Child Abuse and N

in the

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police

Problem-Specific Guides Series

No. 55

eglect 

 Home

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

Kelly Dedel

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Child Abuse and Neglect 

in the Home

Kelly Dedel

This project was supported by cooperative agreement 

2007-CK-WX-K008 by the Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions 

contained herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily 

represent the Justice Department’s official position. You should 

not consider references to specific companies, products, or 

services a product endorsement from the author(s) or the Justice 

Department. Rather, the references are illustrations to supplement 

discussion of the issues.

The Internet references cited in this publication were valid as of 

May 2009. Given that URLs and web sites are in constant flux, 

neither the author nor the COPS Office can vouch for their 

current validity.

© 2009 Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, Inc. The U.S. 

Department of Justice reserves a royalty-free, nonexclusive, and 

irrevocable license to reproduce, publish, or otherwise use, and 

authorize others to use, this publication for Federal Government 

purposes. This publication may be freely distributed and used for 

noncommercial and educational purposes.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

ISBN: 978-1-935676-00-3

March 2010

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides Series

Guide No. 55

About the P About the Problem-Specific Guides Series roblem-Specific Guides Series i

About the Problem-Specific Guide Series

The Problem-Specific Guides summarize knowledge about how 

police can reduce the harm caused by specific crime and disorder 

problems. They are guides to prevention and to improving the 

overall response to incidents, not to investigating offenses or 

handling specific incidents. Neither do they cover all of the 

technical details about how to implement specific responses. The 

guides are written for police—of whatever rank or assignment—

who must address the specific problem the guides cover. The guides 

will be most useful to officers who:

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and 

methods. The guides are not primers in problem-oriented 

policing. They deal only briefly with the initial decision to 

focus on a particular problem, methods to analyze the problem, 

and means to assess the results of a problem-oriented policing 

project. They are designed to help police decide how best to 

analyze and address a problem they have already identified. 

(A companion series of Problem-Solving Tools guides has been 

produced to aid in various aspects of problem analysis and 

assessment.)

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the complexity 

of the problem, you should be prepared to spend perhaps weeks, 

or even months, analyzing and responding to it. Carefully 

studying a problem before responding helps you design the right 

strategy, one that is most likely to work in your community. 

You should not blindly adopt the responses others have used; 

you must decide whether they are appropriate to your local 

situation. What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; 

what works in one place may not work everywhere.

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business. 

The guides describe responses that other police departments 

have used or that researchers have tested. While not all of these 

responses will be appropriate to your particular problem, they 

should help give a broader view of the kinds of things you 

could do. You may think you cannot implement some of these 

responses in your jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many 

places, when police have discovered a more effective response, 
ii Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

they have succeeded in having laws and policies changed, 

improving the response to the problem. (A companion series of 

Response Guides has been produced to help you understand how 

commonly-used police responses work on a variety of problems.) 

• Understand the value and the limits of research knowledge.

For some types of problems, a lot of useful research is available 

to the police; for other problems, little is available. Accordingly, 

some guides in this series summarize existing research whereas 

other guides illustrate the need for more research on that 

particular problem. Regardless, research has not provided 

definitive answers to all the questions you might have about the 

problem. The research may help get you started in designing 

your own responses, but it cannot tell you exactly what to do. 

This will depend greatly on the particular nature of your local 

problem. In the interest of keeping the guides readable, not 

every piece of relevant research has been cited, nor has every 

point been attributed to its sources. To have done so would have 

overwhelmed and distracted the reader. The references listed at 

the end of each guide are those drawn on most heavily; they are 

not a complete bibliography of research on the subject. 

• Are willing to work with others to find effective solutions 

to the problem. The police alone cannot implement many of 

the responses discussed in the guides. They must frequently 

implement them in partnership with other responsible private 

and public bodies including other government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, private businesses, public utilities, 

community groups, and individual citizens. An effective 

problem-solver must know how to forge genuine partnerships 

with others and be prepared to invest considerable effort in 

making these partnerships work. Each guide identifies particular 

individuals or groups in the community with whom police 

might work to improve the overall response to that problem. 

Thorough analysis of problems often reveals that individuals 

and groups other than the police are in a stronger position to 

address problems and that police ought to shift some greater 

responsibility to them to do so. Response Guide No. 3, Shifting 

and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety Problems, provides 

further discussion of this topic.
About the Problem-Specific Guides Series iii

The COPS Office defines community policing as “a philosophy 

that promotes organizational strategies, which support the 

systematic use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques, 

to proactively address the immediate conditions that give rise to 

public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime.” 

These guides emphasize problem-solving and police-community 

partnerships in the context of addressing specific public safety 

problems. For the most part, the organizational strategies that can 

facilitate problem-solving and police-community partnerships vary 

considerably and discussion of them is beyond the scope of these 

guides.

These guides have drawn on research findings and police practices 

in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New 

Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. Even though laws, 

customs and police practices vary from country to country, it is 

apparent that the police everywhere experience common problems. 

In a world that is becoming increasingly interconnected, it is 

important that police be aware of research and successful practices 

beyond the borders of their own countries.

Each guide is informed by a thorough review of the research 

literature and reported police practice, and each guide is 

anonymously peer-reviewed by a line police officer, a police 

executive and a researcher prior to publication. The review process 

is independently managed by the COPS Office, which solicits the 

reviews. 
iv Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

For more information about problem-oriented policing, visit the 

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing online at www.popcenter.org. 

This website offers free online access to:

• The Problem-Specific Guides series

• The companion Response Guides and Problem-Solving Tools series 

• Special publications on crime analysis and on policing terrorism

• Instructional information about problem-oriented policing and 

related topics

• An interactive problem-oriented policing training exercise

• An interactive Problem Analysis Module

• Online access to important police research and practices

• Information about problem-oriented policing conferences and 

award programs. 
Acknowledgments v

Acknowledgments

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police are produced by the 

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, whose officers are Michael 

S. Scott (Director), Ronald V. Clarke (Associate Director), and 

Graeme R. Newman (Associate Director). In addition to the 

primary author, other project team members, COPS Office staff, 

and anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide by 

proposing text, recommending research, and offering suggestions 

on matters of format and style. 

The project team that developed the guide series comprised 

Herman Goldstein (University of Wisconsin Law School), 

Ronald V. Clarke (Rutgers University), John E. Eck (University 

of Cincinnati), Michael S. Scott (University of Wisconsin Law 

School), Rana Sampson (Police Consultant), and Deborah Lamm 

Weisel (North Carolina State University). 

Members of the San Diego; National City, California; and 

Savannah, Georgia police departments provided feedback on the 

guide’s format and style in the early stages of the project.

Debra Cohen, PhD oversaw the project for the COPS Office. 

Phyllis Schultze conducted research for the guide at Rutgers 

University’s Criminal Justice Library. Nancy Leach coordinated 

the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing’s production process. 

Suzanne Fregly edited this guide.

Contents vii

Contents

About the Problem-Specific Guide Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

The Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

What This Guide Does and Does Not Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

General Description of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Types of Child Abuse and Neglect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Prevalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Reporting Mechanisms...................................4

Police Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Harms Caused by Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Factors Contributing to Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home . . . . . . . 7

Victims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Repeat Victimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Perpetrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Family Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Environmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Understanding Your Local Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Victims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Locations/Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Current Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home . . . . . 21

General Considerations for an Effective Response Strategy . . . . . . . . 22

Specific Responses to Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home . . . . . . 26

Responses with Limited Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Appendix: Summary of Responses to Child Abuse and Neglect

 in the Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

The Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 1

The Problem of Child Abuse and 

Neglect in the Home

What This Guide Does and Does Not Cover

This guide begins by describing the problem of child abuse and 

neglect in the home, and reviewing factors that increase its risks. It 

then identifies a series of questions to help you analyze your local 

child maltreatment problem. Finally, it reviews responses to the 

problem and what is known about them from evaluative research 

and police practice. This guide is not intended to provide specific 

guidance on investigative techniques.§

Child abuse and neglect in the home is but one aspect of the 

larger set of problems related to child maltreatment that occurs 

in a variety of places and by people with varied relationships to 

the victim.§§ This guide is limited to addressing the particular 

harms created by child abuse and neglect that occurs in the home, 

typically by the child’s caretaker or someone close to the caretaker 

(e.g., the mother’s boyfriend). Related problems not directly 

addressed in this guide, each of which requires separate analysis, 

include:

• Child physical and sexual abuse in institutions (e.g., correctional 

facilities, churches, youth organizations, foster care)

• Commercial sexual exploitation of children and organized child 

sex rings

• Child pornography on the Internet

• Child fatalities (including shaken-baby deaths and Munchausen 

syndrome by proxy)

• Child abuse among immigrant populations (e.g., excessive 

discipline of children or other instances in which cultural norms 

conflict with child welfare laws)

• Exposure of children to hazardous materials (see also, 

Clandestine Methamphetamine Labs in this series)

• Abandoned children

• Juvenile runaways.

§See American Prosecutors Research 

Institute, National Center for 

Prosecution of Child Abuse (2004), 

California Commission on Peace 

Officer Standards and Training 

(1998), and Sahonchik, Columbo, and 

Boggis (1996) for detailed guidance 

on investigating allegations of child 

abuse and neglect. 

§§See the National Center for 

Victims of Crime, www.ncvc.org, for 

additional guidance on the policevictim relationship. 
2 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Some of these related problems are covered in other guides in 

this series, all of which are listed at the end of this guide. For 

the most up-to-date listing of current and future guides, see 

www.popcenter.org. 

General Description of the Problem

Child maltreatment is a leading cause of childhood serious injuries 

and fatalities. As the most widely available helping professionals 

in communities, police have a natural role in preventing and 

responding to child abuse and neglect. Not only are police legally 

mandated to enforce the law and protect residents’ safety, but also 

they are generally committed to children’s welfare. 

Child abuse and neglect are very difficult problems. The injuries 

sustained often resemble those caused by unintentional or 

accidental situations, and police must carefully evaluate all 

reasonable explanations. The stakes are high—if police misdiagnose 

the cause of injuries, the potential for future victimization exists. 

Further, the victim is always a child, and some are very young. 

Police need to understand children’s developmental capacities—

their language and cognitive abilities—to be able to communicate 

with the victims of these crimes. Finally, unlike many other crimes 

that occur in public places, child abuse and neglect usually occurs in 

private places, and the victims may try to hide evidence of the abuse 

or deny that it took place. As a result, collecting sufficient evidence 

to determine whether a crime occurred and to identify effective 

responses to the problem is very difficult. 

