 100.9 0.0001 4.85 0.580

Error 731 0.104

R2 Model ] 4.345 30.6 0.0001 4.20 0.267

Error 84 0.142

NYU Model 1 6.358 39.9 0.0001 3.48 0.322

Error 84 0.]59

Parameter Estimates of the Linear Regression Model2

Station Variable OF Estimate Std. Error T for 1-10 Prob> ITI

NY6 Intercept 5.659 0.0887 63.8 0.0001

Slope -0.275 0.0274 -10.0 0.0001

R2 Intercept 4.597 0.0827 55.6 0.0001

Slope -0.]52 0.0274 -5.53 0.0001

NYll Intercept 3.971 0.0895 44.3 0.0001

Slope -0.]87 0.0296 -6.32 0.0001

I Data at station NY6 during] 986 were not included in the variance and regression analyses (refer to text).

2 Statistics of the model were compmed using the REG (Type II) procedure (SAS Institute Inc. ] 988). (OF = degrees of freedom; T for

1-10 =Student's T test of the null hypothesis that the intercept or slope is zero; Prob> = probability of a larger value of ITI).

ues also were observed on the inshore and offshore

flanks ofthe Christiaensen Basin, near the sewage sludge

and dredge material dumpsites. Relatively high spore

counts were found along the axis of the Christiaensen

Basin at stations NY6, A41, and A56. During dumping,

65% of the 350 km2 survey area had spore concentrations exceeding 103 g-l, and 27% of the area exceeded

104 spores g-l; whereas during the last survey, 55% and

10% ofthe area exceeded these respective levels (Fig. 6).

Vertical Profiles

In April 1991, cores from stations NY6, R2, NYll, Af16,

and NY22 were sectioned vertically to measure C.

perfringens in the upper 10 cm of the sediment column

(Fig. 7). The first four of these stations are considered

highly depositional while sediments from station NY22,

east of the Christiaensen Basin, consist of coarse sands.

The relative differences in C. perfringens concentrations

among the three replicate stations (i.e. the concentrations at NY6>R2>NYl1) seen in the surficial sediment time series (Fig. 4) are also evident in the buried

sediment layers (Fig. 7). At NY6 and R2, spore concentrations increased sharply, nearly 10-fold, from the 0.5

cm sample to the 1.5 cm sample. A more gradual, but

comparable vertical increase in spore concentration

was found at NYl1. Low spore concen trations were

observed at station NY22, only 7.4 km from the northwest corner of the sludge dumpsite. There is indication

of an increase in spore concentration from 1.5 to. 3.5

cm below surface. The coarse sandy sediment at NY22

limited the penetration of the grab to 4 cm, preventing

a more complete depth profile.

Discussion

Comparisons with Other Studies

The highest concentrations of C. perfringens spores in

sediments were found not within the sewage sludge

dumpsite but in the adjacent Christiaensen Basin. This

finding agrees with earlier reports by Cabelli and

Pedersen (1982) and Graikoski (1982). The highest

spore count of our study, 4.75 x 105 g-l, was found at

station NY6 during the reduced dumping period in

April 1987. This surpasses levels measured in more

enclosed, sewage-polluted coastal systems in the United

States, such as Boston Harbor, MA (7.9 x 104); Salem
Session Ill: Sediment Processes 121

c. perfringens Spores

in sediments

Apr, 1987 Feb, 1988

Mar, 1991

Figure 5

Contoured distributions of Clostridium perfringens spores in surficial sediments (Log10 count/g sediment dry

weight) during broadscale surveys in April 1987, February 1988, April 1989, and March 1991. The value

contoured at stations NY6, R2, and NYll (see Fig. 3) is the mean count from triplicate field samples; the results

from single grab samples are used for the remaining sites. The boxes indicate the locations of the sewage sludge

and dredge material dumpsites (see Fig. 3).

c. Per/ringens Spores

6~---~---~~------,------~----,

5

NY6

R2

NY!!

Log Count / g Sediment (dry wt.)

3 4

c. per/ringens Spores

April,1991

2

0+--------+------+--------+--------,

·8

-2

!

-4 ...

o

c

-6 ...

til

IL-__~--'--- -'- --'--- '-__-J

o 20 40 60 80 100

% of Study Area (350 Ian')

5 4 I···························,················· : . . l··········,,·-9""

§

""

01)

3

§

8

gJ'

...J 2

Figure 6

Cumulative plot of the percent of the study area versus

Clostridium perfringens spore concentration. The computed areas were derived by integrating the contoured

distributions of C. perfringens measured during

broadscale surveys in April 1987, February 1988, April

1989, and March 1991.

·!O-'--------------------------.J

Figure 7

Vertical profiles of the concentration of Clostridium

peifringens spores in sediments from selected stations

sampled in April 1991 ,3.3 years following the cessation

of sludge dumping.
122 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Harbor, MA (5.7 x 104 ); and Raritan Bay, NJ (2.4 x 104 )

(O'Connor2). The only sediments reported to exceed

levels in the Christiaensen Basin are those from Black

Rock Harbor, off New Haven Harbor, Conn., which

had 3-6 x 106 g-l of C. perfringens and a "strong asphalt

and hydrogen sulfide smell." (Graikoski3).

During earlier studies of the NY Bight, Cabelli and

Pedersen (1982) observed the highest C. perfringens

concentrations (1-2 x 105 g-l) at a site near stations

NY6 and A20 (Fig. 3). This compares very favorably

with a number ofvalues measured at station NY6 (1-2 x

105 g-l), during the reduced dumping period (Fig. 4).

The lowest spore concentration (75 g-l) was observed

during the last broadscale survey, in the northeast corner ofour sampling area (Fig. 5). This value approached

the range (10-50 g-l) found in offshore areas ofthe NY

Bight, outside the Hudson ShelfValley, and on Georges

Bank (Cabelli et aI., 1984).

Contamination from sludge dumped at the 12-mile

site has not been limited to the Christiaensen Basin or

the apex. Clostridium perfringens spore concentrations

decrease progressively down the axis of the Hudson

ShelfValley towards the 200 m isobath, at the mouth of

the Hudson Canyon (Cabelli and Pedersen, 1982;

Graikoski, 1982; Davis et aI., 1995). Even 100 km from

the dumpsite, spore concentrations in the valley exceeded 100 g-l sediment, or 10 times the "background"

value. In part, this "far field" sewage contamination is

the result of resuspension (Davis et aI., 1995) of contaminated sediments from the Christiaensen Basin and

subsequent down-valley transport during storm-induced

flows (Manning, 1995). Other processes may augment

the concentration ofsewage contaminants along the axis

of the Hudson ShelfValley, such as the trapping ofspores

and fine particulate matter from the sewage sludge and

estuarine plumes and from water flowing southwest over

the valley (Beardsley et aI., 1976; Ingham et aI., 1982).

Earlier field studies of coastal sewage sludge dumpsites

primarily used total and fecal coliforms as indices of

sewage pollution. To our knowledge, C. perfringens has

not been used previously to follow the detailed course

of recovery of other sludge dumpsites. Direct comparisons with data from this study are not available, with the

following exception. In 1985, five years after the Philadelphia sewage sludge dumpsite was closed, concentrations of 5-6 spores g-l were measured in surficial

sediments in the dumpsite by Duncanson et al. (1986).

They attributed the exceptionally low values to cleaner

2 O'Connor, T. National Status and Trends Benthic Surveillance

Project, National Ocean Service, NOAA, Rockville, MD. Pers.

commun., March 1992.

Graikoski,j. T. 1984. Distribution of C. pl!1fringensand Vilniospp. in

the northwest Atlantic, 1983. Annual progress report, Northeast

Monitoring Program (NEMP). Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods

Hole, MA.

sediments that were transported to the dumpsite from

the mouth of the Delaware River.

Although different microbial tracers were used to

follow recovery at the Philadelphia and 12-mile

dumpsites, it is worth contrasting responses following

the closure of these sites. Studies of the recovery of the

Philadelphia sewage sludge dumpsite demonstrated that

microbial indicators of sludge were present at the site

during and after dumping, and tended to decrease with

distance from the dumpsite (Devine and Simpson,

1985a). Studies conducted during the last year ofdumping (1980) and during the following three years, revealed a pattern of higher total coliforms in sediments

in the topographic low areas formed by the mesoscale

ridges and swales (Devine and Simpson, 1985b). Based

on findings of total and fecal coliform contamination in

sediments (O'Malleyetal., 1982), the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration (FDA), in 1976, prohibited shellfishing in

a 71 km2 area centered over the dumpsite. In 1984, this

area was reopened to shellfishing, following surveys showing detectable but low levels of coliform bacteria.

Important differences exist, however, between the

Philadelphia site and the 12-mile site. The period of

dumping sewage wastes at the Philadelphia site was

much shorter (1973-1980), the volume dumped much

less (4.11 x 106 m3), the site was farther offshore (about

50 km), and over deeper water (about 50 m) compared

with the 12-mile site (64 yr; 125 x 106 m3; 20 km; 22 m).

Furthermore, the Philadelphia site does not have a

nearby deep depression such as the Christiaensen Basin. Consequently, no evidence of significant sludge

accumulation or very degraded sediments was found at

the Philadelphia site (Devine and Simpson, 1985b).

This is in sharp contrast with our findings for the 12-

mile dumpsite.

Temporal Trends Related to

Sewage Sludge Dumping

Decreases in the concentrations of C. perfringens in

surficial sediments at all three replicate stations were

significantly correlated with time elapsed since the reduced dumping period (Table 1), and paralleled the

decreasing trends in metals (Zdanowicz et aI., 1995),

organic contaminants (Deshpande and Powell, 1995)

and increasing redox potential (Draxler, 1995). These

temporal trends and the extensive areal changes observed at broadscale stations are largely the consequence

of cessation of sludge dumping. Other possible causes

for these changes seem improbable. Spore inactivation

in situ or during sample storage, leading to germination failure during the laboratory assay, seems an unlikely explanation for the observed temporal decreases

at the replicate stations. Studies of the effect ofstorage
of sediments at 4·C and below freezing revealed insignificant changes in spore viability over 48 months following collection (Duncanson et aI., 1986). Because C.

perfringens spores are reported to survive well in sediments and are viable up to at least 300 yr (Granberg,

1983), it seems also unlikely that a large fractional

reduction in viability of spores would occur during the

few years following abatement ofsludge dumping. However, the relationship between germination efficiency

and age of the spores is not known. Bottom temperatures >20·C could force germination ofspores and subsequent mortality (or grazing losses) of the resulting

vegetative cells (assuming that these vegetative cells in

turn do not sporulate). The 1986-1989 monthly record

of bottom temperature shows peak temperatures reaching 17·C in September. Bottom temperature measured

by current meters deployed at sites in the basin near

station NY6 briefly approached 19·C during five days in

September 1989 (Mountain and Arlen, 1995). Because

bottom temperatures did not exceed 20·C in the deeper

portions of the Christiaensen Basin, temporal changes

in C. perfringens at the replicate stations do not appear

to be confounded by temperature effects. However,

this could potentially be a contributing factor in the

diminution of spore counts during the post-dumping

period in the shallow areas flanking the Christiaensen

Basin which experience temperatures above 20·C

(Mountain and Arlen, 1995). Loss ofspores from grazing by microfauna is also possible; however, to our

knowledge, no information exists concerning in situ

grazing on C. perfringens spores.

Factors Influencing the Distribution of C. peifringens

Devine et al. (1986) compared the rates of loading and

the local and regional tendencies of eight coastal sludge

dumpsites (NYBight, Thames, Firth ofClyde, Liverpool

Bay, German Bight, Bristol Channel, Lyme Bay, and

Plymouth) to accumulate sludge particles. Though the

12-mile site received the largest loadings of sludge solids, as much as 80% of the sludge dumped annually at

the 12-mile site is dispersed away from the site (Devine

et aI., 1986). Despite this high rate ofdispersion, the NY

Bight has the highest estimated index of regional accumulation ofsludge contaminants owing to the proximity of sludge dumping to the depression formed by the

Christiaensen Basin and the Hudson ShelfValley. Based

on the distribution of the ratio of carbohydrate/total

organic carbon in sediments, Hatcher and Keister (1976)

stated: "[that] sewage is being dispersed throughout

the apex and that it accumulates mostly in topographic

lows." In these areas, the sediments are black silt, or

black silty sands with elevated organic carbon between 1%

and 4% (Hatcher and McGillivary, 1979). Thus, bottom

Session III: Sediment Processes 123

topography in the NYBight plays an important role in the

deposition and retention ofsewage-derived contaminants.

Cabelli and Pedersen (1982) observed that C. perfringens concentrations increased with bottom depth in

the area north of our station A20 (Fig. 3), between the

northern portion of the Christiaensen Basin and the

Long Island coast. The rate of increase was approximately 0.23 10giO C. perfringens m-I . A similar sporebathymetric association is evident in our data, which

partially overlap the area surveyed byCabelli and Pederson,

and include sediments east and west of the Christiaensen

Basin and along its major axis. Spore concentration was

correlated directly with increasing bottom depth. The

functional linear regression slopes (Ricker, 1973; Laws

and Archie, 1981) of the 10glO of spore concentration

versus depth are 0.25, 0.23, 0.21, and 0.18 m-I

, respectively, for broadscale surveys in 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1991

(Fig. 8). The slopes computed using the "least squares y"

regression method were systematically lower (Fig. 8; see

LSxy and LSy). The decrease in the regression slope over

the four years results from disproportionately larger decreases in spore concentrations at the most contaminated

sites than at the least contaminated sites.

Obviously, bottom depth does not explain all spatial

variation in spore concentrations, otherwise stations

NY6, R2, and NYll, which are between 26 and 30 m,

would have comparable levels of spores, even though

they are 1.4, 4.1, and 11.1 km from the northwest corner of the dumpsite. Indeed, Cabelli and Pedersen

(1982) observed that C. perfringens concentrations decreased with increasing distance from the sewage sludge

dumpsite. Sewage sludge particulates are very fine, constitute about 2-8% of the sludge by weight (Santoro

and Fikslin, 1987) and are diluted rapidly, several thousandfold, shortly after dumping (Calloway et aI., 1976;

Proni et aI., 1976). In situ observations by divers indicate that the coarser fraction of the sludge may reach

the bottom rapidly near the dumpsite (PhoeI4). In general, however, the slow settling rate of the fine particulate matter results in further dilution as it is transported

away from the dumpsite by ambient currents (Draxler,

1979; Devine et aI., 1986).

We explored statistically this distance-spore relationship using the broadscale survey data shown in Figure

5. Temporal changes evident in this series and in the

replicate time-series (Fig. 4) were also considered. Accordingly, the statistical model assumes that variations

in the concentration of C. perfringens should be related

to bottom depth, distance from the sludge dumpsite,

and time elapsed since the reduced dumping period.

Analysis of variance of this model indicates that the

independent variables, bottom depth, and distance from

4 Phoel, W. National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Silver Spring,

MD. Pers. commun.,june 1991.
124 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

c. perfringens Spores

6 ,

Apr, 1987 j.A

..,/ A

Feb, 1988 .,~ 5 A~ A" A' ..,/ A

4 <~ A 4 ..,.

t A 4/ A A

3 A

A

'-' R=O.68 ..... 2 R=O.66

s= LSxy - Y = -3.51 + 0.25(X) LSxy Y = -2.69 + 0.23(X)

.5 LSy ... Y=-1.21 +0.17(X) LSy Y = -0.50 + 0.15(X)

"'0 1

6

CZl

bO Apr, 1989 A Mar, 1991

- 5

§

0 4 U

bO

0 A A

....J 3

t

2 R=O.77 R=O.61

LSxy- Y = -2.49 + 0.21(X) LSxy Y = -1.67 +0.18(X)

LSy Y = -Lll + 0. 16(X) LSy Y = 0.26 + 0. 11(X)

1

15 35 55 15 35 55

Bottom Depth (m)

Figure 8

The relationship between Clostridium perfringens spore abundance in surficial sediments versus bottom depth during

broadscale surveys in April 1987, February 1988, April 1989, and March 1991. (Observations at -57 m, station A56,

were excluded from the regression analyses; refer to text). LSy: least squares Yregression; LSxy: functional regression.

the northwest corner of the sludge dumpsite collectively accoun t for 59% of the total variance (Table 2).

The third independent variable, years elapsed since

1986, explains an additional 4% of the total variance.

The results from this model are highly significant (P =

0.0001). The estimates ofthe regression slopes for each

of the independent variables in the model are also

highly significant Therefore, over the entire study area,

C. perfringensspore concentrations increase 10-fold with

an 7.8 m increase in bottom depth, decrease 10-fold

over a distance of 11 km from the northwest corner of

the sludge dumpsite, and will decrease 10-fold over the

11 yr following cessation.

Other Sources of Variability

The vertical gradients in C. perfringens spores found at

depositional stations in the Christiaensen Basin, 3.3 yr

following the closure ofthe dumpsite, suggest that spore

concentrations (and other sewage contaminants) in

surficial sediments may increase temporarily in these

areas following major storms which erode the surficial

layer. The thickness of the sludge-contaminated layer

was not routinely gauged. However, based on a single

survey in April 1991, a layer of highly contaminated

sediments, at least 8-9 cm thick, was present at several

sites in the Christiaensen Basin. The sludge-contaminated layer is probably much thicker in some areas of

the basin. Measurements of coprostanol, a fecal sterol,

in sediment cores taken near NY6 during the mid1970's demonstrated a highly sewage-enriched stratum

extending from surface to a depth of 36-39 cm (Hatcher

and McGillivary, 1979). The sustained elevated levels of

C. perfringens found a few centimeters below the sediment surface in the Christiaensen Basin are concordant with the data of Reid et al. (1991) who reported

that the concentration of tomato seeds (a marker of
Session ill: Sediment Processes 125

Table 2

Model of C. perfringens concentrations in sediment as a linear function of bottom depth, distance from the northwest

corner of the sewage sludge dumpsite, and time elapsed since 1986.

Dependent Variable I:

Independent Variables:

Analysis of Variance

Source

Model

Error

LoglO C. perfringens spores / g sediment (dry weight).

Bottom Depth (m); Distance from rw corner of the sewage sludge dumpsite (km); Yearsl986 (decimal years

elapsed since IJanuary 1986).

Mean Dep. Correlation

DF Square FValue Prob>F Mean Squared

3 20.192 50.33 0.0001 3.491 0.559

119 0.401

Parameter Estimates of the Linear Regression ModeI2

Partial'

Variable Estimate Std. Error T for Ho Prob>ITI Correlation

Intercept 0.714 0.457 1.561 0.1211

Bottom Depth(m) 0.129 0.014 9.127 0.0001 0.412

Distance (km) -0.090 0.017 -5.061 0.0001 0.177

Years1986 -0.091 0.039 -2.330 0.0215 0.044

I Station A56 was excluded from this analyses (refer to text).

2 Statistics of the model were computed using the REG (Type II) procedure (SAS Institute Inc. 1988). (DF = degrees of freedom; T for

Ho = Student's T test of the null hypothesis that the estimated parameter is zero; Prob> = probability of a larger value of ITI).

3 Partial correlations (Type II model) are squared. The covariance of estimates were essentially zero for all combinations of the

independent variables.

sewage sludge contamination) in grab samples remained

unchanged at NY6 following the cessation of sludge

dumping. (Since the entire Smith-McIntyre grab sample

is sieved, and depths of 10-12 cm are typically sampled,

any changes in the tomato seed count in the surface

veneer will be masked in the total seed count for the

grab.) Trace metal concentrations also persisted at high

levels in subsurface (5 cm) sediments while metal concentrations in the surficial layer at NY6 decreased significantly (Zdanowicz et aI., 1995). Therefore, high

concentrations of spores, comparable to the elevated

levels recorded during dumping, may be observed episodically until the highly contaminated stratum is totally

eroded or permanently capped with cleaner sediments.

An example of an elevated spore count event due to

an erosion episode may have happened in early 1988. A

major storm occurred 12-16 February 1988, during

which wind speed reached about 40 knots (20.4 m/s).

Wind speed was sustained at 33 kt (17 m/s), from the

northeast, over 26 h beginning 13 February. Current

meters were not operating during this event (Manning,

1995). However, Manning5 suggests that this was potentially one ofthe more significantsediment resuspension

5 Manning,J. Northeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine

Fisheries Service, NOM, Woods Hole, MA. Pers. commun., March 1992.

events during the study, surpassing the May 1987 storm.

If the surficial layer in depositional areas was resuspended by the February storm and the more contaminated substratum was exposed, then perhaps the

increases in spore concentrations measured in early

1988 at R2 (Fig. 4) are explained by this mechanism.

However, similar increases in spores, expected at NY6

and NYl1, were not obvious (Fig. 4).

Major storms, such as the February 1988 event, may

also generate temporal variability in spore concentrations in surficial sediments flanking the basin. This

would result from the resuspension of contaminated

sediments in the basin and their subsequent deposition

onto the less-polluted surrounding sea floor. Prior to

the February 1988 storm, spore concentrations at eight

of the 11 sites sampled (A6, NY3, R1, R5, A19, A20,

NY6, A56, M54, NYl1, and R2) were lower than those

measured during the 1987 survey, whereas 8 of the 14

remaining stations sampled after the storm (A44, A50,

M31, M49, NY22, R6, A13, A41, A43, A54, M109, NYS,

R3, and R4) had higher counts than in 1987. The

greatest relative increases were on the seaward (east)

side of the Christiaensen Basin (Fig. 5). The overall

effect of this storm is reflected as an increase in the

cumulative area having intermediate (about 1 x 103) C.

perfringens concentrations (Fig. 6).
126 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

McFeters and Stuart, 1972; Verber, 1976; Sawyer, 1988).

But longer survival times may occur in organically rich

matrices such as "tar balls" (Katz, unpubl.).

Following the temporal pattern expected as a consequence of their reduced longevity in the marine environment, total and fecal coliform concentrations in

surficial sediments at NY6, R2, and NYl1 decreased

markedly after inputs ofsewage sludge ceased (Fig. 9).

NY6

R2 , , , ..---_._.-_._-,-------------_.,-----_._._-----,.--------------

1

100

1000

1000

Colifonns in Sediments

Total (MPN/g wet wt.) Fecal

10000,-------:-:--T..,.:--~--~--____r100

:£> i ----------.-~-.-------------~--------------

o Total

---------D-~---~-..S;,O!---;---....-...... • FecaJ 10

.~ : :

10 ---------Oo:------o-o--P--------------f·------··---·-

: 0 <!.l: 1

! : O! --------------:-----·------O;6-···-··-··-·f --------------

: : : q;>

1i~o 1 _

0.1 +----+-----<>-J.r--=i!Se@!Ie<!e~tHi!!>-~ m:e!>t-O.l

10000 100

Spatial differences in the rate of sedimentation may

explain some of the variability observed during our

study. Based on vertical profiles of coprostanol and the

observation that total organic carbon in sediment cores

decreased with increasing depth and with the reduced

volumes of sludge dumped in the 1950's and 1960's

(Fig. 2), Hatcher and McGillivary (1979) concluded

that sewage contamination dominated sedimentation

in the Christiaensen Basin during the past several decades. Bopp et al. (1995) measured the net rate of fineparticle accumulation in the Christiaensen Basin

(stations NYS, NY6, A41, A56; Fig. 3) and at adjacent

sites in the upper Hudson Shelf Valley. Based on their

measurements of the depth to which 137Cs was found,

these areas accumulated between 12 and 21 cm of

sediment since the early 1950's, except A56, which accumulated between 40 and 200 cm in the several cores

taken. This exceptionally high rate of sedimentation

may explain the lower-than-expected C. perfringens concentrations observed consistently at A56 (Fig. 8). In

addition to presumably receiving lower amounts ofsewage-derived particulate matter than stations closer to

the sludge dumpsite (e.g. NY6), sewage particulate matter reaching A56 was probably diluted with large

amounts of non-sewage particles during deposition.

Bopp et al. (1995) suggest the dredge material dumpsite

as the likely source of these sediments.

0.1

Microbial Tracers of Sewage:

Coliforms versus C. peifringens

Although not used routinely as a criterion for public

health and shellfish quality, C. perfringens levels are

correlated positively with fecal coliform concentrations

in sediments (Watkins and Cabelli, 1985). The distribution of coliforms in sediments in the vicinity of the 12-

mile site during a 1971 survey by FDA (Verber, 1976) is

similar, at a coarse scale, to the general pattern observed for C. perfti.ngens during the four broadscale

surveys. Coliform concentrations were highest (l x 103

Most Probable Number [MPN] g-l) around the

dumpsite and immediately west, in the Christiaensen

Basin, and decreased three orders of magnitude 11 km

away from the dumpsite. The most obvious difference is

that coliform concentrations were usually elevated within

the dumpsite whereas concentrations of C. perfringens

were not. As mentioned earlier, C. perfringens spores

may survive at least 300 yr and are, therefore, excellent

conservative tracers of past as well as recent sewage

pollution (Duncanson et aI., 1986). Because survival

times of fecal coliforms in marine environments are

relatively short, ranging from hours to weeks

(Gunnerson, 1988), their presence would indicate only

relatively recent sewage contamination (Gordon, 1972;

10

100 ------ -------~-- ---- --------- -.....--------of--------------

1<0 i 1

10 t--..--------o--:----CO--------j------....-----~-------.----- . • ' , 1 b·: :

0.1

11·~r:O'~~ e. • @0.1

10000-.----~--~-------.100

1 NY 11

1000 r----------------i---------------j---------------f-------------- , . , , , , . , ,

: : : 10

100 r- ------- ------ -1-- -.--..-- ----- j-----......-- --f -----------..-

: <Ii>: 1

10 r----------------:---------.-----{-.-------------~.------------- :.: : 1

1 ------------cl&---------J--------------!----------?-- : : : 0

..--..0 ilJ JiO ! 0 ____ """.. • • • 0.1

1986 1987 1988 1989

Figure 9

Changes in the concentration offecal and total coliforms

in surficial sediment at replicate stations NY6, R2, and

NYIl during the reduced dumping (1986-87) and postdumping (1988-) periods. Data provided by W. Watkins,

US FDA, Davisville, RI.
The temporal patterns for these two sewage indicators

were parallel. Moreover, their rates of decrease were

considerably faster than the declines in C. perfringens

abundance (see Fig. 9 and Fig. 4). Total coliform levels

approached 10,000 g-I and fecal coliforms approached

100 g-I at station NY6 during the reduced dumping

period. A few months following cessation, many of the

observations were near or below the detection limit

«0.2 g-I). Similar relative decreases were observed at

R2 and NYl1, although the detection limit was reached

earlier, during the reduced dumping period. The trend

at station NY6 also suggests that coliform abundance

decreased in response to the reduced volumes ofsludge

dumped during 1987 (Fig. 2).

It is also important to note that while sludge dumping was occurring, total and fecal coliform counts decreased more rapidly with distance from the dumpsite

than did C. peifringens counts. Coliforms decreased approximately 100- to 1000-fold from NY6, near the

dumpsite, to NYl1, 11 km away. This spatial gradient is

quite similar to that observed during the 1971 survey

described above and contrasts sharply with the relatively modest 30-fold decrease in C. perfringens over this

distance. Again, these comparisons demonstrate that C.

peifringens is a more conservative, persistent tracer of

sewage contamination.

The few positive, but very low, coliform counts (total

and fecal) observed after 1988 may indicate prolonged

survival of coliforms in extremely organically enriched

microenvironments present in the Christiaensen Basin.

Alternatively, these spikes may indicate episodic sewage

pollution from the estuarine plume, from vessels using

the NY Harbor, or from the mobilization of recently

dredged estuarine sediments deposited at the dredge

material dumpsite. Resolution of this issue is not possible with the data at hand. Analysis of satellite images

of turbidity (Fedosh and Munday, 1982) and the inshore-offshore salinity gradient off Long Branch, NJ

(see Introduction to sediment processes), indicate that

the estuarine plume closely hugs the NJ coast as it

enters the NY Bight. Nevertheless, since it was observed

at or beyond the 12-mile site 12% of the time, neither

the plume nor the other sources mentioned above can

be ruled out as the cause of the coliform spikes.

Inputs to the NYBight ofcoliforms from the HudsonRaritan Estuary are estimated to be more than 100

times the inputs released by dumping ofsewage sludge

(Mueller et aI., 1976). However, the rapid reductions in

both total and fecal coliforms and the decreases in

concentrations of C. peifringens spores in surficial sediments, following abatement of sludge dumping, provides an a posteriori demonstration that sewage sludge

dumping had a disproportionately large influence in

the contamination of sediments in this area. Apparently, the estuarine plume played a relatively minor

Session Ill: Sediment Processes 127

role in the microbial contamination ofthe Christiaensen

Basin. The persistence of elevated concentrations of C.

perfringens spores, several years following the cessation

of sludge dumping, and their strong signature in buried sediments in the Christiaensen Basin, demonstrates

that sewage sludge strongly dominated the chemical

contamination of these sediments. Metal distributions

support this interpretation. Zdanowicz (1991) observed

the highest lead values in buried sediments immediately adjacent to the northwest corner of the sludge

dumpsite, where most of the sludge dumping took

place. During dumping, elevated levels of lead were

also found in surficial sediments over the sewage

dumpsite, reflecting recent sewage inputs. In contrast,

analyses of metals in the buried sediment (5 cm stratum) revealed a general distribution pattern centered

over the basin and relatively low lead concentrations in

the sewage sludge dumpsite. Thus, during dumping, a

number of indicators of sewage sludge contamination

were found in the fine-medium sands (Freeland et aI.,

1976) within the dumpsite, but because this area did

not efficiently sequester fine particulate organic matter

and associated contaminants, only moderate concentrations of contaminants were incorporated into the

buried sediment layer. On the other hand, the depositional nature ofthe Christiaensen Basin and its proximity to the sludge dumpsite resulted in efficient retention,

concentration, and incorporation of organic matter

and associated sewage sludge contaminants into the

muddy sediments in the basin.

Forecast

Background concentrations of C. peifringens in surficial

sediments from the outer NY Bight continental shelf,

outside the Hudson ShelfValley, or from Georges Bank

are 10-20 spores g-I (Cabelli and Pedersen, 1982).

Data from the present study suggest that the "recovery

time," i.e. the time when the highly sewage-contaminated surficial sediments in the Christiaensen Basin

reach these levels, will be 15-20 years after the closure

of the site (Fig. 4). This is obviously a very rough approximation based on an extrapolated period triple the

length of the period over which we have data. It remains the task of future monitoring to evaluate the

accuracy ofthis simple forecast based on extrapolation.

Presumably there are several major mechanisms generating the observed reductions in Clostridium perfringens

spore concentrations in surface sediments following

the cessation of sewage sludge dumping. The relative

importance of these will vary spatially and temporally.

In strongly depositional areas of the Christiaensen Basin, decreases in sediment spore concentrations would

result from gradual dilution with cleaner NYBight apex
128 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

"background" sedimen t that is deposited from the overlying water column and would result from episodic

burial under less polluted sediments resuspended from

the upper Hudson Shelf Valley and flanking areas during storm even ts (Manning, 1995). In areas characterized as weakly depositional, where the accumulation of

moderate levels of sludge contaminants during dumping was more related to the proximity to the dumpsite

than to a strong net deposition tendency, perhaps the

dominant process is the gradual winnowing of finegrained particulates and associated spores and contaminants. Along the eastern periphery of the basin,

where one expects only a relatively thin lens of contaminated sediments to have accumulated during dumping, perhaps storm-related erosion of the entire

contaminated stratum will be the dominant mechanism ofsediment depuration.

We suggest that the temporal variability in spore

concentrations will continue to be large. Major storms

will probably scour or remove the "improving" surficial

layer at muddy, depositional sites, exposing the relatively higher counts in the subsurface layer and, simultaneously, will export and overlay contaminated

sediments onto cleaner sandy sediments found outside

the basin and in the Hudson Shelf Valley. These

resuspension events would be followed by periods of

improvement resulting from deposition and vertical

mixing of cleaner sediments into the sediment column.

A more strict operational definition of "recovery time"

would be when the entire sludge-contaminated stratum, not merely the surface layer, is either exported

from the basin or capped by cleaner sediments such

that the contaminants are beyond the reach of storms

and biological mixing by benthic animals.

Future studies of the recovery ofthe NYBight should

quantifY the vertical distribution and thickness of the

sewage-contaminated layer and the dynamic processes

operating differentially in the various sedimentary, biological, and topographic regimes. Clostridium perfringens

spores appear to be a very reliable, persistent, and

specific indicator of sewage pollution, useful in such

characterizations and in understanding the influences

that a variety of sediment processes have in determining residual sewage sludge contamination and the rate

ofsediment depuration.

Acknowledgments

We greatly appreciate the assistance by Captain F.

Farwell, and Mate S. Kingsley of the R/V KYMA. We

thank W. Watkins for providing coliform data; T.

Finneran for providing sediment dry/wet weight conversion factors; L. Arlen, S. Leftwich Cunneff, and R.

Singer for their extremely competent technical assistance; R. Pikanowski and C. Meise for statistical assistance; P. Fournier and S. Fromm for their assistance in

data management; and Anne Studholme and anonymous reviewers for their comments.

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________________________________ Session ill: Sediment Processes 131

Audience QJ1estions

Question: Is it fair to say that Clostridium perfringens

are viable in terms ofthe marine environment; that is to

say, is there really any likelihood of them vegetating in

the environment?

I. Katz: Yes, these Clostridium perfringens spores are

viable and can grow under the right temperature, reduced oxygen, and availability ofproper food elements.

These spores remain viable and can germinate after

long periods of time, if the specific conditions are

present. However, there is very little likelihood that

these vegetative conditions are met in the stressful marine environment at the 12-mile dumpsite.

Question: I had some limited data showing an astronomical rise in 1989 at one station. Your coauthor told

me that your group also found very high numbers in

1989, but I did not see it in the presentation. Did I miss

something?

I. Katz: No. What we are seeing is a slight decrease in

numbers; no particular rise in spore count, especially at

NY6. If you notice, the numbers were decreasing.

Question: You showed that at NY6 there was a constant

spore count regardless of the depth. How do you interpret that?

I. Katz: That's a good question which I really can not

answer in view of our findings.

J. O'Reilly: That is a good observation. The densities of

Clostridium spores a few centimeters down are nearly

identical to what they were in surface sediments during

active dumping in 1986. Getting back to the earlier

question, the Clostridium spores are indicators ofrecent

as well as old sewage contamination. Obviously they are

not an indicator of fresh sewage input except for that

which might be coming from the estuary. What we are

showing here, at least after December 1987, is essentially historical sewage contamination abating over time.

We did see some bacterial spikes, not in Clostridium but

in fecal coliform, in 1988 and 1989. Fecal coliforms are

viable anywhere from 2 to 50 days in the environment,

and are an indicator of recent sewage pollution.

Question: Did I understand correctly that in most of

the cores that you have looked at, the Clostridium densities increase with depth?

I. Katz: Yes, that is correct. It occurred at NYl1, slightly

at A56, R2, and NY6.

Question: And yet you are finding in at least the three

replicate stations that, as you uncover this sediment,

you are finding decreasing concentrations.

I. Katz: The replicate station samples were taken at

0.5 centimeters, i.e. surface samples. The core samples

were taken at one centimeter intervals.

Question: I understand, but as time goes by you are

looking at samples which were at depth. If! understand

correctly, as you go further into depth, spore counts

increase. Yet at least in these three stations you are

finding fewer spores.

I. Katz: It matters how and precisely where the samples

were collected. I do not know if you can really go back

to the exact location twice. The core samples and

surficial samples were collected at different time intervals, and what we might be seeing is movement of the

surficial layers by ocean currents.

J. O'Reilly: My interpretation ofthat paradox is that it

is giving us some insight into how deep in the sediment

layer changes are occurring. It would suggest to me that

the changes that Irwin's reported on in the last three

years are really very superficial; just the near-surface

sediments are being affected. If we were having rapid

excavation of surface sediments we would probably see

some sort of steady level and not a decrease in spores

over time. So the fact that we are seeing a time response, a decrease over time, suggests to me that there

is a winnowing and dilution of the surficial layers with

background sediments proceeding at a relatively slow rate.

Question: It seems to me that on average, at whatever

rate the erosion is occurring, if the generalization is

correct that the spore densities increase with depth,

you have to see more spores over a time. I wonder if one

explanation might be just the variability in sampling,

and that the three replicate stations either may not be

representative of all the others or perhaps we still do

not have a good picture ofthe average depth distribution.

J. O'Reilly: I think when you see some of the data

tomorrow, you may come away with the idea that there

is a differential rate of reworking of the sediments.

Certainly the top veneer is more vulnerable to

resuspension, winnowing and dispersion out of the area

than are sediments one or two centimeters down. Many

sediment variables show changes in the surface layer

and little or no change below surface.

I. Katz: I believe more work has to be done on core

samples if you are determining at what point the

Clostridium perfringensspores are no longer present. That

would be another interesting portion of the study.

Question: Do you have estimates of continuing inputs? I notice on the maps there were still high levels to
132 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

the west ofthe Christiaensen Basin and other estimates

of what might be movement in terms of suspended

sediments or in the dredge dumping spot. You may be

getting those levels going down at that point ifyou have

continued input. At what point are you going to still see

some continuing contribution?

J. O'Reilly: Concentrations in the Basin will reach a

point where, in time, they will be lower than perhaps

other significant sources of spores to the area, such as

the dredge dumpsite. I do not think we are at that point

yet. The responses in the Basin, I think, are pretty much

in reaction to turning off the sludge valve. We do have a

good signal-to-noise ratio to date, but we were not sure

whether the changes following cessation ofsludge dump-·

ing would be masked by other inputs. That is exactly

the nature of your question. I do not think we are

seeing that masking from other sources because the

changes are dramatic.

Question: I want to follow up on the previous suggestion. An alternate hypothesis to explain why you are not

getting the increased levels that you would expect on

those cores which have a long column is that they are

being diluted rather than having an erosional basis.

You are getting deposition and dilution of your spores

from sediments from outside somewhere.

J. O'Reilly: Certainly dilution as well as resuspension

and dispersion are operating, and we are not in a position to say what the relevant importance of each process is.
SESSIONm: Sediment Processes

Changes in Sediment Biogeochemistry Resulting from Cessation

of Sewage Sludge Dumping in the New York Bight

ANDREW F.J. DRAXLER

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

ABSTRACT

Redox potential (EH ), as an indicator of sediment biogeochemical characteristics, was

measured monthly at three stations during peak dumping, during the phasing out of

dumping, and following the cessation of dumping at an oceanic sewage sludge dumpsite in

the New York Bight. The stations were located 1.4, 4, and 11 km from the dumpsite.

Measurements of EH were also made less frequently at stations in the surrounding area.

Differences in EH among these stations varied with season, being greatest in summer. Values

at the stations nearest the dumpsite (NY6, R2) were usually lower than values at a reference

station (NYll). A significant increase in EH over time was related to the cessation of

dumping. A deterministic computer model of sediment biogeochemistry that considers

temperature, dissolved oxygen in the overlying water, and labile organic material successfully emulates the record of EH at NY6, the station nearest the dumpsite. Using the modeled

relationships, changes in sediment biogeochemistry are interpreted as being forced by

labile organic material availability. Presumably as a result of reduced loading, the area in

which sulfidic conditions were found at 0.5 em in the sediment (implied by EH<50 mV)

decreased from 77 to 4 km2 between 1983 and 1989. This exemplifies the substantial

changes in chemical conditions to which benthic animals were subjected in the New York

Bight in response to the cessation of dumping.

Introduction

Mter more than 60 years of dumping of sewage sludge

at the 12-mile site in the New York Bight apex (Fig. 1), a

phased cessation of dumping began in March 1986

when a new site (the Deep Water 106-mile Dumpsite),

190 km east of NewJersey, was brought into use. From

June 1986 toJuly 1987, the dumping rate at the 12-mile

site was approximately 70% of the full dumping rate,

and by 31 December 1987, all dumping ceased (Fig. 2).

The Environmental Processes Division (EPD) of the

Northeast Fisheries Science Center instituted a program to document changes in the environmental and

biological conditions in and around the 12-mile

dumpsite, which might result from the phase out and

cessation of sewage sludge dumping (EPD, 1988). Termination of dumping provided a rare opportunity to

study a large scale environmental perturbation. This

paper reports on the relation between stepped changes

in organic material loading to the sediment and biogeochemical responses, using measurements of redox

potential as the key chemical variable.

Redox potential indicates the potential of the components of a biogeochemical system to give up or take

up electrons. Measured as EH in a sediment, its value is

determined by the sum ofthe relative electron affinities

or contributions of the chemical species present in the

matrix (e.g. dissolved oxygen, iron, manganese, nitrate,

nitrite, sulfide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen) plus thejunction potentials of the measurement system. It may also

be viewed as a relative measure of "reducing" verses

"oxidizing" conditions. In this study redox potential is

employed in the sense summarized by Whitfield (1969),

where EH is used as a descriptor ofsediment characteristics to be correlated with chemical measurements

rather than an exact physicochemical variable indicating the availability of electrons. In the sense of a descriptor, it functions as an index of the chemical

condition of the environment that can be compared

with discrete measurements and animal community

133
134 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 ' _

Methods _

Figure 2

Scheduled phase out of sewage sludge dumping (data

from E. Santoro, USEPA, Region 11, Marine and Wetlands Protection branch, 26 Federal Plaza, New York,

NY 10278. Personal commun., Feb. 1988).

AMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJ

1986 I 1987 I 1988

~< ) Full I Phase Out Period

Dumping : -

Post

Dumping 111l

, ' , ' , : a SONDJF

1985 I

t'J 100

Z

0::: 80

::2:

6 80

IZ 40 llJ

U

ex: 20 llJ

[l.

40'20'·

•

, o kilometers 5......•

NY" .

27m

"---".

:- -----."..-'

Sandy Hook NJ

Figure 1

Study area in the New York Bight apex including

dumpsites, major bathymetric features, replicate stations (numbered), and broadscale stations.

composition over the period of dumping and during

the ecosystem response!.

This report will concentrate on EH values measured

at three stations during full dumping, during the phase

out period, and after the cessation of dumping. These

stations were selected to have different organic material loading from the sewage sludge dumping, based on

the distances from the designated dumping area (1.4,

4, and 11 km) and differences in water current effects

on sludge distribution, deposition, and resuspension.

In addition, broadscale observations made throughout

the New York Bight apex will be presented to examine

the spatial extent of changes related to the cessation of

dumping.

At the outset of the multidisciplinary part of the

study, a number of statements of anticipated changes

were generated (EPD, 1988). This work addresses the

following: 'The seasonal cycling of redox potential will

continue, but the lowest values in the surface sediments

(at 0.5 cm) will be -100 mV higher than current values

in the sludge deposition area."

1 The distinction is made between redox potential as the theoretical

measure of the electron demand or supply of a matrix compared

with EH which is the potential actually measured in a sample. EH

includes junction potentials, effects of poisons, etc. and is expressed relative to the hydrogen electrode. Hereafter, for purposes

of style, I will use the two interchangeably with the latter meaning

ofEw

Sampling

Biweekly sampling for sediment chemistry began at

stations NY6 and R2 (Fig. 1) in May 1983. In October

1983, the sampling frequency was reduced to monthly

and remained at that level through 1989 (though many

of the 1984 and 1985 data were lost in a laboratory fire

in September 1985). The multidisciplinary, multi-agency

part of this study began in July 1986 and continued

through November 1989 at three "replicate" stations

(NY6, R2, and NYU) that were sampled monthly. Station NY6 (1.4 km from the dumpsite) was chosen to

represent the area in the Christiaensen Basin where

sewage sludge was expected to accumulate most heavily;

R2 represented an enriched site in the Basin but removed (4 km) from the dumping area; and NYll was

considered a reference station, 11 km south of NY6.

These sites on the eastern side of the Hudson Shelf

Valley were selected to avoid, as far as possible, any

effects from the dredged material dumpsite. Possible

influence from dredged material was monitored yearly

by occupying closely spaced stations along three welldocumented transects (not included in this study;

Zdanowicz2) between the two dumpsites. Additionally,

21 stations surrounding the 12-mile dumpsitc and basin were sampled in even-numbered months to provide

synoptic broadscale data to determine the spatial extent of any changes (EPD, 1988).

Sediment samples were collected with a SmithMcIntyre grab deployed at 20-25 m/min and retrieved

at less than 10 m/min. If the sediment was coarse, upon

retrieval the grab was set in a receptacle containing

2 V. S. Zdanowicz, NMFS Sandy Hook Laboratory, Highlands, NJ

07732, pers. comm., 1988.
seawater to provide back pressure so that the interstitial

and overlying water could not drain. Disturbance ofthe

surface sediment and the overlying water due to the

ship's motion was minimized by placing four baffles

constructed of 7-cm diameter core liner in the grab

immediately after it was on board. The baffles were

inserted approximately 2 cm into the sediment and extended approximately 4 cm above the sediment surface.

Redox Measurements

Four vertical profiles of redox potential (measured as

EH ) were taken in each grab within one hour of sediment collection using a Fisher Scientific model 640

portable pH-millivolt meter. The instrument was calibrated to within 1 mV at 10, 100, and 1,000 mV using a

Cole-Palmer pH-mY calibrator (#5657-10). A platinum

electrode (Thomas Scientific #4096-D20) with a band

of platinum 6 mm diameter x 4 mm height was used as

the sample electrode. Depth in the sediment was measured to the center of the band except for the "zero"

reading which was made with the band just immersed

in the sediment. Measurements were made below the

sediment surface at 0.0 cm, 0.5 cm, and at one cm

intervals from 1.0 through 10 cm below surface. The

reference electrode was a Fisher Scientific (#13-639-

62) sleeve junction calomel electrode. This system was

calibrated using three ISFe(CN)6-K4Fe(CN)6 solutions

of differing redox potentials (ZoBell, 1946; Orion3).

Before measuring each profile, the electrode was first

equilibrated with the sediment at 10 cm in the grab,

then with the overlying water. Readings at each depth

interval were accepted when the rate of change was less

than 1 mV in 10 s. The average time to stability was

about 85 s but varied from essentially instantaneous to

more than 5 min. Measured mV readings were corrected to the hydrogen reference electrode scale by

adding 244 mV (Bagander and Niemisto, 1978). Each

value reported is the average of 12 measurements, four

EH values from each of three grabs.

Labile Organic Material Analyses

Estimates of labile organic carbon in sediments were

made by adding a 0.1 cm3 portion of sediment or (in

the standardization) 1 mL of D-glucose solution (0.42

to 1.26 mM) to one bottle in each pair of 3 sets of 300

mL biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) bottles which

had been simultaneously filled with surface sea water.

The seawater in the other bottle of each pair was left

3 Orion. 1983. Instruction manual. platinum redox electrodes. Orion

Research Inc., Cambridge, MA.

Session III: Sediment Processes 135

untreated and served as a blank. Samples and blanks

were then incubated for 13 d at 20°C and the amount of

oxygen remaining was determined by the azide modification of the Winkler titration (APHA, 1971) using

phenylarsine oxide in place of thiosulfate (Kroner et

aI., 1964). The amount of oxygen consumed by bacterial oxidation ofthe D-glucose was used to calculate the

labile carbon in the sediment on a "glucose"-carbon

basis from BOD13S where BODl3 is the biochemical

oxygen demand measured on samples incubated 13 d

in the manner of the standard BODs (APHA, 1971).

The value for Twas found to be 0.74 mmol D02/mmol

glucose-carbon. This may be compared to a theoretical

Chemical Oxygen Demand ratio of unity and is nearly

identical to the 13-d recovery (75%) oflong-term incubations (130 d). Formaldehyde-poisoned controls for

station NY6 averaged less than 8% of the value for

companion replicates that were not poisoned. Further,

the difference between poisoned sediment and poisoned water-only determinations was negative in over

30% of the determinations. Given this small effect,

values were not corrected for what is probably random

experimental error below the practical limit of

detection.

To estimate the carbon derived from settled phytoplankton material, the concentration of major plant

pigments in sediment was also measured. A 1 cm3 portion of sediment was placed in a glass vial and frozen

until analyzed. Pigments were extracted from sediments

overnight with 100% methanol, diluted to 50% with

water; the chlorophyll was then concentrated on a Cl8

column and eluted with 1.8 mL methanol. The extracts

(20.0 mL injection volume) were analyzed by isocratic

High Performance Liquid Chromatography using

methanol pumped at 1.0 mL/min. A Kratos Spectroflow

980 fluorescence detector was set for an excitation wavelength of 430 nm and the emission measured at a

wavelength of 550 nm. Methanol-based standards were

prepared using chlorophyll a obtained from Sigma Co.

Standards were kept frozen until used and analyses were

performed within 1 week after extraction during which

time all material were maintained in the dark at <4°C.

Statistical Procedures

A statistical technique of pseudo-replication over time

(Pikanowski, 1995) was used to test whether a variable

responded to the change in treatment (sewage sludge

dumping). For a given variable, differences were calculated between the value at the treatment station and a

reference station. The differences before the step

change in treatment were then compared with differences after the change. In practice this involved subtracting redox values measured at station NYll
136 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

(reference) from those at stations NY6 and R2 (treatments), then comparing the dumping period (1986-

1987) with the post-dumping period (1988-1989).

Results

Values ofEH measured at stations NY6, R2, and NYl1 at

0.5 cm depth in the sediment are portrayed in Figure 3.

Data from this depth are presented since they encompass the largest seasonal, station-to-station, and longterm variation and because 0.5 cm is the depth for

which a computer model simulation has been run.

The data forJanuary to September 1985 from station

NY6 and all data prior to October 1985 from all other

stations were lost in a laboratory fire. However, the

major features were noted (Draxler, unpublished) and

the general shape of the curve was known from hand

plotting ofthe data as they were collected. Consequently,

EH during this period is portrayed as a dotted line.

During each survey, with few exceptions, the EH was

lowest at station NY6 and highest at NYl1, with values

intermediate at R2 (Fig. 3). The lowest values at station

NY6 occurred in the summers of 1983 through 1985,

during full dumping, when EH values were typically

depressed for several months. In the summers of 1986

and 1987, EH was less than 0 mV during only one

month. The highest value observed at NY6 was measured

in February 1989,13 months after dumping stopped.

The lowest value at R2 was recorded in October 1985

(the first value after sampling was interrupted). The second lowest value occurred in the summer of 1986 during

the phase out period. The highest value was observed in

March 1989. The lowest value at NYl1 was recorded in the

summer of 1986 and the highest in January 1989.

The amplitude of the seasonal cycle in EH at both

NY6 and R2 appeared to have diminished in response

to moderate reductions (30%) in dumping. There was

a further decrease in 1988 and 1989 after dumping had

stopped; however, the role of unmeasured natural variations in amplitude cannot be totally excluded.

Results of the pseudo-replication-over-time statistical

analysis (Pikanowski, 1995) show that the redox potential at 0.5 cm in the sediment at station NY6 changed

significantly (a<O.OOl) as a result of the cessation of

dumping but that at station R2 it did not (a<0.6).

The lowest concentrations of biologically labile carbon in surface sediments were found in winter and the

highest values were observed during the warmer months,

although sporadic maxima were found at different seasons in different years (Fig. 4). There was a steady

decline in labile carbon concentration after dumping

stopped, with the lowest values of the study observed in

the final year sampled, 1989. Labile carbon, including

episodic, short-lived spikes, wasstrongly associated (?=0.27,

n=39) with variation in sediment chlorophyll a content

presumably due to the deposition ofphytoplankton material. Depositional spikes can be seen as being superimposed on an underlying "baseline" sediment labile carbon

availability. This baseline of labile carbon concentration

decreased from about 140 mmol/dm3 during dumping in

1984-1987 to about 60 mmol/dm3 in 1989 following cessation. Dissolved oxygen concentrations reached 77 mM

(2.4 mg/L) in 1989, the lowest value since the beginning

of sludge volume reductions in 1986 (Arlen et a1.4). In

4 Arlen, L. A., A. F. J. Draxler, and R. A. Bruno Jr. 1994. Hydrographic observations in the bottom water of the New York Bight at

the "12-mile" dumpsite: 1983-1990. Unpubl. manuscr., Northeast

Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, OAA,

Highlands, NJ 07732. (Submitted for publication as U.S. Dep.

Cammer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS.)

Dumping 'baseline'

3 ........,' ...;.._.\....... ...f 0

o+I----,----r---'---r-:---r'----"'---"r'---t- 0 B

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Year

200

600,....--------------------,

Figure 4

Labile carbon in sediment at station NY6 including

"baseline" levels during full dumping and following

cessation (see text for further explanation). The solid

line is labile carbon (left axis) and the dashed line is

chlorophyll a (right axis).

'? 500

E

D

400

oS

§ 300 .0

(ij

U

:0

C<l

---' 100

----------- ------r\~------­

f

f

300

>

S

>: 200

w

J

«

i= 100

z

w

b 0

Cl.

8-100 w

IX: Full Dumping Phase Out i Post Dumping -200..L...---,---.,,......-...-'-----.---j-----r---'

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Figure 3

Redox potential at 0.5 cm in sediment at three replicate

stations in the New York Bight Measurements from 1985

were lost in a laboratory fire. The general shape of the

distribution was known (see text), so 1985 data are portrayed

as a smooth (dotted) line.
contrast, dissolved oxygen minima at NY6 had not been

below about 125 mM during 1986-1988; however, before reductions in sludge dumping, values below 15

mM wer-e observed in summers of 1983-1985. The intense near-bottom dissolved oxygen gradients that characterized the full dumping period (prior to 1986) were

not observed following cessation (Mountain and Arlen,

1995). The 1989 minimum is within the range predicted in the Plan for Study (EPD, 1988) for postdumping conditions and probably reflects a general

lowering ofdissolved oxygen levels throughout the apex

due to water column processes (Swanson and Parker,

1988).

Discussion

Factors Influencing Sediment Biogeochemistry

The primary contributor to poising the redox potential

in sediment near the sediment-water interface, directly

or indirectly, is dissolved oxygen. Major factors governing the depth of penetration ofoxygen from the overlying water into a sediment profile include 1) sediment

porosity, 2) the rate of sediment microbiological metabolism, 3) the bottom water oxygen concentration

gradient, and 4) bioturbation (Walker, 1980;Jahnke et

al., 1982). Finer-grained sediments, higher microbial

rates, and lower oxygen concentrations in the overlying

water result in the lower boundary of the aerobic zone

occurring deeper in the sediment-water profile. The

seasonal movements of one biogeochemical reactant,

dissolved oxygen, are illustrated in Figure 5. In the

same way that the above factors affect dissolved oxygen

penetration, they also affect the vertical position of

concentration maxima of other chemical species, resulting in a continually changing array of oxidized and

reduced pairs throughout the sediment profile. The

presence and position of chemical species determines

the redox potential in that strata. Bioturbation also is

important in defining the distribution of chemical species (e.g. the introduction of oxygenated water deep

into the sediment by the irrigation of burrow tubes).

Since it was not measured and is intermittent in space

and time, bioturbation is assumed, perhaps incorrectly,

to produce higher average porosity in sediments.

Changes Accompanying Phase Out and Cessation

The primary question addressed here is whether the

chemistry of the sediment at the most contaminated

station (NY6) changed after dumping reductions began in March 1986. Several pieces of evidence from the

redox potential data suggest that it has. First, the maxiSession Ill: Sediment Processes 137

Oxygen Concentration (pM)

o 200 400

1

Depth

(mm)

o

-1

-2

-3

Figure 5

Fine-scale dissolved oxygen profiles in near bottom water

and sediment ofLong Island Sound (courtesy of]. Mackin

and R. Aller, State Univ. New York, Stony Brook, NY).

mum EH value observed at 0.5 cm depth in the sediment was recorded well after all dumping stopped (in

winter 1989) . Second, marked increases in the summer

minimum EH were observed. Third, the length of time

EH remained depressed «0 mV) changed from several

months in full dumping summers (1983-1985), to about

one month in 1986-1987, to not at all in 1988-1989.

