ly and Irrigation Paper No. 114 Series 0, Underground Waters, 31 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIKECTOE

UNDERGROUND WATERS

OF

3TERN UNITED STATES

MYRON L. FULLER

GEOLOGIST I3ST

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT FEINTING OFFICE

1905
PUBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1) Annual Reports; (2) 

Monographs; (3) Professional Papers; (4) Bulletins; (5) Mineral Resources; (6) Water-Supply and 

Irrigation Papers; (7) Topographic Atlas of the United States, folios and separate sheets thereof; (8) 

Geologic Atlas of United States, folios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of 

publication; the others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had on 

application.

The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of subjects, and 

the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified into the following series: A, 

Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, Systematic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography 

and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water storage; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investigations; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports.

The following Water-Supply Papers are. out of stock, and can no longer be supplied: Nos. 1-16,19,20, 

22,29-34,36,39,40,43,46,57-65,75. Complete lists of papers relating to water supply and allied subjects 

follow. (PP=Professional Paper; B=Bulletin; WS=Water-Supply Paper.)

SEBIES I IRRIGATION.

W8 2. Irrigation near Phoenix, Ariz., by A. P. Davis. 1897. 98 pp., 31 pis. and maps.

WS 5. Irrigation practice on the Great Plains, by E. B. Cowgill. 1897. 39 pp., 11 pis.

WS 9. Irrigation near Greeley, Colo., by David Boyd. 1897. 90 pp., 21 pis.

WS 10. Irrigation in Mesilla Valley, New Mexico, by P. C. Barker. 1898. 51 pp., 11 pis.

WS 13. Irrigation systems in Texas, by W. F. Hutsou. 1898. 68 pp., 10 pis.

WS 17. Irrigation near Bakersfield, Cal., by C. E. Grunsky. 1898. 96 pp., 16 pis.

WS 18. Irrigation near Fresno, Cal., by C. E. Grunsky. 1898. 94 pp., 14 pis.

WS 19. Irrigation near Merced, Cal., by C. E. Grunsky. 1899. 59 pp., 11 pis.

WS 23. Water-right problems of Bighorn Mountains, by Elwood Mead. 1899. 62 pp., 7 pis.

WS 32. Water resources of Porto Rico, by H. M. Wilson. 1899. 48 pp., 17 pis. and maps.

WS 43. Conveyance of water in irrigation canals, flumes, and pipes, by Samuel Fortier. 1901. 86

pp., 15 pis. 

WS 70. Geology and water resources of the Patrick and Goshen Hole quadrangles, Wyoming, by

G. I. Adams. 1902. 50 pp., 11 pip.

WS 71. Irrigation systems of Texas, by T. U. Taylor. 1902. 137 pp., 9 pis. 

WS 74. Water resources of the State of Colorado, by A. L. Fellows. 1902. 151 pp., 14 pis. 

WS 87. Irrigation in India (second edition), by H. M. Wilson. 19P3. 238 pp., 27 pis. 

WS 93. Proceedings of first conference of engineers of the reclamation service, with accompanying

papers, compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. 1904. 361 pp.

The following papers also relate especially to irrigation: Irrigation in India, by H. M. Wilson, in 

Twelfth Annual, Pt. II; two papers on irrigation engineering, by H. M. Wilson, in Thirteenth 

Annual, Pt. III.

SERIES J WATER STORAGE.

WS 33. Storage of water on Gila River, Arizona, by J. B. Lippincott. 1900. 98 pp., 33 pis.

WS 40. The Austin dam, by Thomas U. Taylor. 1900. 51 pp., 16 pis.

WS 45. Water storage on Cache Creek, California, by A. E. Chandler. 1901. 48 pp., 10 pis.

WS 46. Physical characteristics of Kern River, California, by F. H. Olmsted, and Reconnaissance of

Yuba River, California, by Marsden Manson. 1901. 57 pp., 8 pis.

WS 58. Storage of water on Kings River, California, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 100 pp., 32 pis. 

WS 68. Water storage in Truckee Basin, California-Nevada, by L. H. Taylor. 1902. 90 pp., 8 pis. 

WS 73. Water storage on Salt River, Arizona, by A. P. Davis. 1902. 54 pp., 25 pis. 

WS 86. Storage reservoirs on Stony Creek, California, by Burt Cole. 1903. 62 pp., 16 pis. 

WS 89. Water resources of the Salinas Valley, California, by Homer Hamlin. 1904. 91 pp., 12 pis. 

WS 93. Proceedings of first conference of engineers of the reclamation service, with accompanying

papers, compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. 1904. 361 pp.

The following paper also should be noted under this heading: Reservoirs for irrigation, by J. D. 

Schuyler, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV.

[Continued on third page of cover.] 

IRE 114 2
Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 114 Series 0, Underground Waters, 81 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIKECTOK

UNDERGROUND WATERS

OF

EASTERN UNITED STATES

Water Resources Branch, 

Geological Survey,

3 1 06, Capitol Station

Oklahoma City, Okla. 

MYRON L. FULLER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1905
CONTENTS.

Letter of transmittal...................................................... 15

Introduction............................................................. 17

Occurrence of underground waters, by M. L. Fuller......................... 18

Sources of ground water .............................................. 18

Amount of rainfall................... ........................ 19

Disposal of rainfall ........................................... 20

Evaporation ............................................. 20

Runoff .................................................. 20

Absorption .............................................. 20

Permeability and storage capacity of rocks ......:...................... 21

Methods of absorption .................................... 21

Bedding planes .......................................... 22

Solution caverns.......................................... 22

Faults................................................... 22

Joints ................................................... 23

Cleavage................................................. 23

Foliation and schistosity .................................. 23

Porosity ................................................. 23

Occurrence and amount of ground water ............................... 24

Occurrence .................................................. 24

Amount ...................................................... 24

Water-bearing formations............................................. 25

Sand and gravel.......................................... 25

Clay..................................................... 25

Till...................................................... 26

Sandstone, conglomerate, and quartzite .................... 27

Slate ................................................... 27

Limestone ............................................... 27

Granite, gneiss, and schist ................................ 28

Temperature of underground waters ................................... 28

Recovery of underground waters ...................................... 29

Seepage...................................................... 29

Springs -----.-.------.--.--.-..-- -...---.--.--.--.--.-..--.-- 30

Seepage springs .......................................... 30

Springs from definite underground channels................ 31

Fissure springs........................................... 31

Geyser springs ........................................... 32

Wells........................................................ 33

Dug wells................................................ 33

Driven wells ............................................. 33

Drilled and bored wells................................... 33

Pumps...-...-.,....,....,........,.,....-.-....-.-...-..-.-, 33

3
CONTENTS.

Occurrence of underground waters Continued. Page.

Artesian flows. ....................................................... 34

Essential conditions .......................................... 34

Stratified beds ........................................... 34

Joints and faults ......................................... 34

Direction of movement of water ........................... 35

Underground water conditions in eastern United States ................. 35

Area of glacial drift .......................................... 36

Weathered rocks. ............................................ -37

Eock water provinces. ........................................ 38

Coastal Plain. ............................................ 38

Piedmont Plateau ........................................ 39

Appalachian Mountains. .................................. 39

Mississippi-Great Lakes basin. ..........-.-..--...-......- 40

Maine, by W. S. Bayley .................................................. 41

Topography and geology. . ............................................ 41

Water supply ........................................................ 41

Public supplies. .................................................. 43

Elvers. ...................................................... 44

Lakes ....................................................... 45

Springs ...................................................... 46

Drilled wells ................................................. 46

Private supplies .................................................. 47

Dug, driven, and bored wells. ................................. 47

Drilled wells........... ...................................... 48

Springs ...................................................... 48

Principal publications ................................................ 56

New Hampshire, by M. L. Fuller ............. ............................ 57

Topography .......................................................... 57

Geology ............................................................. 57

Underground waters .................................................. 58

Wells ....................................................... 58

Springs ...................................................... 59

Principal publications ......... ...................................... 59

Vermont, by G. H. Perkins. .............................................. 60

General conditions ................................................... 60

Water supply ........................................................ 60

Public supplies. ......................... ..............^.. 60

Common springs ......................................... 62

Mineral springs .......................................... 63

Ordinary wells ........ .................................. 64

Deep and artesian wells. .................................. 64

Lakes and ponds ......................................... 66

Streams ..................... ........................... 66

Cisterns ................................................. 66

Summary. . .......................................................... 66

Principal publications ................................................ 67

Massachusetts and Ehode Island, by W. O. Crosby ......................... 68

Geology ............................................................. 68

Water supplies. ...................................................... 69

Areas considered ................................................. 69

Berkshire Valley ............................................. 70

Connecticut Valley ...................................... ..... 71
CONTENTS. 5

Massachusetts and Rhode Island Continued. Page. 

Water supplies Continued.

Areas considered Continued.

Eastern and western highlands................................ 71

Nashua Valley ............................................... 72

Coastal lowlands .............. ............................... 72

Normal chlorine ................................................. 73

Mineral springs .................._..._...........'..._......._.... 73

Massachusetts. ............................................... 73

Rhode Island................................................ 75

Principal publications ....._-..._...-.._..._.-__.._..._..__..__.._..__ 75

Connecticut, by H. E. Gregory............................................ 76

Rainfall ............................................................. 76

Geology and water supply ............................................ 76

Geologic subdivisions....-..-......-..-...---......-...... 76

Limestone area........................................... 76

Triassic sandstone area ................................... 77

Crystalline area .......................................... 78

Faults................................................... 79

Water supply of the drift ................................. 79

Mineral springs .......................................... 80

Stream supplies.......................................... 81

Irrigation............................................... 81

Principal publications ................................................ 81

New York, by F. B. Weeks............................................... 82

Physiography........................................................ 82

Geology and underground waters..................................-_.. 83

Pre-Cambrian............................................ 83

' Cambrian................................................ 83

Ordovician. '.............................................. 84

Silurian ................................................. 85

Devonian................................................ 86

Triassic.................................................. 86

Cretaceous............................................... 86

Quaternary .............................................. 87

Production of mineral waters.......................................... 87

Principal publications ....-.........--.....-......-....--..-.---.--... 92

New Jersey, by G. N. Knapp.............................................. 93

Topographic provinces. ................................................ 93

Geology and water supply............................................. 94

Appalachian province......................................... 94

Crystalline highlands province ................................ 95

Piedmont province. .......................................... 96

Coastal Plain province........................................ 97

Summary of water resources................................... 101

Distribution of wells and population ........................... 102

Mineral springs.............................. ................ 102

Principal publications ......................"........................-. 103

Pennsylvania, by M. L. Fuller ......-....................--..-..-..-.---.- 104

Topography.......................................................... 104

Geology ............................................................. 104

Sources of water supply............................................... 105

Streams and lakes .-....-.........--...--.--...-..-...-..-.... 105
6 CONTENTS.

Pennsylvania Continued. Page. 

Sources of water supply Continued.

Wells........................................................ 106

Drift .................................................... 106

Stream deposits .......................................... 106

Crystalline rocks......................................... 106

Triassic rocks ............................................ 107

Cambrian and Silurian rocks .............................. 107

Devonian rocks.........-......-.....-......---....---.--- 107

Carboniferous rocks....................................... 108

Coastal Plain deposits..................................... 108

Mineral springs............................................... 109

Principal publications .................-....-....-......--.-.--...--.. 110

Delaware, by N. H. Darton................................................ Ill

Geology ............................................................. Ill

Water horizons....................................................... Ill

Water supplies....................................................... 112

Deep wells................................................... 112

Well prospects ............................................... 113

Principal publications ................................................ 113

Maryland, by N. H. Darton and M. L. Fuller .............................. 114

Topography and geology.............................................. 114

Water supplies....................................................... 115

Springs ...................................................... 115

Streams...................................................... 116

Wells........................................................ 116

Allegheny Plateau........................................ 116

Appalachain Mountains................................... 116

Piedmont Plateau ..........-...--...-..-.....--.'.--...... 116

Coastal Plain............................................. 117

Water horizons....................................................... 118

Baltimore district .................................................... 120

Geology ......................................................... 120

Water horizons and well prospects................................. 121

Canton .................._............................... 121

East Baltimore from Canton to the Basin ................... 121

Region between the Basin and Harbor and Middle Branch.... 121

Region from Brooklyn to Curtis Bay....................... 122

Region southeast of Canton to Sparrow Point............... 122

Northeast Baltimore...................................... 122

Western part of Baltimore ................................ 123

Principal publications ................................................ 123

District of Columbia, by N. H. Darton and M. L. Fuller..................... 124

Geology............................................................. 124

Water horizons and prospects ......................................... 124

Waters of the crystalline rocks ............................ 124

Waters of the sedimentary rocks...-...-..-... ............ 125

Mineral springs .......................................... 126

Principal publications ................................................ 126

Virginia, by N. H. Darton and M. L. Fuller................................ 127

Physiographic divisions..-.............-.....-....--.....----...-.-.-. 127

Geology and water horizons........................................... 127

Coastal Plain..................................................... '127

Geology ...................................................... 127
CONTENTS. 7

Virginia Continued. Page. 

Geology and water horizons Continued. 

Coastal Plain Continued.

Water horizons............................................... 128

Potomac................................................. 128

Pamunkey............................................... 128

Chesapeake.............................................. 129

Wells........................................................ 129

Piedmont Plateau ................................................ 132

Crystalline rocks......................................... 132

Triassic rocks ............................................ 132

Appalachian Mountain belt....................................... 132

Cumberland Plateau.............................................. 133

Commercial springs................................................... 133

Principal publications ......-...............-...-.-----.--...-....-... 134

North Carolina, by M. L. Fuller........................................... 136

Coastal Plain......................................................... 136

Piedmont Plateau .................................................... 138

Appalachian Mountain belt........................................... 138

Mineral springs ...................................................... 139

Principal publications ................................................ 139

South Carolina, by L. C. Glenn............................................ 140

Subdivisions......................................................... 140

Geology and water supply ............................................ 140

Piedmont Plateau ................................................ 140

General features.............................................. 140

Character ................................................. 140

Rocks................................................... 141

Residual soil mantle...................................... 141

Water supplies of Piedmont Plateau ........................... 141

Effect of residual mantle.................................. 141

Springs.................................................. 141

Open wells............................................... 141

Deep wells............................................... 143

Streams ................................................. 145

Coastal Plain..................................................... 146

Geology ..................................................... 146

Crystalline floor.......................................... 146

General character of deposits.............................. 146

Potomac formation....................................... 146

Marine Cretaceous beds................................... 147

Eocene deposits.......................................... 148

Miocene marl............................................ 148

Lafayette and Columbia sands............................. 148

Wells ....................................................... 149

Summary.................................................... 151

Shallow wells............................................ 151

Deep wells............................................... 152

Streams ................................................. 152

Principal publications. -----............--......---.-......--.......-.- 152

Georgia, by S. W. McCallie ............................................... 153

Coastal Plain......................................................... 153

Piedmont area ....................................................... 154

Appalachian or Paleozoic area......................................... 154

Underground water conditions ........................................ 155
o CONTENTS.

Georgia Continued. Page.

Mineral springs ....................................................... 157

Principal publications................................................. 158

Florida, by M. L. Fuller.................................................. 159

Topography ......................................................... 159

Geology ............................................................. 160

Underground waters.................................................. 160

Highland area............................................ 160

West coast............................................... 161

East coast................................................ 162

Sand area................................................ 162

Mineral springs ...................................................... 162

Principal publications................................................. 163

Alabama, by E. A. Smith......................._.....,..._......_........ 164

Crystalline schists.................................................... 164

Noncrystalline formations ............................................ 164

Springs and shallow wells..................................... 164

Artesian systems ............................................. 165

Coastal Plain formations.............................................. 165

Springs and shallow wells..................................... 166

Artesian water systems ....................................... 167

Brine and gas wells....................... ................ .... 169

Mineral springs ...................................................... 170

Principal publications................................................. 170

Mississippi, by L. C. Johnson ................................. ........... 171

Geology ............................................................. 171

Mississippian rocks. .......................................... 171

. Cretaceous deposits........................................... 172

Tuscaloosa formation ..................................... 173

Eutaw beds.............................................. 173

Selma chalk or Rotten limestone........................... 173

Ripley beds .............................................. 173

Tertiary deposits ............................................. 174

Midway ................................................. 174

Lignitic group............................................ 174

Tallahatta formation (buhrstone) ......................... 175

Lisbon formation (calcareous Claiborne) ................... 175

Jackson and \7 icksburg formations......................... 176

Grand Gulf group .......................... ~. --.......-.. 176

Quaternary deposits .......................................... 177

Lafayette sands and gravels ............................... 177

Loess and loam..... ................,^.................... 177

Pontchartrain clay and Biloxi sand ........................ 177

Alluvium ................................................ 177

Mineral waters....................................................... 178

Principal publications................................................. 178

Louisiana and southern Arkansas, by A. C. Veatch......................... 179

General geology........................................'.............. 179

Water horizons ....................................................... 181

Lower Cretaceous ................--..--.-......----....-. 181

Bingen sand ....-..............-...--........-.-...--...- 182

Nacatoch sand ........................................... 183

Sabine group............................................. 184

Cockfield beds ........................................... 185
CONTENTS. 9

Louisiana and southern Arkansas Continued. Page. 

Water horizons Continued.

Jackson beds............ 1................................ 186

Catahoula beds........................................... 186

Pliocene and Quaternary gravels .......................... 186

Mineral springs ...................................................... 187

Principal publications................................................. 187

Northern Arkansas, by A. H. Purdue...................................... 188

Description of the region........................:..................... 188

Resources ........................... i............................... 188

Highlands ............................................... 188

Lowlands.................................. .............. 189

Geology ............................................................. 190

Plateau region ........................................... 190

Lowlands................................................ 190

Water resources...................................................... 191

Paleozoic region.................................................. 191

Ordovician area.............................................. 191

Boone chert area............................................. 192

Boston Mountain area ........................................ 193

Batesville sandstone...................................... 193

Archimedes limestone .................................... 193

Pentremital limestone .................................... 194

Artesian conditions........................................... 194

Tertiary region................................................... 195

Artesian conditions............................................ 196

Mineral springs .................................................. 196

Principal publications. ................................................. 197

Tennessee and Kentucky, by L. C. Glenn.................................. 198

Tennessee ........................................................... 198

Topography.............................................. 198

Rainfall ................................................ 198

Valley of East Tennessee.......................................... 198

Description .............................................. 198

Water resources.......................................... 198

Cumberland Plateau.............................................. 199

Description .............................................. . 199

Water resources.............'............................. 200

Highland Plain .................................................. 200

Plateau region................................................ 200

Description .............................................. 200

Water resources.......................................... 201

Nashville Basin .............................................. 201

Description .............................................. 201

Water resources.......................................... 201

Western valley of Tennessee River................................. 202

Gulf Coastal Plain................................................ 202

Description.............................................. 202

Geology and water supply ................................ 203

Mississippi alluvial plain.......................................... 205

Commercial springs .............................................. 205

Principal publications............................................. 205

Kentucky............................................................ 205

Cumberland Plateau.............................................. 206
10 CONTENTS.

Kentucky Continued. Page. 

Cumberland Plateau Continued.

Lexington plain.................................................. 206

Gulf Coastal Plain................................................ 206

Commercial springs .............................................. 206

Principal publications............................................. 206

Missouri, by E. M. Shepard............................................... 209

General conditions.................................................... 209

Topography................................................... .... 209

Geologic conditions................................................... 210

Character of the water supply......................................... 211

Northwestern plateau district ................................. 211

North-central plain district.................................... 213

Ozark-St. Francis dome..........................:............ 216

Southeastern lowlands........................................ 218

Commercial springs .................................................. 218

Principal publications................................................. 219

Iowa, by W. H. Norton .................................................. 220

Shallow supplies ..................................................... 220

Drif tless area................................................. 220

Waters of the drift ........................................... 220

Artesian waters ...................................................... 222

Cambrian rocks .......................................... 223

Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian rocks.................. 223

Carboniferous rocks ...................................... 224

Dakota sandstone ........................................ 224

Summary......................................:......... 224

Mineral springs ...................................................... 225

Principal publications................................................. 225

Minnesota, by C. W. Hall ................................................ 226

Topography.......................................................... 226

Water resources...................................................... 226

General conditions ........................................... 226

Water-bearing strata.......................................... 226

Cambrian................................................ 227

Ordovician............................................... 227

Cretaceous............................................... 228

Glacial drift............. ................................. 228

Artesian basins............................................... 228

Southeastern artesian basin ............................... 228

Red River Valley basin................................... 230

Shallow wells ................................................ 231

Springs...................................................... 231

Principal publications................................................. 232

Wisconsin district, by Alfred R. Shultz .................................... 233

Location and topography ............................................. 233

Area included............................................ 233

Topography............."................................. 233

Geology ............................................................. 234

Pfe-Cambrian rocks^..---..-..-.....-.--.....-.-.-...-... 234

Potsdam sandstone";..'........"............................ 234

LowerMagnesian limestone .............................. 236

St. Peter sandstone....;.:......:......................... 236

Galena-Trenton limestone....................::........... 236

Cincinnati shale.......................................... 236
CONTENTS. 11

Wisconsin district Continued. Page. 

Geology Continued.

Niagara limestone ........................................ 236

Later rocks .............................................. 23?

Drift .................................................... 237

Lacustine deposits........................................ 237

Water supplies.. .................................................. 237

Potsdam sandstone....................................... 237

Lower Magnesian limestone............................... 238

St. Peter sandstone....................................... 238

Galena-Trenton limestone ................................ 238

Niagara limestone.....................'................... 239

Lake deposits............................................ 239

Springs.................................:.................... 239

Mineral waters............................................... 240

Principal publications................................................. 241

lower Michigan.......................................................... 242

Topography.......................................................... 242

Geology ............................................................. 242

Underground water supplies .......................................... 242

Supplies of the drift...................._..................... 242

Eastern shore district..................................... 242

Saginaw Valley district....'............................... 244

Northeastern shore,district...-....----..-...---.-.-..-.--. 244

Western shore district.................................... 244

North-central district..................................... 245

Saginaw moraine district.................................. 245

South central district..................................... 245

Rock waters ................................................. 245

Trenton limestone........................................ 245

Hudson and Utica shales.................-.-.-......-.---- 245

Niagara and Clinton limestones ........................... 245

Monroe and Salina beds ..............---.-...---.....-... 245

Dundee limestone ........................................ 245

Traverse series........................................... 245

Antrim shales. ........................................... 245

Berea shale and grit...................................... 246

Coldwater shales ......................................... 246

Lower Marshall sandstone ................................ 246

Napoleon or Upper Marshall sandstone .................... 246

Michigan series............................................ 246

Parma sandstone......................................... 246

Mineral springs .............................................. 246

Principal publications. ................................................ 247

Illinois, by Frank Leverett ......................._....................... 248

Introductory statement............................................... 248

Geologic column ...................................................... 248

Principal water-bearing formations ..............--.-.....-.-.-....--.. 250

Potsdam sandstone....................................... 250

St. Peter sandstone...............--...-....----.----.-... 250

Galena limestone..........-.......-.--.-..-.....-----.-.. 250

Niagara limestone........................................ 250

Devonian limestones..................---...---..---..-... 251

St. Louis limestones ...................................... 251

Chester sandstones....................................... 251
12 CONTENTS.

Illinois Continued. Page. 

Principal water-bearing formations Continued.

"Conglomerate" sandstone............................... 251

Coal Measures-.............--..-.-.---.---------.---...-- 251

Tertiary deposits....._...............-.-......-..----..-. 251

Glacial deposits.......................................... 251

Localities favorable for artesian wells.................................. 252

Waters in relation to habitation .........--..---.-.-....-..-..--.-..--. 254

Mineral springs ...--...---.-...-.-.....--..----.--.-.,------.------- 256

Principal publications. --.---...-..--.......-..--..--.-.-.--.-----..--- 256

Indiana, by Frank Leverett-...............-.._..--...-....-.---.----.---. 258

Introductory statement............-.-..-..--...-.-...---.--.--..--.-. 258

Geologic column ..................................................... 258

Principal water-bearing formations ...-....-...-.-...-..--.-------.---- 259

St. Peter sandstone...-.._._-.....-...--.------..--------: 259

Trenton limestone.-...--.--.-..---..---..--..-...-.----.. 259

Hudson Eiver beds....................................... 260

Clinton and Medina beds ......................-.-.--..--- 260

Niagara limestone ._-..--..-.-..--...--.------------.----- 260

Waterlime and Lower Helderberg limestones..-.....-..-... 260

Devonian shales.......................................... 260

Waverlyshale ........................................... 260

Knobstone formation.......-.---...--...--.-.--.--.---.-- 260

St. Louis limestone beds-.--.--..-.-.------.--.-......--.. 261

Chester sandstone ........_.......-..--..-....--.---.----- 261

Coal Measures ........................................... 261

Tertiary deposits ......-....-.....-.-.--..-..--...--..---. 261

Drift .................................................... 261

Localities favorable for artesian wells .............--.-.-..---...-..-... 263

Mineral waters.---......-.-......-...---.-..-...--...-.---..--.....-. 263

Principal publications ...-......-.......---.....-.....-...--..--..--.. 264

Ohio, by Frank Leverett..................-.--......-....--..-.....-...--. 265

Introductory statement.............-...-...-....-.---..-.....--...-.. 265

Geologic column ....-.........--.-.-.........-...-.---.----.---....-- 265

Characteristics of waters of different depths ............................ 266

Relative values of different rock formations as water-bearers............. 266

Trenton limestone........................................ 267

Clinton limestone ....-............-...-..-.-..-......--.. 267

Niagara limestone ....... .... ..--......--.----..-...--.. 267

Onondaga limestone ............. ........................ 267

Corniferous limestone ...........-..-.....-...-..--..--.., 267

Logan sandstone ...........-.-..............-----.-..--.. 267

Berea grit..............-........-............-.-----.--.. 267

Coal Measures ......................-....-..--...--.---.. 267

Drift .................................................... 268

Localities favorable for artesian wells .................................. 268

Mineral springs ..........^............................................ 269

Principal publications ........-.......-.-...-......--------...-....... 270

West Virginia, by M. L. Fuller............................................ 271

Appalachian Mountain belt ........................................... 271

Cumberland Plateau.................................................. 272

Mineral springs'--.........-............-.---.--..-...............--.. 272

Principal publications ................................................ 272

Index................................................................... 273
ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE I. A, A. sink-hole connection with underground drainage system; B,

Underground channel......................................... 20

II. A, Outcrop cut by joint openings; B, Cleavage in slate............. 22

III. A and B, Sandstones viewed under the microscope................. 24

IV. A, Spring formed at outcrop of impervious floor; B, Artesian well 30

V. Map showing geologic areas and spring localities of New York ..... 84

VI. Sections across southern New Jersey.............................. 96

VII. Sections in Maryland and Delaware............................... 118

VIII. Sections in Baltimore region ..................................... 120

I.. Sections in District of Columbia-................................. 124

X. Sections in eastern Virginia...................................... 128

XI. Sections in eastern South Carolina................................ 148

XII. Map showing artesian systems of Alabama ........................ 168

XIII. Geologic map of northern Arkansas .............................. 188

XIV. Map showing artesian localities in Iowa...-......-...---....--...- 222

XV. Geologic sketch map of Illinois................................... 248

XVI. Map showing thickness of drift in Illinois......................... 252

XVII. Geologic sketch map of Indiana and Ohio......................... 260

XVIII. Map showing thickness of drift in Indiana and Ohio --....-......-. 262

FIG. 1. Eainfall map of eastern United States............................... 19

2. Absorptive conditions of outcrops .................................. 21

3. Relation of areas of outcrop to dip................................. 22

4. Common types of faults ........................................... 22

5. Relative size and storage capacity of dug and drilled wells........... 26

6. Differences in conditions of adjacent wells in limestone..-...--....-. 27

7. Well in jointed rocks.............................................. 28

8. Lines of underflow into channel.................................... 30

9. Springs along faults or joints near South Britain, Conn ............... 32

10. Section showing principal requisites of artesian wells ................ 34

11. Section illustrating thinning out of porous water-bearing bed......... 35

12. Section showing transition from a porous to a nonporous water bed... 35

13. Upward circulation of water along joint............................. 35

14. Geologic and water-supply districts in eastern United States.......... 36

15. Location of flowing or nearly flowing wells of Maine................. 49

16. Water-bearing drift deposits of Vermont............................ 65

17. Areas of limestone, sandstone, and crystalline rock water supplies of

Connecticut..................................................... 77

18. Subdivisions of New Jersey governing the occurrence of underground

waters.--.....--..-....----........--.........-...-.....--.-...- 93

19. Geologic subdivisions of Pennsylvania... ......--...-..--....--....- 105

20. Cross section of the Coastal Plain region of North Carolina........... 137

13
14 ILLUSTRATIONS.

' Page.

FIG. 21. Areas of flowing wells in Geo^ia.................................. 156

22. Principal artesian areas of Florida .................................. 161

23. Geologic sketch map of Mississippi................................ 172

24. Deep-water prospects in Louisiana and southern Arkansas........... 181

25. Artesian areas in Louisiana and southern Arkansas ................. 182

26. Section from Locksburg, Ark., to Cameron, La..................... 183

27. Section from Eldorado, Ark., to Abbeville, La ..................... 184

28. Relief map of Arkansas.......................................... 189

29. North-south section from Missouri line to Arkansas River........... 190

30. Generalized east-west section across northern Arkansas ............. 193

31. Geologic sketch map of Missouri................................... 210

32. Ideal cross section through Missouri............................... 211

33. Sketch map of Missouri showing water resources.................... 212

34. General geologic section of Iowa................................... 221

35. Artesian basins of Minnesota...................................... 229

36. Geologic section from Baraboo, Wis., to Des Moines, Iowa .......... 233

37. Wisconsin outcrop of Potsdam and St. Peter sandstones.............. 235

38. Geologic sketch map of lower Michigan ........................... 243

39. Section across lower Michigan...........-----.........--....-.-... 244

40. Section from Wisconsin River to Cap au Gres....................... 253
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

HYDROGRAPHIC BRANCH, 

Washington, D. C.,May 11,1904.

SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled 

"Underground Waters in Eastern United States," which I would 

recommend to be published in the series of Water Supply and Irrigation Papers.

The aim of the paper is to present a brief summary of the underground water conditions in the States east of the Mississippi and in 

those States bordering that river on the west. It is prepared to meet 

the demand of drillers and others for general information relating to 

the broader features of the occurrence of underground waters in the 

various States or districts.

The report includes papers by twenty geologists and embraces discussions of the conditions in each State and of the general occurrence 

of underground waters as a whole.

Very respectfully, F. H. NEWELL,

Chief Engineer. 

Hon. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,

Director United States Geological Survey.

15
UNDERGROUND WATERS OF EASTERN UNITED

- STATES.

M. L. FULLER,

Geologist in charge.

INTRODUCTION. 

By M. L. FULLER.

The present paper is a brief summary of the underground water 

conditions in eastern United States, prepared to meet the demands of 

drillers and others for information relating to the general water 

resources of the various States or of specified regions.

The detail with which the several regions or subjects are discussed 

depends mainly on their relative importance, although because of the 

greater amount of work done in certain localities, or on certain problems, it is possible to make more complete and definite statements in 

regard to the underground water supplies in some regions than in 

others. The included reports have been prepared by a number of 

geologists, each, in general, having charge of the investigations in a 

particular State or group of States. Because of the number of contributors there is necessarily considerable variation in the manner of 

treatment of the subject, but in most cases the same general plan has 

been followed.

In preparing the paper simplicity of treatment has been kept in 

mind, and elaborate geologic discussions have been omitted. Wherever possible maps have been given in preference to long and possibly 

obscure discussions. In some instances, however, it has been necessary to describe the various water-bearing formations under their 

geologic names. Where this has been necessary the aim has been to 

employ those terms which are oldest and best known to the people of 

the States to which the discussion relates.

For the purpose of presenting in a simple manner a few of the 

more important features relating to the nature and occurrence of subterranean waters and of making more intelligible the descriptions of 

the conditions in the various States, there is given a short paper on 

the general occurrence of underground waters.

IKE 114 05 2 17
OCCURRENCE OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.

By M. L. FULLER.

SOURCES OF GROUND WATER.

In general those who have written on underground waters have 

stated that rainfall is the only source of underground waters. In 

reality, however, while rainfall probably contributes at least 99 per 

cent to the total subterranean water, there are several other possible 

sources of such water.

It is a well-known fact that in coral and other islands of porous 

material, such as sand and gravel, especially where the rainfall is light, 

the sea water penetrates through the pores of the rock for a considerable distance inland. Where the rainfall is heavy the salt water 

may be displaced to some depth by fresh water, but the downward 

penetration of the fresh water must be necessarily limited. In other 

instances sea water is known to penetrate along solution passages or 

caverns into the interior of limestones, and at Cephalonia, in Greece, 

a stream of salt water leaves the sea and, passing inland, finally disappears into porous limestones.

By far the larger portion of the sedimentary deposits, including 

sandstones, shales, limestones, etc., were originally laid down along 

the borders or beneath the surface of the ocean and were, of course, 

originally saturated with salt water. It is probable that this water 

was often retained in the materials when they became consolidated 

into rocks, and is represented by the salt water now found at great 

depths in many of the wells drilled .for oil and gas, in which it is not 

uncommon to encounter, after passing through many hundred feet of 

entirely dry rock, porous beds filled with salt water, possibly accompanied by gas and oil. It is claimed by others, however, that the salt 

waters are not originally included portions of the sea, but are surface 

waters which have become charged with mineral matter which they 

have dissolved in the course of their passage through the rock.

Practically all volcanic rocks contain water when they are erupted 

at the surface and all eruptions are accompanied by discharges of large 

amounts of steam. The occurrence of this water has been accounted 

for in several ways. It may have been originally included in the rocks 

which were melted to form the lava, or it may represent water which 

18
FULLER.] SOURCES OF GROUND WATER. 19

has penetrated downward through fissures and come in contact with 

the molten lava on its way to the surface.

AMOUNT OF RAINFALL.

The rainfall in the eastern United States is abundant, and although 

only a portion of it is absorbed by the earth and becomes a part of the 

subterranean stores, the amount is sufficient to furnish ample underFIG. 1. Rainfall map of eastern United States. Figures represent inches of annual rainfall.

ground supplies for a large proportion of the inhabitants. The average rainfall varies from 20 to nearly 70 inches, the lowest being in the 

extreme northwestern portion of Minnesota. Rain to a depth of over 

60 inches a year falls on the Mississippi delta below New Orleans and 

along the Gulf coast from near Mobile, Ala., to Tallahassee, Fla.
20 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Similar amounts fall in the higher mountains of western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, along the coast of North Carolina, and in 

the Adirondack and White mountains. In the Gulf and South Atlantic 

States the rainfall is between 50 and 60 inches; in the New England, 

Central Atlantic, and Ohio River States, between 40 and 50 inches; in 

the Upper Mississippi and Great Lakes States, from 30 to 40 inches, 

while in northwestern Iowa and most of Minnesota the rainfall is only 

from 20 to 30 inches.

DISPOSAL OF RAINFALL.

The rainfall is removed from the surface principally in three ways: 

(1) By evaporation; (2) by run-off through the streams, and (3) by 

absorption into rocks and unconsolidated deposits.

Evaporation. Evaporation, although far less conspicuous than the 

other methods of removal of the water, is, nevertheless, one of the 

most important. The amount evaporated depends on the temperature 

and the relative dry ness of the air, and commonly amounts to one-half 

or more of the total water falling as rain. Locally, evaporation is 

dependent to a considerable extent on the density of the vegetation, 

but when broad areas are considered the amount of vegetation has a 

less conspicuous effect on the total evaporation.

Sun-off. The amount of run-off is dependent partly on evaporation 

and partly on the nature of the materials on which the rain falls. The 

proportion of run-off or discharge to the total rainfall is indicated for 

the Mississippi and its tributaries in the following tabled

Proportion of run-off to rainfall in Mississippi basin.

Per cent.

Ohio .......................................................... 24

Missouri....................................................... 15

Upper Mississippi.............................................. 24

Small tributaries ---.....-_-..---_.--....----.---.----.--------- 15

Arkansas and White..-_-____..-...__--_.--.-----...--...------- 15

Red........................................................... 20

Yazoo----.....--.-.._.-._.._--__......---..----------.-------. 90

St. Francis-.-......................-...-.-..-..-..----.-..---.. 90

Entire Mississippi system -.-........--....---.-.......----.-.--. 25

The run-off of streams in New England is considerably greater. 

With a rainfall which averages from 40 to 50 inches the run-off of a 

number of streams is as follows:

Proportion of rainfall to run-off in New England.

Inches.

Kennebec ....-............-.--.-.-..---.--.-----..------..---- 22.4

Androscoggin ....-...---.........--------------..------..----- 24.2

Merrimac.--.-.-.--_-.-..-_.--.-.---.----------.----------.--- 21.3

Absorption. The rainfall that is not removed by evaporation or by 

the surface streams is absorbed by the soil or rocks with which it 

comes into contact, either directly or after being gathered into streams.

a Humphreys and Abbot, Phys. and Hydrol. of Mississippi Elver, Washington, 1861, p. 136.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL.

. SINK-HOLE CONNECTION. WITH UNDERGROUND DRAINAGE SYSTEM.

B. UNDERGROUND CHANNEL.
FULLEE.] ' STORAGE OF GROUND WATER. 21

Absorption takes place both directly and indirectly. In the case of 

direct absorption the rain falls upon the surface of the rock and the 

water is absorbed either by its pores or by the fissures or cavities 

which it may contain. In indirect absorption the water is first directly 

absorbed into loose unconsolidated deposits overlying the solid rocks, 

or is gathered into streams flowing over their surfaces. In those 

cases where the rocks are directly exposed to the rainfall the water 

which is not immediately absorbed runs off and either enters loose 

materials or is gathered into the streams as indicated. The unconsolidated materials soon become saturated to a certain level, and the rocks 

upon which they lie are in this way kept constantly in contact with 

the water, which is continually absorbed.

In the case of the water entering the sands and gravels the direction of the movement is generally toward the river rather than away 

from it, but in arid regions, where the rainfall is slight, waters are 

often absorbed by the gravels from the streams which have come from 

regions of greater rainfall. The relative amount of water indirectly 

absorbed by the rocks is far greater than that directly received through 

rainfall.

PERMEABILITY AND STORAGE CAPACITY OF ROCKS.

Methods of absorption. The amount of water which enters the 

rocks or other materials by direct absorption varies greatly with the 

nature of the materials. The amount absorbed by the porous beds of

FIG. 2. Absorptive conditions of outcrop.

sands and gravels that occur along stream valleys and along lake 

shores and the coast is very large. In some regions, as in portions of 

Cape Cod and Long Island, there are practically no surface streams, 

the water being absorbed by the soil as soon as it falls and carried 

to the sea by underground drainage.

Next to unconsolidated deposits, the rocks which present the conditions most favorable for direct absorption are the sandstones and certain of the porous limestones. In the case of the granites, slates, and 

other massive rocks the direct absorption is very slight.

Besides the character of the material, the amount of absorption 

depends very largely upon the inclination of the porous beds, the 

amount being much greater in the gently inclined beds than in those
22 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

having steep dips. Thus in fig. 3 the two beds represented as outcropping on a level surface present widely different absorptive conditions owing to the difference in area of their absorptive surfaces, the 

exposed surface of the gently sloping bed (a' V) being several times 

greater than that of the highly inclined bed (a I).

FIG. 3. Relation of areas of outcrop to dip.

Bedding planes. Bedding planes are the surfaces separating beds 

of stratified rock. Where the character of the rock changes, as it 

frequently does along these bedding planes, the conditions are generally 

very much more favorable for the passage of water than elsewhere in 

the rock. The same is true in igneous rocks where two types of rock 

come together.

Solution caverns. In a few instances waters enter the ground as 

definite streams through caverns or other passages formed by the 

solution of limestone and other similar rock. One of the most cornmom methods by which water enters the limestones is by means of 

the depressions known as sink holes. These sinks are due to the caving 

in of underground caverns which have previously been formed by 

underground streams. A connection is frequently maintained through 

these sinks between the surface and the underground channels, and 

the waters falling on the surface flow into them and pass downward to 

join the underground supplies. PI. I, A, shows such a sink, while 

PI. I, B, shows an underground channel in soluble rock.

Faults. A fault is a plane or fracture which cuts the rocks and 

along which movement has taken place, resulting in the displacement

I ' - c

FIG. 4. Common types of faults.

with relation to one another of the rocks on the opposite sides. Sometimes the fault consists of a single plane, with solid walls on either 

side, as indicated in fig. 4, «, but in many cases there are really a number of parallel planes, very close together, along which slipping has 

taken place. In such instances the rock on either side has the sheety 

appearance indicated in the cross section, fig. 4, I. In other cases the 

rocks on either side of the fault plane are completely crushed and the 

fragments more or less disturbed with relation to one another. In 

still other cases the fractures are irregular, and the movement of the 

rocks has been such that projecting points come opposite one another, 

leaving intervening cavities, as shown in fig. 4, c.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. II

A. OUTCROP CUT BY JOINT OPENINGS.

B. CLEAVAGE IN SLATE.
FULLER.] STORAGE OF GROUND WATER. 23

The conditions for the passage of water are least favorable in the 

case of a single definite fault plane. In the sheeted type of faulting 

the conditions are somewhat more favorable, as there are more surfaces along which the water can penetrate. Along the crushed zones 

the open spaces are frequently very considerable and permit the 

passage of large amounts of water. In the case of an irregular fault 

plane, as in fig. 4, d, the conditions are less constant, but in general such 

a fault will permit of the passage of considerable amounts of water.

Joints. Joints are smooth fracture planes cutting the rock in various directions. They differ from the faults in that there has been 

practically no motion of the rocks bordering the plane. They therefore correspond most nearly to the single fault plane described above, 

and likewise present relatively unfavorable conditions for the passage 

of large amounts of water. At the same time water in moderate 

amounts very frequently passes along such planes, especially along 

the line of intersection of two or more planes. PI. II, A, illustrates 

an outcrop of a rock ledge cut by joints in two directions and presents 

conditions favorable to the absorption and downward passage of water.

Cleavage. Cleavage is the name applied to the minor planes cutting 

the rock. Unlike the joints they usually run in only one direction, 

and are frequently not actual fractures, but are simply lines along 

which the rock would tend to split under favorable conditions. Cleavage is best developed in fine-grained compact rocks of which the wellknown roofing slate is the best example. PL II, B, shows a number of 

these cleavage planes in a ledge of this material. Cleavage does not 

afford as ready a passage for the water as the other features described.

Foliation and schistosity. Foliation and schistosity are features

due to the occurrence of the minerals of the rock in thin plate-like

crystals parallel to one another. The arrangement is such that in

many instances water passes with some readiness into the rock along

»the planes formed by kyers or laminae of these crystals.

Porosity. Porosity is the term given to designate the amount of 

pores or open spaces between the particles of which the rock is made 

up. In a general way porosity is determined by the amount of water 

which the rock is capable of absorbing. The amount varies greatly, 

being least in the compact igneous rocks and greatest in sandstones 

and loose sand. In the following table are given the amounts of water 

which a cubic foot of sand and some common rocks will absorb:

Material.

Potsdam sandstone. ..........

Trenton limestone ............

Water absorbed per 

cubic foot.

Quarts. 

10

2-6

4

i_ix

Material.

Chalk.....................

Water absorbed per 

cubic foot.

Quarts. 

1-10

8

T^zri
24 UNDERGROUND WATEKS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

PL III shows the appearance of two sandstone fragments under the 

microscope. The black portions in these sections represent what were 

originally open spaces between the grains.

OCCURRENCE AND AMOUNT OF GROUND WATER.

Occurrence. The underground water which has been derived in the 

various ways outlined above occurs in the rocks under a variety of 

conditions. A part occupies the spaces along the bedding, fault, joint, 

and cleavage planes and a part occurs in the solution channels and 

caverns dissolved in the soluble rocks. The various fracture planes 

indicated, while very numerous in the aggregate, nevertheless comprise but a very small proportion of the open spaces within the rock, 

as they are limited to plane surfaces. The pores, or spaces between 

the particles which make up the rocks, are, on the contrary, everywhere present throughout the entire mass and constitute by far the 

larger proportion of the open space in the rock.

Amount. In general, it is necessary only to penetrate a few feet of 

strata to reach a zone saturated with water, the depth depending upon 

the amount of precipitation, being least in regions of much rainfall 

and greatest in arid regions.

The downward limit of penetration of the water is dependent upon 

a variety of causes. It is frequently assumed that all rocks are saturated to great depths, the limit to which the water will penetrate being 

assumed to be that point at which the weight of the rock becomes so 

enormous that pores between the particles can not exist. This limit 

has been placed at about 6 miles. Practical experience in well drilling, 

however, shows that the assumption that all rocks are saturated below 

a moderate depth is far from being substantiated. In the Pennsylvania 

and New York oil regions, for instance, it is a very common experience to encounter, at a depth often of only a few hundred feet, rocks 

which are practically destitute of water. These include coarse-grained 

open sandstones, capable of holding large amounts, yet as far as can 

be determined they are absolutely dry, it being necessary in many 

instances to pour in from the top the water necessary for the process 

of drilling. In some instances after passing through these water-free 

rocks salt waters are encountered, but it is very rarely the case that 

fresh waters are found below the dry series. In some instances wells 

have been drilled several thousand feet without encountering any 

water whatever below the first few hundred feet. Although the rocks 

are far from being saturated, slight amounts of moisture are doubtless held in the pores.

Notwithstanding the fact that the depths to which the waters penetrate in quantities are probably much less than is frequently assumed, 

there is, nevertheless, an enormous amount of ground water. It has 

been estimated that the average pore space of the surface rocks is
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ER NO. 114 PL.

SANDSTONES VIEWED UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.
FULLER.] AMOUNT OF GROUND WATER. 25

about 10 per cent of their volume, but 5 per cent will probably be 

found to be more nearly correct.

WATKR-BEARING FORMATIONS.

All rocks contain more or less water which, as pointed out, occupies 

either cavities in the rock or occurs between the minute pores. The 

water which occurs in the pores is given up readily only in the coarser 

rocks, such as sandstones, the fine-grained rocks yielding very little 

of such water when penetrated by the drill. In these rocks, the water, 

when found, usually comes from the joint, fault, or foliation planes. 

The conditions of the occurrence of water in the various rocks are 

very variable and are described in the following pages.

Sand and gravel. Sands and gravels are very porous, 30 per cent 

of their volume frequently being made up of free space between the 

grains. In such materials the whole mass is saturated with water 

below the water level, and when penetrated by wells copious supplies 

are quickly yielded. The waters are generally of good quality, but are 

sometimes somewhat mineralized, the material being derived from the 

more soluble fragments and particles which constitute the deposits.

In passing downward through the sands surface waters are subjected to natural filtration, especially in the finer varieties, and the 

substances with which they may have originally been polluted are frequently removed. In the coarser types of sand, and in gravel, the 

water passes downward more rapidly, the conditions are less favorable 

for filtration, and the waters may remain polluted. In general, however, waters from sand and gravels, if taken from a considerable distance below the surface, are safe to use.

In the sands and finer gravels the cheapest and best method of 

obtaining water is by driven wells, which can be sunk quickly and at a 

very slight cost. In the very fine sands or quicksands, however, it is 

very difficult to exclude the material from the pipes, the quicksand 

frequently penetrating the well and clogging the pipe or ruining the 

pump. Because of the readiness with which sands and gravels yield 

their water, wells located close together frequently affect one another, 

the lower well or the wells which draw from the sand at the lowest 

points drawing the water from the higher wells. The readiness of 

movement of the water is also the cause of important fluctuations of 

level of the surface of the saturated zone, the water level often falling 

rapidly after wet seasons. To secure permanent supplies the wells 

should penetrate to the level which the water surface occupies in the 

driest seasons.

Clay. Clay is very impervious to water, and in itself contains little 

or none which can be utilized as a source of supply. Water, however, is frequently reported in clays, but usually comes from more 

or less sandy layers. In some cases sand which approaches clay in
Water level

26 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

fineness, and which is sometimes mistaken for clay, yields considerable 

amounts of water. Clay is of the greatest importance, not as a waterbearer but as a confining layer to porous sands, from which it prevents the water from escaping. The waters of clays, because of the 

fineness of the material, come into contact with relatively large amounts 

of mineral matter and frequently become mineralized, lime and salt 

being the most common substances dissolved. The waters of clays 

are, as a rule, free from contamination. When, because of the absence 

of other sources, it is necessary to obtain supplies from clay, a well 

should be sunk with as large a diameter as possible and continued 

beneath the point at which the water is obtained to a sufficient depth 

to furnish ample storage capacity, as clay waters are slight in amount 

and are yielded very slowly. Dug wells are usually most satisfactory 

where the clay is near the surface, but such wells should be carefully 

covered and guarded from all sources of pollution (see fig. 5).

Till. Till is a heterogeneous mixture of clay, sand, gravel, and 

bowlders, deposited by glaciers in the northern portion of the coun-

__ try. In texture it varies from 

porous to impervious according 

to whether sand or clay predominates. It is seldom definitely 

bedded. The water generally ocPIG. 5.-Relative size and storage capacity of dug curg jn small more Or leSS tubular 

and drilled wells. . . n .

channels a few inches in diameter, 

but occasionally is distributed through interstratified sandy beds.

In the aggregate the till yields a large amount of water, being the 

source of supply in the rural districts at a great number of points 

throughout the entire northern portion of the country. Because of 

the occurrence of the water in definite channels, however, the success 

of wells varies greatly. In general, wells of large diameter, similar 

to those described in the preceding paragraph, give the best success. 

Fig. 5 represents two wells of the same depth, one of the dug t}^pe 

and one of the bored type. It will be seen that in the well of the 

dug type not only is a larger amount of material encountered in cross 

section, but that the area of surface from which water can enter is 

many times greater than in the well of the bored type. The open 

well also presents larger storage possibilities, it being thus possible 

to utilize small supplies, which would be insufficient in the case of the 

bored well.

The water of the till is generally uncontaminated because in its 

downward penetration through the clay of which the till is in part 

composed it is subjected to natural filtration. If the water becomes 

polluted, however, it may retain its dangerous character for a long 

period of time and for considerable distances.
FULLER.] AMOUNT OF GROUND WATER. 27

Sandstone, conglomerate, and quartzite. Sandstone is on the whole 

the best water-bearer of the solid rocks. Under the most favorable 

conditions the rock is saturated throughout its extent below the regular 

ground-water level, and water is yielded wherever the sandstone is 

struck by the drill within these limits. The water is yielded freely as 

a rule, although in some of the finer-grained sandstones it flows less 

readily. In quality the water averages better than in any other material except sand and gravels. It is almost never polluted, and wells 

can generally be safely used if they are cased to keep out the surface 

waters. The drilled type of well is utilized except where the sandstone is very near the surface.

Conglomerates sometimes furnish considerable water supplies, 

although as a rule their absorptive powers are not so great as those 

of sandstones, and they are much less frequently encountered. 

Quartzite is a sandstone in which the spaces between the grains have 

been filled by hard, siliceous matter. Because of the filling of the 

pores by this material there is relatively little chance for the water to 

enter, and the rocks are not commonly an important source of water.

Slate. Slate, like clay, is a poor water bearer, but may yield water 

from bedding, joint, cleavage planes, etc. Its most important use, 

however, is as a confining layer to prevent the escape of water from 

porous sandstones which may be interbedded with it. The waters are 

reached by deep wells and are generally uncontaminated.

Limestone. The waters of limestone occur mainly in open channels, 

caverns, etc, dissolved in the rock by the water itself. The water 

originally probably followed joint or bedding planes, which were 

gradually enlarged by solution into the caverns which we now find.

FIG. 6. Difference in conditions of adjacent wells in limestone.

The occurrence of caverns and passages within the limestone is very 

irregular and their location can seldom be predicted. Most deep 

wells, however, which are drilled in limestone regions encounter one 

or more such passages at a relatively slight depth from the surface. 

Wells, even where only a few feet apart, nevertheless often obtain 

very different results, as a difference of a foot or two frequently 

means the missing of a certain channel, as indicated in fig. 6. The 

waters are generally hard, but are not commonly otherwise mineral-
28 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. .[NO. 114.

ized. There is, however, a considerable likelihood of pollution, due 

to the fact that much of the waters of the underground streams in the 

limestone have found their way downward through sink holes, carrying with them more or less surface wash (see PI. I, A).

Granite, gneiss, and schist. The granites and gneisses are very dense 

and possess very small pore spaces, and the body of these rocks hold 

very little water. In schists, however, considerable water often peneFIG. 7. Well in jointed rock.

trates along the foliation planes and is held by the rock, but such water 

is given up very slowly and is not of importance as a source of supplyr 

It is along the joints that the largest supplies are obtained. These 

joints are most common near the surface and diminish in number and 

in definiteness as depth increases. For this reason the water supplies, 

if obtained at all, are generally found within 200 or 300 feet of the 

surface. It is generally useless to go deeper than 500 feet for waters 

in these crystalline rocks, although in some instances, as at Atlanta, 

water supplies have been obtained at depths as great as 1,600 feet. 

The joints generally occur in complex systems of intersecting planes, 

and it is possible for polluted water starting very near the mouth of 

the well to pass in a zigzag course downward along the joints, finally 

reaching the well at a depth of many hundred feet (fig. 7), as was the 

case in a well at Atlanta, Ga., which finally had to be abandoned. For 

this reason wells drilled in igneous rocks in cities and other thickly 

populated regions are liable to become polluted. Waters from such 

wells, if they are to be used for drinking purposes, should be tested 

occasionally to determine the possibility of pollution.

TEMPERATURE OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.

In all wells there is a certain depth, which differs in different localities, at which there is practically no difference in the temperature of 

the water from season to season or from year to year. This is known
FULLEE.] TEMPEEATCTBE OF GBOTJND WATER. 29

as the normal temperature of the water for a given region, and it 

agrees very closely with the mean annual temperature of the same 

locality. The depth of uniform temperature varies somewhat in different localities, but is commonly from 50 to 60 feet below the surface. 

The temperature varies from about 40° or 45° in New England to 

about 65° or 70° in the Gulf States.

Waters occurring nearer to the surface than the zone of uniform 

temperature vary in temperature according to season, being warmer 

than the normal in summer months and colder in the winter months. 

The temperature of waters warmer than the normal may also be due 

to the great depth from which the waters have come.

The main cause of rise in temperature below the line of invariable 

temperature is the internal heat of the earth. This internal heat 

increases rapidly downward, the rate of increase varying from 1° in 

30 feet to 1° in 100 feet, the average increase being about 1° to 50 

feet. The temperature of the water is very little affected in passing 

through the upper 50 feet of its course, hence its temperature is a fair 

indication of the depth from which it is derived.

Besides the internal heat of the earth the heat of igneous masses 

below the surface of the earth has been thought to give rise to the hot 

springs of many localities, and in some instances the heat evolved by 

the chemical decay of rocks has been cited to explain the temperature 

of hot springs.

RECOVERY OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.

Water is returned to the surface in three general ways: (1) By 

seepage, (2) by springs, and (3) by wells. A brief discussion of each 

method is given in the following pages.

SEEPAGE.

Although a relatively obscure method, seepage is of great importance 

in returning water to the surface, especially in sands and gravels. 

Seepage water does not occupy definite channels, but fills the pores 

between the component grains of the various surface or other deposits. 

It emerges at the surface whenever the water level within the deposits 

becomes, through additions from rainfall, etc., higher than that of the 

lowest depressions or level of the surface. Sometimes, as on the south 

side of Long Island and elsewhere, the waters seep out from the sands 

over extensive areas along the shores a few feet above sea level. In 

such places the water frequently does not gather into definite channels, but forms more or less extensive fresh marshes, and gradually 

works its way into the sea. More frequently, however, seepage waters 

emerge in stream channels and other depressions. In some cases 

the water enters the stream at or just above the surface, but in most
30 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

instances the main supply enters below the water level along the sides 

and bottom of the channel.

The distinction between seepage and springs is not sharp. The 

term "spring" is usually limited to those occurrences where the water 

comes out at a definite point^ or at least emerges from a restricted 

area, but water that often appears at the surface as general seepage 

is often found, on excavating at its point of emergence, to come from a 

definite channel, and to approach a true spring in character.

SPRINGS.

Springs are not only exceedingly numerous throughout large portions of the eastern United States, especially in the more rugged 

regions, but form a most important source of water supply. In many 

of the hilly districts they constitute, in fact, almost the only source of 

domestic supply. In general they are free f-rom pollution and not too 

strongly mineralized for ordinary uses. Mineral springs, however, are 

not uncommon, and are much used for medicinal and table purposes, 

and have lead to the development of sanitariums and many large and 

popular pleasure resorts.

FIG. 8. Lines of underflow into channel.

Seepage springs. This term is applied when the water seeps out of 

sand or gravel, and differs from general seepage only in that it is 

restricted to a very small area. Such springs are usually marked by 

abundant vegetation at points of emergence, and the water as it collects is often colored or carries an oily scum due to the decomposition of vegetable matter. The scum is often mistaken for petroleum. 

Before using such a spring the vegetation should be cleared away and a 

small reservoir constructed, or tank sunk in the ground.

The waters of the seepage springs usually come from no great distance beneath the surface and are not usually very cold. Being fed by 

waters coming from near the surface they are sometimes likely to 

become polluted, and local conditions should be carefully studied before 

the water is used for drinking.

Seepage springs sometimes emerge along the top of an underlying 

impervious bed, but more frequently occur where valleys are cut downward into the zone of saturation of a more or less uniform water-bearing 

deposit, or where the water table comes to the surface near a stream, 

a lake, or the sea. Under favorable conditions the seepage from 

sands, as on Long Island, gathers into channels and forms streams of
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. IV

A. SPRING FORMED AT OUTCROP OF AN IMPERVIOUS FLOOR.

B. ARTESIAN WELL.
FULLER.] RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 31

considerable size, some of them flowing 5,000,000 gallons or more 

daily.

Springs from definite underground channels. In this group is embraced a great variety of springs, including both those flowing in the 

small more or less tubular passages in the drift, and those occupying 

large solution channels or caverns in the soluble rocks.

The channels of the drift springs are generally established along 

some more or less sandy or other porous layer, or even in places along 

the path left by a decaying root. At first the motion appears to be 

mainly by seepage, but in many instances a passageway is gradually 

opened along which a definite stream finds its way. The waters reach 

the channels by percolation through the clays and sands, and are 

usually free from pollution. If such a channel, however, leads from 

a cesspool, or similar source of pollution, the water becomes highly 

charged with matter dangerous to the health. Once contaminated it is 

likely to continue so for long distances, as little natural filtration takes 

place, owing to the nature of the channel. The water should be 

thoroughly tested by a chemist if there seems any likelihood of contamination.

In limestones and other soluble rocks the underground passages are 

often many miles in length. Single passages, as in the Mammoth 

Cave of Kentucky, have been traversed for a distance of nearly 10 

miles, while passages as yet undiscovered, but several times as long, 

probably exist. Some of these passages are many feet in diameter 

and are traversed by streams of considerable size, or even rivers. The 

Silver Springs of Florida give rise to a river which is navigable from 

the ocean to its source in the springs, while springs of similar volume 

occur elsewhere in Florida and Arkansas, and possibly elsewhere. The 

waters of such springs vary greatly in composition, although most 

of them are hard. Some waters are exceedingly clear, the bottoms of 

springs being distinctly visible at a depth of many feet, but in others 

the waters are muddy after severe storms. In the first case it is 

probable that the waters feeding the underground stream reached it by 

percolation through the porous earth or rock, during which its impurities were largely removed. In the second case the waters in part 

appear to have penetrated downward through sinks, or entered the 

rock directly as streams. In both cases they are very liable to pollution by impurities washed in with the water (see PI. I).

Fissure springs. The term fissure springs is here used rather comprehensively to include the springs issuing along bedding, joint, cleavage, or fault planes (PL IV, A). The distinguishing feature is a break in 

the rocks along which the waters can pass, it being immaterial whether 

any considerable open space exists. These springs differ from the 

preceding in that they are as a class of deeper-seated origin. Seepage 

and drift springs are largely confined to unconsolidated surface de-
32 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

posits, while the channels of limestone springs do not ordinarily 

extend much below the level of the surrounding surface drainage. In 

fissure springs, on the other hand, the waters are frequently derived 

from great depths, as is attested by their temperatures. The waters 

are almost never subjected to contamination, but are, however, often 

highly mineralized. Springs of this class are often scattered along

'L.

Cola springs

FIG. 9. Map showing location of springs along faults or joints near South Britain, Conn.

(AfterHobbs.)

straight lines for considerable distances, their position being determined by lines of fracture or jointing, as shown in fig. 9.

Geysers. Geysers are those springs in which at more or less 

regular intervals the water is ejected with some force. The waters 

are always warm or hot and, therefore, come from considerable 

depth. Geyser springs generally emerge from tubular conduits that 

are lined with silica, deposited by the water, and end at the surface in 

a cone of similar material. The ejection of the water is probably due 

to the expelling force of steam generated deep below the surface under 

certain peculiar conditions.
FULLER.] RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 33

WELLS.

Wells are of three general classes: (1) Dug, (2) driven, and (3) 

drilled or bored. A few paragraphs will be devoted to their consideration, but detailed discussions will not be attempted.

Dug wells. Dug wells are especially adapted to loose unconsolidated 

surface deposits in which the water supply is rather scanty. They 

present a large surface from which the water can enter and have a 

large storage capacity, but, on the other hand, they must necessarily 

be of limited depth, and because of the difficulty in keeping out surface and shallow-soil waters and other materials, are especially liable 

to pollution. They are also quite expensive and need to be frequently 

cleaned. They are undesirable if sufficient supplies can be had by 

driving or drilling.

Driven wells. Driven wells consist of a pipe, with strainer and 

pointed end, which are driven into sand and similar soft deposits. 

They can be put down in a few hours, are exceedingly cheap, and 

effectively exclude surface waters. The principal difficulty arises 

from the penetration of sand and the clogging of the pipe. Driven 

wells furnish ideal supplies in many sandy regions, but are, of course, 

not adapted to the conditions existing over the greater part of the 

country.

Drilled and bored wells. These include those wells drilled by 

machinery in rock or other deposits. Many different methods of drilling are employed, the one used at a particular point depending upon 

the material to be encountered or upon the nature of the well demanded. 

Among the most common are: (1) The ordinary churn-drill method, 

in which the drill is rapidly lifted and dropped, forcing its way down 

by impact; (2) the diamond-drill method, in which a cylinder set at 

the bottom with diamonds is rotated, cutting out a core of the rock; 

(3) the steel-shot method, in which loose chilled steel shot takes the 

place of diamonds, and (4) the jet process, in which a current of water 

is forced from the lower end of the pipe and by loosening the surrounding material allows the latter to sink. Many other methods or 

modifications are in use. PI. IV, B, represents one of the deep drilled 

wells yielding flowing water.

PUMPS.

In raising water to the surface a variety of methods are used, but 

except for the bucket of. the open wells they all depend upon some 

type of pump. Of the hand pumps, the ordinary valve pump, the 

chain pump, and the force pump are the most common. For raising 

large supplies windmills usually afford a cheap and satisfactory method 

on the farm, but in industrial establishments, where not only a large

IKK 114 05 3
34 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

but a constant and steady supply is needed, some form of power pump 

is used. Electricity, steam, and gasoline are all used, the latter being 

especially popular because of cheapness and ease of operation. Various 

forms of "air-lift" processes, by which water is lifted by a current 

of air that is forced into the well tubing, are successfully used.

ARTESIAN FLOWS.

ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS.

Stratified ~beds. In 1885 Prof. Thomas C. Chamberlin, in a paper 

entitled "Requisite and Qualifying Conditions of Artesian Wells," a 

explained the principles of artesian flow, and called attention to 

many of the special conditions which tend to determine the success 

or failure of these wells. The conditions which, according to Professor 

Chamberlin, may properly be considered as those of true artesian flow 

are as follows:

I. A pervious stratum to permit the entrance and the passage of water.

II. A water-tight bed below to prevent the escape of water downward.

III. A like impervious bed above to prevent the escape upward, for the water, being 

under pressure from the fountain head, would otherwise find relief in that 

direction.

IV. An inclination of these beds, so that the edge at which the waters enter will be 

higher than the surface at the well.

V. A suitable exposure of the edge of the porous stratum, so that it may take in a 

sufficient supply of water.

VI. An adequate rainfall to furnish this supply.

VII. An absence of any escape for the water at a lower level than the surface at the 

well.

Some of the features outlined above are illustrated by the following 

diagrams taken from Professor Chamberlin's report. There are many

FIG. 10. Section showing principal requisites of artesian wells. A, a porous stratum; B, C, impervious beds below and above A, acting as confining strata; F, height of water level in porous beds A, 

or, in other words, height of reservoir or fountain head; D, E, flowing wells springing from the 

" porous water-filled bed A.

other minor conditions and modifications of the requisites outlined 

above which bear on the occurrence of artesian waters, but the essentials are here given.

Joitits and faults. Flowing water is not confined to those wells 

which penetrate beds under the conditions outlined by Professor 

Chamberlin. The principle on which artesian waters depend is equally 

applicable to other rocks, the essential feature being simply that the 

water be confined and that the outlet through the well be considerably

« Fifth Annual Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 125-173.
FULLER.] UNDEKGKOUND WATEU CONDITIONS. 35

lower than the catchment area at which the water entered. A bedding, 

joint, or fault plane, or other fissure in insoluble rocks, or a solution 

passage in limestones, sometimes affords favorable conditions for artesian flows, although because of their commonly limited development

j3 &

FIG. 11. Section illustrating thinning out of porous water-bearing bed A, inclosed between impervious beds B, C, thus furnishing conditions for artesian well JD.

they are far less frequently encountered than the broad porous sandstones and other sedimentary beds.

Besides occurring along bedding planes or along joint or fault planes 

water frequently follows a combination of passages, such as indicated 

in fig. 13, which shows an inclined bed cut by a joint, the motion of

FIG. 12. Section showing transition from porous to impervious bed. A, a close-textured, impervious 

bed, inclosed between impervious beds B and C, furnishes conditions for an artesian well D.

the water being indicated by the arrow. Exactly the same conditions 

might occur if the bed b were to be replaced by a joint or fault plane 

of the same position.

Direction of movement of water. In the majority of cases the water 

encountered by wells is moving down the dip of the beds or down the

FIG. 13. Upward circulation of water along joint.

joint or fault line, but in many instances, as in the cases outlined 

above and illustrated in fig. 13, the water may be moving upward.

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS IN EASTERN UNITED

STATES.

There are great differences in the underground water conditions in 

different parts of eastern United States. These are due in part to 

the presence in the northern half of a mantle of surface deposits left 

by glaciers or by streams connected with the ice. A part of the
36 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

difference is also due to the difference in weathering of the rocks in 

the northern and southern portions, while still another part is due to 

variations in the character of rocks and of topography.

AREA OF GLACIAL DRIFT.

This area is bounded on the south by a line which, starting at Nantucket, passes through Marthas Vineyard, Long Island, across New

FIG. 14. Geologic and water-supply districts in eastern United States.

Jersey, northwestward across Pennsylvania into New York, then 

southwestward across Pennsylvania and Ohio to the vicinity of Cincinnati, where it crosses the river for a short distance into Kentucky,
FXILLEE.] UNDEKGKOUlSrD WATEE CONDITIONS. 37

thence westward across southern Indiana, Illinois, and central Missouri, 

to a point near Kansas City, where it leaves the region under consideration (see fig1 . 14). All of the region north of this line was covered 

one or more times Toy great ice sheets, except a small area in southwestern Wisconsin and adjacent portions of Minnesota, Iowa, and 

Illinois, where there appears to have been a sort of island of land surrounded by ice, known as the "Driftless area."

North of the boundary mentioned the surface, except for the small 

driftless area, is covered with a mantle of materials deposited by the 

glacier and known as drift. The drift is divjded into two main types, 

the first known as till, and the second as modified or stratified drift. 

Till is composed of a heterogeneous mass, consisting of clay, sand, 

and bowlders, frequently known as hardpan. It was deposited mainly 

directly by the ice, either beneath the sheet or at its margin. The 

second class of drift includes gravels, sands, and other stratified deposits formed by streams leading outward from the ice sheet. It is 

found chiefly along the valleys which were once occupied by glacial 

streams, but considerable amounts were also deposited in temporary 

glacial lakes which existed between the northward sloping land and 

the retreating ice sheet, while some was laid down as broad wash 

plains.

The glaciers which left the various types of drift started in the far 

north in relatively recent geologic times and spread southward to the 

limits mentioned. Before their advance the rocks were probably deeply 

weathered and covered with soil, as in the South at the present time, 

although the extent of the weathering was doubtless somewhat less. 

The first work of the ice was to remove this soft weathered material. 

Part was incorporated with the till and part was carried off by the 

.streams to form clay and sand deposits. Later, after the removal of 

the surface soil, the glacier began the work of wearing down the solid 

rocks, plucking off fragments both large and small from the ledges and 

transporting them southward. This material was also left in part in 

the till, and in part carried away by the streams.

The effect of the drift on the water supply of the northern portion 

of the country is very great. In general^ the drift holds very much 

more water than any of the rocks. This water is yielded readily to 

shallow wells, and furnishes by far the larger part of the well supplies 

in the region where it occurs. Water is least abundant in the till and 

most abundant in the stratified drift. Its occurence in till and in sand 

and gravel has already been described (see pp. 25-26).

WEATHERED KOCKS.

South of the limits of glacial advance the place of the drift is partly 

taken by the weathered or decomposed rocks. The weathering seems 

to be deepest in the south where the climate is more humid and, therefore, more favorable to rock decay.
38 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The soils south of the drift limits consist of small fragments or particles of disintegrated rocks. They are usually colored red and yellow 

by weathering and are very porous, absorbing much water. Their 

thickness, however, is not sufficient to make them a good source of 

water supply, although they yield water to many shallow wells. The 

water is subjected, as in sands and similar materials, to more or less 

complete filtration in its passage downward.

ROCK WATER PROVINCES.

Leaving out of account New England and eastern New York, which 

compare most nearly with the Piedmont Plain, the main divisions of 

the eastern United States, viewed from the standpoint of underground 

water supplies, are: (1) The Coastal Plain, (2) the Piedmont Plateau, 

(3) the Appalachian Mountains, and (4) the Mississippi and Great 

Lakes basin. The limits of these divisions are shown in fig. 14.

Coastal Plain. The Coastal Plain consists of a strip of unconsolidated deposits, extending from Long Island on the north along the 

Atlantic and Gulf States into Mexico on the south. The width varies 

from a few miles at the north to several hundred miles in the Mississippi River region.

The surface of the Coastal Plain is low, usually not exceeding 100 to 

300 feet above sea level and, where uncut by erosion, is generally flat. 

Owing to the soft character of the materials, however, the streams 

have generally cut fairly deep valleys which are separated, where not 

too close together, by flat-topped ridges marking the original surface. 

Where the streams are close together the surface is cut into rolling 

hills.

The materials include clays, sands, gravels, marls, and a few more 

or less solid limestones, the latter being present mainly in the Southern States. A few of the sandy layers have been consolidated and now 

form sandstones. The beds dip gently toward the coast. The waters 

in the North occur mainly in sands and gravels, especially in those at 

the base of the Coastal Plain deposits. Farther south, particularly-in 

the Gulf States, water is found both in sands and in the porous limestones. The quality of the water in the gravels in the northern portion 

of the belt is generally soft and good, but farther south, notably 

where sands and gravels alternate with clay or limestone beds, the 

waters are often hard or are charged with sulphur and iron. The 

capacity of the wells is generally large and many of them flow without 

pumping. In the aggregate there are several thousand deep wells scattered throughout the Coastal Plain. They are used principally for 

domestic and farm supplies, but some of them that yield soft waters 

are utilized for industrial purposes. In the Gulf States, especially in 

Louisiana, a large number of wells furnish water for the irrigation of
FULLER.] UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 39

rice. A considerable number are also used as a source of public water 

supplies.

Piedmont Plateau. The Piedmont Plateau proper consists of a 

belt of crystalline rocks, including a few small basins of Triassic 

sediments, that extends southward from southeastern New York 

along the east front of the Appalachian Mountains to Alabama, lying 

between, the mountains and the Coastal Plain. Where the plateau 

joins the Coastal Plain its elevation is only a few hundred feet, but 

the altitude of its surface increases gradually toward the northwest, 

until at the base of the mountains, especially in western North Carolina and vicinity, its highest points have an altitude of several thousand feet. In the main its surface, where uncut by streams, is flat or 

gently rolling, but in its higher portions it has been cut into a series 

of prominent mountains. In the vicinity of the streams near the 

coast it is also cut into a series of lower hills, as in the case of the 

Coastal Plain.

The rocks of the Piedmont Plateau proper consist mainly of schists, 

gneisses, granites, and other metamorphic or igneous rocks, all of 

which are of crystalline texture. The rocks of the Triassic basins 

consist mainly of sandstones, shales, etc. ,

The waters of the Piedmont Plateau are relatively uncertain in 

occurrence, depending largely on the existence of joints or other 

fissures in the rocks, but good supplies have nevertheless been obtained 

at numerous points. In composition the waters are usually fairly 

good, although they sometimes contain considerable mineral matter. 

Relatively few deep wells have been sunk in this region, owing to the 

uncertainty of supply, dependence being placed largely on streams or 

on shallow wells dug in the weathered upper portion of the rocks. 

