Hydrology of Crater, East 

and Davis Lakes, Oregon

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1859-E
Hydrology of Crater, East 

and Davis Lakes, Oregon

By KENNETH N. PHILLIPS

With a section on CHEMISTRY OF THE LAKES 

By A. S. VAN DENBURGH

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1859-E

Studies of water-budget balance 

in volcanic terranes for three 

lakes without surface outlets

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1968
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

William T. Pecora, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 40 cents (paper cover)
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract________________________________________________________ El

Introduction. _____________________________________________________ 2

Purpose and scope.____________________________________________ 2

Acknowledgments- ____________________________________________ 2

Location and brief description of the study areas-_________-___:.--_ 3

Crater Lake ______________________________________________________ 5

Physiographic and geologic setting..___-___--_-_-___--____-_----- 5

Climate.----__-_---_--__--_-__-___--____-_-_--___-__-_-___--_ 10

Records of lake level.__________________________________________ 13

Water supply to the lake.__-_____-__-____--_-_-_-_____--__-_--_ 14

Precipitation on the lake___________________________________ 15

Surface runoff and ground-water inflow_____________________ 16

Water loss from the lake._________________-___-___-_____-_----_ 17

Seepage loss____-__-_______-___-__-___----_-_-___-_-__--_- 17

Seepage rate in relation to lake level.___-___-____--_----_ 18

Destination of seepage outflow._________________________ 19

Evaporation loss._-___-____-____-__-_-_-_-_-__--_-_---_--- 20

Water budget.______________________________________ 20

Limits of accuracy_____-____-___-___-_____-_-_-_-_-_-___--_ 21

East Lake..____.____,___________________________.____ 22

Physiographic and geologic setting..__________---_-_--__---__--__ 22

Climate.___________________________________________________ 24

Records of lake level._-___________.______-_--_-_-______--_---_- 25

Water supply to the lake._______---__-____-------__--___-_---__ 27

Precipitation on the lake.________---__------__---__------_- 27

Surface runoff and ground-water inflow____-_-___-___-_---__ 28

Water loss from the lake._______-___-___-_-__--.--_.-_-_------- 28

Seepage loss____-___________-_______-__-_------_-_-------_ 29

Evaporation loss.__________-____________--_______---_---._ 30

Water budget---_----__-_-_______________________----- 30

Limits of accuracy____-______________---__-_-----__-------- 30

Davis Lake.________-________________________-_-______----_------- 31

Physiographic and geologic setting______________-____-_-_------__ 31

Climate. _______.-_____-___--_________________________-__----- 33

Records of lake level-----_-------_----_--_-----_--------------- 34

Water supply to the lake.___________________---_-_-___--_----_- 36

Precipitation on the lake..__-____________-_________--_-_--_ 36

Surface runoff and ground-water inflow______________-_----- 36

Water loss from the lake.____.__.___-_______--__----_---_-_--_- 37

Seepage loss_____________-_-_______-___---___-___-_------- 37

Seepage rate in relation to lake level.____________--_---_- 37

Destination of seepage outflow._____________--_____----_ 39

Evaporation loss__________________________________________ 40

Water budget..---.--..------------------------_____------ 40

Limits of accuracy...______________________________________ 40

m
IV CONTENTS

	Page 

Chemistry of the lakes, by A. S. Van Denburgh_______________________ E41

Crater Lake __________________________________________________ 41

East Lake..________________________________________ 42

Davis Lake_----____--_-_-------_-----___-------------------__ 44

Ref erences.._ _____________________________________________________ 44

Hydrologic and chemical data_____________________________________ 47

Index._---_______________________________________________________ 59

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page 

FIGURE 1. Map showing location of lakes discussed_________________ E4

2. Aerial photograph of Crater Lake looking northward toward

Mount Thielsen._____________________________________ 6'

3. Bathymetric chart of Crater Lake._______________________ 7

4. Graphs showing altitude of water surface of Crater Lake, 

precipitation at Grants Pass and Crater Lake, and flow of 

Rogue River at Raygold-_____________________________ 14

5. Graphs showing relation between average stage of Crater

Lake and amounts of annual seepage and precipitation-... 18

6. Aerial photograph of cinder cones and lava flow separating

East and Paulina Lakes.______________________________ 22

7. Photograph from southwest shore of East Lake.____________ 26

8. Aerial photograph of lava flow that impounds Davis Lake_ _ _ _ 31

9. Graph showing area and volume of Davis Lake.____________ 32

10. Graph showing average monthly flows of Odell and Davis

Creeks ______________________________________________ 36

11. Graph showing relation of stage of Davis Lake to flow of

Davis Creek below springs_____-______________________ 39

TABLES

TABLE 1. Monthly and annual temperature and precipitation at Crater Page 

Lake____________________________________________ E48

2. Precipitation at Crater Lake Weather Station for years ending

June 30, 1931-62_______________________________ 48

3. Rise in level of Crater Lake in selected periods of heavy precipitation, 1961-62______________________-__________ 49

4. Fall in level of Crater Lake in selected periods of no precipitation, 1961-62_______________________________ 49

5. Computed seepage rates for Crater Lake._________________ 50

6. Computation of annual evaporation loss from Crater Lake... 50

7. Altitude of water surface in Crater Lake, 1878-1963-_______ 51

8. Estimated outflow from Paulina Lake.____________________ 53

9. Estimate of rate of leakage from East Lake________________ 53

10. Altitude of water surface in East Lake.___________________ 54

11. Monthly and annual average temperature, precipitation, and

evaporation at Odell Lake and Wickiup Dam._____________ 55

12. Altitude of water surface in Davis Lake__-__-------_----_- 55

13. Chemical and physical character of the lakes_____________ 57
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

HYDROLOGY OF CRATER, EAST AND 

DAVIS LAKES, OREGON

By KENNETH N. PHILLIPS

ABSTRACT

Crater, East, and Davis Lakes are small bodies of fresh water that occupy 

topographically closed basins in Holocene volcanic terranes. Because the annual 

water supply exceeds annual evaporation, water must be lost by seepage from 

each lake. The seepage rates vary widely both in volume and in percentage of the 

total water supply. Crater Lake loses about 89 cfs (cubic feet per second), 

equivalent to about 72 percent of its average annual supply. East Lal-» loses 

about 2.3 cfs, or about 44 percent of its estimated supply. Davis Lake seepage 

varies greatly with lake level, but the average loss is about 150 cfs, more than 90 

percent of its total supply. The destination of the seepage loss is not definitely 

known for any of the lakes.

An approximate water budget was computed for stationary level for each lake, 

by using estimates by the writer to supplement the hydrologic data available.

The three lake waters are dilute. Crater Lake contains about 80 ppm. (parts 

per million) of dissolved solids 'mostly silica, sodium, and bicarbonate, and 

lesser amounts of calcium, sulfate, and chloride. Much of the dissolved-solids 

content of Crater Lake especially the sulfate and chloride may be related to 

fumarole and thermal-spring activity that presumably followed the collapse of 

Mount Mazama. Although Crater Lake loses an estimated 7,000 tons of its 1.5- 

million-ton salt content each year by leakage, the chemical character of the lake 

did not change appreciably between 1912 and 1964. East Lake contains 200 ppm 

of dissolved solids, which includes major proportions of calcium, sodium, bicarbonate, and sulfate, but almost no chloride. The lake apparently receives 

much of its dissolved solids from subsurface thermal springs. Annual solute loss 

from East Lake by leakage is about 450 tons, or 3 percent of the lake's 15,000-ton 

estimated solute content. Davis Lake contains only 48 ppm of dissolved solids, 

much of which is silica and bicarbonate; chloride is almost completely absent.

Approximate physical and hydrologic data for the lakes are summarized in the 

following table.

Physical or hydrologic characteristic measured or estimated

Averaee seeoaee loss.. ....... .............

.......................do.-..

.......................feet..

..-.-.-.-..----....-.-do.-..

......................do--.

........................Cfs..

Crater

26.2 

20.5 

1,932 

14,000 

6, 179. 06 

6, 163. 2 

69 

75,600 

89,600 

23 

25,200 

0.28 

64,400 

89

Lake

East

7.46 

1.47 

170 

55 

6, 382. 5 

6,366 

35 

2,740 

3,890 

28 

2,190 

0.56 

1,700 

2.3

Davis

98 

5.9 

26 

38 

4,393.2 

4, 376. 1 

36 

8,000 

117,000 

30 

8,000 

0.07 

109,000 

150
E2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The purpose of this report is to bring together available hydrologic 

and chemical data on certain topographically enclosed lakes, to describe the variations within historic time of their water levels, volumes, 

and chemical character, and, insofar as practicable, to correlate such 

variations with climatic or other causal factors.

The approximate magnitudes of precipitation and runoff as sources 

of supply, and evaporation and leakage as means of disposition were 

the water-budget elements determined for each lake, fome of the 

quantities have been measured, some have been ascertained by correlation with published records of precipitation or runoff, some have 

been computed as residuals, and the others have been estimated. A 

large mass of water-level data was assembled, and data collection was 

intensified during the study.

Chemical aspects of the study included determination of the chemical character of the lakes and evaluation of the possible sources and 

disposition of dissolved solids.

Such basic data as precipitation and inflow can only be estimated for 

some of the lakes. Chemical data are scanty. This report must be 

viewed as an effort to ascertain preliminary hydrologic and chemical 

budgets for the lakes and to present what is known of th^ir chemical 

quality. The conclusions reached are subject to review as more data 

become available.

The hydrologic aspects of the study were made by Kenneth N. Phillips, assisted by Roy B. Sanderson, district engineer, and members of 

his staff. Fieldwork was completed in July 1963, and the cutoff date 

for most hydrologic data was September 30,1962.

The chemical phases of the study were performed by A. S. Van 

Denburgh.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Several organizations have provided valuable information and assistance during the present study. Most of the water-level data on 

Crater Lake were provided by the U.S. National Park Service. The 

bathymetric chart for Crater Lake (fig. 3) is from a lake-bottom 

survey made by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The area-volume 

curve and some water-level data for Davis Lake are from an unpublished engineering report by the U.S. Reclamation Service. The office 

of the Oregon State Engineer furnished data on Davis Lake levels 

and cooperated with the U.S. Geological Survey in operating streamgaging stations to obtain data essential to this study; wato-rmasters of
CRATER, EAST, AND DAVIS LAKE'S, OREGON E3

that office, Aubrey Perry and James Fellows of Bend, deserve special 

thanks for assistance in the field.

Many individuals also were helpful in the study. The writers are 

especially grateful to Mr. B. W. Black, formerly chief park naturalist 

at Crater Lake, for assistance in the field and for criticism of a draft 

of the section on hydrology of Crater Lake, to Mr. S. T. Harding, 

consulting engineer, for results of his field observations and unpublished notes on the hydrology of Crater and Davis Lakes, to Dr. D. B. 

Lawrence for results of his observations on tree rings and water levels 

at Crater, Davis, and East Lakes, and to Mr. C. H. Nelson for tH use 

of an unpublished thesis on the limnology of Crater Lake.

Within the Geological Survey, George T. Hirashima checked most of 

the hydrologic computations, and many other members of the staff 

contributed valuable suggestions. Walter B. Langbein and S. E. TCantz 

were principal reviewers of the final manuscript. Special gratitude 

is extended to Nyra Johnson for her dedication, patience, and understanding during the typing and assembly of this manuscript.

LOCATION AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY ARFAS

The three small study areas are situated in the southwest quarter of 

Oregon (fig. 1). Crater Lake lies in a caldera at the summit of the 

Cascade Range, 65 miles north of the Calif ornia-Oregon State HE e and 

120 miles inland from the Pacific Ocean. East Lake lies TO miles northeast, and Davis Lake 50 miles north, from Crater Lake. The three lakes 

are not subject to overflow, but do lose water by leakage.

The lakes lie in volcanic terranes that have been formed or significantly modified by volcanic activity in Holocene time. Crater Lake occupies the caldera of Mount Mazama, East Lake lies in the somewhat 

similar Newberry Crater, and Davis Lake is an impoundment on Odell 

Creek, formed by a Holocene permeable lava flow that dammed the 

creek channel. The topographic basins tributary to the lakes are small. 

However, because of the permeable nature of the volcanic soils and 

rock, some ground water may be transferred across topographic 

divides, and hence the contributory areas may be somewhat different 

from the topographic basins.

The lakes lie at moderately high altitudes, either on or adjacent to 

higher mountains. Crater Lake, at 6,175 feet on the crest of the Cascade 

Range, and East Lake, at 6,375 feet in Newberry Crater of the Paulina 

Mountains, are similar in altitude but somewhat different in topographic environment. Davis Lake, at 4,390 feet, lies on an extensive 

lava plain from which many Holocene volcanic cones rise to altitudes 

of more than 6,000 feet.
E4 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

i DESCHUTES COUNTY _ _

//Tr-j_4><

K rSoMHrfa?V MoU nt BiS

FIGURE 1. Location of lakes discussed.

Weather records are relatively few in the sparsely populated mountain areas from which most of the runoff is derived. The mountains 

profoundly affect the climate of the area. The prevailir^ westerly 

winds carry masses of marine air from the Pacific Ocean across the 

region, especially in the period from November to March. Precipitation in that period, chiefly as snowfall, is heavy near the summits and 

on the windward slopes of the mountain barriers, but is considerably 

less at lower altitudes and on the leeward (east) side of the Cascade 

Range.

The average annual precipitation in the region ranges from about 

70 inches along the crest of the Cascade Range to about 20 inches on 

the plateau about 20 miles east of the range. It may vary greatly in 

short distances because of changes in altitude or topographic orientation with respect to prevailing winds.
CRATER, ElAST, AND DAVIS LIAKE'S, OREGON E5

In most of the region, the period June to September is dry, with 

warm days and cool nights. The warmest summer weather occurs in 

basins at the lower altitudes (4,100 ft), but because such basins have 

poor air drainage, freezing occurs there in all seasons.

Small thermal springs and seeps occur near the shore of East Lake. 

Similar springs may enter Crater Lake below the waterline. Such 

springs may provide a significant part of the dissolved-solids load in 

each of these lakes.

The water levels of the lakes respond to variations in the annual and 

long-term water supply and water loss. Typically, the peak of the 

annual cycle occurs in the spring season, near the end of the period of 

greatest precipitation and runoff, and is followed by a recession during 

the dry, warm summer months to an annual minimum in the late 

summer or early autumn. In periods of greater than average precipitation and runoff, the lakes gradually rise until the combined evaporation 

from their increased area and leakage at the higher level offset their 

annual supply; in protracted periods of dryness, the water levels fall 

until a balance is reached.

The works of man, specifically the storage, use, and diversion of 

water, have not affected the lakes. Their changes in levels are indices 

of the balance between supply (precipitation and runoff) and loss 

(evaporation and seepage). All the lakes studied were at low levels 

in the 1930's and 1940's, after a series of dry years; all were at high 

levels in 1957 and 1958, after a series of wet years.

CRATER LAKE

PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTING

Crater Lake (fig. 2), the deepest lake in the United States, lies in the 

caldera of Mount Mazama, an extinct volcano that rises on the crest of 

the Cascade Range in southern Oregon, 120 miles inland from the 

Pacific Ocean. The lake is 4% to 6 miles in diameter and 1,932 feet 

deep. Its water surface is about 6,175 feet above mean sea level. The 

walls of the caldera descend steeply into the water, so that an observer 

on the rim above may see the narrow fringe of green shallow water 

near the shore merging within a short distance into the intense blue 

color of great depth. The lake has no surface outlet and no perennial 

inflowing streams.

Crater Lake has a surface area of 20.53 square miles (13,140 acres) at 

altitude 6,176 feet. The area between the encircling rim and the lake 

is 5.17 square miles, and Wizard Island, a volcanic cone rising 770 feet 

'above the water surface, covers 0.47 square mile. The lake contains 

about 14 million acre-feet (4.2 cubic miles) of water. That volume

307-879 O 68 2
E6 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

FIGTJBE 2. 'Western half of Crater Lake, view looking northward toward Mount 

Thielsen (right skyline). Wizard Island (center) is a volcanic cone that was 

formed within the caldera before the lake had attained its present height. 

(Oregon State Highway Dept. photograph 6639.)

represents 150 times the present average annual water supply. The 

water level has fluctuated about 16 feet.

A 'bathymetric survey in 1959 (fig. 3) disclosed a rather flat lake 

floor more than 1,500 feet below the water surface, from which a conical hillock (Merriam Cone) rises to within 500 feet of the surface. 

The lake has a depth of at least 1,920 feet over an area of 1.0 square 

mile.

In places, the soil cover of the steep slopes around the shores of the 

lake has been removed by landslides or avalanches; elsewhere, a moderately dense stand of pines, firs, and poplars covers the slopes down 

to the edge of the lake. When the lake is at a low stage, seedlings may 

be found growing below recent high-water levels, and Nelson (1961, 

p. 30) cited a report of the discovery in 1956 of the stump of a tree 

that may either have grown at altitude 6,129 feet or have been carried 

to that level by a local landslide. There are no confirmed reports of 

large trees having grown below about 6,178 feet, or of any trees below 

altitude 6,165 feet.
CRATER, ElAST, AND DAVIS LIAKE&, OREGON E7

122-10' 8' 6' 122°04'

Line of equal depth below

lake surface 

Interval, 300 feet

FIGURE 3. Bathymetric chart of Crater Lake.