Types of Child Abuse and Neglect

No single, universally accepted definition of child maltreatment 

exists. Each state constructs its own definition, which can be found 

using a combination of mandatory child-abuse reporting laws, 

criminal statutes, and juvenile court statutes. There are three main 

types of child maltreatment, which often co-occur:1,§

§Some practitioners recognize a fourth 

type of abuse—emotional—which 

entails a pattern of caregiver behavior 

that negatively impacts a child’s 

cognitive, emotional, and/or behavioral 

development. Emotional abuse is 

the most difficult form to identify. 

However, no one has widely studied 

emotional abuse, so this guide does not 

address it extensively. 
The Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 3

• Physical abuse, which may range in severity from minor 

bruising to death.

• Sexual abuse, involving varying degrees of coercion and 

violence.

• Neglect, ranging from the failure to provide food, clothing, or 

shelter to the failure to provide medical care, supervision, or 

schooling. Exposing a child to dangerous conditions or hazards, 

including crime, may also be considered neglect. 

Prevalence

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services maintains 

the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, a voluntary, 

national database that provides information on the incidence 

of child abuse and neglect. Each state’s child protective agency 

provides data. During the 1990s, the number of child abuse 

allegations decreased significantly (sexual abuse allegations 

decreased by 47 percent and physical abuse decreased by 36 

percent). The rate of child neglect has remained relatively stable, 

likely because neglect is more difficult to identify and influence 

and has not been subject to the same vigorous prevention efforts as 

other forms of maltreatment.2

In 2006, child protective agencies received an estimated 3.6 million 

referrals involving the alleged maltreatment of 6 million children.3 

Approximately one-quarter resulted in a substantiated finding of 

abuse or neglect. In other words, approximately 905,000 children 

were determined to be victims of abuse or neglect in 2006. 

Neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment, 

comprising approximately 64 percent of all substantiated findings. 

Approximately 16 percent of the substantiated cases involved 

physical abuse, 9 percent involved sexual abuse, and 7 percent 

involved emotional abuse. Child fatalities are the most tragic 

outcomes of maltreatment. Of the approximately 1,500 children 

who died from abuse or neglect in 2006, over three-fourths were 

under four years old. Compounding the problem of the high 
4 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

incidence of child abuse and neglect, many families who come to 

the attention of child protective services have subsequent referrals 

for suspected maltreatment. Thus, it is essential for police and 

child protective services to identify the situations in which child 

abuse and neglect are likely to occur so that they can implement 

appropriate responses. 

Reporting Mechanisms

Child abuse is revealed in a variety of ways.4 The child may disclose 

the abuse intentionally or accidentally. Family members who 

observe caregivers interacting with children may suspect or witness 

abuse. Professionals involved with the child may suspect abuse 

based on behavioral, emotional, or verbal clues. Neighbors may see, 

hear, or suspect maltreatment based on their observations of the 

family. 

Although they may suspect or be aware of abuse, many people are 

ambivalent about reporting their suspicions. They may not want 

to get involved, may believe that parents have the right to treat 

their children however they choose, or may not want to accept the 

implications of their suspicions about people they know and like. 

Some professionals may worry about compromising their rapport 

with their clients if they report suspected abuse. 

Beginning in the 1960s, all states established mandatory child abuse 

reporting laws that were designed to ensure that the agencies tasked 

with protecting children’s welfare (i.e., police and child protective 

services agencies) were made aware of situations in which child 

maltreatment is suspected. While laws vary across states, most 

specify the following:5

• Categories of people required to report suspected abuse or 

neglect. These commonly include medical personnel, teachers, 

mental health professionals, social workers, law enforcement 

officers, and other professionals who routinely contact children. 

Some states require any person to report suspected abuse.

• Conditions under which a professional must make a report. 

Most often, professionals must make a report when they suspect 

maltreatment has occurred. Certainty is not required.
The Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 5

• Immunity from legal liability for reporters, and penalties for the 

failure to report suspected abuse.

• Timelines within which people must make a report, often within 

24 hours of the event that triggered the suspicion. 

• Agencies responsible for receiving and investigating reports. 

Some states require all reports to be made to child protective 

services, some require certain reports to be made to the local 

law enforcement agency, and some give the reporter discretion 

whether to report to child protective services or to law 

enforcement. Very few states require all reports to be made to a 

law enforcement agency. 

Most child protective services have a 24-hour, toll-free hotline to 

receive suspected child abuse reports. Reports to law enforcement 

agencies are usually made to 911 dispatchers. Many states’ reporting 

laws require child protective services to relay at least a subset of 

reports to police (e.g., in the case of serious injury or death of the 

victim). Whether legally mandated to do so or not, most police 

relay reports of suspected abuse to child protective services. 

Police Role

Police play a variety of roles in the identification of and response 

to child abuse and neglect. Their contact with children in schools, 

homes, and the community place them in an ideal position to 

identify situations in which maltreatment may be occurring. 

Police will also receive reports of suspected abuse, either through 

calls to the police agency or through their routine contacts with 

community members. Incidents of child abuse may also lurk behind 

the scenes of domestic violence calls; thus police should ask about 

and interview any children at the scene.6

Police may also be the first responders to the scene of suspected 

abuse or neglect. While child protective services may be the 

intended recipient of a suspected child abuse report, an agency 

representative may not be available when an immediate response 

is needed. When police arrive on the scene, typical investigatory 

protocols (e.g., completing reports, taking photographs, conducting 

interviews) apply. Police are also involved in securing needed 
6 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

medical treatment for the child’s injuries or in obtaining forensic 

medical examinations to determine the presence of injuries. Police 

may also need to brief medical staff on the facts, allegations, and 

types of evidence to be collected.7

In some cases, police may need to protect child protective services 

staff. Staff members often need to visit homes in isolated or 

dangerous areas and deal with unstable or violent people. Accused 

caretakers may refuse entry to the home or access to the possible 

victim, both of which are essential to determining whether abuse 

occurred and whether the child is still at risk of harm. Most people 

more widely accept police authority than they do that of child 

protective services. If immediate danger exists, police need to 

temporarily remove the child from the home. Police are needed 

both for their authority to remove children at risk of immediate 

harm and to defuse the tensions removals may cause. Police 

presence can often have a stabilizing effect. 

Child abuse is a crime and therefore police have an obvious role in 

investigating allegations, arresting suspects, and preparing cases for 

prosecution, if warranted. Whether a case will be prosecuted or not, 

police are obligated to coordinate with other professionals (child 

protective services workers, prosecutors, medical professionals, social 

service providers, victim advocates, etc.) involved with the case.

Harms Caused by Child Abuse and Neglect 

in the Home

Children who suffer abuse and neglect may sustain a variety of 

devastating physical, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral 

problems. The effects vary with the age and personality of the 

victim and also with the type and duration of the abuse. Physical 

consequences may range from minor injuries to severe brain 

damage, while psychological harms range from lack of self-esteem 

to learning disorders to serious mental illnesses. Many abused and 

neglected children develop behavioral problems that interfere with 

their education and lead to their involvement in delinquency. 

Maltreated children may run away from home, get involved 

with drugs and alcohol, experience intimacy problems, and self-
The Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 7

harm. Research has shown that significant proportions of adults 

who were abused as children go on to abuse their own children.8

Serious negative outcomes are more likely if the abuse occurs 

over a long period of time, if it involves violence, or if offender 

is the victim’s father or father figure.9 While many maltreated 

children experience immediate and lifelong problems, many do 

not. Research on promoting resiliency in children has found that 

abuse’s negative effects can be buffered when children can form 

trusting relationships with adults, have structure and rules at 

home, are encouraged to be autonomous, and have access to health, 

education, welfare, and social services.10

Not only does child abuse and neglect harm the victims themselves, 

but also it harms families and communities. Nonoffending parents 

not only must help their children recover from maltreatment, 

but also must deal with their own complicity in permitting the 

maltreatment to occur, or in failing to recognize the signs of abuse 

in their children. The presence of child abuse and neglect in a 

community reflects attitudes about child rearing, punishment, and 

acceptance of violence as a solution to problems. 

Finally, because many forms of child maltreatment are crimes, and 

because the effects of child abuse and neglect include delinquency, 

substance abuse, and violence, efforts to reduce the incidence of 

child abuse and neglect are essential to long-term public health and 

public safety efforts. 

Factors Contributing to Child Abuse and Neglect 

in the Home

Understanding the factors that contribute to your problem will 

help you frame your own local analysis questions, determine good 

effectiveness measures, recognize key intervention points, and select 

appropriate responses.
8 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Victims

In 2005, across all types of maltreatment, newborns to three-yearolds had the highest victimization rates.11 More than half were 

seven or younger. About half of all victims were boys, and half 

girls. White and Hispanic children have lower victimization rates 

than children of other ethnicities. The victim profile is somewhat 

different depending on the individual type of maltreatment:12 

• Physical abuse. The risk of physical abuse decreases as the child 

gets older, although adolescents are also victims of it. Boys and 

girls are equally at risk of minor physical abuse, although boys 

are slightly more likely to sustain serious injuries. Physical abuse 

occurs disproportionately among economically disadvantaged 

families. Income also affects the severity of abuse. 

• Sexual abuse. Children are at highest risk of sexual abuse from 

ages seven to 12, although sexual abuse among very young 

children does occur and is often undetected because of their 

inability to communicate what is happening to them. Sexual 

abuse victims tend to be selected because they are vulnerable 

in some way (e.g., very young, passive, quiet, needy). Girls 

are significantly more likely to be sexually abused than boys, 

although it is possible that boys are simply less likely to report 

their victimization. 

• Neglect. The risk of neglect generally declines with age. The 

mean age of victims of neglect is six years old. Boys and girls are 

equally at risk of neglect. 

Children are never responsible for their victimization, but 

certain characteristics increase their vulnerability. Children’s 

need for attention and affection is their single most exploitable 

characteristic.13 Particularly in the case of sexual abuse, a trusted 

adult may take advantage of a child’s natural curiosity, desire to be 

included, and need for affection. The relationship between children 

and their caretakers makes it difficult for children to interpret what 

is happening to them as “abuse.” A victim may also feel a sense 

of loyalty to the abuser, and while the victim may want the abuse 

to stop, he or she may not want the perpetrator to be punished. 
The Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 9

Children with disabilities are extremely dependent on adults, and 

this dependence limits their ability to protect themselves and, in 

some situations, their ability to disclose what is happening to them. 

Repeat Victimization

For many children who have experienced maltreatment, the 

efforts of police, child protective services, and other social services 

have been insufficient to prevent repeat victimization. In 2005, 

approximately 6 percent of victims experienced another incident 

of abuse or neglect within six months of a substantiated finding 

of maltreatment.14 One study found that the highest risk of 

subsequent abuse was within 30 to 60 days after the initial report. 