The waters are used largety for domestic and farm purposes and in 

small industrial establishments. In a few places public water supplies 

are obtained from the Piedmont rocks, and some important mineral 

springs are found in the region.

Similar to the Piedmont Plateau are the great areas of igneous rocks 

in Minnesota and Wisconsin and in New York and New England. The 

topograph}^ of the rocks in these regions is in general somewhat more 

rugged than in the Piedmont Plateau proper, and less use is made of 

the waters, largely because of the abundance of lakes, springs, and 

spring-fed streams, or of waters in the glacial drift which overlies the 

crystalline rocks in this portion of the country.

Appalachian Mountains. The Appalachian Mountains may be considered as beginning in eastern Pennsylvania and extending southward 

to central Alabama. The Berkshire Hills in Connecticut and Massachusetts and the Green Mountains in Vermont are included in the area by 

some. The rocks throughout the region are strongty folded and broken 

by faults, the harder beds giving rise to the great mountain ridges
40 UNDERGROUND WATEES, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

which characterize the belt. The rocks consist of quartzites, sandstones, shales, and limestones. The sandstones and certain of the limestones carry considerable amounts of water, but are seldom used as a 

source of supply. The water in the limestones is carried in definite 

channels and is of rather uncertain occurrence. Both the sandstones 

and limestones yield copious springs in places. Wells in the synclines 

or rock troughs frequently yield water which will sometimes rise to 

the surface, but in general dependence is placed on the springs which 

occur in large numbers throughout the belt. In the wider limestone 

valleys wells or cisterns are often used. There are very few cities or 

large industrial establishments in this region and deep wells are therefore somewhat rare.

The Mississippi-Great Lakes basin. This basin includes the remaining portion of the territory in the eastern half of the United States. 

The surface is moderately low, seldom exceeding 1,000 feet in elevation, and is usually not characterized by prominent hills or mountains. 

Except in the areas of igneous rocks, noted above, the rocks consist of 

flat or very gently folded sandstones, limestones, shales, etc., varying 

from Cambrian to Carboniferous in age. The Cambrian and other of 

the older sandstones carry large amounts of water, which is obtained 

by wells that frequently flow at the surface. The Silurian limestones 

also contain considerable water, but, as is the case with water in limestones elsewhere, its occurrence at a particular point can seldom be 

predicted.

The younger rocks, including the Devonian and Carboniferous, consist to a considerable extent of alternations of shales, shaly limestones, 

and sandstones. In the limestones the water occurs very much as in 

other limestones. In the sandstones and shales, however, its occurrence is uncertain owing to the lack of persistence of the beds. One 

well may obtain water, while another a few feet away may fail. The 

waters are often mineralized, especially in Michigan, where they contain a high percentage of salt. The Carboniferous limestones abound 

in springs, some of which are of great size.
MAINE. 

By W. S. BAYLEY.

TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY.

The surface of Maine consists essentially of an extensive southwardfacing slope draining directly into the Atlantic Ocean and a smaller 

northward-facing slope draining into St. John River. The latter area 

is a great plain covered largely by swamps and interrupted by a few 

irregular-shaped hills. The surface of the southern slope is much 

more broken. It is crossed by many ridges of low mountains trending east or northeast, some of which rise several thousand feet above 

the platform on which they rest. These are separated by wide areas 

of plain, on which are many smalK glacial hills and ridges. Near the 

coast the surface is rough. Rocky ridges and low, bare hills stretch 

from the shore line some miles inland, but the hills are not lofty and 

the valleys between them are not deep.

All the rocks are Paleozoic or older, except the very late marine 

clays and the glacial deposits. The northern portion of the State is 

underlain by moderately folded Silurian and Devonian limestones, 

shales, and sandstones, cut here and there b}^ igneous rocks, some of 

which are certainly volcanic. In this area the conditions are the most 

favorable for the occurrence of artesian waters.

The section bordering the coast is underlain by granites, gneisses, 

crystalline schists, and ancient lavas intersected by intrusives. The 

central portion of the State, between the northern and the coast belts, 

is composed of slates, quartzites, and impure limestones, very much 

like the rocks in the northern belt, but usually more crystalline and 

more closely folded. These, too, are cut by granites and other intrusives. Conditions are not so favorable for artesian water in the central and the coast belts as they are in the northern belt; nevertheless, 

in some areas within them, where the rocks are less highly tilted 

than elsewhere, or where they are much fissured, artesian waters have 

been developed. Springs, moreover, abound and a few drilled wells 

deliver water at the surface.

41
42 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Upon the rocks of all three belts the glaciers that once covered the 

entire State deposited clay, sand, gravel, and a mixture of clay and 

bowlders. The latter constitutes the till, which covers all the older, 

rocks as a blanket, varying in thickness from a few inches to many feet. 

The clay, sand, and gravel form terraces, hills, and ridges that run 

in gently sinuous lines for long distances over hill and valley, following, in the main, the directions of the principal drainage lines. In 

these deposits the various components are often interstratified, furnishing ideal conditions for successful shallow wells. Most of these wells 

obtain water either from the sand and gravel layers interleaved between 

the cla}7 beds or from the rock surface underlying all the sediments.

The only remaining rocks that are at all widely spread in Maine are 

the beds of fossiliferous marine clays, which extend far inland up the 

river valleys and into lowlands where the. elevation is not more than 

230 feet above sea level. Over these clays are layers of river sand, 

deposited at a time when the streams were being fed by the melting 

glaciers. At the base of this sand, where it lies upon the clay, there 

is usually a constant sheet of water moving slowly riverward. This 

furnishes an unfailing source of supply to wells situated near the river 

banks, but unfortunately the water is often contaminated with impurities of various kinds.

WATER SUPPLY.

With the exception of Florida, Maine is the least densely populated 

of all the Eastern States. Because of this low density (23.2 per square 

mile) and its abundance of lakes and streams,'its people have felt little 

necessity for seeking sources of water supply below the surface. 

Consequently, the underground waters of the State have been, on the 

whole, but slightly utilized, except in certain restricted areas, where, 

for one reason or another, the surface waters are not suitable for 

domestic or manufacturing purposes.

Until very recently the rivers and lakes have afforded excellent water 

for nearly all purposes. With the increase in the number of factories 

established on the main waterways for the advantages resulting from 

the possession of cheap water power, the rivers have become less and 

less valuable as sources of water supply, partly because of the waste 

products poured into them from the factories and partly because of 

the increased amount of sewage which they must carry in consequence 

of the growth of the manufacturing communities on their banks.

The drift of the population toward centers is well shown by the 

census of 1900. The number of cities and villages separately enumerated in this year was 43, as against 25 in 1890, and their population 

was 258,431, as against 184,821, or 37.2 per cent of the total population in 1900, as against 28 per cent in 1890.
BAYLEY.] MAINE. 43

The natural result of the two tendencies above mentioned has been 

to pollute the principal water courses, with the consequent result that 

communities drawing their public supplies from streams are beginning 

to complain of the quality of the water furnished them and are turning 

toward the lakes for relief.

Along the coast strip, where the larger rivers are tidal, communities are dependent upon lakes and small brooks for their public 

supply. On the islands the principal sources of drinkable water are 

springs and drilled wells, but since there are only a few island settlements of any considerable size the question of large public supplies 

is not of great moment.

Within the interior of the State village communities that are not situated near large lakes or spring-fed brooks have often taken advantage of the numerous good springs that abound everywhere and 

spring water has been piped through the settlements.

PUBLIC SUPPLIES.

The aggregate population furnished by water corporations from the 

three principal sources above mentioned is about 285,000, or about 40 

per cent of the entire population of the State. Of this number about 

152,000 obtain public water from lakes, 122,000 from rivers, and 

14,000 from springs. In addition there is one community (Castine, 

population about 900) that draws its supply from four drilled wells.
44 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

RIVEKS.

The communities at present obtaining their public supply from 

rivers and brooks are as follows:

Preliminary list of communities drawing upon streams as the sources of their public water

supply.

Place.

Belfast .................

Bethel .................

Ellsworth Falls .........

Old Orchard ............

Pittsfield ...............

County.

Waldo ................

York..................

.....do................

Oxford ................

Kennebec

York............'.. ...

Oxford ................

York..................

York..................

Source of supply.

Penobscot Eiver.

Little Eiver or Coles Brook.

Chapman Brook.

Penobscot River.

Piscataquis River.

Branch Pond Stream.

Do.

Messalonskee River.

Brook.

White Lot Brook.

Moose Brook.

Brook flowing into Tuffs Pond.

Brook.
BAYLEY.] MAINE. 45

LAKES.

The list below is an enumeration of the communities utilizing lakes 

as their sources of supply.

Preliminary list of communities utilizing lakes as sources of water supply.

Place.

Bath...................

Boothbay Harbor .......

Kittery .................

Liverrnore Falls. . .......

Phillips ................

Rockland ...............

Rockport ...............

Seal Harbor ............

South Portland- .........

South Paris .............

Thomaston .............

Westbrook .............

Wilton.................

Woolwich ..............

York...................

York Corner. ...........

County.

.....do ................

Knox ............ .....

York..................

.....do ...... .........

Oxford ................

TCpn TipViPf*

.....do ................

.....do ................

Oxford ................

Knox .................

York..................

.....do................

Source of supply.

Lake Auburn or Wilton Pond.

Lake Nequassetto.

120 driven wells.

Adams Pond.

Mirror or Oyster River Lake.

Sebago Lake.

Folly Pond.

wassee Lake.

Mirror or Oyster River Lake.

Mirror or Oyster River Lake.

Jordan's Pond.

Do.
46 UNDEKGKOUND WATEES, EASTEKN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

SPRINGS.

In the communities named below springs furnish nearly all the water 

used. In all cases this is carried by pipes either directly from the 

springs or from reservoirs into which the spring water is pumped.

Preliminary list of communities obtaining their public supply from springs.

Place.

Brownville .........

Cherryfield .........

Fort Fairfield .......

Guilford............

Hallowell ..........

Millbridge ..........

North Waterboro . . .

Paris Hill........ ...

Peru ...............

Searsport ...........

Springvale.-.. ......

Stratton ............

Union ..............

Yarmouth ..........

Yarmouth ville ......

County.

.....do............

York..............

Oxford............

.....do.... ........

York

Waldo ............

.....do ............

York..............

Waldo ............

.....do ............

Remarks.

2 springs fill IJ-inch and 6-inch pipes.

3 springs; piped to hotel and private

houses.

350,000 gallons a day. Temperature, 42°.

Fills 2-inch pipe. Temperature, 40°.

From 10,000 to 30,000 gallons a day.

»

500,000 gallons a day.

100 gallons a minute.

125,000 gallons a day.

120, 000 gallons a day. Temperature, 49°.

DRILLED WELLS.

The village of Castine is furnished with water for domestic and fire 

purposes by four drilled wells, of which three, situated at an elevation of 130 feet, are now used. In these the water was struck at a 

depth of 62| feet, or 67-J feet above mean high-water mark. It rises 

naturally within 25 feet of the surface and is pumped to the surface 

with the aid of a windmill. These wells yield 40,000 gallons daily.
BAYLEY.] (MAINE; ?^7, ;'* 47

A fourth well, 675 feet deep, is located at an elevation of 217 feet. 

Water was struck in this well at a depth of 620 feet. It apparently 

came from fissures in the rock. The water level in this well is only 

27 feet below the surface i. e., it is 127i feet higher than the level in 

the lower wells and 190 feet above sea level. All the wells are situated On the backbone of a small peninsula that extends into Penobscot Bay. This peninsula is only 2 miles long and \ mile wide, and 

is joined to the mainland by a narrow isthmus which has been crossed 

by a canal. The deepest well, whose water rises 190 feet above sea 

level, is only half a mile from the shore of the bay.

PRIVATE SUPPLIES.

The farming communities in Maine, as elsewhere in the Eastern 

States, consist of isolated families or very small groups of families in 

villages that are not large enough to warrant the wholesale distribution of water. Water can not be conveyed to them economically from 

long distances, hence their supplies must come from near-by sources, 

which are available almost everywhere immediately beneath the 

surface. These underground sources are tapped by dug and by drilled 

wells, or by the natural fissures through which springs issue.

DUG, DRIVEN, AND BORED WELLS.

The soil covering of Maine is largely glacial in origin. The drift 

which covers the hard rocks is of considerable thickness over most of 

the State, and from its nature it affords many reservoirs for the 

storage of ground water. Where gravels and sands are intercalated 

between clay beds these furnish abundant water. The depth of the 

layers from which the water is derived varies widely even in the same 

neighborhood, because the coarse-grained beds are not of great horizontal extent, and neighboring wells, therefore, must often obtain their 

water from different layers. In those places where the drift covering 

is thin the rock under the drift is blasted into, and in this way a 

shallow basin is made, into which water seeps from the basal layers 

of the overlying drift and from the crevices opened up in the rock.

In the valleys of many of the rivers are deposits of clay, which were 

either laid down by the rivers themselves or by bays of the ocean 

which formerly extended inland up the river valleys. Between the 

successive beds of clay are often thin layers of water that are continuously flowing riverward as broad sheets. Where these are intercepted by wells an abundant and constant supply of water is obtained. 

Wells of this class possess, in a measure, artesian characters. The 

water often rises above its immediate source, and its height is only 

slightly affected by droughts. On the other hand, the beneficial effect 

of sand filtration upon the water is lacking, and consequently these 

wells are more apt to become polluted than those that obtain their
48 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

water by tapping supplies in sand or gravel. A rapid examination of 

the records of the State board of health shows that the greater proportion of the polluted wells investigated by the board are those 

which obtain their water from between clay layers; whereas, on the 

other hand, the wells obtaining their supply from the sand beds in the 

drift usually furnish good water, although they may be situated in the 

midst of farm buildings that have occupied the land for periods of 

fifty or seventy-five years.

DRILLED WELLS.

Because of the abundance of streams, lakes, and springs in the State, 

and the ease with which the underground water in the glacial drift 

may be reached by dug, driven, and bored wells, the use of drilled 

wells is not common. There are a few in the interior counties where 

the supply of surface water is not constant and where the drift is thin 

and dug wells are likely to fluctuate with variations in the amount of 

rainfall, but by far the greater portion of the deep wells are situated 

either on the islands off the cost or in a narrow strip on the mainland 

bordering the shore. This shore strip is almost insular in character. 

Deep inlets extend back into the land, separating it into narrow 

tongues that are almost surrounded by salt water. Moreover, the drift 

covering is usually thin, and in this belt, as on the islands, the collecting areas are small and the capacity of the drift for storage is small.

Records of the rocks drilled through have been kept for very few 

of the wells. This fact, together with the fact that the geology of the 

State is practically unknown, makes it impracticable to work out at 

present the limits of artesian basins. From the scanty data at hand, 

however, it appears probable that at least one basin exists in the northeastern part of the State, in the eastern portion of Aroostook County, 

and another in the west-central part, surrounding Moosehead Lake.

At Greenville, at the mouth of Moosehead Lake, are two wells that 

flow. These two and a few others in the coast belt are the only ones 

that furnish water at the surface. In the great majority of the wells, 

however, the water is forced upward by natural pressure some distance above its source.

Of the 448 drilled wells of which reports have been received, 134 

are 100 feet deep or over. Of these there are 2 over 500 feet deep, 

7 between 300 and 400 feet, and 25 between 200 and 300 feet.

SPRINGS.

Throughout the interior of the State springs are frequently used as 

sources of water supply when the}7 are situated at a greater elevation 

than the buildings to be furnished with water. Often several families 

combine and have the water of the larger springs distributed through 

their dwellings by pipes. Occasionally the water is raised by wind-
BAYLBY.] MAINE. 49

mills, but usually it is distributed by gravitj7 alone. In those portions 

of the State where the well water is hard, springs are more generally 

utilized than in those portions where the well water is soft. In a few 

instances where the quality of the water in the streams near by is poor, 

springs supply water for manufacturing establishments. 

Very important springs, which are of great economic value to the

FIG. 15. Location of flowing or nearly flowing wells of Maine.

State, are those which may be denominated commercial springs. This 

group includes those springs whose waters are sold by measure, i. e., 

in small parcels. Of this class there are two subclasses. In the first 

are included springs that furnish water to consumers in their vicinity 

IKK 114 05 4
50 VHSTDERGBOUND WATEES, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

at regular intervals, to be used as table water. In this group there 

are at present known to be 25 springs, from which 486,000 .gallons are 

sold at a cost to the consumers of $29,782. A list of these, with analyses 

of their waters, is given in the table on pages 51 to 53. The second 

subclass includes springs whose waters are bottled and shipped to distant points. The mineral springs w7 hose waters are supposed to possess medicinal properties are included here, and also certain other 

springs whose water is exceptionally pure. The quantity of water 

shipped from these in 1902 was 355,865 gallons, valued at $71,415. 

This amount does not include the sales of water from Poland Spring, 

the proprietors of which decline to make any statement as to the quantity or value of the water supplied by them to consumers. It is known, 

however, that the aggregate value of the water shipped from this 

spring is greater than that of all the other springs in the State.. The 

springs in this group number 22. (See table on page 54.)
Preliminary list of springs furnishing water sold in 

Name.

1. Rocky Hill .........

6. Forest..............

7. Do .............

8. Do .............

10. Cliff ................

12. Seal Rock...........

13. Mount Desert .......

14. Littlefield's .........

18. Lowrie's... .........

Location.

.....do ..........................

.....do ..........................

2 miles northeast of Eastbrook ....

County.

York..............

.....do ............

:.... do ............

.....do ............

Kennebec .........

York ..............

.....do ............

Waldo ............

Penobscot .........

Hancock ..........

Flow 

minu

in gall

60-1
Preliminary list of springs furnishing water sold in their v

Name.

19. Jones's .............

20. Pure Water .........

21. Vienna Sparkling....

22. Skid Hill ...........

23. Keystone Mineral . . .

24. Hallowell... ........

25. Sylvan .............

Location.

J mile west of Norway ...........

1 J miles north of Waterville ......

i mile from Vienna. ..............

| mile east of Poland .............

East Poland .....................

County.

Oxford............

.....do ............

.....do ............

PC f^n n pViPf*

Androscoggin ......

Plow p

minut

in gallo

Analyses of water of springs listed above

[Parts per million.]

la ...............

6 ................

7 ................

8 ................

9 ................

10 ................

11 <*.... .......... '.

CaCO3

24.1 

55.4 

21.6 

5.4 

1.7 

6.7

MgCO3

12.7 

5.6 

5.3 

1.6 

1.0 

4.8

FeCO3

0.2

Na2C03

1.5

&2.4

&4.0

3.0

4.2

CaSO4

3.4

^

MgSO4

1.0

4.4

Na2SO4

8.0 

1.3 

.5

K2SO4

0.9 

6.2 

1.7 

1.3

NaCl

4.0 

4.8 

4.5 

3.5 

«2.6

6.3

Pe

tra
18 ................

21«... ............

216. ..............

23 ................

24 ................

25 ................

4.0

32.0

10.6

10.0

3.8

1.7

5.4

3.3

11.1

2.9

2.4

7.7

12.2

5.1

3.6

2.6

4.

2.8

4.3

1.0

3

2.0

4.4

.3

.2

4.3

«12.0

9.8

aThe figures to the left correspond to those preceding the names of the springs in list of springs.

Z>TracesLi2CO3.

e Including KC1.

d Other compounds determined in this water, in parts per million, are CaO, 59.5; MgO, 16.4; FeO, 7

e Including KC1, 0.6.
54 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

M

rt

,

^

ss

SB

H

^ fl

9

6

Location.

sod

0

O 0)

0 Jj

** r^*

1-1 03

O) o

3 rH ^^a

^ 03

03 3 O) cd

r§ rrf

cd 03 *:

, E a a

o IM 10 rH oo <M 10 ir

 ^H -^1 ""Q '^fl Tfl -^ ^ -^1 IT

? <5

^OTtH'ioioo co ir

i 1 i 1 CO

, , , ;

, , , .

, ( *

a ; ;

'&> - ^ 

0 £JQ C

OPrtcdrrtQflcJ fe ^ O T3 2 c3 ^ O'C 

^Ssg'SgS*

: 44 a' : : ^ J

11 If 1 ill

r^rH-+^Q-'J '-lOO 

OOSSn^Odri fldo^d

3203 Ol7-O>O)-- 

O) ffl ffl -^ OJ O) F- < ' C

a | a | a a 1 1

T3 

C

o 1 ^ | _ a -

| 1 1 1 j | | II

rHIMtOTtH-OCOt-COO)

 X

c

c

^

c

o;

0

.S i*

5 5 ^

2 3 c

5 00 (M 0 CO

5 CO "^ "^ Tjn

:> to i i TJH o c<i

rH

: : :

. , ,

i I »

, , ,

i i i r^

: : : §

r<1 O (*1 C ^

O >-< O O h^

; ; -c

north ofBuckfield es.le ofSaco. east......... m. ................. .. iles ofnortheast Portlan 

Boothbav ........ _

 1-1 "-i X & +* s a l*i

 * I-H N co f^

1

^ 3

O O> C

OS g 0 O ,,,

lilll

S ^ rH rH rH

5

s

>

i

 » -4-^>

0»

,0

*^» ^»

03

o

oo cr

Tin rj

i

O if.

i 1 C^

d

fcfl

!?oAndros 

do___. s

iles northeast ofLewisto 

les northof Auburn_

a-p

rH>M "

(M 1C

1

' b ,

S^

lO CO

-d

^ "S

d g

O rd.

is

. ^ ~ 

-S o> O)

05 03 03 0

>> o o ,=

03 S^ ' £_, Kv

O O O <

. lO ; lO

CO rO rJH

a

0 rt (M OC

1

'

(

a

£4 'fef'

t °

.a £ s c ^ "o s -i

|.S a

:

iles ofAddison east.... of Nobleboro west.e.... le ofPoland east....... h Poland ..............

Q -I I ! 1 -fj 5, a a g

rH HIM co|^ CO

, _ ,

Is |

2 o> a

^§;

1 ill

"^ g '^OrS 

<1 CC S (2

-> oo os o

>

0

ST

oo «

V

"l

c I

Frankb rinmhp

I0 

s

CC*o

fo

is a 'E

-2, « (M t

03 -?

CC

00

!u

^ a § £

We?

i 1 C<1

 >

H

1

J

) 

)

I
Analyses of water from springs in precedin

[Parts per million.]

10...........

2............

2 ............

3 ... .........

4 ............

5 ............

6............

7 ............

8............

9............

10............

12 ............

13............

14 ............

15............

CaCO3 .

16.0

10.56

18.0

1.688

2.72

25.0

5.7

25.16

5.59

8.0

1.6

8.2

"57.0

MgC03 .

1.0

5.98

5.4

1.717

.11

23.1

35.0

.4

6.09

3.11

2.5

2.3

2.5

017.3

16.1

FeCO3 .

0.69

13.8

.7

6.62

.52

.8

046.7

14.4

Na2CO3 .

( 6 )

1.04

«4.3

ffl. 5

4.3

6.0

CaSO4.

2.0

5.78

3.6

1.894

5.61

13.09

5.4

MgS04 .

14.4

K2SO4.

3.6

d .34

/19.7

<*1.3

^5.33

*1.4

2.0

34.0

/24.9

NaCl.

4.0

2.72

7.2

c 3. 774

c3. 71

4.3

2.7

^5.0

4.12

1.8

1.3

14.7

32.2

8.6

Fe2O3 .

3.0

.60

5.4

.242

10.3

2.0

.

2CO3=1.5. 

c Including KC1.

e Including KSCO3 

/ Including Na«S0 

ffAlsoK2CO3=.3.

a The figures to the left correspond to those preceding the names 

%Also KC1=9.9. ' 

i Also NaNO3=.91 and MnCO3=.45. 

JAlsoNaNO3=1.52. 

fc Also Na2SO4= 4.6. 

ZA1(OH) 3 . 

m Metasilicic acid.
Analyses of water from springs in preceding list 

16............

17............

18............

19 ............

20............

21 ............

22............

CaCO3 .

a 7. 5

o 45. 2

18.6

37.4

21.1

5.5

17.0

MgCOs.

o5.1

a 19. 2

6.7

9.3

9.3

2.3

4.2

FeCOs.

«28.2

39.0

NasCOg.

«20.5

« 7. 6

277.0

2.3

6.4

<?24.0

CaSO4 .

9.0

52.5

MgS04 . K2S04 .

3.1

&10.3

17.7

2.7

7.7

NaCl.

4.4

15.2

18.6

8.1

4.6

4.4

3.0

Fe-jOs.

Trace.

Trace.

Trace.

Trace.

Trace.

a Bicarbonates. & Including NasSO4=4.5. 

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATION

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 32

Maine [well and spring records], by W. S. Bayley: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U
NEW HAMPSHIRE."

By M. L. FULLER.

TOPOGRAPHY.

Taken as a whole New Hampshire is more rugged than any other 

New England State. Although the mountains are lacking in the 

definite trend which characterizes the Green Mountain and Berkshire 

Hill ranges, they comprise, nevertheless, the highest and most rugged 

peaks of the eastern section of the country north of North Carolina. 

The highest land is in the western and northern parts of the State, 

culminating in the White Mountains of the north-central portion, 

where Mount Washington and several other peaks reach elevations of 

5,000 to 6,000 feet or over. The lowest area within the State is in the 

southeastern portion, where much of the land is less than 500 feet 

above sea level, considerable tracts lie between 500 and 1,000 feet, and 

a few hills and ridges above 1,000 feet.

In general the hills and mountains present smooth and rounded outlines, while the valleys are generally wide, with gentle or moderate 

slopes. In addition to the rock hills, there are, in the southern third 

of the State, a large number of smooth, lenticular hills, 100 feet or 

more in elevation above their base, composed of deposits formed by 

the glaciers when they occupied the region. They are known as 

drumlins.

GEOLOGY.

Over the greater part of the State the rocks are of the crystalline 

type, and include granites, gneisses, etc., but along the western border, 

and also along a broken belt extending from the southwestern portion 

of the State northeastward into Maine, in the vicinity of Rochester, 

there are extensive outcrops of slates, quartzites, schists, etc., with 

occasional small areas of limestone. The rocks of all types are generally characterized either by bedding or lamination planes, and are 

frequently much broken by joints. x

Like other New England States, New Hampshire is covered with 

surface deposits of unconsolidated material laid down by the ice sheet 

or its associated drainage ways. This surface material or drift is not

« The portions of the present descriptions relating to wells and springs are based on data collected 

by Mr. J. M. Boutwell.

57
58 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

of uniform distribution, being in general of much greater thickness 

in the southern portion of the State than in the northern. Neither is 

the drift of uniform thickness in the same general region, the crests 

and sides of the mountains and many of the higher hills being thinly 

coated with or even nearly free from glacial materials. In the valleys 

and on the lowlands, however, the drift deposits reach a considerable 

thickness and afford the most important source of water in the State. 

Of the types of drift the stratified deposits along the present stream 

channels are the most important. The sands and gravels along the 

Connecticut, Merrimac, Pemigewasset, Ashuelot, Contoocook, Saco, 

and Great Ossipcc rivers are of considerable importance. Many small 

areas and a few large ones are covered by deposits laid down in glacial 

lakes at a time when the retreating ice margin blocked the northwardflowing streams. Extensive stratified deposits also occur along the 

Atlantic coast in the southeastern portion of the State. Outside of 

the areas of stratified materials of the river bottoms, glacial lake 

basins, and along the coast, the surface is generally covered with a 

bowlder clay, or hard pan, known as till. In general it is very thin, 

but becomes of considerable thickness in the lenticular hills, known as 

drumlins, in the southern third of the State.

UNDERGROUND WATERS.

WELLS.

The wells may be grouped into two classes: (1) Those in the drift 

and (2) those entering the rock. Of the wells in the drift, those in 

the compact and more or less clayey till or hard pan yield the least 

satisfactory supplies both as regards quantity and quality. In the 

stratified drift, especially in the sands and gravels of the valleys a'nd 

basins mentioned above, the supplies are generally of good quality and 

ample in volume. In the more densely populated portions of the 

State, especially near the coast, the shallow drift waters are sometimes liable to pollution, but satisfactory supplies can usually be 

-obtained at almost any point where the stratified drift occurs.

Wells are in general drilled into the rock only when satisfactory 

supplies can not be obtained from the drift. The rocks over a large 

part of the .area are crystalline and dense and do not present ideal 

conditions for water storage, so that the value of a rock well must 

always be in doubt until it is completed. As already pointed out, the 

crystalline rocks are generally marked by lamination planes and are cut 

by joints, while the slates, quartzites, limestones, and other stratified 

rocks are characterized likewise by joints and also in many instances 

by rather definite bedding planes. The general effect of all of these 

features is to allow the water to penetrate into the interior of the rock, 

and most deep rock wells obtain moderate supplies, but irregularities
FULLER.] NEW HAMPSHIKE. 59

in the occurrence of joints and other planes render the results of drilling 

very uncertain.

Many wells from 200 to 1,300 feet deep have been drilled in the 

State, nearly every county being represented. The majority of these 

have found water, although a few of the deeper wells have been failures. The supplies in some of these wells are so great as to warrant 

the installation of steam pumps for raising the water. The deep wells 

are used mainly in the various manufacturing industries and by the 

larger hotels.

The waters of the drift are generally soft and relatively free from 

mineral matter, but those obtained by the deeper rock wells are frequently hard and charged with mineral matter, especially iron.

SPRINGS.

As in all rugged regions, springs abound in the hilly portions of 

New Hampshire. Over a large portion of the western and northern 

part of the State there is hardly a farm that is without one or more 

available springs. In these regions springs are the leading source of 

domestic supplies, and at a number of places, as at Dover, Gorham, 

North Stafford, Nashua, Bennington, and elsewhere, springs constitute a principal or partial source of public supply. Spring waters 

are also frequently used in dairy and other similar industries at many 

points throughout the State.

Besides the uses outlined above many of the spring waters of 

New Hampshire are placed on the market for medicinal or table use. 

In 1902, eight springs reported sales amounting to 629,500 gallons, 

with a value of $185,995, a viz:

Amherst Mineral Spring, Amherst, Hillsboro County.

Granite State Spring, Plaistow, Rockingham County.

Hale Spring, Plaistow, Rockingham County.

Lafayette Spring, West Derry, Rockingham County.

Londonderry Lithia Spring, Londonderry, Rockingham County.

Mount Madison, formerly Gorham Mineral Spring, Gorham, Coos County.

Pack Monadnock Lithia Spring, Temple, Hillsboro County.

Toof's Artesian Well, Concord, Merrimac County.

In addition to the above springs there are probably many local 

springs which supply water for family use on a small scale in the 

cities. A number of resorts have also been established at springs.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 17-18.

New Hampshire [well and spring records], by J. M. Boutwell: Water-Supply and 

Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, 1904, pp. 56-72.

apeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U, S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
VERMONT.

By G. H. PERKINS.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

Vermont is 157 miles long from north to south and, on the average, 

about 58 miles wide from east to west. The Green Mountain Range, 

which divides the State into nearly equal east and west portions, forms 

a watershed from which most of the streams flow either east into the 

Connecticut or west into Lake Champlain. As the mountains and 

foothills occupy a large portion of the State there is little level ground, 

the surface being mostly uneven mountain, hill, or valley. The 

mean rainfall over the State is not far from 39 inches. Probably no 

State is more abundantly watered, for in most of the towns springs 

are numerous and unfailing, and these are supplemented elsewhere by 

wells and streams.

The unaltered stratified rocks of Vermont are found mostly in the 

Champlain Valley, where the Cambrian sandstone, Beekmantown sandstones and limestones, Chazy, Trenton, and sometimes Black River 

limestone and Utica shales form a narrow border along the western 

part of the State. East of these unchanged beds the rocks are largely 

crystalline and metamorphic, consisting of granite, gneiss, schist, and 

slate. The whole State is covered with glacial deposits, composed of 

gravels, clays, and sands.

WATER SUPPLY.

Public supplies. Because of the abundance of springs and the consequent ease and cheapness with which a public water system can be 

established in many towns, such supply is often found where it would 

scarcely be expected. At least 65 towns and villages have a more or 

less complete public supply. Some of these are owned by the towns, 

many by corporations or individuals. In a number of towns there 

are several systems; for example, Barre has at present a system owned 

by the city, which supplies 1,200 families, and at least 5 smaller supplies, which are used by from 6 to 250 families each. Montpelier is 

still more lavishly provided, there being the city supply, which furnishes by far the greater number of the residents, and, in addition, 

more than twelve" other sources which supply from 2 to 50 or more 

.60
PEEKINS.] VERMONT. 61

families. In 1898 a State laboratory of hygiene was established, and 

as water used for drinking can, under certain regulations, be analyzed 

here free of charge, most of the water used in the larger towns is 

frequently examined chemically. In the following table are given the 

sources of supply of most of the important cities and towns of the 

State:

Sources of water supply of Vermont towns.

County.

Do.......

Do.......

Caledonia ....

Do.......

Do.......

Lamoille .....

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Orange .......

Do.......

Do.......

Orleans. v . . . .

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do .......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.'..,-..

Do.. ..

Town.

Manchester ........

Jeff ersonville ......

.....do............

 

Stowe .............

North Thetford ....

.....do............

Derbyline .........

Glover ............

North Troy ........

Brandon ..........

Center Rutland ....

Pittsford ..........

Rutland ...... .

Source of supply.

Springs..............

Otter Creek..........

[Equinox Springs .....

IS. M. Orvis's springs..

.....do ..............

Springs..............

Reservoir (4 miles

from town).

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

Springs..............

Thetford water companies.

Springs..............

.....do..............

.....do ..............

Hitchcock Pond (6

miles north). 

Springs........ ......

.....do..............

ton, N. Y.

Mendon brooks ......

Ownership.

Town.

City.

Arlington Water Company. 

iTown.

Island Pond Water

Company.

Town.

Do.

Private.

Town.

Waterman & Welch.

Water company ( J. A.

Pearl, agent). 

C. E. and F. O. Burt.

Town.

Union and North Thetford water companies.

To,wn.

Private.

Town.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
62 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114. 

Sources of water supply of Vermont towns Continued.

County.

Washington ..

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Windsor......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do.......

Do. ......

Do.......

Do.......

Town.

Barre .............

.....do ............

.....do............

.....do ............

Montpelier ........

Northfield .........

Plainfield..........

Bellows Falls .....

Hartford ..........

Norwich. ..........

tion. 

Wilder

Source of supply.

Several companies. . . .

Spring ..............

.....do ..............

Berlin ponds (two)...

Two public systems. . .

Springs..............

.....do -......-...-..

Brooks and springs

collected. 

Springs..............

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

T^Vl T*PP QTiflTlO^J

Ownership.

Water company.

Harvey Hersey.

pany. 

BatchelderWaterCompany.

City.

Private.

Village.

J. W. Howe and G. A.

Tilden. 

Town.

Hopkins & Company.

Town.

Do.

pany. 

A. L. Peace.

Town.

Do.

 Do.

Do.

Do.

Town.

Common springs. As has been indicated, springs are abundant over 

a large part of 'the State. Of the 248 towns reporting, not less than 

190 are said to be wholly or in large part supplied from springs. 

Many of these springs are large and constant in flow and temperature, the latter being often as low as 38° F., even in midsummer, and 

many show throughout the year a temperature varying but little from 

45° F.

As there is little or no soluble matter in the rocks in most parts of 

the State, the spring water is usually pure and soft.

The abundance of springs is shown in the reports from single and 

not large farms, that within their limits there are 20, 30, or even 40 

active springs. The water supply of most towns having a public 

water system is taken either from one large spring or from several
PERKINS.] VERMONT. 63

which have been connected. Analyses of many of these springs 

could be given. Nearly all of them, however, simply show pure 

water with no organic and very little solid matter, and as Vermont is 

for the most part not thickly settled, there are few or no sources of 

contamination. As an example of what may be regarded as an 

average sample of Vermont spring water, the following is given. 

The sample was taken from a tap located at some distance from the 

reservoir supplied by springs. It is not the purest nor the worst.

Analysis of water from Johnson, Vt.

Total solids. ..................

Albuminoid ammonia. ........

Chlorine .....................

Parts per 

million.

40.4

3.2

37.2

.018

.07

.4 Color........................

Parts per 

million.

.100

3.1

None.

None.

Mineral springs. Mineral springs are found, though not in large 

number, in different parts of the State. Most commonly they are 

more or less sulphurous, but alkaline carbonated springs also occur. 

The chief resorts on account of the water are Alburg Springs, Highgate, Sheldon, Clarendon, Middleton, and Brunswick. The springs at 

South Hero, Chelsea, Concord, Wolcott, Newbury, and Warren are 

all of some repute. The Equinox Spring, at Manchester, is not 

mineral, but is simply a very fine spring of pure water. The water 

of some of the deep wells is so strongly magnesian as to properly 

come under the class of mineral waters.

The springs reporting shipments of water in 1902 a are as follows:

Brunswick Mineral Spring, Brunswick, Essex County. 

Clarendon Springs, Clarendon Springs, Rutland County. 

Equinox Spring, Manchester, Bennington County. 

Middletown Springs, Middletown Springs, Rutland County. 

Missisquoi Mineral Springs, Sheldon, Franklin County. 

Newfane or Vermont Mineral Spring, Putney, Windham County.

The amount shipped is stated as 89,100 gallons, with a value of

$22,Y60.

aPeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
64 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATER. [NO. 114.

As examples of these mineral waters the following analyses are given:

Analyses of Vermont spring waters.

Clarendon Spring.

Potassium sulphate ............

Magnesium bicarbonate ........

Alumina ......................

Parts per 

million.

2.5

2.0

.8

182.2

36.7

1.1

1.8

n

o

.8

Missisquoi Spring.

Sodium sulphate ..............

Manganous bicarbonate .......

Parts per 

million.

45.49

.38

2.12

.60

6.52

12.09

2.70

5.51

.08

126. 62

72.19

1.40

3.03

12.25

Trace.

Trace.

Ordinary wells. Wells of any sort are less common than they would 

be if springs did not afford a more convenient and better source of 

water. Underground water is everywhere and wells can be successfully dug in all parts of the State. Most of the wells thus far dug are 

not deep, ranging from 10 to 30 feet, and are usually wholly in the 

drift or other glacial deposits. Occasionally a well is carried down into 

the underlying rock, but not often.

The water of wells is usually reported as hard and almost always the 

amount of solids in well water is much greater than in spring water. 

In some parts of Vermont, as on Grand Isle, it has been found better 

to dig very large, though shallow wells. Some of these are 16 feet in 

diameter and 12 to 15 feet deep. In this way more water is procured 

than would be obtained by making a small well and going deeper.

Deep and artesian wells. Wells of this class are found most commonly in the Champlain Valley and in the stratified rocks. The water 

is very often strongly impregnated with alkaline salts, especially of 

magnesia and lime, and is therefore very hard. Reports have been 

received from about 100 wells which are over 50 feet deep. This 

number, however, does not include nearly all there are in the State. 

The deepest well in the State is one which was bored for experimental 

purposes rather than water by Dr. W. S. Webb. It is 1,400 feet deep 

and gives no water, though only 300 feet from the lake shore. A well 

sunk not far from the shore of the lake by the Burlington Rendering
PEEKINS.] VERMONT. 65

Company to a depth of 490 feet found no water. In both cases water 

had to be supplied from outside for the drilling.

Only a few of these wells flow, but in a few the water rises from 4 to 

18 feet above the mouth of the well. In or near Burlington there are 

16 wells bored to depths of from 130 to 496 feet. At least 5 of these 

are so strongly impregnated with lime and magnesia salts that they 

can not well be used for steam, since the precipitation of these salts 

tills the pipes. The water in these wells is clear and cold and is much 

liked for drinking. It has been 

found very beneficial in some 

cases of dyspepsia.

The character of the beds 

passed through by these wells 

was much the same, but the 

thickness of each bed varied 

greatly; that is, the first beds 

were glacial and the last were 

Cambrian or Lower Beekmantown, but in one well the 

glacial beds are only 20 feet 

thick, while in another thej7 

are over 200. In the slate region, which is Cambrian, there 

are more deep wells than in anj7 

other part of the State. Mr. 

J. P. Hoadley, who has bored 

more wells than anyone else in 

the State, tells me that he has 

bored over 50 in the town of 

Poultney alone. Probably no 

other town has so large a number. As has been noticed, 

most of the deep wells are near 

the western border of the State, in the towns bordering Lake Champlain. 

The usual cost of boring deep wells in this State is from $1 to $5 per 

foot.

Lakes and ponds. Naturally many of those who live near Lake 

Champlain take water from it by windmill or, more rarely, by steam 

pump. The only town that takes its supply from the lake is Burlington, the largest place in the State. Here the water is pumped l>y 

steam to two large reservoirs, nearly 400 feet above the lake, from 

which it goes by gravity over the city.

IKK 114 05 5

FIG. 16. Water-bearing drift deposits of Vermont.
66 UNDERGBOUND WATEES, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

An average analysis of the water of Lake Champlain taken from 

faucet is as follows:

Analysts of water of Lake Champlain.

Loss on ignition ................

Parts per 

million.

74.1

18.0

56.1

.035

.143

.68

Nitrites ....-.-...--...--.-...

Turbidity ....................

Parts per 

million.

0.128

.00

(a)

(°)

4.3

a Very slight.

A few towns, as, for example, Brandon and Bellows Falls, get water 

from small lakes or ponds. Some of these ponds are directly fed by 

springs and are therefore very satisfactory as a source of supply.

Streams. A few towns Vergennes, Wells River, and some others 

get water from adjacent streams. There seems to be more danger of 

contamination in this case, and the supply is therefore less satisfactor\T .

Cisterns. Cisterns are not much used in this State, but there are 

some places in which the only other supply is from wells which give 

hard water, and in these places cistern water is used for drinking and 

laundry. The whole number of towns reporting cisterns in use is 

very small.

SUMMARY.

It will be seen from the foregoing statements that the questions 

which the necessity for wholesome and abundant water for domestic 

purposes raise in many parts of the country are not important in 

Vermont. Everywhere, except in a few places, water is abundant in 

quantity and excellent in quality. Many towns allow a large quantity 

of cool, clear, pure spring water to run to waste because there is no 

use for it. But the conditions under which this ample supply exists 

are extremely interesting and deserve extended study.

As has been noted, most of the wells and springs are located in the 

glacial deposits. These are often very thick. Some of the wells have 

gone through 200 feet or more of these deposits before reaching the 

underlying rock. For example, one of the four deep wells at Fort 

Ethan Alien was bored through 221 feet of sands and clays and then 

went over 150 feet into the ledge below. Few wells except those of 

considerable depth go into the rock. Most either stop in hardpan 

some distance above the rock or go just to the ledge, but rarely into 

it, and in those cases where, in the hope of getting more water, the
PEEKINS.] VERMONT. 67

rock has been entered, the result has not always been satisfactory, no 

increase in amount of water being gained. In some wells that have 

been carried a short distance into the rock more.and better water has 

been obtained, but such cases are the exception. The above applies 

only to shallow wells. In the deep wells often the volume of water 

flowing has been increased by boring deeper. This is, however, by 

no means always true. In the reports of several deep wells we find 

that as much or more water was found at 200 feet as at 300 or more.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No.

32, pp. 18-21. 

Vermont [well and spring records, town water supplies, and analyses], by G. H.

Perkins: Water-Supply and Jrrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, 1904, pp.

73-93. 

Water resources of the Fort Ticonderoga quadrangle, Vermont and New York, by

T. Nelson Dale: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905,

pp. 126-129. 

Water resources of the Taconic quadrangle, New York, Massachusetts, and Vermont,

by F. B. Taylor: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905,

pp. 130-133.
MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND.

By W. O. CROSBY.

Since Rhode Island is half encircled by Massachusetts and presents 

no essentially distinctive topographic or geologic features, the two 

States may best be treated as a unit in a preliminary study of their 

underground waters.

GEOLOGY.

In a broad way Massachusetts and Rhode Island may be subdivided, 

according to the relief of the land, into a number of belts, each marked 

by its own characteristic geology and topography. The westernmost 

of these may be termed the Berkshire Hills. These are a series of high 

mountainous ridges lying in the extreme western part of the State, 

the rocks of which consist of strongly folded and faulted quartzites, 

limestones, slates, schists, etc., mostly of Paleozoic age, which by 

tfceir erosion have given rise to the rugged topography characterizing 

the region. To the east the Berkshire Hills grade off into a less rugged 

and somewhat lower region of similar rocks and structure, which 

extends to the borders of the Connecticut Valley lowlands. These 

lowlands are marked in general by the presence of soft reddish Triassic 

sandstones and shales, with an occasional trap bed forming the ridges. 

The}7 extend from the Connecticut line, where they have a width of 

20 miles or more, northward to their termination, a few miles south 

of the New Hampshire line. East of the Connecticut Valley a belt 

of folded sedimentary or metamorphic rocks is first encountered, 

beyond which the broad crystalline belt, consisting largely of igneous 

rocks, but including many altered sedimentary beds, extends eastward 

to the coast. In the vicinity of Boston, and .extending southwestward 

for some distance, and again in the vicinity of Narragansett Bay, and 

in the region to the northeast, there are considerable areas of Carboniferous sandstones, conglomerates, and slates. Cape Cod and a portion 

of the adjacent region consist superficially entirely of gravel, sands, 

etc., of glacial derivation.

Over the whole of the surface of the State is spread a mantle of 

drift left by the glaciers which once covered the region. This is of 

68
CROSBY.] MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 69

two types, a distinction being made between till, bowlder clay, or hardpan, as it is various^ known, and the different forms of stratified 

drift, including, besides more or less distinctly stratified gravel and 

sand, large amounts of bedded clay or rock flour. The till is a nearly 

universal deposit. It attains its greatest average thickness on the 

upland surfaces, and its maximum thickness in the rounded hills 

known as drumlins and in moraines left by the ice sheet which once 

covered the region. In the valleys and over the lowland generally 

.the till is to a large extent covered and concealed by the stratified 

drift. Except in moraines, the till is prevailingly well compacted, a 

true hardpan, and contains enough clay and rock flour to make it 

essentially impervious. Hence, save where it contains layers of gravel 

or sand, it must be reckoned as an unreliable water horizon as far as 

large volumes are concerned, but it is nevertheless the source of supply of thousands of small wells used for domestic and farm purposes. 

Its chief function, however, is to impound and to control or direct the 

movement of the water of overlying sands and gravels.

Of the stratified drift, the coarser phases, including the gravel and 

sand and much of the rock flour, are confined chiefly to the valleys and 

to the lower portions of the surface, occurring largely as overwash 

and delta plains, formed by glacial streams.

WATER SUPPLIES.

AREAS CONSIDERED.

The drift is by far the most important and reliable source of 

underground waters, and this fact makes the tracing and detailed 

mapping of these deposits a matter of special interest. The principal 

areas only may be mentioned here. These are the Berkshire Valley; 

the valleys of the Connecticut and its principal tributaries, where the 

flood plains and terraces have their chief development; the Nashua 

Valley, with the delta plains, etc., of glacial Lake Nashua; the Merrimac Valley, with widespread delta and overwash plains; the Boston 

basin, with the delta plains formed at many different levels in the 

series of glacial lakes once existing there; the overwash and other 

plains of the Blackstone Valley and the basin of Narragansett Bay; 

the widely-extended plains of varied origin in southeastern Massachusetts and on Cape Cod north of the inner moraine; the overwash 

or apron plains of the inner moraine on Cape Cod, east of Woods 

Hole; and the similar plains of the outer moraine, on the south sides 

of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket.

The Pleistocene or glacial clays are normally composed in large 

part of rock flour; but in spite of this fact they must be regarded as 

practically impervious and of no interest as available sources of 

underground water, ranking even below the till in this respect. It is
70 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

fortunate, therefore, that the glacial clays have deen deposited at relatively low levels and in the coastal areas, mainly below sea level. 

Water is occasionally obtained from sand or gravel underlying the 

clays, in which case it may have considerable head.

BERKSHIRE VALLEY.

This is an area of complexly folded and faulted sedimentary formations, mostly of early Paleozoic age, including in succession a basal 

Cambrian quartzite outcropping along the east side of the valley, the 

great crystalline Cambro-Ordovician limestone forming the floor of 

the valley at most points, and the metamorphic slates and schists of 

the Greylock and Taconic ranges. Although the quartzite is in part 

of a distinctly friable and permeable character, as is so well shown 

where it is quarried as a glass sand, and is, therefore, entitled locally 

to some consideration as a water horizon; the topographic relations 

of the limestone to the valley, regardless of other considerations, 

determine it as the chief bed-rock source of water. Its crystalline 

texture makes the limestone practically impervious and limits its 

water-bearing capacity to joints and fault fissures, which, however, 

may be appreciably widened by solution. The structure is not very 

favorable to artesian flows, except perhaps very locally. Though 

somewhat uncertain in its occurrence water is usually found in the 

deeper wells. It is possible that borings through the limestone at certain points might develop artesian sources in the underlying quartzite. 

The rock waters of the Berkshire Valley are, in general, distinguished 

by their hard or calcareous character, and considerations of quantity 

and quality combine to make them relatively unimportant.

The drift of the Berkshire region is chiefly till, and the stratified 

drift is mainly confined to the bottoms of the valleys, being most 

abundant, as a rule, where the valleys are broadest, as in the latitude 

of Williamstown and North Adams, at elevations below 860 feet; of 

Pittsfield and Richmond, mainly below 1,000 feet; and of Lenox and 

Lee, where existed glacial Lake Housatonic at an elevation of about 

1,000 feet. South of Great Barrington the stratified drift, with a normal elevation of 700 feet, and a breadth varying from 1 to 2 miles, is 

continuous to the State line and beyond. The topographic relations of 

these deposits insures t'o them not only the precipitation belonging to 

their areas, but also a large part of the rainfall on the bordering 

slopes of till, and since their own contours determine a shallow water 

table, it follows that they must be regarded as very important and 

readily available reservoirs of the ground water. As in other limestone regions, the drift is more or less calcareous, as is evidenced at 

times by its local cementation, but rarely to such a degree as to make 

the water sensibly hard.
CROSBY.] MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 71

CONNECTICUT VALLEY.

The great thickness in this valley of arenaceous strata, characterized 

throughout by moderate monoclinal dips, is very suggestive of artesian 

conditions. It does not appear, however, that this can fairly be 

described as an artesian basin, although in many wells the water rises 

nearly to the surface and occasionally flows. The best wells are in the 

sandstone areas. In the conglomerate or arkose areas even the deep 

wells sometimes fail to obtain water. The waters are always hard, 

especially in the shales, and it is frequently impossible to use them in 

boilers.

The drift of this great valley, as previously noted, is chiefly stratified, 

the unmodified drift or till being almost entirely restricted to the 

lenticular hills or drumlins, of which there are several notable groups; 

and the modified or stratified drift, occurring in the forms of lake 

beds, deltas, terraces, and flood plains, attains in places, and especially 

in the axis of the valley, a considerable thickness. In fact it is one of 

the principal storage reservoirs of New England, a large majority of 

the successful wells, as well, probably, as most of the springs, deriving 

their water from it. Over a large part of the valley, and especially 

on the low-lying plains as distinguished from the terraces, the water 

table is near the surface, and shallow wells afford an unfailing supply. 

The drift waters are nearly always soft.

EASTERN AND WESTERN HIGHLANDS.

The western highlands include the elevated hilly region between the 

Berkshire pills and the Connecticut Valley belt, while the eastern 

highlands embrace the similar but less hilly region to the east of that 

valley.

The two regions are alike in having igneous and metamorphic bed 

rock, thinly covered with till on the uplands. The modified drift is 

confined chiefly to the valleys and is naturally most abundant in the 

broader valleys of the eastern highlands. This is, as usual, the chief 

and most available source of the ground water; and it is partly for 

this reason that we find the population massed upon it, the till of the 

uplands, as a rule, supporting only a sparse farming population. 

During the recession of the ice sheet the conditions favored the 

development of temporary glacial lakes in the valleys, especially of 

the eastern highlands, and at all elevations up to 1,000 feet or more; 

and thus may be explained bodies of modified drift of exceptional 

volume and depth, lying sometimes at such elevations as to make them 

important storage reservoirs for ground water.

Although everywhere relatively superficial, the ground water is 

naturally pure and soft, and a study of the topographic map shows
72 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

relatively little obstructed drainage with consequent swampy conditions and peaty waters. On the other hand, the frequently dense 

village populations on the narrow and shallow valley deposits of sand 

and gravel present conditions especially favorable to contamination of 

the ground water and suggest the introduction of a public supply from 

similar deposits farther up the valley, or from the surface streams or 

ponds of the uplands. The till of the uplands, derived from metamorphic and highly quartzose formations, is doubtless of an exceptionally arenaceous and porous texture, and this feature, supplemented 

by occasional interbedded and superficial layers of washed material, 

will readily account for the water supply, often copious and excellent, 

of the farms.

NASHUA VALLEY.

This valley is excavated along a belt of altered slaty rocks in northeast Massachusetts. It is a relatively limited and simple tract, lying 

in the valley of the northward draining Nashua River, and hence presenting exceptionally favorable conditions for the development of 

glacial-lake phenomena, including broad and deep deltas or sand plains. 

These occur at various levels, but are rather limited in extent above 

440 feet, and have their chief development below 370 feet. Above 

the lake levels stratified gravels and sands occur but scantily, and -the 

till or hardpan, derived largely from slaty rocks, is of a relatively 

argillaceous and impervious character.

Bed-rock wells, whether sunk in the slaty rocks or in the bordering 

schist and granite, must in general be of little value, and, as on the 

highlands, artesian conditions do not exist except perhaps very locally, 

where the rocks are traversed by favorable fissures.

COASTAL LOWLANDS.

In densit}^ of population and consequent demand for water this area 

leads all the rest. But the concentration of the population in cities 

necessitates the extensive utilization of surface waters, while the 

ground waters have been found available chiefty for the smaller communities and private interests. This is a region of crystalline, igneous, 

and metamorphic rocks, with the exception of the sedimentary deposits, chiefly conglomerates and slates of Carboniferous age, of the Boston, Norfolk, and Narragansett basins. Deep rock wells are more 

common in this region, especially in the vicinity of Boston, than in 

any other part of New England. On the crystalline formations the 

proportion of decidedly successful wells is not large, and the result 

of a boring can not be predicted. In the Carboniferous slates, as 

proved by numerous examples in Boston, Cambridge, etc., there 

are very few successful wells, the water being almost invariably inferior in both quality and quantity. In the conglomerate series are
CEOSBY.] MASSACHUSETTS AND EHODE ISLAND, 73

many good wells and comparatively few failures. In no case, probably, are the rock waters yielded chiefly by interstitial flow; the good 

wells are those that intersect favorable systems of joints and other 

fissures, and in this connection it may be noted that the joint structure 

of the conglomerate is exceptionally distinct and open.

This is a region of abundant drift deposits. The stratified drift, 

including sand and gravel which is largely referable to glacial lakes 

or local apron plains, is widespread and, as usual, is the principal 

source of the ground water, supplying even some of the larger cities, 

such as Lowell and Providence. These deposits, as previously noted, 

become more continuous southward in the region of Narragansett Bay 

and Cape Cod Bay, and attain, no doubt, a considerable thickness. 

They may be regarded as a vast and practically inexhaustible reservoir of water, which, with a uniformly shallow water table, is readily 

available by pumping and far exceeds in quantity the demands of the 

present population. These statements may be repeated for the great 

apron plains south of the terminal moraine, on the south side of Cape 

Cod, and on Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket.

NORMAL CHLORINE.

The normal chlorine, or maximum proportion of chlorine (present 

as common salt or sodium chloride) which may exist in an uncontaminated water, usually varies inversely as the distance from the sea, 

the range for Massachusetts being from 2.42 parts per 100,000 at 

Provincetown and 2.16 parts on Nantucket to 0.06 parts in Berkshire 

County. The normal chlorine not only depends upon the proximity to 

the coast, but it is highest on the salient and most exposed parts 

of the coast, where the surf breaks heavily and the salt spray is 

wafted inland most freely. Higher amounts than those indicated are 

due either to peculiarities of the rocks or drift from which the water 

comes or to pollution by sewage. In New England it is commonly 

the latter which gives rise to high chlorine, and waters containing this 

constituent in amounts distinctly above the normal should be avoided 

for domestic purposes.

MINERAL SPRINGS. 

MASSACHUSETTS.

Massachusetts has the distinction of possessing a larger number of 

springs from which waters are shipped than any other State in the country. In 1902 there were 75 such springs that reported shipments, the 

next largest number being 56, in New York. One reason for the 

large number of springs reporting sales lies in the fact that many of 

them are located near cities in which the demand for spring waters for 

table purposes is very large. The total sales in the year mentioned
74 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

amounted to 8,475,365 gallons, having a value of $562,973. Following 

is a list of the springs reporting: a

Abbotts Spring, Methuen, Essex County.

Arctic Polar Spring, Spencer, Worcester County.

Ballardvale Lithia Spring, Andover, Essex County.

Beach Hill Spring, Stoneham, Middlesex County.

Beaver Dam Spring, Scituate, Plymouth County.

Belmont Crystal Spring, Belmont, Middlesex County.

Belmont Hill Spring, Everett, Middlesex County.

Belmont Natural Spring, Belmont, Middlesex County.

Berkshire Crystal Spring, Sheffield, Berkshire County.

Berkshire Sodium Spring, Sheffield, Berkshire County.

Bod well Spring, Lawrence, Essex County.

Burnham Spring, Methuen, Essex County.

Chapman's Crystal Mineral Spring, Stoneham, Middlesex County.

Crystal Mineral Spring, Methune, Essex County.

Crystal Spring, Brockton, Plymouth County.

Deep Rock Spring, Lynnfield Center, Suffolk County.

Diamond Spring, Lawrence, Essex County.

El-azhar (formerly Sheep Rock) Spring, Lowell, Middlesex County.

Electric Spring, Lynn, Essex County.

Everett Crystal Spring, Everett, Middlesex County.

Farrington's-Silver Spring, Milton, Norfolk County.

Fulton Natural Spring, Medford, Middlesex County.

Garfield Spring, Weymouth, Norfolk County.

Geddes Mineral Spring, Marlboro, Middlesex County.

Goulding Spring, Whitman, Plymouth County.

Highland Spring, North Abington, Plymouth County.

Howe Spring, Millbury, Worcester County.

Howland Spring, Dartmouth, Bristol County.

Hygeia Artesian Well, Springfield, Hampden County.

Ingersoll Grove Spring, Springfield, Hampden County.

Katahdin Spring, Lexington, Middlesex County.

King Philip Spring, Mattapoisett, Plymouth County.

Lakoo Indian Crystal Spring, Lawrence, Essex County.

Lang Moore Spring, Natick, Middlesex County.

Larchmont Spring, Lexington, Middlesex County.

Leland Spring, Natic, Middlesex County.

Lexington Spring, Lexington, Middlesex County.

Linden Mineral Spring, Linden, Middlesex County

Lovers' Leap Springs, Lynn, Essex County.

Magnolia Spring. Gloucester, Essex County.

Massasoit Spring, West Springfield, Hampden County.

Middlesex Mountain Spring, Medford, Middlesex County.

Milton Spring, Milton, Norfolk County.

Monatiquot Spring, South Braintree, Norfolk County.

Moose Hill Spring, Swampscott, Essex County.

Mount Blue Spring, Hingham Center, Plymouth County.

Mount Holyoke Lithia Spring, South Hadley, Hampshire County.

Mount Orient Spring, Pelham, Hampshire County.

Mount Pleasant Spring, Lowell, Middlesex County.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral waters U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
CROSBY.] MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 75

Mount Washington Cold Spring, Chelsea, Suffolk County.

Myles Standish Spring, South Duxbury, Plymouth County.

Nashoba Minerel Spring, Westford, Middlesex County.

Nemasket Springs, Middleboro, Plymouth County.

Nobscot Mountain Spring, Framingham, Middlesex County.

Norwood Spring, Norwood, Norfolk County.

Pearl Hill Mineral Spring, Fitchburg, Worcester County.

Pepperell Mineral Spring, Pepperell, Middlesex County.

Pequot Spring, North Natic, Middlesex County.

Purity Spring, Spencer, Worcester County.

Ravenwood Spring, Gloucester, Essex County.

Bobbin's Spring, Arlington Heights, Middlesex County.

Sager Spring, Danvers, Essex County.

Saiid Spring, Williamstown, Berkshire Couuty.

Shawmut Spring, West Quincy, Norfolk County.

Silver Seal Spring, Woburn, Middlesex County.

Simpson Spring, South Easton, Bristol County.

Smiley Spring, Haverhill, Essex County.

Steavens's Spring, Lawrence, Essex County.

Sunnyside Spring, Franklin, Norfolk County.

Swampscott Spring, Swampscott, Essex County.

Trapelo Spring, Belmont, Middlesex County.

Undine Crystal Spring, Brighton, Suffolk County.

Valpey Spring, Woodland, Lawrence, Essex County.

Whitman Spring, Whitman, Plymouth County.

Wilbraham Mountain Spring, Wilbraham, Hampden County.

RHODE ISLAND.

The number of springs reporting sales in 1902 in this State is four. 

They are as follows:

Berry Spring, Pawtucket, Providence County.

Gladstone Spring, Narragansett Pier, Washington County.

Holly Mineral Spring, Woonsocket, Providence County.

Ochee Mineral and Medicinal Springs, Johnston, Providence County.

The total sales reported amount to 244,212 gallons, having a value 

of $26,588.«

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 

32, pp. 21-24.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, 1902, p. 51.

Massachusetts and Ehode Island [well and spring records], by W. O. Crosby, Laurence La Forge, and F. A. Champlin: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper IT. S. Geol. 

Survey No. 102, 1904, pp. 94-125.

Drilled wells of the Triassic area of the Connecticut Valley, by W. H. C. Pynchon: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905, pp.'65-94.

Triassic rocks of the Connecticut Valley as a source of water supply, by M. L. Fuller: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, pp. 95-112.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral waters U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey. 1904, p. 996.
CONNECTICUT.

By H. E. GREGORY.

A study of the water resources of Connecticut, based on a large 

number of refcords of wells and springs, shows that next to rainfall 

the nature of the rocks or deposits is the factor of greatest importance. 

In fact the character and availability of the water supply are directly 

dependent upon two geologic factors the composition of the rock or 

other material, and the number of fault or joint fissures it may possess.

BAINFAILIL.

The annual rainfall in Connecticut is 46.89 inches. This is distributed throughout the year as follows: January, 4.28; February, 3.94; 

March, 4.23; April, 3.53; May, 4.03; June, 2.95; July, 4.42; August, 

4.30; September, 3.34; October, 4.04; November, 4.48; December, 

3.44. This is sufficient, when taken in connection with small evaporation, to form a constant supply for the streams of the State, which 

carry off about 40 per cent of the water that falls, and to furnish 

abundant ground water. So that, so far as Connecticut is concerned, 

the available water supply depends on the capacity of the rock and 

the surface cover of land waste to hold the water.

GEOLOGY AND WATEB SUPPLY.

Geologic subdivisions. As to the characteristics of rock structure 

which affect underground water, Connecticut is divided into three parts: 

The limestone (Stockbridge dolomite) area of the upper Housatonic 

Valley, the Triassic sandstone area of the Connecticut Valley lowland, 

and the crystalline area of metamorphic rocks occupying the remainder 

of the State. A small area in the valley of Pomperaug River has the 

same characteristics as the Connecticut Valley lowland. The map, 

fig. 17, shows the distribution of the different classes of rock.

Limestone area. The parts of the State underlain by the limestone 

are not densely populated. They contain no large cities, and the chief 

pursuits are dairying and mixed farming. The limestone rock varies 

greatly in its water-bearing capacity, and wells have usually to be 

sunk to a considerable depth before a supply is assured. Of nine wells 

selected as typical, four are over 150 feet in depth (155, 171, 182, 210

76
GREGORY.] CONNECTICUT. 77

feet, respectively), and only one is less than 50 feet. When wells are 

sunk this deep the supply is plentiful and does not vary with the 

seasons. The water is hard, containing calcium, magnesium, and 

iron. The springs issuing from rock in the limestone area show 

abundant, constant flow and low temperature. In one case an invariable temperature of 45 degrees is reported.

Triassic sandstone area. The bed rock of the Connecticut Valley 

lowland is sandstone with interbedded basalts and intruded diabases. 

The sandstone varies in texture from coarse conglomerate to fine clay 

shales and is sufficiently porous to hold 20 to 30 per cent of its volume 

of water. For this area it seems to be true that the deeper the well 

the more abundant the water supply down to about 500 feet, and that

FIG. 17. Areas of limestone, sandstone, and crystalline rock water supplies of Connecticut.

there are no distinct water-bearing beds. Wells are all deep, averaging for the whole area over 100 feet. One well at New Haven was 

sunk to a depth of 4,000 feet by the Winchester Arms Company in an 

unsuccessful effort to obtain a flowing well. The conditions for 

artesian water are better in the Triassic rocks than elsewhere in Connecticut, but are very unfavorable. While it is true that the sandstones 

contain abundant water, yet their composition, texture, and position 

are extremely irregular. They are not arranged in definite series, and 

they have been shattered by the forces which produced the faults in 

the valley. There is, therefore, no continuity of stratification and 

no arrangement of water-bearing beds favorable for artesian wells. 

The practice among well drillers in Triassic rock is to sink the well
78 UNDERGROUND WATERS. EASTERN DNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

20 to 50 feet below the first suppiy of water, so as to have a reservoir 

below. Most of the deep-drilled wells afford a constant supply, but 

two wells show a decrease and five an increase since they were made. 

The cost of 60 selected wells averages $280.80, and the cost of pumping apparatus $240.20. More than half of the wells in sandstone 

supply hard water. Springs in the sandstone area that are known 

to issue from rock come up along deep-seated cracks and are much 

colder than the springs formed in glacial materials. 

- The Triassic area, although it constitutes one-fifth of the State, 

contains one-third of the population and the most productive farms 

(averaging $20 per acre in annual value of crops), as well as the 

largest cities. It is the tobacco center, the manufacturing center, and 

the railroad center of the State, and is steadily increasing in population. The water supply is the best in the State, but because of the 

growing population it is becoming an important economic problem. 

At present the large cities are supplied by lakes and other surface 

waters, in some cases brought from considerable distances. These 

supplies are not inexhaustible and studies of other sources are being 

made. The very marked difference in character and density of population in the Connecticut Valle}7 lowland and the crystalline highland 

is due partly to the conditions which control the water supply.

Crystalline <i/rea. As shown on the map the area underlain by metamorphic crystalline rocks constitutes a large portion of the State. 

These rocks are remarkably variable in texture, are folded, twisted, 

broken, and cut by ancient intrusions and veins, and do not furnish 

favorable water-bearing conditions. Moreover the run-off' constitutes 

a larger part of the rainfall than in the sandstone or limestone areas. 

The wells for which records are collected in the crystalline rocks (gneiss, 

mica-schist, etc.) average 125.8 feet in depth, and the principal water 

horizon lies 107 feet below the surface. Some of the deepest wells 

show no water below the first water horizon. Of 34 typical wells, 25 

contain hard water, 2 show sulphur traces, 4 iron. The average cost 

of drilling these wells is $678 and of the pumping apparatus, $162. 

Some wells have been sunk in the crystalline area which have resulted 

in complete failure after the expenditure of thousands of dollars. The 

conditions governing the flow of underground water in metamorphic 

rocks are not well understood, and it is hoped that arrangements can 

be made to investigate the water resources of this area, especially along 

the coast line, where the summer population is increasing yearly.

Springs in the crystalline area known to issue from rock are fairly 

abundant and yield an unfailing supply. Nearly all of those which 

have been examined are located along lines of faulting and;, judging 

from their constant low temperature, come from considerable depth.

With the exception of the valleys possessing water power, the crys- 

^alline area is given over to mixed farming, and the population is
GREGORY.] CONNECTICUT. 79

scattered and in many places is decreasing. The State of Connecticut 

has added 162,000 to its population in the last ten years, yet during 

that time 55 townships located on the crystallines have decreased in 

population. One whole count}' (Tolland) showed a net decrease of 

about 1,400 between the years 1890 and 1900. The value of farm 

products on the crystalline uplands has increased somewhat during 

the past decade, yet it barely exceeds $10 per acre, and the proportion 

of improved land to total area is less than 10 per cent.

Faults. Connecticut is traversed by sets of fault planes running in 

three or four principal directions. The breaks have produced profound effects on the topography and exert a marked influence on the 

water resources. They control in part the direction of Connecticut 

rivers and are the chief cause for the many deep, cold springs of the 

State, and especially of the mineral springs used for table waters. 

The springs near South Britain, those which supply water to the village of Collinsville, and the Stafford springs are examples of those 

which are believed to owe their origin to deep-seated fault cracks. 

Springs from such deep sources form valuable water supplies and a 

study is being made of their distribution and character and of means 

for their fuller utilization.

Water supply of the drift. The entire State of Connecticut has 

been overridden by the ice of the Glacial epoch, and this fact has greatly 

affected the water supply. The numerous lakes, ponds, swamps, and 

many of the smaller streams owe their position and their very existence to the continental ice sheet. Of particular value to man are the 

hundreds of lakes, which constitute the principal water supply for 

cities and villages. The soil of Connecticut also dates from the Glacial 

epoch, and its character as a water bearer is determined by this circumstance. The bed rock is covered nearly every where by one of two 

kinds of glacial material: (1) Till, which was deposited directly by the 

ice, and which is a heterogeneous, unassorted mass of, bowlders of 

different sizes embedded in clays of variable texture and composition; 

(2) stratified drift, which is made up of sands, gravels, and clays, 

sorted as to size and deposited in layers, and which owes its structure 

to the fact that it was deposited by water.

The till occupies all the highlands of the State, forming a mantle, 

usually but a few feet in thickness, over the crystallines and over the 

trap ridges of the Triassic area. Wells in till are usually shallow, 

rarely over 50 feet in depth, and it is the practice to sink them but 

a few feet below the principal water horizon. Seventeen wells are 

reported as being less than 10 feet in depth and yet containing an 

abundant supply of water. In general, the wells of the till area contain soft water, which varies in amount with the seasons. During an 

unusualry dry summer the wells in some sections dry out entirely. 

The till-covered crystallines are being occupied by hotels, sanitariums,
80 . UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

and country estates, and the problem of the increased water supply 

for these is becoming more and more important.

The springs of the till area furnish prevailingly soft water, and, 

like the wells, show their connection with the rainfall by their variation from year to year and from season to season. Except in extraordinary years the variation is slight, because the Connecticut rainfall 

is evenly distributed throughout the year. (Rainfall at New Haven: 

Spring, 11.67 inches; summer, 12.79; autumn, 11.67; winter, 11.84.)

Stratified drift forms the cover over a large part of the sandstone 

district, and also occupies the valle3T s in the crystallines. It varies in 

depth from only a few inches to over 500 feet, and because of its prevailingly loose texture forms a water reservoir of great capacity. On 

the New Haven sand plain and in general throughout the Connecticut 

Valley lowland, water maintains a permanent level 20 to 30 feet below 

the surface, and the practice is to sink the wells to some distance 

below this water horizon, so that a reserve supply is always on hand. 

Where large quantities of water are required for boilers, manufactories, swimming pools, etc., several wells are sunk in close proximity 

and connected with one pump. Yale Universit}^ uses 34 such wells to 

supply water for the gymnasium. The wells in the stratified drift, 

for the most part, furnish pure water and indicate an available supply 

which may be used as the cities increase in size. Wells are nearly all 

driven, and cost on an average $348. The pumping apparatus costs 

on the average $250. Springs in stratified drift are not numerous, 

and they vary in size according to the relative thickness and position of the sand and clay layers. Many are wet-weather "seeps;" 

others furnish sufficient supply for a farmhouse; a few, like the 

Pequabuck Spring, near Bristol, have sufficient water to form a brook.

Mineral springs. Fourteen springs in the State furnish water for 

table use and for medicinal purposes. The Arethusa Spring, at Seymour, which is perhaps best known, marketed 38,000 gallons of water 

in 1902. Extreme purity is the chief characteristic of the springs 

located along fault lines, although in a few cases the analyses show 

the presence of lithium, magnesium sulphate, and other ingredients 

which give them medicinal values. The pure and abundant spring 

water is an extremely valuable commercial asset for the State.

The springs reporting sales in 1902 are given in the following list. 

The total output is reported as 307,000 gallons and the value as 

$194,085.«

Althea Springs, near Waterbury, New Haven County.

Arethusa Spring, Seymour, New Haven County.

Aspinock Mineral Springs, Putnam Heights, Wind ham County.

Cherry Hill Spring, Hamden, New Haven County.

Granite Rock Spring, Higganum, Middlesex County,

Live Oak Spring, Meriden, New Haven County.

apeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996,
GKEGOKY.] CONNECTICUT. 81

Mohican Spring, near Bridgeport, Fairfield County. 

Oxford Mineral Spring, Oxford, New Haven County. 

Park Spring, Willimantic, Windham County. 

Puritan Spring, Norwich, New London County. 

Stafford Mineral Spring, Stafford Springs, Tolland County.

Each year more land of the till-covered uplands, which has proved 

unprofitable for farming, is being purchased for country residences 

and large estates. For these purposes an abundant supply of water 

of unquestionable purity is indispensable.

It is of scientific interest that the Indian Rock spring water at New 

Milford and also the surface water at New Haven have been shown to 

be radio-active.