A study of the hydrologic regimen of Crater Lake calls for s brief 

review of the volcanic history leading to formation of the lake. ] fount 

Mazama is the remnant of an extinct volcano that was active during 

Pleistocene and Holocene time (Williams, 1957, p. 14) and was formed 

of alternating effusive lava flows and layers of ejecta from explosive 

eruptions. The volcanic cone attained an estimated height of mor^ than 

12,000 feet. During periods of quiescence, glaciers coursed down its 

slopes and carved U-shaped valleys and left trains of glacial till that 

locally were covered by material from later eruptions. Within the body 

of the volcano, dike-forming masses of molten lava at times forced 

their way upward along planes of weakness and served as feeders for 

effusive flows that appeared on the slopes of the volcano. Subsidiary 

cinder cones also developed, especially in the area north of the main 

volcano. Some of the explosive eruptions threw out masses of incandescent ash that flowed as glowing avalanches for many miles down 

the slopes of the mountain; these materials subsequently cooled and 

became fused. These fused deposits are now exposed as spectacular
E8 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

pinnacles in the canyons eroded by some streams, notably Annie Creek 

and Sand Creek, that flow down the slopes of Mount Manama.

The volume of material thrown out during the late, exp^sive stages 

of the eruption has been estimated as 17 cubic miles r.s deposited 

(Williams, 1953, p. 49). Most of the material ejected was pumice and 

ash that now cover about 5,000 square miles to a depth of more than 6 

inches. Most of the pumice was carried by the southwert wind and 

deposited to the east and northeast. The explosive emptying of the 

magma chamber finally removed the support from the upper-central 

part of the volcano and allowed the upper part to collapse into the 

empty chamber. The broad crater formed by the collapse is the spectacular caldera now occupied by Crater Lake.

The pumice explosions occurred about 6,600 years ago, as shown by 

carbc«i-14 dating of 10 specimens of carbonized wood taken from 

the beds of pumice (Fryxell, 1965, p. 1288).

Some volcanic activity continued after the caldera was formed; 

the blocky lava flows on Wizard Island, apparently formed in a subaerial environment, may be only about a thousand years old (Williams, 

1953, p.49).

All evidence indicates that Crater Lake itself is young. The lake has 

no well-developed beach lines in the range of observed water levels. A 

water body must have begun to form soon after active volcanism 

ceased. The floor of the crater is probably underlain by lava flows 

somewhat less permeable than the volcanic ejecta of the caldera walls. 

Given a climate like the present one, the new lake would have increased 

in depth rapidly until it reached a level at which its annual supply was 

substantially balanced by leakage and evaporation.

The oldest trees on Wizard Island are about 900 yearr old (Williams, 1942, p. 94), and these trees may have been among the first 

to have grown on the island. The climate during that time, at least, 

must have been generally similar to that of the present.

If we assume a climate like that of the present, a period of 500 

to 1,000 years may well have been required to fill the lake tc its present 

level. Much of the measured seepage may leave the lake 500 feet or 

more below the present water level. If so, the rise of the lake above 

that level must have been slow, but it is not possible to approximate 

the probable levels of seepage loss nor deduce the time of filling to the 

present level. The lake may have been generally at its present level, in 

balance with the present climate, for a similar length of time. Nelson 

(1961, p. 130) concluded that deposits of colloidal clay derived from 

volcanic ash, reworked in places by submarine landsliding, have 

helped to seal the bed of the lake. Such sealing may still be in progress. 

But continued sealing by any means during a period of stable climate
CRATER, ElAST, AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON E9

should result in a slowly rising lake level and submergence of mature 

forest trees, of which we have as yet no confirmed evidence.

There is, however, a strong probability that the climate was not like 

that of the present time for about 3,000 years after the formation of 

the caldera. Students of post-Pleistocene climate are generally agreed 

that the middle third of the last 10,000 years 7,000 to 4,000 years 

before the present Was warm and dry in western North America. For 

example, Harding (1965, p>. 137-140) observed stumps of trees that 

grew on the shore of Lake Tahoe, Calif., in a period when the lake was 

below the level of the root systems of the trees and below its own outlet. One stump with its base 2 feet below the basin rim had 100 countable rings in 1934. Carbon-14 dating on samples from two such 

stumps show ages of 4,250 ±200 years and 4,460 ±250 years. Obviously, to permit the growth of these trees a protracted warm-dry 

period must have occurred when inflow to Lake Tahoe did not exceed 

evaporation from its surface. By contrast, the present average annual 

inflow is more than three times the average evaporation loss (Harding, 1965, p. 136). Similar evidences of the warm-dry period have been 

reported in many parts of the world (Matthes, 1942, p. 208-215; Flint 

and Brandtner, 1961, fig. 1; Gentilli, 1961, p. 491).

Crater Lake was born in that warm-dry period. No doubt a small 

lake formed soon after volcanic activity in the crater ceased, but the 

level of the water surface must have been well below the preser t level 

until perhaps 1,000 to 4,000 years ago. The period of 2 to 5 milleniums 

in which the lake was low would have given ample opportunity for 

forest trees to grow on the crater walls well below the presert lake 

surface. If and when the stumps of such trees can be found and dated, 

their altitude and age will fill a gap in our knowledge of the development of Crater Lake.

The lower slopes of Mount Mazama are drained by tributaries of the 

Rogue River to the west and the Klamath River to the south an d east. 

The drainage paths for some parts of the area surrounding the b°sm of 

Crater Lake (especially on the north) are uncertain, and some ground 

water may interchange across topographic divides.

The pumice cover on the higher outer slopes of Mount Mazama, and 

much of the underlying volcanic materials, are so highly permeable 

that in places all precipitation infiltrates where it falls. Larg^ areas 

have no stream channels or other signs of erosion by running water. 

Downslope from the permeable areas, and within 25 miles of Crater 

Lake, large springs occur in the basins of the Klamath, Rogue, and 

Umpqua Rivers. The less extensive areas of glacial deposits and 

solidified volcanic ash on Mount Mazama are relatively impermeable.
E10 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

No perennial streams flow into Crater Lake, and there is no overflow. 

In the summer season, the melting of accumulated snow produces many 

rivulets that course down the steep oaldera walls into the lake. The 

total measured flow of 63 of these streams was 10. Y5 cfs (cubic feet 

per second) in mid-July 1901 (Diller and Patton, 1902, p. 60). Presumably, these streams were not constant in flow, but varied considerably during each day with changes in the rate of sncwmelt; also, 

some unmeasured melt water doubtless was then entering the lake as 

small seeps at the shore or as underground percolation.

CLIMATE

Because of its altitude and position at the crest of the Cascade Range, 

Crater Lake is in an area whose climate is usually cool and wet from 

October to May and cool and dry from June to September. Average 

annual precipitation exceeds 60 inches, and most of it occurs as snowfall. Air temperatures are low throughout the humid period and at 

night even in summer; but extremely low temperatures seldom occur 

at the lake or on the slopes of Mount Mazama because of frequent 

cloud cover and good air drainage. Relative humidity is high except 

for daytime hours in summer, and evaporation potential is therefore 

low.

From October to May, moisture-bearing airmasses frequently move 

up the mountain slopes from the west and southwest. Precipitation in 

this period is heavy, and the data available are not adequate to show 

whether it is uniformly distributed or not. Storms from any direction 

may sweep snow across the crater rim and thence into the lake. Some 

avalanching into the lake undoubtedly occurs at times from the steeper 

or less wooded slopes. These factors result in increments of water supply in the lake that may not be accurately indicated by any precipitation gage.

Records of air temperature (table 1) have been collected by the 

U.S. National Park Service at the sites indicated below, with some 

periods of incomplete record:

1. At Annie Spring (alt 6,016 ft), October 1922 to December 1925.

2. At the south rim of Crater Lake (alt Y,086 ft), November 1926 to 

June 1930.

3. At park headquarters (alt 6,475 ft), June 1930 to present. 

The annual mean temperature is 39°F, and from October through May 

it averages only 32.2°F. This long period of coolness affect? the temperature of the lake water and lowers the evaporation potential substantially below that of the general area.

The water of Crater Lake is cold. Below a depth of about 200 feet, 

the temperature approaches 39.2°F (the temperature of maximum 

density) at all seasons of the year (Nelson, 1961, p. 36-45). Hence,
CRATER, EiAST, AND DAVIS LAKE®, OREGON Ell

most of the lake water does not undergo the annual thermal turnovers 

common to shallow lakes in temperate climates. In summer, the temperature of the surface water rises to about 64°F at times.

Contrary to popular belief, ice does form at times on Crater Lake. 

For instance, the lake was frozen over in 1949, and at that tini3 two 

men walked across the ice from the south shore to Wizard Island. 

Again, in January 1962, much of the lake surface was frozen.

Records of precipitation obtained at Crater Lake Weather Station, 

2 miles south of the lake rim at altitude 6,475 feet, from 1930 to 1962, 

are summarized in tables 1 and 2. For the 32 years ending June 30, 

1962, the average annual precipitation was 67.4 inches. That value appears to be a little more than the average long-term precipitation, because (1) the average annual precipitation at Grants Pass, 70 miles 

southwest of Crater Lake, was 30.87 inches for that 32-year period, but 

only 30.31 inches for the 73-year period 1889-1962, and (2) the lake 

level was about 8.7 feet higher in July 1962 than it was 32 years 

earlier an average rise of more than 3 inches per year.

At the Crater Lake Weather Station the average long-term annual 

precipitation, adjusted for a constant lake level, is about 65 inches. In 

the wettest year ending June 30 of record, 1950-51, the observed precipitation was 93.08 inches, and the lake rose 2.5 feet; in the driest 

year, 1930-31, the precipitation was 33.34 inches, and the lake fell 

about the same amount.

The annual precipitation on the lake presumably is not the same 

as that reported at the weather station. The rain gage collects a 

sample that is almost infinitesimal as compared to the size of the lake. 

That sample of precipitation is subject to large and unavoidable errors, such as uneven distribution because of topographic influences 

and localized wind currents near trees, buildings, or even the precipitation gage itself. Also, the lake basin may at times act as a huge 

snow trap. For this study, therefore, the precipitation falling on the 

lake was compared with that observed at the weather station for 

storm periods in 1961-62 (see p. E15).

From 1951 to 1960, attempts were made to increase winter precipitation and summer runoff in the adjacent basins of Rogue, Urrpqua, 

and Klamath Rivers by cloud seeding in periods thought to b^ favorable for that purpose. These attempts produced no statistically 

significant results in streamflow (Calvin and Peterson, 1960, p. 3) 

and probably did not change significantly the water supply of Crater 

Lake.

Information on evaporation loss from Crater Lake is scanty. In 

1901, Diller made the only known attempt to measure evaporation 

(Diller and Patton, 1902, p. 58). Diller used (1) a brown floating pan,
El2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

13 by 13 inches by 6 inches deep, (2) a similar land pan, and (3) a 

bright land pan of the same dimensions. In a 9-day period in midJuly, observations at the floating pan showed water loss at an average 

rate of 0.014 foot per day (4.9 in. per month). The land pans showed 

considerably more loss. All his tests were of short duration, and none 

was made with equipment that meets present standards.

Evaporation has been measured from a 4-foot-diameter floating pan 

at Lake Tahoe, about 265 miles south of Crater Lake, at an altitude 

of 6,230 feet on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada. For the period 

May 1 to October 31, the average evaporation loss there is 25.8 inches 

(Blaney and Corey, 1955, table 44), and the average annual evaporation loss has been estimated at 3.07 feet (Harding, 1965, p. 20).

Evaporation has also been measured from a land pan at Odell Lake, 

42 miles north of Crater Lake, at an altitude of about 4,800 feet on the 

eastern slope of the Cascade Range (table 11). The average evaporation loss from May 1 to October 31 is 19.3 inches, and the average for 

the year is estimated at 24 inches. The corresponding loss from an open 

water surface would be somewhat less.

The evaporation loss from Crater Lake in the period May to October 

is probably less than at Lake Tahoe, because Crater Lake li^ 265 miles 

farther north and in a much more humid climate. Odell Lake is lower 

than Crater Lake but has comparable annual precipitation. On the 

basis of comparative latitude, altitude, and annual precipitation, the 

evaporation loss from Crater Lake is probably similar to or less than 

that of Odell Lake.

At Medford, 46 miles southwest of Crater Lake, evaporation has 

been measured for 24 years (U.S. Weather Bureau, 1962, p. 231). The 

Medford Weather Station is the only one that is situated on or near 

the path of most of the airmasses that pass over Crater Lake and has 

records for the entire year over a long period. The precipitation and 

relative humidity at Medford are lower, and the average temperature 

is higher, than at Crater Lake. At Medford, the average annual evaporation loss from a class A land pan at altitude 1,457 feet is 44.8 

inches, of which 79 percent occurs in the period May to October. 

Relatively high humidity prevails at Crater Lake from November to 

April, so that probably not less than 80 percent of the total annual 

evaporation loss there occurs in the period May to October.

For this report no attempt was made to ascertain evaporation loss 

at Crater Lake by direct measurement of evaporation or of the factors 

that influence it. Rather, annual evaporation loss is considered to be 

the residual after the loss by seepage has been deducted from the 

annual water supply (see p. E20). Therefore, any error in ascertaining precipitation, inflow, or seepage introduces an error of like 

amount in the computed evaporation loss.
CRATER, ElAST, AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON E13

RECORDS OF LAKE LEVEL

Records of lake level are given in table 7 and are summarized in 

figure 4. All data are referred to a common datum by which the 

bench mark at the southwest shore of the lake is 6,178.955 feet above 

mean sea level (Marshall, 1914, p. 88). Some readings are subject to 

error because of waves or because of the need to use temporary reference marks, but the record, although fragmentary, is in general dependable. The highest level in many years was 6,179.06 feet in June 

1958 (by later measurement to high-water mark); a slightly higher 

level may have occurred in 1904. The lowest level known is 6,163.2 feet, 

September 10,1942.

Prior to September 1961, the occasional observations of lake level 

were made at several different gages at the southwest shore. On September 14, 1961, a water-stage recorder was installed at Cleetwood 

Cove on the northeast shore. The continuous trace of that recorder in 

1961-62 was used to determine (1) the rate of seepage loss from the 

lake in cold periods of no precipitation and little evaporation and 

inflow, and (2) the increment to the lake in periods of heavy precipitation, for comparison with precipitation at the weather station. (It was 

necessary to ascertain the seepage rate first, because that loss continues 

during periods of precipitation.)

A change in the pattern of lichen growth at altitude 6,180.5 feet 

has been noted by many observers since 1915. The lowest living cristose 

lichens reach that level on the rock walls around the lake, and that 

level is thought to represent the highest stage ever reached by Crater 

Lake; the date of that high level is not known. Moreover, large living 

conifers along the shores of Crater Lake have their root systems vithin 

a few feet of historic high-water levels. Nelson (1961, p. 28-32) refers 

to the following observations made in August 1960 by D. B. Lawrence, 

who took cores from several of those trees and counted their annual 

growth rings to ascertain their age.

Altitude at base (feet) Tree species and significance

6,187.4-_------__i Abies magnified, living; center at A.D. 1580.

6,185.6__----____i Pinus monticola, living; center at A.D. 1797.

6,182.9._----_--__ Pinus monticola, dead; had lived at least 430 years.

6,180.5.__________ Rhizocarpon geographicum, lowest living crustose lichen

on stable rocks. 

6,178.7__-________ Pinus monticola, dead stump; tree probably died before

1900. 

6,172.5___________ Populus trichocarpa, drowned about 1957; had lived 30

years.

Certainly the level of the lake has not been higher than the root 

system of living conifer trees within their lifetimes. From the botanical evidence, the relative youthfulness of the caldera, and the absence 

of defined high-level beach lines, the lichen line at 6,180.5 feet proHably 

represents the highest level ever reached by the lake.

aOT-879 O 68 3
E14 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE1 UNITED STATES

6175 

6170 

6165 

6160

°o ° 8 °

° °8 '88§0 o 0

° 000 ° 0

Precipitation at Grants Pass, 

year ending June 30

79-year av 1 ^L_L n Lr-»-"i>«r- I-""- 

inches.

L ^

Highest and lowest level of 

Crater Lake observed each year

°go

8

 

If^T/Ll "-iJ

h-crV-^

-ftofifc U4i^ii

c 8 c§'

58S 

/32-y

3/0

0

o 0

1 Precipitation at 

Crater Lake, year

ending June 30 

ear average = 67 4 inches

^iT-H JiLRn

^.liii.yiiEiiiiisLj^lp' JiiaMiyirtHpiEipirflj-ii! lillT

T^lpi^jiiirw^i w ll ilpr.: 

100 

50 

0

 I 

Departure from average

Mean discharge of Rogue River 

at Raygold, year ending September 30

Discharge of Rogue River, 

year ending September 30 

Precipitation at Grants Pass, 

year ending June 30 a. - - -' - o***

-40035

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

FIGURE 4. Altitude of water surface of Crater Lake; precipitation at Grants 

Pass and Crater Lake; departure from average for periods of record for flow 

of Rogue River at Raygold and precipitation at Grants Pass; and flow of 

Rogue River at Raygold.

Attempts have also been made to ascertain whether Crater Lake 

has ever been much higher than at present by searching the slopes 

above the lake for sponge spicules and shells of diatoms of species 

that now live or could have lived in the lake. Pursuing that possibility, Nelson (1961, p. 33) collected soil samples at 100-foot altitude 

intervals up to the crater of Wizard Island, and up to the rim of Crater 

Lake. Nearly every sample, even those collected from places higher 

than the low points in the rim, contained diatoms and sponge spicules 

that must have been carried by wind currents to those levels far above 

the lake. Their presence is certainly not evidence of former high 

lake levels.