Fourth, the fit between EH observed in the sediment

and EH calculated in a computer model, which is largely

driven by labile carbon loading from both sewage and

non-sewage sources, is quite good (see further discussion of model below). The modeled redox potentials

follow the pattern of maxima, minima, and periods of

depressed EH observed at the site. Finally, from the

statistical analysis, the probability of no change in EH

following abatement of dumping is <0.001. These

changes at NY6 parallel changes in trace metals

(Zdanowicz et al., 1995), organic contaminants

(Deshpande and Powell, 1995), and bacteria (O'Reilly et

al.,1995).

Change in the sediment chemistry is suggested at

station R2 as well. Similar to NY6, the highest EH value

at R2 was measured in winter 1989. The lowest existing
138 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

value for R2 was recorded in October 1985. (Given the

seasonal cycling observed throughout the study, the

1985 summer minimum was, presumably, equal to or

lower than the October value). Annual summer minima

were higher thereafter. This overall trend in summer

EH observations at R2 may also reflect a release from

the intense reducing conditions caused by the addition

of labile carbon from sewage sludge dumping, as at

NY6. However, the statistical analysis (pseudo-replication over time) of R2 relative to the reference station,

NYl1, indicates that EH conditions at R2 did not change

significantly with respect to the cessation of dumping

(P<0.6). No significant difference (change) may have

occurred if the effects of sludge dumping were essentially equal at R2 and the reference station NYl1, if

there was an area-wide event during the study, or if

seasonal variation masked the overall trend.

Because the statistical analysis (Pikanowski, 1995)

requires subtraction of the value at a reference station

from the value at each treatment station, there can be

only two independent tests using values from three

stations. One major assumption of the statistical test is

the establishment of station NYll as a "reference."

Presumably, it was not likely to change (due to the

treatment) following cessation of dumping. However,

redox potential atstation NYll increased between 1986

and 1989 (Fig. 3). An analysis of variance reveals that

the mean EH following cessation was higher than the

mean EH during dumping (Table 1). This brings into

question the suitability of NYll as a reference not affected by dumping. The change at NYll could be the

result of an area-wide change not related to the cessation of dumping or to a wide-area effect of cessation.

Neither is verifiable by the statistical analysis. On the

other hand, if dumping did alter conditions at NYl1,

the conclusion that NY6 changed as a result of cessation

is strengthened. Nevertheless, the EH values at the three

stations did converge following cessation toward values

currently observed at NYl1, as would be expected in

surface sediments under dissolved oxygen poising and

Table 1

Mean and standard deviation of EH before and after

cessation of sewage sludge dumping in the New York

Bight apex.

Before cessation After cessation

(Jul 1986-Dec 1987) (Jan 1988-NoY 1989)

STATION Mean EH' std. dey. Mean EH , std. dey.

NYU 245 43 286 22

R2 205 37 244 33

NY6 87 75 218 37

where the deposition of labile carbon does not vary

significantly. Such convergence should be, and is, most

apparent in winter when bacterial rates are reduced

and dissolved oxygen concentrations are increased because of greater water column mixing and solubility.

Other evidence comes from elevated levels of Clostridium

peifringens spores in surface sediments that declined

over time at station NYll and the precipitous decreases

in sediment coliform bacteria abundance at all three

replicate stations following cessation (O'Reilly et aI.,

1995). These are further indications that the increase

in redox potential at NYll was due to a reduction of

sewage sludge loading, even though the loading at NYll

was at a low level (relative to NY6) in the full dumping

period. It follows then that a change across the study area

did indeed occur and was related to changes in dumping.

Berner (1974) argued that the ecologically important organic material is the "potentially metabolizable

carbon," not the commonly measured total organic

carbon. The difficulty of measuring labile carbon results in limited data availability, though the concept of

biological lability is well established. Lability is a continuous scale from very labile to very refractory. The

former includes compounds such as simple sugars which

are transported readily across the cellular membrane

and enter the metabolic pathways of organisms. The

refractory category includes compounds like fulvic substances that have a half-life of thousands of years. Between these extremes, the class of compounds that

becomes available in time scales of months may be

considered the limit of ecological importance. While

the longer-lived compounds in this group may be considered part of the potentially metabolizable pool (at

least for coastal environments) and are available on

long ecological time scales, because oftheir slow rate of

release they form a background or basal pool upon

which are superimposed shorter-term events such as

phytoplankton deposition. Berner (1974, 1980) divided

sediment organic matter into three classes: G1, with a

half-life of a few days; G2, with a half-life of 1 year; and

G3, with a half-life greater than 100 years.

Excluding episodic, short-lived spikes, a steady decline in labile carbon concen tration was observed after

dumping stopped in December 1987 from a "baseline"

value of 140 mmol/dm3 in 1984-87 to about 60 mmol/

dm3 in 1989. There was also seasonal variation (with a

summer maximum), presumably from conversion of

refractory organic material in the sediment organic

material reservoir into a labile form. The transitory

nature ofspikes of decomposable organic material (having a half-life on the order of a week) is consistent with

G1 group material. The negative exponential decline

in baseline labile carbon observed between 1987 and

1989 is consistent with G2 material with a half-life on

the order of a year.
a Jul 1983

EH (mY)

350: 500

250: 350

200: 250

50: 200

-100: 50

-200: -100

-4D0: -200

b Aug 1989

EH (mY)

350: 500

250: 350

200: 250

50: 200

-100: 50

-200: -100

-4D0: -200

Session III: Sediment Processes 139

Figure 6

Redox potential at 0.5 em in sediment for a) July 1983 (full dumping) and b) August 1989 (18 months after

cessation of dumping).

Broadscale Changes

The results from the three replicate stations do not

address the question ofthe spatial extent ofthe control

that sewage sludge dumping had on sediment biogeochemical processes in the New York Bight apex.

The increased oxidation condition observed at the replicate stations after cessation was evident over a large

area. Generally, the near-surface sediments in the deeper

parts of the study area (the Christiaensep. Basin and

upper Hudson ShelfValley) were more strongly reducing than those in shallower water (Fig. 6a and b). If one

considers 50 mV to be an approximation of the highest

redox potential at which sulfide is expected, integrating the contoured area having values less than 50 mV

(at 0.5 cm in the sediment) for each of 20 broadscale

cruises, results in an estimate ofthe area that was sulfidic

on each cruise. That sulfidic area decreased from 77

km2 in 1983 to 4 km2 in 1989 (Fig. 7). Though not

rigorously testable, this large change parallels in time

the reduced loading due to the cessation of dumping,

though possible natural variations cannot be ruled out.

An idea of how long the buried organic material

from sewage sludge dumping will supply energy and,

therefore, affect sediment biogeochemistry can be inferred from a graphic extrapolation (negative exponential) based on the area of summer maxima. The

estimate will necessarily be imprecise because of variability in the data, as illustrated by the observation that

in 1986 the sufidic area in June was larger than in

August, while the reverse was true in 1988 and 1989.

The analysis suggests that the inferred sulfidic area will

disappear relatively rapidly. By 1990, the area was projected to have decreased to <5% of the measured maximum size. Using the annual maxima, the area was

projected to decrease to <1 % of the 1983 area by 1993.

If August values are used, the area was projected to

80 r------------------.

60 .

'"E

..:.::

L5 40

a:

«

20

o 7

1983

Figure 7

Integral of the area, during 20 broadscale surveys, in

which the redox potential was <50 mV at 0.5 em in

sediment. ote that for 11 of the surveys (Oct 1986;

Feb and Dec 1987; Feb, Apr, Jun, Oct, and Dec 1988;

Feb, Apr, andJun 1989) no values <50 mV were found.

decrease to <1 % of the 1983 area by 1996. Consequently, from three to nine years after the complete

cessation of dumping, the sulfidic area at 0.5 cm should

be virtually absent.

Sediment Biogeochemical Model

Beyond the test of change over time and the descriptive

analyses of the experiment, it is desirable to use the

data to better understand the mechanisms that relate

labile carbon to other sediment biogeochemical variables. One way of gaining insight into these complex

processes is to compare field observations with values
140 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

calculated by models that reflect the interaction of the

chemical moieties and to interpret the parameters that

cause the models to emulate the actual observations.

There are three areas ofinterest: 1) the relative magnitudes of sources of sediment labile carbon; 2) the control exerted by labile organic matter on sediment

biogeochemical processes; and 3) the utility of EH in

following natural sediment processes or, as in this case,

those related to environmental perturbations. A deterministic computer model of surficial sediment biogeochemistry (Fig. 8; Draxler, 1988) was developed

based on observations conducted during dumping in

order to project possible tr<yectories of the sediment

system following cessation (after 1987). This model can

be used as a conceptual framework within which to

understand the operation ofthe sediment biogeochemical system and to understand the validity ofthe observation in this study.

The basic construction of the model was as follows.

I.1put variables (labile organic material loading, temperature, and dissolved oxygen), together with a series

ofcoupled equations relating these variables, were used

to calculate the output variables: microbiological activity, standing stock of labile organic carbon, and redox

potential (Figs. 8, 9). The model was run for seven years

beginning with 1983, using a time step of one month.

To simplify results and minimize intra-annual variation

that would obscure major trends in projected out-year

behavior, the temperature regime for 1983 was repeated

for all years. Similarly, two dissolved oxygen seasonal

patterns are employed (1983-1985 and 1986-1989)

based on summer minima observed to that point in the

study. This included minimum summer dissolved oxygen concentrations that declined to 15 mM in 1983-

1985 and to 125 mM in 1986-1987. Input values for

September were still allowed to drop to 95 mM in the

latter period. Carbon loading was assumed to consist of

a sewage component (the magnitude ofwhich followed

1:~'-__Fi....~II_d_um_p_;ng.L..: _---lEEpootd+P;ng I Carbon

loading, C1

[arbfi'ary %]

Figure 9

Modeled input and output variables over time for the

case in which 29% of the carbon loading (in the period

1983-87) was derived from non-sewage sludge sources.

Dissolved 300

oxygen. 0 200

(11M] 100o.l--'L.-'--->'---'_-"-.L-_....L_---l.__"-_~

Microbial

activity, B

[mmoIC/dm~/dJ 0 ""----_--'--_--"__..L..-_......._--"__='--...

200~n-n-- n n n __

Redox potential. 100 R [mV] -1~ -- --- -- --- -- -- -- - --- -------- -------

-200 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

20,----,--,--,..---,.---,--,------,

Temperature,

T[°C] 10

0.L-_....L_---l.__.L-_...J....._---l.__"-_~

Carbon 400

standing slock, 200

C [mmoVdm~J 0 L_...L_--I.__L_...L_..-i_.=:::t::::::::::l

....J 300

<{ .. 250 . i= ••• Z .... w 200 . l- . 0 0 ,. 0 150 , 0

a.. : . X 100 0

0

w 50

a: . 0 . 0 . . . w

....J -50

w .. • 0 -100 0 0

0 • o 0 00 • • 0

-150

-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

the dumping phase-out schedule) and a non-sewage

component (largely from primary production in the

water column) of constant magnitude for a model run

and equal to a percentage (2-50%) ofthe carbon loading during the full dumping period. The model was

optimized by adjusting constants in the equations that

relate input variables in order to obtain redox potential

values that fit the patterns observed in 1983-1987. Since

the carbon loading through the sediment-water interface and the relationship among the various carbon

Redox (R)

Microbial

Activity (B)

RELATION OUTPUT

R =f( B, 0)

INPUT

Carbon

Loading (C1)

Dissolved

Oxygen (0)

Carbon Standing Stock (C) OBSERVED REDOX POTENTIAL

Figure 8

Sediment biogeochemistry model (see text for description of terms).

Figure 10

Predicted redox potential from model verses observed

redox potential at 0.5 cm in sediment at station NY6 in

the New York Bight.
pools were not known at the time of construction, the

model was run for five cases of the non-sewage contribution oflabile carbon (2,9, 17, 29, and 50%).

To determine which ofthese five cases of non-sewage

carbon best emulates the field observations, the labile

carbon data were examined retrospectively. Lowest biologically labile carbon concentrations were observed in

surface sediments at replicate stations NY6 and R2 in

1989. "Baseline" sediment labile carbon content (levels

of labile carbon not including phytoplankton depositional spikes or seasonal conversion of refractory to

labile carbon; Fig. 4), decreased from roughly 140

mmol/dm3 in 1984-1987 to about 60 mmol/dm3 in

1989. This difference may be attributed to the direct

plus indirect effects of organic material loading from

sewage sludge on the standing stock oflabile carbon. If

one integrates the area between the labile carbon peaks

and the "baseline" as a measure of non-sewage carbon

(Fig. 4) and compares that amount to the basal amount

(as defined above), then approximately 32% of the

measured labile carbon was not from organic matter

dumped as sludge during the full dumping period.

This is close to the 29% non-sewage run of the model

(Fig. 9); therefore, predicted values from this model

run may be compared with observed data.

In this comparison of measured with predicted data,

model limitations require certain assumptions. Sediment porosity was not included in the model and, therefore, it is necessary to assume that changes in porosity

over time do not significantly affect properties and

distributions of variables. While the deposition of phytoplankton material from the water column is understood to be episodic, representation as such is beyond

the scope of this model. It is, therefore, modeled as a

smoothed function over time, reflecting the average

labile organic matter input. Similarly, bioturbation is

spatially heterogeneous and cannot be included except

as a component of the porosity (which is modeled as a

smoothed average porosity). Redox potential is then related primarily to microbial rate since the model implicitly

includes both seasonal variation through the inclusion of

temperature and the activity of major chemical species in

the matrix (Fig. 8). Microbial rate is, in tUrn, modeled as a

function of labile organic material availability. Labile organic material availability is considered to be fundamentally dependant on sewage sludge dumping within a

temporally varying background of water column input

and the conversion of refractory organic material to the

labile pool within the sediment. Sediment labile carbon

can then be predicted by the model and compared with

BOD13-based labile carbon estimates and sediment chlorophyll data as measures of total and non-sewage labile

carbon to the benthic system (Fig. 4).

The model simulation for 29% non-sewage labile

carbon input calculated that in 1988 and 1989, after the

Session lli: Sediment Processes 141

termination of labile carbon input from sewage dumping, redox potential would remain high and the amplitude of the seasonal cycle of redox potential would be

small compared with "100%" dumping (prior to March

1986). Since stations NY6 and NYll are in similar water

depths, the expectation was that, with the cessation of

dumping of sewage sludge, EH at NY6 would approach

the pattern and magnitude observed at station NYll.

This prediction has been borne out as discussed above.

The correlation between observed and predicted redox

potential is highly significant (Fig. 10; .,2=0.69, w=72) ,

indicating that the model successfully emulates the response of the surface sediment layer at station NY6 to

the carbon-forcing regime. Since the input of phytoplankton carbon (chlorophyll) to the sediment was

episodic (Fig. 4), and the model was not capable of

predicting this, the goodness ofthe labile carbon representation of the model was tested after correcting for

the chlorophyll-related carbon. The correlation between

modeled and observed labile carbon was significant

(r-=0.37, w=39) and the slope of the functional regression (Ricker, 1973; Laws and Archie, 1981) was near

unity (0.94), but the amount of variability explained

was relatively small (14%). The modeled microbial activity should be related to measurements of seabed

oxygen consumption (SOC). SOC was sightly lower

during the phaseout period than during full dumping

(Phoel et aI., 1995). Summer (July, August, September)

values declined from an average of2.7 mmol 02/(m2.h)

in 1985, to 1.7 mmol 02/(m2·h) in 1986 and 2.2 mmol

02/(m2.h) in 1987 (1987 is the average of two months

as there was no August observation). Following cessation, SOC declined further; to 0.79 and 0.94 mmol 02/

(m2·h) in the summers of 1988 and 1989, respectively.

The modeled microbial activity is highly correlated with

Phoel's SOC measurements (?=0.44, w=51).

The success of the model in emulating observations

is consistent with the conclusions that 1) in the area of

the dumpsite, about 70% of the labile carbon supply

was derived directly or indirectly from sewage sources,

while the remaining 30% was from water column processes; 2) the labile carbon from sludge dumping controlled sediment biogeochemical processes over a broad

area; and 3) EH can be used as a descriptor ofsediment

chemical conditions to which the infauna are exposed.

Conclusions _

The dumping of sewage sludge in the New York Bight

produced dramatic alteration ofsediment biogeochemistry over a large area during the 60 years of the practice. When dumping ended, the sedimentsystem rapidly

responded to the decreased supply of labile organic

material, which resulted in more oxidizing conditions
142 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

in surface sediments. EH (at 0.5 cm) at the sludge

accumulation station increased by more than the ...100

mV increase that was the an ticipated change at the start

of the study (EPD, 1988). This in turn eliminated the

intense dissolved oxygen gradients in the near-bottom

water that were observed during the period offull dumping. This study demonstrated how control of the sediment biogeochemistry in the New York Bight is based

on availability of labile organic material when account

is taken of sediment porosity and seasonal variatian in

temperature and dissolved oxygen. Redox potential

served as an effective proxy variable for discrete chemical measurements, over both space and time, permitting many more measurements than by routine methods.

The utility ofredox potential as a monitoring tool is not

limited to this study. Regulation of sediment biogeochemistry, similar to that observed in the New York

Bight, is to be expected in a wide range of benthic

environments that experience a seasonal temperature

regime and moderate to high labile organic matter

loading. This will be reflected in the redox potential

and, because of the biological activity of many of the

compounds involved (e.g. dissolved oxygen, hydrogen

sulfide), has implications for the benthic communities.

Acknowledgments

The author greatly appreciates the efforts of Captain

Farwell and Sherman Kingsley of the R/V KYMA and

the assistance of colleagues in taking sediment samples

and recording the EH values during the seven years of

this study. In the Environmental Chemistry Investigation this includes many people, especially Linda Arlen

and Thomas Finneran, both of whom also contributed

to the discrete chemical analyses; in the Experimental

Ecology and Environmental Assessment Investigations,

I thank especially Steven Fromm,Joseph Vitaliano, and

Robert Pikanowski. I thank Patrice Fournier for computer graphical assistance, Kristine Stein for chlorophyll measurements, and J. E. O'Reilly for support,

encouragement, and insight.

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Session HI: Sediment Processes 143

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New York Bight apex with the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping. In A. L. Studholme, ]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C.

Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 89-100. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Zobell, C. E.

1946. Studies of redox potential of marine sediments. Bull.

Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists 30:477-513.

Audience Q!lestions

Question: What criteria did you use to discriminate

between the labile and refractory carbon?

A. Draxler: Labile carbon was defined as microbially

degradable. It was measured by placing a 0.1 cc of

sediment in surface sea water and incubating it for 13

days at 20·C. The uptake of oxygen was compared with

a paired bottle ofsea water that was treated identically.

Question: I notice as a chemist you put the redox on

the independent axis, that is to say redox causes the

biology. As a biologist, I feel much more comfortable

flipping it around-the truth is probably somewhere in

between. Do you have any insight into that-the chicken

or egg sequence?

A. Draxler: The box diagram was drawn with the physically smaller things at the top so that it may be called a

"top down" control model. Traditionally this would be

considered "bottom up" control. My feeling is that such

things as carbon, sulfide, and perhaps some of the

other components of the sediment biogeochemistry

have a permitting and perhaps a proactive role in the

recruitment and the retainment of benthic organisms.

SESSIONIII: _ Sediment Processes

Changes in Sediment Oxygen Consumption in Relation to the

Phaseout and Cessation of Dumping at the New York Bight

Sewage Sludge Dumpsite

WILLIAM C. PHOEL*

Office ofResearch and Environmental Information

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

SUELLEN FROMM, CHRISTINE ZETLIN, STEVEN A. FROMM, KEITH SHARACK**

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, Newfersey 07732

GERRY GRAY

Office ofResearch and Environmental Information

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

ABSTRACT

Seabed oxygen consumption (SOC) was used as a measure of benthic community metabolism to indicate the effects of high organic loading on benthic communities in the

vicinity of the New York Bight apex sewage sludge dumpsite (12-mile dumpsite). During the

decade between 1974 and 1983 the volume of sewage sludge dumped at the site increased

89%. A concomitant 57% increase in SOC rates (P<O.05) was measured at sites in the 12-

mile dumpsite and adjoining Christiaensen Basin. Monthly sampling of SOC rates across

the dumpsite and Christiaensen Basin were initiated in March 1985 and continued through

September 1989. The phaseout of sludge disposal at the site began in July 1986 and was

completed in December 1987. SOC rates were consistently elevated at stations which were

strongly influenced by sludge dumping but decreased significantly after 1986, during the

abatement and after the dumping ceased. By 1988 the SOC rates ofthose stations which had

been directly influenced by dumping had declined to values similar to the least influenced

station, east of the dumpsite.

Introduction 1962; Carey, 1967; Pamatmat, 1971a; Smith et aI., 1972;

Rowe et aI., 1975). Elevated SOC and plankton respiraThe consumption of oxygen by the seabed (SOC) is an

important process in benthic ecology. SOC has been

used as a measure of benthic community metabolism to

understand energy flow and carbon cycling in marine

ecosystems (e.g. Teal and Kanwisher, 1961; Kanwisher,

* Present Address: Undersea Research Foundation, Inc., 35 Freeman Court, Toms River, NJ 08753.

** Present Address: AT&T, Bell Laboratories, 295 N. Maple Ave.,

Basking Ridge, NJ 07920.

145
146 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Figure 1

Locations of the 12-mile sewage sludge and dredged

materials dumpsites, the six seabed oxygen consumption (SOC) transect stations (30-35), and the three

replicate stations (R2, NY6, NYU) in the New York

Bight. Station 33 and NY6 represent the same sampling

site. The Christiaensen Basin is delineated by the 90-

foot (about 28-m) isobath.

tion, coupled with strong seasonal density stratification

and sluggish circulation, may cause hypoxia or anoxia

in bottom waters (Officer et aI., 1984). SOC is also used

to indicate the oxidation of organic material and effects of organic pollution on benthic and demersal

communities (Baity, 1938; Pamatmat, 1971b; Pamatmat

et aI., 1973; Smith et aI., 1973). Although rates of SOC

have been shown to underestimate anaerobic metabolism, which occurs in sediments devoid of oxygen, it is

still one of the best measures of integrated biological

activity in the seabed (Pamatmat, 1975). Understanding key benthic processes such as SOC is required for

the wise use and management of natural resources and

protection of the marine ecosystem.

The New York Bight sewage sludge dumpsite (12-

mile dumpsite) is located in the Bight's apex (Fig. 1)

and was in use from 1924 through 31 December 1987.

The dumpsite is on the east side of the Christiaensen

Basin, which is the inshore terminus of the Hudson

Shelf Valley (Fig. 1). The basin is generally delineated

by the 27 m isobath. The northwest corner of the site

received most of the material dumped due to its proximity to the New York/NewJersey ports. The northwest

corner is also near the edge of the basin where the flat

shelf deepens from 24 m to 34 m (Fig. 2). Diving

observations by the senior author have confirmed that

sludge, dumped in the site, flows downslope into the

depositional Christiaensen Basin.

24

30

24

31

31 24

BOTTOM DEPTH (M)

STATION LOCATIONS

33 32

29 34

w

The quantity of sewage sludge dumped at the site

increased by 89% during the decade of 1974-83 (Phoel

et aI., 1984), then remained roughly constant at about

1.8 million wet tons per quarter until the beginning of

the phaseout in March 1986 (Fig. 3). Nassau County

(Long Island, N.Y.) dumped its sludge in the northeast

corner of the dumpsite, near station 31 (Fig. 1), and

was the first municipality to stop sludge dumping. The

county started phaseout in March 1986 and ceased

dumping in June of the same year. The numbers of

users of the northwestern corner (near station 32; Fig.

1) decreased during 1987 and by 1 January 1988 all

sewage sludge dumping at the site had ceased.

Studies of SOC rates and associated variables at the

dumpsite and surrounding New York Bight apex began

in 1974 (Thomas et aI., 1976) and were continued

aperiodically until March 1985 when the 12-mile

dumpsite study began (EPD, 1988). We then sampled

the site monthly through September 1989. Studies by

Thomas et aI. (1976) revealed that winter (March) SOC

rates in the Christiaensen Basin and dredged spoil

dumpsite were about 20 mL02 (m2·h). The rest of the

New York Bight Apex averaged around 20 mL02/

(m2·h). During summer, when bottom water temperatures were warmer, the SOC rates generally increased

and became more variable throughout the apex. At the

dumpsite however, the rates increased substantially to

about 50 mL02/ (m2·h) (Thomas et aI., 1976).

Based on these earlier studies in the apex and measurements of SOC made in other coastal environments

(Phoel, 1982), two hypotheses regarding the anticipated changes in SOC following cessation of dumping

were formed at the start of the study (EPD, 1988).

Hypothesis I: With the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping, seabed oxygen consumption rates in the

dumpsite will be reduced from the high rates of about

30-40 mL02/(m2.h) to more natural rates of 9-18

mL02/(m2.h).

Hypothesis II: Seabed oxygen consumption rates in

the Christiaensen Basin may be reduced by approxiFigure 2

Bathymetry of the seabed oxygen consumption (SOC)

transect stations. Bottom depth was measured with a

recording fathometer.

14'00'

Sandy Hook NJ
Session III: Sediment Processes 147

Phoel, 1983). Upon retrieval, the cores and overlying

water were immediately transferred to constant temperature baths which were equilibrated to ambient bottom water temperatures. Rarely did the incubation

temperatures differ by more than ±0.5°C from ambient.

SOC data from incubations that differed from ambient

by more than ±3.0°C before 1985 and by more than

±2.0°C during and after 1985 were discarded. Galvanic

oxygen electrodes, fitted with O-rings for a tight seal,

were inserted into the tops of the core tubes. The

electrodes were pushed down into the core tubes to

expel all air, and a few milliliters of water, via a tube in

the electrode fitted with a one-way valve. Mter about

one hour, the electrode was pushed farther into the

core tube to expel enough water to rinse and fill a small

dissolved oxygen bottle (about 35 mL) the volume of

which had been calibrated to 0.001 mL. Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations were measured using the azide

modification of the iodometric method (APHA, 1965)

except that 0.025 N phenylarsine oxide (PAO) titrant

replaced sodium thiosulfate (Kroner et aI., 1964; EPA,

1974) and proportionately smaller volumes (0.2 mL) of

the reagents were used in the 35-mL sample bottles.

Dissolved oxygen samples were titrated using a Dosimat

model 500. To avoid hypoxia, the cores were incubated

only about 6 hours during the warmer months, when

bottom DO was relatively low and metabolism relatively

high. When bottom water temperatures and associated

metabolic rates were low, generally during late winter

and early spring, incubations lasted about12 hours. At

the end of the incubation period a second DO concentration was measured. Prior to 1985, 4-6 cores per

station were incubated; during and after 1985, 8-12

cores from each station were incubated.

During the incubations, DO concentrations were recorded on multipoint stripcharts via the galvanic oxygen electrodes. Examination of the stripcharts revealed

that the DO change per unit time was linear in almost

all cases. As a result of this linearity the initial and final

DO concentrations in the 35-mL oxygen bottles were

used to calculate SOC with confidence. The rate of

SOC in mL02/ (m2·h) by each core was calculated using the difference between the initial and final DO

concentrations, the volume ofincubated water, the cross

sectional area of the cores (25.52 cm2), and the duration of the incubation.

1- Sludge

1.0

0.5

Figure 3

The quarterly rate of dumping ofsewage sludge at the

12-mile dumpsite during the period 1974-89. Note

that the time axis is compressed for the period 1974-84

(labeled "7484").

Sludge (million wet ton/quarter)

2.0

mately half, to about 15-20 mL02/ (m2·h), which is

common for accumulation areas if anthropogenic inputs (i.e. dredged materials) remain constant.

The purpose ofthis paper is to evaluate these hypotheses using the time series of measurements made during periods of dumping, reduced dumping, and no

dumping.

Materials and Methods

Sampling Strategy

1.5

SOC rates and bottom water temperature, salinity, and

dissolved oxygen were measured at six stations on an

east-to-west transect across the northern border of the

12-mile dumpsite and Christiaensen Basin (Fig. 1).

These measurements were made aperiodically between

March 1974 and March 1985, and monthly from March

1985 through September 1989.

Stations were located using LORAN C or more precise navigation systems. All sampling took place within

0.5 km of the station coordinates. Since March 1985,

with one exception, the R/V KY.MA was anchored on

station within 30 m of the station coordinates, as determined by LORAN C.

0.0 rh--TTTJ

171717171717

I 74-84 I 85 I 86 I 87 I 88 I 89

Seabed Oxygen Consumption

A multiple-corer was cast to retrieve simultaneously

four relatively undisturbed cores, each having an inner

diameter of 5.6 cm and containing 5-15 cm of sediment and overlying water (Pamatmat, 1971a, 1973;

Bottom Water Oxygen Consumption

The measured SOC included oxygen consumption by

the sediment and by plankton in the water overlying

the sediment in the incubated core. The rate of oxygen

consumption in the bottom water was measured so that

its contribution to total SOC rate could be determined.
148 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Ten samples, in 60-mL BOD bottles, were obtained

from a pool of water collected from water overlying the

sediments in unincubated core tubes (about 0.1 m off

bottom). Approximately ten additional water samples,

in 300-mL BOD bottles, were obtained at each station

from a Niskin bottle (about 0.5 m off bottom) attached

to the frame of the multiple-eorer (see below). Five

bottles from each set (0.1 m, 0.5 m) were selected

randomly and analyzed for DO concentration immediately following collection. The remaining five samples

from each set were incubated in the dark at ambient

bottom water temperatures for about12 h when bottom

water temperatures were high to 24 h when bottom

water temperatures were low. DO concentrations were

determined using the modified Winkler method described above and were adjusted based on BOD bottle

volumes (calibrated to 0.001 mL). Bottom water oxygen consumption rates (mL02

m-3h-1) were calculated

using the difference between mean initial and mean

incubated DO concentrations and the duration (h) of

the incubation.

Of 660 determinations of bottom water oxygen consumption rates (from both 0.1 m and 0.5 m off bottom), only 10 contributed more than 1% of the SOC

rate but less than 3%. We therefore considered the

oxygen consumption due to the water overlying the

sediments to contribute insignificantly to the total SOc.

Sediment Infauna

At the end of each incubation, the sediment in the core

tube was washed through a 1.0-mm sieve. The animals

remaining on the sieve were preserved in 10% buffered

formalin for later identification, enumeration, and measurement. This analysis provided a rough indication of

the macrobenthic invertebrate community and allowed

us to consider the possibility that anomalous SOC

rates, either high or low, were caused by particular

kinds, numbers, or sizes of organisms in the incubated

sediments.

Hydrographic Variables

A 5-L Niskin water bottle, attached to the frame of the

multiple-eorer, was used to retrieve water samples from

about 0.5 m off bottom for the determination of temperature, salinity, DO, and oxygen consumption (described above). As soon as the Niskin bottle was on

deck, the temperature of the bottom water was measured with a calibrated stem thermometer. Because of

the relatively shallow depths «34 m) and rapid retrieval rate, there was an insignificant amount of temperature change during retrieval.

The concentration of DO in bottom water was measured in duplicate (or more) subsamples (300 mL BOD

bottles) from the Niskin bottle using the method described above, except that 0.0375 N PAO was used as

the titrant. Salinity was determined using an Autosal

model 2100 analyzer.

Statistical Analyses

Since SOC rates showed a marked right skewness, a

natural log (In) transformation was used to bring the

data closer to normality. All analyses were conducted

on the In-transformed data. Thus, means and confidence intervals, if reported in the original measurement scale, have all been back-transformed from the In

scale. Statistical analyses were conducted using the GLM

procedure (SAS Institute, 1988).

Results and Discussion

General Analysis

A marked decrease in SOC and variability was observed

among the six sampling sites following the cessation of

sludge dumping (Fig. 4). When data from all stations

were pooled, fewer elevated SOC rates were observed

following the cessation of dumping than during dump;-

ing (Fig. 5). A simple one-way analysis of variance of all

data indicated that the mean SOC during dumping was

significantly higher than the mean SOC for the postdumping period (F=27.58, P=0.0001).

SOC and the variability in SOC generally increased

with increasing temperature (Fig. 6). (A plot of the

untransformed SOC data would show a larger increase

in variance at higher temperatures.) Although SOC

rates increased with temperature, the response to temperature during dumping was substantially greater than

after dumping had ceased (Fig. 6). Multiple regression

analysis confirmed that the regression slope of SOC vs.

temperature during dumping (0.048) was significantly

greater than the slope (0.022) for measurements made

after the cessation ofsludge dumping (F=4.05; P=0.045).

If the input of organic carbon to the sediments was

constant and the inputed carbon remained within the

dumpsite area, more organic carbon could accumulate

during colder months when carbon metabolism was

presumably slower compared to warmer months when

metabolism was presumably greater (Fig. 6).

The relationship between SOC and sewage sludge

loading was explored further using simple linear correlation analyses. The annual mean In(SOC) was computed for each of the transect stations for the period

1985-87 (when dumping occurred) and for pooled
Session III: Sediment Processes 149

a;

>

o

o

C/)

c

-'

I'{~'\ I , \ \

site 30

site 31

site 32

site 33

site 34

site 35

86 87 88 89

Year

Figure 4

The mean rate of seabed oxygen consumption (SOC) at transect stations 30-35 during the period 1986-89.

Replicate SOC values from each station were transformed (In) before averaging.

• 0

o OQ

I o 0

no dumping: In(SOC) = 2.55 + 0.022 • temp

dumping: In(SOC) = 2.534 + 0.048 • temp

o 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0

00 0 0 0 o.C) 0" 0 0 :qr{ 0 fioa %.······ 6V·_·····~············· o ~. 0 8 . 18.9"....00..........., 0 0",

o 8 ., "!.~_..,.~....~Do....~~Ai·Ci~ 00+1 0 0 ,,0

o l ...,-~·&... no. a, U ...

..... -~··········5-".\~u~ ... 0 # ,. 0 8 .. ... Bt \ c9

o~ ~~ ... If ,,~ 0" ,,~ " ... ,,0

°0 a 00

I

20

15

10

>- 0 5 c::

Q)

:J 0 rr

u.. -5

-10

-15

-20

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Ln(SOC)

Figure 6

The relationships between In (SOC) and temperature

during the dumping and no dumping periods.

SOC=seabed oxygen consumption.

tion occurred at station 31, at the northeast corner of

the dumpsite. The highest correlation occurred at station 34, in the deepest area of the Christiaensen Basin

along the transect, and at station 30, the easternmost

station on the transect (Table 1). The high correlation

Figure 5

The frequency distribution of In (SOC) during the

dumping and no dumping periods. SOC=seabed oxygen

consumption.

1988 and 1989 data (representative of post-dumping

conditions) and correlated with the annual volume of

sludge dumped at the 12-mile dumpsite (Table 1). Annual means were computed to minimize the influence

of seasonal SOC variability resulting from the annual

temperature cycle. The annual mean SOC at all transect

stations was positively and highly correlated with the

annual volume of sludge dumped. The lowest correla10

Temperature (OC)

15 20
150 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Table 1

The annual average] rate of Seabed Oxygen Consumption, the annual rate of sewage sludge dumping, and their

correlation during the period 1985-1989.

Mean SOCl by Station

Year Sludge~ 30 31 32 33 34 35

1985 1.80 14.5 18.0 29.1 40.0 20.9 27.9 Dumping

1986 1.70 13.1 13.5 18.0 29.5 20.9 23.1

1987 0.92 12.3 11.7 12.8 30.3 16.6 16.9 Phase Out

1988 0 9.3 11.4 13.0 15.6 14.3 17.2 Post Dumping

1989 0 10.4 11.5 10.6 17.4 16.2 18.2

R3 0.96 0.78 0.83 0.91 0.97 0.82

I SOC rates were transformed (In) before averaging. Table values represent the antilogarithm of the annual means.

2 Annual volume of sewage sludge dumped (million wet ton/yr).

3 R = correlation coefficient for annual mean In (SOC) versus annual rate of sewage sludge dumping.

o

15

Q)

10 :5

a;

CD

a.

E

5

60

80 -,-------------r-----,--20

:2

d' 40

I

o

o

en 20

observed at station 30 was unexpected. Like station 31,

station 30 has a sandy bottom and is located outside the

dumpsite boundary at the same depth. This similarity

in depth precludes sludge inputs to station 30 from

gravity flows. Also, the high correlation at station 30

does not fit the trend of decreasing correlation coefficients observed between stations 34 and 31 (Table 1).

These results must be interpreted with care because

each correlation coefficient is based on only four values, and factors other than sewage sludge dumping also

can affect the SOC rates (e.g. other anthropogenic and

natural inputs of organic carbon).

Station 30

171717171717 I 74-84 I 85 I 86 I 87 i 88 I 89 I 195% CL OSOC -Temperature

During sludge dumping, the lowest rates ofSOC (about

9-14 mL02/ (m2·h)) on the transect were usually observed at station 30 (Table 1; Fig. 4), located 2.3 km east

of the designated dumpsite area (Fig. 1). After dumping ceased, minor decreases in the mean SOC were

evident (Table 1; Fig. 7). The extremely high SOC rate

in November 1987 remains unexplained (Fig. 7).

From January 1988 through September 1989, the

SOC rates, with few outliers, averaged about 10 mL02/

(m2·h) (Fig. 7). This range is close to those measured at

other stations with similar sandy sediments under estuarine influence, both within and outside the New

York Bight.

SOC rates increased minimally with increasing temperature during summer (Fig. 7). Little or no response

to temperature was expected at this station because it

was a non-depositional site with sandy sediment; probably the station least affected by the Hudson River

plume and furthest from the major dumping site (station 32).

Figure 7

Mean rates ofseabed oxygen consumption (SOC) measured at station 30 in relation to seasonal changes in

temperature. The means and the 95% confidence intervals are based on In-transformed data. The arrow

indicates the cessation ofdumping. The section marked

7484 depicts SOC rates averaged by month from 1974

through 1984. This artificial year is presented to provide

an historical background of SOC rates.

Station 31

Station 31 had sediments similar to those at station 30,

is 0.5 km inside the dumpsite's eastern boundary (Fig.

1), and was more likely to have received some input of

sludge and show signs of recovery when sludge dumping ceased. Sewage plants in Nassau County, N.Y., which

serviced primarily suburban rather than urban industrial areas, were the exclusive sources ofsludge dumped

in the northeast corner of the dumpsite. During dump-
________________________________ Session lll: Sediment Processes 151

ing, SOC rates averaged about 18 mL02/ (m2·h) (Table

1; Fig. 8). Mter the 1986 phaseout of dumping by

Nassau County, the SOC rate, with few outliers, averaged about 12 ml mL02/ (m2·h) through September

1989 (Table 1; Fig. 8). The decrease in SOC rates

apparent between 1985 and 1986 (Table 1) coincided

with the early phaseout ofsludge dumping (about mid1986) by Nassau County, presumably reflecting the decreased inputs of organic carbon.

From 1985 through 1987 SOC rates increased seasonally with increasing temperatures. Mter dumping

ceased, benthic metabolism no longer followed temperature as strongly but remained relatively constant

(Fig. 8).

Station 32

Most sewage sludge dumping occurred near station 32,

located in the northwest corner of the dumpsite. Sediments were sandy and similar to those of stations 30

and 31. SOC rates at station 32 during dumping were

consistently higher than rates at station 30 or 31 (Fig. 1;

Table 1), presumably because the input of organic matter was greater at this station. During and after phaseout, the SOC rates at station 32 declined to or below

background levels (Fig. 9). Rates were considered to be

background (aboutI5-20 mL02/ (m2.h» when similar

to rates measured in other coastal areas that were of

similar depth, sediment type, and hydrography but that

were not receiving sewage sludge, e.g. the coastal areas

influenced by the Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay

plumes (Phoel, 1982).

Before the phaseout of dumping began, the SOC

rates were very responsive to seasonal changes in temperature; however, after dumping was stopped SOC

rates were not greatly increased during summer when

bottom water temperatures were higher (Fig. 9).

Station 33

The highest rates of SOC (about 30-40 mL02/ (m2.h»

were observed at station 33 during maximal sludge

dumping and phaseout (Fig. 10; Table 1). This station

lies on the eastern slope ofthe Christiaensen Basin,just

outside the dumpsite's western boundary (Fig. 1), and

received large inputs of sludge through gravity flows

(Fig. 2). Sediments consisted ofsoft black mud, similar

to stations 34 and 35, also in the Christiaensen Basin.

During summer a strong dissolved oxygen gradient,

between 0.1 m and 1.0 m off bottom, was present during dumping (Mountain and Arlen, 1995). The gradient was diminished during phaseout and disappeared

during the post-dumping period. This suggests that

high rates of SOC, as observed during dumping, can

deplete near-bottom water of oxygen. Mter dumping

ceased, the rate ofSOC decreased markedly, approached

background level (about 16 mL02/ (m2·h» by 1988, and

remained at this level through September 1989 (Fig. 10).

o

77171717

85 86 I 87 i 88 I 89

I 95% CL D SOC - Temperature

1 7 1

74-841

o o

20 80 20

Station 31

15 60 15

:2

N--

E e Ql d' 40 Ql

10 2 10 :;

I 10 Ql Cii C. U c. E 0 E

5 (/) 20 5

60

171717171717 I 74-84 I 85 1 86 I 87 i 88 I 89

195% CL OSOC -Temperature

5

u

o

(/) 20

80 --,-----------------,------,.--

Figure 8

Mean rates ofseabed oxygen consumption (SOC) measured at station 31 in relation to seasonal changes in

temperature. The means and the 95% confidence intervals are based on In-transformed data. The arrow

indicates the cessation ofdumping. The section marked

7484 depicts SOC rates averaged by month from 1974

through 1984. This artificial year is presented to provide

an historical background of SOC rates.

Figure 9

Mean rates ofseabed oxygen consumption (SOC) measured at station 32 in relation to seasonal changes in

temperature. The means and the 95% confidence intervals are based on In-transformed data. The arrow

indicates the cessation of dumping. The section marked

7484 depicts SOC rates averaged by month from 1974

through 1984. This artificial year is presented to provide

an historical background of SOC rates.
152 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

80 --,----------------r-------, 20

Station 33

80 --,---------------,--------.20

Station 34

60

:2

d' 40

I

o

o

(f) 20

o

15

10

ro

Qj

a.

E

5

o

60

:2

d' 40

I

o

o

(f) 20

o

15

OJ

10 :;

ro

Q;

a.

E

5

o

1 7 1

174-841

7 11 7 11 7 j1 7 11 7 85 86 87 - 88 89

195% CL OSOC -Temperature

1 7 1

174-841

7 11 7 11 7 j1 7 11 7 85 86 87 88 89

195% CL OSOC -Temperature

Figure 10

Mean rates ofseabed oxygen consumption (SOC) measured at station 33 in relation to seasonal changes in

temperature. The means and the 95% confidence intervals are based on In-transformed data. The arrow

indicates the cessation of dumping. The section marked

7484 depicts SOC rates averaged by month from 1974

through 1984. This artificial year is presented to provide an historical background of SOC rates.

Extremely high SOC rates were maintained at station

33 while dumping took place, even when bottom water

temperatures were low (although winter SOC rates were

stiIlless than the summer rates). Mter dumping stopped,

the rates responded minimaIly to seasonal fluctuations

in bottom water temperature and stabilized at about 16

mL02/ (m2·h) (Fig. 10).Judging from observations while

handling the sediments and from remotely operated vehicle videotape, the sediments appeared to become harder

and more sandy after dumping stopped. The decrease in

the magnitude and seasonal amplitude of SOC following

cessation of sludge dumping and the strong correlation

between annual mean In(SOC) and annual sludge loading (Table 1) indicate that sludge dumping probably was

the predominant source of organic carbon responsible

for the highly elevated rates ofSOC at this site.

Station 34

Station 34 is in the center of the Christiaensen Basin

and is the deepest station sampled (Fig. 2). It received,

through deposition, not only sewage sludge but probably a variety of other natural and anthropogenic inputs to its muddy sediments (Young et al., 1985).

However, during dumping, SOC rates at station 34

were lower than those measured atsurrounding upslope

stations 33 and 35 (Table 1). Post-dumping changes in

Figure 11

Mean rates ofseabed oxygen consumption (SOC) measured at station 34 in relation to seasonal changes in

temperature. The means and the 95% confidence intervals are based on In-transformed data. The arrow

indicates the cessation of dumping. The section marked

7484 depicts SOC rates averaged by month from 1974

through 1984. This artificial year is presented to provide an historical background of SOC rates.

annual mean SOC rates were the smallest (about 20%)

compared with stations 32, 33, and 35 where about a

50% decrease in rates was observed (Table 1). As at

other stations, mean annual SOC rates remained fairly

constant following phaseout of dumping.

Bottom water temperatures were correlated with SOC

rates throughout the study period (Fig. 11). Unlike

SOC rates at the previous stations, which ceased or

responded minimally to temperature changes after

dumping stopped, the rates at station 34 continued to

vary seasonally. This suggests that the input of organic

carbon remains high and supports higher than background rates of SOC.

Station 35

Station 35 is located on the western side of the

Christiaensen Basin, upslope from station 34 (Fig. 2),

and 7.5 km west ofthe sewage sludge dumpsite (Fig. 1).

Because of its upslope location it was probably not

strongly influenced by sewage sludge dumping. Station

35, however, was about 2.8 km downslope from the

dredge spoils dumpsite and received some input of the

dredged material (Zdanowicz, 1991). The SOC rates

declined significantly between 1985 and 1987, apparently in response to the cessation ofsludge and dredge

spoil dumping (Fig. 12). This decrease from an annual
Session lll: Sediment Processes 153

Figure 12

Mean rates ofseabed oxygen consumption (SOC) measured at station 35 in relation to seasonal changes in

temperature. The means and the 95% confidence intervals are based on In-transformed data. The arrow

indicates the cessation of dumping. The section marked

7484 depicts SOC rates averaged by month from 1974

through 1984. This artificial year is presented to provide

an historical background of SOC rates.

from summer maxima between 20-40 mL02/ (m2·h) to

background rates ofabout12 mL02/(m2.h). This magnitude of change, anticipated at the beginning of the

study, supports Hypothesis I.

In the depositional Christiaensen Basin, SOC rates

were reduced by approximately half, to about 15 mL02/

(m2·h) after dumping stopped. This large decrease supports Hypothesis II in spite of the minimal decrease at

station 34 and the confounding influence ofthe dredged

spoils dumpsite on the SOC rates at station 35.

At all stations the correlation coefficients of annual

mean In(SOC) rates vs. the annual volume of sludge

dumped were positive and moderate to very strong.

This, the decreased amplitude and decline in SOC, and

the decreased seasonality in response to temperature,

strongly suggest that the decrease in SOC rates was

caused by the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping.

SOC rates at stations 31 and 32, which were directly

influenced by sludge dumping, reached background

levels early in 1987 while a quarterly average of 1.0

millon wet tons ofsewage sludge was still being dumped.

SOC rates at station 33, west of the dumpsite but substantially influenced by sludge dumping, were slower to

respond and reached background rates in late 1987,

when approximately 0.7 million wet tons was being

dumped per quarter. This suggests that the system can

endure the impact of about 1.0 million wet tons ofsludge

per quarter with no increase in SOC beyond the slightly

elevated rates typical of other coastal environments that

are near estuaries which have high carbon loading but are

not directly influenced by sludge dumping.

The authors gratefully acknowledge Captain Fritz

Farwell and Sherman Kingsley for their outstanding

support aboard the R/V KYMA. Without their professional support and assistance this study would have

been much more difficult, if not impossible. We also

acknowledge all the hardworking and dedicated technicians who spent many hours collecting data at sea

and analyzing samples in the laboratory. Their efforts

were essential to the successful completion ofthe project

and are greatly appreciated.

Acknowledgments

o

7 11 7 [1 7 j1 7 [1 7 85 86 87 88 89

195% CL Dsoc -Temoerature

o--w,Jtnl/'I'rn-,"""",

1 7 1 I 74-84 I

80 20

60 15

:2 2: ;;;--

E

d' 40 Q)

10 :J

I til

iii

() cO E (J) 20 5

mean of about 27 mL02/ (m2·h) to about16 mLO/

(m2·h) (Table 1) was, however, more likely a result of

the 75% decrease in dredge spoil dumping in 1985 and

1986 rather than the phaseout of sewage sludge dumping. During the summer of 1989, the SOC rates at

station 35 increased to levels measured in 1985 and

1986. This suggests that the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping was notresponsible for the lowered SOC rates at

station 35 in 1987 and 1988 and further implicates dredged

spoil dumping as being responsbile. There was an anecdotal report of an increase in the disposal of dredged

material in the spring and summer of 1989 (Inghaml ).

Benthic metabolism rates responded closely to seasonal bottom water temperature fluctuations in 1985,

1986, and 1989 but much less so in 1987 and 1988 (Fig.

12). This suggests that the sediments received less organic carbon in 1987 and 1988 when dredge spoil dumping was reduced.

Conclusions

With the cessation of sewage sludge dumping in the

dumpsite, SOC rates at stations 31 and 32 were reduced

1 Ingham, M. Northeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine

Fisheries Service, NOAA, Narragansett, RI, unpub!. memo., 22Jan

1992.

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American Public Health Association.

1965. Standard methods for the examination of water and

wastewater, including bottom sediments and sludges. Prepared and published jointly by American Public Health

Association, American Water Works Association [and] Water Pollution Control Federation. 12th ed. New York, 769 p.
154 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Baity, H. G.

1938. Stream pollution, some factors affecting the aerobic

decomposition of sewage sludge deposits. Sewage Works

10:539-568.

Carey, H. G.,Jr.

1967. Energetics of the benthos of Long Island Sound. 1.

Oxygen utilization of sediment. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr.

Collect. Yale Univ. 19:136-144.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).

1974. Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes.

Methods Develop. Qual. Assurance Res. Lab. NERC. EPA625/6-74/003.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. Plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of the

inner New York Bight to abatement ofsewage sludge dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer, NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/

NEC-55, 34 p.

Kanwisher,]. W.

1962. Gas exchange ofshallow marine sediments. In Environmental chemistry of marine sediments, p. 13-19. Rhode

Island Grad. Sch. Oceanogr. Occas. Publ. 1.

Kroner, R. c.,]. E. Longbottom, and R. Gorman.

1964. A comparison of various reagents proposed for use in

the Winkler procedure for dissolved oxygen. PHS Water

Pollut. Surveillance System Appl. Develop. Rep 12. Public

Health, HEW, 18 p.

Mountain, D. G., and L. Arlen.

1995. Oceanographic conditions in the inner New York Bight

during the 12-mile dumpsite study. In A. L. Studholme,]. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 21-31. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Officer, C. B., R. B. Biggs,]. L. Taft, L. E. Cronin, M. A. Tyler,

and W. R. Boynton.

1984. Chesapeake Bay anoxia: origin, development, and significance. Science 223:22-27.

Pamatmat, M. M.

1971a. Oxygen consumption by the seabed. 4. Shipboard and

laboratory experiments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 16:536-550.

1971b. Oxygen consumption by the seabed. 6. Seasonal cycle

of chemical oxidation and respiration in Puget Sound. Int.

Rev. Gesamten Hydrobiol. 56:769-793.

1973. Benthic community metabolism on the continental terrace and in the deep sea in the orth Pacific. Int. Rev.

Gesamten Hydrobiol. 58:345-368.

1975. In situ metabolism of benthic communities. Cah. BioI.

Mar. 16:613-633.

Pamatmat, M. M., R. S.Jones, H. Sanborn, and A. Bhagwat.

1973. Oxidation of organic matter in sediments. Ecol. Res.

Ser., EPA-660/3-73/005, U.S. EPA, 105 p.

Phoel, W. C.

1982. A comparison of the seabed oxygen consumption rates

ofdifferent benthic environments along the northeast United

States continental shelf. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, CM 1982/E:23. lOp.

1983. Rate measurements of benthic oxygen consumption

and nutrient regeneration. In NOAA's quality assurance

survey for biological rate measurements, Vol. 3, Sec. 14,

Nov. 1983.

Phoel, William C.,]. P. Thomas and]. W. Duggan.

1984. Changes in oxygen consumption by the seabed of the

New York Bight Apex, 1974-1983. International Council for

the Exploration of the Sea. C.M. 1984/E:I0, 16 p.

Rowe, G. T, C. H. Clifford, and K. L. Smith.

1975. Benthic nutrient regeneration and its coupling to primary productivity in coastal waters. Nature 255:215-217.

SAS Institute, Inc.

1988. SAS/Stat user's guide, release 6.03 ed. SAS Institute,

Inc., Cary, NC, 1028 p.

Smith, K. L., K. A. Burns, and]. M. Teal.

1972. In situ respiration of benthic communities in Castle

Harbor, Bermuda. Mar. BioI. 12:196-199.

Smith, K. L., G. T Rowe, and]. A. Nichols.

1973. Benthic community respiration near the Woods Hole

sewage outfall. Estuarine Coastal Mar. Sci. 1:65-70.

Teal,]. M., and]. Kanwisher.

1961. Cas exchange in a Georgia salt marsh. Limnol.

Oceanogr. 6:388-399.

Thomas,]. P., W. C. Phoel, F. W. Steimle,]. E. O'Reilly, and

C. A. Evans.

1976. Seabed oxygen consumption-New York Bight apex.

Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr. Spec. Symp. 2:354-369.

Young, R. A., D.]. P. Swift, T L. Clarke, G. R. Harvey,

and P. R. Betzer.

1985. Dispersal pathways for particle-associated pollutants.

Science 229:431-435.

Zdanowicz, V. S.

1991. Determining the fates of contaminated wastes dumped

in the New York Bight apex by use of metal enrichment

factors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25:1760-1766.
SESSIONm: Sediment Processes

Fundamental and Mass Properties of Surficial Sediments in the

Inner New York Bight and Responses to the Abatement

of Sewage Sludge Dumping*

DAVID PACKER, THOMAS FINNERAN, LINDA ARLEN, ROBERT KOCH,

SUELLEN FROMM,jON FINN, STEVEN FROMM, and ANDREW F.J. DRAXLER

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, Newfersey 07732

ABSTRACT

Surficial sediments in the area of the 12-mile sewage sludge dumpsite in the New York

Bight apex are characterized with respect to mineral fraction grain-size, porosity, saturated

bulk density, and total organic carbon (TOC). A replication in time (RIT) design was used

to test for significant changes in these variables to the cessation of sludge dumping in

December 1987. Surface sediment samples were taken for 18 months before and 23 months

after cessation at a reference station (NYll) and two sludge-eontaminated stations: one

(R2) was carbon enriched, the other (NY6) , located near the dumpsite, was heavily degraded. The background sediments are poorly sorted, very fine sand (range ofmeans=3.1-

3.5<1» and a distinctive mud fraction occurs at stations R2 and NY6. Skewed and leptokurtic

grain-size distributions at these two stations are an indication of intermittent and fluctuating bottom currents and sediment resuspension events. The degraded station (NY6) exhibited the greatest response to local erosional-depositional events by having the highest

temporal variability for almost all the sediment variables measured. There was no significant

change in the mean grain-size ofthe inorganic fraction of the sediment at the three stations

after the cessation of dumping. Prior to the cessation of sludge dumping, the sludgecontaminated sediments at NY6 contained a greater organic silt fraction than the lesscontaminated sediments at the other stations, resulting in higher mean porosities, lower

mean bulk densities (these variables are additive inverses), and higher mean TOC values.

After cessation, average sediment porosity and TOC decreased significantly from 68 to 61 %

and from 5 to 2%, respectively, while mean bulk density increased significantly from 1.4 to

1.6 g cm-3 due to dispersion and decomposition of the sludge. Elevated TOe and porosity

values and depressed bulk densities occurring at stations R2 and NY6 at the completion of

the study are due to the higher percentages of silts and clays present in the background

sediments at these sites. Values for the variables measured at the enriched station, R2 are

. generally intermediate between those of the more heavily degraded station, NY6, and the

reference station, NYll.