With the exception of the medicinal waters the Connecticut supply 

is used almost entirely for domestic and manufacturing purposes, and 

for these uses is uniformly good. Very ra-rely are wells or springs or 

surface supplies unfit for domestic use and only a few manufacturers 

report water unsuited for boilers or for washing fabrics.

Stream supplies. The larger rivers of the State are not at present 

directly available as water supply because the sewage and refuse from 

manufacturing establishments are emptied directly into them. They 

thus stand as a large unimproved resource which may be developed 

whenever the demand for increased domestic water supply justifies the 

expense of installing plants for the purification of sewage.

Irrigation. Irrigation is practiced to a small extent in Connecticut, 

and wherever used the results more than justify the expense. There 

are but few crops which have all the water necessary for their maximum yield. Hay, in particular, needs abundant water, and is one of 

the most valuable crops of Connecticut. There is no doubt but that 

the yield of most field crops could be greatly increased both in acreage 

and amount per acre by the use of water. The valleys of the crystalline uplands which are now sparsely settled are particularly adapted 

to irrigation, and it seems evident that a more intelligent use of the 

soil, the woodlands, and the water resources of the State could win 

the unimproved and abandoned lands to profitable agriculture.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 25, 26.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, 1902, p. 20.

Connecticut [well and spring records], by H. E. Gregory, F. A. Champlin, and 

C. L. Grant: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, 1904, pp. 

127-168.

Drilled wells of the Triassic area of the Connecticut Valley, by W. H. C. Pynchon: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905, pp. 65-94.

Triassic rocks of the Connecticut Valley as a source of water-supply, by M. L. Fuller: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905, pp. 95-112,

IKK 114 05 6
NEW YORK.

By F. B. WEEKS.

In the State of New York, as in other regions where there is no 

considerable variation in the amount of rainfall or in the rate ot 

evaporation, the occurrence and character of the underground waters 

are very largely determined by the topography, by the character of the 

soil and underlying rocks, and by the structural features of the strata.

PH \ SIOGRAPHY.

The State may be divided into five distinct physiographic provinces, 

viz, (1) Adirondack, (2) Eastern (Taconic), (3) Catskill, (4) Allegheny 

Plateaus, (5) Ontario. The Adirondack province is the only one lying 

wholly within the State, the others forming parts of larger topographic 

divisions which extend beyond its limits.

1. The Adirondack province, second in size, comprises a mountainous area flanked on all sides by a lower, hilly country. It is drained 

by headwaters of streams flowing into St. Lawrence, Hudson, Black, 

and Mohawk rivers.

2. The eastern (Taconic) province in its northern part is hilly or 

mountainous, being formed by the Taconic ranges, which extend into 

Vermont and Massachusetts, while in its southern part it becomes 

more gentry undulating. It is principally drained by short streams 

flowing into the Hudson.

3. The Catskill province is composed in part of folded rocks of the 

northern extension of the eastern Appalachian ridges, and in part of 

horizontal rocks, and on the west merges into the Allegheny Plateaus 

province. This region has been deeply dissected by streams which 

flow into Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna rivers.

4. The Allegheny Plateaus province occupies one-third of the State, 

comprising the area south of the Ontario province from Lake Erie to 

the Catskills. It contains a number of broad river valleys and is 

drained by streams that flow into Susquehanna, Allegheny, and Genesee rivers.

5. The Ontario province extends in a rather narrow band around 

Lake Ontario from the Niagara to the St. Lawrence and is drained by

82
WEEKS.] NEW YORK. 83

short streams, some of which form the outlets of the so-called Finger 

lakes.

The accompanying map (PI. V) shows the main drainage lines in the 

State and from these the outlines of the several physiographic provinces may be deduced. The distribution and lithologic character of 

the several geologic systems represented in the State have been indicated, except the Quaternary. Those springs which are of commercial value are also noted on the map. They include all springs thus 

far reported whose waters are sold or used in connection with manufacturing enterprises or public water supply.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

The underground waters will be discussed under the several geologic 

divisions.

Pre- Cambrian. The pre-Cambrian system is composed of ancient 

crystalline rocks and of more or less metamorphosed stratified rocks 

which can not readily be separated from them. Pre-Cambrian rocks 

form the greater part of the Adirondack region and also outcrop in the 

southeastern part of the State. No distinct water-bearing beds occur 

in these rocks, since the most of them are not stratified or have been 

so greatly compressed and folded that the stratification planes are no 

longer even approximate^ horizontal. The ground water descends 

along fracture planes and can be obtained at various depths.

In the Adirondacks there are a great number of springs, such as are 

common in mountainous areas. They are the sources of the many 

streams that drain the region. The inhabitants depend very largely 

upon streams and springs for domestic and stock-water supply. The 

few wells reported obtain their water from sands and clays overlying 

the hard rocks. In the southeastern part of the State the pre-Cambrian 

system consists of granites, gneisses, and metamorphic rocks, compressed into folds which have a northeast-southwest direction, and 

which outcrop in New York, Orange, Putnam, and Westchester counties. In Putnam and Westchester counties several springs having a 

flow of 100 to 300 gallons an hour, and many smaller springs are 

reported. The water from a few of them is bottled and sold. Kecords 

of deep wells up to 250 feet have been obtained. The deep wells are 

pumped by windmills or other power and furnish from 30 to 250 

barrels a day. The waters of these wells are usually soft. By far the 

greater number of wells are dug or blasted in rock. These are from 

6 to 50 feet deep, and three-fourths of them are said to fail during 

protracted droughts. The water is frequently reported as alkaline.

Cambrian. The Cambrian limestones and slates extend in a long, 

narrow band through Washington and Kensselaer counties into Columbia. These strata have been greatly affected by folding and faulting, 

which, together with the considerable variation in the lithologic char-
84 UNDEEGEODND WATEES, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

acter of the rocks, frequently cause a marked difference in depth to 

water horizons and in the character of the water within short distances. There are springs of large flow in this region, and the supply 

of many of them, which appears to come from Quaternary sands and 

clays, is probably largely derived from the underlying strata. At 

Cambridge and Shushan, in Washington County, springs of very large 

flow are reported. At other localities springs are utilized to fill ice 

ponds and also furnish water power for small feed and sawmills. Most 

of the wells in the area are less than 100 feet deep. Their waters, 

except those in the limestone lenses, are soft. In the town of Cambridge, Washington County, a well drilled to a depth of 39 feet furnishes 150 to 200 gallons an hour and may be considered an average 

well of the region.

The Cambrian sandstone (commonly known as the Potsdam sandstone) occurs on the northern side of the Adirondacks and also in 

detached areas, too small to be shown on the map, on the southeastern 

and southern flanks. It is usually a compact sandstone varying in 

color from light gray to buff and sometimes reddish-brown. No records of deep wells in these sandstones have been obtained. Dug wells 

20 to 50 feet deep furnish a sufficient supply for domestic purposes. 

Small springs are very abundant, but none of very much economic 

importance are known. 

Ordovician. The strata which are called Ordovician consist of a 

great thickness of limestone and shales, often intensely folded and 

highly metamorphosed. They form the surface rocks of the Mohawk 

River Valley, extending in a northwesterly direction from Albany to 

Lake Ontario along the southeastern, southern, and southwestern sides 

of the Adirondack area. They also occupy the greater part of the 

region east of Hudson River south of Lake Champlain, and south of 

Kingston they extend in a southwesterly direction beyond the New 

Jersey line. They also occur in a narrow strip along the St. Lawrence. Within these areas many springs of considerable economic 

importance, including a large number of mineral springs, come to the 

surface. They are particularly abundant in the valley of the Mohawk, 

and in a number of localities furnish water power and in others supply 

creameries, railroad tanks, etc. The celebrated mineral waters of 

Saratoga Springs and vicinity are found in fractured zones of the 

Trenton limestone, where they occur in a narrow belt extending for 

several miles in a northeast-southwest direction. The shale strata 

form the greater part of this system and afford the larger part of the 

water supply.

Massena Springs, in St. Lawrence County, and Lebanon Springs, in 

Columbia County, are old, well-known mineral spring resorts,- the 

latter being the only thermal water in the State.

In some areas, as in southwestern Montgomery, in Albanj^, Colum-
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. V

MAP

OF

NEW YORK

SHOWING 

GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS AND SPRING LOCALITIES

1904:

GEOLOGIC AREAS AND SPRING LOCALITIES OF NEW YORK.
WEEKS.] NEW YOEK. 85

bia, and other counties, wells yield from 50 to 200 gallons per minute, 

the water being obtained in the shales at depths of 100 to 500 feet. 

In some of the wells the water is hard, in others it is soft, and in 

many it contains considerable gas. These artesian areas are determined by varying local conditions of structure and rock composition. 

Wells that require pumping are very abundant, and the depth to water 

in the solid rocks varies with the thickness of the glacial sands and 

gravels which cover a large part of the Ordovician strata. The water 

of such wells is usually abundant, but it is frequently impregnated 

with iron, sulphur, and gas, which in some instances renders it unfit 

for drinking.

Silurian. The Silurian rocks outcrop in a narrow band from the 

New Jersey line northeastward to Kingston and northward to a point 

opposite Albany, where the belt bends to the northwest and occupies 

much of the Ontario province. The sandstones that form the lower 

part of the system extend along the southern shore of Lake Ontario 

and on its eastern shore spread out over a broad area north of Oneida 

Lake. As the greater part of this area is covered with glacial 

deposits, the springs may derive their waters wholly from these beds.' 

Several important mineral springs are found in this region, notably 

those of Oswego, from which water has been sold since 1870. The 

wells that penetrate the sandstones range in depth from 50 to 125 feet, 

and furnish large supplies of water, which is usually hard.

South of .these sandstones is an area of limestone, in which springs 

of hard water are fairly abundant. No important mineral springs 

occur in it. In Orleans, Monroe, and Wayne counties wells drilled to 

depths ranging from 75 to 125 feet obtain supplies amounting in some 

cases to 150 gallons per hour. This limestone area narrows eastward 

and disappears south of Utica.

The highest rocks of this system are generally shales, and extend 

from Niagara River eastward in a belt parallel to the limestones and 

sandstones. Nearly all the waters from these shales contain mineral 

matter in varying amounts, and many of them are used for medicinal purposes. The water of Oak Orchard Springs, in Genesee 

County, is remarkable for its content of free sulphuric acid, which 

is a rare constituent of mineral water. In Oneida County there are 

a large number of mineral springs and wells near Clinton, Franklin 

Springs, Kirkland, and Booneville, from which water is bottled and 

sold. These waters come from near the junction of the sandstones 

and shales. One of the deep wells in this county is at Deansboro. 

This is 300 feet in depth and the water rises within 20 feet of the surface and is used for cooling milk. In Niagara County near Lockport 

a well 115 feet deep penetrated the shales and the water flows during 

the winter months. Near Henrietta, Monroe County, is a flowing 

well 65 feet in depth, which is said to afford a large supply of water.
86 TJNDEEGEOUND WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The southern limit of the Silurian is marked by a narrow band of 

sandstone extending from Genesee County eastward, and along or 

near the line of contact there are many springs. Among these are 

mineral springs near Williamsville, Honeoye Falls, Clifton Springs, 

Chittenango Springs, and Sharon Springs.

Devonian. Rocks of this system cover practically all the Allegheny 

Plateaus and Catskill provinces. It contains two prominent narrow 

limestone bands and a great thickness of shales and sandstones. The 

entire thickness of the series has been estimated at about 3,400 feet. 

The Silurian sandstone, just described, is succeeded to the south by a 

prominent limestone, which is followed farther south by a series of 

shales. Along the contact of this limestone and shale several important mineral springs occur. Prominent resorts and sanitariums are 

located at Avon, Richfield Springs, and Cherry Valley. Still farther 

south are springs at or near Penn Yan, Dryden, Watkins, Slaterville, 

and Spencer, their waters being derived from the upper portion of 

the Devonian sandstones and shales.

In the central and northern portions of the Devonian area comparatively few flowing wells have been reported. In Chautauqua, Cattaraugus, and Allegany counties most of the wells in rock, 100 to 500 

feet deep, flow and furnish up to 1,000 gallons an hour. They are 

principally used for domestic purposes, creameries, oil-pumping 

machinery, and various manufacturing establishments. Some of them 

are mineralized and are considered beneficial in treating various diseases. In the southern tier of counties east of Allegany County the 

number of flowing wells decreases, but large supplies of water are 

obtained by pumping. An appreciable amount of iron and sulphur is 

found in the waters of many of the wells throughout the Devonian 

area.

Triassic. The rocks of this system are reddish sandstone and 

diabase and outcrop in Rockland County. Water comes to the surface 

along the line of contact of these rocks in springs and seeps. At West 

Nyack and Bardonia the flows are estimated at 100 gallons an hour. 

At Nanuet and Orangeburg are other important springs. Fair supplies of water are obtained at Monsey, Spring Valley, and Orangeburg, at depths ranging from 40 to 180 feet. Most of the wells in the 

diabase or trap rock are shallow and the supply materially diminishes 

in dry seasons. In the sandstone the supply is more abundant and 

permanent and the water is usually soft.

Cretaceous. The Cretaceous beds underlie the Quaternary drift at 

no great distance from the surface throughout the larger part of central and western Long Island and outcrop at a number of points along 

the north shore, and, more rarely, in the hills of the interior. Flowing wells of excellent water have been obtained at depths ranging 

from 100 to TOO feet below sea level.
WEEKS.] NEW TOEK. 87

Quaternary. The Quaternary deposits of gravel, sand, and clay 

are, for the most part, of glacial origin and cover the hard rocks to a 

great extent. Their thickness in places amounts to 300 feet or more. 

Water permeates these unconsolidated materials very readily, and it 

is probable that the amount of well and spring water obtained from 

these deposits equals or even exceeds that derived from all other strata 

in the State. Springs are very abundant and some of them have large 

flows, which are utilized in man}^ ways. Where not locally contaminated they furnish water of excellent quality, which is frequently 

used to supply village and town waterworks. Flowing wells are very 

abundant, especially in the southern part of the State, and yield from 

50 to 600 gallons an hour. Thousands of dug and driven wells throughout the State derive their supplies from the Quaternary beds.

The largest supplies from the Quaternary deposits are obtained 

from the outwash plains and other deposits of Long Island. These 

plains consist largely of sand or fine gravel and are saturated with 

water below a moderate depth. Many towns and cities, including 

Brooklyn, obtain the whole or part of their supplies from shallow 

wells or springs that issue from the sands. Springs abound along 

both the north and south shores, and are found to a lesser extent in 

the moraine in the interior. Water from several of them is placed 

on the market.

PRODUCTION OF MINERAL WATERS.

If it were possible to estimate the amount and value of the water 

supply it would certainly rank as one of the most important of 

nature's products. During the past twenty years statistics have been 

obtained to show the amount and value of mineral waters produced 

and sold in the United States. For the year 1902, in New York State, 

6,609,176 gallons were sold, valued at $1,299,037.° The bottling and 

shipping of water for drinking purposes in large cities and towns has 

become a considerable industry in many favorably situated localities. 

It is increasing very rapidly, but no statistics of amount or value are 

available.'

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 9%.
Commercial springs of New York.

County.

Allegany .......

Do .........

Broome ........

Do.........

Do.........

Cattaraugus.....

Do.........

Cayuga.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Columbia. ......

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Dutchess .......

Erie............

Town.

Vallonia Springs . . .

Orlando ...........

West ..............

Cayuga ............

Moravia ...........

Chemung ..........

Bonney ...........

Oxford ............

Greendale .........

Williamsville ......

Owner.

F. D. Holcomb. ........

S. A. Kihner...........

James C. Sands ........

C. H. Bower...........

E. E. Warn............

Lucius Baldwin ........

Co.

S. Humphrey. . ........

E. W. Cohen...........

Avers's estate ..........

Volume.

Large flow ...........

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

1 gallon cer minute ..
Fulton .........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

"R/T f\n t*r\(*

Do.........

Oneida .........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do .........

Do. ........

Do.........

Do.........

Pprth

Stafford ...........

Fan-field..... ......

Little Falls ........

f~1dSH\7ll 1 A

.....do ............

IVIftrcy

"V 'pirvrifl

.....do ............

Phelos ............

E TTr prl PT i r*V

H.C.Norton...........

G.W.Scott............

C.R. Palmer...........

W P Wolfe

Spring Co.

F.H.Suppe. ...........

G. R.Wright... ........

G.N.Lehr. ............

E. F. Marsh ............

.....do ..............

%7 O

2-inch pipe ..........

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

%/ O

Large ...............
Commercial springs of New York Contin

County.

Oswego.. .......

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do. ........

Do.........

Do.........

Sullivan ........

Do.........

Tioga... ........

Do.........

Do.........

Town.

Fulton ............

Cherry Valley .....

Way ville ..........

Sharon Springs.

Montour Falls......

Willowemoc .......

Livingston Manor . .

Slaterville .........

Owner.

Nelson Morrow ........

L. W. Thompson .......

T. R. Proctor ..........

C. E. Roods ...........

T. C. Luther ...........

C. D. Clauson.... ......

S. T. Alien ............

Elias Depuy ...........

Charles Ellis.. .........

M. S. Olmstead ........

Volume.

1 gallon per minute ..

2-inch pipe ...........

200 gallons per minute. 

8-inch pipe ..........

6 srallons T>er minute. .
TTlstpr

Do........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do .........

Ellenville..........

Cambridge ........

WViitphall

Bliss

Eagle .............

"Po<a*»l ("Ivpplr

S. P. Thorn............

F. S. Benedict .........

C. H. Van Brunt. ......

ment Co. 

F. Velter. .............

Co. 

Brewing Co. ...........

\\^ "V Lawrence

Chas. Walton ..........

J. G. Mitchell. .........

W. A. Hawley.... ......

Small ...............

Very large

.....do ..............

.....do ..............

a Mineral waters are now almost wholly obtained from 
92 UNDERGROUND WATERS,. EASTERN UNITED 8TATE8. [NO. 114.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. II. S. Geol. Survey 

No. 32, pp. 26-41.

Mineral resources of New York, by F. J. H. Merrill: Bull. New York State Mus., 

Vol. Ill, 1895.

Artesian well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton: 

Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, pp. 22-38.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Darton: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, 1902, pp. 15-19.

New York [well and spring records], by F. B. Weeks: Water-Supply and Irrig. 

Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, 1904, pp. 169-206.

The new artesian well supply at Ithaca, N. Y., by Francis L. Whitney: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905, pp. 55-64.

Water resources of the Fort Ticonderoga quadrangle, Vermont and New York, by 

T. Nelson Dale: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905, 

pp. 126-129.

Water resources of the Taconic quadrangle, New York, Massachusetts, and Vermont, 

by F. B. Taylor: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 

1905, pp. 130-133.

Water resources of the Watkins Glen quadrangle, New York, by R. S. Tarr: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, pp. 134-140.
NEW JERSEY.

By G. N. KNAPP.

TOPOGRAPHIC PROVINCES.

New Jersey has been divided into four provinces, or zones, on the 

basis of its physiographic features. These provinces are indicated on

FIG. 18. Subdivisions of New Jersey governing the appearance of underground water.

the accompanying sketch map (fig. 18) and are designated (Ij the Appalachian, (2) the Crystalline Highlands, (3) the Piedmont, and (4) the

93
94 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Coastal Plaint The surface features of these several provinces, by 

reason of which they differ the one from the other, are in large measure simply the outward manifestations of geologic characters, structural and lithologic, which are inherent in the terranes of the different 

provinces and which have found topographic expression through subaerial and stream degradation.

As might be expected the underground or deep waters of the State 

sustain relations that differ in the different provinces and that are 

more or less characteristic of them. Bocks so different in structure 

and lithologic character as to give rise to topographic features that 

are as distinct and characteristic as are those of the several provinces 

might be expected to profoundly affect the disposition of underground 

water. This is, in fact, found to be true, and this subdivision of the 

State is regarded as the one best adapted to a general discussion of 

the deep waters.

GEOLOGY AND WATER SUPPLY.

APPALACHIAN PROVINCE.

The Appalachian province, or zone, is the northern extension in 

New Jersey of the great Appalachian mountain system. It is essentially coincident with the great Kittatinny Valley and Kittatinny 

Mountain.

The rocks consist of limestone, slates, conglomerates, sandstones, 

and quartzites, strongly infolded in anticlines and synclinss whose 

axes run northeast and southwest. These primary folds have been 

more or less faulted and modified b}^ dikes and other late intrusions. 

The whole series has been profoundly eroded, plains of degradation 

have been developed, truncating the old folds, and later broad, deep 

valleys have been developed parallel to the main axes of the folds. In 

these broad valleys the softer beds, such as limestones and shales, stand 

at angles that range from vertical to horizontal and dip in various directions. The ridges or mountains that inclose these valleys consist of 

the harder rocks, viz: Conglomerates, quartzites, slates, and sandstones, 

which rise more or less abruptly to heights of 1,000 or 1,500 feet above 

the valleys. The beds themselves stand at various angles, commonly 

approaching verticality.

The various beds of the Kittatinny Valley have in large measure lost 

through metamorphism whatever porosity they may once have had. 

The sandstones have become quartzites, more or less dense; the conglomerates have suffered a like modification, reducing their porosity 

to a minimum, and the other rocks have undergone similar changes, 

tending to increase their density. The rocks have, however, been 

fractured at various times, so that joints occur more or less abundantly

«New Jersey Geol. Survey Final Report, Vol. IV, Physical Geography, 1895.
KNAPP.] NEW JEESEY. 95

throughout the beds, admitting water to unknown depths. In the 

limestones solution has developed cavities and more or less definite 

underground courses.

The rocks then of the Appalachian province are relatively impervious and do not carry a large volume of water. The water that 

penetrates deeply does so by virtue of secondary structures and other 

modifications that do not stand in close relation to the primary structure.

Therefore a knowledge of the structure, which is regular enough to 

be determined with considerable definiteness, is not of so much service 

in locating successful wells as might be expected. The water seems 

capricious in its occurrence. The data available, however, show but 

few deep wells in this province too few to be made the basis of final 

conclusions, so that the great Kittatinny Valley has yet to be thoroughly 

tested for its available deep water supply.

CRYSTALLINE HIGHLANDS PROVINCE.

The Crystalline Highlands, as the name suggests, consists more 

largely of crystalline rocks granites, schists, and gneisses. The great 

structural lines of the province run northeast and southwest, like those 

of the Appalachian zone, but this region has been subject to more profound metamorphism and the beds have been repeatedly broken and 

faulted at widely separate time intervals. Intrusive rocks have been 

injected as dikes and masses at different times, secondary structures 

have very generally destroyed or replaced the original ones, and along 

with this have gone replacement and interchange of the mineral constituents of the rocks.

In the Crystalline Highlands, therefore, the structure is too complex and too indefinite to aid one in a practical way in predicting the 

result of wells, and the terranes contain no well-defined porous beds 

that in a true sense can be called water bearing in contradistinction to 

others. The rocks, however, as a whole, are more generally permeated by water than in the Appalachian zone, so that wells put down 

indiscriminately give a larger percentage of satisfactory wells in the 

former than in the latter region. We know from the numerous iron 

mines scattered through the Highland region that the permeation of 

these old crystallines by water, while very general, is by no means 

uniform; for some mines encounter large volumes of water, greatly 

to their detriment, whereas others are comparatively dry. The relation, if any, that exists between the local rock structure or the depth 

of the mine and the volume of water encountered is not apparent.

In the Highland province there are some areas that form notable 

exceptions to the structure above outlined; such, for instance, as the 

Green Pond mountain belt, where the rocks and structure are analogous to the infolding of the Appalachian zone. In these exceptional 

areas the deep waters behave much as they do in the Kittatinny region.
96 UNDEKGKOUND WATEKS, EASTEKN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The numerous streams, as yet not polluted, afford an abundance of 

excellent water. This, together with the cost of drilling in such hard 

rock, i. e., $5 to $10 a foot, has heretofore limited the number of deep 

wells.

This province, however, is being invaded by suburban homes and 

country residences, and we may expect that in the near future more 

deep wells will be bored.

PIEDMONT PROVINCE.

The Piedmont province is essentially the area of the Newark system. 

The Newark consists of three series of beds which, from base upward, 

are the Stockton, the Lockatong, and the Brunswick. The Stockton 

consists of light-colored sandstones and conglomerates, more or less 

arkose, interbedded with a few red shales. It is the most permeable 

series of the Newark system. The Lockatong consists chiefly of flagstones and argillites, and is relatively impervious. The Brunswick 

series consists chiefly of shales, but includes also many beds of sandstone. It is less permeable than the Stockton.

The Newark system is traversed by a number of irregular faults 

whose throw is nearly sufficient to repeat the entire system at each 

successive fault. The prevailing dip of the beds is west and northwest, but more or less local warping and tilting that accompanied the 

faulting gave the beds many local variations in dip and strike. The 

structure of the Newark is further complicated by an irregular system 

of volcanic intrusive sheets and trap dikes that cut across the bedding 

at various angles.

The faulting of the Newark in a way to repeat the succession is a 

slight advantage in some situations, since it makes the Stockton beds 

more readily available for artesian water at some localities than they 

otherwise would be, but in other situations the faults cut off t ie supply entirely, so that the advantage in one locality is in large measure 

offset by the disadvantage in the other. One familiar with the complex structure of the Newark can forecast the chances of obtaining 

artesian water at given points in the Piedmont province; but it would 

be difficult for one unfamiliar with the structure to make such 

forecasts.

The Newark sj^stem is thoroughly cut up by two or more systems 

of deeply penetrating joints, whose planes are nearly vertical and 

intersect one another at various angles. It is thought that the copious 

wells in the Newark draw their supply from these joints and fissures 

more largely than from the water that penetrates along the true bedding planes. Nearly one half of the northern end of the Piedmont 

province is, however, mantled by glacial drift which conceals many 

of the minor details of the Newark structure. This not infre-
KNAPP.] JNTEW JEKSEY. 97

quently entirely precludes the possibility of calculating closely the 

chances of artesian water at certain points.

Of the three provinces thus far considered, the Piedmont carries 

vastly more deep water than either of the others. Moreover, the 

water is found in rocks that are drilled with comparative ease, and 

the chances of obtaining it can be foretold with much definiteness. 

Furthermore, the Piedmont is, by virtue of its geographic position, 

the most important of the three, since it includes what is and what 

always will be the most densely populated part of the State, in which 

the water supply will always be a paramount question.

COASTAL PLAIN PROVINCE.

The Coastal Plain differs from the three northern provinces in nearly 

every essential feature. First, it includes an area greater than the 

combined area of the other three provinces; second, as compared with 

the other provinces it is flat, there being no mountains and the maximum relief being less than 400 feet; third, its structure is of the simplest sort, for it consists of a succession of beds lying one upon the 

other in a simple monocline that dips seaward, the uppermost or youngest bed lying farthest southeast, and each successively older and lower 

bed reaching a little farther northwest; fourth, there have been no 

faults or folds of sufficient magnitude to appreciably affect the general 

structure; fifth, the beds are unconsolidated sands, claj^s, marls, and 

gravels, and lie in essentially the same position in which they were 

deposited; sixth, the terranes have not suffered any metamorphism 

that has appreciably affected their permeability to water.

The Coastal Plain province falls into two great geologic divisions 

or subprovinces, viz, the Cretaceous and the Tertiary. The Cretaceous 

occupies a relatively narrow belt that extends across the State, while 

the Tertiary covers the remainder of the province.

The Cretaceous has three major divisions, which, reckoned from 

base upward, are the Raritan, the Clay Marl series, and the Marl 

series. The Clay Marl series corresponds approximately but not 

exactly to the " Matawan" of the later nomenclature, while the Marl 

series includes approximately but not exactly the Monmouth, Rancocas, and Manasquan of later nomenclature.

The Raritan, though carrying important water beds at different 

stratigraphic horizons, does not admit of subdivision. The Clay Marl 

series, on the other hand, is readily subdivided into five beds, the 

lower two of which are impervious marl and clay and serve as a cover 

to the Raritan water-bearing sands. The stratum next above is a sand 

bed, which is 100 feet thick to the northeast, where it is an important 

water horizon; toward the southwest it pinches out entirely and disappears along the strike. Above this is an impervious marl and clay.

IEE 114 05 7
98 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Next comes a sand bed 100 feet thick to the southwest, where it is an 

important water horizon. To the northeast it becomes less important, 

partly by reason of its decrease in thickness in that direction and 

partly by a decrease in permeability.

The Marl series, like the Clay Marl series, is readily subdivided 

into five beds, the lower of which corresponds to the Lower Marl, 

approximately the "Navesink." Above this is the Red sand (Redbank). Toward the northeast it is a sand bed 100 feet thick, but 

toward the southwest it pinches out and disappears along the strike. 

Next above is the lower portion of the old Middle Marl bed the marl 

proper. It constitutes a part but not all of the Sewell. Still higher is 

the Lime and "Yellow" sand; the upper part of the old Middle Marl 

bed, including the " Vincenttown" and more. This is an important 

water horizon all across the State. The top bed is the Upper Marl, a 

part of which is Eocene. It is the impervious cover to the preceding.

The second subprovince of the Coastal Plain, the Tertiary, is divided 

into two formations, the Kirkwood (Miocene), and the Cohansey 

(Pliocene?). The lower bed is the Kirkwood. It carries waterbearing sands at several different stratigraphic horizons. It is an 

important source of water at Atlantic City and at points farther south 

along the beach. Next higher is the Cohansey formation. It carries 

water at several different stratigraphic horizons and rivals the Kirkwood as a source of artesian water along the beach.

The structure of the Coastal Plain is extremely simple. The outcrop 

of the beds is known in great detail. Their dip is known, or is readily 

determinable, and the altitudes of the various beds can be closely 

estimated at all points. Still the predicting of artesian water at any 

given point is not a simple mathematical proposition. Two chief difficulties are experienced in predicting the results of wells: First, the 

thickening of the beds down the dip, seaward, has not been worked 

out in detail for individual beds; second, the permeability of the beds 

is a variable factor, whose exact value is yet to be determined.

In the following table the results of borings at a large number of 

localities on the Coastal Plain are presented:

Summary of well statistics in the more important of the Coastal Plain localities. 

[Compiled from tables of N. H. Darton.a]

Locality.

Atlantic City. .........

Atlantic Highlands . . .

Bay head ..............

Range of depth.

Prom 

Feet. 

383 

118

108

To 

Feet. 

1,330 

1,398

480 

120 

710

Range of capacity 

per minute.

Prom 

Gallons. 

20 

0

80

To 

Gallons. 

500 

400

250

Geologic horizons of water.

Lower marl, Matawan, Raritan.

"Diatom bed," Cretaceous, Chesapeake.

Matawan, Raritan. 

Lower marl.

a Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 138, pp. 42-48.
KNAPP.] NEW JERSEY. 99

Summary of well statistics in the more important of the Coastal Plain localities Cont'd.

Locality.

Glassboro..............

Gloucester. ............

Holmdel ..............

Lake wood

Mechesatankin Creek .

Range of depth.

From 

Feet.

430

119

135 

112

156

172

102

240 

201

175

102

100

126

To 

Feet. 

190 

575

470 

195 

90 

798 

253 

152 

224 

360

105 

196

356 

520

210 

131 

397 

322

511 

270

320 

690 

375 

122 

187 

500 

500 

601 

481 

242 

535 

475 

803 

110 

922

375 

365

100 

176

158 

183

Range of capacity 

per minute.

From 

Gallons. 

0 

10

0

0 

16

..........

0

0 

25?

0 

100

0

0

12 

0

0

7

To 

Gallons.

125

60 

Many.

 100 

25; plenty. 

150 

75 

Fair supply. 

Each, 150 

Fair supply. 

10;fairsup- piy.

Satisfactory.

Many.

250;unsatis factory. 

100 

650

100

Plenty.

100 

70

52 

12

180

20; fair to 

plenty.

25

Unsatisfactory.

Plenty; 

sa ti sfactory; 

200.

Geologic horizons of water.

Unknown.

Bed C, Atlantic City; bed E, Atlantic 

City.

960 feet at Atlantic City(?). 

Raritan, basal Raritan. 

Post-Chesapeake. 

800 feet at Atlantic City. 

Raritan. 

Basal Raritan. 

Upper Chesapeake. Unknown. 

Upper Chesapeake.

Post-Chesapeake (?) . 

Raritan.

Raritan, basal Matawan. 

b

Matawan. 

Do. 

Chesapeake. 

Lower marl, Matawan.

Post-Chesapeake, Matawan.

Basal Raritan, basal Matawan, Raritan.

Lower marl.

Middle marl. 

Matawan.

Matawan, Raritan, basal Raritan 

Raritan. 

Do. 

Do. 

Lower marl. 

Do. 

Bed G, Atlantic City. 

Middle marl.

Bed C, Atlantic City, lower marl, Matawan.

Basal Raritan. 

Redbank, lower marl(?), Matawan.

Matawan.

428 feet, Atlantic City(?), bed C, Atlan 

tic City(?).

Redbank, lower marl.
100 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114. 

Summary of well statistics in the more important of the Coastal Plain localities Cont'd.

Locality.

Millville.... ...........

Mullica Hill ...........

Port Norris ............

Port Republic .........

Riverside (8 wells) ....

Sayreville .............

Seven Islands .........

Sewell. ................

Trenton ...............

Vineland .............

Waretown .............

Wildwood .............

Range of depth.

From 

Feet. 

150

480 

760 

420 

112 

130 

158

248

125

408

116

196

215

135 

113 

139

To 

Feet. 

160

380 

385 

150 

130

675 

102 

485 

800 

1,134 

174 

470 

201

+100 

806 

200 

151

275 

124 

230 

200 

210 

160 

976

755

258 

380 

533

420 

200 

105 

425 

465 

130 

100 

160 

205

280 

341 

106

931

145 

163 

776

Range of capacity 

per minute.

From 

Gallons.

25

0

18

0

55

60

0

52

10 

20

To 

Gallons.

Satisfactory.

75

Satisfactory.

50 

140 

40 

275

500; unsatisfactory.

Few.

45 

1

55

165 

Each; 40 

60

Many. 

50 

210 

30 

70

25

10? 

Many. 

875 

Many. 

Many; 200 

20 

20

70

300; unsatisfactory.

40 

8 

360

Geologic horizons of water.

Matawan. 

Do. 

Basal Matawan. 

Basal Matawan(?).

Raritan. 

Redbank. 

Lower marl. 

Chesapeake diatom bed. 

Lower marl, Matawan. 

Raritan, basal Raritan, crystalline rock. 

Basal Raritan, 70-470 feet in gneiss. 

658 feet at Ocean City(?), Chesapeake.

Matawan. 

Do.

428 feet, Atlantic City(?). 

Redbank. 

Basal Matawan. 

Lower marl, Matawati. 

Raritan (?). 

Matawan.

Basal Raritan, 80,976 feet in gneiss. 

Matawan. 

Lower marl, Matawan. 

Above diatom bed.

Bed E, Atlantic City; bed C, Atlantic

City(?) .

Basal Matawan. 

Lower marl. 

Basal Raritan. 

Bed C, Atlantic City. 

Lower marl. 

Basal Raritan, Raritan.

Post-Chesapeake(?). Basal Raritan. 

Post-Chesapeake. 

Bed E, Atlantic City. 

Basal Matawan, Matawan.

Bed C, Atlantic City(?); 650 feet at 

Atlantic City(?); bed C Atlantic 

City(?).

Upper Chesapeake, 240 feet below great 

diatom bed; in great diatom bed.

Chesapeake, 960 feet at Atlantic City (?) . 

Matawan, basal Matawan. 

Basal Matawan, Redbank, Raritan.
KNAPP.] NEW JEESEY. 101

SUMMARY. OF WATER RESOURCES.

The accompanying table brings into prominence man}7 important 

relations and suggests many more.

Distribution of wells by provinces.

Area in square miles .._-............

Average number of people per square 

mile .............................

Maximum density of population per

Minimum density of population per

Average number of square miles to 

each well __.._.........._.._.....

Appalachian.

547.0

24, 201. 0

44.2

1, 590. 0

23.0

23.0

24.0

Crystalline 

Highlands.

945.0

76, 029. 0

80.4

8, 475. 0

26.0

31.0

30.0

Piedmont.

 

1,463.0

1, 222, 586. 0

836.3

22, 560. 0

37.0

547.0

26.0

Coastal 

Plain.

5, 099. 0

495, 072. 0

97.7

14, 492. 0

6.0

998.0

5.0

It will be noticed that of the 1,600 wells catalogued, nearly 1,000 are 

in the Coastal Plain province. These range in depth from 50 to 2,300 

feet and probably 90 per cent of them are of the true artesian type 

that is, they draw their water from beds whose catchment area is 

remote, and the water in the wells rises nearly or quite to the surface, and frequently above the surface. Of the 550 wells in the Piedmont Plain very few are of the true artesian type. They range in 

depth from 50 to 2,300 feet. Many of them yield large volumes of 

water and a few of them flow, but, as before suggested, they probably 

draw their supplies largely from the joints and the secondary structures of the rocks. Of the 50 or 60 wells in the two northern provinces, only a few are truly artesian. They are practically all simply 

deep reservoir-like holes into which water percolates from innumerable joints and fissures at all horizons. While the gathering ground 

of such waters may be remote from the wells, they belong in a different class from those of the Coastal Plain. It will be remembered that 

the wells here catalogued are the ones of which records have been 

obtained, and not the actual total number of wells in these provinces. 

There are undoubtedly many wells of which no records have been 

procured.

The Appalachian and Crystalline provinces are relatively sparsely 

settled. In them springs abound, and mountain streams, proverbially 

wholesome and as yet unpolluted, are numerous and well distributed, 

so that the demand for deep wells is not pressing.
102 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114. 

DISTRIBUTION OF WELLS AND POPULATION.

The Piedmont area includes two fairly distinct subprovinces. The 

first, including the northeast part of the area, in the vicinity of Essex 

and Hudson counties, is occupied by numerous cities, large and small, 

many of which are manufacturing centers, while the second, in the 

southwest portion, in the vicinity of Somerset County, is dominantly 

an agricultural region. The first of these subprovinces includes about 

one-fifth of the area of the Piedmont province and contains about 

nine-tenths of its population, the remaining one-tenth of the population being scattered over the southwestern four-fifths of the province. 

Of the 550 wells in the Piedmont province more than 500 occur in the 

densely populated region in its northeastern portion and the water, for 

the most part, is used for manufacturing purposes.

In the Coastal Plain province the densely populated districts are 

distributed around its periphery, the interior being more sparsely 

settled. The distribution of the artesian wells stands in fairly definite 

relation to the density of population. Along the seashore are many 

thriving towns and cities whose function is almost wholly that of ministering to the service of those in quest of health, recreation, and 

pleasure. These communities, while not absolutely dependent on 

artesian wells for their water, find them the most satisfactory available 

source of supply, and hence a large percentage of the wells are found 

along the coast.

The north and northwest border of this province, which is approximately the outcrop of the Cretaceous terranes, finds its interests 

divided between agriculture and manufacture. Artesian wells are 

abundant in this region but are not so deep as those along the coast, 

and are accordingly less expensive. They serve both the manufacturing and the agricultural interests. In fact, the distribution of the 

artesian wells is determined, first, by the availability of the water; 

second, by the density of the population, and third, by the character 

of the population.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

Sixteen mineral springs in New Jersey reported sales of water in 

1902, and many more are the site of pleasure resorts of more or less 

importance. The aggregate production for the year is given as 360,900 

gallons, with a value of $41,875. The springs reporting are as follows: a

Alpha Spring, Springfield, Union County. 

Beacon Mountain Spring, Denville, Morris County. 

Beech Springs, near Woodbury, Gloucester County. 

Fowler's Deep Eock Artesian Well, Allwood, Passaic County. 

Hatawanna Spring, Buddlake, Morris County. 

Holly Springs, Swedesboro, Gloucester County.

aPeale, A. 0., Mineral Resources U.S.for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
KNAPP.J NEW JERSEY. 103

Indian Kalium Spring, Gloucester, Camden County. 

Indian Spring, near Bockaway, Morris County. 

Kalium Springs, Collingswood, Camden County. 

Oakland Vernam Spring, near Oakland, Bergen County. 

Pine Lawn Spring, Hohokus, Bergen County. 

Trinity Springs, Ridgefield, Bergen County. 

Turtle Hill Spring, Passaic, Passaic County. 

Washington Mountain Spring, Pennington, Mercer County. 

Washington Bock Spring, Warrenville, Somerset County. 

Watchung Spring, Plainfield, Union County.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

[Artesian wells of New Jersey], by Lewis Woolman and others. A large number of 

references and reports on the artesian wells of New Jersey are contained in the 

New Jersey Geological Survey Beports, beginning with the year 1857 and extending down to the present time. (See indexes of individual reports.)

Mineral springs of the United States^ by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 42-43.

Artesian well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton: Bull. 

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, 1896, pp. 39-115.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Darton. WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S Geol. Survey No. 61, 1902, pp. 12-14.

Water resources of the highlands of New Jersey, by Laurence La Forge: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol, Survey No'. 110, 1905, pp. 141-155.
PENNSYLVANIA.

By M. L. FULLER.

TOPOGRAPHY.

There are three distinct topographic belts in Pennsylvania: (1) A 

southeastern belt, whose northern boundary starts about 10 miles southeast of Easton and passes southwestward, just south.of Reading and 

Harrisburg, to a point a few miles west of Gettysburg; (2) a central 

belt, lying north and west of the first, whose northern boundary 

reaches from the northeastern part of the State westward and southwestward, past Williamsport, Lock Haven, and Altoona, to the southeastern portion of Somerset County; and (3) a northwestern belt which 

embraces the entire northern and western portions of the State. (See 

fig. 14.)

The eastern belt, known as the Piedmont Plateau, is in general of 

low elevation, and consists of a broadly rolling surface with few high 

hills. The central belt, constituting the Appalachian Mountains and 

Valley, consists of a large number of long, straight, or gently curving 

ridges, alternating with deep valleys, the widest of which is the Cumberland or Shenandoah. Many of these ridges rise to altitudes ranging 

between 1,500 and 2,500 feet. The third belt, known as the Allegheny 

Plateau, is a broad surf ace, cut throughout its extent by streams which 

now flow in deep and frequently canyon-like valleys. A few ridges 

rise above the common level of this upland, but the plateau has a 

general southwestward slope, and varies in altitude from about 2,000 

feet in the northern portion of the State to approximately 1,200 feet 

in the southwestern portion.

GEOLOGY.

The geologic divisions correspond in general with those of topography; in fact, the geology has governed the character of the topography throughout the State. The southeastern topographic belt, or 

Piedmont Plateau, is underlain largely by crystalline rocks which have 

been very evenly eroded and consequently present few conspicuous 

topographic features. Along the northern border of this belt is a 

104
PULLER.] PENNSYLVANIA. 105

band of soft Triassic shales and sandstones of a topography similar to 

that of the adjoining crystalline area. The continuity of the belt is, 

however, broken by a series of folded Cambrian and Silurian quartzites 

and limestones that extend from near Trenton westward across the 

Susquehanna to the southeast corner of Adams County. The cities of 

York and Lancaster are located in this belt, while Phcenixville, Norristown, and Trenton lie just outside its borders.

The rocks of the middle topographic belt, which is characterized by 

prominent ridges, consist mainly of strongly folded beds of Cambrian, 

Silurian, and Devonian age, but the folded rocks of the anthracite coal 

basin and of the Broadtop coal basin in the south-central portion of the 

State are of Carboniferous age.

The rocks of the remaining or plateau portion of the State are Devonian and Carboniferous, the former constituting the surface in the 

northern and northeastern portion of the State and the latter in its 

western part. The rocks of this belt are characterized in general by

Tr=Triassic C=Carboniferous 

CSD=Cambrian, Silurian.and Devonian

D=Devonian 

Cr=Crystalline

FIG. 19. Geologic subdivisions of Pennsylvania.

very moderate folding, although the rocks of Laurel Hill and other 

ridges in the southwestern portion of the State show high dips. The 

folds generally decrease uniformly in magnitude as their distance from 

the Appalachian Front increases, until in the northwestern part of the 

State only slight and irregular undulations can be detected. It is along 

the crest of the anticlines that the lower Devonian rocks are brought 

to the surface in the northern part of the State.

SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY.

STREAMS AND LAKES.

By far the larger number of the streams of Pennsylvania rise either 

in the mountainous regions of the Appalachian belt or in the highlands of the Allegheny Plateau. In general they have their sources 

in rugged forest-covered areas remote from habitations, and for considerable distances flow with their original purity through thinly
106 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

populated districts. Even within a few miles of some of the large 

cities supplies from unpolluted streams may be procured. The waters 

of the larger streams, however, are generally polluted and unsafe for 

domestic use except where they are subjected to some process of 

purification. There are no large natural lakes within the State, but a 

few small ponds are found in depressions in the drift on some of the 

flat mountain tops and elsewhere in its northern portion. These 

ponds are seldom of any value as a source of water supply.

WELLS.

The drift. The glacial drift in Pennsylvania is confined to the 

northern half of the State. The glacial boundary enters from the east 

at a point not far from Easton and passes northwestward to the New 

York line not far from Bradford. Here it leaves the State for a few 

miles, but soon turns south again, reenters the State and passes southwestward to a point a few miles north of Ohio River at the western 

border of the State.

In the area south of this line the loose materials at the surface, 

except in the river and stream valleys, consist of fragments of rock 

which have been broken up to form a stony soil under the action of 

the weather. North of the glacial boundary this residual soil has been 

reworked by glacial action and mixed with foreign material brought 

down from the north, the whole being left as a heterogeneous stony 

mantle, known as till, covering the surface. In addition to the till 

many deposits of gravel or sand were laid down in the valleys by 

streams flowing from the glacier.

The till usually contains a considerable percentage of clay and is not 

usualty a satisfactory source of water. Nevertheless it furnishes small 

supplies to wells at many points throughout the northern portion of 

the State. The water follows rather definite courses through the 

material and its occurrence can not always be predicted. Its amount 

is almost always small, but it is of very fair quality. Springs are 

common, but are usually small and of little economic value.

Stream deposits. In the stream deposits, which consist largely of 

gravel and sand, great quantities of water are stored, especiall}T in the 

larger river valleys. The great absorptive power of these materials 

is strikingly shown by their rapid absorption of the mountain streams 

which emerge upon them. Wells driven but a few feet into such 

deposits often find abundant supplies. Their waters are almost always 

of excellent quality if taken at sufficient depth to be out of the zone of 

pollution from the surface.

Crystalline rocks. The crystalline rocks consist of gneisses and similar granitic rocks. In general they carry but little water, for their 

porosity is small and they are not characterized by bedding planes that
FULLER.] PENNSYLVANIA. 107

offer easy passages for water. These rocks are, however, cut by 

more or less vertical joints which admit considerable quantities of 

water under favorable conditions. Wells drilled in the crystalline 

rocks, especially in Philadelphia and vicinity, have frequently obtained 

moderate to good supplies at depths of from 100 to 300 feet. As a rule, 

wells that fail to obtain a supply within 300 feet of the surface will not 

afford much water at greater depths. Springs are relatively few in 

number and small in size, and are seldom used except in the vicinity of 

the large cities, where they furnish considerable quantities of water 

for table use.

Triassic rocks. The Triassic rocks, the extent of which has already 

been indicated, consist of shales and soft sandstones, frequently stained 

red by iron oxide. The sandier beds contain a large quantity of water, 

a cubic foot sometimes holding a quart or more. Many wells have 

been drilled into these rocks in the towns scattered along their outcrop 

and considerable supplies have been obtained in some places. The 

waters, however, are liable to be strongly mineralized and in some 

cases it is impossible to use them in boilers. Springs occur in the 

Triassic rocks, but are not commonly important.

Cambrian and /Silurian rocks. The Cambrian and Silurian rocks 

consist of quartzites, limestones, and shales. They are characterized 

throughout, as has already been indicated, by strong folds, the rocks 

in many instances being almost on edge. The.outcrops of the formations generally occur, therefore, as rather narrow, straight, or gently 

curving bands, although belts of considerable width are found where 

the folds are more open.

The true quartzites are dense, compact, and nonporous, exhibit very 

little jointing, and are frequently destitute of recognizable bedding 

planes. Under such conditions they are practically destitute of water. 

Some of the beds, however, especially the Medina and Oriskany sandstones, are less dense, and carry water which issues as fine large 

springs where the outcrops are favorable. The limestones, which 

include the Trenton and Lower Helderberg, are rather dense and carry 

water only in solution channels. For this reason the finding of water 

in them is uncertain, and they are, therefore, rarely a source of supply, 

although in some cities and towns deep wells have obtained satisfactory 

supplies from these rocks. There are many fine springs along the 

edges of the limestone areas, but in the central portion of the outcrops 

cisterns are mainly relied upon for water for domestic purposes.

The shales carry some water in their bedding planes and in sandy 

interbedded layers. Small springs are fairly common, and in the less 

strongly folded portions wells usually obtain moderate supplies.

Devonian rocks. The Devonian rocks, as already indicated, occur to 

some extent infolded with the Cambrian and Silurian rocks, and are 

also brought to the surface by gentle folds in the northern portion of
108 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

the State. They consist largely of shales, although sandstones are 

frequently present, especially in the subdivision Of the Devonian known 

as the Catskill. Limestones are occasionally present. Springs are 

numerous in the areas where the Devonian shales and limestones outcrop, but they are small as compared with the springs of the Cambrian and Silurian areas. They afford, nevertheless, pure supplies for 

a large number of the inhabitants in the areas in which the}^ occur. 

Wells also generally obtain fair supplies. In the synclines or basins 

flowing water is not uncommonly obtained by the deeper wells, but, 

because of the abundance of spring water and of water in the drift, 

deep wells are not often sunk.

Carboniferous rocks. The Carboniferous rocks consist of a thick 

series of sandstones, shales, limestones, and coals. The limestones are 

generally only a few feet thick, but some of the beds may run up to 50 

or 100 feet, or even more. They are not prominent water bearers, 

although small supplies are almost always obtained either at their 

upper surfaces or from some of their bedding or joint planes.

The Carboniferous shales, like the Devonian, frequently carry water 

along their bedding planes and in their interbedded sandy layers, but 

though giving rise to a considerable number of springs and furnishing 

supplies for many shallow wells, they are not conspicuously water 

bearing.

Water is frequently found associated with the coals, but is almost 

always highly charged with ferrous sulphate, resulting from the 

decomposition of the pyrite in the coal. Sandstones are often of 

great thickness and are fairly open and porous. Where above drainage level they commonly carry relatively little water, but below this 

level they are often saturated, and drilled wells penetrating them 

generally obtain good supplies. Where the rocks lie a considerable 

distance below the surface, however, the fresh water is liable to be 

replaced by salt water or by oil; hence deep wells are sometimes of 

little value as sources of water supply. Flowing water is frequently 

obtained in the synclines or basins and elsewhere where the conditions 

are favorable, but the water will seldom rise more than a few feet 

above the surface, and pumping is almost universally necessary to raise 

it for industrial uses. In general, fresh waters in the Carboniferous 

and Devonian rocks are found within 500 feet of the surface. Below 

this point the rocks are in some places entirely destitute of water, and 

in others carry salt water as indicated above.

Coastal Plain deposits. The eastern portion of Philadelphia is underlain by Coastal Plain formations, consisting of the lower beds of the 

JRaritan-Potomac deposits. These beds are water bearers and have 

been tapped by a number of wells in the city.
FULLEK.] PENNSYLVANIA. 109

MINERAL SPRINGS.

The waters of Pennsylvania, except those of the Triassic area, of 

the limestones, and those associated with coals, are usually low in 

mineral matter. There are, however, scattered throughout the State 

a number of deep-seated springs the waters of which are mineralized. 

Many of these mineral waters are bottled and sold commercially, and 

resorts of importance have been developed about others. The mineral 

springs are not confined to any one class of rocks, but are found in all 

of the types described. The following springs reported shipments in 

1902:«

Artesia Spring, Harrison Valley, Potter County.

Bedford Chalybeate Spring, Bedford, Bedford County.

Bedford Mineral Springs, near Bedford, Bedford County.

Black Barren Mineral Spring, Pleasant Grove, Lancaster County.

Buena Vista Springs, Buena Vista, Franklin County.

Charmian Mineral Spring, Charmian, Franklin County.

Cloverdale Artesian Lithia Spring, Newville, Cumberland County.

Corry Artesian Mineral Spring, Corry, Erie County.

Cresson Springs, Cresson, Cambria County.

De Vita Mineral Springs, Cambridge Springs, Crawford County.

East Mountain Lithia Well, near Factoryville, Wyoming County.

Ephrata Mountain Crystal Spring, near Ephrata, Lancaster County.

Glen Summit Spring, Glen Summit, Luzerne County.

Gray Mineral Spring, Cambridge Springs, Crawford County.

Imperial Spring, Angelica, Berks County.

Korrylutz Well, Corry, Erie County.

Magnesia Spring, Cambridge Springs, Crawford County.

Malvern Spring, Malvern, Chester County.

Parker Mineral Spring, Gardeau, McKean County.

Pavilion Spring, South Mountain, Wernersville, Berks County.

Petticord Mineral Spring, Cambridge Springs, Crawford County.

Pulaski Natural Mineral Spring, Pulaski, Lawrence County.

Rennyson Tredyffrin Spring, Rennyson, Chester County.

Ross-common Springs, Windgap, Monroe County.

Saegertown Mineral Spring, Saegertown, Crawford County.

Sizer Mineral Spring, Sizerville, Cameron County.

Spruce Hollow Mineral Spring, near Northumberland, Northumberland County.

The J. W. Lang Mineral Well, Venango, Crawford County.

Tuckahoe Mineral Springs, Northumberland, Northumberland County.

Whann Alkaline Lithia Mineral Springs, near Franklin, Venango County.

White House Spring, Neversink Mountain, Reading, Berks County.

The aggregate amount of water sold in 1902 is given as 4,567,260 

gallons, valued at $1,124,532.

aPeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
110 UNDEKGBOUND WATEES, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral Springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey 

No. 32, pp. 44-49.

Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton: Bull. 

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, pp. 115-117.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Darton: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, 1902, pp. 29-42.

Water resources of the Philadelphia district, by F. Bascom: Water-Supply and 

Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 106, 1904.

Water resources of the Chambersburg and Mercersburg quadrangles, Pennsylvania, by G. W. Stose: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 

1904, pp. 156-158.

Water resources of the Curwensville, Patton, Ebensburg, and Barnesboro quadrangles, Pennsylvania, by F. G. Clapp: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. 

Survey No. 110, 1904, pp. 159-163.

Water resources of the Elders Eidge quadrangle, Pennsylvania, by E. W. Stone: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1904, pp. 164-165.

Water resources of the Waynesburg quadrangle, Pennsylvania, by E. W. Stone: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1904, pp. 166, 167.

Well records. (See reports of State Geological Survey of New Jersey.)
DELAWARE.

Bv N. H. DARTON.

GEOLOGY.

This State lies almost entirely on the Coastal Plain, across which it 

extends diagonally to the Atlantic Ocean. The crystalline rocks 

emerge at the surface in the extreme northern portion of the State, 

but are deeply buried under the Coastal Plain deposits to the southeast. The general structure is shown in section 1, PI. VII. The 

topography of the State is relatively simple, consisting of a general 

terrace plain averaging about 50 feet in altitude and a small area of 

higher rolling hills north and west of Wilmington. The geologic 

formations are as follows:

Formation.

Columbia ...............

Chesapeake .............

Rancocas ...............

Redbank ...............

Matawan ...............

Raritan and Potomac. . . .

Characteristics.

Sands, clays, infusorial earth, and

marl.

and quartzite.

Age.

Pleistocene.

Miocene.

Later Cretaceous.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Early Cretaceous.

WATER HORIZONS.

As relatively few deep wells have been bored in Delaware, the water 

horizons have not been fully explored over a very wide area. The well 

at Middletown (see below) has obtained a fine supply 9f water from 

the Potomac formation, apparently from the basal beds, and it is 

probable that this water sheet extends from Wilmington past Middletown far southward. At Farnhurst it yields a moderate supply. The 

dip of the horizon to the south-southeast is about 30 feet to the mile,

ill
112 UNDERGROUND WATEKS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

which carries it from the tide level at Wilmington to a depth of 165 

feet at Farnhurst and 535 feet at Middletown. Water horizons above 

the lower beds of the Potomac formation and in the Matawan, Redbank, and Lower Marl, that occur in New Jersey, were not reported in 

the Middletown well, which probably indicates that these waters do not 

extend into Delaware. The principal Chesapeake horizons appear to 

be represented in Delaware, although the evidence in regard to their 

correlation is not conclusive. The basal Chesapeake water, so important in Maryland, has not been reached by the wells. The water from 

sands in the great diatom bed (the 525-foot horizon at Atlantic City) 

probably supplies the Dover and Mahon River wells with their large 

yields, while Milford and Lewes apparently obtain their waters from a 

stratum that lies just above the diatom bed. As the Kitts Hummock 

well draws from a bed about 125 feet above the horizon of Dover and 

Mahon waters, its water horizon can not be definitely correlated with 

any of those at Atlantic City. The Ocean City well in Maryland is a 

high Chesapeake horizon which probably extends into the southern 

edge of Delaware, but no wells have yet been sunk to it in that State.

WATER SUPPLIES.

DEEP WELLS.

There are only a few deep wells in the State, but they are all successful and nearly all furnish large supplies of water. The following is a 

list of some of the more important ones:

Partial list of deep wells in Delaware.

Locality.

Do.................

Do .................

Milford................

Do.................

Do.................

Brewery). 

Wilmington (H. & P.

Brewery). 

Wilmington (Hart &

Bros.).

Depth.

Feet. 

196

i ^n

60

85

211

110

400

206

ROR

90

160

34

400

1,077

200

Diameter.

Inches. 

10

6

(?)

6

Capacity per 

minute.

Gallons. 

( Flows 35)

\ Pumps 218J 

30

15

IVtucli

OOA

(?)

60

60

50

15-18

10

75

Height to 

which water 

rises.

Feet. 

+ 6

50

(?)

+ 2

! Q

-25

Remarks.

Water also at 40 and 60 feet;

rock at 211 feet.

water also at 475 and 530 

feet.

In granite.

In granite, 96-1,077 feet.

In granite, 36-200 feet.
DELAWARE. 113

WELL PROSPECTS.

From the evidence furnished by wells now yielding water supplies, 

it appears probable that the entire Coastal Plain area of Delaware is 

underlain by water. About Middletown and to the north the Potomac 

waters may be expected at depths which decrease at the rate of 30 feet 

per mile nearly to Wilmington, where the Potomac beds come to the 

surface. These waters may extend down the dip south of Middletown 

for many miles, but as no wells have been bored to them in that region 

no positive prediction can now be made as to the probability of obtaining water there. At Dover they should be expected at about 1,000 

feet below the surface, if the southward dip continues at a uniform 

rate.

The Chesapeake waters begin a couple of miles north of Clayton and 

extend to the southern border of the State. The basal Chesapeake 

waters, which are important sources of supply in Maryland and in 

areas farther south, have not been tested by any wells in Delaware, 

but may be expected to extend over a wide area. The Clayton boring 

to 150 feet nearly reached this horizon, which probably lies about 450 

feet below the surface at Dover. The Dover waters no doubt are 

widespread, for they are probably the same as those found at 234 feet 

at Federalsburg. The water horizon which appears to extend from 

Milf ord to Lewes probably also underlies all of eastern Sussex County, 

but it is not reported in any of the Maryland wells. In both Kent 

and Sussex counties there are almost certain prospects for Chesapeake 

waters at one horizon or another within 500 feet of the surface. Sections 1 and 2, PI. VII, show the conditions so far as there are any data 

to present concerning them.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

(Well records. ) See reports of State Geological Survey of New Jersey. 

Artesian-well prospects in. the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton: Bull.

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, 1896, pp. 117-124. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, 1902, p. 21.

IRE 114 05 8
MARYLAND.

By N. H. DARTON and M. L. FULLER.'

TOPOGRAPHY AKD GEOLOGY.

The surface of Maryland may be divided into four topographic 

belts, determined by the composition and structure of the underlying 

rocks. Three of these, the Piedmont Plateau, the Appalachian Mountain, and Allegheny Plateau belts, are continuations of those developed 

in Pennsylvania and described in connection with that State. In addition to these there is in Maryland the great Coastal Plain belt, which 

stretches southeastward from a line extending from near Havre de 

Grace through Baltimore and Washington to Chesapeake Bay and the 

Atlantic coast. The materials of this belt are unconsolidated claj^s, 

sands, and gravels, mainly of Cretaceous and Tertiary age. When 

originally deposited the beds were very nearly horizontal, but they 

have been since tilted so that they now dip considerably to the southeast.

The Coastal Plain is moderately low and where not eroded by streams 

exhibits flat surfaces. Such flat areas, however, because of the extent 

to which erosion has taken place, are of no great extent.

The rocks of the Piedmont Plateau are mainly crystalline and include 

granites, diorites, and other igneous or metamorphic rocks, together 

with some schists, slates, and crystalline limestones. In altitude the 

belt is somewhat higher than the Coastal Plain area. Like the latter, 

it shows, in those portions untouched by streams, a nearly flat surface 

due, however, in this instance, to long-continued erosion at a period 

when the rocks stood near sea level, rather than to nearly level deposition, as in the Coastal Plain. The rocks, though deeply weathered, 

are harder than the Coastal Plain deposits and are less readily gullied 

by small streams. Moreover, they have been subjected to erosion for 

a much longer period than those of the Coastal Plain and more rounded 

forms have been developed.

Bordering the crystalline area and included partly within the area 

of Ordovician rocks to the west is a belt of Triassic sandstones and

aThe following account of the water resources of Maryland has been prepared by M. L. Fuller, but 

the portions relating to the Coastal Plain have been compiled from the report of Mr. N. H. Barton on 

Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, 1896. 

114
DARTON and FULLER.] MARYLAND. 115

shales that ranges in width from 2 to 15 miles. The topography of 

this belt is similar to that of the Piedmont belt.

The Appalachian Mountain belt, as in Pennsylvania, consists of a 

series of strongly folded Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian rocks, including a number of quartzites, sandstones, and limestones, lying mainly between Emmitsburg and Cumberland and 

striking northeast-southwest. Beyond Cumberland the rocks consist 

of moderate^ folded Devonian and Carboniferous strata, the harder 

beds of which give rise to ridges. These ridges are not, however, 

so strongly developed as those lying farther east, and in the areas 

between them plateaus similar to those of western Pennsylvania have 

been developed. As in the latter State the plateau in Maryland is 

deeply cut by the streams which drain it.

WATER SUPPLIES.

SPRINGS.

Springs are numerous throughout Maryland, but it is only in the 

limestones or coarse sandstones of the strongly folded Appalachian 

belt that they are commonly of any considerable size. In rocks other 

than limestones and sandstones the springs, though numerous, are 

small, but they nevertheless supply pure water for a large number of 

inhabitants in the more thinly settled districts.

In the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont Plateau springs are less 

common and are generally of small volume, but because of the demand 

for pure water for drinking purposes in the larger cities a number of 

such springs have been developed and their waters placed on the, market. 

These are mainly in the vicinity of Washington and Baltimore.

The more porous beds of the Coastal Plain, where cut by ravines, 

give rise to numerous springs. These are commonly small and their 

water is frequently hard and is unsatisfactory for many purposes. 

Relatively little use is generally made of these springs, but a few of 

them that possess medicinal properties have been developed and their 

waters placed on the market.

The following is a list of springs reporting shipments in 1902: a

Blackiston Island Diuretic Mineral Spring, Blackiston Island, St. Mary County.

Bladensburg Spa, Bladensburg, Prince George County.

Carroll Springs, Forest Glen, Montgomery County.

Chattolanee Springs, Chattolanee, Baltimore County.

Elim or Willmead Spring, Oxenhill, Prince George County.

Mardela Mineral Spring, Mardela, Wicomico County.

Eock Hill Indian Spring, Rockville, Montgomery County.

Roland Park Artesian Well, Roland Park, Baltimore County.

Takoma Spring, Takoma Park, Montgomery County.

apeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S, for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
116 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Of these springs those in St. Mary, Prince George, and Wicomico 

counties are from Coastal Plain deposits. The remainder are probably 

from the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont Plateau. The aggregate 

production for 1902 is given as 488,228 gallons, with a value of $45,100.

STREAMS.

The small streams in the mountainous regions of Maryland are 

mainly spring-fed and contain in their upper courses very pure water. 

They soon become contaminated, however, by refuse from manufactories and villages situated along their courses, and, although frequently used as a source of water supply, they can not be regarded as 

a desirable source of water for domestic use. Moreover, they are 

often highly charged with silt.

The streams of the Piedmont and Coastal Plain belts are, because 

of the relative density of population of those areas, even more liable 

to pollution than those of the mountainous area and are seldom, if 

ever, desirable sources of supply.

WELLS.

Allegheny Plateau. The Allegheny Plateau is developed only over 

a limited area in the extreme western part of the State. It is cut by 

the Potomac and Youghiogheny rivers and abounds in smaller streams. 

Springs are also common in this region. The surface waters are so 

abundant that the relatively small population depends largely on natural 

water supplies, very few wells being sunk except in the river bottoms, 

where good water is obtained at slight depth. Such wells as have been 

drilled, however, have generally procured considerable water from the 

shales and sandstones of the Carboniferous and Devonian. Several 

wells in the synclines or basins yield flowing water.

Appalachian Mountains. There are a few wells in the river bottoms and there is an occasional shallow rock well in the limestone or 

shale valleys in the Appalachian Mountain belt, but deep wells are 

lacking, springs constituting almost the only source of natural supply. 

Cisterns are sometimes used.

Piedmont Plateau. The surface of the Piedmont Plateau is here, 

as elsewhere, made up of more or less deeply weathered and jointed 

crystalline rocks. These contain considerable water in the aggregate, 

many shallow wells deriving their supplies from their weathered upper 

portions, while other wells obtain water from joint fissures at greater 

depths. The occurrence or nonoccurrence of water at a given point 

can seldom be predicted, however, because of the great variability of 

the governing factors. The largest supplies are obtained from these 

rocks near the cities of Baltimore and Washington, each of which is 

discussed separately.
BARTON and FULLER.] MARYLAND.

Coastal Plain. The Coastal Plain region in eastern Maryland presents the usual general structural relations, but certain local features 

are conspicuous. The Raritan formation merges into the underlying 

Potomac formation; the upper marl of the marine Cretaceous thins 

and changes to more clayey beds, and only the middle and lower members continue southward, where they have been designated the Severn 

formation; the Pamunkey greensand marl comes in, and the plateau 

areas capped by the Lafayette formation become characteristic features. The formations are as follows:

Coastal Plain formations in Maryland.

Formation.

Columbia ...........

Lafayette ...........

Pamunkey ..........

Severn ..............

Magothy ............

Characteristics. Age.

Quaternary.

Eocene.

In the following table is given a list of the more important localities 

obtaining deep or artesian waters. Baltimore wells are not given, but 

are considered on a subsequent page:

Statistics of deep-well localities in Maryland.

Locality.

Chapel Point ..........

Crisfleld ........... ....

Marlboro ..............

Range of depth.

From 

Feet.

100

240 

1,018

102

To 

Feet. 

150 

201 

470 

384 

287 

370 

237 

440 

360 

370 

1,090 

359

600

234 

463i 

148J 

358 

300 

222

Range of capacity 

per minute.

From 

Gallons.

0

160

40

0

To 

Gallons. 

5

20

each, 250

Many

200 

30

each, 75 

20

Hi 

10 

4

2 

25

Geologic horizon of water.

Basal Potomac.

Magothy. 

Mid-Potomac. 

In Potomac. 

Low in Pamunkey. 

Basal Chesapeake. 

Basal Pamunkey. 

Magothy, in Pamunkey. 

Basal Chesapeake. 

Chesapeake, Basal Chesapeake. 

Magothy, Potomac.

(Low in Chesapeake, Into Pamunkey, 

t Low in Severn?

In Chesapeake. 

In Potomac. 

Basal Potomac. 

Basal Chesapeake. 

Do. 

Maerothv?
118 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114. 

Statistics of deep-well localities in Maryland Continued.

Locality.

MilesRiver Neck ("Anchorage")

Miles RiverNeck( Long 

Point)

Patuxent River, at B. 

& P. R. R.

Piney Point ...........

Rock Point, Charles 

County.

St. George Island, 25 

wells.

St. Inigoes, 10 wells, 

"Jutland."

Solomons Island, 2 

wells.

Tunis Mills, on Miles 

River Neck.

Range of depth.

From 

Feet.

252

To 

Feet. 

265

195

175 

305 

256 

152

270 

240

2 "54

270 

365

101

258

400 

430

Range of capacity 

per minute.

From 

Gallons.

10

Flows, 6

To 

Gallons. 

15

5

1 

7 

130 

20

5(?) 

Many. 

3

each, 2-5 

1

350 

each, 150

Many. 

Pumps, 100

Geologic horizon of water.

In Pamunkey. 

Basal Chesapeake.

Basal Pamunkey. 

Low in Pamunkey. 

High in Chesapeake. 

Basal Potomac?

Basal Chesapeake. 

Do. 

Do.

Do. 

Do.

High in Chesapeake. 

Basal Chesapeake.

Magothy? 

Do.

WATER HORIZONS.

It is now known that the greater part of the entire Coastal Plain 

region of Maryland is underlain by several horizons of water-bearing 

beds. The distribution of wells and water horizons is represented in 

the cross sections of PI. VII. i

The gravels and sands of the basal beds of the Potomac formation 

that lie on or near the floor of crystalline rocks are the principal 

sources of water for wells sunk in the western portion of the Coastal 

"Plain. How far southeastward this water horizon may extend has not 

been determined, but probably it will yield water in many areas nearly 

to the Atlantic coast. To the east and south the dip of the Potomac 

horizon carries it to a great depth, but there are several strata of 

water in higher beds in the Potomac, and in other formations at more 

moderate depths. The easternmost successful wells which have reached 

the base of the Potomac formation are those in the southeastern portion 

of the Baltimore region, in the District of Columbia, and at Middletown, in Delaware, all of which are only a few miles from the outcrop 

of the formation, so that the eastern extension of the basal Potomac 

waters is not known over a very great breadth of territory. The failure of a well at Sparrow Point to find water in the basal beds indicates 

also that the sheet of water is not general at this horizon.
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. VII

.SECTION 1

feet

^ CMLSA -PE'A KC ' 

 ti)JIM'A'.T-l~QN

^JiSSOthu-yy^^ " 

Horizontal scale 

5 1.0_____

SECTIONS IN MARYLAND AND DELAWARE.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 11* PL. VIM

feet

SECTION I

044

I 

3 S ~l 

£.11 I

£ 

<3

55I 

11

SECTION 2

I a§ i

Patapsco River feet

Horizontal scale

Jmile

SECTIONS IN BALTIMORE REGION.
DARTON and FULLER.] MARYLAND. 119

The water horizons lying at various distances above the basal beds, 

but within the Potomac formation, have been extensively explored in 

the vicinity of Washington and Baltimore, where they appear to be 

widespread and satisf actorily productive. They have also been reached 

in a Marlboro well at a depth of 216 feet, and in a well at Indian Head 

at 459 feet. A well at Bowie found no satisfactory supply of water 

to within about 200 feet of the base of the formation, nor was a well 

on Spesutie Island a success, though it appears to have penetrated the 

Potomac beds to a considerable distance. The sands of the Magothy 

formation, which underlie the Potomac, appear to be water bearers 

over a wide area on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, as is probably 

indicated b}^ wells at Claiborne, Tilghman Island, and Crisfield, and 

possibly also at Tunis Mills. They underlie the central area of the 

Western Shore southeast of a line from Bowie to the mouth of the 

Patapsco River, but do not appear to yield water in Marlboro, Annapolis, and Bay Ridge wells. A boring to 600 feet at Easton, unfortunately, probably did not thoroughly test this horizon, otherwise we 

might have had some important evidence for that portion of the Eastern 

Shore region. A 265-foot well on Miles River Neck appears to draw 

its water from a horizon in the Pamunkey formation, but this well is 

the only indication of a water horizon in these formations in the 

Eastern Shore region. In we,lls at Colonial Beach, Va., and at Nanjemoy, Chapel Point, and Rock Point, in Charles County, the basal 

Pamunkey beds yield water which probably underlies much of southern Maryland southeast of a line from Herring Bay to Liverpool Point.

The basal Chesapeake water horizon, which is well explored in Virginia, yields water over a wide area in the southern counties of the 

Western Shore at depths from 200 to 300 feet, as in wells at Solomons 

Island, Leonardtown, Piney Point, St. Inigoes, and St. Georges 

Island. At Cornfield Harbor it is 365 feet. This horizon also furnishes large water supplies at Denton, Cambridge, and Le Compt's 

store, and possibly in a well 195 feet deep on Miles River Neck, on 

the Eastern Shore. It was not found at Crisfield, nor in a deeper boring at Easton, although the associated sandstone bed was reported at 

Easton. The higher Chesapeake horizons are important in New Jersey 

and Delaware, and, although not extensively tested in southern Maryland, they .probably underlie a considerable area of the Eastern Shore. 

At Easton the large water supply in wells 100 feet deep is derived from 

a horizon in the Chesapeake formation about 150 feet above its base, 

and the Federalsburg water, which lies at a depth of 234 feet, is either 

at the same horizon or at one not a great distance above. The small 

showing of water at 160 feet at Leonardtown appears to be a local 

occurrence, for it was not reported in other wells to the east. Unsatisfactory water was obtained at Salisbury from a much higher horizon,
120 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITE!) STATES. [NO. 114.

and the flow of fine water at Ocean City is from a still higher horizon of 

the Chesapeake formation. In the wells at and near Cambridge and at 

Crisfield no waters were reported above the basal Chesapeake beds; 

so we must conclude that the higher waters do not extend in that 

direction.

