National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science

El Malpais National Monument

Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Natural Resource Report NPS/SCPN/NRR—2016/1301
ON THE COVER

View of the El Malpais NM landscape from the Sandstone Bluffs Overlook. Photo Credit: Patty Valentine-Darby
El Malpais National Monument

Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Natural Resource Report NPS/SCPN/NRR—2016/1301

Author Name(s)

Patricia Valentine-Darby1

, Allyson Mathis2,3, Kimberly Struthers2, Donna Shorrock4, Lisa Baril2, Nina Chambers3

1

University of West Florida

Pensacola, Florida 

2

Utah State University

Department of Environment and Society

Logan, Utah 

3

Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative

Jackson, Wyoming

4

National Park Service

Intermountain Region Office

Lakewood, Colorado

Editing and Design

Kimberly Struthers

Utah State University

Department of Environment and Society

Logan, Utah 

September 2016

U.S. Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science

Fort Collins, Colorado
ii

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

The National Park Service, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science office in Fort Collins, Colorado, publishes 

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The Natural Resource Report Series is used to disseminate comprehensive information and analysis about natural 

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publications/nrpm/) on the Internet. To receive this report in a format optimized for screen readers, please email 

irma@nps.gov.

Please cite this publication as:

Valentine-Darby, P., A. Mathis, K. Struthers, D. Shorrock, L. Baril, and N. Chambers. 2016. El Malpais National 

Monument: Natural resource condition assessment. Natural Resource Report NPS/SCPN/NRR—2016/1301. 

National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS 103/134142, September 2016
iii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary....................................................................................................... xix

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................... xxi

Chapter 1: NRCA Background Information...................................................................1

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting..............................................................5

2.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................5

2.1.1. Enabling Legislation/Executive Orders.......................................................................................5

2.1.2. Geographic Setting..................................................................................................................7

2.1.3. Visitation Statistics.................................................................................................................10

2.2. Natural Resources............................................................................................................10

2.2.1. Ecological Units, Watersheds, and NPScape Landscape-scale..................................................10

2.2.2. Resource Descriptions............................................................................................................12

2.2.3. Resource Issues Overview ......................................................................................................25

2.3. Resource Stewardship .....................................................................................................29

2.3.1. Management Directives and Planning Guidance.....................................................................29

2.3.2. Status of Supporting Science .................................................................................................30

2.3.3. Literature Cited......................................................................................................................31

Chapter 3: Study Scoping and Design .........................................................................39

3.1. Preliminary Scoping ........................................................................................................39

3.2. Study Design ....................................................................................................................40

3.2.1. Indicator Framework, Focal Study Resources and Indicators....................................................40

3.2.2. Reporting Areas.....................................................................................................................42

3.2.3. General Approach and Methods............................................................................................42

3.3. Literature Cited................................................................................................................44

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions .....................................................................45

4.1. Viewshed..........................................................................................................................47

4.1.1. Background and Importance .................................................................................................47

4.1.2. Data and Methods.................................................................................................................48

4.1.3. Reference Conditions.............................................................................................................54

4.1.4. Condition and Trend ..............................................................................................................54

4.1.5. Sources of Expertise ...............................................................................................................61

4.1.6. Literature Cited......................................................................................................................62

4.2. Night Sky ..........................................................................................................................65

4.2.1. Background and Importance..................................................................................................65

4.2.2. Data and Methods.................................................................................................................66

4.2.3. Reference Conditions.............................................................................................................68

4.2.4. Condition and Trend ..............................................................................................................71

4.2.5. Sources of Expertise ...............................................................................................................75

4.2.6. Literature Cited......................................................................................................................75

4.3. Soundscape ......................................................................................................................77

4.3.1. Background and Importance..................................................................................................77

4.3.2. Data and Methods.................................................................................................................78

4.3.3. Reference Conditions ...........................................................................................................80

4.3.4. Condition and Trend ..............................................................................................................81

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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

4.3.5. Sources of Expertise ...............................................................................................................83

4.3.6. Literature Cited......................................................................................................................84

4.4. Air Quality........................................................................................................................87

4.4.1. Background and Importance..................................................................................................87

4.4.2. Data and Methods.................................................................................................................89

4.4.3. Reference Conditions.............................................................................................................92

4.4.4. Condition and Trend .............................................................................................................93

4.4.5. Sources of Expertise ...............................................................................................................98

4.4.6. Literature Cited......................................................................................................................99

4.5. Surface Geology.............................................................................................................103

4.5.1. Background and Importance................................................................................................103

4.5.2. Data and Methods...............................................................................................................107

4.5.3. Reference Conditions...........................................................................................................111

4.5.4. Condition and Trend ...........................................................................................................111

4.5.5. Sources of Expertise .............................................................................................................117

4.5.6. Literature Cited....................................................................................................................117

4.6. Caves and Cave Ice.........................................................................................................121

4.6.1. Background and Importance................................................................................................121

4.6.2. Data and Methods...............................................................................................................122

4.6.3. Reference Conditions...........................................................................................................126

4.6.4. Condition and Trend ...........................................................................................................127

4.6.5. Sources of Expertise .............................................................................................................131

4.6.6. Literature Cited....................................................................................................................131

4.7. Tinajas.............................................................................................................................135

4.7.1. Background and Importance................................................................................................135

4.7.2. Data and Methods...............................................................................................................136

4.7.3. Reference Conditions...........................................................................................................137

4.7.4. Condition and Trend ...........................................................................................................137

4.7.5. Sources of Expertise .............................................................................................................139

4.7.6. Literature Cited....................................................................................................................139

4.8. Vegetation- Piñon and Juniper.....................................................................................141

4.8.1. Background and Importance ...............................................................................................141

4.8.2. Data and Methods ..............................................................................................................143

4.8.3. Reference Conditions...........................................................................................................144

4.8.4. Condition and Trend ...........................................................................................................147

4.8.5. Sources of Expertise ............................................................................................................155

4.8.6. Literature Cited ...................................................................................................................155

4.9. Vegetation- Ponderosa Pine .........................................................................................159

4.9.1. Background and Importance ...............................................................................................159

4.9.2. Data and Methods ..............................................................................................................161

4.9.3. Reference Conditions ..........................................................................................................162

4.9.4. Condition and Trend ...........................................................................................................165

4.9.5. Sources of Expertise ............................................................................................................174

4.9.6. Literature Cited ...................................................................................................................175

4.10. Vegetation - Grasslands and Shrublands ...................................................................177

4.10.1. Background and Importance .............................................................................................177

4.10.2. Data and Methods ............................................................................................................181

4.10.3. Reference Conditions ........................................................................................................185

4.10.4. Condition and Trend .........................................................................................................187

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4.10.5. Sources of Expertise ..........................................................................................................196

4.10.6. Literature Cited .................................................................................................................196

4.11. Vegetation - Distinct Communities.............................................................................201

4.11.1. Background and Importance .............................................................................................201

4.11.2. Data and Methods ............................................................................................................201

4.11.3. Reference Conditions ........................................................................................................206

4.11.4. Condition and Trend .........................................................................................................206

4.11.5. Sources of Expertise ..........................................................................................................208

4.11.6. Literature Cited .................................................................................................................208

4.12. Exotic Plants ................................................................................................................211

4.12.1. Background and Importance .............................................................................................211

4.12.2. Data and Methods.............................................................................................................212

4.12.3. Reference Conditions.........................................................................................................215

4.12.4. Condition and Trend ..........................................................................................................217

4.12.5. Sources of Expertise ...........................................................................................................220

4.12.6. Literature Cited..................................................................................................................220

4.13. Cave Ecology and Species............................................................................................225

4.13.1. Background and Importance..............................................................................................225

4.13.2. Data and Methods.............................................................................................................226

4.13.3. Reference Conditions.........................................................................................................228

4.13.4. Condition and Trend .........................................................................................................228

4.13.5. Sources of Expertise ...........................................................................................................230

4.13.6. Literature Cited..................................................................................................................230

4.14. Mammals......................................................................................................................233

4.14.1. Background and Importance..............................................................................................233

4.14.2. Data and Methods.............................................................................................................234

4.14.3. Reference Conditions.........................................................................................................235

4.14.4. Condition and Trend ..........................................................................................................238

4.14.5. Sources of Expertise ...........................................................................................................240

4.14.6. Literature Cited..................................................................................................................240

4.15. Bats...............................................................................................................................243

4.15.1. Background and Importance..............................................................................................243

4.15.2. Data and Methods.............................................................................................................243

4.15.3. Reference Conditions.........................................................................................................248

4.15.4. Condition and Trend ..........................................................................................................248

4.15.5. Sources of Expertise ...........................................................................................................256

4.15.6. Literature Cited..................................................................................................................256

4.16. Landbirds......................................................................................................................259

4.16.1. Background and Importance..............................................................................................259

4.16.2. Data and Methods.............................................................................................................260

4.16.3. Reference Conditions.........................................................................................................263

4.16.4. Condition and Trend ..........................................................................................................263

4.16.5. Sources of Expertise ...........................................................................................................270

4.16.6. Literature Cited..................................................................................................................270

4.17. Herpetofauna ..............................................................................................................273

4.17.1. Background and Importance..............................................................................................273

4.17.2. Data and Methods.............................................................................................................274

4.17.3. Reference Conditions.........................................................................................................275

4.17.4. Condition and Trend ..........................................................................................................275

Contents (continued)

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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

4.17.5. Sources of Expertise ...........................................................................................................278

4.17.6. Literature Cited..................................................................................................................278

Chapter 5: Discussion of Natural Resource Condition Assessment Findings and

Considerations for Park Planning ...............................................................................279

5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................279

5.2. Connecting Natural Resource Condition Assessment Topics to Park Purpose, 

Significance, and Fundamental Resources & Values ...........................................................279

5.3. State of the Park Reporting..........................................................................................280

5.4. Viewshed Resource Condition Brief.............................................................................287

5.4.1. Noteworthy Highlights.........................................................................................................287

5.4.2. Condition Rationale .............................................................................................................287

5.5. Night Sky Resource Condition Brief .............................................................................289

5.5.1. Noteworthy Highlights.........................................................................................................289

5.5.2. Condition Rationale .............................................................................................................289

5.6. Soundscape Resource Condition Brief..........................................................................291

5.6.1. Noteworthy Highlights.........................................................................................................291

5.6.2. Condition Rationale .............................................................................................................291

5.7. Air Quality Resource Condition Brief...........................................................................295

5.7.1. Condition Rationale .............................................................................................................295

5.8. Surface Geology Resource Condition Brief..................................................................297

5.8.1. Noteworthy Highlights.........................................................................................................297

5.8.2. Condition Rationale .............................................................................................................297

5.9. Caves and Cave Ice Resource Condition Brief..............................................................299

5.9.1. Noteworthy Highlights.........................................................................................................299

5.9.2. Condition Rationale .............................................................................................................299

5.9.3. Management and Project Considerations.............................................................................299

5.10. Tinajas Resource Condition Brief................................................................................301

5.10.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................301

5.10.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................301

5.11. Piñon-Juniper Resource Condition Brief....................................................................305

5.11.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................305

5.11.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................305

5.11.3. Management and Project Considerations ..........................................................................306

5.12. Ponderosa Pine Resource Condition Brief .................................................................309

5.12.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................309

5.12.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................309

5.12.3. Management and Project Considerations...........................................................................309

5.13. Grasslands and Shrublands Resource Condition Brief ..............................................313

5.13.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................313

5.13.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................313

5.13.3. Management and Project Considerations...........................................................................313

5.14. Distinct Vegetation Resource Condition Brief ..........................................................315

5.14.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................315

5.14.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................315

5.14.3. Management and Project Considerations...........................................................................315

5.15. Exotic Plants Resource Condition Brief ......................................................................317

5.15.1. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................317

5.15.2. Management and Project Considerations...........................................................................317

Contents (continued)

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5.16. Cave Ecology and Species Resource Condition Brief.................................................321

5.16.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................321

5.16.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................321

5.16.3. Management and Project Considerations ..........................................................................321

5.17. Mammals Resource Condition Brief...........................................................................323

5.17.1. Noteworthy Highlights:......................................................................................................323

5.17.2. Condition Rationale: .........................................................................................................323

5.18. Bats Resource Condition Brief ....................................................................................325

5.18.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................325

5.18.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................325

5.18.3. Management and Project Considerations ..........................................................................325

5.19. Landbirds Resource Condition Brief...........................................................................329

5.19.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................329

5.19.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................329

5.20. Herpetofauna Resource Condition Brief....................................................................331

5.20.1. Noteworthy Highlights.......................................................................................................331

5.20.2. Condition Rationale ...........................................................................................................331

5.21. Literature Cited............................................................................................................333

Appendix A: Team Members, Subject Matter Experts/Reviewers, and GIS Data 

Summary ..............................................................................................337

Appendix B: Viewshed Analysis Steps .....................................................................341

Appendix C: Bortle Dark-Sky Scale ..........................................................................343

Appendix D: Soundscape Models.............................................................................345

Appendix E: Geology Background...........................................................................347

Appendix F: El Malpais Vegetation Map.................................................................357

Appendix G: Background on Bird Species of Conservation Concern Lists.............359

Appendix H: El Malpais NM Bird Lists......................................................................363

Contents (continued)

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Figure 2.1.1-1. The vast majority (85%) of El Malpais NM is suitable for preservation as wilderness.

Figure credit: El Malpais NM...............................................................................................6

Figure 2.1.2-1. El Malpais NM is located west of Albuquerque, New Mexico and east of Flagstaff, 

Arizona in Cibola County New Mexico. .............................................................................7

Figure 2.1.2-2. Climate conditions at El Malpais NM (http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/scpn/

climate/climate.cfm). ...........................................................................................................8

Figure 2.1.2-3. Average daily temperatures from Grants, New Mexico with average high 

temperatures shown in red and low temperatures shown in blue. ...............................9

Figure 2.1.2-4. A map of parks within the Southern Colorado Plateau Network (including El Malpais)

and the range of annual precipitation. .............................................................................9

Figure 2.1.3-1. Average number of visitors by month to El Malpais NM from 1989-2014....................10

Figure 2.2.1-1. El Malpais NM is located within 15 subwatersheds (USGS 2014a).................................11

Figure 2.2.2-1. The major volcanic fields in New Mexico are shown in this figure. El Malpais National

Monument is part of the Zuni–Bandera volcanic field in west-central New Mexico 

(NPS Geologic Resources Division). ..................................................................................12

Figure 2.2.2-2. McCartys flow inflation pits are well preserved and excellent for research. ................13

Figure 2.2.2-3. El Malpais contains the southernmost cave ice found in North America......................14

Figure 2.2.2-4. Camera setup at Cerro Encierro, El Malpais NM. ............................................................16

Figure 2.2.2-5. The national monument has five main plant community types as mapped by Muldavin

et al. (2013). .......................................................................................................................17

Figure 2.2.2-6. Piñon-juniper (left) and Ponderosa pine (right). ............................................................18

Figure 2.2.2-7. Grasslands (left) and Apache plume (Fallugia paradoxa) (right), which is one of the 

predominant plants in the shortgrass-shrublands. .........................................................19

Figure 2.2.2-8. Yoda, an ancient Douglas Fir, is shown in the center frame, as well as two really old 

Douglas firs to the left and right. A clear sign of ancient age is the “inverted-carrot” 

trunk form (wide at bottom and pointed at top) and the dead crown tops (GrissinoMayer et al. 1998). The tree on the right was cored and confirmed to start growing 

around AD 1308, so was just over 700 years old (Harley, pers. comm., 2015)...............20

Figure 2.2.2-9. Phacelia serrate (cinders phacelia). is a species only known from El Malpais and Sunset 

Crater National Monuments where it grows on areas of open volcanic cinders..........21

Figure 2.2.2-10. The area of light-colored ground is a kipuka surrounded by the McCartys flow.........21

Figure 2.2.2-11. Pinyon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) is known to occur at the park. ...................23

Figure 2.2.2-12. Elk (Cervus canadensis) (left) and Townsend’s big-eared bats (Corynorhinus 

townsendii) (right)are two mammal species that occur in El Malpais NM. ..................23

Figure 2.2.2-13. Eastern collared lizards (Crotaphytus collaris) are known to occur at the park...........24

Figure 2.2.3-1. The reconstruction of total annual precipitation based on tree rings from Douglas fir

and ponderosa pine in El Malpais (from Grissino-Mayer et al. 1997)............................25

Figure 2.2.3-2. Time series used to characterize the historical range of variability and most recent 

percentile for annual mean temperature at El Malpais National Monument 

(including areas within 30-km [18.6-mi] of the park’s boundary). The blue line 

shows temperature for each year, the gray line shows temperature averaged over 

progressive 10-year intervals (10-year moving windows), and the red asterisk shows 

the average temperature of the most recent 10-year moving window (2003–2012). 

The most recent percentile is calculated as the percentage of values on the gray line 

that fall below the red asterisk (Monahan and Fisichelli 2014).....................................26

Figure 2.2.3-3. Yoda an ancient Douglas-fir as seen on August 10, 2014. (Harley, pers. comm. 2015).28

Figures

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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Figure 2.3.1-1. The diagram shows the relationship of NRCAs to other park planning reports...........30

Figure 3.2.3-1. Condition, trend, and level of confidence key used in the NRCA..................................43

Figure 3.2.3-2. An example of a good condition, unchanging trend, and high confidence level in the

assessment graphic used in NRCAs...................................................................................44

Figure 4.1.2-1. The location of the vantage points used in this assessment. .........................................49

Figure 4.1.2-2. The GigaPan system takes a series of images that are stitched together to create a

single panoramic image....................................................................................................50

Figure 4.1.2-3. An example of approximate distance classes used in this assessment. .........................51

Figure 4.1.2-4. Graphic illustration of how color (left) and shape (right) can influence whether

features are in harmony with the environment, or are in contrast. Figure Source: NPSRob Bennetts......................................................................................................................52

Figure 4.1.2-5. Conceptual framework for hierarchical relationship of characteristics that influence

the conspicuousness of features within a viewshed. ......................................................53

Figure 4.1.4-1. Panoramic views from one location at the top of El Calderon cinder cone. About 90

degrees are shown in each view, with about 15-20 degrees of overlap between one 

panorama and the next one. ...........................................................................................55

Figure 4.1.4-2. Panoramic views from one location at Bandera Crater (not at the top of the crater).

About 90 degrees are shown in each view, with ~15-20 degrees of overlap between 

one panorama and the next one. Note that one panorama is not shown (150-240) 

because it did not include anything not observable in the two adjacent views. Also 

note that the park is not visible in the top view, but it is visible in the other three 

views in the distance as one looks away from the trail/road. ........................................56

Figure 4.1-4-3. These two photographs were taken from a location a few hundred feet to the west

of those shown in Figure 4.1.4-2 (and at a slightly higher elevation). These photos 

were taken from the cinder trail/road seen in the previous figure, and provide a 

slightly better view towards the south............................................................................57

Figure 4.1.4-4. Panoramic views from one location at the Sandstone Bluffs overlook. About 90 

degrees are shown in each view, with about 15-20 degrees of overlap between one 

panorama and the next one. (Mt. Taylor can be seen in the background in the top 

and bottom panoramas). ..................................................................................................58

Figure 4.1.2-5. View of parking area and entrance road at Sandstone Bluffs overlook.......................59

Figure 4.1.4-6. Area visible (in blue-green) from the vantage points at El Malpais NM. The closest

mountain to the north of the park is Mount Taylor, and the closest mountains to the 

south are the Gallina Mountains. Data sources: NPS (2011b), and USGS (2015)...........60

Figure 4.1.4-7. Housing density surrounding El Malpais NM. Data sources: NPS (2011b), NPS (2014b),

and Theobald (2005). ........................................................................................................61

Figure 4.1.4-8. Road density surrounding El Malpais NM. Data sources: NPS (2011b), NPS (2014c), and

ESRI (2010)..........................................................................................................................62

Figure 4.2.1-1. CCD camera set-up at Cerro Encierro in El Malpais National Monument. ....................65

Figure 4.2.2-1. Composite image illustrating the range of night sky conditions based on the Bortle

Dark Sky Scale. ..................................................................................................................70

Figure 4.2.4-1. Modeled ALR map for El Mapais NP. A 200km ring around the park illustrates the 

distance at which anthropogenic light can impact night sky quality within the park. 

Photo Credit: NPS Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division. .........................................72

Figure 4.2.4-2. Panoramic all-sky mosaic of all sources of light (natural and anthropogenic) at El 

Malpais National Monument from Cerro Encierro. Credit: NPS Night Skies and Natural 

Sounds Division. ................................................................................................................73

Figures (continued)

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Figure 4.2.4-3. Panoramic all-sky mosaic of all sources of light (natural and anthropogenic) at El 

Malpais National Monument from lower meadow. Credit: NPS Night Skies and 

Natural Sounds Division. ..................................................................................................73

Figure 4.2.4-4. Panoramic all-sky mosaic of all sources of light (natural and anthropogenic) at El 

Malpais National Monument from Sandstone Bluffs. Credit: NPS Night Skies and 

Natural Sounds Division. ..................................................................................................73

Figure 4.3.1-1. Elk vocalizations contribute to the natural sounds heard at El Malpais NM. ...............77

Figure 4.3.1-2. A 6 dB reduction in background noise level would produce a 4x increase in listening

area (NPS NSNSD 2014). ....................................................................................................78

Figure 4.3.2-1. Locations of 2009 acoustical monitoring sites at El Malpais NM. ..................................79

Figure 4.3.4-1. Percent time above reference sound levels within the 12.5-20,000 Hz frequency

recorded at El Malpais NM’s Lost Woman, Sandstone Bluffs, and Lava Falls acoustical 

monitoring sites.................................................................................................................81

Figure 4.3.4-2. There are very few roads surrounding El Malpais NM, creating relatively large patches

without roads. This contributes to the monument’s soundscape condition. Data 

Sources: NPS (2014) and ESRI (2005, 2010).......................................................................82

Figure 4.3.4-3. The modeled L50 impact sound level at El Malpais NM (Mennitt et al. 2013). Lighter 

colors represent higher impact areas...............................................................................83

Figure 4.4.1-1. El Malpais National Monument is located within a Class II airshed...............................87

Figure 4.4.1-2. A cloudy day at El Malpais NM.........................................................................................88

Figure 4.4.4-1. For 2004–2013, the trend in visibility at El Malpais NM improved on the 20% clearest

days. Credit: NPS-ARD 2015a. ...........................................................................................94

Figure 4.4.4-2. For 2004–2013, the trend in visibility at El Malpais NM remained relatively unchanged

(no statistically significant trend) on the 20% haziest days. Credit: NPS-ARD 2015a...94

Figure 4.4.4-3. Visibility data collected at BALD1, AZ IMPROVE station showing the composition of

particle sources contributing to haze during the clearest days by year from 2004-2013. 

Credit: NPS-ARD 2015a......................................................................................................95

Figure 4.4.4-4. Visibility data collected at BALD1, AZ IMPROVE station showing the composition of

particle sources contributing to haze during the haziest days by year from 2004-2013. 

Credit: NPS-ARD 2015a......................................................................................................95

Figure 4.4.4-5. Visibility data collected at BALD1, AZ IMPROVE station showing the distribution of

clearest days by month for 2013. Credit: NPS-ARD 2015a. ............................................96

Figure 4.4.4-6. Visibility data collected at BALD1, AZ IMPROVE station showing the distribution of

haziest days by month for 2013. (Credit: NPS-ARD 2015a..............................................96

Figure 4.4.4-7. Locations of nitrogen sensitive vegetation at El Malpais National Monument using

LANDFIRE data (E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc. (2009)............................................98

Figure 4.4.4-8. Change in wet deposition levels From 1988-2008 throughout the United States........99

Figure 4.5.1-1. Lava flow surface features are one of El Malpais’ fundamental resources and

values (NPS 2014). The monument’s geologic features, especially the McCartys 

Flow, including the lava rise pits shown here, have great research and educational 

significance serving as an analog for volcanic features on Mars and the Moon........103

Figures (continued)

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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Figure 4.5.1-2. Generalized geologic map of El Malpais NM showing areas of surficial deposits,

Quaternary volcanic rocks, sedimentary rocks, and Precambrian igneous and 

metamorphic rocks. Quaternary volcanic rocks include the young lava flows, cinder 

cones and cinder fields of the El Malpais period of volcanism that took place within 

the last 60,000 years and the previous phases of volcanism. Given that the monument 

is situated over the five youngest lava flows of the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field 

and the abundance of older volcanic rocks, sedimentary rocks are very rare within 

monument boundaries. Significant exposures of sedimentary rocks occur just north 

and east of monument boundaries. Map from KellerLynn (2012); NM Guidebook 

(2010)................................................................................................................................105

Figure 4.5.1-3. The young lava flows, vents, cinder cones and cinder fields of the Zuni-Bandera

Volcanic Field found with El Malpais monument boundaries (Maxwell 1986 and 

KellerLynn 2012). .............................................................................................................106

Figure 4.5.2-1. A bomb found in the Kirtland Demolition Bombing Range on McCartys Flow in 1984

(Crumpler et al. 2013)......................................................................................................108

Figure 4.5.2-2. Small craters from the detonation of general purpose bombs dropped during training

exercises from the Kirtland Army Air Base during World War II are visible on the sides 

and in the crater of McCartys Crater. The entire area around McCartys vent and the 

surrounding lava flow has been impacted by these ordnance explosions..................109

Figure 4.5.2-3. Tree mold in the El Calderon lava flow..........................................................................112

Figure 4.5.4-1. The vertical cut in the quarry on the El Calderon cinder cone.....................................115

Figure 4.6.1-1. Big Skylight Cave is one of four lava tube caves open to recreational caving in El

Malpais NM......................................................................................................................121

Figure 4.6.1-2. Map showing the major volcanic units of El Malpais NM and the major lava tubes.

Geology from KellerLynn (2012).....................................................................................122

Figure 4.6.2-1. Time series showing the historic range of variability and the most recent percentile 

for mean annual temperature at El Malpais. The gray line shows temperature 

averaged over progressive 10-year intervals (10-year moving windows), the blue 

line shows mean temperature for each year, and the red asterisk show the average 

temperature of the most recent 10-year interval (2003-2012) (from Monahan and 

Fisichelli 2014)..................................................................................................................123

Figure 4.6.2-2. Repeat photographs of the thick ice wall in Cave #029. Large amounts of charcoal are

present on the floor, likely from fires from early visitors. This cave shows significant 

impact from human activity (Sandia Grotto 2003). The upper left photo is from the 

late 1980s, month unknown, and the upper right photo was taken on April 4, 2003. 