Introduction

Sewage sludge, that portion of sewage which is collected by settling in sewage treatment plants, had been

dumped by barges at a site 12 nmi (22.2 km) from

Sandy Hook, Nj, in the inner New York Bight (Fig. 1)

since 1924. In April 1985, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency began closing the site by denying requests for redesignation and ordered that all dumping

be terminated by December 1987 (EPD [Environmental Processes Division], 1988).

The sewage sludge dumped at the 12-mile dumpsite

was a complex and heterogeneous mixture of organic

and inorganic materials. The sludge consisted of 95-

* Coordinating editors' note: This paper was prepared after the

Symposium and therefore not subject to discussion.

155
156 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

40020'

Figure 1

Location of the l2-mile sewage sludge and dredged materials

dumpsites and the replicate stations (NY6, R2, NY1l) in the

New York Bight apex.

99% water with the remaining solids having an average

dry density of 1.5 g cm-3 (Callaway et al., 1976). Saturated bulk density ranged from 1.0007-1.0181 g cm-3

with an average of 1.009 g cm-3 (Callaway et aI., 1976).

About 50% of the sewage sludge was composed of organic matter, the remainder was primarily aluminosilicates resembling soils (Gross, 1972). Campbell et al.

(1988) conducted particle size analyses on a 1:1 mixture of sewage sludge in seawater and demonstrated

that the largest fraction (60%) is in the clay to medium

silt size range «5.5-4.5<1>), while the second largest

fraction (23%) is composed ofsolids greater than 3.0<1>

(equivalent to particles larger than fine sands), with

most of this material being identified as cellulose fibers

and plant fragments. In the New York Bight, suspended

particles as large as 3.1 to 3.7<1> were observed at the sea

surface immediately after dumping occurred; these coagulated particles settled after about an hour and left

smaller 5<1> suspended particles in the center of the

sludge plume (Jenkins and Gibbs, 1988).

Sludge particles, dispersed into the water column

after disposal, eventually became incorporated into the

bottom sediments, thereby altering the sediments' physical properties. Knowledge of these fundamental physical properties, which include mineral grain-size and

percent total organic carbon (TOC), plus the derived

properties of bulk density and porosity, are important

not only for assessing the effect of the sludge on the

benthic environment, butfor a quantitative understanding oflocal benthic-pelagic coupling.

For example, grain-size reflects the erosional and

depositional processes which have created a particular

sedimentological environment. The size distribution of

the particles which constitute the seabed sediment fabric is most directly the result of the associated hydrodynamic regime (e.g. Ledbetter, 1979, 1984, 1986;

Ledbetter and Ellwood, 1980; Blaeser and Ledbetter,

1982; Brunner and Ledbetter, 1989). McLaren (1981)

states that the size distribution characteristics of a sedimentary deposit, that is, mean grain-size, sorting (the

spread or dispersion of grain-size around the mean), and

skewness (the asymmetry of the grain-size distribution

curve) are dependent on the processes of 1) winnowing

or erosion, 2) selective deposition of sediment in transport, and 3) total deposition ofsediment in transport and

the grain-size distribution of the source sediment. Other

mechanical properties ofsediments, such as settling velocity, transportation, permeability, packing, and erodibility,

are all dependent upon the sizes ofthe sediment particles.

Particle size also influences the chemical and biological variables ofsedimentary environments. Grain-size is

one of the most significant factors controlling the spatial and temporal variability of trace metal concentrations in sediments (Literathy et aI., 1985; Horowitz and

Elrick, 1988). Grain-size distribution is correlated with

benthic invertebrate distribution and often accounts

for much of the variability found in the structure of

soft-bottom communities (Etter and Grassle, 1992).

Thus, Clarke and Green (1988) consider grain-size distribution to be a "nuisance" physical variable with respect to the interpretation of benthic community

changes along a pollution gradient. (Nuisance physical

or biological variables are variables that are not relevant to the treatment differences being investigated;

therefore, to increase precision in the measured response, it is necessary that the nuisance variables be

controlled within set limits.) Conversely, the organisms

themselves also influence the granulometric characteristics and geotechnical mass properties of their sediment substrate (e.g. Rhoads and Young, 1970; McCall

and Tevesz, 1982; Wetzel, 1990).

This paper reports on the effects ofcessation ofsludge

dumping at the New York Bight 12-mile dumpsite on

the physical properties of surficial sediments at three

nearby sites. These sites differ by the extent to which

they have been contaminated by the sludge. Documenting changes in grain-size, porosity, bulk density, and

TOC before and after the period in which dumping was

discontinued allows assessment ofdumping on the sedimentary environment and determination of the response of that environment to the cessation of a major

waste input. The results from this paper will assist in the

interpretation of contaminant, benthic macrofaunal,

and sediment transport data also obtained as part of

the 12-mile dumpsite study.
_______________________________ Session III: Sediment Processes 157

Materials and Methods _

Station descriptions and sampling rationale for the 12-

mile dumpsite study can be found in EPD (1988),

Studholme et al. (1991), and Pikanowski (1992, 1995).

The replication in time (RIT) sampling design of

Pikanowski (1992, 1995), also known as the BACI (Before/After, Control/Impact) design (Bernstein and

Zalinski, 1983; Stewart-Oaten et aI., 1986), wherein

samples were taken before and after the "experimental

-treatment" (i.e. the cessation of sludge dumping in

December 1987), was used to detect significant changes

caused by that cessation of dumping. Three replicate

Smith-McIntyre grabs were obtained monthly from July

1986 to November 1989 at each of three "replicate"

stations (Fig. 1), which were bathymetrically similar but

which represented different levels of sewage sludge

accumulation and effects (Pikanowski, 1992, 1995). The

station considered to be the most severely degraded by

the sludge and containing the greatest accumulations

of sludge components or contaminants is NY6 (lat.

400

24.98'N, long. 73°45.58'W; 31 m depth); it is located

approximately 1.6 km downslope (west) from the northwest section of the dumpsite where the heaviest dumping occurred. Station R2 (lat. 40°26.77'N, long.

73°46.21 'W; 28.5 m depth), on the northern edge of

the Christiaensen Basin about 3.4 km north of the

dumpsite, is considered to be moderately affected by

sludge and biologically enhanced or enriched because

of the high biomass and abundance of pollution tolerant species (Reid et aI., 1991). The least polluted of the

three stations, NYU (lat. 40018.92'N, long. 73°45.58'W;

29 m depth), is located on the eastern flank of the

Hudson ShelfValley approximately 10 km south-southwest of the dumpsite center. It is regarded as the reference station, with the lowest levels of sediment

contaminants and with benthic fauna that are representative of the upper shelf valley environment (EPD,

1988; Studholme et aI., 1991).

Sediment samples were collected from each of the

Smith-McIntyre grabs by subsampling with a 3.3-em

diameter plastic core (one core per grab), which was

frozen until analyzed to preserve the organic material.

After thawing, a 50-ml syringe was used to remove water

down to about 1 cm above the sediment surface. Using

procedures similar to Robbins and Gustinis (1976), a

small portion of the top centimeter of sediment was

extracted for porosity, bulk density, and TOC analyses

via a modified 5-ml syringe, and placed in a pre-weighed

2Q-ml glass scintillation vial. The remainder ofthe top 5

cm ofsediment was used for the grain-size analysis.

The particle size distribution of the sediment mineral fraction was determined by means of the standard

sieving and pipetting procedures of Ingram (1971),

Galehouse (1971), and Folk (1980). The upper particle

size-limit chosen for the coarse fraction dry sieving

analysis was s-2<j> (pebble/granule boundary) and the

lower particle size-limit for the fine fraction pipette

analysis was at particles >8<j> (clay). The samples often

contained high levels of organic material owing to the

input of sludge, particularly samples from NY6, and

were pretreated repeatedly with several milliliters of

30% H20 2 and heated until the organics were digested.

It was necessary to remove the organics because their

presence interferes with the dispersion of the individual sediment particles during both sieving and

pipetting, invalidating the resulting size distributions

(Galehouse, 1971; Ingram, 1971). Therefore, because

of the removal of organic material, we realize there are

obvious limitations in using the inorganic or "background" sediment grain-size data to show pre or post

sewage sludge dumping effects. However, it should be

noted that all conventional methods of particle-size

analyses that include the organic material disrupt and

destroy any semblance ofthe original sediment matrix,

thus creating size fractions that are merely the artifacts

of the disturbance process. In essence, it is impossible

to measure the "particle-size" of the organic matter

fraction, because the organic matter forms a continuum

within the sediment Uohnson, 1974; Watling, 1988,

1991; Watlingl ).

The grain-size distribution characteristics used to identify sediment trends were calculated using the SEDANA

computer program ofBloom et al. (1977) and based on

the graphic measures ofFolk (1980). The graphic mean

diameters (Mz) were determined by averaging the 16th,

50th, and 84th percentiles (Folk and Ward, 1957; Folk,

1980). Other summary statistics included the inclusive

graphic standard deviation (SDl' sorting), inclusive

graphic skewness (SkI)' and graphic kurtosis (Kc), although kurtosis is considered to have limited usefulness in the interpretation of the sediment grain-size

distribution (Blatt et aI., 1980).

These parameters are often used to determine the

direction of sediment transport (e.g. McLaren and

Bowles, 1985; Narayana and Pandarinath, 1991;

Masselink, 1992), or the source of the sedimentary

deposit (McLaren, 1981). However, there has been some

discussion on the utility and interpretation of these

statistics (e.g. Griffiths, 1967; McLaren, 1981). Knowing the shortcomings of these parameters and to avoid

any difficulties, we will refrain from using a cumbrous

quantitative approach (as in Blaeser and Ledbetter,

1982). Instead, we will use these parameters as descriptive tools to characterize the sites and make some general and conservative statements about the overlying

current regimes. That is, they will be used to make

1 Watling, L. Dept. Oceanogr., Univ. Maine, Darling Marine Center,

Walpole ME 04573. Pers. camm., Nov. 1992.
158. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

inferences about the local hydraulic climate that would

most likely explain the observed sediment distributions

and, hence, allow us to speculate on the fate of the

sludge. Qualitative specification of sedimentary environments is feasible (Griffiths, 1967); therefore, these

parameters will be interpreted in a more qualitative way

and used to complement conclusions about sediment

transport in the New York Bight apex drawn from past

and concurrent studies. It is beyond the scope of this

paper to draw any conclusions about the direction of

sediment transport or about the source ofthe material.

Sediment porosity is the ratio of pore space occupied

by the water to total sediment volume and is expressed

as a percent (Herdan, 1960). Pore space is calculated as

the difference between the total volume of the sediment and the solid material volume. Sediment bulk

density, the volume weight of saturated sediment

(g cm-3), is controlled by sediment water content and

mineral grain density (Lee and Chough, 1987), and its

relationship to porosity is as follows (Hamilton, 1970,

1971):

BDsat = (P) (Dpore water) + (1 - P) (Dmineral solids)

where BDsat is the saturated bulk density, P is the porosity, Dpore water is the density of the pore water, and

Dmineral solids is the bulk density of the mineral grains.

Saturated bulk density and porosity were calculated

using the weight-volume method and are based on the

standard techniques of Nafe and Drake (1966),

Hamilton (1970, 1971), and Bennett and Lambert

(1971). The wet 1-cm3 subsample was weighed, dried

for 18-24 h at 10S'C, then cooled to room temperature

and reweighed. Following the procedures of Hamilton

(1971), a very small salt correction was made to the dry

weights of the sediments using the average, rounded

salinity for the study of 33 ppt. The correction amounts

to an increment to porosity varying, according to porosity, from O.S-l %. Freezing ofthe cores prior to analyses

may have introduced a source of error in the porosity

(Horton et aI., 1988), but because the method involves

calculated values rather than direct measurement, it is

not thought to be critical (Watlingl ).

Analyses for TOC were performed on the 1-ml sediment aliquots taken from the top centimeter of the

replicate station cores. The quantity of organic carbon

in each subsample was determined on a LECO carbon

analyzer using a method similar to that of Kolpack and

Bell (1968). A solution of 7% HCI (wIv) was added

drop-wise to the sediment samples to dissolve inorganic

carbon. When effervescing ceased, one half the initial

volume of acid was again added to the sample to provide excess acid for the dissolution of the carbonate.

The samples were mixed thoroughly and oven dried at

70'C for 24 h to remove remaining HCI and moisture.

The samples were then ground and remixed to ensure

homogeneity, and any large remaining fragments (>1

mm) were manually removed. Samples were weighed in

crucibles containing approximately 2.S g copper chip

accelerant and combusted in oxygen in the analyzer.

The combustion products were dried and filtered into

a gravimetric absorption bulb where CO2 was retained.

The absorption ofCO2 was recorded as a weight change

in the bulb, permitting the gravimetric calculation of

the percentage ofTOC in the sediment.

Statistical and data analyses procedures used in the

12-mile dumpsite study, specifically those which utilized the RIT or BACI design, are discussed in EPD

(1988) and Pikanowski (1992, 1995). In order to determine if the cessation of dumping can be implicated as

an impact on the system, thereby implicating the sludge

dumping itself as the disturbance to the system, we

tested whether the difference between variable means

at the degraded station (NY6) , the enriched station

(R2), and the reference station (NYl1) changed after

dumping ceased. This involved calculating the stationto-station differences between the variable means at the

three stations for each monthly survey and comparing

the means of these differences from before the cessation of dumping (July 1986-December 1987; 18 surveys) to after the cessation of dumping (January

1988-November 1989; 23 surveys). The sampling times

themselves are the replicates; sampling at many different times both before and after cessation accounts for

the variability due to all sources, including sampling

error, spatial heterogeneity and random fluctuations

(Stewart-Oaten et aI., 1986; Pikanowski2). The differences between the means of the two time periods were

tested using two-tailed Student's t (parametric) and

Mann-Whitney U (nonparametric) statistics, with

nonsignificance (no effect of the disturbance) determined at p>O.OS. Trends and cycles were not detectable

by either parametric (C test) or nonparametric (runs

test for randomness) tests for serial correlation. Further descriptions of the RIT or BACI design are given

in Stewart-Oaten etal. (1986,1992), Underwood (1991)

and Pikanowski (1992).

Results

Grain-size Statistics

The sediments at NY6 ranged from a coarse silt (4.9<1»

in July 1986 to a fine sand (2.9<1» in March 1987 (Fig.

2). However, July 1986 was the exception, and in general the sediments at this station could be characterized

2 Pikanowski, R. Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA, Sandy

Hook Laboratory, Highlands NJ 07732. Pers. comm., Nov. 1992.
Sessiun ill: Sediment Processes 159

20 I15

10

35-r"i---------;:;---i~---------N=Y'7l6

}------r1-{ -

25

30

NY6

lI- - - I-- I--

1 3.0 [r

5.0

4.0

3.5

4.5

2.5 791113S79111JS791113S7911

1 .. 187 188 I .. I

7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 1 1 J 5 7 9 I 1 J 5 7 9 11

35

30

25

20

15

10

R2

-

- I87 88 89

35-,-------------------N:-::::-:Y,..,.1l~

30+------------------------1

25+---------------------1

20+-----------------------1

15

10

7 9 II I J 5 7 9 II 1 3 5 7 9 11 I 3 5 7 9 11

.. 87 1 88

DATE

..

Figure 3

Percent fine fraction (silt plus clay) ofthe sediments at

the three replicate stations (NY6, R2, NYll) in the New

York Bight apex.

as a very fine sand (grand mean=3.5</» over the entire

study period, with a coefficient of variation (CV) of

11.4%. The sediments at R2 and NYU could also be

characterized as very fine sands (grand mean=3.2</> and

3.1</>, respectively), but with lower temporal variabilities

than at NY6 (CV=8.5% and 6.4%, respectively). Comparisons of mean phi before and after the cessation of

dumping within and between stations showed no significant differences (Table 1).

The percent of sediment weight in the fine fraction

(silt plus clay) at each replicate station over time is

shown in Figure 3. Percent fines at NY6 ranged from

63.4% inJuly 1986 to 10.4% in January 1989. The large

amount offines in the July 1986 sample is a result ofthe

presence of a dominant (42.9% by weight) clay-size

fraction. Overall, percent fines at R2 were lower than

those of NY6 and ranged between 24.5% in May 1987

and 10.2% in June 1989. Percent silt-clay at NYU was

lower still, with a range from 17.7% in August 1986 to

5.1 % in October 1986.

The inclusive graphic standard deviation indicates

that, in general, the sediments at all three stations were

poorly sorted throughout the 41-month study period

(Table 2). The exception was at NYlI where several

samples were moderately sorted because of the slightly

lower percentages of both the fine and coarse fractions

as compared with the other dates and stations. The

presence of pebbles in the March 1987 NY6 and June

1989 R2 samples made these sediments the most poorly

sorted (2.0</».

The inclusive graphic skewness at NY6 showed monthto-month variability without a clear pattern (Table 2).

The sediment size-frequency distributions ranged from

strongly coarse-skewed (negative skewness) to near-symmetrical (near zero) to strongly fine-skewed (positive

skewness), with the majority being fine-skewed. The

distributions at NYll were predominately near-symmetrical with less variability over time than at NY6. Size

distributions at R2 were all fine-skewed except for the

June 1987 and June 1989 samples, which were near-
160 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

symmetrical and coarse-skewed respectively, due to the

presence of a coarse fraction consisting of shell fragments, granules, or pebbles.

The sediment distributions at all three stations were

almost uniformly leptokurtic to very leptokurtic (Table

2). The major exception occurs in the July 1986 sample

at NY6 which was platykurtic owing to its bimodal distribution and very poorly sorted sediments caused by a

large proportion of clay-sized particles and a smaller

secondary mode of very fine sand. A few mesokurtic

distributions occurred at NYl1.

Porosity

Sediment porosity at the three replicate stations showed

a decreasing trend in the order of NY6>R2>NYl1 (Fig.

4). Porosity values at NY6 ranged from 76.2% in February 1987 to 50.0% inJanuary 1989, with an overall mean

of64.1 6.5% and CV=10.1 %. There was less temporal

variability at R2 (CV=7.4%) and a lower overall mean of

52.9 ± 3.9%. Sediments from station NYl1 had the

lowest porosity (grand mean=50.0 ± 3.3%) and the

lowest variability (CV=6.7%) throughout the study. Comparisons of pre- and postcessation means between stations; i.e. the means of NY6 to the enriched station R2

and to the reference station NYl1, showed highly significant differences (Table 1; t=5.14 for NY6-R2, t=4.13

for NY6-NYl1, both jJ<0.001; the positive signs of the t

values indicate that the precessation means were higher).

However, porosity at station R2 did not change significantly relative to NYU. Comparisons of pre- and

postcessation means within NY6 indicates a highly significant decrease in sediment porosity from 68.0% during precessation to 61.5% during postcessation.

Porosities at R2 and NYl1, however, had slight, but

insignificant, increases after the cessation of dumping

(Table 1).

Table 1

Results of the RIT technique of Pikanowski (1995) applied to the selected sediment properties, with variable means before

the cessation of dumping covering the period from July 1986 to December 1987 and postcessation variable means from

January 1988 to November 1989. Differences between means, both inter-station and intra-station, were analyzed parametrically (t-test) and non-parametrically (Mann-Whitney U-test). Symbols, n.s.: not significant (p> 0.05); *: significant (p <

0.05); **: significant (p < 0.01); ***: significant (p < 0.001).

Property

Grain-Size

(q,)

Porosity

(%)

Bulk Density

(g cm-3)

Toe

(%)

Precessation Postcessation

Mean ±SE VS. Mean ± SE t-statistic U-statistic

Station (n = 18 months) (n= 23 months) (df= 39) nl = 18, = 23

NY6 3.58±0.12 3.47±0.06 0.92n.s n.S

R2 3.14±0.06 3.18±0.06 -0.47n.s. n.s.

NYll 3.13±0.05 3.07±0.04 0.96n.s. n.s.

NY6-NYll 0.45±0.14 0.40±0.07 0.37n.s. n.s.

NY6-R2 0.45±0.13 0.29±0.08 1.05n.s. n.s.

R2-NYll 0.OhO.08 0.lhO.08 -O.86n.s. n.s.

NY6 68.02±1.26 61.05±1.21 3.94*** 336.0***

R2 51.77±0.83 53.77±0.87 -1.64n.s. n.s.

NYll 49.30±0.72 50.62±0.75 -1.25n.s. n.s.

NY6-NYll 18.72±1.57 10.43±1.28 4.13*** 340.0***

NY6-R2 16.26±1.43 7.28±1.06 5.14*** 358.0***

R2-NYll 2.46±1.03 3.15±1.08 -0.45n.s. n.s.

NY6 1.42±0.02 1.57±0.03 -3.97*** 337.5***

R2 1.77±0.02 1.70±0.02 2.98** 314.0**

NYll 1.84±0.02 1.83±0.01 0.37n.s. n.s.

NY6-NYll -0.42±0.03 -0.26±0.03 -3.29** 324.0**

NY6-R2 -0.35±0.03 -0.13±0.02 -6.15*** 374.0***

R2-NYll -0.07±0.02 -0.13±0.02 1.87n.s. n.s.

NY6 4.55±0.47 2.33±0.34 3.94*** 335.0***

R2 0.92±0.10 0.93±0.12 -0.06n.s. n.s.

NYll 0.26±0.02 0.33±0.02 -2.23* 315.5**

NY6-NYll 4.28±0.47 2.00±0.34 4.04*** 340.0***

NY6-R2 3.72±0.51 1.4hO.36 3.83*** 317.0***

R2-NYll 0.65±0.10 0.59±O.l2 0.37n.s. n.s.
Bulk Density

Of the three stations, NY6 had the lowest overall saturated bulk density values (grand mean=1.51 ± 0.14 g

em-3; CV=9.3%; Fig. 4). Bulk density was higher at R2

Sessioo m: Sediment Processes 161

(grand mean=1.73 ± 0.08 g em-3) and less variable

(CV=4.9%). Station NYU had the highest overall average bulk density values throughout the study period

(grand mean=1.83 ± 0.07 g em-3) and the lowest variability (CV=3.7%). Pre- and posteessation means ofNY6

Table 2

Statistical parameters of the sediment grain-size distributions at the three replicate stations. Sorting symbols are

M: moderately sorted; P: poorly sorted; VP: very poorly sorted. Skewness symbols are SF: strongly fine-skewed; F: fineskewed; N: near symmetrical; C: coarse-skewed; SC: strongly coarse-skewed. Kurtosis symbols are P: platykurtic;

M: mesokurtic; L: leptokutic; V: very leptokurtic.

NY6 R2 NY11

SOI($) SKI Kc SOI($) SKI Kc SOI($) SKI Kc

Oate Sorting Skewness Kurtosis Sorting Skewness Kurtosis Sorting Skewness Kurtosis

7/86 1.61 P -0.17 C 0.69 P 1.19 P +0.24 F 1.51 V 1.05 P +0.02 N 1.71 V

8/86 1.39 P +0.16F 1.70 V 1.22 P +0.23 F 1.55 V 1.33 P +0.32 SF 2.22 V

9/86 1.32 P +0.09 N 1.50 L 1.17 P +0.24 F 1.54 V 1.21 P -0.02 N 1.87V

10/86 1.26 P +0.16 F 1.82V 1.32 P +0.32 SF 1.52 V 0.78 M -0.25 C 0.94M

11/86 1.24 P +0.06 N 1.56 V 1.22 P +0.21 F 1.57V 1.15 P -0.03 N 1.70 V

12/86 1.42 P +0.13 F 1.59V 1.19 P +0.23 F 1.57 V 0.79M -0.13 C 1.28 L

1/87 1.59 P +0.22 F 1.62 V 1.17 P +0.26 F 1.62 V 0.96M -0.15 C 1.35 L

2/87 1.22 P +0.02 N 1.69 V 1.20 P +0.24 F 1.55 V 1.02 P -0.01 N 2.15 V

3/87 2.00 VP -0.35 SC 2.49V 1.36 P +0.32 SF 1.51 V 0.99M +0.09 N 2.17 V

4/87 1.44 P +0.29 F 1.83 V 1.19 P +0.22 F 1.53 V 1.47 P +0.04 N 1.37 L

5/87 1.57 P -0.16 C 2.02 V 1.76 P +0.45 SF 1.38 L 1.16 P -0.10 N 1.48 L

6/87 1.49 P +0.22 F 1.53V 1.72 P -0.04 N 2.35 V 0.82 M -0.13 C 1.24 L

7/87 1.73 P +0.31 SF 1.33 L 1.24 P +0.21 F 1.55 V 1.00 P -0.01 N 1.93 V

8/87 1.55 P +0.40 SF 1.27 L 1.23 P +0.20 F 1.62 V 1.13 P -0.04 N 1.81 V

9/87 1.47 P +0.32 SF 1.85 V 1.22 P +0.25 F 1.50 V 1.11 P -0.11 C 1.44 L

10/87 1.73 P +0.25 F 0.69 P 1.74 P +0.44 SF 1.44 L 1.19 P -0.02 N 1.79 V

11/87 1.59 P +0.28 F 1.74 V 1.27 P +0.23 F 1.55 V 1.19 P -0.04 N 1.77 V

12/87 1.21 P +0.05 N 1.81 V 1.27 P +0.28 F 1.52 V 1.11 P +0.03 N 1.97 V

1/88 1.66 P +0.32 SF 0.70 P 1.26 P +0.26 F 1.57 V 1.12 P +0.01 N 1.67 V

2/88 1.53 P +0.38 SF 1.38 L 1.20 P +0.23 F 1.54 V 1.10 P +0.04 N 2.29V

3/88 1.42 P +0.22 F 1.92 V 1.22 P +0.25 F 1.56V 1.21 P -0.02 N 1.80 V

4/88 1.23 P +0.04 N 1.74 V 1.22 P +0.23 F 1.58 V 1.20 P +0.01 N 1.73 V

5/88 1.32 P +0.12 F 1.75 V 1.32 P +0.30 F 1.51 V 1.12 P -0.00 N 1.70 V

6/88 1.57 P +0.24 F 1.77 V 1.43 P +0.36 SF 1.48 L 1.16 P -0.05 N 1.66 V

7/88 1.51 P +0.03 N 1.84 V 1.60 P +0.44 SF 1.46 L 1.19 P -0.01 N 1.82 V

8/88 1.46 P +0.22 F 1.69 V 1.24 P +0.25 F 1.54 V 1.14 P -0.01 N 1.90 V

9/88 1.29 P +0.19 F 1.86 V 1.21 P +0.19 F 1.56 V 1.06 P +0.07 2.31 V

10/88 1.41 P +0.15 F 1.70 V 1.48 P +0.37 SF 1.47 L 1.07 P -0.09 N 0.97 M

11/88 1.28 P +0.06 N 1.68 V 1.23 P +0.22 F 1.56 V 1.14 P +0.01 N 2.21 V

12/88 1.46 P +0.21 F 1.82 V 1.23 P +0.23 F 1.58 V 1.07 P -0.01 N 1.01 M

1/89 1.20 P +0.08 N 1.57 V 1.21 P +0.23 F 1.53 V 1.09 P -0.01 N 1.72 V

2/89 1.23 P +0.11 F 1.83V 1.49 P +0.38 SF 1.47 L 1.05 P +0.07 2.10V

3/89 1.37 P +0.25 F 2.11 V 1.52 P +0.41 SF 1.48 L 1.03 P -0.29 C 1.06 M

4/89 1.17 P +0.20 F 1.77 V 1.57 P +0.41 SF 1.44 L 1.42 P +0.13 F 1.38 L

5/89 1.29 P +0.08 1.67 V 1.19 P +0.23 F 1.56 V 1.11 P -0.04 N 1.73 V

6/89 1.41 P +0.14 F 1.61 V 2.04 VP -0.18 C 2.39V 1.16 P +0.04 N 1.57 V

7/89 1.08 P +0.01 N 1.90 V 1.22 P +0.25 F 1.54 V 1.03 P +0.01 2.02 V

8/89 1.17 P +0.02 N 1.85V 1.20 P +0.23 F 1.52 V 1.07 P -0.01 N 2.09 V

9/89 1.29 P +0.15 F 1.82V 1.22 P +0.21 F 1.54 V 1.10 P -0.03 N 1.83 V

10/89 1.24 P +0.06 N 1.85 V 1.21 P +0.22 F 1.55 V 1.18 P -0.01 N 1.91 V

11/89 1.51 P +0.23 F 1.70 V 1.65 P +0.44 SF 1.44 L 1.10 P -0.04 N 1.79 V
162 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

within both stations NY6 and R2. Sediment bulk density

at NY6 increased from the precessation period

(mean=1.42 g cm-3) to postcessation (mean=1.57 g

cm-3) , while R2 had a significant, but small decrease of

0.07 g cm-3 in bulk density after dumping ceased (Table

1). This decrease in bulk density may be due to any

number Of sampling artifacts or changes in environmental conditions, but is surely correlated with the

slight increase in postcessation porosity at R2. Mean

bulk density did not change significantly at station NYll

and remained around 1.84 g cm-3 (Table 1).

The additive inverse relationship between porosity

and bulk density is apparent when comparing the data

for these two variables (Fig. 4). This relationship is

further demonstrated through the use of geometric

mean regression analysis, the appropriate regression

model to use when both X and Yvariates are subject to

measurement error (Ricker, 1973; Laws and Archie,

1981; Press and Teukolsky, 1992). At NY6 (Fig. 5a), the

relationship is linear as expected because bulk density

increases as porosity decreases over time (,2=0.56). The

relationship is less obvious at R2 (Fig. 5b; ,2=0.32) because bulk density shows an unexpected significant decrease while porosity is slightly increasing. At NYll,

where neither bulk density nor porosity appear to

change through time, the relationship is indistinct (Fig.

5c; ,2=0.11). Although the slopes and intercepts are

similar among the three stations, R2 and NYll had

lower coefficients of determination because these data

points can be considered as possible subsets of the

entire range of porosities and bulk densities found at

NY6. The scatter of the points along the regression line at

each station is a function of the distance of that station

from the dumpsite, and therefore the degree to which the

• Bulk Density:l...2

NY6

Date

90...- Porosity

Figure 4

Mean sediment porosity and saturated bulk density at

0-1 cm depth at the three replicate stations (NY6, R2,

NYll) in the New York Bight apex. Average n=2±SEfor

each date.

7 . " . 3 . 7 . " . 3 . 7 . " . 3 . 7

I ... I .7 I .. I .. tIl

c:

'"0

" .~ ~.

8 (JQ

0 ("> Il. S'-

7 . " . 3 . 7 . " . 3 . 7 . " . 3 . 7 ... I 86 I .7 I .. I .. I

relative to R2 and NYll showed highly significant differences (Table 1). There was also a significant difference in sediment bulk density pre- and postcessation

2.1 r--------------, 2.1,--------------, 2.1,---------------,

Station NY6 Station R2 Station NY11

6 1986

o 1987

<> 1988

o 1989

1.4

Y.= 2.87 - O,021X

(= 0.11

o o

11 1986

a 1987

o 1988

o 1989

'6

'5

1.2

1.8

1.3

1.1

1.4

1.9

1.7

.0. 1986

o 1987

o 1988

o 1989

Y '" 2.94 - 0.023 X

r'", 0.32

1.3

1.1

1.2

1.5

6

o

o•

o

DO 0

o 0 6 0 Ino 0 06

<> 0 <> 6060

0<> 0 1I

6 0

o

o 0 0

o

'1> 0 0

<> 008 0/'1

<> o¢ 6

o 0

go",

y .. 2.81 - O.02QX

r 0.56

00

1.2

1.1

1.3

1.9

1.8

'?Eu

.9,.7

~1.6 C

Q)

0'5

-'" "3

CD , ,4

90 50 60 70 80 90

1 "-- - __- __-......J

40 11--~------------'00 ro 00

Porosity % Porosity % Porosity %

Figure 5

Geometric mean regression analyses of porosity versus saturated bulk density for stations a) NY6, b) R2, and c) NYll in the New

York Bight apex. Data points represent monthly averages.
Session Ill: Sediment Processes 163

7911135791113579111357911

Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

natural sediments have been diluted by the sludge and, at

NY6, the dispersion of that sludge over time.

The large-scale morphologic features, natural surficial

sediments, and sediment transport within the New York

Bight have been previously mapped and discussed by

numerous authors (Schlee, 1973; Williams and Duane,

1974; Schlee and Sanko, 1975; Freeland et aI., 1976,

1979, 1981; Harris, 1976; Swift et aI., 1976; Williams,

1976; Stubblefield et aI., 1977; Freeland and Swift, 1978;

Vincent et aI., 1981; Clarke et aI., 1983; and Young et

aI., 1985). The floor of the New York Bight shelf is

predominately sand with fine-grained (2-4<1>), poorly

sorted muddy (10-40% silt-clay) sand occurring in enclosed lows of the Hudson Shelf Valley axis and the

upper end of the Christiaensen Basin; sandier sediments are also found on the flanks of the Valley. The

northern periphery of the Christiaensen Basin is characterized by possible cyclic expansion and contraction

of mud (50% >4<1» facies; the nearshore Long Island

mud patches are often covered with a sand cap that is

subject to scouring. The remainder of the New York

Bight apex contains assorted sizes of sand and both

anthropogenic and natural gravel deposits.

Suspended sediment is transported or dispersed

through many feedback loops operating in the inner

shelf; sediments are exchanged between the Hudson

estuary, the New York Bight apex, Christiaensen Basin,

and the Hudson Shelf Valley (Young et aI., 1985). The

Shelf Valley is a "sink" for the net southwestward transport of sediment along the shelf, even though the currents and net potential sediment transport rates are

stronger within the Valley than the surrounding shelf.

Overall the distribution of bottom sediment types in

the New York Bight apex is considered to be patchy

with small scale spatial variations, although Stubblefield

et al. (1977) state that the distribution of grain sizes of

the sediments have a remarkable degree ofstability and

have no systematic seasonal variation, indicating that

the seabed is in a state of textural equilibrium with the

hydraulic climate. However, because transport of sediment in the Bight is dominated by storm events (Lavelle

et aI., 1978; Young et aI., 1981; Clarke et aI., 1982;

Young and Hillard, 1984), several authors have noted

that the Christiaensen Basin shows major temporal variability in sludge accumulation, sediment character, and

Discussion

tent, less than 0.6%, and the lowest variability

(CV=33.8%). Mean TOC at this station showed a small

but significant (jJ<0.5) increase over time, rising from

an average of 0.26% before cessation to 0.33% after

(Table 1). Pre- and postcessation means ofNY6 relative

to R2 and NYll showed highly significant differences

(jJ<0.001; Table 1); R2-NYll differences were insignificant (p>0.05).

I 88 89

DATE

86 87

NYll

I---

KT n Tr

NY6

Ff-----

-

n :fl-fh-n- 7 9 II 1 J S 7 9 II 1 J S 7 9 II 1 J S 7 9 II

I 86 I 87 I .. I 89 I

3.5

R2 3.0

..-.. 2.5

e-- 2.0

U 1.5 0

Eo-<

9 I I J S 7 9 II

86 87 88 89

0.0

0.1

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.0

The concentration ofTOC in the sediments at NY6 was

highly elevated relative to R2 and NYll (Fig. 6). Concentrations of TOC at NY6 were extremely variable

(CV=62.4%) and ranged from 7.29% in December 1986

to 0.59% in September 1989; several very high and low

values occurred during both pre- and postcessation

periods and had no obvious seasonal pattern. Sediment

TOC content decreased after the cessation of dumping

as evidenced by a highly significant difference in pre/

postcessation mean TOC at NY6 (jJ<0.001; Table 1).

The sediment at R2 was also enriched in TOC, although to a much lesser degree and with less temporal

variability (CV=54.1 %). Unlike NY6, the sediment organic carbon at R2 did not decline after December

1987 (mean=0.93%). NYll had the lowest TOC conFigure 6

Sediment percent total organic carbon at 0-1 cm depth at

the three replicate stations (NY6, R2, NYlI) in the New York

Bight apex.
164 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

mass resuspension events (Freeland et aI., 1979; Vincent

et aI., 1981; Davis et aI., 1995; Manning, 1995).

In this study, the background sediments at all three

replicate stations in the Christiaensen Basin can be

characterized as a poorly sorted, very fine sand throughout the study period, although a significant muddy

fraction was present at both the highly polluted station,

NY6, and the enriched station, R2. The highest percentages ofsand were found at NYl1 as it is situated on

the eastern shoulder of the Hudson Shelf Valley. Davis

et al. (1995) demonstrated that because sewage sludge

contributed a fine component to the sediments, strong

temporal fluctuations in sediment character were evident at sites adjacent to the dumpsite, such as NY6.

These sediments were often characterized by a black,

highly erodible, watery silt alternating with stable, homogeneous silty-sand. Thus, Davis et al. (1995) suggested that

NY6 accumulated sludge during calm periods prior to the

cessation ofdumping and then lost it during storm events,

which exposed the sandy base. This sequence of events

would also explain the higher variability over time in the

average grain-size and percent fine fraction we observed

at NY6. Since cessation, Davis et al. (1995) have observed

the gradual replacement of this anoxic silt by a muddy

sand. In addition, Davis et al. (1995) found a precessation

anoxic muddy sand at R2, but little evidence of sludge

accumulation in the form of watery silt. This station was

also subject to sediment deposition and to winnowing.

Our results showed no significant change in the mean

grain-size of the inorganic fraction of the sediment at

the three stations after the cessation of dumping. But

owing to the nature of the overlying current regime, a

geologic fine fraction is present at each of the three

stations in varying amounts. NY6 had the highest mean

phi (smallest diameter particles) and highest percent

of fine fractions throughout the study period as compared with R2, which in turn had overall higher mean

phi and percent fines than at the reference station

NYll. It should be noted, however, that any inorganic

material in the sediment that may have been contributed by the sludge was not distinguishable by our analyses.

Sorting is the approximation of the standard deviation

in a grain-size distribution. A well-sorted sediment is one

in which all the grains are of similar size; poorly-sorted

sediments have a mixture ofsizes. Folk (1980) states that

currents of relatively constant strength will produce better-sorted sediments, whereas poorly-sorted sediments are

the result of an intermittent and widely fluctuating current regime. The replicate stations contained sediments

that were overwhelmingly poorly sorted throughout the

study period due to erosional-depositional events observed

by Davis et al. (1995) that coincide with the wind-driven

currents in the Christiaensen Basin (Manning, 1995).

Skewness (or asymmetry) and kurtosis (or peakedness) indicate how closely the grain-size distribution

approximates the normal Gaussian probability curve;

the grain-size curve deviates from normality when these

indices become extreme. Sediment distributions which

are dominated by one end member with only a small

amount of the other end member are extremely

leptokurtic and skewed, as are the majority of our

samples, and the sign ofthe skewness depends on which

end member is dominant (Folk, 1980). A positively

skewed distribution means there is an abundance of

coarse grains with a surplus offine grains in a tail, while

a negative skewness shows an abundance of fine grains

with a surplus of the coarser sediments in a tail.

Bimodally distributed sediments such as those found at

NY6 in July 1986 show extreme skewness and

platykurtosis with subequal amounts of the two end

members, although the pure modes of the tail ends

may themselves have nearly normal distribution curves

(Folk and Ward, 1957; Folk, 1980). Skewness may be

the result of size-selective deposition and erosion of a

sedimentary deposit (McLaren, 1981). If, as in the

Christiaensen Basin, the sedimentary environment is

dynamic and the winnowing action of the currents is

intermittent, the skewness of the grain-size distribution

curve will be affected such that neither positively nor

negatively skewed sediments are dominantfor any length

of time (Duane, 1964) and skewness will fluctuate temporally. This pattern was seen at NY6.

Accumulation of sewage sludge prior to cessation, as

well as the continuing presence of mud in the often

energetic environment of NY6, indicates that there are

high concentrations ofsuspended particulate materials

from both the dumpsite and natural sources available

for deposition during any relatively quiescent period.

The persistence of sludge or mud at this station is

dependent upon the time to the next period ofintense

current activity containing sufficient energy to overcome the cohesive forces of the sludge/mud deposit

(Stanford et aI., 1981). The sediment grain-size distributions at R2, which are almost uniformly fine-skewed

and leptokurtic throughout the entire study, reflect

this pattern to a lesser degree. That is, sludge input was

not as important a factor (Davis et aI., 1995; also seen in

our TOC results) and the currents are perhaps more

constant with fewer relatively calm periods which would

allow mud to either settle or remain on the bottom.

The sediment grain-size distributions at NYl1, which

are predominately near-symmetrical and also very

leptokurtic, are the result of a higher energy environment, particularly as found on the flank of the Hudson

ShelfValley in the winter months where west-northwest

winds produce an up-valley flow often in excess of 25

cm/s1 for several days duration (Nelson et aI., 1978;

Manning, 1995). The current regime here may be relatively more constant than at the other stations, even

during the remainder of the year when the magnitude
of the flow is half of what it was in the winter and the

direction of flow is more variable (Manning, 1995).

Porosity is a measure of the amount of pore space

between sediment grains and is dependent upon the

fundamental properties ofsize and shape distribution,

as well as mineralogy, packing ofthe grains, and for siltclay sediments, the concentration of organic carbon

(Keller, 1982; Bennett et al., 1985; Chassefiere, 1987;

Chassefiere and Monaco, 1989). Under natural sedimentary processes, sand or larger-size particles in suspension sink rapidly out of the water column and may

be transported along the bottom. Under the influence

of gravity or water motion, the particles assume positions in direct contact to the other grains in the seabed.

These marine sands, with their grain-to-grain contacts,

vary in porosity from about 35-50%, and average around

40% for medium sands and 44% for fine sands

(Hamilton, 1970). However, the sediment structure

formed by silt-clay particles is not controlled as much by

gravity as by the adsorbed water around the grains and by

interparticle forces. Suspended fine particles flocculate

and form loose, open three dimensional aggregates that

sink to the bottom and have a distinctly different structural framework than those of sands (Hamilton, 1970;

Bennett et al., 1981). Therefore, decreasing grain-size

results in a general increase in porosity. Also, as seen in

this study and others, porosity is inversely related to bulk

density, and this relationship is linear (Davis, 1954; Murty

and Muni, 1987). If the water content of the sediment is

close to zero, the saturated bulk density will be the density

of the solid material, but as water content increases, the

bulk density will decrease until it approaches the density

ofthe seawater (Lee and Chough, 1987).

Since the in situ sewage sludge contaminated sediments at NY6 contain a greater silt fraction than the less

contaminated sediments from the other stations (Davis

et al., 1995), and because organic carbon is a contributor to high porosity and thus high water content

(Chassefiere, 1987, Chassefiere and Monaco, 1989), it

was expected that NY6 sediments would have high porosities and low bulk densities during dumping. Mter

sludge dumping ceased the sediment porosity should

significantly decrease and the bulk density significantly

increase as this fine, organic layer was gradually winnowed, leaving a heavier inorganic fine sand fraction

behind. The watery, highly organic sediments with high

porosities and low bulk densities in 1986 (average of

66.88% and 1.44 g cm-3, respectively) become the

sandier "background" sediments with lower porosities

and higher bulk densities in 1989 (average 58.60% and

1.65 g cm-3, respectively) also found elsewhere in the

Christaensian Basin at sites unaffected by dumping.

Freeland et al. (1979) hypothesized that in the New

York Bight apex, there was not only a high rate of

dispersion of the sludge, but there was also rapid bioSession Ill: Sediment Processes 165

logical decomposition of the organic matter and this

dispersion-decomposition could also account for the

postcessation increase in bulk density and decrease in

porosity seen in our study at NY6. The fate of sewagederived organic carbon is most notably remineralization

(Sampou and Oviatt, 1991). Studies by Smith et al.

(1973) indicated that 20% of the input ofsludge could

be remineralized on the bottom daily, while Nedwell

and Lawson (1990) demonstrated that sewage sludge at

the sediment-water interface may rapidly degrade over

only a four month period in shallow marine environments, particularly at dispersive sites.

Although the mass properties of porosity and bulk

density are usually correlated with the fundamental

property of sediment grain-size, an increase in mean

phi size would not have been seen with decreasing

porosity and increasing bulk density through time at

NY6 because the grain-size analysis methods required

the elimination of the organic component from the

sediments. Since organic matter is a significant portion

of the sludge-contaminated sediments (Hatcher and

Keister, 1976), our inorganic grain-size results do not

reflect the contribution of any sewage-derived organic

fine fraction material to the sediments as do the results

from our porosity and bulk density determinations because the organic matter was retained for these analyses.

In sediments, organic matter unaffected by anthropogenic inputs is derived from either soft tissues or

skeletal remains. Soft tissues are composed primarily of

carbonaceous compounds while skeletal remains are

composed of carbonates, silica, or phosphate compounds. As carbon is the most abundant element, measurement of total organic carbon (TOC) in the

sediments (percent dry weight) is a reliable way of

estimating the abundance of biogenous material (Gross,

1971). Concentrations of TOC are related inversely to

the mean grain-size of the sediment particles and the

geotechnical property of bulk density, and TOC is related directly to the geotechnical properties of sediment porosity and both liquid and plastic limits (Keller,

1982; Jocteur Monrozier et al., 1983; Bennett et al.,

1985; Booth and Dahl, 1986; Chassefiere, 1987; Mayer

et al., 1988; Chassefiere and Monaco, 1989). Because

the major source ofthe organic matter in the New York

Bight apex sediments is allochthonous sludge loading

(Hatcher and Keister, 1976), a decrease in sediment

TOC and porosity and an increase in bulk density occurred at the polluted sites after the cessation ofdumping.

Previous studies on organic matter content in New

York Bight apex sediments by Gross (1970, 1972) and

Reid et al. (1982) showed total carbon concentrations

ranging from 0.2-4.5% in the vicinity of the sludge

dumpsite to <0.2% for sediments more than 10 km

from waste disposal activities (as at NYll). Hatcher and

Keister (1976) reported TOC values in the Bight apex
166 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

and adjacent Hudson Shelf Valley in 1973 to be <0.1 %

dry wt in sands to around 5% in deeper muds. Harris

(1976) also reported TOC values of 0.1-4.5% for the

dumpsite muds and Christiaensen Basin. Results from

our study demonstrate that TOC in the sediments of

NY6 showed a significant response to the cessation of

dumping, decreasing from precessation mean levels of

4-5% to levels of around 2% following cessation. Lower

but still enriched mean TOC values (0.9%) were observed at R2 throughout the study period, while NYll

maintained mean TOC concentrations similar to the

background levels observed in the studies mentioned

above. The elevated mean TOC levels at NY6 and R2 at

the end of the study, along with the elevated porosity

values and depressed bulk density values at these two

stations as compared with NYl1, are simply a reflection

of the greater percentages ofsilts and clays still present

in these sediments. However, at this time there is no

explanation for the slight postcessation rise in TOC at

NYl1. Finally, the TOC time series data showed evidence of temporal variability in the order of

NY6>R2>NYl1, matching the order we observed for

grain-size, porosity and bulk density.

In this paper, we have sought to characterize the

dumpsite sediment milieu and detect the subtle patterns and interrelationships among the sediment variables. This has allowed us to draw conclusions regarding

correlations between the sediment properties and the

cessation ofsludge dumping. These conclusions will assist

us in the future interpretation of the trends observed in

the associated dumpsite chemical and biological data.

Summary _

This study described the fundamental and derived properties of the surficial sediments from three sites in the

VIcinity of the 12-mile dumpsite in the New York Bight

apex during the period 1986 through 1989. The RIT or

BACI design of Pikanowski (1992, 1995) and StewartOaten et al. (1986) was used to test for significant

changes in grain-size characteristics, porosity, bulk density and total organic carbon related to the cessation of

sludge dumping in December 1987. Surface sediment

samples were taken before and after the cessation of

sludge dumping at a reference station, NYl1, an "enriched" station, R2, and the degraded station, NY6,

located near the dumpsite. The sediments at all three

sampling stations were poorly sorted, very fine sand

(means of 3.1-3.5<\» although NY6 and R2 contained

greater mud fractions than NYlI. Skewness ofthe grainsize distributions over the 41 month study period at

NY6 ranged from very coarse to very fine-skewed while

those at R2 were almost uniformly fine-skewed and

NYll 's distributions were predominately near-symmetrical. Nearly all the grain-size distributions were

leptokurtic. The poorly sorted sediments and skewed

(especially at NY6 and R2) and leptokurtic grain-size

distributions are an indication ofintermittent and widely

fluctuating bottom currents and sediment resuspension

events. Previous and concurrent studies of sediment

transport in this area support this conclusion. NY6 had

the greatest response to local erosional-depositional

events by having a higher variability in mean grain-size

diameter, percent fine fraction, inclusive graphic skewness, porosity, saturated bulk density, and percent TOC

throughout the study period. These same sediment

properties at NYll generally had the lowest temporal

variability, while values at R2 were generally intermediate between NYll and the heavily degraded NY6. There

was no significant change in the mean grain-size of the

inorganic fraction of the sediment at the three stations

after the cessation of dumping. Although the required

digestion of the organic matter during our grain-size

analyses removed the organic fine fraction component

attributable to the sludge, the organic material was

retained in the sediment samples analyzed for bulk

density, porosity and TOe. Thus, the results from these

analyses at the degraded station NY6 showed a significant response to the cessation of sewage sludge dumping. Since the in situ sewage sludge contaminated

sediments at NY6 contained a greater silt fraction than

the less contaminated sediments from the other two

stations, these NY6 sediments had higher porosities,

lower bulk densities (these variables are additive inverses) and higher percent TOC prior to the cessation

of dumping in 1987. NY6 sediment porosity significantly decreased from mean precessation levels of 68%

to postcessation levels of 61 %, while TOC levels decreased from a precessation mean of 4-5% to around

2% following the cessation of dumping (porosity and

TOC are directly related). NY6 bulk density significantly increased from a precessation mean of 1.4 g cm-3

to 1.6 g cm-3 after dumping ceased. These postcessation

changes are due to rapid mineralization of the organic

matter and to the dispersion of the fine sludge layer,

leaving a heavier sand fraction behind. Average percent

TOC at R2 (0.9%) was consistently higher than at NYll

(0.3%). In general, R2 displayed intermediate values between those of NY6 and NYlI for all variables tested. The

higher TOC and porosity values and lower bulk densities

found at NY6 and R2 at the end ofthe study as compared

to NYll are a function of the higher percentages of silts

and clays still present in these stations' sediments.

Acknowledgments

We thank R. Pikanowski, P. Fournier, and K. Sharack

for assistance in the grain-size and statistical analyses.
We also thank J. Vitaliano, F. Steimle, R. Reid and J.

O'Reilly for helpful discussions and comments on the

manuscript. Frank Steimle supervised the sediment

workgroup.

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SESSIONIV:

Introduction

ANNE L. STUDHOLME

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

Biota

. Almost two decades have passed since 1972 when the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was required

under the Ocean Dumping Act to consider a number

offactors in establishing regulations for ocean disposal

of wastes. Chief among them were effects on health,

fisheries, and marine resources. In 1984, during suits

brought by New York and NewJersey to continue use of

the site, a number of biological effects, attributed wholly

or in part to sludge dumping, were listed as contributing to EPA's decision not to redesignate the 12-mile

site. Included among these were:

1) Reduced catches of bony fishes;

2) Impaired health and well-being of resource species, including reduction of reproductive functions, increased incidence of disease, e.g. fin rot and black gill,

and mutation of fish larvae;

3) Alterations in the benthic community, particularly

the proliferation ofpollution-tolerant polychaete worms

such as Capitella; and perhaps most importantly,

4) Unacceptably high levels ofcoliform bacteria which

forced closure ofsome 96,000 acres ofshellfish beds by

FDA. This threat to public health was, of course, one of

the most significant factors in EPA's decision.

Consequently, any study designed to evaluate the

effects of closure of the dumpsite, had to include a

major component to measure changes on the biota.

The choice of biotic variables was based on relevance

to fisheries of the inner Bight in terms of abundance,

distribution, and contamination of resource species,

and on predictive value for detecting changes with abatement. Similar to the approach used for the physical and

chemical portions of the study, working hypotheses

were developed based on anticipated changes in a number of biotic variables. Each of these hypotheses was

formulated from the study's principle null hypothesis

that, for effects that are reversible, the difference in

ecology between an affected site and an unaffected site

does not change after the cessation of sewage sludge

disposal (EPD [Environmental Processes Division],

1988) .

Returning to EPA's testimony that sludge dumping

contributed, in part, to reduced catch of fish, the most

obvious objective was to determine the distribution and

abundance of demersal finfish and the larger

megainvertebrates, such as crabs and lobsters, which

were dependent on habitats in and around the dumpsite.

While a major survey was needed to identify the extent

to which this area was utilized by a broad range of

species present in the New York Bight, it was also deemed

important to focus on a few target organisms.

Winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, is one ofthe

more commercially and recreationally important demersal species in the Bight. However, little was known

about the extent to which flounder from coastal New

Jersey migrated to offshore habitats influenced by sewage sludge. If a portion of this population was dependent on habitats affected by dumping at the 12-mile

site, then possible links could begin to be established

for pollutant effects, i.e. contaminant bioaccumulation

or disease. Thus, we examined the premise that winter

flounder that utilize the areas in and around the

dumpsite comprised a significant portion of the population of Sandy Hook and Raritan bays.

One of the biological effects noted by the EPA was

the impairment of resource health. Surveys in the New

York Bight in the early to mid-1970's identified a number of diseases of marine organisms which could have

been indicative of poor water quality. Given the anticipated decrease in levels of contaminants in the dumpsite

area, would there be a corresponding decrease in the

incidence of disease? The study focused on gross pathological indicators, e.g. fin erosion, ulceration, parasitism, tumors and skeletal abnormalities, anticipating

that incidence in winter flounder would significantly

decrease following cessation of dumping.

Another signal of biological response could be expected to be found in changes in trophic patterns. Even

if there were no signficant changes in distribution and

abundance of finfish and megainvertebrates, reductions in contaminant input could result in major shifts

171
172 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

in diet and food habits. Food habits were examined for

key resource species of the New York Bight, e.g. red

hake, Urophycis chuss; lobster, Homarus amencanus; and

winter flounder. The working hypothesis was that the

diets of these species would change following shifts in

the availability of benthic prey at the replicate sites.

Changes in numbers and species of benthic organisms have long been accepted as indicators ofbiological

effects in contaminated environments. Based on numerous surveys over the years, there is an extensive data

base on benthic macrofauna ofthe New York Bight that

can serve as a baseline against which to measure change.

Benthic studies have also been conducted in other areas in which sludge dumping has occurred including

England, Scotland, and Germany as well as the Philadelphia site (see Reid et aI., 1995, for review). Since

changes in benthic community structure could also be

correlated with possible changes in food habits of demersal predators, an understanding of the effects of cessation

of dumping on benthic macrofaunal diversity and species

richness was a critical component of the present study.

Using expected patterns of benthic response to reduction in contaminants, several working hypotheses

were developed: first, significant increases would occur

in the numbers of benthic species and crustacean forage organisms at the enriched station R2 and even

more probably at the highly degraded NY6; and second, a significant reduction would occur at NY6 in the

areal coverage and mean density of Capitella, a polychaete identified with polluted substrates.

The most pressing reason for closure ofthe dumpsite

was concern for public health stemming from unacceptably high levels of coliform bacteria in shellfish

harvesting areas. In 1983, a technical report prepared

by New York City'S Department of Environmental Protection l to support redesignation of the 12-mile

dumpsite stated that based on coliforms, sewage sludge

contributed only 0.2% of the microbial loading to the

Bight, with close to 99% attributable to the HudsonRaritan plume. Itwas estimated, therefore, that ifdumping of sewage sludge were the only source of fecal

contamination in the Bight, it was likely that the shellfish beds could be reopened within a year after cessation. However, surveys conducted before and after

closure of the more dispersive Philadelphia dumpsite,

indicated that it took nearly four years after closure

before microbial contamination returned to background

levels (Devine and Simpson, 1985).

The study would not have been complete therefore,

without an evaluation as to whether, after 64 years of

sludge input, bacterial contamination would decrease

to acceptable levels and permit the shellfish beds to be

reopened.