WATER SUPPLY TO THE LAKE

The water supply of Crater Lake is derived from infailing precipitation, surface runoff, and ground-water inflow. Direct precipitation, 

chiefly in the form of snowfall, is by far the greatest contributor, because the lake itself covers most of its basin. Snowfall forms drifts 

on the crater walls and the snow reaches the lake either by avalanching 

during winter and spring storms or as summer snowmelt and deep
CRATER, EAST, AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON E15

percolation. Some precipitation that falls high on the crater slopes may 

be drained radially outward away from the lake. On the other hand, 

Williams (1942, p. 129) has suggested the possibility of slight amounts 

of seepage toward the lake from outside the rim and has observed that:

In general, the drainage is outward from the caldera, following the dip of the 

lavas and interbedded pyroclastic rocks. At several points, however, particularly 

where lavas rest on glacial debris, the drainage is reversed and enters the lake. 

Noteworthy examples may be seen on the cliffs south of Sentinel Point, on 

Sutton Cliff, and under the topmost flows overlooking Grotto Cove. .At these 

and similar places, copious springs discharge down the caldera walls.

Any small contribution to the water supply of the lake thr.t may 

result from a reversal of the prevailing outward drainage, as noted by 

Williams, probably is offset, and may be exceeded, by outward radial 

seepage from melting snowbanks high up on the walls of the caldera. 

No allowance is made herein for the possibility of such in-seepage or 

out-seepage above the level of the lake; rather, the topographic rim 

is assumed to be the hydrologic divide.

PRECIPITATION ON THE LAKE

The lake covers '20.53 square miles of the 26.17-square-mile total 

drainage area. The peripheral tributary area is subject to sor^e loss 

of water by evapotranspiration; hence, precipitation falling directly 

into the lake must account for more than 78 percent of the total water 

supply. It is therefore desirable to measure that precipitation as accurately as possible.

The response of lake level to heavy precipitation provides a clue 

to the relationship of observed precipitation at the weather station to 

that over the lake itself. In table 3, records of heavy precipitation 

in 1961-62 are compared with records of lake level. In the 50 days 

studied (table 3), more than 60 percent of the total precipitation for 

the entire water year ending September 30 occurred. For these humid 

periods, loss by evaporation is disregarded, and outflow seepage is 

assumed to be steady at 89 cfs, as ascertained for periods of no precipitation in 1961-62 (p. E17). Although most of the precipitation was in 

the form of snow, the average inflow from the tributary area is assumed 

to be equivalent to 14 cfs (0.002 ft per day on the lake area), about 

3 percent of the total supply for these wet periods.

For a total observed precipitation of 3.13 feet in 50 days, the 

lake response (adjusted for inflow and seepage) was 3.35 feet, or 7 

percent more than the total precipitation observed at the weather 

station. The difference in periods of high wind may be due to underregistering of precipitation that fell as snow at the weather station, 

or to snow drifting over the rim into the lake, or to avalanching of
E16 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

accumulated snow into the lake during the storms. The relationship between measured precipitation and lake-level rise varied in different 

storms.

Annual precipitation at the weather station, summarised in table 

2, has been totalized for the years ending June 30, 1931-62, to facilitate comparisons with observations of lake level, which are generally 

available only for the summer. The average observed annual precipitation in the 32-year period is 67.4 inches, and in the same period the 

average precipitation inside the lake rim is computed as 67.4 X 1.07, or 

72 inches. This was not a normal or equilibrium period in fact, the 

lake level in the summer of 1962 was about 8.7 feet higher than in 1930. 

Adjustment for storage in the lake during this period reduces the 

average long-term unnual precipitation on the lake fro*n 72 to 69 

inches, and that at the weather station from 67.4 (1930-62) to about 

64.8 inches.

SURFACE RUNOFF AND GROUND-WATER INFLOW

Most of the water supply for the lake comes from rain 'and snow 

falling directly into the lake. The contribution by runoff r,nd percolation from the steep peripheral area cannot, however, be disregarded, 

and its amount has been estimated by considering precipitation and 

runoff records in Rogue River basin, over which the moisture-laden 

winds must pass to reach the lake. Average annual observed precipitation is about 18 inches at Medford (alt 1,300 ft), 42 inches at Prospect 

(alt '2,500 ft), and 67 inches at Crater Lake (alt 6,475 ft). The longterm average runoff (including ground-water contribution^) of Rogue 

River below South Fork (alt 1,700 ft) is equal to 36 inches depth on 

its drainage area annually; at the river station near Prospect (alt 

2,600 ft) it is 35 inches, and some large spring flows bypass the station; 

above Bybee Creek (alt 3,600 ft) it is 41 inches. Obviously, the annual 

precipitation and runoff increase with altitude. However, because of 

avalanching from the crater walls, the precipitation effective in producing runoff from the peripheral area is less than th°, computed 

annual average of 69 inches on the lake itself.

For this report, the average annual runoff from the peripheral area 

is estimated at 46 inches depth (13,840 acre-ft), including groundwater inflow.

The total water supply reaching the lake has been calculated from 

the area of the lake (13,140 acres) and the tributary area (<\610 acres). 

For 1 inch of observed precipitation at the weather station, about 1,386 

acre-feet of water reaches the lake, and the average annual observed 

precipitation of 67.4 inches (1930-62) produces 93,400 acre-feet erf 

water in the lake.
CRATER, BAST, AND DAVIS UAKEiS, OREGON E17 

WATER LOSS FROM THE LAKE

Water leaves Crater Lake by seepage and evaporation oiiK For 

this report, seepage loss was first calculated, and evaporation loss was 

then computed as the residual needed to balance the relationship 

between supply, seepage, and change in lake level (table 6).

SEEPAGE LOSS

It has long been recognized that some of the water in Crater Lake 

is continuously being lost by seepage. In 1913, when the lake level was 

near 6,176 feet altitude, F. F. Henshaw estimated the seepage rate at 

83 cfs (U.S. Geol. Survey, Portland, Oreg., unpub. data, July 29, 

1913). Van Winkle (1914, p. 42) stated that "some of the water may 

find its way by percolation into Rogue River, but more of it probably 

goes southward, appearing as springs in the drainage basin of 

Klamath River." S. T. Harding (written commun., 1953), on the 

assumption that annual evaporation loss was 36 inches, estimated that 

seepage was about 58 cfs.

The trace of a continuous water-level recorder was used to ascertain 

the average rate of seepage loss from the lake in selected dry and cold 

periods in 1961-62 (table 4). That recorder was installed in Cleetwood 

Cove on September 14, 1961. The datum of its reference gage is the 

same 'as that of the former staff gage on the southwest shore and was 

ascertained by water level in periods of calm. Ordinary waves are 

damped out by the inlet to the water-stage recorder, and the water 

level can be ascertained within 0.01 foot except in rare periods of high 

wind.

From November 4, 1961, to April 18, 1962, there were six periods, 

each of 3 to 10 days' duration, in which no precipitation was recorded 

at Crater Lake Weather Station. Table 4 shows the fall in lake level 

during these periods. The evaporation rate was undoubtedly very low, 

because the water surface was cold and at times partly frozen. Relative 

humidity is generally high in such periods. Nevertheless, an average 

loss by evaporation of 0.002 foot per day (equivalent to 13 cf?) was 

assumed. Temperatures were generally low, and runoff frcm the 

peripheral tributary area of 5.64 square miles would have been minimal, but deep percolation would have continued, and an average runoff 

rate into the lake of 8 cfs was assumed.

The average seepage rate computed for the six short period? listed 

in the table was 89 ofs. That rate is applicable to a stage of 6,175.4 feet, 

the average level of the lake in the period November 1961 to April 1962.
El8 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

SEEPAGE RATE IN RELATION TO LAKE LEVEL

It is desirable to know whether the leakage of 89 ofs computed for 

periods in 1961-62 is virtually constant, as would be exp ected if the 

leaks were at great depth, or whether it increases materially at higher 

stages, as would be expected if some of the leaks were at or near the 

water surface.

By utilizing the hydrologic data available, and assuming (1) the 

validity of the relationship of precipitation and inflow previously 

determined, and (2) the 23-inch annual evaporation lors (p. E20) 

as unvarying from year to year, seepa'ge-loss rates ranging from 86 to 

100 cfs have been calculated for low, medium, and high l?,ke levels in 

seven periods of 1 to 8 years each (table 5). The calculated seepage 

rates have been compared graphically (fig. 5) with average lake levels 

in those periods.

6180

6175

Z 6170

6165

< 6160

-R7/

/

1958-59

l 960-61

1939-42

85 90 95 100 105

SEEPAGE RATE, IN CUBIC FEET

PER SECOND

60 70 

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, 

IN INCHES

5. Relation between the average stage of Crater Lake 

and (1) the computed seepage rates for water years shown 

(range of stage indicated by vertical bars) and (2) the computed annual precipitation required at the weather station 

to maintain a constant stage.
CRATER, EIAST, AND DAVIS LAKE'S, OREGON E19

Figure 5 shows that the seepage rate ranges only from about 86 cfs to 

101 cfs for the observed range in lake level, 6,163 to 6,179 feet. The computed points are somewhat erratic in position, and a straight-line 

curve possibly may better express the true relationship betweer. stage 

and seepage rate. However, the curve in figure 5 is based in p^.rt on 

evidence that the lake has never been above 6,180.5 feet. The seepage 

rate probably increases rather sharply as the water level riser from 

6,175 to 6,180 feet and serves as a regulator to keep the lake at levels 

little if any higher than those reached in recent years. This tertative 

conclusion is given weight by the botanical evidence (p. E13) that 

(1) the lake has certainly not been higher than the root system of 

the dead pine at 6,182.9 feet for at least 430 years, and (2) that it 

has probably never been higher than 6,180.5 feet. The steepness of any 

possible curve indicates that seepage varies little within the usual 

range, 6,165 to 6,175 feet, and suggests that most of the seepage occurs 

at some depth below the usual lake surface.

Although the increase in seepage at levels above 6,175 feet, as shown 

in figure 5, may be an effective control against Crater Lake ever 

reaching a level higher than about 6,181 feet, a recession to a level 

lower than any in the record could occur as a result of a long period 

of deficient precipitation.

Figure 5 also shows the computed annual precipitation at Crater 

Lake Weather Station needed to maintain the lake at various levels, 

assuming an annual evaporation loss of 23 inches (p. E20). For 

example, a uniform annual precipitation of 65 inches should cause 

the lake to rise or fall to 6,172 feet, at which altitude the computed 

losses by evaporation and seepage would balance the supply.

DESTINATION OF SEEPAGE OUTFLOW

The points where the waters of Crater Lake are lost and wher^ they 

reappear are unknown. Large springs emerge at levels lower than 

the lake in the basins of the Rogue and Umpqua Rivers and in the 

tributaries of the Klamath River (Annie Creek, Wood River, and 

Williamson River). The total flow of these springs is many times the 

amount of water lost by seepage from the lake; in fact, those at the 

head of the Wood River, those on Spring Creek near Chiloquin, and 

those at the head of the North Umpqua River each yield about three 

times as much as the lake loses by seepage. Most of the springs have 

very steady flow; all are cold and clear, and the streams they feed are 

low in dissolved-solids content, as is the lake water.

The potential hydraulic gradient between the lake and a series of 

large springs in the region is steep. The difference in altitude between 

the level of Crater Lake and springs at the head of the Wood River
E20 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

is about 2,000 feet in 13 miles, and to those at the head of Sp "ing Creek, 

about 2,000 feet in 20 miles. However, each of those springs generally 

discharges from two to four times as much as the calculated seepage 

loss from Crater Lake. Annie Springs, 3 miles south of the lake, and 

Boundary Springs, 9 miles northwest of the lake, are smaller and 

emerge at somewhat higher levels than the springs mentioned earlier. 

There is no direct evidence of hydraulic connection between the lake 

and any of the springs named.

The writer can only agree with Van Winkle (1914, p. 42) that some 

of the seepage from the lake may find its way into the Rogue River, 

but more probably it mingles with the underground waters that feed 

some of the springs in Klamath Kiver basin.

EVAPORATION LOSS

The difference between overall water supply and seepage loss, adjusted as necessary for change in lake volume, is ascribed to evaporation. In table 6, the annual evaporation loss is computed as 23 inches, 

both for the complete period of precipitation records, 1930-62, and 

for the year ending September 30, 1962. Although for any given year 

or short period of years the evaporation loss may be more or less than 

23 inches, for simplicity that rate is used for all computations in this 

report. The computed loss of 23 inches per year is in the same order 

of magnitude as losses based on empirical seasonal data for nearby 

Odell Lake, and somewhat less than that for the more remote Lake 

Tahoe; it is 10 inches less than the average annual lake evaporation 

in the area, not adjusted for altitude (Kohler and others, 1959, pi. 2).

WATER BUDGET

The water budget of Crater Lake includes income as infalling precipitation and inflow from the caldera walls and outgo as evaporation and seepage. For this study these budget items were determined 

in the following order: (1) Seepage loss was computed from changes 

in lake level during periods of no precipitation and little inflow in 

the period November 4, 1961, to April 18, 1962, (2) infalling precipitation was computed for periods of heavy snow or rainfall from October 10, 1961, to April 29, 1962, with adjustment for seepage and estimated peripheral runoff, and the results were compared with simultaneous records of precipitation at the weather station, (3) annual 

inflow (a small part of the total water supply) was estimated from 

runoff at gaging stations on the Rogue Kiver, and (4) evaporation 

was assumed to account for the difference between total annual water 

supply and seepage loss, adjusted for any change in lake level.
CRATER, ElAST., AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON E21

The elements of the water budget are approximately as follows: 

Seepage loss ranges from about 86 cfs at a lake level of 6,163 feet to 

101 cfs at a level of 6,179 feet; the long-term average loss is about 

89 cfs. Infailing precipitation is about 7 percent greater than th?t 

observed at the weather station. The total water supply reaching the 

lake is about 1,386 acre-feet per inch of observed precipitation at the 

weather station. The average evaporation loss is about 23 inches per 

year from the lake surface. The lake level has been observed to range 

from a minimum of 6,163.2 feet on September 10, 1942, to a maximum 

of 6,179.06 feet (high-water mark of 1958).

LIMITS OF ACCURACY

The water budget was computed chiefly on the basis of hydrologic 

data for the water year ending September 30,1962. Some of the factors 

are based in part upon personal judgment and are subject to some 

error even for 1962. The relationships found are subject to further 

error when extended to other years and other lake stages. For a single 

year, the relationships given may be in error as much as 10 percent, 

but on the average they are probably accurate within 5 percent.

Hydrologic data obtained in the year ending September 30, 1963, 

were used in the following table to test the overall accuracy of the 

water budget deduced from the data of 1962.

Test of water budget for Crater Lake, year ending September SO, 1963

Equivalent

volume

Water-budget item (acre-Jt)

Precipitation and runoff for 12 months from 68.06 inches precipitation. 94,330 

Seepage loss, 92.2 cfs at average level of 6,175.2 feet (from fig. 5) ____ 66, 750 

Evaporation loss, 23 inches depth on lake area______________ 25,180 

Computed volume change (equivalent to rise in lake level of 0.18 ft

in the year)______.____________________________ +2,400 

Actual measured rise in lake level was 0.18 foot, from 6,174.27 to

6,174.45 feet____________________________________ +2,400

On the basis of observed precipitation and estimated seepage loss and 

evaporation, the computed rise in lake level for the 12-month period 

was 0.18 foot, exactly the same as the actual recorded rise. Such a close 

agreement is fortuitous, because the water budget can never be known 

so closely. Similarly, a computation of the water budget for the year 

ending September 30,1964, showed a computed decrease of 0.34 foot in 

water level (actual decrease, 0.58 ft). For 1965, the computed rise was 

2.16 feet (actual rise, 1.83 ft). These errors for each year are less than 4 

percent of the gross water supply.

The accumulation of additional hydrologic data will provide a 

means of refining the water budget given herein. Continuous records 

of lake level are needed, especially at very high and very low stages.

307-879 O 68 4
E22 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

EAST LAKE 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTING

East Lake is a small body of fresh water in southern Deschutes 

County (fig. 1). It occupies the eastern part of Newberry Crater, a 

volcanic caldera nearly 5 miles in diameter. The western part is occupied by the slightly larger and lower Paulina Lake. The two lakes 

are separated by -a barrier of subsidiary volcanic cones and lava flows 

of Holocene age that form a ridge about 1.2 miles wide and divide the 

caldera near the middle along a north-south line (fig. 6).

FIGURE 6. Part of Newberry Crater; view showing cinder cones and lava flow 

separating East Lake (right) from Paulina Lake. Photograph by U.S. Forest 

Service, July 27,1951.

The crater rim rises steeply for several hundred feet around both 

lakes to altitudes of 7,000 feet or more, except where Paulina Lake 

has breached the rim to form a perennial outlet to Deschutes Kiver 

basin by way of Paulina Creek.

East Lake has a surface area of 1,030 acres at high level and 940 

acres at average level. Its maximum depth is about 170 feet. The part 

of the caldera surrounding and topographically tributary to East Lake
CRATEiR, EIAST, AND DAVIS LAKEiS, OREGON E23

covers 7.46 square miles, including the lake itself. The lake has a volume 

at high level of about 68,000 acre-feet. The volume within the historic 

range of observed water level is about 15,000 acre-feet.

The hydrology of East Lake cannot be studied without also considering Paulina Lake, which is closely associated with it. Paulina Lake 

covers 2.10 square miles and has a maximum depth of 252 feet. The 

water surface ranges from 6,330 to 6,333 feet in altitude and has continuous outflow. The entire area of Newberry caldera (17.5 square miles 

including East Lake and its basin) is topographically tributary to 

Paulina Lake. East Lake basin, however, seems to be a hydraulically 

separate entity.