The photo on the left was taken on May 21, 2015. This photo sequence shows an 

apparent decrease in ice since the late 1980s. Note that the exact date of the 1980s 

photo is unknown and that the volume of ice in caves is seasonally dependent, so 

the actual trend of ice in this cave may not be illustrated by this sequence. However, 

during monitoring in May 2015, El Malpais staff observed markings on the wall of the 

cave that showed that the ice had receded by approximately 2 m (6.6 ft) (Eric Weaver, 

personal communication, 2015). ....................................................................................126

Figure 4.6.2-3. Junction Cave Impact Assessment Map. Map provided by El Malpais NM..................127

Figure 4.6.4-1. Reflective trail markers to reduce direct visitor impacts have been installed in Xenolith

Cave..................................................................................................................................131

Figure 4.7.1-1. Dry tinajas located on top of Sandstone Bluffs at El Malpais National Monument...135

Figure 4.7.4-1. The average annual precipitation from 1938-2015 was 13.6 inches (WRCC 2016 -

Station #292785)..............................................................................................................137

Figures (continued)

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Table of Contents

Figure 4.7.4-2. According to the National Drought Mitigation Center (2016), the western half of

Cibola County, where El Malpais is located, is still in an abnormally dry condition, 

although greatly improved during 2015. Rectangle shows approximate location of the 

park. .................................................................................................................................138

Figure 4.7.4-3. RDI for El Malpais NM using data (1939-2015) from the El Morro National Weather 

Service station. RDI calculated by Jodi Norris, Landscape and Quantitative Ecologist, 

SCPN, using the DrinC software package. Figure Credit: Jodi Norris...........................138

Figure 4.8.1-1. Piñon-juniper vegetation atop El Calderon at El Malpais NM. ....................................141

Figure 4.8.1-2. Distribution of the two main categories of Piñon-juniper vegetation at El Malpais NM

based on recent vegetation mapping (Muldavin et al. 2013). ....................................142

Figure 4.8.1-3. Piñon Jays (on left), specialize on piñon nuts as a food source, and Townsend’s 

Solitaires (on right) eat juniper berries. ........................................................................142

Figure 4.8.4-1. The exotic plant mullein (top) and where it was observed on El Calderon (bottom).

This area of El Calderon was mined for cinders in the past (Eric Weaver, El Malpais 

NM, pers. comm.).............................................................................................................149

Figure 4.9.1-1. Ponderosa pine vegetation in the El Calderon area at El Malpais NM........................159

Figure 4.9.1-2. Distribution of the two main categories of ponderosa pine vegetation at El Malpais

NM based on recent vegetation mapping by Muldavin et al. (2013)..........................160

Figure 4.9.1-3. Abert’s squirrels (Sciurus aberti) are a distinctive species of ponderosa pine forests on 

the Southern Colorado Plateau......................................................................................160

Figure 4.9.4-1. Ponderosa pine stump on the east side of Cerro Bandera with fire scars from before

1900. Source: Romme and Jacobs (2015). ......................................................................167

Figure 4.9.4-2. Patch of dense ponderosa pine saplings and small trees on the northeast side of Cerro

Bandera. Source: Romme and Jacobs (2015). ................................................................168

Figure 4.9.4-3. Checking for signs of insects and/or disease on one of the dead ponderosa pine trees

observed at the national monument.............................................................................171

Figure 4.10.1-1. The largest area of grassland at El Malpais NM is the Fringed Sage/Blue Grama Lava

Plains Grassland shown in the photo.............................................................................177

Figure 4.10.1-2. Muldavin et al. (2013) mapped 16% of the monument as six shrubland units and 5%

as five grassland map units.............................................................................................180

Figure 4.10.1-3. Climate conditions at El Malpais NM (http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/scpn/

climate/climate.cfm). .......................................................................................................181

Figure 4.10.2-1. There are 150 plots that were established in 2005-2006 for the vegetation mapping

project (Muldavin et al. 2013) and 30 plots for fire effects monitoring data sampled 

more recently (2006-2013) at El Malpais NM.................................................................182

Figure 4.10.4-1. Fire effects monitoring plot sampled in 2010 in southwest Cerro Bandera, eleven 

years post-burn; predominant vegetation is blue grama. ...........................................187

Figure 4.10.4-2. Fourwing saltbush fire effects monitoring plot sampled in 2013................................187

Figure 4.10.4-3. Blue grama/Mesa Dropseed Sandy Plains grassland fire effects monitoring plot 

sampled in 2013...............................................................................................................187

Figure 4.10.4-4. The distribution of soil types based on NRCS (2013).....................................................189

Figure 4.10.4-5. The geology of El Malpais NM (Muldavin et al. 2013)..................................................190

Figure 4.11.1-1. Phacelia serrate (cinders phacelia) is an endemic species that grows only on volcanic 

cinders and is a USFWS Species of Concern. ..................................................................201

Figures (continued)

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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Figure 4.11.2-1. An ancient Douglas-fir growing on the Bandera lava flows in August 2014. This tree

has experienced a partial cambial dieback, causing part of its crown to die. If it lives, 

it will have a smaller crown (Grant Harley, personal communication, 2015). ............202

Figure 4.11.2-2. Map showing locations of kipukas by major substrate type: volcanic, sedimentary, and 

eolian. Areas of Quaternary alluvium (Qal) were grouped into substrate type based 

on the overall bedrock geology of the kipuka. Geologic mapping by Maxwell (1986) 

and KellerLynn (2012). Kipuka names are from Bleakly (1996) and Lewis (2003). The 

large kipukas that are mostly outside of the monument boundaries (Hole-in-the-Wall 

and Cerritos de Jaspe) are not shown except where inside the monument. Locations 

of the ancient Douglas-fir trees are from Grant Harley (personal communication, 

2015). ...............................................................................................................................203

Figure 4.12.1-1. Verbascum thapsus (common mullein) is a species of special concern at El Malpais NM 

because it grows well on young basaltic lava flows and cinder deposits. ..................211

Figure 4.12.2-1. Location of vegetation mapping and classification plots used by Muldavin et al.

(2013). ..............................................................................................................................216

Figure 4.13.2-1. Functional groups for cave-dependent species found during inventory efforts in 10 El 

Malpais NM caves and one BLM cave in 2007-2008 (Wynne 2013). ............................227

Figure 4.14.1-1. The American black bear is one of the large mammals known to occur in Cibola

County and at El Malpais NM. .......................................................................................233

Figure 4.14.4-1. Elk at El Malpais NM. .....................................................................................................235

Figure 4.15.1-1. Townsend’s big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii), one of the bat species occurring 

in New Mexico and El Malpais NM.................................................................................243

Figure 4.15.2-1. Map showing occurrence of WNS, dated 5/28/15. Occurrences with solid color are

confirmed, while those with dots are suspected (this may be difficult to see at this 

scale). At this time, the closest known (confirmed) occurrence of WNS to New Mexico 

is in Arkansas, and the closest occurrence of the fungus (but not WNS) is Oklahoma. 

Map available online at https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/resources/map..........246

Figure 4.15.4-1. Bat Cave, in the El Calderon area of El Malpais NM. The cave is closed to the public to

protect roosting bats. .....................................................................................................250

Figure 4.15.4-2. Laguna de Juan Garcia, an important pool of water for bats at El Malpais NM, located

in the northwest corner of the park. ...........................................................................254

Figure 4.16.1-1. Juniper Titmouse (Baeolophus ridgwayi) is one of the many species of birds known to 

inhabit El Malpais NM.....................................................................................................259

Figure 4.16.2-1. Bird Conservation Regions in North America................................................................260

Figure 4.16.2-2. Bird Conservation Regions in the vicinity of El Malpais NM and El Morro NM. Both

parks are within the Southern Rockies - Colorado Plateau BCR (BCR 16). ..................261

Figure 4.16.4-1. A pair of Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) at a snag in the North Pastures at El 

Malpais NM......................................................................................................................269

Figure 4.17.1-1. Canyon treefrog, one of the herpetofaunal species found at El Malpais NM; the

treefrog shown here is resting on lava. ........................................................................273

Figure 4.17.4-1. Western diamond-backed rattlesnake is a SGCN in New Mexico. ..............................277

Figures (continued)

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Table of Contents

Table 3.2.1-1. El Malpais National Monument NRCA Framework.........................................................41

Table 4.1. El Malpais National Monument NRCA Indicators and Measures. ..................................45

Table 4.1.2-1. Indicators and measures of viewshed and why they are important to the resource

condition............................................................................................................................48

Table 4.1.2-2. Characteristics that influence how conspicuous human-made features are within a

viewshed and the general effect......................................................................................50

Table 4.1.2-3. A matrix describing the six size classes used for visible human-made features. ..........52

Table 4.1.3-1. Qualitative reference condition classes used for scenic and historic integrity within the

viewshed at El Malpais NM. .............................................................................................54

Table 4.1.4-1. Indicator and measures of viewshed condition, their corresponding assigned

condition class, and the rationale for assigning condition class. ...................................54

Table 4.1.4.2. Housing density surrounding El Malpais NM (within 30 km from the park). ...............60

Table 4.1.4-3. Definitions of grouped housing density classes used in the GIS analysis. Source: NPS

2013....................................................................................................................................61

Table 4.1.4-4. Road density surrounding El Malpais NM (within 30 km of the park). .........................62

Table 4.2.2-1. Indicators and measures of the night sky and why they are important to resource

condition............................................................................................................................66

Table 4.2.2-2. Night Sky Measurements at El Malpais NM.....................................................................67

Table 4.2.2-3. Bortle Dark Sky Scale (White et al. 2012).........................................................................69

Table 4.2.3-1. Night sky condition class summary for non-urban parks (i.e. parks with at least 90% of

their property located outside an urban area). ..............................................................70

Table 4.2.4-1. Summary of night sky condition rationale at El Malpais NM.........................................74

Table 4.3.2-1. Location characteristics of acoustical monitoring sites at El Malpais National

Monument (excerpted from NPS-NSNSD 2009). ............................................................79

Table 4.3.3-1. Explanation of reference sound level values (NPS 2013). .............................................80

Table 4.3.3-2. Reference conditions used to assess the sound levels at El Malpais National

Monument. ........................................................................................................................81

Table 4.3.4-1. Values represent the minimum, maximum, and average L50 measurements in each 

acoustic environment (Excel table provided by E. Brown, 2015). ..................................83

Table 4.3.4-2. Summary of the soundscape indicator and measures and their contribution to the

overall soundscape condition. .........................................................................................84

Table 4.4.3-1. Reference conditions for air quality parameters (NPS-ARD 2015c). ..............................92

Table 4.4.3-2. Mercury condition assessment matrix (NPS-ARD 2015b). ...............................................93

Table 4.4.4-1. Condition and trend results for air quality indicators at El Malpais National

Monument (NPS-ARD 2015a)............................................................................................93

Table 4.4.4-2. Ozone sensitive plants found at El Malpais National Monument (Bell, in review; Kohut

2004)...................................................................................................................................96

Table 4.4.4-3. Summary of the air quality indicators/measures and their contributions to the overall

air quality NRCA (excerpted from NPS-ARD 2015a)......................................................100

Table 4.5.1-1. The young lava flows of the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field exposed within El Malpais 

NM....................................................................................................................................104

Table 4.5.2-1. The indicators and measures used to assess surface geology condition at El Malpais

NM....................................................................................................................................107

Tables

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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.5.2-2. Known volcanic vents and edifices in El Malpais NM. .................................................108

Table 4.5.2-3. Prioritization rankings for Abandoned Mineral Lands at El Malpais NM. ..................110

Table 4.5.2-4. Freeze-Thaw Index for Grants Municipal Airport. ........................................................111

Table 4.5.3-1. Reference conditions used to assess the current condition of geology for each

indicator. ..........................................................................................................................113

Table 4.5.4-1. Indicator, measure, and rationale of surface geology condition.................................114

Table 4.6.2-1. Known Ice Caves in El Malpais NM. ...............................................................................124

Table 4.6.2-2. Number of permitted cavers at El Malpais NM 2013-2015...........................................125

Table 4.6.2-3. Rare cave minerals documented in El Malpais NM (Rogers and Mosch (1997) and Hill

and Forti (1997)). .............................................................................................................127

Table 4.6.3-1. Reference conditions used to assess the current condition of caves and cave ice for

each indicator. .................................................................................................................128

Table 4.6.4-1. Indicators, measures, and rationale used to assess the current condition of caves and

cave ice.............................................................................................................................129

Table 4.7.3-1. Reference conditions for tinajas. ...................................................................................137

Table 4.7.4-1. Summary of tinaja condition rationale..........................................................................139

Table 4.8.3-1. Piñon-juniper habitat types used as references (adapted from Romme et al. 2008,

2009). Fire regime information based on several sources (Romme et al. 2007, 2008, 

2009; Floyd et al. 2000, 2004; Shinneman and Baker 2009). Reference photos below 

from Capulin Volcano NM (NPS photos; condition section [Table 4.8.4-1] contains 

photos for El Malpais NM). .............................................................................................144

Table 4.8.3-2. Synopsis of climate variability since the late 15th century at El Malpais NM, based on

a tree-ring chronology developed by Henri Grissino-Mayer. Adapted from Table 3.15 

(pages 108-110) in Grissino-Mayer (1995), and taken from Romme and Jacobs (2015, 

Table 1a). .........................................................................................................................147

Table 4.8.4-1. Vegetation types dominated by piñon and/or juniper at El Malpais NM and El Morro 

NM (adapted from national monument vegetation maps and observations by Romme 

and Jacobs on June 2-4, 2015). Fire regime information comes from Romme et al. 

(2009), Jacobs et al. (2008), and Grissino-Mayer (1995). Note that this classification is 

based on ecological processes and dynamics of the vegetation more than on floristic 

composition and physiognomy. Table (including photos) from Romme and Jacobs 

(2015)................................................................................................................................148

Table 4.8.4-2. Indicators/measures of piñon-juniper condition for persistent piñon-juniper

woodlands and juniper-piñon savannas. Table based on Tables 6a and 6b in Romme 

and Jacobs (2015). ...........................................................................................................153

Table 4.9.3-1. Vegetation types dominated by ponderosa pine at El Malpais NM and El Morro NM 

(adapted from national monument vegetation maps and observations by Romme 

and Jacobs on June 2-4, 2015). Fire regime information comes from Grissino-Mayer 

(1995), Grissino-Mayer and Swetnam (1997), and Allen et al. (2002). Note that this 

classification is based on ecological processes and dynamics of the vegetation more 

than on floristic composition and physiognomy. Table (including photos) from Romme 

and Jacobs (2015). ...........................................................................................................163

Table 4.9.3-2. Synopsis of climate variability since the late 15th century at El Malpais NM, based on

a tree-ring chronology developed by Henri Grissino-Mayer. Adapted from Table 3.15 

(pages 108-110) in Grissino-Mayer (1995), and taken from Romme and Jacobs (2015, 

Table 1a). .........................................................................................................................165

Tables (continued)

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Table 4.9.4-3. Indicators/measures of ponderosa pine condition for ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper

woodland/savanna and ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper rocky woodlands. Table based 

on Tables 6c and 6d in Romme and Jacobs (2015). ......................................................172

Table 4.10.1-1. The 11 shrubland and grassland National Vegetation Classification (NVC) map units 

identified by Muldavin et al. (2013) at El Malpais NM and their corresponding areas 

occupied...........................................................................................................................179

Table 4.10.2-1. Indicators and measures used to assess grasslands and shrublands at El Malpais

National Monument........................................................................................................183

Table 4.10.3-1. Reference conditions used to assess the current condition for measures of grassland

and shrubland soil/site stability and biotic integrity.....................................................186

Table 4.10.4-1. List of exotic plant species at El Malpais NM as recorded in the 2006-2009 vegetation

map (VM) project (Muldavin et al. 2013) and at the fire effects monitoring (FEM) plots 

sampled between 2006 and 2013. .................................................................................191

Table 4.10.4-2. The relative cover and number of C3 and C4 graminoid species found in the

vegetation mapping project (VM) and during fire effects monitoring (FEM). ..........192

Table 4.10.4-3. Summary of the indicators and measures and their contributions to the overall

assessment of grassland and shrubland condition........................................................195

Table 4.11.2-1. Endemic and Vulnerable Plant Associations present in El Malpais NM.......................204

Table 4.11.2-2. Known anthropogenic disturbances on kipukas in El Malpais NM. ...........................206

Table 4.11.4-1. Indicators, measures, and their contributions to the overall distinct vegetation

condition rationale..........................................................................................................207

Table 4.12.2-1. Exotic plant species documented in El Malpais NM......................................................213

Table 4.12.2-2. Significance of exotic plant impact ranking for species recorded at El Malpais

(Lightfoot et al. 1994, Bleakly 1997, ELMA 2009, SCPN 2014, and NPS 2015) using a 

subset of Hiebert and Stubbendieck’s (1993) Handbook for Ranking Exotic Plants for 

Management and Control. .............................................................................................214

Table 4.12.2-3. Prevalence of exotic plant species detected in vegetation mapping 2006-2009

(Muldavin et al. 2013). ....................................................................................................215

Table 4.12.3-1. Descriptions for determining condition based on exotic plant potential to alter native

plant communities impact ranking and degree of prevalence....................................217

Table 4.12.4-1. Significance of exotic plant impact for species documented in El Malpais NM..........218

Table 4.12.4-2. Indicators, measures, and their contributions to the overall exotic plants condition

rationale...........................................................................................................................221

Table 4.13.2-1. Arthropod morphospecies and other (non-bat) vertebrate observations by Wynne

(2013)................................................................................................................................227

Table 4.13.3-1. Reference conditions used to assess the current condition of cave ecology and species

for each indicator. ...........................................................................................................228

Table 4.13.4-1. Indicators, measures, and their contributions to the overall cave ecology and species

condition rationale..........................................................................................................229

Table 4.14.4-1. Mammal species recorded in El Malpais NM during surveys by Bogan et al. (2007; in

2003-2004), as well as by Valdez et al. (2002; in 1999-2000) and Lightfoot et al. (1994; 

early 1990s). Notes/entries with a letter are explained in the Comments column, and 

notes with a number are found below the table..........................................................236

Table 4.14.4-2. Species detected at El Malpais NM that are Species of Greatest Conservation Need

(SGCN) according to the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish (NMDGF 2006) 

and/or state or federally-designated as threatened or endangered...........................238

Tables (continued)

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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.14.4-3. Indicator and measure of mammal condition...............................................................239

Table 4.15.3-1. Reference conditions for bats at El Malpais NM. ..........................................................248

Table 4.15.4-1. Bat species recorded in El Malpais NM during surveys by Valdez (2012), Bogan et al. 

(2007), Valdez et al. (2002), and Lightfoot et al. (1994). Notes/entries with a letter are 

explained in the Comments column, and notes with a number are found below the 

table. All of these species were also listed in Table 4.14.4-1 in the previous section on 

Mammals..........................................................................................................................249

Table 4.15.4-2. Bat species recorded in El Malpais NM, showing whether they roost or hibernate

in caves or trees, and whether they have been observed in caves at the national 

monument. Note that a lack of observation/documentation does not mean that they 

do not occur. Also, cave names are included in only a few instances. ........................253

Table 4.15.4-3. Indicators and measures of bat condition. ..................................................................255

Table 4.16.4-1. Summary of species detected during the three sets of surveys/observations (Johnson

et al. 2007, Lightfoot et al. 1994, and the park’s eBird data for 2011-early 2015) at El 

Malpais NM of conservation concern, as listed by government agencies and nongovernmental organizations. .........................................................................................265

Table 4.16.4-2. Species of conservation concern detected during one, two, or three of the three sets

of surveys/observations at El Malpais NM. Note that Lightfoot et al. (1994) included 

some species that were observed just outside of national monument boundaries. ..267

Table 4.16.4-3. Indicator/measure of landbirds condition. ....................................................................269

Table 4.17.4-1. Amphibian and reptile species recorded in El Malpais NM during surveys in 2002-2003

by Nowak and Persons (2008) and in the early 1990’s by Lightfoot et al. (1994). For the 

species recorded by one or both of these surveys, we also indicate whether they were 

reported by Gehlbach (1965)..........................................................................................276

Table 4.17.4-2. Species detected during 2002-2003 and early 1990s surveys at El Malpais NM that are

SGCN according to NMDGF (NMDGF 2006). None of the species are federally or statelisted as endangered/threatened. ..................................................................................277

Table 4.17.4-3. Indicator and measure of herpetofauna condition. .....................................................277

Table 5.2-1. Summary of natural resource topic relevance (denoted by black dots) as it relates to El

Malpais National Monument’s purpose and significance statements identified in the 

park’s Foundation Document (NPS 2014a). ..................................................................281

Table 5.3-1. State of the Park Natural Resource Summary Table .....................................................283

Tables (continued)

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Executive Summary

Executive Summary

The Natural Resource Condition Assessment (NRCA) Program, administered by National 

Park Service’s (NPS) Water Resources Division, aims to provide documentation about 

current conditions of important park natural resources through a spatially explicit, multidisciplinary synthesis of existing scientific data and knowledge. The NRCA for El Malpais 

National Monument began November 2015, and 17 focal study natural resources were chosen 

for the park’s NRCA. These resources were organized into three categories: landscape-scale, 

supporting environment (i.e., physical resources), and biological integrity, which included 

wildlife and vegetation topics. 

The landscape scale resources included viewshed, night sky, and soundscape. The viewshed 

and soundscape resources were in good condition, given the fact that the monument is located 

in a rural setting and surrounded by large areas of protected land. The night sky resource was 

in good to moderate condition and is unfortunately impacted by Albuquerque New Mexico’s 

light pollution at some locations throughout the monument. 

The monument’s supporting physical environment resource topics included air quality, surface 

geology, caves and cave ice, and tinajas. The condition for all of these resources was moderate 

except for caves and cave ice where no condition determination was made due to the lack of 

data.

The biological integrity resources included four vegetation topics and exotic plants and 

five wildlife topics, which included cave ecology and organisms, mammals, bats, birds, and 

herpetofauna. The vegetation resources were in good condition, except for distinct vegetation 

and exotic plants, which are unknown at this time. The only wildlife topic condition rating was 

for bats, which was good. The remaining wildlife conditions are currently unknown due to lack 

of recent data.

xxi

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Jeff Albright, Natural Resource Condition Assessment Program Manager, 

National Park Service Water Resources Division, and Donna Shorrock, Natural Resource 

Condition Assessment Coordinator, National Park Service Intermountain Region Office, for 

their programmatic insight, guidance and contribution on project development. The authors 

are grateful to the staff at the National Park Service Natural Resource Stewardship and Science 

Directorate for their technical expertise, guidance, and reviews of their respective subjects. 

We are extremely grateful to all subject matter experts who provided valuable information 

and insights pertaining to their respective areas of research and expertise, especially Dr. 

William Romme and Brian Jacobs for their on-site vegetation field assessment. Their input 

helped to create a relevant, scientifically based document that provided new insights into the 

communities and processes found and occurring throughout the monument. Finally, we would 

like to express our gratitude and thanks to El Malpais National Monument staff, especially Steve 

Baumann, Chief of Resource Management, Eric Weaver, Natural Resources Branch Chief, 

Davis Hays, Former Natural Resources Branch Chief, and Laura Baumann, Biological Science 

Technician for all of their substantive reviews and/or contributions towards this effort. To all 

those remaining who reviewed and commented on this report, thank you. Your contributions 

have increased its professional value.

1

Chapter 1: NRCA Background Information

Chapter 1: NRCA Background Information

Natural Resource Condition Assessments 

(NRCAs) evaluate current conditions for 

a subset of natural resources and resource 

indicators in national park units, hereafter 

“parks.” NRCAs also report on trends in 

resource condition (when possible), identify 

critical data gaps, and characterize a general 

level of confidence for study findings. The 

resources and indicators emphasized in a given 

project depend on the park’s resource setting, 

status of resource stewardship planning and 

science in identifying high-priority indicators, 

and availability of data and expertise to assess 

current conditions for a variety of potential 

study resources and indicators. 

NRCAs represent a relatively new approach 

to assessing and reporting on park resource 

conditions. They are meant to complement 

— not replace — traditional issue- and threatbased resource assessments. As distinguishing 

characteristics, all NRCAs:

● are multi-disciplinary in scope;1

● employ hierarchical indicator frameworks;2

NRCAs Strive to 

Provide...

• Credible 

condition 

reporting for 

a subset of 

important park 

natural resources 

and indicators

• Useful condition 

summaries by 

broader resource 

categories or 

topics, and by 

park areas

1. The breadth of natural resources and number/type of indicators evaluated will vary by park. 

2. Frameworks help guide a multi-disciplinary selection of indicators and subsequent “roll up” and reporting of data for 

measures [ conditions for indicators ] condition summaries by broader topics and park areas 

3. NRCAs must consider ecologically-based reference conditions, must also consider applicable legal and regulatory 

standards, and can consider other management-specified condition objectives or targets; each study indicator can be 

evaluated against one or more types of logical reference conditions. Reference values can be expressed in qualitative 

to quantitative terms, as a single value or range of values; they represent desirable resource conditions or, alternatively, 

condition states that we wish to avoid or that require a follow-on response (e.g., ecological thresholds or management 

“triggers”).

4. As possible and appropriate, NRCAs describe condition gradients or differences across a park for important natural 

resources and study indicators through a set of GIS coverages and map products. 

5. In addition to reporting on indicator-level conditions, investigators are asked to take a bigger picture (more holistic) 

view and summarize overall findings and provide suggestions to managers on an area-by-area basis: 1) by park 

ecosystem/habitat types or watersheds, and 2) for other park areas as requested.

An NRCA includes 

current conditions 

for a subset of 

a park’s natural 

resources.

NPS
2

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

● identify or develop reference conditions/

values for comparison against current 

conditions;3

● emphasize spatial evaluation of 

conditions and GIS (map) products;4

● summarize key findings by park areas; 

and5

● follow national NRCA guidelines and 

standards for study design and reporting 

products. 

Although the primary objective of NRCAs 

is to report on current conditions relative to 

logical forms of reference conditions and 

values, NRCAs also report on trends, when 

appropriate (i.e., when the underlying data 

and methods support such reporting), as 

well as influences on resource conditions. 

These influences may include past activities 

or conditions that provide a helpful context 

for understanding current conditions, and/

or present-day threats and stressors that 

are best interpreted at park, watershed, or 

landscape scales (though NRCAs do not 

report on condition status for land areas and 

natural resources beyond park boundaries). 

Intensive cause-and-effect analyses of threats 

and stressors, and development of detailed 

treatment options, are outside the scope of 

NRCAs. 

Due to their modest funding, relatively quick 

time frame for completion, and reliance 

on existing data and information, NRCAs 

are not intended to be exhaustive. Their 

methodology typically involves an informal 

synthesis of scientific data and information 

from multiple and diverse sources. Level of 

rigor and statistical repeatability will vary by 

resource or indicator, reflecting differences in 

existing data and knowledge bases across the 

varied study components. 

The credibility of NRCA results is derived 

from the data, methods, and reference 

values used in the project work, which are 

Important NRCA Success Factors

• Obtaining good input from park staff and 

other NPS subject-matter experts at critical 

points in the project timeline 

• Using study frameworks that 

accommodate meaningful condition 

reporting at multiple levels (measures / 

indicators) broader resource topics, and 

park areas

• Building credibility by clearly documenting 

the data and methods used, critical data 

gaps, and level of confidence for indicatorlevel condition findings 

An NRCA is 

intended to provide 

useful sciencebased information 

products in support 

of all levels of park 

planning. 

©PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY
3

Chapter 1: NRCA Background Information

designed to be appropriate for the stated 

purpose of the project, as well as adequately 

documented. For each study indicator for 

which current condition or trend is reported, 

we will identify critical data gaps and describe 

the level of confidence in at least qualitative 

terms. Involvement of park staff and National 

Park Service (NPS) subject-matter experts at 

critical points during the project timeline is 

also important. These staff will be asked to 

assist with the selection of study indicators; 

recommend data sets, methods, and reference 

conditions and values; and help provide 

a multi-disciplinary review of draft study 

findings and products.

NRCAs can yield new insights about current 

park resource conditions, but in many cases, 

their greatest value may be the development 

of useful documentation regarding known or 

suspected resource conditions within parks. 

Reporting products can help park managers 

as they think about near-term workload 

priorities, frame data and study needs for 

important park resources, and communicate 

messages about current park resource 

conditions to various audiences. A successful 

NRCA delivers science-based information 

that is both credible and has practical uses for 

a variety of park decision making, planning, 

and partnership activities. 

However, it is important to note that NRCAs 

do not establish management targets for study 

indicators. That process must occur through 

park planning and management activities. 

What a NRCA can do is deliver science-based 

information that will assist park managers in 

their ongoing, long-term efforts to describe 

and quantify a park’s desired resource 

conditions and management targets. In the 

near term, NRCA findings assist strategic park 

resource planning6

 and help parks to report 

on government accountability measures.7

In addition, although in-depth analysis of 

the effects of climate change on park natural 

NRCA Reporting Products...

• Provide a credible, snapshot-in-time 

evaluation for a subset of important 

park natural resources and indicators, 

to help park managers:

• Direct limited staff and funding 

resources to park areas and natural 

resources that represent high need 

and/or high opportunity situations

(near-term operational planning and 

management)

• Improve understanding and 

quantification for desired conditions 

for the park’s “fundamental” and 

“other important” natural resources 

and values

(longer-term strategic planning)

• Communicate succinct messages 

regarding current resource conditions 

to government program managers, to 

Congress, and to the general public 

(“resource condition status” reporting) 

6. An NRCA can be useful during the development of a 

park’s Resource Stewardship Strategy (RSS) and can 

also be tailored to act as a post-RSS project.

7. While accountability reporting measures are subject 

to change, the spatial and reference-based condition 

data provided by NRCAs will be useful for most forms 

of “resource condition status” reporting as may be 

required by the NPS, the Department of the Interior, 

or the Office of Management and Budget. 

8. The I&M program consists of 32 networks nationwide 

that are implementing “vital signs” monitoring in 

order to assess the condition of park ecosystems and 

develop a stronger scientific basis for stewardship and 

management of natural resources across the National 

Park System. “Vital signs”  are a subset of physical, 

chemical, and biological elements and processes of 

park ecosystems that are selected to represent the 

overall health or condition of park resources, known 

or hypothesized effects of stressors, or elements that 

have important human values.

An NRCA uses a 

variety of data to 

assess the condition 

of a park’s natural 

resources.

NPS
4

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

resources is outside the scope of NRCAs, the 

condition analyses and data sets developed 

for NRCAs will be useful for park-level 

climate-change studies and planning efforts. 

NRCAs also provide a useful complement to 

rigorous NPS science support programs, such 

as the NPS Natural Resources Inventory & 

Monitoring (I&M) Program.8

 For example, 

NRCAs can provide current condition 

estimates and help establish reference 

conditions, or baseline values, for some of 

a park’s vital signs monitoring indicators. 

They can also draw upon non-NPS data to 

help evaluate current conditions for those 

same vital signs. In some cases, I&M data sets 

are incorporated into NRCA analyses and 

reporting products. 

Over the next several years, the NPS plans 

to fund a NRCA project for each of the 

approximately 270 parks served by the NPS 

I&M Program. For more information on the

NRCA program, visit http://www.nature.nps.

gov/water/nrca/.
5

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource 

Setting

2.1. Introduction

2.1.1. Enabling Legislation/Executive 

Orders

El Malpais National Monument was 

established on December 31, 1987 by Public 

Law 100-225, identifying the purpose of the 

national monument as to:

“Preserve, protect, and interpret natural and 

cultural resources that are an integral part of the 

volcanic wilderness, including the Grants Lava 

Flow and Chacoan great house community of 

Las Ventanas.” (NPS 2014a).

El Malpais NM’s unique resources and 

values are further described in its significance 

statements as follows (excerpted from its 

Foundation Document (NPS 2014a)):

Volcanic Processes:

El Malpais protects many lava flows, young 

and old, that are home to a rich diversity of 

associated volcanic geologic features including 

one of the longest lava tube systems in the 

world.

Caves:

El Malpais National Monument preserves 

a high density and diversity of ecologically 

significant lava tube caves, including the 

southernmost ice caves in the United States. 

Access to a number of these caves provides a 

rare self-guided recreational and educational 

experience.

Lava-influenced ecosystem:

Lava-influenced environmental conditions 

have produced uncommon vegetation 

associations, unusual growth forms, and 

plant communities sheltered from modern 

disturbances.

Lava-influenced cultural landscape:

El Malpais preserves and protects a cultural 

landscape influenced by volcanic landforms, 

including the Chacoan great house community 

of Las Ventanas, ancient and historic trail 

networks, basalt architecture, and ritual 

landscapes.

Wilderness:

The wilderness of El Malpais National 

Monument, a vast volcanic landscape, 

Lava rise pits on the 

inflated surface of 

the McCartys Flow 

near Lava Falls. 

©LARRY CRUMPLER
6

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

provides opportunities for inspiration and 

solitude, physical and navigational challenges, 

and scientific discovery.

El Malpais NM Wilderness

Wilderness is defined as “an area of 

undeveloped Federal land retaining its 

primeval character and influence without 

permanent improvements or human 

habitation...” in The Wilderness Act of 

1964 (Public Law 88-577 [16 U.S.C. 1131-

1136]). The 1990 General Management Plan 

for El Malpais NM identified areas within 

the national monument that are suitable 

for preservation as wilderness (NPS 1990). 

These wilderness-suitable areas make up 

approximately 39,255 hectares (97,000 acres) 

or 85% of the park (Figure 2.1.1-1). The areas 

have been managed as wilderness since 1990, 

although they are considered as recommended 

wilderness until they are officially designated 

by Congress (NPS 2014b). Once finished, the 

Wilderness and Backcountry Stewardship 

Plan will complete the planning process for 

wilderness that began in 1991 and 2003 (NPS 

2014b [still in draft form]).

According to NPS (2014b), areas considered 

suitable wilderness at El Malpais NM possess 

the following unique qualities: “1) the vast 

El Malpais Boundary

Non-Wilderness

Proposed Wilderness

Potential Wilderness (Private Land)

Non-Wilderness (Private Land)

Figure 2.1.1-1.

The vast majority 

(85%) of El Malpais 

NM is suitable for 

preservation as 

wilderness. Figure 

credit: El Malpais NM
7

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

extent of the rugged, volcanic landscape will 

humble even those with superior navigation 

skills; 2) the nature of the landscape, coupled 

with the diverse cultural heritage of this 

region, has uniquely shaped the human 

experience of El Malpais NM and limited 

contemporary development; 3) the many ages 

and types of lava flows present a mosaic of 

landscapes and terrain, resulting in different 

physical challenges, risks, and personal 

rewards; and 4) different lava flows greatly 

influence natural systems and processes, 

creating unique and varied habitats.” 

Within El Malpais NM, most of the lava 

fields were deemed suitable for wilderness 

designation, and in some areas, the margins 

of the McCarty’s, Hoya de Cibola, Bandera, 

and Twin Craters flows were used to delineate 

the areas recommended for wilderness 

designation (NPS 2014b). Other undeveloped 

areas within the park that were not considered 

suitable as wilderness are considered 

backcountry (NPS 2014b). 

2.1.2. Geographic Setting

El Malpais NM is located in Cibola County just 

south of Grants, New Mexico encompassing 

47,217 hectares (116,626 acres). It is located 

along New Mexico Highway 53, which 

provides access to the park along its east and 

north boundaries and New Mexico Highway 

117, which provides access along its eastern 

boundary. El Morro National Monument, 

with which it is co-administered, is located 

27 miles to the west of the center of the park 

(Figure 2.1.2-1). 

The national monument is largely surrounded 

by the even larger El Malpais National 

Conservation Area, managed by the Bureau 

of Land Management. The Conservation 

Area also contains two areas of designated 

wilderness and a third wilderness study area. 

The park is adjacent to the Pueblo of Acoma, 

the Cibola National Forest, and private lands. 

Population

The total population was 21,928 in 2010 (NPS 

2014c, U.S. Census Bureau 2011) throughout 

the 30-km surrounding and including the 

monument (3,119.2 km2

) with 8% of the 

population located within 3-km2

 of the 

monument’s boundary (NPS 2014c, U.S. 

Census Bureau 2011). The 2010 population 

density was 3.69 people/km2 throughout the 

Figure 2.1.2-1.

El Malpais NM is 

located west of 

Albuquerque, New 

Mexico and east of 

Flagstaff, Arizona in 

Cibola County New 

Mexico.
8

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

30-km area and 6.9 people/km2 throughout 

the 3-km area surrounding and including the 

park (NPS 2014c, U.S. Census Bureau 2011).

Population data for Cibola County New 

Mexico indicate that between 1820-1990, 

the population density increased from 0.022 

people/km2

 to 5.0 people/km2 (Waisanen and 

Bliss 2002). Furthermore projections indicate 

the population density will decrease to 2.89 

people/km2

 in 2030 throughout the county 

(University of New Mexico 2009). 

Housing density data for 2010 classify 55% 

of the 30-km area surrounding the park as 

rural (NPS 2014d), and it is expected that it 

will remain primarily rural through 2100, 

which represents the last year housing density 

projections were made (Theobald 2005).

Climate

The climate of the U.S. Southwest is most 

influenced by its location between the 

mid-latitude and subtropical atmospheric 

circulation regimes. This creates the typical 

southwestern climate of dry, sunny days, 

with low annual precipitation. Rain comes in 

July-September from monsoon storms that 

originate in the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf 

of Mexico, and in November-March from 

winter storms that originate in the Pacific 

Ocean (Sheppard et al. 2002). 

The Colorado Plateau, where the monument 

is situated, is an arid region with irregular 

rainfall, periods of drought, warm to hot 

growing seasons, and long winters with 

freezing temperatures (Davey et al. 2006). 

Climate conditions at El Malpais NM are 

shown in Figure 2.1.2-2.

Winter precipitation is generally followed 

by a seasonal dry period from April through 

June. This dry period is defined as much by 

the increased potential evapotranspiration 

that accompanies increased day length, solar 

radiation, and temperatures, as by decreased 

precipitation. The spring dry period is usually 

relieved by the onset of the Mexican/ Arizona 

monsoon, which lasts from July through 

September and is associated mostly with shortduration, high-intensity thunderstorms. The 

thunderstorms can be localized, leading to 

high year-to-year variability of precipitation 

over small areas across the park (Muldavin et 

al. 2013). 

Temperature

The temperature in El Malpais NM typically 

varies over the year from 13oF to 88oF. 

Figure 2.1.2-2.

Climate conditions 

at El Malpais NM 

(http://science.

nature.nps.gov/im/

units/scpn/climate/

climate.cfm).
9

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

The warm season is generally from May 

25-September 7 with average daily high 

temperatures above 79oF. The cold season 

is generally November 26-February 23 with 

average daily high temperatures below 51oF. 

Figure 2.1.2-3 shows the average daily high 

and low temperatures.

Precipitation

El Malpais NM receives precipitation from 

both summer monsoons and winter storms 

with more precipitation coming in the 

summer than winter. The average annual 

precipitation in the area of the monument 

is 218 mm (8.6 in) (Figure 2.1.2-2), of which 

approximately a third falls in winter (October 

through March) and is delivered principally 

by low-pressure systems that sweep from west 

to east across the Southwest, and coalesce 

with moisture from the Pacific Ocean or the 

Gulf of Mexico (Muldavin et al. 2013). The 

average precipitation in the Colorado Plateau 

is 10-35 inches/year (Figure 2.1.2-4). 

Figure 2.1.2-3.

Average daily 

temperatures from 

Grants, New Mexico 

with average high 

temperatures shown 

in red and low 

temperatures shown 

in blue. 

Figure 2.1.2-4.

A map of parks 

within the Southern 

Colorado Plateau 

Network (including 

El Malpais) and the 

range of annual 

precipitation.
10

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

2.1.3. Visitation Statistics

Monthly visitation data for El Malpais NM 

are available for 1989-2015 (NPS Public Use 

Statistics Office 2016). A pneumatic tube 

counter is placed across Sandstone Bluffs 

Road, Bandera Crater/Ice Caves Road, El 

Calderon Road, Zuni-Acoma Trail Road, Big 

Tubes Road, and Lava Falls Road (NPS Public 

Use Statistics Office 2001). Traffic counts 

are summed and multiplied by a designated 

factor to reduce duplicate reporting of total 

recreation visits NPS Public Use Statistics 

Office 2001).

The total number of visitors each year ranged 

from a low of 52,554 (in 1989) to a high 

of 174,433 (in 2015). The months with the 

highest average number of visitors over the 

recording period were June-August (Figure 

2.1.3-1). 

2.2. Natural Resources

A summary of the natural resources at El 

Malpais NM is presented in this section 

and represents an overview of information 

known about the study area and monument 

resources prior to the completion of this 

condition assessment. For some of the 

natural resource assessments, new data were 

gathered and compiled and will be presented 

in Chapter 4 as applicable.

2.2.1. Ecological Units, Watersheds, 

and NPScape Landscape-scale

Ecological Units

El Malpais NM is located in the ArizonaNew Mexico ecoregion subunit, which 

encompasses the highlands of eastern 

Arizona and western and central New Mexico 

(TNC 1999). This area contains the oldest 

mountains that are in the Southwest and much 

of the area is under federal ownership (TNC 

1999). The park’s elevation ranges between 

1,950 and 2,554 m (6,398-8,380 ft). 

Watershed Units 

The national monument is located primarily 

within the Rio Grande Region drainage basin, 

which covers 437,054 km2

 (107,998,395 acres), 

with a small area of the park’s northwest 

side that is situated in the Lower Colorado 

Region drainage basin (USGS 2014a). The 

drainage basin is further divided into the Rio 

Grande - Elephant Butte Basin Subregion 

(70,227km2,, 17,353,470 acres) and the Rio 

Grande - Elephant Butte Basin (53,620.50 

km2

, 13,249,914 acres). It is then further 

subdivided into the North Plains Subbasin, 

which drains an area of 3127km2

 (772,670 

acres). The park encompasses a total of five 

watersheds and 15 subwatersheds (Figure 

2.2.1-1) (USGS 2014a). 

NPScape Landscape-scale

Several of the park’s resources (e.g., viewshed, 

night sky, vegetation, wildlife, etc.) are affected 

by landscape scale processes, and this broader 

perspective can provide more comprehensive 

information to better understand resource 

conditions throughout the park. 

Figure 2.1.3-1.

Average number of 

visitors by month to 

El Malpais NM from 

1989-2014.
11

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

Studies have shown that natural resources rely 

upon the larger, surrounding area to support 

their life cycles (Coggins 1987 as cited in 

Monahan et al. 2012), and most parks are not 

large enough to encompass self-contained 

ecosystems for the resources found within 

park boundaries.

As a result, the NPScape Program has identified 

an area within a 30-km (18.6 mi) radius of a 

given location as ecologically-relevant for 

Figure 2.2.1-1.

El Malpais NM is 

located within 15 

subwatersheds 

(USGS 2014a).
12

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

most natural resources based upon numerous 

ecological studies as cited in Monahan et al. 

(2012).

Most of the landscape-scale assessments 

for selected El Malpais NM resources were 

evaluated at the 30-km plus park boundary 

Area of Analysis (AOA) identified by the 

NPS NPScape Program (NPS 2011a), unless 

otherwise noted, to provide an ecological, 

landscape-scale context for resource 

conditions.

2.2.2. Resource Descriptions

Supporting Environment

Surface Geology

El Malpais, the “badlands” in Spanish, is 

a rugged volcanic landscape consisting of 

young lava flows, cinder cones and associated 

volcanic features, including an extensive 

network of lava tube caves. Sedimentary 

rocks are exposed in areas outside of the lava 

flows, and in kipukas, or “islands” of older 

rocks, that were not buried by lava flows. With 

park boundaries drawn to encompass the 

most significant young volcanic resources of 

the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field, El Malpais 

National Monument’s geologic resources are 

at the heart of its significance.

The monument lies within the Zuni-Bandera 

Volcanic Field, which is in the transition zone 

between the stable Colorado Plateau to the 

north and the Basin and Range to the south 

and the Rio Grande Rift to the east- both of 

which are undergoing tectonic extension and 

rifting (USGS 2014b). Young volcanic fields 

including Zuni-Bandera, the San Francisco 

Peak Volcanic Field (which includes Sunset 

Crater Volcano National Monument), and 

the Uinkaret Volcanic Field north of Grand 

Canyon are found in several locations along 

the Basin and Range – Colorado Plateau 

Transition. The Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field 

is also located along the Jimez Lineament, 

which is a northeast-trending alignment of 

young volcanic fields, including the Valles 

Caldera, shown in green in Figure 2.2.2-1. 

The volcanoes in and around El Malpais 

erupted basalt (a type of fluid lava with a 

chemical composition high in magnesium 

and iron and low in silica that erupts nonviolently) in Hawaiian-style volcanism. 

Mildly explosive eruptions built cinder cones, 

such as El Calderon and Bandera Crater. Lava 

flows were erupted either at the base of cinder 

cones or from other volcanic vents such as 

fissures or broad edifices with gentle slopes 

called shield volcanoes. Nine major lava flows 

were erupted within the last 60,000 years 

(KellerLynn 2012). These lava flows show 

characteristics of two major types: pahoehoe, 

or ropy lava, or aa, blocky lava. The lava flows 

at El Malpais also have a variety of other flow 

features, such as spatter cones, inflation pits, 

squeeze ups, and tree molds, one of the few 

paleontological resources found in volcanic 

rocks (KellerLynn 2012). El Malpais geology 

was mapped by Maxwell in 1986 and contains 

the best examples of Hawaiian style lava flows 

in the continental United States (KellerLynn 

2012).

Figure 2.2.2-1. The major volcanic fields in New 

Mexico are shown in this figure. El Malpais National 

Monument is part of the Zuni–Bandera volcanic field 

in west-central New Mexico (NPS Geologic Resources 

Division). 
13

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

El Malpais is especially notable for containing 

the McCartys Flow, which formed from the 

most recent volcanic eruption in New Mexico 

(Crumpler 2011), approximately 3,900 years 

before present (Dunbar and Philips 2004). It 

is also one of the largest and most voluminous 

young lava flows on the continent (Larry 

Crumpler, New Mexico Museum of Nature 

and Science, personal communication, 

2015), with a length of approximately 48 km 

(30 miles) (Garry et al. 2011). El Malpais 

is also the best place on the continent for 

people to view the products of young basaltic 

volcanism, giving the area great educational 

value, particularly in a spectacular setting with 

the backdrop of the Sandstone Bluffs (Larry 

Crumpler, New Mexico Museum of Nature 

and Science, personal communication, 2015).

Volcanic rocks exposed in El Malpais have 

been the subject of important volcanological 

research, especially on the formation of 

inflation structures on the McCartys flow 

(Garry et al. 2011) (Figure 2.2.2-2). In fact, the 

McCartys flow has inflation features that are 

better preserved and serve as better research 

subjects than those on the 1859 flow on the 

Big Island of Hawaii (Crumpler, personal 

communication, 2015).

The young lava flows of El Malpais mostly 

buried a terrain of Pennsylvanian to 

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks and older 

lava flows from earlier episodes of volcanism 

in the Zuni-Bandera field. The monument 

lies at the southern edge of the Zuni Uplift 

and Precambrian rocks exposed in the 

core of the uplift are exposed along the 

northern monument boundary (Maxell 1986; 

KellerLynn 2012).

Fossils are known from several of the 

sedimentary units exposed within the park 

(Tweet et al. 2009). Tree molds in the young 

lava flows have been found in at least 10 

locations on the Bandera and McCartys flows 

(Eric Weaver, Physical Science Technician 

ELMA, personal communication, 2015). 

Caves and Cave Ice

The lava tube caves in the monument are 

among the site’s most significant and most 

sensitive resources. The caves provide a 

record of the flow dynamics of the lava 

flows with many physical features produced 

during flow emplacement, contain rare cave 

minerals, provide perennial and seasonal ice 

deposits, contain sensitive microclimates that 

support ferns and mosses at entrances and 

in skylights, provide important habitat for 

Figure 2.2.2-2.

McCartys flow 

inflation pits are 

well preserved 

and excellent for 

research.

©LARRY CRUMPLER
14

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

bats and other cave organisms, and provide 

recreational opportunities for monument 

visitors.

El Malpais contains one of the longest lava 

tube systems in the world and contains the 

southernmost ice caves in North America 

(NPS 2014e) (Figure 2.2.2-3). A lava tube is 

a roofed conduit in a lava flow that can form 

via a number of processes (Jackson 1997). 

Lava tubes form in fluid basaltic lava flows 

that travel many miles from their source. 

Lava tube caves are caves in the segments of 

lava tubes that have not either collapsed or 

became plugged by congealed lava (Larson 

1993).

As of early 2015, 441 caves, or subsurface 

geologic features, were known in the park, 

including 20 caves first located between late 

2014 and early 2015 (Eric Weaver, Acting 

Branch Chief of Natural Resources, personal 

communication 2015). Subsurface features 

documented at El Malpais are of four types: 

lava tube caves, surface tubes, talus caves, 

and alcoves. Surface tubes are small features 

formed by the draining of a lava toe and are 

as wide as several meters (Larson 1993). An 

alcove is a relatively small recess in the wall 

of a lava tube (Larson 1993), and a talus cave 

consists of interconnected spaces between 

blocks of talus (Jackson 1997). Lava tube caves 

at El Malpais are mostly known from the Twin 

Crater, Hoya de Cibola and Bandera flows 

(Maxwell 1986 and KellerLynn 2012). They 

have also been found near the vent for the 

McCartys flow (Marinakis 1997; Crumpler 

2011; and Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). 

A variety of formations, or speleothems, are 

found in El Malpais caves, including benches, 

lava stalagmites, stalactites, helictites and 

shark-tooth lavacicles (Rogers and Mosch 

1997a; and Marinakis 1997). At least 16 rocks, 

minerals and mineraloids have been identified 

as speleothems, including secondary minerals 

(Rogers and Mosch 1997b).

Seasonal or perennial ice has been 

documented in 40 caves in El Malpais since 

1997 (Marinakis 1997, NPS 2012, and Eric 

Weaver, Acting Branch Chief of Natural 

Resources, pers. comm., 2015). Perennial ice 

deposits generally occur as frozen pools on 

the cave floor, and seasonal ice may form as 

ice stalagmites and stalactites (Rogers and 

Mosch 1997b). No detailed studies have 

been completed on ice caves within the 

national monument, but Dickfoss et al. (1997) 

studied the privately-owned Candelaria Ice 

Cave. Ice deposits in Candelaria Ice Cave 

are more extensive than those in caves in 

the monument. The oldest accelerator mass 

spectrometry radiocarbon date was obtained 

from a twig enclosed in ice from Candelaria 

Ice Cave and was 3116 ± 77 years before 

present (Dickfoss et al. 1997). The age of ice 

in El Malpais caves is unknown.

Development of a Cave Management Plan is 

considered to be the top resource management 

priority at El Malpais (KellerLynn 2012). Prior 

to June 2013, the National Park Service did 

not require permits to enter El Malpais caves, 

so previous recreational use data are not 

available. In December 2010, all caves in the 

monument were closed to protect against the 

spread of White-nose Syndrome and to bring 

the park into compliance with NPS policy 

and federal law (Pate 2013). Four El Malpais 

caves re-opened for recreational caving in 

June 2013 with the requirement that all cavers 

receive a permit (NPS 2014e). Cave visitor use 

data are collected as part of the permitting 

process (Weaver, personal communication, 

2015).

NPS

Figure 2.2.2-3. El 

Malpais contains the 

southernmost cave 

ice found in North 

America.
15

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

Acting Branch Chief of Natural Resources, 

Eric Weaver, initiated the development of 

a geodatabase of cave resources found in El 

Malpais (Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). This database will include information 

on the location of caves, access, degree of 

visitor impact, mineralogical resources, 

biological resources and other cave resources 

(Weaver, personal communication, 2015).

Air Quality

Different categories of air quality areas (Class 

I and II) have been established through 

the authority of the Clean Air Act of 1970 

(42 U.S.C. §7401 et seq. (1970)). Like most 

National Park Service areas, El Malpais 

National Monument is designated as a Class 

II airshed.

No air quality monitoring stations are located 

within the required distances to derive trends 

for ozone, visibility, or atmospheric deposition 

of nitrogen or sulphur for the national 

monument, but the NPS’ Air Resources 

Division provides interpolated data to assess 

air quality conditions, which will be used in 

the Chapter 4 condition assessment. To date, 

four plants in the national monument are 

known to be ozone sensitive species (NPS 

ARD 2006).

Tinajas

Tinajas or ‘small jars’ are small bedrock pools 

of surface water that are essential to the 

survival of aquatic and semiaquatic organisms 

and wildlife. The tinajas found throughout 

El Malpais are intermittent and supplied by 

meteoric input. These pools are colonized by 

amphibians and aquatic invertebrates that are 

temporary pool specialists such as spadefoot 

toads and branchiopod crustaceans. The 

species that utilize these temporary pools have 

developed dispersal adaptations that allow 

them to persist throughout drying cycles.

Lightfoot et al. (1994) found Canyon Treefrog 

(Hyla arenicolor) to be common throughout 

the monument, occurring in lava tube 

collapse features within the lava flows, as well 

as in tinajas and stock tanks on the east side 

of El Malpais. Nowak and Persons (2008) 

speculated the absence of this species during 

the herpetofauna inventory period between 

2002-2003 may have been related to drought 

conditions, which would adversely impact 

water availability in tinajas.

Landscape-scale Resources

Viewshed,

At El Malpais, the physical landscape of 

sandstone bluffs, mesas, and valleys likely 

played a role in the centuries of use of the 

landscape by people—from scouting hunting 

grounds to watching for people approaching. 

From a cultural and historical perspective, 

the views are not just about the scenery, but 

an important way to better understand the 

connection between natural and cultural 

resources at El Malpais NM. Visualizing 

the natural landscape together with 

cultural events is a critical part of the visitor 

experience. Viewshed analyses are a way to 

measure the integrity of the landscape and 

how it contributes to visitor experience from 

natural, historical, and cultural perspectives. 

Night Sky

Ancestral Puebloan groups as well as 

southern Athabaskan (includes Navajo and 

Apache) groups were the predominant early 

residents of this region, and the night sky was 

important to their culture and religion, with 

rituals and ceremonies often tied to phases of 

the moon (Malville and Putnam 1993).