Situations that increased the risk of subsequent victimization 

included caretaker substance abuse and criminal behavior, and the 

lack of police involvement in the initial investigation.15

Perpetrators

Child abuse occurs in all cultural, ethnic, occupational, and 

socioeconomic groups. A parent’s likelihood of mistreating his 

or her children is rarely the result of any single factor, but rather 

results from a combination of circumstances and personality types. 

While certain factors may be prevalent among perpetrators, the 

mere presence of a situation or particular trait does not mean that 

maltreatment will always occur.16

• Physical abuse.17 Caretakers who physically abuse their 

children tend to experience high stress (e.g., from singleparenting, health problems, unemployment, poverty) and may 

have poorly developed coping skills. They may also struggle 

with personality factors such as low self-esteem, poor impulse 

control, depression, anxiety, and low frustration tolerance. 

Their expectations for their child may exceed the child’s 

developmental capacity. As a result, they may not interact 

well with their child and tend to use more punitive discipline. 

Perhaps because mothers spend more time with their children, 

perpetrators are slightly more likely to be female than male. 

Further, normal adolescent defiance and rebellion increases 
10 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

family tension and may frustrate parents, who respond with 

excessive punishment. When confronted, physically abusive 

caretakers tend to offer illogical, unconvincing, or contradictory 

explanations for the child’s injury. 

• Sexual abuse. Sexual abusers are usually in a position of 

authority or trust over their victims. They are usually male and 

typically in their early 30s, although a significant proportion 

are adolescents (e.g., siblings or babysitters).18 Offenders who 

victimize family members tend to have only one or two victims 

(usually female), while non-relative offenders tend to have a 

much larger number of victims (usually male).19 Their feelings 

of inadequacy, depression, isolation, rigid values, and deviant 

arousal patterns contribute to their offending. Once they have 

selected a vulnerable victim, perpetrators generally “groom” 

the victim by progressing from nonsexual touching to sexual 

activity. They may use their authority to force their victims 

to participate, or may use various forms of enticements and 

coercion. Using bribes, threats, isolation, or physical aggression, 

perpetrators also persuade their victims to remain silent about 

the abuse so that other adults cannot intervene. Sexual abusers 

tend to rationalize and minimize their behavior, deny the sexual 

intent, or project blame onto the victim.20 That said, most sexual 

abusers are not attracted exclusively to children (that is, they are 

also sexually attracted to adults), and they have relatively low 

recidivism rates, particularly as they get older.21

• Neglect. Single female caretakers are mostly likely to be 

reported for neglecting their children. Younger mothers, 

those with large families, and those who experienced neglect 

themselves are also more likely to neglect their children’s needs. 

Economic hardship and isolation from social activities and peers 

are also contributing factors. They may also have a substance 

abuse problem that limits their ability to care for themselves 

and creates a chaotic lifestyle that compromises their parenting 

abilities. 
The Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 11

Family Factors22

Children in single-parent families may be at higher risk of physical 

abuse and neglect, although the effects of poverty, stress, social 

isolation, and lack of support are all contributing factors. Risk is 

reduced for the children of single mothers when the children have 

a relationship with their fathers. In two-parent families, the risk 

of maltreatment is greater if marital conflict or domestic violence 

is also present. Neglectful parents tend to have more children and 

more people living in the household. Neglected children’s homes 

are characterized by chaos and an ever-changing constellation of 

adult and child residents. 

Environmental Factors23

Families living in areas challenged by poverty and unemployment, 

particularly when coupled with the individual and family factors 

described above, are at higher risk of child abuse and neglect. The 

degree of social support available to parents, along with community 

attitudes about raising children and using punishment, can also 

contribute to the risk of child maltreatment. 

Understanding Your Local Problem 13

Understanding Your Local Problem

The information provided above is only a generalized description 

of child abuse and neglect in the home. You must combine the 

basic facts with a more specific understanding of your local 

problem. Carefully analyzing your local problem will help you 

develop a more effective response strategy. 

Stakeholders

Anyone addressing this problem should be aware of the 

many resources available, particularly in fields other than law 

enforcement. In addition to criminal justice agencies, the following 

groups have an interest in the child maltreatment problem, and 

you should consider them for the contribution they might make to 

gathering information about the problem and responding to it:

Child protective services

• Local child protective services often share the statutory 

responsibility for responding to child abuse with police agencies.

• Child protective services workers have significant expertise 

in victimology, interviews with young children, and typical 

reactions of abusing and nonabusing parents.

Schools

• Teachers, guidance counselors, and administrators have daily 

contact with children and are likely to note behavioral changes 

that could indicate abuse at home.

• Schools may implement responses targeting potential abuse 

victims.

Health care providers

• Some health care providers are injury experts and may be able to 

offer an opinion on whether injuries are consistent with parents’ 

explanations for them.
14 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Mental health providers

• Abuse allegations may first be disclosed to counselors or 

psychologists, who will then contact child protective services or 

police for an immediate response.

• Mental health professionals will implement responses designed 

to reduce individual risk factors present for abusive caretakers.

Social services agencies

• Families who neglect children’s basic needs may need access 

to a range of social services to support the family structure. 

Representatives of these agencies can contribute concrete 

resources to family safety plans.

Foster-care licensing agencies

• When children are in immediate danger, you may need to 

remove them from the home and temporarily place them in 

foster care. Representatives of licensing agencies can ensure that 

sufficient emergency resources are available locally.

Faith-based organizations

• Churches, synagogues, and other faith-based institutions may 

work with parents to reduce individual risk factors.

• These groups may implement responses targeting potential 

abuse victims.

Employers and business associations

• Family stress related to employment demands can increase 

the risk of abuse and neglect. Local employers may be able to 

develop a range of support services designed to reduce these 

risks. 

Daycare providers and babysitters

• These people often have unique access to and insight about 

family dynamics. 
Understanding Your Local Problem 15

Asking the Right Questions

The following are some critical questions you should ask in 

analyzing your particular problem of child abuse and neglect in the 

home, even if the answers are not always readily available. Your 

answers to these and other questions will help you choose the most 

appropriate set of responses later on.

Incidents

• How many suspected child abuse and neglect reports do police 

receive? How many do child protective services receive? To what 

extent do the agencies cross-report?

• How often do police encounter and identify suspected child 

abuse or neglect during the course of their routine duties? 

On what types of calls or during what types of activities do 

suspicions arise?

• How often does a single suspected child abuse and neglect 

report involve multiple children? How many total children are 

involved across all cases reported?

• What proportion are reports of physical abuse? Sexual abuse? 

Neglect? To what extent do these types of maltreatment 

co-occur?

• Among physical abuse cases, what types of injuries do victims 

sustain? How many incidents involve bruises, lacerations, burns, 

broken bones, head trauma, death, etc.?

• Among sexual abuse cases, what types of injuries do victims 

sustain? How many involve physical injuries, sexually 

transmitted disease, pregnancy, etc.?

• Among neglect cases, what basic needs do caretakers neglect? 

How many involve food, clothing, shelter, supervision, 

education, medical treatment, etc.?

• Who reports incidents to police? To child protective 

services? Does the reporting source vary across the types of 

maltreatment?
16 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

• What groups of mandated reporters appear to be 

underrepresented? What reasons do they give for failing to 

report suspected abuse?

• What proportion of reports do child protective services accept 

for assessment or investigation? What proportion do police 

investigate? Do they conduct any of these investigations jointly?

• What proportion of reported families has previous referrals to 

police or child protective services? What actions were taken in 

the original cases?

• How many referrals to child protective services are 

substantiated? For what types of maltreatment? 

Victims 

• What is the average age of physical abuse victims? At what 

victims’ ages do referrals for physical abuse tend to cluster?

• What is the proportion of boys versus girls among physical 

abuse victims? What is the racial and ethnic composition of 

these victims? 

• What is the average age of sexual abuse victims? At what victims’ 

ages do referrals for sexual abuse tend to cluster?

• What is the proportion of boys versus girls among sexual abuse 

victims? What is the racial and ethnic composition of these 

victims? 

• What is the average age of neglect victims? At what victims’ ages 

do referrals for neglect tend to cluster?

• What is the proportion of boys versus girls among neglect 

victims? What is the racial and ethnic composition of these 

victims?

• What proportion of maltreatment victims is developmentally, 

cognitively, or physically disabled?
Understanding Your Local Problem 17

Offenders

• What is the average age of physical abusers? What is their racial 

and ethnic composition? What proportion is male versus female?

• What is the relationship of the physical abuser to the victim? 

• For how long does the physical abuse occur? What types of 

instruments do abusers use to inflict injury? In what situations 

does the abuse occur?

• What proportion of perpetrators has substance abuse problems? 

What proportion has diagnosed mental health conditions? What 

proportion has chronic health problems?

• What are the key sources of stress among physical abusers? 

Unemployment? Single parenting? Poverty? Domestic violence?

• What is the average age of sexual abusers? What is their racial 

and ethnic composition? What proportion is male versus female?

• What is the relationship of the sexual abuser to the victim?

• How does the sexual abuse begin? How does the perpetrator 

“groom” the victim? When and why does the sexual abuse stop?

• If a nonoffending caretaker is present, is he or she aware that 

abuse is occurring? 

• What is the average age of those alleged to have neglected 

their children? What is the perpetrators’ racial and ethnic 

composition? What proportion is male versus female?

• What are the key sources of stress among those alleged to have 

neglected their children? What proportion is unemployed? 

Single parents? Living in poverty? 

• Does the neglectful caretaker have a substance abuse problem? Is 

he or she involved in crime? 

• How many people live in the households in which children are 

being neglected? Of what ages? How stable is the occupancy? 
18 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Locations/Times

• Do reports of suspected child abuse and neglect cluster in a 

specific geographic area? What are this area’s characteristics?

• Are there any seasonal patterns identified in the reports of 

suspected child abuse and neglect?

• On what days of the week and at what times of the day do 

referrals requiring an immediate police response tend to occur? 

• What proportion of referrals identifies a location outside of the 

family’s home? 

Current Responses

• Is there an organized partnership among stakeholders in your 

jurisdiction? What professions are included? Are any key 

agencies missing?

• Is there any written agreement about how the group will operate? 

Do they follow it?

• What problems has this partnership experienced in adequately 

responding to child abuse and neglect?

• How often must police respond to the scene of reported child 

abuse or neglect without support from a child protective services 

worker? Under what conditions does this occur?

• Why do police accompany child protective services workers 

(e.g., to ensure access to the location or possible victims, to act 

as a stabilizing presence, or to protect workers in a dangerous 

neighborhood)?