BALTIMORE DISTRICT.

GEOLOGY.

Baltimore lies in the zone in which the crystalline rocks emerge from 

beneath the Coastal Plain deposits. Although in greater part it is built 

on the Potomac formation, the depressions of Jones and Gwynns falls 

are excavated to the crystalline rocks, and these rocks rise rapidly to 

constitute the surface in the region north and west of the city. The 

Potomac formation consists of its usual materials, in which predominate clays of various colors and fine sands. Toward its base there are 

beds of coarse sands and gravels, and at the base an almost general 

occurrence of these materials, lying on a floor of crystalline rocks. 

Some features and relations of these basal beds are shown in PI. VIII. 

The coarse materials contain widely extended sheets of water, which 

have been tapped by many well borings of moderate depth. The 

rock floor slopes rather steeply eastward, at a rate averaging about 65 

feet per mile, but the rate appears to increase locally to 100 feet along 

by the Basin. The basal gravels pass beneath tide water along a line 

extending from the lower Baltimore and Ohio Railroad bridge over 

Gwynns Falls to the Fayette Street Bridge over Jones Falls, and thence 

due east-northeastward. The principal water supplies are found south 

of this line, for in the area to the north the waters are free to flow 

laterally into the depressions of Jones and Gwynns falls. The basal 

gravels emerge in the northern portion of the city, although in some 

areas they are overlain by a thin cap of gravels and loams of earlier 

(Columbia) age. They cap the Druid Hill Park region, the ridges for 

some distance out Charles street, Roland avenue, and York, Harford, 

and Belair roads, and the high region about Catonsville. In these 

outlying extensions the basal gravels constitute a capping on the 

crystalline rocks which averages from 10 to 30 feet in thickness. 

The principal structural relations are shown in the sections on PI. VIII. 

On Patapsco River Neck the Potomac formation rapidly thickens as the 

crystalline rock floor descends to the east, and at Sparrow Point its 

thickness was found to be 500 feet. The higher ridge which extends 

along the northern portion of this neck is capped by a thin mantle of 

earlier Columbia gravels and loams, and the lower terraces consist of 

later Columbia loams and sands, with some gravel in the lower beds. 

These formations, however, are not involved in the question of the 

deeper water supply.
CARTON and FULLER.] MARYLAND. 121

The crystalline rocks present considerable variety of materials, but 

gneiss and granite, or "gray stone," and "nigger head," or gabbro, 

are the most conspicuous varieties. They are all considerably fissured 

and often deeply decomposed along fissures or veins of moderate width 

and extent. The fissures or veins are usually nearly vertical and 

extend from northeast to southwest. They are water-bearers in greater 

or less measure, but their distribution and extent have not been determined, except in the case of the one along Belair road, which has been 

tested for a short distance.

WATER HORIZONS AND WELL PROSPECTS.

Canton, The wells in Canton indicate the presence of several widely 

extended sheets of water bearing gravels, the upper layers of which 

are interbedded between sheets of clay and fine sand, the lower bed 

lying on the floor of crystalline rocks. The dip is to the southeast at 

rate of about 60 feet per mile. In PI. VIII the first section lies along 

Clinton street from Highlandtown to Thirteenth avenue and across 

Patapsco River to Seawall. The three principal water horizons are 

lettered A, B, and C. They occur from the bed rock up at intervals 

that average 40 feet.

There are several wells north of Canton, at Highlandtown, which 

yield large water supplies. At the National Brewery there are two 

wells to 240 and 450 feet, and at Gunther's brewery two wells to 

207 and 208 feet. The waters at 207 and 240 feet are probably in 

basal Potomac beds, or at Horizon A, as shown in section 1, PI. VIII. 

At Schluderberg's packing house a well jdelds water at 135, 160, and 

210 feet, and the 160-foot or third horizon was tested to 150 gallons a 

minute. The basal beds of the Potomac formation probably carry the 

water found at 210 feet.

East Baltimore, from Canton to the Basin. There are only a few 

wells in the vicinity of Jones Falls, and they are not very successful, 

but from the foot of Patuxent street to Ann street there are 25 wells, 

nearly all of which are large producers of excellent water. The 

average depth is between 80 and 120 feet, and the principal water 

horizon is B of the Canton region, but A and C also are found. 

Section 2 of PI. VIII illustrates the principal relations.

The large water supply found in the basal Potomac beds, Horizon A, 

appears to extend to the north and west, but it was not reported half 

a mile southeast. The greater number of the wells in this district find 

abundance of water in Horizon B, about 40 feet above the basal beds.

What appear to be the sea horizons of the Canton region yield water 

in places.

In the region immediately adjoining Jones Falls and for some distance to the west on the north side of the Basin deep wells do not yield
122 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

satisfactory water supplies on account of the proximity of the basal 

and lower Potomac beds to the surface. Several wells have penetrated 

the crystalline rocks and found a fair supply of satisfactory water.

Region "between the Basin and the harbor and Middle Branch. There 

are several wells along the north side of Locust Point from the Basin 

to Fort McHenry, which yield satisfactory water supplies from the 

Potomac horizons.

Probably Horizons B and C underlie all of the Locust Point region, 

and Horizon A, in the basal beds, may possibly occur at some localities 

southeast of the Federal Hill region.

On the Ferry Bar peninsula there are a few widely scattered wells, 

which, however, indicate that the favorable conditions in Canton and 

on Locust Point continue to the west, and that abundant waters may 

be obtained in Horizons C, B, and A. The shallower waters are 

unsatisfactory in quality, but the deeper waters give no scale in boilers 

and occur in large amounts.

Between the Basin and Ridgely Cove a number of attempts have 

been made to obtain water from the crystalline rocks, with varying 

degrees of success,

Region from Brooklyn to Curtis Bay. The successful group of wells 

at Seawall and at South Baltimore (Curtis Bay) indicates a wide and 

general extension of the Potomac waters under the Curtis Bay-Patapsco 

River peninsula. The Seawall water at 217 feet appears to represent 

Horizon C. The 562-foot boring at Seawall no doubt demonstrates the 

absence of water in the basal Potomac, or Horizon A, in that vicinity, 

and also in the underlying crystalline rocks.

Region southeast of Canton to Sparrow Point. The wells of St. 

Helena, Dundalk, and Sparrow Point are included under this heading. 

Their relations are shown in section 2, PI. VIII. The wells at St. Helena 

are probably in Horizon C, and the water at 230 feet at Dundalk is 

thought to be in Horizon B, which probably would have been found 

at 200 feet at St. Helena. The 120-foot water at Dundalk is possibly 

the deepest water of Sparrow Point.

The Sparrow Point wells are a most satisfactory group of water 

producers. Their principal supply is obtained at a depth of 125 feet 

from a horizon high in the Potomac formation, for a well sunk to a 

depth of 495 feet just reached the granite bed rock. In this deep well 

no water was found below 210 feet, which indicates that the lower 

water horizons do not extend far eastward .in this region. The one 

well which draws 100 gallons a minute from a depth of 210 feet obtains 

its supply from a horizon which can not be definitely correlated with 

those of wells farther northwest.

Northeast Baltimore. Several breweries in this section of the city 

have deep wells, some of which yield satisfactory water supplies. 

They all penetrate the crystalline rocks and obtain water from fissures
DAKTON and FULLER.] MAEYLAND. 123

or decomposed portions of these rocks in fair supply, but when wells 

were sunk to 315 and 400 feet at the Bauernschmidt brewery, a block 

southwest, the supply at once diminished to a very small amount. The 

well at the Brehm brewery, which is some distance east of the Belair 

road and several squares beyond North avenue, was sunk in the rock 

to a depth of 1,300 feet without finding water, but it is considerably 

east of the line of the other wells.

The Darley Park Brewery well, on the Harford road, three squares 

north of North avenue, is west of the Belair-Gay street line of wells. 

The waters from these wells differ considerably in character, but in 

greater part they are satisfactory for boilers and drinking, although 

in some cases the water is too ferruginous for general use.

Western part of Baltimore. Except the well at the Lipp Soap 

Works, atHollins street and Calverton Road, no specific data for borings 

in the western part of Baltimore are at hand. The soap works wells are 

in crystalline rocks and reach a vein or fissure which 3delds a good 

supply of water of excellent quality.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. 8. Geol. Survey 

No. 32, pp. 51-53.

Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton: 

Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, pp. 124-155.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57/p. 50.

Water resources of the Accident and Grantsville quadrangles, Maryland, by G. C. 

Martin: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110,1905, pp. 168-170.

Water resources of the Frostburg and Flintstone quadrangles, Maryland and West 

Virginia, by G. C. Martin: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 

1905, pp. 171-173.

Description of the Fredericksburg quadrangle, Maryland and Virginia, by N. H. 

Darton: Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 13, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Description of the Nomini quadrangle, Maryland and Virginia, by N. H. Darton: 

Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 23, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Description of the Washington quadrangle, Maryland, District of Columbia, and 

Virginia, by N. H. Darton and A. Keith: Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 70, U. S. Geol. 

Survey.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

By N. H. DARTON and M. L, FULLER.

GEOLOGY.

The District of Columbia extends across the zone in which the crystalline rocks emerge from beneath the Coastal Plain deposits and rise 

into the Piedmont Plateau to the west. The contact line crosses the 

Potomac River at Washington, passes through the western portion 

of the city, and extends northward along the east side of Rock 

Creek Valley. The formation that lies on the crystalline rocks is the 

Potomac, which consists mainly of water-bearing sands and gravels 

below and of clay and fine sands above. The Potomac formation has 

in all a thickness of about 700 feet, and outcrops in a belt from 7 to 8 

miles wide, which extends eastward high up the slopes on the east 

side of Anacostia River. In these slopes it is surmounted by younger 

formations, consisting of a succession of the thin western edges of the 

dark sandy clays of the Severn formation, the impure marl of the 

Pamunkey, the gray clays of the Chesapeake, and the gravels of the 

Lafayette. Washington is situated on a series of broad, low terraces 

cut in Potomac sands and clays and across the edge of this formation 

into the crystalline rocks.

This series of terraces and its extension along all the lower land of 

the District is capped by from 20 to 35 feet of gravelly sands and 

loams of the Columbia formation. In the three sections in PL IX a 

fairly clear representation is given of the structure of the Washington 

region. It is in Good Hope Hill that the Potomac formation passes 

under the Severn, Pamunkey, Chesapeake, and Lafayette formations, 

as shown in section 2, but there are also small outlying areas of the 

Chesapeake and Lafayette formations on the high lands of Soldiers' 

Home Park and the ridge which extends to Tenley.

WATER HORIZONS AND PROSPECTS.

Waters of the crystalline rocks. Under this head are included the 

waters of the consolidated rocks of the Piedmont Plateau portion of 

the District. These rocks comprise granite-gneiss, biotite-granite, 

diorite, etc., and are generally deeply weathered and cut by numerous

124
U. 6. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

S § 6k 

,v..-J ^ I 1 

it 2 '^'cv;"^ JV ';;x<^^1 /^5^^i^A^:K~

c#*SrALLM£. > > ifVr^V^ ;

ii. ij:/f^TTT^r^^gasas. ^~^...^---...~^- ' - - ^^ s ~__~. u 

HOmZOMTAL SCAl £\
DARTON and FULLER.] DISTEICT OF COLUMBIA. 125

joints. The disintegrated nature of the outcrops is favorable to the 

absorption of considerable quantities of water and the broken-up rock 

acts as a filter. In general, the area of the consolidated rocks is relatively thinly settled and little demand is made on it for water supplies, 

except by shallow wells. The few deep wells that have been put 

down, however, show that moderate amounts of good water can 

frequently be obtained, although, because of variations in the density 

of the rock and in the number of joint fissures, the conditions are far 

from constant.

The surface of the consolidated rocks slopes southeastward from 

Rock Creek, where it is exposed at an elevation of 200 feet, at an 

average rate of 110 feet to the mile. It lies at a depth of about 100 

feet below tide level in the center of the District and of about 600 

feet at the southeastern boundary. The crystalline rocks are not 

depended upon as a source of water east of Rock Creek because of 

the greater quantities that are found in the sedimentary beds that 

overlie them in this region.

Waters of the sedimentary rocks. All of the sedimentary formations 

carry more or less water, but, except in the case of the Potomac, the 

flows are small and the quality is not the best. This is especially true 

in the isolated areas capping the hills of crystalline rocks, even the 

Potomac frequently failing in such localities.

The Potomac is the principal water-bearing formation of the area; 

it constitutes the surface material over most of the Coastal Plain 

portion of the District, having a catchment area from 6 to 8 miles 

in width. Its base rests on the crystalline rocks, dipping southeastward with the latter. Its total thickness, as pointed out, is about 700 

feet.

The deeper-seated underground waters have been tapped by a sufficiently large number of wells in the District to demonstrate the almost 

general extension of water-bearing beds in the basal and lower bed of 

the Potomac formation, and there is often a fair prospect for finding 

water in the crystalline rocks. The wells that did not find a satisfactory water supply in the basal Potomac beds are at the Ice Works at a 

depth of 360 feet, and at the Mount Vernon Apartment House at 133 

feet. On the other hand, the St. Elizabeth, Metropolitan Railroad 

power house, Palais Royal, Eckington, Washington Brewery, and 

National Capitol Brewery wells obtain large supplies from that horizon. In surface outcrops the basal Potomac beds are usually coarse 

sands and gravels, which are filled with water, but there are some 

local areas in which there is a clay matrix, or even pure clay, extending down to the crystalline floor. This was found to be the case at 

the Mount Vernon Apartment House, while at the Palais Royal, three 

squares southwest, the basal beds were coarse sands and gravels containing much water. In the 380-foot well at the Ice Works coarse
126 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

bisal beds were found, but they contain no large supply of water. 

This leads to the conclusion that the waters are in part choked off 

toward the north by a local area of clayey beds which does not influence the wells at the breweries near by.

Besides the basal sands and gravels of the Potomac there are beds 

of sand or gravel at several other horizons, especially near the top. 

Although of somewhat uncertain persistence and character they are so 

numerous that good flows can generally be obtained at or even considerably above sea level. As these beds occur in the District only near 

its southeastern border they are not here important sources of water, 

the underground water supply of the District being derived, as stated, 

mainly from the lower beds.

In general the dip of the Potomac formation corresponds roughly 

with the slope of the surface of the underlying crystalline rocks, 

decreasing from an elevation of 200 feet above sea level just east of 

the Zoological Park to sea level in the vicinity of New Hampshire avenue, 200 feet below sea level at the Capitol, 300 feet at Lincoln 

Park, 400 feet near Anacostia River, and 600 feet at the District line; 

hence there is a constant increase southeastward in the depths to 

which wells must be sunk to the water-bearing beds.

In -general it may be said-that the prospects are good for obtaining 

supplies from the basal beds of the Potomac, while there is always an 

additional chance of finding water in the overlying beds, as at the ice 

works. Notwithstanding the density of the population of almost the 

entire catchment area in the District, the organic impurities of the 

water are largely oxidized and removed in consequence of the natural 

filtration through the soil and sands, so that the supply from deep wells 

is usually satisfactory as regards purity.

Mineral springs. Springs are fairly numerous in the District of 

Columbia, but in general consist only of small seeps from the disintegrated crystalline rocks or from the sandy portions of the Coastal Plain 

formations. A number have been developed, however, and water to 

the amount of 212,100 gallons, with a value of $12,105, was placed on 

the market in 1902. a These are listed below:

Columbia Natural Lithia Spring, Washington. 

Crystal Spring, Washington. 

Gitchie Crystal Spring, Benning. 

Laurelwood Spring, Mount Pleasant.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Artesian-well prospects of the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton: Bull.

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, pp. 155-161. 

Description of the Washington, D. C., quadrangles, by N. H. Darton and A. Keith:

Geol. Atlas of U. S.,-folio 70, U. S. Geol. Survey.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Kesources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
VIRGINIA.

By N. H. DARTON and M. L. FULLER.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS.

There are four well-defined geologic and topographic belts in Virginia: (1) The Coastal Plain, (2) the Piedmont Plateau, (3) the Appalachian Mountain belt, and (4) the Cumberland Plateau. The first 

three are prolongations of the belts of the same name in Maryland, 

with which they agree in character. The fourth corresponds in a general way with the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania and Maryland, 

although its surface was not produced at the same geologic period.

GEOLOGY AND WATER HORIZONS.

COASTAL PLAIN. 

GEOLOGY.

The Coastal Plain region of Virginia lies east of a line which passes 

through Alexandria, Fredericksburg, Bothwell, Richmond, Petersburg, 

and Emporia, comprising an area of about 9,500 square miles. This 

district is traversed from northwest to southeast by a series of great 

rivers, which divide it into a succession of long ridges. These ridges 

are remnants of a plateau surface which slopes from an altitude of from 

300 to 200 feet at the western margin of the Coastal Plain to an altitude 

of about 100 feet on its eastern margin. The larger rivers are tidal 

estuaries that occupy low valleys and meander through wide terrace 

plains. Chesapeake Bay is widely bordered by these interstream 

terraces, while the Eastern Shore of Virginia, which lies east of the 

bay, is a low plain, as is also the wide area which lies between Dismal 

Swamp and the Atlantic Ocean.

The geologic structure of the region is in general similar to that of 

eastern Maryland, but there are certain differences in the stratigraphy. 

In the outcrop zone the Potomac formation becomes predominantly 

sandy and the Severn and Magothy sands are absent, so that the 

Pamunkey marls lie directly on the surface of the Potomac beds. Far 

eastward, under the bay and the Eastern Shore, there is probably

127
128 UNDERGROUND WAFERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

presented the same sequence that is found in Maryland. The Chesapeake formation extends farther westward in southern Virginia and 

often overlaps on the cn^stalline rocks. In the sections, PL X, there 

are shown the general structural relations in Virginia so far as they 

are known. The Coastal Plain formations that outcrop in the State 

are as follows:

Coastal Plain formations in Virginia.

Formation.

Chesapeake .........

Characteristics.

Clays, sands, infusorial earth, and marl.

Age.

Pleistocene.

Miocene.

WATER HORIZONS.

The greater part, if not all, of the Coastal Plain region of Virginia 

is underlain by water-bearing strata, of which, to the east, there 

are several horizons. The failures to obtain the higher water in some 

of the wells near the bay indicate that in this area at least there are 

no good water supplies in the higher horizons, but the waters of the 

lower horizons have not yet been fully developed. The success of the 

new well at Fort Monroe definitely proves the existence of one of these. 

The failure of a single well, as at North End Point, does not always disprove the existence of a water horizon, for in many instances water 

has been passed unnoticed, or willfully, by well borers.

The principal water horizons in eastern Virginia are the Chesapeake, 

the Pamunkey, and the Potomac.

Potomac. There is more or less water in all of the coarser sand beds 

of the Potomac formation, but the principal supplies may be expected 

from the sands and gravels of the basal members lying on the basement 

floor of crystalline rocks. This horizon has yielded much, water about 

Washington, Alexandria, Quantico, and Walkerton. It is probably a 

strong water-bearer throughout a wide extent. Its general relations 

are shown in PI. X.

Water occurs at various horizons in the Potomac formation above 

the basal beds in sands interbedded among the clays. This water is 

an important source of supply in the District of Columbia and at 

Barrow, near Quantico, but elsewhere it has not been fully tested.

Pamunkey. The coarse gravel and sand at the base of this formation appears to be a water-bearer throughout a considerable area, furnishing supplies at Naylors Wharf, Chapel Point, Md., Colonial Beach, 

Lester Manor, and Whitehouse.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. X

SECTION 1

feet

 SECTION 3

»

i

SECTION 4=

ll <? «,

| |

^ i

WARWICK COUNTY

Wff/ffff//ffffmffff////ff$W///////7ff/17flr>n. = «r^ i"A MUNIfFy ==a"-

 *- _**iB$

'^////////////////^MM^^/mrr

^

^

J_ Water ' ~

 l

UHESAPEAKE

Horizontal scale 

5 TO 20 miles

SECTIONS IN EASTERN VIRGINIA.
DAETON and FULLER.] VIRGINIA. 129

The meager supply of water in the Clay Bank well and the failure 

of the deeper borings at Williamsburg and Gloucester probably indicate the eastern limits of the horizon as a water-bearer. It m&y 

extend under all of the region south of the James Biver, although 

none of the wells appear to have been bored sufficiently deep to reach 

it. It is to be expected that toward the east the materials at this 

horizon finally become too fine-grained to carry water, and the eastern 

limit of conditions favorable for water bearing appears to be at Clay 

Bank, on York River.

Water also occurs in sands in the Pamunkey formation about 90 

feet above its base, as is indicated by the water at 160 feet at Colonial 

Beach, and at 275 to 325 feet at Naylors Wharf; but as it has not been 

further explored by other wells, its extant can not be discussed.

Chesapeake. Lying between the c^s, marls, and fine sands of the 

Chesapeake formation and the top of the Pamunkey formation there 

is a series of sands and gravels which may be regarded as the basal 

bed of the Chesapeake formation. Toward the east this series contains thin interstratified rock strata, which do not appear in the surface outcrops. In this series, and in another similar one not far 

above, there is a large volume of water, at a horizon or horizons 

which appear to be of wide extent in eastern Virginia. These waters 

have been explored by many wells and have been found to underlie a 

belt of country about 2.0 miles wide lying east of a nearly straight 

line extending from Mathias Point, on the Potomac River, to Emporia, 

on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad.

" Basal Chesapeake waters were apparently absent in the North End 

Point, Fort Monroe, Dendron, Clay Bank, and Gloucester wells. The 

wells at Crisfield, Md., found no appreciable supply of water in the 

basal Chesapeake beds.

There are several higher water horizons in the Chesapeake formation, and it is believed that certain wells at Franklin, Zuni, Bowlers 

Wharf, and Mount Carmel draw water from Chesapeake beds that lie 

about 100 feet above the base of the formation.

WELLS.

The occurrence of the underground waters is well brought out by 

the list of some of the more important wells of the Coastal Plain presented in the following table. It will be noted that the supply per 

minute and the bed from which the water is obtained is indicated in 

each case.
130 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Partial list of deep wells.

Location.

Alexandria Brewery .

Alexandria Ice 

Works.

Arringdale, 2 wells..

Do...............

Bellevue, 2 wells .... 

Bothwell. ...........

Colonial Beach, 5 

wells.

Courtland, 30 wells. .

Dudleys Perry, 4 

wells.

Fort Mon roe, Chamberlin Hotel.

Franklin, 16 wells... 

GabelsMill..........

Gloucester Court 

House.

Homewood, Swells.-

King and Queen. . . . .

Do...............

LesterManor,3 wells.

Little Plymouth .....

Monatico Creek ......

Mount Carmel 

Church.

Depth.

Feet. 

430 

401

75

79 

100 

195

212 

300 

143 

330

538 

175

270

315 

220 

250

160

288 

620 

386 

175

507

907

945

130 

226 

600

317

112

248 

200 

235 

250 

285? 

200

168 

255

250 

190

386

Size.

In.

8 

8

p

4

li 

6 

4

li 

li

li 

4 

li 

U

2 

li 

6 

li

3

li

H

li

1

3

2 

li

li

2

. li 

li

Capacity per 

minute.

Gallons. 

90 

20

Flows 10

Many. 

Many. 

Many.

Flows 15 to 20 

20

Flows 2

Flows 10 to

12.

Flows 2i

15 

3 

5

30 

Flows 2 

Flows 2 

None. 

Flows 10

Flows 7

Flows 2 

None. 

Flows 50

Many. 

Flows 20 

None.

Flows 30

Fair supply.

Plows 2| 

Flows 1 

5 

Flows 12

Flows 12

Flows 2

Flows 2 

Flows li

Flows 3

Height 

to which 

water 

rises, a

Feet.

-12 

+10 

- 4 1

+4 to +6

Flows.

+12 

+4 

+4 to +6

+12

+12 

+12 

+8to+15

+ 6

+4 to +6

4 toC

+10

Flow. 

+ 10

+2 

+35

+15

+8 to +12

+ 

+6

+45

Horizon.

Granite ............

Basal Chesapeake..

.....do..............

Basal Pamunkey?.. 

.....do..............

Basal Chesapeake.. 

.....do..............

.....do..............

Basal Pamunkey . .

Basal Chesapeake..

Basal Chesapeake.. 

Basal Pamunkey 4.. 

Basal Chesapeake..

.....do..............

Basal Chesapeake.. 

Pamunkey? ........

Basal Chesapeake..

Basal Chesapeake.. 

Basal Pamunkey?. . 

Basal Chesapeake.. 

.....do..............

Basal Pamunkey?.. 

Basal Chesapeake.. 

.....do..............

.....do..............

.....do..............

Basal Pamunkey. . .

Remarks.

Soft water.

Poor water at 300 

feet.

Slightly alkaline 

water.

No water below 143 

feet.

Soft water.

Water also at 240 

feet.

Water also at 160 

feet.

Water also at 240 

and 464 feet.

Soft, good water.

Slightly saline water.

Stopped at rock 

stratum.

Fine water 54°. 

Sulphurous water at 270 feet.

Ferruginous water.

Fine water 68°.

Much water at 326 

feet.

a +, feet above the surface; -, feet below the surface.
BARTON and FULLER.] VIRGINIA. 131

Partial list of deep wells Continued.

Location.

Norfolk..............

Point.

Point. 

North End Point ....

Plum Point, 3 wells. .

Puritan Bay, 2 wells.

Richmond:

mile northeast.

Sandy Point:

Westmoreland 

County.

Do...............

Sheppard's warehouse, 2 wells.

West Point, 200 wells.

White House, 3 wells.

Do...............

Depth.

Feet.

187

+ 600

147

610

562

1,172 

400

140

168 

200

80

215 

180

350

225

400

900

250

235 

560

235

360

160 

+100

70

315

160 

250

180-230

876

280

430

161

Size.

In.

1'

6?

li

4i

H

li

li 

li

li

li

li

li

li

li

H

Capacity per 

minute.

Gallons.

None

65

None. 

Plows 10-12

5

Plows 10-12

Plows 10-12 

Plows 10-12

4-5

1

None

3

Plows 12-35

Plows 10-15

Average 12 

20

1-6 

None

Height 

to which 

water 

rises.

Feet.

4-9

+5

+6

..........

+8-12

+4-6 

+4-6

12

+12 

 24

+24

+6-8

+4-6

Average

+2.

+5-20

Horizon.

.....do..............

.....do..............

.....do..............

Potomac ...........

Basal Chesapeake..

Basal Chesapeake..

.....do..............

.....do..............

.....do..............

Basal Chesapeake . .

Basal Chesapeake..

Basal Chesapeake. .

Basal Chesapeake..

Chesapeake.

Remarks.

Ver h rd

ter.

water.

nation.

feet; rock, 270- 

560 feet.

Water also at 240

feet.

Ferruginous water.

stratum. 

To top of rock

stratum.
132 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114. 

PIEDMONT PLATEAU.

The Piedmont Plateau extends from the Coastal Plain on the east 

to the foot of the Appalachian Mountains on the west. Its surface is 

made up mainly of more or less crystalline igneous or metamorphic 

rocks, but is marked by a number of basins of Triassic shales and sandstones.

Over the greater part of the Piedmont Plateau the uplands are 

smooth and rounded and the streams flow near their heads in broad, 

shallow valleys. In their lower courses the streams, especially the 

larger ones, have formed deep channels, and a strongly rolling topography has been developed. Toward the west the topography merges 

into that of the Appalachian Mountain belt.

Crystalline rocks. The crystalline rocks of the Piedmont belt are 

deeply weathered at the surface and are broken by numerous joints 

that extend to considerable depths. As in similar regions elsewhere, 

the weathered upper portion everywhere furnishes supplies for shallow wells. Few deep wells have been drilled, but it is probable that 

moderate amounts of water would be obtained in a considerable percentage o-f the wells sunk. The water, however, would be likely in 

many instances to be rather strongly mineralized and unsuitable for 

some purposes. Moreover, because of the uncertainty of the presence 

of joints or other water-bearing fissures in the rock, the occurrence or 

nonoccurrence of water in a well at a given locality can seldom be 

predicted.

Triassic rocks. The Triassic rocks consist of a series of shales and 

sandstones, with a few coals, etc., occup}ang basin-like depressions in 

the Piedmont Plateau. Moderate or small supplies of water are generally obtained by the shallower wells. Deeper wells would probably 

obtain considerable amounts in many instances, although, as in other 

Triassic areas, the waters are likely to be mineralized. Strong springs 

occur along certain of the faults which cut this area, and it is not 

improbable that flowing waters could be obtained in some localities.

APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN BELT.

The term Appalachian Mountain belt is used in a broad way to 

include the entire belt of folded rocks lying between the Piedmont 

Plateau and the Cumberland and Allegheny plateaus of West Virginia 

and Pennsylvania. The rocks are of Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian 

age, and include quartzites, sandstones, shales, and limestones. Near 

the eastern limits of the belt, separated from the Piedmont Plateau by 

only a narrow strip of folded rocks, is the Shenandoah Valley. This 

valley is underlain by Cambro-Silurian limestones.

The Appalachian Mountain belt is in general thinly inhabited and 

contains few wells. Springs abound and constitute the main source
BARTON and FULLER.] VIRGINIA. 138

of supply of the inhabitants. The quartzites carry very little water 

in their denser portions, although springs of considerable size sometimes issue from their more porous parts. The springs of the shales 

are numerous, but are generally small. In the limestone area of the 

Shenandoah Valley, a region which is relatively thickly inhabited, 

dependence is placed largely on cisterns, the waters of the limestone 

being of uncertain occurrence. Near the borders of the limestone 

area, however, springs occur at some places, and it is probable that 

deep wells would often procure good supplies at these localities, but 

as the water sometimes occurs in definite underground channels successful wells would not always be obtained at such places.

The waters of many of the springs of the higher portions of the 

Appalachian belt are warm, and at a number of places the springs have 

been developed as resorts. At other springs the waters are bottled 

and sold for medicinal purposes. The association of these springs 

with anticlines was long ago pointed out by W. B. Rogers. It is not 

improbable that here, as in other regions, in some instances the locations of the springs were determined by faults.

CUMBERLAND PLATEAU.

The name Cumberland Plateau is applied to the elevated area of 

Carboniferous rocks lying northwest of the Appalachian Mountain 

belt. Only a small part of this area is included in Virginia, and that 

lies in the extreme western part of the State. The underground water 

supplies of this region are like those of the portion of the plateau 

included in Pennsylvania and Maryland. Practically no deep wells 

have been sunk, but it is probable that such wells if put down would 

obtain water from some one of the more sandy beds. It might even 

rise to the surface in synclines or other favorable situations. Springs 

are fairly numerous, but small.

COMMERCIAL SPRINGS.

During the year 1902 sales of water were reported from 48 springs, 

including representatives from each of the geologic divisions except 

the Cumberland Plateau. These are as follows: a

* Mtna Lithia Springs, Eoanoke, Roanoke County.

* Augusta White Lithia Spring, near Augusta Springs.

* Basic Lithia Spring, Basic City, Augusta County.

* Bear Lithia Springs, near Elkton, Eockingham County. 

t Beaufont Lithia Spring, Beaufont, Chesterfield County. 

t Bellfont Spring, near Manchester, Chesterfield County. 

t Berry Hill Mineral Spring, near Elkwood, Culpeper County.

* Blue Eidge Springs, Botetourt County.

t Buffalo Lithia Springs, Buffalo Lithia Springs, Mecklenburg County.

aPeale, A. 0., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
134 UNDERGROUND WATERS. EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

t Chase City Mineral Springs, Chase City, Mecklenburg County.

t Como Lithia Spring, East Richmond, Henrico County.

t Coppahaunk Lithia Arsenic Springs, near Waverly, Sussex County.

* Cove Lithia Spring, Wytheville, Wythe County.

* Craig Healing Spring, Vista Craig, Craig County.

* Crockett Arsenic Lithia Spring, Shawsville, Montgomery County.

Diamond Spring, Norfolk County.

t Erup Mineral Spring, near Glen Carlyn, Alexandria County. 

tFarmville Lithia Springs, Cumberland County, near Farmville, Prince

Edward County, 

t Fonticello Lithia Spring, Chesterfield County, near Eichmond.

* Golindo Lithia Springs, Weyers Cave, Augusta County.

t Harris Anti-Dyspeptic and Tonic Spring, Burkeville, Nottoway County.

* Healing Springs, Healing Springs, Bath County. 

t Houston Lithia Spring, Houston, Halifax County, 

t Hume Springs, St. Elmo, Alexandria County.

* Hunter's Pulaski Alum Springs, Walkers Creek, Pulaski County, 

t Jeffress Lithia Silica Springs, Jeffress, Mecklenburg County.

* Jordan White Sulphur Spring, Stephenson, Frederick County, 

t Lone Jack Spring, Candless Mountain, Campbell County. 

tMagee's Chlorinated Lithia Springs, Clarksville, Mecklenburg County. 

t Massanetta Springs, Harrisonburg, Eockingham County.

* Montvale Hygeia Spring, Montvale, Bedford County.

* Nye Lithia Springs, Wytheville, Wythe County.

*0'Connell Lithia Spring, near Stribling Springs, Augusta County.

t Otterburn Lithia and Magnesia Springs, Amelia, Amelia County.

t Paeonian Spring, Paeonian Springs, Loudoun County.

tPontiac (formerly Powhatan) Spring, near Falls Church, Alexandria County.

t Powhatan Lithia and Alum Springs, near Tobaccoville, Powhatan County.

* Eockbridge Alum Springs, Alum Springs, Eockbridge County.

* Eubino Healing Lithia Springs, Healing, Bath County.

* Seawright Magnesian Lithia Spring, near Staunton, Augusta County.

* Seven Springs, near Glade Spring, Washington County.

* Shenandoah Alum Springs, near North Mountain, Shenandoafr County. 

t Sublett's Lithia Spring, near Danville, Pittsylvania County. 

fSwineford's Arsenic Lithia Springs, Osceola, Chesterfield County.

* Virginia Magnesian Alkaline Springs, near Staunton, Augusta County.

* Virginia Waukesha Lithia Springs, Staunton, Augusta County.

* Wallawhatoola Alum Springs, near Millboro Spring, Bath County, 

t Wolf Trap Lithia Springs, Wolf Trap Depot, Halifax County.

Of these only the Diamond Springs of Norfolk County appear to be 

in the Coastal Plain. Of the remainder those marked * are in the 

Mountain belt, while those marked f are in the piedmont belt. The 

total output for 1902 was 2,442,398 gallons, having a value of $423,212.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey

No. 32, pp. 54-68. 

Artesian-well prospects of the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, "by N. H. Darton: Bull.

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, pp. 162-190.
BARTON and FULLER.] VIEGINIA. 185

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Barton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, p. 60.

Description of the Fredericksburg quadrangle, Maryland and Virginia, by N. H. 

Barton: Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 13, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Description of the Nomini quadrangle, Maryland and Virginia, by N. H. Darton: 

Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 23, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Description of the Washington quadrangle, Maryland, District of Columbia, and 

Virginia, by N. H. Darton and A. Keith: Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 70, U. S. Geol. 

Survey.

Description of the Norfolk quadrangle, Virginia and North Carolina, by N, H, Darton: Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 80, U. S. Geol. Survey.
NORTH CAROLINA.

By M. L. FULLER.

In North Carolina only two of the geographic and topographic belts 

recognized in Virginia are extensively developed. These are the 

Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Plateau. That part of the Appalachian Mountain belt which consists of folded sedimentary rocks is 

present only in the extreme western portion of the State. The Piedmont Plateau, however, becomes in this State mountainous as it 

approaches the former belt and topographically grades more or less 

imperceptibly into it. The Cumberland Plateau is not represented in 

the State.

COASTAL PLAIN.«

The geology of the Coastal Plain in North Carolina differs from that 

of Virginia principally in the reappearance of the marine Cretaceous 

beds, which thicken rapidly and rise to tide-water level and above 

nearly as far east as Wilmington. The Eocene formation thins somewhat, and in the southern counties lies almost entirely above tide level, 

on an irregular floor of marine Cretaceous sands and marls.

The Chesapeake beds thin rapidly southward, and lie mostly above 

tide level in shallow basins on the Eocene or marine Cretaceous.

The Potomac, the most important water-bearing formation of the 

Coastal Plain region, is best developed along the western border of 

this region in the counties southwest of the Neuse River Harnett, 

Moore, and Richmond. In these counties the Potomac strata are 

exposed at intervals over a considerable area; and, dipping gently 

southeastward on the eroded surface of the cr}7 stalline rocks, doubtless 

carry considerable quantities of water. The Potomac formation also 

reaches the surface over limited areas, both north and south of Roanoke 

River above Weldon, and there are also outcrops of the formation at 

intervals between the Roanoke and Neuse rivers, but in this region the 

exposed areas of the formation are far less extensive than between the

«Compiled from notes of J. A. Holmes published in Bull. U. 8. Geol. Survey No. 138,18%, pp. 190-19 J. 

136
FV LLER.] NORTH CAROLINA. 137

Neuse and the Pedee, and consequently the underground water supplies below the Tertiar}^ marls of the counties between the Neuse and 

Roanoke will probably prove to be less abundant than in the more 

southerly counties.

The general geologic structure of the Coastal Plain in North Carolina is indicated in the accompanying section by Professor Holmes, 

fig. 20.

FIG. 20. Cross section of the Coastal Plain region in North Carolina, from near Sanford to the coast 

near Wilmington. A, crystalline schists; B, Potomac sand, arkose, and clays; C, marine Cretaceous 

sands, marls, etc.; D, Tertiary marls and shell rock (Eocene and Chesapeake); E, Lafayette and 

overlying Columbia formation. Vertical scale greatly exaggerated.

It is not 3^et possible to present a review of the water horizons or of 

the well prospects in the State, but the following partial list of wells 

shows the results obtained by drilling at a considerable number of 

points.

Partial list of deep wells in the Coastal Plain region of North Carolina.

Locality.

Elizabeth City, 10 wells. .....

Do.......................

Do.......................

D. C. faay Lumber Co.......

Fail-field.... .................

Do.......................

Do.......................

Jacksonville. 3 wells ........

County.

Pasquotank ......

Bertie

.....do..;.........

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

Hyde.............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

Onslow.. .........

Depth.

Feet. 

64

340

180

140

360

215

300

50-75

205

115

340

 ton

and 195

230

350

50

on

90

200

160

Remarks.

Flow 15 gallons each; water hard and 

sulphurous.

No water *

Do.

Do.

water also at 120 feet.

also at 85 feet.

depth of about 86 feet.

Do.

Do.

Do.
138 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114. 

Partial list of deep luells in tfie Coastal Plain region of North Carolina Continued.

Locality. 

Do.......................

Do.......................

Do.......................

Wilson Cotton Mills .........

Vineland .................... 

Do.......................

County.

EdfirecOmbe

.....do............

.....do. ...........

.....do............

Pitt.. .............

Wilson ...........

.....do. ...........

.....do............

Columbus ........ 

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

Depth.

Feet.

75

82

160

218

200+

125

115

57

100

175

63 

225

495

84-100

400

Remarks.

Do.

Water obtained, but pipe filled with sand.

Hard water.

Pipe filled with quicksand.

quality satisfactory. 

Stopped in quicksand.

Flows 4 gallons. 

Water nearly to surface.

feet (?).

PIEDMONT E'LATEAU.

The Piedmont Plateau lies between the Coastal Plain and the folded 

mountain belt, as in Virginia. The rocks are crystalline (igneous or 

metamorphic), and are characterized by basins of Triassic shales and 

sandstones similar to those in Virginia.

The topography is much the same as in Virginia, except that it is 

more rugged in the western portion next to the mountains. The 

crystalline rocks are even more weathered than in Virginia and are 

similarly broken by joints. Water in small to moderate amounts could 

probably be obtained almost anywhere within this belt, although large 

supplies are not to be looked for. It would rarely, if ever, rise to the 

surface, and is likely to be mineralized. The waters of the springs of 

the belt contain large amounts of mineral matter and are extensively 

used for medicinal and table purposes.

The Triassic rocks are somewhat similar to those in Virginia, and 

doubtless carry considerable water in their more porous beds. Very 

few deep wells, however, have been sunk in the Triassic areas.

APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN BELT.

As has been indicated, only a part of the Appalachian Mountain belt 

lies within the State of North Carolina. The rocks represented are 

more metamorphic than those in the States previously described, and 

are frequently crystalline or semicrystalline. A few of the less metamorphic rocks also occur. The mountain belt in this State is relatively
FULLER.] NOBTH CAROLINA. 139

inaccessible and very thinly inhabited. The numerous springs which 

occur throughout the belt form practically the entire source of water 

supply of the inhabitants.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

The important mineral springs of North Carolina are located on the 

Piedmont Plateau. Of the 10 springs that report sales of water in 

1902 only 1 the Seven Springs of Wayne County is in the Coastal 

Plain. The following is a list of these springs: a

Alkalithia Spring, Alkalithia Springs, Alexander County.

Barium Rock Spring, Barium Springs, Iredell County.

Jackson Springs, Jackson Springs, Moore County.

Lemon Springs, Lemon Springs Station, Moore County.

Mida Spring, near Charlotte, Mecklenburg County.

Panacea Springs, near Littleton, Warren County.

Park's Spring, Caswell County, near Danville, Va.

Seven Springs, Sevensprings, Wayne County.

Thompson Bromine Arsenic Springs, Grumpier, Ashe County.

Vade Mecuin Spring, Vade Mecum, Stokes County.

The total quantity of water sold in 1902 is given as 104,400 gallons, 

having a value of $18,795.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 74-78.

Artesian-well prospects of the Atlantic Coastal Plain region,, by N. H. Carton 

[North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes]: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey-No. 138, pp. 190-207.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt.-2, by N. H. Darton: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, pp. 20.

Water resources of the Co wee and Pisgah quadrangles, North Carolina, by H. S. 

Gale: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, pp. 174-176.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996. 

IBB 114 0£ 10
SOUTH CAROLINA.

By L. C. GLENN.

SUBDIVISIONS.

South Carolina is divided by a line running northeastward from 

Augusta, Ga., through Columbia, Camden, and Cheraw, S. C., into 

a Coastal Plain portion to the southeast and a Piedmont Plateau 

portion to the northwest. The Coastal Plain region is somewhat the larger of the two divisions and consists geologically of interstratified beds of sand, clay, and marl of Cretaceous or later age that 

are as yet mostly unconsolidated. The Piedmont Plateau region consists geologically of crystalline rocks whose exact age is unknown, 

although they are thought to be largely Archean or Algonkian. 

Because of this difference in their geology the water supplies and 

water-supply problems of the two sections of the State differ widely 

in their nature. Each section will be considered separately.

The climatic factors affecting the water supplies are simple 

and may be briefly stated. The annual rainfall varies somewhat from 

year to year, but averages about 50 inches and is almost uniformly 

distributed over the State. Autumn is the dryest of the seasons, 

receiving 2 or 3 inches less than its normal proportion of the rainfall, and in consequence streams are usually lowest in the late fall. 

Winter receives 2 or 3 inches more than its proportion. The streams 

of the Coastal Plain are never frozen over. During severe winters ice 

may occasionally form on streams in the inner part of the Piedmont 

region, but it lasts only a few days at a time and never becomes th,ick 

enough to interfere with the utilization of the streams for water power.

GEOLOGY AND WATER SUPPLY.

PIEDMONT PLATEAU. 

GENERAL FEATURES.

Character. Viewed broadly the Piedmont Plateau is essentially a 

plane surface with an average elevation along its outer or southeastern 

edge of 500 feet. It rises gently to the northwest to an average elevation of 1,000 feet along its inner edge. Beneath this general surface the main streams which flow southeastward have incised their 

courses 50 to 150 feet, and with their many tributaries have sculptured 

WO
SOUTH CAROLINA. 141

it into a gently rolling plateau that breaks into hills near the main 

drainage ways.

Rocks. The rocks of the Piedmont Plateau consist of highly metamorphosed gneisses and schists, cut by granites and later intersected 

by many dikes, chiefly of diabase and presumably of Newark age. 

The gneisses and schists are regarded as pre-Cambrian in age. They 

have suffered such profound and repeated metamorphism that in very 

many cases their original character has been lost. Original bedding 

planes, if any ever existed, have been obliterated and planes of schistosity have been developed that have prevailingly a northeast-southwest 

strike and steep dips that range between southeast and northwest. In 

a few places narrow broken belts of crystalline limestone or of metamorphosed conglomerates indicate original sedimentary beds.

The granites are prevailingly coarsely crystalline to porphyritic, 

though some areas are of fine and uniform grain. They were intruded 

at various periods, all of which were probably pre-Cambrian, and have 

since been exposed at the surface by long and profound erosion, for 

it seems highly probable that the Piedmont Plateau has been a land 

surface since early Paleozoic time.

Residual soil mantle. During all this time the disintegration and 

weathering of the crystalline rocks of the plateau has been in progress. 

During most of the time the solid rocks have been covered with a 

blanket of weathered material, which has at certain periods of uplift 

been largely removed to furnish material to build the Coastal Plain. At 

present a blanket of disintegrated material 50 to 150 feet thick overlies the solid rock over practically all of the Piedmont region. Much 

of this disintegrated material, especially near the surface, is a very 

fine-grained red clay, that makes the Piedmont streams a muddy red 

or yellow color.

WATEE SUPPLIES OF PIEDMONT PLATEAU.

Effect of residual' mantle. The residual mantle plays an important 

role in relation to the water supply of the Piedmont region, for much 

of the rainfall is absorbed by it and held to be fed out gradually to 

springs and streams, thus making the stream flow more uniform than 

if the undisintegrated crystallines reached nearly to the surface. The 

main streams of the region have cut down through this blanket of disintegrated material to the solid rock beneath, which often shows in 

exposed ledges along their courses. Many of their tributaries have 

cut narrow valleys far back into the interstream area.

Springs. Along the sides of the valleys, large and small, are found 

many unfailing springs, whose waters are usually free from mineral 

impurities of any kind. In the early settlement of the Piedmont 

region of South Carolina these springs were universally used for 

household water supplies. Wells and cisterns were unknown. The
142 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

pioneer built his house near some bold spring1 , very often selecting a 

site on the hill slope or down in the small valley itself. Springs thus 

determined the location of the homes of the first settlers and for years 

continued to furnish practically the only water supply. They are 

used in very many cases to-day, and, in spite of the clearing1 of the land 

and the comparatively thick settlement of the country, have not failed 

or become polluted by man's presence, but they are still safe and satisfactory sources of domestic water supply.

There are a number of well-known mineral springs in the Piedmont 

region, at some of which hotels with good accommodations have long 

enjoyed wide popularity as summer resorts. The waters of these 

springs generally contain sulphates and carbonates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Some contain lithia and some are 

chalybeate.

The following springs,a all located within the Piedmont Plateau, 

reported shipments in 1902:

Buffalo Lick Springs, near Carlisle, Union County. 

Chick Springs, near Taylor Station, Greenville County. 

Cokesbury Mineral Spring, Cokesbury, Greenwood County. 

Garrett Mineral Spring, Spartanburg, Spartanburg County. 

Glowing Spring, near Calhoun Falls, Abbeville County. 

Harris Lithia Spring, Harris Springs, Laurens County. 

Rives Mineral Spring, Lancaster, Lancaster County. 

West Springs, West Springs, Union County. 

White Stone Lithia Spring, Spartanburg, Spartanburg County.

The aggregate amount of water sold is stated as 259,706 gallons, with 

a value of $76,525.

Open wells. With increasing wealth and culture there came a 

demand for better building sites, and houses began to be erected back 

on the nearly level interstream uplands remote from springs, and the 

digging of open wells was begun. These open wells furnish the greater 

part of the water supply of the Piedmont region to-day. In some 

cases pure soft water is obtained before solid rock has been reached; 

in others water is obtained just on top of the solid rock, while in still 

others it is occasionally necessary to go into the solid rock some distance to a water-bearing seam. The wells of the Piedmont region 

range from 40 to 70 feet in depth, and they usually have from 5 to 10 

feet of water, and rarely fail during dry seasons. The disintegrated 

material through which they are dug is not firm enough to be left 

unwalled, so that a curbing, usually of loose stone, is put in. In many 

cases not enough attention is paid to sanitary precautions, but as the 

water entering the w.ell under the usual circumstances filters down 

through a considerable thickness of sand and clay, it is largely though 

not entirely protected from contamination. Occasionally one finds a

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Eesources U. 8. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
SOOTH CAROLINA. 143

bored well of 8 or 10 inches in diameter, though the dug well is far 

more common. These bored wells differ from the dug ones chiefly by 

being cheaper to sink, but they are more difficult to clean out.

Deep.wells. Aside from the streams of the region the only possible 

source for considerable water supplies is the subsurface waters. The 

presence of granites and crumpled gneisses and schists in the region 

precludes the hope of securing deep artesian waters, for the structure 

of such rocks is unfavorable to artesian conditions.

Some Piedmont towns, however, moved by the idea that they could 

get artesian waters if they only bored deep enough have drilled wells 

several hundred feet into the crystalline rock, and, except in very few 

cases, have been rewarded with supplies of water that have risen to a 

height coinciding with the level of the ground-water surface in the 

rocks around the well, but such supplies are not artesian. The rocks 

of the region are traversed by seams and fissures, which everywhere 

below the ground-water level are filled with water. The deeply drilled 

hole has cut across enough such fissures to obtain a large supply of 

water for the pumps, yet this water is derived, not from a great depth 

nor from a long distance, but from the great body of ground water near 

the surface and immediately around the well. If the fissures in the 

solid rock are very numerous, the area supplying the water is an 

inverted cone whose apex is the lowest point of entry in the bore hole 

and whose base is a large circular area of the ground-water surface 

around the well mouth, and only one, two, or three score feet beneath 

the surface of the town, with its innumerable sources of pollution of 

every kind. . If the well is supplied by only one fissure or by a very 

few fissures, they must be correspondingly larger and furnish more 

direct and easy lines of flow to the well. They may extend almost 

uninterrupted nearly up to the surface and furnish a direct channel 

for surface waters to enter the well.

The amount of water that can be pumped from such wells is usually 

large and analyses made when the wrell is first completed have shown 

a good, pure, clear, and usually soft water, well adapted to almost any 

purpose. But while at first such deep wells may be protected from 

contamination by the surface-soil layer, which acts as a filter, and the 

water may be pure and wholesome, yet they are very apt sooner or 

later to become contaminated. Constant pumping from them soon 

causes the indrafts supplying the water to open better channels 

through the fissures and allows more direct ingress of waters from the 

surface. These channels sooner or later are able to carry surface 

contamination directly into the well. Such deep wells are therefore 

at best open to grave suspicion and constantly need careful watching. 

This need is all the more necessary because of the fancied security 

given by the very favorable analysis of the water when first used. 

Such careful watching will usually result in the condemnation and
144 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

closing of the well in a few years, especially if the town be of considerable size, so that there is furnished to the soil a large amount of 

contaminating organic material. A well of this kind drilled over 2,000 

feet deep in Atlanta, Ga., some years ago, which at first furnished a 

large amount of acceptable water, was ordered closed by the board of 

health after a few years' use because of sewage pollution.

At Chester the first deep well sunk into the crystalline rocks failed 

to strike a single fissure, but was drilled perfectly dry 500 or 600 feet 

into a solid mass of porphyritic diorite. It was abandoned and a second attempt was made in another part of the town that was successful 

in striking a water-bearing fissure at 404 feet. A failure may at any 

time result from deep drilling in the crystallines, though as a general 

rule fissures are abundant enough to make it reasonably certain that 

water will be obtained in such wells at a reasonable depth.

Another source of water supply adequate for manufacturing plants 

or large institutions where only a few hundred thousand gallons are 

used daily, but usually not deemed sufficient for city supplies, is coming 

into use in the Piedmont region. It consists of tube wells, which are 

sunk usually in groups through the decomposed surface material down 

to solid rock, and which derive their supplies from water circulating 

slowly just on top of this rock. These wells are usually only a few 

inches in diameter and vary in depth with the depth of the surface 

disintegration, ranging from 30 to 80 feet in -most cases. They are 

sunk along or near the lowest line of a natural valley or depressed 

area toward which a considerable surface area slopes, the larger the 

basin's extent, other things being equal, the larger the probable supply. Much of the rain falling in the basin percolates down through 

the soil and moves slowly along on the bed-rock surface, the slope of 

which usually coincides in the main with that of the soil surface above 

it. In some cases the clay soil near the surface may be so close grained 

as to act as an impervious covering for the water in the partly disintegrated and loosened rock beneath, so that wells sunk in this manner 

may be truly artesian that is, they may have a natural flow caused by 

the pressure of the water confined beneath an impervious layer. The 

distance in this case from which the water comes is of course limited 

to the basin in which the well is sunk. It is a local artesian basin 

formed under exceptional conditions.

Such supplies of water have been found uniformly satisfactory. 

This result has of course been attained by selecting basins free from 

sources of contamination. The continued purity of such water will of 

course depend on the vigilance exercised in keeping the basin free from 

pollution. As such basins are ordinarily small this is not a difficult 

task. Several such wells in a group are usually connected and pumped 

together, and several such groups, if a sufficient supply is obtainable
GLENN.] SOUTH CAROLINA. 145

within a small area, would be sufficient to furnish with water a town 

of some size, or to aid materially in supplying a large city.

In York, Chester, Union, and Abbeville counties there are considerable areas of diabase or diorite that on weathering produce a closegrained clay soil that is abundantly charged with lime and magnesia. 

The springs and wells of these areas are accordingly of hard water. 

The use of cisterns is more necessary here than anywhere else in the 

Piedmont region, and yet they are the exception rather than the rule.

Streams. Where larger supplies of water for manufacturing plants 

or town corporations are desired, resort is had in most instances to 

streams, and a pumping plant is installed to lift the water to a reservoir or standpipe. The streams of the Piedmont region are never 

perfectly clear except at their headwaters, among the mountain spurs 

that project from the Appalachians out upon the inner edge of the 

Piedmont area. The fine red clay soil, so characteristic of the deeplyweathered Piedmont surface, is washed into the streams in great quantities by every rain, and the waters become exceedingly muddy. So 

finely divided are some of these clay particles that they remain suspended indefinitely, and even with prolonged settling it is difficult or 

impossible to get the water perfectly clear. The excessive muddiness 

disappears very soon after the passage of a flood, but even in their 

lowest stages the Piedmont streams do not become perfectly clear. 

When they are used for city water supply, ample settling basins must 

be provided or a filtration plant must be installed. The clay is suspended in the water in particles so fine that it can be removed with 

difficulty even by filtration.

The most inviting sites for the location of towns in the Piedmont 

region have been the comparatively level interstream areas that form 

the divides between the main streams, and, as a rule, the principal 

towns of the region are both remote from and at a considerable elevation above the larger streams, thus occupying situations that greatly 

increase the cost of water supplies dejived from such sources.

Furthermore, with the rapid growth of large cotton mills along 

these Piedmont streams, each with its attendant mill village in which 

the sanitation and the sewerage system are usually not what they 

should be, the problem of obtaining unpolluted water supplies from the 

streams of this region will constantly become more difficult.

With the growth of larger cities in the Piedmont area, however, 

other sources must in time become inadequate and the large streams 

must furnish the water supplies. Means must then be taken to provide sufficient settling area or adequate filter plants as well as to guard 

the watersheds of the catchment area from organic pollution. These 

water-suppty problems are not different from those other communities have to face except, perhaps, as to the almost permanent suspen-
146 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

sion of the very fine clay particles, and can be successfully solved here 

just as they have been elsewhere.

COASTAL PLAIN.

The Coastal Plain attains a width of nearly 150 miles. The average 

elevation of its inner edge where it overlaps the Piedmont crystallines 

is about 500 feet. The slope of the surface from the inner edge toward 

the coast is at first rather steep, so that 30 miles from its inner edge 

the average elevation has decreased to less than 200 feet. From this 

line to the sea the surface slope is very gentle. Much of the outer 

part of the Coastal Plain is low and swampy and the rivers crossing 

the region are usually fringed with swamps that are in places 5 to 10 

miles wide.

The inner, more elevated portion of the Coastal Plain is deeply 

trenched by the rivers that enter it from the Piedmont region, and 

much of its surface has been cut into hills by the tributary streams 

that drain it. An inner belt of these hills is known as the sand hill 

belt; an outer interrupted belt that is in places more broken and hilly 

than the preceding one is known as the red hill belt.

GEOLOGY.

Crystalline floor. Along the outer edge of the Piedmont Plateau 

the surface of the crystalline rocks dips southeastward and passes 

beneath the overlapping- sands and clays of the Coastal Plain. From 

well records something has been learned of the depth of the crystalline floor beneath the surface of some parts of the Coastal Plain; but 

much more information is desirable concerning its depth, especially 

beneath the central and southwestern parts. At Aiken a boring, after 

passing through 465 feet of sands and clays, reached granite at 62 feet 

above sea level. At Florence 608 feet of Coastal Plain sediments overlie the rocks of the Newark formation, which were reached at 473 feet 

below sea level. At Marion a boring that passed through 700 feet of 

sands and clays entered crystalline schists 632 feet below sea level. At 

Wilmington, N. C., a well started only a few feet above tide entered 

granite at a depth of 1,109 feet. At Orangeburg a well 1,160 feet deep 

had not reached the crystallines, but was probably not far above them. 

A well at Charleston 2,050 feet deep and one at Beaufort 1,640 feet 

deep failed to reach the underlying crystallines.

General character of deposits. The Coastal Plain formations consist 

of fine gravels, sands, clays, marls, and an occasional soft limestone. 

The dip of the lower members is southeastward at a rate somewhat 

greater than the surface slope. The higher members, however, thicken 

seaward until the youngest members, or those at the top, dip at the 

same rate as the surface.

Potomac formation. The oldest of these members is the Potomac. 

It lies immediately upon the crystallines, and along its outcropping 

inner edge consists of at least 400 or 500 feet of variegated sands and
SOUTH CAROLINA. 147

clays. Much of the sand is coarse and cross-bedded, and usually contains a considerable amount of arkose. The clay is in very irregular 

lenticular masses embedded in the sands and does not form continuous 

and persistent strata. These sands and clays outcrop in the sand hills 

and in part of the red hills along the inner edge of the Coastal Plain in 

a belt 5 to 10 or more miles wide, where they receive the supplies of 

water that they carry seaward with them beneath the later members of 

the Coastal Plain series. These Potomac sands and clays are waterbearers under very much, if not all, of the Coastal Plain; but very 

little is known as to their exact depth beneath the surface in much of 

the region. A 1,160-foot well at Orangeburg had probably reached 

nearly to their base. At Florence they extend from 200 or 300 feet to 

607 feet. At Charleston the 2,050-foot well probably stopped in their 

upper portion. It is probable that the 1,640-foot well at the naval station at Port Royal had just about reached their top layers, and it is 

likely that a supply of good water might have been obtained in these 

Potomac sands within the next few hundred feet had the well not been 

abandoned where it was. The water found in the deeper-lying portions of the Potomac under the, outer part of the Coastal Plain may, 

however, be found charged more or less with mineral matter, although 

the water from the deep wells at Charleston is reported to be of 

excellent quality and furnishes the city's supply.

Marine Cretaceous beds.- The marine Cretaceous is the next younger 

formation. It consists of dark, unctuous, fine-grained clays, locally 

known as fuller's earth, and often described by the drillers as soapstone, interbedded with fine, light-colored micaceous sands. The clays 

contain abundantly disseminated iron pyrite that readily decomposes 

and gives rise by further reaction to alum, so that open wells and 

springs in these clays are sometimes very astringent. These Cretaceous clays outcrop only in the eastern part of the State. They do 

not form the general surface even here, but are overlain by a thin 

mantle of younger deposits, and are revealed only in stream cuttings 

along the Pedee and its tributaries. The best exposures are in Darlington and Florence counties. West of Lynches River the marine 

Cretaceous is not known to outcrop at the surface. There the Eocene 

rests directly on the Potomac.

From its surface exposures in the eastern part of the State the marine 

Cretaceous dips southeastward beneath later deposits, and is reached 

or passed through in the deeper wells of that region. It extends from 

about 600 to about 1,900 feet in the Charleston wells. It was passed 

through in the Orangeburg well, its top being about 252 feet from the 

surface, and its bottom being indeterminate from the record obtained. 

The Port Royal well from 700 or 800 to about 1,600 feet is in the marine 

Cretaceous. Well records show that it consists of sands, marls, and 

dark clays, the latter sometimes described as very tough and sticky to 

drill. The layers of sand occupy no definite horizon. They are usually
148 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [HO. 114.

water-bearing, but the water is often charged with sulphur or iron or 

is brackish or salt. No persistent horizon of potable water is known 

in this series. Some of the sandy strata may, however, locally contain good water, and careful tests for quantity and quality of water 

should be made at any promising horizon.

Eocene deposits. The Eocene overlies the Cretaceous. In the eastern part of the State, where the Cretaceous is exposed in stream cuttings, a few thin, isolated patches of Eocene are found resting in 

depressions in the Cretaceous surface. West of Lynches River the 

Eocene rests directly on the Potomac, and in Orangeburg, Lexington, 

and Aiken counties numerous exposures of it occur. At the base it 

consists of fine, light-colored siliceous clay, breaking with conchoidal 

fracture, and overlain by a silicified mass of shells and casts the 

Buhrstone. Above it are soft gray to white pulverulent, calcareous 

marls, whose lower part is known as the Santee marls, and whose 

upper part is the Ashley and Cooper marls. They may be grouped 

together here. These Eocene strata are probably 500 feet thick at 

Charleston and occupy a basin called the Charleston basin, delimited 

to the northeast by the marine Cretaceous strata, which come to the 

surface in the Pedee region, but are of unknown extent to the southwest in Georgia, though they rise considerably in Barnwell County.

The Buhrstone division of the Eocene is more or less cavernous and 

is generally water bearing. The waters, as might be expected, are 

more or less hard. They are reached at Charleston at about 400 to 

500 feet from the surface. At Orangeburg the base of these rocks is 

probably about 252 feet from the surface. In Bamberg, Barnwell, 

Colleton, and Hampton counties they seem to be widespread water 

bearers and are reached at depths of about 100 feet in upper Barnwell, 

but dip toward the coast so that there they are found at 500 to TOO feet 

from the surface. The basal Eocene is therefore very generally water 

bearing and lies at moderate depths beneath that large portion of the 

Coastal Plain in which the Eocene occurs. No definite water-bearing 

horizons are known in the overlying Eocene marls. Open wells and 

springs in these upper beds furnish hard water.

Miocene marl. A thin stratum of late Miocene shell marl rests in 

many places on the eroded surface of either the Eocene or, in the 

Pedee region, the marine Cretaceous. It is not usually widely continuous and is not important as a water-bearing horizon. Open wells 

sunk to it yield hard water. It rarely outcrops, and so produces but 

few springs.

Lafayette and Columbia sands. Along the inner and more elevated 

red hill and sand hill portion of the Coastal Plain there may be discriminated in most cases two thin formations of sand that blanketwise 

overlie all of the older formations. The older one is usually a hardened, cross-bedded sand, often carrying considerable clay and near 

the rivers, as they enter the Coastal Plain, contains rounded pebbles
SECTION I

r/oe I tfrfL

c*.'*-** *

M11

-is ^>^^

t/P^

foer/at

SECTION 2.

SECTION 3.

HORIZONTAL SCALE 

0 ; IOMILES 500_____100

SECTIONS IN EASTERN SOUTH CAROLI
GLENN.] SOUTH CAROLINA. 149

and cobbles. It is regarded as of Lafayette age. Where it overlaps 

on the Potomac sands and clays it is in many places very difficult to 

determine the contact line so very similar are their materials, the 

Lafayette being derived in such cases from the underlying Potomac 

by a slight reworking. These Lafa}^ette sands and clays are usually 

red in color. In Columbia they are homogenous, structureless, and 

bright red. In many places they are mottled red and light gray. 

They form much of the surface in the "red hill" belt. In the middle 

and outer half of the Coastal Plain the Lafayette has not been discriminated. If ever present in the outermost part, just near the present 

coast line, it has very probably been removed by erosion, for the postPliocene rests on rounded phosphate nodules that cover the surface of 

the Eocene or Miocene marls from which they were torn by the waves.

The younger of the two blanketing formations is a light-colored, 

soft, clean-washed, barren sand that forms the surface of most of the 

Coastal Plain, including the sand hills. In the middle and outer part 

of the Coastal Plain it is usually mixed with enough clay to form a 

loam. In thickness it ranges from a few feet up to perhaps 50 feet 

in some places near the coast. It is regarded as of Columbia age, but 

such distinctions as high-level and low-level or fluvial and interfluvial 

seem inapplicable to it. Its relation to the post-Pliocene deposits indicates that the portion near the coast, at least, is of late Columbia age.

The post-Pliocene, which comes between the Lafayette and the 

Columbia, is found in places along or in a few miles of the coast. It 

is a thin stratum of sand and shells and is of no special importance as a 

water bearer.

WELLS.

The following tables present a comprehensive summary of the results 

of numerous wells bored in the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. Since 

the list was made a considerable number of new wells have been drilled, 

but the present table is nevertheless fairly representative:

Partial list of deep wells in South Carolina.®

Locality.

Bamberg: 

30 wells...................

Depth.

Feet. 

520

558

65-100

470 

495

520 

555

Diameter.

Inches.

8-6

2 

2

2 

11

Capacity 

per minute.

Gallons.

50

40 

35

35 

40

Height 

of water.6

Feet.

q

+ 15

+ 20

+ 12 

+ 30

Remarks.

feet.

a Carton, N. H., Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region: Bull. U. S. Geol. Surrey, 

No. 138, pp. 210-211; also records collected by the writer. 

6 +, teet above surface; , feet below surface.
150 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. fro. .114.

Partial list of deep welly in HoutJi Carolina, Continued.

Locality.

Barnwell

Beaufort:

Bluffton. (See Mays River.)

Chester

Do.......................

Clyde.........................

Estill .........................

Do.......................

Do........................

Do........................

Do........................

Do........................

Georgetown

Halls Island, Donner Bros ...

Do........................

Do........................

Do...-......---.......--..

Depth.

Feet.

800

120

120

618, 625

/ 1260-

^ AJuU

500

404?

152

630 +

210-240

327

280

450

350

100

1,215

182

200

420

429

121

220

220

350

65-74

503

400

120 

583

46

800?

420

500

320

160-320

Q7C

1,244

179

Diameter.

Inches.

10

} 2^-6

8

6-2

2

2

10 8

Small.

6

2

4

4

2

3

8

6 

6

3

6

2

3 and 2

8-9

2

Capacity 

per minute.

Qallons.

Many.

170-800

Many.

30

30

10

Pew.,

100

170

Pew now.

Pew now.

50-60

Many.

1

4

150

1 in. stream

4

11

7-15

2

35

Height 

of water.

Feet.

Does not

flow.

-20

/ + 4

-\-£O

Does not

flow.

Flows.

To surf ace.

Flows.

Plows.

Pumped.

- 20

- 24

Plows.

Flow.

Plow.

+10

_ 4

Flows.

_ 4

+20 above 

high water.

- 9

_ 3

+ 4

Does not

flow.

- 8

Plows.

Plows.

Flows.

+15

Plows.

-14

Remarks.

*

Water fine. Granite below

82 feet.

rite. 

In diorite. Depth also given

as 372 feet. 

In Potomac sands.

Drilling.

In Potomae formation.

Water from 212 feet.

Water from 150 feet.

608 to 1,335 feet in Newark

sandstone; waters also at 

600 and 800 feet.

Fine water.

Do.

Abandoned in quicksand.

Another well is 164 feet deep.

Water at 170 feet.

Hard water, water at 170 feet.

Hard water; water at 250 feet.

8 feet of water.

Temp. 70° P.

In ancient crystallines.

Sulphurous water. 

Soft, irony water.

Irony water.

In Potomac sands.

Temp. 72° F.

Temp. 70° P.

Pine water.

Soft.

Small flow at 700 feet on top

of crystallines. 

16-148 feet in line with flint

rock below.
SOUTH CAEOLINA.

Partial list of deep wells in South Carolina Continued.

151

Locality.

Moncks Corner, 8 miles distant.

Mays River, Bluff ton .........

ward's place. 

Mays River, Col. J. H. Estill's

place. 

Mavs River, Col. J. H. Estill's

plantation, 4 wells.

tie's sawmill.

Port Royal Naval Station. . . . .

Port Royal Naval Station, 3 

wells.

Port Royal Naval Station, 2 

wells.

Do........................

Shelden ......................

Sullivans Island, Fort Moultrie.

Yemassee, G. G. Martin......

Yemassee, J. B. Gregorie, 8 

wells.

Depth.

Feet. 

175

165

800

190

360

106

285

299

1,160

380

346

853

255 

60 

95-98

185

170

120

152

1,308

988'

490

580

90 

85-150

Diameter.

Inches. 

2

2

6

6 

5 and 2 

6 

15 4

3

3

6

3

12-3

2

6

3

4i 

6

Capacity 

per minute.

Gallons. 

15

6

100

Very few. 

Many. 

125

150

10

&

Many. 

Many.

Height 

of water.

Feet. 

Flows.

1

surface.

flow.

-48

surface.

Does not

flow.

-12-16 

Pumped.

-6

flow.

+ 12

flow. 

Flows.

-17

-30

Flows to 

+13.

+8

Remarks.

Do.

Temp., 76° F.

Water very impure. 

Water hard and saline. 

Good water.

clays.

A little H2S.

Temp., 89° F. Contains iron 

and soda.

Soft water.

Sulphurous water.

Sulphurous water; flow decreasing.

SUMMARY OF COASTAL PLAIN ^SUPPLIES.

Shallow wells. The shallow wells of the Coastal Plain are sunk in 

the surficial Lafayette and Columbia formations. These' wells are 

usually not over 20 or 30 feet deep. Many, indeed, are from 8 to 12 

feet deep, and in wet weather many of them are entirely full of water. 

Such surface water is as a rule impure and unwholesome, especially if 

the wells be open. Driven wells are now largely taking the place of
152 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

open wells. A 2-inch pipe tipped by a sharp-pointed strainer section 

is driven from 15 to 30 feet, and a small suction pump is attached to 

the upper end. Such wells are quickly, easily, and cheaply driven, and 

do not permit surface waters to trickle down directly from the surface, 

as do the open wells. Their waters are more wholesome than those of 

open wells, but their general use will not solve the pure-water problem 

for the Coastal Plain.

Deep wells. Many farmers are sinking artesian wells of small diameter and moderate depths to the upper part of the Potomac beds in the 

inner half of the Coastal Plain, while on the outer half wells are bored 

deeper with somewhat less certainty of getting good water from the 

lower Eocene. Unfortunately, very few records that give much information as to the age or kind of beds passed through have been kept 

by the drillers or owners, so that our knowledge of the underground 

waters of the region leaves much still to be desired. Experience, however, has proved that in many parts of the Coastal Plain the chances 

for obtaining supplies of deep water that will rise nearly to or just 

above the surface are excellent. In other parts, especially very near 

the coast, the problem is more uncertain because of the great depth of 

the water-bearing strata and the greater risk of finding the water too 

highly impregnated with various mineral matters to be usable. Numerous good wells, however, have been drilled near the coast, and drillers 

in this region should carefully test every water-bearing sand of any 

promise as they go down.

The use of artesian water has greatly improved the health conditions 

on the Coastal Plain. Not only has typhoid fever been banished, but 

of greater importance, because of its former more general prevalence, 

malaria has been practically banished also, despite the presence of 

mosquitoes.

Streams. The streams of the flatter portions of the Coastal Plain 

are dark wine-colored from the presence of organic matter. Those in 

the sand hills are usually pure and clear and may be used for bleaching or for any other similarly exacting purpose for which a very pure, 

clear water supply is necessary. The sand hills yield their underground waters very gradually and regularly to the streams, so that 

stream discharge in this region is very uniform.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United. States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey 

No. 32, pp. 79-80.

Artesian-well prospects of the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, byN. H. Darton: Bull. 

U. S. Geol. Survey No.. 138, pp. 207-222.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Darton: 

Water-Supply and Trrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, p. 43.

Year Book, City of Charleston, 1881, pp. 257-315.
GEORGIA.

By S. W. McCALLiE.

Georgia may be divided into three great provinces the Coastal 

Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, and the Appalachian or Paleozoic area 

each of which represents a great time division of geologic history.

COASTAL PLAIN.

The Coastal Plain includes that part of the State lying south of an 

irregular line connecting Augusta, Macon, and Columbus, and comprises more than one-half of the entire State. In this region the rocks 

are Cretaceous and Tertiary clays, sands, and soft limestones, having 

a general dip southward of only a few feet to the mile. The sands 

and limestones usually furnish copious supplies of water, which in 

some instances has sufficient head to be used for irrigation purposes 

and to operate machiner3T . The waters from the Cretaceous beds are 

usually soft, but those from the Tertiary are frequently hard and 

unsatisfactory for many purposes.

In addition to the underlying Cretaceous and Tertiary formations two 

surficial formations the Lafayette and the Columbia are of especial 

importance in connection with the water supply of shallow wells. 