Dark night skies are considered an aesthetic 

in national parks and offer an experiential 

quality that is also integral to natural and 

cultural resources (Moore et al. 2013). In an 

estimated 20 national parks, stargazing events 

are the most popular ranger-led program 

(NPS 2010). But the values of night skies go 

far beyond visitor experience and scenery. 

The photic environment affects a broad range 

of species, is integral to ecosystems, and is a 

natural physical process (Moore et al. 2013). 

The NPS Night Skies and Natural Sounds 

Division collected data on the quality of the 

night skies at El Malpais from Cerro Encierro 

on April 20, 2012 (Figure 2.2.2-4). 

Soundscape

Baseline acoustical data were collected by 

scientists from NPS’ NSNSD at El Malpais 

NM from June-July 2009. A ‘snapshot report’ 
16

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

was created with a full report expected after 

data analysis is completed (NPS NSNSD 

2009). As a result of the brief report, 

distinctions between intrinsic versus extrinsic 

sounds were not differentiated. Regardless, 

the percent time exceedences above the sound 

pressure level of 45 dBA were infrequent, 

except for at the Lost Woman site between 

0700-1900. Overall, the data collected indicate 

a relatively quiet environment at the locations 

monitored. 

Landcover 

O’Neill et al. (1997) suggested that the 

simplest indication of biotic condition may 

be the amount of land cover change from 

natural to non-natural. Converted lands may 

likely influence and possibly inhibit species’ 

movements and habitat requirements (O’Neill 

et al. 1988; With & Crist 1995; Pearson et al. 

1996; McIntyre & Hobbs 1999; Kupfer et al. 

2006; Fischer & Lindenmayer 2007; Vranckx 

et al. 2012 as cited in Monahan et al. 2012). 

Almost 100% (99.3%) of the 30-km area, 

including and surrounding the monument 

contains a natural land cover type (NPS 2014f, 

Fry et al. 2011) as compared to an average of 

76% of the lands surrounding most national 

parks (Monahan et al. 2012). A discussion of 

the amount of landcover change within the 

30-km area, which is considered ecologically 

relevant, will be further discussed in the 

Chapter 4 vegetation assessment.

Biological Resources

Vegetation

The vegetation at El Malpais National 

Monument is diverse. The monument lies 

at the southern margin of the Colorado 

Plateau and is astride the continental divide. 

The vegetation pattern of the monument 

is intimately intertwined with its geology 

(Muldavin et al. 2013). The young lava 

flows and cinder cones of the Zuni-Bandera 

Volcanic Field, in addition to outcrops 

of sedimentary rock, provide a variety of 

environmental factors in which plants grow. 

The national monument has five main plant 

community types (Figure 2.2.2-5). In addition, 

three distinct vegetation communities 

(ancient trees, endemic plant associations 

and plant species, and kipuka vegetation) 

result from the interplay between the national 

monument’s geology and vegetation.

The primary earliest study of the area’s 

vegetation was conducted by Lindsey 

(1951), who studied the vegetation, unique 

communities, and climate of the lava 

flows in what is now El Malpais NM and 

the surrounding vicinity. Lindsey (1951) 

described three vegetation communities, or 

“belts,” on the lava flows- the mixed Douglas 

fir and ponderosa pine belt (the upper belt), 

the ponderosa pine belt (intermediate), and 

the Apache plume shrub belt (the lower belt). 

There was a period of approximately 40 years 

with few studies of the vegetation on what 

would become El Malpais NM, then a number 

of studies/inventories were conducted, 

such as those by Bleakly (1994), Lightfoot 

et al. (1994), Bleakly and Lightfoot (1995), 

Grissino-Mayer (1995), Grissino-Mayer and 

Swetnam (1997), and Bleakly (1997). 

Lightfoot et al. (1994) conducted surveys at 

the national monument as part of a threeyear vegetation and wildlife inventory. 

They surveyed a number of sites with the 

goal of sampling both typical and unique 

environments within the park. Bleakly (1994) 

also studied the vegetation of the park and set 

out to compile a complete list of the vascular 

flora of the area, describe communities not 

NPS NSNSD

Figure 2.2.2-4.

Camera setup at 

Cerro Encierro, El 

Malpais NM.
17

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

described by Lindsey (1951), and study the 

habitat of Phacelia serrate (cinders phacelia), 

which is an endemic species found in the 

monument. Bleakly (1994) also presented 

a vegetation map showing four vegetation 

types or communities in the monument and 

on surrounding lands: bare to sparse grass/

shrub; grass or grass/shrub; shrub/conifer; 

and mixed conifer. Approximately 424 species 

of vascular plants were reported by Bleakly 

(1994) and Lightfoot et al. (1994), including 28 

non-native species, which were found mostly 

along roadsides. It should be noted that much 

of the vegetation work reported in Lightfoot 

et al. (1994) appears to be the work reported 

in Bleakly (1994). Current data document 531 

species in El Malpais (NPS 2015), including 

40 species of exotic plants (Lightfoot 1994; 

Bleakly 1997; NPS 2009; Muldavin et al. 2013; 

NPS 2014g and NPS 2015). 

Muldavin et al. (2013) classified and mapped 

the vegetation at the national monument, using 

data collected from field plots in 2006-2009, 

in accordance with the national classification/

mapping program that is a cooperative effort 

by the U.S. Geological Survey and the NPS. 

We present a number of figures in the NRCA 

based on the Muldavin et al. (2013) work. 

Piñon-Juniper 

Across the western United States, piñonjuniper vegetation covers approximately 

100 million acres (40 million hectares; 

Romme et al. 2008). There is great diversity 

in piñon-juniper structure, composition, 

and disturbance regimes. At El Malpais NM, 

piñon-juniper areas are dominated by piñon 

pine (Pinus edulis) and one-seed juniper 

(Juniperus monosperma), as well as Rocky 

Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum). 

Piñon-juniper comprises approximately 20% 

of the total area of the monument according 

to recent vegetation mapping efforts by 

Muldavin et al. (2013; Figure 2.2.2-6 (left)). 

Muldavin et al. (2013) reported two main 

types of piñon-juniper (i.e., piñon-juniper 

woodland and juniper woodland and 

savanna). 

At El Malpais NM, piñon-juniper woodlands 

occur below ponderosa pine forests on the 

elevation gradient, and on sedimentary 

kipukas, outcrops, and cinder cones 

(Lightfoot et al. 1994). Substrates include 

sandstones, limy sandstones, and sandy soils 

originating from these rocks and cinders. The 

Fire Management Plan for the park further 

indicates that this community typically 

occurs on south and west facing slopes of 

cinder cones, ridges on the east side of the 

monument, and limestone and sandstone 

ridges on the west side of the monument, 

as well as on kipukas (Bureau of Land 

Management and NPS 2001). Although this 

vegetation community is dominated by piñon 

pine and one-seed juniper, other trees such as 

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and oaks 

(Quercus spp.) occur, as well as a number of 

shrubs, herbs, and grasses. 

Figure 2.2.2-5. The national monument has five main plant community 

types as mapped by Muldavin et al. (2013).
18

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Ponderosa Pine

New Mexico and Arizona contain 

approximately 2.5 million hectares (6 million 

acres) of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) 

forests (Graham and Jain 2005). At El Malpais 

NM, woodlands and savannas dominated by 

ponderosa pine comprise approximately 56% 

of the total area of the monument (Muldavin 

et al. 2013; Figure 2.2.2-6 (right). Muldavin 

et al. (2013) described two main groups of 

ponderosa pine (ponderosa pine forest and 

woodland, and ponderosa pine savanna). 

Ponderosa pine vegetation occurs at the 

national monument at higher elevations, in 

general above about 2,200 meters (7,220 feet), 

both on and off of lava flows (Lightfoot et 

al. 1994). This vegetation type at the park is 

variable in composition and structure, from 

relatively dense ponderosa pine forest to 

more open woodlands of ponderosa pine and 

piñon pine. According to Bleakly (1994), the 

largest individual ponderosa pines and the 

densest stands are in the more mesic northern 

and western areas of the national monument. 

Although ponderosa pine is the dominant 

tree species, others noted as common by 

Lightfoot et al. (1994) include Colorado 

piñon (Pinus edulis), one-seed juniper 

(Juniperus monosperma), Rocky Mountain 

juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), and Gambel 

oak (Quercus gambelii). Vegetation in the 

understory is composed of mostly grasses, 

especially mountain muhly (Muhlengergia 

montana), pine dropseed (Blepharoneuron 

tricholepsis), Western wheatgrass (Elymus 

smithii), and blue gramma (Bouteloua gracilis). 

Fire is a key ecosystem process in 

southwestern ponderosa pine forests (Allen 

et al. 2002). A study in the 1990s focused 

on the history of fire on the El Malpais NM 

landscape. Grissino-Mayer and Swetnam 

(1997) analyzed the fire history in ponderosa 

pine forests on cinder cones and shield 

volcanoes, on ancient, highly-eroded basalt 

flows, on young, moderately-eroded lava 

flows, and on kipukas. Sites studied varied 

in the past occurrence of grazing, logging, 

and fire suppression. Wildfire patterns were 

analyzed using fire scars on stumps, logs, 

and snags, and from samples obtained from 

living trees. The researchers found that fires 

occurred in 37% of the years (246 out of 660) 

between 1333 and 1993. Wildfires started 

becoming less common around 1880, and 

again around 1940. The first change occurred 

when livestock grazing became widespread in 

the area, and the second change was probably 

related to fire suppression (Grissino-Mayer 

and Swetnam 1997). The authors also 

found that from 1700-1880, fire occurred in 

ponderosa pine forests on the cinder cone/

shield volcano and ancient basalt flows about 

once every three years; in the kipukas about 

once every seven years; and in the young 

basalt flow about once every 11 years. Fire 

regimes in the kipukas studied appeared to be 

largely unaffected by human disturbance. 

©PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY©PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Figure 2.2.2-6.

Piñon-juniper (left) 

and Ponderosa pine 

(right). 
19

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

Grassland/Shortgrass Prairie

Grasslands at El Malpais NM have been 

described primarily by Bleakly (1994) and 

BLM and NPS (2001, based on Bleakly 1994), 

and more recently by Muldavin et al. (2013). 

Lightfoot et al. (1994) also discussed these 

areas and referred to them as juniper savannas. 

Only a small portion of the monument is 

dominated by grasslands (about 6% (Figure 

2.2.2-7, left)), with much more of this 

vegetation type occurring on adjacent lands 

(Bleakly 1994). Bleakly (1994) referred to 

these areas as the grass/shrub vegetation type. 

Within the park, grasslands occur primarily on 

the west side of the park and on the east side 

of the park. On the west side of the national 

monument, grasslands occur at elevations 

of around 2,134 to 2,316 m (7,000 to 7,600 

ft.) on generally level land with basalt-based 

soils (BLM and NPS 2001). As reported in 

Bleakly (1994), the substrate is old and eroded 

enough to have fairly well-developed eolian 

soils. Alluvium has been deposited adjacent 

to most of the flows on all sides, and soils are 

at least eight feet deep. These areas had been 

heavily grazed within the last approximately 

100 years. Grasslands on the east side of the 

park are at lower elevations, also on generally 

flat land, and occur on sandstone-derived 

soils (BLM and NPS 2001). Deep soils have 

resulted from alluvium being deposited in the 

low-lying areas. Temporary lakes or ponded 

areas may form next to the lava flows due to 

runoff (Bleakly 1994). These grasslands were 

also heavily grazed in the last 100 years. 

BLM and NPS (2001) described the 

grasslands as typically dominated by blue 

grama (Bouteloua gracilis). Other typical 

grasses include other gramas, little bluestem 

(Schizachyrium scoparium), three-awn 

(Aristida spp.), squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), 

junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), and ring 

muhly (Muhlenbergia torreyi). Common 

shrubs are rabbitbrush (Chysothamnus 

nauseosus, also known as Ericameria

nauseosa), gray horsebrush (Tetradymia 

canescens), sages (Artemisia spp.), and broom 

snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae). Bleakly 

(1994) noted that oneseed junipers (Juniperus 

monosperma) are sometimes found on 

outcrops. 

Muldavin et al. (2013) reported one main 

grassland group at the park, but as described 

in Chapter 4, this one group can be separated 

into six smaller (Level 2) map units. 

Shortgrass-Shrublands

Shortgrass-shrublands cover a moderate 

proportion of the land within El Malpais NM 

(about 15%) (Figure 2.2.2-7 (right)). These 

areas have been addressed by Bleakly (1994), 

Lindsey (1951), and Muldavin et al. (2013). In 

Bleakly’s (1994) work on the vegetation of the 

national monument, he mapped four broad 

vegetation zones, including bare to sparse 

grass/shrub. He reported that this vegetation 

type occurs on the newer lava flows; in 

particular, it is found on the McCartys flow 

and on upper parts of the Bandera flow. The 

©PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Figure 2.2.2-7.

Grasslands (left) 

and Apache 

plume (Fallugia 

paradoxa) (right), 

which is one of the 

predominant plants 

in the shortgrassshrublands.

©PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY
20

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

main feature of this group is the “geologically 

new volcanic substrate whose surface may 

be pahoehoe (McCartys) or aa (Bandera).” 

Plants in these areas consist of a small number 

of species of grasses, shrubs, and stunted 

conifers. 

Muldavin et al. (2013) recently mapped 

the shrubland communities at the park and 

described three main groups. These groups 

are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4, in 

the Grassland/Shrubland section; the most 

abundant of these at the national monument 

is one dominated by Apache plume and 

skunkbush sumac. 

Distinct Vegetation Communities

The distinct vegetation communities at El 

Malpais NM result from biogeographic, 

or geo-ecologic, interrelationships. In fact, 

the close correlation between bedrock 

geology and vegetation at El Malpais is 

one of the hallmarks of the lava flowinfluenced ecosystem identified as one of 

the monument’s statements of significance 

in El Malpais’ Foundation Document (NPS 

2014a). This close correlation between 

geology and vegetation at El Malpais is 

further evident in the monument’s vegetation 

map and classification report: vegetation map 

units frequently contain geologic terms such 

as “lava” or “cinder” (Muldavin et al. 2013).

The lava flow-influenced ecosystem at El 

Malpais has produced four distinct vegetation 

communities: ancient trees (Figure 2.2.2-8), 

an endemic plant species, Phacelia serrette

(cinders phacelia), endemic plant associations, 

including the vegetation communities found 

growing on kipukas. These distinct vegetation 

communities are very unique aspects of the 

park’s biological and geological heritage.

Endemic Plant Associations & Vulnerable 

Plant Associations

Due to its very nature with young basaltic lava 

flows and exposures of older sedimentary 

rock that have more developed soils, El 

Malpais NM contains varied environments 

in which plants to grow, with the bedrock 

geology having a profound influence on 

the monument’s vegetation communities 

(Muldavin et al. 2013). Following the 

guidelines of the National Vegetation 

Classification Standard, Muldavin et al. 

(2013) identified five plant associations that 

have not been described elsewhere, with six 

additional associations that are regionally 

endemic. Fourteen additional associations 

only known from the El Malpais region 

were designated as “Park Specials” that need 

further documentation before being included 

in the National Vegetation Classification, with 

an additional four types of sparse vegetation 

that are also unique. El Malpais has a very high 

percentage of endemic plant associations. 

©GRANT HARLEY

Figure 2.2.2-8.

Yoda, an ancient 

Douglas Fir, is shown 

in the center frame, 

as well as two really 

old Douglas firs to 

the left and right. A 

clear sign of ancient 

age is the “invertedcarrot” trunk form 

(wide at bottom and 

pointed at top) and 

the dead crown tops 

(Grissino-Mayer et 

al. 1998). The tree 

on the right was 

cored and confirmed 

to start growing 

around AD 1308, so 

was just over 700 

years old (Harley, 

pers. comm., 2015).
21

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

Of the 50 plant associations identified at 

El Malpais by Muldavin et al. (2013), 38% 

are endemic to the park (including the 14 

Park Specials), with another 12% that are 

regionally endemic. Additionally, seven plant 

associations are considered vulnerable in the 

Global Conservation Assessment Ranking 

(refer to section 4.11 for details).

Cinders phacelia 

One species of endemic plant is known to 

occur in the park: Phacelia serrate (cinders 

phacelia). The species is only known from 

El Malpais and Sunset Crater National 

Monuments where it is restricted to areas of 

open volcanic cinders (Figure 2.2.2-9). The 

species was first recorded in El Malpais in 

1993 (Bleakly 1997).

Kipukas

Kipukas are areas or features of older 

geology surrounded by younger geology. The 

vegetation communities found on kipukas at 

El Malpais NM are strongly influenced by 

bedrock geology as they are throughout the 

monument’s lava flow-influenced ecosystem. 

Because they are areas of older rock 

surrounded by younger lava flows, kipukas at 

El Malpais may be made up of any unit of the 

park’s geologic map (Figure 2.2.2-10), except 

on the McCartys flow, which is the youngest 

lava flow in the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field 

and is approximately 3,900 years old (Dunbar 

and Philips 2004). El Malpais kipukas are of 

three major substrate types: 1) sedimentary, 

2) eolian, or 3) volcanic substrates, where the 

kipukas are made of older lava flows than the 

ones surrounding them. 

Because the most recent volcanism in El 

Malpais was nearly 4,000 years before present, 

Figure 2.2.2-9.

Phacelia serrate

(cinders phacelia). 

is a species only 

known from El 

Malpais and Sunset 

Crater National 

Monuments where 

it grows on areas 

of open volcanic 

cinders.

NPS

Figure 2.2.2-10. The 

area of light-colored 

ground is a kipuka 

surrounded by the 

McCartys flow.

©LARRY CRUMPLER
22

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

the vegetation growing on the kipukas has 

not been influenced by volcanic activity, as 

the vegetation in the park is younger than the 

lava flows. Previous studies such as Bleakly 

(1996) that attempted to determine whether 

the kipuka vegetation had been disturbed 

by lava flow emplacement were based on 

assumptions of the age of the volcanic activity 

that were much younger than determined via 

age determinations in later studies (Dunbar 

and Philips 2004). Additionally, as further 

evidence that the vegetation in the monument 

is younger than the volcanic activity, the oldest 

known plants in the park are the ancient trees, 

which are found on the younger lava flows 

(Grissino-Mayer et al. 1997). 

The largest kipukas (Hole-in-the-Wall and 

Cerritos de Jaspe) within the El Malpais area 

are mostly outside of monument boundaries. 

A good example of a large kipuka completely 

within the national monument is Los 

Medanitos - just north of Acoma-Zuni trail. 

It was created when inflation lava flows from 

McCartys surrounded the much older lava of 

the Hoya de Cebola. Bleakly (1997) reports 

that areas with sedimentary substrates were 

excluded from the park boundary because 

they are more easily grazed thereby excluding 

the larger kipukas from the national 

monument’s boundary. 

While kipukas are identifiable on the geologic 

map (KellerLynn 2012), no systematic 

study of the vegetation growing on kipukas 

exists. Muldavin et al. (2013) mapped the 

monument’s vegetation and described some 

plant associations that are only found on 

sedimentary substrates including kipukas, 

such as Pinus edulis / Achnatherum scribneri 

Woodland.

Lewis (2003) studied the fire regimes of a 

small subset of five kipukas in the Hoya de 

Cibola and Bandera flows in the western part 

of the monument. He found that some of the 

studied kipukas were disturbed by logging 

and/or grazing, and some were relict areas that 

had not been disturbed by these activities. He 

also reported that an area of lava flow between 

two of these kipukas also appeared to be free 

of the impacts of past logging and grazing.

Ancient Trees

The youngest lava flows in El Malpais 

(Bandera and McCartys flows) offer an 

unusual habitat for trees such as Pinus 

ponderosa (ponderosa pine) and Pseudotsuga 

menziesii (Douglas fir), which typically grow 

in stunted form on the lava flows. The lava 

flows provide a more mesic environment 

by concentrating moisture in fractures that 

provide suitable growing conditions for deeprooted trees. The lack of soil development on 

these young lava flows along with the lack of 

grasses inhibit wildfires (Grissino-Mayer et 

al. 1997), which is a major factor in allowing 

these trees to reach great age.

Grissino-Mayer et al. (1997) completed 

tree ring analysis on Pinus ponderosa and 

Pseudotsuga menziesii growing in two 

locations on the Bandera lava flow. Results 

from this study show that El Malpais contains 

some of the oldest living trees in the southwest, 

dating back to 719 CE. Together with wood 

collected from dead trees on the lava flows, 

the El Malpais tree ring record spans more 

than 2000 years to 136 BCE, the longest single 

site chronology in the southwest (GrissinoMayer et al. 1997).

Wildlife

Birds

There have been only a few inventories of 

the birds at El Malpais NM. Prior to the early 

1990s, birds in the park were “poorly known 

and undocumented” (Lightfoot et al. 1994). 

Lightfoot et al. (1994) conducted surveys at 

the national monument as part of a larger 

vegetation and wildlife inventory. These 

researchers recorded 109 bird species out of 

the 162 species of vertebrates they observed 

(Figure 2.2.2-11). The authors noted that 

the most extensive information on bird 

species in the general area of the park prior 

to their work was county records from the 

New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 

(NMDGF) for the entire county (i.e., Klingel 

1992). About a decade after Lightfoot et al.’s 

work, a second inventory of the birds at El 

Malpais NM was conducted. Johnson et al. 

(2007) carried out point counts, area-search 

surveys, and incidental observations in 2002 

and 2003. Surveys/counts/observations 

were made primarily during the breeding 
23

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

season (May-July), but the researchers also 

conducted a non-breeding winter survey (in 

February). They recorded a total of 75 species 

and provided information on evidence of 

breeding in the park for each species. No 

comprehensive, park-wide surveys of birds 

have occurred at the park since that by 

Johnson et al. (2007) in 2002-2003. However, 

personnel at the national monument and 

others in the vicinity have conducted 

(and continue to conduct) informal bird 

surveys (and submitted the results to eBird 

[Audubon and Cornell Lab of Ornithology 

2014]). Three state-listed birds have been 

recorded at the national monument (Gray 

Vireo [Vireo vicinior], Bald Eagle [Haliaeetus 

leucocephalus], and Peregrine Falcon [Falco 

peregrinus] (Johnson et al. 2007, NPS 2014h, 

NMGDF 2015).

Mammals

There have been a small number of studies 

of mammals in or in the immediate vicinity 

of El Malpais NM over the past several 

decades. Hooper (1941) looked at mammals 

on the lava fields and adjacent lands of the 

area and recorded 60 species and subspecies 

of mammals (Figure 2.2.2-12 (left)). Onehalf a century later, Lightfoot et al. (1994) 

conducted mammal surveys at the national 

monument as part of a larger vegetation 

and wildlife inventory. Of the 162 species of 

vertebrate animals observed by Lightfoot et 

al. (1994), 36 were mammals. 

The most recently conducted survey of 

mammals in the national monument was 

that by Bogan et al. (2007) in 2003 and 2004. 

Prior to the surveys, about 48 species were 

believed to occur at the national monument 

(Stuart 2000). Bogan et al. (2007) had a goal 

of documenting as many species as possible, 

and they focused on groups of mammals 

having the most species, such as rodents and 

carnivores. They documented 45 species of 

mammals at the park (20 rodent species, 12 

bat species, eight carnivore species, three 

ungulate species, and two lagomorphs 

species). However, 53 species have been 

documented overall and are considered to be 

present at the park, and a number of additional 

species may be present (Bogan et al. 2007). 

NPS

Figure 

2.2.2-11.Pinyon 

jay (Gymnorhinus 

cyanocephalus) is 

known to occur at 

the park.

©DAVE MENKE - USFWS ©ROBERT SHANTZ

Figure 2.2.2-12.

Elk (Cervus 

canadensis) (left) 

and Townsend’s 

big-eared bats 

(Corynorhinus 

townsendii) (right)

are two mammal 

species that occur in 

El Malpais NM.
24

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

No comprehensive surveys or monitoring 

of mammals have occurred at the park since 

that by Bogan et al. (2007). No federally-listed 

mammals are known to occur at the park at 

the present time, but the Mexican gray wolf, 

which is federally and state-endangered, has 

been documented at the park on occasion in 

recent years.

Bats

The most recent mammal inventory, 

conducted in 2003-2004 by Bogan et al. 

(2007), documented 12 species of bats at the 

national monument (Figure 2.2.2-12 (right)). 

A survey for bats was conducted a few years 

earlier by Valdez et al. (2002) who recorded 

a total of 15-16 species during their work in 

1999 and 2000 in the national monument 

and adjacent lands. They surveyed bats using 

mist nets and echolocation detectors, and in 

addition to documenting the occurrence and 

distribution of bats at the monument, they 

collected information on relative abundance, 

reproduction, and seasonal activity. Their 

work identified a handful of dominant 

species (Western small-footed myotis [Myotis 

ciliolabrum], long-eared myotis [M. evotis], 

long-legged myotis [M. volans], and big brown 

bat [Eptesicus fuscus]) that were common in 

habitats at middle and high elevations. 

Of the bat species documented at El Malpais 

NM, none are federally-listed, but one species, 

the spotted bat (Euderma maculatum), is 

state-threatened (Bogan et al. 2007; NMDGF 

2015a). There are a number of known 

bat roosts at El Malpais NM for Mexican 

(or Brazilian) free-tailed bats (Tadarida 

brasiliensis) and for Townsend’s big-eared 

bats (Corynorhinus townsendii) (Figure 

2.2.2-12 (right)). Bats use caves at the national 

monument for both hibernacula (winter 

hibernation sites) and maternity roosts (sites 

where female bats raise their young). 

Although bats have been studied more than 

some of the other mammal groups at El 

Malpais NM, research and management needs 

remain (Wynne 2013). For example, Wynne 

points out that more information is needed 

on the winter habitat requirements of yearround bat residents of the park, specifying the 

need for inventories of bats during the winter 

to locate additional hibernacula. Some of this 

work is underway; for example, researchers 

are studying microclimate conditions in 

lava caves used by hibernating bats and are 

collecting information on additional caves 

that have “significant” hibernacula (Buecher 

2012). Also, during the winter of 2014-2015 

park interns collected information on bat 

hibernacula locations (David Hays, former 

Natural Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais 

NM, pers. comm.). 

Amphibians and Reptiles

Lightfoot et al. (1994) conducted herpetofauna 

surveys at the national monument as part 

of a larger vegetation and wildlife inventory. 

They recorded 15 reptile and two amphibian 

species out of the 162 species of vertebrates 

they observed (Figure 2.2.2-13). These 

authors included additional information on 

an earlier study by Gehlbach (1965), which 

focused on amphibians and reptiles of the 

Zuni Mountains area, including land around 

the present-day park (Lightfoot et al. 1994). 

The most recent inventory was conducted 

in 2002-2003 by the U.S. Geological Survey’s 

(USGS) Southwest Biological Science Center 

for the Southern Colorado Plateau Network 

(Nowak and Persons 2008). Inventory goals 

were to document 90% of the herpetofaunal 

species present at the park, identify species 

of special concern at the park, and make 

Figure 2.2.2-13. Eastern collared lizards 

(Crotaphytus collaris) are known to occur at 

the park.

NPS (MURPHY)
25

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

recommendations for a monitoring program. 