East Lake is 40 to 50 feet higher than Paulina Lake. The hydraulic 

gradient of 35 to 42 feet per mile from East Lake to Paulina Lake is 

greater than is normally observed in recent lava flows; hence it is inferred that the blocky lava flow near the north end of the separating 

ridge is underlain by less permeable cemented deposits. Such deposits 

may be seen near the southeastern shore of East Lake and along the 

eastern shore of Paulina Lake, and extend from levels lower than the 

lake surfaces to levels well above them.

Surrounding East Lake is a forest cover of a type common in high 

mountain areas of Oregon where precipitation is moderate. Lodgepole 

pine trees grow abundantly from the edge of the lake up to the caldera 

rim, yellow pines are scattered on the steep slopes, and some hemlocks 

and alders are present.

The physiographic setting of East Lake is similar to that of Crater 

Lake, except that East Lake occupies only 8.4 percent of Newberry 

caldera, whereas Crater Lake, including islands, occupies almost 80 

percent of the total area of its caldera.

The geology of the region was described by Kussell (1905, p. 97-110) 

and by Williams (1953, p. 41-52). The latter (p. 44) paints a vivid 

word picture of Newberry Volcano, as follows:

Its summit, Paulina Peak, rises almost 4,000 feet above the encircling plateau. 

The volcano is of the shield type, and has the shape of an inverted saucer, deeply 

dented on top and ornamented on the sides with many small knobs. Across the 

base, it measures 20 miles ; on its flanks are more than 150 cinder cones; and on its 

summit there is a caldron, 4 to 5 miles wide, hemmed in on all but one side by 

precipitous walls up to 1,500 feet in height. Within this huge depression lie 

Paulina and East lakes.

The caldera is geologically recent. Williams concludes that it was 

formed perhaps 20,000 to 25,000 years ago by the collapse of the cone 

after radial drainage had caused a recession of the molten lava within 

the volcano and thus removed the support for its higher slopes. Some 

time later, new eruptions occurred within the caldera and on the outer 

slopes of the volcano. Explosive activity continued at intervals almost
E24 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

to the present time. Indian sandals, lying below Mount Newberry 

pumice deposits in caves near Fort Rock, 25 miles to the southeast, were 

found to be 9,000 years old by carbon-14 dating, and fragments of 

charcoal found in the topmost pumice layer between East and Paulina 

Lakes were found to be only 2,050 years old (Williams, 1953, p. 51). 

Some of the lava flows on the outer slopes of Newberry Mountain are 

probably not more than a thousand years old (Williams, 1935, p. 280).

East Lake, like Crater Lake, is therefore geologically young. After 

the caldera was formed 20,000 to 25,000 years ago, snow and ice 

doubtless accumulated in it to depths of several hundred feet, and outflowing ice may have slightly scoured the outlet to Deschutes River 

(Russell, 1905, p. 97-104). Ash and lapilli from late phases of volcanic 

activity were mingled with the accumulation of ice, and as the ice 

melted, these fine materials formed deposits that partly sealed the bed 

of the lake. By the time the recent eruptions within the crater had 

ceased, about 2,000 years ago, the two lakes had been separated, and 

probably each one was then near its present level.

Paulina Lake is drained by Paulina Creek westward into Deschutes 

River basin. There are no records of the annual outflow. Several small 

springs enter the lake near the water level, and at least one is thermal. 

There are no surface inflow streams. Most of the water supply is 

derived from snowmelt that infiltrates the permeable volcanic soil 

cover.

East Lake has no visible outlet and no perennial surface inflow. Small 

mineralized thermal springs occur near and below the lake surface 

along the southeastern shore, and others may exist at greater depths.

CLIMATE

Newberry Volcano is surrounded by a lava plateau that has a general 

altitude of more than 4,000 feet and a mean annual precipitation of 10 

to 20 inches. Most of that precipitation occurs as snow in the period 

from November to May. Temperatures are low, especially on clear 

winter nights in areas that have poor air drainage. Summer temperatures reach 100° F at times, but rapid radiation at night results in 

temperatures near freezing in every month of the year. Average annual 

evaporation loss from open water surfaces in the region is about 34 

inches (Kohler and others, 1959, pi. 2).

East Lake lies about 2,000 feet above the general level of the plateau. 

There the microclimate is much more humid, the summers are somewhat cooler, and evaporation is presumably less.

No year-round records of temperature at East Lake are available. 

The altitude is very nearly the same as for Crater Lake, and the annual 

temperature cycle is no doubt very similar (table 1).
CRATER, EIAST, AND DAVIS UAKEiS, OREGON E25

RECORDS OF LAKE LEVEL

Within the present century East Lake has fluctuated over a known 

range of about 16 feet, from 6,366 to 6,382.5 feet altitude. Data on its 

level are fragmentary (table 10). In any given calendar year, the 

observed fluctuation in water level has not exceeded 2 feet. The rather 

small annual fluctuation in stage is due to the lack of surface streams 

tributary to the lake, the rather close balance between annual precipitation and evaporation, and the apparently low rate of seepage loss.

The earliest known reference to the water level of East Lake was 

recorded by Russell (1905, p. 101), who visited the lake August 25, 

1903. Eussell stated:

Like many enclosed lakes, it bears evidence of considerable fluctuations in level, 

the most conspicuous of which is a grove of dead spruce trees near its western 

shore which rise from about 3 feet of water. The trees are about 30 feet high, 10 

to 12 inches in diameter, stand erect and still retain their branches. There is no 

indication that they were carried into the lake by a landslide, but every probability that they grew where they now stand and were killed by a rise of the lake 

which submerged the surface in which they were rooted.

A remarkable confirmation of Russell's observation of a high lake 

level in 1903 was obtained in 1959 by D. B. Lawrence, of the University 

of Minnesota, who observed the stump of a lodgepole pine tree that had 

growrn on a point of land at the northeast shore of East Lake, near Cinder Hill Forest Camp, and was living until cut down in 1957 or 1958. 

Lawrence stated in his field notes (written commun., 1963) :

Symmetry of its central rings from time of germination about 1870 to 1904 

showed that it had grown erect as a member of a dense forest there during that 

period. Erosion by high water apparently occurred about 1904, removing support 

from about half of the root system, allowing the tree to tilt strongly toward the 

north. The tree continued to grow, producing asymmetrical rings, wide on the 

lower side. The high water of 1958 seems to have reached about the same level as 

that which caused the erosion that resulted in tilting about 1904 or 1905.

Streamflow records show that 1904 was a year of very heavy runoff, 

and East Lake was no doubt slightly higher in 1904 than when Russell 

saw it in 1903.

The lake is known to. have reached a stage of 6,382.5 feet in 1958. At 

that time, many trees on the sloping southwest shore were undermined 

at the high-water level, some of them remaining erect and others 

becoming tilted, much like those described by Russell and Lawrence. 

Along the shores of the lake, lodgepole pine trees as much as 43 years 

of age and as much as 13 inches in diameter were drowned in 1958. 

Some of the trees became established as seedlings at a level several feet 

below the high stage of 1958; the lowest one observed, a lodgepole pine, 

had its upper roots at 6,374.5 feet altitude, or 8.0 feet lower than the 

high level of 1958 (fig. 7).
E26 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

FIGURE 7. View eastward from southwest shore of East Lake on July 2, 1963, 

when water level was 4.7 feet below high level of 1958. Lodgepole pine trees in 

foreground were drowned when the lake rose over their root systems; former 

forest road in partial shade near right in view was submerged and covered 

with lumps of floating pumice in 1958.

The high level of 6,382.5 feet reached in 1958 has been exceeded at 

some time in the past. An older beach terrace occurs along the northeast 

shores of the lake at an altitude of 6,385.5 feet. The largest living lodgepole pine trees on that terrace were found to have germinated about 

1853, 1879, and some time before 1889; hence, the terrace was apparently formed by a high stage that occurred prior to 1853.

No positive evidence was observed of lake stages higher than about 

6,385.5 feet. A few large yellow pine trees are living along the steep and 

rocky north shore of the lake and are rooted at levels 6 to 10 feet higher 

than the high level of 1958. Core borings of some of these trees were 

taken in September 1960 by D. B. Lawrence and the writer. The growth 

rings of one such living tree showed that it germinated before 1850, at 

altitude 6,388.4 feet; another, at 6,391.2 feet, germinated before the 

year 1574. A large yellow pine snag at 6,389.1 feet had lived about 283 

years before dying many years ago. At 6,387.2 feet, the roots of a dead 

yellow pine appear to have been eroded away, possibly by waves carrying floating lumps of pumice, but no beach line was found at that level. 

If East Lake did reach that level, it may have done so in the period 

1805-25, when tree growth in eastern Oregon was unusually rapid and
CRATER, ElAST, AND DAVIS LlAKEiS, OREGON E27

precipitation was probably much above average (Antevs, 1938, p. 66; 

Keen, 1937, figs. 7, 8). The oldest tree cored was a large yellow pine 

that germinated in or before the year 1439; its base was, by hand leveling, 165 feet above the water level of September 1960.

In summary, all the botanical evidence indicates that the high level 

of 6,382.5 feet in 1958 duplicated the high level of 1904, which was the 

highest since some time before 1853, when the lake level reached 

6,385.5 feet.

WATER SUPPLY TO THE LAKE

The water supply of East Lake is derived from precipitation, surface runoff, and ground-water percolation. None of these elements has 

been measured. Most of the precipitation in the basin topographically 

tributary to East Lake percolates into the ground where it falls, and 

it may follow a path toward East Lake or one radially away from it. 

There is no information on the 'altitude or slope of local bodies of 

ground water.

Because Paulina Lake has a surface outlet that might also cr ,rry at 

least some of the outflow by seepage from East Lake, the outf ow of 

Paulina Lake is used as a tool in estimating the total water supply of 

the caldera. Information on that outflow is scanty. However, the stage 

of the lake varies within a narrow range, and its measured outflow 

usually ranges between 10 and 40 cfs. A low dam and fish screen at 

the outlet are designed and operated to keep trout from leaving the 

lake rather than to control the outflow or lake level. Because of the 

reasonably steady outflow, a few observations provide a fair basis for 

estimating the order of magnitude of the average annual outflow, 

about 14,500 acre-feet, as shown in table 8.

PRECIPITATION ON THE LAKE

There are no year-round records of precipitation near the lair*). The 

total snowfall is known to be considerably less than at 'Crater Lake, 

and the average annual precipitation on the lake and in the basin has 

been estimated for this report as 35 inches, on the basis of a comparison of records of snow accumulation at Paulina Lake, 1955-62, with 

records of precipitation at Bend in the same period. This is practically 

three times the average annual precipitation at Bend, and mom than 

three times that at Fremont, the two nearest long-term weather stations on the plateau. This total average annual precipitation, even 

though estimated, is better known and more reliable than otHr hydrologic data for the area.

The estimated mean annual precipitation of 35 inches on the surface 

of the two lakes is assumed to be applicable to the entire area of the 

caldera, and the average annual total water supply from precip Station
E28 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

as direct infall to the lakes is as follows: East Lake, 2,740 acre-feet and 

Paulina Lake, 3,910 acre-feet. The sum for the two lakes ii? 6,650 acrefeet. The total average annual precipitation is 13,900 acre-feet in 

East Lake basin and is 18,800 acre-feet in Paulina Lake basin. The 

sum for the two basins is 32,700 acre-feet. In the 30-year ptTiod, January 1931 to December 1960, sometimes used to compute "normal" 

precipitation, East Lake rose about 7 feet, and the mean annual 

precipitation for that period was probably about 37 inches.

SURFACE RUNOFF ANB GROUND-WATER INFLOW

As noted above, surface inflow is ephemeral and of negligible volume, and some of the ground-water flow in the caldera may not reach 

either lake. The maximum amounts of combined surface- and groundwater flow that could reach the lakes in an average year can be approximated by deducting the estimated annual evapotranspiration loss (12 

in.) from the total precipitation (35 in.) on the tributary areas surrounding the lakes. The upper limit of the average annual runoff is 

7,350 acre-feet for East Lake basin and is 9.750 acre-feet for Paulina 

Lake basin; the sum is 17,100 acre-feet.

Thus, the average potential supply to the two lakes is about 23,800 

acre-feet per year (6,650 acre-ft from direct precipitation and 17,100 

acre-ft from runoff). Evaporation of 28 inches from the surface of 

the two lakes annually would remove 5,300 acre-feet and vould leave 

about 18,500 acre-feet to be expected as annual outflow.

The estimated average flow of 20 cfs at the outlet of Paulina Lake 

(table 8) is equivalent to a runoff of 14,500 acre-feet, or 4,000 acrefeet less than the expected volume. The estimated annual excess of 

precipitation over evaporation on the surface of Paulina Lake and 

the adjacent and topographically tributary area of 5,080 acres is 

10,500 acre-feet. To obtain the estimated runoff of 14,501 acre-feet 

from the entire caldera, only about 4,000 acre-feet per year is needed 

from East Lake basin. That is only half the average annual runoff that 

the East Lake basin is believed to generate. Therefore, it is probable 

either that a large part of the water in East Lake basin neT^er reaches 

Paulina Lake or that Paulina Lake basin loses some water by percolation out of the basin.

However, Paulina Lake itself probably does not lose much water by 

seepage. If it did, the stage in a series of dry years would drop below 

its outlet; there is no record of such an occurrence.

WATER LOSS FROM; THE LAKE

East Lake loses water by evaporation and by seepage. In this report, 

the annual loss by evaporation is estimated and is assumed to be the
CRATER. ElAST, AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON E29

same in each year. The seepage loss is assumed to be at a rate that will 

balance the water budget not only in a period of average precipitation, 

but in wet and dry periods after adjustment for observed changes 

in lake volume.

SEEPAGE LOSS

The fact that East Lake water is fresh indicates that it must lose 

water by seepage in an amount not less than the flow of the mine ralized 

springs that enter it. Fragmentary records of the stage of East Lake 

provide a clue to the general order of the rate of seepage loss. If 

all the precipitation in its basin reached the lake, except f pr the annual 

evapotranspiration loss of about 12 inches on the tributary area of 

3,830 acres, then the estimated annual evaporation of 28 inches from 

the lake plus seepage loss of 10.9 cfs would be needed for balance. The 

seepage rate may vary with lake level, but, for a given level, it should 

be the same in a wet year or in a dry year. However, in a very dry year, 

when the total precipitation at East Lake is only about 21 incHs, the 

evaporation would exceed the precipitation, the runoff to the lake could 

be no more than about 2,900 acre-feet, and leakage at a rate of 10.9 cfs 

would then lower the lake level at a calculated rate of 6.5 feet in 1 year. 

No such rapid decrease has been observed; in fact, in the year ending 

September 30, 1959, when the precipitation at Bend was only 53 percent of the 1931-60 normal and that at East Lake was probably not 

more than 21 inches, the water level dropped only 1.7 feet. The lake 

level was high in 1959, and the rate of seepage therefore must have 

been at least as much as the average long-term rate. It seems obvious 

that the seepage is much less than 10.9 cfs.

The assumptions and computations shown in table 9 lead to an estimate of about 2.3 cfs seepage out of East Lake. Such a rate is much 

more than the combined flow of the observable mineralized firings.

The estimated average annual inflow to East Lake of 1,7CO acrefeet (table 9) is only 23 percent of the estimated difference (7,340 

acre-ft) between the precipitation of 35 inches and evapotranspiration 

of 12 inches on the basin area (3,830 acres.) Therefore, the tentative 

conclusion must be that a large part of the basin topographically within 

the East Lake part of the caldera does not contribute any water to 

East Lake but instead drains water away from it.

The hypothesis suggested above, that East Lake basin is not all 

tributary to the lake, is based on sketchy hydrologic information and 

should receive further study when the required data have b^en obtained. Continuous records of lake level and precipitation are needed.

Data are not adequate to define the relation of seepage rate to lake 

level. It is not even certain that seepage occurs when East Lake is 

below the minimum known level of about 6,366 feet reached about
E30 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

1941. It is probable that seepage is most rapid when the water level is 

high.

There is no hydrologic information to suggest where the seepage 

outflow reappears.

EVAPORATION LOSS

Evaporation loss has not been measured. It is perhaps somewhat 

more than that for Crater Lake because East Lake is in a zone of less 

precipitation and probably lower relative humidity. For this report 

the average annual evaporation is estimated as 28 inches, 6 inches 

less than the regional average for the 4,000-foot plateau in the general 

area. The annual excess of precipitation over evaporation on the two 

lake surfaces (7 in. in depth, or 1,330 acre-ft) is only a small part of 

the total annual water budget for the entire caldera.

The estimated average annual evaporation loss of 28 inches is 

equivalent to a loss of 2,190 acre-feet from the lake's average area of 

940 acres.

WATER BUDGET

The average annual potential water supply (sum of infailing precipitation and runoff) in the entire caldera is about 23,800 acre-feet. 

The estimated annual evaporation loss from the lake surfaces is 5,300 

acre-feet, and about 18,500 acre-feet is to be expected as rmoff from 

the basin, if none of the water supply in the caldera is depleted by 

outflow as seepage. The average annual outflow from Paulina Lake is 

estimated at 14,500 acre-feet.

The elements comprising the average annual water budget of East 

Lake are about as follows:

1. Inf ailing precipitation, 35 inches depth (2,740 acre-ft).

2. Inflow from tributary area, 1.5 cfs (1,150 acre-ft).

3. Evaporation loss, 28 inches depth (2,190 acre-ft).

4. Outflow by seepage, 2.3 cfs (1,700 acre-ft).

5. Average annual ground-water loss from tributary area that does 

not reach East Lake is about 6,200 acre-feet. A part of this loss 

probably goes into Paulina Lake and the rest elsewhere.