Literature Cited

Devine, M., and D. Simpson.

1985. Impact and recovery from sewage sludge dumping at

the Philadelphia dumpsite. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo. NOS OMA-15, 37 p.

Environmental Processes Division.

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFSF/NEC-55, 34 p.

Reid, R. N., S. A. Fromm, A. B. Frame, D.Jeffress,].]. Vitaliano,

D.]. Radosh, and]. R. Finn.

1995. Limited responses of benthic macrofauna and selected

sewage sludge components to phaseout of sludge disposal

in the inner New York Bight. In A. L. Studholme,]. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 213-225. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

I New York City Department of Environmental Protection. 1983.

Technical information to support the redesignation of the 12-mile

site for the ocean disposal of municipal sewage sludge. Prepared by

Ecological Analysts, Inc. Sparks, MD, and SEAMOcean, Inc.,

Wheaton, MD. New York City Department of Environmental Protection, 2358 Municipal Bldg., New York, NY 10007. Unpub!.

manuscr. 483 p. + appendices.
SESSIONW: Biota

Response of Fish and Megainvertebrates of the New York Bight

Apex to the Abatement of Sewage Sludge Dumping-an Overview

STUARTJ. WILK, ROBERT A. PIKANOWSKI, ANTHONYL. PACHECO,

DONALD G. MCMILLAN, and LINDA L. STEHLIK

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

ABSTRACT

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, conducted a 39-month study, from July 1986 to September 1989, to assess effects of the

end ofsewage sludge dumping on the living marine resources and their ecological relationships in the New York Bight apex. During the study 991 otter trawls were made at 19 to 25

stations per collecting inteIVal. Abundance and composition were enumerated for 75

species, representing 46 families of fish and megainvertebrates. The New York Bight apex

hosted a wide variety of migratory species; however, the demersal biomass was dominated

seasonally by only a few. Atlantic rock crab, Cancer irroratus, was the most abundant in

summer, replaced by little skate, Raja erinacea, and spiny dogfish, Squalus acanthias, during

winter.

Five species made up >75% of the fish biomass: little skate; spiny dogfish; winter flounder,

Pleuronectes americanus; red hake, Urophycis chuss; and ocean pout, Macrozoarces americanus;

little skate and winter flounder were obtained at >80% of all stations. Four species made up

>90% ofthe megainvertebrate biomass: Atlan tic rock crab; horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus;

American lobster, Homarus americanus; and longfin squid, Loligo pealeii; Atlantic rock crab

occurred at >85% of all stations.

The null hypothesis of no difference in biomass due to abatement ofsludge disposal was

tested for total fish and megainvertebrates as well as for the most frequently occurring

species. Total fish and megainvertebrates, Atlantic rock crab, little skate, and winter flounder biomass did not change significantly after cessation of dumping. Only American lobster

biomass changed significantly, increasing after dumping stopped.

Introduction

The New York Bight (NYB) is that portion of the western North Atlantic bounded by the coasts of Long

Island, New York to the north, NewJersey on the west,

and extending seaward to the edge of the continental

shelf (Fig. 1). This study was conducted in the NYB

apex, i.e. the area where the Long Island and New

Jersey coastlines are nearly perpendicular and the ocean

is contiguous with the Hudson-Raritan estuary (Fig. 1).

This portion of the NYB is directly adjacent to one of

the most heavily industrialized and densely populated

regions in the United States and, consequently, is vulnerable to all the problems associated with multiple

uses of finite resources (Mayer, 1982; Squires, 1983).

The waters of the NYB, and the apex in particular, are

used heavily for transportation, commercial and recreational fishing, pleasure boating, and waste disposal

from the dense population of =20 million people who

live, work, and recreate on its edges (Gross, 1972, 1976;

Pararas-Carayannis, 1973; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975; Wilk and Baker, 1989).

Sewage sludge was dumped at a site 22.2 km (12.0

nmi) from the tip of Sandy Hook (Fig. 1) since 1924

(Swanson et al., 1985; Santoro, 1987). Between March

1986 and December 1987, disposal ofsludge was phased

out at the 12-mile dumpsite (l2-MDS) (Fig. 2) and

redirected to a dumpsite 196 km (106 nmi) offshore.

173
174 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Figure 1

New York Bight (NYB) segment of the Middle Atlantic

continental shelf including outline of NYB apex as well as

the locations of various designated dumpsites within the

apex.

J New York City Department of Environmental Protection. 1983.

Technical information to support the redesignation of the 12-mile

site for the ocean disposal of municipal sewage sludge. Prepared by

Ecological Analysts, Inc. Sparks, MD, and SEAMOcean, Inc.,

Wheaton, MD. New York City Department of Environmental Protection, 2358 Municipal Bldg., New York, NY 10007. Unpub!.

manuscr. 483 p. + appendices.

9.0

8.0 DUMPING CEASED

31 DECEMBER 1987

en 7.0

r z

0

I- 6.0

Iii

5.0 LL

0 4.0 en

z

0 3.0 :::i

.....J

2.0

1.0

0.0

Figure 2

Estimated annual amounts of sewage sludge dumped in

the New York Bight apex, 1972-89 (Swanson et al. 1985;

San toro 1987).

tion to return to what were considered "background

levels."

Periodic resource surveys and characterizations of

the fish and fisheries of the NYB, which describe the

distribution, abundance, community structure, and aspects of the life history of selected species, have been

conducted during the past three decades (Wilk et aI.,

1977, 1983a, 1983b, 1988; Wilk and Baker, 1989). In

addition, other studies have tried to characterize the

effects of anthropogenic inputs on the sediment and

benthos of the NYB (Gross, 1976; Mayer, 1982; Reid et

aI., 1987). All these studies had inherent drawbacks

which included the inability to: 1) separate the effects

of dumping sewage sludge from effects due to dredged

and riverborne materials; 2) substantiate that "control"

stations were significantly differentfrom "contaminated"

stations; 3) account for reducing conditions in the sediment, which occur episodically during the summer in

organically contaminated areas of the NYB, that could

markedly influence community structure (EPD [Environmental Processes Division], 1988); and 4) improve

the accuracy and precision of individual studies, because environmental and biological variables were not

measured systematically or synoptically at appropriate

sampling intervals.

The abatement of dumping sewage sludge at the 12-

MDS offered an opportunity to determine ecosystem

response to the removal of a major anthropogenic input. NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)

conducted a multidisciplinary study to determine if

cessation of dumping at the 12-MDS would result in

significant changes in the abundance and species composition offish and megainvertebrates, water and sediNEW YORK

BIGHT

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I ______ .J

NEW YORK

BIGHT APEX

Christiaensen

sandy Basin 12-MILE

HooK • SEWAGE

.. SLUDGE i ~UMPSITE

CELLAR DIRT DREDGED DUMPSITE

MATERIAL

DUMPSITE

The NYB apex also receives contaminant inputs from

other sources besides sewage sludge; the two most significant being the Hudson-Raritan plume and the

dredged material dumpsite (Fig. 1) (New York City

Department of Environmental ProtectionI). This multiplicity of sources has made it virtually impossible to

quantify and separate contamination and biological effects due directly to the dumping of sewage sludge. In

addition, the lack of a pre-dumping baseline at the 12-

MDS further hinders understanding of the effects of

sludge. Among the few existing pre- and post-dumping

data are results from surveys conducted by NOAA, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the

Food and Drug Administration before and after the

1980 closure ofthe Philadelphia sewage sludge dumpsite

(Devine and Simpson, 1985). That study indicated that

about four years were needed for microbial contamina-
ment chemistry, benthic community structure, and body

burdens of organic contaminants, and would lead to

reopening of shellfish beds (EPD, 1988).

This paper summarizes the following aspects of the

study: 1) the abundance and species composition ofthe

fish and megainvertebrates collected; and 2) the tests

of the null hypothesis of no effect attributable to the

abatement of sewage sludge disposal upon the abundance of all finfish and megainvertebrates as well as of

several common species.

Methods and Materials _

Survey Design

Before the phaseout of the 12-MDS, it was thought

possible to provide a better understanding of the effects of dumping sewage sludge on habitats and biota

and the interactions and relationships among them by

conducting synoptic surveys (EPD, 1988). Ideally, replicate measurements should be collected at all sample

locations so contaminated and adjacent "cleaner" sites

could be characterized sufficiently over time. Replicated sampling at all sites, however, was judged too

costly and labor-intensive. Therefore, the survey design

was a compromise consisting of two complementary

sampling regimens that are termed replicate and

broadscale surveys (see Pikanowski, 1995).

The replicate survey design assumed that changes in

sediment chemistry, which may affect fish and

megainvertebrates, occur on the order ofmonths. Therefore, sampling to detect these changes and possible

effects must be made frequently, especially during summer when stressful combinations of high temperature,

low dissolved oxygen (hypoxia), and high sulfide are

most likely to occur (EPD, 1988). Replicate sampling

was conducted at three stations chosen to represent a

gradient of sewage sludge concentrations and effects

(Fig. 3). The broadscale survey design consisted of a

single, non-replicated suite of measurements taken at

19 to 25 stations that covered much of the NYB apex

(Fig. 3). Stations were selected to include all major

habitat types that would be affected by change in sludge

input. Details of the sampling design can be found in

EPD (1988) and Pikanowski (1992).

Station Selection

Replicate stations were selected based on the similarity

of depth and sediment type, the presumption of some

isolation from dredge material dumping, and the need

to achieve the broadest range of influence with respect

to sewage sludge, i.e. Station NY6="polluted", Station

Session W: Biota 175

R2="enriched", and Station NYll="control" (Fig. 3; EPD,

1988). Station locations for broadscale surveys were

selected to: 1) relate this effort with the replicate survey, i.e. 19 to 25 stations per survey; 2) provide coverage

of the area of apparent influence of the sewage sludge

dumping to facilitate mapping and contouring; 3) provide complete coverage of the ecological gradients in

the study area to legitimize correlative analyses; and 4)

correspond with historical stations whenever possible

(EPD,1988).

Sampling Schedule

Replicate and broadscale surveys were conducted yearround during alternate months. Replicate sampling was

done monthly from July to September, when hypoxia

and sulfide accumulation were most likely to occur;

consequently, both replicate and broadscale surveys

were conducted each August (EPD, 1988). Sampling

began with a replicate survey in July 1986 and continued through September 1989, 21 months after the end

of the dumping ofsewage sludge in December 1987.

Scheduling within a replicate survey was complex. A

balanced sampling design was devised to control potential photoperiod bias by alternating the station sampling order at each replicate station (Table 1). Otter

trawls, grab samples, and bottom water samples were

replicated eight times at each station. Three sets of

Rockaway Point

Figure 3

Location of trawl stations sampled during a fish-megainvertebrate survey conducted in and around the 12-mile sewage dumpsite,]uly 1986-September 1989. Isobaths are given

in meters.
176 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Photoperiod

Collection of Fish and Megainvertebrates

Table 1

Station sequence employed during the replicate portion of a trawl survey conducted in and around the 12-

mile sewage dumpsite, July 1986 - September 1989. RTow=tow radially through site center; D-Tow=tow distal

from site center (EPD, 1988).

measurements were made at the central point; the remaining five were taken within an ellipse about each

point, with the major axis of each ellipse oriented to

cover the same depth.

The sequence of sampling in the broadscale surveys

was straightforward; a single trawl tow, bottom water

sample, and grab sample were taken at each station.

The number of stations and order of sampling depended on weather and vessel scheduling. Additional

details of station selection and sampling schedule are

given in EPD (1988) and Pikanowski (1992).

Results and Conclusions _

In 39 months during 43 cruises, 991 trawl stations were

made. Table 2 lists cruise codes, dates, number of stations, and survey type for the study. Figure 4 illustrates

seasonal abundance of mean total as well as fish and

megainvertebrate catch (kg/tow) over the course of

the survey. A further breakdown of total catch into

replicate and broadscale segments, including the contribution of fish and megainvertebrate components, is

given in Figure 5.

Seventy-five species representing 46 families of fish

and megainvertebrates were captured (Table 3). As

expected, since otter trawling was the method of collection, demersal finfish and large crustaceans dominated

the catch (Fig. 6). Fifty-eight fish species, representing

32 families, totaling 65,255 individuals and weighing

14,113 kg, were collected during the study. Eleven species (spiny dogfish, Squalus acanthias; little skate, Raja

erinacea; silver hake, Merluccius bilinearis; red hake,

Urophycis chuss; ocean pout, Macrozoarces americanus; scup,

Stenotomus chrysops; cunner, Tautogolabrus adspersus; butterfish, Peprilus triacanthus; fourspot flounder, Paralichthys

oblongus; windowpane, Scophthalmus aquosus; and winter

flounder, Pleuronectes americanus) comprised 90% ofthe

fish biomass (Fig. 7A). Seventeen species of megainvertebrates, representing 14 families, totaling 48,608

individuals and weighing 4,571 kg, were collected during the study. Eight species (longfin squid, Loligo pealeii;

northern shortfin squid, [llex illecebrosus; horseshoe crab,

Limulus polyphemus; American lobster, Homarus

americanus; Jonah crab; Cancer borealis; Atlantic rock

crab, Cancer iTToratus; lady crab, Ovalipes ocellatus; and

starfish sp., Asterias sp.) comprised 99% of the

megainvertebrate biomass (Fig. 7B).

The 19 species of fish and megainvertebrates listed

above represented 93% of the total biomass. Seven fish

and four megainvertebrate species were observed in

more than 40% of the trawl samples; these were little

skate (89%), Atlantic rock crab (87%), winter flounder

(83%), starfish sp. (69%), silver hake (59%), longfin

Catch Analysis

Catches were emptied on deck and all fish and

megainvertebrates were identified, each taxa weighed

to the nearest 0.1 kg, and individuals measured to the

nearest 1.0 cm. All specimens were measured except

when large catches required subsampling. In such cases,

an expansion factor (weight of total catch/weight of

subsample) was applied to estimate the number in the

total catch. Additional information about the collection methodology can be found in Wilk and Baker

(1989) and Wilk et al. (1992). AM PM

NYll NY6

2 R-Tows 1 R-Tow

ID-Tow

NY6 R2

2 R-Tows 1 R-Tow

ID-Tow

R2 NYll

2 R-Tows 1 R-Tow

ID-Tow

NYll R2

2D-Tows 2D-Tows

NY6 NYll

2D-Tows 2D-Tows

R2 NY6

2D-Tows 2D-Tows

5

4

6

2

3

Sampling

Day

Fish and megainvertebrates were collected with an otter trawl having an 11.0-m (36-ft) footrope and a 9.8-m

(32-ft) headrope. The body and cod end were constructed of 76-mm (3-inch) and 51-mm (2-inch) stretch

mesh nylon, respectively. The trawl was towed for 15

min at approximately 4.0 km/h (2.4 kn) with tows

made along isobaths to avoid sudden depth changes.

Although tow time was kept constant, direction and

distance of each tow were affected by current, tide,

wind, and, in some cases, the need to shift heading to

avoid lobster pots.
Sessiun W: Biof4 177

Table 2

Summary of collecting intervals sampled during a trawl survey conducted in and around the 12-Mile sewage dumpsite,July

1986 - September 1989.

Cruise

Code

KA8607

KG8608

KA8608

KA8609

KG861 0

KA8611

KG8612

KA8701

KG8702

KA8703

KG8704

KA8705

KG8706

KA8707

KG/KA8708

KA8709

KG871 0

KA8711

KG8712

KA8801

KG8802

KA8803

KG8804

KA8805

KG8806

KA8807

KG8808

KA8808

KA8809

KG8810

KA88II

KG8812

KA8901

KG8902

KA8903

KG8904

KA8905

KG8906

KA8907

KG8908

KA8908

KA8909

Number Type

of of

Dates Stations Survey

1986

Jul 16-18, 22-24 24 Replicate

Aug 6-8,12,13, IS 24 Broadscale

Aug 20, 26, 29; Sep 2, 5, 8 24 Replicate

Sep 22-26, 29 24 Replicate

Oct 15-17, 20-22 23 Broadscale

Nov 14, 17, 18,24-26,28 24 Replicate

Dec II, 12, IS, 16, 22 22 Broadscale

1987

Jan 14, IS, 21, 28, 30; Feb 2, 3 24 Replicate

Feb 18-20, 25-26 22 Broadscale

Mar 19, 20, 23-26 24 Replicate

Aprl3-15,20-22,27 22 Broadscale

May 12, 14, IS, 18,22,26 24 Replicate

Jun 9-II, 15-17 22 Broadscale

Jul 7, 13-17, 20 24 Replicate

Aug 10-14,18-20 44 Combined

Sep 14-18, 21, 22 26 Replicate

Oct 16, 19-21,26,27 22 Broadscale

Nov 13, 15-20 24 Replicate

Dec 7-II, 14, IS 22 Broadscale

12-Mile Dumpsite Closed (31 Dec 1987)

1988

Jan II-13, IS, 19, 21 24 Replicate

Feb8-II,17,18 22 Broadscale

Mar 7-11,14, IS 24 Replicate

AprIl, IS, 19-22,26 22 Broadscale

May 9,10,12,18,20,23,24 24 Replicate

Jun6-8,10 22 Broadscale

JulII-15, 18, 19 24 Replicate

Aug 8-12 19 Broadscale

Aug 15-19, 22 24 Replicate

Sep 12,14-16,19,21 24 Replicate

Oct II, 12, 14, 17-20 22 Broadscale

Nov 7-9,14, IS, 18 24 Replicate

Dec 6-9,19 22 Broadscale

1989

Jan 10, II, 17-20 24 Replicate

Feb 6,7, 10, 13, 16 22 Broadscale

Mar 13-17, 20 24 Replicate

Apr 13,14,17-20 22 Broadscale

May 9, 12, 18, 19,22,23 24 Replicate

Jun 12-14, 16, 19,20 22 Broadscale

JuIII, 12, 14, 18-20 24 Replicate

Aug 7-10 22 Broadscale

Aug IS, 17, 18, 21-23 24 Replicate

Sep II-IS, 18,20 24 Replicate
178 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

1989

• TOTAL

• TOTAL

1988

".. 1988

1987

"., 1986

J A' ONO J FM"'M J J" lOHO J FU"M J J "IOND J F ..... MJ J" I

W986 1987 1968 1989

1986

~.... -.- ASH

"'-~TEB

"'., ,., §30 1\ r\

<5 "'1 ! "00 ! \ • .i \ /\/0,; \/\ ",:~, J A SOND J FMAM J J" 8 ON 0 J F I.4AMJ J A 8 OND J F MAMJ J ,1,8

JASONDJFMAMJJASONOJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJAS

JASOND JFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONOJFMAMJJAS

B

100

90

80

0 70

60

I 50

U 40

z 30

::l! 20

10

A

100

90

80

0 70

60

I 50

U 40

z 30

::l! 20

10

1988 1989

JA.ONDJfIilA..JJ".ONDJffll...WJJAlONDJfW,wJJ ....

UI8e 1887 1Q88 1(189

12

c "

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1987

,....

1986

,...

70

I: '" "

"

"

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on",,"::, .: 5 30 il : 1 20 i \~tl! iJ. -! t

'!I •• \ : .. :"::,

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B

A 70

• TOTAL

60

50

'" 40 I

530

z 20

::l!

10

JASONOJFM~MJJASONDJFMAMJJASONOJFMAMJJAS

Figure 4

Mean catch (kg/tow) of fish and megainvertebrates collected during a trawl survey in and around the 12-mile

sewage dumpsite, July 1986-September 1989: A) total, B)

fish, and C) megainvertebrates.

1986 1987 1988 1989

REPUCATE 6.249 1.821 0.134 2.807 0.209 0.105

BROAllSCALE 4.819 1.225 0.065 1.383 0213 0.054

TOTAL CATCH 10.868 3.046 0.199 3.900 0.422 0.159

Figure 5

Mean catch (kg/tow) of fish and megainvertebrates collected during a trawl survey in and around the 12-mile

sewage dumpsite, July 1986-September 1989: A) replicate

surveys and B) broadscale surveys.

.8AOAOSCALE

• REPUCATE

o

12

10

§ 8 ;z

squid (55%), butterfish (50%), fourspot flounder

(46%), American lobster (46%), red hake (43%), and

windowpane (42%). Detailed tabulations and summaries of species distribution, abundance, composition,

and length range of the fish and megainvertebrates

collected during the study can be found in Wilk et al.

(1992).

The NYB apex hosts a diverse assemblage offish and

megainvertebrates (Table 3). However, the total biomass is dominated by a few seasonally abundant species,

i.e. Atlantic rock crab in the summer and little skate

and spiny dogfish during the winter. Itshould be noted

that most, if not all, species collected exhibited some

degree of seasonality. Five species (little skate, spiny

dogfish, winter flounder, red hake, and ocean pout)

made up >75% of the fish biomass (Fig. 7A), with little

skate and winter flounder collected at >80% of all trawl

stations. Four species (Atlantic rock crab, horseshoe

crab, American lobster, and longfin squid) made up

>90% of the megainvertebrate biomass (Fig. 7B), with

Atlantic rock crab collected at >85% of all trawl stations. THOUSANDS OF KILOGRAMS PER CATEGORY

Hypothesis Testing

The null hypothesis attributing no effect following the

abatement ofsewage sludge disposal was tested for total

Figure 6

Contribution, based on total biomass, by categories of fish

and megainvertebrates collected during a trawl survey in and

around the 12-mile sewage dumpsite,July 1986-September

1989.
Session IV: Biota 179

Table 3

Phylogenetic listing of fish and megainvertebrates collected in and around the 12-mile sewage dumpsite, July 1986-

September 1989. Fish are arranged according to Robins et al. (1991) and megainvertebrates according to Gosner (1978),

Turgeon et al. (1988), and Williams et al. (1988).

FAMILY Common Name Scientific Name FAMILY Common Name Scientific Name

FISH IABRIDAE Cunner Tautogolalnus

CARCHARHINIDAE Smooth dogfish Mustelus canis adspersus

Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias ZOARCIDAE Ocean pout Macrozoarces SQUALlDAE amtnicanus

RAJIDAE Clearnose skate Raja eglanttnia PHOUDAE Rock gunnel Pholis gunnellus Little skate Raja erinacea

Winter skate Raja ocellata AMMODYTIDAE Northern sand lance Ammodytes dubius

ACIPENSERIDAE Atlantic sturgeon Acipenser oxyrhynchus SCOMBRIDAE Chub mackerel Scomberjaponicus

ANGUILLIDAE American eel Anguilla rostrata

Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus

CONGRIDAE Conger eel Conger oceanicus STROMATEIDAE Butterfish Peprilus triacanthus

CLUPEIDAE Blueback herring Alosa aestivalis BOTHIDAE Gulfstream flounder Citharichthys arctifrons

Smallmouth Hickory shad Alosa mediocris flounder Etropus microstomus Alewife Alosa pseudoharengus Summer flounder Paralichthys dentatus American shad Alosa sapidissima Fourspot flounder Paralichthys oblongus Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus Windowpane Scophthalmus aquosus Atlantic herring Clupea harengus

Round herring Etrumeus teres PLEURONECflDAE Witch flounder Glyptoeephalus

ENGRAULIDAE Striped anchovy Anchoa hepsetus eynoglossus

Yellowtail flounder Pleuronectes

GADIDAE Atlantic cod Gadus morhua ferru.gineus

Haddock Melanogrammus Winter flounder Pleuronectes

aeglefinus americanus

Silver hake Merluccius bilinearis BALISTIDAE Planehead filefish Monacanthus hispidus Pollock Pollachius virens

Red hake Urophycis chuss TETRAODONTIDAE Northern puffer Sphoeroides maculatus

Spotted hake Urophycis regia

OPHIDIIDAE Cusk-eel sp. Ophidion sp.

MEGAINVERTEBRATES

LOPHIIDAE Goosefish Lophius americanus PECTINIDAE Sea scallop Placopecten

magelanicus

ATHERINIDAE Atlan tic silverside Menidia menidia DREISSENIDAE Ocean quahog Arctica islandica

SYNGNATHIDAE Lined seahorse Hippocampus erectus VENERIDAE Northern quahog Mercenaria mercenaria Northern pipefish Syngnathusfuscus False quahog Pitar morrhuanus

TRIGUDAE Northern searobin Prionotus caralinus NATICIDAE Moon snail sp. Striped searobin Prionotus evolans

COTTIDAE Sea raven Hemitripteru.s LOUGINIDAE Longfin squid Loligo pealeii

americanus OMMASTREPHIDAE Northern shortfin

Longhorn sculpin Myoxocephalus squid Illex illecebrosus

octodectnnSpinosus UMUUDAE Horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus

CYCLOPTERIDAE Inquiline snailfish Liparis inquilinus PANDALIDAE Bristled longbeak Dichelopandalus

SERRANIDAE Black sea bass Centrapristis striata leptoceru.s

PRIACANTHIDAE Bigeye Priacanthus arenatus NEPHROPSIDAE American lobster Homarus amtnicanus

POMATOMIDAE Bluefish Pomatomus saltatrix PAGURIDAE Hermit crab sp. Pagurus sp.

CARANGIDAE Blue runner Caranx crysos MAJIDAE Spider crab sp. Libiniasp.

Rough scad Trachurus lathami

CANCRIDAE Jonah crab Cancer borealis

SPARIDAE Scup Stenotomus chrysops Atlantic rock crab Cancer irroratus

SCIAENIDAE Weakfish Cynoscion regalis PORTUNIDAE Blue crab Callinectes sapidus

Northern kingfish Menticirrhus saxatilis Lady crab Ovalipes ocellatus

IABRIDAE Tautog Tautoga onitis ASTERIIDAE Starfish Asterias sp.
180 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Figure 7

Percent contribution, based on total biomass, of fish and

megainvertebrates collected during a trawl survey in and

around the 12-mile sewage dumpsite,July 198()-'September

1989: A) fish and B) megainvertebrates. See Table 3 for

scientific names.

fish and megainvertebrates as well as for the most frequently occurring species (Pikanowski, 1992). The relative abundance (average weight per tow) of total fish

(Fig. 8A) and megainvertebrates (Fig. 8B) as well as

little skate (Fig. 8C), winter flounder (Fig. 8D), and

rock crab (Fig. 8E) did not significantly (P>O.05) change

following cessation of dumping. Of the four dominant

species tested, only American lobster (Fig. 8F) significantly (P<O.05) increased in relative abundance after

dumping stopped. This may have resulted from a redirection of commercial fishing effort, that is, lobster

pots were set out in the area of the dumpsite after

dumping stopped because pots were no longer in danger of either becoming fouled with or buried in sewage

sludge. Based on these results, except for American

lobster, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected when

comparing the replicate station which received direct

sludge inputs (Station NY6="polluted") with the station

that received indirect sludge inputs (Station R2=

"enriched") and the station that received no sludge

inputs (Station NYll="control").

A

B

FISH

I\ll.OTHERS 10%

SPINY DOGF1SH 18%

LITTLE SKATE 37%

MEGAINVERTEBRATES

ATLANTIC ROCK CRAB 58%

SILVER HAKE 3%

FOURSPOT FLOUNDER 2%

BUTTERFISH 2%

CUNNER 2"-

WINDOWPANE 2"-

SCUP1%

STARASH SP. 3%

JONAH CRAB 2%

LADY CRAB 2%

N. SHORTFIN SQUID 1%

Acknowledgments

We thank the following members of the NOAA, NMFS,

Sandy Hook Laboratory staff: Captain Fred "Fritz"

Farwell and Mate Sherman Kingsley for their expert

vessel handling, rigging, and fishing skills during the

conduct of the study; and Wallace Morse and Anne

Studholme for review and editing of the manuscript. In

addition, we thank Robert Murchelano, Donald

Flescher, and Jack Pearce (NOAA, NMFS, Woods Hole

Laboratory); Mert Ingham and John O'Reilly (NOAA,

NMFS, Narragansett Laboratory); and anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and critical comments.

Literature Cited

Devine, M., and D. Simpson.

1985. Impact of and recovery from sewage sludge dumping at

the Philadelphia dumpsite. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo., NOS OMA-15, 37 p.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. Plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of the

inner New York Bight to abatement ofsewage sludge dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NMFS F/

NEC-55, 34 p.

Gosner, K. L.

1978. A field guide to the Atlantic seashore. Houghton Mifflin

Co., Boston, MA, 329 p.

Gross, M. G.

1972. Geologic aspects of waste solids and marine waste deposits, New York metropolitan region-a major sediment

source. Water Resour. Res. 6:927-931.

1976. Middle Atlantic continental shelf and the New York

Bight. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr., Spec. Symp. 2. Allen

Press, Lawrence, KS, 441 p.

Mayer, G. F. (ed.).

1982. Ecological stress and the New York Bight: science and

management. Estuarine Research Federation, Columbia, SC,

715 p.

Pararas-Carayannis, G.

1973. Ocean dumping in the New York Bight; an assessment

of environmental studies. U.S. Coastal Eng. Res. Center

Tech. Memo. 39:1-159.

Pikanowski, R. A.

1992. The effects of ocean disposal of sewage sludge on the

relative abundance of benthic megafauna. Chern. Ecol.

6:199-212.

1995. Experimental design of the 12-mile dumpsite study. In

A. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.),

Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at the 12-

mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium,

p. 13-18. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Reid R. N., M. C. Ingham, and]. B. Pearce (ed.).

1987. NOAA's Northeast Monitoring Program (NEMP): a

report on progress of the first five years (1979-1984) and a

plan for the future. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.,

NMFS F/NEC-44, 138 p.

Robins, C. R., R. M. Bailey, C. E. Bond,]. R. Brooker,

E. A. Lachner, R. N. Lea, and W. B. Scott.

1991. Common and scientific names offishes from the United

States and Canada. Am. Fish. Soc., Special Publication 20,

Bethesda, MD, 183 p.
Session IV: Biota 181

Figure 8

Replication in time of the difference in mean

catch (kg/tow) between replicate stations

sampled during a trawl sUlVey in and around

the 12-mile sewage dumpsite, July 1986-September 1989: A) total fish, B) total megainvertebrates, C) little skate, D) winter flounder, E) Atlantic rock crab, and F) American

lobster. Triangles=NY6-R2, squares=NY6-

NYll, N.S.=not statistically significant, and

S*=statistically significant. See Table 3 for scientific names.

o

B

E

c

A

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L1ntE SKATE

• NYO.NYf1 ,. ·1._9 (N£)

-k NYO.R2 t- ·1.32 (N£)

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6

4

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30

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LL

is

-20 J...,.,~~,~,~,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,r--.--'~,~,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,"T'--+I---,--,~~.,..--,---,--,---r--r---,--,~~.,..--,---,--,-

AMERICAN U&S1ER

.. NY6·N'tll t-·1_7&(N.S.)

-k NY6-R2 1.-2.21).,-(5*) F

JASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJAS

1986 1987 1988 1989

Santoro, E. D.

1987. Status report-phaseout of ocean dumping of sewage

sludge in the New York Bight apex. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18:278-

280.

Squires, D. F.

1983. The ocean dumping quandary: waste disposal in the

New York Bight. Sea Grant Institute, State Univ. of New York

and Cornell Univ., Albany, NY, 226 p.

Swanson, R. L., M. A. Champ, T. O'Connor, P. K. Park,]. O'Connor,

G. F. Mayer, H. M. Stanford, D. Erdheim, and]. Verber.

1985. Sewage sludge dumping in the New York Bight apex: a

comparison with other proposed ocean dump sites. In B. H.

Ketchum,]. M. Capuzzo, W. V. Burt, I. W. Duedall, P. K.

Park, and D. R. Kester (eds.), Wastes in the ocean, Vol. 6:

nearshore waste disposal, p. 461-488..John Wiley and Sons,

New York.

Turgeon, D. D., A. E. Bogan, E.V. Coan, W. K. Emerson,

W. G. Lyons, W. L. Pratt, C. F. E. Roper, A. Scheltema,

F. G. Thompson, and]. D. Williams.

1988. Common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates

from the United States and Canada: mollusks. Am. Fish.

Soc., Spec. Pub. 16, Bethesda, MD, 277 p.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

1975. Ocean dumping in the United States-1975. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 58 p.

Wilk, S.]., and B. M. Baker.

1989. Results of a fish-megainvertebrate survey of the New

York Bight apex, late summer 1983. Bull. New Jersey Acad.

Sci. 34:1-13.

Wilk, S.]., W. W. Morse, D. E. Ralph, and T. R. Azarovitz.

1977. Fishes and associated environmental data collected in

New York Bight,June 1974-June 1975. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS, Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish., SSRF-716, 53 p.

Wilk, S.]., A. C. Morris, and E. E. Feeney.

1983a. Fish and fisheries. In Pearce et al. (eds.): Deepwater

disposal dumpsite 106--site characterization update, p. 9-

1-9-78. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS

F/NEC-26, 81 p.

Wilk, S.]., D. E. Ralph, and A.C. Morris.

1983b. Demersal fish species groups. In Pearce et al. (eds.):
182 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Deepwater disposal dumpsite 106---site characterization

update. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NMFS F/

NEC-26, 22 p.

Wilk, S.]., B. M. Baker, and A. Pacheco.

1988. Fish and fisheries of the Middle Atlantic Bight. Tn A.

Pacheco (ed.), Characterization of the Middle Atlantic water management unit ofthe Northeast Regional Action Plan.

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo., NMFS-F/NEC56,322 p.

Wilk, S.]., R. A. Pikanowski, A. L. Pacheco, D. G. McMillan,

B. A. Phalen, and L. L. Stehilk.

1992. Fish and megainvertebrates collected in the New York

Bight apex during 12-mile dumpsite recovery study, July

198&-September 1989. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo. NMF5-F/NEC-90, 78 p.

Williams, A. B., L. G. Abele, D. L. Felder, H. H. HobbsJr.,

R. B. Manning, P. A. McLaughlin, and I. P. Farfante.

1988. Common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates

from the United States and Canada: decapod crustaceans.

Am. Fish. Soc., Spec. Pub. 17, Bethesda, MD, 77 p.

Audience Q!.testions

Question: I noticed that most of your tests are insignificant for individual species based on differences between the station you are looking at and some sort of

reference station.

s. WI1k: Right.

Question: I wondered if you just looked at the absolute values themselves?

s. Wilk: Yes, we did. We looked at the values pre- and

post[cessation], and they were not significant either.

But in sticking with the statistical design, the test that

we are using is one in which we subtract the two other

stations from the impacted station. We will put together

all of the tests for all of the species over time and area

later. It is basically a computer problem, but we did do

the tests that you asked about, and there were no significant differences.

Question: IfI understood your presentation correctly,

your significance test was an increase after cessation of

dumping in the difference between the two stations; is

that correct?

s. Wilk: Yes. Basically we are speculating that fishing

[for lobster] was redirected from one area to the other.

One area went up while the other area went down.

Question: The redirection was much more increased

at R2 rather than at NY6?

S. Wilk: Right. What you are seeing is a redirection of

fishing effort; i.e. the movement of lobster pots from

one area to the other. We caught more when they were

not fishing; probably because we did not have to avoid

pots.

R. Pikanowski: I think you are a little wrong there.

There was not a redirection of effort; I think it wasjust

new effort at NY6. The question then becomes whether

putting baits in pots in the water attracts lobsters, making them more accessible to our trawl, or if they are

actually removing some ofthe population that we would

have caught. So depending on which of those cases is

existent, either the test was highly significant or it was

not, and we have not determined that yet.

Question: Are you suggesting it went up because of

the bait attracting the lobster?

R. Pikanowski: No. We are not suggesting that. That

is a possibility and we are not sure. It could also have

been a result ofthe cessation of dumping. This is one of

those confounding factors that is a weakness of the

particular statistical design. In this case we have a way,

perhaps, to filter it out. I do not know what kind of

study we would run to do that, but we welcome suggestions.

Question: So were you using two-tail tests on all of

these that we just saw?

R. Pikanowski: For the fish we were, because we had

no prior reason to assume they would go up or down.

As a matter of fact, if you looked at the t-statistics, they

were all negative, meaning that there were more fish

afterwards than before, except for rock crab, which

decreased.

Question: Did you look at the winter flounder fishery? Were there any changes in effort?

S. WI1k: In terms of commercial or recreational fishery?

Question: Commercial.

S. Wilk: We do not have a measure of that really, as

you are probably aware. I think Beth Phelan will address some of the winter flounder issues in her talk. In

terms of whether there was more or less effort prior to
or during, either commercially or recreationally, we do

not have those numbers.

Question: That may be something to look at. You may

not be talking to the right people. One other thing,

relative to some ofthe tests. The very first month or two

months in one of the graphs showed a significant decrease. It would be interesting to analyze the catches

statistically and leave off that first month to see what

would happen.

R. Pikanowski: What you are referring to is the information on rock crab and total megainvertebrates, which

actually is a reflection ofrock crabs. The first month we

sampled, there was an incredible bloom of Asabellides

(spaghetti mud), and we hypothesized that the crabs

were there eating them. We caught 20 kg per tow, and

our next highest catch during the rest of the survey was

10. You raise a good question. If Asabellideswere blooming due to the presence ofsludge, then that is a sludge

effect, and we leave that point in the analysis. On the

other hand, if Asabellides blooms are a random event

and not related to sludge, then we can treat that as an

outlier. In fact I ran the test both ways, but because of

the high variability we still got a nonsignificant result.

The truth of the matter is that rock crab biomass

decreased by one half regardless of whether you kept

that point in or not. That gets back to whether such a

change is ecologically or statistically significant, which

rests on two different concepts. I would assume a decrease in biomass of half is ecologically pretty significant. We just could not prove it was statistically

significant.

Question: A question I have goes back to some reviews of the literature that existed at the turn of the

century and in the 1920's; when Jacot (1920 [On the

marine mollusca of Staten Island, New York. Nautilus

23:111-115]) and others looked at mollusks and did a

wide range of collecting around Staten Island and

Raritan Bay. He had reported a 50% diminution in the

numbers ofmollusk species back in the '20's and attributed it to the increasing use of gasoline and diesel

engines.

Bert Walford, who was your mentor, and mine also,

talked about the numbers of species of fish that he

thought should have occurred in the New York Bight

and did not. I raise the question: what do you find in

these trawls today? Are they a sort ofjunk fish that tend

to live or be able to live in degraded habitats? The

skates and winter flounder are fish that, relative to

other fish, did not show the same incidence of finrot

disease back when that was an issue. Can one hypothesize, perhaps, that the disappearance of things like

Session W: Biota 183

sheepshead and the intermittency ofsea trout or weakfish which used to be fairly abundant in our area at

times is connected to the fact that the New York Bight

has been in a state of degradation for over a half a

century, maybe much longer?

The people who ran the New York Aquarium in 1912

had to move it from Battery Park out to Coney Island,

simply because the water in the Hudson River in 1912

would not support fish in the aquarium. So one has to

question what you are looking at now; is it real? One

might expect some changes as water quality improves

over the years. I do not know whether you want to try

and crystal ball this one, but it is something that is in my

mind when I look at these data.

s. Wilk: In looking at the groundfish catches for the

last 25 years, I think we are seeing similar patterns of

the flip-flop of the more "valuable" species, whether

they be flounders, cod, haddock, or herring. Even down

here in the Mid-Atlantic, where the primary species in

the past were scup, winter flounder, silver hake, and

summer flounder, we are seeing a flip-flop throughout

a range of studies, with the elasmobranchs making up

approximately 70% ofthe catch. In this area, they make

up about 55 or 60%. I think it is indicative of what is

happening along the coast. You would have to really

look deep in your crystal ball to come up with an answer

as to whether or not, if things keep on cleaning up,

sheepshead will return to Sheepshead Bay. I think it is

going to take a long time to answer that question, and I

do not think anybody wants to support surveys on a

monthly basis for the next five years with subsequent

monitoring. But it certainly might show such changes.

There are so many other variables that are affecting the

distribution and abundance ofthese migratory animals.

The fish are being exploited at different places at different times, and their recruitment processes are different from year to year. I think it is a very large puzzle that

we may never unravel.

Question: Some races or subspecies (of fish) on the

West Coast are thought to be affected by habitat degradation and are being declared endangered species. Do

you think the Endangered Species Act might be a tool

for looking at the crystal ball a little bit harder?

S. WI1k: I once spent a month in Washington reviewing legislation for [listing] the striped bass as an endangered species. While that was 15 or so years ago, it still

was not declared an endangered or threatened species

and the species has rebounded. By what mechanism? It

depends on whether you are a manager or a scientist.

Whether the Act would work or not I do not know. That

will depend on how far down things are.

SESSIONW:

Patterns ofWinter Flounder, Pleuronectes americanus,

Abundance and Distribution in Relation to the

12-Mile Sewage Sludge Dumpsite in the New York Bight

BETH A. PHElAN

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

ABSTRACT

Winter flounder were present throughout the year in the 250 km2 area around the 12-

mile dumpsite. Abundance varied among stations and years with reduced catch in summer

(August). Low summer catch was attributed to scattering and random dispersion. Winter

flounder tagged and released in the dumpsite area exhibited movement to the surrounding

embayments of New York and NewJersey and to points farther northeast. It is believed that

the dumpsite winter flounder represent a mixture ofinshore populations that are in transit,

either randomly or in response to spawning periodicity.

Biota

Introduction

The New York Bight-bounded by the coasts of Long

Island, New York, on the north, NewJersey on the west,

and extending seaward to the edge of the continental

shelf-has been a disposal site for a variety of waste

materials for many years. Beginning in 1924, sewage

sludge from the metropolitan New York-New Jersey

area was dumped at a location 22.2 km off the New

Jersey coast (hereafter referred to as the 12-mile

dumpsite) in the inner Bight, with volumes increasing

to a high of 8.3 x 106 wet tons in 1983. With cessation of

dumping expected in December of 1987, a multidisciplinary study was initiated in 1986 to examine the

response of habitat and biota to the cessation of dumping at the 12-mile dumpsite (EPD [Environmental Processes Division], 1988). Included in the study were

several components concerning the potential effects

on selected marine resource species. One of these species, winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, is economically important to both commercial and recreational

fisheries in the Mid-Atlantic and was selected for special

study as a potential indicator of sewage effects. Winter

flounder, a demersal species, are in close contact with

the sediment and forage associated with the dumpsite

and could be subject to contaminant accumulation and

its effects, e.g. disease. Since winter flounder are also

migratory, determination of the extent to which they

were utilizing areas influenced by sewage sludge during

their movements was a principal focus of the study.

Although the movements of winter flounder along

northeast coasts have been studied with considerable

interest for many years (Lobell, 1939; Perlmutter, 1947;

Saila, 1961; Howe and Coates, 1975; Van Guelpen and

Davis, 1979), little was known ofmigrations in the inner

New York Bight. Based on known patterns and movements in Long Island coastal waters, a working hypothesis was proposed that a significant portion ofthe winter

flounder which utilize the 12-mile dumpsite were from

Raritan Bay (EPD, 1988). To determine the patterns of

distribution, a mark-recapture study was included in

the overall investigation of the effects of cessation of

dumping. Emphasis was placed on relating the abundance and distribution patterns found at the 12-mile

dumpsite to the general movements and migrations of

winter flounder in the area of the New York Bight.

Methods

The 12-mile dumpsite study consisted of two complementary sampling series: 1) a replicate survey; and 2) a

185
186 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

broadscale survey, each conducted in alternate months

except for August, when both were conducted to monitor rapid seasonal changes (Fig. lA; EPD, 1988; Pikanowski,

1995). In the replicate survey, repeated measurements

(n=8) were made for a suite of variables at three stations

(R2, NY6, NY! 1), which were similar bathymetrically, but

which represented different levels ofsewage sludge accumulation and effects. The broadscale survey consisted of

single, nonreplicated measurements at 22 stations, covering an area of 250 km2 across the inner Bight, and included all major habitat types (EPD, 1988).

From August 1986 through August 1989 winter flounder were collected every other month at the 22

broadscale stations (Fig. lA). In addition, supplemental cruises were made periodically during even numbered months throughout the inner Bight to increase

the number ofwinter flounder collected for tagging. In

a concurrent study, fish were sampled at 14 inshore

sites in Sandy Hook, Lower and Raritan Bays, and the

lower Shrewsbury River; these sites will be collectively

referred to as Raritan Bay (Phelan, 1992).

Winter flounder were caught using an otter trawl

(ll.O-m footrope and 9.8-m headrope with a 51-mm

stretched mesh 18-thread knotted nylon cod end) towed

for 15 min at each location at approximately 5.6 km/hr

(Wilk et aI., 1995). Water temperature was measured at

each location 1.0 m above the bottom with a Beckman

RS-5 temperature-salinity meter or with a thermometer reading taken from a bottom-tripped Niskin bottle.

Following capture, winter flounder were held in a container with flow-through seawater until processed. The

total lengths (TL) of all winter flounder were measured

to the nearest millimeter. Although all sizes of winter

flounder were included in the length frequency distributions, only fish ~18 cm were selected for tagging.

Danila (1978) showed that over half the male winter

flounder and up to one third of the females sampled in

a southern NewJersey estuary were mature during their

first winter (18.0-24.0 cm). Therefore, tagging of fish

~18 cm increased the chance of recapturing mature

individuals, which are believed to be the principal migrants (McCracken, 1963). Winter flounder were tagged

with yellow laminated plastic Peterson discs (1.27 cm in

diameter) imprinted with an identification number,

return address, and a request for catch information.

The tag was attached with a nickel pin through the

dorsal musculature and was held by a crimp in the pin

against a blank disc on the opposite side. Fish were

released in the general vicinity of the capture site. The

tagging program was publicized via a press release and

in local recreational fishing publications. A monetary

reward for returned tags was not offered. The length

frequency information collected from all winter flounder caught during the broadscale survey was combined

and plotted by month combining data across years.

Results

From August 1986 to August 1989, 2,392 adult (~18

cm) and 240 juvenile winter flounder were caught during the broadscale survey of the 22 offshore dumpsite

stations. In addition, 842 adult winter flounder were

caught and tagged on supplementary dumpsite cruises.

Winter flounder were caught in all broadscale sampling

months (Fig. 2). The number ofwinter flounder caught

per month did not appear to be correlated with temperature although there was a trend towards reduced

catch in summer (August). During other months,

catches were larger but fluctuated widely.

The largest dumpsite survey catches of winter flounder came from stations R2 and R6 (Table 1; Fig. 1).

While the abundance of winter flounder per station

varied, certain stations east and south of the dumpsite

center, i.e. R5, A50, M49, R3, A56, NYll, NY22, and

M54, yielded consistently low average catches (Fig. IB).

Conversely, stations north and west of the dumpsite

cen ter (NY3, R2, R6, NY6, and A43) had higher average

catches. These trends in abundance were not apparently related to the water depth of the sampling area

(Table 1).

The length frequencies of winter flounder caught in

the dumpsite area ranged from 11.0 to 43.0 cm (Fig. 3).

Fish collected for tagging (639) in non-broadscale

months were excluded from the figure.Juveniles, which

first appeared in December, formed a second distinct

size group. Both juvenile (<18 cm) and adult (2,18 cm)

cohorts appeared in February, April, and June. With

growth, the juveniles were assimilated into the adult

population resulting in a smaller modal adult size from

August through October. During February and April

when the juveniles formed a separate cohort, the adult

modal size was 25.0 cm, shifting to 26.0 cm in June.

To date, of the 3,234 fish tagged at the dumpsite, 44

winter flounder have been recaptured for a return rate

ofl.4% (Table 2). The majority of the returns (81.8%)

were made by recreational fishermen, followed by research vessels (9.1 %), and commercial vessels (9.1 %).

The number of days at large ranged from 1 to >800.

The majority of fish (82%) were at large >100 days

before recapture. There was no significant correlation

between the size of the fish and the number of days at

large (r=0.01, n=44).

The largest number (31) of winter flounder returns

were from locations west of South Oyster Bay, Long

Island (Table 2; Fig. 4). Fish were recaptured from sites

45 km northeast of the center of the dumpsite at South

Oyster Bay, Long Island, to sites 35 km southwest ofthe

dumpsite at Shark River, N j., and at sites in waters

northwest up to and including Raritan Bay (Fig. 4). Fish

were recovered primarily during March, April, and May

from waters in Raritan Bay (Great Kills, Staten Island;
SessianIV: Biota 187

NEW JERSEY

A20

NYS NY6 ~~ !A~1 NY22

: A(( : A(]' _UlOGE I

AU ; ...-SlTE;

; Aso!

---------,

R( R] M(9

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1

11

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5 10 ,~ ? ]

'8 I

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7 • DUMPSITE I

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NEW JERSEY

Figure 1

A) Winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, tagging sites in the inner New York Bight, August 1986-August 1989. B)

Average number of winter flounder per tow from August 1986-August 1989 at each tagging site shown in A.
* R2, NY6 and NYU were only sampled five months for the broadscale surveys during both 1987 and 1988. Means per tow are

therefore based on 17 tows.

Lower Bay; lower Shrewsbury River, NJ.) and the southem bays of western Long Island (Jamaica Bay; Sheepshead Bay; Baldwin Bay) (Table 2). Four flounder were

recaptured in the nearshore coastal waters of western

Long Island (Rockaway Beach and Jones Beach). Finally, one winter flounder was recovered southwest of

the dumpsite at Shark River, NJ. (Fig. 4A).

Only four winter flounder recaptures came from

within the broadscale area around the 12-mile dumpsite

(Fig 4a, Table 2). One of these fish was recaptured in

the same location (NY6) almost two years after it was

originally tagged. Two other fish were at large for about

a year and were caught within the broadscale area but

not at the tagging location. One dumpsite fish was

tagged at Rl on one day and captured nearby atAmbrose

Light the next day (3.5 km).

Thirteen tagged fish exhibited movement more than

45 km to the northeast of the dumpsite (Fig. 4B) with

returns recorded from the waters of Fire Island, N.Y.;

Long Island Sound; Montauk Point, Long Island; Block

350 16

* 14 300 * * 12 250 .... 0 10 : 200 " "

0. 8 '"

" 150 0 ;;; 6 § 2: 100 4

50 2

o lU-l..LU..LU..LU-LLJ-LLJLLULl..LLl..LLl..LLLLLLLLLLLLL.Ll...L.Ll...L.Ll...L-LLl...L.LL.lJ 0

A 0 D F A J A 0 D F A J A 0 D F A J A

I 86 I 87 I 88 I 89 I

Month - year

Figure 2

Total number of winter flounder, PleuTonecles americanus,

caught per month (bars) and average monthly bottom temperature (stars) during the sampling of the inner New York

Bight, August 1986-August 1989. Trend line represents the

best fit of the available temperature data.
70 70

August n=259 October n=392 100 December n=850

50 50

50 50 80

2]40 40 50 E

~30 30

40

20 20

10 10 20

0 0 0 J m..

·

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Length (em) Length (em) Length (em)

Figure 3

Length frequency distributions of winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, collected from the inner New York Bight broadscale

survey, july 1986-August 1989, plotted by month combining data across years.

Island, south of Rhode Island, and Nantucket Shoals,

south of Massachusetts (Table 2, Fig 4b). There was no

significant correlation between the size offish tagged at

the dumpsite and distance travelled (estimated straight

line) to the recapture point (r-=0.01, n=44).

In the concurrent study, 4,101 flounder were tagged

at inshore stations; the majority offish were recaptured

from a variety oflocations in Raritan Bay and the south

shore of Long Island (Phelan, 1992). These patterns of

movement substantiate that winter flounder exhibitseasonal spawning migrations and the ability to return to a

natal site to spawn. The tag returns also revealed a

degree of "wandering" with fish recovered from Shark

River, Nj., and Nantucket Shoals, Mass.

Discussion

Winter flounder were abundant year round in the

broadscale area around the 12-mile dumpsite (Wilk et

aI., 1995). Generally, winter flounder catches were

greater at the northwestern broadscale stations. Oviatt

and Nixon (1973) found by multiple regression analysis

that winter flounder abundance and distribution were

correlated with temperature, depth and sediment organic content in Narragansett Bay, R.I. However, in the

present study, the between-station variability in catch

did not exhibit any discernable relation with average

bottom temperature or depth. Sediment organic content, as measured by total organic carbon, was highest

at two northern stations (R2 and NY6) prior to cessation but decreased significantly thereafter (Packer et

aI., 1995). It is possible that winter flounder were less

abundant at the southern stations not because of suboptimal habitat but because the northern stations lie

within the migratory path used by winter flounder as

they move through the New York Bight.

Adult winter flounder collected at the broadscale

stations varied in abundance throughout the year, consistently showing a temporal pattern of reduced numbers in summer (August). This agrees, in part with

Howe and Coates (1975), who found that southeast of

Cape Cod, winter flounder released in the spring and

summer spread farther offshore, returning to shoal

areas during fall and winter. Saila (1961) also reported

that winter flounder disperse during the summer months
190 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Table 2

Winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, tag returns from fish captured and released in the area of the 12-mile dumpsite,July 1986-

August 1989.

Length Tagging Tagging Recapture Recapture Days

(cm) Location Date Date Location at Large

Dumpsite to Sandy Hook-Raritan Bays and Rivers

21.0 R2 18Jul86 13 Apr 87 Lower Bay 275

26.3 R2 27 Jan 87 ? Apr 87 Lower Bay 108

18.2 NY6 18 Feb 87 28 Apr 89 Lower Shrewsbury River 800

36.6 R6 10Jun 87 1 May 88 Lower Bay 326

29.9 R6 9 Dec 87 29 Apr 89 Lower Bay 142

32.0 R6 21 Dec 87 18 Mar 88 Lower Shrewsbury River 90

31.0 R4 27 Oct 88 9 Apr 89 Lower Bay 164

30.2 Ml 9 Dec 88 10 Apr 89 Lower Shrewsbury River 122

28.3 R2 22 Dec 88 15 Apr 89 Lower Bay 114

Dumpsite To Western Long Island, New York

27.0 A43 17 Oct 86 27 Mar 87 Jones Inlet, LI 161

23.0 R6 14Apr 87 27 Mar 88 Seaford, LI 348

24.0 NY5 15 Apr 87 28 May 87 Ocean off Rockaway, LI 43

26.5 NY3 9Jun 87 29 Mar 88 Jamaica Bay, LI 294

23.8 R6 19 Oct 87 25 Oct 88 Reynolds Channel, LI 342

24.0 NY3 9 Dec 87 12 Dec 87 Jones Inlet, LI 3

26.7 R6 9 Dec 87 20 Apr 88 Jamaica Bay, LI 133

24.6 NY3 21 Dec 87 9 Apr 88 Sheepshead Bay, LI 110

25.5 NY3 21 Dec 87 14Apr 89 Massapequa, LI 115

31.8 R6 21 Dec 87 1 May 90 Sheepshead Bay, LI 862

29.7 R2 22 Dec 87 9 May 88 South Oyster Bay, LI 139

22.6 R6 22 Feb 88 24 Nov 88 Ocean offJones Inlet, LI 276

27.3 R6 26 Apr 88 29 Mar 89 Baldwin Bay, LI 337

28.8 M3 8Jun 88 9 May 90 Jones Beach, LI 700

27.5 Rl 11 Oct 88 25 Mar 89 Jamaica Bay, LI 165

32.9 R6 21 Dec 88 1Jun 89 Ocean off Rockaway Beach, LI 162

27.5 M31 7 Feb 89 29 May 89 Ocean off Fire Island, NY III

24.7 M31 7 Feb 89 12Jun 89 Ocean off Fire Island, NY 111

35.0 R4 13 Feb 89 1 May 89 Ocean off Coney Island, NY 77

Dumpsite to Eastern Long Island, New York and farther north

26.8 NY22 25 Feb 87 8 May 87 Montauk, LI 72

25.9 M31 25 Feb 87 8 Aug 87 Ocean off Shinnecock, LI 164

24.9 NY6 29Jan 88 19 May 88 Ocean off Shinnecock, LI III

24.7 NY6 10 Feb 89 13 May 89 Shinnecock Bay, LI 92

27.5 A19 18 Feb 87 23 Oct 87 Nantucket Shoals 247

27.0 NY6 15 Apr 87 13Jul87 South of Martha's Vineyard, MA 104

28.8 R2 21 Dec 87 9 May 88 Long Island Sound 140

31.5 NYll 10 Jun 88 20 Apr 89 Shark River, NJ 314

22.5 NY3 6 Feb 89 11 May 89 SW of Block Island, RI 94

27.7 R6 10 Feb 89 3 Mar 90 East of Block Island, RI 386

29.2 NY6 10 Feb 89 22Jun 90 South of Block Island, RI 497

35.0 R4 13 Feb 90 8Jan 90 South Martha's Vineyard 329

Dumpsite to Dumpsite

34.6 NY6 15 Apr 87 10 Feb 89 NY6 667

27.5 Rl 7 Dec 87 8 Dec 87 Ambrose Light 1

25.4 Rl 8 Feb 88 22 May 89 A56 469

25.9 R6 11 Feb 88 30 Dec 88 A6/NY3 323
Sessiun IV: Biota 191

CONNECTICUT

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.-

.