Nowak and Persons (2008) recorded 18 

species of herpetofauna (13 reptile and 

five amphibian species), many of the same 

species as recorded by the Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) inventory. The authors of the 2002-

2003 inventory estimated that inventory 

completeness at the park was 78%, meaning 

that additional species are likely to be found 

at the national monument. They also named 

several additional species that probably occur 

or may occur at the park. No comprehensive 

surveys or monitoring of amphibians or 

reptiles have occurred at the park since that 

by Nowak and Persons (2008). No federally 

or state-listed amphibians or reptiles are 

known to occur at El Malpais NM.

Cave Ecology/Organisms

The basaltic lava flows between 3,900 and 

60,000 years ago formed at least 175 lava tube 

caves and ice caves in El Malpais, which are 

some of the most fragile ecosystems on Earth 

(Wynne et al. 2007, Soto 2013). Ice caves are 

particularly sensitive to changes in climate, 

and often harbor significant archeological 

artifacts (such as Zuni and Acoma Pueblo 

pottery) as well as paleontological resources 

(such as undated bones; E. Weaver, pers. 

comm. 2016). Caves are important for their 

formations and features, and the habitat they 

provide for bats and specialized invertebrates. 

Cave fauna are particularly sensitive to 

disturbance and changes in cave ecology 

(Soto 2013).

2.2.3. Resource Issues Overview 

Climate Change 

Like many places, the Southwest is already 

experiencing the impacts of climate change. 

The predictions are that the Southwest will 

likely continue to become warmer and drier 

with continued climate change (Garfin et al. 

2014, Monahan and Fisichelli 2014). The 

Southern Colorado Plateau is vulnerable to 

the impacts of climate change due to its semiarid climate. 

According to Kunkel and others (2013), the 

historical climate trends (1895-2011) for the 

southwest (including the states of Arizona, 

California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, 

and Utah) have seen an average annual 

temperature increase of 0.9oC (greatest in 

winter months) and more than double the 

number of four-day periods of extreme heat. 

Future climate predictions (Kunkel et al. 2013) 

for 2070-2099 (based on climate patterns 

from 1971-1999) estimate temperatures could 

rise between 2.5oC and 4.7oC. 

Over the course of history, as evidenced in tree 

rings, precipitation patterns have fluctuated 

with above-normal periods and belownormal periods of time. The most intense 

above-normal, wet period was from 1971-

1992, which exceeded the previous wettest 

period of 521-660 AD (Grissino-Mayer 1996, 

Grissino-Mayer et al. 1997; Figure 2.2.3-1). 

Extreme dry periods occurred between 300 

and 500 AD and in the 15th-17th centuries 

(Stahle et al. 2009). Future climate predictions 

(Kunkel et al. 2013) for 2070-2099 (based on 

climate patterns from 1971-1999) estimate 

precipitation may decrease up to 9%.

Monahan and Fisichelli (2014) assessed the 

magnitude and direction of changes in climate 

for El Malpais for 25 variables including 

temperature and precipitation between 

Figure 2.2.3-1.

The reconstruction 

of total annual 

precipitation based 

on tree rings from 

Douglas fir and 

ponderosa pine in 

El Malpais (from 

Grissino-Mayer et al. 

1997).
26

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

1901-2012 (historical range of variability 

(HRV)). Results for extreme climate were 

defined as experiencing either <5th percentile 

or >95th percentile climates relative to the 

HRV. The results for the extreme climate 

variables at El Malpais NM were as follows:

● Five temperature variables were 

“extreme warm” (annual mean 

temperature, minimum temperature of 

the coldest month, mean temperature 

of the driest quarter, mean temperature 

of the warmest quarter, and mean 

temperature of the coldest quarter);

● No temperature variables were “extreme 

cold;”

● No precipitation variables were 

“extreme dry;”

● No precipitation variables were 

“extreme wet” (brief can be accessed at 

(http://science.nature.nps.gov/climatech

ange/?tab=0&CEtab=3&PanelBrief3=o

pen#PanelBrief).

The results for the temperature of each 

year between 1901-2012, the averaged 

temperatures over progressive 10-year 

intervals, and the average temperature of 

2003-2012 (the most recent interval) are 

shown in Figure 2.2.3-2.

The results indicate that recent climate 

conditions have already begun shifting 

beyond the HRV, with the 2003-2012 decade 

representing the warmest decade on record. 

Garfin et al. (2014) expects more sustained 

extreme heat and fewer and less extreme cold 

periods. Overall, it’s likely that future climate 

change will increasingly affect all aspects of 

park resources and operations (Monahan and 

Fisichelli 2014).

Geologic

Some cinder cone features in the park 

have been impacted by past cinder mining 

(KellerLynn 2012), and the NPS has 

adopted a social trail on the El Calderon 

cinder cone in order to prevent additional 

erosion (Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). The McCartys cinder cone was used 

as a bombing target during World War II 

(KellerLynn 2012), and the potential exists 

for unexploded ordnance to still be found 

within the monument. Currently, a remedial 

investigation/feasibility study is underway 

(Bering Sea Environmental 2015).

Several geologic issues were identified in the 

Geologic Resources Inventory (KellerLynn 

2012), including mass wasting, especially 

rockfall from the Zuni Sandstone at Sandstone 

Figure 2.2.3-2. Time series used to characterize the historical range of variability and most 

recent percentile for annual mean temperature at El Malpais National Monument (including 

areas within 30-km [18.6-mi] of the park’s boundary). The blue line shows temperature for each 

year, the gray line shows temperature averaged over progressive 10-year intervals (10-year 

moving windows), and the red asterisk shows the average temperature of the most recent 10-

year moving window (2003–2012). The most recent percentile is calculated as the percentage of 

values on the gray line that fall below the red asterisk (Monahan and Fisichelli 2014).
27

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

Bluffs, arroyo formation, flooding, recent and 

potential volcanism, and seismic activity. 

Walkup (2012) completed a draft report on 

volcanic resources/hazards report for El 

Malpais, which indicates that there may be 

localized potential hazards of ash/tephra fall, 

earthquakes, gas, lava eruptions, and volcanic 

projectiles. The Yellowstone Volcano 

Observatory is responsible for monitoring 

volcanic activity in the state of New Mexico 

(USGS 2013).

The El Malpais area is considered 

volcanologically active because it has had 

volcanic activity in the last 10,000 years. 

However, it is unlikely that any of the existing 

vents will erupt again because such basaltic 

vents usually erupt just once. The 2014 

USGS Seismic Hazard Map for New Mexico 

indicates that there is the earthquake peak 

ground acceleration of between 10 and 14 g 

(percent of gravity) that has a 2% chance of 

being exceeded in 50 years (USGS 2015). 

Cave and Cave Ice

The persistence of ice in caves at El Malpais 

is under threat due to climate change. While 

most, if not, all caves with perennial ice 

have a cold air trap that limits connectivity 

with the atmosphere (Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015), caves at El Malpais 

are shallow and will be impacted by surface 

temperatures. Monahan and Fisichelli (2014) 

report that five recent temperature variables 

for El Malpais were extreme warm, and no 

temperature variables were extreme cold. 

Breakdown is a natural process that acts 

upon caves, and the entryways and floors 

of many of El Malpais caves are covered by 

breakdown. The ceilings of many of the lava 

tube caves are naturally highly fractured due 

to joints that formed during the cooling of the 

lava flow. Rock fall is therefore an inherent 

risk in lava tube caves.

Extirpated Species

There are several mammal species considered 

extirpated in the vicinity of El Malpais NM. 

One of these species, the Mexican gray wolf 

(Canis lupus baileyi), is discussed in the 

Mammal assessment of the NRCA; members 

of an experimental population in New Mexico 

and Arizona have been documented in the 

national monument in recent years. Other 

extirpated species include the black-footed 

ferret (Mustela nigripes), bison (Bison bison), 

bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), grizzly bear 

(Ursus arctos), and jaguar (Panthera onca). 

The black-footed ferret was reported in the 

vicinity of the national monument by Hooper 

(1941), but the species is thought today to 

be extirpated near the park (Bogan et al. 

2007). There were unsubstantiated reports of 

black-footed ferrets at the prairie dog town 

along NM-117 prior to the early 1990s, but 

Lightfoot et al. (1994) suggested the animals 

observed were misidentified. Frey and Yates 

(1996) reported that the last confirmed 

occurrence of the species in New Mexico was 

in 1934. 

The bison does not appear on the master list 

of mammals for the national monument from 

Bogan et al. (2007). Both the State (NMDGF 

2015b) and Frey and Yates (1996) list the 

species as extirpated, with the last confirmed 

occurrence of the bison in New Mexico being 

in 1884 (Frey and Yates 1996). Captive herds, 

however, have been reintroduced into the 

state (Frey and Yates 1996, NMDGF 2015b). 

Bighorn sheep are known to have occurred 

in the national monument vicinity. They were 

generally extirpated in the state by around 

1900-1903 due to disease, forage competition, 

and overhunting (Frey and Yates 1996, 

Windes 2008), but some may have survived 

into the 1950s in the lava fields of the national 

monument (Windes 2008) and some have 

been reintroduced in New Mexico in portions 

of their historic range (Frey and Yates 1996). 

Bighorn sheep bone fragments have been 

discovered in a number of lava tube caves at 

the park. Windes (2008) wrote about a “series 

of features” in a lava tube believed to have 

been used to trap bighorn sheep (as early as 

the 900s and 1000s, and as late as the 1700s 

and later). The past occurrence of bighorn 

sheep at what is now El Malpais NM is also 

described in an oral history of the Elders of 

the Ramah Navajo tribe recorded by Douglas 
28

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Henio in 1992 (S. Baumann, El Malpais NM, 

pers. comm.). 

The grizzly bear is considered unconfirmed 

for the park by Bogan et al. (2007). This species 

is noted as extirpated by both NMDGF 

(2015b) and Frey and Yates (1996). According 

to Frey and Yates (1996), its last confirmed 

occurrence in the state was in 1930. 

The jaguar was last verified in the state around 

1900-1905, but unconfirmed reports have 

been made in recent years (NMDGF 2015b). 

According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service (2015a), the only New Mexico county 

in which the jaguar may occur is Hidalgo 

County (in the extreme southwest corner of 

the state). 

Of the extirpated animal species discussed, 

bighorn sheep have been identified for 

reintroduction at the national monument 

(NPS 2014b). Other species for which there 

appears to be support for reintroduction are 

black-footed ferrets, bison, and Mexican 

gray wolves (NPS 2014a). Personnel at the 

national monument are currently working 

with the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 

to evaluate the possibility of reintroducing 

black-footed ferrets into the park and the 

surrounding land administered by BLM (Eric 

Weaver, El Malpais NM, pers. comm.).

Bats

Bats in North America are being threatened 

by a recently-discovered disease known as 

White-nose syndrome (WNS). WNS affects 

hibernating bats and is named for the white 

fungus that grows on the muzzle and other 

parts of the body (USFWS 2014). It was first 

documented in New York in the winter of 

2006-2007, and has since spread across the 

eastern and midwestern U.S. and eastern 

Canada. In the U.S., the occurrence of WNS 

has been confirmed in seven species of bats 

that hibernate in caves, and the fungus has 

been observed on an additional five species. 

Of these species, one from each group is 

known to occur at El Malpais NM. According 

to the USFWS (May 2015) map of occurrence, 

the closest state with confirmed cases of 

WNS is Arkansas, and the fungus (but no 

disease) was recently confirmed in Oklahoma 

(USFWS 2015b). Government agencies and 

non-governmental organizations are working 

together to study WNS in bats and develop 

ways to deal with the disease (USFWS 2014). 

Efforts are being made at El Malpais NM 

to look for the fungus in caves that show 

evidence of bat use (Northup 2013) and to 

look for evidence of the disease itself in bats 

(Valdez 2012). Results of these efforts are 

discussed in Chapter 4. 

Vegetation

Personnel at the national monument have 

a goal of restoring some areas of shortgrass 

prairie that have been encroached by piñonjuniper woodland in recent years. Example 

areas that are in need of restoration are the El 

Calderon area and the vegetation extending 

north and south along the lava flow margin 

in the Lava Falls area (David Hays, former 

Natural Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais 

NM, pers. comm.).

Ancient Trees

Climate change from increased temperatures 

and drought may be threatening ancient trees 

in El Malpais. A 650-year-old Douglas fir 

nicknamed ‘Yoda’ died in 2014 (Fleck 2014) 

(Figure 2.2.3-3).

©GRANT HARLEY

Figure 2.2.3-3. Yoda an ancient Douglasfir as seen on August 10, 2014. (Harley, pers. 

comm. 2015).
29

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

Exotic Plants

Vascular plant lists prepared for El Malpais 

National Monument (Lightfoot et al. 1994; 

Bleakly, 1997; NPS 2009; NPS 2014g,h and 

NPS 2015) and the El Malpais Vegetation 

Classification and Distribution Mapping 

Report (Muldavin et al. 2013) document 

the presence of exotic or non-native plants. 

While Muldavin et al. (2013) provides limited 

information on the occurrences of exotic 

plants at El Malpais, no studies or reports 

have focused exclusively on the condition of 

exotic plants throughout the park.

2.3. Resource Stewardship

2.3.1. Management Directives and 

Planning Guidance

In addition to NPS staff input based on the 

park’s purpose, significance, and fundamental 

resources and values, and other potential 

resources/ecological drivers of interest, the 

NPS Washington (WASO) level programs 

guided the selection of key natural resources 

for this condition assessment. This included 

Southern Colorado Plateau Inventory 

and Monitoring (I&M) Network (SCPN) 

Program, I&M NPScape Program for 

landscape dynamics, Air Resources Division 

for air quality, and the Natural Sounds and 

Night Skies Program for the soundscape and 

night sky sections. 

SCPN I&M Program 

In an effort to improve overall national park 

management through expanded use of 

scientific knowledge, the I&M Program was 

established to collect, organize, and provide 

natural resource data as well as information 

derived from data through analysis, synthesis, 

and modeling (NPS 2011b). The primary 

goals of the I&M Program are to:

● inventory the natural resources under 

NPS stewardship to determine their 

nature and status; 

● monitor park ecosystems to better 

understand their dynamic nature and 

condition and to provide reference 

points for comparisons with other 

altered environments; 

● establish natural resource inventory 

and monitoring as a standard practice 

throughout the National Park System 

that transcends traditional program, 

activity, and funding boundaries; 

● integrate natural resource inventory 

and monitoring information into NPS 

planning, management, and decision 

making; and

● share NPS accomplishments and 

information with other natural resource 

organizations and form partnerships for 

attaining common goals and objectives 

(NPS 2011b).

To facilitate this effort, 270 parks with 

significant natural resources were organized 

into 32 regional networks. El Malpais NM 

is part of the SCPN, which includes 18 

additional parks. Through a rigorous multiyear, interdisciplinary scoping process, SCPN 

selected a number of important physical, 

chemical, and/or biological elements and 

processes for long-term monitoring. These 

ecosystem elements and processes are 

referred to as ‘vital signs’, and their respective 

monitoring programs are intended to provide 

high-quality, long-term information on 

the status and trends of those resources. 

El Malpais NM’s upland ecosystems (i.e., 

vegetation and soils) and land surface 

phenology were selected for monitoring by 

SCPN (NPS SCPN 2015).

Park Planning Reports 

Natural Resource Condition Assessments

The structural framework for NRCAs is based 

upon, but not restricted to, the fundamental 

and other important values identified in a 

park’s Foundation Document or General 

Management Plan. NRCAs are designed to 

deliver current science-based information 

translated into resource condition findings 

for a subset of a park’s natural resources. The 

NPS State of the Park (SotP) and Resource 

Stewardship Strategy (RSS) reports rely on 

credible information found in NRCAs as well 

as a variety of other sources (Figure 2.3.1-1).

Foundation Document

Foundation Documents describe a park’s 

purpose and significance and identify 

fundamental and other important park 

resources and values. A Foundation 

Document was completed for El Malpais 
30

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

NM in 2014 and was used to identify some 

of the primary natural features throughout 

the monument for the development of its 

NRCA, such as geology, caves and cave ice, 

and unique vegetation.

State of the Park

A State of the Park (SotP) report is 

intended for non-technical audiences and 

summarizes key findings of park conditions 

and management issues, highlighting recent 

park accomplishments and activities. NRCA 

condition findings are used in SotP reports, 

and Chapter 5 includes a SotP condition 

summary for the natural resources assessed 

in this NRCA.

Resource Stewardship Strategy

A Resource Stewardship Strategy (RSS)

uses past and current resource conditions 

to identify potential management targets 

or objectives by developing comprehensive 

strategies using all available reports and data 

sources including NRCAs. National Parks 

are encouraged to develop an RSS as part 

of the park management planning process. 

Indicators of resource condition, both 

natural and cultural, are selected by the park. 

After each indicator is chosen, a target value 

is determined and the current condition is 

compared to the desired condition. An RSS 

has not yet been started for the monument.

2.3.2. Status of Supporting Science 

Available data and reports varied significantly 

depending upon the resource topic. The 

existing data used to assess condition of 

each indicator and/or to develop reference 

conditions are described in each of the Chapter 

4 assessments. In addition to data from the 

SCPN I&M and research conducted by other 

scientists and programs, subject matter expert, 

Dr. William H. Romme, Professor emeritus of 

fire ecology and senior research scientist in 

the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, 

Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 

provided technical assistance pertaining to 

the monument’s vegetation and fire ecology 

during a June 2015 field assessment.

Additional Washington level programs, 

including I&M NPScape, Climate Change 

Response Program, Natural Sounds and 

Night Skies, Air Resources, and the Geologic 

Resources Divisions provided a wealth of 

information for the monument’s condition 

assessments.

Figure 2.3.1-1.

The diagram shows 

the relationship of 

NRCAs to other park 

planning reports.
31

Chapter 2: Introduction and Resource Setting

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Suckling, T.W. Swetnam, T. Schulke, 

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restoration of southwestern ponderosa 

pine ecosystems: a broad perspective. 

Ecological Applications 12(5): 1418-1433.

Audubon and Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 

2014. eBird data for El Morro National 

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ebird/eBirdReports (accessed 

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Baumann, Steven M. and James W. 

Kendrick. 2010. Climate change and 

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Bleakly, D. 1994. Flora and vegetation of El 

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Mexico, Alguquerque, New Mexico. 

Bleakly DL. 1996. Vegetation and Flora of 

Certain Kipukas, El Malpais National 

Monument, NM. Albuquerque, NM. 

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E.W. Valdez. 2007. Mammal inventories 

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Buecher, D. C. 2012. Characterization of bat 

microbiota and roost microclimate in 

lava cave bat roosts at El Malpais 

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Nose Syndrome. A research 

proposal submitted to the Western 

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Coggins, G.C. 1987. Protecting the wildlife 

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Crumpler, Larry. 2011. Zuni-Bandera field 

and McCarty’s lava flow. New Mexico 

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Davey, C. A., K. T. Redmond, and D. B. 

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Dickfoss, P. V., J. L. Betancourt, L. G. 

Thompson, R. M. Turner, and S. 

Tharnstrom. 1997. History of ice at 

Candelaria Ice Cave, New Mexico. 

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Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, 

Socorro, New Mexico, USA. 

Dunbar, N. W., and F. M. Phillips. 2004. 

Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of lava flows in 

the Zuni–Bandera volcanic field, northcentral New Mexico, USA. Pages 51–59 

in S. M. Cather, W. C. McIntosh, and S. A. 

Kelley, editors. Tectonics, geochronology, 

and volcanism in the Southern Rocky 

Mountains and Rio Grande rift. Bulletin 

160. New Mexico Bureau of Geology and 

Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, 

USA. Available at http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/

staff/dunbar/publications/documents/

dunbarphillipszunibandera2004_000.pdf 

(accessed March 22, 2015).

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fragmentation: a synthesis. Global 

Ecology and Biogeography, 16, 265-280 

as cited in Monahan et al. 2012. 

Fleck, John. 2014. The bell tolls for a tough old 

tree. Albuquerque Journal. September 2, 

2014. Available at http://www.abqjournal.

com/455364/news/drought-finally-killsa-650yearold-nm-tree.html (accessed 

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Frey, J.K. and T.L. Yates. 1996. Mammalian 

diversity in New Mexico. New Mexico 

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Fry, J., Xian, G., Jin, S., Dewitz, J., Homer, 

C., Yang, L., Barnes, C., Herold, N. & 

Wickham, J. 2011. Completion of the 

2006 National Land Cover Database 

for the conterminous United States. 

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39

Chapter 3: Study Scoping and Design

Chapter 3: Study Scoping and Design 

This NRCA is a collaborative project between 

the El Malpais and El Morro NMs staff, SCPN 

staff, Intermountain Region, and cooperators 

from Utah State University, University of West 

Florida, and Northern Rockies Conservation 

Cooperative. The cooperative agreements 

were established through the Colorado 

Plateau and the Gulf Coast Cooperative 

Ecosystem Studies Units.

The purpose of the condition assessment is 

to provide a “snapshot-in-time” evaluation 

of the condition of a select set of national 

monument natural resources that were chosen 

by the project team during the November 4-5, 

2014 scoping meeting. Condition findings will 

aid national monument staff in the following 

objectives: 

● Develop near-term management 

priorities

● Engage in watershed or landscape scale 

partnership and education efforts 

● Conduct park planning (e.g., compliance, 

Resource Stewardship Strategy, and 

resource management plans). 

3.1. Preliminary Scoping 

The approach we used to select natural 

resources was to assess the fundamental and 

important values of the national monument 

by listing the resources identified in its 

Foundation document (NPS 2014). We then 

refined this list of resources during our 

scoping meeting discussions (for a complete 

list of team members, please refer to 

Appendix A). The resources assessed were 

limited to natural-based topics, but cultural 

resources were taken into consideration 

within the context of the natural resources 

where appropriate.

 The discussions focused on:

1. Confirming the purpose of the national 

monument and its related significance 

statements and values as they related to 

each of the chosen NRCA topics

2. Identifying important concerns and 

issues for each topic

3. Identifying data sources and gaps for each 

natural resource topic chosen.

Certain constraints are placed on NRCAs, 

including the following: 

Sandstone Bluffs 

overlook at El 

Malpais National 

Monument.

NPS
40

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

● Condition assessments are conducted 

using existing data and information. 

● Identification of data needs and gaps is 

driven by the resources chosen.

Specific project expectations and outcomes 

included the following: 

● For chosen natural resources, 

consolidate available national monument 

data, reports, and geospatial information 

from appropriate sources including 

national monument resource staff, 

scientific literature, the NPS Data Store 

and NPSpecies, which are both part of 

the Integrated Resource Management 

Applications (IRMA),, SCPN Inventory 

and Monitoring data, and available 

third-party sources. 

● Enlist the help of subject matter experts 

for each resource topic when appropriate 

and feasible (refer to Appendix A for 

subject matter expert list).

● Define an appropriate description of 

reference conditions for each of the 

natural resource topics and indicators so 

statements of current condition can be 

developed for the NRCA report. 

● Where applicable, develop GIS products 

and graphic illustrations that provide 

spatial representation of resource data, 

ecological processes, resource stressors, 

trends, or other valuable information 

that can be better interpreted visually. 

● Conduct analysis of specific existing 

datasets about key natural resource 

indicators. 

● Discuss the issue of natural resource 

indicators that are not contained within 

the national monument or controlled 

directly by national monument 

management activities (e.g., viewshed 

condition). These can represent 

stressors that impact natural resource 

components in the national monument 

but are not under NPS jurisdiction. 

National monument and natural resource 

management staff participated in on-site 

meetings and reviewed interim and final 

products. National monument staff, I&M staff, 

and writer/editors data mined information for 

each of the resource topics. 

3.2. Study Design

3.2.1. Indicator Framework, Focal 

Study Resources and Indicators

The national monument’s NRCA utilizes 

an assessment framework adapted from 

“The State of the Nation’s Ecosystems 2008: 

Measuring the Lands, Waters, and Living 

Resources of the United States”, by the H. 

John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics 

and the Environment. This framework was 

endorsed by the National NRCA Program as 

an appropriate framework for listing resource 

components, indicators/measures, and 

resource conditions. 

Each NRCA project represents a unique 

assessment of key natural resource topics that 

are important to the specific park that is being 

assessed. For the purposes of this NRCA, 

16 key national monument resources were 

chosen for assessment and are listed in Table 

3.2.1-1. This list of focal study resources is 

not all inclusive of every natural resource at 

the national monument, but includes natural 

resources and processes that were of greatest 

significance for park staff at the time of this 

assessment. The framework table also shows 

the topics where we included landscape-level 

data from the National Park Service Inventory 

and Monitoring NPScape Program and/or 

climate data from various sources. NPScape 

is a landscape dynamics monitoring project 

that provides datasets and information to 

help characterize these landscape-scale 

factors relevant to park resources (Monahan 

et al. 2012). For some of the natural resource 

condition assessments, the landscape-level or 

climate data will be used as indicators and/

or measures and sometimes as discussion 

points only. Landscape-level and climate 

data will also be incorporated into NRCA 

Chapters 2 (park setting) and 5 (management 

considerations).

Reference conditions were identified with the 

intent of providing a benchmark to which the 

current condition of each indicator/measure 

could be compared. Attempts were made to 

utilize existing research and documentation to 

identify reference conditions; however, many 

of the indicators lack a quantifiable reference 

condition according to literature and data 
41

Chapter 3: Study Scoping and Design

Table 3.2.1-1. El Malpais National Monument NRCA Framework.

Natural Resources Indicators Measures

I. Landscape-scale

Viewshed • Scenic and Historic Integrity • Intactness of View

• Conspicuousness of Non-contributing Features

Night Sky • Sky Brightness 

• All-sky Light Pollution Ratio

• Maximum Vertical Illuminance

• Horizontal Illuminance

• Zenith Sky Brightness

• Sky Quality • Bortle Dark Sky Scale

Soundscape • Sound Level • % Time Above Reference Sound Levels

• L50 Impact

II. Supporting Environment

Air Quality

• Visibility • Haze Index

• Ozone • Human Health

• Vegetation Health

• Wet Deposition

• Total Nitrogen

• Total Sulfur

• Mercury

• Predicted Methylmercury Concentration

Surface Geology 

• Surface Lava Flow Features • Lava Flow Intactness

• Vents and Edifices • Vents and Edifices Intactness

• Disturbed Lands • Abandoned Mineral Lands Priority Ranking

• Paleontological Resources • Freeze / Thaw Impact

• Human Impact

Caves and Cave Ice

• Cave Meteorology • Temperature

• Humidity

• Perennial and Seasonal Ice • Presence / Absence

• Direct Visitor Impacts • Degree of Impact

• Stability - Breakdown • No Measure

• Rare Minerals • No Measure

Tinajas • Climate Variables • Amount of Precipitation

• Reconnaissance Drought Index

III. Biological Integrity

Vegetation

Piñon-Juniper 

• Is species presence & distribution consistent with conditions and within natural range of variability?

• Are stand densities within their range of natural variability for their growing conditions?

• Are age class distributions of trees consistent with expected range of variability? 

• Do the trees and understory plants appear vigorous and healthy?

• Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) operating within natural range of variability?

• Are the current levels of insects / disease within the normal range?