LIMITS OF ACCURACY

The elements of the estimated water budget for East Lake are based 

to a large extent on personal judgment. The estimated average annual 

precipitation (35 in.) and evaporation (28 in.) are probably within 15 

percent; seepage loss and runoff estimates are subject to greater possible error. The general conclusion is that the seepage rate is only a 

small percentage of the amount that would be needed to balance the 

gross water budget (precipitation plus runoff minus evaporation), if 

all the topographic basin were actually tributary to East Lake. Trial
CRATER, ElAST, AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON E31

computations with modified values of runoff and evaporation gave 

results that differed only in degree and confirmed the general conclusion stated above.

DAVIS LAKE

PHYSIOGBAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTING

Davis Lake is a body of fresh water in Deschutes and Klamath 

Counties, 19 miles west of La Pine (fig. 1). It is an impoundment on 

Odell Creek, formed by a blocky, permeable lava flow of Holocene age 

that fills the channel and valley for a distance of 2 miles (fig. 8). The 

lake has no surface outlet.

FIGURE 8. Lava flow that impounds Davis Lake; view looking northward in 

summer or early autumn of 1930. A forest road (not an outlet channel) skirts 

the east edge of the lava. Old beach at bottom center with a solitary tree was 

formed by a high-lake stage prior to the year 1723. Photograph by Delano 

Photographies.

In 1878, Lt. T. W. Symons visited the area, and his report, quoted 

by Henshaw, Lewis, and McCaustland (1914, p. 15), gives the earliest 

known description of Davis Lake as follows:

This lake and valley were about 12 by 6 miles in size and took us completely 

by surprise, as they were evidently in the course of our West Fork [Deschutes 

River] and were not on any map. Reaching it, we found at its southern end many
E32 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

acres of rich grass and bunches of tall willows. Following around the west 

shore to the north end, we ascertained that there was no visible outlet. We saw 

the watermarks 20 feet above us on the lava bluffs of the northern and northwestern shores * * * We found the next day that these lava beds formed 

an impassable barrier extending unbroken for about 4 miles to the north, and 

at their end were again surprised to find, foaming out from underneath the 

giant boulders, the clear, cold river that we had seen lose itself in the lake * * *

Even then, the lake was called Davis Lake by the few people who 

knew of its existence. The reference by Lieutenant Symons to a 20- 

foot fluctuation in water level is no doubt a rough estimate (his estimated distances were about twice the actual distances), but obviously 

the lake was low when he saw it in 1878.

The lake was mapped in December 1934, and soundings were made 

by measuring from the ice surface at 4,380.8 feet. The bed of the lake 

at the lowest point was found to be at 4,367 feet, and the high-water 

line at the edge of the timber, 4,392 feet (C. C. Fisher, U.S. Bur. 

Eeclamation, unpub. data, 1936). The area and volume of the lake 

for various levels, as computed from that survey, are given in figure 9.

4395

500 1000

AREA, IN ACRES 

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

4365

5 10 15 20 25 30 

VOLUME, IN THOUSANDS OF ACRE-FEET

FIGUBE 9. Area and volume of Davis Lake.

35 40

The topographic basin of Davis Lake covers about 98 square miles 

and ranges in altitude from 4,390 feet at the lake to 8,744 feet at the 

summit of Diamond Peak. The lake is in volcanic terrane, which is 

marked by many cinder cones scattered on a lava plateau that slopes
CRATER, EIAST, AND DAVIS LAKE®, OREGON E33

gently to the northeast. A surface deposit of highly permeable pumice 

overlies all but the most recent volcanic deposits and supports an 

almost continuous forest cover, chiefly of western yellow pine. Rainfall and melting snow readily infiltrate the highly permeable pumice 

cover and volcanic deposits. There is no information on the altitude 

and slopes of ground-water bodies, and the hydrologic boundary of 

the basin may not be the same as its topographic boundary.

Da vis Lake occupies a channel that was slightly incised by Odell 

Creek into the surface of a lava plateau and was later filled downstream 

from the lake by a lava flow several hundred feet thick (fig. 8). The 

lava obstruction ponded the water and formed Davis Lake. Because 

Odell Creek seldom carries a significant load of sediment, tl e lake 

basin has not since been materially altered by sedimentary deposition, 

and the lava that forms the obstruction is not covered or sealed by 

sediment above the low-water level of the lake.

The lava flow is one of the youngest in the Cascade Range, and may 

be only about a thousand years old (Williams, 1953, p. 50-51). At 

places where windblown soil has collected between the blocks cf lava, 

yellow pine trees grow, and some of them are probably at least 500 

years old. The flow is not covered by the regional blanket of pumice 

from Mount Mazama (age, about 6,600 yr). Therefore, the basin apparently is at least 1,000 years but less than 6,600 years old. Davis Lake 

undoubtedly formed within a few months after the lava flow dammed 

the channel of Odell Creek.

Downstream from Davis Lake and the lava flow, the stream is called 

Davis Creek and is fed by large springs whose openings range from 

4,310 to 4,360 feet in altitude. Some of the springs flow into Davis 

Creek channel just downstream from the lava flow, and others discharge within a mile downstream. Almost every year since Wickiup 

Dam was completed in 1949 at a site on the Deschutes River 10 miles 

northeast of Davis Lake, some of the springs have been submerged 

at times to a depth of about 25 feet by the water in Wickiup Res-ervoir. 

The topographic drainage area above the springs is 146 square miles, 

46 percent more than that above Davis Lake.

CLIMATE

The area around Davis Lake has moderate precipitation, most of 

which occurs as snowfall in the period November to April. The precipitation in the headwater area is much greater than that at and downstream from the lake. For example, in 1961 the total precipitrtdon at 

Odell Lake, 10 miles to the southwest, was 59.4 inches, wherear it was 

only 22.6 inches at Wickiup Dam, an equal distance to the northeast. 

The winters are cold, and snow usually lingers about the lake until
E34 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

May or June. Summers are cool, and little precipitation falls from 

June to September.

No records of temperature exist for Davis Lake. Seasonal temperatures are probably similar to those at Odell Lake and at Wickiup Dam 

(table 11). Davis Lake is much nearer Wickiup Dam in rltitude and 

presumably in seasonal temperature as well. On that assumption, the 

annual mean temperature at Davis Lake is estimated at 43° F.

The nearest precipitation stations are those at Odell Lake and 

Wickiup Dam. In the period 1950-64, the average precipitation was 

61.45 inches at Odell Lake and 21.71 inches at Wickiup Dam (table 

11); the long-term averages at both sites are probably a little less. The 

average annual precipitation at Davis Lake would almost surely be 

less than 40 inches and more than 30 inches; for this report, it is estimated at 36 inches.

Average evaporation from land pans at Odell Lake and Wickiup 

Dam for summer months is given in table 11. Annual evaporation loss 

from an open-water surface at Wickiup Dam is probably about 32 

inches.

EECOEDS OF LAKE LEVEL

Records of the lake level are fragmentary (table 12). All water 

levels herein are referred to U.S. Geological Survey bench mark P-9 

(alt. 4,395.25 ft, datum of 1929, supp. adjustment of 1947), set in a 

boulder at the northwest edge of the lake.

The lake level varies in response to runoff conditions of the current 

water year and to a lesser extent to those of 1 or 2 immediately preceding years. The seasonal peak occurs in May or June, soon after the 

seasonal peak flow in Odell Creek at the station near Crescent. By 

early autumn the lake level is usually 2 or 3 feet below its seasonal 

peak. The changes of level within a single season are considerably 

greater than those of Crater and East Lakes.

Peak stages are of particular interest because of their implications 

with respect to climate and runoff over the past several centuries. The 

highest stage observed in recent years was 4,393.2 feet (from a floodmark) in June 1957. A floodmark at the same level was noted in 1934 

during a survey of a proposed lake-outlet channel (C. C. Fisher, U.S. 

Bur. Reclamation, unpub. data, 1936), and it may represent a stage 

reached in 1904. The highest level the lake probably ever attained, 

4,395.4 feet, is marked by (1) the lower limit of living crus^ose lichens 

on the lava rocks along the northern shore, and (2) the formation of 

a small level terrace or bar at the northeastern shore near the lava 

dam. A western yellow pine tree that grew on that terrace was cut in 

1958, and the stump was found later to have 235 annual growth rings 

(Lawrence, 1961, p. 344). Older and very large yellow pine trees are
CRATER, ElAST, AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON E35

living at levels less than 1 foot higher. A reasonable inference is that 

the high level of 4,395.4 feet was reached sometime prior to the year 

1723 and has probably never been materially exceeded.

The high water of 1957 (4,393.2 ft) flooded and killed many yellow 

pine and lodgepole pine trees. The oldest one found, a yellow pine 

that grew on level ground just above the highest water level, 1 ad 185 

annual growth rings at a point 15 inches above its base. The summergrowth rings were narrow for the dry years 1924,1926, and 1955. They 

were very narrow for the periods 1791-97 and 1813-14, possibly because of the flooding of some of the roots by high stages of tH lake. 

The rate of tree growth near Lakeview was much above normal in the 

periods 1790-94 and 1805-25 (Antevs, 1938, p. 66; Keen, 1937, fig. 7), 

and presumably the precipitation and runoff in those periods were also 

above normal. The level of Davis Lake probably was high then.

Many young western yellow pine trees, up to 1 foot in diameter, had 

the ability not shared by mature yellow pines to survive repeated 

shallow flooding by Davis Lake for periods of 60 days or more in 

several growing seasons of the 1950's. Hence, the ages of trees of this 

species are not exact, dependable indices of the length of time since 

the lake water covered the level of the bases of the trees; conseauently, 

the 185-year-old pine tree mentioned above may have survived in its 

youth (perhaps about 1813) a stage as high as the one that b.iilt the 

bar at altitude 4,395.4 feet.

Variations in tree-ring growth over the past 650 years indicate that 

climatic and lake-level variations like those of recent decades probably 

have occurred before in the short life of Davis Lake. Pondero^a pines 

have a lifespan that may exceed 750 years (Keen, 1937, p. 176). Some 

within 3 feet of the high lake level of 1957 are so large that they 

probably have lived more than 600 years. Keen (1937, p. 176, 188) 

established cross identification between growth rings of pine trees near 

Watkins Butte, north of Fort Rock, Oreg., for 650 years before 1935, 

and concluded that in that period there has been no general trend 

toward wetter or drier years, and that average growth for the period 

1900-19 was identical with the average growth during the past 650 

years. Keen (1937, p. 188) found that

the present [drought period, 1917-35] is the most severe and critical that the 

present forests have experienced, in the last 650 years. Several othe" periods 

have exceeded the present one in duration of subnormal growth, but none has 

approached it for severity.

On the other hand, he found (Keen, p. 186, fig. 8) that the tree growth 

in many periods in the last 650 years had exceeded that of any year or 

short term of years since 1850. From those conclusions, the low lake
E36 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THEi UNITED STATES

stages of the 1930's may inferentially recur less often than the high 

stages of 1904 and 1957.

WATER SUPPLY TO THE LAKE

The water of Davis Lake is derived from infalling precipitation 

and streamflow. Precipitation falling directly on the lal*e accounts 

for only a very small part of the total supply.

PRECIPITATION ON THE LAKE

The average annual precipitation on the lake has been estimated for 

this report at 36 inches. The infalling volume in a sea'son depends not 

only upon the precipitation but upon the area of the lake at the time 

when it falls; the average volume is probably between 6,000 and 10,000 

acre-feet per year, or 5 to 9 percent of the average annual water 

supply.

SURFACE RUNOFF AND GROUND-WATER INFLOW

Most of the water in Davis Lake comes from Odell Creek. The flow of 

that stream is augmented by springs and creeks that enter dowstream 

from the gaging station near Crescent, so that the total wr.ter supply 

is considerably greater than that at the station (fig. 10). The average

250

Davis Creek near La Pi:tie 1923-24

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept.

FIGTJKE 10. Average monthly flows of Odell Creek near Crescent and Davis Creek 

near La Pine for periods of record available.
CRATER, BAST, AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON" E37

flow near Crescent (drainage area, 39 sq mi) for 29 years, 1933-62, 

was 81.3 cfs, and the corresponding estimated flow at Davis Lake 

(drainage area, 98 sq mi) is 150 cfs.

No simultaneous records of discharge are available for Odell and 

Davis Creeks. The records for Odell Creek, 1933-62, are about eiual to 

the long-term average, on the basis of the longest records available 

at nearby unregulated spring-fed streams (Metolius, McKenzie, and 

Williamson Rivers). On the contrary, those for Davis Creek, 1923-24^ 

were obtained in a year when the runoff of other spring-fed streams 

was below average. The average flow of Davis Creek is therefor0, probably more than that of 1923-24, and is estimated as 220 cfs.

WATER LOSS FROM THE LAKE

SEEPAGE LOSS

Nearly all the water that reaches Davis Lake is lost by seepage into 

the lava flow that dams the channel and fills the valley of Odell Creek. 

The seepage cannot be directly measured, but its annual volume and its 

rate at different lake levels can be approximated.

The volume of seepage in a year is approximately equal to the 

volume of inflow adjusted for change in contents of the lake. This is 

true because the inf ailing precipitation and the loss by evaporation are 

nearly equal and are opposite as elements of the water budget. If the 

average inflow is 150 cfs, as estimated above, the average seepage rate 

must be about the same.

SEEPAGE BATE IK RELATION TO LAKE LEVEL

The seepage rate varies with the stage of the lake, and its magnitude 

may be approximated, or its probable limits defined, by two different 

approaches.

Consider first the relationship between average lake stage and seasonal inflow with adjustment for changes in the volume of water 

stored in the lake. The lake level varies with annual runoff and is 

higher after periods of above-normal inflow. For example, in the 4 

dry water years, 1940, 1941, 1942, and 1945, the average lake level was 

about 4,380 feet and the lake was lowered in the 4years by only a small 

volume, less than 1,000 acre-feet. The total runoff at the gaging station 

near Crescent in those 4 years was 159,000 acre-feet. The average 

annual seepage loss in those years, therefore, must have beer about 

40,000 acre-feet (55 cfs) plus the unmeasured flow of streams draining 

60 square miles below the station on Odell Creek. By contrast, in the 

3 wet years, 1951,1952, and 1956, the average lake level was about 4,391 

feet; its volume increased by 30,000 acre-feet; and the measured runoff 

at the station near Crescent was 255,000 acre-feet. The annual seepage
E38 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

loss at that lake level must have been about 75,000 acre-fee^. (104 cfs) 

plus the flow of the ungaged tributaries. Therefore, the seepage rate 

must be more than 54 cfs when the lake is near altitude 4,380 feet and 

more than 104 cfs when it is near altitude 4,391 feet.

The other approach is to consider the relationship between the 

momentary lake level and the unsubmerged flow of the grouip of 

springs feeding Davis Creek downstream from Davis Lake and its 

lava dam. A well-defined and nearly straight-line relationship has 

existed for imany years between the flow of those springs and the 

stage of Davis Lake (fig. 11), and that fact warrants the belief that 

those springs derive a large part of their flow from the seepage of 

Davis Lake, even though efforts to trace the lake outflow to the springs 

have not ibeen successful (Oregon State Game Comm., written 

commun., 1961). The points plotted in figure 11 cover a time period 

of 24 years, and the discharges for all plotted points lie within 10 

percent of the discharge given by the average curve. Data are not 

available to plot antecedent lake levels against flows with various 

periods of delay for the probable time of underground travel. Both 

the stage of the lake and the flow of the springs no doubt respond to 

general runoff conditions, but the correlation shown in figure 11 seems 

so well defined that spring flow is believed to be a function of lake 

level. The lava that fills the creek channel does not seem to provide 

much storage to delay the passage of the water that leaks into it.

From figure 11, the spring flow is about 190 cfs for a lake level of 

4,380 feet and 280 cfs for a lake level of 4,391 feet. These flows are 

believed to represent maximum possible rates of seepage from Davis 

Lake. The actual rates lie somewhere between 55 and 190 cfs for the 

4,380-foot level and between 104 and 290 cfs for the 4,391-foot level. 

The average flow of Davis Creek is about 220 cfs. On the basis of the 

relative size of drainage areas, both the average inflow and the average 

seepage loss at Davis Lake are estimated at 150 cfs.

The relationship of lake level to spring flow shown in figure 11 has 

been used to estimate the stage (4,392.5 ft) corresponding to a discharge measurement of 287 cfs on Davis Creek made September 12, 

1904, the highest measured flow of Davis Creek. That level exceeds 

any of record for the month of September.

The relationship between the water level of Davis Lake and the 

unsubmerged flow of all the springs feeding Davis Creek has apparently not been changed by the operation of Wickiup Reservoir. 

Periodic submergence of the lower springs may temporarily reduce 

their outflow, either by diverting a part of it to higher outlets or by 

inducing temporary ground-water storage. However, flow measurements of Davis Creek made after the reservoir level has been lowered
CRATER, EIAST, AND DAVIS LiAKES, OREGON E39

belowT the level of the lower spring outlets agree well with those made 

before those springs were submerged.

4400

4395

4390

4385

4380

4375

I I 

EXPLANATION

1939-44, from records of Oregon 

State Engineer (unpub.); springs 

never submerged

O

1945-62, from records of U.S. Geological Survey; lower springs submerged part of every year by 

Wickiup Reservoir

150 200 250 300 

DISCHARGE. IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

FIGURE 11. Relation of stage of Davis Lake to simultaneous flow 

of Davis Creek below springs, in ,SE% sec. 5, T. 22 S., R. 8 E.