• How many officers have special expertise in child abuse and 

neglect? What sort of training does the average line officer 

receive? What sort of training do specialists receive?

• How often do police remove children from the home? What is 

the basis for this decision? 

• What services are provided to victims of physical abuse? Sexual 

abuse? Neglect?

• What services are provided to perpetrators of physical abuse? 

Sexual abuse? Neglect?
Understanding Your Local Problem 19

• How often do police arrest suspected perpetrators? How 

often do prosecutors prosecute suspected perpetrators? In 

what situations do prosecutors decide not to go forward with 

prosecution?

• What sorts of penalties do courts impose on those convicted of 

child abuse and neglect? 

• What other responses have been implemented to address the 

problem of child abuse and neglect? Which have been effective? 

Which have not, and why?

Measuring Your Effectiveness

Measurement allows you to determine to what degree your efforts 

have succeeded, and suggests how you might modify your responses 

if they are not producing the intended results. You should take 

measures of your problem before you implement responses, to 

determine how serious the problem is, and after you implement 

them, to determine whether they have been effective. You should 

take all measures in both the target area and the surrounding area. 

For more detailed guidance on measuring effectiveness, see the 

Problem-Solving Tools guide, Assessing Responses to Problems: An 

Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers. 

The following are potentially useful measures of the effectiveness of 

responses to child abuse and neglect in the home:

• Reduced number of suspected child abuse and neglect reports 

(however, if reporting protocols are not fully intact, you may 

initially experience an increase in the number of reported cases)

• Reduced number of children who are revictimized, even after 

contact with police and child protective services

• Shorter durations of abuse (in other words, police and child 

protective services become aware of and intervene in suspected 

abuse cases sooner)

• Reduced number of child fatalities caused by child abuse and 

neglect
20 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

• Reduced number and severity of injuries caretakers inflict on 

children

• Reduced number of children whose caretakers are not fulfilling 

their basic needs

• Reduced number of children for whom removal from the home 

is required to protect their safety

• Increased number of caregivers who proactively seek parenting 

support and other services to alleviate family stress.
Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 21

Responses to the Problem of Child 

Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Your analysis of your local problem of child abuse and neglect in 

the home should give you a better understanding of the factors 

contributing to it. Once you have analyzed your local problem 

and established a baseline for measuring effectiveness, you should 

consider possible responses to address the problem. 

The following response strategies provide a foundation of ideas 

for addressing your particular problem. These strategies are drawn 

from a variety of research studies and police reports. Several of 

these strategies may apply to your community’s problem. It is 

critical that you tailor responses to local circumstances, and that 

you can justify each response based on reliable analysis. In most 

cases, an effective strategy will involve implementing several 

different responses. Law enforcement responses alone are seldom 

effective in reducing or solving the problem. Do not limit yourself 

to considering what police can do: carefully consider whether 

others in your community share responsibility for the problem 

and can help police better respond to it. The responsibility of 

responding, in some cases, may need to be shifted toward those 

who have the capacity to implement more effective responses. (For 

more detailed information on shifting and sharing responsibility, 

see Response Guide No. 3, Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for 

Public Safety Problems).
22 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

General Considerations for an Effective 

Response Strategy

1. Reducing community risk factors for child abuse and 

neglect. Some of the risk factors for child abuse and neglect 

are related to the overall characteristics of the communities 

where families live. For example, families living in poverty or 

challenged by unemployment experience higher stress levels 

that can undermine healthy parenting. Responses that address 

communities’ economic well-being can have individual-level 

impacts that may reduce the incidence of maltreatment. 

Similarly, efforts to stabilize housing opportunities and 

to restrict the availability of drugs and alcohol within the 

community may enhance individual protective factors.24

2. Educating the public about the problem of child abuse 

and neglect. The key to addressing child abuse and neglect 

is to ensure that police and other agencies responsible 

for responding to it are informed of families in need of 

intervention. Professionals and community residents are the 

main conduits of this information and thus must be aware of 

the problem and how to report their suspicions that a child is 

being abused or neglected.§ This information can be conveyed 

through public service announcements, press releases, posters 

and billboards, or television documentaries, all of which raise 

community awareness of maltreatment as a public issue and of 

the various resources available. 25

In addition to informing the general public, targeted efforts 

can be made to ensure that children learn basic concepts 

of safety, appropriate contact with parents, and how to ask 

for help if they feel they have been mistreated. Particularly 

in the prevention of child sexual abuse, children must learn 

appropriate behavioral limits. Although increased knowledge 

does not necessarily result in safer behavior among potential 

victims, better outcomes have been found when parents 

participate in the program and when teachers integrate safety 

concepts into everyday teaching.26 

§One local Area Child Protection 

Committee in the United Kingdom 

developed a public awareness 

campaign using the slogan “The 

difference between child abuse and 

child protection could be you.” Posters 

created by local art students were 

placed in supermarkets, shopping 

centers, and public health centers. 

They provided the contact numbers 

for police and local child protective 

teams. An information kit titled 

“Knowing the Basics” also provided 

the public with information on the 

characteristics of child abuse and how 

community members could report it 

(Davies 2004). 
Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 23

3. Clarifying mandatory child-abuse reporting laws.

Subjectivity and ambiguity in mandatory child-abuse reporting 

laws contribute to the failure to report suspected abuse.27 Not 

only do these laws need to be clear, but also they should be 

streamlined to ensure response efficiency. Some states require 

residents to report all allegations of child abuse and neglect— 

regardless of their severity—to the police. Such overly broad 

requirements can be counterproductive.28 Without guidelines 

to filter the most serious allegations, reporting laws risk 

overwhelming police, who must review numerous cases only to 

decide which ones to investigate. 

Conversely, some reporting laws are overly narrow, requiring 

only a small subset of allegations to be reported to police 

(e.g., only those involving sexual abuse or fatalities). Such a 

restricted focus creates the risk that cases involving imminent 

danger or chronic patterns of less serious injuries will not 

benefit from police involvement. Reporting laws should 

require people to notify the police of serious injuries and cases 

in which imminent danger exists, along with cases that child 

protective services deem appropriate for police involvement.29

Reporting laws must also clearly specify the point at which 

police must be notified.30

4. Increasing line officers’ awareness of suspicious injuries. 

Incidents of child abuse and neglect often go undetected 

because police or other first responders coming into contact 

with children do not identify injuries, conditions, or behaviors 

as suspicious. Children sustain many accidental injuries, but 

caretakers may also inflict them. During their normal course 

of duty, responding to calls for service or functioning as school 

resource officers, police must take proactive steps to assess 

the condition of all children present.§ When a child has an 

injury, police must ask caretakers to explain how the injury 

occurred, being attuned to implausible, illogical, or conflicting 

statements. From there, asking the child how he or she was 

injured may produce inconsistencies that suggest the injury 

was not accidental. There are many high-quality resources for 

police to develop skill in identifying suspicious injuries.§§

§The LaCrosse (Wisconsin) Police 

Department noted that children in 

families where domestic violence 

occurred were 15 times more likely to 

experience child abuse. In response, 

the department’s Domestic Abuse 

Reduction Team revised its standard 

report to note the children’s presence 

at domestic violence incidents, even 

those who were not directly involved. 

Detectives follow up on the children’s 

condition after the initial visit and also 

notify the prosecutor of the children’s 

presence so that their needs can be 

included in diversion agreements 

(LaCrosse Police Department, 1999).

§§Resources for identifying suspicious 

injuries include Farley and Reece 

(2002); California Attorney General’s 

Office, Crime and Violence Prevention 

Center (2006); and U.S. Department 

of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and 

Delinquency Prevention (1997). 
24 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

5. Creating police agency policy regarding child abuse 

and neglect. Written policies help to establish professional 

standards and can elevate the quality of police investigations. 

Policy statements should include clear direction on the steps 

police must take when a suspected child abuse or neglect report 

comes to their attention.31 They should also provide police 

with specific guidelines for making crucial decisions such as 

removing a child from the home or arresting a suspect.32

6. Increasing the reliability of statements made by victims of 

child abuse and neglect. 

Interviewing skills. Poorly conducted interviews can alienate 

and upset child victims. Failing to adapt interview techniques 

to the special needs of child victims can lead to an inaccurate 

understanding of the facts and can create opportunities for 

inconsistencies and errors that may be challenged in court.§

Common errors in interviewing children include reinforcing 

certain answers, relaying what others believe about the allegation, 

and asking complicated questions.33 The reliability of victims’ 

statements is enhanced when police do the following: 34

• Make the interview setting child-friendly.

• Recognize the developmental capabilities of children of 

different ages.

• Exercise patience when asking the child to explain what 

happened.

• Avoid “why” questions and focus instead on clear, openended questions about salient events.

• Make efforts to offset any guilt the victim may experience 

for “causing trouble.”

Training. Numerous training programs to enhance 

interviewers’ skills are available. They should be grounded 

in child development and best-practice research. Not only 

should courses present information on legal issues, childabuse dynamics, child development, evidence-gathering, 

and interviewing skills, but also they should provide many 

opportunities for attendees to practice the skills they have 

§This guide offers only general 

guidance—one resource for 

more specific interview protocols 

and guidelines is the American 

Prosecutors Research Institute 

(2004).
Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 25

learned and to receive specific feedback from trained 

observers.35 Holding a single, intensive training session is 

certainly efficient, but breaking the course down into phases 

allows attendees to apply the new skills in the field and then 

return to training to work through any difficulties they 

experienced. 

Several studies have found that training programs can 

increase knowledge while having only a limited effect on 

practice. For example, a study of one such program found 

that interview training did not impact key interviewing skills 

such as the types of questions that should be asked or the 

length of the interview, nor did the training substantially 

improve interviewers’ ability to gather useful information.36 

Outcomes can be improved with highly structured protocols, 

competency-based assessments, and regular supervision and 

feedback. 