These formations consist of clays and sands, and cover more or less 

completely the entire Coastal Plain. The Lafayette, the older of the 

two, lies unconformably on the Cretaceous or Tertiary rocks. It consists of orange and vari-colored sands arid clays with local beds of 

gravel. Overlying the Lafayette is the Columbia formation, which is 

made up almost entirely of rather fine-grained sand, and in places 

attains a thickness of many feet, but more often is much thinner, or 

is entirely wanting. These two surficial deposits are the main sources 

of the water supplying the shallow wells throughout the Coastal 

Plain, and they also govern the amount of rainfall taken up by the 

underlying Cretaceous and Tertiary sands and limestones. Where the 

Lafayette formation consists largely of clay it forms an impervious 

water-bearing stratum which to some extent prevents rainwater from 

penetrating the underlying Cretaceous or Tertiary deposits. On the

153
154 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

other hand, the Columbia sands absorb a large percentage of the rainfall, which is retained until taken up by the underlying deposits. 

These surficial formations either increase or decrease the water supply 

in deep wells according as they take up little or much of the rainfall.

PIEDMONT ABEA.

The Piedmont Plateau, or crystalline area, embraces all of that part 

of the State lying north of the Coastal Plain with the exception of the 

greater part of ten counties in the northwestern portion.

This region is an old eroded land surface, formed of highly metamorphosed igneous and sedimentary rocks, which are frequently weathered to considerable depths. The prevailing rocks are slates, schists, 

gneisses, and granites, none of which can be considered water-bearers 

of any great promise. The crystalline area is noted for the numerous small springs that are rather evenly distributed throughout it. 

There are a few large springs, but they are rare and are usually due 

probably to the presence of faults rather than to any special waterbearing strata. The deep weathering of the rocks is favorable to a 

copious supply of water for shallow wells. Nearly all of the small 

towns are supplied by such wells, which, except during an extremely 

dry season, furnish an abundant supply of what is generally supposed 

to be very wholesome water. Deep wells have been drilled by some 

of the towns, but in the majority of cases the amount of water secured 

has been inadequate to supply the demand. Furthermore, the geologic 

structure of the crystalline area is such that water obtained from deep 

borings is likely to become contaminated sooner or later from surface 

drainage, especially where there is little or no sandy soils to act as a 

filter, and where the upturned edges of the rocks dip at a high angle.

APPALACHIAN OB PALEOZOIC ABEA.

The Paleozoic area comprises the greater part of ten counties in the 

extreme northwestern part of the State. The rocks of this region are 

limestones, shales, and sandstones, thrown into a number of long 

parallel anticlinal and synclinal folds. The anticlinal folds in many 

cases have been decapitated and are now replaced b}^ valleys of 

erosion, while the synclines form the intervening ridges or mountains. 

These structural conditions are usually unfavorable for flowing wells, 

but at the same time they materially allow the rainfall to be rapidly 

absorbed by the upturned edges of the strata. They also explain the 

distribution of the numerous springs.

The water-bearing strata of the Paleozoic area are the limestones 

and the sandstones. The limestones, from which most of the underground water is obtained, are usually heavy bedded and compact. 

The water contained in them frequently occurs in deep fissures or 

channels as running streams of considerable size.
M'CALLIF,] GEORGIA. ~ 155

When these strata outcrop such streams give rise to huge springs, 

which furnish large volumes of water, and which often occur throughout the Paleozoic area. The largest of these springs are generally 

found along fault lines or near the contact of limestones with impervious shales. The water from these large springs often becomes 

muddy after a heavy rainfall, showing that the underground stream 

which supplies them with water has direct connection with limesinks 

or other open cavities on the surface. Such springs are also more or 

less affected by droughts, and have been known to entirely cease flowing during an extremely dry season.

The sandstones of the Paleozoic area which are here spoken of as 

water-bearing strata are confined chiefly to Sand and Lookout mountains. At several points on these mountains the bore holes put down 

in prospecting for coal have furnished rather copious supplies of 

water. The numerous coal mines located on these mountains also 

demonstrate that the sandstones are water carriers of considerable importance. In northwest Georgia are also very favorable conditions 

for shallow wells. The residual clays are generally of such thickness 

as to retain a high percentage of the rainfall within a short distance of 

the surface and supply shallow wells with ample water for all domestic 

purposes.

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. ;

The geologic conditions bring out prominently marked differences 

in the underground water conditions of the different parts of the State. 

In south Georgia, or the Coastal Plain, the numerous beds of sand and 

porous limestones with their gradual dip southward present favorable 

conditions for deep wells. In the crystalline and Paleozoic areas, 

where the formations are much folded and faulted, underground 

water reaches the surface by numerous springs. In the one case the 

deep-seated underground waters reach the surface through artificial 

openings made by the drill, and in the other they come up through 

open fissures or along bedding planes of the rock. In the first case 

the underground waters are far more liable to become contaminated 

by surface impurities than in the other. This is due to the high or 

steep dip of the water-bearing strata. In south Georgia the underground waters in most cases probably flow through several miles of 

porous limestones or sands before reaching the deep wells, but in the 

northern part of the State wells equally as deep may be supplied with 

water falling as rain only a few hundred yards distant.

The conditions governing the water supply of shallow wells are 

practically the same in all parts of the State, especially where the 

wells obtain water from surficial deposits and residual clays.

The water from the shallow wells supplying small towns in north 

Georgia was usually found to be in fair sanitary condition, but in a 

IER 114 05 11
156 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

few instances analyses made in the laboratory of the State geological survey gave unmistakable evidence of sewage contamination. 

Certain local geologic conditions, which are peculiar to the northern 

portion of the State, seem to be the cause of this contamination. They 

will be described somewhat in detail.

All of the rivers and large streams throughout the crystalline and 

the Paleozoic areas traverse valleys of erosion which vary in width

FIG 21. Areas of flowing wells in Georgia. Flowing wells may be obtained in shaded areas.

from a few hundred yards or less to a mile or more. These valleys, 

parts of which now lie several feet above the present flood plain of the 

river, are often covered to the depth of many feet with alluvial 

deposits left by the stream when it flowed at a higher level. The 

deposits usually occur in two layers. The lower layer, which lies 

directly upon the eroded edges of the underlying rocks, consists
M'CALLIE.] ' GEOEGIA. 157

chiefly of coarse waterworn gravel and rounded stones, the latter often 

attaining a weight of many pounds. The thickness of this layer is 

variable and depends somewhat upon the irregular eroded surface 

of the underlying rock, but generally it is from 10 feet to a few 

inches. The upper layer, which is usually much thicker than the 

lower, is made up largely of silt or sandy clays. The two layers are 

conformable and have the same dip as the eroded surface of the underlying rock. This gives to the entire surficial deposit a gradual slope 

toward the center of the valley or the present channel of the stream. 

In many places the upper of the two surficial beds has been removed 

by erosion along the edges of the valley so that the underlying gravel 

is exposed. These exposed edges of the gravel beds present most 

favorable conditions for taking up the surface waters as they escape 

from the adjacent hillsides to the valley below after hard showers. 

These beds form a very imperfect filter and, as a consequence, the well 

water obtained from them is liable to become contaminated by surface 

impurities.

In north Georgia some of the towns along the rivers depend for 

water supply almost entirely upon surface wells penetrating these 

gravel beds. In laying out such towns it has been the custom to locate 

the business houses and the residences near the center of the valley, 

and the barns and stables along the margin near the outcrop of the 

gravel beds. In one town a row of factory houses was built along the 

outcrop of these gravel beds and there was an epidemic of typhoid 

fever throughout the town. Another town where the well waters 

were contaminated had suffered from a most violent epidemic of 

typhoid fever a few years previous. With a comparatively small outlay all of these towns can be supplied with excellent water from the 

mountain streams.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

Ten springs in Georgia reported sales of water in 1902. The total 

amount sold was 419,100 gallons, valued at $60,797. The springs 

are as follows:

Artesian Lithia Well, Austell, Cobb County.

Bowden Lithia Springs, Lithia Springs, Douglas County.

Catoosa Springs, Catoosa County.

Daniel Mineral Spring, near Union Point, Greene County.

Hughes Mineral Springs, near Rome, Floyd County.

Medlock Lithia Springs, Austell, Cobb County.

Ponce de Leon Spring, near Atlanta, Fulton County.

Salt Spring Lithia Well, Austell, Cobb County.

Siloam Healing Springs, near South Atlanta, Fulton County.

Sulpho-Magnesia Lithia Spring, near Austell, Cobb County.
158 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. PEALE: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 81-85.

Artesian-well prospects of the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Barton: 

Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 138, pp. 222-224.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 22-24.

Preliminary report on the artesian-well system of Georgia, by S. W. McCallie: 

Bull. Georgia Geol. Survey No. 7, 1899.

Georgia [well and spring records and town water supplies], by S. W. McCallie: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, 1904, pp. 207-237.

Experiment relating to problems of well contamination at Quitman, Ga., by S. W. 

McCallie: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905, pp. 45-54.
FLORIDA.

By M. L. FULLER.

Florida, unlike any other State except Louisiana, lies wholly within 

the Coastal Plain, although Delaware and Mississippi include only very 

small areas of older rocks. While in both geology and topography it 

resembles certain portions of the Coastal Plain region in other States, 

it is, as a whole, unique in its characteristics.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The relief of Florida is the lowest of any of the Eastern States, 

only about a quarter of its area standing above the 100-foot level, 

while only a few isolated points exceed 200 feet in height. Starting 

in the western portion of the State the highland belt skirts the northern boundary to Tallahassee, beyond which it extends southward along 

the center of the peninsula to a point east of Tampa. Its eastern 

border stretches northward a few miles west of St. Johns River to 

the northern boundary of the State northwest of Jacksonville. In 

this region soft limestones occur extensively, and there are, especially 

in the peninsula, many sinks and depressions, which are frequently 

occupied by ponds, lakes,'or marshes. It is the gathering ground of 

the flowing waters encountered in the wells nearer the coast. On 

each side of the highlands the land slopes toward the coast, becoming 

at the same time freer from sinks and similar irregularities, but more 

or less cut by stream channels. Along the coasts on both sides of the 

southern portion of the peninsula are numerous low-lying islands or 

reefs of coral, shell fragments, or other material. The interior of the 

southern portion of the peninsula is occupied largely by vast swamps, 

of which the Everglades is the most extensive and best known.

The population is largely confined to the highlands. There are a 

few cities and villages near the Gulf coast west of the Tallahassee 

region and a considerable number about Tampa Bay. The Gulf coast 

is otherwise thinly inhabited. On the Atlantic side there is a line of 

villages and towns along the coast, but south of Titusville the interior 

is largely uninhabited. Key West and a few villages and towns are 

located on the keys and islands.

159
160 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES, [NO. 114.

GEOLOGY.«

The axis of the peninsula of Florida consists largely of rotten 

cavernous limestone, white, gray, or yellow in color and of the Tertiary age. The main belt of these beds extends from the vicinity 

of Taylor, Madison, and Suwanee counties southeastward to Pasco 

County and vicinity. On the west the Lower Oligocene limestones are 

separated from the coast by a strip of Upper Oligocene beds, consisting of somewhat harder and more massive limestones with occasional 

beds of clay. The Upper Oligocene beds extend northwestward parallel with the Gulf shore to the western limits of the State. On the east 

the Lower Oligocene belt is limited by Octawaha River, beyond which 

are beds of Miocene age which extend nearly or quite to the coast. 

Toward the west a strip of Miocene parallels the coast, lying south of 

the Upper Oligocene, from at least Ochlockonee River on the east to 

Apalachicola River on the west. In the southern portion of the State 

the surficial rocks are of late Tertiary age, mainly Pliocene, and consist of marls, gray, green and blue clays, soft limestones, shale beds, 

etc. In the central part of the northern portion of the peninsula 

great thicknesses of sands, mainly of Quaternary age, cover the older 

rocks, while along the northern boundary in the western part of the 

State occurs the southern edge of the mantle of yellow sands, etc., 

generally known as the Lafayette formation. Local deposits of 

coquina and other late Pliocene and Quaternary materials occur at a 

number of points near the coast. The structure of the peninsula is 

supposed to be anticlinal, and the occurrence of artesian water would 

appear to bear out the assumption. Except along the belt of Lower 

Oligocene limestones, where the land rises to an elevation of about 

250 feet, and in a few of the sand hills the region is very low.

UNDERGROUND WATERS.

Ifoghland area. Along the northern border of the State and in the 

highlands extending southward along the center of the peninsula the 

elevation of the surface generally precludes flowing wells, the region 

being one of catchment rather than of discharge. There is, nevertheless, frequently a range of 75 feet or more in the local elevation of 

the surface in this region, and flowing wells are not uncommon. 

They depend, however, mainly on local conditions, artesian areas of 

any extent being absent. The waters seldom rise more than 10 feet 

above the surface even when the wells are located in the lowest depressions. Fairly good water may be obtained in most instances from 

drilled wells of moderate depth, but generally pumping has to be 

resorted to.

a Compiled from data furnished by T. Way-land Yaughan.
FULLER.] FLOKIDA. 161

Many of the depressions and channels of the highland area are 

marked by springs, some of which have been developed as resorts, 

while the waters of others are placed on the market for medicinal 

purposes. The springs are numerous and frequently of large size, 

giving rise, as in the case of Silver Springs, to streams navigable to 

their source. The waters, though hard, generally contain little sulphur and iron in solution.

West coast. From the highland area the surface gradually slopes

FIG. 22. Principal artesian areas of Florida.

westward and southward to the coast. The area, as a whole, is very 

thinly settled, and relatively few wells have been drilled. In Hillsboro and Manatee counties, bordering upon Tampa Bay, and in the 

region extending into Polk County on the east, there is a considerable 

number of flowing wells. Flowing water is also found occasionally 

from Perry County westward to the western limits of the State, and 

it is probable that it could generally be obtained if the region was 

thoroughly tested. The land, however, is relatively low and ill adapted
162 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

to settlement, and, moreover, contains numerous streams and springs, 

some of the latter forming streams of considerable size. The waters 

are generally charged with sulphur and are undesirable for many 

purposes.

East coast. Most of the flowing wells of Florida are located along 

a strip from 20 to 40 miles in width, following the east coast from the 

northern boundary of the State southward to beyond Jupiter Point. 

The wells are most numerous along St. Johns River, which lies but 

a few feet above sea level and along the so-called Indian River between 

the main coast and the outlying reefs. The waters frequently rise 10 

feet or more above sea level, and in sotoe cases are reported to rise as 

high as 50 feet, indicating that the waters are derived from the highlands of the interior. This tends to bear out the assumption which has 

been made as to the arched structure of the rocks of the peninsula. 

Artesian wells are also found along the reefs and islands, but the shallow wells in such locations are brackish.

The waters from the flowing wells of this belt are extensively utilized for irrigation throughout the entire strip, both on the mainland 

and on the islands or keys. They are usually obtained at depths of 

from 200 to 400 feet, but occasionally wells are drilled to great depths. 

A few very deep wells failed to secure satisfactory supplies.

Springs of considerable volume, generally of sulphur water, are 

found along St. Johns River and on the coast.

Sand area. Overlying a considerable area in the north-central part 

of the peninsula and to a lesser extent elsewhere are extensive deposits of sands of Quaternary age. Throughout this region the ordinary 

wells are mainly of the driven type. The depth is commonly from 10 

to 100 feet, depending largely upon the elevation at which the well is 

started. The water, though hard, is generally not otherwise mineralized. In most instances it is reported to be satisfactory as regards 

health, but in some regions is not considered desirable for drinking 

purposes.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

In 1902 sales of mineral water were reported by the following 

springs : a

Hampton Spring, Rocky Creek, Taylor County. 

Magnolia Springs, Magnolia Springs, Clay County. 

Orange City Mineral Spring, Orange City, Volusia County. 

Panacea Mineral Springs, Wakulla County. 

White Sulphur Springs, White Springs, Hamilton County.

nPeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
FULLER.] FLOEIDA. 163

The aggregate output is reported as 21,900 gallons, with a value of

$8,277.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Florida [well and spring records], by M. L. Fuller and B. M. Hall: Water-Supply 

and Irrig. Paper IT. S. Geol. Survey, No. 102, 1904, pp. 238-275.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 85-87.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton, WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 21, 22.
ALABAMA.

By EUGENE ALLEN SMITH.

CRYSTALLINE SCHISTS.

Under this head are included both the igneous and the metamorphic 

sedimentary rocks, which from their close texture are not very permeable, and hence are poorly adapted to absorbing and storing underground waters, but which are very generally covered with a mantle of 

sandy clays, the result of weathering, which yield an ample supply of 

water to springs and shallow wells. While the conditions are as a rule 

unfavorable for obtaining artesian waters, there are two wells at Alexander which yield abundant water but do not overflow.

NONCRYSTAULINE FORMATIONS.

The noncrystalline formations are found in northeastern Alabama, 

and together with the crystalline schists cover two-fifths of the State. 

The constituent strata are sandstones, shales, and limestones, in many 

alternations and of various degrees of purity. Owing to folding 

and other movements these strata, with the exception of the Coal 

Measures, have a very decided dip, generally toward the southeast. 

They are not very porous; but the sandstones and conglomerates, when 

their pores are not too much clogged with argillaceous and calcareous 

material, are the most permeable.

Springs and shallow wells. In all the Paleozoic series, and especially in the Carboniferous, the siliceous rocks above mentioned are the 

sources of springs and shallow wells which yield pure freestone water, 

holding in solution 12 grains or less of mineral matters, mainly the 

carbonates of sodium and calcium.

The shales are practically impervious, and where they prevail, as in 

the flatwoods of the Cambrian in the Coosa Valley above Gadsden, in 

the central belts of the anticlinal valleys, and in some parts of the coal 

fields, most of the surface springs go dry in summer and fall months. 

In some parts of the flatwoods the waters from the shales are charged 

with mineral salts, especially the sulphates of calcium and magnesium containing as high as 127 grains to the gallon. From certain 

164
SMITH.] ALABAMA. 165

black bituminous snales of the Devonian containing disseminated pyrites are obtained strong sulphur waters that are known beyond the 

limits of the State. Such waters occur at Blount, Shelby, St. Clair, 

Talladega, and Alabama White Sulphur Springs.

The limestones are very generally fissured, channeled, and traversed 

by caves. Surface springs in limestone are therefore not important, 

except where they are formed by the emergence of underground 

streams. The " big springs," or limestone springs, thus originating 

characterize particularly the Knox dolomite of the Silurian and the 

lower Eocarboniferous formation. Some of the most noted of these 

big springs are at Tuscumbia, Huntsville, Montevallo, Talladega, and 

Jacksonville. The water is always charged with carbonate of lime.

Artesian systems. The compactness and the steep dip of the rocks 

in the Paleozoic area do not offer favorable conditions for artesian 

wells, yet in a few cases deep borings have been successful. Thus at 

Anniston several wells in Cambrian strata have a depth of 250 to 500 

feet, and the water rises nearly to the surface, but does not overflow. 

The supply is ample for the furnaces for which the wells were bored. 

On the southeastern slope of Red Mountain, near Gate City, there are 

four borings which reach depths of 25, 85, 103, and 344 feet. From 

two of these the water overflows; in the others, on slightly higher 

ground, it rises nearly to the surface.

In the Tennessee Valley, west of the meridian of Huntsville, the 

Eocarboniferous strata have a moderate southerly dip, and in most of 

the deep borings the water rises usually to within 30 feet of the surface, as near Sheffield and Russellville. A well near Decatur flows about 

10 gallons per minute. This well was bored seventy-five years ago, 

and there has been no perceptible diminution during this time. In the 

Coal Measures of the Warrior basin the moderate and uniform dip of 

the strata is favorable to artesian wells, but the texture of the sandstones and other strata is not. Deep borings about Cullman and Tuscaloosa reach water which rises in the wells and can be pumped. At 

Jasper a deep well overflowed for some years after it was bored, but 

does not now.

Several borings in and, near Tuscaloosa penetrate the Coal Measures and get a fairly good supply of water which rises in the wells 

but does not overflow. At the furnace of the Central Coal and Iron 

Company the well yields 500 gallons per minute. The water contains 

sodium chloride and the salts of magnesium and calcium.

COASTAL PLAIN.

In the Coastal Plain region, which includes about three-fifths of the 

State, the most important rocks are Cretaceous and Tertiary. The 

Cretaceous overlies the Paleozoic unconformably, and is in turn overlain by the Tertiary. The strata of both series are composed of alter-
166 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

nating beds of sands, clays, and limestones, and have a slight Gulfward dip, which averages 40 feet to the mile. The surface of the 

country slopes in the same direction, but at a much less rapid rate, 

the elevation being about 600 feet above tide on the landward margin, 

and 200 feet in the two coast counties. Thus the lithologic and physical characters, the arrangement, and the gentle uniform southward 

slope of the component beds provide requisite conditions for artesian 

systems.

The Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks are covered unconformably by 

one, and in some places by two, formations of much later date the 

Lafayette of Quaternaiy age and the Grand Gulf of late Tertiary or 

possibly Quaternary. The Lafayette is far more extensive than the 

Grand Gulf group, as it covers or has covered the entire Coastal 

Plain, and sometimes for miles overlaps the Paleozoic area. It was 

once probably continuous over this region, but it is now much dissected, and has been almost entirely removed on some areas, especially 

the chalk of the Cretaceous and the post-oak flatwoods of the Tertiary. 

The Grand Gulf group, on the other hand, is confined to the lower 

counties. In the western half of this region it overlaps the Miocene 

and the uppermost (St. Stephens) formation of the Eocene. Toward 

the east it covers parts of the Claiborne and even of the " Lignitic," and 

extends to the border of the Cretaceous.'

The underground waters in the Coastal Plain are hence obtained from 

two sources the artesian water from older rocks (Cretaceous and Tertiary) and the surface waters from the two surface mantles.

SPRINGS AND SHALLOW WELLS.

The Lafayette formation, consisting of red sandy loam overlying 

irregular beds of pebbles and averaging 20 to 25 feet in thickness, 

is most admirably adapted for absorbing and storing the rainfall. 

At its contact with the underlying older formations, pure freestone 

water occurs in springs, and may be made available everywhere by 

means of shallow wells. As the water percolates through sands and 

pebbles, it takes in solution a very small amount of mineral matter, 

generally less than 3 grains to the gallon, of which carbonate of lime 

is the chief ingredient. Wherever this mantle is found in patches of 

considerable extent, a never failing supply of the purest water may 

be counted on, and the country is traversed by perennial streams. 

However, it does not afford the requisite conditions for artesian systems, (1) because of the great irregularity in the stratification due to 

erosion and (2) because being a mantle it has a southward dip not 

greater than the slope of surface.

The Grand Gulf group resembles the Lafayette and underlies 

it directly wherever the two occur together, but is much more lim-
SMITH.] ALABAMA. 167

ited in distribution and more uniform and regular in stratification. 

It is therefore well adapted to serve as a water reservoir. Its waters, 

like those of the Lafayette, are in general exceptionally pure, though 

sometimes highly charged with dissolved salts, mainly carbonate of lime. 

In the best of them there are not more than 5 grains of mineral matter 

to the gallon. Freely flowing springs and perennial streams are not, 

however, so characteristic of this as of the Lafayette. Shallow ponds 

and depressions, where the moisture-loving plants constituting the 

"pine-barren" flora find their most favorable conditions of existence, 

are typical features of the Grand Gulf territory.

This formation is an admirable cover for artesian waters, because 1 

of the thick stratified clays in its upper members. Over a large por-"' 

tion of this region, notably about Brewton and Pollard and other 

localities in Escambia County, water of good quality flows from 

borings 100 to 400 feet deep. The water is obtained in part from the 

Grand Gulf group and in part from the underlying Tertiary beds.

Springs and shallow wells which obtain water from the older formations vary in character. If they have their origin in the great sand formations of the lowermost Cretaceous and of the Tertiary, they are 

numerous and reliable, though the water is sometimes unpalatable 

because of much dissolved mineral matter. In the limestone formations of the middle Cretaceous and upper Tertiary, surface waters are 

small in amount and unreliable, compelling recourse to artesian wells.

ARTESIAN WATER SYSTEMS.

The materials and the structure of the Coastal Plain formations are 

favorable to artesian wells, as the strata are composed of sands and clays 

in many alternations, and have a moderate and uniform dip southward.

The two lowermost divisions of the Cretaceous the Tuscaloosa and 

the Eutaw are prevailingly sands, alternating with sheets of clay. 

The Tuscaloosa is of fresh-water origin, while the Eutaw is a marine 

deposit. The water obtained from the Tuscaloosa beds holds usually 

less than 15 grains of dissolved solids to the gallon, mainly the carbonates of lime and sodium, with smaller proportions of sodium 

chloride and magnesium carbonate. The potable waters of the Eutaw 

sands, on the other hand, contain from 15 to 30 grains of solid matters 

per gallon, and the chloride and carbonate of sodium predominate, 

though occasionally the carbonate of lime is more abundant. Some of 

these waters are brines, holding as much as 260 grains of sodium 

chloride to the gallon.

In the area of the Selma chalk which immediately overlies the 

Eutaw surface waters are practically nonexistant except in wet 

weather, and recourse must be had to artesian wells or to cisterns sunk 

in the solid chalk rock. In this section most of the artesian wells 

obtain water from the Eutaw sands, which are 300 feet thick and in
168 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

which four water horizons are recognized by well borers. The fourth 

or lowermost is generally the strongest and most reliable, yielding 

generally flowing water where the altitude is not over 215 feet above 

tide. In the eastern part of this area, in Russell County particularly, 

the water sometimes rises to altitudes of 300 feet.

Along the southern border of the chalk, as at Livingston and Linden, 

artesian borings must traverse the entire thickness of the limestone 

1,000 feet before reaching the water-bearing sands. Near the northern border, of course, the borings are much shallower, but here, in 

order to get a copious and reliable water supply, the borings must 

frequently go deep into the Tuscaloosa strata underlying the Eutaw. 

The upper members of the Tuscaloosa contain much purplish or 

reddish clay, generally referred to by the well borers as the "pink 

kaolin."

Hundreds of artesian wells supply the plantations of the prairie 

belt across the State and many cities, among which are Eutaw, Greensboro, Marion, Selma, Demopolis, Uniontown, Montgomery, and Union 

Springs.

The uppermost of the Cretaceous formations, the Ripley, is formed 

of calcareous sands which weather at surface into loose sands and are 

well adapted to collecting and storing surface waters. Springs and 

shallow wells in consequence generally afford an ample supply of 

water, which is usualty limy. Below the belt of weathering, however, 

these beds do not appear to be very permeable, as is shown by the 

failure of most of the deep borings into them.

Near the base of the Tertiary, west of Alabama River, 200 feet of 

massive clays give rise to the post-oak flatwoods which are characterized by heavy cold soils, defective drainage, and deficiency of 

springs and surface waters generally during the dry seasons. The 

shallow wells sunk into these clays give a scanty and unreliable supply 

of water which is often unfit to drink because of excess of dissolved 

salts, especially magnesium sulphate, which is sometimes present to 

the amount of 100 to 210 grains per gallon. Waters of this character 

from wells near York and Curls, in Sumter County, are extensively 

used for medicinal purposes. The failure of the underlying Ripley 

sands to supply good artesian water is a great drawback to the flatwoods territory.

East of Alabama River the prevailing beds near the base of the 

Tertiary are limestones, which in Barbour County are of sufficient 

thickness to give rise to caverns, " Big Springs," and water conditions 

similar to those of other limestone areas.

In the " Lignitic" group of the Tertiary the alternations of sands and 

clays and their uniform moderate dip are favorable to artesian systems, 

and two artesian-water horizons are well known, the Nanafalia and the
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. XII

MAP 

OF

ALABAMA

SHOWING

APPROXIMATELY THE ARTESIAN SYSTEMS

BY EUGENE ALLEN SMITH, 

1903

0 10 20

Scale 

40 60 80 miles

LEGEND

TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY

Salt well regions of the Tertiary

Blue marl basin, Ripley-Eutaw

Area in which artesian water

is obtained from both Tuscaloosa

and Eutaw sands, according

to depth of borings

Big springs

Notes:

East of .Montgomery the limits 

of the artesian systems are more 

or less conjectural

The Tertiary artesian systems 

"have teen too little .investigated 

to permit mapping
SMITH.] ALABAMA. 169

Hatchetigbee. The same conditions prevail, also, in the lower part of 

the Claiborne division, but the St. Stephens limestone at the top of the 

Eocene is, of course, not to be counted among the good water bearers. 

In the Tertiary area of Alabama the artesian wells are not so common 

as in Mississippi, but there are enough of them to prove that artesian 

water of good quality may be had in abundance. The abundance of 

good water furnished by the Lafayette formation has rendered the 

sinking of artesian wells for individual use unnecessary, but many 

towns in the lower counties have recourse to deep borings for their 

supplies, and the number of artesian wells increases yearly.

The late Tertiary (Miocene) formations underlying Mobile and 

Baldwin counties, have likewise all the requisites of artesian systems. 

In and near the city of Mobile several wells, TOO to 1,550 feet deep, 

obtain abundant water, which is sometimes potable and sometimes 

excessively salty. On the coast at Bayou La Batre an artesian well 

supplies the canning factory. It is 580 feet deep, and the water rises 

15 feet above the surface. The water holds only 14.4 grains of dissolved mineral salts per gallon, chiefly the chloride and carbonate of 

sodium.

BRINE AND GAS WELLS.

This record would be incomplete without some reference to the brine 

and gas wells of Washington and Clarke counties, which occur along 

the southern border of the Hatchetigbee anticline and its southeastward prolongation. Most of these borings are located in the palmetto 

flats of small creeks, near their mouths, and at the base of hills capped 

with the St. Stephens limestone. Beginning in Claiborne strata at the 

surface they penetrate 100 to 400 feet into the underlying Hatchetigbee 

sands. The water rises to the surface in all cases, and at many points 

there are natural brine oozes, which may be converted into reservoirs 

of salt water by inclosing an area of 15 or 20 feet diameter by a palisade of heavy timbers and digging out the interior. During the civil 

war the brine from these wells and reservoirs was extensively used in 

the manufacture of salt. In most cases natural gas in considerable 

quantity accompanies the salt water, and frequently the weak brines are 

strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, producing the 

most palatable sulphur waters in the State.

Of this character are the waters of the well at Jackson, in Clarke 

County, and at several of the salt works. Natural gas is also associated with the salt waters from other horizons. The deep well at 

Cullom Springs, Choctaw County, yields much gas along with salt 

water, and the Bascomb well near Mobile throws up a foaming jet of 

mingled salt and gas, which on ignition burns with a flame several feet 

in height.
170 /UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

MINERAL SPRHSTGS.

Of the many large springs only eight were reported in 1902 as utilizing their water for shipment. These springs are as follows:

Bailey Springs, Bailey Springs, Lauderdale County.

Cherokee Spring, Citronelle, Mobile County.

Healing Springe, Healing Springs, Washington County.

Ingrain Lithia Springs, Calhoun County.

MacGregor Spring, Spring Hill, Mobile County.

Talladega Springs, Talladega County.

Wilkinson's Matchless Mineral Wells, Greenville, Butler County.

York Aperient Well, York, Sumter County.

The total output is placed at 68,050 gallons, with a value of $28,109. 

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No.

32, pp. 88-94. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 10-11. 

Alabama [well records], by E. A. Smith: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S.

Geol. Survey No. 102, pp." 276-331.
MISSISSIPPI.

By L. C. JOHNSON.

GEOLOGY.

The geologic structure of Mississippi is very simple, but the details 

of the distribution of various formations are hard to make out owing 

to the extent to which the underlying rocks are concealed by more 

recent deposits, such as the river alluvium, loess, and Orange sand or 

Lafayette formation.

The oldest rocks in the State are comprised in a series of limestones 

of Mississippian ("Lower Carboniferous") age, which outcrop in 

northeastern Mississippi and cover much of Tishomingo Count}^, and 

a small portion of Itawamba County. South, southwest, and west of 

this older rock mass outcrop successive parallel bands of later rocks, 

which dip away from the Carboniferous mass in a direction which 

varies from south to west. Along the Alabama State line, for example, the dip is practically due south; along the Tennessee line it .is 

almost due west, while in intervening sections it is southwest. The 

amount is slight, averaging probably about 25 to 35 feet to the mile. 

Southward or westward from Tishomingo County newer and newer 

series of rocks outcrop until recent alluvial deposits are found along 

the Gulf and Mississippi River.

The distribution of the more important of the geologic formations 

are shown in the accompanying sketch map (fig. 23).

MISSISSIPPIAN ("LOWER CARBONIFEROUS") ROCKS.

The Mississippian rocks occupy an area covering portions of Tishomingo and Itawamba counties. They consist largely of limestones. 

They abound in springs, which are so numerous and accessible that 

there has been little demand for deep borings, though open wells with 

a depth of 100 feet and j-ielding good water are not uncommon. A 

few of the well waters are mineralized. Some of the springs issue 

from the Mississippian rocks and some from the Cretaceous sands 

which thinly cover the harder rocks along the borders of the area.

Two important springs occur in the area. The first, known as Bay 

Spring, is located near the falls of Mackay Creek, and may have its 

source within fissures of the limestone. The waters are of normal 

purity. The second spring, the luka, is a medicinal spring containing

IRR 114 05 12 , 171
172 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

considerable amounts of sulphur, iron, sodium, and calcium. It is 

located in the city of the same name and has been developed as a health 

and pleasure resort.

CRETACEOUS DEPOSITS.

Southwest of the Mississippian area are the Cretaceous formations. 

 These occupy a belt outcropping around the area of Mississippian 

rocks. In general, water may be obtained in this section by wells at

LEGEND

QUATERNARY

Alluvium 

Loess loam

Port Hudson and alluvium 

TERTIARY

Grand Gulf sandstone anfl clay

Vicksburg limestone

Jackson marls

laiborne(Tallahatta or Bnhrstoue 

division)

^==_^ Chichasawan (Lignitic) group inTsmaig eluding Sucarnochee, Naheola, 

Nanafalia, Bashi, and Hachetigbee.

Midway limestone and clays 

CRETACEOUS

Eipley marls

Eutaw sands

Tuscaloosa sands and clays 

DEVONO-CARBONIFEROUS

25______0 25_____50 mil

FIG. 23. Geologic sketch map of Mississippi.

a depth of from 200 to 1,500 feet, the depth increasing with the distance from the contact with the Mississippian. Few of the wells flow, 

but the water generally rises to within easy pumping distance of the 

surface. In quality, the water is usually more or less alkaline, but in 

a few wells it is pure and soft.
JOHNSON.] MISSISSIPPI. 173

Tuscaloosa forr nation. This oldest Cretaceous formation, which consists largely of variable beds of sands and clays, is separated into two 

parts by a persistent bed of purplish cla}^. The upper portion 

generally yields only small amounts of unsatisfactory water, but the 

lower half and the sandy bed at the top of the upper half }deld copious 

supplies of good water. Wells drawing their supplies from this 

formation are located at Columbus, Lowndes County, at Gattman, 

Aberdeen, and Amory, Monroe County, and elsewhere. Springs are 

not uncommon where streams have cut into the deposits. Kolola 

Spring on Buttahatchee River, in Lowndes County, has considerable 

reputation because of the medicinal properties of its water, which 

carries sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and iron, especially 

the latter.

Eutaw beds. The name Eutaw has been applied ta> the sandy beds 

between the Tuscaloosa formation and the overlying Selma chalk. In 

Alabama the Eutaw beds usually yield saline waters, but in Mississippi they are not water bearing, the wells generally] passing through 

thepa into the underlying Tuscaloosa formation.

Selma chalk or Rotten limestone. In Mississippi this formation is not 

a water-bearer, but throughout the prairie regions of the northeastern 

part of the State it serves as a cap rock to the water-bearing bed at the 

top of the Tuscaloosa formation. There are more than a hundred 

deep wells each in Noxubee, Lowndes, Clay, Monroe, and Lee counties, 

and there is a large number of wells in Oktiblj)eha, Chickasaw, 

Prentiss, and Union counties. In the western parts of these counties 

there are fewer wells than in the eastern, not because of the impossibility of obtaining water, but because the wells miist be deeper and 

are therefore more costly.

The regularity of the water-bearing beds as shown by the wells 

indicates there has been no material disturbance or dislocation of the 

deposits beyond a simple tilting westward from th^e contact of the 

Rotten limestone and Tuscaloosa beds at the rate of 2& feet to the mile.

Ripley beds. The Ripley beds in Mississippi consist of a series of 

sands, marls, and limestones outcropping west and southwest of the 

Selma chalk or Rotten limestone. Until recently no water supplies of 

importance had been obtained from these beds, but abundant water 

has lately been found in a number of wells at Ecru, in Pontotoc 

County. The wells appear to be located in a local syncline or trough 

and have an average depth of about 200 feet. Mosn of them flow at 

the surface.

Springs are not abundant in the Ripley beds, but they frequently 

occur along its contact with the overlying Lafayette sands and gravel. 

The large Blue Mountain Spring is an example of this type. It carries a small amount of calcium and magnesium carbonates, derived, it 

is supposed, from the underlying marls of the Ripley beds.
174 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

TERTIARY DEPOSITS.

Westward from the limits of the Selma chalk or Rotten limestone 

to the delta district, and southward to the southern portion of the 

State, lies the broad belt of Tertiary deposits, which have been divided 

into a considerable number of formations, each of which is considered 

below.

Midway. The Midway beds consist of limestones overlying the 

Ripley sands, marls, etc. The thickness is slight and they do not 

carry any considerable amount of water.

Lignitic" group. One of the most important divisions of the Tertiary is the " Lignitic" group, which is further subdivided in Alabama 

into (1) the Sucarnochee, consisting of black clays, (2) the Naheola, 

(3) the Nanafalia, (4) the Bashi, and (5) the Hatchetigbee formations. 

The last four consist largely of gray lignitic clays, with occasional marl 

beds and some water-bearing sand.

The general structure of the region underlain by the Lignitic group 

is favorable to obtaining water, both by wells and springs. The surface elevation, however, is so nearly uniform that even deep borings 

seldom produce flowing wells. Where the streams have cut into the 

deposits numerous springs issue from the banks, except in the case of 

the Sucarnochee formation.

The Sucarnochee formation is a deep black clay, very impervious to 

water. Springs frequently issue from the more porous beds overlying 

it, but it is itself practically destitute of water.

The Naheola formation contains a few sandy beds yielding small 

flows of water. Wells at Lauderdale penetrate these beds at depths 

of from 100 to 200 feet, and obtain weak flows rising & or 3 feet above 

the surface. Similar wells have been obtained in this formation at 

scattering points elsewhere. Some of the largest springs of Mississippi appear at the contact of the Naheola with the underlying clays 

of the Sucarnochee formation. Like the Naheola these formations 

consist of grayish lignitic clays with occasional marl and sand beds. 

They are not important water horizons. At Meridian borings 

penetrated the "Lignitic" strata from the Hatchetigbee down to the 

Sucarnochee, but the water only rose to within 20 feet of the surface.

There are a number of springs from the Nanafalia formation, one of 

which, the Lauderdale, is of considerable importance. The waters, 

which carr}? considerable sulphur, issue from lignitic beds on a branch 

of the Sucarnochee River, near Lauderdale. A health resort has been 

developed at the spring.

The Hatchetigbee formation is similar to the preceding Lignitic 

formations, but carries thicker beds of sand, and is therefore a more 

important water-bearing formation. It underlies a considerable portion of the delta deposits, and is thought to be the source of water of
JOHNSON.] MISSISSIPPI. 175

the wells drilled through the deposits of the delta at Memphis, Tenn., 

Tunica, Coahoma, Quitman, Tallahatchie, Leflore, Sunflower, Bolivar, 

and other places. The depth constantly increases toward the south 

and west from 850 to 1,300 feet.

The most important spring in the Hatchetigbee deposits is the Arundel Lithia Spring. The water issues from the Hatchetigbee sands, 

where Oktibbee River and Sowoshee Creek have removed the Buhrstone and cut away the sands down to the stiff clay beneath. Considerable amounts of the water are sold. The whole of the adjoining 

region is marked by numerous springs, but in general none of them 

have been improved nor the water marketed.

Tallakatta formation (buhrstone). The Tallahatta formation consists essentially of a series of hard sandy beds, more or less porous in 

places, comprising the lower portion of the Claiborne group. It contains little water in itself, but forms an impervious cap rock to the 

water-bearing sands of the underlying Hatchetigbee. By its resistance to erosion the Tallahatta has given rise to an elevated ridge which 

is of much assistance in the location of water-bearing beds. Water 

which rises to a greater or less distance is almost always found beneath 

it, the local topography determining whether the well will flow or not. 

This horizon supplies the wells at Stonewall (300 feet), Quitman (500 

feet), Enterprise (200 feet), all in Clarke County; at Grahams Switch 

(90 feet), and Meehan Junction, in Lauderdale County, and at Chunky 

and Hickory (500 feet), in Newton County. It is also probable that 

the artesian flows at West, Pickens, Durant, Tchula, and Lexington, 

in Holmes County, are from the same source. To the above list may 

possibly be added the deep wells at Jackson, Hinds County (964 feet), 

and at Canton, Madison County (1,020 feet), both of which, however, 

were bored through the Jackson and Claiborne marls before penetrating the Hatchetigbee beneath the buhrstone.

Lisbon formation (calcareous Claiborne). This formation consists 

of marls and green sand, and has a total thickness of about 300 feet. 

It contains several minor beds of ferruginous water-bearing sands, but 

none of them are as persistent as the Hatchetigbee. One of these beds 

is encountered at 300 feet at Shubuta, and at 500 feet at Waynesboro. 

The water from these wells is colored by the iron, and is also highty 

alkaline.

A local sand bed of the Lisbon formation yields colorless, but 

chalybeate water in the double wells at Shubuta, and in the wells at 

De Soto and Pachuta. The water in the last well only comes within 

20 feet of the surface.

Springs are by no means i/are ~in the Lisbon area, but they are 

generally supposed to come from the overlying Lafayette sand. A 

few, however, are probably of deeper-seated origin. The Archusa 

Spring, near Quitman, Clarke County, is derived from these beds.
176 UNDERGEOUND WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The water is sulphurous and alkaline. The Pierce Spring, near the 

banks of Bucatanna Creek, in eastern Clarke County, is also strongly 

mineralized. The Robinson Spring, in Madison County, which has 

been developed as a health resort, yields water similar to that of the 

springs in Clarke County.

Jackson and Vicksburg formations. These two formations, which 

may be grouped together, consist of marls, clays, and limestone, the 

latter predominating in the upper or Vicksburg division. There are 

few sandy beds and artesian waters are generally lacking. The flowing wells located in the area of outcrop obtain water from the ferruginous sands of the Lisbon formation at Shubuta and Waynesboro, 

and from the Hatchetigbee sands at Jackson (964 feet) and Canton 

(1,020 feet). An important mineral well, known as the Cooper well, 

is located 3 miles east of Raymond. It is 90 feet deep, and at this 

point has been developed the most important health resort in the State. 

The water contains iron, magnesia, soda, and sulphur. Another wellknown mineral well, near Haz-lehurst, Copiah County, obtains water 

from this formation. The water is impregnated with sodium and 

magnesium chlorides and calcium sulphates. It occurs at a depth of 

68 feet, probably in a lignite bed. A third mineral well of importance is the God bold, li miles from Summit, Pike County.

Springs in the area of outcrop of this formation are really from the 

sands and gravels of the overlying Lafayette. The best known of 

these break out along Paulding Ridge, in Jasper County. Those 

issuing on the north side generally yield pure, soft water; those on 

the south are usually mineralized. The Phalti Spring (sec. 8, 2 N., 

R. 13 E.); Bay Spring, at Bayspring post-office; Donald's mineral 

spring, near Weems; and Vosburg and Stafford springs, in the same 

vicinity, are among the most important.

Grand Gulf group. The Grand Gulf is by far the most extensive 

formation in the State, and consists of a variable series of sandstones, 

sands, and lignitic clays. Practically every sand bed, of which there 

are a great number, is water bearing, and supplies are obtained by 

dug, bored, and drilled wells. Where stream erosion has cut into the 

beds to any considerable distance springs occur. At Hattiesburg, 

Laurel, Brookhaven, and Natchez water is obtained at depths of from 

200 to 400 feet, but only at Hattiesburg does it rise above the surface. 

There are considerable evidences of undulations of the beds in the 

Grand Gulf area, the flowing water at Hattiesburg being referred to 

a shallow synclinal trough at that point.

Among the springs and mineral wells may be mentioned the Mississippi Springs in Hinds County (sec. 2, T. 5 N., R. 4 E.); the Mammoth 

Mineral Springs, Perry County (sees. 24 and 25, T. 5 N., R. 14 W.); 

and Rawls Spring, 2 miles farther west. The Mammoth Spring, 6 

miles northwest of Hattiesburg, is a large spring issuing from lig-
JOHNSON.] MISSISSIPPI. 177

nitic clays. Both the Mammoth and Rawls springs are noted for the 

medicinal value of their waters.

QUATERNARY.

Lafayette sands and gravels. The Lafayette formation is poorly 

denned, but may be considered as made up of a series of yellowish 

or orange sands and gravels occurring as a mantle over the outcropping 

edges of the Grand Gulf and other formations. Because of its sandy 

and gravelly character it contains, especially at the base, a large amount 

of water, which is usual\\ pure and soft, and which is obtained by 

shallow wells.

Loess and loam. The loess consists of fine fossiliferous yellowish 

silts, while the loam consists of browner silts, possibly produced by 

the weathering of the loess. The deposits occur over the Yazoo delta 

region in the northwestern part of the State. Only very small amounts 

of water can be obtained in the loess or loam, practically all of the 

wells passing through it into the underlying Lafayette or still older 

formations.

Pontchartrain clay and' Biloxi sand. The Pontchartrain clay is a 

greenish clay occurring in a narrow belt in the extreme southern part 

of the State, and separated from the coast by a very narrow strip of 

sandy* beds, known as Biloxi sands. Shallow wells in these two formations everywhere obtain abundant water at shallow depths, although 

the quality is not always satisfactory. To obtain flowing water the 

wells must extend to the Grand Gulf formation. Water is found at 

depths of approximately 400, 600, 700, 850, and 900 feet.

The buckshot lands of the delta have sometimes been referred to the 

Port Hudson group, which includes the two formation sunder discussion. 

The water is generally fairly abundant and soft, but has not been found 

to be wholesome for drinking. In the northern part of the delta area 

water can be obtained from deep wells reaching to the Tertiary beds.

Alluvium. Under alluvium are included the surface materials of 

the Mississippi delta region and the deposits in the lower portions of 

the courses of other large streams. The waters, though soft, are not 

regarded as wholesome.

MINERAL WATERS.

In 1902 shipments of mineral water were reported from the following seven springs:

Arundel Lithia Springs, near Meridian, Lauderdale County.

Browns Wells, Browns Wells, Copiah County.

Castalian Springs, near Durant, Holmes County.

Godbold Mineral Well, near Summit, Pike County.

Lowes Wells, Hazlehurst, Copiah County.

Robinson Mineral Springs, Robinson Springs, Madison County.

Stafford Mineral Springs, near Vosburg, Jasper County.
178 UNDEEGEOUND WATERS, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The aggregate amount sold is reported as 459,485 gallons, valued at 

$77,868.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 95-97.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: 

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 57.

Mississippi [well records], by L. C. Johnson and E. C. Eckel: Water-Supply and 

lErig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, pp. 332-357.
LOUISIANA AND SOUTHERN ARKANSAS/

By A. C. VEATCH.

GEOLOGY.

Louisiana and Arkansas, south of Arkansas River and the mountains, 

have the same general structure as the great American Coastal Plain, of 

which the}^ form a part. The land is highest toward the old plateau 

and mountain region to the northwest. The beds are for the most part 

unconsolidated, succeed one another in more or less regular succession, 

range in age from Cretaceous to Recent, and in general have a dip 

coastward that is greater than the slope of the surface. This relation 

of dip to surface slope supplies conditions which are favorable for 

artesian water, therefore flowing wells should be expected in many 

parts of the Coastal Plain. In some cases the leakage and resistance 

of the sands so reduces the pressure that the water will not flow, 

although the altitude of the well mouth is less than that of the point 

where the sands come to the surface and where the water enters; in 

others, erosion has so changed the surface of the plain that the well 

mouth, though south of the outcrop of the water-bearing bed, is higher, 

and the water, therefore, will not flow. In Louisiana and southern 

Arkansas the older beds slope toward the Mississippi Valley as well 

as toward the coast. Some of these older beds are very much disturbed and form peculiar, sharp domes, and as the}r often contain salt 

water, and are frequently broken by the folding, the salt water is free 

to pass into the sands of the surrounding younger formations. While 

these domes disturb the conditions in certain tracts, there are still 

larger areas in which wells have found good water. A study of these 

well records and of the general structure of the country shows that 

the following principal water horizons are present: Bingen sand, 

Nacatoch sand, Sabine sands, Catahoula sandstone, Pliocene and 

Quaternary sands and gravels.

The relation of these beds to one another is shown in tigs. 24 and 

25, and their geologic age and relation to adjacent beds are shown in 

the table following.

a A preliminary statement. A detailed report on this area, embodying records of all important 

wells and well prospects for each county is now in preparation and will be ready for distribution 

late in 1905.

179
180 UNDERGROUND WATEES, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114. 

Water-bearing value of geologic formations of Louisiana and southern Arkansas.

Period or formation.

Quaternary 

Pliocene...

Miocene

Oligocene:

Fleming.. 

Catahoula

Vicksburg

Eocene:

Jackson ..

Cockfield.

Clai borne.

Sabine c ..

Midway

Upper Cretaceous: 

Arkadelphia.

Nacatoch

Marlbrook.. 

Annona .... 

Brownstown 

Bingen .....

Lower Cretaceous

Paleozoic

Maximum 

thickness.

« 2, 000

±200 

6 1, 000

50-100

500

500

^600 

150-200

400

+ 100

300

-f500

Water-bearing value.

Contains gravel and sand beds, which furnish 

the main supply of water in southern Louisiana.

As surficial deposits on the uplands and in the 

valleys, supply much of the shallow well 

water of this region.

No surface outcrop, and hence probably of no 

importance as a water horizon.

Clays and marly clays; no water-bearing value.

The coarser sandstone layers of this formation 

furnish excellent water. Three or four horizons have been developed.

Exposed in only one part of the area and of 

no importance from a water standpoint.

Clays and clay marls with occasional sand beds;

water generally hard and seldom developed. 

The sandy beds occurring near the base of

the formation are second in importance only

to the Sabine. 

Clays and clay marls containing sand beds of

little importance as water horizons. 

The sands of this formation are the important

water horizons of the greater part of northern

Louisiana and adjacent parts of Arkansas. 

Exposed only to a limited extent in one part of

the area, and unimportant as a water-bearer.

Clay beds, which serve to retain water in

Washington sands.

One of the most extensively developed water

sands of this region. Very good water

near the outcrop, but brackish in the embed.

\Clays, clay marls, and chalk; serve to retain

I water in the Bingen sands.

Persistent sandy bed, furnishing water over 

a wide area.

Not known to contain any important waterbearing layers in this region, though the 

great development in eastern Texas would 

lead us to expect some development here.

Hard rock layer very much disturbed. Contains water, but its occurrence can not be 

predicted until the geology of the region is 

minutely understood. In general, not very 

good field for water wells.

"Harris, G. D., Organic remains from the deep well at Galveston- Fourth Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey 

Texas, 1893, p. 118. Harris, G. D., Report of Louisiana Geol. Survey for 1902, p. 32.

& Based on dip calculations on the Sabine River, and on the thickness of these beds in the Alexandria, La., wells, 800+ feet.

cName adopted to supplant Lignitic; taken from typical fosiliferous development of the formation 

on the Sabine River, in Sabine County, Tex., and Sabine Parish, La.

dBased on wells south of Hope, at Arkadelphia and Shreveport; may be in part Midway.

e Hill, R. T., The Mesozoicgeology of southern Arkansas: Ann. Rept. Arkansas Geol. Survey for 1888. 

p. 188.
VEATCH.] LOUISIANA AND SOUTHERN ARKANSAS. 181

WATER HORIZONS.

' Lower Cretaceous. The lower Cretaceous occupies the wedge-shapea 

territory between the Paleozoic rocks and the Bingen sands (fig. 24). 

All deep wells in this region have thus far failed to yield water, though 

the extensive development of water sands in this group in Texas leads

LEGEND

Paleozoic Brea. I.'cicks much disturbed. 

No definite water horizons

Areas supplied by waters from th 

Bingen sand

Areas supplied by waters from the 

Nacatoch sand

s Areas in which the water is generally 

from the Sabine

Disturbed areas; generally yielding 

impotable waters

Areas supplied by Pliocene and 

Quaternary gravels

Areas in "which deep waters are 

generally impotable

 Successful wells

o Wells yielding impotable waters

a Wells failing because too shallow

c Water from the Cretaceous

s Water from the Sabine

J Water from the Jackson

Q Water from the Catahoula

FIG. 24. Deep-water prospects in Louisiana and southern Arkansas. A-A, line of section shown 

in fig. 26; B-B, line of section shown in fig. 27.

to the belief that further attempts, especially in the western part of 

the State, will not be fruitless. The best water-bearing sands are to 

be expected near the base of the Cretaceous or just above bed rock. 

The depths at which bed rock will be encountered may be roughly 

found by multiplying the distance in miles between the Paleozoic out-
182 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

crop and the point where the well is to be sunk by the average rate of 

slope of the bed-rock surface, 100 to 125 feet per mile.

Bingen sand. a The Bingen sand comes to the surface along and south 

of the line shown in figs. 24 and 25. Along this line shallow wells are, 

therefore, the rule, but as the sand dips at a rate of 50 to 75 feet per

Areas of flowing wells iron 

Bingen sand (B)

Areas of flowing wells from 

Nacatoch Blind (N)

Areas of flowing-wells from 

the Sabine deposits (S)

Areas of flowing wells from 

the Catahoyla formatiou( G)

the Pliocene and Quaternary

gravels IP) 

 Flowing wells yielding

potable water 

o Flowing wells yielding

impotable water 

C Wells in. the Cretaceous

FIG. 25. Artesian areas in Louisiana and southern Arkansas.

mile in a southeasterly direction, the wells get deeper to the south, 

and reach an extreme depth of 784 feet near Columbus, a little north 

of the outcrop of the Nacatoch sand. Some failures have been 

reported in the lower part of this territory, notably at Columbus and

a Name used by Hill for beds which he doubtfully referred to the Eocene. These, with the exception of a single Nacatoch outcrop which was incorrectly included in this series, are now known to 

pass beneath the Brownstown and to represent the littoral beds of the basal upper Cretaceous.
VEATCH.] LOUISIANA AND SOUTHERN ARKANSAS. 183

Lockesburg

Little Blver

Boggy

Ark.-La. IJne

Shreveport

Frlerson

Washington, but they were due to the fact that the wells were abandoned before the required depth had been reached. g r rj

The greatest development has naturally been in

the region where flowing water can be obtained

(fig. 25). The maximum depth to which wells will

be driven in this region will probably not exceed

900 feet, as before this depth will become necessary the Nacatoch sands will appear on the surface,

making good shallow wells possible.

The water is very soft and somewhat alkaline, 

except in wells which do not flow and have only 

been partially cased, and in which the water therefore stands in contact with the overlying calcareous clays. Hard water has been found in a few

wells, as at Hudson and near Burtsell, but in these

. it seems to occur in the calcareous beds which

overlie the Bingen sands, and the indications are 

that if the wells had been deepened 200 or 300 

feet they would have reached the Bingen and 

obtained soft water.

Nacatoch sand a. This sand, like the Bingen, 

is of very great value to a large section in southern Arkansas, where it is practically the only 

available source of well water. In areas underlain by the Bingen and Nacatoch sands the surface formations are rich, calcareous clays, with " 

here and there thin coatings of younger gravel, 

and the surface water is generally hard and 

very unsatisfactory. Persistent water-bearing 

horizons, which are so well understood that the 

depth to water can be predicted at any point 

and which will furnish soft artesian water over 

wide areas, can not fail to have a great effect on 

the development and land values of the regions 

which they underlie.

The Nacatoch sand has been extensively developed along the line of the Iron Mountain 

Railroad from west of Eed River almost to Arkadelphia (fig. 24). It dips southeastward at a rate 

of from 50 to 100 feet per mile until it reaches a 

point about 800 feet below sea level, when it 

abruptly becomes horizontal and continues so to

Many

Bayou Toro

Lake Charles

a point somewhat south of Shreveport, where it again slopes normally

a Name taken from typical exposure at Nacatoch Bluflf on Little Missouri River in Clark County. This 

formation includes the sand beds between the Marlbrook and Arkadelphia which Hill included in his 

Washington or High Bluflf greensands (Ann. Kept. Arkansas Geol. Survey for 1888, vol. 2, 1888, pp. 

72-75,188).
184 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Upland

Ark. - La. State line

Randolph'

coastward (fig. 26). This extensive horizontal development would

make this sand of great value over wide areas were it not for the

fact that south of a line which runs ir- £ r r|

regularly from 3 to 15 miles from the

outcrop the water is salty. Seemingly

that portion of the sand near the outcrop

has been thoroughly washed by percolating waters, while that less favorably situated is in its original salty condition, and

the saltiness may even have been increased

by matter washed down from the upper

layers. Developments at Texarkana, Jefferson, Shreveport, and Frierson have

yielded impotable water, which at the last

three places is artesian, indicating an artesian basin covering a considerable part of

the Red River Valley (fig. 25). The brine

which occurs in some of the Cretaceous

uplifts in northern Louisiana is likewise

from this horizon. In general, it is felt

that that portion of the sand which lies

south of the area shown in fig. 24 will not

furnish potable water.

Sabine group. Under this head is 

classed not a single well-defined horizon 

like the Nacatoch, or Bingen, or other 

Cretaceous beds, but a number of somewhat irregular water sands occurring 

throughout a formation which, in the 

western part of this area attains a thickness of perhaps 1,000 feet. The lowest 

of these sands occurs about 700 feet above 

the Nacatoch, and like it, is very nearly 

horizontal over a considerable area (figs. 

26, 27). Eastward and southward this bed 

dips gently toward the Mississippi Valley 

and the coast.

Other sand beds occur in the formation 

above this one, at varying distances from 

each other, and of varying thickness. 

Nine have been developed at Plymouth, 

La., and six at Ruston. These beds thin 

and thicken very rapidly, so that in one

Ansley

Hodge 

Jonesboro 

Pytourn 

Wlnona

Wlnnfield

Colfax

Boyce 

Alexandria

Crowley

well a sand may be developed which in a nearby well is too thin to 

give results. Wells, then, show considerable irregularity in depth,
VEATCH.] LOUISIANA AND SOUTHERN ARKANSAS. 18£

some wells developing one bed and some another; but in general the 

wells are deeper to the south and toward the Mississippi Valley, as 

in each case the dip carries the sands beneath younger beds, and it 

becomes necessary to pass through a certain thickness of overlying 

deposits even to reach the topmost water sands of this series.

The failures in the southern part of the territory, near Natchitoches 

and Luella, La., are due to the occurrence of salt water, which is 

doubtless traceable, in part, to the neighboring uplifts of the older 

Cretaceous beds. These beds generally carry artesian brines, and as 

they are often broken the brine leaks into the surrounding Sabine 

sands. In the region of these domes it is often possible to predict the 

position of a sand, but it is quite impossible to indicate the kind of 

water it will contain. It is believed that the sands which furnish 

brine at Luella and Natchitoches are a continuation of the sands 

which yield good water about Shreveport.

Cockfieldbeds. Overlying the Sabine are the fossiliferous Claiborne 

beds, which have little water-bearing value. Above the fossiliferous 

Claiborne are the Cockh'eld beds, which contain near their base an 

important water-bearing horizon. In central Louisiana the deeper 

wells which penetrate this horizon, as those at Leland, Rochelle, Olla, 

Tullos, and Colfax, obtain impotable water, though an exception is to 

be noted in the case of the deep well at Robinsons Ferry on Sabine 

River, in which a soft, pleasant-tasting water is reported at a depth of 

1,010 to 1,030 feet. Near the outcrop successful wells have been finished 

at darks in Catahoula Parish, and at Weavers Spur in Natchitoches 

Parish.

In southeastern Arkansas and northwestern Mississippi this horizon 

is very extensively developed and furnishes good supplies of soft 

alkaline water at depths of 400 to 500 feet below sea level. a Between it 

and the base of the Jackson in this region a number of water sands 

have been developed in different wells, but they show little regularity 

and the better wells have, almost without exception, been finished in 

the main horizon.

The outcrops of the Cockh'eld sands in Arkansas and Louisiana are 

all relatively low, and the water will generally not rise much above 

100 feet above sea level. Flowing wells will be obtained along the 

main stream channels in central Louisiana. In Arkansas and northwestern Mississippi the artesian area is near the eastern side of the 

flood plain where a relatively higher head is developed, because of the 

greater average height of the Mississippi hill lands. Water will rise 

very near the surface over all the flood plain, but in Arkansas it is 

regarded as quite impossible that flowing wells will be obtained.

a The wells in Chicot, Drew, Bradley, Cleveland, and Jefferson counties, except the deep ones at 

Pine Bluff, which are incorrectly marked S in fig. 23, should be credited to this horizon.
186 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Jackson beds. Beds of this age generally furnish hard water, and 

are therefore not extensively developed.

Catahoula fieds. a The sands and sandstone of this formation are 

good water carriers, and have yielded excellent results in central Louisiana, where they furnish flowing wells at Zimmerman, Boyce, Alexandria, Pollock, and Harrisonburg. Several horizons have been developed which furnish soft water of a very good quality, and it is probable that over a considerable area along Ouachita and Black rivers and 

about Catahoula Lake and Little River (fig. 25) flowing water is to be 

expected from these sands. Flowing wells will doubtless be obtained 

in Sabine River Valley below the outcrop of the Catahoula, as indicated by the water obtained from these beds on the Angelina near 

Rockland, Tex.; but in the high hill region about Leesville the wells 

will probably be very deep, and the water will have to be pumped 

some distance.

Pliocene and Quaternary gravels. These sands and gravels underlie 

a large portion of southern Louisiana, arid should doubtless be regarded 

as the most important water horizon in the State. The outcrops on 

the hill lands are large, and therefore the amount of rainwater passing 

into them is great. Covered with the more recent coastal clays, they 

furnish artesian water over considerable areas (fig. 24), and over still 

larger areas (fig. 25) the water rises so near the surface that it is readily 

available for irrigation and other uses. In the Mississippi bottoms, 

and sometimes toward the coast, the water in these beds is generally 

so charged with various soluble salts that it is of little value. Under 

the main river valleys in northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas 

there are thick deposits of sand and gravel partially filling the old valleys. In this, limited supplies can be obtained from driven wells of 

no great depth, but when large supplies are needed wells should be 

pushed to the main gravel bed, which overlies the older Cretaceous and 

Tertiary strata. This can be reached at depths ranging from 75 to 150 

feet.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

Although there are many smatt springs scattered throughout Louisiana, only three reported sales for 1902. These were as follows:

Abita Springs, Abita Springs, St. Tammany Parish. 

Mandeville Springs, St. Tammany Parish. 

Ozone Springs, Pearl River, St. Tammany Parish.

The total output was 499,261 gallons, with a value of $43,502. 6

«Name proposed from typical development of formation in Catahoula Parish, La., used for the 

lower or typical Grand Gulf of Hilgard as exposed at Grand Gulf, Miss. This formation includes the 

sandstone-bearing clays between the Vicksburg and Fleming Oligocene.

& A. C. Peale, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Mineral Waters, 1902.
VEATCH.] LOUISIANA AND SOUTHEKN ARKANSAS. 187 

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No.

32, pp. 123-124. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton:

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, 1902, pp. 49-50. 

Subterranean waters of Louisiana, by G. D. Harris: Louisiana Geol. Survey, Eept.

for 1902, pp. 205-252. 

Underground waters of southern Louisiana, by G. D. Harris and M. L. Fuller:

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 101, 1904. 

IKK 114 05 13
NORTHERN ARKANSAS.

By A. H. PURDUE.

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION.

That part of Arkansas lying; north of Arkansas River comprises 

a little more than half of the area of the State, or about 28,700 

square miles. Topographically it is divided into two well-defined 

areas the eastern or lowland area and the western or highland area. 

The average elevation of the lowland area will probably not exceed 

225 feet above sea level. The even, monotonous character of the surface is disturbed only by Crowleys Ridge, which extends northward 

from Mississippi River at Helena to St. Francis River at St. Francis, 

and into Missouri. This ridge is from 1 to 14 miles wide, and in its 

highest part is about 400 feet above sea level, or 180 feet above the 

adjacent lowlands.

The highlands are a part of the Ozark region and vary in altitude 

from less than 500 to 2,250 feet above sea level. They are divided into 

two parts, a northern and a southern, each of which is a plateau, much 

dissected by streams. The southern of these is the higher, and is 

known as the Boston Mountains. These mountains are highest in the 

western part of the State and gradually fall eastward, the elevation 

south of Batesville being 800 feet (aneroid). The Boston Mountains 

are separated from the lower plateau to the north by a more or less 

bold and irregular escarpment, the height of which varies from 500 to 

1,000 feet. Figs. 28 and 29 supplement this description and aid in 

giving a general idea of the topography of the region.

RESOURCES.

Resources of the highlands. The main resources of the highlands are 

its soil, timber, mineral deposits, and water supplies. While the really 

rich soil of this part of the State is confined mainly to the narrow flood 

plains of the valleys, much of the remainder yields fair returns, and 

Practically all of it is well adapted to horticulture. All fruits suited 

to this latitude flourish. The high altitude, to which the healthful, 

genial climate is largely attributable, and the universal abundance of 

pure water have combined to make it a favorable place for settlement

188
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 11+ PL. XIII

L._J_i-. T.J

NORTHERN ARKANSAS

COMPILED 'MAINLY FROM'THE REPORTS -OF THE,ARKANSAS GEOLOGICAL.SURTET

^

Tertiary anfH Boston Mountain 'Moorefield.shale Boone chert area Ordovician s Qualernaryarea area of

undifferentiated 

Carboniferous

I /
PUEDTJE.] NOETHEEN AEKAKSAS. 189

since the early days of exploration. The rough topography has until 

recently prevented the extensive construction of railroads. At the 

present time, however, two important lines are being built and are in 

actual operation over a considerable part of their routes. The region 

contains large areas of practically undisturbed timber, fine in quality. 

In the northern part is a large area containing deposits of zinc ores. 

A thin vein of coal covers a portion of the central part of the region, 

and along the Arkansas Valley is an abundance of coal, which is being 

worked at many points. Among other mineral deposits are phosphate, manganese, building stones, and clays in great varieties.

ELEVATIONS ABOVE BEA LEVEL 

| | BELOW S60 FT.

TIG. 28. Relief map of Arkansas.

Resources of the lowlands. The wealth of the lowland region is in 

its soil, timber, and waters. Much of the soil is of unusual fertility. 

While a great deal of the timber has been removed in recent j^ears, a 

large amount still remains. As a rule, the population is densest along 

the river valleys, where the soil is richest, and where transportation 

was most easily secured in the early settlement of the State. Along 

Crowleys Ridge the principal towns are Helena, Marianna, Forrest 

City, Harrisburg, Jonesboro, and Paragould. The narrow strip of 

land along Arkansas River extending beyond the western border of 

the State is covered with flood-plain deposits, and should be considered 

a part of the lowlands.
190 UNDERGEOUND WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Arkansas River

GEOLOGY.

Geology of the plateau region. The rocks of the plateau region are 

of Paleozoic age, and include the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and 

Carboniferous. Ordovician rocks are ex- 3

»i p

posed over a large area in the northeastern § g

part of the division and farther west in % ^

Carroll County. They also occur along x 8

many of the stream valleys outside these g g

areas. The rocks are of great thickness, § &

and consist mainly of magnesian limestone, | g

though there are a few beds of sandstone ^ »

111 - * and shale. o »

f£j

The Silurian and Devonian rocks are 5 1 l~" ct

exposed along the steep hillsides border- g' g

ing the valleys. The Silurian consists of a g g

limestone known as the St. Clair lime- & E

stone,a and the Devonian of sandstone and S. g

shale knoAvn, respectively, as the Sylamore ?. |

sandstone and the Eureka shale. ^ |.

Q K^

The Mississippian (" Lower Carbonifer- § g. 

ous ") covers most of the northern division a g Jr p

of the plateau area not occupied by the 3- ~

Ordovician, and consists of the Moorefield -^ *

shale, the Boone chert, the Batesville | ^

sandstone, the Fayetteville shale, the g t

Archimedes limestone, and probablj^ some » |

sandstone and shale above the last-named " | ^ w

formation. The southern part of the high- § j§

land area is occupied mainly by rocks of *-1 

Pennsylvanian (" Upper Carboniferous ") ^ 

age, consisting of some limestone and a g-" 

heavy deposit of sandstone and shale. § g 

The rocks are practically horizontal over e g1 

the northern division of the plateau | o^ 

region, but from the Boston Mountains g if 

southward they fall off by monoclines -01 f= 

and faults to the Arkansas River Valley, g ^ 

The structure of the southern part is not | | 

sufficiently well known to be shown in the g g 

section. ^ | 

Geology of the lowlands. With the | & 

exception of a sheet of alluvium over a ? at [ H ^ Mo .. Ark.|ine 

large part of the lowland area the surface rocks of that region 

are of Tertiary age. They consist almost entirely of unindurated sand

Buffalo Fork of White RiverCrooked Creek

White River

a The geologic nomenclature herein used is that used by the late geological survey of Arkansas.
PUEDUE.] NORTHERN ARKANSAS. 191

and clay, the sand greatly predominating. The thickness of this 

surface deposit increases rapidly from the highland border eastward. 

At Newport, according to the record of a deep well near that city, on 

a farm owned by Mr. W. B. Chastain, it is 655 feet, that being the 

distance below the surface at which the Paleozoic rock was encountered. 

East of this point the thickness is not known.

WATER RESOURCES.

There are two natural divisions of the area under consideration which 

can be made on the basis of their water supplies the Paleozoic and 

the Tertiary.

PALEOZOIC REGION.

The horizontal position and diversified character of the rock over 

the northern part of this region make the hydrologic areas conform 

to the areas over which water-bearing rocks are exposed or to their 

lines of outcrop. A detailed geologic map of the region would at the 

same time be a hydrologic map. Some of the water-bearing strata 

are exposed over large areas, others outcrop in practically horizontal 

planes along the hillsides. As it is not possible to present herewith 

a detailed geologic map, the hydrology of the Paleozoic region will 

be discussed under the following heads, which are somewhat arbitrarily chosen: The Ordovician area, the Boone chert area, and the Boston Mountain area.

THE ORDOVICIAN AREA.

This occupies that part of the region under consideration over which 

the Ordovician rocks are exposed at the surface. As previously stated, 

these rocks consist mainly of magnesium limestone. From these 

rocks, where they are cut into by streams, emerge numerous strong 

springs. Among these is Mammoth Springs, in Fulton County, which 

is said to discharge 9,000 barrels of water per minute. a As would be 

expected, the water of this region is hard, owing to the presence of 

the salts of calcium and magnesium in solution. The rocks are compact, and as a result the water can move only through joints and other 

fissures. For this reason the wells secure water only in case they strike 

a fissure. Some wells furnish an abundance of water, others, failing 

to strike fissures, are dry. The uncertainty of finding water in wells 

and the hard nature of the water have caused frequent resort to 

cisterns.

The most common method of sinking wells is by blasting out the 

rocks, but drilling is sometimes resorted to. So far as the chances of

a Rept. Gteol. Survey Arkansas, 1891, vol. 1, p. 65.
192 UNDEEGBOUND WATEBS, EASTEBN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

striking a fissure are increased by an increase of the well diameter, 

blasting is the most promising method. On the other hand, the chances 

for striking a fissure are greater in a deep well than in a shallow one, 

and as the cost of drilling a deep well is less than that of blasting, the 

former method is advisable in most cases. Especially is this true when 

the sanitary advantage of a well-cased drilled well over an open one is 

taken into consideration.

THE BOONE CHERT AREA.

The charactei, thickness, and wide outcrop of the Boone chert make 

it the most important water horizon in northern Arkansas. It is 

composed of limestone and numerous lenses of much-fractured chert. 

Beneath the Boone chert is a limestone from 25 to 50 feet thick, known 

as the St. Joe marble, but for hydrologic purposes the two may be 

considered together. Where not removed by denudation the Boone 

chert usually exceeds 300 feet in thickness. It is exposed over an area 

of about 3,600 square miles. Solution has removed the limestone from 

the upper part of the formation, but the chert, being insoluble, is left 

as a residue on the surface, in many places several inches thick. In 

such places this chert debris largely reduces the run-off from the rainfall, and by so much adds to the amount of water that enters the 

ground. The water descends through the joints in the limestone and 

is transmitted horizontally through the fractures in the chert lenses. 

Beneath the St Joe marble over a considerable portion of the area is 

the Eureka shale, which, being impervious, holds the water in the 

overlying limestone and chert. Along lines where streams have cut 

their valleys down to or beyond this bed of shale, springs with a copious 

flow of the best water are very numerous. Most of the famous springs 

at Eureka Springs emerge from this horizon.

In the western part of the State, over the Boone chert area, the 

divides between the streams are often flat, and in such cases water is 

easily secured by sinking wells a few feet, but in the eastern part, 

where the streams have cut far down into the Ordovician rocks and 

have left the Boone chert on the high divides between them, water is 

frequently below the level to which wells can be sunk by digging 

and blasting, the method usually employed. On account of the considerable depth of the water beneath these high divides the drill 

should be employed. By this method water could be obtained in most 

cases.