DESTINATION OF SEEPAGE OUTFLOW

As indicated above, the seepage out of Davis Lake is believed to feed 

some of the large springs on Davis Creek. Those springs have an 

average flow of about 220 cfs, of which the seepage from Davis Lake 

probably provides about 150 cfs.
E40 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

EVAPORATION LOSS

Evaporation at Davis Lake is probably a little less than at Wickiup 

Dam, 10 miles to the northeast, where the average loss from a class A 

land pan has been measured as 34.09 inches in the period May to 

September (table 11). The average annual evaporation loss from the 

surface of Wickiup Reservoir is probably about 32 inche?, and that 

from Davis Lake is estimated at 30 inches for this report. r.^he volume 

of that loss depends upon the stage and surface area of the lake during 

the summer season. That area ranges from 470 acres at altitude 4,378 

feet to 3,670 acres at altitude 4,391 feet. The lake area is usur.lly greater 

in the summer evaporation season than in the winter precipitation 

season; hence, an average annual evaporation loss of 30 inches may 

fully offset an infailing precipitation increment of 36 inches. In any 

event, the average evaporation loss is less than 10 percent of the total 

water supply.

WATER BUDGET

The average annual water budget of Davis Lake is about as follows:

1. Inf ailing precipitation, 36 inches depth (8,000 acre-ft).

2. Inflow from tributary area, 150 cfs (109,000 acre-ft).

3. Evaporation loss, 30 inches depth (8,000 acre-ft).

4. Outflow by seepage, 150 cfs (109,000 acre-ft).

The observed lake level has ranged from a minimum of 4,375.9 feet 

on October 20, 1942, to a maximum of 4,393.2 feet (contents, about 

45,000 acre-ft), high-water mark of 1957.

LIMITS OF ACCURACY

Davis Lake lies in a geographic belt where the precipitation decreases very rapidly from west to east. The average annual precipitation of 36 inches, estimated on the basis of records at nearby Odell 

Lake and Wickiup Dam, may be in error as much as 25 percent; it 

represents a small part of the total water supply reaching the lake. 

Average annual inflow of 150 cfs was estimated on the basis of records 

upstream on Odell Creek near Crescent in the period 1933-62 and 

gagings downstream on Davis Creek over a period of 24 years; it may 

be in error by 15 percent. Average annual evaporation loss cf 30 inches 

was estimated on the basis of records in the period May to September 

at Wickiup Dam; it probably is accurate within about 10 percent, and 

over a period of years will almost exactly offset the precipitation, most 

of which falls in the winter period, before the lake rises to the high 

summer stages that present a large area for evaporation. The average 

seepage of 150 cfs is estimated as equal to the average inflow, and that 

estimate is subject to the same possible error of 15 percent.
CRATER, EIAST, AND DAVIS LAKE'S, OREGON E41

CHEMISTRY OF THE LAKES

By A. S. VAN DENBURGH

Crater, East, and Davis Lakes all contain only small amounts of 

dissolved solids (table 13). Nonetheless, each lake is distinctively different chemically because the dilute lake waters are sensitive to the 

influences of even slightly differing hydrochemical environments. 

Thus, the character of Davis Lake is governed primarily by the constituents that are most readily drawn out of the soil and underlying 

rocks by very dilute natural runoff and percolation, a process that is 

aided by the dissolution of carbon dioxide. The resulting lake water 

contains only about 50 ppm (parts per million) of dissolved solids, 

which includes silica, bicarbonate, and very little else. Crater Lake 

water, with a dissolved-solids concentration of about 80 ppm, is in 

many respects similar chemically, but in addition it contains not'ceable 

amounts of several hydrochemical products of its volcanic-caldera 

environment. Only small quantities of the telltale constituents 

sodium, sulf ate, and chloride are necessary to draw attention to that 

environment. At East Lake, where the dissolved constituents of 

thermal-spring flow are the strongest and overshadowing control, the 

chemical character of "Davis Lake-type" water is masked almort completely. The result is a calcium sodium bicarbonate sulf ate watf ^ with 

four times the dissolved-solids concentration of Davis Lake.

CRATER LAKE

Crater Lake is fed almost wholly by direct precipitation, and the 

chemical character of the lake reflects the dilute nature of that nipply. 

The dissolved-solids concentration is about 80 ppm, made up mostly 

of silica, calcium, sodium, and bicarbonate (table 13). However, Crater 

Lake also contains significant concentrations of sulfate and chloride 

(about 10 ppm of each) not usually found in the surface water of 

humid mountainous regions.

The lake water appears to be practically uniform in chemical 

quality both areally and vertically. Partial analysis of 12 samples 

taken August 5, 1964, at three sites and at depths ranging from 1 

foot to 1,900 feet showed silica concentration that ranged fron 16 to 

17 ppm, chloride from 9.5 to 9.8 ppm, and specific conductance from 

115 to 118 micromhos at 25° C.

Crater Lake contains about 1.5 million tons of dissolved solids within 

its 14-million-acre-foot water body. Through 1964, the lake h?,s been 

sampled only three times in 1912,1961, and 1964 for comprehensive 

chemical analysis. The results (table 13) suggest that very little net
E42 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

change in dissolved-solids content or chemical character occurred during the 52-year period.

Direct precipitation accounts for the greatest increment of water 

added to the lake, but its dissolved-solids contribution is of only secondary importance. The bulk of dissolved material now present in the lake 

has undoubtedly been derived from three principal sources: (1) Spring 

discharge and runoff from the caldera sides above the water level, 

(2) dissolution or mineralogic alteration of slightly soluble components of the caldera wall below the lake surface, and (3) spring flow 

that may issue from the lake-basin sides and bottom below the present 

lake level. The relative importance of these sources is uncertain. However, three of the principal constituents of the lake water silica, calcium, and sodium are the most mobile and common products of the 

low-temperature hydrochemical breakdown of most ign?ous rocks, 

including the group of volcanic rocks that form Mount Mazama.

The accumulation of sulfate and chloride in Crater Lake may not 

be due entirely to the normal processes of hydrochemical rock breakdown. The two constituents, and perhaps some silica anc1 sodium as 

well, may have been contributed to the lake by thermal springs or 

fumaroles, probably located below the present lake level. Such springs 

and fumaroles are a common expression of hydrothermal activity at a 

site of volcanic eruptions.

This opinion is supported by the contrastingly small corcentrations 

of the two constituents observed in water of Rogue River near Prospect, Oreg., about 25 miles southwest of the lake. This river drains an 

area adjacent to Crater Lake and underlain predominar tly by volcanic rocks. Observed concentrations of sulfate and chloride were less 

than 2.0 ppm and usually less than 1.0 ppm in monthly samples collected during the period August 1960-September 1961.

Leakage plays an important part in the chemistry of Crater Lake. 

The estimated water loss (about 90 cfs) removes approximately 7,000 

tons of dissolved solids from the lake each year, an amourt that may 

be more than the quantity added annually. Thus, the lake may actually 

be freshening slightly over a long-term period. However, the lack of 

appreciable chemical change during the 52-year period 1912-64 indicates that the freshening, if it does occur, is a slow process.

EAST LAKE

Although the geologic environments of East and Crater Lakes are 

quite similar each occupies a volcanic caldera of Holocene age their 

chemical characters are dissimilar. East Lake contains about 200 ppm 

of dissolved solids, more than twice the amount in Crater Lake. The 

principal cations are calcium, sodium, and magnesium, which are pres-
CRATER, BLAST, AND DAVIS UAKES, OREGON E43

ent in almost equal amounts, based on equivalents per million. Bicarbonate and sulfate are by far the most abundant anions, whereas the 

concentration of chloride is remarkably small (about 0.2 ppm ; table 

13).

Perhaps the most important source of dissolved solids in th°> East 

Lake basin is the discharge of hot springs situated in one known shallow area of the lake basin below the present water level; similar springs 

may occur in deeper parts of the lake as well. The analysis of a lakewater sample collected in the area of spring activity at the southeastern shore shows that the major constituents contributed by the springs 

probably are silica, bicarbonate, and sulf ate; the identity of the principal cation (s) is uncertain. The springs also emit gaseous hydrogen sulfide, and almost certainly carbon dioxide as well.

Additional less important sources of dissolved solids are: Hydrochemical alteration and decomposition of the lakebed below the present 

lake level, percolation and surface runoff into the 1.5-square-mile lake 

from the surrounding 6.0-square-mile drainage basin, and precipitation falling directly into the lake. Hydrochemical action of the lake 

water may be accelerated in areas of hot-spring activity by an abundance of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide tends to inhibit the increase 

in pH normally associated with the decomposition or alteration of some 

common minerals, such as alkaline-earth carbonates, feldspars micas, 

and certain clay minerals. As the pH of a solution that surrounds the 

altering mineral increases in the range from pH 7 to 10, the tendency 

to be altered (or, in the case of minerals such as calcite, to be dissolved) 

decreases. Thus, the presence of gaseous carbon dioxide aids the decomposition processes because dissolution of the gas and subsequent dissociation of the carbonic acid initially formed provides hydrogen ions 

that depress the pH.

The relatively dilute character of the lake water, in spite of the dissolved-solids contribution from hot springs, supports the hydrologic 

evidence (p. E29) that some of the water and its dissolved material are 

leaving the lake rather than accumulating. Because there is 110 indication that the lake has ever overflowed into adjacent Paulina Lake, subsurface leakage is the only means of water loss with concurrent dissolved-solids removal. If, as suggested on page E29, leakage f^om the 

lake is about 2.3 cfs, the annual loss of dissolved solids would be about 

450 tons, or 3 percent of the lake's estimated 15,000-ton dissolvei-solids 

load. The magnitude of annual dissolved-solids depletion in Er.st Lake 

is by itself ample evidence that lakes in leaky basins remain dilute, 

even if the leakage is slight.

A logical path for the leakage would be westward from East Lake 

(alt about 6,380 ft) to adjacent Paulina Lake (alt about 6,330 ft).
E44 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

However, the almost ninefold difference in magnitude between the 

outflow from Paulina Lake (about 20 cfs) and the estimated leakage 

from East Lake (about 2.3 cfs) prevents the detection of leakage to 

Paulina Lake from chemical criteria alone, despite the marked differences in chemical character (table 13).

DA VIS LAKE

Davis Lake is fed by snowmelt runoff, direct precipitation, and 

spring flow, all presumably very dilute. The dilute nature of this inflow is mirrored by the chemical character of the lake. The dissolvedsolids concentration is only about 50 ppm, and the principal constituents are silica, calcium, sodium, and bicarbonate (table 13). These 

constituents are common to most dilute ground and surface water of 

mountainous regions where annual precipitation rates are high and 

evaporation rates are low.

The small dissolved-solids content of Davis Lake supports the hydraulic evidence that subsurface leakage is an important means of 

water loss. The average seepage of 150 cfs from Davis Lake and its 

dissolved-solids concentration of 48 ppm indicate an average annual 

loss of about 7,000 tons. The similarity between the dissolved-solids 

concentration of Davis Lake (as indicated by a specific conductance of 

57 micromhos) and that of a spring (58 micromhos) 1.8 miles northnortheast of the lake and about 50 feet lower, suggests significant leakage by way of this spring and several others, which have combined 

discharge of 160 to 280 cfs.

REFERENCES

Antevs, Ernst, 1938, Rainfall and tree growth in the Great Basin: Am. Geog. 

Soc. Spec. Pub. 21, 85 p.

Blaney, H. F., and Corey, G. L., 1955, Evaporation from water surfaces in California : California Dept. Pub. Works, Div. Water Resources Bull. 54-B, 98 p.

Calvin, L. D., and Peterson, R. G., 1960, Evaluation of efforts to increase snowfall 

and resultant runoff by winter cloudseeding in southern Oregon Cascade 

Mountains; ninth progress report: Corvallis, Oreg., Agr. Research Found, 

and Oregon Agr. Expt. Sta., 22 p.

Diller, J. S., 1912, Geological history of Crater Lake, Oregon: U.S. D^pt. Interior 

Public Inf. Bull., 31 p.

Diller, J. S., and Patton, H. B., 1902, The geology and petrography of Crater 

Lake National Park: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 3,164 p.

Flint, R. F., and Brandtner, Friedrich, 1961, Outline of climatic fluctuation since 

the last interglacial age, in Solar variations, climatic change, and related 

geophysical problems: New York Acad. Sci. Annals, v. 95, art. 1, p. 457-460.

Fryxell, Roald, 1965, Mazama and Glacier Peak volcanic ash lay?rs, relative 

ages: Science, v. 147, p. 1288-1290.

Gentilli, J., 1961, Quaternary climates of the Australian region, in Solar variations, climatic change, and related geophysical problems: New York Acad. 

Sci. Annals, v. 95, art. 1, p. 465-501.
CRATER, EAST, AND DAVIS LAKE'S, OREGON E45

Harding, S. T., 1965, Recent variations in the water supply of the western Great 

Basin: California Univ. Water Resources Center Archives Ser. Rept. 16, 

p. 1-142.

Henshaw, F. F., Lewis, J. H., and McCaustland, E. J., 1914, Deschute? River, 

Oregon, and its utilization: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Pap^r 344. 

200 p.

Keen, F. P., 1937, Climatic cycles in eastern Oregon indicated by tree rings: 

U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Monthly Weather Rev., v. 65, no. 5, p. 175-188.

Kohler, M. A., Nordenson, T. J., and Baker, D. R., 1959, Evaporation maps for 

the United States: U.S. Weather Bur. Tech. Paper 37, 12 p., 5 pi.

Lawrence, D. B., 1961, Response of enclosed lakes to current glacio-fluvial climatic conditions in middle latitude western North America, in Solar variations, climatic change, and related geophysical problems: New York Acad. 

Sci. Annals, v. 95, art. 1, p. 341-349.

Marshall, R. B., 1914, Results of spirit leveling in Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 556,173 p.

Matthes, F. E., 1942, Glaciers, Chapter 5 of Volume 9, in Physics of the earth: 

New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., p. 149-219.

Nelson, C. H., 1961, Geological limnology of Crater Lake, Oregon: Minneapolis, 

Minnesota Univ., M.S. thesis, 167 p.

Russell, I. C., 1905, Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of 

central Oregon : U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 252,133 p.

U.S. Weather Bureau, 1962, Climatological data, Annual Summary 1961, Oregon: 

V. 67, no. 13, p. 224-235.

Van Winkle, Walton, 1914, Quality of the surface waters of Oregon: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 363,137 p.

Williams, Howel, 1935, Newberry Volcano of central Oregon: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 46, no. 2, p. 253-304.

 1942, The geology of Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: Carnegie Inst. 

Washington Pub. 540,162 p.

 1953, The ancient volcanoes of Oregon: Eugene, Oreg., Oregor Univ. 

Press, 68 p.

 1957, Crater Lake, the story of its origin: Berkeley, Calif., California

Univ. Press, 97 p.

HYDROLOGIC AND CHEMICAL DATA
E48 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES 

TABLE 1. Monthly and annual temperature and precipitation at Crater Lake 1

Temperature (°F)

Month

July.-.-.-.-.-.-..

Year...............

Means

Daily 

maximum

34.6

34.7

37.7

44.7

51.8

59.8

70.4

70.3

62.6

52.1

41.7

35.0

49.6

Extremes

Daily A minimum

17.4 

18.1 

19.3 

23.8 

29.0 

35.2 

42.2 

41.6 

36.9 

31.1 

24.5 

20.1 

28.3

verage

26.0 

26.4 

28.5 

34.3 

40.4 

47.5 

56.3 

56.0 

49.8 

41.6 

33.1 

27.6 

39.0

Highest 

of record

OF

58 

66 

67 

71 

80 

90 

91 

89 

86 

80 

75 

62 

91

Year

1931 

1954 1934 2 

1927 

1931 

1924 

1924 

1933 1955 2 

1958 

1931 

1956 

1924

Lowest 

of record

OF

-14 

-18 

-6 

0 

5 

11 

18 

16 

18 

10 -7 

-18 

-18

Year

19492 

1933 

1956 

1955 

1930 

1952 

1935 

1925 19332 

19352 

1955 

1924 

19332

Precipitation 

(inches)

Average Maximum 

daily

10.85 

8.68 

8.22 

4.34 

3.31 

2.54 

.63 

.56 

2.05 

6.42 

7.95 

11.69 

67.24

3.83 

3.49 

2.31 

4.19 

1.88 

2.02 

1.54 

1.10 

2.64 

3.17 

2.63 

5.06 

5.06

1 Average and extreme temperatures and precipitation are based on 27 years of complete records in the 

period 1924-61. Data furnished by U.S. Weather Bureau from station at park headquarters, 2 miles south 

of Crater Lake rim.

2 Also in other years.

TABLE 2. Precipitation, in inches, at Crater Lake Weather Station for years ending

June 30, 1931-62 »

Year 

1931 ---

1932 ___ _.

1933 ___-

1934 ----

1935------

1936_______

1937 _--

1938.- __ .

1939------

1940 _ ---_

1Q4.1

Precipitation 

33.34

75. 21

75. 65

54. 24

71.33

55.30

58.92

74. 41

45. 16

59.96

71 ei

Year 

1942___..._

1943 -__-

1944 ___-

1945....._.