Videotaping.37 You should use videotapes of a child victim’s 

statements selectively. Advocates hold that videotape yields 

a more accurate and credible rendering of what happened 

and can discourage victims from recanting as the trial 

date approaches. Further, videotaping holds interviewers 

accountable for how they conduct the interview and can later 

be used as a training aid. Opponents of videotaping victims’ 

statements hold that court proceedings tend to focus on 

inconsistencies and interviewers’ mistakes, rather than focusing 

on the substance of what the child reports. Not only does the 

interviewer need to be trained to use the technology effectively, 

but also the viewer must be trained in how to interpret 

young children’s language and nonverbal cues. In practice, 

professionals generally indicate that videotaped statements are 

superior to handwritten notes, but that the technical quality 

is extremely important. Videotaped statements’ effect on 

prosecutorial outcomes is unknown. 
26 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Specific Responses to Child Abuse and Neglect 

in the Home

7. Creating multidisciplinary teams to respond to child 

maltreatment allegations. No single agency can fully respond 

to child mistreatment allegations. Many jurisdictions have 

involved a wide array of professionals in the team tasked 

with responding to child maltreatment. Medical and dental 

professionals, coroners and medical examiners, mental health 

workers, victim advocates, prosecutors, and teachers and 

guidance counselors all have a unique skill set to apply to the 

problem of child maltreatment.38,§ Not surprisingly, complex 

child abuse investigations are difficult to coordinate, and some 

agencies may overstep the boundaries of others, creating tension 

in an already difficult situation.

In the initial team discussions, you should identify failings of 

the current process for investigating and responding to child 

maltreatment. Protocols for remedying these problems should 

be sufficiently broad to cover a variety of situations, yet specific 

enough to offer clear direction for team members by answering 

the questions of who, what, when, where, and how each 

member should respond.39 Teams need to develop strategies 

for promoting teamwork, preventing burnout, and resolving 

conflict. Teams should also consult local counsel to address 

any confidentiality issues that may prevent full communication 

among team members. 

Multidisciplinary teams serve two key purposes.40 First, their 

primary function can be investigative, meaning that they identify 

new cases and review those under investigation and pending 

court. Team input ensures that key issues do not fall through 

the cracks. Team interviews, led by a single team member and 

conducted in front of a one-way mirror or on CCTV, can 

reduce the number of separate interviews needed to gather 

information from victims, suspects, and witnesses.41 Second, 

using information gained from the interviews, the team can also 

engage in service planning, committing a variety of therapeutic 

and other support services to meet the family’s needs. 

§The Reno (Nevada) Police 

Department created a “Knock and 

Talk” program that pairs a police 

officer with a public health nurse 

to check on the welfare of families 

living in local motels. These families 

sometimes fail to provide for their 

children’s medical needs or engage in 

harmful parenting practices. Being 

alert to the signs of mistreatment, the 

police-nurse team can identify families 

who need help (Crane and Dedel 

Johnson, 2000).
Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 27

Although there are many benefits to working collaboratively, 

multidisciplinary teams are not without challenges.42 From 

the police perspective, child protective services workers are 

not focused on collecting evidence, may unwittingly overlook 

important cues, or may permit the suspect to obstruct the 

investigation. Most child protective services use a team 

approach and require multiple consultations before acting, 

which may frustrate police who are often used to working 

independently and making decisions at the scene. These same 

dynamics can frustrate child protective services workers. 

Perhaps most seriously, applying more-rigorous criminal justice 

standards of evidence may improperly influence child protective 

services workers, who then fail to substantiate cases in which 

children are at risk of future maltreatment.43 

Research has shown that multidisciplinary team intervention 

leads to a reduced number of cases in which victims, suspects, 

and witnesses undergo multiple interviews; increased numbers 

of sexual abuse victims receiving therapeutic services; shorter 

caseworker response times; more-thorough investigations 

(e.g., longer ones with more contacts and more face-toface interviews); improved criminal justice outcomes (e.g., 

confessions, guilty pleas, and prosecutions); and increased 

numbers of substantiated child protective services cases.44

Joint investigations by police and child protective services workers.

At the most basic level, these teams should identify the dual 

responsibilities of police and child protective services workers 

when initially responding. In the United States, both law 

enforcement and child protective services are legally mandated 

to intervene in cases of suspected child abuse. One problem 

parallel mandates creates is the need for multiple people to 

interview the victim. Not only is repeating the same basic 

questions inefficient, but also repeated interviewing can distress 

the victim. Police and child protective services are alike in some 

ways, but different in others: both are dedicated to protecting 

children and both seek to learn the truth about the allegations 

made. But child protective services are primarily concerned 
28 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

with assessing the child’s environment and planning to ensure 

future safety, while police are looking for evidence of a specific 

crime that could lead to an arrest.45

While the potential for duplication and interference certainly 

exists, the shared responsibility also creates an opportunity 

for collaboration that improves outcomes for both agencies. 

Each agency brings its own style and skill set to the problem 

of responding to child maltreatment. These approaches 

can be complementary and supportive, once each agency 

gains understanding and respect for the other’s approach. 

Some police assume that child protective services workers 

fundamentally oppose pursuing criminal charges because of 

their unyielding commitment to maintaining the family unit. 

They also fear that child protective services workers may 

inadvertently interfere with evidence collection and hinder 

police efforts to file criminal charges. On the other hand, child 

protective services workers often believe that police always want 

to file charges, even when criminal action would not be in the 

family’s best interest. Child protective services workers may 

also fear that police may take a heavy-handed approach that 

will ultimately antagonize the family and reduce opportunities 

for meaningful intervention. In reality, neither agency is onedimensional and, with practice, each agency can learn to respect 

and support the mission of the other.46

The law requires some police agencies to collaborate with 

child protective services, while others choose to do so because 

of the many benefits these collaborations provide, such as 

easier information-sharing, more thorough investigations, 

additional opportunities for mutual support, a special focus 

on the developmental needs of child victims, and greater 

accountability.47

A written interagency agreement should precisely articulate 

the specifics of conducting joint investigations. The agreement 

should present the reporting procedures as defined by law and 

should create a specific protocol for how the agencies, together, 

will approach each case (e.g., what roles they will play, how they 
Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 29

will notify each other, which cases they will jointly investigate, 

what steps they will take at each stage of the investigation, what 

time frames they will use, how they will keep records, who will 

be responsible for what, what conflict resolution procedures 

they will use).48 

Situations in Which Police Presence at Initial 

Contact is Strongly Recommended

• The case is serious enough to warrant arrest.

• Police cannot reach child protective services and they need 

an immediate response.

• A child is endangered and the child protective services 

worker is not permitted to enter the home.

• A child must be placed in protective custody against the 

parents’ wishes.

• The suspect may flee.

• Evidence must be preserved.

• The child protective services worker needs protection or 

order must otherwise be maintained. 

Adapted from Besharov (1990), p. 10.

Most agencies with strong interagency agreements create 

formal teams of police and child protective services workers.§

The permanent assignments and high-level contact breed 

familiarity and trust. These teams should have access to highquality training programs that allow all personnel to become 

familiar with the language, techniques, processes, and objectives 

of the other agency.§§

You must conduct joint investigations within a larger context 

of interagency collaborations. Case review meetings including 

representatives of all agencies are needed to sustain momentum, 

make decisions that meet each agency’s needs, and troubleshoot 

obstacles that arise. You should hold strategy meetings before 

interviewing victims, suspects, and witnesses and subsequently 

review the information obtained.49 Studies of effective police 

§In 1998, New York City’s child 

welfare agency, police department, 

and district attorney’s office launched 

the Instant Response Team (IRT). 

Within two hours of an allegation 

of serious mistreatment (e.g., fatality, 

sexual abuse, or severe injury), child 

welfare, police, and often a prosecutor 

responded to the location to conduct 

joint interviews of the possible victim 

in a child-friendly setting. In most of 

the IRT’s cases, the police removed the 

suspect, rather than the child, from the 

home (Ross, Levy, and Hope, 2004). 

The Vancouver (British Columbia) 

Police and the Ministry of Children 

and Families created “Car 86,” which 

dispatched a police officer and social 

workers team to the scene of all 

domestic disputes, family violence calls, 

and child welfare matters that involved 

violence. For both team members, “Car 

86” formed an information conduit 

for normally confidential information 

about previous child welfare and 

police involvement with people at the 

location. Those assigned to “Car 86” 

also shared their newfound expertise 

with other members of each agency 

during routine consultation (Ennis, 

2000; Edmonton Police Service, 1998). 

§§The Los Angeles County 

(California) Sheriff ’s Department 

created an investigation academy 

for nonpolice members of its 

multidisciplinary team. A 40-hour 

course provided training in 

investigation skills, report writing, 

courtroom demeanor, interview 

skills, substance abuse recognition, 

detection of deception and lying, 

evidence collection, and collaborative 

investigation strategies. This course is 

now a required component for all new 

child protective services workers (Baca, 

Jendrucko, and Scott, 2001). 
30 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

and child protective services collaborations have found that 

cooperation is maximized when police do not dominate 

the interviews, allowing child protective services workers 

sufficient time to gather needed information.50 Similarly, police 

should be trained in child development so that they structure 

developmentally appropriate interview questions.

Police specialists. Even if police departments cannot or will 

not create formal partnerships with child protective services 

and other agencies, they can still enhance the quality of their 

response to maltreatment allegations by dispatching specially 

trained officers to the scene of a child abuse or neglect incident. 

In addition, providing responding officers with specific child 

maltreatment-related information regarding the location 

can improve response.§ When officers have core training in 

the areas discussed above, they can better respond to and 

investigate allegations on their own. Depending on your 

department’s size, you may train individual officers or create a 

specialized unit. Given the stress of these types of cases, child 

maltreatment specialists should have access to support groups 

and the department’s psychologist.51 Although specialists do 

bring a unique skill set and may enhance the quality of the 

department’s response, using specialists can also create a gulf 

between them and regular uniformed officers who would 

benefit from having many of the same skills.52 

8. Conducting child fatality reviews. A child’s death is the 

most tragic outcome of child abuse and neglect. When it 

occurs, a team composed of police, child protective services 

representatives, prosecutors, coroner(s), and other medical 

experts should review the case’s circumstances to detect any 

discrepancies between policy and practice and any gaps in 

communication that may have prevented the child’s death. 

Improvements flowing from these reviews can prevent future 

deaths. Once formed, child fatality review teams must identify 

the types of cases they will review. Some teams meet regularly; 

others meet only after a death occurs. In most jurisdictions, 

§The Los Angeles County Sheriff ’s 

Department created an “831 

Notification System” for field 

personnel who respond to child abuse 

allegations. The information system 

provides the responding officer with 

the history of activity at the location, 

describing prior events. Armed with 

this information, the responding 

officer has more current and accurate 

data about the residence’s occupants 

and may be better able to anticipate 

events (Baca, Jendrucko, and Scott, 

2001). 
Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 31

members are not paid for their service. Perhaps as a result, high 

turnover rates and unstable membership pose a challenge to 

many teams.53

9. Enhancing cultural competence. Ignorance of the dynamics 

within local immigrant cultures can hamper the investigation of 

possible maltreatment. Being culturally competent requires far 

more than learning how to greet or talk to people from various 

cultures.§ Investigating officers must also do the following:54

• Recognize that immigrants may create stories and dates to 

comply with the law and to provide information often lost 

or destroyed in war-torn countries. Officers should ask for 

the truth about things particularly relevant to the case, but 

should not press for the truth about inconsequential details. 