The water from the Boone chert, while hard, contains a smaller 

amount of matter in solution than might be expected, owing to the 

fact that so much of the formation is siliceous, and consequently 

insoluble.
PUBDUE.] NOETHEEN AEKANSAS. 193

Ark. - Ind. Ter. line

THE BOSTON MOUNTAIN AREA.

There are several water-bearing horizons in what is here designated 

as the Boston Mountain area. Named in their order, beginning with 

the lowest, the most important are: The 

Batesville sandstone, the Archimedes limestone, and the Pentremital limestone.

Batesmlle sandstone. The Batesville 

sandstone is usually brown, and consists of 

medium-sized grains. It is commonly in 

layers from 2 inches to 1 foot thick, but in 

some places the beds are more massive. In 

the eastern part of the Paleozoic area it exceeds 100 feet in thickness, but gradually 

thins out in the western part of the State, 

where in places it is altogether wanting. In 

the eastern part of the region it lies upon the 

Moorefield shale, but in the western part of 

the State this shale is absent, and the Batesville rests directly upon the Boone chert. 

Where near the surface and of considerable 

thickness, it forms an important water horizon, as about Green Forest, Carroll County, 

and at Batesville, Independence County. In 

both of these localities it furnishes excellent 

well water. At Batesville it was the chief 

source of water until waterworks were installed. As would be expected, the water 

from this horizon is soft.

Archimedes limestone. The Archimedes 

limestone is a persistent formation, outcropping in an east-west direction across the 

Paleozoic area of the State, near the north 

base of the Boston Mountains. (See fig. 

29.) In the eastern part of the region its 

thickness is 100 feet, but in the central and 

western parts it seldom exceeds one-fifth 

this amount. It is a compact limestone, 

composed largely of fossil remains. In 

places it contains lenses of chert, though 

these are not common. In the eastern and 

central parts of the area it rests upon the 

Fayetteville shale, a thick and impervious

formation. In the western part of the State 3 | ; j...v | Mississippi River 

it is separated from the Faj^etteville shale by 

the Wedington sandstone, which also contains some shale.

5- CD £

£ M c

5" tr £2.

-;( Whits Rfver

£ ||CroWley Ridge
194 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The massive nature of this limestone, which usually rests upon a bed 

of shale, causes it to form a conspicuous escarpment, from the base of 

which strong springs issue at frequent intervals. Below the escarpment, and upon the Fayetteville shale, is a bench from 100 yards to a 

quarter of a mile in width and of great fertility.

Pentremital limestone. Above the Archimedes limestone (seefig. 29), 

and separated from it by a greater or less thickness of the "Washing-- 

ton" sandstone and shale, is the Pentremital limestone, which is also 

an important spring horizon, and which, like the one below it, is nearly 

everywhere productive along the north slope of the Boston Mountains. 

The water from both the last-named horizons is hard. Like most 

limestones, their texture is so compact that search for water in wells 

is not advisable.

The rocks at the tops of the Boston Mountains and of their outliers 

to the north are sandstone and shale. The sandstone varies in texture 

from medium-grained, to coarse millstone grit. The porosity of the 

sandstone permits it to absorb a great deal of the rainfall, which is 

kept from sinking as underground water by the underlying impervious shale. As a consequence, the sandstones become important 

water-bearing strata, especially over the high, flat-topped table-lands 

between the heads of the mountain ravines. On these table-lands, 

water is easily secured from open wells. Springs frequently occur on 

the hill slopes, though they are neither so strong nor so numerous as 

along the Archimedes and Pentremital limestone horizons. Such 

springs are found over the large area covered by the Boston Mountains.

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS IN THE PALEOZOIC AREA.

In the lower plateau area the horizontal position of the strata precludes the possibility of obtaining flowing wells, unless it be in local 

and limited areas, but near the north base of the Boston Mountains, 

in places where the rocks dip to the south, there may be small areas 

where flowing wells could be secured, the Boone chert being the source 

of the water.

An inspection of fig. 29 will at once suggest the possibility of securing artesian water along the Arkansas Valley. The Boone chert, which 

is widely distributed over the northern part of the State, and forms an 

excellent collecting area and through which the underground water is 

readily transmitted, dips south with the rocks of the Boston Mountains. Though the southward extent of this formation is not known, 

its thickness of more than 300 feet north of the Boston Mountains is 

good reason for supposing that it reaches beyond the Arkansas Valley. 

Over the collecting area its height is from 500 to 1,000 feet above the 

land along Arkansas River. Over it lie the heavy deposits of Moorefield shale and Fayetteville shale. All the conditions are favorable to 

this formation, being the source of an abundance of artesian water in
NORTHERN ARKANSAS. 195

the Arkansas Valley, provided there are not many faults with an eastwest strike between the Arkansas Valley and the catchment area. 

But it is known that faulting of the nature mentioned occurs here, and 

it is not improbable that it is sufficient to entirely cut off the southern 

flow of the water, thus destroying what would otherwise be excellent 

artesian conditions.

TERTIARY REGION.

The underground water of the lowland or Tertiary area has its source 

largely, probably mainly, in the rainfall of the region. The level surface holds the run-off in check, and sandy deposits take up a large 

amount of rain water, which is readily transmitted to all parts of its 

mass. Another source of water, unquestionably of great importance, 

is found in the streams which flow from the plateau region over the 

lowlands. When these streams are at low-water stage, the underground water moves slowly toward them from either direction. But 

when they are at flood stage, there is a large amount of leakage through 

the banks and into the loose, sandy material, for considerable distances 

in either direction away from the streams. The amount of underground water thus supplied to the lowlands from the Arkansas River, 

Little Red River, White River, Black River, and their tributaries, is 

problematical, but considerable. Another source of the underground 

water of this region is in the truncated edges of the Paleozoic rocks, 

beneath the younger deposits.

Owing to the low altitude, the uniformly level surface, and unindurated condition of the sediments, mainly sand, over the Tertiary area, 

an abundance of water can be secured almost anywhere by the expenditure of the small sum necessary to purchase from 10 to 40 feet of iron 

pipe, a point, a pump, and the few hours labor necessary to drive a 

well. The pump is usually of the kind known as the "pitcher pump," 

and the pipe is usually one and a quarter inches in diameter, sometimes 

common iron, sometimes galvanized. Because of the interlocking beds 

of sand and clay that in many places constitute the sediments near the 

surface, the depth at which water can be secured is uncertain, but it is 

seldom more than 40 feet. The water is most commonly raised by 

hand, though windmills are sometimes employed.

Formerly dug wells were the only source of water, and some of 

these are still in use, but they are rapidty being succeeded by driven 

wells. Bored wells are common in some localities. In a few instances 

these bored wells are cased with tile, carefully cemented at the joints 

to keep out the surface water, but wood is commonly employed for 

casing, a custom to be deprecated, as the decaying wood not only 

renders the water insanitary but permits the surface water to enter 

the well. Water for cities and ice plants is secured from bored wells 

100 feet or more in depth.
196 UNDERGKOUND WATEKS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The amount of water that can be supplied by almost any well is 

limited only by the capacity of the pipe. In cases where a large 

amount is needed, as for boilers of large capacity, either a pipe of 

sufficient diameter is used or the number of wells is increased till the 

desired amount of water is secured. As a rule, the water is fairly 

well suited for boiler use, but in some cases it forms a troublesome 

scale, produced by the combined deposit of the mineral matter in 

solution and the fine material in suspension.

The character of the water varies greatly both with depth and horizontal distance. As regards the depth to which wells should be 

extended, no rule can be laid down except the general one that the 

deeper the well the better the water. This, however, is not by any 

means always true, for shallow wells often furnish better water than 

near-by deeper ones, as where the shallow wells are wholly in a surficial deposit of sand, while the deeper ones pass into mud, which 

contains a great deal of organic matter and salts of iron in solution. 

Frequently two wells of the same depth and only a few rods apart 

furnish water of an entirely different character. That of one may be 

of good quality, while that of the other is wholly impotable. This is 

because near the surface there are horizontal variations in the character of the material, there being frequently intercalated deposits of 

mud containing a great deal of organic matter.

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS IN THE TERTIARY AREA.

 ,

The very small difference in altitude between the highest and lowest 

parts of this area would seem to preclude the possibility of securing 

artesian water in the Tertiary area, even though all the other conditions were favorable. In this area a well would probably have to 

pass through the Tertiary and into the Paleozoic rocks below. While 

the securing of artesian water from the Paleozoic horizon appears to be 

possible, the chances are against success. The southward dip of the 

Paleozoic rocks would bring these beds, if continuous, under the Tertiary deposits, in which case the chances of securing artesian water 

from them would be excellent. But those beds are truncated along 

the Tertiary-Paleozoic border to considerable depths (see fig. 30), permitting the water to leak into the younger rocks. Besides, the eastwest faulting of the Paleozoic rocks, probably cutting off the southward 

flow of the water, would be effective over the lowlands.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

The large springs of the limestone districts of the Paleozoic area 

have already been mentioned. Besides these there are a multitude of 

smaller springs, many of which yield mineral water of value for medicinal or domestic purposes. A considerable number of them have
PERDUE.] NORTHERN ARKANSAS. 197

been developed as resorts, some of which are among the most important in the country. Sanitariums using spring water are common. 

The waters are generally used at the spring, but in 1902 seven springs 

reported sales amounting to 149,100 gallons, with a value of $52,575. 

The springs reporting are as follows:^

Alien's Alterative Magnesia Spring, Hot Springs, Garland County.

Arkansas Lithia Springs, near Hope, Hempstead County.

Arsenic Spring, Hot Springs, Garland County.

Blanco Springs, near Hot Springs, Garland County.

Eureka Springs, Eureka Springs, Carroll County.

Potash Sulphur Spring, near Hot Springs, Garland County.

Eavenden Springs, Eavenden Springs, Eandolph County.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No.

32, pp. 118-122. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton:

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, p. 12. 

Arkansas [well and spring records], by A. H. Purdue: Water-Supply and Irrig.

Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, pp. 374-388. 

Summary of the water supply of the Ozark region in northern Arkansas, by G. I.

Adams: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, pp. 179-182.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
TENNESSEE AND KENTUCKY.

By L. C. GLENN.

TENNESSEE.

Topography. In crossing Tennessee from east to west the following 

topographic divisions may be recognized: (1) The Valley of East 

Tennessee, (2) the Cumberland Plateau, (3) the Highland Rim or Plain 

within which the Nashville basin has been eroded, (4) the Western 

Valley of Tennessee River, (5) the Gulf Coastal Plain, and (6) the 

Mississippi Alluvial Plain or Bottoms.

Rainfall. The rainfall is between 50 and 60 inches annually. In 

autumn, the driest season, it is 2 or 3 inches less than the average, 

and in winter, the wettest season, it is 2 or 3 inches more than the 

average; in spring it is slightly more and in summer slightly less 

than the average.

VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE.

Description. The so-called Valley of East Tennessee is that part 

of the great Appalachian Valley that extends southwestward across 

the eastern end of the State from the Virginia to the Georgia line. 

Its width varies from 45 to 60 miles. It is limited on the southeast 

by the Great Smoky Mountains along the North Carolina line, and on 

the northwest by the eastern scarp of the Cumberland Plateau. The 

floor of this valley has an elevation of 900 feet at Chattanooga and of 

2,000 feet along the Virginia line. Many long, narrow, parallel 

ridges trending northeast-southwest in the same direction as the valley itself rise above its floor. They are separated by long, narrow, 

minor valleys. The ridges are formed by the hard, upturned, folded 

and faulted Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian rocks, while the intervening valleys have been eroded in the limestone or soft shale.

Water resources. Along the eastern side of the valley the Great 

Smoky Range, which reaches an extreme height of over 6,500 feet, is 

carved along with its projecting spurs either from metamorphosed 

sediments of probably Cambrian age or from more ancient igneous 

rocks of various kinds. Among these spurs many bold freestone 

springs are found, and every ravine has its streamlet of pure, clear, 

198
GLENN.] TENNESSEE. 199

and unfailing water. The region is rough and sparsely settled, and 

the springs furnish an abundant and satisfactory water supply.

In the valley proper the streams are usually broad, shallow, and 

rapid. Their waters are generally pure and clear, except after heavy 

rains. Innumerable springs are found throughout the valley. Because 

of the great variety in the rocks of the region the water of the springs 

varies greatly in character. From the limestones and dolomites large 

and bold springs of clear, hard but wholesome, water issue constituting 

the most common supply for household purposes. The waters often 

contain magnesian salts where the springs issue from the Knox dolomite. In general it may be said that their chief mineral contents are 

calcium, magnesium, and sodium carbonates, sulphates and chlorides, 

with occasionally iron sulphate and carbonate or aluminum sulphate 

or alum. Many sulphur, iron, and alum springs are found in the 

Devonian black shale. Sulphur waters are also found in the limestones and dolomites. Chalybeate waters occur in the sandstones and 

conglomerates, though freestone waters are more common. In several 

counties Epsom springs are known.

kSorne of these valley springs have earned a wide reputation for their 

medicinal qualities, and annually attract many visitors in search of 

health, recreation, or rest. A few ship their waters.

In some cases these natural supplies are supplemented by cisterns, 

though the abundance of springs and their unfailing flow, no doubt 

largely due to the faulting of the rocks, render the use of cisterns less 

necessary than in many limestone regions. In those towns which are 

without a system of waterworks the use of cisterns is more prevalent, 

as they furnish the only safe water supply under such conditions. In 

the larger cities water supplies are obtained from near by rivers or 

other smaller streams. Although the valley is well settled the population is largely agricultural and scattered, and stream supplies may 

be regarded as safe except where contaminated by tan bark, wood 

pulp, or other similar industries.

CUMBERLAND PLATEAU.

Description. The Cumberland Plateau crosses Tennessee in a 

northeast-southwest direction, and varies in width from about 35 miles 

near the Alabama line to about 50 miles near the Kentuck}^ line. Its 

elevation is 1,500 feet on the Alabama line, 2,000 feet in the center of 

the State, and 3,500 feet near Cumberland Gap. The plateau surface 

stands about 1,000 feet above the adjacent regions on either side. 

The eastern edge is an abrupt scarp that is straight for miles. The 

western edge is an equally abrupt scarp, but is notched by the headwaters of streams that have eaten into the plateau from the west. 

The surface, while measurably flat, is diversified by shallow valleys and 

low rideres.
200 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES, EA8TEEJ5T UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Water resources. The rocks of the plateau are of Carboniferous age. 

Much of the surface is underlain by sandstone, which forms an open 

porous soil if well drained. From this sandstone issue the numerous 

freestone springs that furnish so large a part of the water supply of 

the region. Duririg summer and fall droughts sometimes occur, and 

many springs and streams decrease in volume or go entirely dry, so 

that water for household use and for stock becomes scarce while, the 

small mills for grinding corn remain idle until rains set in. Open 

wells supplement the springs in many instances.

Supplies of water may be obtained by drilling a few hundred feet 

into the thick sandstone beds that underlie the larger part of the 

plateau. Such waters will not usually flow, but will rise within easy 

pumping distance of the surface. They may contain more or less iron 

from the sandstones or sulphur from the interbedded shales and coals. 

Wells drilled deeper into the underlying Mississippian or Silurian limestones or into the Devonian black shale usually obtain salt water, 

with greater or less amounts of natural gas or petroleum.

There are numerous chalybeate springs on the plateau, some of 

which are of local repute as summer resorts. Although none have 

been improved to any extent, the clear, cold, freestone waters, combined with the elevation and delightful summer temperature, bring 

* many visitors from the lowlands during the heated season.

Much of the plateau is underlain by workable coal and mines are 

being opened at numerous places, each of which becomes the nucleus 

for the development of a mining town. With its growth the quality 

of its water supply, usually taken from open wells and springs, will 

deteriorate.

HIGHLAND PLAIN.

West of the Cumberland Plateau lies the Highland Plain, which 

extends westward to Tennessee River. The width of this plain is 

about 175 miles along the Kentucky line and 105 miles along the 

Alabama line. Its average elevation is approximately 1,000 feet. 

Viewed broadly, its surface is level; viewed in detail, it is gently undulating or cut by small streams into narrow but sometimes steep-sided 

valleys. In a few places the larger rivers, including the Cumberland, Duck, and Elk, have cut steep-walled valleys 300 or 400 feet deep 

and have eroded out of the very center of the Highland Plain a great 

oval basin 120 miles long and 50 broad, whose comparatively flat bottom is 300 to 400 feet below the encircling plain. This basin is known 

as the Nashville or Central basin and will be discussed in a subsequent paragraph.

PLATEAU EEGION.

Description. The siliceous beds of the Mississippian form the surface of the Highland Plain. These beds consist of limestones, siliceous
Wm, / '

GLENN.] TENNESSEE. ' 201

shales, and chert. As they form the surface of this plain they have 

been exposed to the leaching action of the water so long that the 

calcareous matter has been removed to a considerable depth and the 

surface is a disintegrated mass of reddish clay and porous chert.

Water resources. The waters of the Highland Plain are mostly of 

i he clear freestone type, although some are chalybeate from the iron 

contained in the chert. Where the lime has not yet been entirely 

leached from the rocks the waters may be hard. Many springs are 

found on the Highland, although in numerous areas springs are weak 

or wanting, or fail during dry seasons. Many of the smaller streams 

dry up also. In such places deep drilling generally gives a water containing objectionable quantities of calcium and magnesium carbonates 

and sulphates, hence the main dependence for potable water in such 

cases must be cisterns, of which many are in use.

Along the eastern margin of the Highland Plain at the foot of the 

escarpment which rises to the Cumberland Plateau many very large 

springs flow from the outcrop of the flat-lying Mississippian limestones 

underlying the sandstones of the plateau. These limestones receive a 

considerable part of the drainage which emerges along the edge of the 

Highland Plain in streams, many of which are large enough to turn a 

mill where they issue from their underground channels.

In the portion of the Highland area adjacent to the central basin are 

many sulphur springs, while on the steep slopes between the two the 

springs from the outcropping black Devonian shale contain sulphur, 

iron, and in some cases alum. No extensive area of this slope is made 

up of black shale, however, as it varies from only a few feet to 20 or 

30 feet in thickness. Some of the sulphur and other mineral springs 

on the Highland and on the slope into the basin have beeen improved 

and have considerable reputation as summer resorts.

NASHVILLE BASIN. »

Description. The strata of the central portion of the Highland Plain 

have been arched into a low oblong dome which Elk, Duck, and Cumberland rivers have eroded until they have cut through the Mississippian and Devonian and into the softer limestones and shales of 

the Silurian. These have been in turn eroded, resulting in the undermining of the overlying rocks of the Highland Plain and the final formation of a basin of the dimensions already given. The bottom of this 

basin is flat or gently rolling. It slopes somewhat toward the Cumberland and other main streams and has some isolated knobs that rise 

to nearly the height of the adjacent Highland, while from the rim spurs 

project into the basin.

Water resources. The Silurian limestones that form the floor of the 

Nashville basin dip away from its center in all directions, but at such 

IER 114 05 14
202 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

a low angle that they appear nearly flat. Many springs are found in 

these limestones, some of them being very large. They furnish clear, 

cold, hard water as a rule, though some of them contain sulphur. 

During the dry seasons many of the weaker springs and smaller 

streams go dry and difficulty is found in securing water supplies. 

Cisterns are extensively used, especially for household purposes, 

while ponds are dug or small streams dammed to secure water for 

stock. This region is the most fertile and most thickly populated in 

the State. Some cities, such as Nashville, get their water supply 

from rivers, others obtain water from deep wells which are pumped, 

while others without waterworks depend mainly on cisterns.

No persistent horizon of potable deep waters is known to underlie 

the basin surface. Water may be obtained almost anywhere by drilling a few hundred feet, but it is usually strongly impregnated with 

sulphur or is salty. In the lowest part of the basin the deep wells 

may flow. Several of the deep wells in Nashville are strongly sulphurous. Wells in other parts of the basin sometimes give off small 

quantities of natural gas, or are greatly injured by a slight exudation 

of petroleum. Many other wells, especially if not deep, furnish good 

water.

WESTERN VALLEY OF TENNESSEE RIVER.

The Highland Plain is bounded on the west by the western vallej? of 

Tennessee River, a north-south valley 400 to 600 feet deep and 8 or 10 

miles wide. The rocks making the floor and most of the walls of the 

valley are Silurian limestones and shales, though Devonian, Mississippian, or even Cretaceous and Lafayette may in places form part of 

the wall. Iron and sulphur springs are numerous along the outer 

edges of the valley floor and in several places wells drilled years ago 

for salt yield an abundant flow of sulphur water, which is said to poss$ss valuable medicinal qualities.

GULF COASTAL PLAIN.

Description. The Gulf Coastal Plain extends from the Tennessee 

Valley westward to the bluff's overlooking the Mississippi River flood 

plain. Its width along the Kentucky line is about 65 miles; along the 

Mississippi line it is 105 miles. From an elevation of 600 to 800 feet 

in its southeastern portion its surface slopes west and northwest to an 

elevation of 270 feet at Memphis, and from 300 to 400 feet in the central and northwestern part of the area and along most of the bluff 

north of Memphis. The rocks of the region are unconsolidated sands 

and clays dipping gently westward, their lowest members outcropping in a narrow north-south belt just west of Tennessee River. The 

topography of the sandy formations is usually rolling to hilly, while
GLENN.] TENNESSEE. 203

that of the clays and loams is often flat when remote from streams^ but 

hilly when near them.

Geology and water supply. The oldest rocks of this region are the 

Coffee sands of Cretaceous age. They outcrop in a belt that has an 

average width of perhaps 4 miles and extends northward from Mississippi halfway across the State along the eastern edge of the Coastal 

Plain region. They overlap the Paleozoic rocks exposed in the western 

valley of the Tennessee. The best exposure is at Coffee Landing, on 

the Tennessee, where they consist of fine micaceous sands and thinly 

laminated dark clays with abundant lignitic material. Their base is not 

exposed here, but slightly over 200 feet were seen. The total thickness can not be much more than this. Westward they dip under the 

Rotten limestone, which is also of Cretaceous age. This latter consists 

of green sand and fine-grained joint clay of a leaden color and often 

contains an abundance of fossil shells. It forms a belt 8 or 10 miles 

wide extending northward from Mississippi; also halfway across the 

State. Its maximum thickness, 350 feet, is found along the Mississippi 

line, but it thins rapidly northward. The water obtained from springs 

and wells is in most places hard and disagreeable in taste and odor. 

Good water may be obtained, however, by going through it into the 

Coffee sand. Many such wells exist. They vary in depth according 

to location, the deepest being about 350 feet. Water rises nearly to 

the surface as soon as the Coffee sand is reached and is generally of 

good quality.

Next westward is a belt of sands and clays, which where they enter 

from Mississippi are 12 to 15 miles wide, but only about 6 miles wide 

where they pass into Kentucky. They are known as the Ripley beds, 

are of Cretaceous age, and dip gently westward. Their thickness is 

perhaps 400 to 600 feet. Their surface is usually hilly. They are 

water bearers, but open wells may go 80 to 100 feet deep for water, 

though in lower ground 40 to 60 feet is a common depth.

Above the sands and clays of the Ripley beds, the latest of the Cretaceous formations, lies the Porters Creek (Flatwoods) clay. This clay 

is of early Eocene age, and consists of light, leaden-gray clays, with 

occasional laminae of fine micaceous sand. The lower part contains 

beds of micaceous sand, greensand, and some thin impure limestones. 

The formation probably has an average thickness of more than 200 

feet, and extends from Mississippi northward across the State in a 

belt 5 or 6 miles wide. The water derived from it is not of good quality. Better water may be had by going through it and into the underlying Ripley sands.

The "Lignitic" group rests on the Porters Creek formation and extends westward across two-thirds of western Tennessee to the bluffs 

overlying the Mississippi. It is composed chiefly of sands, in which
204 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

occur, especially in the eastern part of the area of outcrop, numerous 

lenses of plastic clays. In the western part of its area the upper part 

of the " Lignitic" is frequently marked by abed of blue or dark lignitic 

clay about 150 feet thick. The total thickness of the "Lignitic" is 750 

feet at Memphis. Its sands are water bearing throughout, but as they 

vary much and rapidly in coarseness, and consequently in quantity of 

water they can furnish, the proper depth of wells sunk into them 

must be determined by trial. Usually their lower part is the coarser, 

and the quality of the water yielded is generally suitable for any 

desired purpose. This group is J>y far the most valuable water-bearer 

in western Tennessee.

The Lafayette is spread as a thin blanket over all the preceding 

western Tennessee formations. It is a series of sands, clays, and 

gravels that are prevailingly red or orange in color and usually hardened, while in some places the sands have become cemented by iron 

into sandstones. The beds probably never exceed 50 feet in thickness and are more frequently less than 20 feet thick. Along the Tennessee and Mississippi River bluffs this formation consists very largely 

of gravel, while away from the neighborhood of these streams the 

gravel beds are thin or often wanting. When underlain by clays 

water is usually found at the base of the Lafayette. "Along such of 

the stream valleys as cut through it numerous springs issue from 

these basal beds, while shallow wells may reach it anywhere. The water 

is usually good, provided the well is stopped in the Lafayette sand, but 

if it enters the top of an underlying clay or marl bed it is often poor. 

Over most of the region, however, the Lafayette rests on the "Lignitic" sands, and its base is then only locally water bearing, one well 

obtaining water while another only a few yards away may find none.

Loess overlies the Lafayette gravel in a belt 12 to 25 miles wide, 

extending north and south across the State. The thickness gradually 

decreases from 20 to 70 feet in the bluff's overlooking Mississippi 

River to an indefinite feather edge to the east. The loess is 

everywhere calcareous and wells sunk in it yield hard water. It 

naturally forms a rich soil and population is denser in this belt than 

elsewhere in western Tennessee. Many people in the loess region use 

cisterns, which are easily and cheaply constructed in the loess. Water 

of better quality may be obtained by deeper wells, drawing their supplies from the underlying sands of the "Lignitic."

Resting on the loess, and at times separable from it only with difficulty, or lying east of the loess belt and resting on the Lafayette, is a 

veneer of loam, clay, or sand that reaches in places perhaps 10 feet in 

thickness. It has generally been correlated with the Columbia. It is 

not of importance as a water-bearer.
GLENN.] KENTUCKY, 205 

MISSISSIPPI ALLUVIAL PLAIN.

In the flood plain of the Mississippi River the deposits are recent 

silts. These contain water at slight depths, but it is of poor quality. 

Its level rises and falls with the varying stages of the river. Good 

water may be obtained from the underlying lignitic by deep boring. 

Cisterns are also used, though the soft alluvial deposits are not always 

solid enough to prevent the walls of the cisterns from cracking.

COMMERCIAL SPRINGS.

The following springs reported sales of water in the year 1902 :a

Eastbrook Springs, Eastbrook, Franklin County.

Hinson Springs, Hinson Springs, Henderson County.

Horn Mineral Springs, Horn Springs, Wilson County.

Idaho Springs, near Clarksville, Montgomery County.

Larkins Spring, Madison, Davidson County.

Lockeland Spring, East Nashville, Davidson County.

Montvale Spring, Montvale, Blount County.

Eed Boiling Springs, Eed Boiling Springs, Macon County.

Khea Springs, Ehea Springs, Ehea County.

Tate Epsom Spring, Tate Spring, Grainger County.

Whittle Springs, Whittle Springs, near Knoxville, Knox County.

Willow Brook Spring, Craggie Hope, Cheatham County.

Wright's Epsom Lithia Well, Mooresburg, Hawkins County.

The aggregate amount sold is stated as 247,429 gallons, valued at 

$36,315.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No.

- 32, pp. 97-106.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Barton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, p. 49. 

Tennessee [well records and spring records], by L. C. Glenn: Water-Supply and

Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, pp. 358-367.

KENTUCKY.

Climatic conditions in Kentucky are much tne same as in Tennessee. 

The topographic belts which are found in Tennessee extend northward 

into Kentucky, and the geologic formations of the two States are very 

similar. The water resources of Kentucky accordingly resemble those 

of Tennessee in corresponding topographic regions, so that much 

already said concerning the hydrographic characteristics of these belts 

in Tennessee applies equally well to Kentucky.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
206 UNDERGROUND WATERS. EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

CUMBERLAND PLATEAU.

The most eastern topographic division of Kentucky is the northward 

continuation of the Cumberland Plateau region of Tennessee. In Kentucky the flatness of the plateau surface, however, has disappeared, 

and in its stead the region is deeply dissected by streams, so that the 

actual surface consists of a maze of steep-sided mountains separated 

by almost.equally narrow, steep-walled valleys. The plateau surface 

is represented only by the uniform altitude of the mountain crests. 

The southeastern edge of the plateau has an elevation of 3,500 feet, 

and is sharply denned by the Cumberland Mountain scarp. The western edge of the plateau has an elevation of 1,500 feet in the south, and 

of 900 feet along Ohio River. In Kentucky the plateau is not sharply 

defined on the west, but falls away in isolated projecting spurs of 

irregular but not great height, extending out toward the next and 

lower topographic division, the Lexington Plain.

The rocks of the plateau are horizontal Carboniferous sandstones 

and shales. Springs abound, and while in dry summers many of them, 

and even the smaller streams, dry up, there is generally an adequate 

supply of water. Some shallow open wells are used, but they furnish 

an insignificant part of the water supply. Some of the springs, especially such as flow from coal horizons, contain iron or sulphur. These 

may also at times contain alum. Population is sparse, houses are well 

scattered, and the springs are usually safe and wholesome. Even the 

simplest of sanitary precautions are, as a rule, unheard of, and occasionally water is used from a pool or branch that is utterly unfit for 

drinking, and doubtless the cause of a considerable amount of sickness.

LEXINGTON PLAIN.

The Highland Plain of Tennessee extends northward into Kentucky, 

where it is known as the Lexington Plain. In detail its elevation 

varies considerably but it may be taken as averaging 1,000 feet in its 

eastern and central parts and 800, 600, or even 400 feet along Ohio 

River. The surface of much of this Lexington Plain is composed of 

Mississippian and Devonian sandstones, shales, and limestones.

In sandstone regions the water is usually soft, and springs are more 

abundant and constant than in the shale or limestone areas. In the 

Devonian black shale, sulphur, alum, and copperas springs are often 

found. In the limestone areas much of the drainage is underground, 

and at many places big springs occur, some of which are so large that 

they furnish an abundant supply of water for good-sized towns. Such 

waters are hard.

In the north-central portion of this Lexington Plain there is an ovalshaped area of 10,000 square miles with Frankfort almost in its center 

that is composed of Silurian limestones similar to those of the Nash«
KENTUCKY. 207

ville basin. Much of the drainage is underground, the water is hard, 

and springs are scarce in some portions. Water may be obtained by 

drilling generally at very moderate depths but it almost always smells 

slightly of petroleum or contains salt or other mineral matters rendering it unfit for domestic purposes. Streams dry up in the summer 

and ponds are dug to hold water for stock. Cisterns are very largely 

used.

Numerous mineral springs are found in the limestone region, some 

of which are noted health and summer resorts. They usually contain 

sulphur, iron, salt, or calcium and magnesium carbonate and sulphate.

In western Kentucky, on either side of the lower part of Green 

River, Carboniferous sandstones and shales are exposed in an oval area 

of 4,000 square miles which belongs topographically to the Lexington 

Plain but whose water supplies are in general much like those of the 

Cumberland Plateau region. Stream cutting has not been so deep as 

in the eastern part of the State and springs are somewhat less abundant, although sulphur and iron springs are numerous.

GULF COASTAL PLAIN.

That part of Kentucky which lies west of Tennessee River is known 

as the Jackson Purchase region. It is an area of unconsolidated sands 

and clays belonging to the Gulf Coastal Plain and forming a continuation of the similar area in western Tennessee.

Of the Cretaceous formations of Tennessee only the youngest, the 

Ripley, extends north into Kentucky. The Ripley sands and clays 

lie within 3 or 4 miles of Tennessee River and form a belt 5 to 10 

miles wide. The formation is porous and open and becomes very dry 

during summer, so that open wells must frequently be sunk to a depth 

of 80 to 100 feet to insure adequate supplies. Cisterns and artificial 

ponds are extensively used. On the west the Ripley formation dips 

beneath the Porters Creek (Flatwoods) clay (basal Eocene), which gives 

more of a flatwood aspect to the topography^ here than it does in Tennessee. As in Tennessee, the water found in it is hard, "flat tasted," 

and not abundant. The thickness of the Porters Creek clay in Kentucky is not known, but it is probably not over 200 feet. It forms the 

surface in a belt 5 to 15 miles wide. Better water could be obtained 

in this area from the underlying Ripley sands, but the water probably 

would not flow except in very low places, though it would commonly 

rise nearly to the surface.

The western three-fifths of the Purchase region is composed of "Lignitic" sands and clays in which the coarser sand beds are water bearing. 

They are of variable character, however, and no one coarse stratum 

seems widely persistent. In the eastern part of the "Lignitic" area 

good water should be found within 200 to 300 feet of the surface. At 

Mayfield, for example, excellent water is obtained at a depth of 250
208 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

feet. Near Mississippi River the depth will increase to 500, 600, or 

700 feet, and the sands tend to become finer and less reliable as water 

bearers.

Lafayette sand and gravel, loess, Columbia loam, and Mississippi 

flood-plain alluvium all occur very much as they do in Tennessee, and 

bear similar relations to water-supply problems.

COMMERCIAL SPRINGS.

The following springs reported shipments of water in 1902 : a

Anita Spring, Lagrange, Oldham County. 

Bedford Springs, Bedford, Trimble County. 

Bluelick Springs, Bluelick Springs, Nicholas County. 

Crab Orchard Springs, Crab Orchard, Lincoln County. 

Upper Bluelick Springs, Nicholas County.

The aggregate sales are given as 169,750 gallons, valued at $21,537.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 106-118.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 47-49.

Kentucky [well and spring records], by L. C. Glenn: Water-Supply and Irrig. 

Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, pp. 369-373.

Water resources of the Middlesboro-Harlan region of southeastern Kentucky, by 

G. H. Ashleyl Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, pp.

177-178.

«Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
MISSOURI.

Bv EDWARD M. SHEPARD.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

Missouri has an abundant supply of potable waters, which, for the 

most part, come to the surface in springs generously scattered over a 

large portion of the southern half of the State, and to a less degree 

over the northern half.

North of Missouri River the country is covered by glacial drift, 

varying from a few feet to 150 feet in thickness. In this area the 

springs are small, but they occur frequently where erosion has cut 

into the drift, which thus becomes the main reservoir for the wells and 

springs of the region.

South of Missouri River the country is destitute of drift, but erosion 

has cut deep valleys along the borders of the Ozark Plateau, and in 

such localities some of the largest and finest springs of the country 

abound.

TOPOGRAPHY.

Topographically, Missouri may be naturally divided into four great 

districts: (1) the Northwest Plateau, (2) the North-Central Plain, (3) 

the Ozark-St. Francis Dome, and (4) the Southeastern Lowlands, all of 

which are outlined on fig. 33.

The first district, the Northwest Plateau, includes the elevated portion in the northwestern third of the State, and is bounded on the 

southeast by the 900-foot contour. This plateau rises gently to the 

northeast corner of the State, where an elevation of over 1,200 feet is 

reached. The strata generally dip from 10 to 15 feet to the mile, in a 

northwesterly direction, thus bmying to a considerable depth the 

Coal Measures which outcrop on the southern border of the district.

The south boundary of the second division, or the North-Central 

Plain, starts arbitrarily on Mississippi River in St. Charles County, 

runs southwesterly until it joins the north boundary of the Ozark-St. 

Francis Dome (at approximately the 900-foot contour) in Franklin 

County, which it follows to the northwest corner of Barton County on 

the Kansas line.

The Ozark-St. Francis Dome district is included in the large area 

between the last-described line and a line extending southwest from

209
210 inSTDERGEOUJSTD WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Cape Girardeau to the Arkansas boundary, following1 the 400-foot 

contour.

The Southeastern Lowlands include the southeastern corner of the 

State south of the 400-foot contour, and nowhere have an altitude 

much exceeding 400 feet.

GTSOI^OGTC CONDITIONS.

The Northwest Plateau is covered wholly by drift, which is underlain by the Lower and Upper Coal Measures. The North-Central 

Plain is partially.covered by drift in the northeast, and underlain by 

Mississippian and Lower Coal Measures, with a fringe of Devonian

FIG. 31. Geologic sketch map of Missouri.

and Silurian on the eastern border. The Ozark-St. Francis Dome 

varies greatly in altitude and in geology. The St. Francis Mountains 

are made up of Algonkian granite and porphyry. The greater portion of the Ozark region is underlain by Cambrian rocks, composed 

of alternating beds of dolomites and sandstones. The southeastern 

lowlands are underlain almost entirely by the sands, clays, and gravels 

of the Tertiary.
SHEPAED.] MISSOURI. 211

CHARACTER OF THE WATER SUPPLY.

NOETHWESTEEN PLATEAU DISTRICT.

The rocks underlying this district belong entirely to the Lower and 

Upper Coal Measures. The underground water supply of this region 

is mainly derived from the drift. In the counties bordering the Missouri River, especially Atchison County, small & 

springs are frequent in the bluffs, often occurring 

one-third of the way to the top. They are also 

frequent along the valleys of many of the streams. 

In the greater part of this district drills have shown r J 

that the basal stratum of the Coal Measures is a Hi

I Ip

porous sand rock containing occasional beds of ^ 

bituminous shale, similar to the shale and sandstone forming the basal member (Cherokee shales) ^ 

of the Coal Measures elsewhere in the State. An |I|! 

abundant supply of water is nearly everywhere 

obtained from this sandstone by drilling, as is j| g

shown by well records furnished by Mr. R. "ml i Hawkins, of Chillicothe. M 111 7 P* ^^ £

The water from this stratum in widely different E 2

localities uniformly carries about 400 grains of salt 3 g

to the gallon, with some iron, and occasionally i ijfs

^ [0^1 M

sulphur. Mr. Hawkins states that farmers in this s1 Big f3 -

area agree that this is very good water for live £ §

stock. The pressure is sufficient in Livingston and §

adjoining counties to cause the water to rise 725 g ?

to 740 feet above sea level. Along Grand River |'

bottom, the water flows sluggishly out of the wells, p.

As the rocks dip irregularly to the west and north |

from 10 to 15 feet to the mile the approximate pig

depth of the water stratum may be calculated if ^§

the surface elevation is known and allowance is P

made for the local disturbances producing irregular

folds in the strata. The water-bearing stratum

varies from 20 to 70 feet in thickness and furnishes g

an abundant supply of water. Below this water

level of the Cherokee shales and sandstones are

other water-bearing strata, but, as a rule, they

become more highly impregnated with mineral l

salts as the depth increases, until they are no longer potable.

A few small artesian districts are found in this area. At Tarkio, Atchison County, are seven small flowing wells, varying in depth from 196 to 

220 feet. Some of these furnish the city with water. They are evidently 

derived from higher reservoirs in drift gravel, overlain by an impervious
212 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

clay layer. Another flowing well at Bethany, 684 feet deep, furnishes water for the Heilbron Sanitarium. It flows 5 gallons per 

minute. The source is near the bottom of the well, in the Upper 

Coal Measures. Another flowing well is reported at Gallatin, Davis 

County, which probably obtains water from the Upper Coal Measures. There is also a flowing well at G. H. Lawson's, near Utica, 

Livingston County. The surface elevation here is about 750 feet. 

The water is saline, and derived from sand rock of the Cherokee 

shales. The well is 421 feet deep, and drilling was stopped in Mississippian limestone. The water flows sluggishly from the top. There

FIG. 33. Sketch map of Missouri, showing water resources.

are a number of mineral springs and drilled wells supplying mineral 

waters in this district, some of which have a national reputation. One 

of the most noted and popular of these is Excelsior Springs, in the 

northeast corner of Clay County, about 30 niiles northeast of Kansas 

City. In the group of springs at this place the best are the Regent 

and Siloam springs, both ferromanganese waters, derived from the 

Coal Measures shales. Two drill wells the " Sulpho-saline," 1,460 

leet deep, and the " Salt-sulphur," 1,370 feet deep have been sunk 

in this vicinity, furnishing sulpho-saline waters. No record of these 

two wells has been preserved, but the writer believes that the waters
SHEPAED.] MISSOUKI. 213

are derived from the Jefferson City limestone (Second magnesian, of 

Swallow). The waters are carbonated and shipped to all parts of the 

country. Winslow has shown a the similarity of the Excelsior Springs 

waters to those of St. Moritz and Mont d'Or in Switzerland and 

France.

Cities in this district generally derive their water from adjacent 

rivers. Wells and cisterns are the most common source of potable 

water. The former are shallow, from 20 to 50 feet deep, and generally have an abundant supply of water from the drift gravels. Broadhead makes the following statement: 6 " Wherever limestone No. 78 

[Bethany limestone] of the Upper Coal Measures prevails we may 

expect good streams of water just beneath. Springs of any kind are 

not common in either the Middle or Lower Coal Measures, but are 

more frequently found where the Upper Coal Measures prevail."

NORTH-CENTRAL PLAIN DISTRICT.

The greater part of this district is underlain by Lower Coal Measures and Mississippian rocks. Fresh-water springs are not very 

common, especially in the Lower Coal Measures. Salt and mineral 

springs, some of unusual size, abound. As regards the distribution of 

underground waters, the district is naturally dry ided into three sections the eastern, middle, and southern. The eastern section is largely 

overlain by drift. Small springs are found at the base of rounded 

hills of drift and occasionally along outcroppings of the Burlington and 

Louisiana limestones, and in Warren County good springs are found at 

the base of the St. Peter (First) sandstone. The main dependence for 

water in this section, however, is in shallow wells in the drift and in 

cisterns. In the central section fresh-water springs are rare, and 

potable water is mainly derived from wells and cisterns, the wells 

being dug in loess, where that formation occurs. Good water may'also 

be found in the limestones of the Henrietta or the sandstone of the 

Marais des Cygnes (Pleasanton) shales. This section is noted for the 

enormous brine springs which are so frequent in Saline and Howard 

counties. Around some of these brine springs buffaloes in the past 

have licked away the soil to a remarkable degree. At McAllister 

Springs is an old buffalo lick, where a valley approximately 25 feet 

deep, 200 feet long, and 100 feet wide has been excavated. These 

springs have become popular resorts.

The Big Salt Spring, in Saline County,' is a remarkable example of 

one of these brine springs. The surface rock is near the base of the 

Mississippian, and the spring proper is an oval pool about 25 feet in 

diaraeter. The water boils up all over the surface of this pool, and is 

impregnated with sulphur. Its source is undoubtedly at a great depth.

« Missouri Geol. Survey, Report on mineral waters, vol. 3, Schweitzer, p. 202. 

6 Missouri Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1873-4, p. 37.
214 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

This spring exhibits a curious fluctuation in temperature. Meek 

described it in 1855, in his Geological Report on Saline County, as having a temperature of 60°, and as containing an abundance of sulphureted hydrogen. Woodward visited it in 1890 and in his report 

on The Mineral Springs of Missouri described it as having a temperature of 56°, with little or no sulphureted hydrogen. The present 

writer visited it in 1903, when he found the temperature to be 64°, 

with considerable sulphureted hydrogen. Data from these three 

observations also indicate a steady decrease in the flow of this spring. 

The temperature obtained by Meek in springs in other localities checks 

closely with the data obtained by the present writer; therefore the 

variation is probably not due to difference in thermometers. Meek 

describes another brine spring adjoining this one as subject to sudden 

large fluctuations in flow, independent of rains or droughts. He 

states, "I had the satisfaction to see it in the act of rising. The water 

was seen to suddenly rise and flow out over perfectly dry ground." 

This central section seems to be a basin which receives the flow from 

the Ozarks from the southeast, being apparently inclosed on the south 

by the Sedalia fold, and probably on the west by smaller folds which 

have not yet been full}- outlined. If this view can be fully verified 

it might account for the concentration of salines in these waters. The 

presence of a considerable amount of calcium chloride in all the deep 

wells and brine springs of this district would presuppose the theory 

that this was a basin early shut off from the sea, in which the original 

sea. water became concentrated. This section is the most prominent 

artesian region in the whole State, and will be referred to later. The 

southwestern section of this North-Central Plain contains a few weak 

springs, and these are frequently impregnated with alum, sulphur, 

epsom salts, and sometimes with ferrous sulphate. These are especially 

noted in Bates, Vernon, and Barton counties. They are mainly derived 

from the Cherokee shales, which are frequently pyritiferous and magnesian. A number of valuable chalybeate springs are found in this 

section; they issue from the basal sandstone of the Cherokee shales.

As before stated, this North-Central Plain contains the main artesian 

areas of the State. In the eastern section of the district an artesian 

belt extends along the eastern slope of the Winfield-Rensselaer fold. 

The writer has traced this fold as far north as Rensselaer and believes 

it to extend still farther north into Lewis County. At Canton, in 

Lewis County, is an artesian well 906 feet deep, which was sunk in 

1890. The first flow of water was struck at 870 feet, in the St. Peter 

sandstone (First sandstone of Swallow). Sixty feet of this porous 

sandstone was passed through in the bottom of this well. A gage 

at the mouth of the well indicates a pressure of 12 pounds. This 

well supplies the city with water and is leased by Messrs. Griffith 

and Maggard, who ship large quantities of the water abroad. This is
SHEPARD.] MISSOURI. 215

one of the finest sulpho-saline waters in the State. The well is located 

on a high bluff overlooking Mississippi River and is surrounded with 

every adjunct for making a popular health resort. Two other artesian 

wells were sunk at Lag-range to a depth of 800 and 850 feet. Both 

obtained their flow from the St. Peter sandstone (First sandstone of 

Swallow). The water from these is mildly sulpho-saline and is largely 

shipped to Chicago and other points in Illinois. South of Lagrange, at 

Hannibal, in Marion County, two other flowing wells were struck at a 

depth of about 900 feet, the waters being also sulpho-saline, but 

neither is utilized commercially. Still farther south, at Louisiana, 

in Pike County, is another sulpho-saline artesian well, strongly 

impregnated with sulphureted hydrogen. This well is 1,350 feet 

deep and its flow is very strong. The log of the well has been lost, 

but it is believed that the main flow comes from the St. Peter sandstone 

(First sandstone of Swallow).

One of the most interesting wells in the State, and probably one of 

the oldest drill wells in the United States, is the Spaulding artesian 

well in the north part of Rails County, 10 miles west of Hannibal. It 

was drilled by hand to a depth of 300 feet about 1823, by the Government, in search of brine for the manufacture of salt. The water is very 

strongly impregnated with salt and sulphureted hydrogen. The flow 

is very strong and has never perceptibly decreased. The source of the 

water is undoubtedly St. Peter sandstone (First sandstone of Swallow), 

as this horizon outcrops in greatly tilted beds a mile to the southeast. 

A hotel, lake, bath house, and pleasure grounds adjoin the well.

At Bowling Green, in Pike County, the B. B. springs carry 569 

grains of mineral matter to the gallon, 475 grains of which are magnesium sulphate. The water is derived from Hannibal shales. Not 

far distant from these are the Iris and Ionian springs, and the Kalinat 

well, owned by Mr. I. R. Stevens. The Kalinat water is somewhat 

similar to the B. B. water in composition, and probably has its source 

in the Hannibal shales.

This central district has already been referred to as the main artesian region in the State. Wells of this character are located at Huntsville, Randolph County; Salisbury and Brunswick, Chariton County; 

Carrollton, Carroll County; Sebree, Howard Count}7 ; Sweet Springs 

and Malta Bend, Saline County, and Smith ton, Pettis County. The 

Carrollton well is 241 feet deep. The principal flow of saline water 

was struck at a depth of 200 feet, at the base of the Cherokee shales. 

The Brunswick well, of sulpho-saline water, is 1,500 feet deep and was 

sunk at a cost of $1,500. Its probable source is St. Peter sandstone 

(First sandstone of Swallow). A strong flow of very salt water was 

struck at 600 feet, probably in the Cherokee shales, but this was shut 

off by casing. The Salisbury artesian well, also sulpho-saline, was 

sunk by the city to a depth of 852 feet and at a cost of $2,500.
216 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

At Malta Bend, in Saline County, an artesian well was sunk to a 

depth of 1,250 feet. The first flow, strongly charged with salt and 

sulphureted hydrogen, was struck at 640 feet, in Cherokee (?) shales. 

At 840 feet a stronger flow of salt water was struck in sandstone (St. 

Peter sandstone?). At Sweet Springs a strong flow of sulpho-saline 

water, estimated at 840 gallons per minute, was struck in a well 1,074 

feet deep. The cost of this well, $3,000, was raised by subscription. 

Excepting a few chalybeate springs, the most notable springs in the 

central district are the Sweet and McAllister springs. A few years 

ago the former was a noted resort in the State, with a fine hotel and 

park. Since the burning of the hotel the property has depreciated, 

but the mildly saline water is still shipped from the bottling works. 

The McAllister springs are in a group located about 5 miles from 

Sweet Springs, the more important of them being the Black Sulphur and two salt springs situated in the old buffalo lick previously 

described. The conditions for well water are similar to those mentioned in the Lower Coal Measures of the eastern section.

In the western section of the North-Central Plain, on the western 

flanks of the Ozark dome, are two groups of artesian wells, one at Clinton, in Henry County, the other in Vernon County, at Nevada and 

Smithton. The writer is indebted to Dr. J. H. Britts, of Clinton, for 

records of the seven wells, five of them flowing, which were sunk at 

that place. Well No. 1 was sunk to a depth of 800 feet. At 425 feet 

a flow of 200 gallons per minute was obtained from the Moreau (Second) 

sandstone. At 800 feet a flow of 400 gallons was obtained from, the 

Guntcr sandstone (Third sandstone). Well No. 7, sunk to a depth 

of 818 feet, flowed 1,000,000 gallons daily, surpassing all the others 

combined. It derives its supply from the Gunter sandstone. This 

well, which yields a slightly alkaline sulphur water, furnishes an abundant supply for the city. Three of these wells are adjacent to one 

another, and their surplus waters form a beautiful lake, which, with 

a hotel and park, make a fine pleasure resort.

At Nevada, Vernon County, a well was sunk to a depth of 900 feet, 

at a cost of $2,500. The principal water was reached at a depth of 

550 feet, probably in the St. Peter sandstone. A beautiful park and 

lake surround this well. Another small artesian well is located at 

Smithton, in the same county.

The three beds of limestone of the Henrietta formation and some of 

the sandstone beds of the Cherokee shales are all water bearers and 

supply good waters.

OZARK-ST. FRANCIS DOME.

This is an area of decided uplift that extends from Missouri River 

to the Ked in Arkansas, and from the Mississippi into Indian Territory. The rocks dip gently in every direction from the elongated
SHEPAED.] MISSOURI. 217

axis. Erosion has cut deep valleys, especially on the eastern side. 

The two highest points are Taum Sauk, in the St. Francis Mountains, 

where an elevation of 1,800 feet is reached, and Cedar Gap, in Wright 

County, 1,700 feet above sea level. Structurally this area is somewhat 

complex, divergent anticlines merging into the main fold. There is 

strong evidence of two distinct periods of elevation. In the St. Francis Mountains the granites and porphyries are, it is believed, of Algonkian age. The major portion of the Ozarks are alternating beds of 

sandstones and dolomites belonging to the Silurian and Cambrian. 

Bordering these sandstones and dolomites are narrow belts of Devonian and Mississippian rocks. This is preeminently a district of great 

springs and caverns. In the St. Francis region, however, springs in 

the crystalline rocks are extremely rare. Considered geologically, 

the lowest water-bearing horizon, and the most prominent one in the 

State, is the Gasconade limestone (Third Magnesian). This has a maximum thickness of 500 feet, is frequently cavernous, and some of the 

largest springs in the country flow from it.

Mammoth Spring, in Arkansas, for example, just over the State 

line, with its source in Missouri, has a flow of 226,195,200 gallons per 

day. This is one of the largest springs in the world. Bennett's or 

Bryce's spring, in Dallas County, has a flow of 161,568,000 gallons per 

day. Ha Ha Tonka or Gunter's spring, in Camden County, has a 

flow of 158,982,000 gallons per day. Other immense springs are 

found in this formation. Greer Spring, in Oregon County, is reported 

by Prof. H. B. Shaw, of Missouri State University, in his paper on 

The Water Power of Missouri, published by the university press, to 

have a flow of 42,000 cubic feet per minute. Meramec Spring, in 

Phelps County, is reported by the same authority to have a flow of 

7,500 cubic feet per minute. Double Spring, in Ozark County, the 

Waynesville and several other springs in Pulaski County, and a number in Miller, Crawford, and Morgan counties swell this record. As 

would be expected, great caves and enormous sink-holes abound, the 

latter marking the course of underground channels. The underground 

channel of the stream probably forming Mammoth Spring, in Howell 

County, is outlined by the " Grand Gulf," a wonderful sink threequarters of a mile long by 200 feet deep. From the bottom of this 

chasm a cave leads into a more recent channel, exposing the stream, 

which flows out as Mammoth Spring. The water from this formation 

is clear, cold, moderately hard, and carries from 10 to 15 grains per 

gallon mainly lime and magnesian carbonates.

The Trenton limestone is a prominent water-carrier in Jefferson 

County. The "Big" or "House's" spring may be mentioned as an 

example from this horizon.

In the Delthyris shales, of the upper Silurian, springs are particularly abundant and in Perry County are often large. 

IRK 114 05 15
218 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. INO. 114.

In the Chouteau group are found weak but highly mineralized 

springs. Next to the Gasconade limestone, the Burlington limestone 

is the most important water-bearing horizon in this area. Caves and 

large springs of remarkable purity, carrying from 15 to 20 grains of 

carbonates of lime and magnesia to the gallon, are found everywhere 

in the horizon, notably in Greene. Lawrence, Newton, McDonald, 

Barr}^, and Christian counties.

The St. Louis limestone, besides being cavernous, includes some 

large springs.

While only the more prominent water-bearing strata have been mentioned, it might be said that small but pure cold springs are numerous 

in all the formations of the Ozarks. A few chalybeate springs, issuing 

mainly from ferruginous sandstones, are found throughout the district. 

A few sulpho-chalybeate springs of considerable value issue from the 

Graydon sandstone of the Mississippian, notably those at Graydon 

and Eudora Springs, in Polk County, and at Paris Springs, in Lawrence County. Several cities in this district derive their water supply 

from large springs. Springfield, a city of 32,000 inhabitants, is supplied entirely from the Fulbright Spring, which issues from the Burlington. This remarkably pure spring carries only about 10 grains of 

mineral matter, mainly calcium carbonate, to the gallon.

A few small artesian wells are found in this district in McDonald, 

Newton, Christian, Camden, Miller, Cole, Jefferson, and Cape Girardeau counties. In St. Louis County is found a particularly interesting 

artesian basin, formed by Ordovician and Mississippian rocks dipping 

strongly underneath a patch of surface Coal Measures in the center.

SOUTHEASTERN LOWLANDS.

In this district the question of pure drinking water has been a 

serious problem. There are practically no springs. The country is 

low and frequently swampy, and the surface water contains considerable organic matter. The discovery of artesian water in a well sunk 

about one year ago at Campbell, Dunklin County, to a depth of 910 

feet now points to an easy solution of this difficulty. The first flow 

of water in this well was reached at a depth of 135 feet, but the principal source was found at the bottom of the well. The water is soft 

and slightly charged with sulphur.

COMMERCIAL SPRINGS.

Besides being used as resorts or as adjuncts to sanitariums, 18 

or more springs place the waters on the market. In 1902 these 

springs, a list of which is given below, reported shipments of 963,545
SHBPAED.T MISSOURI.' ' ' -,<.,*;..S7 219

gallons, valued at $204r,270. a The water is used for table and medicinal purposes.

Akesion or Healing Spring, Sweet Springs, Saline County. 

American Mineral Springs, St. Louis County. 

B. B. Mineral Springs, Bowling Green, Pike County. 

, Blue Lick Springs, Blue Lick, Saline County. 

Browns Lineville Springs, Mercer County, near Lineville, Iowa. 

Eldorado Springs, Eldorado Springs, Cedar County. 

Excelsior Springs, Excelsior Springs, Clay County. 

Haymakers Lineville Springs, Mercer County, near Lineville, Iowa. 

Jackson Lithia Spring, Jackson County.

Lineville Mineral Springs, Mercer County, near Lineville, Iowa. 

McAllister Springs, McAllister, Saline County. 

Magnesia Gusher Spring, Canton, Lewis County. 

Monegaw Springs, Monegaw Springs, St. Clair County. 

Mysterious Medical Spring, Canton, Lewis County. 

Ponce de Leon Well, Desoto, Jefferson County. 

Randolph Springs, Randolph Springs, Randolph County. 

Sweet Springs, Sweet Springs, Saline County. 

Windsor Spring, Windsor, St. Louis County.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale; Bull. II. S. Geol. Survey No.

32, pp. 164-170. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 58-59.

Mineral waters of Missouri, by Paul Schweitzer: Missouri Geol. Survey, vol. 3, 1892. 

Missouri [well and spring records], by E. M. Shepard: Water-Supply and Irrig.

Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, pp. 389-440. 

Spring system of the Decaturville dome, Camden County, Mo., by E. M. Shepard:

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, pp. 113-125.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
IOWA.

By WILLIAM HARMON NORTON.

The underground water resources of Iowa are of two classes. The 

first includes those bodies of ground water which are fed by the local 

rainfall and are reached by common wells, or issue as springs wherever 

the ground-water surface is reached by valleys. Artesian waters, the 

second class, comprise the more deeply circulating waters which move 

under pressure through permeable layers of the earth's crust.

SHALLOW SUPPLIES.

On account of the abundant rainfall of the State, there appears to 

be no considerable area where the waters of the first class are not found 

within easy drilling distance in quantities sufficient at least for domestic 

and farm uses. Their distribution, however, is governed by certain 

geologic conditions which will be briefly sketched.

THE DEIFTLESS AREA.

This area includes a relatively small tract in northeastern Iowa which 

was never covered by the various ice sheets which spread deposits 

of drift over the remainder of the State. Its maturely dissected 

surface has a greater relief than exists elsewhere in Iowa, having a 

maximum range of 600 feet. The ground water level lies low within 

the steep-sided and narrow ridges. The limestones which in part form 

the surface of these uplands are pitted with sinkholes through which 

the rainfall drains into cavernous passages and rapidly finds way to 

underlying massive and porous sandstones of great storage capacity, 

which supply copious springs wherever they are cut by the valleys.

WATERS OF THE DRIFT.

Outside the driftless area the State is covered with sheets of drift of 

various age. The most recent is the Wisconsin drift sheet, occupying 

the north-central portion of the State. It presents a surface with 

countless undrained depressions and streams which have hardly begun 

the work of erosion. Ground water here stands high, and exuding in 

the sags gives rise to the many lakelets and the extensive sloughs of the 

region. 

220
NORTON.] IOWA. 221

The lowan drift sheet, which forms the surface in the northeastern 

portion of the State, has a topography that is somewhat older than

Fig. 34. General geologic section of Iowa.

that of the Wisconsin, the lakelets and sloughs having been largely 

drained by the natural erosion of the streams.
222 UNDEEGEOTTNT) WATEES, EASTEEN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Except a narrow strip along Mississippi River, extending from Scott 

County southward, which was invaded from the east by the Illinoian 

ice, the remainder of the State is covered with the Kansan drift sheet, 

an old drift deeply weathered, and for the most part much cut" by 

streams before the deposition of the surface silt known as "loess." 

Beneath the Kansan Iowa geologists have recognized still earlier drift, 

without surface outcrop, known as the "pre-Kansan."

Overlapping one another like the shingles on a roof, these broad 

sheets of stony clay, with their attendant beds of sand and gravel, 

largely control the distribution and the quality of the ground water of 

common wells. The stiff, stony clays of which the drift is chiefly composed are impervious and dry, water being found only in the seams of 

sand and gravel included within the mass of the drift sheet, and especially in the broad gravel and sand layers by which the successive 

sheets of drift are often separated, or which often immediately overlie 

the country rock. Thus the Buchanan gravel, a weathered and thoroughly oxidized deposit of Kansan age, is an important source of supply, even where lying beneath the stony clays of more recent ice 

invasions.

The drift is so thick and the distance to the various water-bearing 

layers so great that wells must frequently be sunk to depths of 100 

feet or more. Except on special areas such as river plains, where 

ground water stands near the surface, the windmill is a marked feature 

of the tj^pical Iowa landscape.

ARTESIAN WATERS.

The artesian field of Iowa is part of the extensive artesian area of 

the upper Mississippi Valley, which includes also a portion of Missouri, 

a large part of Illinois, and southern Minnesota and Wisconsin. 

The catchment area of the field lies for the most part in the two States 

last mentioned. From this gathering ground a succession of beds 

which supply all the requisite conditions for artesian wells slope southward. The series consists of many broad sheets of limestones, sometimes cavernous, of impervious shales, and of close-textured to porous 

sandstones, whose total thickness, as found by adding together the 

maximum thicknesses of the different formations, amounts to 6,000 feet. 

These strata, which include representatives of nearly all the stages of 

the Paleozoic system, and in western Iowa of some of the Mesozoic, 

rest on a floor of quartzites and schists of Algonkian age. In northern Iowa the strata also dip from the eastern and western boundaries 

of the State toward a median line, forming a shallow trough or syncline, whose axis lies in about the longitude of the upper Des Moines 

River. In southern Iowa the western limb of this syncline is depressed, 

and under the southwestern counties the rock sheets lie more nearly
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

ARTESIAN LOCALITIES IN IOWA

The lines show the elevation of the summit of the St. Peter sa
NORTON.] IOWA. 223

level. In southeastern Iowa the lower beds rise in a low dome now 

covered and concealed beneath later formations.

So exceedingly gentle are the dips of these strata that the catchment area is of great width, and the supply of the artesian reservoir 

correspondingly ample. Of perhaps still more importance is the consequence that even the basal water-bearing beds are within drilling 

distance over about four-fifths of the State. So far as known, their 

continuity is not interrupted by any fault or break barring the way 

of their percolating waters or presenting lines of leakage.

Cambrian rocks. The lower division of the Cambrian may be called 

the St. Croix or basal sandstone. It rests directly on the Algonkian 

floor. It is at least 1,100 feet thick in the vicinity of the Mississippi 

River, but thins rapidly as it rises on the western side of the central 

syncline. All its pervious strata are water bearing, except where its 

summit lies above the ground-water surface along the Wisconsin 

border. Beyond the counties bordering the Mississippi in northeastern Iowa the nearly static waters of this deep reservoir are likely to 

be heavily mineralized. Thus at Cedar Rapids in a well that reached 

the Algonkian quartzite at 1,417 feet below sea level, the basal sandstone waters were so salty and so corrosive to the iron casing that the 

boring was plugged to shut off all water below that of the Jordan.

The most important water-bearing bed of the Iowa field- is the Jordan sandstone, a light-colored, smooth-grained rock, from 100 to 200 

feet thick. It is to this water-bearing stratum that drillers are usually 

encouraged to go, and it is here that they are often also urged to stop. 

The Jordan is separated by impervious shales and shaly dolomites, 

called the St. Lawrence, from the basal sandstone.

Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian rocks. At the base of the 

Ordovician is the Oneota (Lower Magnesian), a dolomitic formation, 

which may be divided into an upper and a lower division, separated 

by a bed of sandstone equivalent to the New Richmond of Wisconsin. 

With a thickness of from 300 to 600 feet, it appears to underlie the 

entire State, everywhere showing the perfect and complete dolomitization and admixture with arenaceous material characteristic of its 

outcrop. The flow of an artesian well is often notably increased as 

the drill penetrates this creviced and porous formation with its included 

sandy layers.

The St. Peter is a remarkably persistent formation whose normal 

thickness is about 100 feet. It is a bed of incoherent quartz sand, 

which, because of its freedom from clays and cementing material and 

because of the phenomenal roundness of its grains, is an exceptionally 

important water horizon. So distinct are its grains from those of 

an}7 sandstone above it that the St. Peter is easily recognized by the 

experienced well driller as well as by the geologist. In northern Iowa,
224 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

even as far west as Cherokee, it yields fair supplies of water derived 

from its outcrops in Minnesota.

Above the St. Peter is the Galena-Trenton, a body of limestone 

underlying considerable areas within the State. The Galena-Trenton 

is shaly at its base, and in places thoroughly dolomitized. The dolomitic phase, being porous and often creviced, occasionally yields artesian water, as at Davenport, the water apparently being derived from 

the underlying sandstone.

The Ordovician series includes as its highest member the Maquoketa 

shale, which has a maximum thickness of 275 feet, and which, in eastern Iowa at least, effectively seals the formations beneath it. Where 

it lies near the surface arid the Silurian (Niagara) limestone forms the 

country rock, it gives a water-tight floor, immediately above which 

water may often be obtained by ordinary wells in quantities sufficient 

for village supplies.

The Devonian and Silurian rocks are of slight importance except in 

southeastern Iowa, where the latter become arenaceous and yield a 

bountiful supply at Keokuk and Fort Madison.

Carboniferous rocks. The importance of the Carboniferous system 

as a source of water supply is in part due to its wide extent west of 

Iowa River. Despite its great thickness the lower or Mississippian 

division measuring 670 feet and the upper or Pennsylvanian division 

(Coal Measures) reaching a thickness of 1,060 feet the permeable 

strata of the series are neither thick nor persistent. A number of 

flowing wells are, however, supplied from it, although their waters 

are often heavily mineralized and their discharge slight. The wellknown medicinal wells of Colfax furnish a typical example. In wells 

which reach the deep-lying beds beneath the Carboniferous, these 

upper waters, often impregnated with the sulphates of lime, soda, and 

magnesia, are not always effectively cased off.

Dakota sandstone. The Dakota sandstone, which is a source of some 

importance in northwestern Iowa, is cut off from the great Dakota 

field, where it carries an enormous volume of water under high head, 

by the mass of Sioux quartzite of southeastern South Dakota. In Iowa 

its water is under little head, and so far as tested is of poor quality.

/Summary. Successful artesian wells have been drilled in all parts 

of the State except on the high divides in southwestern Iowa, where 

the water-bearing rocks reach their greatest depth below the surface. 

More than 150 artesian wells not counting those in glacial drift, 

which are numbered high in the hundreds have already been drilled 

at an expenditure estimated'at not less than $500,000. The water 

supply of some of the larger cities of the State such as Dubuque, 

Cedar Rapids, Clinton, and Boone is drawn in considerable part 

from artesian wells, but is supplemented from other sources. In
NOBTON.] IOWA. 225

the cities the larger number of artesian wells are of private ownership, having been sunk by various manufacturing companies, such as 

packing establishments, breweries and bottling works, glucose works, 

and ice factories. In the number of artesian wells, Davenport heads 

the list with 14 or more. For smaller towns artesian water forms 

an ideal supply, and about 30 of such towns within the State have 

already availed themselves of it. Pure, unpolluted artesian waters 

are provided for a number of the State institutions, including the 

State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, the two penitentiaries, two hospitals for the insane, and three of the minor institutions.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

Six of the springs of Iowa reported sales of their water for table or 

medicinal uses in 1902. They are as follows:

Boone Mineral Well, Boone, Boone County. 

Colfax Mineral Spring, Colfax, Jasper County. 

Fry's Colfax Mineral Springs, Colfax, Jasper County. 

Lake View Medical Spring, Lake View, Sac County. 

Ottumwa Mineral Springs, East Ottumwa, Wapello County. 

White Sulphur Spring, near Davenport, Scott County.

The sales reached an aggregate of 152,050 gallons valued at $14,655, a 

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No.

32, pp. 161-163. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Barton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 39-41. 

Artesian wells of Iowa, by W. H. Norton: Iowa Geol. Survey, vol. 6, 1897.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
MINNESOTA.

By C. W. HALL.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The topographic features of Minnesota are simple, and its relief is 

low. The highest point of the State the Misquah Hills in the northeastern corner is only 2,230 feet in altitude. The lowest point is the 

shore of Lake Superior at 602 feet. The average elevation is very 

close to 1,200 feet, since there are 42,390 square miles below and 41,897 

square miles above the 1,200-foot level.

WATER RESOURCES.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

The northeastern portion of the State seems so thoroughly well 

watered by streams, lakes, and springs that thus far there has 

been no strong demand for artesian water, and indeed the crystalline 

rocks lying immediate^ beneath the glacial drift offer an etfectual 

bar to artesian boring. In the central portion of the State there is 

an occasional basin in which artesian waters gather and in which 

there are wells of moderate depth. In these parts of the State much 

of the surface is too high to obtain flowing water, and is so high that 

only occasionally can supplies be obtained by pumping. Thus the 

southeastern and northwestern portions of the State are the only areas 

which may be regarded as artesian basins in any broad sense of that 

term.

Exploration for water in Minnesota during the last twenty-five years 

has shown that artesian waters are derived from a wide range of geological formations, which are grouped according to geologic age into 

Eo-Paleozoic, Cretaceous, and Glacial drift. There are few areas 

within the State where waters are not obtainable from at least one of 

these three groups, if they be obtained at all.

WATER-BEARING STRATA.

There are no water-bearing strata below the Paleozoic. Within the 

Cambrian and Ordovician rocks, which stretch in a widening belt from 

Duluth southward to the Iowa line, is a succession of sandstones alternating with shales, dolomites, and dolomitic limestones that yield copi226
HALL.] MINNESOTA. 227

ous supplies of artesian waters. Comparatively little exploration has 

been done within this area from Duluth southward to Hinckley, the 

rocks being too thin and too high above the sea; but from Hinckley to 

the Iowa line scores of wells have been sunk, which, with very few 

exceptions, yield a supply of water.

Cambrian, This series of dolomites, shales, and sandstones varies 

considerably, as shown by many exposures in the upper Mississippi 

region. In the St. Croix region is a series to which Dr. C. P. Berkey 

has given the name Basal sandstone. a At the base of this series is a 

persistent sandstone, attaining a thickness of 1,000 feet at Minneapolis 

and gradually thinning out in all directions as though beneath this 

point was the deepest part of a great basin of deposition. So frequently has this bottommost sandstone layer been reached in artesian 

well boring, that its characters and those of the overlying rocks are 

thought to be pretty definitely established.

Above this sandstone is a bed of shales and dolomites of varying 

thickness and texture, which is called locally the St. Lawrence formation. Upon it rests another sandstone series called the Jordan, which 

locally attains a thickness of 116 feet. This is remarkably porous and 

is strongly water bearing, yet it is made up of unusually well-rounded 

and symmetrical grains, varying in coarseness from one-sixteenth of 

an inch down to granules of extreme fineness.

Ordovician. Resting upon the Jordan sandstone is the Oneota formation, the most massive and uniform as well as the thickest bed of 

dolomite within the State. While the Oneota formation in many 

places is very porous through its dolomitization, it nowhere carries 

water sufficient to serve as a source of water supply.

Above the Oneota is a layer of sandstone called the New Richmond 

sandstone. Although this is a very thin layer, nowhere exceeding 

20 feet in thickness and in places completely lost sight of by well 

borers, yet in a few localities it has become the source of a generous 

water supply. Upon this New Richmond sandstone, which appears to 

be the basal conglomerate of the Canadian series of the upper Mississippi Valley, rests a dolomite of somewhat unique characters, which 

for Minnesota has been named the Shakopee. This is of varjdng 

thickness and everywhere thoroughly dolomitized. It represents a 

formation much altered from its original condition. That it once was 

much thicker than at the present time there is every reason to believe. 

It sometimes carries small lenticular beds of sandstone, which in certain 

portions of the State appear as quite conspicuous features in the formation. Elsewhere their absence is a marked characteristic.

Resting upon the Shakopee with some unconformity, evidenced in 

part by the varying thickness of the Shakopee beneath, is a persistent 

sandstone called the St. Peter. This sandstone at Minneapolis and

« Berkey, C. P., Geology of the St. Croix Dalles; Am. Geol., vol. 20,1897, p. 372.
228 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

St. Paul is over 160 feet in thickness. Southward it thins to 75 

or 80 feet, while at other points it becomes thicker. According to 

measurements in river valleys and artesian well borings its thickness 

is variable. This is an unusually strong water-bearing formation, and 

is utilized wherever it occurs as a source of water. To the north of 

Minneapolis, where the overlying rocks are removed and the St. 

Peter itself thinned by erosion, it yields water at varying depths, 

pumped by windmills for the use of the farm and the truck garden. 

The last of the Ordovician series in this part of the State is the TrentonGalena limestone. This has been so eroded by glacial wear that in 

places it is not more than 10 or 15 feet in thickness, but elsewhere, 

where protected from erosion, it attains a thickness of 200 or 300 feet. 

This rock contains no water, but when present serves as an effective 

cap in confining the waters of the underlying formations.

Cretaceous. Less is known of the Cretaceous than of any series 

represented in the State. According to the records of wells, Cretaceous rocks come in from the Dakotas, where well-defined Cretaceous 

beds occur, and stretch over the divide of crystalline rocks and, in 

probably continuous beds of sandstones and shales, reach more than 

half across the State. Yet many portions of Minnesota, even in its 

western half, show no evidence of the existence of Cretaceous rocks 

between the glacial drift and the underlying pre-Cambrian rocks. 

The thickness of the Cretaceous varies and its altitude above the sea is 

far from uniform. The freedom with which water is obtained from 

this formation is a valuable factor.