1946_______

1947-_-__-

1948 ----

1949 ._-

1950 -___

1951 ----

1QCO

Precipitation 

68. 24

87. 01

53.65

59.77

66. 64

74.58

78. 55

66.93

77.07

93. 08

84. 60

Year 

1953 ---_-_

1954 -_-_-_

1955 ------

1956 ------

1957 ------

1958 -----

1959 -----

1960__--.-_-_

1961 ------

1962 -----

Average 

Precipitation 

71. 21

68. 82

50. 92

87. 68

65. 26

81. 14

58. 66

64. 68

64.70

58. 12

67.4

1 Records for August 1930 observed at south rim of Crater Lake, altitude 7,086 feet; records for July, September, and October 1930estimated for this report. From November 1930 through 1962, precipitation station 

has been at altitude 6,475 feet. Records for most months, November 1942 to June 1946, were estimated by 

U.S. Weather Bureau using correlation techniques.
CRATER, ElAST, AND DAVIS LAKEiS, OREGON E49

TABLE 3. Rise in level of Crater Lake in selected periods of heavy precipitation,

1961-62

Last day, 

Number of days ending 

8 a.m.

4 _ _ _

7.. _ _ _ .

5__----_---___.

5__--_-__----_.

5_---__-__---_.

5______-_-____.

3________--___.

7_____________.

3_ _ _ __

Total (50)..-

._____. 10-13-61

_______ 10-28-61

_______ 11-26-61

._____. 12-21-61

.____._ 1-20-62

._____. 2-10-62

_______ 2-17-62

.___-_- 3- 4-62

_______ 3-11-62

_______ 3-27-62

_______ 4-29-62

Precipitation i 

(feet)

0. 23 

. 29 

. 61 

.44 

. 17 

. 20 

. 21 

. 26 

. 19 

. 30 

. 23

3. 13 .

Rise in lake level (feet)

Observed

0.20 

.27 

. 63 

. 56 

. 10 

. 17 

. 17 

. 22 

. 10 

. 20 

. 17

Adjustment 2

0.04 

.03 

.08 

.06 

.03 

.06 

.06 

.06 

.03 

.08 

.03

Adjusted

0. 24 

.30 

. 71 

.62 

. 13 

. 23 

.23 

.28 

. 13 

.28 

. 20

3 3. 35

1 From records of U.S. Weather Bureau.

2 Adjustment applied to change in lake stage to compensate for tributary inflow estimated at 14 cfs (equivalent to 0.002 ft depth per day on lake surface) and outflow by seepage at 89 cfs (equivalent to 0.0" 34 ft per 

day on the lake surface).

3 Ratio of total adjusted changes in lake level to total precipitation is 1.07.

TABLE 4. Fall in level of Crater Lake in selected periods of no precipitation, 1961-62

Number of days

5---_----_--__-_-_-_-

5__________________._

7_____.______________

3

Sum (35) ________

Last day 

ending 

8 a.m.

__ ___ _ 11- 9-61

----__.-__ 11-17-61

__ __ _ _ 2- 5-62

__________ 4- 3-62

. __ _ __ 4-14-62

_ __ _ __ 4-18-62

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6

altitude 

(feet)

174. 81 

174. 82 

175. 33 

175. 91 

175. 76 

175. 71

6 175.4 __

Fall in lake level (feet)

Adjusted for 

Observed eviooration i

0.08 

. 10 

. 13 

. 10 

.06 

.03

0.070 

.090 

. 110 

.086 

. 050 

. 024

. 430 

. 0123

Evaporation rate of 0.002 foot per day assumed.
E50 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES 

TABLE 5. Computed seepage rates for Crater Lake 1

Period Average values

Number 

of 

years

8__ --------

4

5_. . ------

4_. --_---_.

2

2

l__-_--.__.

Last year, 

ending 

Sept. 30

1938

1942

1953

1957

1959

1961

1962

Precipitation 

(in. per yr)

62. 25

60. 74

78. 35

68. 68

70.75

62. 50

60. 17

Runoff 

(acre-ft 

per yr)

86, 280

84, 180

108, 590

95, 190

98, 060

86, 620

83, 400

Volume 

change 

(acre-ft 

per yr)

-1,310

-5, 260

+ 19,970

+ 5, 910

+ 660

- 10, 840

-6, 310

Computed 

seepage 

rate 

(cfs)

86

89

88

89

100

100

89

Lake 

level 

(feet)

6, 164. 6

6, 164. 3

6, 170. 9

6, 176. 0

6, 177. 8

6, 176. 0

6, 175. 4

1 Precipitation is that observed at Crater Lake Weather Station. Runoff includes precipitation and is 

computed as 1,386 acre-feet per inch of precipitation. Volume change is computed from observed change in 

stage and constant lake area of 13,140 acres. Annual evaporation loss is assumed constant as 23 inches (25,180 

acre-ft) per year. Lake level is partly estimated because of lack of data in winter and spring periods.

TABLE 6. Computation of annual evaporation loss from Crater Lake

Period 1930-62: Acre-feet

1. Average annual water supply (computed for average annual

observed precipitation of 67.4 in.)________________________ 93, 400

2. Average annual storage increment________________________ 3, 560

3. Average annual seepage loss, at rate of 89 cfs____-_-_-_______ 64, 430

4. Computed average annual evaporation loss (equivalent to depth

of 1.93 ft, or 23 in., on lake area of 13,140 acres)__________ 25, 400

Period October 1, 1961, to September 30, 1962:

1. Water supply (computed for 60.2 in. observed precipitation) __ 83, 440

2. Storage loss (fall of 0.47 ft)_.____________________________._ +6, 180

3. Seepage loss at rate of 89 cfs_______-____-_____---____-____ 64, 430

4. Computed evaporation loss (equivalent to depth of 1.92 ft, or

23 in. on lake area) -------.--.-------_..-___-_---.. 25, 200
CRATER, E1AST, AND DAVIS LAKES, OREGON E51

TABLE 7. Altitude of water surface in Crater Lake, 1878-1963

Date 

1878

1892 

Sept. 10___--_

1893 

Sept. 26__---

1895 

Sept. 25___ -

1896

Anrr 99

Aug. 30____--

Sept. 4, 5_-._ 

Sept. 13___--_

Sept. 23-_____

1897 

Aug. 1 _____

1901 

July 1_ ______

July 20____--

Aug. 1. _._-__

Sept. 1. ______

Sept. 15 _-

Oct. 12______

1907 

July 20___-_-

1908 

July 28__----

Oct. 8. ______

1909

Sept. 7 -_

1910 

Aug. 16------

1911 

Aug. 21.- ___

Sept. 21 -__

1912

July 10____-_

Aug. !-___-__

Aug. 12______ 

Aug. 26_ __-

Sept. 17 _ __-

1913

July 19___ _ 

Aug. 3___--_-

Antr Q

Sept. !_______

Sept. 6___---_

Sept. ll _-

Sept. 16 --

Sept. 21______

1914 

July 12____-_

July 20____-_

July 31_--__-

Aug. 10___ _

Aug. 20__----

Aug. 30_---_-

Sept. 5 __ __-

Sept. 13__ __

Sent. 30__ _ _

Altitude 

(feet i)

2 75

3 77. 8 

3 76. 2

4 77. 5

77. 7 

77. 6 

77. 5 

77. 2 

77. 1

78.4

78. 6 

78. 3 

78. 1 

77.8 

77. 6 

76.9 

77. 1

5 76. 3

77. 3 

5 75.9

76. 5 

76. 3

77. 1

76. 2 

75. 6

76. 3 

76. 1 

76. 0 

76. 0 

75.9

76. 6 

76. 5 

76. 32 

76. 00 

75. 98 

75 88 

75. 78 

75. 72

75. 0 

74. 9 

74. 7 

74. 5 

74. 3 

74. 2 

74. 1 

74.0 

74. 3

Date 

1915

June 20- --

July 10____-

July 20_ _ . _ -

July 31__-_-

Aug. 10____.

Aug. 20--_-_

Aug. 31---.-

Sept. 10 

Sept. 18 

1916 

July 22___ 

Aug. 2_.___

Aug. 13__-._

Aug. 20----.

Aug. 26- --

Sept. 12__-_

Sept. 30 __ -

1917 

Sept. 13 _ -_

Sept. 17 _

1918 

July 14_-___

July 30._--_.

Aug. 23__---.

Sept. 7 __-

1919 

July 5-------

July 11____ _

Sept. 20 __ -

Sept. 25 _ -_

1920 

July 6---_-_-

Aug. 14_-___.

1921 

Auc- 2

Aug. 20- -

Sept. 16 __ -.

1922 

July 21.-_-_.

July 26------

Aug. 20------ 

Sept. 10 __ _.

1923 

July !____-_.

July 21_-_._.

July 24___ -

Aug. 7_------

Aug. 26- -

Sept. 11 __ _-

Sept. 24 __ _.

1924

July 2_._-__.

Aug. 2 .

Sept. 2____-_.

1925 

July 1_____-.

Auo* 1

Sent. I.-.---.

Altitude 

(feet ')

75. 78

75. 66

75. 50

75. 32

75. 16

74. 98

74. 82

74. 66 

74. 50 

74. 44

74. 22

75. 4

75. 3

75. 2

75. 1 

75. 0

74. 82 

74. 5

74. 3

74. 2

75. 0 

74. 0 

73. 5

73. 5

73. 9 

73.9 

72. 8

72. 7

72. 4 

71. 7

74. 3 

73. 7 

72.9

74. 4 

74. 2 

73. 7 

73. 5

73.7 

73. 5 

73. 4 

73. 2

72 8 

72. 7 

71. 8

71. 5 

71. 4 

70. 6 

70. 1

71. 7 

71. 1 

70. 2

Date 

1925 

Sept. 22___ __

1926 

May 22___-_.

July 22__.--.

Aug. 22___.-.

Sept. 15----.

1927 

July 22_____.

Aug. 22__-__.

1928 

July !____-.

Aug. 6 .

Sept. !___ __ _.

1929 

Sept. 8 - .

Dec. 5_------

1930 

July (?)_.__.

Aug. (?)_--_.

Sept. 20---.

1931 

Sept. 18 --.

Oct. 12_.___.

1932 

Sept. 13 --.

1933 

Sept. 12 -.

Oct. 17-.__--

1934 

Apr. 26-_- .

July 10------

Aug. 13 ---- 

Aug. 20 - -

Oct. (?)--__-. 

1935 

June 27- ---

July !__.----

July 11____-.

July 24------

Aug. 10- - 

Aug. 19- ---

Aug. 30------

Sept. 2 _ _--.

1936 

June 10 _____

Sept. 17 _-

1938 

July 2______.

Sept. 15---

1939 

June 9___

July 10.-----

July 16__----

July 27__-__-

Aug. 7____---

Aug. 15 _____

Aug. 26- ---

Sept. 1 _____

Sept. 6 .---

Attitude 

(Jeeti)

70. 0

70.0 

69. 5 

68. 9 

68. 3

70.0

69. 7

70.9 

70. 4 

70. 0

67. 4 

66. 91

66. 21

65. 61 

65. 66

63. 26 

63. 31

63. 71

64. 5 

64. 6

65. 76 

65. 4 

65.2 

64. 6 

64. 39 

63.41

65.36 

65. 21 

64.88 

64.86 

64.63 

64. 48 

64. 35 

64. 30

65. 1 

63.93

65.92 

64.92

64. 9 

64.9 

64.98 

64. 78 

64. 5 

64. 4 

64. 3 

64. 1 

63.9

See footnotes at end of table.
E52 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES

TABLE 7. Altitude of water surface in Crater Lake, 1818-1963 Continued.

Date 

1939 

Oct. 12_____

1940

July 2______

July 15.___-

July 21__.__

Aug. 2______

Aug 14

Aug. 30

Sept. 2_ _ ..

1941

July !_.___.

July 10_---_

July 28.--.-

Aug. 13--__-

Aug. 29----.

Sept. 4... _.-

1942

July3-_.__.

July 13--.-.

July 20---.-

Aug. 10-..--

Aug. 17 _ .-

Aug. 25__-_-

Sept. 10 __ _

1 Q/<<?

1946

Aug. 16.._ __

i&j+t

1948

June 26 ___

Aug. !______

Sept. 5 ___

1950

June 15_____

July 15___ 

Aug. 13_____

Aug. 22_____

Sept. 11 __ _

1951

June 29 _ 

Sept. 11 ___

1952

July 13____-

Aug. 19---._

Sept. 22 __ _

Oct. 3-_.-._

1953

Aug. ll_.--_

Altitude 

(feet i)

63. 65

64. 5

64. 3

64. 2

64. 1

63.9

63. 7

63.4

63. 3

64. 0

63.9

63.8

63.7

63.3

63. 5

64.2

64. 0

63.9

63.7

63.6

63.5

63.2

8 66. 73

6 67. 1

66.7

R aa o

67.9

69. 8

69. 7

69. 3

69. 3

68.9

72.3

70. 9

74. 56

74. 31

73. 31

73. 24

75.3

Date 

1954 

Aug. 4.------

Aug. 11__.---

Sept. 23_-_- __

Oct. 9-__---_

1955

July 10--.---

July 22....--

July 29-_-_--

Aug. 25-_---_

Sept. !.______

Sept. 23 _ __.

Oct. 4_ ______

Oct. 26- .

1956

July 6------

July 25__-___

Aug. 6--.----

Aug. 21____-_

Sept. 10 -.

Sept. 21 _ ___

Oct. 18------

Oct. 28. ___-

1957

July 3___ 

Aug. 2_______

Aug. 16__- -

Sept. 5_ _-_--

Sept. 10 __ -

Sept. 30 _ -_.

1958

July 15- ___

July 31_-___-

Aug. 15_

1959

Aug. 3---_-_-

Aug. 12 ____

Aug. 22__.___

Oct. 2_

1960

July 8___-.__

July 15. _ .--

July 27. -_-_

Aug. ll-_-___

Sept. 9 __ .--

Sept. 23 

1961

May 24___-_-

July 10 -----

July 20___---

Sept. 7 _ __-

Sept. 17 _.

Sept. 30 _ _.

Altitude 

(feet i)

76.5

76.32

75.83

75. 53

75.03

74. 92

74.83

74.39

74.25

74.05

73.87

73.91

77. 15

77.07

76.89

76.67

76.5

76. 17

75. 91

76.09

77.58

77. 13

76.85

76. 51

76. 39

76. 31

6 79. 06

78. 85

78. 73

78.45

77. 00

76. 81

76. 37

76. 77

76. 65

76.47

76. 23

75. 67

75.42

76. 4

76. 2

76. 1

75. 22

75. 05

74.75

Date 

1961 

Oct. 9___ _-

Oct. 31____-

Nov. 15-___-

Nov. 30 _ __

Dec. 15__-_-

Dec. 31 -

1962

Jan. 15

Jan. 31

Feb. 15_____

Feb. 28_____

Mar. 15--__-

Mar. 31_ ___

Apr. 15 ___

Apr. 30 ___

May 3_____-

May 15_ _-

May 31 __-

June 30____-

July 15_-_--

July 31 ._ _

Aug. 15 -

Aug. 31- __-

Sept. 15 

Sept. 30____-

Oct. 6___ _-

Oct. 15-_-._

Oct. 31---.-

Nov. 15. .-

Nov. 30_.___

Dec. 15. --

Dec. 31.....

1963

Jan. 31... __

Feb. 15. .-

Feb. 28. .-

IVTar 1 P.

Mar. 31

Anr 1 ^

Apr. 30..---

May 7. __._

May 15 

May 31___-_

June 30..---

July 15--..-

July 31.....

Aug. 31_-__-

Sept. 15 _ _-

Sept. 30 ...__

AUitude 

(feet i)

74. 60

74. 83

74. 70

75. 26

75. 07

75. 50

75. 44

75. 31

75. 52

75. 48

75. 70

75. 78

75. 72

75. 79

75. 84

75. 82

75. 71

75. 61

75. 48

75. 26

75. 07

74. 99

74. 66

74. 39

74. 27

74. 20

74. 94

74. 74

74. 84

75. 05

75. 35

75. 09

74. 85

75. 00

75.34

75. 48

7K oq

7K K.f\

75. 76

7c 71

7C QG

75. 81

7K 7K

75. 67

75. 60

75. 46

75. 20

75. 05

74. 75

74. 62

74. 45
CRATER, E1AST, AND DAVIS LARES, OREGON E53

TABLE 7. Altitude of water surface in Crater Lake, 1878-1963 Continued

1 Altitude is excess above 6,100 feet. Most observations were made and furnished by U.S. National Park 

Service. Continuous records of stage are available from September 14, 1961, to September 30, 1%3, and 

beyond. Some readings made in periods 1913-17, 1926-28, 1935, 1940-42, and 1954-63 are not included in the 

listing.

2 Water surface reported nearly 6 feet below watermark (assumed to be same watermark later found to 

be at 6,180.5 ft).

3 Based on lowest part of painted name on rock wall near boat landing; water surface may have be?n lower 

but not higher.

4 From newspaper report (S. T. Harding, written commun., 1959). 

s Uncertain; based on memory of observer in 1913. 

6 Seasonal high watermark.

TABLE 8. Estimated outflow from Paulina Lake

Month 

October. _ _ _

November.- _ _

December.- _.

January... _______ _

IVTarpVi

April- _. _--_.._ .__

Average flow 

(cfs)

10

15

15

20

20

OK

30

Month 

May _ ___

June. _

July_______ __________

August _ _____ _.

The year. ____________

Average flow 

(cfsl

35 

25 

20 

15 

10

20

1 Above estimates are based on observations of flow given below:

Date Description of measurement 

Aug. 23, 1903-... - Measured over wooden wfiir .. ______

May 23, 1930.. ______________

Spring 1958---____. .........

Sept. 16,1958...............

May 18, 1959................

June 20, 1961................

May28. 1962... .............

Measured with current, mptpr flrnnth vpar

plus an estim

watermark, computation of flow 

ate.

f flow

.............do............................................

.___._ __._.. do....-..-. -------- ...... .._.._ -.._._ ---.----.

______ ......do.. ..........................................

over weir

Flow 

(cfs) 

13.0 

23.4 

70

10 

23 

30 

40

TABLE 9. Estimate of rate of leakage from East Lake

Average annual values

Average lake area.... ................