• Understand what information they must report to 

immigration agencies and inform the family accordingly. 

• Ask for the family’s language preference and use it by 

contracting with an interpreter, if necessary. People’s true 

personalities are much more apparent when they can speak 

in their native language. Further, you should provide all 

documents in the family’s native language so they have 

adequate time to read, digest, and consult others regarding 

the information. 

10. Creating child advocacy centers. Aiming to reduce the trauma 

that often accompanies a child maltreatment investigation, 

many jurisdictions have created child advocacy centers 

(CACs). These stand-alone programs usually involve police, 

child protective services workers, prosecutors, mental health 

professionals, medical professionals, and victim advocates. A 

team specially trained to interview child abuse victims works 

within a child-friendly environment, assessing needs and 

providing services.§§ CACs do not have uniform models, but 

rather play roles unique to the community’s needs; however, 

they incorporate many practices with a solid research base and 

thus favorable case outcomes are likely.55

§For tips on developing cultural 

competency in the Asian American 

community, see Hwang and Vang, 

2009. 

§§The Baltimore (Maryland) Police 

Department’s Child Advocacy 

Network (CAN) is a neutral 

multidisciplinary setting where a 

licensed social worker or psychologist 

interviews victims of child sexual abuse 

and a forensic pediatrician examines 

them. The CAN minimizes both 

trauma and waiting time for victims 

and also allows patrol officers to return 

to service more quickly (Baltimore 

Police Department, 1997). 
32 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

11. Implementing home visitation programs. Although police 

are rarely directly involved in them, home visitation programs 

are an essential component of a coordinated response to child 

abuse and neglect. Usually operated by public health agencies, 

home visitation programs provide services to pregnant mothers 

and families with newborns to reduce the risk of maltreatment. 

They may include information regarding parenting techniques 

and nonviolent discipline, child development, health, home 

safety, and access to local services. Jurisdictions implementing 

this response should attend closely to research identifying the 

essential elements of effective home visitation programs.56 

Families receiving high-quality home visitation services generate 

lower numbers of maltreatment reports than similarly situated 

families who do not receive such services.57

12. Improving family support systems to reduce family stressors. 

Marital and family stressors are a major contributing factor to 

child abuse and neglect. Programs to alleviate these stressors 

and to provide family support can therefore reduce the 

incidence of child maltreatment. Again, although police will 

have a very limited, if any, role in these programs, they are an 

important part of a comprehensive response to child abuse and 

neglect. Social services, faith-based groups, and family services 

may provide parent support groups and parenting classes; 

child care, parent aid, and parent respite care; and programs 

to meet families’ basic needs for food, shelter, and clothing. 

Employers whose policies can help to ease the stress working 

parents experience can also support these efforts. Policies such 

as flexible schedules, parental leave, and employer-supported 

child care can remove a key stressor that contributes to child 

maltreatment.58

13. Offering confidential helpline assistance to those who 

see themselves at risk of abusing a child. Parents and other 

caregivers may recognize their own vulnerabilities and inability 

to cope in certain situations. Offering a free, confidential 

telephone helpline where these individuals may seek advice, 

guidance and support may prevent their offending.§ While 

rigorous research on the effectiveness of helplines has not 

§The “Stop It Now!” helpline focuses 

on preventing child sexual abuse and 

offers free telephone support to those 

who are concerned about their own or 

others’ behavior (see www.stopitnow.

org/help.html). 
Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 33

been conducted, some evidence has shown that at least some 

potential offenders will call to ask for assistance.59 Helplines 

should be widely advertised and should offer callers follow-up 

services such as information and confidential counseling. 

14. Removing children from the home. For many families, police 

contact and the crafting of a safety plan by child protective 

services workers may be sufficient to protect possible victims 

from future harm. For others, however, the children remain 

at risk of immediate harm. In these cases, police have the 

authority to remove children from the home and to place them 

in protective custody. All officers need to know the law in 

their state. Without this information, they risk leaving a child 

in a dangerous situation or removing a child illegally, both 

of which could result in civil liability for the officer and the 

department.60

Police should not leave the scene until they are certain children 

remaining in the home will be safe from continued abuse, 

intimidation, or retaliation and will receive needed medical care. 

Police should decide to remove a child from the home in concert 

with child protective services. If police remove the child, child 

protective services will usually identify a proper placement. 

Placements with friends or relatives are preferred over emergency 

foster or shelter care. Police should involve caretakers in the 

decision regarding emergency placement and should advise them 

of their legal rights. However, police should not try to rationalize 

the removal. Extensive explanations will not lessen the pain, 

fear, and hostility parents experience and can raise the child’s 

anxiety.61 Police should also consult children and address their 

feelings of guilt or responsibility. Police can reduce the stress of 

removal by keeping siblings together and letting the children take 

a few favorite possessions. 62
34 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

For a number of reasons, removing a child from the home 

may be more traumatic than the abuse or neglect.63 Many 

communities do not have sufficient facilities for emergency 

placements and child victims are improperly placed in 

detention facilities or hospitals. Other jurisdictions’ service 

networks require transfer among multiple foster homes. 

Taken as a whole, removal severely stresses families already 

experiencing problems. 

15. Arresting and prosecuting child abusers. If the facts warrant 

doing so, arresting the suspect may be a viable alternative to 

removing the child from the home. Arrest causes an immediate 

change in the environment and creates an opportunity to 

plan and implement a long-term rehabilitative program for 

the family.64 However, arresting the suspected abuser is by 

no means the rule—child protective services rather than the 

criminal justice system handle the majority of cases of alleged 

maltreatment. That said, if the suspect is likely to flee, removing 

the suspect from the home is the only way to ensure the child’s 

safety or preserve the peace. If the child’s injuries are severe, or 

criminal prosecution is likely, arrest may be the most prudent 

police action.65

Prosecution is the most consequential response to child abuse 

and neglect; unfortunately, these cases are also arguably the 

most difficult to prosecute. The cases are complex because 

prosecutors receive referrals from two different agencies 

(i.e., police and child protective services), both of which are 

involved with the investigation. Further, child abuse is often 

difficult to detect, and evidence is hard to get. As a result, it is 

difficult to determine whether a crime has occurred, and who 

is culpable. Child abuse and neglect prosecutions rely heavily 

on the victims’ testimony, which is notoriously unpredictable. 

Although most substantiated cases of child abuse and 

neglect are not prosecuted, most of those that are result in a 

conviction.66
Responses to the Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 35

Responses with Limited Effectiveness

16. Transferring jurisdiction for all child abuse cases to law 

enforcement. A few states have granted police agencies the 

sole responsibility for investigating allegations of child abuse 

and neglect, believing that delegation to a single agency will 

result in more timely and efficient investigations. However, 

research conducted on Florida’s experience with this model 

found no improvements in the efficiency of investigations or 

the promptness of service delivery.67 Further, the model had no 

impact on the rate of maltreatment or the severity of criminal 

justice sanctions. 

17. Containing sex offenders using offender restrictions and 

community awareness. Federal law compels all states to pass 

legislation requiring sex offenders to register their addresses 

with local law enforcement agencies so that police can track and 

apprehend potential suspects. Federal law also allows states to 

distribute information to community residents about registered 

sex offenders who live nearby. These laws were designed to 

increase community awareness and to help residents avoid 

contact with potential offenders. Some states have also created 

exclusionary zones that prevent sex offenders from living near 

playgrounds, day care centers, schools, parks, and other areas 

where children congregate. These laws were intended to increase 

the distance between potential offenders and potential victims.

Research on the effectiveness of these policies in reducing 

recidivism is generally unsupportive, in part because the policies 

are generally not evidence-based nor do they reflect the actual 

risk to community safety posed by offenders of different 

risk levels. Rather, these policies are often based on false 

perceptions of the nature of sex offending.68 For example, the 

laws themselves often rely on beliefs about “stranger danger,” 

when in reality, most victims know their abusers.69 Contrary to 

public expectations, some research has shown that recidivism 
36 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

rates among sex offenders are relatively low compared with 

those of other violent offenders. Further, the research shows 

that these restrictions do little to address the root causes of 

sexual reoffending. Particularly when evaluating potential 

responses to sexual abuse by a caretaker in the home, registry 

and notification laws have a major disconnect with the likely 

victim pool of these perpetrators.70 

Registry and notification laws also have many consequences 

policymakers have not anticipated. Notification can increase 

anxiety among community residents because the notice is 

not usually accompanied by practical information on how to 

reduce one’s risk of harm.71 Residency restrictions have dire 

consequences for offenders, including the loss of employment, 

housing, and supportive family networks, which, paradoxically, 

increases the risk of reoffending. As more sex offenders cannot 

find a permanent residence, which may result in registries’ 

including obsolete or falsified address information, police find 

it harder to keep track of them. 
Appendix 37

Appendix: Summary of Responses to 

Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

The table below summarizes the responses to child abuse and 

neglect in the home, the mechanism by which they are intended 

to work, the conditions under which they ought to work best, 

and some factors you should consider before implementing a 

particular response. It is critical that you tailor responses to local 

circumstances, and that you can justify each response based on 

reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy will involve 

implementing several different responses. Law enforcement 

responses alone are seldom effective in reducing or solving the 

problem.

Response 

No.

Page 

No.

Response How It Works Works Best If... Considerations

 General Considerations for an Effective Response Strategy

1 22 Reducing 

community risk 

factors for child 

abuse and neglect

It reduces individual 

risk factors and 

enhances individual 

protective factors

...strategies target 

known risk factors for 

abuse, such as poverty 

and the availability of 

drugs and alcohol

Changes in child 

maltreatment rates may not 

be readily apparent, and 

other factors may hinder the 

interventions’ effectiveness

2 22 Educating the 

public about the 

problem of child 

abuse and neglect

It increases 

professionals’ 

and residents’ 

willingness to report 

suspected abuse 

so that police and 

other agencies can 

intervene; it increases 

children’s ability 

to set appropriate 

boundaries and to ask 

for help when needed

...police provide 

professionals and 

residents with specific 

information about 

how to make a report; 

agencies responsible for 

receiving reports are 

available 24 hours a day; 

teachers work safety 

concepts into everyday 

teaching; parents are 

involved

Some people may continue 

to neglect their reporting 

responsibilities; some 

children may not perceive 

what is happening to them 

as “abuse” and will not ask 

for help
38 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Response 

No.

Page 

No.