Glacial drift. This deposit is a remarkably persistent covering for 

all the older formations. In southeastern Minnesota for a few thousand square miles it is absent. Here the pre-Paleozoic rocks stand out 

at the surface as the prominent bed rock of the region. This area, 

named the driftless area by Chamberlin and Salisbury, is a part of 

the physiographic region embracing southwestern Wisconsin, northwestern Illinois, and northeastern Iowa. The glacial drift nearly 

everywhere carries water, the places where a sufficient supply can not 

be found being very few indeed. In thickness the deposits vary from 

0 to 300 feet. Mr. Upham thinks that in the western half of the State 

they can not average more than 75 feet and in the eastern half they are 

50 feet thick outside the so-called "driftless area" of the southeastern corner. The glacial drift affords waters through three distinct 

methods artesian wells, shallow wells, and springs.

ARTESIAN BASINS.

The artesian basins of Minnesota may be briefly described as the 

(1) Southeastern artesian basin, (2) Red River Valley basin, and (3) 

small local basins.

Southeastern artesian oasin. This basin is within the area of the
HALL.] MINNESOTA. 229

pre-Paleozoic rocks. Each one of the several sandstones in the series 

will yield water wherever it is present under the necessary conditions. 

The pre-Paleozoic rocks are in the form of a great arch or dome, the 

crest of which seems to lie in Rice, Goodhue, and Dakota counties. 

From this dome the Trenton limestone is worn away and the St. 

Peter sandstone has been subjected to erosion almost sufficient to sever 

its southern from its northern area. The lowermost of the sandstone

Water basins whose supply is 

from Paleozoic rocks

Basins- whose supply comes from 

Cretaceous sandstones and rocks 

oJt doubtful reference

Basins whose supply comes probably 

from the glacial drift

FIG 35. Artesian basins of Minnesota.

series in this region seems to have a great thickening beneath Minneapolis and St. Paul. A well sunk in Lakewood Cemetery, Minneapolis (elevation 975 feet), disclosed granitic rocks 2,150 feet below 

the surface. Along the southern border of the State at Winona, 

Brownsville, and also La Crosse, Wis., granitic rocks were struck 

at about 525 feet below the level of the Mississippi, where the surface 

altitude was 625 feet. Since granitic rocks occur at St. Cloud at 1,200
230 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

feet above sea level the basin-shaped nature of the bottom of this 

water-bearing district is clearly seen.

The Southeastern artesian basin lies within the portion of the State 

first settled. The population within this region is comparatively dense, 

being, it is estimated, about 100 per square mile. Several towns and 

many farmers get their principal water supply from artesian sources. 

It is estimated that 250 wells are now furnishing water within this area.

Red River Valley basin. In Red River Valley all three of the 

great water-bearing series are drawn upon for artesian supplies. Comparatively few wells have been sunk to the Paleozoic rocks of northwestern Minnesota, but these few show that the Cambrian and Ordovician are 

water bearing. With exactly what formation in southeastern Minnesota Red River Valley sandstones can be correlated is impossible to 

determine with the data now available. The water is of fair quality, 

abundant quantity, and apparently permanent supply. The Humboldt well, the deep well at Moorhead, and a few others show the 

nature of the rocks and the quality of the water.

The second water-bearing beds are the Cretaceous sandstones. 

These are much more strongly developed in the southern end of the 

district than toward the north, and they show a very apparent tendency 

to thin out in passing eastward from the Red River and the Bois 

des Sioux River, which form the boundary between the Dakotas 

and Minnesota, toward the eastern border of the Red River basin. 

Indeed it is thought by some that the Dakota sandstone, the 

the remarkable water-bearing stratum of the James River basin, 

thins out and disappears before the Red River Valley is reached. 

Whatever the case, the sandstones which yield the water are uneven 

in texture, and of varying thickness and mineral composition. The 

number of wells within Red River basin in Minnesota drawing water 

from the Cretaceous sandstones is large. Mr. Warren Upham estimates a that hundreds exist. Nearly every large farm in the valley has 

a deep, or artesian, well to supply farm buildings, gardens, and pastures. The surface water and the shallow well water are in many 

places so alkaline and so disagreeable to the taste that they can not be 

used successfully.

The third source of artesian waters is in the deeper layers of the 

glacial drift. Within the great plain of Red River Valley wells 

in the drift vary from 50 to 150 feet in depth, but in the moranic 

regions to the east of Lake Agassiz Plain a greater depth is frequently attained. The water from these wells is wholesome and is 

very generally utilized.

aThe Glacial Lake Agassiz: Moil. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 25, 1S95, p. 523.
HALL.] MINNESOTA. " 231

SHALLOW WELLS.

By shallow wells is meant those wells from 10 to 100 feet in depth, 

sunk chiefly for domestic water supply. They are in general use 

among the farmers, and in the newer towns and villages there are large 

numbers of them. In older communities they are gradually being displaced by deep borings or, where conditions are favorable, by a supply 

from lakes or streams of recognized purity. Save in southeastern Minnesota these wells are almost invariably within the glacial drift. The 

water level in the drift follows so closely the general contour of the 

surface that there are few wells which do not yield a sufficient supply 

of wholesome water within shallow depths.

In the southeastern corner, within the so-called driftless area, shallow wells reach into the residual material derived from the alteration 

of the Paleozoic formations which occur in this portion of the State. 

The waters here are hard, but as a rule clear and wholesome. The 

water level is steadily sinking, so that farmers and others utilizing this 

supply are obliged to bore their wells deeper than formerly. Old 

wells must be deepened, ai\d even then their supply is less than in 

former years. It is the general impression that the large demands 

for water from underground supplies exceed the inflow from the surrounding catchment areas, and thereby the diminution in quantity 

becomes a question of serious concern.

SPEINGS.

While springs occur throughout the State, there are certain structural conditions which locally prevent their formation. These are the 

stretches of modified drift and the glacial lake bottoms extended between the morainic belts characteristic of the topography of the State. 

There are not less than twelve of these moraines in the State. These 

belts of gravelly ridges and mounds are the source of supply of wholesome yet, in most areas, hard spring water.

There is no especial mode of occurrence noticeable in the distribution of springs. Their place of appearance depends upon the arrangement of the drift material through which or under which the water 

makes its way, beds of clay of greater or less extent being usually the 

determining factor. In the northeast portion of the State the conditions of occurrence are quite simple, since the waters gathered in the 

shallow glacial drift make their way out through the hollows worn by 

glaciation. In southeastern Minnesota springs occur along the river 

valleys and represent the completion of the underground circulation 

through the pre-Paleozoic rocks. The conditions of occurrence are 

determined by the depth of the river valley and the composition and 

texture of the rocks through which or between which the waters flow. 

IRE 114 05 16
232 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. LNO. J14.

The spring water of northeastern Minnesota seems to be softer than 

any other water in the State. Waters in southeastern Minnesota are, 

with scarcely an exception, hard. In the western part of the State 

the underground circulation is comparatively sluggish throughout the 

extent of the level tracts of glacial drift, which here carries a large 

proportion of fragments from calcareous shales and Mesozoic limestones. There are many alkaline springs as well as alkaline wells, 

and hardness is a universal characteristic of the water in this part of 

the State.

The following springs reported sales of water in 1902 : a

Highland Spring, St. Paul, Ramsey County.

Indian Medical Spring, Elk River, Sherburne County.

Inglewood and Glenwood Springs, Minneapolis, Hennepin County.

Mankato Mineral Springs, near Mankato, Blue Earth Connty.

Trio Siloam Springs, Austin, Mower County.

The number of gallons sold is given as 2,217,000. The value was 

$415,140.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. TJ. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 158-159.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 1, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 55-57.

Minnesota [well records], by C. W. Hall and J. E. Todd: Water-Supply and Irrig. 

Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, pp. 441-488.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
WISCONSIN DISTRICT.

ALFRED K. SCHULTZ.

LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY.

Area included. The Wisconsin district lies between Lake Superior 

and Lake Michigan, extending southward approximately to the parallel 41° 30', and comprising all of the State of Wisconsin, the Northern Peninsula of Michigan, and that portion of Illinois north of the 

Carboniferous deposits.

Topography. In general the area is a broad plain, dipping toward 

the south. Portions of the area are rugged and rocky and broken 

by hills, which in the western part of Michigan rise to a height 

of 2,000 feet. North of a central elevation, which ranges between 

1,500 and 2,000 feet, the remnants of a mass uplifted in early geologic 

times, there is an abrupt declivity which reaches to within a few miles

Marshalltown Mississippi ft. Wisconsin K. Baraboo

FIG. 36. Geologic section from Baraboo, Wis., to Des Moines, Iowa. After Norton. 

a, Des Mcines; 6, Mississippian; c, Kinderhook; d, Devonian-Silurian; e, Hudson beds; /, GalenaTrenton; g, St. Peter; ft, Oneota; i-j, St. Croix, including Jordan, St. Lawrence, and Basal sandstone.

of the shore of Lake Superior, 622 feet above sea level. Across the 

entire northern portion of the area the divide is generally close to 

Lake Superior. It is lowest in the eastern half, where the Paleozoic 

rocks form the crest. South of the central elevation is a long slope, 

which in the southern part of the area is approximately 500 feet above 

sea level.

The central upheaval, together with two minor transverse swells, 

determined the chief drainage systems of the area and in a general way 

govern the circulation of the underground waters.

Among the minor topographic features are the elevations due to the 

Baraboo and Wausau quartzites, the Penokee-Gogebic and Marquette

233
234 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

iron ranges in Michigan, and the sawtooth ridges of Keweenawan rock 

in the northwestern part of the district, all of which have affected the 

drainage and underground circulation. Extending from Green Bay, 

Wis., diagonally across the area to Rock Island, 111., is a valley excavated in the soft, easily eroded Cincinnati shale. Its eastern boundary 

is a steep slope, composed of the resistant Niagara limestone. This 

valley is one of the most important of the district, many flowing wells 

being found within its borders. North of Green Bay the rivers, 

for the most part, cut directly across the underlying shale, but well 

borings show that the drift here is much deeper than over the Niagara 

limestone to the east, indicating the continuation of the ancient valley.

GEOLOGY.

Pre- Cambrian rocks. The elevated central region of Wisconsin consists of pre-Cambrian granites, syenites, and schists, all having a very 

low crystalline texture and porosity.

North of the crystalline area are the Huronian deposits which form 

the Penokee-Gogebic iron range wT ith its steep dip to the north, while 

on the northeast is the trough of the Marquette iron range. Rocks of 

the same age lie on the east, southeast, and on the southwest of the 

pre-Cambrian elevation, while small isolated outliers are found scattered over south-central Wisconsin.

The Keweenawan series, which overlies the Huronian, is confined to 

the northwestern portion of the area lying north of the Huronian of 

the Penokee-Gogebic iron range. The Keweenawan series extends 

from the most northern point of Keweenawan Point in a southwesterly 

direction across the district to St. Croix Falls, where it passes into 

Minnesota. The rocks lie in a synclinal trough whose axis bears 

northeast and southwest. In the northern half of the formation only 

the eastern portion of the trough remains, while the western portion 

probably lies beneath the surface of Lake Superior. The rocks consist of basic and acidic lavas, conglomerates, and sandstones, threefourths of which are igneous. The closing of the Keweenawan age 

also marks the end of volcanic activity within the area.

Potsdam sandstone. Nearly surrounding these pre-Cambrian rocks, 

which carry very little water, is the Potsdam sandstone, which rests 

unconformably and horizontally upon the former. North of the crystalline rocks is a belt of sandstone of varying width bordering Lake 

Superior.

On the south the same formation extends in a crescent around the 

crystalline area, with its northeast prong joining the Lake Superior 

belt near Marquette, Mich., and its northwestern prong passing into 

Minnesota near St. Croix Falls, Wis.

The sandstone adjacent to Lake Superior in the western half of the
SCHULTZ.] WISCONSIN DISTRICT. 235

area is of a red and brown color, well cemented arid firm. Eastward 

the color becomes lighter and the eastern portion as well as that on the 

south is white or yellow, poorly cemented and unconsolidated, often 

crumbling in the hand, while in some cases it is so hard that it might 

pass for a quartzite. The formation consists of fine calcareous sand, 

coarse siliceous sand, shales, marls, and layers of sand highly impregnated with iron oxide, thereby causing the water from some of the

FIG. 37. Wisconsin outcrop of Potsdam and SI. Peter sandstones.

horizons to flow forth a blood red. The rock is very porous. Its 

grains are angular, and in some of the lower layers as coarse as No. 4 

shot. The sandstone underlies the entire area to the east and south, 

dipping east, south, and west on the sides of the central elevation. 

Its thickness varies from nothing along the crystalline margin to 1,488 

feet at Rockford, 111. At Streator, 111., it has a total thickness of more 

than 1,737 feet, showing a rapid increase toward the south.
236 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Z<ower Magnesian limestone. Fringing the Potsdam sandstone on 

the south from the eastern part of Michigan to St. Croix River, in Polk 

County, Wis., is a narrow belt of Lower Magnesian limestone, varying 

in thickness from 50 to 200 feet. Along St. Croix and Mississippi 

rivers it caps many of the sandstone ridges. It is a dolomite, with 

considerable quantities of chert, crystalline quartz, and quartzose sand 

scattered through it near the middle of the formation.

8t. Peter mndstoiie. The St. Peter sandstone, which overlies the 

Lower Magnesian limestone, consists of a soft incoherent rock, of 

large well-rounded grains of quartz varying in color from white 

through yellow, pink, to a deep red. The formation is mapped in 

Michigan with the Lower Magnesian limestone and follows the eastern 

margin of that formation southward to the Illinois boundary, thejice 

up the Mississippi to Vernon County, where it is all eroded. It reappears in Pierce and St. Croix counties. Isolated portions are also 

found farther south in Illinois, where erosion once more has brought 

it to the surface. The northern half of the eastern margin is considerably thinner, often being pinched out entirely, as shown by well 

records. The formation has a thickness varying from 0 to 250 feet in 

portions of Illinois.

Galena-Trenton limestone, The Galena-Trenton limestone occupies 

a large surficial area extending from eastern Michigan southwest 

across the country to the Mississippi River, in Crawford County, Wis., 

and as far south as the southern boundary of the district. Small isolated patches are found capping the highest hills in Pierce and St. 

Croix counties in west-central Wisconsin.

The upper portion is a dolomite while the lower is more of a limestone. The various beds of this formation are often separated by 

shale. The rock contains many cracks and fissures which are partly 

filled with calcite, pyrite, marcasite, galena, and sphalerite. The combined thickness of the Galena-Trenton varies from 200 to 350 feet.

Cincinnati shale. Overlying the Galena limestone is a formation 

composed largely of bluish to greenish shale with occasional thin 

bands of limestone. This shallow sea deposit is known as the Cincinnati shale and is one of the most impervious strata of the area. 

These soft shales are easily eroded and seldom exposed. They outcrop in a narrow belt seldom more than a few miles in width and close 

under the protecting Niagara limestone, extending from eastern Michigan southwestward to Rock Island, 111., forming for the most part 

the Green Bay and Rock River basins. Another prong extends southeast from Lee County, 111., around the Carboniferous deposits to the 

southern boundary of Ford County. A small area is found also in 

northwestern Illinois, along the Mississippi River. The thickness of 

the formation may be placed between 150 and 450 feet.

Niagara limestone. East of the Cincinnati shale occurs the Niagara
SCSULTZ.] WISCONSIN DISTRICT. 237

limestone, which, in a few places, is separated from the shale by the 

Clinton iron-ore deposits. The Niagara deposit varies in thickness 

from 450 to 800 feet and extends from the eastern point of Michigan 

around the lake on its western shore, passing into Indiana southeast 

of Chicago. A small area is also found along the Mississippi River 

north of Rock River, capping many of the mounds in southwestern 

Wisconsin. The formation has a large surficial extent in the eastern 

part of the area. It is composed largely of calcium and magnesium 

carbonates and contains a large number of flints. Some portions are 

hard and cherty, while others are inclined to be sandy.

Later rocks. Later deposits of rock within the area are of minor 

importance and occur over very small areas. In Milwaukee and Ozaukee counties in Wisconsin occur small deposits of the Lower Helderberg 

limestone, while in Milwaukee and St. Ignace, Mich., and south of 

Rock Island, 111., occur remnants of a more extensive Devonian 

deposit.

Drift. The entire area was overridden by glaciers, except a small 

part along Mississippi River, extending from Alma, Wis., eastward 

to Grand Rapids, thence southward until it crosses the Mississippi 

again near Savanna, 111., passing into Iowa. The ice sheet left a 

heterogeneous deposit of clay, sand, bowlders, etc., of varying thickness, burying and modifying the minor topographic features, and 

governing to a large extent the drainage and the occurrence of surface 

water throughout the greater portion of the area.

Lacustrine deposits. Along the borders of Lakes Michigan and Superior are lacustrine deposits composed of alternating layers of red clay 

and beach sand. These deposits offer one of the cheapest and most 

satisfactory means of obtaining water for both farm and city purposes.

WATER SUPPLIES.

From the foregoing brief description of the topography, drainage, 

and geology of the district it may readily be understood that the 

source of water supply for the crystalline region, with the exception 

of some of the sandstone of the Keweenawan epoch and the soTter 

horizons of the Huronian, is restricted chiefly to the overlying bed of 

drift. This area as a whole has a very poorly developed drainage. 

The water table in most cases lies near the surface. Deep wells are 

seldom needed in this sparsely settled region. Cool, soft, and comparatively pure water may easily be obtained from the numerous 

springs, small streams, ponds, rivers, and lakes. Considerable difficulty, however, has been experienced in various places where a large 

quantity of water was required some distance from a lake or river; in 

such places the water-supply problem will take on a more and more 

serious aspect as the country becomes more thickly settled.

Potsdam sandstone. The greatest of the rock water horizons of the
238 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.'

area, and the one that universally furnishes a large supply of water, 

.is the Potsdam sandstone, which nearly surrounds the crystalline 

rocks. To the south and east this formation is the great source of the 

artesian waters found scattered over the district. On the north a few 

records show that waters from its beds rise considerably above the level 

of Lake Superior. The impervious interbedded shales of this formation furnish ideal conditions for a good artesian suppty at man}^ places 

within the outcrop area itself. The shales, though not everywhere 

present, often give rise to several separate horizons of water-bearing 

rock. Wells of this nature may be found at Sparta, Whitehall, Durand, 

and numerous other places in Wisconsin. Although the water from 

this formation does not reach the surface in many places, owing to the 

topography, it is always abundant, and ma}^ be depended upon as a 

supply for city purposes. On account of the advanced erosion and 

deep-cut valleys the entire Potsdam area west of Green Bay and north 

of Wisconsin River does not obtain any artesian water from beyond its 

own limits. Although water is abundant everywhere the artesian flows 

of this area are confined to the Mississippi Valley and its deepl}7 eroded 

tributaries St. Croix, Chippewa, Trempealeau, La Crosse, Wisconsin, 

Kickapoo, and Baraboo rivers while on the east this artesian basin 

extends to Lake Michigan, and on the south it passes under the Carboniferous deposits. Whether artesian flows may be obtained depends 

largely upon the elevation above sea level.

Lower Magnesian limestone. Alongthe eastern margin several water 

horizons are found above the Potsdam sandstone. Usually a sufficient 

supply for domestic use is obtained from the Lower Magnesian limestone, 50 to 100 feet from its top. In a few places this formation 

gives rise to flowing wells, which in some cases are caused by water 

from the Potsdam sandstone filling the cracks and fissures of the Lower 

Magnesian.

/St. Peter sandstone. The second greatest water horizon of the area 

is the St. Peter sandstone. Although of much less importance than 

the Potsdam, it furnishes an abundant supply of good water in the 

eastern and southeastern portions of the district. Northward it 

becomes of less importance, as it thins out and in many places pinches 

out entirely. In the southwestern part of the district artesian wells 

have generally not been obtained, as the rivers cut through well into 

this formation. However, in these parts the St. Peter sandstone 

always gives an abundant supply of water for domestic uses.

Galena-Trenton limestone. The Galena-Trenton limestone, like the 

Lower Magnesian limestone, yields, in most cases, sufficient water for 

domestic use. It is seldom necessary to sink the wells more than 100 

or 150 feet, and in some cases a sufficient supply for small cities has 

been obtained at 75 feet. In some localities, notably north of Green 

this formation ives rise to flowin wells. In some cases it
WISCONSIN DISTEICT. 239

appears that the water of this formation is obtained from the underlying St. Peter sandstone, the overlying Niagara limestone, etc.

Niagara limestone. The Niagara limestone, although hard, compact, 

and in places highly impervious, furnishes a copious supply. Water 

is usually obtained from fissures, joint planes, or crevices at a depth 

considerably less than 200 feet. The formation furnishes requisite 

artesian conditions, and in a great many instances, particularly along 

the eastern half of its extent, between Manitowoc and Milwaukee, 

many fine flows are obtained.

Along the eastern margin of the district the artesian flows are confined to the vicinity of Lake Michigan and to a strip on each side of 

all the valleys. In the Green Bay and Rock River basins are many of 

the flowing wells of the interior. The rapid weathering of the impervious Cincinnati shale has reduced this part of the area to such a level 

that artesian waters might rise to the surface.

Lake deposits. Besides these deeper-seated waters and the waters 

coming from the lacustrine deposits along the shores of Lake 

Michigan and Lake Superior, the area is well supplied with shallow 

underground waters, commonly known as surface water. Surface 

wells are found by the score all over the drift area and vary in 

depths from 10 to 80 feet, and in some case, as along the Kettle Range 

in eastern Wisconsin, reach a depth of 300 to 400 feet. Many of 

these wells are not free from contamination, and during the last few 

years many have gone dry. In 1903, however, nearly all the wells formerly dry had a good supply of water. Along some of the larger 

streams water is obtained from the river-washed sand and gravel b\7 

sinking wells from 10 to 40 feet. Many of these are open or drive 

wells.

SPRINGS.

Along both sides of the Keftie moraine glacial drift is the source of 

many fine surface springs and also of subterranean springs that feed 

so many of the small lakes. Other strong springs from the drift are 

scattered over the district. In the northwestern part of the area these 

strong springs flow from the drift overlying the trap rock, and in 

many cases the water gushes forth in a small stream several feet wide 

and over a foot deep. So strong are some of these that they have 

been utilized for water power, as at St. Croix Falls, where a 35-horsepower mill is operated by the water from a spring. Springs have 

their source in the upper surface of the Cincinnati shale along the 

east ridge of the Green Bay and Rock River valle}rs or along the contact of the Niagara limestone and the Cincinnati shale. The impervious shale stops the descending waters flowing through the fissured 

Niagara limestone, and it escapes at the first opportunity, producinginnumerable springs, both great and small, along the entire extent of 

this marked and important contact. Much of the water from this
240 utftfsiiGitouND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES.

source never comes to the surface near the contact but flows underground through the sand and gravel beneath the red cla}^ and gives 

rise to some of the fountains found east of Fond du Lac. The other 

important horizons are confined chiefly to the contact of the Potsdam 

sandstone and Lower Magnesian limestone and to the contact of the 

Galena-Trenton limestone and the St. Peter sandstone. In many cases 

in western Wisconsin springs also arise from various horizons of the 

Potsdam sandstone.

MINERAL, WATERS.

Along the eastern margin a considerable number of strong springs 

flow from the Niagara limestone, of which the most noted are the 

famous Waukesha Springs, whose waters have long been on the market. Although considerable water is being bottled, this industry is 

still in its infancy and waiting for development. At present there 

are innumerable springs moderately charged with mineral matter and 

well adapted for certain medical uses, whose waters have never been 

analyzed. Most of the springs within the area contain a small amount 

of mineral matter averaging approximately 300 parts per 1,000,000. 

Other springs of a much higher degree of purity are found, one containing only a little over two grains per gallon, three-fourths of which 

was in the form of carbonates. Most of the springs thus far have 

received but little attention outside their use for domestic purposes. 

In some cases springs have been and are being used for public water 

supplies, as at Lancaster, Wis., where a spring with a daily capacity 

of 2,160,000 gallons furnishes the entire city with wholesome water. 

The deeper seated waters are used chiefly for city water supply and 

for various manufacturing industries.

In a few cases where the waters have rare medical properties, as at 

Sheboygan and Prairie du Chien, Wis., the waters have been bottled 

and placed on the market or used for special treatment at the sanitarium. The amount of mineral matter contained in the well water for 

the most part is comparatively small, in some cases being as low as 7 

grains per gallon and seldom being more than 50 grains per gallon. 

However, in a few cases the amount exceeds 600 grains per gallon, 

while at Osceola, on Silver Brook farm, the water from the Potsdam 

sandstone at a depth of 50 feet contained a total of 993.9 grains per 

gallon, made up as follows: NaCl, 320.58 grains; CaCl2 , 583.1 grains; 

MgCl2 , 18.98 grains; CaSO4 , 62.20 grains; iron and aluminum oxides, 

2.97 grains, and silica, 6.07 grains. Concerning this water, which has 

recently been analyzed, J. H. Long writes as follows:

This water is a very unusual and peculiar one because of the presence of so large 

an amount of calcium chloride. I do not recall any mineral spring in this country 

which resembles it in this respect, but some of the so-called bitter springs of Germany have a somewhat analogous nature. The water is too highly charged with 

mineral matters to be used in quantity as a medical beverage, but in special cases 

and for a limited time it might be profitably used. Such waters are often used for
. * * *

SCHULTZ.] WISCONSIN DISTRICT. 241

baths; in fact, that is their main application, and medical men could suggest the 

cases in which such a water as this one could be used properly.

There is no doubt that in the future these various fields will be 

greatly extended and many of the cities now without a system of 

waterworks will soon draw upon the underground channels for their 

supply.

A list of the springs which reported sales of mineral water in 1902 

is given below : a

Allouez Magnesia Springs, Green Bay, Brown County. 

Aurelian Spring, Palmyra Springs, Jefferson County. 

Bay City Spring, Ashland, Ashland County. 

Bethania Mineral Springs, Osceola, Polk County. 

Chippewa Spring, Chippewa Falls, Chippewa County. 

Darlington Mineral Spring, Darlington, Lafayette County. 

Fort Crawford Springs, Prairie du Chien, Crawford County. 

Lebens Wasser Mineral Spring, Green Bay, Brown County. 

Nee-Ska-Ea Mineral Spring, Wauwatosa, Milwaukee County. 

Rainbow Mineral Spring,Wautoma, Waushara County. 

Salvator Mineral Spring, Green Bay, Browrn County. 

Sanitas Fountain, Oshkosh, Winnebago County. 

Shealtiel Mineral Spring, Farmington, Waupaca County. 

Sheboygan Mineral Spring, Sheboygan, Sheboygaii County. 

Silver Sand Spring, Milwaukee, Milwaukee County. 

Slauson Mineral Spring, Racine, Racine County. 

Solon Springs, Upper St. Croix Lake, Douglas County. 

St. John Mineral Springs, Green Bay, Brown County. 

Waukesha Springs, Waukesha County:

Acme Spring.

Almanaris Springs.

Anderson's Waukesha Spring.

Arcadian Spring.

Bethesda Mineral Spring.

Fountain Spring.

Henk Mineral Spring.

Hygeia Spring No. 2.

Minniska Mineral Spring.

Siloam Mineral Spring.

Silurian Mineral Spring.

Sotarian Spring.

Waukesha Imperial Spring.

Waukesha Lithia Spring.

White Rock Mineral Spring.

The reported sales reached a total of 5,982,948 gallons, with a value 

of $1,199,473.

PRIISTCIPAIj PUBrJCATIOISrS.

Artesian wells, by T. C. Chamberlin: Wisconsin Geol. Survey, 1873-1879, vol. 1,

pp. 689-701, 1883. 

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No.

32, pp. 151-157. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, pp. 65-66.

«Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey,p. 996.
LOWER MICHIGAN."

TOPOGRAPHY.

Lower Michigan is mainly a rolling area, with an elevation ranging 

generally between 600 and 1,000 feet above sea level. In the southern 

half of the peninsula the general level is broken by relatively low 

morainal ridges left by the glaciers which once covered the region. 

In the northern portion of the State the morainal deposits are much 

more pronounced, occurring as prominent northeast-southwest ridges, 

and in places rising to .heights of over 1,500 feet. The topographic 

features are, in fact, due almost entirely in most areas to the accumulation of glacial drift, which ma}7 reach a thickness of 800 feet or 

more, and completely buries the irregularities of the underlying rock.

GEOLOGY.

Leaving out of account the glacial drift which has been mentioned 

above, and considering only the consolidated rocks, the Lower Peninsula 

ofMichigan is structurally a great oval basin, to ward which the rocks 

dip from all sides. The geographic center is in Gratiot County, about 50 

miles north of Lansing. The strata are mainly of Carboniferous age, 

but a rim of Devonian rocks extends along the shores of Lakes Michigan and Huron from Mason County, on Lake Michigan, to Alpena 

County, on Lake Huron. Small areas or strips of Devonian rocks 

occur along the rim of the coal basin, in the extreme southeastern and 

southwestern portions of the State. A few dolomitic and other beds 

of Silurian age also occur at the extreme northern tip of the peninsula and along the shores of Lake Erie to the southeast.

The general character of the basin and the outcrop of its beds is 

shown m fig. 38, while fig. 39 shows a cross section of the basin from 

west to east.

UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLIES.

SUPPLIES OF THE DRIFT.

Eastern shore district. This district embraces "the eastward-sloping 

strip lying between the moraines and the shores of Lakes Huron, St. 

Clair, and Erie, from Saginaw Bay to the southern limits of the State.

The surface deposits of the region, except in some of the valleys

a Compiled mainly from report by A. 0. Lane on Water Resources of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper U. S. Qeol. Survey No. 30, 1899. For facts relating to the 

Upper Peninsula of Michigan, see the description of the Wisconsin district, pp. 233 to 241.

242
FULLER.] LOWER MICHIGAN. 243

and in the old beaches along the lakes, are predominantly clay. The 

clays yield no water, but small supplies, which are liable to fail in 

times of drought, are found in pockets of gravel or sand in the clay, 

and a water-bearing layer commonly occurs at the contact of the drift 

with the underlying- rock. Near the moraine the water bearing sands

FIG. 38. Geologic sketch map of lower Michigan.

are more numerous, and at least one city, Ypsilanti, obtains its public 

supply from wells in the drift. The waters in the upper part of the 

drift are of good quality, but in the lower part they are often charged 

with salt and other minerals, or with gas derived from the underlying 

rocks from which the waters come. Some of the wells flow. In the 

stream and other gravels and sands of the valleys and in the sandy
244 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

beaches bordering the lakes good waters are often obtained by shallow 

wells, but the wells are liable to fail in especially dry seasons.

Saginato Valley district. This district includes the drainage basin 

of Saginaw River and portions of adjacent regions. The surface is 

flat, the streams generally flowing in shallow valleys. It is covered 

with cla37 ey drift or hardpan, or with clays deposited in a glacial 

lake, the deposits averaging from 80 to 100 feet. Sand ridges occur 

near the lake.

The sand ridges carry water in moderate amount and subject to 

contamination. Sands and quicksands within the clay frequently 

yield somewhat hard water, which may even flow. The wells are easily 

clogged. Water equally good and with a greater head can be obtained 

by drilling into the underlj-ing sandstones. Some of the drift wells

Trenton

FIG. 39. Section across lower Michigan.

carry calcium sulphate derived from gypsum in the drift, and gas is 

not uncommon.

Northeastern shore district. This area embraces the drainage area 

of the Thunder Bay River and a few small streams emptying into the 

lake in its vicinity. To the southwest lies a high moraine containing 

some of the highest land in the State. The surface consists of a series 

of morainal ridges with intervening tracts covered by sand. Water 

can be obtained from this sand, though it frequently lies at a considerable depth. Springs emerge where the clay layers are cut by 

streams. Deep wells in the drift find sands with water, which will 

sometimes rise to the surface from beneath till and clays. The water 

is quite hard, but is otherwise generally excellent. It is hardly suitable for use in boilers.

Western shore district. This district lies along the - northwest and 

west coast of the peninsula, and extends inland far enough to include 

a portion of the high morainal ridges. The surface is drift, the rocks 

frequently lying from 500 to 600 feet below the surface. The drift is 

generally clayey, but contains many beds of sand, some of which can 

be reached by driven wells. Sometimes, in the more porous drift, wells
FULLER.] LOWEE MICHIGAN. 245

must be sunk 300 to 400 feet to obtain water. The waters are seldom 

saline.

North-central district. This area includes the upper portions of the 

drainage basins of Manistee, Muskegon, and Au Sable rivers and adjacent areas. The surface consists mainly of sandy drift, yielding water 

to shallow driven wells. In the few deep wells that have been sunk, 

the thickness of the drift is found to be 350 to 500 feet, or more.

Saginaw moraine district. This area includes the region of the 

Saginaw moraines in the central part of the State, and southwest of the 

Saginaw Valley district. The region is one of morainal drift, the 

deposits being generally from 100 to 500 feet thick. The composition 

of the drift is very variable, and many water-bearing sands occur. 

The underlying rock furnishes a reliable source of water, and a few 

wells have been drilled into it. Wells some times flow in the lower 

districts. 

South-central district. This district includes the land in the central 

portion of the State tying south of the Saginaw district. The drift 

is usually thick. The water conditions are much the same as in the 

Saginaw district.

KOCK WATERS.

Trenton limestone. This limestone has been penetrated at Monroe, 

Wyandotte, Dundee, Blissfield, and Dowagiac. It yields a strong, but 

impure brine, with traces of oil and gas.

Hudson and Uiica shales. These shales have been penetrated by 

a few wells drilled to the Trenton limestone. They are similar to 

the Coldwater and St. Clair shales.

Niagara and Clinton limestones. These are penetrated only in southeastern Monroe County, southwest of Kalamazoo and north of Frankfort. Water was obtained from these beds at Dundee and Britten, but 

they are otherwise undeveloped.

Monroe and Salina beds. These beds are mainly buff marls, dolomites, and rock salt, but at the top there is a persistent sandy bed 

yielding much water. The waters are mainly brines, but fresh water 

has been found in one or two horizons near the outcrop.

Dundee limestone. This is a light limestone full of flint and carries 

considerable quantities of water charged with salt, hydrogen sulphide, 

and other minerals, making it the source of some of the most valuable 

mineral water of the State.

Traverse series. This series consists of alternations of limestones and 

shales with an aggregate thickness of 500 feet or more. In the northern part of the State the series yields water freely in some cases, and even 

in the southern part water is obtained from several of the limestones.

Antrim shales. These are blue to black shales underlying the Berea 

grit. They yield neither fresh water nor brines in any amounts.
246 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Berea shale and grit. Below the Coldwater shales lies about 130 feet 

of black or chocolate shales, while beneath these in turn is about 60 

feet of white to brown sandstone yielding at any considerable depth 

pure brines with some gas.

Coldwater shales. These shales are generally fine grained, micaceous, and bluish. They carry little water, but small amounts are 

obtained from sandy layers in a few wells.

Lower Marshall sandstone. This formation is about 260 feet in thickness and consists of ferruginous, sandstones, flags, etc., underlying the 

Upper Marshall sandstone, it yields good water, rather chalybeate.

Napoleon or Upper Marshall sandstone. This sandstone, which belongs to the Carboniferous system, is rarely less than 50 feet thick, and 

underlies the drift in a broad belt extending from Saginaw Bay southwest to the southern boundary of the State in Hillsdale County. It 

yields copious supplies of fresh water through many flowing wells that 

have been sunk to a depth of about 250 feet through the western part 

of Huron County to Sebewaing. Wells sunk to greater depths, if the 

rocks of the Michigan series are not properly cased off, yield salt water. 

Southwest of Lansing and Mason the water is generally good.

Michigan series. This series consists of shales, hydraulic limestones, 

and gypsum beds immediately overlying the Upper Marshall sandstone. 

The waters are almost universally salt or bitter, and must be carefully 

cased off in all wells going to a deeper horizon for fresh waters. This 

series can be traced beneath the drift by the composition of the water. 

Included in the Michigan series is the Grand Rapids limestone.

Parma sandstone. The Parma sandstone unconformably overlies 

the Michigan series and is generally separated from the Marshall by 

a thin bed of shales, but in places merges with it. The waters of 

both the sandstone and limestone are generally hard, though in some 

cases they are pure. They have seldom been used for brines.

Overlying the Parma is a series of shales, sandstones, coal, fine clays, 

iron ores, etc., yielding much water of a highly mineralized character 

and frequently of medicinal value. Wells are very numerous throughout the region.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

The following 28 springs reported sales in 1902, amounting to 

8,653,690 gallons, with a value of $275,763.«

Alma-Brpmo Spring, Alma, Gratiot County. 

Andrews Magnetic Mineral Springs, St. Louis, Gratiot County. 

Bromo-Hygeia Mineral Well, Coldwater, Branch County. 

Clementine Spring, Mount Clemens, Macomb County. 

Cooper Farm Spring, Birmingham, Oakland County. 

Eastman Mineral Springs, Benton Harbor, Berrien County. 

El Cajon Mineral Springs, El Cajon Beach, Alpena County.

aPeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
FULLER.] LOWER MICHIGAN. 247

Frankfort Springs, Frankfort, Benzie County.

Magnetic Mineral Spring, Spring Lake, Ottawa County.

Midland Mineral Springe, Midland City, Midland County.

Moorman Springs,,Ypsilanti, Washtenaw County.

Mount Clemens Sprudel Water, Mount Clemens, Macomb County.

No-che-mo Mineral Spring, Reed City, Osceola County.

Original Mount Clemens Mineral Spring, Mount Clemens, Macomb County.

Pagoda Spring, Mount Clemens, Macomb County.

Plymouth Eock Well, Plymouth, Wayne County.

Ponce de Leon Springs, Paris Township, Kent County.

Premier (formerly Excelsior) Mineral Springs, Ben ton Harbor, Berrien County.

Prosit Flowing Well, Oak Grove, Flint, Genesee County.

Eed Cross Mineral Well, Big Eapids, Mecosta County.

Eoyal Oak Mineral Springs, Eoyal Oak, Oakland County.

Salutaris Spring, St. Clair Springs, St. Clair County.

Sanator, formerly Americanus Well, Lansing, Ingham County.

Sterling Spring, Crystal Falls, Iron County.

Victory Springs, Mount Clemens, Macomb County.

Welcome Island Lithia Springs, near Pontiac, Oakland County.

Wurtzel's Mineral Spring, Thomastown, near Frost, Saginaw County.

Zauber Wasser Springs, Hudson, Lenawee County.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 32, 

pp. 145-150.

Water resources of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, by A. C. Lane: Water-Supply 

and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 30, 1899.

Lower Michigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. 

Geol. Survey No. 31, 1889.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. I, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 57, pp. 51-54.

Michigan [well records], by W. F. Cooper: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. 

Geol. Survey No. 102, pp. 489-512.

IKE 114 05 17
ILLINOIS.

By FRANK LEVERETT.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

This brief discussion of water conditions in Illinois is restricted 

chiefly to the relative value of the several geologic formations as 

water-bearers. Several other topics relating to water conditions, 

namely, rainfall, drainage basins, run-off and regimen of streams, navigation, water power, city, village, and rural water supply, artesian 

wells, and water analyses have been discussed by the author in some 

detail in earlier reports of this Survey. a A chemical survey of the 

water supplies of Illinois is the topic of a report of 98 pages byx Dr. 

A. W. Palmer, issued by the University of Illinois in 1897, and a 

later report of 254 pages by the same author giving the results of 

several thousand analyses has been issued by the University within 

the last year.

GEOLOGIC COLUMN.

The rock formations either exposed or within reach of the wells of 

Illinois extend through the Paleozoic series from the Cambrian to the 

later part of the Carboniferous, including perhaps the Permian, as 

indicated in the table on page 249. There is then a wide gap, the next 

formation being the Cretaceous, which has been found to underlie the 

Ohio Eiver at Cairo, but is not known to be exposed in the State. 6 On 

the borders of the Ohio in southern Illinois are deposits of Tertiary 

age, consisting mainly of clay, micaceous sand, and a ferruginous, 

pebbly conglomerate. These deposits are probably separated from the 

Cretaceous by an interval of some consequence, and are known to be 

separated from the next later formation developed in Illinois, the Pleistocene, by a wide interval. In the table on page 249 the several drift 

sheets of the Pleistocene are presented because these divisions of the drift 

are of importance in discussing the water conditions. They should not, 

however, be given the rank of the divisions in the Paleozoic series. 

The table begins with the newest formation and extends to the oldest,

aWater resources of Illinois, Seventeenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2,1896, pp. 695-849. 

The Illinois Glacial lobe, Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 38,1899, 817 pp.

fcNickles, J. M., Report of Illinois Board of World's Fair Commissioners, p. 217, Springfield, 1895. 

H. W.Rokker, State printer.

248
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. XV

Tertiary

St.

Coal Measures 

(Carboniferous)

Mississippian 

including Kiudcrhoo

Niagara, etc. 

(Silurian)

Hudson shales 

tQrdovJcian)

Trenton and Galena 

(OrxUraeian)

StJPeter sandstone 

(Ordovician)

Scale 

0 5 10 20 30- 40 50 60 70 WlleB

GEOLOGIC SKETCH MAP OF ILLINOIS.
LEVEKETT.] ILLINOIS. 249

this being the order in which they are met "by the drill. The extent of 

the several formations which lie beneath the Coal Measures has not 

been tested by a sufficient number of borings to per.mit even approximate calculations. The figures given are largely conjectural.

Geologic column of Illinois.

Formation.

lowan drift sheet and main loess deposit (Pleistocene) .

Lower Coal Measures (Carboniferous) ...............

Kinderhook group ( Carboniferous) ...................

Corniferous limestone ( Devonian) ....................

Trenton group (Ordovician) ..........................

Extent in 

State.

Square miles. 

19, 000

« 45, 000 

53, 000

±1, 800

?

700

±10

?

19, 000

36,000

±30, 000

±15, 000

±30, 000

-+-30, 000

±30, 000

±30, 000

±35, 000

±35, 000

?

?

±45, 000

-+-48, 000

±55, 000

±55, 990

56, 000

56, 000

Thickness.

Feet. 

5-200

5-60 

10-200

±10-100

-+-10-100

?

-+-10-700

±10-1, OOC

20-500

10-800

20-250

100-200

25-200

50-330

10-60

10-120

5-25

40-200

70-400

40-275

45-450

40^420

+200-1, OOC

+300-1, OOC

a The loess covered all of Illinois outside the lowan drift, but was in part taken up by the Wisconsin 

ice sheet.

The entire thickness of the Paleozoic series oJ! rocks ranges probably from a little more than 2,000 to possibly 6,000 feet. Two borings 

just outside the State at Burlington, Iowa, and St. Louis, Mo., are 

reported to have reached pre-Cambrian rocks at 2,400 and 3,800 feet, 

respectively. So far as known to the writer n)o wells in the State 

have reached the bottom of the Paleozoic system, though several have 

been sunk to depths of more than 3,000 feet. (|)ne at Aledo, only a
250 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114

few miles from the Burlington well, terminated in Potsdam sandstone 

at a depth of 3,115 feet, and one at the Jacksonville waterworks has a 

depth of 3,028 feet. Probably the deepest boring in the State is one 

at St. John, Perry County, which reached a depth of 3,750 feet, and 

may not have entered the Potsdam sandstone.

PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS.

Potsdam sandstone. The Potsdam sandstone is by far the most 

capacious water-bearing formation in the State. It is a porous rock, 

and as it is very thick and outcrops over a large area in Wisconsin, 

the intake is sufficient to give an unlimited supply of water to wells 

which reach this formation in Illinois. It is, however, within easy 

reach of wells only in a few counties in the northern and western portions of the State. In the northern part it has been reached by 

numerous wells as far south as Illinois River and is probably within 

reach of wells in the portion of the State west of the south-flowing 

part of the river. On the north border of the State the water is sufficiently fresh in most cases to be suitable for drinking, but upon 

passing southward it becomes brackish and in many cases unsuitable 

for domestic use.

/St. Peter sandstone. Next after the Potsdam sandstone should be 

mentioned the St. Peter sandstone, which is the source of supply for 

a large number of artesian wells in the northern and western parts of 

the State. The quality of water obtained from it is usually good, and 

is adequate to the needs of the smaller cities and towns. But in the 

larger cities, especially in Chicago, it can scarcely furnish the amount 

of water needed, and for that reason many wells have been sunk to the 

Potsdam formation. The porous or water-bearing portion of the 

formation varies from a thickness of 40 feet up to 150 feet or more.

In several instances wells have obtained good supplies of water from 

the sandstone beds which appear in the Lower Magnesian formation 

between the Potsdam and St. Peter sandstone. It is found that this 

formation is made up more largely of sandstone beds in northern Illinois than in the region of outcrop in Wisconsin, as may be seen by 

records of wells published in the reports by the author above cited.

Galena limestone. The Galena limestone is very largely of porous 

rock, and in the region of outcrop in northern Illinois is a good waterbearer. The drill has shown that parts of it, buried deeply beneath 

later formations in western Illinois, will yield strong artesian wells, so 

that it is unnecessary at such points to sink to the St. Peter or lower 

formations.

Niagara limestone. The Niagara limestone is another great waterbearer, not only in northern Illinois, where it immediately underlies 

the drift, but often also when under the cover of other rocks. The 

water seems in many cases to be traversing the formation in streams
LEVEEETT.] ILLINOIS. 251

or veins, probably along fissures, and the depth to these veins may 

vary greatly in neighboring wells. The fissures were probably opened 

widely by atmospheric action before the formation was buried beneath 

the drift or older rocks. An objectionable feature of many wells 

obtaining water from the Niagara limestone is the presence of sulphureted hydrogen, formed from the decomposition of pyrites present 

in the limestone. There are, however, numerous wells in which this 

is not a pronounced feature, and the water is otherwise palatable and 

wholesome.

Devonian limestones. The Devonian limestones are ordinarily poor 

water-bearers compared with the Niagara limestone, yet, in certain 

localities, they afford sufficient water to supply local needs. Their outcrop is also much more restricted than that of the Niagara, being confined to small areas in the western and southern parts of the State.

/St. Louis limestone. The limestone formations of earlier Carboniferous age have outcrops over several counties in western and southern 

Illinois, and, though not great water-bearers, are drawn upon largely 

where the glacial deposits are either wanting or are too thin to supply 

the water.

Chester sandstone. The Chester group of southern Illinois contains 

sandstones which are generally good water bearers, but their outcrop 

is limited and they soon pass to so great a depth as to make drilling to 

them expensive. The water in the deep-lying beds is also liable to be 

brackish or unsuitable for domestic use.

" Conglomerate" sandstone. The "Conglomerate" sandstone which 

underlies the Coal Measures in central, eastern, and southern Illinois 

is not likely to become a valuable source of water for domestic use, for 

it is a very thin formation in the northern part of its field,.and where 

thick in the southern part is generally buried deeply under Coal Measures. In the latter situation it is usually charged with salt water.

Coal Measures. The sandstone beds of the Upper and Lower Coal 

Measures constitute probably half the thickness of the formations, and 

they are generally permeated with water which, however, is suitable for 

domestic use only at a few horizons, usually within 200 feet of the surface, for at other horizons and at greater depth there are often either 

salt or sulphates to render the water objectionable. These formations, 

however, usually supply the needs of residents in places where the 

drift cover does not furnish a sufficient amount of water.

Tertiary deposits. The Tertiary deposits are of limited extent and 

shallow depth and afford a very unimportant part of the water supplies 

of the State. In the region where they occur wells are often sunk to 

the underlying limestone.

Glacial deposits. The glacial deposits are probably more often 

drawn upon than all other formations combined, for they are surface 

formations and the water is reached by wells of moderate depth such as
252 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

nearly every resident can afford. There are probably more than a half 

million wells in these deposits. The complexity of the glacial formations, however, is such that in a large part of the glaciated area it is 

difficult to forecast the results of boring into them. It is estimated 

that about 70 per cent of the glacial drift is a compact clayey material 

affording very little water, except by slow seepage. The remaining 

30 per cent would, if distributed to the best advantage, be adequate to 

the needs of residents. But unfortunately there are tracts of considerable extent in which the drift is almost wholly of a clayey constitution, while other tracts have a superabundance of water-bearing 

material. A somewhat detailed study of these deposits has shown 

that the distribution of the sand and gravel beds depends to a large 

degree upon the drainage conditions attending the melting of the ice. 

In the repeated advances which the ice made into this region the sand 

and gravel beds distributed by the water from the melting of a given 

ice sheet were overridden and buried deeply in places by the deposits 

from a later ice sheet. Then, too, there appear to have been minor 

oscillations of the ice front in each stage of glaciation by which sand 

and gravel beds, which had been spread out at the edge of the ice sheet, 

were covered by clay deposits laid down during the readvance of the 

ice. In western and southern Illinois the sand and gravel found in the 

drift seem to have been deposited as the result of these minor fluctuations, for they are distributed in very irregular and limited areas. In 

central, eastern, and northeastern Illinois there are, in addition to such 

beds, more extensive ones lying between the main drift sheets. It is 

also found that throughout the State a large amount of sand and gravel 

and abundance of water are usually found along the line of pre -Glacial 

valleys. In the northern part of the State, north from a line running 

from Rock Island to Watseka, there is a large amount of gravelly and 

sandy drift at or near the surface. Farther south the surface sand 

and gravel are generally restricted to the valleys of the main drainage 

lines. PI. XVI indicates the relation of the drift to the wells. It shows 

the areas in which wells are obtained almost wholly from the drift, 

areas in which drift and rock wells are each used extensively, and 

areas in which it is generally necessary to go into the rock to obtain 

water. There are many weak wells within the areas of thick drift, 

but in the great majority of cases farmers have penetrated to waterbearing beds or veins, which afford an adequate supply.

LOCALITIES FAVORABLE FOB ARTESIAN WELLS.

Artesian wells as here discussed include only wells which overflow, 

whether from the rock or from the glacial formations. It should be 

understood, however, that a large number of wells not classed as artesian are under the same hydrostatic pressure as those that flow and 

the water rises to a similar altitude above sea level.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. XVI

MAP SHOWING THICKNESS OF DRIFT IN ILLINOIS.
CM

10 

CO 

The artesian

obtained fro

y be situate 

well establh

s

FIG. 40. Section from the Wisconsin River in western Wisconsin southward to Cap au Or

represent shales; other beds are fair to good wa

s mustgene 

ra

evel, for it

<

n andwestern Il

n TOOfeet above

r ha northe 

less t

o3 P5 

S-i

d

Q> O)

OQ H03 c a

-s £ O -43

c-H l^>

M l^i

-s 

d d

.2 I

*-4J '

o> 

I!

1-3 

-d d

^ M 

O 

03

W

_d 

> -5 .2 3 3 .s , ,
254 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

no greater than in neighboring wells that do not overflow, the overflow 

being due to the low altitude of the surface. The largest flowing 

well district is in a basin lying on the north slope of a morainic system in Iroquois County and border portions of adjacent counties in 

eastern Illinois, and comprises an area of about 500 square miles. 

There is a smaller district with exceptionally strong flows around Potomac, in northern Vermilion County. Other small districts occur near 

Plattville, in Kendall County; near Earlville, in northern Lasalle 

County; near Sycamore, in northern Dekalb County; near Palatine, in 

northern Cook County, and along Salt Creek Valley, in northern Cook 

and eastern Dupage County. There are a few flowing wells along the 

north fork of Chicago River, in northern Cook and southern Lake 

counties. Flowing wells are also common in low-lying tracts among 

moraines of Lake, McHenry, and Karue counties. The combined area 

of all these small districts will probably not greatly exceed that of the 

Iroquois district (500 square miles). Occasional flowing wells are 

scattered over the central part of the State, chiefly along river valleys, 

and there are very few in the western and southern portions in similar 

situations.

WATERS IN RELATION TO HABITATION.

The census of 1900 gives Illinois a population of 4,821,550, which 

warrants the assumption of a present population of about 5,000,000. 

About half of this population derives the supply for drinking and many 

other domestic uses from surface water, Lake Michigan furnishing 

water for the 2,000,000 or more people of Chicago, and several other 

small cities along the lake, and the streams of the State furnishing a 

supply for about 300,000 people living in the small cities and villages. 

It is estimated that about a half million people obtain their drinking 

water from wells of considerable depth. There thus remains about 

2,000,000 people who are supplied from wells of shallow depth. A 

small part of the population, residing principally in the driftless parts 

of the State, depend entirely upon rain water collected in cisterns, and 

rain water is used to a small extent in every community throughout 

the State for drinking water, and is used extensively for other domestic purposes. Spring water is also in use to a very limited extent 

throughout the State.

The chemical survey of the waters of the State instituted at the 

University of Illinois in 1895, and conducted by Prof. A. W. Palmer, 

has called attention to the quality of the water from the several sources 

in use. Up to the present time about 11,000 sanitary analyses and 500 

mineral analyses have been made, representing conditions in 100 of the 

102 counties and about 500 cities, villages, and hamlets. From the
LEVEKETT.] ILLINOIS. 255

latest report,® covering the period 1897 to 1902, inclusive, the following results of the survey are taken. The rain water in use by the residents is seldom properly filtered and the ordinary cistern filter, "as 

commonly managed or rather neglected, frequently is almost worse 

than useless, inasmuch as it soon becomes surcharged with matters 

which it has removed from some of the water, and then, instead of 

purifying the water that subsequently passes through, often becomes a 

source of offense if not of danger."

"In general, water taken from lakes, from streams, or from the 

ground, when these sources of supply are in their original or natural 

condition, is perfectly wholesome and unobjectionable, but with 

increasing population and longer occupancy of the ground the conditions change and contamination becomes inevitable." For this reason 

Professor Palmer remarks that it would be best for even the people of 

the smallest towns to use for drinking purposes only the water supplied 

by one general plant, the sanitary condition of which could and should 

be thoroughly and periodically investigated by experts acting under 

the direction of a water commission or the State board of health.

This chemical survey has shown that the normal shallow drift waters 

contain chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, and silicates of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, with minute quantities of iron and 

aluminum compounds, together with considerable quantities of 

nitrates, but only minute quantities of saline ammonia and albuminoids; 

organic matters .are almost entirety absent; nitrites are frequently 

present in notable quantitj7 . The normal deep drift waters contain 

in general the same mineral salts as the shallow waters, but usually 

the quantity of iron is considerable, and the nitrates are either entirely 

absent or present in but minute quantity, while free ammonia is abundant and albuminoids are presejnt in considerable quantities. '' Oxygen 

consumed" is high, and the water residue blackens upon being heated, 

showing that it contains much organic matter. The waters from shallow wells are well aerated and are clear, sparkling, cool, and of agreeable taste; those from the deeper wells contain little or no oxygen, 

possess in many cases a disagreeable taste, due to the presence of marsh 

gas, accompanied occasionally by minute quantities of sulphureted 

hydrogen, and are either turbid or become turbid quickly on exposure 

to air, owing to the oxidation of the iron carbonate which they contain 

and the consequent precipitation of insoluble ferric compounds.

'' Although these unpleasant characteristics of the deep drift waters 

give rise to much prejudice and objection to their general use for 

drink, nevertheless, from the sanitary standpoint they are usually to

a Chemical Survey of the Waters of Illinois. Eeport for the years 1897-1902, by Arthur William 

Palmer. Published by the University, 1903, 254 pages.
256 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

be preferred to the clear and palatable waters of the shallow wells, 

since the evidence of numerous analyses shows that they are less subject to pollution with refuse animal matters than are the latter, while 

the organic matters which they contain are derived from buried 

vegetable remains and are comparatively harmless. a

MINERAL SPRINGS.

Though not so abundant as in more rugged areas, springs are nevertheless numerous in Illinois. Those of the drift are probably the 

most abundant numerically, but the individual springs are generally 

small, sometimes being mere seeps. Such waters vary in character 

according to the constitution of the drift, but in general they are hard, 

and frequently carry considerable iron in solution. In the Coal Measure rocks they are very often highly charged with iron sulphate 

or carbonate, salt, hydrogen sulphide, etc., while in the limestone the, 

waters are generally very hard. Springs are numerous, and sometimes 

of considerable size in the limestones and older sandstones, especially 

along the bluffs of Mississippi River.

A considerable number of the mineral springs are the sites of resorts 

of more or less importance. Many report sales of water for medicinal 

or table purposes. The 22 springs reporting to the United States 

Geological Survey in 1902 are as follows: 6

Abana Spring, Libertyville, Lake County.

Anna or Cave Mineral Springs, Anna, Union County.

Aqua Vitse Mineral Springs, near Maquon, Knox County.

Aurora Lithia Spring, Montgomery, Kane County.

Black Hawk Springs, Rock Island, Rock Island County.

Blue Grass Springs, Montgomery, Kane County.

Cumberland Mineral Spring, near Greenup, Cumberland County.

Deer Lick Mineral Spring, Dearfield, Lake County.

Diamond Mineral Spring, Grantfork, Madison County.

Elmhurst Mammoth Spring, Elmhurst, Dupage County.

Glen Flora Mineral Springs, Waukegan, Lake County.

Gravel Springs, near Jacksonville, Morgan County.

Macinac Mineral Spring, Woodford County, near Carlock.

Magnesia Spring, Montgomery, Kane County.

Min-ni-Ni yan Spring, Bristol, Kendall County.

Mokena Mineral Spring, Mokena, Will County.

Original Springs, Okawville, Washington County.

Perry Mineral Springs, Perry Springs, Pike County.

Red Avon Mineral Spring, Avon, Fulton County.

Sanicula Springs, Ottawa, Lasalle County.

Sylvan Dell Spring, Galewood, Cook County.

White Diamond, formerly Spouting Mineral Spring, South Elgin, Kane County.

«Chemical Survey of the Waters of Illinois. Report for the years 1897-1902, by Arthur William 

Palmer. Published by the University, 1903, pp. &-9. 

fePeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
LEVERETT.] ILLINOIS. 257

The aggregate sales of these 22 springs ar 

gallons, with a value of $89,565.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATION

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale.

No. 32, pp. 142-144. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States,

Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 5 

Water resources of Illinois, by Frank Leverett: Seventeen

Survey, pt. 2, pp. 695-849.

Wells of Illinois, by Frank Leverett: Mon. U. S. Geol. Sur 

Description of the Danville quadrangle, by M. R. Camp

Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 67, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Description of the Chicago district, by W. C. Alden: Geol.

Geol. Survey. 

Description of the Patoka quadrangle, by M. L. Fuller anc

U. S., folio 105, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Geology of Illinois as related to its water supply, by Cha

Chemical Survey of the Waters of Illinois. University of

» given as 1,767,955

S. 

Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey

pt. 1, by N. H. Darton:

, pp. 25-30

h Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol.

vey, vol. 38, pp. 550-787. 

ell and Frank Leverett:

Atlas U.S., folio 81, U.S. 

F. G. Clapp: Geol. Atlas

rles W. Rolfe: Report on 

llinois, 1903, pp. 41-56.
INDIANA.

By FRANK LEVERETT.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

This brief discussion of water conditions in Indiana, like that of 

Illinois, is restricted chiefly to the relative value of the several geologic formations as water bearers. A more detailed discussion of 

drainage systems, underground waters, mineral springs, and water 

supplies for cities and villages will be found in a paper 8 by the author 

which appears in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the United States 

Geological Survey (pp. 425-559) and a discussion of the wells of 

Indiana, taken up county by county, in Water Supply and Irrigation 

papers Nos. 21 b and 26. c The geologic structure of Indiana has 

been discussed in part or as a whole in several of the reports of the 

State geological survey, but except the very excellent discussion of mineral waters in the Twenty-sixth and Twenty-seventh Annual Reports, 

the State reports contain little information concerning water supplies. 

A paper on the "Natural Gas Field of Indiana," by A. J. Phinney, 

in the Eleventh Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey 

(pp 509-742), presents many data concerning water supplies.

GEOLOGIC COLUMN.

The formations exposed in Indiana extend with but slight breaks 

from the Hudson River group to the Coal Measures. There is then a 

wide gap, the next formation being of Tertiary*(?) age, after which 

another interval appears between the Tertiary (?) and the glacial formations. The table on page 259 gives the formations penetrated by the 

drill, beginning with the newest and extending to the oldest. It also* 

includes the formations below the Hudson River group which have 

been reached by the drill.

a Water resources of Indiana and Ohio. 

l> Welid of northern Indiana. 

c Wells of southern Indiana. 

258
LEVERETT.] INDIANA.

Generalized section of the rock formations of

[Modified from section of A. J. Phinney in the Eleventh Annual 1

Survey, pp. 624-625.]

259

ndiana.

jport of the U. S. Geological

Thickness.

Eecent deposits, alluvium, peat, marl, etc..............

Wisconsin drift sheet (Pleistocene)....................

Loess, marl loess, white clay, etc. (Pleistocene)........

Illinoian drift sheet (Pleistocene) .....................

Kansan and pre-Kansan drift sheets (?) (Pleistocene)... 

Tertiary (?) deposits (age undetermined)..............

Upper Coal Measures (Carboniferous) .................

Middle Coal Measures (Carboniferous) ................

Lower Coal Measures and Conglomerate (Carboniferous) . 

Chester group (Carboniferous) ........................

St. Louis group (Carboniferous).......................

Keokuk group (Carboniferous)........................

Knobstone and Waverly (Carboniferous) ..............

Black shale (Devonian) ..............................

Brown shale (Devonian)..............................

Hamilton limestone and shale (Devonian).............

Upper Helderberg (Devonian) ........................

Schoharie (?) (Devonian).............................

Lower Helderberg (Silurian)..........................

Waterlime (Silurian).................................

Niagara group (Silurian)..............................

Clinton group, limestone and shale (Silurian) ..........

Medina (?) (Silurian) .................................

Hudson River group (Ordovician).....................

Utica shale (Ordovician) .............................

Trenton group (Ordovician) ..........................

St. Peter (Ordovician)................................

Lower Magnesian (Cambrian) ........................

Potsdam sandstone (Cambrian) .......................

Feet.

5-50 

5-250

5-50 

5-250

5-50

50-195

600-888

60-210

0-74

0-330

6-106

42-532

70-120

25-47

47

5-65

14-20

25-230

65-150

52-480

46

60

260-860 

0-300 

486-525 

150-224 

400± 

323+

PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS.

St. Peter sandstone. The St. Peter sandstone 

usually is a calcareous, loose-textured rock, satu 

containing more or less sulphate of magnesia and 

It may, however, be potable in the extreme north

Trenton limestone. The porous portion of t

, in the Indiana field, 

ated with salt water, 

mlpureted hydrogen. 

rest part of the State, 

e Trenton limestone,

except in parts of the State where it carries latural gas and oil, is

also saturated with salt water, the water taking the place of the gas and 

oil as the latter become exhausted by pumping. 

IRR 114 05 18
260 UKDEKGBOUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Hudson beds. The Hudson group is a very poor water bearer, being 

composed largely of shale. It is used to a limited extent, however, at 

its outcrop in the southeastern part of the State to supply water for 

domestic use.

Clinton and Medina beds. The Clinton and Medina are comparatively thin formations with very limited areas of outcrop, and are, as 

a rule, inferior water bearers.

Niagara limestone. The Niagara group consists largely of a limestone which, as in Illinois, contains a large amount of water, generally 

palatable and suitable for domestic use. In some cases, as in Illinois, 

the water is charged with sulphureted hydrogen produced through 

the decomposition of pyrite included in the limestone. This limestone 

furnishes probably the most abundant supply of water suitable for 

domestic use to be found in any single rock formation, since it is struck 

at moderate depth in much of the eastern part of the State. When it 

passes under the cover of later formations and sinks to considerable 

depths the water becomes brackish and is unsuitable for domestic use.

Waterlime and Lower Helderberg limestones. The limestone formations above the Niagara to the base of the Devonian shale afford good 

supplies of water in the region of outcrop, water being generally 

struck in veins or fissures, as in the Niagara limestone. The outcrops 

are, however, comparatively few, since these.formations are ordinarily 

buried under very heavy deposits of drift. Their value as water bearers is found chiefly along the Wabash Valley above Delphi and in the 

southern part of the State, where the drift is thin or wanting.

Devonian shale. The Devonian shale which underlies heavy deposits 

of drift in the northern part of the State and also a narrow strip leading west of north from Ohio River at New Albany to the Tippecanoe 

near Monon is perhaps the poorest water-bearer in the State, but it is 

so generally deeply covered by water-bearing beds of drift that there 

is little need of penetrating it.

Waverly shale. The Waverly shale, which is found on the north 

border of the State, like the Devonian shale, is a very poor waterbearer, and like it, too, is concealed deeply beneath water-bearing 

beds of drift.

Knobstone formation. The Knobstone formation from the central 

part of the State southward constitutes the knobs or most hilly tracts 

of southern Indiana, and includes some sandstones as well as shales. 

It is covered by drift north from northern Brown County, and the 

drift-covered portion is not drawn upon for wells to any notable 

degree. The dnftless portion of this formation is only sparsely settled and the residents depend to a large degree upon springs which 

issue from the sandstone beds along the valley slopes. The water is 

ordinarily fresh and much softer than that obtained from neighboring 

limestone formations,
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

A Lamb,

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. XVII

LAKE MICHIGAN

OHIO AND INDIANA COMPILED TOOK

OETOITS MAP OJF OHIO, 1894, PHINNBY'S MAP OF INDIANA, U.S.G.$., 1890

GOE.BY'S MAP OF INDIANA, 1893 AND 1894

 BY TBANK 1EVBEETT

1897

Scale

0 5 10 20 30 40 50 miles

CARBONIFEROUS SILURIAN ORDOyiCIAN

oal Measures 1 MjEsiBsjppian 

llimeetone

| Hamilton shale ||=! 

|and Corniferons 

limestone

IXoweT Helderberg ^^^^ Niagara, Clin- f

fWaterlirae and ^^^^ton,Medina |

Saliutt limestones and sandstone*

I] Cincinnati shale and limestone 

[land Trenton limeetone
LEVEBETT.] INDIANA. 261

St. Louis limestone beds. The St. Louis limestone belt occupies in 

its outcrop a width of about 20 miles, and extends from Ohio River in 

Harrison County, west of north through Washington, Orange, Lawrence, Monroe, Owen, Morgan, Putnam, and Montgomery counties to 

the borders of the. Wabash Valley above Attica. It is unglaciated as 

far north as northern Monroe County, and furnishes the sole supply 

for the residents, with the exception of the rain water collected in 

cisterns. There are some localities in which the expense of sinking 

wells into the limestone far enough to strike water is so great that cistern water has come into use for drinking as well as for other domestic 

purposes. In the drift-covered portion of this limestone belt a large 

part of the wells are obtained without entering the limestone, though 

its several members appear to be good water bearers wherever 

penetrated.

Chester sandstone. The sandstones which come in between the limestone group and the Coal Measures form a narrow strip running from 

Perry County, on Ohio Eiver, west of north to the Wabash Valley at 

the vicinity of the great bend near Attica. The region between Ohio 

River and White River is either driftless or carries only a thin deposit 

of drift, and the sandstone supplies water at moderate depths and also 

is the source of many springs, usually of fresh water.

Coal Measures. The Coal Measures of the southwestern part of 

Indiana are either unglaciated or covered to only a slight depth with 

drift, but in western Indiana they are so thickly covered that wells are 

either obtained in the drift or at the junction of the drift with the 

rock. Wells which have been sunk into the rock have in some cases 

struck " copperas water " at moderate depths, and salt water is usually 

encountered at depths of more than 200 feet. To obtain good water 

in this region exploration should be made by the drill until fresh 

water free from sulphates has been reached. Waters with objectionable properties which occur at higher levels can then be cased out, as 

is impracticable when the wells are dug. In some localities it seems 

necessary to use rain water collected in cisterns, the sulphates in the 

waters from the rock being so generally present that good wells are 

very difficult to obtain.

Tertiary deposits. The Tertiary deposits are of very limited extent, 

and the only places in which they appear to be of value as waterbearers are found where the gravels have been redeposited in the Ohio 

Valley, in which case they sometimes yield springs of considerable 

strength, some of which are to be found below Rockport.

Drift. The glacial deposits of Indiana extend to Ohio River, in the 

southeastern part of the State, but the drift border runs northward 

from near Jeffersonville to northern Brown County, and thence westward into Monroe County, passing a little north of Bloomington. The
262 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

course is then southwestward across Greene, Martin, Dubois, Pike, 

Gibson, and Posey counties to the mouth of the Wabash. From about 

the latitude of Indianapolis southward the thickness of the drift is 

very moderate, except along the line of pre-Glacial valleys, but in 

nearly all parts of the State north of this latitude there is a heavy 

deposit which in places reaches a thickness of 500 feet, and averages 

about 200 feet. The average thickness in the entire glaciated portion 

of the State is estimated to be about 130 feet. There are a few counties in the southeastern part, and small tracts in the southwestern, 

where the drift is composed very largely of compact clayey material, 

which is such a poor water-bearer that wells have been sunk into the 

rock formations. Elsewhere in the State it is the exception to find a 

well extending to the rock without encountering more or less waterbearing gravel and sand. In the areas of thickest drift the gravel and 

sand generally greatly preponderate over clayey material. The large 

amount of gravel and sand in the drift of this State seems due to the 

fact that there was a crowding or converging of ice lobes which 

entered the State from the great basins of Lake Michigan, Saginaw 

Bay, and Lake Erie, which would naturalty produce a great amount of 

glacial drainage.

In the Illinois district, where the single ice lobe from the Lake 

Michigan basin was free to spread widely, the streams occupied only 

a small part of the glaciated area, and thus left wide strips in which 

there was very little movement of waters to carry away the clayey 

material. In Indiana as well as in Illinois there were oscillations of 

each of the several ice lobes, which have resulted in alternations of beds 

of various degrees of coarseness and permeability to water. In the final 

retreat of the ice an extensive but comparatively thin sheet of sand 

was deposited over the district between the Kankakee and Tippecanoe 

rivers in northwestern Indiana, but elsewhere in northern Indiana the 

surface capping is largely clay. The inferior quality of much of the 

water in the rock formations of Indiana is more than made good by 

the great abundance of excellent water in the drift, so that the State 

is, as a whole, highly favored in its water supply for all domestic 

uses.

The map of Indiana and Ohio, PI. XVIII, shows not only the relation 

of the wells to the drift, but also the parts of the State in which 

the drift is of exceptional thickness. It should perhaps be stated 

that in the portion where the drift is but 25 to 75 feet thick wells 

are commonly obtained without entering the rock, and rock wells 

are nearly as rare as in the districts where there is more than.100 feet 

of drift.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 114 PL. XVIII

LAKE MICHIGAN

if s w m

! «~

MAP 

OP

OHIO AND INDIANA

KELATICGST OF THEJDBIFT TO TJHE OEDINAEY WEXLS 

BY PEANK LEVEEETT

189T

Scale

0510 20 30 40 50 miles

"jUnglaciated 

J (Wells in rock)

3Drift 5'to. 50* 

S(Best wells usually 

iu rock)

I Drift 25'to 75' 

i (Wells frequently 

enter rock)

| Drift 100 or .more

| (Wells seldom entei rocTc)
LEVEKETT.] INDIANA. 263

LOCALITIES FAVORABLE FOB ARTESIAN WELLS IN

INDIANA.

There are no extensive areas in this State where artesian wells may 

be obtained, except perhaps in the northwestern counties where the 

conditions are similar to those of the neighboring part of Illinois. 

Elsewhere occasional flows have been obtained in the valleys of the 

main streams or exceptionally low parts of interfluvial tracts. The 

deep bdrings were sunk usually for the purpose of obtaining oil or gas, 

little attention being given to the head attained by water. The data 

are therefore insufficient to warrant definite statements concerning the 

head to be expected at any given place or conclusions concerning the 

regularity or lack of regularity in the hydrostatic pressure.

Flowing wells from the drift have only been obtained in very small 

areas, which, like those of Illinois, are situated usually on the iceward 

side of prominent moraines or in the valleys. Numerous instances 

will be found recorded in the papers by the author referred to above.

MINERAL WATERS.

Mineral waters are of common occurrence in Indiana, and include 

the waters of both springs and wells. Mr. W. S. Blatchley has 

recentty made an extended study of such waters and has published a 

detailed report treating of their character and uses. a Over 100 springs 

or wells are described and a large number of analyses given. Dr. 

Robert Hessler has made a report on the medicinal properties and 

uses of Indiana mineral waters. 6

Springs occur in nearly all parts of the State and in rocks of widely 

different types. Those from the coal-bearing rocks of the Carboniferous are relatively small, but carry large amounts of mineral 

matter, especially salt, iron sulphate, iron carbonate, and hydrogen 

sulphide. The springs in the limestone regions generally carry much 

lime, but hold little of the substances mentioned as characterizing the 

Coal Measure rocks. Some of these are of great volume, welling up 

from fissures, or from between beds, or emerging from caves. In 

some instances the volume is sufficient to furnish water power for 

mills.

Up to 1886 few deep wells had been drilled, but since that date more 

than 14,000 bore holes have been sunk. Some of these flowed, and in 

many others the water rose nearly to the surface. Large supplies are 

sometimes obtained. Much of the water is highly mineralized and of 

medicinal value, and wells have been developed in many instances into 

important resorts.

aindiana Dept. Geol. Nat. Resources, Twenty-sixth and Twenty-seventh Ann. Repts., pp. 11-158. 

., pp. 169-224.
264 UNDEEGEOUND WATEE8, EASTEBN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The water is to a considerable extent used at the individual wells or 

springs, but in 1902 shipments from 16 springs amounted to 273,380 

gallons, with a value of $236,501. The average price per gallon 

is the highest in the country. a Following is a list of the springs 

reporting:

Attica Lithia Springs, Attica, Fountain County.