Ponderosa Pine

• Is species presence & distribution within natural range of variability?

• Are stand densities within their range of natural variability for their growing conditions?

• Are age class distributions of trees consistent with expected range of variability? 

• Do the trees and understory plants appear vigorous and healthy?

• Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) operating within natural range of variability?

• Are the current levels of insects / disease within the normal range?

Distinct Vegetation 

Communities • Ecological Integrity • No Measures
42

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

reviewed for this project. When a quantifiable 

reference condition for a given resource was 

not feasible, an attempt was made to include a 

qualitative reference to provide some context 

for interpreting current condition. 

3.2.2. Reporting Areas

National Monument

The primary focus of the reporting areas 

for the NRCA was within the national 

monument’s authorized boundary (114,106 

acres/46.172 ha 84.8% of which is a 

recommended wilderness area) (NPS 2014). 

However, while no evaluation of condition 

was made of non-NPS lands, some of the 

analyses encompassed areas beyond the 

monument’s boundary.

Landscape-scale

As described in Chapter 2, the area within 30-

km (18.6 mi) of the monument’s boundary 

plus the area within the park was examined for 

selected resources to provide an ecological, 

landscape-scale context unless otherwise 

noted (NPS 2011).

3.2.3. General Approach and 

Methods

This study involved reviewing existing 

literature and data for each of the resources 

listed, and, where appropriate, analyzing the 

data to provide summaries or to create new 

spatial representations. After gathering data 

regarding current condition of indicators 

and measures, a quantitative or qualitative 

statement was developed comparing 

the current condition(s) at the national 

monument to the reference condition(s). 

Data Mining 

Data and literature were found in multiple 

forms: NPS reports and monitoring plans, 

other reports from various state and federal 

agencies, published and unpublished 

research documents, databases, and tabular 

data. Geospatial data were provided by the 

national monument and Laura Trader, Fire 

Ecologist at Bandelier National Monument. 

Data and literature acquired throughout 

the data mining process were analyzed for 

thoroughness, relevancy, and quality. All 

reasonably accessible and relevant data were 

used to conduct assessments. Copies of 

all reports and datasets referenced will be 

provided to national monument staff on a 

DVD.

Subject Matter Experts

Subject matter experts were consulted while 

developing this assessment. Consultations 

Natural Resources Indicators Measures

Grasslands and Shrublands

• Soil / Site Stability • Soil Cover

• Biological Soil Crust

• Biotic Integrity

• Landscape-scale Diversity

• Local Species Composition

• General Life Cycles / Disturbance

• Proportion of Functional Groups

• Proportion of C3 and C4 Species

Exotic Plants 

• Potential to Alter Native Plant 

Communities • Significance of Exotic Plant Impact

• Prevalence of Exotic Plants • Number in Vegetation Plots

Wildlife

Cave Ecology and Species • Cave-dependent Species • Invertebrates

• Cave Entrance Flora

Mammals • Species Occurrence • Presence / Absence

Bats

• Species Occurrence • Presence / Absence

• White-nose Syndrome/Fungus • Presence / Absence

• Habitat Availability / Condition • Free from / with Minimal Human Disturbance

Birds • Species Occurrence • Presence / Absence

Herpetofauna • Species Occurrence • Presence / Absence

Table 3.2.1-1. El Malpais National Monument NRCA Framework (continued).
43

Chapter 3: Study Scoping and Design

ranged from on-site visits to personal 

communication, and reviews of resource 

assessment sections. 

Data Analyses and Development 

Data analyses and methodology for each 

resource condition assessment can be found 

within each section of Chapter 4. 

Geographic Information System (GIS) 

technology was utilized to graphically depict 

the status and distribution of information 

when possible. 

Final Assessments

Assessments were finalized after incorporating 

comments from national monument staff, 

SCPN staff, and subject matter experts. The 

final assessments represent the most relevant 

and timely data available for each resource 

topic based on the recommendations and 

insight provided by national monument 

staff, researchers, subject matter experts, and 

assessment writers.

Indicator/Measures Assessment Format 

Indicator assessments are presented in a 

standard format that is consistent with State 

of the Park reporting (NPS 2012). The major 

components are as follows: 

The condition/trend/level of confidence 

graphic provides a visual representation for 

each resource indicator and is intended to 

give readers a quick interpretation of the 

authors’ assessments of condition. The level 

of confidence ranges from high-low and 

indicates how confident we are with the data 

used to determine condition. The written 

statements of condition, located under the 

“Condition and Trend” heading within each 

resource topic section in Chapter 4, provides 

a more in-depth description of each indicator 

and associated measure(s)’ condition. Figure 

3.2.3-1 shows the condition/trend/confidence 

level scorecard used to describe the condition 

for each assessment. 

Circle colors provide indication of condition 

based upon the chosen indicators/measures 

and reference conditions. Red circles signify 

that a resource is of significant concern; 

yellow circles signify that a resource is in 

moderate condition; and green circles denote 

that an indicator and/or measure is in good 

condition. A circle without any color, which 

is almost always associated with the low 

confidence symbol-dashed line, signifies 

that there is insufficient information to make 

a statement about condition; therefore, 

condition is unknown. 

We include an indicator condition and 

overall rationale summary table at the end 

of each resource topic’s section to convey 

the relevancy of each measure to the overall 

condition interpretation.

Arrows inside the circles signify the trend of 

the indicator/measure condition. An upward 

pointing arrow signifies that the indicator is 

improving; double pointing arrows signify 

Condition Status Trend in Condition Confidence in 

Assessment

Warrants 

Significant 

Concern

Condition is 

Improving High

Warrants 

Moderate Concern

Condition is 

Unchanging Medium

Resource is in 

Good Condition

Condition is 

Deteriorating Low

An open (uncolored) circle indicates that current condition is unknown or indeterminate; this 

condition status is typically associated with unknown trend and low confidence.

Figure 3.2.3-1.

Condition, trend, 

and level of 

confidence key used 

in the NRCA.
44

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

that the indicator’s condition is currently 

unchanging; a downward pointing arrow 

indicates that the indicator’s condition is 

deteriorating. No arrow denotes that the 

trend of the indicator’s condition is currently 

unknown. Figure 3.2.3-2 is an example of a 

final condition graphic used in the indicator 

assessments.

An Overview of NRCA Chapter 4 

Background and Importance

This section of the NRCA report provides 

information regarding the relevance of the 

resource to the national monument. This 

section also explains the characteristics of 

the resource to help the reader understand 

context. 

Data and Methods

The indicators/measures are listed in this 

section describing how we quantitatively or 

qualitatively assessed the natural resource 

condition. This section summarizes the 

existing datasets and methodology used 

for evaluating the indicators/measures for 

condition. 

Reference Conditions 

This section explains the reference conditions 

that were used to evaluate the current 

condition for each indicator and measure. 

Additionally, explanations of available data 

and literature that describe the reference 

conditions are located in this section. 

Condition and Trend

This section provides a discussion of the 

condition and trend for each indicator/

measure based on the assessment approach. 

The condition for each indicator/measure is 

listed in a summary table at the end of this 

section to provide a summary. The level of 

confidence and key uncertainties are also 

included in this section providing a summary 

of the data gaps and uncertainties relative to 

the condition assessment.

Sources of Expertise

Individuals who were consulted for the focal 

study resources are listed in this section. A 

short paragraph describing their background 

is also included. 

Literature Cited

This section lists all of the referenced sources 

for the assessment. A DVD is included in the 

final report with copies of all literature cited 

unless the citation was from a book. When 

possible, links to websites are also included.

3.3. Literature Cited

Coggins, G.C. 1987. Protecting the wildlife 

resources of national parks from external 

threats. Land and Water Law Review, 22, 

1-27 as cited in Monahan et al. 2012.

The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, 

Economics and the Environment. 2008. 

The state of the nation’s ecosystems 

2008: measuring the lands, waters, and 

living resources of the United States. 

Washington, D.C.

Monahan, W. B., J. E. Gross, L. K. Svancara, 

and T. Philippi. 2012. A guide to 

interpreting NPScape data and analyses. 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/

NRSS/NRTR—2012/578. National Park 

Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

National Park Service. 2011. NPScape NPS 

boundary-derived areas of analysis SOP: 

Park, 3km, and 30km areas of analysis. 

National Park Service, Natural Resource 

Program Center. Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Available at https://irma.nps.gov/App/

Reference/Profile?Code=2170522 

(accessed March 19, 2015).

National Park Service. 2012. A call to 

action: preparing for a second century 

of stewardship and engagement. 

Washington, D.C. 28p.

National Park Service. 2014. Foundation 

document El Malapis National 

Monument, New Mexico. 60p.

Figure 3.2.3-2.

An example of a 

good condition, 

unchanging trend, 

and high confidence 

level in the 

assessment graphic 

used in NRCAs.

Condition – Trend – Confidence Level

Good - Unchanging- High
45

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions

In Chapter 4 we present the background and importance, 

data and methods, and condition and trend for each focal 

study resource that was assessed for the park. A list of page 

numbers where each measure is first presented is in Table 

4.1.

Table 4.1. El Malpais National Monument NRCA Indicators and Measures.

Natural Resources Indicators Measures Page

I. Landscape-scale

Viewshed • Scenic and Historic Integrity • Intactness of View

• Conspicuousness of Non-contributing Features

49

50

Night Sky • Sky Brightness 

• All-sky Light Pollution Ratio

• Maximum Vertical Illuminance

• Horizontal Illuminance

• Zenith Sky Brightness

67

67

67

67

• Sky Quality • Bortle Dark Sky Scale 68

Soundscape • Sound Level • % Time Above Reference Sound Levels

• L50 Impact

79

79

II. Supporting Environment

Air Quality

• Visibility • Haze Index 90

• Ozone • Human Health

• Vegetation Health

90

91

• Wet Deposition

• Total Nitrogen

• Total Sulfur

• Mercury

• Predicted Methylmercury Concentration

91

91

91

91

Surface Geology 

• Surface Lava Flow Features • Lava Flow Intactness 107

• Vents and Edifices • Vents and Edifices Intactness 107

• Disturbed Lands • Abandoned Mineral Lands Priority Ranking 109

• Paleontological Resources • Freeze / Thaw Impact

• Human Impact

110

111

Caves and Cave Ice

• Cave Meteorology • Temperature

• Humidity

122

122

• Perennial and Seasonal Ice • Presence / Absence 123

• Direct Visitor Impacts • Degree of Impact 125

• Stability - Breakdown • No Measure 125

• Rare Minerals • No Measure 126

Tinajas • Climate Variables • Amount of Precipitation

• Reconnaissance Drought Index

136

136
46

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Natural Resources Indicators Measures Page

III. Biological Integrity

Vegetation

Piñon-Juniper 

• Is species presence & distribution consistent with conditions and within natural range of 

variability?

• Are stand densities within their range of natural variability for their growing conditions?

• Are age class distributions of trees consistent with expected range of variability? 

• Do the trees and understory plants appear vigorous and healthy?

• Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) operating within natural range of variability?

• Are the current levels of insects / disease within the normal range?

143

Ponderosa Pine

• Is species presence & distribution within natural range of variability?

• Are stand densities within their range of natural variability for their growing conditions?

• Are age class distributions of trees consistent with expected range of variability? 

• Do the trees and understory plants appear vigorous and healthy?

• Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) operating within natural range of variability?

• Are the current levels of insects / disease within the normal range?

161

Grasslands and 

Shrublands

• Soil / Site Stability • Soil Cover

• Biological Soil Crust

182-183

183

• Biotic Integrity

• Landscape-scale Diversity

• Local Species Composition

• General Life Cycles / Disturbance

• Proportion of Functional Groups

• Proportion of C3 and C4 Species

184

184

184

184-185

185

Distinct Vegetation 

Communities • Ecological Integrity • No Measure 202

Exotic Plants 

• Potential to Alter Native Plant 

Communities • Significance of Exotic Plant Impact 212

• Prevalence of Exotic Plants • Number in Vegetation Plots 215

Wildlife

Cave Ecology and 

Species

• Cave-dependent Species • Invertebrates

• Cave Entrance Flora

227

228

Mammals • Species Occurrence • Presence / Absence 234

Bats

• Species Occurrence • Presence / Absence 244

• White-nose Syndrome/Fungus • Presence / Absence 245

• Habitat Availability / Condition • Free from / with Minimal Human Disturbance 247

Birds • Species Occurrence • Presence / Absence 260

Herpetofauna • Species Occurrence • Presence / Absence 274
47

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

4.1. Viewshed

4.1.1. Background and Importance 

The conservation of scenery is established in 

the National Park Service (NPS) Organic Act 

(“... to conserve the scenery and the wildlife 

therein...”), reaffirmed by the General 

Authorities Act, as amended, and addressed 

generally in the NPS Management Policies 

(Section 1.4.6 and 4.0; Johnson et al. 2008). 

Although no management policy currently 

exists exclusively for scenic or viewshed 

management and preservation, parks are 

still required to protect scenic and viewshed 

quality as one of their most fundamental 

resources. According to Wondrak-Biel (2005), 

aesthetic conservation, interchangeably 

used with scenic preservation, has been 

practiced in the NPS since the early twentieth 

century. Aesthetic conservation strove to 

protect scenic beauty for park visitors to 

better experience the values of the park. The 

need for scenic preservation management 

is as relevant today as ever, particularly with 

the pervasive development pressures that 

challenge park stewards to conserve scenery 

today and for future generations.

El Malpais NM (Figure 4.1.1-1) was 

established to preserve, protect, and interpret 

natural and cultural resources that are an 

integral part of the volcanic wilderness, 

including the Grants Lava Flow and Chacoan 

great house community of Las Ventanas 

(NPS 2014a). Within park boundaries are: 

a number of young and old lava flows and 

associated geological features, such as one 

of the longest lava tube systems in the world; 

several vegetative communities, including 

uncommon vegetation associations, unusual 

growth forms, and undisturbed plant 

communities; a vast area that meets criteria 

for designation as wilderness; a diversity of 

native wildlife; and a cultural landscape that 

includes ancient and historic trail networks, 

basalt architecture, ritual landscapes, and 

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Indicators/Measures

• Scenic and Historic Integrity (2 

measures)

Figure 4.1.1-1.

View to the south 

from the Sandstone 

Bluffs overlook at El 

Malpais NM.

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Good – Insufficient Data – High
48

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

the Chacoan great house community of Las 

Ventanas (NPS 2014a). The Pueblos of Zuni, 

Acoma, and Laguna, and the Ramah Navajo, 

consider El Malpais an important part of 

their history and culture. Spanish and Anglo 

cultures also played a role in the history of the 

national monument.

One landscape feature outside of the national 

monument, Mt. Taylor, which can be seen 

from various locations within the park, is 

both a conspicuous part of the scenery and 

a sacred landscape to a number of Native 

American cultures in the area (Benedict and 

Hudson 2008). Mt. Taylor, which reaches 

11,301 ft (3,445 m) in elevation at its summit, 

and the San Mateo mountains, are situated to 

the northeast of the national monument. The 

ability to view the mountain from a distance 

and the abundant natural resources associated 

with it and the San Mateo mountains have 

drawn people to the area for hundreds of 

years (Benedict and Hudson 2008). The area 

continues to be of great importance to many 

tribes in an historical, cultural, and religious 

context. [Note that Mt. Taylor can be seen 

in the first panorama in Figure 4.1.4-3 in the 

Condition section of this assessment].

Visitor Experience

Inherent in virtually every aspect of this 

assessment is how features on the visible 

landscape influence the enjoyment, 

appreciation, and understanding of the 

national monument by visitors. The indicators 

we use for condition of the viewshed are based 

on studies related to perceptions people hold 

toward various features and attributes of the 

viewsheds. We also focus on how the historic 

integrity of the viewshed enhances the 

opportunity for visitors to better understand 

the historical and cultural significance of the 

area that includes present day El Malpais NM.

From a cultural and historical perspective, 

the views are not just about the scenery, but 

an important way to better understand the 

connection between natural and cultural 

resources at El Malpais NM. Visualizing 

this connection as part of the landscape is a 

critical part of the visitor experience. 

4.1.2. Data and Methods

Viewsheds are considered in this assessment 

within two interrelated contexts: natural 

scenic integrity and historic integrity. Impacts 

that degrade one aspect likely degrade the 

other as well. For example, modern structures 

or roadways visible on the landscape may 

detract from the natural scenic integrity of 

the viewshed, as well as the sense of place 

that a historically authentic landscape evokes. 

Depending on the context, scenic and historic 

integrity may be distinct, or there may be so 

little practical difference that they are the 

same. We qualitatively assess how features 

on the landscape contribute (or not) to the 

scenic and historic integrity of the site.

Indicator 

Scenic and Historic Integrity

The overall indicator of viewshed condition 

we use in this assessment is a combination of 

scenic and historic integrity. For this overall 

indictor we used two measures (intactness 

and conspicuousness) from key vantage 

points (Table 4.1.2-1). Each of these measures 

is described in greater detail below. 

Scenic integrity is defined as the state of 

naturalness or, conversely, the state of 

Table 4.1.2-1. Indicators and measures of viewshed and why they are important to 

the resource condition.

Indicators of Condition Measures Why are these indicators/measures important to 

resource condition?

Scenic and Historic 

Integrity

Intactness of View

Intactness represents how much the viewshed has 

been altered from its reference state, which in turn 

influences scenic quality as well as the sense of place 

in a natural and historic context.

Conspicuousness of noncontributing features

Non-contributing features that are more conspicuous 

tend to detract more from the scenic quality and/or 

the sense of place in an historic context.
49

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

disturbance created by human activities or 

alteration (U.S. Forest Service [USFS] 1995). 

This focuses on the features of the landscape 

related to non-contributing human alteration.

Historic integrity is the authenticity of a site’s 

historic identity, evidenced by the survival of 

physical characteristics that existed during 

its historic period. Historic integrity is 

based on those features of the cultural and 

natural landscape, from the perspective of 

an observer, that contribute to the sense of 

place and enhance the visitor experience. In 

this assessment, we focus on those features 

that have a visual impact and contribute to 

the story of El Malpais NM. We evaluate 

features as contributing (i.e., enhancing the 

scenic and historic features of the landscape) 

or noncontributing (i.e., detracting from the 

scenic and historic integrity). 

We assess scenic and historic integrity by 

evaluating specific human-made features 

that can be seen from key vantage points and 

whether or not those features are contributing 

or noncontributing to the scenic and historic 

integrity of the view. For noncontributing 

features, we further assess the characteristics 

that make them more or less conspicuous, 

which influences the level of impact they 

have. We then supplement this assessment 

with a GIS-based analysis showing areas 

that are visible from key vantage points. The 

GIS analysis provides spatial orientation of 

housing and road developments that may 

impact the quality of the viewshed. 

Viewshed Vantage Points

For this assessment, we focused primarily on 

the landscape views visitors are most likely 

to experience. The vantage points we used 

(chosen by the park) were the El Calderon 

cinder cone, Sandstone Bluffs overlook, and 

Bandera Volcano (on private property, but 

providing a view of the park; Figure 4.1.2-1). 

These views are generally the highest, most 

accessible overlooks within the national 

monument, receive high visitation, and 

represent the points from which most visitors 

view the surrounding landscape. As such, 

these views play a major role in how visitors 

perceive El Malpais NM within the context 

of its surrounding landscape. The Bandera 

Volcano (or Crater) vantage point is located 

at Bandera Volcano and Ice Cave, a private 

tourist attraction. 

Measure

Intactness of View

The extent of intactness provides a measure of 

the degree to which the viewshed is unaltered 

from its original (reference) state, particularly 

the extent to which intrusive or disruptive 

elements may diminish the character of the 

scene (USFS 1995, Johnson et al. 2008). 

We used a series of panoramic images to 

portray the viewshed from an observer’s 

perspective. These images were taken using 

a Canon PowerShot digital camera and the 

GigaPan Epic 100 system, a robotic camera 

mount coupled with stitching software (Figure 

4.1.2-2). A series of images are automatically 

captured and the individual photographs 

Figure 4.1.2-1. The location of the vantage points used in this 

assessment.
50

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

are stitched into a single high-resolution 

panoramic image. These photographs 

provided a means of illustrating the features 

on the landscape related to viewshed integrity.

We recognize that visitor perceptions of 

an altered landscape are highly subjective, 

and there is no completely objective way to 

measure this. Research has shown, however, 

that there are certain landscape types and 

characteristics that people tend to prefer over 

others. In general, there is a wealth of research 

demonstrating that people tend to prefer 

natural over human-modified landscapes 

(Zube et al. 1982, Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 

Sheppard 2001, Kearny et al. 2008, Han 

2010). Human-altered components of the 

landscape (e.g., roads, buildings, powerlines, 

and other features) that do not contribute 

to the scenic or historic context are often 

perceived as detracting from the scenic and 

historic character of the viewshed.

Despite this generalization for natural 

landscape preferences, studies have also 

shown that not all human-made structures 

or features have the same impact on visitor 

preferences. Visitor preferences can be 

influenced by a variety of factors including 

cultural background, familiarity with the 

landscape, and their environmental values 

(Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Virden and Walker 

1999, Kaltenborn and Bjerke 2002, Kearney et 

al. 2008).

Measure 

Conspicuousness of Noncontributing 

Features

Substantial research has demonstrated that 

human-made features on a landscape are 

perceived more positively when they are 

considered in harmony with the landscape 

(e.g., Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Gobster 1999, 

Kearney et al. 2008). For example, Kearney 

et al. (2008) showed that survey respondents 

tended to prefer development that blended 

with the natural setting through use of colors, 

smaller scale, and vegetative screening. 

For this measure, we focused on four 

characteristics, or groups of characteristics, 

that have been demonstrated to contribute to 

the conspicuousness of man-made features: 

(1) distance from a given vantage point, (2) 

size, (3) color and shape, and (4) movement 

and noise. A general relationship between 

these characteristics and their influence on 

conspicuousness is presented in Table 4.1.2-2,

and more detailed descriptions of these 

human-made features are presented below.

Figure 4.1.2-2.

The GigaPan system 

takes a series of 

images that are 

stitched together 

to create a single 

panoramic image.

Table 4.1.2-2. Characteristics that influence how conspicuous human-made features 

are within a viewshed and the general effect.

Characteristic Less Conspicuous More Conspicuous

Distance Distant from the vantage point Close to the vantage point

Size Small relative to the landscape Large relative to the landscape

Color and Shape Colors and shapes that blend into 

the landscape

Colors and shapes that contrast 

with the landscape

Movement and Noise Lacking movement or noise Exhibits obvious movement or 

noise
51

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

Distance. The impact that individual 

human-made features have on perception 

is substantially influenced by the distance 

from the observer to the feature(s). Viewshed 

assessments using distance zones or classes 

often define three classes: foreground, middle 

ground, and background (Figure 4.1.2-3). For 

this assessment, we have used the distance 

classes that have been used recently by the 

National Park Service:

● Foreground = 0-1⁄2 mile from vantage 

point 

● Middle ground = 1⁄2-3 miles from vantage 

point

● Background = 3-60 miles from vantage 

point. 

Over time, different agencies have adopted 

minor variations in the different specific 

distances used to define these zones, but the 

overall logic and intent has been consistent.

The foreground is the zone where visitors 

should be able to distinguish variation in 

texture and color, such as the relatively subtle 

variation among vegetation patches, or some 

level of distinguishing clusters of tree boughs. 

Large birds and mammals would likely be 

visible throughout this distance class, as 

would small or medium-sized animals at 

the closer end of this distance class (USFS 

1995). Within the middle ground there is 

often sufficient texture or color to distinguish 

individual trees or other large plants (USFS 

1995). It is also possible to distinguish larger 

patches within major plant community types 

(such as riparian areas), provided there is 

sufficient difference in color shades at the 

farther distance. Within the closer portion 

of this distance class, it still may be possible 

to see large birds when contrasted against 

the sky, but other wildlife would be difficult 

to see without the aid of binoculars or 

telescopes. The background distance class is 

where texture tends to disappear and colors 

flatten. Depending on the actual distance, it 

is sometimes possible to distinguish among 

major vegetation types with highly contrasting 

colors (for example, forest and grassland), but 

any subtle differences within these broad land 

cover classes would not be apparent without 

the use of binoculars or telescopes, and even 

then may be difficult.

Size

Size is another characteristic that may 

influence how conspicuously a given feature 

dominates the landscape, and how it is 

perceived. For example, Kearney et al. (2008) 

found human preferences were lower for 

human-made developments that tended to 

dominate the view, such as large, multi-storied 

buildings, and were more favorable toward 

smaller, single-family dwellings. In another 

study, Brush and Palmer (1979) found that 

farms tended to be viewed more favorably 

than views of towns or industrial sites, which 

Figure 4.1.2-3.

An example of 

approximate 

distance classes used 

in this assessment. 

©MARK BRUNSON
52

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

ranked very low on visual preference. This 

is consistent with other studies that have 

reported rural family dwellings, such as farms 

or ranches, as quaint and contributing to 

rural character (Schauman 1979, Sheppard 

2001, Ryan 2006), or as symbolizing good 

stewardship (Sheppard 2001).

We considered the human-made features on 

the landscape surrounding El Malpais NM 

as belonging to one of six size classes (Table 

4.1.2-3), which reflect the preference groups 

reported by studies. Using some categories of 

perhaps mixed measures, we considered size 

classes within the context of height, volume, 

and length.

Color and Shape

Studies have shown that how people perceive 

a human-made feature in a rural scene 

depends greatly on how well it seems to fit 

or blend in with the environment (Kearney 

et al. 2008, Ryan 2006). For example, 

Kearney et al. (2008) found preferences for 

homes that exhibit lower contrast with their 

surroundings as a result of color, screening 

vegetation, or other blending factors (see 

Figure 4.1.2-4). It has been shown that 

colors lighter in tone or higher in saturation 

relative to their surroundings have a 

tendency to attract attention (contrast with 

their surroundings), whereas darker colors 

(relative to their surroundings) tend to fade 

into the background (Ratcliff 1972, O’Connor 

2008). This is consistent with the findings of 

Kearney et al. (2008), who found that darker 

color was one of the factors contributing to 

a feature blending in with its environment 

and therefore being preferred. Some research 

has indicated that color can be used to offset 

other factors, such as size, that may evoke a 

more negative perception (O’Connor 2009). 

Similarly, shapes of features that contrast 

sharply with their surroundings may also have 

an influence on how they are perceived. 

This has been a dominant focus within visual 

resource programs of land management 

agencies (Ribe 2005). The Visual Resource 

Figure 4.1.2-4. Graphic illustration of how color (left) and shape 

(right) can influence whether features are in harmony with the 

environment, or are in contrast. Figure Source: NPS-Rob Bennetts

Table 4.1.2-3. A matrix describing the six size classes used for visible human-made

features. 