Response How It Works Works Best If... Considerations

3 23 Clarifying 

mandatory childabuse reporting 

laws

It increases the 

likelihood that 

mandated reporters 

will alert police and 

child protective 

services of suspected 

abuse, as appropriate

...laws clearly state 

which types of 

suspected abuse must 

be reported to which 

agency; police receive 

reports about only the 

subset of serious cases

If laws are overly broad, 

police can be overwhelmed; 

if laws are overly narrow, 

cases suffer from a lack of 

useful police expertise; some 

individuals may continue 

to neglect their reporting 

responsibilities; it does not 

prevent maltreatment from 

occurring 

4 23 Increasing line 

officers’ awareness 

of suspicious 

injuries

It increases the 

likelihood that 

police will detect 

intentional injuries

...line officers are 

provided with realworld scenarios and 

concrete examples

Officers must have 

opportunities to apply the 

information they learned in 

training sessions; it does not 

prevent maltreatment from 

occurring

5 24 Creating police 

agency policy 

regarding child 

abuse and neglect

It establishes 

professional 

standards and 

elevates the quality of 

police investigations

...the policy provides 

clear guidance for key 

tasks and decision 

points; managers, 

investigators, and line 

officers are involved in 

its development

Officers must be equipped 

with the skills to carry out 

high-quality investigations; 

there must be sufficient 

personnel to respond 

to reports of suspected 

maltreatment; it does not 

address other agencies’ 

responsibilities; it does not 

prevent maltreatment from 

occurring

6 24 Increasing the 

reliability of 

statements made 

by victims of child 

abuse and neglect

It results in better 

information on 

which to base 

decisions about 

services and criminal 

justice responses; it 

holds interviewers 

responsible for the 

skill with which they 

conduct interviews

...interviewers have 

opportunities to 

apply the skills they 

learn in training; 

interviewers receive 

quality supervision; the 

course is broken down 

into several phases; 

specific protocols are 

used; those viewing 

videotaped statements 

receive training on how 

to interpret what they 

see and hear

It may increase knowledge 

without affecting practice; 

those viewing videotaped 

statements may focus on less 

important details rather than 

the statement’s substance
Appendix 39

Response 

No.

Page 

No.

Response How It Works Works Best If... Considerations

Specific Responses to Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

7 26 Creating 

multidisciplinary 

teams to 

respond to child 

maltreatment 

allegations

It focuses various 

professionals’ unique 

skill sets on the 

problem; it reduces 

the number of 

interviews to which 

victims are subjected

...written protocols 

are sufficiently broad 

to cover a range of 

situations, yet specific 

enough to offer clear 

direction; strategies 

are developed to share 

information, promote 

teamwork, prevent 

burnout, and resolve 

conflict

Team members may 

unwittingly interfere in 

others’ efforts; focusing 

training on a set of police 

specialists may dilute 

the expertise available 

department wide

8 30 Conducting child 

fatality reviews

It provides an 

opportunity to 

correct procedural 

problems or gaps in 

service delivery that 

could prevent future 

deaths

...multidisciplinary 

teams conduct the 

reviews; the types of 

cases to be reviewed are 

clearly delineated

High turnover among 

members makes it difficult 

for the team to develop 

effective protocols; it does 

not prevent the original 

fatality

9 31 Enhancing cultural 

competence

It allows police to 

develop improved 

rapport with families 

and leads to betterquality information 

on which to base 

decisions

...officers are willing 

to focus on the 

information needed for 

the investigation and 

to let inconsequential 

details pass; officers 

are honest about 

what information 

they must share with 

immigration agencies; 

officers accommodate 

the family’s language 

preference; all 

documents are available 

in the family’s native 

language

It may be difficult to 

accommodate everyone in 

areas with diverse immigrant 

populations; it takes time to 

develop expertise; officers 

must commit extra time to 

developing rapport

10 31 Creating child 

advocacy centers

It reduces the trauma 

victims suffer during 

the investigation

...a multidisciplinary 

team works in a childfriendly setting; waiting 

time for interviews and 

medical examinations 

is reduced; services are 

grounded in research on 

effective practices

It requires resources to 

establish and maintain; 

professionals assigned to 

the centers may feel isolated 

from their peers; it does not 

undo the original incidence 

of maltreatment
40 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Response 

No.

Page 

No.

Response How It Works Works Best If... Considerations

11 32 Implementing 

home visitation 

programs

Targets high-risk 

families to reduce the 

risks associated with 

child maltreatment

...services are initiated 

prenatally or at birth; 

families are identified 

using a standardized risk 

assessment; services are 

intensive and long-term; 

services support parentchild interactions; 

families are linked to 

other needed services; 

caseloads are limited

High-intensity services are 

resource-intensive; caretakers 

may not apply the skills 

they have learned or take 

advantage of the services 

offered

12 32 Improving family 

support systems 

to reduce family 

stressors

It targets the risk 

factors associated 

with child 

maltreatment

...the choice among 

services is customized 

to each family’s 

constellation of risk 

factors

Many communities do not 

have an abundance of parentfocused services; caretakers 

may not apply the skills 

they have learned or take 

advantage of the services 

offered

13 32 Offering 

confidential 

telephone helpline 

assistance to those 

who see themselves 

at risk of abusing 

a child

It targets the risk 

factors associated 

with child 

maltreatment

...callers may remain 

anonymous; callers 

are offered follow-up 

counseling services

Limitations on 

confidentiality must be 

carefully considered

14 33 Removing children 

from the home

It eliminates the 

immediate risk of 

harm

...officers know the legal 

limits of their authority 

and make decisions in 

consultation with child 

protective services; 

parents are informed 

about what will occur; 

efforts are made to 

reduce victims’ anxiety

Removal from home may 

be traumatic to the victim; 

some jurisdictions do not 

have adequate facilities for 

emergency placement; some 

children will be transferred 

among multiple placements, 

which increases the trauma; 

it adds additional stress to a 

family already experiencing 

problems

15 34 Arresting and 

prosecuting child 

abusers

It causes an 

immediate change 

in the environment; 

it creates an 

opportunity to 

plan a long-term 

rehabilitation 

program for the 

family; it provides 

specific deterrence to 

child abusers

...it is used as a last 

resort

It does not address 

underlying risk factors; 

prosecution is difficult 

because maltreatment is hard 

to detect and little evidence 

is available; relying on the 

testimony of child victims is 

notoriously difficult
Appendix 41

Response 

No.

Page 

No.

Response How It Works Works Best If... Considerations

Responses with Limited Effectiveness

16 35 Transferring 

jurisdiction for all 

child abuse cases to 

law enforcement

It works on the 

assumption that 

police will provide 

higher-quality 

investigations than 

child protective 

services can

Some research has shown 

no improvements in the 

efficiency of investigations 

or the promptness of service 

delivery; it does not reduce 

maltreatment rates; it does 

not increase the severity of 

criminal justice sanctions

17 35 Containing 

sex offenders 

using offender 

restrictions and 

community 

awareness

It works on the 

assumption that 

knowledge of 

perpetrators’ 

whereabouts will 

prevent future 

incidents, and that 

victims do not know 

their offenders

Research on the impact on 

recidivism rates is largely 

unsupportive; unforeseen 

consequences of these 

laws may actually increase 

risk factors for recidivism 

and make it more difficult 

for police to identify 

perpetrators’ whereabouts

Endnotes 43

Endnotes

1	 American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004); Goldman et al. 

(2003); DePanfilis and Salus (1992). 

2	 Jones, Finklehor, and Halter (2006). 

3	 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2008). 

4	 American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004). 

5	 Besharov (1990); Martin and Besharov (1991); Broadhurst 

and Knoeller (1979); American Prosecutors Research Institute 

(2004); Goldman et al. (2003). 

6	 Hammond et al. (1997).

7	 Hammond et al. (1997). 

8	 National Research Council (1993). 

9	 Smallbone, Marshall and Wortley (2008).

10	Katz (1997); Grotberg (1995).

11	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2008). 

12	Barnett, Miller-Perrin, and Perrin (2005). 

13	American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004). 

14	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2008). 

15	Fuller and Wells (2003).

16	DePanfilis and Salus (1992); Barnett, Miller-Perrin, and Perrin 

(2005).

17	American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004); Johnson (1998); 

Barnett, Miller-Perrin, and Perrin (2005); DePanfilis and Salus 

(1992); Goldman et al. (2003).

18	Barnett, Miller-Perrin, and Perrin (2005); Smallbone, Marshall 

and Wortley (2008). 

19	Smallbone, Marshall and Wortley (2008).

20	American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004). 
44 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

21	Levenson and D’Amora (2007), Smallbone, Marshall and Wortley 

(2008).

22	DePanfilis and Salus (1992); Goldman et al. (2003). 

23	DePanfilis and Salus (1992); Goldman et al. (2003). 

24	Freisthler, Merritt, and LaScala (2006); Jones, Finklehor, and 

Halter (2006).

25	Goldman et al. (2003).

26	Briggs and Hawkins (1994). 

27	Goldman et al. (2003). 

28	Besharov (1990).

29	Besharov (1990).

30	Martin and Besharov (1991).

31	Shepherd (1997).

32	Martin and Besharov (1991).

33	Jones et al. (2005); Portwood, Grady, and Dutton (2000). 

34	California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training 

(1998); American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004). 

35	Davis, Marshall, and Robertson (1998).

36	Freeman and Morris (1999).

37	Jones et al. (2005).

38	Sahonchik, Colombo, and Boggis (1996).

39	U.S. Department of Justice (1998).

40	American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004).

41	Cross, Finkelhor, and Ormrod (2005). 

42	Cross, Finkelhor, and Ormrod (2005). 

43	Cross, Finkelhor, and Ormrod (2005). 

44	Cross, Finkelhor, and Ormrod (2005); Jones et al. (2005). 

45	Cross, Finkelhor, and Ormrod (2005). 
Endnotes 45

46	Sheppard and Zangrillo (1996a); Cross, Finkelhor, and Ormrod 

(2005). 

47	Cross, Finkelhor, and Ormrod (2005); Sheppard and Zangrillo 

(1996b); Shepherd (1997).