.....do...-

.....do....

.... acres..

....do....

....do....

....do....

_.._do-.-

Long-term 

rate

ilO.O 

111.4 135 

S 28 

940 

0 

0 

' +2, 740 

8 +1, 150 

+3, 890 

? -2, 190 

-1,700 

0

Period of water years 

ending September 30

1931-60

210.4 

2 11. 9 337

910 

6 +.23 

'+210 

' +2, 800 

8+1,250 

+4, 050 

i -2, 120 

-1,700 

+20

1942-58

2 11. 67 

213.06 

4 41 

S 28 

950 

6 +.94 

'+890 

' +3, 250 

8 +1, 450 

+4,700 

? -2,210 

-1, 700 

-100

19*-81

28.27 

2 8. 30 

4 26 

528 

1,000

6-1.3

i -1,300 

^ +2, 170 

8+700 

+2, 870 

? -2, 330 

-1,700 

+140

1 Estimated, about 5 percent less than in period 1931-60, when lake was rising.

2 From records of U.S. Weather Bureau, estimated for some months.

3 Estimated on basis of precipitation at Bend and snow-water content at Paulina Lake, 1955-62.

4 Estimated on basis of records at Fremont and Bend. 

s Estimated from regional value adjusted for altitude.

6 Computed from occasional observations of stage.

7 Computed from average lake area on basis of unpublished surveys of Oregon Game Commission.

8 Estimated as 50X(precipitation less 12 inches allowance for evapotranspiration).
E54 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES 

TABLE 10. Altitude of water surface in East Lake

Date Altitude 1 (feet) Basis

( 2 ) _____________ 6, 385. 5 Beach terrace, minimum age based on age of

living pine tree cored by D. B. Lawrence.

1903

Aug. 25____-_-_ 6,380 I. C. Russell noted lake level high; here estimated as 2.5 ft lower than peak of 1904.

1904 

Peak___________ 6,382.5 Deduced from field notes of D. B. Lawrence,

1960, as equal to peak of 1958. 

1927 

Aug. 3____-____ 6,374.87 Leveling by U.S. Forest Service.

1981 

_________---___ 6,371 Survey for Newberry Crater sheet cf topographic

atlas. 

1932

June 9.___-__._ 6,369 Photograph by Howel Williams (1935, pi. 29);

lake depth at camera site, 8.9 ft on July 2, 

1963.

(3 )-________-__- 6,366 Statement of resort operator; abort 16 ft below

level of 1958. 

1951 

July 27_ _______ 6,374 Estimated from aerial photographs taken by

U.S. Forest Service.

1958 

Peak___________ 6,382.5 From high-water mark.

Sept. 16______._ 6, 381. 66 By leveling.

1959 

May 18____-___ 6,381.74 Do.

Oct. 26______.__ 6,379.90 Do.

Nov. 10. _______ 6, 379. 80 Do.

1960 

July 27_________ 6,379.81 Do.

Sept. 10________ 6, 379. 12 Depth 1.80 ft over reference mark.

1961 

June 20. _______ 6, 379. 40 Depth 2.08 ft over reference mark.

Sept. 6_ ______ 6, 378. 1 By leveling.

Oct. 26_______ 6, 377. 57 Depth 0.25 ft over reference iriark.

1969 

May 28________ 6, 378. 50 Depth 1.18 ft over reference mark.

Nov. 12________ 6, 377. 09 By leveling, following heavy October rains.

1963 

Peak_______ 6,378.3 Watermark observed July 2, 1963.

July 2_______ 6, 377. 8 By leveling.

1 Altitude based on datum of 1929, supplementary adjustment of 1947, by which the altitude of benchmark 

F8-1931, in boulder 250 ft southeast of southwest corner of lake, is 6,382.68 ft.

2 Before 1853.

3 Low level, probably in 1941 or 1942.
CRATER, EAST, AND DAVIS LtAKES, OREGON E55

TABLE 11. Monthly and annual average temperature, precipitation, and evaporation at Odell Lake ! and Wickiup Dam, 2 near Davis Lake

Month

April.-... ---------

July...--..........--...

Year .-.--.. ...........

Temperature 3 (°F)

Odell 

Lake

..--- 26.6

..- 30.0

 ... 30.8

__._._ 36.9

...-- 43.2

...... 50.2

...... 58.0

.-._. 56.1

..._._ 51.4

.--. 42.9

...... 34.0

OQ ft

.-..- 40.8

Wickiup 

Dam

27.5 

29.5 

33.6 

41.3 

48.1 

55.3 

62.2 

60.0 

54.2 

45.4 

35.7 

30.8

43.6

Precipitation 3 

(inches)

Odell 

Lake

9.50 

6.87 

7.70 

3.94 

3.25 

2.36 

.49 

.87 

2.03 

5.39 

8.33 

10.72

61.45

Wickiup 

Dam

3.62 .

2.52 .

1.89 .

.97 .

1.52 

1.25 

.25 

.52 

.63 

1.97 

2.73 .

3.84 ..

21.71

Evaporation 

(inches)

Odell Vickiup 

Lake Dam

*3.35 

54.05 

*5.54 

S 3.72 

51.93 

5.70 .....

«24

'5.77 

'6.80 

59.03 

57.35 

'5.14

«45

1 Weather station altitude, 4,795 ft.

2 Weather station altitude, 4,358 ft.

3 From records of U.S. Weather Bureau for the period January 1950 to December 1964, not ad'tisted to 

long-term average.

4 Average of land-pan values for May 1951-63.

5 Normal evaporation from land pans (records of U.S. Weather Bureau). 

8 Estimated for this report.

TABLE 12. Altitude, in feet, of water surface in Davis Lake

Date

Before 1728_ 

1878

1904

Sept. 12 __ __

1930

1934

Dec... _______

1939

Oct. 17..____

Nov. 28_ ___-

1940

May 2_.-____

June 7

July 27_____-

Sept. 24 _ .__

Oct. 3. ______

Nov. 13__-_-_

1941

May 14____

July 18_____-

Sept. 26 __ _

Nov. 28______

Altitude i

2 95. 4

* 92. 5

5 89

6 80

6 81. 2

e 80. 8

77. 7

77.8

84.4

84. 1

80.3

77.0

77. 1

77.7

7 79.3

79.0

78. 2

76. 1

78.3

Date

1942 

Apr. 21_____

June !!_____

July 23_____

Sept. 15___ __

Oct. 20_____

1943

May 19--_._

July 15_____

Sept. 2 _ .__

Nov. 17_____

1944

Apr. 18__.__

May 22--__-

Oct. 23_____

1946

May 7______

July 18_____

Aug. 29____

Nov. ! ____

1946

May 29_-_-_

June 17 ___-

June 24_ ___

July !___.__

Altitude i

81.4

82. 4

81. 3

76.9

8 75. 9

87.3

88.6

87.0

86.6

85.3

84.8

76.4

82.7

83. 6

83. 5

81.3

78.2

76.9

85. 6

86. 1

86.2

86. 2

Date

1946 

July 20__.__

Sept. 8 _ .__

Oct. 29_____

1947

Apr. 30__-__

May 21_____

July 12_____

Aug. 20___._

Sept. 9___-__

Oct. 6______

Dec. 4______

1948

May 26_-__-

June 29--__-

July 9___-_-

July 17_____

Aug. 13____-

Aug. 20-____

Sept. 17 __ _

Oct. ll_._-_

1949

May 22__ _

Sept. 12. _ .

Oct. 14-.-_-

1950

Mav 12

AP.itude i

85.9

85.9

83.9

85.6

85.9

85. 1

84. 5

83. 2

82.4

83.9

85.2

87.3

87.4

87.3

86.2

85.9

85.0

84.8

87. 8

85.7

84.7

87.4

See footnotes at end of table.
E56 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES 

TABLE 12. Altitude, in feet, of water surface in Davis Lake Continued

Date

1950 

May 29-___-

July 17... 

Sept. 25 _ ._

1951 

May 31__.-_

June 27__-_

July 31-.---

Sept. 12 _____

Oct. 10---.-

Oct. 30___--

1952 

May 9_ __ -

June 2______ 

July 10... 

Aug. 3 __

Aug. 22...--

Sept. 24_____

Nov. 4______

1958 

May 19_- __

Aug. 5__

Sept. 10. ._-

Oct. 28--.--

1954 

Apr. 23__-__

July 24_____

Dec. 2___-_-

Altitude i

87.7

89.4

87. 2

92.7

92.3

91.2

90.0

89.8

89.8

91.2

92.4 

92.6

92.0

91. 4

90.6

89. 5

on q

90.7

90. 3

89.4

88. 1

91.4

92. 1

91. 6

88.4

Date

1955 

May 12.----

June 23__-

July !______

July 18.--.-

A n rr 9

Alltr 99

Aug. 30----.

Sept. 23...--

Oct. 28--. 

1956 

June 20-____

July 18-._ 

Sept. 26 

1957 

May 9___ -__

June 13 

Peak_ __..--

July 9---__-

Nov. 8--.--

1958 

June 19 -_.

Ppat

July 20 

Nov. 7_

1959 

Apr. 9--__--

Aug. 21..---

Sept. 13_._ _-

Nov. 14 _ _-

Altitude i

87.7

87. 7

88. 0

88. 1

87. 8

07 9

86.4

QC 7

85. 2

84.9

no (>

92. 7

yi. o 

92.9

93.0

93.2

92.4

88.0

Q1 7

QO 1

91. 5

QQ 4.

90.0

86.9

86. 0

86. 5

Date

1960 

May 9__--_-

June30---__

July 14__-_-

July 29-...-

Aug. 9___---

Aug. 13-.---

Sept. 1_ __-

Sept. 14 ._

1961 

Jan. 18____-

Apr. 10____-

April 14 

May 11____.

June20-__._ 

June 30--.--

July 31__-._

Aug. 31 ___

Sept. 11 __ -

Sept. 27_____

Oct. 26_-__.

Oct. 31_____

Nov. 4___ _

1962 

May 16 - 

June 28___--

July 31_____

Aug. 30__-_.

Sept. 19 _____

Sept. 30___._

Oct. 29_-_.-

Oct. 31____.

Altitude i

86.3

87.0

87. 0

85. 3

85. 3

84. 7

QC 4.

84. 0

QO n

QC q

86.6

87.7 

86. 7

87. 1 

86.9

85.4

84. 1

83. 8

83. 2

83. 6

83. 5

83.7

87.2

87. 1

86. 6

85. 3

84. 7

84. 5

85. 2

85. 2

1 Above 4,300 feet.

2 Beach and lichen line interpreted as extreme high level.

3 "Twenty feet" below high mark; see p. E32.

4 Estimated on basis of a downstream gaging.

s Apparently intended as a recent high water level; taken from Maiden Peak sheet of topographic atlas 

edition of 1934. .

6 C. C. Fisher, U.S. Bur. Reclamation, unpub. data, 1936.

7 Peak stage, May or June. 

s Minimum of record.
3.0

e o n.r>

S-a

§3 

s-"S 

3 ^ a <B 

§1

3 S 3-s

"*

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INDEX

f Italic, page numbers indicate major references]

Accuracy, limits. ......-.-.. -.

Air temperature, records __ ...

Bend ... ...........-.. .-.

Bibliography... ....... ...__..._

description of area ..........

evaporation loss. ...........

geologic setting .............

water supply. ..............

Weather Station _ .........

Crescent.. ........... ........

Dating, caibon-14. -.-___. ______

Page 

_........ E21,30,40

-.-....-.... 2

_-...--_-..-._ 10

...-.-.....-._ 8,19

_-.-.-._-.._._ 10,20

--.-.- 6,10,14,15,16

. . - . . - 6

-.-.....-... 8,13,26

.-.-.-..-..-._ 26

._._...-.....- 27,29

.............. 44

.............. 20

.-...-....-... 16

............. 8,9,24

._.__-_.-.. 3,4,5,33

.............. 24

.............. 41

.............. 44

19

1Q

1017

_.____.- .- 10

.............. 24

.............. 11

26

...... - 41

.............. 10

.............. 3

..-.... ... 11

...... . ..... 5

.............. 7

. ......-. 11

.............. 5

.............. 15

...._......... 17

.............. 14

..... 11,15,17,19,20

........ 34,36,37,40

............. 8,9,24

water supplv

physiographic setting... __

precipitation..... ___

thermal springs -- .-- 

water budget. ___ .. ___

water supply.... _ .... __ ..

Fort Rock_... ... __ . _ .......

Fremont- __ _ ___ _ ...

Fnmarolfis

nfirp.nlfltinn

Page

............ E41

............ 44

............ 33

............ 3

01

Q.1

............ 36

_._. 40

 28,37

qfi

Q

............ 33

- . .-_. 33

 22,31

............ 24,33

.. _ .. 22,24

 ..... . 32

- .- .. 14

.... 5,17,42,43,44

............ 5,41

------ 23,28

............ S4

............ 3

............ 22

............ n

............ 27

............ 24

.-.... 30

............ 27

... 20,28,30,34,40

............ 20

Qft

 . 30

............ 11

............ 24,35

 ..-.- 27

 .-. 42

.... _ . 5

22

Q

 11

.... ..... 16,28,36

27

E59
E60 INDEX

Page 

Hydraulic gradient, East Lake..------------- E23

potential..-.--_-___________---_-___ 19

Indian sandals--__..__-----_.___-___- 24 

Inflow, ground-water_. ______- __ 16,28,36

Keen, F. P., quoted - - -- 35

Klamath County -------------------------- 31

Klamath River ---------------------------- 9,19

basin.____.._-_._-__-__..._------- 11

La Pine.._________

Lake level, records. _ _ _ _ _

relation to seepage lossLake Tahoe..____... 

Lakes, water levels of _ 

Lakeview...--__---___- 

Landslides..... ___

submarine-_____- 

Lawrence, D. B., quoted 

--__ - 42,

Lichens, crustose_.__ - -_ __

Limits of accuracy.--...-_-------____- 21,

31

26, 34

18,37

12, 20

5

35

6

8

25

43,44

13,34

30,40

Medford------------------------------ 12,16

Weather Station--__-__. _____ 12 

Merriam Cone.-... --__.._..__------ 6

Mineralized springs--.___...-_....__.. 29

Mount Mazama.._-___-_ 3,5,7,8,9,10,33,42

Newberry Crater.-----.__.-.. .____ 3,22 

Newberry Mountain....____-_____ ---_. 24

Newberry Volcano...-.--_-----___--- 23,24 

North Umpqua River_________........ 19

Odell Creek.- ___-__-_ __ - 3,31,33,36,37,40 

Odell Lake..--___- ............. 12,20,33,34,40

Paulina Creek..._______.___..._.. 22,24 

Paulina Lake _________ 22,24,27,28,43

basin-.-....-. -. 28

Paulina Mountains__--....._-__... 3

Physiographic setting, Crater Lake .. - . -. 5 

Davis Lake ------------------------- SI

East Lake------------------------------ 22

Precipitation___________-___.__ 29 

average annual..-------- 4,10,11,27,28,34,36,40

observed---....-__----------- _ 16

average long-term annual___ ___-.__ 11,16 

computed annual_-___ __ _- . 19 

Crater Lake - _..---.__..._.. IB 

Davis Lake ------------------------ 36

East Lake------------------ 27

Prospect, Oreg.....- -- 16,42

Pumice deposit, surface__-.....---.... -_ 33

Purpose and scope.--.-- --------------- &

Rogue River.--.--------------------- 9,16,20,42

basin. .. .. 11,16,19

Page 

Runoff. E20

average______..______..... 17

annual..---------__..___.___. 16

long-term.________________... 16

surface...__.______......... 16,27,28,36

Russell, I. C., quoted.... -..------ 25

Sand Creek_____......._._______.. 8

Seepage loss.----------------------- 17,20,05,29,37

average rate.________________-_...... 17

rate.--- 18,19,29

relation to lake level___. ______ 18,37 

Seepage outflow, destination___ ._ __. 19,39 

Seeps .,-__-____________-___ 5,10 

Sierra Nevada _-_____---------___- 12

Snowmelt------------ ----- 10,14,24,44

South Fork.. . _ -. 16 

Sponge spicules---_--____._-_.-_ __._. 14

Spring Creek.-. - .. 19,20

Spring-fed streams___ _ 37

Spring flows--------___-.-. -.__ 16

Springs . . 9,19,24,33,36,38,39,42,43

mineralized ...._.________-____ 29

thermal. ________---------__ 5,41,42

Surface runoff-.---.-.-__--------- 16,27,28,36

Symons, T. W., quoted------------------- 31

Terrace_____ __------------____. 34

Thermal springs_....__..____-_... 5,41, 42

East Lake-__- 

Thermal turnovers. 

Trees, core borings.

growth.... _.

species. __

24

11

26

35

13

Umpqua River--_.___.____....._____ 9 

basin-.-___--___----.---____-------------- 11,19

Water budget, Crater Lake _________ 20 

Davis Lake- -____-__------__-__-_----- 40

East Lake---.-- ---------------------- 30

Water loss, Crater Lake_________ 17 

Davis Lake ------------------------- 28,37

Water supply, Crater Lake-_____ 14 

Davis Lake -------------------------- 36

East Lake 27

Watkins Butte. ... __---------- 35

Weatherstation, Crater Lake--. ... 11,17,19,20 

Medford - 12

Wickiup Dam ___ -.. - 33,34,40 

Wickiup Reservoir ------------------ 33,38,40

Williams, Howel, quoted---------------- 15,23

Williamson River._._ .- _ ..___ 19 

Wizard Island 5,8,11,14

Wood River 19

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