Elliott Springs, Willow Valley, Martin County.

Emerald Spring, Indiana Mineral Springs, Warren County.

French Lick Springs, French Lick, Orange County.

Greenwood Mineral Well, Greenwood, Johnson County.

Kickapoo Magnetic Spring, Kickapoo, Warren County.

King's Mineral Spring, Muddy fork, near Dallas, Clark County.

Laxine Spring, Mount Moriah, Brown County.

Lodi Artesian Well, Silverwood, Fountain County.

Magnetic Mineral Spring, Terre Haute, Vigo County.

Mudlavia, formerly Indiana Mineral Springs, Mudlavia, Warren County.

Mudlavia Artesian Sulphur Spring, Mudlavia, Warren County.

Porter Mineral Springs, near Porter's Depot, Porter County.

Shelbyville Lithia Spring, Shelbyville, Shelby County.

West Baden Springs, West Baden, Orange County.

Winona Lithia Spring, Winona Lake, Kosciusko County.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, by Frank Leverett: Eighteenth Ann. Kept.

U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4. 

Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 21, 1899. 

Wells of southern Indiana, by Frank Leverett: Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 26, 1899. 

Description of the Danville quadrangle, by M. R. Campbell and Frank Leverett:

Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 67, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Description of the Chicago district, by W. C. Alden: Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 81,

U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Mineral waters of Indiana, by W. S. Blatchley: Indiana Geol. Survey, vol. 26, pp.

11-158. 

The medicinal properties of Indiana mineral waters, by Robert Hessler: Indiana

Geol. Surv., vol. 26, pp. 159-226. 

Description of the Ditney quadrangle, by M. L. Fuller and G. H. Ashley: Geol.

Atlas U. S., folio 84, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Description of the Patoka quadrangle, by M. L. Fuller and F. G. Clapp: Geol.

Atlas U. S., folio 105, U. S. Geol. Survey.

aPeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 996-
OHIO.

By FRANK LEVERETT.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

A somewhat detailed discussion of drainage systems, mineral springs, 

and water supply for cities and villages will be found in a paper by 

the author which appears in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the 

United States Geological Survey. a The drainage features, both present and pre-Glacial, and the glacial formations in their relation to water 

supplies are treated at some length by the author in Monograph XLI 

of this survey. The rock waters and flowing wells of Ohio are discussed by Edward Orton in a paper in the Nineteenth Annual Report 

of the United States Geological Survey. The paper covers the subject of the relative value of the several geologic formations as waterbearers. In Ohio the State board of health is required by law to 

approve all public water supplies when introduced, and their reports 

may be consulted for analyses made in accordance with this law. A 

report published in 1898 contains an exceptionally full discussion of 

water supplies, and includes the paper by Orton, referred to above.

GEOLOGIC COLUMN.

[Modified from paper of Edward Orton in Nineteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey.]

Formation. Thickness.

Feet, 

Recent deposits, alluvium, peat, marl, etc. ...........,.-..... ...--...-. 5-50

Wisconsin drift sheet (Pleistocene)................................... 0-300

The loess or white clay (Pleistocene)................................. 3-15

Illinoian drift sheet (Pleistocene) .................................... 10-250

Upper Barren Coal Measures (Carboniferous)..--..--.............--.. 500±:

Upper Productive Coal Measures (Carboniferous) ..................... 200±

Lower Barren Coal Measures (Carboniferous)......................... 500±

Lower Productive Coal Measures (Carboniferous)..................... 250±

Conglomerate Coal Measures (Carboniferous) ......................... 250±

a Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, Eighteenth Ann. Kept., pt. 4, pp. 425-659.

265
266 UNDEKGKOUND WATEES, EASTEBN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

Formation. Thickness.

Feet. 

Logan group (Eocarboniferous) ...................................... 0-300

Cuyahoga shale (Eocarboniferous)........................--.-...-...-! 150-450

Berea shale and grit (Carboniferous) ................................. 25-150

Bedford shale and sandstone (Carboniferous) ......................... 50-150

250-2, 500+ 

25-100 

20-600 

150-350 

20-150 

25-150 

300-800 

0-300 

300-600

Ohio shale, etc. (Devonian) ...........................

Corniferous limestone (Devonian)......................

Onondaga limestone (Silurian) .........................

Niagara group, limestone and shale (Silurian)...........

Clinton limestone (Silurian) ...........................

Medina shale (Silurian) ...............................

Hudson River group, shales and limestones (Ordovician) 

Utica shale (Ordovician) ..............................

Trenton group (Ordovician) ...........................

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERS OF DIFFERENT DEPTHS.

The following general principles have been stated by Orton in the 

report above mentioned:

1. The subterranean waters from a comparatively shallow depth carry, as a rule, 

dissolved carbonates. Lime and magnesia are the leading bases, but potassium and 

sodium also occur in small quantities. Iron is unfailingly present, and often in 

notable quantity. These wells are common sources of potable supply.

2. Water from a greater depth holds dissolved chlorides as well. Chloride of 

sodium is by far the most common, but chlorides of magnesium and calcium are also 

often added. The presence of chlorides is seldom shown in water at less than 100 

feet in depth, and where' found they are confined to a few formations of the Ohio 

column. It is very rare that the drill descends to 300 feet without encountering 

saline water or water too highly mineralized with other elements to be acceptable 

for the highest uses. Aside from that of a few wells in glacial drift no water of the 

State is known that comes from a depth greater than 500 feet and still remains free 

enough from mineral solutions to warrant its use as potable.

3. Sulphates are generally found in the deeper waters, but are also found in the 

shallower waters. The most common compound is calcium sulphate; but sodium 

sulphate is not infrequent.

4. Sulphides also, particularly sulphureted^ 'hydrogen, though often rising to the 

surface in so-called sulphur springs, are especially characteristic of waters found 

in limestones, and nearly all of the water of the great Ohio shale system is characterized in this way. Sulphides pass into sulphates very promptly and by reactions 

easily understood.

RELATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT ROCK FORMATIONS AS

WATER-BEARERS.

- Of the large number of formations present in Ohio, as indicated in 

the section above, Orton considers only the following to be important 

water-bearers: Trenton limestone, Clinton limestone, Niagara limestone, Onondaga limestone, Corniferous limestone, Logan sandstone,
LEVERETT.] OHIO. 267

Berea grit, Carboniferous conglomerates, and certain sandstone beds 

of the Coal Measures.

Trenton limestone. The waters of the Trenton limestone are all 

highly mineralized and have a strong, bitter, op saline taste; they are 

also charged heavily with sulphureted hydrogen.

Clinton limestone. The Clinton limestone affords a large number 

of springs along its outcrop in Preble, Montgomery, Warren, Greene, 

and Clinton counties. This limestone when under a deep cover of 

later formations carries water too highly mineralized for a potable 

supply. It is therefore utililized for domestic purposes only along 

the line of outcrop.

Niagara limestone. The Niagara limestone contributes its most 

important supplies of water where it immediately underlies the 

glacial drift in a few counties in the western part and a narrow strip 

leading from there southward to Ohio River in Adams County. 

Orton refers to the effect of atmospheric agencies in enlarging the 

joints of the limestone and establishing underground reservoirs and 

channels for waters which sink into this formation from the overlying 

drift deposits.

Onondaga limestone. The Onondaga limestone is considered by far 

the most important source of underground water. The great area of 

its outcrop in the west-central and northern portions of the State, as 

well as the thickness of the formation and its soluble character, furnish 

the basis for this estimate. A considerable number of cities and villages depend upon this limestone for water supply.

Corniferous limestone. The Corniferous limestone is considered of 

small importance as a source of water because of its comparatively 

small area of outcrop. Several flowing wells in the city of Columbus 

have, however, been obtained irom it, and there are numerous springs 

issuing from it along the Scioto Valley.

Logan sandstone. The Logan sandstone is a water-bearing stratum 

wherever found at the surface. It outcrops prominently in Richland, 

Ashland, and Wayne counties. Artesian wells have been obtained 

from it at several points in Wayne County, and the water supply of 

Orrville is from this source.

Berea grit. The Berea grit is also a good water bearer along the 

line of its outcrop and often affords supplies when covered by the 

Cuyahoga shale to moderate depths. Such is the case at the village 

of New London.

Coal Measures. The Conglomerate Coal Measures contain a white 

and pebbly sand of great purity the Sharon conglomerate which in 

its outcrop in northeastern Ohio affords excellent wells. The city of 

Massillon now derives its supply from this source. Cuyahoga Falls 

also stands on this conglomerate and the wells of the village are largely 

obtained in it.
268 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

The water supply of the Coal Measures proper is rather inferior. 

Excellent water can be secured almost everywhere, but it is considered 

doubtful if the supply will be adequate for the growing towns that are 

located within the boundaries of this formation. It is probable that 

the streams of the region will need to be drawn upon for public water 

supply.

Drift. The glacial deposits furnish by far the largest amount of 

potable water to be obtained within the State. These deposits cover 

nearly three-fourths of the State, the southeastern portion only being 

unglaciated. The valley gravels have been carried down the main 

valleys of the drif tless portion of the State and hold much of the water 

of the valley drainage at convenient depth for wells; the quality of 

water is generally excellent. The Illinoian drift sheet extends beyond 

the Wisconsin only in a few counties in the central and southwestern 

parts of the State. This drift sheet is composed largely of clayey 

material except along the line of pre-Glacial valleys, where there is 

found to be a large filling of sand or coarser water-bearing material. 

Within the limits of the Wisconsin drif t the moraines are usually composed in large part of gravelly or sandy material, but in some cases 

wells have to be sunk to considerable depth to strike strong water 

veins. On the plains between the moraines beds of sand and gravel 

are usually found sandwiched between beds of clay or till at convenient 

depth. Throughout the greater part of the drift-covered portion of 

the State good wells are obtained at depths of 50 feet or less, and there 

are only a few localities in which it is necessary to sink to depths of 

100 feet or more. There are, however, localities in which strong 

supplies are obtained at moderate depth, and yet borings have been 

sunk 100 feet in order to obtain flowing wells.

Much of the surface portion of the drift is a clayey material which 

protects wells obtained in underlying deposits from surface contamination. Even the areas covered by great glacial lakes in the northwest part of the State have usually a clayey soil, the principal exception being a belt of sand north of Maumee River in Fulton and Lucas 

counties. The relation of wells to drift formations may be seen by 

reference to the map, PI. XVIII.

LOCALITIES FAVORABLE FOR ARTESIAN WELLS.

Artesian wells from rock formations are comparatively rare, although 

the water is usually under considerable hydrostatic pressure. Orton 

calls attention to strong flowing wells near Orrville obtained from the 

Logan conglomerate or sandstone and to flows at Massillon from the 

Sharon conglomerate and to a few others at points scattered over the 

State. There appears to be no extensive areas of artesian water open 

to development in the State from any of the rock formations. The 

glacial deposits are a much more productive field for exploration.
LEVEBETT.] OHIO. 269

Flowing wells have been obtained without entering the rock in a 

belt on the inner slope of the great morainic system that runs from 

southeastern Michigan across northwestern Ohio into Indiana. Hundreds 6f wells have already been obtained in Williams, Defiance, and 

Fulton counties. The wells range from shallow fountains, differing 

but little from boiling springs, in which pipes are driven only 10 to 

20 feet into the ground up to borings nearly 200 feet in depth. In 

much of that region the thickness of the drift is 150 to 200 feet or 

more. Flowing wells are also found along the line of deep pre-Glacial 

channels in Alien, Auglaize, and Mercer counties at depths ranging 

from 100 feet or less up to 350 feet, and wells have in some cases been 

continued to depths of more than 400 feet without striking the rock. 

Records of many of these wells are presented in the report by Orton, 

mentioned above. There are many other places in Ohio wh,ere flowing 

wells are found in small areas of a square mile or less to which attention has been directed by the author in Monograph XLL These wells 

are usually on the iceward slope of moraines, and the region of intake 

is probably restricted largely to the moraine adjacent to them. They 

are of various depths, from 20 feet or less up to 100 feet or more. 

Probably further exploration with deep borings would enlarge such 

flowing well areas or increase the number of areas in which flows are 

obtained, for in a great many districts the occurrence of abundant 

water at moderate depths has freed the residents from the necessity 

of drilling deeply to test the chances for artesian waters.

MINERAL SPRINGS.'

Both the drift and the rocks of Ohio yield a considerable number of 

springs. The springs of the drift vary with the nature of the local 

materials, but are generally hard and may carry much iron. The 

rock waters of the Coal Measures are frequently salt or chalybeate, 

while those of the limestones are generally hard. Many of the springs 

have been developed as resorts, w'hile others place their water on the 

market for medicinal or other purposes. Twenty such sp rings reported 

sales in 1902, the amount of which aggregated 1,948,840 gallons, with 

a value of $172,746. a The springs reporting are as follows:

Alba Spring, Rockfort, Cuyahoga County. 

. Arcadian Springs, Mineral Springs, Adams County.

Buckeye Lithia Spring, near Martins Ferry, Belmont County.

Concord Crystal Spring, Concord, Lake County.

Crum Mineral Spring, Austintown, Mahoning County

Crystal Eock Spring, near Sandusky, Erie County.

Deerfleld Mineral Springs, Deerfleld, Portage County.

Fargo Mineral Springs, Ashtabula, Ashtabula County.

Green Spring Artesian Mineral Well, Green Springs, Sandusky County.

Knisely Mineral Springs, Bucyrus, Crawford County. _

apeale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. 8. Qeol. Survey, 1904, p. 996.
270 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114

La Fountaine Springs, Fountain Park, Champaign County. 

Magnetic Magnesia Well, Canton, Stark County. 

Oakridge Spring, Greensprings, Sandusky County. 

Paiiiesville Mineral Spring, Painesville, Lake County. 

Puritas Spring, Rockport, Cuyahoga County. 

Purtlebaugh Mineral Spring, Urbana, Champaign County. 

Rex Ferro-Lithia Springs, New Richmond, Clermont County. 

Ripley Brom-Lithia Springs, Ripley, Brown County. 

Talewanda Mineral Springs, near College Corner, Preble County. 

Wheeler Mineral Springs, Youngstown, Mahoning County.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 32, 

pp. 130-134.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Barton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, pp. 21-28.

Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, by Frank Leverett: Eighteenth Ann. Rept. 

U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4.

Rock waters of Ohio, by Edward Orton: Nineteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 

pt 4.
WEST VIRGINIA.

By M. L. FULLER.

West Virginia has through a large portion of its area a rugged 

topographjr. It is mountainous only in the eastern part, where it 

borders the Appalachian ridges, but even in the western portion it is 

so cut by streams with intervening narrow ridges that there is little 

even moderately level land, except the narrow strips along some of the 

streams. The conditions are therefore very favorable for springs, 

which, with spring-fed streams, constitute the main source of water 

supply over a large part of the State.

Topographically and geologically it may be divided into two distinct 

belts: (1) The Appalachian Mountain belt, including the Shenandoah 

Valley, and (2) the Cumberland Plateau.

APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN BELT.

This term is here used, as elsewhere in the report, in its broad sense, 

and includes the area of folded rocks lying between the crystalline 

rocks of the Piedmont Plateau of Virginia on the east, and the area of 

gently folded to nearly flat rocks of the Alleghen}^ Plateau on the west. 

The belt is crossed by the "handle" of West Virginia, and a narrow 

strip along its whole eastern boundary is included. The rocks are 

mainly Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian in age, although a few small 

areas of Carboniferous rocks are included, especially near the western 

borders of the belt. The rocks include quartzites, sandstones, shales, 

and limestones, the latter occurring principally in the Shenandoah 

Valley at the extreme eastern extension of the panhandle, and as a 

strip along the western base of the mountain belt. The former belongs 

to the Cam bro-Silurian rocks, and the latter to the Carboniferous.

Except in the Shenandoah and other smaller valleys, this area is 

thinly inhabited, and small springs constitute the main source of water 

supply. In the limestone valleys wells are sometimes resorted to, 

but reliance in the main is placed on cisterns, because of the uncertainty of the occurrence of water in the limestone. A few large 

springs issue from the limestones, from the more porous sandstones,

271
272 UNDERGROUND WATERS, EASTERN UNITED STATES. [NO. 114.

and more rarely from the shales. The waters are often mineralized 

and of medicinal value, and a considerable number of springs have 

been developed as resorts. Some of the waters are thermal.

CUMBERLAND PLATEAU.

The greater portion of the area of the State falls within what may 

be termed the Cumberland Plateau, which may be considered as entering the State from Kentucky on the south. The plateau does not 

present an even surface, but has been cut by streams until only narrow-crested ridges remain to represent the original level. In a broad 

way the slope is to the northwest, away from the mountains, the altitude varying from 3,500 feet at the western base of the mountains to 

less than 1,000 feet near the Ohio River. The river bottoms are sunk 

several hundred feet below the upland level. At the northern 

boundary of the State the Cumberland Plateau merges with the 

Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania.

The rocks belong mainly to the coal-bearing division of the Carboniferous, and are either inclined at a low angle or gently folded. 

Because of the numerous springs few attempts have been made to 

obtain water by deep borings, but the wells drilled for oil and gas frequently obtain abundant water, some of which flows in the synclines 

or under other favorable conditions.

The stratified deposits along Ohio River and some of the other large 

streams yield good water to shallow wells, but their area is limited.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

In 1902 nine springs reported sales of mineral water. The total 

output is stated to be 92,310 gallons and to have a value of $25,343. tt 

Several of the springs are also developed as resorts.

Capon Springs, Capon Springs, Hampshire County.

Greenbrier Alum Spring, near Lewisburg, Greenbrier County.

Greenbrier White Sulphur Springs, White Sulphur Station, Greenbrier County.

Magnesia Spring, No. 2, near Wheeling, Ohio County.

Manacea Irondale Spring, near Independence, Preston County.

Pence Spring, Pence Springs, Summers County.

Bed Sulphur Springs, Bed Sulphur Springs, Monroe County.

Triplet Well, Calf Creek, Grant District, Pleasants County.

Webster Springs, Webster Springs, Webster County.

PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS.

Mineral springs of the United States, by A. C. Peale: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 

32, pp. 69-73.

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, pt. 2, by N. H. Darton: WaterSupply and Irrig. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 61, pp. 61-64.

a Peale, A. C., Mineral Resources U. S. for 1902, U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1904 p. 996.
INDEX.

A.

Page.

Abbeville, La., section from Eldorado, Ark., to_______ 184 

Absorption, methods and extent of __ 20-21 

Addison, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

of__:______________ 54,56 

Adirondack province, New York, extent of____________ 82 

Alabama, artesian systems of __ 167-169 

artesian systems of, map showing___________.,__ 168 

crystalline schists of, artesian

water from____ _ 164

mineral springs in________ 170 

publications on water resources

of______________ 170

springs in___ 164,165,166,167,168

wells in________ 164,165,167,169

wells, brine and gas, in_____ 169

Allegheny Plateau of Maryland, wells

in______________ 116

of New York, extent of______ 82

of Pennsylvania, extent of___ 104

geology 105

Analyses, spring water from Maine- 52-53,

55-56

spring water from Vermont___ 63, 64 

water of Lake Champlain____ 66 

waters of Illinois________ 254-256 

Annona formation in Louisiana and 

southern Arkansas, character of___________ 180 

Antrim shales in Michigan, character

of.____________.__ 245 

Appalachian area of Georgia, geology 

and underground waters 

of________ 154-155,156-157 

of Maryland, extent and geology

of_______________ 115 

wells in____________ 116

of New Jersey, geology and water resources of______ 94-95 

wells and population in __ 101 

of North Carolina, geology and

underground waters of 138

of Pennsylvania, extent of___ 104

geology of____________ 105

of Virginia, geology and underground waters of-__ 132-133 

of West Virginia, geology and water resources of _____ 271

Page. 

Appalachian Mountains, character of

and water conditions in _ 39-40 

Archimedes limestone in Arkansas,

water resources of__ 193 

Arkadelphia formation in Louisiana 

and southern Arkansas, 

character of___ 180 

Arkansas, northern, geologic map of_ 188 

geology of ____________- 190-191 

mineral springs in _______ 196-197 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 197 

relief map of ____________ 188 

resources of __________ 188-189 

sections in ____________ 190,193 

sections in Louisiana and__ 183,184 

springs in__ 191 

topography of 188 

water resources of ____ 191-197 

wells in ______________ 191,192 

Arkansas, southern, and Louisiana, 

artesian areas in, map 

showing__________ 182 

deep-water prospects in, map

showing- _ 181

geology of ____________ 179-180

water horizons in _ 181 186

wells in_____________ 182,183

Aiken, S. C., crystalline floor at, depth

to______________ 146

Artesian conditions in Alabama _ 167-169

in Arkansas, northern_____ 194,196

in Iowa______________ 222-225

in Minnesota __________ 228-230

Artesian flows, essential conditions

of _______________ 34-35 

Artesian wells in Alabama__ - 165 

in Illinois, localities favorable

for_____________ 252-254 

in Indiana, localities favorable

for______________ 262 

in Missouri ____________ 214-215 

in Ohio, localities favorable

for_____________ 268-269 

See also Wells; Wells, deep, etc. 

Atlanta, Ga., well at__________ 144 

well at, depth of __________ 28 

Atlantic Coastal Plain. See Coastal

Plain. 

Auburn, Me., spring near, water from,

analysis, flow, etc., of_ 54,55,56

273 '
274 INDEX.

B.

Page.

Baltimore, Md., sections at and near_ 120

Baltimore district, Md., geology of- 120-121 

well prospects and water horizons in __________ 121-123

Bangor, Me., spring near, water from,

flow, use, etc., of ____ 51

Baraboo, Wis., section from Des

Moines, Iowa, to _____ 233

Barre, Vt, water system at _____ 60

Basal sandstone. See St. Croix sandstone.

Batesville sandstone in Arkansas, water resources of ______ 193

Bayley, W. S., paper by, on underground waters of Maine _ 41-56

Bedding planes, definition of and 

effect on passage of 

water ___.._-.____ 22

Berea grit in Ohio, water resources

of_______________ 267

Berea shale of Michigan, water resources of__________ 246

Berkey, C. P., on Basal sandstone_ 227

Berkshire Valley, Mass., geology and

water supply of _____ 70

Big Salt Spring, Mo., description

of______________ 213-214

Biloxi sand in Mississippi, character

and water resources of _ 177

Blngen sand in Louisiana and southern Arkansas, water resources of______180, 182-183

Bluehill, Me., springs near, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

of _______________ 54,55

Boone chert in northern Arkansas,

water resources of ____ 192

Boston Mountains, Ark., water resources of ________ 193

Boutwell, J. M., information furnished by __________ 57

Bdwling Green, Mo., springs at___ 215

Brine and gas wells in Alabama__ 169

Britts, J. H., information furnished

by_______________ 216

Brownstown formation in Louisiana 

and southern Arkansas, 

thickness of ________ 180

Brunswick, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, use, 

etc., of ____________ 51,52

Brunswick beds in New Jersey, character of___________ 96

Buckfleld, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

of _______________ 54,55

Buhrstone. See Tallahatta formation.

Buhrstone beds in South Carolina,

water horizons in ____ 148

Burlington, Vt., wells at and near._ 65

Burlington limestone in Missouri,

water resources of 218

C.

Page.

Cambrian rocks of Illinois, water resources of ______ _ 250 

of Iowa, water resources of __ 223 

of Minnesota, water resources of 227 

of New York, geology and water

resources of ________ 83-84 

of Pennsylvania, geology and

water resources of____ 107 

of Wisconsin, geology of__ 234-236 

water resources of____ 237-238 

See also names of formations. 

Cameron, La., section from Locksburg, Ark., to_______ 183 

Cap au Gres, section from Wisconsin River to________ 253 

Carboniferous rocks of Illinois, water

resources of ________ 251 

of Indiana, water resources of_ 260-261 

of Iowa, water resources of *.- 224 

of Pennsylvania, geology and

water resources of____ 108 

Sec also names of formations. 

Castine, Me., wells at__________ 46-47 

Catahoula beds in Louisiana and 

southern Arkansas, character and water horizons 

of______________ 180,186 

Catchment conditions, discussion of _ 20-24 

Catskill province, New York, extent

of_______________ 82 

Ceverns, solution, occurrence of__ 22 

Chalk, porosity of____________ 23 

Chamberlin, T. C., on essential conditions of artesian flows_ 34 

Champlain, Lake, water of, analysis

of__________j.___ 66 

Channel, underground, plate showing ______________ 20 

springs from _____________ 31 

Chesapeake formation in Delaware,

character of _______ 111

in Maryland, character of__ 117

water horizons in ____ 119

in Virginia, character of_____ 128

water horizons in______ 129

Chester, S. C., well at_________ 144

Chester sandstone in Illinois, water

resources of________ 251 

in Indiana, water resources of_ 261 

Chlorine, normal, in waters of Massachusetts________ 73 

Chouteau group in Missouri, springs

from______________ 218 

Cincinnati shale in Wisconsin district, occurrence and character of___________- 236 

Circulation in rocks of different types,

discussion of______ 21-24 

City supplies. See Public watersupply systems.

Claiborne formation in Louisiana 

and southern Arkansas, 

character of ________ 180 

See also Lisbon formation.
INDEX. 275

Clarendon Spring, Vt., water from,

analysis of _ ___ 64 

Clay, water from, character and

amount of _________ 25-26 

Clay marl series of New Jersey, subdivisions of________ 97 

Cleavage, in slate, plate showing__ 22 

relation of occurrence of underground water to______ 23 

Clinton beds in Indiana, water resources of_________ 260 

in Michigan, water resources of_ 245 

in Ohio, water resources of_^_ 267 

Coal Measures, water resources of,

in Illinois __________ 251

water resources of, in Indiana- 261

in Iowa _____________ 224

in Ohio _____________ 267

Coastal Plain, character of and - water conditions in___ 38 

of Alabama, geology of ____ 165-166 

of Georgia, geology and underground waters of_ 153-154, 155 

of Maryland, geology of___ 114 

wells of __________ 117-118 

of New Jersey, geology and

water supply of_____ 97-100 

wells and population in_ 101,102 

of North Carolina,cross section of _ 137 

geology and water horizons

in ______________ 136-138 

of Pennsylvania, geology and

water supply of_____ 108 

of South Carolina, geology of_ 146-149 

of Virginia, geology of____ 127-128 

water horizons of____ 128-129 

See also Gulf Coastal Plain. 

Cockfield beds in Louisiana and 

southern Arkansas, character and water resources 

of______________ 180,185 

Coffee sands in Tennessee, geology

and water resources of__ 203 

Coldwater shales in Michigan, water

resources of ________ 246 

Columbia formation, character of, in

Delaware_________ 111

character of, in Georgia ___ 153

in Maryland __'.______ 117

in South Carolina_____ 149

in Virginia __________ 128

Commercial springs. See Springs,

mineral. 

Conglomerate, water from, character

and amount of_____ 27 

Conglomerate sandstone of Illinois,

water resources of____ 251 

Connecticut, faults in, effect of, on

underground waters___ 79 

geology and water supply of 76-81 

irrigation in _ 81 

mineral springs in 80-81 

publications on water resources

of ______________ 81 

rainfall in_____ 76

IEE 114 05 19

Page.

Connecticut, springs in __ 78, 80-81 

water-supply areas in, map

showing __________ 77 

wells in___________ 77, 78, 79, 80 

Connecticut Valley, Mass., geology

and water supply of __ 71

Contamination of wells in Georgia- 154-157

of wells in Maine_________ 48

in South Carolina____ 142-144

Corniferous limestone in Ohio, water

resources of ________ 267 

Cretaceous rocks of Minnesota, occurrence of___________ 228 

of Mississippi, geology and underground waters of_ 172-173 

of New Jersey, geology and

water resources of___ 97 98 

of New York, geology and water

resources of_________ 86 

of South Carolina, geology and

water horizons of__ 147 148 

Ciosby, W. O., paper by, on underground waters of Massachusetts and Rhode Island______________ 68-75 

Crystalline area in Connecticut, geology and water supply of_ 78-79 

in Delaware, character of rocks

of______________ 111 

of District of Columbia, geology

 and water resources of_ 124-125 

of New Jersey, geology and

water supply of __ _ 95-96 

wells and population in 101 

of Pennsylvania, geology and

water supply of __ 106-107 

of Virginia, geology and underground waters of__ 132 

Crystalline rocks of South Carolina,

Coastal Plain, depth to__ 146 

See also Pre-Cambrian rocks. 

Crystalline schists of Alabama, ar-.

tesian water from____ 164 

Cumberland Plateau of Kentucky, 

water resources and geology of__________- 206 

of Tennessee, water resources

and geology of_____ 199-200 

of Virginia, geology and underground waters of 133 

of West Virginia, geology and

water resources of 272

D.

Dakota sandstone of Iowa, water resources of _ 224

Darton, N. H., paper by, on underground waters of Delaware___________ 111-113

Darton, N. H., and Fuller, M. L., 

paper by, on underground 

waters of District of Columbia ____ __ 124-126 

paper by, on underground waters

of Maryland _ 114-123
276 INDEX.

Page.

Barton, N. H., and Fuller, M. L., paper by, on underground 

waters of Virginia___ 127-135 

Delaware, geology of__________ 111 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 113

sections in ______________ 118

water horizons in_______ 111 112

wells and well prospects in__ 112 113

Delthyris shale of Missouri, springs

of _________________ 217 

Des Moines, Iowa, section from Baraboo, Wis., to________ 233 

Devonian rocks of New York, geology

and water resources of_ 86 

of Pennsylvania, geology and

water resources of__ 107 108 

Dip, effect of, on absorption of

water ___________ 22 

relation of outcrop to, figure

showing___________ 22 

District of Columbia, geology of__ 124 

mineral springs in_________ 126 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 126 

sections in ____..________ 124 

water horizons and prospects of_ 124 

wells in________________ 125 

Dolomite, porosity of_________ 23 

Drift in Berkshire Valley, Mass., extent of____________ 70 

in Connecticut, water resources

of _______________ 79-80 

in Illinois, thickness of, map

showing__________ 252 

water resources of____ 251-252 

in Indiana, thickness of, map

showing__________ 262 

water resources of_.___ 261-262 

in Iowa, water resources of_ 220-222 

in Michigan, lower, water resources of ________ 242-245 

in Minnesota, water resources

of________________ 228 

in Ohio, thickness of, map showing_______________ 262 

water resources of_____ 268 

in Pennsylvania, geology and

water resources of___ 106 

in Wisconsin district, occurrence

and character of _____ 237 

Drift area, extent of, and water conditions in__________ 36-37 

Drilled wells. See Wells, drilled. 

Dug wells. See Wells, dug. 

Dundee limestone in Michigan, water

resources of _______ 245 

Durham, Me., spring at, water from,

analysis, flow, etc., of__ 52, 53

E.

East Boothbay, Me., spring at, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

Of _______ ___ 54,55

Page.

Bast Orrington, Me., spring near, 

water from, flow, use, 

etc., of___________ 51

East Poland, Me., spring at, water 

from, analysis and flow 

of ______________ 52, 53

East Tennessee, valley of, water

resources of ______ 198-199

East Turner, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, use, 

etc., of___________- 51,52

Eastbrook, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, use, 

etc., of___________ 51,52

Eldorado, Ark., section from Abbeville, La., to________ 184

Eocene rocks of South Carolina, geology and water horizons 

of_______________ 148 

See also names of formations.

Eutaw beds in Mississippi, water

resources of ______ 173

Eutaw sand in Alabama, water resources of________ 167-168

Evaporation, discussion of---_ 20

F.

Fairfleld, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, use, 

etc., of____________ 51,52 

Faults, definition of________ ' 22 

effect of, on artesian water___ 35 

on passage of water___ 23 

on underground waters of

Connecticut_______ 79 

in Newark system in New Jersey ______________ 96 

springs along, map showing 32 

Fissure springs, discussion of ____ 31 32 

Flatwoods clay. See Porters Creek

clay.

Fleming formation in Louisiana and 

southern Arkansas, character of___________ 180 

Florence, S. C., crystalline floor at,

depth to ____ ._____ 146 

Florida, artesian areas in, map showing -______-_____ 161 

geology of_____ ___ 160 

mineral springs in_______ 162-163 

publications on water resources

of________-_____ 163 

springs in_________ 161,162-163 

topography of_________ 159 

underground waters of____ 160-162 

wells in___________ 160, 161, 162 

Flows, artesian, essential conditions

of _______________ 34-35 

See also Artesian wells, artesian

conditions, etc. 

Foliation, relation of, to occurrence

of ground water 23 

Fort Ethan Alien, Vt., well at, depth

of_______________ 66
INDEX. 277

Page. 

Fuller, M. L., paper by, on occurrence

of ground water___ _ 18-40 

paper by, on underground waters

of Florida_______ 159-163 

on underground waters of

New Hampshire_____ 57-59 

on underground waters of

North Carolina____ 136-139 

on underground waters of

Pennsylvania____ 104-110 

on underground waters of

West Virginia_____ 271-272 

Puller, M. L., and Barton, N. H., 

paper by, on underground 

waters of District of 

Columbia____-___ 124-126 

paper by, on underground waters

of Maryland ______ 114-123 

on underground waters of

Virginia_________ 127-135

G.

Galena limestone in Illinois, water

resources of _______ 250

Galena-Trenton formation in Iowa,

water resources of______ 224

in Wisconsin district, occurrence

and character of_____ 236 

water resources of_____ 238 

Gardiner, Me., springs near, water 

from, analysis, flow, use, 

etc., of ____________ 51, 52 

Gas and brine wells in Alabama__ 169 

Gasconade limestone in Missouri,

springs from________ 217 

Georgia, flowing wells in, map showing areas of _______ 156 

geology of_____________ 153-155 

mineral springs in________ 157 

publications on water resources

of________________ 158 

wells in________________ 154 

Geyser springs, discussion of____ 32 

Glacial drift. See Drift. 

Glacial till. See Till; Drift. 

 Glenn, L. C., paper by, on underground waters of South 

Carolina__________ 140-152 

paper by, on underground waters 

of Tennessee and Kentucky ___________ 198-208 

Gneiss, water in______________ 28 

Grand Gulf group in Alabama, extent of___________ 166 

in Alabama, water resources

of ___________ 166-167 

in Mississippi, water resources

of __________ 176-177 

Grand Isle, Vt, wells at_______ 64 

Granite, porosity of_________ 23

water in ______________ 28 

Graydon sandstone in .Missouri,

springs from________ 218 

Gravel and sand, water from, character and amount of __ 25

Page.

Greenville, Me., wells at_______ 48 

Gregory, H. E., paper by, on underground waters of Connecticut ___________ T6-81 

Ground water, occurrence and amount

of_______________ 24 

sources of______________ 18-21 

See also Underground water. 

Gulf coast, rainfall along_______ 19 

Gulf Coastal Plain of Kentucky, geology and water resources 

of _____________ 207-208 

of Tennessee, water resources

of ______________ 202-204

H.

Hall, C. W., paper by, on underground waters of Minnesota ___________ 226-232

Harrison, Me., spring at, water from,

analysis, flow, etc., of__ 54, 56

Hatchetigbee formation in Mississippi, water resources of- 174

Henrietta formation in Missouri,

water resources of____ 213

Highland Plain of Tennessee, water

resources of_______ 200-202

Holmes, J. A., information furnished

by______________ 136

Hudson group in Indiana, water

resources of __ _ 260 

in Michigan, water resources of_ 245

I.

Illinois, artesian wells in, localities

favorable for______ 252-254 

drift in, map showing thickness

of_______________ 252 

geologic column of_______ 248-250 

geologic map of __________ 248 

mineral springs of__ ______ 256 

publications on water resources

of______________ 257 

water-bearing formations of_ 250-252 

waters of, character of____ 254-256 

Impervious rock, spring at outcrop

of, plate showing_____ 30 

Indiana, artesian wells in, localities

favorable for_______ 262 

drift in, map showing thickness

of_______________ 262 

geologic column of_______ 258-259 

geologic map of __________ 260 

mineral springs of_______ 263-264 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 264 

water-bearing formations of_ 259-262 

Iowa, artesian localities in, map

showing__________ 222 

geologic section of________ 221 

mineral springs of ______ 225 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 225

rainfall in _______________ 20

underground waters of____ 220-225

Irrigation in Connecticut__ 81
278 INDEX.

J.

Jackson beds in Louisiana and 

southern Arkansas, character of__________ 180,'186 

in Mississippi, character of___ 176 

Johnson, L. C., paper by, on underground waters of Mississippi____________ 171-178 

Johnson, Vt., spring water from,

analysis of ________ 63 

Jointed rock, wells in, supply for,

figure showing ______ 28 

Joints, circulation of water along,

figure showing ______ 35 

definition of, and effect on passage of water_______ 23 

in Newark system of New Jersey _ ___________ 96 

openings of, plate showing___ 22 

springs along, map showing__ 32 

Jordan sandstone in Iowa, water resources of __________ 223 

in Minnesota, water resources of_ 227

K.

Kentucky, mineral springs in____ 208 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 208 

springs in __________ 206, 207, 208 

water resources and geology

of ______________ 205-208

Keweenawan series in Wisconsin district, occurrence and 

character of _______ 234

Kingfleld, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

of ______________ 54,55

Kittatinny Valley, N. J., geology and

water supply of_____ 94

Kiiapp, G. N., paper by, on underground waters of New 

Jersey ___________ 93-103

Knobstone formation in Indiana,

water resources of--__ 260

L.

Lafayette formation in Alabama, ex- . 

tent and water resources 

of_______________ 166 

in Georgia, character of_____ 153 

in Maryland, character of_____117 

in Mississippi, character of__ 177 

in South Carolina, geology of_ 148-149 

in Tennessee, geology and water

resources of________ 204 

in Virginia, character of _____ 128 

Lake. See next word of name. 

Lake deposits of Wisconsin district,

water resources of____ 239 

Lakes, public supplies obtained from,

in Maine _________ 45 

Lane, A. C., cited on underground 

waters of Lower Michigan ____,_______ 242

Page.

Leverett, Frank, paper by, on underground waters of Illinois_____________ 248-257 

paper by, on underground waters

of Indiana________ 258-264 

on underground waters of

Ohio____________ 265-270 

Lewiston, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

of _______________ 54,55 

Lexington Plain of Kentucky, water 

resources and geology 

of______________ 206-207 

Lignitic group in Alabama, artesian

horizons in _______ 168-169 

in Kentucky, water resources of- 207 

in Mississippi, geology and

water horizons of___ 174 175 

in Tennessee, geology and water

resources of_______ 203-204 

Limestone, porosity of 23 

water from, character and

amount of __-_ 27 

wells obtaining water from, variation in supply of, figure 

showing ___ _ _ 27 

Lisbon formation in Alabama, water

resources of____ _ 175 

Lockatong beds in New Jersey, character of___________ 96 

Locksburg, Ark., section from Cameron, La., to______ 183 

Loess in Tennessee, geology and

water resources of_ 204 

Logan sandstone in Ohio, water resources of __________ 267 

Long Island, Maine, spring on, water

from, use, etc_____ 51 

Louisiana, mineral springs of- 186 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 187 

sections in_____________ 183, 184 

Louisiana and southern Arkansas, 

artesian areas in, map 

showing_ _ 182 

deep water prospects in, map

showing- ___ - 181 

geology of___ 179-180 

water horizons in _ _ 181-186 

wells in ______________ 182,183 

Lower Helderberg limestone in Indiana, water resources of 260 

Lower Magnesian limestone in Wisconsin district, occurrence and character of 236 

in Wisconsin district, water resources of _ _ 23? 

See also Oneota formation. 

Lower Marshall sandstone in Michigan, water resources of- 246

M.

McCallie, S. W., paper by, on underground waters of Georgia ____________ 153-158
INDEX. 279

Page. 

Magothy formation in Maryland,

character of_______ 117 

in Maryland, water horizons in_ 119 

Maine, flowing wells in, map showing

location of ___.____ 49 

geology of__ __________ 41-42

lakes used for public supplies in_ 45 

private supplies in________ 47-56 

public supplies in________ 43-47 

publications on water resources

of ______________ 56 

rivers used 1'or public supplies in_ 44 

springs in ______________ 48-56 

springs used for public supplies

in_______________ 46 

topography of___________ 41 

wells in________________ 46-48 

Maquoketa shale in Iowa, character 

of_______________ 224 

Marais des Cygnes shales in Missouri, water resources of_ 213 

Marion, S. C., crystalline floor at,

depth to __________ 146 

Marl series in New Jersey, subdivisions of__________ 98

Marlbrook formation in Louisiana 

and southern Arkansas, 

character of_______ 180 

Maryland, publications on water resources of________ 123 

sections in ____________ 118, 120 

springs in____________ 115^116 

streams in_____________ 116

topography and geology of__ 114-115 

water horizons in_______ 118-120 

wells in_____ 116-119,121,122,123 

Massachusetts, geology of Rhode Island and__________ 68-69 

mineral springs in_______ 73-75

principal publications on water

resources of_______ 75 

water-supply areas in Rhode Island and__________ 69-73 

waters of, normal chlorine in__ 73 

Matawan formation in Delaware,

character of _ ______ 111 

Medina beds in Indiana, water resources of __________ 260 

Michigan, lower, geologic map of___ 243 

mineral springs of_______ 246-247 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 247

section across__________ 244

topography and geology of ___ 242

underground waters of____ 242-247

Michigan series in Michigan, water

resources of ________ 246 

Midway beds in Louisiana and 

southern Arkansas, character of___________ 180 

in Mississippi, character of__ 174 

Mineral springs. See Springs, mineral. 

Minnesota, artesian basin in, map

showing___________ 229

Page.

Minnesota, artesian basins in. __ 228-230 

publications on water resources

of_____________' 232 

rainfall in_____________ 20 

springs in_____________ 231-232 

water resources of______- 226 232 

wells in________________ 231 

Missisquoi Spring, Vt., water from,

analysis of _____ 64 

Mississippi, geologic map of___ 172 

geology and underground waters

of______________ 171-177 

mineral springs of______ 177-178 

publications on water resources

of__-_____________ 178 

springs in____________ 171,

173,174,175, 176, 177-178 

wells in_______________ 171, 

172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 

Mississippi delta, rainfall in_____ 19 

Mississippi-Great Lakes basin, character of and water conditions in_________- 40

Mississippian rocks of Mississippi, 

geology and water resources of __________ 171 

See also names of formations. 

Missouri, artesian wells in____ 214-215 

geologic map of_______ 210 

geology of_____________ 210 

mineral springs of_______ 219 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 219 

section through _________ 211

springs in_______.._____ 212,

213-214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219

topography of__________- 209

underground waters of____ 211-218 

water resources of, map showing______________ 212 

wells in __ 211-212, 214, 215, 216, 217 

Monroe limestone in Michigan, water

resources of _______ 245 

Montpelier, Vt., water system at__ 60 

Municipal supplies. See Public 

water-supply systems.

N.

Naeatoeh sand in Louisiana and 

southern Arkansas, water 

resources of ___ 180, 183-184

Naheola formation in Mississippi,

water resources of__ 174

Nanafalia formation in Mississippi,

springs from________ 17-1

Napoleon sandstone in Michigan,

water resources of___ 246

Nashua Valley, Mass., geology and

water supply of_____ 72

Nashville basin, Tenn., water resources of __________ 201

Navesink formation in Delaware,

character of______ 111

New England, rainfall in____ 20
280 INDEX.

Page.

New Hampshire, geology of___ 57-58 

publications on water resources

of _____________ 59 

springs in . 59 

topography of _ 57 

wells in__________ _ 58 

New Jersey, geology and water supply of___________ 94-103 

mineral springs in_______ 102-103 

publications on water resources

of______________ 103 

sections across southern____ 96 

topographic provinces of_ _ 93 94 

underground water areas in,

map showing _______ 93 

wells in Coastal Plain, statistics of___________ 98-100 

New Richmond sandstone in Minnesota, water resources of_ 227 

in Wisconsin, correlation of__ 223 

New York, geology and underground

waters of__________ 83-87 

map showing geologic areas and

spring localities in____ 84 

mineral springs of________ 87-91 

physiography of__________ 82-83 

publications on water resources

of _____________ 92 

springs in_____ 83, 84, 85, 86, 87-91 

wells in___________ 83, 84, 85, 86 

Newark area of New Jersey, geology

and water supply of ___ 96 

Niagara limestone in Illinois, water

resources of ______ 250, 267 

in Indiana, water resources of_ 260 

in Michigan, water resources of_ 245 

in Wisconsin district, occurrence

and character of ___ 236-237 

water resources of______ 239 

Nobleboro, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

of _______________ 54,56 

Normal chlorine in waters of Massachusetts___________ 73 

North Carolina, geology and water

horizons of _______ 136-139 

mineral springs of_________ 139 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 139 

rainfall in______________ 20 

wells in Coastal Plain region. 137-138 

Northeast Harbor, Me., spring near, 

water from, flow, use, etc., 

of______________ 51 

Norton, W. H., paper by, on underground waters of Iowa_ 220-225 

Norway, Me., spring near, water from,

flow, use, etc., of ___ 52

O.

Ohio, artesian wells in, localities favorable for _______ 268-269 

drift in, map showing thickness

of_______________ 262

Page.

Ohio, geologic column in______ 265-266 

geologic map of _______ 260 

publications an water resources

of______________ 270 

mineral springs in _______ 269-270 

underground water in, characteristics of_________ 266 

water-bearing formations in _ 266-268 

wells in ________________ 269 

Oneota formation in Iowa, water resources of _ ________ 223 

in Minnesota, water resources of 227 

Onondaga limestone in Ohio, water

resources of ________ 267 

Ontario province, New York, extent

of_______________ 82 

Orangeburg, S. C., crystalline floor at,

depth to___________ 146 

Ordovician rocks of Arkansas, northern, water resources of_ 191 

of Iowa, water resources of _ 223-224 

of Minnesota, water resources

of______________ 227-228 

of "New York, geology and water

supply of__________ 84-85 

See also names of formations. 

Orton, Edward, on waters of Ohio_ 266 

Ozark-St. Francis Dome, Mo., water

resources of ______ 216-218

P.

Paleozoic rocks in Arkansas, northern, water resources of 191-195 

in Georgia, geology and underground waters of __ 154-155, 

156-157

in Louisiana and southern Arkansas, character of ___ 180 

See also names of formations. 

Pamunkey formation in Delaware,

character of ______ 111 

in Maryland, character of _ 117 

water resources of_____ 119 

in Virginia, character and water

resources of_______ 128-129 

Parma sandstone in Michigan, water

resources of_______ 246 

Pennsylvania, geologic subdivisions

of, figure showing ____ 105 

geology of _____________ 104-105 

mineral springs in_________ 109 

publications on water resources

of______________ 110

streams and lakes in______ 105-106

topography of 104

wells in ______________ 106-108

Pentremital limestone in Arkansas,

water resources of__ 194 

Perkins, G. H., paper by, on underground waters of Vermont____________ 60-67 

Permeability of rocks, discussion of _ 21-24 

Piedmont Plateau, character and water resources of 39
INDEX. 281

Page.

Piedmont Plateau of Georgia, geology and underground 

waters of _ __ 154 

of Maryland, extent and geology

of_______________ 114 

wells in 116 

of New Jersey, geology and water resources of ______ 98-97 

wells and population in_ 101,102 

of North Carolina; geology and

underground water of__ 138 

of Pennsylvania, extent of ___ 104 

geology of ________ 104 105 

of South Carolina, geology and

water resources of__ 140 146 

of Virginia, geolpgy and underground waters of - 132 

Pine Point, Me., spring near, water

from, flow, use, etc., of_ 51 

Pittsfleld, Me., spring near, water

from, flow, use, etc., of _ 51 

Poland, Me., spring near, water from,

analysis, flow, etc., of- 52, 54, 56 

Pollution. See Contamination. 

Pontchartrian clay in Mississippi, . 

character and water resources of __________ 177 

Porosity, relation of, to occurrence

of ground water _____ 23 

Port Hudson group in Mississippi, 

character and water resources of __ ______ 177 

Porters Creek clay in Kentucky, geology and water resources 

of_______________ 207 

in Tennessee, water resources of 203 

Portland, Me., spring 61 miles from, 

water from, analysis, flow, 

etc., of __ ________ 54,55 

Potomac formation in Delaware,

character of_______ 111 

in District of Columbia, geology

and water resources of _ 125-126 

in Maryland, water horizons

in ___ 118-119, 120, 121, 122 

in North Carolina, occurrence

and character of ___ 136-137 

in South Carolina, geology and

water horizons of ___ 146-147 

in Virginia, character of and water horizons in______ 128 

Potsdam sandstone in Illinois, water

resources of ______ 250 

in Wisconsin district, occurrence

and character of ___ 234-235 

water resources of_____ 237 

porosity of _____________ 23 

Pre-Cambrian rocks of New York, geology and water supply 

of______________ 83 

of Wisconsin-district, occurrence

and character of _____ 234 

See also Crystalline rocks. 

Precipitation, See Rainfall,

Page. 

Public water-supply systems in

Maine ___________ 43-47 

in Vermont _____________ 60-62 

Pumps, kinds of ___ 33 

Purdue, A. EL, paper by, on underground waters of northern Arkansas 188-197

Q.

Quartzite, water from, character and

amount of- 27 

Quaternary rocks of Mississippi, 

geology and water horizons of__ 177 

of New York, geology and water

supply of_ 87 

Sec also Drift.

R.

Rainfall, amount of__________- 19-20 

disposal of _____________ 20-21 

in Connecticut _____ 76 

in eastern United States, figure

showing____ _ 19

in Tennessee____ 198

in Vermont______________ 60

relation of run-off to_______ 20

Rancocas formation in Delaware,

character of 111 

. Raritan formation in Delaware,

character of 111 

in New Jersey, character of_ 97 

Redbank formation in Delaware,

character of 111 

Red River Valley, Minn., artesian

conditions in ______ 230 

Rhode Island, geology of Massachusetts and__________ 68-69 

mineral springs in_ 75 

publications on water resources

of______________ 75 

water supply areas in Massachusetts and__________ 69-73 

Ripley formation in Alabama, water

resources of _ 168 

in Kentucky, geology and water

resources of ______ 207

in Mississippi, water resources

of_______________ 173 

in Tennessee, geology and water

resources of _______ 203 

Rivers, public supplies obtained from,

in Maine__ _ _ __ 44 

Rocks, permeability and storage capacity of __________ 21-24 

Rocks, water-bearing, discussion of_ 25-28 

Rotten limestone in Tennessee, geology and water resources 

of______________ 203 

See also Selma chalk. 

Run-off, relation of rainfall to 20
282 INDEX.

S. Page.

Sabine group in Louisiana and southern Arkansas, character 

and water resources of_ 180, 

184-185 

Saco, Me., spring near, water from,

analysis, flow, etc., of_ 51, 54, 55 

Saginaw Valley, Mich., underground

waters in _________ 244 

St. Albans, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

of _______________ 54,55 

St. Croix sandstone in Iowa, water

resources of _______ 225 

St. Louis limestone in Illinois, water

resources of ____J.__ 251 

in Indiana, water resources of_ 261 

St. Peter sandstone in Illinois, water

resources of ________ 250 

in Indiana, water resources of_ 259 

in Iowa, water resources of__ 223 

in Minnesota, water resources

of ______________ 227-228 

in Missouri, water resources of_ 213, 

214, 215, 216 

in Wisconsin district, occurrence

and character of_____ 236 

outcrop of, map showing_ 235 

water resources of_____ 238 

Salina beds in Michigan, water resources of__________ 245

Salt springs in Missouri_____ 213-214 

Salt water, origin of_________ 18 

Sand, porosity of_________!___ 23 

Sand and gravel, water from, character and amount of___ 25 

Sandstone, porosity of ________ 23 

water from, character and

amount of________ 27 

view of, under microscope____ 24 

Schistosity, relation of, to occurrence of ground water__ 23 

Schists, water in_____________ 28 

Schultz, A. R., paper by, on underground waters of Wisconsin district_______ 233-241 

Sea water, ground water derived

from______________ 18 

Seepage, recovery of underground

water by__________ 29-30 

Seepage springs, discussion of ______ 30

Selma chalk in Mississippi, occurrence of___________ 173 

Severn formation in Maryland, character of___________ 117 

Shakopee formation in Minnesota, occurrence of_________ 227

Shepard, B. M., paper by, on underground waters of Missouri____________ 209-219 

Silurian rocks of New York, geology

and water supply of___ 85-86 

of Pennsylvania, geology and

water supply of_____ 107 

See also names of formations.

Page. 

Sink hole, plate showing 20

See also Solution caverns. 

Slate, cleavage in, plate showing. 22 

water from, character and

amount of ________ 27 

Smith, B. A., paper by, on underground waters of Alabama ___________ 164-170 

Solution caverns, relation of, to 

occurrence of ground 

water ___________ 22 

South Britain, Conn., springs along 

faults or joints near, map 

showing 32 

South Carolina, geology and water

horizons of _______ 140-152 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 152 

sections in eastern________ 148

springs in_____________ 141-142 

streams in____________ 145, 152

subdivisions and climatic features of__'. ____________ 140

wells in________ 142-145, 149-152 

South Poland, Me., spring at, water 

from, analysis, flow, etc., 

of ___-__________ 54,56 

Spaulding well, Mo., description of 215 

Spring at outcrop of impervious

rock, plate showing____ 30 

Spring water, analyses of, from

Maine________ 52-53, 55-56 

analysis of, from Vermont 63, 64 

Springs, occurrence and character of,

in Alabama______ 164, 

165, 166, 167, 168 

 occurrence and character of, in

Arkansas, northern___ 191 

in Connecticut______ 78, 80-81 

in Florida______ 161,162-163 

in Kentucky_____ 206, 207, 208 

in Maine ____________ 48-56 

in Maryland ___________ 115-116

in Minnesota _______ 231-232

in Mississippi______ 171,

173, 174, 175, 176, 177-178

in Missouri_________ 212,

213-214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219 

in New Hampshire_____ 59 

in New York__83, 84, 85, 86, 87-91 

in South Carolina ____ 141-142 

in Tennessee_______ 199,

200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205 

in Vermont__________ 62-64 

in Wisconsin district___ 239-241 

public supplies obtained from,

in Maine__________ 46

recovery of underground waters

by means ofl______._ 30-32 

See also Springs, mineral. 

Springs, commercial. - See Springs, 

mineral.
INDEX. 283

Page. 

Springs, mineral, analyses of water

from, of Vermont____ 64

occurrence of, in Alabama___ 170

in Arkansas ________ 196-197

in Connecticut^_______ 80-81 

in District of Columbia __ 126 

in Florida_________ 162-163 

in Georgia__________ 157 

in Illinois__________ 256 

in Indiana ________ 263-264 

in Iowa_____________ 225 

in Kentucky __________ 208 

in Louisiana *_______ 186 

in Massachusetts______ 73-75 

in Michigan, lower____ 246-247 

in Mississippi_______ 177-178 

in Missouri __________ 219 

in New Jersey_______ 102-103 

in New York__________ 87-91 

in North Carolina______ 139 

in Ohio _______________ 269-270

in Pennsylvania______ 109 

in Rhode Island_______ 75 

in Tennessee_________ 205 

in Vermont __________ 63-64 

in Virginia _________ 133-134 

in West Virginia ______ 272 

in Wisconsin district__ 240-241 

See also Springs. 

Stockton beds in New Jersey, char-^

acter of__________ 96 

Storage capacity of rocks. See Permeability. 

Stream deposits in Pennsylvania,

water supply of________ 106

Streams in South Carolina, water

supply obtained from_ 145, 152 

rim-off of, relation of rainfall to 20 

Strong, Me., spring near, water from,

analysis, flow, etc., of__ 54, 56 

Sucarnochee formation in Mississippi, character of____ 174

T.

Taconic province, New York, extent

of_______________ 82 

Tallahatta formation in Mississippi,

water resources of____ 175 

Temperature of underground waters,

discussion of________ 28-29 

Tennessee, mineral springs in____ 205 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 205 

rainfall in______________ 20, 198 

springs in ___________ 199,

200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205 

topography of __ 198, 199, 200-201, 202 

valley of Bast, water resources

of______________ 198-199 

water resources of_____ 198-

199, 200. 201-202, 203-205 

wells in _____________ 203, 204

202

Tennessee River, water resources of 

western valley of_______

Tertiary deposits of Arkansas, water

resources of ______ 195-196 

of Indiana, water resources of 261 

of Mississippi, geology and

water resources of__ 174-177 

of New Jersey, geology and

water resources of__ 98 

Thunder Bay River, Mich., underground waters near 244 

Till in Connecticut, water resources

of _______________ 79-80 

in Pennsylvania, geology and

water resources of____ 106 

water from, character and

amount of _________- 26 

See also Drift.

Togus, Me., spring near, water from,

analysis and use of____

Topsham, Me., spring near, water

from, analysis, flow, etc.,

of ____________________

Town supplies. See Public water

supply systems.

Traverse series in Michigan, water

resources of________

Trenton limestone, porosity of ____

springs from____________

water resources of, in Ohio____

in Indiana_______________

in Michigan_____________

in Missouri ____________

Triassic rocks, geology and water resources of. in New York_ 

geology and water supply of, in 

Pennsylvania _________

in Virginia ________

Triassic sandstone, porosity of ______

of Connecticut Valley, geology 

and water supply of____

Tuscaloosa formation in Alabama, 

water from, character of_ 

in Mississippi, water resources 

of ___________

52,53

54, 55

245

23

84

267

259

245

217

107

132

23

77-78 

167 

173

U.

Underflow, lines of, figure showing 30 

Underground channel, plate showing- 20 

springs from__________ 31 

Underground water conditions in 

eastern United States, 

discussion of_ __ _ 35-40 

Underground waters, occurrence of_ 18 40 

recovery of __________ 29-34 

temperature of ___________ 28-29 

See also Ground water. 

Upper Marshall sandstone. See Napoleon sandstone.

Utica shales in Michigan, water resources of _-_ 245
284 INDEX.

V. Page.

Vaughan, T. W., information furnished by __________ 160 

Veatch, A. C., paper by, on underground water of Louisiana and southern Arkansas __________ 179-187 

Vermont, drift, water-bearing, of,

map showing _ _ 65 

lakes and ponds in __ __ 65-6G 

mineral springs in_ ___ __ 63-64 

publications on water resources

of_______________ 67 

public supplies in________ 60-62 

springs in _____________ 62-64

topography and geology of _ 60 

wells in ________________ 64-65 

Vicksburg formation in Louisiana 

and southern Arkansas, 

character of ______ 186 

in Mississippi, character of___ 176 

Vienna, Me., spring near, water from, 

analysis, flow, use, etc., 

of _______________ 52,53 

Village supplies. See Public water

supply systems.

Virginia, mineral springs in____ 133-134 

physiographic divisions of __ 127 

publications on water resources

of______________ 134-135 

sections in eastern- 128 

wells in coastal plain of ___ 120-131

W.

Water, salt. See Salt water.

Water, sea. See Sea water.

Water, spring. See Spring water.

Water, underground. See Underground water.

Water-bearing formations, discussion

of _______________ 25-28 

features of, figures showing__ 34-35

Water supply. Sec Public watersupply systems.

Waterlime beds in Indiana, water

resources of________ 260

Wateryille, Me., spring near, water 

from, analysis, flow, use, 

etc., of ___________ 51,52

Waverly shale in Indiana, water resources of __________ 260

Weathered rocks, occurrence of water

in ______________ 37-38

Weeks, P. B., paper by, on underground waters of New 

York______________ 82-92

Wells at Atlanta, Ga., character of_ 28

Weils, contamination of, in Georgia- 154,157 

contamination of, in Maine___ 48

Wells, in South Carolina______ 142-144 

in limestone, variations in, figure showing_______ 27 

kinds of, description of_____ 33

Wells, occurrence and character of,

in Alabama- 164,165,167,169 

occurrence and character of, in

Arkansas, northern 191,192 

in Arkansas, southern, and

Louisiana ________ 182, 183 

in Connecticut ___ 77, 78, 79, 80 

in Delaware_________ 112-113 

in District of Columbia__ 125 

in Florida ______ 160,161, 162 

in Georgia______ 154 

in Louisiana and southern

Arkansas _________ 182, 183

in Maryland _______ 116-119,

121, 122, 123

in Minnesota ________ 231

in Mississippi_________ 171,

172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 

in Missouri ________ 211-212, 

214, 215, 216, 217 

in New Hampshire_____ 58 

in New Jersey _______ 98-102 

in New York____ 83, 84, 85, 86 

in North Carolina, Coastal

Plain region of____ 137-138

in Ohio _____________ 269

in Pennsylvania______ 106-108

in South Carolina____ 142-145,

149-152

in Tennessee _______ 203, 204 

in Vermont__________ 64-65 

in Virginia,Coastal Plain. 129-131 

See also Wells, artesian; Wells,

deep, etc.

Well, artesian, plate showing_____ 30 

Wells, artesian, in Alabama______ 165 

in Illinois, localities favorable

for_____________ 252-254 

in Indiana, localities favorable

for______________ 262 

in Missouri____________ 214-215 

in . Ohio, localities favorable

for ____________ 268-269 

See also Wells ; Artesian conditions ; Artesian flows.

Wells, bored, kinds of_________ 33 

Wells, deep, in South Carolina___ 143-

145, 152

in Vermont______________ 64-65 

Wells, drilled, in Maine______ 46-47, 48 

kinds of________________ 33 

relative size and capacity of 

dug wells and, figure 

showing___________ 26 

Wells, driven, character and advantages of___________ 33 

Wells, dug, character and advantages

of_______________ 33 

relative size and capacity of 

drilled wells and, figure 

showing___________ 26 

Wells, open, in South Carolina__ 142-143 

Wells, shallow, in Alabama____ 164 

in South Carolina______ 151-152
INDEX. 285

Page.

West Hancock, Me., spring near, 

water from, analysis, 

flow, use, etc., of _____ 54, 55 

West Pownal, Me., spring near, water from, analysis, flow, 

etc., of___________ 54,55 

West Scarboro, Me., spring near, water from, flow, use, etc., 

of_______________ 51 

West Virginia, mineral springs of_ 272 

publications on water resources

of______________ 272 

underground waters of____ 271-272 

Wllmington, S. C., crystalline floor

at, depth to _______ 146

Wisconsin district, geology of__ 234-237

mineral springs of _______ 240-241

Page. 

Wisconsin district, publications on

water resources of___ 241 

Potsdam and St. Peter sandstones in, map of outcrop 

of_______________ 235 

section in _____________ 233 

springs in____________ 239-241 

topography of __________ 233-234 

underground waters of____ 237-241 

Wisconsin River, section from Cap

au Ores to_____ ______ 253

Z.

Zircon, Me., spring at, water from,

3, flow, etc., of__ 54, 55

o
LIBRARY CATALOGUE SLIPS.

[Mount each slip upon a separate card, placing the subject at the top of the 

second slip. The name of the series should not be repeated on the series 

card, but the additional numbers should be added, as received, to the first 

entry.]

Fuller, Myron L[eslie] 1873-

. . . Underground waters of eastern United States. 

I Myron I/. Fuller, geologist in charge. Washington, 

1 Gov't print, off., 1905.

285 p., 11. illus., XVIII pi. (incl. maps) 23om. (U. S. Geological survey. 

Water-supply and irrigation paper no. 114)

Subject series: O, Underground waters, 31.

Includes papers by M. L. Fuller, W. S. Bayley, G. H. Perkins, W. O. 

Crosby, H. E. Gregory, F. B. Weeks, G. N. Knapp, N. H. Barton, L. C. 

Glenn, S. W. McCallie, E. A. Smith, L. C. Johnson, A. C. Veatch, A. H. 

Purdue, E. M. Shepard, W. H. Norton, C. W. Hall, A. R. Schultz and 

F. Leverett.

Bibliographies at end of articles.

1. Water, Underground U. S.

Fuller, Myron L[eslie] 1873-

. . . Underground waters of eastern United States. 

1 Myron I/. Fuller, geologist in charge. Washington, 

I Gov't print, off., 1905.

285p., 11. illus., XVIIIpi. (incl. maps) 23cm. (U. S. Geological survey. 

Water-supply and irrigation paper no. 114)

Subject series: O, Underground waters, 31.

Includes papers by M. L. Fuller, W. S. Bayley, G. H. Perkins, W. O. 

Crosby, H. E. Gregory, F. B. Weeks, G. N. Knapp, N. H. Barton, L. C. 

Glenn, S. W. McCallie, E. A. Smith, L. C. Johnson, A. C. Veatch, A. H. 

Purdue, E. M. Shepard, W. H. Norton, C. W. Hall, A. R. Schultz and 

F. Leverett.

Bibliographies at end of articles.

1. Water, Underground U. S.

U. S. Geological survey.

Water-supply and irrigation papers.

I no. 114. Fuller, M. I/. Underground waters of eastern 

United States. 1905.

U. S. Dept. of the Interior.

«

| see also ®

M U. S. Geological survey.
SEEIES K PUMPING WATER.

WS 1. Pumping water for irrigation, by H. M. Wilson. 1896. 57 pp., 9 pis.

WS 8. Windmills for irrigation, by E. C. Murphy. 1897. 49 pp., 8 pis.

WS 14. New tests of certain pumps and water lifts used in irrigation, by O. P. Hood. 1898. 91 pp.,

Ipl.

WS 20. Experiments with windmills, by T. O. Perry. 1899. 97 pp., 12 pis. 

WS 29. Wells and windmills in Nebraska, by E. H. Harbour. 1899. 85 pp., 27 pis. 

WS 41. The windmill; its efficiency and economic use, Pt. I, by E. C. Murphy. 1901. 72 pp., 14 pis. 

WS 42. The windmill, Pt. H (continuation of No. 41). 1901. 73-147 pp., 15-16 pis. 

WS 91. Natural features and economic development of Sandusky, Maumee, Muskingum, and Miami

drainage areas in Ohio, by B. H. Flynn and M. S. Flynn. 1904. 130 pp.

SERIES L QUALITY OF WATER.

WS 3. Sewage irrigation, by G. W. Kafter. 1897. 100 pp., 4 pis.

WS 22. Sewage irrigation, Pt. II, by G. W. Rafter. 1899. 100 pp., 7 pis.

WS 72. Sewage pollution near New York City, by M. O. Leighton. 1902. 75 pp., 8 pis.

WS 76. Observations on flow of rivers in the vicinity of New York City, by H. A. Pressey. 1903.

108 pp., 13 pis.

WS 79. Normal and polluted waters in northeastern United States, by M. O. Leighton. 1903. 192 pp. 

WS 103. Review of the laws forbidding pollution of inland waters in the United States, by E. B.

Goodell. 1904. 120pp.

WS 108. Quality of water in Susquehanna drainage basin, by M. O. Leighton. 1904. 76 pp., 4 pis. 

WS 113. Strawboard waste, its damage to water resources and its economic disposal. 1905. 52 pp., 4 pis.

SERIES M GENEEAL HYDROGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS.

WS 56. Methods of stream measurement. 1901. 51 pp., 12 pis.

WS 64. Accuracy of stream measurements, by E. C. Murphy. 1902. 99 pp., 4 pis.

WS 76. Observations on the flow of rivers in the vicinity of New York City, by H. A. Pressey. 1903.

108 pp., 13 pis.

WS 80. The relation of rainfall to run-off, by G. W. Eafter. 1903. 104 pp. 

WS 81. California hydrography, by J. B. Lippincott. 1903. 488 pp., 1 pi. 

WS 88. The Passaic flood of 1902, by G. B. Hollister and M. O. Leighton. 1903. 56 pp., 15 pis. 

WS 91. Natural features and economic development of Sandusky, Maumee, Muskingum, and Miami

drainage areas in Ohio, by B. H. Flynn and M. S. Flynn. 1904. 130 pp. 

WS 92. The Passaic flood of 1903, by M. O. Leighton. 1904. 48 pp., 7 pis. 

WS 94. Hydrographic manual of United States Geological Survey, by E. C. Murphy, J, C. Hoyt, ani

G. B. Hollister. 1904. 76 pp., 3 pis.

WS 95. Accuracy of stream measurements (second edition), by E. C. Murphy. 1904. 169 pp., 6 pis. 

WS 96. Destructive floods in the United States in 1903, by E. C. Murphy. 1904. 81 pp., 13 pis. 

WS 106. Water resources of the Philadelphia district, by Florence Bascom. 1904. 75 pp., 4 pis. 

WS 109. Hydrography of Susquehanna River drainage basin, by J. C. Hoyt and R. H. Anderson.

1905. 215 pp., 28 pis.

SERIES N WATEE POWER.

WS 24. Water resources of State of New York, Pt. I, by G. W. Rafter. 1899. 92 pp., 13 pis.

WS 25. Water resources of State of New York, Pt. II, by G. W. Rafter. 1899. 100-200 pp., 12 pis.

WS 44. Profiles of rivers, by Henry Gannett. 1901. 100 pp., 11 pis.

WS 62. Hydrography of the Southern Appalachian Mountain region, Pt. I, by H. A. Pressey. 1902.

95 pp., 25 pis. 

WS 63. Hydrography of the Southern Appalachian Mountain region, Pt. II, by H. A. Pressey. 1902.

96-190 pp., 26-44 pis.

WS 69. Water powers of the State of Maine, by H. A. Pressey. 1902. 124 pp., 14 pis. 

WS 105. Water powers of Texas, by T. U. Taylor. 1904. 116 pp., 17 pis.

WS 107. Water powers of Alabama and stream measurements in Mississippi, by B. M. Hall. 1904. 

i 253 pp., 9 pis. 

WS 109. Hydrography of Susquehanna River drainage basin, by J. C. Hoyt and R. H. Anderson.

1905. 215 pp., 28 pis.

[Continued on fourth page of cover.] 

1KB 114 3
SEEIES O UNDERGROUND WATERS.

WS 4. A reconnaissance in southeastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. % pp., 7 

WS 6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1897. 651 

WS T. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 50 pp., 3 pis. 

WS 12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Barton. 1898. 56 pp., 

WS 21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. 1899. 82 pp., 2 pis. 

WS 26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21). by Frank Leverett, 1899. 

WS 30. Water resources of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 971 

WS 31. Lower Michigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 4 pis. ^ 

WS 34. Geology and water resources of a portion of southeastern South Dakota, by J. E.

34 pp., 19 pis. 

WS 53. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. I, by I. C. Russe

pp., 10 pie. 

WS 54. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. II, by I. C. B

87-141 pp. 

WS 55. Geology and water resources of a portion of Yakima County, Wash., by G. O. Smi

pp., 7 pis.

WS 57. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. I, by N. H. Darton. 1 

WS 59. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. I, by J. B

1902. 95 pp., 11 pis. 

WS 60. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. II, by J. I

1902. 96-140 pp.

WS 61. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. II, by N. H. Darton. 

WS 67. The motions of underground Avaters, by C. S. Slichter. 1902. 106 pp., 8 pis. 

B 199. Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, by I. C. Russe.

pp., 25 pis.

WS 77. Water resources of Molokai. Hawaiian Islands, by Waldemar Lindgren. 1903. 

WS 78. Preliminary report on artesian basins in southwestern Idaho and southeaster

I. C. Russell. 1903. 53 pp., 2 pis. 

PP 17. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the

and third meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 69 pp., 43 pis. 

WS 90. Geology and water resources of part of the lower James River Valley, South Da

Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. 47 pp., 23 pis. 

WS 101. Underground waters of southern Louisiana, by G. D. Harris; with discussions of

water supplies and for rice irrigation, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 98 pp., 11 pis. 

WS 102. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1903, by M. L. Fuller. 

WS 104. Underground waters of Gila Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1904. 71 pp., 5 pis. 

WS 106. Water resources of the Philadelphia district, by Florence Bascom. 1904. 75 pp 

WS 110. Contributions to hydrology of eastern United States, 1904, M. L. Fuller, geolog

1905. 211pp., 5 pis. 

PP 32. Geology and underground water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. I

433 pp., 72 pis. 

WS 111. Preliminary report on underground waters of Washington, by Henry Landes.

ipl. 

WS 112. Underflow tests in the drainage basin of Los Angeles River, by Homer Hamlin.

7 pis. 

WS 114. Underground waters of eastern United States, M. L. Fuller, geologist in (

 pp., 18 pis.

The following papers also relate to this subject: Underground waters of Arkansas Val 

Colorado, by G. K. Gilbert, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Preliminary report on artes 

a portion of the Dakotas, by N. H. Darton, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water res< 

nois, by Frank Leverett, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Indiana 

Frank Leverett, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; New developments in well boring and 

eastern South Dakota, by N. H. Darton, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Rock wateri 

Edward Orton, in Nineteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Artesian well prospects in the Atlantic 

region, by N. H. Darton, Bulletin No. 138.

SEEIES P HYDEOGRAPHIC PEOGRESS REPORTS.

Progress reports may be found in the following publications: For 1888-89, Tenth .A 

for 1889-90, Eleventh Annual, Pt. II: for 1890-91, Twelfth Annual, Pt. II; for 1891-92, Thirtt 

Pt. Ill; for 1893-94, Bulletin No. 131; for 1895, Bulletin No. 140; for 1896, Eighteenth Ai 

WS 11; for 1897, Nineteenth Annual, Pt. IV, WS 15,16; for 1898, Twentieth Annual, Pt. 

for 1899, Twenty-first Annual, Pt, IV, WS 35-39; for 1900, Twenty-second Annual, Pt.IV, 

1901, WS 65, 66, 75; for 1902, WS 82-85; for 1903, WS 97-100.

Correspondence should be addressed to

THE DIRECTOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL Sui 

WASHINGI 

IRR 114 4