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74°

NEW JERSEY

B

I_ DUMPSITE TAG RETURNS

A

Figure 4

A) Win ter flounder, Pleuronecles americanus, tag returns west of South Oyster Bay, Long Island,

in the inner New York Bight, August 1986-August 1989. Each symbol represents one return

unless indicated by an inscribed number. B) Winter flounder tag returns from the New York

Bight, highlighting tag returns from locations east of South Oyster Bay, Long Island (indicated by an X) ,August 1986-August 1989. Each symbol represents one return unless indicated

by an inscribed number.
192 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

but Van Guelpen and Davis (1979) speculated that

winter flounder would remain inshore during the summer months if refuge from high temperatures could be

found and sufficien t food were available. Phelan (1992)

collected winter flounder in Sandy Hook Bay during

the summer. This type of wide dispersion among many

locations, perhaps as far as the territorial limit (Howe

and Coates, 197;», could account for the reduced catch

in summer around the 12-mile dumpsite. In addition,

Kennedy and Steele (1971) suggested that winter flounder migrate out of a region as part of a feeding migration. Percent empty stomachs consistently peaked in

summer months in winter flounder collected at the

dumpsite (Steimle, 1995) indicating a possible further

stimulus to disperse from the area.

The fluctuating catch during the remainder of the

year suggests considerable movement of winter flounder in the area. Also, considering the large amount of

trawling effort during the study in the dumpsite area

and the rarity (one fish) ofrecapturing our own tagged

fish, indications are that winter flounder disperse away

from the release areas soon after tagging. The low

number of tag returns may be partially attributable to

lack of reporting by fishermen. Incentives (rewards)

might have increased reporting but commercial fisherman may also have been suspicious that results from

the study would negatively affect their activities.

The tag return locations show that the dumpsite

catches comprise a mixture of inshore residents. Many

investigators have shown through tagging studies that

winter flounder migrate offshore in summer and return inshore for spawning in winter (Lobel, 1939;

Perlmutter, 1947; Saila, 1961; Howe and Coates, 1975).

Several of the winter flounder tagged and released in

October and December were recaptured at shallow water inshore locations during the spawning season. The

100 or more days before recapture fits with the length

of time reported by Saila (1961) needed for fish to

migrate inshore for spawning. He had calculated a

winter flounder return probability of75% after 90 days

of random searching in a space 15 mi (24.1 km) wide.

This distance relates well to that of the dumpsite from

the nearest estuarine area (approximately 12 mi).

Winter flounder in the nearby Navesink-Shrewsbury

Rivers exhibit seasonal migrations upriver in the winter

to spawn followed by a downriver movement after spawning (Phelan, 1992). Three winter flounder tagged at

the dumpsite were part of this migration (Fig. 4A).

Other dumpsite fish that were recaptured in locations

in Raritan Bay possibly were part of spawning migrations associated with Staten Island waters. However,

winter flounder were still caught at the broadscale stations during winter, indicating that either they spawned

at different times or not at all, perhaps because they

had not yet matured. Klein-MacPhee (1978) indicates

that the spawning season is protracted and occurs from

January to April south of Cape Cod. If the dumpsite

area is considered transitional, then this fact, combined

with a protracted spawning season would explain the

persistence of winter flounder in offshore waters. Furthermore, postmature, nonreproductive winter flounder are known to exist in Canadian populations (Burton

and Idler, 1984) and could exist in this area.

Despite seasonal migrations, adult winter flounder

were always found in the area around the dumpsite.

Juvenile winter flounder joined the adults late in the

year after completing their first fall in the surrounding

bays and estuaries. In laboratory studies, McCracken

(1963) showed thatjuvenile winter flounder (12.0-18.0

cm) change from being positively to negatively phototropic with growth suggesting that this may stimulate

them to migrate to deeper water for the first time.

Casterlin and Reynolds (1982) attribute the movement

to a behavioral response to decreasing temperatures.

Their laboratory experiments show temperature avoidance at 8°C byjuvenile winter flounder, indicating that

winter flounder move out of the shallows as they become cooler than the deeper water.

It seems that winter flounder are predisposed by

some seasonal factor, in conjunction with their reproductive cycle, to move and migrate. Saila (1961) attributed offshore patterns of winter flounder movements

to scattering and random searching for spawning

grounds, and Perlmutter (1949) also believed nonspawning movements to be dispersive. The resulting

distribution and abundance pattern seen in the

dumpsite area supports these ideas.

In addressing the original working hypothesis, it appears that winter flounder at the dumpsite are part of a

mixture of fish in transition from surrounding areas,

and while Raritan Bay winter flounder do utilize areas

in and around the dumpsite, they are not dominant.

Therefore, the habitat quality of the offshore waters potentially affects many different winter flounder groups.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank A. Bejda, D. McMillan, A. Pacheco,

R. Pikanowski, and L. Stehlik for their aid in the field;

Captain F. Farwell and S. Kingsley for all their help; M.

Cox, N. Hill, and A. Bejda for the figures; and A. Bejda,

A. Studholme, and S. J. Wilk for their assistance and

careful reviews.

Literature Cited

Burton, M. P., and D. R. Idler.

1984. The reproductive cycle in winter flounder, Pseudo-
pleuronectes americanus (Walbaum). Can. J. Zoo!. 62:

2563-2567.

Casterlin, M. A, and W. W. Reynolds.

1982. Thermoregulatory behavior and diel activity of yearling winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus (Walbaum). Env. BioI. Fish. 7:177-180.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMF5-

F/NEC-55, 34 p.

Danila, D. j.

1978. Age, growth, and other aspects of the life history of the

winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) (Walbaum),

in southern New jersey. M.S. thesis, Rutgers Univ., New

Brunswick, Nj.

Howe, A. B., and P. G. Coates.

1975. Winter flounder movements, growth, and mortality off

Massachusetts. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 104:13-29.

Kennedy, V. S., and D. H. Steele.

1971. The winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus, in

Long Pond, Conception Bay, Newfoundland. j. Fish. Res.

Board Can. 28:1153-1165.

Klein-Macphee, G.

1978. Synopsis of biological data for the winter flounder,

Pseudopleuronectes americanus (Walbaum), on the Atlantic

coast.j. Fish. Res. Board Can. 20:551-586.

Lobell, M.j.

1939. A biological survey of the salt waters of Long Island,

1938. Report on certain fishes. Winter flounder (Pseudtr

pleuronectes americanus). 28th Annu. Rep. N.Y. Con. Dep.,

Part I, Suppl. 14:63-96.

McCracken, F. D.

1963. Seasonal movements of the winter flounder, Pseudtr

pleuronectes americanus (Walbaum), on the Atlantic coast. j.

Fish. Res. Board Can. 20:551-586.

Oviatt, C. A, and S. W. Nixon.

1973. The demersal fish of Narragansett Bay: an analysis of

community structure, distribution and abundance. Estuarine Coastal Mar. Sci. 1:361-378.

Packer, D., Thomas Finneran, Linda Arlen, Robert Koch,

Suellen Fromm, jon Finn, Steven Fromm, and

Andrew F. Draxler.

1995. Fundamental and mass properties ofsurficial sediments

Session W: Biota 193

in the Inner New York Bight and responses to the abatement of sewage sludge dumping. In A. L. Studholme, j. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 157-171. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Perlmutter, A.

1947. The blackback flounder and its fishery in New England

and New York. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Collect. Yale Univ.

11(2):1-92.

Phelan, B. A.

1992. Winter flounder movements in the inner New York

Bight. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 121:777-784.

Pikanowski, R. A

1995. Experimental design of the 12-mile dumpsite recovery

study. In A. L. Studholme,j. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham

(eds.), Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at

the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 13-18. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep.

NMFS 124.

Saila, S. B.

1961. A study of winter flounder movements. Limno!.

Oceanogr. 6:292-298.

Steimle, F. W.,jr.

1995. Effects of sewage sludge disposal cessation on winter

flounder, red hake, and lobster feeding and diets in the

New York Bight apex. InA. L. Studholme,j. E. O'Reilly, and

M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage

sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-

mile dumpsite symposium, p. 203-211. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Van Guelpen, L., and C. C. Davis.

1979. Seasonal movements of the winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus, in two contrasting inshore locations in Newfoundland. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 108:26-37.

\\ ill.;. '). j., R. A. Pikanowski, A L. Pacheco, D. G. McMillan,

~Ild :..... L. Stehlik.

1995. Response of fish and megainvertebrates of the New

York Bight apex to the abatement of sewage sludge dumping-an overview. InA. L. Studholme,j. E. O'Reilly, and M.

C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 173-183. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Audience Q!.testions

Question: Do you think these results are typical of

winter flounder movements elsewhere? Are some ofthe

movements to and emigration from the sites generally

typical, for instance, around an area in northern New

England, instead ofin the Mid-Atlantic? Any ideas about

general species behavior?

B. Phelan: The literature suggests, and I believe, that

conditions that exist north ofCape Cod are special and

different from conditions that exist here. Certainlyjust

the formation of Long Island and New Jersey may direct a number ofthe movements ofthe fish in this area.

SESSIONW:

Disease Prevalence ofInner New York Bight Winter Flounder,

Pleuronectes americanus, Collected During the

12-Mile Dumpsite Recovery Study, 1986-1989

ANTHONYL. PACHECO

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

JUDITH C. RUGG

U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers

New York District

26 Federal Plaza

New York, New York 10278

ABSTRACT

The prevalence and distribution of diseases and abnormalities possibly associated with

municipal waste pollution in the New York Bight are described from observations ofwinter

flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, samples collected at three stations representing different

levels and effects ofsludge influence from 1986 to 1989. There were reductions in incidence

of fin rot and internal lesions, conditions possibly associated with facultative pathogens,

following the cessation of sewage sludge dumping. No significant differences were evident

in the prevalence of the stress-provoked infections of lyrnphocystis (viral) and Glugea

stephani (microsporidial). No differences related to the cessation of sludge dumping were

noted in prevalence of the somatic abnormalities, bentfin, and ambicoloration.

Biota

Introduction

Sludge from approximately 200 sewage treatment plants

was dumped at a site in the New York Bight 12 nmi from

Sandy Hook (Fig. 1) since 1924. By the early 1980's the

volumes of sludge dumped were larger than at any

othersludge dumpsite in the world (Norton and Champ,

1989). This disposal activity was phased out at the end

of 1987. The cessation of ocean dumping at this

nearshore site offered an opportunity to document the

response of an area to the removal of a major waste

loading. The Environmental Processes Division (EPD)

ofNOAA's Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC)

conducted a multidisciplinary study of the nearshore

sludge dumping area from summer 1986 to fall 1989

(EPD, 1988; Studholme, 1988).

The objective of this part of the study was to determine if detectable changes in the prevalence of gross

pathology in selected species, eventually limited to winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, occurred during

the phaseout and postdumping periods. Several authors concluded that prevalence of disease serves as a

sentinel of water quality (Sindermann, 1979, 1985;

Murchelano, 1988). They have reported that appearance or increase in the incidence of a number of diseases, including fin erosion, ulcers, possibly lymphocystis

in fishes, chitinoclasia in crustaceans, and certain neoplasms in bivalve mollusks, has been associated with

degraded coastal water quality. In this study, the premise

to be tested was whether reduction of a pollutant stress,

i.e. sewage sludge, results in a measurable decrease in

the prevalence ofdiseases attributed to facultative patho195
196 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Methods

From the 3,919 winter flounder examined (Table 1),

we observed examples of disease in three general categories; 1) those likely attributable to facultative pathogens, such as fin rot and internal lesions (visible foci of

inflamed tissue); 2) those resulting from stress-provoked

latent infections, such as lymphoeystis or Glugea stephani;

and 3) non-infectious types such as the somatic abnormalities of ambicoloration and bentfln.

Results

Fin rot is a disease characterized by destruction of epidermal fin tissue (Post, 1987). McCain et al. (1982)

Fin rot

Winter flounder,. a ubiquitous demersal species, was

selected for both food habit and gross disease prevalence studies. Observations of disease prevalence began

September 1986 and continued until the end of sampling in September 1989. All winter flounder collected

during the replicate surveys were sacrificed and shipboard

dissection proceduresinvolving stomach removal (Steimle,

1995) provided opportunities for internal and external

detection of gross pathology. Coelomic organs were inspected for the presence oflesions and xenomas of Glugea

stephani, an intestinal parasite. External observations were

made for fin rot, bentfin, lymphocystis, and ambicoloration.

Disease observations were partitioned into three time

periods. The first, 1986-87, includes observations from

the precessation period, when dumping was still occurring at a reduced "phase-out" level. The second and

third periods, 1988 and 1989 respectively, include observations made after dumping stopped. For each of

the three periods, disease prevalence (ratio of diseased

to total in catch) among the three replicate stations was

tested statistically by a Gtest of significance (Sokal and

Rohlf, 1981), which tests the goodness-of-fit between

observed and expected frequencies (ratios). Data were

entered into a BIOM program, and columns and rows

ofthe contingency tables were tested for independence.

Observed values were tested against hypothetical values

expected ifthere were no differences among periods or

among stations. Gvalues were compared with a critical

value of chi-square at the 95% level ofsignificance; if G

values were below the critical value the null hypothesis

was accepted, i.e. there was no statistical evidence to

suggest sampling sites or periods were significantly different. To develop an index of change from the dumping period to subsequent years, observations from all

stations were grouped by period and expressed as means.

Chi-square tests also were made on the combined station totals of dumping and postdumping periods.

,-,

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74'00'

The 12-mile dumpsite study (12-MDS) was designed

around two complementary sampling series, one replicated at three reference stations (NY6, R2, and NYll),

the other a broadscale survey ofsingle stations sampled

over approximately 350 km2 (Fig. 1) (EPD, 1988;

Pikanowski, 1995). Each was conducted in alternate

months except for August, when both were done. During the replicate survey, eight trawl tows were made at

each ofthree stations, using an otter trawl with an ll-m

footrope and cod end of 2-inch stretch mesh (Wilk et

aI., 1995). Trawl collections of the bottomfish community were made routinely to measure relative abundance, biomass, and length frequency. The three

replicate survey stations were bathymetrically similar,

but with different histories of sewage accumulation.

Station NY6, the most heavily degraded, was approximately 1.6 km downslope from the northwest corner of

the dumpsite, the section receiving the greatest amount

ofsludge. Station R2, 3.4 km north ofthe dumpsite, was

in a pollutant-enriched area on the north edge of the

Christiaensen Basin. Station NYll, 10 km SSW of the

dumpsite epicenter, was on the eastern shoulder of the

Hudson Shelf Valley and considered the least polluted

of the three.

gens, stress-provoked latent infections, or abnormalities induced environmentally.

Figure 1

Location ofreplicate stations sampled for disease prevalence

in winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, during the 12-mile

dumpsite study, 1986-89. Isobaths are given in meters.
Table 1

Numbers (n) ofwinter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus,

examined during the 12-Mile Dumpsite Study, 1986-

1989. Data are grouped by replicate station and by

phase-out (1986-87) and postdumping (1988-1989)

periods.

Period

]986-87

]988

1989

NY6

44]

577

585

R2

586

8]6

286

Station

NYl1

2]7

233

178

n

],244

],626

],049

Session W: Biota 197

Table 2

Summary of fin rot prevalence in winter flounder,

Pleuronectes americanus, from the New York Bight

(Source: O'Connor, et al. 1987).

Year Percent fin rot Sample size

]973 ]3.40 ],943

]974 6.]4 570

]975 1.59 ],637

]976 0.69 667

]977 3.19 ],]59

]978 2.03 2,56]

]979

]980 0.00 102

]98] 1.59 3]4

]982 1.68 357

]983 0.4] 241

described the condition idiopathic in Puget Sound waters because they found no pathogenic bacteria or viral

inclusions associated with areas offin erosion on either

English sole, Parophyrys vetulus, or starry flounder,

Platichthys stellatus. Mahoney et a!. (1973) however, found

a gram negative bacteria assocation with fin rot on a

variety ofspecies, including winter flounder, taken from

inner waters of the New York Bight. The etiology offin

rot in wild marine fish remains largely unknown. Although all fins may be involved, the disease appeared

most frequently on the dorsal and anal fins. It has been

documented in the New York Bight since 1973 and

monitored almost continuously since (Mahoney et a!.,

1973; Murchelano, 1975; Ziskowski and Murchelano,

1975; Murchelano and Ziskowski, 1976; 1979, 1982;

Sindermann, 1979; O'Connor et a!., 1987). Mean annual fin rot prevalence among winter flounder from

the apex was summarized by O'Connor et al. (1987)

(Table 2). The data suggest fin rot incidence in the

Bight has diminished generally from 1973 to 1983.

Fin rot prevalence observed in the present study and

results of Gtests are presented in Table 3. The presence of fin rot at NYll during dumping followed by

none observed in subsequent years resulted in a statistically significant Gvalue (8.55) and rejection ofthe null

hypothesis for that location. A progressive temporal

reduction in fin rot prevalence was also observed at

station R2. The computed Gvalue (5.13) approached,

but did not exceed, the 95% confidence level ofsignificance. Fin rot prevalence at NY6 also decreased following cessation of dumping, but the change was not

statistically significant. There was no significant difference among the three stations by year. The time trend

of grouped station-weighted prevalence means

(1.04:0.36:0.10) suggests a general reduction of fin rot

to levels less than those reported in 1983. The prevalence estimates for the 1986-87 dumping period were

significantly higher (P<O.OOI) than those for the

postdumping period.

Table 3

Fin rot prevalence (%) and results of G-tests for winter

flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, examined during the

12-Mile Dumpsite Study, 1986-1989. Critical values of

Chi-square are 5.99 at the 95% level of confidence and

9.21 at the 99% level. G-values exceeding the 95% level

are denoted by *, those exceeding the 99% level by **.

Station

Period NY6 R2 NYl] G-value

1986-87 0.9] 0.85 1.84 ].40

]988 0.69 0.24 0.0 3.42

]989 0.17 0.0 0.0 1.17

G-value 3.]4 5.]3 8.55*

Intemallesions

During the dissection process we noted occasional foci

oflesions, angry reddened areas ofinflammation, most

often on either liver or ovary. We did not histologically

characterize these lesions to determine their etiological basis. Prevalence estimates of these lesions and results of Gtest (Table 4) indicate highly significant

declines at all three stations after dumping ceased. The

combined data for all stations indicate a decrease in

lesion prevalence from 4.44% during the dumping period, to 0.86% in 1988 and 0.38% in 1989. The 1986-87

prevalence estimates were significantly different

(P<O.OOI) from those of the postdumping period. In a

description of cysts and ulcers in fish, Sindermann

(1979) stated that a vast and almost unmanageable

literature about induced lesions exists, but all data derive from laboratory exposure studies. It may be conjec-
198 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Table 4

Internal lesion prevalence (%) and results of G-tests

for winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, examined

during the 12-Mile Dumpsite Study, 1986-1989. Critical values of Chi-square are 5.99 at the 95% level of

confidence and 9.21 at the 99% level. G-values exceeding the 95% level are denoted by *, those exceeding

the 99% level by **.

Station

Period NY6 R2 NYIl G-value

1986-87 4.08 3.58 7.37 4.92

1988 1.04 0.86 0.43 0.83

1989 0.17 1.04 0.0 4.49

G-value 29.13** 25.76** 14.39**

Table 5

Lyrnphocystis prevalence (%) and results of G-tests for

winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, examined during the 12-Mile Dumpsite Study, 1986-1989. Critical

values of Chi-square are 5.99 at the 95% level of confidence and 9.21 at the 99% level. G-values exceeding

the 95% level are denoted by *, those exceeding the

99% level by **.

Station

Period NY6 R2 NY]] G-value

1986-87 0.68 1.19 0.46 1.35

1988 0.17 0.61 0.43 1.71

1989 0.17 0.35 0.0 1.00

G-value 1.33 2.31 2.30

tured that the coincident drop in contaminant levels

after dumping stopped, particularly heavy metals

(Zdanowicz et aI., 1995), may be a contributing factor

to results observed in the field.

Lyrnphocystis

Gross lesions of this common viral disease were easily

recognized. Presence of the lyrnphocystis virus induces

connective tissue cells to increase in mass and the resulting giant cells appear commonly as nodules beneath the epidermis, especially on fins (Russell, 1974).

Lyrnphocystis is widely distributed (Post, 1987) and

noted in winter flounders from the New York Bight.

Prevalence of 2.35% in the inner New York Bight area

was reported by Ziskowski et ai. (1987), ranking second

of eight areas from Cape May to the Canadian Border;

highest prevalence was 4.46% in the offshore New York

Bight (depth range of 27-200 m). Studies in other

areas associated increased prevalence of lyrnphocystis

with degraded environments (Murchelano, 1982). Prevalence estimates of lyrnphocystis and results of G-test

(Table 5) indicate there were no significant differences

in lyrnphocystis infections either among periods or

among stations. Our values were all markedly lower

than the mean prevalence of 2.35% reported by

Ziskowski et ai. (1987). The weighted mean prevalence

of grouped stations trended downward from 0.88%

during the precessation interval to 0.42% in 1988 and

0.20% in 1989. However, the 1986-87 dumping prevalence estimates were not significantly different from

those of the postdumping period.

Glugea stephani

Infections of the microsporidean protozoan, Glugea

stephani, are well documented in winter flounder. The

tumorlike masses of developing spores are easily observed in the intestinal tracts. Infections from southern

Massachusetts have been known and described since the

turn of the century; a 50% infection rate was noted in

winter flounder from the Woods Hole area in 1910 (Mavor,

1915). The range of this protozoan was extended south,

to the New York Bight, by Takvorian and Cali (1981).

Takvorian and Cali (1984) reported a prevalence ofinfection from 0.63% in October 1978 to 25.0% in August 1980

in specimens taken in estuarine waters of the New YorkNew Jersey Lower Bay Complex. A significant increase

occurred during summer, with a peak in August. We have

found no references that attempt to correlate degraded

water environments with infection rate of Glugea stephani.

The only significan t departures from expected

prevalences of Glugea stephani were those observed

among periods at station NYll (Table 6). The high

frequency observed at NYll and, to a lesser degree, at

NY6 in 1988, albeit significant (rejecting Ho ) has no

assignable cause. Water temperature has been noted as

the single most significant factor in the occurrence of

this disease (McVicar, 1975), but midsummer temperatures of bottom water in 1988 were 3-4°C less than the

previous and following years. The weighted mean

prevalences of Glugea stephani at all stations for successive time periods were 2.25:4.15:1.34. There was no significant difference (P=0.8) between the 1986-87 prevalence

estimates and those of the postdumping period.

Ambicoloration

Aberrant pigmentation patterns of melanistic patches

on the blind side of winter flounders were noted. Our
Table 6

Glugea stephani prevalence (%) and results of G-tests

for winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, examined

during the l2-Mile Dumpsite Study, 198~1989. Critical values of Chi-square are 5.99 at the 95% level of

confidence and 9.21 at the 99% level. G-values exceeding the 95% level are denoted by *, those exceeding

the 99% level by **.

Station

Period NY6 R2 NYU G-value

1986-87 2.04 2.90 0.92 3.36

1988 2.77 1.77 4.29 5.01

1989 1.03 1.75 1.6 0.79

G-value 7.03* 4.98 2.44

Table 7

Ambicoloration prevalence (%) and results of G-tests

for winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, examined

during the 12-Mile Dumpsite Study, 198~1989. Critical values of Chi-square' are 5.99 at the 95% level of

confidence and 9.21 at the 99% level. G-values exceeding the 95% level are denoted by *, those exceeding

the 99% level by **.

Station

Period NY6 R2 NYU G-value

1986-87 0.45 1.02 1.38 1.79

1988 1.39 0.49 1.29 1.53

1989 2.22 2.10 1.68 0.20

G-value 0.11 6.30* 5.24

totals do not include the occasional but rarer examples

of partial albinism (nonpigmented areas on the eyed

side) (Dawson, 1971). Ziskowski et al. (1987) reported

a mean prevalence of 0.39% for the New York Bight,

second only to southern New England (0.89%). We

found no significant differences among stations for any

ofthe three time intervals (Table 7). There were differences indicated over time at NY6 and R2, along with a

weak trend of increase with the highest prevalence at

each station occurring in 1989. The weighted means of

ambicolor prevalence of the grouped station data were

0.88%:0.92%:2.09%. The significant increase in'prevalence from the precessation to postdumping period

(P<O.OOl) is unexplainable, but is unlikely to be related

to dumpsite influence.

Session W: Biota 199

Table 8

Bent finray prevalence (%) and results of G-tests for

winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, examined during the 12-Mile Dumpsite Study, 198~1989. Critical

values of Chi-square are 5.99 at the 95% level of confidence and 9.21 at the 99% level. G-values exceeding

the 95% level are denoted by *, those exceeding the

99% level by **.

Station

Period NY6 R2 NY11 G-value

1986-87 1.59 2.56 1.84 1.25

1988 2.25 1.96 2.15 0.15

1989 2.05 1.74 0.56 2.27

G-value 1.99 0.60 0.73

Bentrm

This condition, characterized by a bending of the midportion of a series of fin rays, was noted as an obvious

line of flexure, or folding, of a fin. The condition was

described from winter flounder taken in the RaritanLower Bay complex by Ziskowski et al. (1980), who

reported an average prevalence of0.56% from a sample

of 4,493 specimens. Our results (Table 8) indicate no

demonstrable change in the prevalence of bentfin

among stations or years but were considerably higher

than those reported by Ziskowski et al (1980). The

grouped station means of bentfin prevalence for the

three time intervals were remarkably consistent at

2.09%:2.09%:1.34%. Our 1986-87 precessation prevalence estimates were not significantly different (P=0.6)

from those of the postdumping period.

Discussion

Sindermann (1979) reviewed the history and associative evidence of pollution-related diseases and abnormalities of fish and shellfish. He found many of the

effects leading to the correlation of diminished water

quality with impaired health offish to have been observed

in artificial environments, such as in hatchery conditions

where crowding enhances the growth and contagion of

pathogens. Observations of fish disease also have been

made in natural environments that have been altered

artificially, such as in tidal waters influenced by heated

effluents. Such effluents encourage local productivity, enhance growth of parasites and microorganisms, and serve

to aggregate fishes during periods they would normally

emigrate into deeper and more temperate waters.
200 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Observations during this study were made in an essentially unrestricted environment; there were no physicalor hydrographic barriers between study sites. The

experimental approach to hypothesis building, in the

sense of comparing control versus experimental sampling blocks, was confounded by several factors, however. One is the discharge plume ofthe Hudson-Raritan

drainage, which sweeps out of the bay around Sandy

Hook and progresses southward along the New Jersey

shore. The input of waterborne contaminants into the

12-MDS area obviously continued beyond the termination of sludge dumping. A second obfuscation involves

the interpretation of data from a migratory species

(Phelan, 1995); the simplest migratory model has winter flounder moving from offshore into bays and estuarine portions ofrivers from late December to early May

for spawning. Young remain in the estuaries during

their first year, and the older spawning segment of the

stock exits the estuaries to oversummer in nearby ocean

waters. This local population is in constant flux and no

resident group is known to occupy a particular location

for extended periods. Despite these potentially confounding factors, significant temporal trends were evident in the prevalence ofsome diseases (e.g. fin rot and

internal lesions) which were contemporaneous with

the cessation ofsludge dumping. The prevalence rates

of the various pathological conditions, albeit over a

small area and of short duration, are unbiased, at least

insofar as we know. The bimonthly sample series sustained for more than three years could be considered

as simply a series of "snapshots" used for measuring

pathological responses as an effect ofsludge dumping.

Together with other indicators of environmental quality, the continued monitoring of disease prevalence

should provide evidence of the effects imposed by the

cumulative presence of pollutants that alter the ecology

of the New York Bight.

Summary _

Although this study of winter flounder diseases in the

New York Bight apex was of limited duration, some

guarded conclusions are possible considering evidence

from short-term trends and results of null hypotheses

testing. The prevalence of fin rot and internal lesions

apparently decreased. The monitoring history of fin

rot, however, suggests that this condition was diminishing in winter flounder during intensive sludge dumping. No significant changes in prevalence ofthe internal

parasite Glugea stephani or viral infections oflymphocystis

could be related to cessation of sludge dumping. Similarly, there is no evidence to relate prevalence of somatic anomalies to the cessation of sludge dumping.

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1971. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Gulf Res. Rep.

3:215-239.

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inner New York Bight to abatement ofsewage sludge dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMF5-F/

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Mahoney,]. B., F. H. Midlige, and D. G. Deuel.

1973. A fin rot disease of marine and euryhaline fishes in the

New York Bight. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 102:596-605.

Mavor,]. W.

1915. Studies on the sporozoa of the fishes of the St. Andrews

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McCain, B. B., M. S. Myers, U. Varanasi, D. W. Brown,

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H. O. Hodgins, and D. C. Malins.

1982. Pathology of two species of flatfish from urban estuaries in Puget Sound. Interagency Energy/Environment R&D

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McVicar, A. H.

1975. Infection of plaice Pleuronectes platessa L. with Glugea

(Nosema) stephani (Hagenmuller, 1899) in a fish farm and

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Murchelano, R. A.

1975. The histopathology of fin rot disease in winter flounder

from the New York Bight.]. Wild\. Dis. II:263-268.

1982. Some pollution-related diseases and abnormalities of

marine fishes and shellfishes: a perspective for the New York

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York Bight: science and management, p. 327-346. Estuarine

Research Federation, Columbia, SC.

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1976. Fin rot disease studies in the New York Bight. In: M. G.

Gross (ed.), Middle Atlantic continental shelf and the New

York Bight, p. 329-336. Am. Soc. Limno\. Oceanog., Spec.

Symp. 2. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.

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Schoener, and P. K. Park (eds.), Oceanic processes in marine pollution, Vol. 4, Scientific monitoring strategies for

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1987. Index of pollutant-induced fish and shellfish disease.

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sludge dumpsite in the New York Bight. InA. L. Studholme,

]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at the I2-mile site, Proceedings of the I2-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 185-193. U.S.
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Pikanowski, R.

1995. Experimental design of the 12-mile dumpsite study. In

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mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium,

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, Post, G.

1987. Textbook offish health. TFH Publ., Neptune City, NJ.,

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Russell, P. H.

1974. Lymphocystis in wild plaice Pleuronectes platessa (L.), and

flounder, PlatichthysJlesus (L.), in British coastal waters: a histopathological and serological study.]' Fish. BioI. 6:771-778.

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organisms of the world o'cean, p. 7-13. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

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1981. Biometry, 2nd ed. W.H Freeman and Co., 859 p.

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1995. Effects of sewage sludge disposal cessation on winter

flounder, red hake, and lobster feeding and diets in the

New York Bight apex. InA. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and

M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage

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mile dumpsite symposium, p. 203-211. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

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1988. Phaseout and closure of the 12-mile sewage sludge

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Takvorian, P. M., and A. Cali. '

1981. The occurrence of Glugea stephani (Hagenmuller, 1899)

Session W: Biota 201

(Protozoa: Microsporida) in winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes amcricanus (Walbaum) from the New York-New

Jersey Lower Bay Complex.]. Fish. BioI. 18:491-501.

1984. Seasonal prevalence of the microsporidian, Glugea

stephani (Hagenmuller) in winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes

amcricanus (Walbaum), from the New York-NewJersey Lower

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and L. L. Stehlik.

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York Bight apex to the abatement of sewage sludge dumping-an overview. InA. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M.

C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 173-183. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Ziskowski,].]., V. T. AndersonJr., and R. A. Murchelano.

1980. A bent fin ray condition in winter flounder,

Pseudopleuronectes amcricanus, from Sandy Hook and Raritan

Bays, NewJersey, and Lower Bay, New York. Copeia 1980:895-

899.

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A. B. Howe, D. Ralph, and S. Atran.

1987. Disease in commercially valuable fish stocks in the northwest Atlantic. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18:496--504.

Ziskowski,].]., and R. A. Murchelano.

1975. Fin erosion in winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes

amcricanus. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 6:26--29.

Zdanowicz V. S., S. L. Cunneff, and T. W. Finneran.

1995. Reductions in sediment metal contamination in the

New York Bight apex with the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping. In A. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C.

Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

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Audience Questions

Question: Do you have any data on whether or not.

there were any changes in heterotrophic bacteria?

A. Pacheco: No, I do not, butJay may.

J. O'Reilly: The slide I showed in the summary, from

Linda Arlen and Randy Ferguson, showed two orders of

magnitude decrease in total bacteria, the heterotrophic

bacteria at the NY6 station. I also believe the fecal

coliform densities parallel the decrease that I showed

for the total count.

Question: Do you know what the genera were?

J. O'Reilly: No. No taxonomic workup was done, just

total direct epifluorescent counts.

Question: It is a very interesting story, Tony. I think

you convinced me certainly of the three declines that

you are suggesting. I wonder if this, given the importance of fish disease as perceived by a lot of people,

might not be something fairly important to look at

again fairly intensively, say, in two or three years. Do

you hope to do that?

A. Pacheco: You are talking to the right audience. I

think we could find some interest to go back out and

continue.

SESSIONW: Biota

Effects of Sewage Sludge Disposal Cessation on Winter Flounder, Red

Hake, and Lobster Feeding and Diets in the New York Bight Apex

FRANK W. STEIMLEJR.

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, Newfersey 07732

ABSTRACT

This paper presents resultsfrom a study ofthe response offeeding and diets ofthree common

demersal species (winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus; red hake, Uwphycis chuss; and American lobster, Homarus americanus) to cessation ofsewage sludge disposal in the coastal New York

Bight after December 1987. Specimens of these species were collected bimonthly at three

stations near the disposal site over 38 months, 1986-89. Results primarily from collections at the

station nearest to the disposal site are used to examine response to cessation. In all three species,

two feeding variables--percentage ofempty stomachs and dominant prey in diets--showed little

or variable quantitative change that could be related to cessation. Decreases in frequency of

occurrence ofcertain artifacts and some minor prey species can be associatedwith cessation, however.

Introduction

In 1986 a study was begun to document expected environmental and biological changes resulting from cessation of sewage sludge disposal, planned for December

1987, in the New York Bight apex (EPD [Environmental Processes Division], 1988). Fish and lobster feeding

and diets were monitored as part of this study because

feeding inhibition has been cited as an effect of habitat

degradation. Chemical contamination, hypoxia, or

benthic macrofaunal community alterations, often associated with sludge disposal, are reported to inhibit

feeding or alter diets (Fletcher et aI., 1981; Spies, 1984;

Collvin, 1985; Atchison et aI., 1987; Bejda et aI., 1987;

Kramer, 1987; Weis and Khan, 1990). This monitoring

information can be important to resource managers because chronically inhibited feeding, or diets based on low

quality prey, can affect predator (i.e. fishery resource)

growth, fecundity, orsusceptibility to disease (Kurtz, 1975;

Tyler and Dunn, 1976; Burton and Idler, 1987; Weis and

Khan, 1991). This paper describes these monitoring results and identifies changes possibly associated with sludge

disposal cessation, with a focus on the presumably most

affected station, adjacent to the former disposal site.

Methods

Three sites in the New York Bight apex, R2, NY6, and

NYll (Fig. 1), with mostly similar habitat characteristics

were selected for monitoring. Differences among the

sites were related mostly to sediment organic carbon

and chemical contaminant levels, development of seasonal hypoxia, and benthic macrofaunal community

structure. These variables are thought to be associated

closelywith sludge disposal and were expected to change

following cessation. Any changes in these variables were

expected also to affect the trophodynamics of the

benthic predators collected at the sites (EPD, 1988). Of

the three study sites, station NY6 represented the most

sludge-affected area and stations R2 and NYll represented a gradient ofsludge effects (see EPD, 1988, and

Pikanowski, 1995, for details of overall study design).

BeginningJuly 1986, bimonthly trawl collections provided fish and certain megafaunal crustaceans for pathology and dietary analysis. Additional collections were

made each August when bottom-water dissolved oxygen levels were generally lowest. From these collections

three predators (red hake, Urophycis chuss; winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus; and American lobster,

Homaru,s americanus) were selected for trophodynamic

analysis because of their availability, fishery value, and

comparability to prior dietary studies in the area

(Steimle, 1985; Steimle and Terranova, 1991). Samples

were available from eight, 15-min trawls, each covering

about 1 km, during daylight at each site for each bimonthly sampling. These trawls were distributed in an

equidistant array intersecting or ending at the center of

each site (see Pikanowski, 1995, for details). Bottom water, benthic macrofauna, and sediment samples were col203
204 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

40"20'

Figure 1

The locations of stations R2, NY6, and NYll in the New

York Bight apex, where fish and lobsters were collected for

stomach content analysis.

leeted before or after each trawl within the station ellipse

(Fig. 1). Only two trawl collections were made at any site

on the same day, morning and afternoon, to minimize

possible influence of trawling at a site (e.g. exposed

macrofauna) on trawl collection stomach contents.

Upon collection, winter flounder, red hake, and

American lobster were removed and measured (total

lengths). For most fish, the visceral cavity was quickly

opened and the fish sexed. Exterior surfaces and viscera were scanned for obvious pathological conditions

(see Pacheco and Rugg, 1995), and the stomach removed and its contents examined. Fish showing signs of

regurgitation or an extruded gas bladder or stomach

were not included in the stomach contents analysis.

Small fish and thoraxes of all lobsters were preserved in

10% buffered formalin (with visceral cavity perforated

to allow preservative penetration without damage to

stomachs) for later measurement, sexing, and stomach

removal for examination under magnification in the

laboratory. The few recently molted (soft-, "leather"-,

or "egg"-shelled) lobsters collected were not used for

analysis because it is probable they would not be feeding outside their molt shelter and their stomach contents would not be representative of general site

conditions (Scarratt, 1980). Lobster size was recorded

as rostral-earapace length to be consistent with results

ofWilk et aI. (1995). Lobster eyesocket-earapace lengths

were also recorded and a mean eyesocket to rostrallength ratio (1.355+/-0.027, 1 SD) was calculated from

100 random samples; this ratio was consistent within

the 5.0-13.5-em rostral-length range found in the collections. This ratio was used to estimate rostral-carapace lengths of lobsters with broken rostrums.

Stomach-content analysis was based on a semiquantitative method, standard in the Northeast Fisheries Science Center (Langton et aI., 1980). This method

involves emptying the stomach bolus into a petri dish,

retaining the general shape ofthe bolus from the stomach, and estimating total stomach volume (to 0.1 cc) by

a visual, side-by-side comparison of the bolus to the

most appropriate of aseries of volume-ealibrated, variable diameter (0.5-2.5 em) cylinders. Chyme from the

stomach was not included in volume estimates. Boluses

were then separated, and the contents were sorted and

identified as far as possible. Percent contribution of

each prey or stomach content item to the total stomach

volume was also estimated visually. Bolus volumes were

occasionally measured in water-filled graduated cylinders to check the accuracy of visual estimates of volume. These volumetric calibrations showed that visual

estimates were reasonably reliable, i.e. within 10% of

measured volumes. Each definable stomach item was

counted and measured, and its degree of digestion

noted. Most prey items were macroscopic and usually

included larger, more common benthic species that are

identified readily by eye or with a low power hand lens.

Very small or questionable items found in the field

examinations were preserved for later microscopic examination. Advantages and disadvantages ofthis method

have been reviewed by Hyslop (1980) and Bowman)

who found the method to provide reasonable results.

Other measures included percent-empty stomachs

and a relative-fullness index (estimated total stomach

volume divided by predator length) for evidence of

feeding inhibition or change after disposal cessation.

Percent frequency-of-occurrence analysis was used to

define major components of the diet. This method has

been recommended particularly for lobster (Elner and

Campbell, 1987). Predator size is not discussed here as

a variable because of the relatively small and irregular

sample sizes for red hake and lobster and predominance of the 20 to 28-em size class in winter flounder

collections.

To test for significant changes in the percent-empty

stomachs, relative fullness, or the contribution of certain "indicator" prey types or sludge artifacts before

and after disposal cessation, data for each station were

pooled into two temporal data sets. The first set included data from collections made between July 1986

and September 1987 and represent ongoing sludge

I Bowman, R. E. 1982. Preliminary evaluation of the results of analysis of the stomach contents of silver hake (Merluccius bilinearis)

aboard ship and in the laboratory ashore. Northeast Fisheries

Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Woods

Hole, MA, Woods Hole Lab. Ref. Doc. 82-25,13 p.
Session W: Biota 205

Relative Fullness Percent Empty 0.14 ;":'::':'=':~-=':"::":"=------------------,60

o Relative Fullness - Percent Empty

o14lliJ4L-4l..J...IjLLltl-ldfLJ..1jllJlJtL.L.Ifl.L.lfl.L.lfl-Lltl-Lltl.l1lljJl..LJ.j-l..LJ.j-l...L.ljl...L.ljl...L.ljfllilltl 0

7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9

I 1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989 I

10

20

30

50

0,02

0.04

0.12

Figure 2

A summary of temporal trends in stomach relative-fullness

index and percent empty stomach values of winter flounder,

Pleuronecles americanus, from station NY6 in the New York

Bight apex. Sewage sludge disposal ceased in December 1987.

disposal conditions. The second set included collections between July 1988 and September 1989, representing conditions after disposal cessation. Each ofthese

data sets contained ten collection periods covering the

same 15 collection-month distribution, from July to

September, and excluded four transitional collections,

made from November 1987 to May 1988 when disposal

was almost phased out and immediately after abatement, when residual disposal effects would be expected

to be nearly as important as while disposal was ongoing.

This approach provided data sets that were expected to

be large enough to estimate confidently the difference

in the quantity of food in fish stomachs between locations or time periods, as suggested by Pennington et al.

(1982). A2 X 2 contingency table and Gstatistic (Windell

and Bowen, 1978; Sokal and Rohlf, 1981; Crow, 1982)

was used to test null hypotheses on the percent-empty

stomach data sets. Statistical significance is P=0.05, unless stated otherwise.

Results

% Empty 35 ~-~------------------,

Figure 3

A comparison of percent empty stomachs in win ter flounder,

Pleuronecles americanus, at the three replicate stations in the

New York Bight apex during pre- and post-sewage sludge

disposal cessation periods. Period of pre-sewage sludge

disposal=July 1986-Sept. 1987; post-sewage sludge

disposal=July 1988-Sept. 1989. Value above each column is

the sample size.

Results of the stomach content examinations and associated sample population characteristics are presented

separately for each of the three predators. Focus is on

th'e NY6 collection site where an abatement change

would be expected to be most apparent; some comparisons are made also with data from the other collection

sites.

Winter Flounder

Winter flounder sample sizes varied; the cumulative

number of samples per eight-trawl collection set at a

station generally averaged >30 fish. Average size offlounder in samples ranged between 20 and 28 em, but there

were seasonal differences in the size range. Smaller fish

(20-22 em) dominated collections in warmer months,

July through September, and larger fish (26-28 em)

were dominant in late fall to early winter collections.

About 55-60% of the fish collected at all stations were

females with little evidence of temporal variability in

this proportion.

As expected, percent-empty stomachs and relativefullness indices are generally inversely related (Fig. 2).

Percent-empty stomachs usually peaked in warmer

months, when the relative-fullness index was lowest

(Fig. 2). Comparison of pre- and postcessation mean

percent-empty stomachs showed statistically significant

differences at all sites (Fig. 3). Station NY6 fish had an

increase in mean percent-empty stomachs, from about

13% to 26%, while there were decreases at stations R2

and NYl1.

30

25

20

15

10

5

o

R2 NY6

Stations

• Pre BPost

239

NY11
206 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

% Frequency Occurrence

20 -,------------------------,

Figure 5

A comparison of the percent frequency occurrence of the

stress-indicator polychaete Capitella sp. in the diet of win ter

flounder, Pleuronectes americanus, from three stations in the

New York Bight apex (see Figure 3 for winter flounder sample

sizes) during pre- and post- sewage sludge disposal cessation

periods. Period of pre-sewage sludge disposal=]uly 1986-

Sept. 1987; post-sewage sludge disposal=]uly 1988-Sept. 1989.

Sewage sludge disposal ceased in December 1987.

NY6

Stations

NY11

• Pre BPost

R2

o

5

10

15

Red hake were more irregular in collection abundance

than winter flounder and seldom resulted in cumulative samples of 30 fish per eight-trawl collection set.

There was also wider variability (0-100%) in the proportion of females in the collections. The lengths of

red hake ranged from 10 to 34 em; but most were

between 17 and 30 em. There was little evidence of

seasonal trends in relative abundance or in the sex or

size composition of the red hake.

Percent-empty stomach and relative-fullness indices

for red hake were variable and without clear seasonal or

other temporal trends. The results suggested, however,

that more empty stomachs and lower relative-fullness

values occurred in mid-summer collections, although

sample sizes were smaller (Fig. 6). Comparing pre- and

Red Hake

A few prey taxa dominated the diets at all stations but

there were differences among stations in the proportional contribution of some prey species to the diet.

Overall, winter flounder diets were dominated by the

tube-dwelling anemone Ceriantheopsis americanus, a

rhynchocoel, undoubtedly Cerebratulus sp., several polychaete species, and a few small crustaceans, e.g. the

isopod Edotea triloba, and amphipods. There were temporal changes or trends in the contribution of certain

prey to the diets, however. For example, there was an

proportional increase in the contribution ofthe amphipod Unciola sp. to the diet at station NY6 (Fig. 4). The

mean frequency of occurrence of capitellid polychaetes

showed substantial decreases in the pre- and postcessation comparison (Fig. 5).

% Frequency Occurrence 250 r--.:..------=------------------, Relative Fullness Percent Empty 0.35 r--------------------~60

10

o Relative Fullness - % empty

50

ILLLlJ.LULLL..ilIILLlLl-LU.L.LLLU....ll...ll....l.L.ll.L'---.l.ll.L.LL.L!--'-"...LlJCLL.JJO

7 8 9 11 1 3 5 7 8 9 11 1 3 5 7 8 9 11 1 3 5 7 8 9

I 1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989 I

0.2

0.3

0.25

Figure 6

A summary of temporal trends in stomach relative-ful1ness

index and percent-empty stomach values ofred hake, Urophycis

chuss, from station NY6 in the New York Bight apex. Sewage

sludge disposal ceased in December 1987.

• Capitella sp

Unciola sp.

_ c. americanus~ Rhynchocoel 0 P. affinis

_ A.oculata !illiliiliill N. incisa 0 E. triloba

100

Figure 4

A summary of temporal trends in major prey by percent

frequency of occurrence (frequency of occurrences overlap

and thus exceed 100%) consumed by winter flounder,

Pleuronectes americanus, at station NY6 in the New York Bight

apex. Sewage sludge disposal ceased in December 1987.

0 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9

I 1986 1987 1988 I 1989 I

200

150
postcessation periods showed that only the percentempty stomach increase at station NY6 was statistically

significant; slight increases, not significant, were noted

at the other stations.

Dominant prey were similar for all stations and consisted of three species: the polychaete Pherusa affinis

and two decapod shrimp, Crangon septemspinosus and

Dichelopandalus leptocerus (Fig. 7). Atlantic rock crabs

Cancer irroratus, the polychaete Nephtys incisa, and fish

remains were also important food at station NY6. Stomachs occasionally contained small quantities of artifacts: small pieces of sheet plastic, coal and coal ash,

paint chips, thin rubber (latex?) sheets, "band aids,"

cloth, metal foil, foil and plastic pill packaging, and

synthetic twine (in approximate order of frequency of

occurrence), and other non-food items such as hair,

fibers, pieces of wood, twigs, and a feather. Overall,

their frequency-of-occurrence showed no clear relation

to cessation of disposal, except for reduced occurrence

of hair and fibers.

American Lobster

Lobster sample sizes were usually small «20 individuals

per collection period) with some collection periods not

yielding samples. There was substantial variability in sex

ratios among collections. A seasonal cycle in abundance,

well known to the fishery, was apparent with minimal

availability in the winter months, especially March. Most

lobsters collected were between 8 and 10 cm in rostralcarapace length (6-7.5 cm eyesocket-carapace length).

Percent-empty stomach and relative-fullness index

results suggested no consistent temporal patterns or

% Frequency Occurrence

350,-----------------------,

300

7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9

I 1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989 I

_ N. incisa _ P. affinis _ Edotea triloba~ Unciola sp.

o Crangon sept.~ D. leptocerus Cancer irror. 0 fish remains

Figure 7

A summary of temporal trends in major prey, by percent

frequency of occurrence (frequency of occurrences overlap

and thus exceed 100%), consumed by red hake, Urophycis

chuH, at station NY6 in the New York Bight apex. Sewage

sludge disposal ceased in December 1987.

Session IV: Biota 207

trends. There was evidence at all stations, for example,

of the relative-fullness indices being highest during the

summer and fall, but percent-empty stomachs were often elevated at about the same time (e.g. see Fig. 8).

Pre- and postcessation comparisons resulted}n slight,

but not statistically significant, increases in percentempty stomachs after cessation.

Lobster diets had considerable overlap of dominant

prey among stations. Fish, Atlantic rock crabs, C. irroratus,

crab fragments (mostly C. irroratus), hair, and fibers

(primarily fine, colored, synthetic threads) were found

frequently in stomachs at all stations, e.g. NY6 (Fig. 9).

The frequency of occurrence of hair and fiber (presumably constituents of sewage sludge) declined substantially at all stations after cessation (Fig. 10). The

polychaete P. affinis was also common in the lobster

diet (Fig. 9). Also, after 1987 there was a decline in the

contribution of the small nut clam, Nucula sp. (Fig. 9).

Besides hair and fibers, lobster stomachs also occasionally contained other artifacts: sponge-like pieces ofrubber, rubber bands, small pieces of hard plastic,

polystyrene-like pellets, pieces of thin plastic sheets,

metal foil, synthetic twine, paint chips, coal or coal ash,

and pieces of wood or twigs. These occurrences were

too few and random to support any trend or reveal any

cessation-related differences.

Discussion

The hypothesis that cessation ofsewage sludge disposal

at the 12-mile sewage sludge dumpsite would (or would

not, as a null hypothesis) cause a change, specifically an

improvement, in any of the feeding and diet variables

Relative Fullness Percent Empty 0.4 35

I

30

0.3

25

20

0.2

15

0.1 10

5

o -"--"LU.L.LU.L.....I...L.U--'I.J...L.LLJL.LU.L.LIJlL---.LJ.L-"-'--.l..U-LL...lJ..J..LLU-il--l..l....l..LlL 0

7 8 9 11 1 3 5 7 8 9 11 1 3 5 7 8 9 11 1 3 5 7 8 9

I 1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989 I

o Relative Fullness -- Percent Empty

Figure 8

A summary of temporal trends in American lobster, Homarus

americanus, stomach relative-fullness and percent empty stomachs values from station NY6 in the New York Bight apex.

Sewage sludge disposal ceased in December 1987.
208 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

122

'IC, Frequency Occurrence 300 -r--------------------,------, examined for three demersal predators at the three

study sites is variably supported by the results.

Percent-empty stomach and relative-fullness results,

for example, provide mixed evidence to accept or reject the null hypotheses concerning a temporal change

or improvement after cessation at the study sites. For

winter flounder, the percent-empty stomach means were

significantly lower at stations R2 and NYll after cessation (Fig. 3). This would be an expected improvement

response, assuming some sludge disposal factor was

inhibiting feeding. In contrast, the pooled mean of

percent-empty stomachs was statistically significant, and

two times higher at station NY6 (Fig. 3), suggesting

a continued sludge or other undefined effect at that

site.

Less significant results were found for red hake, although these were frequently based on small sample

sizes or there were collection gaps. Red hake percentempty stomachs for all stations showed an increase

after cessation, but this change was statistically significant only for station NY6. Similar results were found for

lobster. with no statistically significant change or improvement in feeding at any ofthe study sites, although

percent-empty stomachs increased to some degree at

all stations. Postcessation increases in mean percentempty stomachs for winter flounder at station NY6 (Fig.

3) and red hake and lobster at all stations, although not

always statistically significant, contradicts the expected

response of a decrease in percent-empty stomachs to

the decrease in some sludge-related conditions, e.g.

chemical contaminants (Zdanowicz et aI., 1995), that

could inhibit feeding. For red hake and lobster that

feed heavily on Atlantic rock crabs, this increase in

empty stomachs could be a response to the significant

decline in abundance of Atlantic rock crabs found in

the area after cessation (Pikanowski, 1992). For winter

flounder, which feed mostly on smaller, surface-dwelling benthic prey, the significant increase in percentempty stomachs at NY6 could be a response to the

decrease in the mean total biomass (from 6343 to 2836

mg/O.1 m2) of benthic macrofauna after abatement at

that site; macrofaunal biomass decreases were not evident at other stations (Reid et aI., 1995).

Changes in major components of the diets of the

three selected predators do not support a substantial

effect of disposal or a change because of cessation. The

major prey of winter flounder at all stations did not

change drastically after cessation (Fig. 4) or differ substantially from that previously reported for the area or

in comparable studies for the Middle Atlantic Bight

(Steimle and Terranova, 1991). More pollution-tolerant species, e.g. capitellid polychaetes (Fig. 5), were

consumed during the disposal period, however, which

corresponds to their high relative abundance during

this period (Reid et aI., 1995). The consumption of

NY11

o fish remains

E3 Pherusa afflnls

• Post

NY6

Stations

_ Pre

R2

=

o Nucula 8p. Edotea trlloba. C. Irroratu8

hair & tlbers a artifacts crab frag

7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9

I 1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989 I

o

20

60

Figure 9

A summary of temporal trends in major prey, by percent

frequency of occurrence (frequency of occurrences overlap

and thus exceed 100%), consumed by American lobster,

Homarus americanus, at station NY6 in the New York Bight

apex. Sewage sludge disposal ceased in December 1987.

Figure 10

A comparison of percent frequency of occurrence of hair

and textile fibers in the stomachs ofAmerican lobster, Homarus

americanus, during pre- and post-sewage sludge disposal at

three sites in the New York Bight apex; value above each

column is the sample size. Period of pre-sewage sludge

disposal=July 1986-Sept. 1987; post-sewage sludge

disposal=July 1988-Sept. 1989. Sewage sludge disposal ceased

in December 1987.

40

% Frequency Occurrence

80 -,-----"----=-----------------~

50

150

100

200

250
amphipods, generally considered a pollution-sensitive

taxon, did increase after abatement, however. Amphipod and capitellid abundances are often used as indicators of habitat quality, and this response is most likely

reflected in their changing contribution to diets.

Major components of the diet of red hake, i.e. large

polychaetes, decapod crustaceans, and fish, also showed

little change after abatement (Fig. 7) or were not substantially different from other studies of red hake diet

(Steimle and Terranova, 1991). Feeding by red hake is

thought to be discontinuous and could be less controlled by daylight than is winter flounder feeding. Red

hake can detect prey tactually and chemoreceptively, as

well as visually (Luczkovich and alIa, 1983).