48	Besharov (1990); Sheppard and Zangrillo (1996b). 

49	Sheppard and Zangrillo (1996b). 

50	Lardner (1992). 

51	Martin and Besharov (1991). 

52	Adams and Hendry (1996). 

53	Durfee, Durfee, and West (2002).

54	Fontes (2005). 

55	Jones et al. (2005). 

56	Holton and Harding (2007).

57	Goldman et al. (2003). 

58	DePanfilis and Salus (1992). 

59	Smallbone, Marshall and Wortley (2008).

60	Hammond et al. (1997). 

61	Hammond et al. (1997).

62	Carson and MacMurray (2006). 

63	Carson and MacMurray (2006). 

64	Besharov (1990).

65	Besharov (1990); Broadhurst and Knoeller (1979). 

66	Cross et al. (2003). 

67	Kinnevy et al. (2005). 

68	Levenson and D’Amora (2007); Tewksbury and Lees (2006).

69	American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004).

70	Levenson and D’Amora (2007).

71	Welchans (2005). 

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Farley, R., and R. Reece (2002). Recognizing When a Child’s Injury 

or Illness Is Caused by Abuse. Portable Guides to Investigating 

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With Children: Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Training 

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the Ecology of Child Maltreatment: A Review of the Literature 

and Directions for Future Research.” Child Maltreatment

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About the Author 53

About the Author

Kelly Dedel 

Kelly Dedel is the director of One in 37 Research, Inc., a criminal 

justice consulting firm based in Portland, Oregon. As a consultant 

to federal, state, and local agencies, she contributes to research on 

the juvenile and criminal justice systems by 1) developing written 

tools to enhance practice or inform public policy; 2) conducting 

investigations of confinement conditions in juvenile correctional 

facilities; and 3) undertaking rigorous evaluations of various 

juvenile and criminal justice programs to assess their effectiveness. 

She has provided evaluation-related technical assistance to 

more than 60 jurisdictions nationwide for the Bureau of Justice 

Assistance. In this capacity, she has worked with a broad range 

of criminal justice programs implemented by police, prosecutors, 

public defenders, juvenile detention and confinement facilities, 

local jails, community corrections, and prisons. She consults with 

the Justice Department as a monitor/investigator of civil rights 

violations in juvenile correctional facilities, most often in the 

areas of education and protection from harm. Among her other 

research interests are prisoner reentry, risk assessment and offender 

classification, and juveniles in adult correctional facilities. Before 

working as a consultant, she was a founder and senior research 

scientist at The Institute on Crime, Justice, and Corrections at The 

George Washington University, and a senior research associate at 

the National Council on Crime and Delinquency. Dedel received 

bachelor’s degrees in psychology and criminal justice from the 

University of Richmond, and a doctorate in clinical psychology 

from the Center for Psychological Studies, in Berkeley, California. 

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 55

Other Problem-Oriented Guides 

for Police

Problem-Specific Guides series:

1. Assaults in and Around Bars, 2nd Edition. Michael S. Scott and 

Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-00-2

2. Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition. Michael S. Scott and Kelly 

Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-01-0

3. Speeding in Residential Areas, 2nd Edition. Michael S. Scott 

with David K. Maddox. 2010. ISBN: 978-1-935676-02-7

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes. Rana 

Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-03-7

5. False Burglar Alarms, 2nd Edition. Rana Sampson. 2007. 

ISBN: 1-932582-04-5

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 

1-932582-05-3

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-06-1

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-07-X

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-08-8

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V. Clarke. 

2002. ISBN: 1-932582-09-6

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-10-X

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-11-8

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-12-6

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-13-4

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 

1-932582-14-2

16. Clandestine Methamphetamine Labs, 2nd Edition. Michael S. 

Scott and Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-15-0

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-16-9

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-17-7

19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-18-5

20. Financial Crimes Against the Elderly. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 

2003. ISBN: 1-932582-22-3
56 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

21. Check and Card Fraud. Graeme R. Newman. 2003. 

ISBN: 1-932582-27-4

22. Stalking. The National Center for Victims of Crime. 2004.

ISBN: 1-932582-30-4

23. Gun Violence Among Serious Young Offenders. Anthony A. 

Braga. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-31-2

24. Prescription Fraud. Julie Wartell and Nancy G. La Vigne. 

2004. ISBN: 1-932582-33-9 

25. Identity Theft. Graeme R. Newman. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-35-3

26. Crimes Against Tourists. Ronald W. Glesnor and Kenneth J. 

Peak. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-36-3

27. Underage Drinking. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-39-8

28. Street Racing. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-42-8

29. Cruising. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. ISBN: 

1-932582-43-6

30. Disorder at Budget Motels. Karin Schmerler. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

31. Drug Dealing in Open-Air Markets. Alex Harocopos and 

Mike Hough. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-45-2

32. Bomb Threats in Schools. Graeme R. Newman. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-46-0

33. Illicit Sexual Activity in Public Places. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 

2005. ISBN: 1-932582-47-9

34. Robbery of Taxi Drivers. Martha J. Smith. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-50-9

35. School Vandalism and Break-Ins. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-9325802-51-7

36. Drunk Driving. Michael S. Scott, Nina J. Emerson, Louis B. 

Antonacci, and Joel B. Plant. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-57-6

37. Juvenile Runaways. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1932582-56-8

38. The Exploitation of Trafficked Women. Graeme R. Newman. 

2006. ISBN: 1-932582-59-2

39. Student Party Riots. Tamara D. Madensen and John E. Eck. 

2006. ISBN: 1-932582-60-6
The Problem of Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home 57

40. People with Mental Illness. Gary Cordner. 2006. 

ISBN: 1-932582-63-0

41. Child Pornography on the Internet. Richard Wortley and 

Stephen Smallbone. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-65-7

42. Witness Intimidation. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-67-3

43. Burglary at Single-Family House Construction Sites. Rachel 

Boba and Roberto Santos. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-00-2

44. Disorder at Day Laborer Sites. Rob Guerette. 2007. 

ISBN: 1-932582-72-X

45. Domestic Violence. Rana Sampson. 2007. 

ISBN: 1-932582-74-6

46. Thefts of and from Cars on Residential Streets and Driveways.

Todd Keister. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-76-2

47. Drive-By Shootings. Kelly Dedel. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-77-0

48. Bank Robbery. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2007. 

ISBN: 1-932582-78-9

49. Robbery of Convenience Stores. Alicia Altizio and Diana York. 

2007. ISBN: 1-932582-79-7

50. Traffic Congestion Around Schools. Nancy G. La Vigne. 2007. 

ISBN: 1-932582-82-7

51. Pedestrian Injuries and Fatalities. Justin A. Heinonen and John 

E. Eck. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-83-5

52. Bicycle Theft. Shane D. Johnson, Aiden Sidebottom, and Adam 

Thorpe. 2008. ISBN: 1-932582-87-8

53. Abandoned Vehicles. Michael G. Maxfield. 2008. 

ISBN: 1-932582-88-6

54. Spectator Violence in Stadiums. Tamara D. Madensen and John 

E. Eck. 2008. ISBN: 1-932582-89-4

55. Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home. Kelly Dedel. 2010.

ISBN: 978-1-935676-00-3

56. Homeless Encampments. Sharon Chamard. 2010.

ISBN: 978-1-935676-01-0
58 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Response Guides series:

1. The Benefits and Consequences of Police Crackdowns. 

Michael S. Scott. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-24-X

2. Closing Streets and Alleys to Reduce Crime: Should You Go 

Down This Road? Ronald V. Clarke. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

3. Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety 

Problems. Michael S. Scott and Herman Goldstein. 2005.

ISBN: 1-932582-55-X

4. Video Surveillance of Public Places. Jerry Ratcliffe. 2006 

ISBN: 1-932582-58-4

5. Crime Prevention Publicity Campaigns.

Emmanuel Barthe. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-66-5

6. Sting Operations. Graeme R. Newman with assistance of Kelly 

Socia. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-84-3

7. Asset Forfeiture. John L. Worall. 2008

ISBN: 1-932582-90-8

8. Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential 

Areas. Ronald V. Clarke. 2008. ISBN: 1-932582-91-6

9. Dealing With Crime and Disorder in Urban Parks. 

Jim Hilborn. 2009. ISBN: 1-932582-92-4

Problem-Solving Tools series: 

1. Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide 

for Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-19-3

2. Researching a Problem. Ronald V. Clarke and Phyllis A. 

Schultz. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-48-7

3. Using Offender Interviews to Inform Police ProblemSolving. Scott H. Decker. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-49-5

4. Analyzing Repeat Victimization. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 

2005. ISBN: 1-932582-54-1

5. Partnering with Businesses to Address Public Safety 

Problems. Sharon Chamard. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-62-2

6. Understanding Risky Facilities. Ronald V. Clarke and John E. 

Eck. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-75-4
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 59

7. Implementing Responses to Problems. Rick Brown and 

Michael S. Scott. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-80-0

8. Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in 

Problem-Solving. Diane Zahm. 2007. 

ISBN: 1-932582-81-9

9. Enhancing the Problem-Solving Capacity of Crime Analysis 

Units. Matthew B. White. 2008. 

ISBN: 1-932582-85-1

10. Analyzing Crime Displacement and Diffusion.

Rob T Guerette. 2009. ISBN: 1-932582-93-2

Special Publications:

Crime Analysis for Problem Solvers in 60 Small Steps, Ronald 

V. Clarke and John Eck, 2005. ISBN:1-932582-52-5

Policing Terrorism: An Executive's Guide. 

Graeme R. Newman and Ronald V. Clarke. 2008.

Effective Policing and Crime Prevention: A ProblemOriented Guide for Mayors, City Managers, and County 

Executives. Joel B. Plant and Michael S. Scott. 2009. 

Upcoming Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides

Street Robbery

Stolen Goods Markets

Thefts from Cafés and Bars

Aggressive Driving

Theft of Scrap Metal

Missing Persons

Stranger Rape

Theft of Vehicles for Export

Problem-Solving Tools

Understanding Repeat Offending

Response Guides

Assigning Police Officers to Schools

Special Publications

Intelligence Analysis and Problem-Solving

Problem-Oriented Policing Implementation Manual
60 Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for 

Police series and other COPS Office publications, call 

the COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770, via e-mail 

at askCOPSRC@usdoj.gov, or visit COPS Online 

at www.cops.usdoj.gov. 
Got a Problem? We’ve got answers!

Log onto the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing website at 

www.popcenter.org for a wealth of information to help you deal 

more effectively with crime and disorder in your community, 

including:

• Web-enhanced versions of all currently available Guides

• Interactive training exercises

• On-line access to research and police practices

Designed for police and those who work with them to address 

community problems, www.popcenter.org is a great resource in 

problem-oriented policing.

Supported by the Office of Community Oriented Policing 

Services, U.S. Department of Justice.

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770

Visit COPS online at www.cops.usdoj.gov

March 2010

e120924248

ISBN: 978-1-935676-00-3

Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home provides police with 

information about the problem of child abuse and neglect in the 

home and reviews factors that increase its risks. It also reviews 

responses to the problem and what is known about them from 

evaluative research and police practice.