Low Volume Substantial Volume

Low Height Single family dwelling (home, ranch house) Small towns, complexes

Substantial Height Radio and cell phone towers Wind farms, oil derecks

Substantial Length Small roads, wooden power lines, fence 

lines Utility corridors, highways, railroads
53

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

Management Program of the Bureau of 

Land Management (BLM; BLM 1980), for 

example, places considerable focus on design 

techniques that minimize visual conflicts with 

features such as roads and power lines by 

aligning them with the natural contours of the 

landscape. Based on these characteristics of 

contrast, we considered the color of a feature 

in relative harmony with the landscape 

if it closely matched the surrounding 

environment, or if the color tended to be 

darker relative to the environment. We 

considered the shape of a feature in relative 

harmony with the landscape if it was not in 

marked contrast to the environment.

Movement and Noise

Motion and sound can both have an 

influence on how a landscape is perceived 

(Hetherington et al. 1993), particularly by 

attracting attention to a particular area of a 

viewshed. Movement and noise parameters 

can be perceived either positively or 

negatively, depending on the source and 

context. For example, the motion of running 

water generally has a very positive influence 

on perception of the environment (Carles et 

al. 1999), whereas noise from vehicles on a 

highway may be perceived negatively. In Carles 

et al.’s 1999 study, sounds were perceived 

negatively when they clashed with aspirations 

for a given site, such as tranquility. We 

considered the conspicuousness of the impact 

of movement and noise to be consistent with 

the amount present (that is, little movement or 

noise was inconspicuous, obvious movement 

or noise was conspicuous).

Hierarchical Relationship among 

Conspicuousness Measures

The above-described characteristics do 

not act independently with respect to their 

influence on the conspicuousness of features; 

rather, they tend to have a hierarchical effect. 

For example, the color and shape of a house 

would not be important to the integrity of a 

park’s viewshed if the house was located far 

away from the vantage point. Thus, distance 

becomes the primary characteristic that affects 

the potential conspicuousness. Therefore, 

we considered potential influences on 

conspicuousness in the context of a hierarchy 

based on the distance characteristics having 

the most impact on the integrity of the 

viewshed, followed by the size characteristic, 

then both the color and shape, and finally, the 

noise and movement characteristic (Figure 

4.1.2-5).

GIS Viewshed Analysis

We supplement our assessment with a 

Geographic Information System (GIS) 

analysis to provide spatial context for these 

measures. Viewshed analyses were conducted 

to depict the total visible area seen from each 

of the three key vantage points. Aerial maps 

of each of the vantage points were generated 

based on digital elevation models (DEMs) to 

predict the area visible from a given vantage 

point taking into account changes in elevation 

and other obstructions such as tree, mountain, 

or building heights. We show visible areas 

within 30 km (18.6 km) of the park and those 

well outside of this distance, but note that 

features at greater distances (e.g., outside 

of the 30 km) have relatively less impact on 

scenic or historic integrity than those in closer 

proximity. For this reason, we focus on visible 

areas within 30 km of the park. Also note that 

areas visible from the three vantage points 

are combined on one map. Complete details 

of the viewshed analysis process are listed in 

Appendix B.

Figure 4.1.2-5. Conceptual framework for hierarchical relationship of 

characteristics that influence the conspicuousness of features within a 

viewshed.
54

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

In addition, using 2010 data provided 

by NPScape (NPS 2011a), road density 

and housing density were overlaid on the 

map to provide an additional measure of

viewshed integrity (intactness). NPScape 

was developed by NPS Natural Resource 

Stewardship and Science by compiling 

and analyzing landscape-scale U.S. Census 

Bureau data that linked measurable attributes 

of landscape (i.e., road density, population 

and housing density, and others) to resources 

within natural resource-based parks, resulting 

in the NPScape database (Budde et al. 2009, 

Monahan et al. 2012).

4.1.3. Reference Conditions

The indicators and measures of viewshed 

condition at El Malpais NM are inter-related 

and intended to provide information about 

how well the views maintain their scenic 

quality and their ability to evoke a sense of 

place in an historic and cultural context. 

The basis for determining condition in an 

assessment such as this is a comparison 

between current condition and a reference 

condition. We used a qualitative reference 

state for the scenic and historic integrity of 

the viewshed (Table 4.1.3-1). Embedded 

within these reference conditions are both the 

intactness of view and conspicuousness of 

features that do not contribute to the scenic 

and historic integrity. 

4.1.4. Condition and Trend

Overall, the scenic and historic integrity of 

the viewsheds at El Malpais NM are in good 

condition. From the three vantage points, 

the landscape surrounding and within the 

national monument remains intact (Figures 

4.1.4-1 through 4.1.4-4; Table 4.1.4-1). 

From the vantage points, noncontributing 

features that can be seen are relatively minor, 

consisting of a road and parking area and an 

extremely small sign. 

Table 4.1.3-1. Qualitative reference condition classes used for scenic and historic 

integrity within the viewshed at El Malpais NM. 

Class Scenic & Historic Integrity

High Integrity

(Good Condition)

Some noncontributing features or developments may be visible, but the vast 

majority of the landscape is dominated by natural or historic features. The integrity 

of the natural and historic context is well preserved such that an observer can easily 

visualize the historic aspect of the viewshed. As such, the features that contribute 

to the natural and historic integrity are well preserved and the noncontributing 

features are generally absent or are sufficiently inconspicuous so as to not detract 

from the sense of place.

Moderate Integrity

(Moderate Concern)

Noncontributing features or developments occupy a moderate portion of the 

landscape and/or are moderately conspicuous, but sufficient intactness retains 

much of its integrity. The integrity of the natural and historic context is also largely 

preserved such that an observer can experience a natural viewshed. 

Low Integrity

(Significant Concern)

The vast majority of the landscape is dominated by noncontributing features or 

developments that are conspicuous enough that little integrity or “sense of place” 

remains. The integrity of the natural and historic context is essentially lost either 

from the contributing factors not being well preserved or the noncontributing 

features overwhelming the potential to experience a natural viewshed.

Table 4.1.4-1. Indicator and measures of viewshed condition, their corresponding 

assigned condition class, and the rationale for assigning condition class.

Indicator of Condition Measures Condition Rationale for Condition

Scenic and Historic 

Integrity

Intactness of View Good

Views are mainly intact with few noncontributing features, consistent with 

good condition.

Conspicuousness of noncontributing features Good

Noncontributing features are relatively 

inconspicuous, consistent with good 

condition.
55

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

Figure 4.1.4-1. Panoramic views from one location at the top of El Calderon cinder cone. About 90 degrees are 

shown in each view, with about 15-20 degrees of overlap between one panorama and the next one. 

Northeast (0-90)

Southeast (75-165)

Southwest (150-240)

West (225-315)

Northwest-North (300-030)
56

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Figure 4.1.4-2. Panoramic views from one location at Bandera Crater (not at the top of the crater). 

About 90 degrees are shown in each view, with ~15-20 degrees of overlap between one panorama and 

the next one. Note that one panorama is not shown (150-240) because it did not include anything not 

observable in the two adjacent views. Also note that the park is not visible in the top view, but it is 

visible in the other three views in the distance as one looks away from the trail/road.

Northeast (0-90)

Southeast (75-165)

West (225-315)

Northwest-North (300-030)
57

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

Figure 4.1-4-3. These two photographs were taken from a location a few hundred feet to the 

west of those shown in Figure 4.1.4-2 (and at a slightly higher elevation). These photos were 

taken from the cinder trail/road seen in the previous figure, and provide a slightly better view 

towards the south.

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY © PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY
58

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Figure 4.1.4-4. Panoramic views from one location at the Sandstone Bluffs overlook. About 90 degrees are shown 

in each view, with about 15-20 degrees of overlap between one panorama and the next one. (Mt. Taylor can be seen 

in the background in the top and bottom panoramas).

Northwest-North (300-030)

West (225-315)

Southwest (150-240)

Southeast (70-165)

Northeast (0-90)
59

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

The views from El Calderon are intact, with 

few or no noncontributing features, at least 

that can be seen in the panoramas (Figure 

4.1.4-1). If noncontributing features are 

present, they are inconspicuous. The only 

obvious human-made object visible is the 

small, wooden park sign that can be seen in 

the nearby foreground looking toward the 

east/southeast. The sign, however, is very 

small and inconspicuous in color. 

The views from the Bandera Volcano/Crater 

vantage point are also intact, and only one 

noncontributing feature can be seen (Figure 

4.1.4-2. This feature is the cinder entrance 

trail/road (from where the panoramas were 

taken), but as it is narrow, curves with the 

cone, and consists of the same material as 

the ground, it is fairly inconspicuous. Note 

that the national monument is visible in 

the distance in the second through fourth 

views only. Additionally, no noncontributing 

features are visible from the two additional 

photographs that were taken a few hundred 

feet to the west of the vantage point (Figure 

4.1.4-3). Recall that all of these images were 

taken from private property. 

From the Sandstone Bluffs overlook vantage 

point, the views are largely intact, except that 

the parking area and parking area entrance 

road are somewhat visible (in the foreground) 

in views towards the east (Figure 4.1.4-4, top 

two panoramas). From the exact location 

of the vantage point, these noncontributing 

features are not very visible, but from other 

locations in close proximity, they are more 

visible (see Figure 4.1.4-5). The parking area 

is relatively small, however, and the visible 

portion of the road is roughly parallel to 

the bluffs. The trees and shrubs adjacent to 

the bluffs also help to minimize the visual 

effect of the parking area and road. There is 

the added component, however, of moving, 

albeit slowly moving, vehicles and their 

associated noise. Route 117 also runs in the 

middleground/background of views towards 

the east, northeast, and southeast, but the 

roadway seems to blend fairly well into the 

landscape from this location. 

Overall, based on the panoramic images 

from the three vantage points, the scenic and 

historic integrity of the views are in good 

condition. The majority of the landscape is 

dominated by natural features, and there 

are no major impediments to experiencing 

a “sense of place.” Impressive views are 

available to the visitor at the vantage points 

used in this assessment.

GIS-based Analysis

For our GIS-based analysis, we estimated 

the areas visible from the vantage points 

(Figure 4.1.4-6). It is important to keep in 

mind that these estimates of visible area are 

approximations based on digital elevation 

models. These are estimates only, and it 

should not be assumed that they are accurate 

enough for the purposes of planning specific 

projects. Such cases may require verification 

and adjustment for the specific context 

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Figure 4.1.2-5.

View of parking area 

and entrance road 

at Sandstone Bluffs 

overlook.
60

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

intended. Based on our analysis, the area 

within the park that is most visible from the 

vantage points is the eastern half of the park, 

especially the northeastern portion. Outside 

of the park, visible areas are mainly to the 

north and the south of the park. Overall, visible 

areas include some areas that are substantial 

distances from the national monument, such 

as Mt. Taylor to the northeast (mostly inside 

the 30 km buffer) and portions of the Gallina 

and Gallo Mountains to the south (outside 

of the 30 km buffer). Visible areas outside of 

the 30 km buffer are excluded from analysis 

of housing and road density data (see below), 

because roads and houses occurring at this 

distance from the national monument would 

generally not be expected to negatively affect 

the viewshed. 

Housing density and road density are 

considered for their potential intrusion into 

the landscape when they occur within the 

30 km buffer area. Housing density within 30 

km of the national monument falls primarily 

into the rural category (Figure 4.1.4-7). The 

rural category composes 96.85% of the 

colored area within the area of interest (Table 

4.1.4-2), and the housing density within this 

category ranges from private undeveloped to 

4-6 units per square kilometer (Table 4.1.4-3). 

Table 4.1.4-2 shows all the housing density 

categories appearing in the figure and their 

related areas. The areas mapped as exurban 

and denser in Figure 4.1.4-7 are in the vicinity 

of Grants and Milan (the area north of the 

eastern portion of the park). A second area 

of mainly exurban development is farther 

to the east (from Grants) along Interstate 

40. However, all of these areas of housing/

development are not visible from the three 

vantage points we used in this assessment. The 

second half of Table 4.1.4-2 shows the area 

within each density class for the visible areas 

only. The density class most visible from the 

vantage points is that with the lowest housing 

density, the rural category (accounting for 

92.98% of the colored area visible). Note that 

Figure 4.1.4-6. Area visible (in blue-green) from the vantage points 

at El Malpais NM. The closest mountain to the north of the park is 

Mount Taylor, and the closest mountains to the south are the Gallina 

Mountains. Data sources: NPS (2011b), and USGS (2015).

Table 4.1.4.2. Housing density

surrounding El Malpais NM (within 30 km 

from the park).

All Areas

Density Class Area (km2

) Percent

Rural 4,028.20 96.85%

Exurban 118.94 2.86%

Suburban 6.95 0.17%

Urban 0.22 0.005%

Commercial / Industrial 4.41 0.11%

Urban-Regional Park 0.48 0.01%

Total Area 4,159.20

Visible Areas Only

Density Class Area (km2

) Percent

Rural 338.58 92.98%

Exurban 20.63 5.66%

Suburban 3.18 0.87%

Urban 0.19 0.05%

Commercial / Industrial 1.53 0.42%

Urban-Regional Park 0.05 0.01

Total Area 364.16
61

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

all colored areas in Figure 4.1.4-7 constitute a 

total of over 4,000 square kilometers, but the 

(colored) visible areas only make up about 

364 square kilometers. 

Road density generally followed a similar 

pattern as housing density. Areas of greatest 

density were near the cities/towns along 

Interstate 40, as well as to the west and 

northwest of the national monument (Figure 

4.1.4-8). According to the analysis, the vast 

majority of roads within the 30 km buffer 

area (83.28%) were in the two lowest-density 

categories (Table 4.1.4-4, top portion). Again, 

recall that the entire area within the area of 

interest is not visible from the three vantage 

points. Within the visible area only, the two 

lowest density categories made up even a 

slightly greater proportion of the (colored) 

total area visible (i.e., 85.92%; Table 4.1.4-4, 

bottom portion).

Although housing and roads can degrade 

the visual integrity of the landscape and 

viewsheds, our analysis for El Malpais NM 

indicated that these forms of development 

were not dense enough within the area of 

interest to lead to a lowering of the condition 

rating for scenic and historic integrity at the 

national monument.

Overall Condition

Based on this assessment, we considered the 

viewshed at El Malpais NM to be in good 

condition. Noncontributing features were 

relatively few and inconspicuous, leaving the 

site primarily intact from a scenic standpoint, 

which also allows the visitor to imagine the 

landscape from an historic and cultural point 

of view.

4.1.5. Sources of Expertise

For assessing the condition of this resource, 

we relied primarily on the panoramic images 

and literature on this topic. Kim Struthers 

provided GIS expertise. Park personnel took 

the panoramic images.

Viewshed

Indicator Measures

Scenic and Historic 

Integrity

Intactness of View

Conspicuousness of 

non-contributing 

features

Figure 4.1.4-7. Housing density surrounding El Malpais NM. Data 

sources: NPS (2011b), NPS (2014b), and Theobald (2005).

Table 4.1.4-3. Definitions of grouped 

housing density classes used in the GIS 

analysis. Source: NPS 2013.

All Areas

Density Class Class Definition

Rural class ranges from private/

undeveloped to 4-6 units per km2

Exurban class ranges from 7-12 units per 

km2 to 50-146 units per km2

Suburban class ranges from 146-495 units 

per km2 to 495-1,235 units per 

km2

Urban class ranges from 1,235-2,470 

units per km2

 to >2,470 units per 

km2

Commercial / 

Industrial

-----

UrbanRegional Park-----
62

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Key Uncertainties

How a view is perceived is quite subjective and 

will always have an element of uncertainty. 

We have tried to base our assessment on the 

findings of an extensive body of literature, 

and have tried to be transparent with our 

assessment.

Another element of uncertainty is our GIS 

analysis. This analysis is based on digital 

elevation models and does not take into 

account visibility limitations from vegetation, 

and other variables, and has not been verified 

in the field. Even with these uncertainties, 

we have a high level of confidence in this 

assessment.

4.1.6. Literature Cited

Benedict, C.B., and E. Hudson. 2008. Mt. 

Taylor traditional cultural property 

determination of eligibility. Heritage 

Resource Report #2008-03-021, 

NMCRIS #109313. Mt. Taylor Ranger 

District, Cibola National Forest.

Brush, R. 0. And J. F. Palmer. 1979. Measuring 

the impact of urbanization on scenic 

quality: Land use changes in the 

northeast. In Proceedings of Our National 

Landscape Conference. U.S. Department 

of Agriculture. 

Budde, P. J., B. J. Frakes, L. Nelson, and 

U. Glick. 2009. Technical Guide for 

NPScape Data and Processing. Inventory 

& Monitoring Division, National Park 

Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM). 1980. 

Visual Resource Management. U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Bureau of 

Land Management. Washington, DC. 

http://www.blm.gov/nstc/vrm/8400. 

html.

Carles, L. J., I. L. Barrio, and J. Vicente 

de Lucio. 1999. Sound influence on 

landscape values. Landscape and Urban 

Planning 43:191-200.

ESRI. 2010. U.S. and Canada Detailed 

Streets. Compiled by Tele Atlas North 

Figure 4.1.4-8. Road density surrounding El Malpais NM. Data 

sources: NPS (2011b), NPS (2014c), and ESRI (2010).

Table 4.1.4-4. Road density surrounding 

El Malpais NM (within 30 km of the park).

All Areas

Density Class Area (km2

) Percent

0.015 - 1.125 2,189 46.00%

1.126 - 2.287 1,774 37.28%

2.288 - 4.982 722 15.17%

4.983 - 13.49 71 1.49%

> 13.49 2 0.04%

Total Area 4,758

Visible Areas Only

Density Class Area (km2

) Percent

0.015 - 1.125 208 50.48%

1.126 - 2.287 146 35.44%

2.288 - 4.982 45 10.92%

4.983 - 13.49 12 2.91%

>13.49 1 0.24%

Total Area 412
63

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Viewshed

America (2005), Inc., distributed by ESRI. 

Redlands, CA. DVD. Available at http://

science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/

npscape/methods_sourcedata.cfm. 

Accessed October 19, 2015.

Gobster, P. H. 1999. An ecological aesthetic 

for forest landscape management. 

Landscape Journal 18: 54-64.

Han, K. T. 2010. An exploration of 

relationships among responses to natural 

scenes: Scenic beauty, preference and 

restoration. Environment and Behavior 

42(2):243-270.

Hetherington, J., T.C. Daniel. and T.C. Brown. 

1993. Is motion more important than it 

sounds?: The medium of presentation in 

environmental perception research. J. 

Environmental Psychology 13: 283-291.

Johnson, G. W., J. D. Anderson, and D. 

Godwin. 2008. A guidebook for the Blue 

Ridge Parkway Scenery Conservation 

System. Draft. National Park Service, 

Asheville, North Carolina.

Kaltenborn, B. P. and T. Bjerke. 2002. 

Associations between environmental 

value orientations and landscape 

preferences. Landscape and Urban 

Planning 59:1-11.

Kaplan, R. and S. Kaplan. 1989. The 

Experience of Nature: A Psychological 

Perspective. Cambridge University Press, 

Cambridge, UK.

Kearney, A. R., G. A. Bradley, C. H. Petrich, 

R. Kaplan, S. Kaplan, and D. SimpsonColebank. 2008. Public perception as 

support for scenic quality regulation 

in a nationally treasured landscape. 

Landscape and Urban Planning 87:117-

128.

Monahan, W. B., J. E. Gross, L. K. Svancara, 

and T. Philippi. 2012. A guide to 

interpreting NPScape data and analyses. 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/

NRSS/NRTR—2012/578. 

National Park Service (NPS). 2011a. 

NPScape: Monitoring landscape 

dynamics of U.S. National Parks. Natural 

Resource Program Center, Inventory 

and Monitoring Division. Fort Collins, 

Colorado. http://science.nature.nps.gov/

im/monitor/npscape/.

National Park Service (NPS). 2011b. NPScape 

NPS boundary-derived areas of analysis 

SOP: Park, 3km, and 30km areas of 

analysis. National Park Service, Natural 

Resource Program Center. Fort Collins, 

Colorado. Available at http://science.

nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/npscape/

citation.cfm. Accessed October 19, 2015.

National Park Service. (NPS). 2014a. 

Foundation Document (Draft), El 

Malpais National Monument, New 

Mexico. February 2014.

National Park Service (NPS). 2014b. NPScape 

Standard Operating Procedure: Housing 

Measure – Current and Projected 

Housing Density. Version [2015-04-14]. 

National Park Service, Natural Resource 

Stewardship and Science. Fort Collins, 

Colorado. Available at http://science.

nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/npscape/

citation.cfm. Accessed October 19, 2015.

National Park Service (NPS). 2014c. NPScape 

Standard Operating Procedure: Roads 

Measure – Road Density, Distance from 

Roads, and Area without Roads. Version 

[2015-03-19]. National Park Service, 

Natural Resource Stewardship and 

Science. Fort Collins, Colorado. Available 

at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/

monitor/npscape/citation.cfm. Accessed 

October 19, 2015.

O’Connor, Z. 2008. Facade Colour and 

Aesthetic Response: Examining Patterns 

of Response within the Context of Urban 

Design and Planning in Sydney. University 

of Sydney: Sydney, Austraila.

O’Connor, Z. 2009. Facade colour and 

judgements about building size. In D. 

Smith, P. Green-Armytage, M. A. Pope, 

and N. Harkness (Eds.) AIC 2009: 
64

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Proceedings of the 11th Congress of the 

International Colour Association, Sydney.

Ratliff, F. 1972. Contour and contrast. 

Scientific American 226: 91-101.

Ribe, R. G. 2005. Aesthetic perceptions of 

green-tree retention harvests in vista 

views: The interaction of cut level, 

retention pattern, and harvest shape. 

Landscape and Urban Planning 73:277-

293.

Ryan, R. L. 2006. Comparing the attitudes of 

local residents, planners, and developers 

about preserving rural character in New 

England. Landscape and Urban Planning 

75: 5-22.

Schauman, S. 1979. The Countryside Visual 

Resource. In Proceedings of Our National 

Landscape: A Conference on Applied 

Techniques for Analysis and Management 

of the Visual Resource, General Technical 

Report PSW-35, Pacific Southwest Forest 

and Range Experiment Station, Forest 

Service, USDA, Berkely, California.

Sheppard, S. R. J. 2001. Beyond visual 

resource management: Emerging theories 

of an ecological aesthetic and visible 

stewardship. In Sheppard, S. R. J. and H. W. 

Harshaw, Eds., Forests and Landscapes: 

Linking Ecology, Sustainability and 

Aesthetics. CABI Publishing, New York.

Theobald, D.M. 2005. Landscape patterns of 

exurban growth in the USA from 1980 to 

2020. Ecology and Society 10:32. Available 

at http://www.ecologyandsociety.org. 

Accessed October 19, 2015.

U.S. Forest Service (USFS). 1995. Landscape 

Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery 

Management. Agricultural Handbook 

701.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2015. The 

national map - elevation. Available at 

http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/basic/?ba

semap=b1&category=ned,nedsrc&title

=3DEP%20View. Accessed October, 14, 

2015.

Virden, R. J. and G. J. Walker. 1999. Ethnic/

racial and gender variations among 

meanings given to, and preferences 

for, the natural environment. Leisure 

Sciences 21:219-239.

Wondrak-Biel, A. 2005. Aesthetic 

conservation and the National Park 

Service. Yellowstone Science 13(3):7.

Zube, E. H., J. L. Sell, and J. G. Taylor. 1982. 

Landscape perception: Research, 

application, and theory. Landscape 

Planning 9:1-33.
65

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Night Sky

4.2. Night Sky

4.2.1. Background and Importance

Natural dark skies are a valued resource 

within the NPS, reflected in NPS management 

policies (NPS 2006), which highlight the 

importance of a natural photic environment 

to ecosystem function, and the importance of 

the natural lightscape for aesthetics. The NPS 

Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division 

(NSNSD) makes a distinction between a 

lightscape—which is the human perception of 

the nighttime scene, including both the night 

sky and the faintly illuminated terrain, and the 

photoic environment—which is the totality of 

the pattern of light at night at all wavelengths 

(Moore et al. 2013).

Lightscapes are an aesthetic and experiential 

quality that is integral to natural and cultural 

resources (Moore et al. 2013). A 2007 visitor 

survey conducted throughout Utah national 

parks found that 86% of visitors thought the 

quality of park night skies was “somewhat 

important” or “very important” to their visit. 

Additionally, in an estimated 20 national 

parks, stargazing events are the most popular 

ranger-led program (NPS 2010).

The value of night skies goes far beyond visitor 

experience and scenery (Figure 4.2.1-1). The 

photic environment affects a broad range 

of species, is integral to ecosystems, and is a 

natural physical process (Moore et al. 2013). 

Natural light intensity varies during the daynight (diurnal) cycle, the lunar cycle, and 

the seasonal cycle. Organisms have evolved 

to respond to these periodic changes in 

light levels in ways that control or modulate 

movement, feeding, mating, emergence, 

seasonal breeding, migration, hibernation, 

and dormancy. Plants also respond to light 

levels by flowering, vegetative growth, and 

their direction of growth (Royal Commission 

on Environmental Pollution 2009). Given the 

effects of light on living organisms, it is likely 

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Good to Moderate - Insufficient Data - High

Figure 4.2.1-1.

CCD camera set-up 

at Cerro Encierro in 

El Malpais National 

Monument.

NPS NATURAL SOUNDS AND NIGHT SKIES DIVISION

Indicators/Measures

• Sky Brightness (4 measures)

• Sky Quality (1 measure)
66

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

that the introduction of artificial light into the 

natural light/darkness regime will disturb the 

normal routines of many plants and animals 

(Royal Commission on Environmental 

Pollution 2009), as well as diminish stargazing 

recreational opportunities offered to national 

park visitors.

Approximately 85% of El Malpais National 

Monument is recommended wilderness 

and preserving dark night skies is important 

to maintaining the wilderness character of 

the national monument. In its foundation 

document, the development of a dark night 

skies preservation plan was identified as a 

priority (NPS 2014). Protecting the night 

sky resources at El Malpais NM benefits the 

natural resources, is important for visitor 

experience, and has cultural significance. El 

Malpais NM has a unique opportunity to 

provide educational programs that highlight 

the cultural significance of night skies to 

Ancestral Puebloans and their descendants, as 

well as to provide recreational opportunities 

for visitors. For centuries people have lived 

around and sometimes in the lava country. 

Ancient Indian civilizations crossed the 

lava flows with trail cairns and related to 

the landscape with stories and ceremony. 

Ancestral Puebloans careful observation 

of the sun, moon and stars was essential for 

planning festivals and activities such as when 

to start planting and when to harvest (Aveni 

2003). 

4.2.2. Data and Methods

The NPS NSNSD goals of measuring night 

sky brightness are to describe the quality of 

the lightscape, quantify how much it deviates 

from natural conditions, and how it changes 

with time due to changes in natural conditions, 

as well as artificial lighting in areas within and 

outside of the national parks (Duriscoe et al. 

2007). 

Based on new guidance (Moore et al. 2013), 

the NPS NSNSD recommends the all-sky 

light pollution ratio (ALR) as the best single 

parameter for characterizing overall sky 

condition. However the utility of a single 

metric limits the ability to fully describe and 

manage the variations in resource quality 

that often exists within a park. Therefore, 

NSNSD recommends using a suite of metrics 

to describe and manage variations in night sky 

quality (see Table 4.2.2-1). When available, 

additional indicators and measures, such as 

maximum vertical illuminance, should also 

be considered in an assessment of night sky 

condition, but the ALR measure is the primary 

data source for condition assessment. 