Diets oflobster in this study were dominated by decapod crustaceans, especially C. irroratus (Fig. 9). This is

similar to results from other lobster feeding studies,

allowing for some differences expected for different

zoogeographic zones and habitat types (Weiss, 1970;

Ennis, 1973; Scarratt, 1980; Elner and Campbell, 1987;

Karnofsky et aI., 1989). The presence of artifacts in the

lobster stomachs is not unusual; rubber, metal, rope,

plastic, wood, plastic spheres, nylon, tea bags, and other

"non-marine items" have been reported in other lobster stomach-eontent studies (Weiss, 1970; Ennis, 1973;

Scarratt, 1980; Elner and Campbell, 1987; Hudon and

Lamarche, 1989). The hair and fibers common in the

New York Bight apex lobster stomachs (Figs. 9, 10),

however, have not been noted before in the literature.

Their presence and decline in the stomachs (Fig. 10)

would appear to be related to sewage sludge disposal

and its cessation. The significance to lobster of the hair

and fibers is unknown; but significant quantities could

possibly interfere with digestion, stomach evacuation

rates, or stomach lining molting.

The results of this study are subject to the biases and

potential errors common to dietary studies of this type

(Bowman2). For example, the stomach content results

are undoubtedly biased towards larger, more slowly

digested items or calcified remains (Carter and Steele,

1982; MacDonald et aI., 1982) and influenced by temperature or other factors.

Besides these potential biases, it is possible that the

stomach contents may represent some feeding outside

the 0.5-0.75 km diameter station trawling ellipse (Fig.

1) because of predator mobility. For example, Lund et

aL3 reported mean daily lobster movement in Long

2 Bowman, R. E. 1981. Examination of known and potential causes

of variation in fish feeding studies. Northeast Fisheries Science

.Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Woods Hole,

MA, Woods Hole Lab. Ref. Doc. 81-23, 29 p.

3 Lund, W. A., L. L. Stewart, and C.]. Rathbun. 1973. Investigation

on the lobster. U.S. Dept. Commer., NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Commercial Fisheries Research and Development

Act-Final report, 189 p.

Session W: Biota 209

Island Sound to be less than 0.5 km, based on ultrasonic tag monitoring, but this was primarily at night

when most feeding is reported to occur (Scarratt, 1980).

Thus, some of the lobsters collected at a station could

have fed outside the station ellipses before moving to

the station area. This possibility would be greater for

winter flounder, which have been reported to "shamble"

across the bottom at an average speed slightly exceeding 1 km/hr (MacDonald, 1983). Thus, they could be

active and feeding for several hours before late morning collections. The swimming speed and daily foraging

range of red hak,e may be greater, with most of their

movement and feeding, like lobster, also being at night

(Bejda4). If there are no sharp environmental or forage

gradients near any study site, feeding near but outside

the station ellipse would not lead to erroneous conclusions about site-associated feeding.

The general lack of a significant or consistent change

in trophodynamic indicators, such as percent-empty

stomachs, of the predators in this study will not necessarily prove the absence of a significant trophodynamicrelated effect from waste disposal. Feeding can be

maintained or even increased during stress to compensate for increased energetic losses caused by pathologicalor physiological impairment, e.g. elevated gill

ventilation rates or poor food metabolism (Collvin,

1985). There could be qualitative effects, also, such as

the consumption of chemically contaminated prey to

be considered (Spies, 1984; Steimle et aI., 1994).

Acknowledgments

I thank]. Rugg, A. Pacheco, R. Pikanowski, D. McMillan,

L. Stehlik, S. Kingsley, and others for their assistance in

the planning and field work for this study; R. Pikanowski,

S. A. Fromm, and C. Zetlin for their computer or statistical assistance; and A. Bejda, P. Berrien, A. Pacheco, A.

Studholme, R. Reid, M. Ingham,]. O'Reilly, and others

for their comments and suggestions on drafts of this

paper.

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mile dumpsite study, 1986-1989. InA. L. Studholme,]. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 195-201. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Pennington, M., R. Bowman, and R. Langton.

1982. Variability of the weight of stomach contents of fish

and its implication for food studies. In G. M.Cailliet and C.

A. Simenstad (eds.), Gutshop '81, Fish food habits studies,

p. 2-7. Proc. third Pacific workshop, Dec &--9,1981, Pacific

Grove, CA.

Pikanowski, R. A.

1992. The effects of ocean disposal of sewage sludge on the

relative abundance of benthic megafauna. Chern. Ecol.

6:199-212

1995. Experimental design of the 12-mile dumpsite recovery

study. In A. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham

(eds.), Effects ofthe cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at the

12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium,

p. 13-18. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Reid, R. N., S. A. Fromm, A. B. Frame, D.]effress,].]. Vitaliano,

D.]. Radosh, and]. R. Finn.

1995. Limited responses of benthic macrofauna and selected

sewage sludge components to phaseout of sludge disposal

in the inner New York Bight. In A. L. Studholme,]. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 213-225. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Scarratt, D.].

1980. The food oflobsters. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci.

954:66-91.

Sokal, R., and F. Rohlf.

1981. Biometry, 2nd ed. W. H. Freeman & Co., NY, 859 p.

Spies, R.

1984. Benthic-pelagic coupling in sewage-affected marine ecosystems. Mar. Environ. Res. 13:195-230.

Steimle, F. W.

1985. Biomass and estimated productivity of the benthic

macrofauna in the New York Bight: a stressed coastal area.

Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 21:539-554.

Steimle, F., and R. Terranova.

1991. Trophodynamics of select demersal fishes in the New

York Bight. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFSF/NEC 84,11 p.

Steimle, F. W., D.]effress, S. A. Fromm, R. N. Reid,].]. Vitaliano,

and A. Frame.

1994. Predator-prey relationships of win ter flounder,

Pleuronecles americanus, in the New York Bight apex. Fish.

Bull. 92:608-619.

Steimle, F. W., V. S. Zdanowicz, S. L. Cunneff, and R. Terranova.

1994. Trace metal concentrations in common benthic

macrofaunal prey from the New York Bight Apex. Mar. Poll.

Bull. 28(12):760-765.

Tyler, A. V., and R. S. Dunn.

1976. Ration, growth and measures of somatic and organ

condition in relation to meal frequency in winter flounder
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, with hypotheses regarding

population homeostasis.]. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33:63-75.

Weis,]. 5., and A. A. Khan.

1990. Effects of mercury on the feeding behavior ofthe mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus, from a polluted habitat. Mar.

Environ. Res. 30:2443-2449.

1991. Reduction in prey capture ability and condition of

mummichogs from a polluted habitat. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.

120:127-129.

Weiss, H. M.

1970. The diet and feeding behavior of the lobster, Homarus

americanus, in Long Island Sound. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 80 p.

Wilk, 5.]., R. A. Pikanowski, A. L. Pacheco, D. G. McMillan,

and L. L. Stehlik.

1995. Response of fish and megainvertebrates of the New

York Bight apex to the abatement of sewage sludge dumping-an overview. InA. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M.

Session IV: Biota 211

C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 173-183. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Windell,]. T, and S. H. Bowen.

1978. Methods for the study of fish diets based on analysis of

stomach contents. In T Bagenal (ed.), Methods for the

assessment of fish production in fresh waters, p. 219-226.

IBP Handbook 3 (3rd ed.), Blackwell, Oxford.

Zdanowicz V. 5., S. L. Cunneff, and T W. Finneran.

1995. Reductions in sediment metal contamination in the

New York Bight apex with the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping. In A. L. Studholme, ]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C.

Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 89-100. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Audience Q!testions

Question: Since lobsters are migratory, might they

simply be moving through the area when you are collecting them? Was there any work done or any indication that some of those remained in that particular area?

F. Steimle: No tagging studies were done with lobsters; that would be the only way to get at that question.

If the "hairballs" reflect a sewage sludge effect, then

perhaps if somebody were looking at lobsters outside

the area and found hair in the stomachs, this could

suggest where the lobsters were going and be used as an

indicator of migration. I do not think that has been

done. In all the lobster diet studies that I have read, I

have not seen any note of this type of material-hair or

fibers-in the diets. Although they have noted wood,

pebbles, and old tea bags among a number of different

things that lobsters would eat, hair was not noted.

Question: The same question could be asked of winter flounder. They could simply be moving through the

area; and when you are intercepting them they may be

moving to or from a more desirable area.

F. Steimle: Yes, that is what I meant by the mobility

question. As Beth [Phelan] mentioned, fish are moving

all over the place, and that is the problem with trying to

use a mobile sampler to sample a specific site. We can

only assume that the fish were probably feeding pretty

close to the area where we collected them. That is what

I meant by the stomach contents representing an areal

estimate. There is some evidence that suggests, for example, that winter flounder can swim up to about a

knot and a half. By the time we collect them in midmorning, it is possible that the fish could have moved

five miles between when they started feeding and when we

collected them, ifthey were moving in a straight line.

Red hake could be the same or even greater in terms

of their motility. They tend to move more at night;

lobsters, less. There is some evidence to suggest that

maybe they could move perhaps a half a kilometer

during the night in some oftheir feeding forays. This is

not a good approach to a site-specific study because we

do not know precisely where the feeding was going on.

We have to presume that a majority of the feeding and

the gut contents came from close to the area where we

collected them.

Question: Will you make any comment on how the

population density in New York-'-NewJersey area relates

to hairballs in the diets of those animals?

F. Steimle: The only thing I can say is that the sediment study group has reported seeing some hair in the

sediment samples that they are analyzing. I did not

have the hair analyzed to determine what type of hair it

was. I can say it was black, stiff, and looked like mammalian hair ofsome sort. The other fibers were colored in

many cases and looked like sweepings from some textile house or similar industry-different colors, different length, both straight and crinkly.

Question: I wondered if you might speculate, or if

you have any thoughts, on what impacts the mud

dumpsite [dredge spoil site] might have on your results

or be confounding the studies that you and Tony

Pacheco have done?

F. Steimle: All of our collections were to the east,

from the three replicate sites. I really can not speculate.

Several years ago I did some diet analyses of fish collected in that area (Steimle, F., and R. Terranova, 1991

[Trophodynamics of select demersal fishes in the New

York Bight. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.

NMFS-F/NEC 84, 11 p.]). We found no significant

difference in what they fed on at the west side of the

mud dumpsite as opposed to the east side, where the

sewage sludge dumpsite is. But we have not specifically

focused or done a lot of work with the dredge spoil or

mud dump.

SESSIONW:

Limited Responses of Benthic Macrofauna and Selected Sewage

Sludge Components to Phaseout of Sludge Disposal in the

Inner New York Bight*

ROBERT N. REID, STEVEN A. FROMM, ANN B. FRAME,

DOROTHYJEFFRESS,JOSEPHJ. VITALIANO

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

DAVID J. RADOSH

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543

JON R. FINN

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NJ 07732

ABSTRACT

Information on responses of marine ecosystems to waste disposal, and to abatement of

disposal, is needed to manage wastes properly and to conserve and manage living marine

resources. For this reason, a multidisciplinary study was conducted of ecosystem responses

to phaseout of sewage sludge disposal in the inner New York Bight. Sludge dumping at the

12-Mile Sewage Sludge Dumpsite, 22 km off northern New Jersey, began in 1924 and was

phased out from March 1986 through December 1987. The study of responses involved

monthly sampling of numerous water, sediment, and biological variables from July 1986

through September 1989. Included were triplicate samples for analysis of benthic macrofauna

and selected sludge components at three stations chosen to represent 1) greatest sludge

accumulation and effects, 2) little or no sludge influence, and 3) an intermediate situation

with organic enrichment perhaps partly due to sludge. In the most sludge-altered area,

some benthic variables showed clear responses to the phaseout, while others did not.

Numbers of overall benthic species, as well as numbers of species of mollusks, crustaceans,

and amphipods, increased significantly relative to numbers at the other two stations. There

were significant decreases in abundances of Capitella spp. and nemerteans, taxa which had

dominated the fauna of the altered area during dumping. Conversely, abundances of

Biota

* A preliminary version of this paper has been published in CZ '91, Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management

(Long Beach, CA,july 1991). An expanded version is presented here to make the information available in the open literature.

213
214 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

ABSTRACT (continued)

amphipods (especially Photis pollex and Unciola irromta) , which had been rare or absent in

the altered area, increased substantially. However, there was little evidence of colonization

of the altered area by species that were dominants at the other stations. Cluster analysis of

benthic species composition also indicated changes in the fauna of the altered area after

cessation but little increase in resemblance to the other stations. Continued high abundance of tomato seeds and other detritus apparently of sludge origin in the altered area

indicated the persistence ofsome sludge components. When the stations were resampled 34

and 39 months after cessation, seeds were still prominent in the altered area, while quantities of other sludge detritus appeared to have decreased. In terms of numbers ofspecies and

abundance of Capitella spp. and nemerteans, this area could be considered to have responded strongly to removal ofsludge influence by 39 months after cessation, but there was

still little colonization by dominants from the other stations.

Introduction

Ocean disposal of sewage has been a fairly common

practice, and considerable effort has gone toward determining fates and effects of the sewage (Gross, 1976a

and 1976b; Geyer, 1981; Dart and Jenkins, 1982;

Mayer,1982; Spies, 1984; Brooks et aI., 1987; Bascom,

1989; Norton, 1989; Ferraro et aI., 1991). Many studies

of biological effects of sewage disposal have concentrated on benthic macrofauna (usually defined as the

bottom-living invertebrates collected in grab samplers

and retained on 0.5-l.O-mm mesh sieves). Due to factors sU,ch as their limited mobility and wide range of

documented responses to pollution, benthic macrofauna are considered among the best groups for monitoring biological effects of sewage disposal and of

pollution in general (Boesch, 1974; Swartz, 1978; Gray,

1980; Kuiper, 1986; Bilyard, 1987; Smith et aI., 1988;

Jackson and Resh, 1989). Benthic macrofauna are also

important as a food and contaminant source for bottom-feeding fishes and crustaceans of direct importance to man (e.g. Boesch, 1982; Steimle, 1985; Steimle

and Terranova, 1991).

As part of a multidisciplinary study of the effects of

dumping sewage sludge on habitats and biota of the

inner New York Bight (EPD [Environmental Processes

Division], 1988), this paper concentrates on effects on

benthic macrofauna. Effects ofsewage sludge dumping

on benthic macrofauna have been studied extensively

in the Bight (Rowe, 1971; Pearce et aI., 1981; Boesch,

1982; Reid et aI., 1982a and 1982b; Steimle et aI., 1982:

Steimle, 1985) and around dumpsites off Delaware

(Watling et aI., 1974; Devine and Simpson, 19.85), England (Eagle et aI., 1978; Norton and Champ, 1989),

Scotland (Mackay, 1986; Pearson, 1987; Moore and

Rodger, 1991), and Germany (Caspers, 1987). Findings

of the present study can also be compared with effects

of other types of sewage disposal, e.g. pipeline discharges of sewage sludge (Southern California Coastal

Water Research Project1,2) and sewage wastewater (Stull

et aI., 1986a and 1986b; Swartz et aI., 1986; Maurer and

Haydock, 1989; Ferraro et aI., 1991) off southern California. Responses of ben thic macrofauna to the phaseout of dumping in the inner New York Bight may help

in evaluating responses to reduction of sewage inputs

to Boston Harbor and other temperate coastal habitats.

Results from this study may also aid in understanding

and predicting effects of other organic inputs, such as

from fish farming, and perhaps other ocean dumping

(e.g. dredged material) and ocean waste disposal in

general. '

In the New York Bight, determination of sewage

sludge effects on benthic macrofauna has been confounded by other waste inputs to the area. Sludge disposal ranked only third in loadings of organic carbon

and most other contaminants to the inner Bight, with

dredged material first and the Hudson-Raritan outflow

second (Stanford and Young, 1988). The phaseout of

sewage sludge dumping in the inner Bight between

March 1986 and December 1987 offered an opportunity to examine responses of benthic macrofauna, and

thus to infer the effects of sludge dumping and to

document rates of responses seen following the phaseout.

Materials and Methods _

Study Area and Sewage Sludge Inputs

The inner Bight sludge dumpsite, known as the 12-Mile

Site, is located 22.2 km east of Sandy Hook, NJ. (Fig. 1).

I Southern California Coastal Water Research Project (SCCWRP).

1986. Biennial Report for the years 1985-1986. SCCWRP, W. Pacific Coast Highway, Long Beach, CA 90806.

2 SCCWRP. 1989. Biennial Report for the years 1987-1988. SCCWRP,

W. PacifiC Coast Highway, Long Beach, CA 90806.
Session IV: Biota 215

Figure 1

Locations of dumpsites and stations in the inner New York

Bight.

3 Hydroqua!. 1989. Assessment of pollutant inputs to New York

Bight. Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency from

Hydroquai, Inc., 1 Lethbridge Plaza, Mahwah, NJ. Unpub!.

manuscr., 117 p.

Dumping at the site began in 1924 (EPD, 1988). Since

1960, when dumping rates were recorded, there was a

general increase, to a maximum of 7.6 million t (wet

weight) in 1983 (Suskowski and Santoro, 1986). Sludge

inputs in the early 1980's were, at the time, the largest

known to any oceanic sludge dumpsite (Norton and

Champ, 1989). Composition of the sludge changed

over time as improved sewage treatment and lowered

industrial inputs reduced contaminant concentrations.

A comparison of 1973 and 1987 loadings (HydroquaI3)

indicated decreases over that period, some quite large,

in total sludge solids, biochemical oxygen demand, and

most heavy metals, e.g. loadings of cadmium, chromium, and mercury were reduced by at least 45% (no

1973 data on organic contaminants were available for

comparison) .

The sludge dumpsite is located in 23.8 to 25.3 m

water depth. During the period of dumping, dumpsite

sediments contained slightly elevated concentrations of

carbon and contaminants, but there was no long-term

buildup of sludge materials at the site (Norton and

Champ, 1989). Contaminant accumulation and effects

were most apparent in the deeper waters (30 to 40 m)

of the Christiaensen Basin to the west (Fig. 1), especiallyjustwest ofthe dumpsite's northwest corner, where

most dumping occurred (EPD, 1988). The Christiaensen

Between July 1986 and September 1989, the National

Marine Fisheries Service and collaborators conducted

monthly surveys for responses of habitats and biota of

the inner Bight to the phaseout of sludge disposal.

Sampling included numerous water, sediment and biological variables. Further description of the study plan

is given in EPD (1988) and Pikanowski (1995).

Benthic sampling consisted of three samples taken

monthly at each of three "replicate" stations (Fig. 1).

Station NY6 was located at a depth of 31 m, 1.6 km west

ofthe dumpsite's northwest corner, in the area ofgreatest apparent sludge buildup and effects (EPD, 1988).

Station NYU was in 29 m of water, 11.3 km south of

NY6 on the eastern shoulder of the Shelf Valley. It was

chosen as a reference area since its depth and sediment

type were similar to those at NY6, but low levels of

sediment contaminants indicated minimal sludge influence (EPD, 1988). Station R2 was at 28.5 m depth in the

northern Christiaensen Basin, 3.4 km north of NY6. It

was considered intermediate between NY6 and NYl1 in

sludge influence, with somewhat elevated concentrations of sediment contaminants and a benthic faunal

biomass apparently enriched by organic carbon inputs

from sludge and other sources (EPD, 1988).

Samples were also taken bimonthly at five locations

on an ellipse around each station (Fig. 1) and at 22

other stations of a "broadscale" survey covering most of

the inner Bight (EPD, 1988; Pikanowski, 1995). Analysis of ellipse and broadscale benthic samples has not

been completed, but data are available for many other

aspects of the overall study.

Bottom samples were taken with a 0.1-m2 SmithMelntyre grab. After vertical profiles ofsediment redox

potential were measured and subsamples were taken

for sediment grain size, trace metals, organic contaminants, organic carbon, and other variables (Draxler,

1995), the remainder of each grab sample was rinsed

on a 0.5-mm sieve. Retained materials were fixed in

Basin in general contains finer surface sediments than

the surrounding shallower sandy areas (Swift et aI.,

1976). Sediment carbon, trace metal and organic contaminant concentrations, and biomass of benthic

macrofauna, are elevated in the Basin compared to the

rest of the Bight (Pearce et aI., 1981; Boesch, 1982;

Reid et aI., 1982a and 1982b; Steimle et aI., 1982; Steimle,

1985). The Basin is the head of the Hudson Shelf

Valley, which extends from the inner Bight southeast to

the Hudson Canyon at the continental shelf edge. Like

the Basin, the Shelf Valley is deeper and has finer

sediments than most of the surrounding shelf (Swift et

aI., 1976).

Sampling Design 4ll'10'

13'40'

o kilometers 5

./' Hudson Shelf '; \ VOlley,:........ 27C NY11 .

Sandy Hook NJ

14'00'
216 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

10% buffered formalin with Rose Bengal. One to three

days later the samples were transferred to 70% ethanol

with 5% glycerin. Dissecting microscopes were used to

sort organisms from sediment. Identifications were to

species level whenever possible, except for Nemertea.

Oligochaetes, archiannelids, and colonial forms (e.g.

bryozoans, tunicates and sponges) were not enumerated due to our uncertainty of identification and/or

difficulty of quantification. Tomato seeds, a potential

sludge tracer (Pearce, 1971), were also counted in most

samples. Wet weight macrofauna biomasses were determined by blot-drying each taxon on absorbent paper

toweling for 3 min and weighing to the nearest mg on

an electronic balance. Biomass data are presented with

and withoutweights oftwo bivalves, Arctica islandica (ocean

quahog) and Pitarmorrhuanus (false quahog), whose occasional high values greatly increased biomass variability.

Sampling and data analysis reflect the fact that with

only one dumpsite being phased out, there can be no

true replication in the classic experimental sense.

Stewart-Oaten et al. (1986) suggest that in such situations, valid impact assessments may still be achieved by

using "pseudoreplication in time," i.e. taking samples

over time both before and after the impact (or cessation, in this case) at both control and impacted sites

(the BACI design). Differences between the "before"

data were statistically compared with "after" differences

to determine ifthe two periods were significantly different. Both parametric (Student's t) and nonparametric

(Mann-Whitney V) tests of differences were used. Data

were also tested both parametrically (C test) and

nonparametrically (runs test) (Zar, 1984) for serial correlation, since tests of differences may not be valid ifdata

are serially correlated. No serial correlation that would

require qualifying the results was found (see Pikanowski,

1995, for further discussion of these analyses).

At the study's outset, several anticipated responses of

the macrofauna to phaseout were stated as hypotheses:

1) there would be significant increases in the total

numbers of species, in crustacean and amphipod species, and in amphipod individuals at stations NY6 and

R2 as compared to NYU, and 2) there would be a

significant decrease in mean densities of Capitella spp.

at NY6 (EPD, 1988). Other variables analysed for differences using BACI were numbers ofspecies of mollusks,

numbers ofindividuals ofthe amphipod Unciola irrorata,

numbers of tomato seeds, overall biomass, "adjusted"

overall biomass (without the large bivalves Arctica

islandica and Pitar morrhuanus) , biomass of nemerteans,

and biomass of the polychaete, Pherusa affinis.

Qmode cluster analysis (clustering stations according to abundances of species they have in common)

(Boesch, 1977; Romesburg, 1984) was performed using

means of the abundances of all commonly occurring

species for each station and month. To facilitate computation, the analysis used only the 150 most frequently

occurring species (based on percent occurrence in station/month combinations and in individual samples,

plus percent ofgrabs with>10 individuals ofthe species

in question). All data were transformed (In [count +

1]) before clustering, because of the presence of zero

scores and to reduce the influence of very abundant

species on inter-sample similarities (Boesch, 1977). Percent faunal similarities between stations were measured

using the Bray-Curtis (1957) coefficient Cz = 2w/(a+b) ,

where a is the sum of abundances of all species found in

a given sample, b is the sum of species abundances for

another sample, and w is the sum of the lower of the

abundance values for each species common to both

samples. Clustering was performed using flexible sortingwith the cluster intensity coefficientjJ= -0.25 (Boesch

1977). A similarity level of Cz = 0.60 was used to form

subgroups from the overall dendrogram. This cutpoint

was subjectively chosen because it generated a reasonable number of subgroups per station (nine for NY6

and four each for NYll and R2), permitting analysis of

temporal trends within stations. The strategy of

Romesburg (1984) for objectively choosing a cutpoint

could not be used, because the dendrogram had no

areas above 0.2 similarity where the number of clusters

remained the same over a wide range of similarities.

Semiquantitative observations were made on each

grab sample as soon as it was brought aboard. Sediment

type was noted, and amount ofsludge-like detritus was

estimated. Most of this detritus was probably cellulose

fibers and plant fragments (Campbell et al., 1988);

tomato and other seeds were also abundant.

The three stations were sampled again in October

1990 and March 1991. Field observations and data from

these collections are included to extend the study's

temporal coverage.

Results

The BACI analyses of selected faunal variables (Table

1) indicated several significant (P<0.05) responses of

NY6 to phaseout ofsludge dumping. Mean numbers of

species per 0.1 m2 (Fig. 2) were distinct between stations at the study's outset, in the order NYl1>R2>NY6

as expected based on numbers ofspecies typically found

in these three areas in earlier studies (Reid et al., 1982b,

1991). Numbers ofspecies increased at all stations, but

numbers at NY6 increased significantly more relative to

both NYl1 and R2 in the before-after comparison

(Table 1). Numbers of species at R2 did not increase

relative to NYll, so the hypothesis of significant increases at both NY6 and R2 was only partly confirmed.

Similarly, the hypotheses of increases in numbers of

species of crustaceans (Fig. 3), numbers of species of
Session IV: Biota 217

Table 1

Mean values for grab samples at replicate stations, per 0.lm2, before and after the cessation of sewage sludge dumping.

Values labeled contrast are differences between the before and after periods. Negative values for t indicate increases at NY6

after cessation. The comparisons; R2-NYlI, NY6-NYll and NY6-R2 represent the technique of replication over time. The

critical values for the Student's t-test and the Mann-Whitney U test are respectively, 2.026 and 259.

Mean (Std. Error)

Group Before After Contrast t(2) UO.

05(2), Significance

(18 Mo) (21 Mo) (Before - After) (df=37) 18,21 (P = 0.05)

Total NY6 19.17 (1.46) 33.02 (1.96) -13.85 (2.51) -5.51 344.0 +

Species R2-NYll -11.15 (1.13) -9.52 (1.10) -1.63 (1.58) -1.03 222.0

NY6-NYll -22.00 (1.22) -12,96 (1.29) -9.04 (1.79) -5.04 335.0 +

NY6-R2 -10.85 (1.07) -3.44 (1.15) -7,41 (1.59) -4.66 324.5 +

Mollusk NY6 2,98 (0.34) 5,86 (0,55) -2.88 (0.67) -4,28 320.5 +

Species R2-NYll -1.02 (0.43) 0.60 (0.40) -1.61 (0.59) -2,74 276.0 +

NY6-NYll -4.67 (0.40) -1.29 (0.44) -3.37 (0.60) -5.59 341.0 +

NY6-R2 -3.65 (0,29) -1.89 (0.42) -1.76 (0.53) -3.33 295,0 +

Crustacean NY6 2.61 (0,34) 6.89 (0.52) -4.28 (0.65) -6.63 370.0 +

Species R2-NYll -2.06 (0.36) -2.26 (0.32) 0,21 (0.49) 0,42 201.0

NY6-NYll -2.96 (0.41) -1.06 (0.39) -1.91 (0.57) -3.34 299,5 +

NY6-R2 -0.91 (0,29) 1.21 (0.29) -2.11 (0.42) -5.06 333.5 +

Amphipod NY6 1.04 (0.20) 4.51 (0.45) -3.47 (0.52) -6.64 368.0 +

Species R2-NYll -1.68 (0,21) -1.80 (0,30) 0.13 (0.37) 0,34 199.5

NY6-NYll -2.27 (0.25) -0.90 (0,32) -1.37 (0.41) -3.33 297.0 +

NY6-R2 -0.59 (0.21) 0.90 (0.18) -1.50 (0.28) -5.43 336.5 +

Amphipod NY6 3.22 (0,99) 91.21 (28,11) -87.98 (30.43) -2.89 360.5 +

Individuals R2-NYll -33.77 (9,32) -14,06 (6,87) -19.71 (11.38) -1.73 231.0

NY6-NYll -47.51 (9.11) 40,22 (23,25) -87.73 (26.53) -3.31 328.0 +

NY6-R2 -13.74 (2.37) 54.29 (24.06) -68,03 (26.13) -2.60 296,5 +

U. irrorata NY6 1.48 (0.46) 17.86 (3.68) -16.38 (4.00) -4.09 357,5 +

Individuals R2-NYll -11.71 (2.20) -15,64 (3.24) 3.93 (4.05) 0.97 208.0

NY6-NYll -10.77 (2.09) 1.15 (2.20) -11.92 (3,07) -3.88 329.0 +

NY6-R2 0.94 (0.47) 16,79 (3.56) -15.85 (3.87) -4.09 353,5 +

Capitella NY6 764.00 (250.98) 7,35 (2.10) 756.65 (231.85) 3,26 297.0 +

Individuals R2-NYll -33.81 (26.46) -7.78 (1.02) -26.04 (24.46) -1.06 215,5

NY6-NYll 729.89 (243.98) -0.54 (2,53) 730.43 (225.39) 3.24 293,0 +

NY6-R2 763.70 (250.94) 7.24 (2.10) 756.47 (231.82) 3.26 298.5 +

Total NY6 6,342.96 (1,117.70) 2,835,9.5 (269.15) 3,507.01 (1,072.76) 3.27 30.'>,0 +

Biomass R2-NYll 17,446.32 (5,082,75) 22,488.39(2,839.86) -5,042.07 (5,611.53) -0.90 217,0

mg NY6-NYll -9,685,54 (3,069.05) -5,804,69 (761.82) -3,880.85 (2,952.42) -1.31 201,0

NY6-R2 -27,131.85 (3,374,24) -28,293.08(2,609.13) 1,161.22 (4,205.69) 0.28 211.0

Adjusted NY6 6,335.46 (1,117,13) 2,822.70 (268,52) 3,512.76 (1,072.07) 3.28 306,0 +

Biomass R2-NYlI 15,155.43 (1,013.95) 12,956.64(2,065,50) 2,198.79 (2,423.59) 0.91 260.0

mg NY6-NYlI -324.31 (1,198,96) -4,498,32 (352.62) 4,174,00 (1,171.42) 3.56 296.0 +

NY6-R2 -15,479.74 (957.34) -17,4.'>4,96(1,996.28) 1,975.21 (2,334,37) 0.85 205.0

Nemertean NY6 2,876.09 (466.04) 922.79 (115.00) 1,953.30 (448.13) 4.36 332,0 +

Biomass R2-NYlI 34.37 (154.68) 257.73 (231.81) -223.36 (288,70) -0.77 244.0

mg NY6-NYlI 2,636.93 (456.26) 695.73 (129.74) 1,941.20 (444.24) 4.37 336.0 +

NY6-R2 2,602.56 (482.18) 438.00 (236,03) 2,164.56 (513.45) 4.22 326.0 +

P. affinis NY6 184.48 (55.60) 224.16 (132.65) -39.68 (152.47) -0.26 231.0

Biomass R2-NYll 14,428.85 (839.25) 11,343.54(1,654,15) 3,085.31 (1,950.79) 1.50 287.0 +

mg NY6-NYll -1,060.09 (238.47) -1,065.41 (249.26) 5.32 (348.26) 0.02 192,0

NY6-R2 -15,488.94 (867.46) -12,408.95 (1 ,632.47) -3,079.90 (1,939.90) -1.59 286,0 +

Tomato NY6 984.56 (116.53) 1,233.10 (74.27) -248.54 (134.34) -1.85 251.0

Seeds R2-NYll 325.35 (58,70) 419.56 (66.64) -92.21 (90.23) -1.02 220,5

NY6-NYll 984.07 (116.46) 1,232.66 (74.24) -248.58 (134.27) -1.85 251.0

NY6-R2 656.72 (116.02) 813.10 (95.05) -156.37 (148.55) -1.05 231.0

1 Arctica and Pitarexcluded from total biomass.
218 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

NUMBERS OF SPECIES AMPHIPOD SPECIES

6O~- 10

Pre-cessation POSI-cessallon

I 1988--+--1989----1

- ...~~

1987

.f :

en 6 OJ

'0

OJ

a.

en 4\

c'·.

ttl '.

OJ

2

i--1986

0

'i./ "'v/ 'i./ ~~ 'i./

i--1986 I 1987 I 1988 1989 ----I

Pre-cessation l~ NV6 - ...-- R2 NV" I Post-cessation

40 ';

CJ) ",

OJ "

o

OJ

a.

en

c 20

ttl

OJ

2

Figure 2

Mean numbers of species (all taxa combined) per 0.lm2 at

sampling stations in the inner New York Bight. Station

NY6=square; station R2=triangle; station NYl1=circle.

Figure 4

Mean numbers of species of amphipods per 0.1 m2 at sampling stations in the inner New York Bight. Station

NY6=square; station R2=triangle; station NYl1=circle.

--;l AMPHIPODS

"'V/ ~~ 'i./ ~~ 'i./

1987 1988 1989----1

E:'iV6 - •.. A2 -<;I" NYi2J Posl-cessation

O·Q

,: "

500

Pre-cessation

-',

i--1986 -t---

'§ 400

en a;JOO ::J

\J'>

'6 200

,~

c

ttl

100-

0

'i./ ~~ 'i./ ~~ 'i./ ~~ "'V/

i--1986 1987 1988 1989----1

Pre-cessation NV6 -.t.-- R2 --0-- NY11 ] Post-cessation

CRUSTACEAN SPECIES

15

Figure 3

Mean numbers of species of crustaceans per 0.1 m2 at sampling stations in the inner New York Bight at sampling stations in the inner New York Bight. Station NY6=square; station R2=triangle; station NYl1=circle.

Figure 5

Mean abundances of all amphipods combined per 0.1 m2 at

sampling stations in the inner New York Bight. Station

NY6=square; station R2=triangle; station NYl1=circle.

amphipods (Fig. 4), and numbers of amphipod individuals (Fig. 5) relative to NYll were confirmed for

NY6 but not R2. The hypothesized decrease in abundance of Capitella spp. (Fig. 6) at NY6 was also confirmed. Table 1 also shows that, relative to NYll, there

were significant increases in numbers ofspecies ofmollusks (Fig. 7) at both NY6 and R2, and increases in

abundance of the amphipod, Unciola irrorata (Fig. 8) at

NY6. There was a significant decrease in biomass of

nemerteans (Fig. 9) at NY6 compared to both NYll

and R2. Overall biomass at NY6 decreased significantly

(reduced biomass of nemerteans accounted for more

than half the decrease). The decrease in adjusted biomass, with the bivalves Arctica islandica and Pitar morrhuanus

excluded (Fig. 10), was significant relative to NYll, but

the decrease in unadjusted biomass was not. Biomass of

Pherusa affinis (Fig. 11) increased at NY6 compared to

R2 but not NYll. There were no significant changes in

numbers of tomato seeds (Fig. 12).

Cluster analysis (Fig. 13) indicated clear separation

of the three stations, with all months at NYll grouping

at Cz <!: 0.43, all months at R2 at Cz <!: 0.24, and all

months at NY 6 at Cz <!: -0.24. NYll and R2 joined at Cz

= -0.69, and NY6 joined this group at Cz = -0.97. At the
Sessiun W: Biota 219

Capitella spp. Unciola irrorata 10000 80~

I

"'E

Post-cessalion

~" e.t/

--41--1989 ----1

Pre-cessalion

.~

~1986 -,---

''0-<1, A,:

:'0'. ':-_\i>-~:_~i \:.-.-...-.~ ........_--L-..l *,-_---:.>~_.'.:.,.~_

'i-/

c

co 10 Ql

"'E

c:i 1000

---CfJ

co

:::J

100:

'6

c

Figure 6

Mean abundances of Capitella spp. per 0.1 m2 at sampling

stations in the inner New York Bight. Station NY6=square;

station R2=triangle; station NYll=circie.

Figure 8

Mean abundances of Unciola irrorata per 0.1 m2 at sampling

stations in the inner New York Bight. Station NY6=square;

station R2=triangle; station NYll=circie.

MOLLUSC SPECIES

12

NEMERTEAN BIOMASS

l- Post-cessation NY6 - •.• R2 Pre-cessation

'"'0 ~" "t/

1986 -1--- 1987 ---1---- 1988 ----1--1989--1

10

"'E

E

.9

en

en

CO

E

0

:.0

c

CO

Ql

Pre-cessation Post-cessation

~1986---11f----1987 I 1988 --41--1989----1

1-- NY6 - •.. R2 _ •..;-.-:-~

Figure 7

Mean numbers ofspecies of mollusks per 0.1 m2 at sampling

stations in the inner New York Bight. Station NY6=square;

station R2=triangle; station NYll=circle.

Figure 9

Mean biomasses of nemerteans per 0.1 m2 at sampling stations in the inner New York Bight. Station NY6=square; station R2=triangle; station NYll=circle.

0.60 similarity level, NYlI and R2 each formed four

groups ofmonths, while there were nine groups atNY6.

All postcessation months at NY6 grouped separately

from all precessation months, and closer to R2. The

other stations also segregated into pre-vs. postcessation

groups with the exception of one NYlI group which

contained samples from both July through December

1987 and January through April 1988, and one R2

group which included October through December 1987,

January through December 1988, andJuly through September 1989.

Table 2 lists data from the October 1990 and March

1991 collections (i.e. 34 and 39 months after cessation

of dumping) for the same variables examined in the

above BACI analyses. These more recent data have not

been compared statistically with those from the last 18

months of dumping and first 21 months after cessation,

but some observations may be noteworthy. The

postcessation trend toward increasing overall numbers

of species at NY6 relative to NYlI and R2 appeared to

continue, and in March 1991, NY6 had the most species

of the three stations. Much of the increase was due to

an influx of mollusk species. Postcessation trends toward reduction in density of Capitella spp. and biomass

of nemerteans also continued at NY6. However, total,

adjusted, and Pherusa affinis biomass remained consid-
220 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

TOTAL BIOMASS

(without Arctica and Pitar)

Pherusa affinis BIOMASS

Pre-cessation Post-cessation

I

I

I + I ;1

I i\

I i!

Ii!

I I

I ""'''',

I t \" ! \ ~.~ '\; .•..1; ...... ,1 .I "

\···.i· './ I' ........ Ii'.,,.,

o "0",0-.0.. .,o_<J,I.·P--o- . -0••,Q. _ 'z'

o<i>;·~,,·""-""~~"""'~~~,.J!!,.....4_......L~ii;;Q::.:..~~~=~kH....l

1-1986---11--- 1987 ----1---1988 ---1-1--1989------1

1- NY6 -4-- R2 "0-- NY11 I

'i-/

1989 ----1

Post-cessation - .... - R2 --D-- NY11 I

r --

-- NY6

,~'

..."...i' \.......i

.-

Pre-cessation

¢. "

I

o ~_~-_~~__ __l._~-~ ~~ _

1-1986 I 1987 i 1988 I

UJ

UJ

t1l

E 20t .. o

:0 ! c

t1l

CD

2

Figure 10

Mean biomasses of all taxa combined, excluding Arctica

islandica and Pitar morrhuanus, per 0.1 m2 at sampling stations

in the inner New York Bight. Station NY6=square; station

R2=triangle; station NYll=circle.

Figure 11

Mean biomasses of Pherusa affinis per 0.1 m2 at sampling

stations in the inner New York Bight. Station NY6=square;

station R2=triangle; station NYl1=circle.

erably lower than values at NYll and R2, while tomato

seeds were still about as abundant at NY6 as in earlier

surveys. At R2, overall (adjusted) biomass, P. affinis

biomass, and numbers ofseeds appeared to decrease.

Amounts of sludge detritus at NY6 were quite variable within and between the monthly cruises, but averaged an estimated liter per sample, with no obvious

decrease in the first 21 months after cessation. Smaller

amounts (about one halfliter) were noted in the 1990

and 1991 collections.

TOMATO SEEDS 2000,--------------,--

N

E 1600

Q

CD 1200

..0

E

:::J

C 800

c

t1l

CD

2 400

Discussion

0

'i-/ ~~ 'i-/ ~-? 'i-/ ~~ 'i-/

1-1986 I 1987 I 1988 I 1989----1

Pre-cessation t-- NY8 -".- R2 --0-- NY11 Post-cessation

At NY6, the station chosen to represent greatest sludge

effects, some variables showed clear responses within

21 months after cessation of sludge dumping, while

other variables did not. The increase in numbers of

species per sample at NY6 compared to both NYll and

R2 (Table 1, Fig. 2) is perhaps the clearest evidence of

response. This variable is a useful indicator of environmental stress (Green, 1977; Chapman et al., 1987). The

increases in numbers of species of mollusks, crustaceans, and amphipods at NY6 compared to the other

stations (Table 1) can also be taken as indicators of

habitat improvement, as these taxa are in general considered pollution-sensitive relative to the polychaetes

which dominate much of the inner Bight (Pearce et al.,

1981; Boesch, 1982). These variables, however, are subsets of overall species numbers, and so are somewhat

interdependent and redundant as measures ofresponse.

Changes in abundance of several taxa also signalled

responses to cessation. The small deposit-feeding polyFigure 12

Mean numbers of tomato seeds per 0.1 m2 at sampling stations in the inner New York Bight. Station NY6=square; station R2=triangle; station NYl1=circle.

chaetes Capitella spp. a complex of several species

(Grassle and Grassle, 1976), have been used worldwide

as an indicator of organic enrichment effects (Pearson

and Rosenberg, 1978). Capitella spp. had been the overwhelming numerical dominants in most NY6 samples

analysed in the 1970's and early 1980's (Reid et al.,

1991). At the outset of the present study, many collections still had very high densities (over 1000 per 0.1 m2)

of these species, although densities of less than 50 per

0.1 m2 were also common (Table 1, Fig. 6). Following

cessation, mean densities never exceeded 50 per 0.1

m2. Conversely, amphipods had been a very small component of the NY6 fauna during dumping, averaging
Sessian W: Biota 221

Table 2

Means of values per 0.lm2 for three grab samples at each replicate station, October 1990 and March 1991.

NY6 R2 NY11

10/90 3/91 10/90 3/91 10/90 3/91

Total Species 29.7 42.7 31.0 32.0 37.0 38.7

Mollusk Species 3.7 10.7 6.3 9.3 7.0 8.3

Crustacean Species 5.3 6.7 4.0 3.3 6.3 7.7

Amphipod Species 3.3 3.3 2.3 2.0 4.3 5.0

Amphipod Individuals 12.7 22.0 12.7 14.0 19.7 17.7

U. irrorata Individuals 6.0 2.7 0.3 0.3 3.7 6.7

Capitella Individuals 2.7 3.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3

Total Biomass (mg) 3,324 3,282 7,792 55,954 7,995 5,515

Adjusted l Biomass (mg) 3,110 3,018 7,788 8,408 5,153 4,992

Nemertean Biomass (mg) 873 153 0.0 1.3 43.3 77.3

P. afJinis Biomass (mg) 67.7 16.3 3,638 3,010 630 657

Tomato Seeds 934 1,221 176 139 0.7 0.0

1Arctica and Pitar excluded from total biomass.

SIMILARITY

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 o ~.2 ~.4 ~.6 ~.8 -1.0

STATtON

0C1'88-JUN87.

NY11 JUL-SEP88 •

JUL- DECa7} JAN· APR ae

•

0

MAY88-SEpaIO

JAN·JUN8I 0

ocr- DECa7} • JAN· DECae R2 JUL·8EPa9 8

AUG-SEP88

JUL88 }.

•

OCTae-8EP87 •

NOVae-SEPal 0

AUG-OCTae 0

JAN·JULae 0

NY6 JAN· JUL87 •

NOV-DEcae •

AUQ-OCT88 •

JUL88 •

OCT-DEca7 •

JUL-SEPa7 •

I I I I I I , I

I III !

I ItI I :

I '~

I I •

I

I • I I I

I I I • I I

:1-

I

: lI I

.. • PREoCESSATlON •

I r- o POSToCESSAnON

I :

Figure 13

Dendrogram showing between-group similarities in species composition in the New York Bight, with groups formed at 0.60

similarity level. Each wider bar to left indicates the level of similarity of all months within a given group.
222 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

1.5 per 0.1 m2 in 1980-82 and decreasing to 0.04 per

0.1 m2 in 1983-85 (Reid et al., 1991). Most of the

postcessation increase was due to Photis pollex (Fromm

et al.4), and to a lesser exten t Unciola irrorata (Table 1,

Fig. 8); the latter had been the most abundant amphipod at NY6 during dumping.

Other measures did not show a rapid response of the

NY6 fauna to cessation. If the environment at NY6 was

indeed similar to R2 except for sludge influence, removal of that influence might be expected to lead to a

total macrobenthic biomass similar to that ofR2, which

is representative of much of the Christiaensen Basin

(Reid et al., 1991). There was little tendency for the

NY6 biomass to approach the enriched level of R2,

however (Table 1, Fig. 10). Biomass of the dominant

species at R2, the polychaete Pherusa affinis, also did not

increase noticeably at NY6 (Table 1, Fig. 11). Pherusa

affiniswas the most important prey for fish examined in

the 12-Mile Dumpsite study (Steimle, 1995), so increased

abundance of P. affinis at NY6 would have been an

indicator that functional value of the area to predators

was approaching that ofthe surrounding Christiaensen

Basin. NY6 also showed little tendency toward increases

in biomasses of the other dominants at R2 (e.g. the

polychaete Nephtys incisa, bivalve Pitar morrhuanus, and

anthozoan Ceriantheopsis americanus) or at NY11 (the

bivalve Nucula proxima) (Fromm et al. 4).

Cluster analysis also gave mixed indications of responses at NY6 (Fig. 13). That all postcessation months

at NY6 grouped separately from all precessation months,

and closer to R2, is taken as a response to phaseout.

However, the postcessation months at NY6 were still

most similar to precessation months there, and highly

dissimilar from the faunas of R2 and NYll.

The continued high abundance of tomato seeds at

NY6 (Table 1, Fig. 12) indicated that at least a refractory component of the sludge persisted following cessation ofsludge disposal. An alternate explanation is that

a deep reservoir of seeds and perhaps other sludge

components was gradually being dispersed. However,

sludge is not thought to have formed deep deposits in

the inner Bight (Swift et al., 1976).

Seeds were still very numerous when NY6 was

resampled 34 and 39 months after cessation (Table 2),

and volumes ofsludge detritus were only slightly smaller

than during the 21 months immediately after cessation

(authors' observations). According to some faunal variables, e.g. numbers of species and numbers of individual Capitella spp., NY6 might be considered to have

responded completely to removal of sludge influence

4 Fromm, S. A., D. Jeffress, J. J. Vitaliano, A. B. Frame, and R. N.

Reid. In preparation. Responses of benthic macrofauna to phaseout of sewage sludge disposal in the inner New York Bight-Data

report. U. S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS F/NEC.

by 39 months after cessation. However, faunal biomass

at NY6 remained sparse, with little increase in abundance of the NYll and R2 dominants. These mixed

indications of response are reasonable. All of the NYll

and R2 dominants apparently live more than two years,

some perhaps more than ten years (Caracciolo and

Steimle, 1983; Fallon, 1985; Steimle, 1985). Most have

low mobility, so colonization by adults would be slow,

and many species arriving as larvae may not have reached

maximum biomass. If reductions in toxicants at NY6,

e.g. sulfide (Draxler, 1995) and trace metals (Zdanowicz

et al., 1995) have rendered the area suitable for colonization, several years may be needed to develop a mature

"normal" macrobenthic assemblage. Even with reduction

in contaminant concentrations, NY6 may be physically

unsuitable for some species due to the remaining detritus.

At R2, numbers of tomato seeds appeared lower in

the 34- and 39-month postcessation samples, in contrast to the persistence of the seeds at NY6. Overall

(adjusted) and Pherusa affinis biomass also seemed substantially lower in the most recent samples. If this trend

is real, one possible cause would be a reduction in the

enrichment effect noted for R2 at the study's outset.

The trend agrees with the reduction in sediment organic

carbon reported for R2 after cessation (Draxler, 1995).

Other studies of effects ofsewage disposal on benthic

macrofauna give little indication of what rates of response to expect with abatement of disposal. At the

Philadelphia dumpsite, sludge was dumped at lower

rates and over a much shorter time than at the New

York Bight site (Devine and Simpson, 1985). Accumulation of apparent sludge constituents and effects was not

seen to the same extent as in the inner Bight. However,

during dumping a slight increase in numbers of Capitella

spp. and decrease in amphipod densities were reported

(Lear and O'Malley, 1983). No postdumping macrofaunal data are available, but microbial sludge indicators returned to background levels in about four years

(Reid et al., 1987) at this more dispersive site. Off

Garroch Head in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, a sludge

dumpsite in use since 1904 had a depauperate, highly

altered fauna when dumping ceased in 1974. The area

was not sampled again until 1985, at which time the

former dumpsite was similar to Clyde Sea stations remote from dumping in numbers of species and distributions of individuals among species (Moore and

Rodger, 1991).

On the Palos Verdes shelf off southern California,

the large quantities of primary-treated wastewaters discharged through outfalls had impacts on benthic fauna

similar to sewage sludge effects apparent in the present

study, e.g. in 1980 overall biomass and numbers of

species were depressed 1 km from the outfalls, and

Capitella spp. accounted for 85.6% of infaunal abundance (Stull et al., 1986a, 1986b; Swartz et al., 1986).
Improvements in effluent quality clearly reduced the

severity of outfall impacts by 1983; biomass and numbers ofspecies increased, and Capitella spp. dropped to

10.7% of total abundance. The extent to which faunal

recovery was linked to the wastewater improvements

could not be completely determined, however, as sediment reworking by an ephemeral population of echiurid

worms also contributed to the observed changes (Stull,

1986a). From 1983 to 1986 there was further improvement in effluent quality, but the benthos exhibited

complex changes. Biomass and numbers of species 1

km from the outfalls decreased, and abundance of

Capitella spp. increased, to 1980 levels. Three km from

the outfalls, benthic variables indicated basically no

change between 1983 and 1986, while improvement

was indicated 5-15 km from the outfalls. This complex

pattern of change was considered due to interactive

effects ofwastewater and natural phenomena such as £1

Nino and winter storms (Ferraro et aI., 1991).

One year after termination of discharge from the

Hyperion sludge outfall in Santa Monica Bay, also off

southern California, faunal responses showed some

marked similarities to those seen in the present study.

Those responses included a two order of magnitude

decrease in numbers of Capitella spp. in the contaminated area and a failure of the dominant species in the

reference area, the brittlestar Amphiodia, to return to

the contaminated area (Southern California Coastal

Water Research Project2).

The present study will continue periodically to sample

the benthos ofNY6, NY11, and R2 to follow longer-term

responses to cessation of sewage sludge disposal. Relationships with other variables, such as sediment grain

size, redox potential, sulfide and carbon concentrations,

and fish diets, will be explored in an attempt to determine

causes of the observed responses to cessation.

Aclmowledgments

We thank Fritz Farwell and Sherman Kinglsey of the R/

V KYMA for help in obtaining the samples; Nancy

Mountford of Cove Corporation and Hannah Proctor

of Normandeau Associates for overseeing contract

sample processing; and Frank Steimle, Robert

Pikanowski, Anne Studholme, Merton Ingham, John

O'Reilly, and three anonymous reviewers for making

helpful comments on the manuscript.

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1989. Disposal ofsewage sludge via outfalls. In T. P. O'Connor,

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Bilyard, G. R.

1987. The value of benthic infauna in marine pollution monitoring studies. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18:581-585.

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1974. Diversity, stability and response to human disturbance

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1977. Application of numerical classification in ecological investigations ofwater pollution. EPA--600/3-77---{}33, 115 p.

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Bray,]. R., and]. T. Curtis.

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1983. An atlas of the distribution and abundance of dominant benthic invertebrates in the New York Bight apex with

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Caspers, H.

1987. Changes in the benthos at a sewage-sludge dumpsite in

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Chapman, P. M., R. N. Dexter, and E. R. Long.

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Audience Q!J£stions

Question: The NY6 station is probably a depositionalsilt station, and unless that turns into a sandy area like

NYll, I do not think you are ever going to see a large

population of Nepthys returning to that area. What I am

driving at is that sediment type is probably one of the

main determiners of what species composition will be.

R. Reid: I agree completely with that, and when we

designed the experiment we tried to get similar sediment types. It looks like they are not all that similar.

There are even surprising changes over time at a given

station; we will sometimes find pretty sandy sediment at

NY6 after a storm; the sludge or silt or whatever is there

apparently is blown away or covered with sand temporarily. IfNY6 is a more depositional area than the rest of

the Christiaensen Basin, then maybe what I was suggesting in the beginning is true-the fauna will never look

like the rest of the Basin.

SESSIONW:

Reduction in Qostridium perfringens and Fecal Coliform Bacteria

in the SheIlIlSh Closure Area of the New York Bight

JACK GAINES

u. S. Food and Drug Administration

Bldg. S-26, Construction Battalion Center

North Kingstown, Rhode Island 02852

ROBERTN. REID

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, Newfersey 07732

ABSTRACT

Parts ofthe inner New York Bight have been closed to commercial shellfishing since 1970

because of elevated levels of coliform bacteria from sewage sludge and other sources. As

part of a study ofresponses to cessation ofsewage sludge dumping in the Bight in December

1987, fecal coliform bacteria in surface and bottom waters were re-surveyed in October

1989. Sediment samples were also taken to determine concentrations of Clostridium perfringens

spores, another microbial indicator of sewage contamination. Fecal coliform counts were

below the detection limit (most probable number [MPN] of 9/100 ml) in all 31 surface

water samples and 29 of 31 bottom water samples. The highest concentration measured was

139/100 ml in deep waters in the mid-Christiaensen Basin. Counts in general were much

lower than when dumping was ongoing and lower than in many estuaries where shellfishing

is permitted. Therefore, it may be possible to reopen much or all of the shellfish closure

area, although microbiological as well as chemical contaminants in sediments and shellfish

also must be considered before any decision is reached. However, the modest stocks of

clams apparently present in the closure area would probably contribute little to the overall

New York Bight harvests. Some of the observed reduction in coliform counts may be due to

factors other than cessation of sludge dumping, e.g. year-round chlorination of sewage

wastewater effluents. Concentrations of C. perfringens spores were lower than during dumping but were still markedly high over much of the Christiaensen Basin, in agreement with

other findings from the study on responses to cessation of dumping.

Biota

Introduction

Numerous studies have documented elevated concentrations offecal coliform bacteria (Verber, 1976; Gaines,

unpublished data) and spores of Clostridium perfringens

(Cabelli and Pedersen, 1982; Graikoski, 1982; Reid et

aI., 1987) in the apex, or northwest corner, of the New

York Bight (Fig. 1). These bacteria are used as indicators of possible contamination by pathogenic bacteria

and viruses. In 1970, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) closed the area (Fig. 1) within a radius of

11 km (6 nmi) of the northwest corner of the 12-mile

sewage sludge dumpsite to commercial shellfish harvesting after finding elevated levels of coliform bacteria

in surface waters (Verber, 1976). In 1974, after increasing bacterial contamination was found in inshore waters, the closure area was extended to the Long Island

and NewJersey shorelines (Fig. 1; Verber, 1976).

The shellfish closure was among the reasons cited for

discontinuing the use of the 12-mile dumpsite; dumping was phased out between March 1986 and December

1987 (EPD [Environmental Processes Division], 1988).

227
228 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Figure 1

Inner New York Bight, with 1970 shellfish closure area and

1974 extension. AfterVerber (1976).

79-1

•

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•

40'10'

24-5

•

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Figure 2

Station locations for fecal coliform and Clostridium perfringens

sampling in inner New York Bight. Square=12-mile sewage

sludge dumpsite, rectangle=dredged material dUl11psite.

73"'.

t

N

I

ISLAND

Km 15

I

----- 3 mile limit

LON G

The dumpsite closure provided the impetus for a

multidisciplinary study of responses to cessation of

dumping (EPD, 1988). One hypothesis ofthe study was

that contamination would decrease to the extent that

shellfish beds could be reopened (EPD, 1988). This

paper describes results of an October 1989 survey of

microbial contamination in the closure area. Data are

compared with those collected in similar surveys made

while dumping was ongoing. Comparisons are also made

with microbial data from other components ofthe study

of responses to the cessation ofsludge dumping (Davis

et aI., 1995; O'Reilly et aI., 1995).

Methods

pIer. Sedimentsamples were collected by scraping about

200 g ofsurficial sediment from the grab sampler with a

sterile tongue depressor. All samples were placed in

sterile bottles. Water samples were analyzed for fecal

coliforms aboard the vessel by using the American Public Health Association (APHA) AIM procedure and a

12-tube single dilution scheme (APHA, 1970). Each

sample was inoculated in the test media immediately

after sampling, incubated for 3 h at 35°C and then

transferred to 44SC for an additional 21 h. Each tube

was then read for the presence of gas or active effervescence in an inverted vial. Sediment samples were shipped

to the FDA Shellfish Sanitation Branch's Northeast Technical Services Laboratory, Davisville, R. I., where they

were analyzed for C. perfringens spores using iron milk

media and most probable number (MPN) methodology (Abeyta et aI., 1985).

Samples were collected at 31 stations in the inner New

York Bight (Table 1, Fig. 2) from 3-6 Oct. 1989. Station

locations corresponded to those used in prior FDA and

other microbiological surveys (e.g. Cabelli and Pedersen,

1982), with stations added in and near the sewage sludge

dumpsite to provide a better description of concentrations of fecal coliforms and C. perfringens in that area.

Surface water samples were taken with a 5-L Niskin

sampler and bottom water samples from water overlying the sediment in a 0.1 m2 Smith-McIntyre grab samResults

Table 1 lists all sampling locations, concentrations of

fecal coliforms in surface and bottom waters, and concentrations of C. perfringens in sediments. Concentrations offecal coliforms in surface waters were below the

detection limit of9.0 MPN/I00 ml at all 31 stations. In

bottom waters, fecal coliforms were detected at only

two stations, C-l (9.0 MPN/I00 ml) and NYB24 (139
Session W: Biota 229

Table I

Station locations (see Fig. 2) and bacteriological data expressed as Most Probable Number [MPN]) for inner New York

Bight survey, October 3-6, 1989.

Station Latitude Longitude Surface Fc 1 Bottom Fc Sediment Cp2

12-4 4033.10 7345.00 <9.0 <9.0 27

18-4 4031.80 7345.00 <9.0 <9.0 130

18-2 4030.20 7349.00 <9.0 <9.0 1,100

12-1 4029.90 7353.30 <9.0 <9.0 79

24--3 4029.60 7345.00 <9.0 <9.0 9,200

89-2 4028.60 7353.80 <9.0 <9.0 110

18-1 4028.80 7351.40 <9.0 <9.0 70

24--2 4028.30 7346.60 <9.0 <9.0 5,400

27-2 4027.10 7345.10 <9.0 <9.0 9,200

24--5 4027.90 7342.00 <9.0 <9.0 170

27-1 4027.40 7348.10 <9.0 <9.0 3,500

D-7 4026.40 7351.60 <9.0 <9.0 5400

C-l 4026.50 7345.10 <9.0 9.0 16,000

18-7 4026.90 7338.20 <9.0 <9.0 13

D-6 4025.60 7348.20 <9.0 <9.0 no sample

C-2 4025.90 7346.80 <9.0 <9.0 16,000

24--6 4025.90 7341.10 <9.0 <9.0 230

D-l 4025.00 7345.00 <9.0 <9.0 490

NYB21 4023.80 7353.00 <9.0 <9.0 16,000

A-26 4024.00 7350.00 <9.0 <9.0 16,000

NYB24 4024.00 7347.40 <9.0 139.0 >16,000

D-2 4024.00 7343.10 <9.0 <9.0 70

NYB27 4024.00 7341.00 <9.0 <9.0 790

A-47 4023.20 7345.20 <9.0 <9.0 1,300

45 4022.30 7347.70 <9.0 <9.0 16,000

D-3 4022.60 7341.60 <9.0 <9.0 180

79-1 4023.10 7337.10 <9.0 <9.0 33

NYB82 4021.00 7350.60 <9.0 <9.0 490

NYB83 4021.40 7348.60 <9.0 <9.0 3,500

89-1 4021.20 7345.60 <9.0 <9.0 49

NYB46 4021.80 7343.00 <9.0 <9.0 280

IFc = fecal coliform bacteria (9.0 MPN/I00 ml was detection limit of 12 tube, single dilution, AIM fecal coliform analysis).

2Cp = Clostridium perfringens spores per g wet wl.

MPN/100 ml) (Table 1, Fig. 3). Station NYB24 is in

relatively deep water (37 m) just 3.6 km west of the

sludge dumpsite and 2.7 km SW of the "highly altered"

station NY6, which was the focus for much of the sampling to determine responses to cessation of dumping

(EPD, 1988). Concentrations (MPN) of C. perfringens

ranged from 13 to >1.6 x 104/g sediment (wetwt), with

the highest value also recorded at NYB24 (Table 1).

Contours of C. perfringens concentrations (Fig. 4) indicate that high values (>1 x 104/g) characterized much

of the Christiaensen Basin as well as the dredged material dumpsite and the area to the west ofthat dumpsite.

Discussion

All fecal coliform concentrations measured in both

surface and bottom water samples in October 1989

were at least four orders of magnitude below the highest values reported during dumping. The 1966-67 surveys which led to the 1970 shellfish closure found fecal

coliform MPN's in excess of2.4 x 103/100 ml in surface

waters near the sludge dumpsite when no sludge tanker

was discharging in the area, and 2.4 x 106/100 ml after

sludge discharge (Verber, 1976).

Existing standards for the harvesting of shellfish for

direct consumption are 70 total and 14 fecal coliforms

per 100 ml in waters overlying shellfish beds, and 700

total and 88 fecal coliforms if the harvest is depurated

before consumption (U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services, 1990). In the October 1989 survey,

concentrations of fecal coliforms over most of the survey area were well below these standards, and also below concentrations found in many estuaries where

harvesting is permitted (e.g. Madden et aI., 1986). The

coliform concentrations indicate that much or all of
230 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

73'50'

•

40'20'

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log I

0·1

1·2

2·3

3·' '·5

ROCKAWAY PT.

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•

•

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•

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•

139

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Figure 3

Sampling locations (dots) and densities (Most Probable Number [MPN]/100 ml) offecal coliforms in bottom waters during 3-6 Oct. 1989. Where no value is shown, density was

below detection limit (9.0/100 ml).

Figure 4

Sampling locations (dots) and contours of Clostridium

perfringens spore densities in sediments (Joglo MPN/g) during 3-6 Oct. 1989.

the closure area could be reopened. The single survey

is considered adequate to characterize coliform concentrations because historical sampling has shown little

seasonal change in concentrations (Gaines, unpublished). Areas with elevated coliform concentrations

(e.g. around station NYB24) might remain closed, as

might the dredged material disposal area. If any changes

were made, revised charts would be issued indicating

the new closure areas. The inner New York Bight is

considered a unique situation, however, and FDA must

evaluate both microbial and chemical contamination

in sediments and shellfish before determining whether

to change or remove the harvesting ban.

Trends in microbial contamination observed at other

sewage sludge dumpsites after closure are of limited

value in predicting recovery of the inner Bight. At an

inshore site off Delaware, dumping ceased in May 1973

(Verber, 1976). The area was reopened to shellfishing

20 months later (January 1975) after monitoring indicated there was no longer significant bacterial contamination. The volume of sludge dumped at that site was

only about 10% of that dumped at the inner Bight site,

however (Verber, 1976). The sludge was subsequently

dumped at the offshore "Philadelphia site" until November 1980. ByJune 1983 (31 months after cessation),

that site met the criteria for shellfish harvesting and was

reopened, based on concentrations of sewage-associated bacteria in sediments rather than in water (Reid et

aI., 1987). Again, the lower rate ofsludge dumping, and

the more dispersive nature of the Philadelphia site,

make it difficult to extrapolate from this recovery period to the situation in the inner Bight.

If clams in the inner Bight have been chemically

contaminated, depuration may be a long-term process.

Tanacredi and Cardenas (1991) found no decreasing

trend in polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's)

in the hard clams Mercenaria mercenaria, which were

contaminated experimentally and then held in clean

water for 45 days.

Reopening the closed inner Bight beds would probably not lead to major increases in clam harvests. The

few National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) surveys

in the closure area have indicated relatively low abundances of Atlantic surf clams, Spisula solidissima, and

ocean quahogs, Arctica islandica, although sampling has

never been intensive enough to quantify abundances

there (Murawskil ). A 1985 surf clam survey in the "Sea

Bright Borrow Area," which overlaps the southern inshore part of the closure area, disclosed very small

stocks which would probably not support commercial

clamming (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1986). That

survey did collect substantial volumes ofold shells, which

may indicate historically productive shellfish beds with

the potential to be productive in the future. Even if

1 S. Murawski, National Marine Fisheries Service, Woods Hole Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02543, pers. comm., Nov. 1991.
clams remain sparse, reopening the closure area would

provide a tangible measure of improvement in the

Bight's water quality.

A possible drawback to reopening the area is loss of a

"spawner sanctuary" of protected clams contributing to

recruitment offuture stocks. Such sanctuaries elsewhere

(off Atlantic City, NJ., and Chincoteague, Va.), however, have not demonstrably enhanced clam recruitment. Enough spawning clams would probably remain

in other closed areas (e.g. around outfalls) and elsewhere in the Bight that loss of the "spawner sanctuary"

in the closure area would probably have a negligible

effect on the supply oflarvae. Larval supply in turn may

bear little relation to recruitment, the determinants of

which are poorly understood for both surf clams and

ocean quahogs.

The observed reduction in fecal coliform counts over

the entire survey area cannot be attributed exclusively

to the cessation ofsludge dumping. The coliform loading to the inner Bight from sludge was small compared

to that from the Hudson-Raritan plume. It has been

estimated that in 1973, sludge dumping supplied <0.01 %

ofthe fecal coliforms entering the Bight (New York City

Department of Environmental Protection2). Some of

the reduction in coliforms observed in the present survey may be a result of the extension of the period of

chlorination of municipal wastewaters in the estuary,

from summer to year-round, beginning in 1986. The

Interstate Sanitation Commission3 considered yearround chlorination to be the main factor in allowing a

three month extension of the seasonal certification of

surf clam beds off the Rockaways for harvesting for

human consumption in 1987; in December 1988 the

area became certified year-round (Interstate Sanitation

Commission3). In the immediate vicinity of the 12-mile

dumpsite, however, the extremely elevated coliform

counts observed during dumping must have been largely

due to sludge inputs, and cessation of dumping was

undoubtedly responsible for most of the subsequent

decline in counts (O'Reilly et aI., 1995).

In contrast to fecal coliforms, spores of the sewage

indicator bacterium, Clostridium perfringens, were still

abundant in parts of the inner Bight 21 months after

cessation of sludge dumping (Fig. 4). This agrees with

2 New York City Department of Environmental Protection. 1983.

Technical information to support the redesignation of the 12-mile

site for the ocean disposal of municipal sewage sludge. Prepared by

Ecological Analysts, Inc. Sparks, MD, and SEAMOcean, Inc.

Wheaton, MD. New York City Department of Environmental Protection, 2358 Municipal Bldg., New York, NY 10007. Unpub!.

manuscr. 483 p. + appendices.

3 Interstate Sanitation Commission. 1989. Annual report on the

water pollution control activities and the interstate air pollution

program. Unpub!. manuscr. 46 p. + appendices. ISC, 311 West

43rd St., New York, NY 10036.

Session IV: Biota 231

the data of Davis et al. (1995) and 0 'Reilly et aI. (1995);

the latter authors predict it might take 15-20 years after

cessation of dumping for spore densities in surface

sediments to reach background levels. The persistence

of C. perfti.ngens is also congruent with the continued

high abundance of tomato seeds and other sludge detritus reported by Reid et aI. (1995), who note that the

slow response of these variables could be a result of the

ineffectiveness of erosive forces in winnowing large particles from surface sediments, and/or continued abundance in subsurface sediments as they are exposed by

erosion.

The spatial pattern ofspore abundance, with higher

concentrations in the relatively deep, fine-sediment

Christiaensen Basin, matches the pattern observed for

other sewage indicators measured during the multidisciplinary study, e.g. sediment trace metals (Zdanowicz

et aI., 1995), carbon, sulfide, and redox potential

(Draxler, 1995). Our data augment those from the

standard sampling pattern for C. perfringens (O'Reilly et

aI., 1995) by extending coverage further to the north

and west, and the October 1989 data help fill the gap

between the April 1989 and March 1991 surveys. Results

of our study differ somewhat from the O'Reilly et aI.

(1995) data in documenting some of the highest spore

densities in and west of the dredged material dumpsite.

Data from the two studies cannot be strictly compared,

however, because of differences in methodologies.

Spore concentrations in the inner Bight, although

elevated, were considerably lower in the 1989 survey

than when dumping was ongoing. In a 1980 survey, the

highest count recorded was 1.1 x 106 spores/g sediment (wet wt) at the northern edge of the sludge

dumpsite (Graikoski, 1982). Broader-scale surveys of

the Northeast shelffrom 1978-82 reported highest spore

counts for the entire region, >1.0 x 105/g,just west of

the sludge dumpsite (Reid et aI., 1987). Thus, C.

perfti.ngens spore counts decreased roughly one to two

orders of magnitude in in the inner Bight between the

latter years of sewage sludge dumping and the FDA

survey 22 months after cessation. Comparison with the

decrease of four to six orders of magnitude in fecal

coliform counts over the same period illustrates the

much more conservative nature of C. perfringens as a

sludge tracer.

Acknowledgments

We thank Fritz Farwell and Sherman Kingsley of the R/V

KYMA for help in obtaining the samples; Patrice

Fournier for the figures; and Anne Studholme, John

Mahoney, John O'Reilly, Richard Robohm, Walter

Blogoslawski, and two anonymous reviewers for making

helpful comments on the manuscript.
232 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

Literature Cited

Abeyta, C., A. Michalovskis, and M. Wekell.

1985. Differentiation of Clostridium perfringens from related

Clostridium in iron milk media.]. Food Prot. 48:130-134.

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water and shellfish, 5th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, 144 p.

Cabelli, V.]., and D. Pedersen.

1982. The movement of sewage sludge from the New York

Bight dumpsite as seen from Clostridium perfringens spore

densities. In Oceans 82 conference record, p. 995-999. Sponsored by Mar. Tech. Soc. and IEEE Council on Ocean Eng.,

Washington, D.C.

Davis, W. R., R. McKinney, and W. D. Watkins.

1995. Response of the Hudson Shelf Valley sewage sludgesediment reservoir to cessation of disposal at the 12-mile

site. In A. L. Studholme, ]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham

(eds.), Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at

the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 49-60. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep.

NMFS 124.

Draxler, A. F.].

1995. Changes in sediment biogeochemistry resulting from

cessation ofsewage sludge dumping in the New York Bight.

InA. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.),

Effects of the cessation ofsewage sludge dumping at the 12-

mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium,

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124.

EPD (Environmental Processes Division).

1988. A plan for study: response of the habitat and biota of

the inner New York Bight to abatement of sewage sludge

dumping. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFSF/NEC-55, 34 p.

Graikoski,]' T.

1982. Microbiology of sediments and biota. In R. Reid,]. E.

O'Reilly, and V. Zdanowicz (eds.), Contaminants in New

York Bight and Long Island Sound sediments and demersal

species, and contaminant effects on benthos, summer 1980,

p. 46-62. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFSF/NEC-16.

Madden, R. H., H. Buller, and D. W. McDowell.

1986. Clostridium perfringens as an indicator of hygienic quality of depurated shellfish.]. Food Prot. 49:33-36.

O'Reilly,]. E., I. Katz, and A. F.]. Draxler.

1995. Changes in the abundance and distribution of

Clostridium perfringens, a microbial indicator, related to cessation of sewage sludge dumping in the New York Bight. In

A. L. Studholme,]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.),

Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-

mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium,

p. 113-132. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS

124.

Reid, R. N., M. C. Ingham, and]. B. Pearce (eds).

1987. NOAA's Northeast Monitoring Program (NEMP): a

report on progress of the first five years (1979-1984) and a

plan for the future. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.

NMFS-F/NEC-44, 138 p.

Reid, R. N., S. A. Fromm, A. B. Frame, D. Jeffress,].]. Vitaliano,

D.]. Radosh, and]. R. Finn.

1995. Limited responses of benthic macrofauna and selected

sewage sludge components to phaseout of sludge disposal

in the inner New York Bight. In A. L. Studholme,]. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 213-225. U.S. Dep.

Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Tanacredi,]. T., and R. R. Cardenas.

1991. Biodepuration of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

from a bivalve mollusc, Mercenaria mercenaria L. Environ. Sci.

Technol. 25:1453-1461.

U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.

1990. National shellfish sanitation program manual of operations. Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

1986. Planning aid report. Absecon, NJ, 16 p.

Verber,]. L.

1976. Safe shellfish from the sea. In M. G. Gross (ed.), Middle

Atlantic continental shelf and the New York Bight, p. 433-

441. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr. Spec. Symp. 2. Allen Press,

Lawrence, KS.

Zdanowicz V. S., S. L. Cunneff, and T. W. Finneran.

1995. Reductions in sediment metal contamination in the

New York Bight apex with the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping. In A. L. Studholme, ]. E. O'Reilly, and M. C.

Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 89-100. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA

Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Audience Q!lestions

Question: Is there anyone here willing to say what we

do know about clam tissue residues?

R. Reid: Of pathogens, or pathogen indicators, or

toxics?

Question: Of either pathogens or any indicator organisms of microbiota. Are we anywhere with respect to

knowing of any changes in those reservoirs?

R. Reid: I can not answer that. The New York Bight

Restoration Program has a pathogens working group

that is dealing with this now. You may know that fecal

coliforms are an indicator of pathogens. They may be a

very poor indicator, and they may behave a lot differently than the pathogens themselves, so that is why the

Restoration Program thought they should look at that.

I really do not know what data are available now.
PANELDISCUSSION _

Future Research Directions in Ocean Disposal ofWaste in the

New York Bight-Fisheries Implications

Participants

Robert Tucker, Chair, Director, Division of Science

and Research, NewJersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, Trenton, NJ;

James Chambers, NOAA, Silver Spring, MD;

William Gordon, Director, New Jersey Sea Grant College Program, Sandy Hook, NJ;

Frederick Grassle, Director, Institute of Marine and

Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ;

Joel O'Connor, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

Region II, New York, NY;

John Pearce, Acting Director, Science and Research,

Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA;

Cindy Zipf, Director, Clean Ocean Action, Sandy Hook,

NJ. Introduction and· closing remarks by R. A.

Murchelano, Chief, Environmental Processes Division,

Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA.

Introduction

R. A. Murchelano: Over the past day and a half you

have heard intensive conclusions and summaries presented in the physical oceanography, chemical processes, and biota sections. As I was listening to the

presenters, I made some notes that I would like to share

with you.

No one in this room probably agrees totally with

everything that has been said. I do not, and I am certainly not knowledgeable, by any means, with all the

disciplines. Yet, I am also sure no one in this room

disagrees that a relevant number of scientifically valid

observations have been made pursuant to the cessation

of dumping in relation to the environment and fisheries of the New York Bight. I doubt any of you disagree

with that statement. Only members ofthe Environmental Processes Division and I, however, know the constraints under which this study was conducted.

I am incredibly proud ofthe accomplishments ofthis

group. I feel that this Symposium is another milestone

in the completion of the study, which will be followed

by publication of a peer-reviewed volume that will provide a useful source of information for environmental

and resource managers relevant to this topic for quite a

period of time.

This study is an example of what can be done by

identifYing a discrete unit of research, which has been

well planned, is interdisciplinary, and has a finite course.

This pragmatic aspect ofresearch, which is finite, which

is time dependent, and which is well-defined, is something that I favor.

There is no way that I can express my thanks to all of

you, specifically Mert Ingham, Anne Studholme, and

Jay O'Reilly-the individuals that I have dealt with since

1986 who provided the identification for this study.

When the study is completed, the publication of the

symposium volume will attest to the utility of the study

and to the effort that has been put into it.

Today's panel Chair is Dr. Robert Tucker, Director

ofthe Division ofScience and Research for NewJersey's

Department of Environmental Protection. He will lead

the panel discussion on the future implications for

fisheries of ocean dumping.

Opening Remarks

R. Tucker: It is a real privilege for me to be here and

to have this very distinguished panel present. I would

like to add my congratulations to the staff at Sandy

Hook and to their collaborators for this study. I came to

Sandy Hook in 1971 and worked with Jack Pearce and

some of my colleagues, who are still at Sandy Hook, on

a survey of the dumpsite, funded by the Corps of Engineers. Back in those days I think we had more resources

to devote to the kinds ofstudies than we have now. And,

as has been indicated, the group at Sandy Hook and

their co-workers have, with limited resources but with a

great deal of effort, kept after these questions. I think it

is a tribute to their work to have the presentations that

we have heard. We have seen a lot ofquestions raised, and

I am hoping that from the reactions of both the panel and

the audience, we can address some of these.

I have asked the panel very briefly to react to what

they have heard, and then we will try to be as interactive

as we can. I would like to go directly to Jack Pearce who

also has dealt with questions ofthis kind for many years.

1. Pearce: First of all, I too, have a good deal of praise

for the people who conceived this study based on test233
234 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

able hypotheses which may enable us to put a lot of

nails in the casket of ocean dumping, at least ocean

dumping ofsewage sludge.

As I spoke with people in Woods Hole or in Washington, a lot of academics, government people, managers,

and others increasingly look to ocean dumping as a way

of getting rid of some of mankind's more troublesome

waste. Perhaps sewage sludge will be seen in the near

future as a commodity too valuable to dump in the

oceans, or to put in Texas landfills, or to incinerate on

the shores of Newark Bay. The fact is, many people are

concerned about what we are going to be doing for

agricultural nutrients in the coming decades ofthe 21st

century. For that reason alone I think it would be foolhardy to think about putting sludge in the sea.

But there are people who are looking at disposal of

low level radioactive wastes, hot radioactive wastes, and

a range of toxic substances that come from the industries that produce much of what you see in this room.

All of the plastics, carpeting and so on, involve manufacturing processes producing a wide range of waste

materials, some of which are not easy to get rid of even

if you have recycling. Many people think that the ocean

may be a proper receptacle for waste.

This study that we have heard in toto is better than

anything I have seen in three or four decades in terms

of what it tends to indicate and the objective nature of

the study. It may set a precedent and be used as a

benchmark. I feel that where we used to focus on problems such as ocean dumping or combined sewer outfalls,

increasingly it turns out to be something called development or "the way we are." Not the way we were, but the

way we are and the way we will be in coming decades.

As a society worldwide, Americans, Europeans, and

Orientals are inclined to want to have an ever higher

standard ofliving, but when you get together as a group

ofscientists and say what are the solutions to pollution,

invariably it comes down to two things. One is population. Something will have to be done in the near future

about ways to control population, or we are not going to

have any solutions to our major environmental issues.

The second has to do with the way we live, and that is

tied to development. Some demographers and economists are saying that, for a variety of reasons, many

people are moving to the coastlines, be it the Great

Lakes, the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific, or the Atlantic.

There are good indications that we may be headed for

another series of dustbowls-notjust in terms of global

climate change, butjust natural warming trends. If that

is the case, it is predicted that more and more people

will move to fresh and salt water environments, principally to have access to water. One of the sheiks in Saudi

Arabia said that oil is the big issue today. It is the thing

we fight for, but he said that in a few years what we will

be fighting for is water. That should tell us all something-that we will be moving to those areas that have

water and there will be ever greater pressures to develop the coastal zones.

That is what we have to be aware of now, and this

study, along with future studies, should continue to

involve collaboration with EPA, NOAA, the Food and

Drug Administration, and the Fish and Wildlife Service,

plus State agencies and academia. In coming decades

we are going to have studies of this kind that will have a

generic property to them. They will allow us to interpret the consequences of man's activities and provide

the basis for true environmental management. We are

not going to stop development anywhere in the world,

least of all in the coastal zone. But we must have an

understanding of what ocean dumping or non-point

source pollution might do as it is carried forward in

ever greater quantities or amounts. However you want

to measure it, we will be looking to this kind of cooperative study perhaps as a classic example of how to do

things well.

Finally, to do all of this we are coming down to a

matter of public education. I have been chairing a

group called Water Quality 2000-the challenge group

on solutions to pollution. We have about 30 people, all

eminent scientists from the Midwest, the East Coast,

and the West Coast. The one thing they have in common is some experience in dealing with pollution in

aquatic systems. In the end, when examining possible

solutions, they recommended controlling population,

controlling life styles, and using education as the tool to

change people's attitudes.

Politicians and administrators are people that are

responsible for agencies and government entities. By

and large they are loathe to take a new step without

public support. It will be our duty to increase knowledge through objective studies such as what you have

heard today. Not only is the Water Pollution Control

Federation, which sponsors Water Quality 2000, taking

that view, the United Nations Environmental Program,

a group that I have worked with over the last few years,

feels that education is the principal way forward.

Bill Gordon is involved with a group called Fishermen Involved in Saving Habitats, a good example of an

interest group or power cluster, whatever you want to

call them, a group that has something that is worth a

great deal. Such groups have to work to educate other

people in the world.

Finally, we have just heard about how this study was

done on a shoestring. I am here to tell you that these

studies and similar studies will continue to be done on a

shoestring. The social issues facing this country are so

great today, that whether you are looking at AIDS, the

homeless, education, or environmental studies, particularly in small agencies such as NOAA, that it is

going to be harder and harder to find ever greater
______________________________________ Panel Discussion 235

amounts of money. We are going to have to do more

and more with less and less.

R. Tucker: Thank you very much,Jack. You have raised

some really interesting questions. Bill Gordon has had

years of experience with fisheries. Bill, can you give us

your perceptions of where we are and what we might

need to do in the future?

W. Gordon: Surely. I will simply echoJack's thanks to

those who put this conference together. It certainly is

outstanding and well done. I want to come at it from a

somewhat different perspective, perhaps, and throw

out some statistics that might be useful to you. The

present United Nations' estimate of global population

growth is that it will increase from about six billion at

the turn of the century and perhaps stabilize at ten

billion in the middle of the next century. Before this

happens it is apparent that the terrestrial environment

is going to be excessively stressed.

If even 75% of the [population] thatJack is predicting will eventually reside within a coastal zone, the

impact will be excessive. Moreover, currently and well

into the future, 100% or so of our water supply is going

to come from groundwater and other sources. Roughly

90% of our protein that is consumed comes from the

land. I do not think we will be into aquaculture or

desalination to provide the massive quantities of water

and food necessary. The land then must be protected.

Even if we turn to aquaculture, we still need high water

quality on the edge of the sea or in freshwater if we are

to use those products as a source of human food.

The challenge is clearly that of reducing waste, managing the residuals, and understanding the impact of

those residuals that are left after all this high technology on the air, land, and water resources. We must

define the role that oceans should play in the global

waste management strategy. It is foolish to believe that

any amount oftechnology or technical progress will eliminate the requirements for waste management disposal.

If my prediction of the future is correct, the marine

scientists will be called upon to assist in the selection of

disposal sites. This time I would hope that we, as scientists, will be prepared to respond with good solid facts

and to actively participate in that decision as scientists,

earning the respect of our citizens as we do that.

Clearly more research will be needed, and it should

include a full range of physical and chemical oceanography. You will want to know the sites of relative stability. You will want to know the sites of high activity,

erosion, and deposition and their biological aspects.

We have heard many times at the conference these last

two days that we do not know what took place, but here

is our estimate of what the background noise is. It

would have been far better if we had had excellent

baseline studies of what was there in 1900 before we

started dumping rather than an estimate of the background. The abundance and distribution of fishes and

other animals, certainly the effects of fishing, could

mask any knowledge of what the recovery rates may be

in these areas. We simply do not know, because we do

not understand the effects offishing upon species richness. If we do not know what was there before, we do

not know what the changes have been as a result of

dumping and other recovery rates. We must understand the diets and critical habitat needs of these animals and, obviously, the implications of parasites and

disease, not only in the animals themselves, but also

upon human health.

I certainly strongly endorse public education; not

only for our youth which are our future, but for our

political leaders of today and the future. Good education can convert powerful public will to find those

resources, to motivate political action. If we are not

prepared as scientists to put and devote some of our

efforts towards public education, then we have failed as

scientists.

R. Tucker: Thank you very much, Bill.

Cindy Zipf is Director of Clean Ocean Action. Both

Jack and Bill mentioned the importance of education. I

can think of no one who has done more to educate the

public in New Jersey and the surrounding area about

the need to take care of the ocean.

c. Zipf: Thank you, Bob. I also want to commend the

Sandy Hook group and the people that presented papers over the past two days. I think the exciting work

that has been done shows much encouragement for

those of us who are ocean advocates. I do have a little

bit of history out at Sandy Hook. In fact, I began as a

volunteer in the Behavior Department out at the Sandy

Hook Marine Lab, so they can be blamed for whatever I

am today.

With the wonderful news at the conference that there

seems to be an ocean rebound out in the dumpsite

area, I am struck by what I recall of my history in the last

six years or so that I have been working on these issues.

I want to list some of the statements that were made

in the past by scientists, regulators, and policymakers.

One was "sludge dumping does not affect the ocean at

the 12-Mile site." Another one was "sludge at the 106-

Mile site will never reach the bottom." Another one

that I recall: "Is the 106-Mile site area bottom a desert?"

And then of course, we all remember the infamous

"dead sea" 12 miles offshore. I think that what those

statements and what science we have heard about today

indicate is that we really do not know a lot about the

ocean. We need to expand on the existing science-we

simply do not know everything there is.
236 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

From a citizen's standpoint as well as an ocean advocacy standpoint, we do not view the ocean as a disposal

medium. Putting it "out of sight and out of mind," or

"the solution to pollution is dilution" is not the answer.

I think the NewJersey experience attests to that.

In 1984, when Clean Ocean Action first started there

were eight ocean dumpsites. Today there is only one

without an end in sight and that is the mud dump. I

think that the evidence from the last two days suggests

that we should be looking at the mud dumpsite as well.

The New Jersey experience also shows that improvement for ocean water quality means improvement for

the overall environmental arena. For instance, the ending of sewage sludge dumping in New Jersey has put

added pressures on prevention of contaminated sewage sludge. If we are going to implement alternatives

for sewage sludge, ifwe are going to use it as a fertilizer,

it needs to be clean.

This emphasis on cleaning up sewage sludge will

reduce industrial pollutants, require industrial users to

implement preventative measures, source reduction,

recycling, and other methods, so that the end of ocean

dumping ofsewage sludge is an improvement for overall waste management. Clearly the emphasis has to be

on prevention.

Some of the other research items that I think need to

be explored are expansions on the numbers that we

have. It would be a shame not to expand on the studies

to look at recuperative abilities, to see whether or not

there is an expansion of the number of species in the

benthic community at the Christiaensen Basin. We

should see whether there is some additional improvement over time, and look at the body burden levels of

the toxic pollutants, not only from the sewage sludge

standpoint, but also from the dredge material dumpsite

standpoint.

There were interesting facts in the physical oceanography section, indicating that there is some effect of

wind on the Christiaensen Basin at the bottom. What

effect does that have on the mud dump that rises like a

grotesque wart 45 feet above the ocean floor?

Some of the other concerns or other research areas

should concentrate not only on baseline data, but also

expand information on the beneficial use of ocean

biota and ocean processes for humankind. Not necessarily to determine areas for dumping but areas of

production-to help solve some of the social problems

we have on land.

To end up, I would like to say that I very much

respect science. At Clean Ocean Action we utilize science to motivate rulemakers, either regulators or politicians, to emphasize that we need to get to the sources of

pollution problems, whether they are on land or at sea.

To close that loop I look forward to opportunities like

this to work with scientists. I have worked with many of

the members of this distinguished panel and, citizens

and scientists, we try to work together. The goal is to

help motivate and make correct decisions; not kneejerk decisions, not "let's put it out in the ocean and

hope it never comes back." Together, we should make

well-founded scientific decisions, and I believe that those

decisions will get back to the point of prevention of

pollution problems.

R. Tucker: Thank you, Cindy. You have raised some

excellent points, particularly the pollution prevention

point. The Assembly in New Jersey just passed a Pollution Prevention Bill Monday [17 June 1991] which really does emphasize source reduction oftoxics. Someone

who has also been involved in ocean problems, in the

days of the MESA [Marine Ecosystems Analysis] program and now currently with EPA, isJoel O'Connor. I

know he has been instrumental in pushing for a wider

or more diverse approach in the Harbor Estuary Program to make sure that we include habitat concerns. It

is a pleasure to have you on the panel,Joel.

J. O'Connor: I recall it was several years ago now that

I got a grandiose, almost outlandish, strategy for this

dumpsite effort from Bob Murchelano and was very

impressed with it. Certainly I was doubtful that Bob

could pull together the resources and stay the course as

he said. I am certainly now much more impressed with

the outcome than I was with the plan. It is typically the

other way around with plans and outcomes that I review. I would encourage, primarily, that the group at

Sandy Hook and your colleagues from outside NMFS

stay the course of even further assessment than you

demonstrated yesterday and today. As I understand it,

there is quite a bit of data which need to be analyzed,

interpreted beyond what we have seen in the last two

days. A few selected measurements in the future would

be most useful.

Perhaps one obvious observation that I am sure the

investigators have thought ofis to aim for further interpretation by assessing on broader space scales and over

longer time scales than we have typically discussed here.

I think observations further out on the shelf made a

decade or so before sewage sludge dumping, added to

the five or six years worth of measurements, are very

helpful in interpretation.

One of the things that I am still a little confused

about is the dynamics of the surficial sediments and

how well those are interpreted at this stage. It seems to

me that a clear understanding of those dynamics underlies an understanding of a lot of other things that

have been discussed. Another important influence that

deserves more assessment is that of the confounding

impacts of the mud dump on the impacts of sewage

sludge.
______________________________________ Panel Discussion 237

One of my suggestions for further assessment would

be to deemphasize efforts to determine the sources of

effects, inasmuch as I expect those are going to be

opaque for decades in most cases. Emphasize, instead,

the regional effects of sewage sludge and the mud

dump and their rates of change over time.

You have already gone quite some way toward documenting the effects of sewage sludge dumping, and

these will be valuable social indicators for use in the

future. We have a much clearer assessment of the effects of this particular dumping activity over decades.

I emphasize the importance of informing the public

and the decision makers of what you have learned. I

think this is perhaps even more important in this situation than documenting in peer-reviewjournals. Simple

sorts of fact sheets or other approaches that educational groups can outline for you would be a particularly valuable outcome of the whole activity. If you

could really educate people about sewage sludge effects

in the New York area that would be, I think, a fantastic

contribution. Finally, I think all of the participants at

the Sandy Hook Lab and outside collaborators can take

a great deal of pride in the outcome, and I look forward

to seeing even further assessments as you carry this

further.

R. Tucker: We are also very fortunate to have Jim

Chambers here from NOAA, Washington. With your

concerns about habitat protection I would like to hear

your reactions to what has gone on, and maybe you

have some words of wisdom for how we can help the

Fisheries Service continue the kinds ofresearch that we

have heard about for the last couple of days.

J. Chambers: I would agree with virtually everything

that is been said. I took a little different tact when I

starting thinking about the opportunity to speak here

today, and I based that on our stewardship obligation

for living marine resources-commercial, recreational,

and ecologically important species throughout their

range.

In the Northeast, a very large proportion, 41 %, ofthe

commercial catch for which we have good data, are

estuarine dependent. My suggestion and counsel would

be to think alot broader in terms of our responsibility. I

would offer the priorities that exist within NOAA and

within the National Marine Fisheries Service-the highest priority being threats to living resources-as a guide

to what Sandy Hook and the Northeast Center ought to

be concentrating on in their habitat research.

The top four priorities, nationally, are physical alteration of estuarine and riverine systems, contaminant

loadings to estuarine and riverine systems, nutrient

over-enrichment to those same systems, and finally,

diversions of freshwater away from nurturing estuarine

systems. These are the same top four priorities for the

Northeast Region and Center which have been established and reestablished twice in the last decade. If

these become the blueprint for where we ought to be

targeting effort, suggestions for what we ought to be

doing would fall roughly into four categories. First, a

quantification of how many acres ofmajor habitat types

we have, how fast we are losing them, and the causes of

loss. Secondly, a determination, using our research capability, which was amply demonstrated here over the

last two days, [of] the functional contribution of the

major habitat types to living resource productivity.

Thirdly, determining what man's activities are doing to

those critical habitat types, whether it be alteration of

flows or wetland destruction, degradation, contaminant

loadings, but focusing on those factors that are limiting

future population sizes. And finally, determining how

well we can restore habitats that have been degraded,

using funds which are becoming available to us from

those that have polluted in the past and from whom we

are recouping damages. All those funds are to be applied to resource restoration, habitat restoration, etc.

So, my advice would be to think a lot more broadly in

terms of a mission for this particular laboratory (e.g.

Sandy Hook), in this particular division, but in essence

the whole Northeast Center towards those priority

threats.

R. Tucker: We in New Jersey and this particular area

have been particularly fortunate to have Fred Grassle

come from Woods Hole to take charge of the new

Marine Sciences Institute at Rutgers. Fred, what do you

predict both in terms of the research going on here and

the interactions with Rutgers for the future?

F. Grassle: I would like to add my congratulations to

the investigators involved in the work presented. It

really is an excellent piece of work. I think it is very

important that the people involved had a lot of experience in this region. I think it shows what can be done

on a relative shoestring in a particular place with a

focus of appropriate hypotheses.

The issue of monitoring the marine environment is

going to be an increasingly important and difficult

problem.Joel has already alluded to it. The fact is that

we do not have the common sense view of the marine

environment that we have in terrestrial areas. You can

walk through a terrestrial area and have a pretty good

idea of what is going on, but we do not have that

advantage in most marine environments. And the challenge, of course, is to have large spatial and long timescale coverage. The fact is that in the financial climate

that we are in, that is with shoestring budgets, we do not

have the luxury to know what is going on with the

marine environment as a whole. So we have to focus on
238 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

places where we have a chance of understanding basic

processes and then try to infer what is happening in

other environments.

It seems that this area in the New York Bight apex is

particularly interesting in this regard. It is certainly one

of the most heavily impacted parts of the continental

shelf, as opposed to the North Sea or the Baltic. It is

also a very interesting area from a point of view of

sediment dynamics, one area that is important to follow. We clearly have pulses of resuspension; we have

heavier sedimentation in some areas than in others but

with no accurate measurements. There are relations to

topography in ways that are not obvious. There is the

possibility of getting really high resolution of topography in areas like this to make better predictions, to get

better measurements of shear stress to predict

resuspension, and to measure rates of burial in the

system. I think all ofthese processes could be improved.

I was delighted that many ofthe biological results made

more sense than some ofthe chemical results. Particularly

in my own area ofspecialization, the macrofaunal benthos

seem to make a very clear-cut picture. I am one of those

that like cluster diagrams and it seemed particularly clear

to me that the macrofaunal benthos is responding in a

very sensible way to what is happening (see Reid et aI., this

volume). So often in monitoring programs, it makes no

sense. I agree withJoel and Cindy thatsomething needs to

be continued in this area.

I think that it is possible to make some inferences

over larger areas from single sites, but there is a challenge to say how many sites, how big an area the extreme is. I go to meetings now on biodiversity partly

because of the high biodiversity of the deep sea. This

involves talking with lots of terrestrial ecologists. I was

at one two weeks ago at the World Bank, where they

said what we ought to do is what we did for the Amazon.

We are just going to put it all on a GIS (geographical

information system) and set the priorities, one through

ten, for the entire environment. They are surprised

when you tell them that there really is not that sort of

database for marine systems, that we are lucky if we

know a lot about biodiversity in a handful of places.

It seems to me that a lot of progress has been made

towards learning about that in this dumpsite environment. I think the studies offlounder were very interesting and that there is some significant work done on the

basic fisheries biology in the area.

General Discussion _

R. Tucker: Several people have raised the need for

monitoring or looking at the questions over a wider

area. Jim just said that we ought to be looking at other

parts of the habitat and earlierJack raised the question

of whether we, in fact, caused a general degradation of

the area such that it is harder to pick out some of the

changes. We have obvious changes in the benthos and

the sediment chemistry, but it is less easy to pick up

changes in fish and some of the other migratory species.

J. O'Connor: Do you mean there may be indications

of degradations on a broader scale?

R. Tucker: Yes.

J. O'Connor: I have an offhand comment that in the

scientific sense these indications may not even be worth

looking for. In a public sense, I think one can say that

we probably have quite a number ofindications, at least

in the Christiaensen Basin and the Upper Hudson Shelf

Valley. The only reasonable presumption is that we

have less significant impacts on a broader scale than

you will ever be able to measure. That is a fair and a

public sort of assessment; not the sort of thing one can

publish in a journal.

R. Tucker: Fred, you have been out at the lO6-mile

site. People originally predicted that you would not see

effects on the bottom.

F. Grassle: Most of the pollutants that we are concerned about are particle bound, and different size

particles behave differently in different systems. We put

a lot of effort into modeling our coastal environments,

and I think that one of the major new areas that needs

to be developed is having adequate models for sediment transport, which includes the surface layers of

sediment. But also rates of bioturbation need to be

included. How interactive is the bottom with the water

column? If we can predict where those particles are

going, then we can design our studies ofimpacts on the

environment accordingly. From the point of view of a

deep-sea ecologist it is important to follow exactly where

those particles were going, particularly since they are a

lot like the density of the phytodetritus that gets to and

feeds the sea floor. So it is a sort of basic problem

similar to phytodetritus, which, only recently, deep-sea

ecologists had thought could get to the bottom in measurable quantities in spring blooms. It is possible to

track the particles on the sea floor. Now the challenge

is to know how they are redistributed. I was very interested in the presentations yesterday and today that

suggest that there is a short-term deposition, and that

in storms, material gets remobilized and finally is transported further offshore to canyons and the continental

slope. Some ofthe studies that had been done by Cabelli

and by Dick Cooper's group on the upper slope environment show widespread distribution of pollutants

along that region, especially in the canyons. Tracking
______________________________________ Panel Discussion 239

those materials on particles is going to be one of the

major areas of research in the future. This site is quite

interesting because there are a lot of little depositional

areas along the continental shelf. There is the mud

patch south of Nantucket and similar mud patches

around Hatteras as well as the one in the New York

Bight apex. They are interesting sites from the standpoint of both reseIVoirs and sources of pollutants.

R. Tucker: Jack, you raised a question this morning

about historical information on fisheries (see Discussion in Wilk et al., this volume). I wonder if you want to

expand on the concept of whether we can pick out a

general background.

J. Pearce: Well, this morning's brief discussion really

had to do with what we know about historical fish

populations. We see changes based upon museum collections, earlier data logs, and so on. When I was involved in directing research on ocean dumping, I was

narrowly focused on ocean dumping as the biggest

issue in the New York Bight. My colleagues, Larry

Swanson and Joel O'Connor and others, did a very

effective job, through the years, of convincing me that

there are many sources of contaminants other than

ocean dumping. I believe that is true even more today,

particularly having been involved in a number of socalled "blue ribbon panels" or committees having to

determine what the principal issues are.

I am also convinced that we must increasingly use

generic information from other parts of the world.

There are ongoing studies in Finland and in the North

Sea having to do with effects of contaminants. I think

the issues require more immediate solutions than will

be forthcoming from years or decades of additional

study, not that more science, i.e. more monitoring, is

required, but I think we have to begin to take management steps. People working at the National Center for

Atmospheric Research are very concerned about global

warming, global climate change; all ofthese things that

worry our Washington administrators and politicians.

Although several of these people have recommended

additional studies, almost all of them are beginning to

say we have got to find solutions now. As I say, ocean

dumping is one of many insults to our coastal zone.

Bill Gordon said that he did not think aquaculture

would necessarily be a solution to the problem of providing protein. I happen to believe that it will be a

significant part of providing more seafood. Human

populations are changing their diet very rapidly. Beefis

out and fish is in. And yet we are probably fishing our

wild stocks to the maximum degree in many instances.

It is true, there are some underutilized species; but

even if these become used we still will not get much

more out of our wild stocks.

If in fact we are to cultivate the seas we have got to

manage the coastal zone in a far better way than we

have as a nation or even on a worldwide basis. This

means that we have got to begin to use generic information, information forthcoming from studies that are

done in other places, or use information from the kinds

ofstudies that we have heard over the last two days.

Somebody mentioned that the second biggest cash

crop from Maine right now is salmon. A few years ago

there was not a salmon coming out of the State of

Maine-it was lobsters. Now, it is lobster, salmon, and

very quickly, mussels are becoming a new cash crop. We

are going to continue to produce protein to provide a

gourmet diet, a healthful diet in the United States, and

to feed not 10 billion people but, based on the new

projections, 11.5 billion people by the year 2030. Now

that is a rapid population increase. When I was in China

just a year ago, it was obvious how intensively those

people have to work their coastal zone and landmass to

feed a billion-plus population. The worldwide crisis

that we are in has not been generally recognized. We

are going to have to use every bit of our coastal zone to

provide protein for ourselves and others.

W. Gordon: I want to pick up on a couple of things.

Before he died, Ghandi announced his view of the

major problem in India. People thought it would be

food, or something like that, but his response was a

million new Indians a month. And ifyou remember the

recent typhoons in the Orient that killed 160,000

people-that is two weeks of the reproductive rate of

replacement. Populations in the coastal zone-where

many of those people lived that were killed and where

they should not have been in the first place-are cause

for grave concern. My point on aquaculture is that ifwe

do not have good, high quality water in the coastal zone

we can not have aquaculture. We are coming at one

another with a population at the same time we are

trying to use that water resource in a beneficial way. Ifwe

start aquaculture we have got to deal with the fish waste.

R. Tucker: I understand in Puget Sound they had

salmon in pens causing some problems with local water: eutrophication and contamination.

W. Gordon: Several things. One was the visual "pollution" of the fish pens out in front of million dollar

houses, but the other part ofit was local contamination

from the fish waste. We have to deal with those issues,

all of which I think have a technical solution. When it

comes to population, it is going to be a political decision, and I do not see the will to do that.

R. Tucker: To return to the context ofadditional sources:

Cindy, you mentioned the need to go after the mud dump
240 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

site as well, but maybe could you expand, from a management point of view, where you see educating citizens or

advocacy in terms of addressing some of the other issues.

C. Zipf: I think that a lot can be learned from the

sludge experience about the levels of contamination

and the solutions to that contamination. The solutions

get back to reducing the amount of contaminants in

sewage sludge. That works from both a citizen standpoint and an industrial standpoint. I think that you are

right; other panelists have suggested that there are

technical solutions and I think that is correct. I think

what we should stop doing is looking for "quick fix"

solutions. At first we started dumping toxic waste onto

our land; now we have Superfund sites. We then began

discharging wastes into rivers, and we have water quality problems in our rivers-toxic hot spots which generate toxic materials or which ultimately wind up in the

sediments. Now we have contaminated sediment problems across the country. We also started putting contaminants into the air and we have acid rain. So "quick

fix" technical solutions are not the answer. We have got

to get down to the root of the problem and start looking at the environment from the standpoint of what we

are generating and the alternatives for those products.

It is not acceptable to look for another toxic shell in a

toxic shell game. We have got to put a stop to that.

I think that clearly the NewJersey sludge experience

has shown us that with the political will, with the citizens behind you and with science verifying the situation, you can make a unique combination, an invincible

combination, and push for source reduction. The end

of sewage sludge dumping by New Jersey has led to a

new sewage sludge policy, one of beneficial reuse. That

beneficial reuse policy is leading to reduction of pollutants in the sewage sludge. Not only does that benefit

receiving waters from the discharge ofsewer treatment

plants and help improve the quality of the air from the

volatile organics coming from sewage treatment plants,

but it improves the whole environmental loop. I think

that is the way the decision makers are going to have to

go. With the prodding of citizens and scientists, the

regulators are going to have to move.

R. Tucker: It is now New jersey's obligation to find

ways to beneficially use sewage sludge. We are in the

process of having to look at that issue and I am glad to

see that we are moving out ofincineration as an alternative to ocean dumping. That is another situation where

we are simply diluting it into the general environment.

C. Zipf: I think that from the standpoint of beneficial

use, incineration is not considered a beneficial use. It is

a reuse of the nutrient value of the sewage sludge that

makes beneficial use a viable alternative, not burning it.

R. Tucker: Jim, you talked about stewardship obligations and about a more general approach to our local

environment. Do you want to expand on that?

J. Chambers: I was keyed by the use of the term man-

~gement and what our managers need. Managers are

people that are involved in the decision-making processes. They control degradation and all of those topics

that I talked about earlier: contaminants cutting off

flows offresh water, wetland losses. Those are the major

issues in the judgement ofNMFS and NOAA that should

be addressed nationwide. In particular, we should try to

determine what the contribution of inshore habitats

are to the production of offshore fisheries-which ones

are critical. And if we lose those, what are we going to

be trading off over the long term? Secondly, the effects

of man's activities through obliteration, or contamination, cutting off the flows, as a long term effect: I think

we ought to be trying to model those long-term effects

so that we can predict for policy makers what they are

going to be losing with regard to populations in the

future, It comes down to pulling all of our multidisciplinary expertise together, which was demonstrated

well over the last two days. I think we must capitalize on

that kind of multi-attack in scientific effort to answer

the major questions that resource managers need and

want answered.

W. Gordon: I want to comment on whatJim said. He

outlines some needs, but in fact NMFS is not organized

to deal with these issues, nor is the Government for that

matter. I am struck by the fact that within the Federal

level there are 37 different agencies, and nine executive departments, that all have responsibilities in the

areas thatJim outlined. The Government's only initiative to deal with this, that I am aware of, is Coastal

America, and Congress has effectively cut that out of

the budget.

J. Chambers: We are the only agency that is the steward for marine resources and it is our obligation to do

it, whether or not Congress wants to put the resources

in the steward's hands to effectively carry out that responsibility. We conduct both the research on the effects of man's activities and the importance of habitat.

We comment on all of the ten thousand proposed

projects that are put forward every year and whether or

not they should or should not be built or not built. We

do have a central place in that decision-making process

and we can affect it. For all manner of Federal project

decisions, we have that authority. The problem is

whether we have the infantry to carry it out.

R. Tucker: There really are some interrelated questions over the roles of Federal and state agencies and
______________________________________ Panel Discussion 241

the public. John Keith raised some questions about

reality versus perception. But specifically how do we

educate the public to see the need to advocate the

proper funding for this research? How do we be,tter

interact with a wider public? Fred, would you want to

address that?

F. Grassle: I do not have any special idea on how best

to communicate with the public except that all of us

have a responsibility in that area. Cindy's earlier point,

that we need to focus our attention on sources, is very

important. I agree with that and I think that the land

disposal option is going to have a lot of problems in the

near future. I also agree with Jack, that the question of

ocean disposal is going to come up again; there recently has been some comment in newspapers about

that issue. I migh~ mention in the context ofthis symposium that there was a major meeting in Woods Hole

about what ocean disposal might consist of in the future. It is probably worth reviewing at this meeting, just

so that you know. There is no reason at this time to

consider ocean disposal of waste, but when you look at

the population problems of the future, as has been

mentioned, it certainly is going to come up again, perhaps not in this country but in other countries. The

discussion at Woods Hole asked the question, "If it were

to happen, how would one go about doing it"? The

conclusion was that any waste disposal in the ocean

should be approached in large part the way ocean

scientists have been thinking of radioactive waste disposal in the ocean; namely, that you want to get it to the

least energetic places, places that have the least productivity, places where there is the least possibility of getting it back-either back to man or having it spread

widely in the system. So the conclusions were that low

productivity of abyssal plains would be places that one

would consider. In those environments anything that

was done would be set up as an experiment, where you

would actually place materials very precisely on the

bottom in an array that was designed by statisticians

and you would actually find out what was really going

on.

That does not really address or answer your question

about communications with the public. I know the

Woods Hole symposium was widely touted in the newspapers as saying we should go out and put it back in the

ocean and that really was not the result ofthat meeting.

R. Tucker: I think we have other members of the

panel wanting to react to that.

J. Pearce: I am not reacting directly to what Fred said.

I will say in regard to education that one panelist earlier

brought up the matter that perhaps it is more important to develop appropriate reports and fact sheets that

can be disseminated to the general public and used by

the managers. I would certainly second that.

One sometimes hears the phrase, "You have got to

get your priorities straight." Most scientists that I know

get their strokes and even paycheck increases by publishing papers or doing something that catches the

attention of the laboratory director or a Washington

administrator. You rarely get strokes from writing something that might appear in the Underwater Naturalist or

the Audubon Society Magazine that might reach tens of

thousands of people and have some educational impact. Along those lines, yesterday in the New York Times

science section, ;m article said that your chances were

one in 6,000 of being hit by an asteroid. Being hit by an

asteroid turns out to have a greater probability than

being struck by lightning, or probably being eaten by a

mako shark at Montauk. It is far greater than being

killed in an airplane and yet most people get white

knuckles every time they get on a 727. Yet in a few

weeks, we, as a nation, are now worried about being hit

by asteroids.

This is the highest form of "PR" to get additional

funding. The astronomers ofthe world are raising what

may be a real issue but also may be a false issue. But the

fact is that the astronomers do a very good job of

suggesting to the public that there are certain risks out

there and they better be sure they pay a bunch of

astronomers to look for flying rocks. The next need is

Department ofDefense money to develop a new atomic

pea shooter or something that will be able to divert this

thing out of orbit as it is heading for earth. I think we

have got to do an equally good job of identifying some

of the long-range probabilities that will befall us if we

keep living the way we do. That is the highest calling for

anyone in this room. You may all think you have a Ph.D.

in science that is important and that you have got to

publish. The fact is that most of us in this room work for

some government agency; we do not work for Rutgers

University or the University of Rhode Island to do work

that is interesting science. We are paid to do good

science that will help the likes ofBill Gordon or Bill Fox

or some future administrator solve problems.

In much ofwhat we have discussed, ifyou were to talk

to an administrator and say these are important things

we have heard about and we should capitalize on this,

the administrator might say, "Forget it, we are going to

put ten percent more into counting fish." I think Bill

Gordon will verify that. Few people come to Bill Gordon and say, "Solve that ocean dumping problem."

They would if they saw more headlines. Congressman

Hughes or Howard were people who came and beat

upon the administrators and said to dt;al with this somehow. And probably EPA says, "I hope I can shove this

one off to NOAA" and NOAA says, "I hope I can shove

this one off to EPA." Part of this is working the power
242 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

cluster but that is the reality of the world we work in,

and we have to learn to play this game to protect fisheries habitats. One of the ways is to begin to find interest

groups, the fisherman of the world, who see that their

catches are down, and to get them or others, mothers

or grandmothers, interested in fisheries habitats. You

have got to get people focused on an issue, otherwise,

we are wheel spinning.

I would not have believed in 1968 when I started the

ocean dumping experience that 23 years later, I would

be sitting in a room still talking about ocean dumping.

But here we are because we have not played the game

right to address the real issues, to get real actions and

solutions. I think the solution is in education. We have

not figured out how to do this, and we spend too much

time fighting between academics, government, and the

various interests. We have got to learn how to milk the

power clusters.

R. Tucker: I agree it would be much more socially

useful if we could take some of that Star Wars technology and point it at asteroids rather than other human

populations.

w. Gordon: I would like to pick up on that but first a

comment. About three weeks ago on national television, I heard a comment that NewJersey was a terrible

place in which to live; that it is overcrowded with people

and a filthy place to live. Yet in working here, I now

know that New Jersey probably is leading the nation in

taking steps to cleanup its environment. The public

does not know that. You will hear of New Jersey fresh

produce in Chicago, but you will not hear in Chicago

that NewJersey is a nice place to visit. The past Governor went on television and tried, with some degree of

success, to overcome the debacle of what is washed up

on the beaches. I think people are coming back to the

coast.

Jack has touched on a good point. We are a rapidly

aging population and senior citizens are very concerned.

Yet, I dare say there is not a person in this room who has

sought out one of the senior citizens or written a popular article describing the situation and what they can do

about it. Here is a challenge to anyone in this room to

do that; here is a beginning point. The other point is, as

scientists, we are not standing up individually or collectively and saying that we have a problem and should

begin to deal with it now.

R. Tucker: That is a good point Bill. There is a bill in

Congress now which would require more general monitoring along the east coast, essentially using as a model

the kind ofintensive coastal monitoring NewJersey has

been doing. Yet there is a lot of resistance. We are

saying that if all of the coastal States monitored as well

as we did, then the concern about tourism would not be

focused just on NewJersey beaches.

C. Zipf: Just to reflect on the discussion as to how

monies can be made available and how to encourage

the "grandmothers" activism, I think that it is important

that the science community be able to relate their findings more aggressively to the public. We are the ones,

the citizen groups, the public interest groups that can

do the lobbying during the budgetary process. More

than once, Clean Ocean Action has gone to the state

and Federal legislatures to lobby for additional funds.

Part of our problem has been the hesitancy of the

scientific community to err on the side of caution, i.e.

we do not really know this and we do not really know

that. I think we need ammunition to help provide the

funding, whether it is "fish kills from the sky" with

respect to atmospheric deposition or some other type

ofwording. We need to be able to show there are effects

in the coastal zone from a multitude ofsources.

To touch on the Woods Hole conference, it could be

argued that the same lobbying effort of citizens and

ocean advocate groups around the country, used to

promote funding for looking at effects and helping to

improve the ocean condition, could be exerted on those

who would wish to put something into the ocean to

study it. The ocean advocacy community could be focused on stopping funding for those efforts that would

squirt or pump or dump into the ocean environment.

The point I tried to raise earlier, with my reflection on

some of the myths that were touted not only by politicians but by the educated community, was that "sewage

sludge would never reach the bottom at the 106-mile

site" or "sewage sludge dumping does not affect the

ocean 12 miles offshore." These were all well thoughtout statements, but in fact we found them untrue.

We do not know enough about the ocean to consider

squirting, pumping, or otherwise dumping in the ocean,

and we need to emphasize what we can utilize from

the ocean. Such resources can help solve some of the

social problems that we have on land through fisheries

management or aquaculture and other types of

programs.

F. Grassle: I agree with you, Cindy, and radioactive

waste disposal is a good example. There is no research

being done on that because it is essentially a dead issue

to put high level radioactive waste in the ocean. Public

advocacy groups are extremely important. In coming to

NewJersey, one thing that I have been pleased about is

that there is a strong tradition of scientists and public

advocacy groups talking to one another. Individual scientists can not really communicate as effectively as the

public advocacy groups. The other thing that is important in NewJersey is a tremendous tradition of coopera-
______________________________________ Panel Discussion 243

tion of state, Federal and private agencies. Many jurisdictional boundaries are blurred.

And, as for Jack's comment, I think that the main

criticism I have heard of academic scientists in New

Jersey is that we have not done anything for the fisherman. There are some of those similarities in all of the

sciences and it certainly is a national trend that Federal,

academic, and state scientists are increasingly going to

have to work together. It is a necessary response to a

shrinking budget for dealing with these problems.

R. Tucker: I would be very interested in questions or

comments from the general audience.

R. Pikanowski: I would like to make two major points.

I agree with Jim that habitat research is important.

Something you have to remember (I call it the

Pikanowski logarithmic scale) is obvious if you look at

purely anthropogenic effects on fish stocks for all species combined. Let us say on the east coast, 90% of the

fishing mortality comes from fishing, perhaps 9% comes

from physical habitat loss, 0.9% from eutrophication,

and 0.09% from toxics. So, when you are going to do

habitat research you have got to fight that huge confounding signal. Itis expensive to do that and something to bear

in mind. That does not even account for the natural

variations in stocks. If you read Bigelow and Schroeder

[1953], fish can do some strange things, like naturally

disappear completely for 100 years. I agree we need to do

some habitat research but I would bear in mind it can be

expensive and has to be carefully thought-out.

As to constituency building, the Sandy Hook staff

shrank from 80 to 40, when the building burned, and

NOAA did not want us to have a presence here. Jim

Howard kept us here. You have got the world's most

valuable recreational fisheries and Sandy Hook is right

at the focus of it. We once had a few small projects

dealing with recreational fisheries, but were asked not

to do them anymore. So I am getting very crossed

signals, from a total lack of support to suddenly, "Let's

get out there, beat the drums, get the money. Come on

let's get a thousand people working at the Hook.» What

is the truth? Which way are we going, or rather, which

way can we go?

J. Pearce: What we do have to worry about is something called the world of reality. The first Corps of

Engineers [COE] study, the nine volume report that

came out in 1969 or 1970, was researched at the huge

cost of $200,000, half of the sum Bert Walford took to

support the recreational and game fish programs in the

lab. I want people to keep things in perspective; $100,000

paid for the first COE study. The next, the famous

MESA program, involved something like 30 million

dollars, maybe 40 million dollars if you add in other

activities. That was a lot of money, but when they were

completed we had published numerous reports and

volumes, including the one on the New York Bight

edited by Garry Mayer (Mayer, 1982). With 30 million

invested, they came up with statements and recommendations, about the same as you have heard during this

meeting. Today, for the small amount of money that

you are talking about, we have produced a better product. In my years of dealing with the New York Bight, I

have never seen a better set ofstatements, with many of

them fairly parallel. I do not think money is the problem. What we have got to do is get the word out, notjust

about the Sandy Hook researchers, but also the academic community.

In many cases we are talking about dealing with larger

issues. Nearly 20 years ago, I was focusing on ocean

dumping. Ocean dumping is a minor problem today

relative to how we use our coastal zones. There is more

oil leaking out of automobiles in a collective sense than

was spilt in all of the oil spills that have occurred. These

facts are significant but on single issues, e.g. ocean

dumping or dredge material disposal, we are losing

sight ofwhat we do to our environment as a whole. That

probably is not what you want to hear but that is the way

the world is. If people would address themselves to

carrying this kind ofinformation to the general public,

we would be far better off.

As an example, there is something going on in Europe that is worth listening to. It is called the precautionary approach. In Europe, in Holland and

Scandinavia, they are no longer allowing industries to

start any processes discharging new material unless the

industry or the community can show that it is not going

to harm the environment. Instead of the onus being

put on the individuals to fight the power structure, the

legislative responsibility is now upon the groups-the

institutions-that produce the waste. That is a new way

forward which will prevent a lot of deterioration.

Another approach is to base these actions upon historical studies. One of the more interesting examples

of this was one commissioned by MESA. The late Tabor

Polgar did a historical study of the statistical correlation

between dredging release of pollutants with changes in

fish populations. I still reference that volume when I

am working with the United Nations.

In another instance, Dr. Ken Mountford was at one

time very interested in what the anthropologists could

tell us about Chesapeake Bay based on Indian middens.

From these middens there was evidence of past shellfish species and even fish species that existed in Chesapeake Bay which are no longer found there. We have

got to use this kind of information.

w. Gordon: I wanted to add that there are two resources in this room that scientists at Sandy Hook cer-
244 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

tainly can use. Cindy's organization, Clean Ocean Action, has a tremendous network for publicity. The idea

is to reach the public with pertinent information.

R. Tucker: Bob raised a question about fishing pressures confounding measures of habitat degradation.

Bill, would you comment about that?

W. Gordon: I agree that fisheries are not managed

very well, but fishery management is on the verge of

coming of age. I preached this in 1972, and now it is

slowly coming into being. It is giving personal property

rights to individual fisherman, so he has a respect for

the resource. This includes respect for the habitat; he

has got something at stake by speaking out when something is not right. I think we will soon see remarkable

changes in fisheries management in this country.

We also have to change the attitudes of recreational

people. They should be reporting what they catch. Commercial fishermen should be reporting what they catch.

We have this centuries-old tradition that it is our Godgiven right to take what we please. Until we get a handle

on fishing mortality we really can not do a good job

describing the habitat aspect. There are examples, particularly on the Gulf Coast, where entire estuaries have

been bulkheaded or otherwise filled in and the production ofshrimp and estuarine-dependent species in that

area has gone to zero. We have got to take those examples and say to folks, "Do you want that to happen

here?" There is some excellent work that is going to

come from Fred Grassle's people, Ken Able in particular, on the production value of the estuaries. It is terribly important that the public is made aware as those

results become available. That concept that we are embarking on in conjunction with Anne Studholme and

some of her people here at the Northeast Center will

also payoff handsomely. The public has to be fed this

information rapidly, however, and then you will have a

concerned public and one that is reactive.

W. Davis: I think part of the magic of this project was

that there was a real invitation for participation. My

laboratory and agency [EPA] have benefitted from that

invitation. The project grew from hallway discussions

with Bob Murchelano and Jack Pearce. The managers

invited it and allowed it to grow. Now what I am interested in is some thought regarding where we are going.

What is the next project?

R. Tucker: Would anyone on the panel want to address that specific point?

W. Gordon: I only want to comment that as Sea Grant

Director I have to pull teeth to get people to work

together in the universities and the government agencies, whether it is your agency or National Marine Fisheries Service. I certainly welcome university principle

investigators who are willing to collaborate with others,

and this last comment was right on. You could move a

lot with less if you have people working together.

R. Tucker: I agree completely. We in the State of New

Jersey have benefited from working closely with the

researchers. We really have been able to get some ofthe

answers to important management questions that we

are concerned about. This kind of cooperation is a two

way street. The ability to get the kinds of scientific

information is one thing but to also get the researchers

concerned enough that they can talk in public meetings and raise the consciousness is also extremely important. We have had the privilege of having individuals

like Jack and Bill on blue ribbon panels to address some

ofthe development issues and it is extremely important.

S. Clark: I will make a pitch in response to the question that was raised. Where to go next? I would urge

NMFS to be more proactive and look at the largest

source of pollution in the New York Bight, which is the

mud dumpsite. I realize that toxics have a very small

effect on fisheries compared to over-fishing. But nevertheless, here is the biggest, largest amount of toxics

being dumped into the New York Bight and we do not

know the impact. I think that is a big question to answer. I think the past five years was well spent trying to

tackle the answer to questions on the effects of sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site. Why not turn to something

that is ongoing right now?

I would also like to make a comment to NOAA in

general: you have all this information about the oceans

and fisheries and impacts of anthropogenic inputs, yet

the public does not know enough about it. You have to

do a better job in marketing that information. For

example, this meeting or the report that is coming out

of this meeting should have a press conference. Focus

not only on NewJersey but New York. Tell people about

it so that they know that sludge is not just something

that can go back into the ocean, which some people are

.advocating because they do not want to deal with it on

land.

These are really important things that NOAA can

playa much bigger role now than it does. Tell Congress. Tell EPA. Get out there. I truly urge NOAA to

playa much bigger role in the arena ofdecision making

than it does now.

There are all kinds of programs going on in the New

York Harbor aimed at making decisions about source

reduction, pollution prevention, managing sewer plants

better. Getting a grip on combined sewer outfalls. Where

is NOAA? Where is NMFS? Participate and help make

these decisions rather than just being on the sidelines.
______________________________________ Panel Discussion 245

W. Gordon: I have to respond and add a little story to

try to put into perspective NMFS/NOAA's problem.

Starting in 1981, I was Director ofthe National Marine

Fisheries Service for six years. During that period of

time, I was horrified. Up until then, as a Government

employee, I thought we were supposed to be the advocate for the resources and for the habitat. And when I

took on the job heading the National Marine Fisheries

Service, that is what I thought was part of the job. Let

me use an example that I think everybody in this room

is aware of-Westway Highway in New York City. We

had a fellow stationed in Connecticut who was monitoring that project since its inception, some ten years

previously. It came time for decision making and a

group in New York brought suit against the Federal

Government to prevent the permitfrom going through.

This individual who had been monitoring the project

for 10 years gathered all scientific data into a huge

document. He was told he could not testify at the trial.

So we arranged that he be subpoenaed and therefore

had to testify. A Washington bureaucrat went to the

trial. When he came back to the public staff meeting (it

was not closed to the public but only government officials were present), he reported on the 10 to 11 hours

of testimony. He said we have to put out a memorandum that forbids Federal workers from testifying in

such circumstances. And I said, "This is not Communism, it is not the Soviet Union."

The decision to start Westway went ahead while I was

steadfastly defending the original position. No, itshould

not be constructed under those circumstances, filling

in 240 acres where it was. We were not opposed to

Westway Highway per se, simply to the environmental

damage it was going to do in the Hudson River. My

supervisor said, 'We are going to approve it and the fish

will move up river."

Now that is the kind ofsilliness we have encountered

since 1980 and which has not totally gone away. The

Agency cannot be a flag waving advocacy for the resources or for the habitat in the sense that you are

describing. I agree with you, however. That is what I

tried to do and was handcuffed in the past.

Just one more anecdote. Another well known scientist, who worked here for a while, was asked to testify by

the Congress. That is a command performance; so you

write testimony and submit it to the Office of Management and Budget for review. They always modify it

because they want to protect the taxpayer from paying

more money for this or that. When he testified he was

criticized because that was not the "approved" testimony to give. He said, "That is not what I wrote." It was

another attempt to muzzle a world-renowned scientist.

I respected him for speaking out on the issue; that is

what scientists have to do-speak out on issues in a

rational way based on facts. If need be, Cindy and I can

be a conduit for information. We can arrange for those

facts to be made available to the public. Part of the

problem is that the government agencies are not flag

waving advocates.

C. Zipf: I agree with that, and, quite frankly, I have

received more than one unmarked brown envelope in

the mail that has provided information we have found

useful in bringing the facts to light.

I want to concur with what Sarah Clark said with

respect to study of the mud dump. I think it is important because the Christiaensen Basin is really the Interstate 95 used by very important fish species to move into

the estuary. This is a crucial habitat area. We do not

really know what has happened in the Christiaen.sen

Basin. It would be interesting to dig into the

Christiaensen Basin and see to what depths the

Clostridium counts remain high. We should see how

much buildup has occurred ofsewage and effluent and

plume material in the Christiaensen Basin. I think it is

important to maintain a study in that area. We have not

decided whether or not mud dumping has an environmental effect.

I would also like to followup on the comment for

NOAA to become more proactive. We will attempt to

work on our elected officials to get NOAA to be more

proactive, but NOAA has the Coastal Zone Management program (CZM) that controls much of the development at the coast. NOAA is not enforcing the CZM

restrictions, so development at the shore has bloomed.

I think scientists need to provide us with information so

that we can be the advocates.

J. Chambers: I want to give some ammunition to those

that would use it. We held a 3-day symposium in March

[1991], in Baltimore, and invited the best people in the

country in various disciplines to define the significance

of the situation in terms of what is happening to habitats nationwide, to examine the safety net for protecting those habitats. First I should say that the meeting

was sponsored jointly by the commercial fishing community, the recreational fishing community, NOAA,

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Chesapeake

Bay program. I believe this was the first time that commercial and recreational interests did anything together.

One of the major outcomes was that the commercial

fishing industry, as represented by the National Fisheries Institute, has taken on habitat as its next major area

of concern. That symposium resulted in an executive

summary and solid recommendations including a national policy on habitat; support for the stewardship

agency in terms of its stature, its leadership, its resources and people, and finally legislative authority for

us to have some teeth, rather than trying to gum the

opposition to death as we now do. The Mid-Atlantic
246 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

Fisheries Management Council has endorsed the recommendations from that summary and asked each of

the other Fisheries Management Councils to do likewise. There are two points to stress: first, there is plenty

of information from each of the papers on what sort of

trends are occurring in both habitats and resources;

second, the recommendations are very solid in terms of

what this country needs to do to fix its system so that we

can take care of these resources.

D. Gross: My comments have to do with the doubleedged sword of public perception. About the article

Jack Pearce referred to in the New York Times, I do not

think the public's attention crystallized around the

threat of asteroids until there was a near collision in

1989, yet this is something scientists had known about

since perhaps before you began the MESA Project.

The same thing is true, I suppose, with global warming. It took a very warm summer in 1988 to crystallize

public, and ultimately Congressional, attention. Yet,

the danger with such crystallization is that other events

can very quickly erode that support such as a few cold

winters or cold summers. Where is such a near collision

with regard to water pollution in this area? And is a

near calamity what we need or is it going to be something that haunts us rather than helps us ultimately?

Another two-edged sword is that of aquaculture. I

agree that aquaculture is probably the wave of many

futures. The problem is that often, in the development

of aquaculture, there is destruction of coastal habitats

and so the balance of having one without the destruction of the other seems to me something we should

advocate.

Lastly, there are a growing number ofstudies, not in

this country but in Germany, showing that pollution

does have some serious effects on mortality of early life

stages offishes. We are beginning to get a better handle

on that here as well.

F. Grassle: I think we can learn from the comment by

Jack about the precautionary approach that is taken in

Europe on dealing with many of these problems.

J. O'Connor: We could go back in the Apex area to

distinguishing sources, one from another. But I have

some concern about expending a lot of resources in

searching for that sort of Holy Grail as opposed to

better characterizing the aggregate effect. Particularly

important is to transmit those aggregate effects in simple

ways to the public and decision makers.

There was a dogma at one time that unless you knew

the source, Government could do nothing about the

effect. That idea is being eroded pretty rapidly now and

I think we can begin in much broader ways than to look

at individual outfall pipes.

One brief comment about education. We should start

on the assumption that education is itself a profession,

as much a profession as marine science of any kind. It is

fine to encourage scientists to write popular articles

and fact sheets. I have given up trying to change people's

behavior at my age, since I feel most of the scientific

community is quite reticent about doing that sort of

thing. Perhaps for this activity the more effective approach would be to build in education as part of the

continuing activity. Make it a line item in the budget

and managers can insure that it gets done as part of the

program.

M. Greges: I do not have a question but I have some

comments. I was invited to speak on the panel or to be a

part of this panel a couple of months ago and when I

found out what the topic was, I gracefully declined. The

Corps [of Engineers] really has no interest in sludge.

We try to separate ourselves as much as possible from

sludge; however we suffer from the same misperceptions

that your keynote speaker mentioned, that is that dredge

material is garbage, that it is hazardous waste, or tampon applicators and hypodermic needles.

Dredge material is sediment and a lot of the results

that you get from your tests on sludge have nothing to

do 'Ivith dredge material. I hesitate to even come up

here and speak about it but it is been mentioned over

the past couple of days and Sarah [Clark] has successfully goaded me up to the microphone with her comments. Cindy had some interesting comments: the

solution is dilution.

C. Zipf: Is not dilution.

M. Greges: Well, some people believe that it is dilution, but that has never been New York District's view

towards dredge material. That may have been the solution or not the solution for sludge, but dredge material

is placed at the mud dumpsite because it is a nondispersive site. The fact that we have the grotesque

warts rising from the ocean floor. (I like that.) The fact

that those warts are there is at least a surficial indication

that the material is being placed, number one, where it

should be placed, and, number two, that it is staying

there. You would not have these 40 foot mounds if you

had been placing material there year after year and it

was being dispersed from that site. I am not saying that

there is no loss from those mounds, but there is a good

indication that when we say it is a non-dispersive site we

have proof.

I wholeheartedly agree with your point about looking

at the sources of pollution problems. I think that is the

priority study or investigation that we should be involved with, which leads me to Sarah's [Clark] comment about the mud dumpsite being, "the biggest source
____---------------------------------- Panel Discussion 247

of pollution in the Bight." We have a different contention. We believe that we are relocating material-some

of it polluted, some ofit contaminated-which is there

already. It is the point and non-point source pollution

sources that you should be going after. Dredge material

itselfis not the pollutant. It is not the contaminant. The

contaminants are already in there. What we are doing is

taking it out of channels to protect safe navigation and

putting it in an area where we believe it will stay put.

Do we have to do more work in monitoring? Do we

have to do further investigations as to how much material we actually lose and determine where the material

goes? Yes, I agree, and I think you know this because we

have discussed it before. The only thing we have not

concluded or agreed on is what type of tests to do, how

much the investigation will cost, and exactly what it will

show. We should be looking into that, but I would like

to shy away from the perception that it is the dredge

material that is contributing to the pollution.

Returning to perception, there were a couple of

misperceptions about dredge material that I heard at

this conference. Yesterday there was a good paper presented with one conclusion that dioxin found at site A41 was probably due to previously disposed Newark Bay

dredge material at the mud dump, as well as from

natural sedimentation processes and from the 12-mile

site (see Bopp et aI., this volume). That one woke me

up. I spoke with the author of that paper and he agreed

it would be very difficult to prove that that dioxin was

from the mud dump. I postulated that it could have

been from an errant barge load of material that perhaps was disposed of in the wrong spot. This he agreed

with. At the concluding portion of the program on the

overhead was the statement inferring dioxin found at

A-41 was due to the dredge material site. Again the

negative perception was that there was some investigative proof that the dredge site was the source. Yet the

author admitted it would be very hard to prove that that

was the source of dioxin.

Later we were treated to a graph entitled "Pollutant

Loadings"; there is a good title (see O'Reilly, this volume). It had five or six pie charts most of which had a

nice big chunk attributing pollutant loadings to dredge

material and a nice little sliver to sludge material. Again,

this was another surprise. Speaking with the presenter I

was a little confused when he said, "Well that isjust the

pollutant loadings into the Bight, including what goes

to the mud dump." The impression that I got was that

dredge material is the major contributor to contaminants in the entire Bight. It probably would have been

worth mentioning that those contaminants are disposed

of in those grotesque warts, or what I like to call "discrete mounds," and that that material was already in

the system. We did not go out and add pollutants into

the Bight. Again, a very negative misperception.

This morning's presentation on seabed oxygen consumption also tried to make a correlation relating the

dredge material dumpsite and oxygen consumption.

Yet when someone asked a question the presenter admitted that there was no good data that correlates dredge

material to seabed oxygen consumption. Again, for a

group of scientists and managers you should be as

sensitive to misperceptions about dredge material as to

the misperceptions the public has about sludge. There

are enough real problems with disposal of dredge material, with monitoring that disposal, and with the contaminants in the material itself. We do not need to be

battling innuendo or comments where there are no

scientific data or investigations to support it. The most

important thing to look at is the sources of pollution

and once you stop this, you will stop the contaminants

and pollutants found in dredge material.

R. Tucker: I think the COE is certainly to be commended for sponsoring and funding the 1970's study.

Until Jack gave some of the history, I did not realize

that it was only $100,000 that actually went for that part

of the study. I would suggest that may be a good model

for the COE to contribute to studies on the actual

impacts of the mud dumpsite.

C. Zipf: It is all a matter of perception, whether you

see them as mounds or grotesque warts. I think that

science indicates there is not enough evidence to discuss what is happening with the dredge material. Some

of the most interesting work in the beginning of the

symposium was the effect of physical aspects in the

Christiaensen Basin area. I never would have thought

that wind patterns, etc., would have been effective down

deep in the Christiaensen Basin, in the "Mud Hole," so

to speak. The effects these patterns have on a 45-foot

mound is an open question. I think that the environmental impact statements that have been done on the

mud dump are old and need to be revisited to see the

range of effects of the mud dump. What is happening

to that mound? Is it a mound of course sands that have

been collected over time since 1888 or is it light fluff

material, with the more contaminated fraction floating

into the Christiaensen Basin? Such questions still need

to be addressed.

J. Pearce: The comments in this discussion will also

provide an answer again to Dan Gross who asked, "Where

is that issue that will focus the public's attention?"

I mentioned a while back that we had to work with

generic information, wherever it might come from.

While it has been lost in history, the Sandy Hook Laboratory invested some $1.2 million of Navy money into

the famous Thames River study, which was a study of

ocean disposal of dredge material. This was an inter-
248 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

agency study, involving EPA, the U.S. Navy, the Sandy

Hook Laboratory, and the University of Connecticut.

Investigators included Frank Bolan, a physical oceanographer, and the late Sung Feng, probably one of the

better marine physiologists. Mter some years, I kept

hoping there would be an aberration that would somehow show a lot wrong. Then we would have a big problem that could focus the attention ofthe public and get

another million or two of Navy money. Unfortunately

that did not happen. It turned out the lobsters liked the

big huge wart on the floor of Long Island Sound, better

than they did the normal flat sandy flats. As I review

scores of dredge material studies, inevitably I come up

with similar findings.

Feng and I both felt that whatever materials that were

there of a toxic nature, by and large, are lost at the

dredge site. If anyone has ever seen either a bucket

dredge or a suction dredge in operation you will know

that the nephloid layer, that layer of ooze containing

most of the contaminants, is put in suspension in the

water mass in the Thames River, or the Hudson River,

or any place where dredging is going on. That material

is carried seaward. Unfortunately, this is the price to be

paid for dredging to keep the U.S. harbors open. You will

find that anything contrary to this is going to fall on deaf

public ears. I can not think of a single politician or administrator who would choose to tie up shipping in New York

Harbor until such time as we resolve this question.

Coming back to Dan Gross, we must define the problem on which to focus the public's attention. Public

attention has to be focused on things like dog feces,

which wash offthe streets of New York into the Hudson

River and add to the pollutant burden. Public attention

has to be focused on vehicles that leak oil and produce

black smoke. These contribute to pollution burdens

that later have to be dredged up and taken somewhere

else. Until the public is willing to have vehicles inspected twice a year and are willing to clean up after

their pets, there will be bacteria, trace metals, and

petroleum hydrocarbons from nonpoint sources working their way into the Hudson River, Newark Bay,

Thames River estuary, Buzzard's Bay, and wherever you

may be. You may talk it to death and point at the "warts"

on the sea floor but the fact is that it is individual

activities that create marine pollution, and we have to

focus public attention on this issue.

Now, Dan Gross also talked about aquaculture. He

talked about German studies, which demonstrated effects on larval fish. Aaron Rosenthal did some of the

best laboratory studies I have seen relating various forms

of contaminants to malformations of fish larvae. Later,

Volkert Dethlefsen made a super case out of dumping

certain materials in the German Bight. Dethlefsen spoke

at m~or national hearings, but, in fact, never could

really back up his findings. This has become somewhat

of an embarrassment to true environmentalists who

want to manage the marine environment. It points out

how a person, thinking he has a cause celebre, can

create a bigger problem in terms of managing the

marine environment when he does not have his facts

straight. There are real problems however, and we ought

to find the sources. Competent marine scientists not

only want to know the sources, they want to know the

fates. They want to be able to model the fates, quantitate what happens when some contaminant is coming

out of a combined sewer outfall or somebody's Buick.

Finally, there is no use having sources and fates unless there are effects. You have got to demonstrate

effects. Thus I come full circle to the Thames River

study. We were unable to demonstrate any effects even

though the Pfizer Corporation, the Electric Boat Company, and others have been putting contaminants into

the Thames River for years.

c. Zipf: From a public standpoint, there is a tremendous surge of interest in the environment. The citizenry is interested in what they can do to help reduce

ocean pollution. At Clean Ocean Action, we call it

"pointless" pollution since the term "nonpoint source"

sometimes gets confusing. We have a program of stenciling little blue fish on storm drains, combined with an

aggressive citizen education program, to make sure

that every community member knows that storm drains

lead directly to where fish live. It is not that the citizenry

has been ignored-the citizenry is being educated. We

can not resist this opportunity ofinviting all these scientists to focus on areas where the citizens really do not

have a lot of impact, and one is dredge dumping.

More and more, we should show the economic impact of these environmental effects. Not until we had

floatable incidents on beaches, where there was a tremendous economic impact, did we find a lot of opportunity for action. So tying the environmental degradation

to economics is a way in which we have been able to

impleme'nt change.

T. Bigford: I have a couple of comments. The first

goes back to Bob Pikanowski's exchange withJim Chambers. When we talk about mortality and the need to

address some of the habitat issues that might be part of

the total fishery management equation, I do not think

we could look at just the mortality that Bob was talking

about. Maybe 90% is fishing related but there are a lot

of other issues involved-physiological change, behavioral changes, and others. We can not look just at that

issue based on fishing mortality. There may be many

things happening that change the recruitment that are

more subtle less than just a mortality question.

The person mentioned from Milford, Connecticut,

who worked on the Westway project is Mike Ludwig.
______________________________________ Panel Discussion 249

There are 15 Mike Ludwigs in the Northeast Region

who desperately need the scientific and political type of

support that I have seen the last two days. Mike and his

colleagues, and I am one of them, work on habitat

issues that are as far offshore as the 12-mile dumpsite or

nearer the coast. I would like to see a bit more effort

focused on these issues and notjust activities that affect

mortality. What is decreasing the health of species,

their physiological responses, their behavior?-things

other than just whether they are alive or dead.

One closing comment: I have liked what I have heard

the last two days including Jack's comment that we

should look overseas to what is happening around the

world. It is incumbent on people who have been doing

this research to think about how their work might apply

elsewhere. Instead of letting other people look at your

reports and determine how it applies to a disposal site off

the mouth of Chesapeake Bay or in Boston Harbor, the

scientists most familiar with the data should interpret the

information; determine how you can stretch the experimental design and still make decent assessments. You

should look at your results and give serious thought to

what it means to the general issues of ocean disposal and

sewage sludge handling. That is your job and I think you

should do it as part ofthis project. If not all, at least some

of you. As you know, the general trusteeship responsibilities fall to the National Marine Fisheries Service.

M. Kaplan: Do you at Sandy Hook or in any of the

NMFS groups have a public outreach program? If not,

we in NewJersey have found over the last several months,

especially with sludge management, that the most effective technique is to bring the public into the process.

Regardless of what the issue is, we have citizen advisory

groups.

I know as scientists we like to do our work and we do

not want to be bothered with having to go to public

meetings. Presumably, we have better things to do.

Because you have a decentralized regional system with

your labs at Sandy Hook, Woods Hole, etc., it seems like

you have a perfect opportunity to know the people on a

local level and to bring them into the process. Let them

know what research is going on, what your legislators

need to know, and how the whole system can be integrated. It works and it does not just have to be citizens

but all members of the community including industry.

Ifyou want to identify source reduction you must point

to every single person responsible for generating sludge.

Bob [Tucker] and I would be happy to help. We have a

communications group in our program in Science and

Research and it works. You could learn a lot from it if

you do not have one of your own.

R. Tucker: That certainly gets back to the point that

the education has to be interactive.

J. Chambers: I will tell you the reality. The answer is

that we do not have any outreach. We are trying to do it

on our own hook as amateurs. In fact, for our resource

base at two of our major laboratories, we provide base

funds: in one case 29% of their operating budget, in

the other case 35%. This is to conduct research on the

effects of organic contaminants for the importance of

wetlands to living resources. We can only pay for a third

of the operations; the rest they have to beg, borrow and

steal every year. That is the reality of the situation. We

are not able to afford any outreach type organization, a

situation that has existed for the 14 years since I have

been there.

W. Gordon: NOAA has an outreach program, known

as the Marine Advisory Service. It is funded through Sea

Grant in cooperation with the cooperative extension

operations in some States; sometimes on their own,

sometimes with county support. Since 1980, this entire

Sea Grant program, until a couple of years ago, was

zeroed out at the Administration's budget request to

Congress. Last year the core research programs were

recommended for funding at 25 million dollars, but

the Marine Advisory Service, at a requested rate of

about 15 million dollars, was recommended for zero.

Clearly, NOAA, the Department ofCommerce, and the

Administration, really does not care about outreach. It

is the Congress that adds it back.

R. Tucker: We have raised some important points. I

know we can go on but it is time to end. I would like

particularly to thank the audience for their participation. This panel has been extremely interesting and

responsive to the questions asked. The whole two days

have been tremendous. I would finally like to really

thank Anne and her staff at Sandy Hook and all of the

other people who are responsible for putting on this

tremendous program.

Closing Remarks

R. Murchelano: I sense some real trepidation as to

what the next move will be. I could tether you here to

hear more statements that may prove controversial to

you but I prefer not to do this. Mter hearing some of

the comments from Bill and Cindy I could utilize this

panel very effectively, in terms of the go-between aspects. We will need your help in disseminating information which we may not wish to promote ourselves.

Let me address that point for a moment. We do have

statements prepared by the staff at Sandy Hook that

cover all the issues that were addressed at this meeting.

I'd like to see them in the New York Times, so Jack can

quote them next week; or the Washington Post, the New-
250 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

ark Star Ledger, or Philadelphia Inquirer. That is the challenge if you wish to disseminate information that you

heard here today and be our surrogate for getting the

information before the media. I certainly would like to

thank everyone again for attending.

Finally, I agree with our leadoff speaker from Sandy

Hook, Bob Pikanowski. The greatest cause of mortality

in fish stocks is certainly fishing mortality. It then becomes a question of how much does someone, arbitrarily, either intelligently or politically, spend in other

areas, that is on habitat or environmental work. I happen to feel that the distribution of funds at present is

inadequate for doing the other side of what is part of

fisheries research. Perhaps some ofthat can be achieved

by better definition, better focus, defining more practical problems, or more realistic priorities. The allocation between what is given for stock assessment activities

in the agency and habitat or environmental work is too

imbalanced. There are better ways to do some of the

things which are needed for conservation and utilization of marine resources. If, as was mentioned, these

things were rocks, we would not be interested, but they

are not rocks. We eat them; they are there as a sustainable resource. It is renewable and there are other things

that we can do and should do.

Thank you all for coming. We certainly enjoyed the

experience. I know all of us at Sandy Hook, Woods

Hole, and Narragansett, did, and we look forward to

the publication of a volume which you can critique.

Literature Cited

Bigelow, W. B., and W. B. Schroeder.

1953. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. U.S. Fish Wildl. Servo Fish.

Bull. 74(53):1-577.

Bopp, R. F., D. W. Robinson, H.j. Simpson, P. E. Biscaye, and

R. F. Anderson.

1995. Recent sediment and contaminant distributions in the

Hudson ShelfValley. InA. L. Studholme,j. E. O'Reilly, and

M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage

sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-

mile dumpsite symposium, p. 61-83. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Mayer, G. F. (ed).

1982. Ecological stress and the New York Bight: science and

management. Estuarine Research Federation, Columbia, SC,

715 p.

Reid, R. N., S. A. Fromm, A. B. Frame, D.Jeffress,j.j. Vitaliano,

D.j. Radosh, andj. R. Finn.

1995. Limited responses of benthic macrofauna and selected

sewage sludge components to phaseout of sludge dumping

in the inner New York Bight. In A. L. Studholme, j. E.

O'Reilly, and M. C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation

of sewage sludge dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings

of the 12-mile dumpsite symposium, p. 213-225. U.S. Dep.

Commer., OAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.

Wilk, S. j., R. A. Pikanowski, A. L. Pacheco, D. G. McMillan,

and L. L. Stehlik.

1995. Response of fish and megainvertebrates of the New

York Bight apex to the abatement of sewage sludge dumping-an overview. InA. L. Studholme,j. E. O'Reilly, and M.

C. Ingham (eds.), Effects of the cessation of sewage sludge

dumping at the 12-mile site, Proceedings of the 12-mile

dumpsite symposium, p. 173-183. U.S. Dep. Commer.,

NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 124.
EXECUTWE SUMMARY - _

At the initiation of the 12-mile study in 1986, no single

issue related to the use of coastal waters in the New

York Bight had generated more public concern than

ocean disposal of waste material, particularly sewage

sludge. The public's perception was that sludge dumping at the 12-mile site was a major factor affecting water

quality and the utilization of marine resources. At the

time, predictions of the effects of dumping cessation

ranged from no significant or measurable improvement (New York City Department of Environmental

ProtectionI) to modest changes including reduction in

pathogenic bacteria and viruses in sediments over a

limited geographical area (Swanson et aI., 1985), with

any large-scale improvements resulting only from comparable reductions in disposal of dredged material or

other wastes (Gunnerson et aI., 1982).

For three years, intensive field studies focused on

three specific areas: I} the replicate stations, NY6, R2,

and NYll, which represented habitats that were respectively heavily degraded, enriched, and less severely influenced by sludge dumping; 2} the broadscale stations

located throughout a 350 km2 area in the New York

Bight apex, which provided a more descriptive background for the study; and 3} the Hudson Shelf Valley,

in order to determine the fate of contaminants dispersed from the site.

The maJor conclusions resulting from the study demonstrated that some indicators of sewage pollution in

sediments, such as the rate of oxygen consumption by

the seabed, redox potential, bottom dissolved-oxygen

gradients, total bacteria count, and counts of coliform

bacteria, responded rapidly to diminishing inputs of

sewage sludge. Measurements of lead enrichment,

Clostridium peifringens spores, and redox potential demonstrated a decrease in sewage contamination over a

large area surrounding the dumpsite, but only in surficial

sediments. The responses of the benthic community to

the cessation of sludge dumping were not as apparent.

Decreases in pollution-tolerant benthic species and increases in the number of species and the number of

crustaceans were documented at the most heavily polluted site, but the distribution of megafauna captured

in trawls showed no appreciable changes that could be

attributed to cessation of dumping.

1 New York City Department of Environmental Protection. 1983.

Technical information to support the redesignation of the 12-mile

site for the ocean disposal of municipal sewage sludge. Prepared by

Ecological Analysts, Inc. Sparks, MD, and SEAMOcean, Inc.

Wheaton, MD. New York City Department of Environmental Protection, 2358 Municipal Bldg., New York, NY 10007. Unpub!.

manuser. 483 p. + appendices.

Hydrography _

During the study period, hydrographic conditions fell

within the normal range for the inner New York Bight,

and in general, water column variability in temperature

and salinity occurred at all time scales.

Current meters, deployed one meter above the bottom from May 1987 through June 1989, indicated that

currents at subtidal frequencies were highly coherent

with wind, especially at sites within the Hudson Shelf

Valley. During the summer, the most intense bottom

flow events (36 cm/s maximum) were in a southward

(down-valley) direction driven by occasional episodes

of westward winds. During the winter, persistent eastward winds would often become strong enough to sustain bottom flow in a northward (up-valley) direction

(54 cm/s maximum).

Repeated hydrographic surveys indicated an exchange

of bottom water in the dumpsite area over one week,

associated with flow events up and down the Hudson

Shelf Valley.

Sediment transport was also event dominated, depending on the coincidence ofstrong bottom currents

and wave action to provide resuspension energy. In the

upper Hudson Shelf Valley, sediment resuspension occurs approximately 5% of the year, primarily during

winter months.

Dissolved Oxygen and Bottom Oxygen Gradients _

The role played by sediments in the Christiaensen Basin in annual episodes of hypoxia in the New York Bight

apex has decreased following abatement ofsewage sludge

dumping as suggested by various changes such as:

1. disappearance of high rates ofseabed oxygen

consumption in the Basin,

2. disappearance of strong near-bottom gradients in dissolved oxygen,

3. decrease in the area of strongly reducing

surface sediments (redox), and

4. decreases in acid-soluble sulfide in surface

sediments.

In 1989, dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations in

water near the seabed reached 2.5 mg/l, the lowest

value observed since reductions in sludge dumping

were begun in 1986. At the most heavily degraded area

251
252 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124

(NY6), values below 0.5 mg/l were observed in summer

months during 1983-1985. From 1986 to 1988, dissolved

oxygen minima at this station did not fall below about 4

mg/1. The 1989 value was within the range predicted

for the study and probably reflects a general decline of

DO levels throughout the apex due to water column

processes unrelated to sludge dumping.

Seabed Oxygen Consumption (SOC) _

Consumption of oxygen by the seabed is used as a

measure of benthic community metabolism to understand energy flow and carbon cycling at the sedimentwater interface in aquatic ecosystems.

Rates of SOC were responsive to increases and decreases in carbon loading to the Christiaensen Basin.

SOC increased 57% in the sludge-affected area between

1974 and 1983 when the amount of sludge dumped

had increased 89%. During dumping, rates of SOC at

NY6 (Station 33) were highly elevated during summer

(60 ml 02/m2eh) and were high even when bottom

temperatures were low. Following cessation, SOC rates

decreased to the background levels (15-20 ml 02/m2eh)

recorded in the New York Bight at stations unaffected

by dumping and responding minimally to seasonal fluctuations in bottom water temperature.

These observed changes were in good agreement

with the anticipated changes hypothesized prior to the

study. Station 30, 2.3 km east of the 12-mile site and

outside the Christiaensen Basin, exhibited no significant response to changes in the quantity of sludge

dumped. Seabed oxygen consumption rates at Station

35, adjacent to the 6-mile site, responded more to changes

in dredge inputs than to changes in sludge loading.

Changes in Sediment Biogeochemistry _

Two years after cessation of sludge dumping, the concentration of biologically labile carbon in the sediment

at the most heavily degraded station (NY6) had decreased to one-third the level observed during dumping, consistent with predictions from a model of

sediment biogeochemistry. Concentrations were still

higher than at the enriched (R2) and reference (NY11)

stations; the difference between the latter two was attributable to differential input ofphytoplankton carbon.

In response to this decrease, redox potential in surface sediments at the degraded and enriched stations

generally increased and seasonal fluctuations were diminished. The highest redox values were recorded in

1989, with values at all stations beginning to converge,

also consistent with model predictions. The observed

increase in the annual minimum redox in surface sediments at NY6 is approximately double that hypothesized at the beginning of the study.

During dumping, highly reducing conditions were

observed in surface sediments throughout the

Christiaensen Basin during the summer. Approximately

200 km2 of the 350 km2 survey area had redox values

<50 mV in surface sediments. Approximately two years

after dumping ceased, only 15 km2 had values <50 mY.

A significant portion of the temporal variation in the

number of benthic macrofaunal species was correlated

with sediment redox potential.

Sediment Metal Contamination _

Statistically significant decreases in lead and lead enrichment (ratio of present lead/iron to pre-industrial

lead/iron) were found at the most heavily degraded

station (NY6), occurring within one month following

the cessation of dumping. Other metal concentrations

also decreased to about one-half to one-fourth the concentrations observed during dumping, which was not

the order of magnitude decrease hypothesized prior to

the study. No significant temporal changes were observed 4-5 cm below the sediment surface.

There was, however, a marked decrease in the area

with lead enrichment >20 (indicating heavy sludge pollution) from 105 km2 during dumping to 25 km2 only

1.7 years after cessation. It was estimated that within

four years these highly contaminated surface sediments

would disappear.

Sediment Grain Size and Total Organic

Carbon

Analysis of grain size and total organic carbon (TOC)

indicated that NY6 showed a significant response to the

cessation of dumping. Prior to cessation, sediment contained a greater silt fraction and had higher porosities,

lower bulk density, and higher TOC than R2 and NYl1;

sediment porosity decreased significantly from mean

pre-cessation levels of 68% to 61 % after dumping

stopped. TOC decreased from 4-5% to around 2%;

bulk density increased from 1.4 g/cm3 to 1.6 g/cm3,

due to rapid mineralization of organic matter and dispersion of fine sludge.

Sediment Organic Contamination _

Organic contaminants, i.e. PAH's, PCB's, and DDTrelated pesticides, in sediments were highest at the

more heavily degraded station NY6, less at enriched

station R2, and least at the reference station NYl1.
______________________________________ Panel Discussion 253

Mean concentrations were lower (though not statistically significant) in 1989 than 1986 during dumping.

Sediment Deposition and Resuspension __

Measurement of fallout (Cesium-137) and natural

(Berylium-7) radionuclides in sediment cores indicated

that the highest rates ofnet accumulation offine-grained

particles (a few centimeters per year) in the study area

occurred along the axis of the Hudson Shelf Valley up

to several kilometers down-valley from the dredged spoil

disposal site and former sewage sludge disposal site.

This suggests resuspension of disposed material and

down-valley transport.

The high concentration of 2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin)

found in sediment samples between the sludge and

dredged material dumpsites probably resulted from

the disposal ofmaterials dredged from the lower Passaic

River and Newark Bay.

Erodibility and sludge marker studies along the

Hudson Shelf Valley indicated short-term storage of

sludge in the Christiaensen Basin followed by

resuspension events probably coinciding with winddriven currents. An exponential down-valley decline in

sediment erodibility and sludge markers (chemical contaminants and Clostridium peifringens spores) was demonstrated, but station depth and width of the Hudson

Shelf Valley governed deposition and subsequent

resuspension potential. A predictable relationship between grain size and erodibility was demonstrated, permitting development of erosion models based on shear,

grain size, and porosity values.

The peak in sediment erodibility shifted down the

Hudson Shelf Valley about 50 km during 1987-89 except for an unexpected peak that appeared in the

Christiaensen Basin-Hudson Shelf Valley in 1989. The

unexpected increase in erodibility and Clostridium spores

inJune 1989 may be explained by the increase in dumping of dredged material at the 6-mile site during that

spring. It is also likely that heavy metals found in upper

Hudson Shelf Valley sediments resulted from the

dredged materials disposed at that site rather than from

the 12-mile dumpsite.

The dominance of Dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane

(DDT) over Dichlorodiphenyldichlorethane (DDD) in

surface particulate matter samples indicates that

resuspension and Hudson-Raritan discharge were only

minor sources of these compounds to the surface waters. Based on analysis ofsamples from the shelf break,

it is conjectured that the DDT contamination ofsurface

waters in the vicinity of the dumpsites is dominated by

regional inputs derived from coastal aerosol transport

during spraying of DDT prior to the domestic ban in

1972. The dominance of DDD over DDT in the nearbottom, suspended-particle sample is evidence of

resuspension.

Abundance and Distribution of

Clostridium peifringens

During dumping, exceptionally high concentrations of

C. perfringens spores (1.7 X 105/ g), a specific indicator

ofsewage contamination, were observed at station NY6,

the most polluted station nearest the dumpsite. Spore

concentrations increased with increasing bottom depth

throughout the study area and decreased with distance

from the 12-mile dumpsite. Significant decreases in

spore concentrations, temporally related to the cessation of dumping, were observed at this and two other

sites sampled frequently. During dumping, approximately 27% of the 350 km2 area surveyed had C.

perfringens spore concentrations exceeding 1 x 104/g;

3.3 years following cessation, only 10% of the area

surpassed these levels.

In April 1991, sediment profiles revealed generally

increasing densities of Clostridium spores with sediment

depth. Spore concentrations 2-10 cm below the surface

were comparable to concentrations observed in the

surface layer during dumping. Also spore concentrations in surface sediments at NY6 were still exceptionally high (>1 x 104/g) and levels comparable to New

York Bight "background" (10-100 spores/g) would not

be expected until the year 2000.

Demersal Finfish and Megainvertebrates __

There was considerable spatial homogeneity in the distribution and abundance ofspecies captured in trawls.

After cessation of dumping, there were no significant

changes in distribution and abundance that could not

be accounted for by natural variability, except for a

60% increase in lobster abundance at the most heavily

degraded station, NY6. Lobster fishing effort increased

in the vicinity of the dumpsite largely because of the

elimination of pot fouling by sludge.

Returns from winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus,

tagged between July 1986 and August 1989 indicated

that fish moved between the dumpsite area and the

embayments of New York and NewJersey as well as into

more northerly waters. Winter flounder from the

dumpsite may represent a mix of inshore populations

that may be in transit from areas that become suboptimal or may be part of the spawning migration.

From observations ofgross pathology ofwinter flounder, the incidence of finrot and internal lesions were

apparently reduced, supporting the initial working hypothesis that disease would decrease. This low level
254 NOAA Technical Report NMFS 124 _

reflects the same pattern of decline in finrot observed

in the New York Bight over the past two decades. There

were no significant changes in incidence oflyrnphocystis

(viral) or Glugea (microsporidial) infections or in genetic abnormalities (bentfin and ambicoloration).

There were only minor shifts in the diets of winter

flounder, red hake, Urophycis chuss, and American lobster, Homarus americanus, after the cessation of dumping or among the sludge-influenced stations. This may

be due to the species' mobility and high degree of

variability in food habits. The notable exception to this

was the decrease in frequency of Capitella capitata (a

pollutant-indicator polychaete) in winter flounder stomachs at the most heavily degraded station (NY6) from

20% during dumping to less than 0.1 % in the postdumping period. This reflects the decrease in Capitella

populations at that site. In addition, sewage artifacts

(hair balls, fibers) in lobster and red hake stomachs

decreased markedly, signaling improvement in the quality of ingested material and presumably forage habitat.

Analyses of organic contaminants in hepatic tissues

of winter flounder and lobster collected from the vicinity of the dumpsite during dumping and after cessation

showed that concentrations of PCB's in both species

were significantly higher in samples collected from

nearer the dumpsite than from the reference area. In

addition, lobster values were significantly higher than

those for winter flounder.

Benthic Species

As predicted prior to the study, significant increases in

the number of crustaceans, molluscs, and total species

collected in grab samples occurred at the most heavily

degraded station (NY6), and increases were greater at

both sludge-influenced stations (NY6, R2) than at the

reference area (NYU). The decline in the pollutantindicator species Capitella capitata coupled with the reappearance of more pollution sensitive amphipods further supported the chemical evidence that habitat quality had improved within two years after dumping

stopped. However, samples collected 38 months after

dumping ended still contained quantities of material

identified as sludge related.

Shellfish Closure Area

Mter cessation of dumping, numbers of coliform bacteria decreased substantially in the sediments in and

around the dumpsite but remained high in deeper

waters to the west and down the Hudson Shelf Valley.

Although Clostridium spores continued to persist, as of

May 1990 most ofthe areas sampled, with the exception

of the Christiaensen Basin, would have met the current

standards to permit reopening of the shellfish growing

area. This would allow the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to reassess closure areas and reopen the area

for harvesting.

Literature Cited

Gunnerson, C. G., R. Adamski, P. W. Anderson, R. S. Dewling,

D. A.Julius, G. S. Kleppel, D. W. Lear, A.j. Mearns,j. T. Miller,

E. P. Myers,j.j. Roswell, S. Schroeder, D. A. Segar,

C. j. Sindermann, and C. M. Stern.

1982. Management of domestic wastes. In G. F. Mayer (ed.),

Ecological stress and the New York Bight: science and management, p. 91-112. Estuarine Research Federation, Columbia, SC.

Swanson, R. L., M. A. Champ, T. O'Connor, P. K. Parks,

j. O'Connor, G. F. Mayer, F. M. Stanford, E. Erdheim, and

j. Verber.

1985. Sewage sludge dumping in the New York Bight apex: a

comparison with other proposed ocean dumpsites. In B. H.

Ketchum, j. M. Capuzzo, W. V. Burt, 1. W. Duedall, P. K.

Park, and D. R. Kester (eds.), Wastes in the ocean, Vol. 6,

Nearshore waste disposal, p. 461-488.John Wiley and Sons,

New York.

Anne L. Studholme

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

John E. O'Reilly

Merton C. Ingham

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of this study, as planned, is a tribute to

all of the participants. Special thanks, however, are

owed to our collaborators from other agencies and

institutions who, with no additional resources, contributed their time and expertise to complete research that

the Environmental Processes Division was unable to

undertake. In addition, without the financial support

from New jersey's Division of Environmental Protection and Energy, we would not have been able to develop an analytical capability for organic contaminants,

a critical component of the study. We would also like to

acknowledge the invaluable support of our colleagues

who generously took the time to provide peer-review

comments on all manuscripts. Organization ofthe 1991

Symposium was due to the timeless energy ofCatherine

Noonan, who should also be credited with exceptional

patience in working with the authors and editors in

preparing drafts of this volume for publication.

Anne L. Studholme

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Highlands, NewJersey 07732

John E. O'Reilly

Merton C. Ingham

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882

255

12-MlLE DUMPSITE STUDYPARTICIPANTS _

NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service _

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

A. E. Peterson,Jr., Director Science and Research

Environmental Processes Division

R Murche1ano, Chief

Physical Oceanography Branch

M. Ingham, Chief

Fishery Oceanography Investigation

D. Mountain, Chief

J. Manning

M. Taylor

T. Holzworth

Chemical Processes Branch

J. O'Reilly, Chief

Environmental Chemistry Investigation

A. Draxler, Chief

V. Zdanowicz

A. Deshpande

R Waldhauer

P. Fournier

T. Finneran

S. Leftwich

L. Arlen

B. McKinley

E. Leimburg

Coastal Dynamics Investigation

W. Phoel, Chief

S. Fromm

C. Zetlin

D. Packer

R Koch

K. Sharack

B. May

A. Fanning

R/V KYMA

F. Farwell, Master

S. Kingsley

Environmental Assessment Branch

A. Studholme, Chief

Environmental Analysis Investigation

S. Wilk, Chief

A. Pacheco

F. Steimle

R Pikanowski

B. Phelan

L. Stehlik

D. McMillan

J. Rugg

Benthos Investigation

R. Reid, Chief

A. Frame

C. MacKenzie

D. Radosh

S. A. Fromm

D.Jeffress

J. Vitaliano

J. Finn

Southeast Fisheries Science Center

Beaufort Laboratory

R Ferguson

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency _

Environmental Research Laboratory (Narragansett, RI)

W. Davis

H. Walker

Region II (Edison, NJ)

I. Katz

U. S. Food and Drug Administration _

Davisville, RI

W. Watkins

J. Gaines

NewJersey Department of Environmental

Protection and Energy _

Office of Science and Research

R Tucker, Director

F. Moser

P. Hauge

Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory _

RBopp

257
NOAA TECHNICAL REPORTS NMFS

The major responsibilities of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) are to monitor and assess the abundance

and geographic distribution of fishery resources, to understand and predict fluctuations in the quantity and distribution of

these resources, and to establish levels for their optimum use. NMFS is also charged with the development and implementation of policies for managing national fishing grounds, with the development and enforcement of domestic fisheries

re~lations, with the surveillance of foreign fishing off U.S. coastal waters, and with the development and enforcement of

international fishery agreements and policies. NMFS also assists the fishing industry through marketing services and

economic analysis programs and through mortgage insurance and vessel construction subsidies. It collects, analyzes, and

publishes statistics on various phases of the industry.

Recently Published NOAA Technical Reports NMFS

114. Structure and historical changes in the

groundfish cOlnplex of the eastern Bering Sea, by

Richard G. Bakkala. July 1993,91 p.

115. Conservation biology of elaslDobranchs, edited

by Steven Branstetter. September 1993, 99 p.

116. Description of early larvae of four northern

California species of rockfishes (Scorpaenidae:

Sebastes) frOID rearing studies, by Guillenno Moreno.

November 1993, 18 p.

117. Distribution, abundance, and biological characteristics of groundfish off the coast of Washington,

Oregon, and California, 1977-1986, by Thomas A. Dark

and Mark E. Wilkins. May 1994, 73 p.

118. Pictorial guide to the groupers (Teleostei: Serranidae) of the western North Atlantic, by Mark Grace,

Kevin R. Rademacher, and Mike Russell. May 1994,46 p.

119. Stocks of dolphins (Stenella spp. and Delphinus delphis) in the eastern tropical Pacific: a

phylogeographic classification, by Andrew E. Dizon, William F. Perrin, and Priscilla A. Akin. June 1994, 20 p.

120. Abundance and distribution of ichthyoplankton

along an inshore-offshore transect in Onslow Bay,

North Carolina, by Allyn B. Powell and Roger E. Robbins.

June 1994,28 p.

121. Marine flora and fauna of the eastern United

States, PlatyhelJDinthes: Monogenea, by Sherman S.

Hendrix. August 1994, 107 p.

122. The SUIDIDer flounder, scup, and black sea

bass fishery of the Middle Atlantic Bight and southern

New England waters, by Gary R. Shepherd and Mark Terceiro. August 1994, 13 p.

123. NOAA Coastal Change Analysis PrograD1 (CCAP): Guidance for regional iJDplelDentation, by J. E.

Dobson, E. A. Bright, R. L. Ferguson, D. W. Field, L. L.

Wood, K. D. Haddad, H. Iredale III,]. R. Jensen, V. V.

KJemas, R.J. Orth, and]. P. Thomas. April 1995,92 p.

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