NSNSD conducted an assessment of the 

national monument’s night sky condition 

using a CCD camera to assess all-sky 

light pollution and maximum vertical and 

horizontal illumination, a sky quality meter to 

measure sky brightness, and the Bortle Dark 

Sky Scale, a qualitative assessment commonly 

used by amateur astronomers to evaluate the 

sky quality for star gazing. Readings were 

taken at three locations within El Malpais 

NM approximately an hour after moonset: 

Cerro Encierro, the summit of a cinder cone 

in the middle of the national monument, 

on April 20, 2012; a meadow below Cerro 

Encierro on April 20, 2012; and Sandstone 

Bluffs, located at the northeastern portion of 

the national monument, on March 16, 2010. 

The high point at Cerro Encierro allowed 

Table 4.2.2-1. Indicators and measures of the night sky and why they are important 

to resource condition.

Indicator Measure Description

Sky Brightness All-sky Light Pollution 

Ratio, Vertical Maximum 

and Horizontal 

Illuminances and Zenith 

Sky Brightness

The all-sky light pollution ratio describes light due to manmade sources compared to light from a natural dark sky. 

Understanding the lightscape and sources of light is helpful to 

managers to maintain dark skies for the benefit of wildlife and 

people alike.

Sky Quality Bortle Scale Class The Bortle Dark Sky classification system describes the quality of 

the dark night sky by the celestial bodies and night sky features 

an observer can see. Observing the stars has been an enjoyable 

human pastime for centuries.
67

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Night Sky

for unfettered view of city light domes while 

the lower meadow site effectively blocked 

light trespass from city light domes, and 

is considered one of the darkest locations 

within the national monument.

Indicator/Measures

Sky Brightness (All-sky Light Pollution 

Ratio, Maximum Vertical Illuminance, 

Horizontal Illuminance, and Zenith Sky 

Brightness)

A CCD camera was used to measure both 

natural and anthropogenic light across the 

entire hemisphere. From the calibrated 

images collected by the CCD camera metrics 

including all-sky light pollution ratio and 

two measures of integrated sky brightness—

horizontal and vertical illuminance—were 

derived. Ground-based measurements were 

taken at Cerro Encierro, the meadow below 

Cerro Encierro, and at Sandstone Bluffs. 

The all-sky light pollution ratio (ALR) is 

the average anthropogenic sky luminance 

presented as a ratio over natural conditions. 

It is a useful metric to average the light flux 

over the entire sky (measuring all that is 

above the horizon and omitting the terrain). 

Recent advances in modeling of the natural 

components of the night sky allow the 

separation of anthropogenic light from 

natural features, such as the Milky Way. This 

metric is a convenient and robust measure. 

It is most accurately obtained from groundbased measurements with the NPS Night Skies 

Program’s photometric system, however, 

it can also be modeled with moderate 

confidence when such measurements are not 

available. 

ALR was modeled for the entire park based 

on data from the 2001 World Atlas of Night 

Sky Brightness, which depicts zenith sky 

brightness (the brightness of the sky directly 

above the observer). A neighborhood analysis 

is then applied to the World Atlas to determine 

the anthropogenic sky brightness over the 

entire sky. Finally, the modeled all-sky light 

pollution over the entire sky is presented as 

a ratio (ALR) over the natural sky brightness 

(Moore et al. 2013). While modeled data 

provide useful overall measurements, 

especially when site visits cannot be made, 

they are less accurate than ground-based 

measurements. 

Modeled data produced an estimated ALR 

of 0.17 for the entire national monument. 

Measurements from Cerro Encierro 

produced a mean ALR of 0.2, or 20% brighter 

than average natural conditions, while the 

meadow below Cerro Encierro produced 

a mean ALR of 0.09, or 9% brighter than 

average natural conditions (ground-based 

data have a 90% confidence level of ±8 nL, or 

±0.1 ALR). Sandstone Bluffs produced a mean 

ALR of 0.35, or 35% brighter than average 

natural conditions. A summary of all night sky 

conditions is presented in Table 4.2.2-2.

Vector measures of illuminance (horizontal 

and vertical) are important in describing the 

appearance of three-dimensional objects 

on the landscape and their relative visibility. 

Vertical illuminance is the integration of all 

light striking a vertical plane from the point 

of the observer. In light-polluted areas, 

maximum sky brightness and maximum 

vertical illuminance will often measure the 

same area of sky, typically at the core of 

urban light domes. Vertical illuminance is an 

important metric when discussing night sky 

Table 4.2.2-2. Night Sky Measurements at El Malpais NM.

Location

All-sky Light 

Pollution Ratio 

Maximum Vertical 

Iluminance 

(milli-Lux)

Horizontal 

Illuminance 

(milli-Lux)

Zenith Sky 

Brightness 

(SQM)

Bortle 

Scale

Modeled Park-wide 0.17 --- --- --- ---

Cerro Encierro 0.20 0.19 0.06 21.74 3

Lower Meadow 0.09 0.08 0.07 21.84 2

Sandstone Bluffs 0.35 0.36 0.09 21.54 4
68

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

quality as it is easily noticeable to park visitors 

(since humans are oriented vertically). 

Even with dark conditions overhead, high 

vertical illuminance can hinder or inhibit 

dark adaptation of the eyes and cast visible 

shadows on the landscape. This is also an 

important ecological indicator, as many 

wildlife species base behavior on visual cues 

along the horizon. Horizontal illuminance 

is the amount of light striking a horizontal 

surface and is an important indicator of sky 

brightness (Cinzano and Falchi 2014). It 

is less sensitive in slightly impacted areas. 

This is because, even though the entire 

sky is considered, there is a rapid falloff in 

response to photons near the horizon, owing 

to Lambert’s cosine law. At sites remote from 

cities, most of the anthropogenic sky glow 

occurs near the horizon.

Maximum vertical illuminance at Cerro 

Encierro was measured at 0.19 milli-Lux, or 

48% above average natural conditions, while 

the lower meadow was measured at 0.08 milliLux, or 20% above average natural conditions. 

At Sandstone Bluffs maximum vertical 

illuminance was measured at 0.36, or 90% 

above average natural conditions. Horizontal 

illuminance from anthropogenic sources at 

Cerro Encierro was measured at 0.06 milliLux, or 8% brighter than natural conditions, 

while the lower meadow was measured at 

0.07 milli-Lux, or 8% brighter than natural 

conditions. Horizontal illuminance at 

Sandstone Bluffs was measured at 0.09 milliLux, or 11% above average natural conditions 

(Table 4.2.2-2). 

Sky brightness describes the amount of light 

in the night sky. One method of assessing 

sky brightness uses a Unihedron Sky Quality 

Meter (SQM) that samples the night sky in a 

broad spectrum band roughly corresponding 

to the entire human visual range. The SQM 

measures an aggregate average brightness 

for the entire sky that is skewed to zenith 

brightness over an 80 degree field of view 

(Moore 2001). Ground-based SQM readings 

were 21.74 at Cerro Encierro, 21.84 at the 

lower meadow, and 21.54 at Sandstone Bluffs 

(Table 4.2.2-2).

Indicator/Measure

Sky Quality (Bortle Dark Sky Scale)

The Bortle Dark Sky Scale (Appendix C) was 

proposed by John Bortle (Bortle 2001) based 

on 50 years of astronomical observations. 

Bortle’s qualitative approach uses a nineclass scale that requires a basic knowledge 

of the night sky and no special equipment 

(Bortle 2001, Moore 2001, White et al. 2012, 

Table 4.2.2-3). The Bortle scale uses both 

stellar objects and familiar descriptors to 

distinguish among the different classes. 

Another advantage of the Bortle scale is that 

it is suitable for conditions ranging from the 

darkest skies to the brightest urban areas 

(Moore 2001, Figure 4.2.2-1). 

The qualitative Bortle Scale assessment 

estimated the night sky quality to class 3 

at Cerro Encierro and class 2 as observed 

from the lower meadow. At Sandstone Bluffs 

observers estimated a Bortle class 4. These 

observations are consistent with a rural sky 

at Cerro Encierro, a typical dark sky at the 

lower meadow, and the transition from rural 

to suburban skies at Sandstone Bluffs. (Table 

4.2.2-2). 

4.2.3. Reference Conditions

The ideal night sky reference condition, 

regardless of how it’s measured, regardless 

of how it’s measured, is one devoid of any 

light pollution. However, results from night 

sky data collection throughout more than 90 

national parks suggest that a pristine night sky 

is very rare (NPS 2010). El Malpais NM is an 

NPS unit with significant natural resources 

including volcanic lava flows, lava tube caves, 

and unique vegetation associated with the 

ancient volcanic environment. Approximately 

85% of El Malpais National Monument is 

recommended wilderness. Therefore, the 

national monument is considered a nonurban NPS unit, or park with at least 90% 

of its property located outside an urban area 

(Moore et al. 2013). For non-urban NPS 

units, the thresholds separating reference of 

conditions good, moderate, and significant 

concern are more stringent than those for 

urban NPS units because these areas are 

generally more sensitive to the effects of 
69

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Night Sky

Table 4.2.2-3. Bortle Dark Sky Scale (White et al. 2012)

Bortle Scale Milky Way (MW) Astronomical 

Objects

Zodiacal 

Constellations Airglow and Clouds Nighttime Scene

Class 1

Excellent 

Dark Sky 

Site

MW shows great 

detail, and appears 

40o wide in some 

parts; ScorpioSagittarius region 

casts an obvious 

shadow

Spiral galaxies 

(M33 and M81) are 

obvious objects; the 

Helix nebula is visible 

with the naked eye

Zodiacal light 

is striking as a 

complete band, and 

can stretch across 

entire sky

The horizon is 

completely free of 

light domes, very low 

airglow

Jupiter and Venus 

annoy night vision, 

ground objects are 

barely lit, trees and 

hills are dark

Class 2

Typical Dark 

Site

MW shows great 

detail and cast barely 

visible shadows

The rift in Cygnus 

star cloud is visible; 

the Prancing Horse 

in Sagittarius and 

Fingers of Ophiuchus 

dark nebulae are 

visible, extending to 

Antares

Zodiacal band and 

gegenschein are 

visible

Very few light domes 

are visible, with 

none above 5o and 

fainter than the 

MW; airglow may 

be weakly apparent, 

and clouds still 

appear as dark voids

Ground is mostly 

dark, but object 

projecting into the 

sky are discernible

Class 3

Rural Sky

MW still appears 

complex; dark voids 

and bright patches 

and a meandering 

outline are visible

Brightest globular 

clusters are distinct, 

pinwheel galaxy 

visible with averted 

vision

Zodiacal light is 

easily seen, but band 

of gegenschein is 

difficult to see or 

absent

Airglow is not visible, 

and clouds are faintly 

illuminated except at 

zenith

Some light domes 

evident along 

horizon, ground 

objects are vaguely 

apparent

Class 4

RuralSuburban 

Transition

MW is evident from 

horizon to horizon, 

but fine details are 

lost

Pinwheel galaxy is 

a difficult object 

to see; deep sky 

objects such as M13 

globular cluster, 

Northern Coalsack 

dark nebula, and 

Andromeda galaxy 

are visible 

Zodiacal light is 

evident, but extends 

less than 45° after 

dusk

Clouds are just 

brighter than the sky, 

but appear dark at 

zenith

Light domes are 

evident in several 

directions (up to 15o

above the horizon), 

sky is noticeably

brighter than terrain

Class 5

Suburban 

Sky

MW is faintly 

present, but may 

have gaps

The oval of 

Andromeda galaxy is 

detectable, as is the 

glow in the Orion 

nebula, Great rift in 

Cygnus

Only hints of 

zodiacal light may be 

glimpsed

Clouds are noticeably 

brighter than sky

Light domes are 

obvious to casual 

observers, ground 

objects are easily 

seen

Class 6

Bright 

Suburban 

Sky

MW only apparent 

overhead, and 

appears broken as 

fainter parts are lost 

to sky glow

Cygnus, Scutum, and 

Sagittarius star fields 

just visible

Zodiacal light is not 

visible; constellations 

are seen, and not 

lost against a starry 

sky

Clouds appear 

illuminated and 

reflect light

Sky from horizon 

to 35° glows with 

grayish color, ground 

is well lit

Class 7

SuburbanUrban 

Transition

MW may be just 

barely seen near the 

zenith

Andromeda galaxy 

(M31) and Beehive 

cluster (M44) are 

rarely glimpsed

Zodiacal light is not 

visible, and brighter 

constellations are 

easily seen

Clouds are brilliantly 

lit

Entire sky 

background appears 

washed out, with a 

grayish or yellowish 

color

Class 8

City Sky

MW not visible Pleiades are easily 

seen, but few other 

objects are visible

Zodiacal light not 

visible, constellations 

are visible but lack 

key stars

Clouds are brilliantly 

lit

Entire sky 

background has 

uniform washed 

out glow, with light 

domes reaching 60o

above the horizon

Class 9

Inner City 

Sky

MW not visible Only the Pleiades are 

visible to all but the 

most experienced 

observers

Only the brightest 

constellations are 

discernible

Clouds are brilliantly 

lit

Entire sky 

background has a 

bright glow, ground 

is illuminated
70

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

light pollution. For a summary of condition 

assessment categories for all night sky 

indicators, see Table 4.2.3-1.

All-sky Light Pollution Ratio

A natural night sky has an average brightness 

across the entire sky of 78 nL (nanolamberts, a 

measure of luminance), and includes features 

such as the Milky Way, Zodiacal light, airglow, 

and other starlight. This is figured into the 

ratio, so that an ALR reading of 0.0 would 

indicate pristine natural conditions where the 

anthropogenic component was 0 nL. A ratio 

of 1.0 would indicate that anthropogenic light 

was 100% brighter than the natural light from 

the night sky. The threshold for night skies 

in good condition is an ALR <0.33 and the 

threshold for a moderate condition is ALR 

0.33-2.0. An ALR >2.0 suggests significant 

concern (Moore et al. 2013).

Maximum Vertical Illuminance

The NPS Night Skies Division recommends 

a reference condition of 0.4 milli-Lux, since 

the average vertical illuminance experienced 

under the natural night sky on a moonless 

night is 0.4 milli-Lux (derived from Jensen et 

al. 2006, Garstang 1986, and unpublished NPS 

Night Skies Program data). No thresholds for 

condition rating have been set at this time. 

Vertical illuminance can also be expressed as 

a ratio to natural conditions, similar to ALR.

Horizontal Illuminance

The NPS Night Skies Division recommends 

a reference condition of 0.8 milli-Lux, 

since the average horizontal illuminance 

Figure 4.2.2-1.

Composite image 

illustrating the 

range of night sky 

conditions based on 

the Bortle Dark Sky 

Scale. 

IMAGE GENERATED FROM STELLARIUM (WWW.STELLARIUM.ORG)

Table 4.2.3-1. Night sky condition class summary for non-urban parks (i.e. parks with

at least 90% of their property located outside an urban area). 

Condition Class ALR* SQM Bortle 

Scale

Good ALR <0.33

(<26 nL average all-sky light pollution) ≥21.60 1-3

Moderate 0.33-2.0

(26-156 nL average all-sky light pollution) 21.2-21.59 4

Significant concern ALR >2.0

(>156 nL average all-sky light pollution) <21.2 5-9

* At least half of the park’s geographic area should meet the standard described.
71

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Night Sky

experienced under the natural night sky on a 

moonless night is 0.8 milli-Lux (derived from 

Durisco 2015 [submitted]). No thresholds for 

condition rating have been set at this time. 

Horizontal illuminance can also be expressed 

as a ratio to natural conditions, similar to ALR.

Zenith Sky Brightness

Reference conditions for night sky brightness 

can vary moderately based on the time of 

night (time after sunset), time of the month 

(phase of the moon), time of the year (the 

position of the Milky Way), and the activity 

of the sun which can increase “airglow”—a 

kind of faint aurora. For the minimum night 

sky brightness measure, the darkest part of a 

natural night sky is generally found near the 

zenith. A value of 22.0 magnitudes per square 

arc second (msa) is considered to represent a 

pristine sky, though it may vary naturally by 

more than +0.2 to -0.5 depending on natural 

conditions (Duriscoe 2013). Lower (brighter) 

values indicate increased light pollution and 

a departure from natural conditions. The 

astronomical magnitude scale is logarithmic, 

so a change of 2.50 magnitudes corresponds 

to a difference of l0x (100%); thus a 19.5 

msa sky would be 10x brighter than natural 

conditions. Minimum night sky brightness 

values of 21.4 to 22.0 msa, are generally 

considered to represent natural (unpolluted) 

conditions (Duriscoe et al. 2007).

The maximum night sky brightness is often 

found within the Milky Way of a natural sky. 

A typical measurement from the Sagittarius 

region of the Milky Way in a natural sky yields 

19.2 msa. Other regions of the Milky Way are 

somewhat dimmer, or around 20.0-21.0 msa. 

A value brighter than 19.0 msa will result in 

impairment to human night vision and may 

be noticeable by casting faint shadows or 

causing glare. A value lower (brighter) than 

17.0 represents very bright areas of the night 

sky and would significantly impair human 

night vision and cast obvious shadows. Values 

for the brightest portion of the sky are of 

interest to the NPS because they represent 

unnatural intrusions on the nightscape, will 

prevent human dark-adapt vision, and may 

have effects on wildlife (Duriscoe et al. 2007).

Bortle Dark Sky Scale 

A night sky with a Bortle Dark Sky Scale class 

1 is considered in the best possible condition 

(Bortle 2001); unfortunately, a sky that dark is 

so rare that few observers have ever witnessed 

it (Moore 2001). Non-urban park skies with a 

Bortle class 3 or darker are considered to be in 

good condition, class 4 of moderate condition, 

and class 5 are considered poor condition. At 

class 4 and higher, many night-sky features 

are obscured from view due to artificial lights 

(either within or outside the park). Skies class 

7 and higher have a significantly degraded 

aesthetic quality that may introduce ecological 

disruption (Moore et al. 2013). It is important 

to note that such degraded conditions may 

be restored toward a more natural state by 

modifying outdoor lighting, depending on 

the surrounding conditions that exist outside 

the national monument. 

4.2.4. Condition and Trend

The modeled ALR indicate good night 

sky conditions for the entire park (Figure 

4.2.4-1). This is consistent with groundbased measurements collected at Cerro 

Encierro and at the lower meadow; however, 

ALR as measured from Sandstone Bluffs is 

considered in moderate condition. Although 

no thresholds have been established for 

maximum vertical illuminance or horizontal 

illuminance, both measurements were 

estimated as good at all three locations except 

Sandstone Bluffs where maximum vertical 

illuminance was estimated as moderate (J. 

White, personal communication, November 

2015). The moderate condition for maximum 

vertical illuminance at Sandstone Bluffs 

suggests that there is some potential for 

inhibition of dark adaptation and disruption 

of natural ecological functions. Groundbased SQM readings indicate good condition 

at Cerro Encierro and at the lower meadow, 

and moderate condition at Sandstone Bluffs. 

The qualitative Bortle Scale assessment 

indicated good night sky viewing conditions 

at Cerro Encierro and at the lower meadow, 

but was only estimated as moderate at 

Sandstone Bluffs. These data provide baseline 

information for the national monument. No 

data on trends were available. 
72

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Local and Regional Context

El Malpais lies within a rural or wilderness 

setting with few cities that interfere with 

dark night skies. Albuquerque (population 

542,852) to the northeast produces the largest 

light dome. Santa Fe (population 67,947) 

north of Albuquerque is faintly visible. The 

cities of Grants (population 9,182) 36 miles 

to the northwest and Gallup (population 

21,678) 94 miles to the north are also visible 

from the national monument (U.S. Census 

Bureau 2010). The light domes from these 

population centers minimally impact the 

night sky at Cerro Encierro (Figure 4.2.4-2) 

and at the lower meadow (Figure 4.2.4-3), but 

do affect night sky conditions at Sandstone 

Bluffs (Figure 4.2.4-4). 

Overall Condition

Quantitative measures of sky brightness (allsky light pollution ratio, maximum vertical 

and horizontal illuminance, and zenith sky 

brightness) and a qualitative assessment of 

sky quality (the Bortle Dark Sky Scale) were 

used to assess the condition of the night 

sky at El Malpais NM. These indicators are 

summarized and interpreted in Table 4.2.4-1. 

The measurements collected from Cerro 

Encierro and the lower meadow on April 

20, 2012 indicates good night sky conditions 

while data collected at Sandstone Bluffs in the 

northeast region of the national monument on 

March 16, 2010 indicate moderate night sky 

conditions. Overall, the night sky condition 

at El Malpais is considered good to moderate 

Night Sky

Indicators Measure

Sky Brightness 4 measures

Sky Quality Bortle Scale Class

Figure 4.2.4-1. Modeled ALR map for El Mapais NP. A 200km ring around the park illustrates the distance at which 

anthropogenic light can impact night sky quality within the park. Photo Credit: NPS Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division.
73

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Night Sky

Figure 4.2.4-4. Panoramic all-sky mosaic of all sources of light (natural and anthropogenic) at El Malpais National 

Monument from Sandstone Bluffs. Credit: NPS Night Skies and Natural Sounds Division. 

Figure 4.2.4-3. Panoramic all-sky mosaic of all sources of light (natural and anthropogenic) at El Malpais National 

Monument from lower meadow. Credit: NPS Night Skies and Natural Sounds Division. 

Figure 4.2.4-2. Panoramic all-sky mosaic of all sources of light (natural and anthropogenic) at El Malpais National 

Monument from Cerro Encierro. Credit: NPS Night Skies and Natural Sounds Division. 
74

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.2.4-1. Summary of night sky condition rationale at El Malpais NM.

Indicator Measure Condition Condition Rationale

Sky Brightness

All-sky Light 

Pollution Ratio

Good/

Moderate

Sky brightness, as measured by ALR, indicates good 

to moderate condition overall at El Malpais NM. This 

condition is based on NPS NSNSD benchmarks for 

non-urban parks, on ground-based measurements 

taken at three locations within the park, and a 

modeled estimate for the entire park. Groundbased data from Cerro Encierro (0.20) and the lower 

meadow (0.09) indicate good condition while data 

from Sandstone Bluffs (0.35) indicate moderate 

condition. The modeled ALR, derived from the 2001 

World Atlas of Night Sky Brightness, was 0.17 and 

indicates good condition. Confidence level is high.

Maximum 

Vertical 

Illuminance

Good/

Moderate

Sky brightness as measured by maximum vertical 

illuminance was 0.19 milli-Lux at Cerro Encierro 

and 0.08 milli-Lux at the lower meadow. These 

values reflect a rating of 48% above average natural 

conditions for Cerro Encierro and 20% above 

average natural conditions for the lower meadow. 

At Sandstone Bluffs maximum vertical illuminance 

was 0.36 milli-Lux, or 90% above average natural 

conditions. Specific benchmarks for condition classes 

have not been set; however, condition is estimated 

as good at Cerro Encierro and the lower meadow, 

and moderate at Sandstone Bluffs (J. White, personal 

communication, Nov. 2015).

Horizontal 

Illuminance Good

Sky brightness as measured by horizontal illuminance 

was 0.06 milli-Lux at Cerro Encierro and 0.07 milli-Lux 

at the lower meadow. These values reflect a rating of 

8% above average natural conditions for both Cerro 

Encierro and the lower meadow. At Sandstone Bluffs 

horizontal illuminance produced a value of 0.09 

milli-Lux, or 11% above average natural conditions. 

Specific benchmarks for condition classes have not 

been set; however, condition is estimated as good for 

all three locations (J. White, personal communication, 

Nov. 2015). 

Zenith Sky 

Brightness

Good/

Moderate

Zenith sky brightness indicates good to moderate 

condition overall at El Malpais NM. This condition 

is based on NPS Natural Sounds and Night Skies 

Division benchmarks for non-urban parks and on 

ground-based measures of zenith sky brightness at 

Cerro Encierro (21.74), the lower meadow (21.84), 

and at Sandstone Bluffs (21.54). Condition is good at 

Cerro Encierro and the lower meadow, and moderate 

at Sandstone Bluffs. Confidence level is high.

Sky Quality Bortle Dark Sky 

Scale

Good/

Moderate

Sky quality as assessed by the Bortle dark sky scale 

indicates good to moderate condition overall at 

El Malpais NM. This condition is based on NPS 

NSNSD benchmarks for non-urban parks and on 

the qualitative assessment of Bortle class 3 at Cerro 

Encierro (good condition), Bortle class 2 at the lower 

meadow (good condition), and Bortle class 4 at 

Sandstone Bluffs (moderate condition). These classes 

are consistent with a rural sky at Cerro Encierro, 

a typical dark sky at the lower meadow, and the 

transition from rural to suburban skies at Sandstone 

Bluffs. Because this measure is qualitative, it has low 

confidence level.
75

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Night Sky

depending on location within the national 

monument.

Uncertainties

The Bortle Dark Sky Scale estimates have 

inherent uncertainties and error. The 

principle drawback of the Bortle Scale is 

that it relies upon human visual observers. 

Differences in visual acuity, experience 

and knowledge, as well as time and effort 

expended can influence the estimates (Bortle 

2001, Moore 2001). Modeled data are based 

on 1996 satellite imagery, and ground truthed 

with NPS ground-based measures. Changes 

in population levels, private and commercial 

building growth, and energy development 

could impact current ALR values. 

4.2.5. Sources of Expertise

Chad Moore and Jeremy White, Natural 

Sounds and Night Skies Division, part of 

the NPS Natural Resource Stewardship and 

Science Directorate, provided information 

pertaining to night sky data collection 

methodology and interpretation of results. 

Moore earned a master’s degree in earth 

science in 1996 and began working for the 

NPS shortly thereafter. Moore is the Night 

Skies Program manager for a small team of 

scientists that measure, restore, and promote 

the proper management of the night sky 

resource. He and team member Dan Duriscoe 

have developed an automated all-sky camera 

capable of precise measurement of light 

pollution. White earned his Bachelors degree 

in Ecology and Systematic Biology in 2004 and 

began working with the NPS in 2005. White 

is a Physical Scientist with the Night Skies 

Program responsible for data collection and 

analysis, interpretation, and public outreach. 

Since 2001 the team has collected sky quality 

inventories at over 110 U.S. national parks. 

This section was authored by wildlife biologist 

and writer Lisa Baril.

4.2.6. Literature Cited

Aveni, A. E. 2003. Archaeoastronomy 

in the ancient Americas. Journal of 

Archaeological Research 11:149-191. 

Bortle, J. E. 2001. Introducing the Bortle 

DarkSky Scale. Sky and Telescope 

February:126-129.

Cinzano, P., and F. Falchi. 2014. Quantifying 

light pollution. Journal of Quantitative 

Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 139: 

13-20.

Duriscoe, D., C. B. Luginbuhl, and C. A. 

Moore. 2007. Measuring night sky 

brightness with a wide-field CCD camera. 

Publications of the Astronomical Society 

of the Pacific 119:192-213.

Duriscoe, D. M. 2013. Measuring 

anthropogenic sky glow using a natural 

sky brightness model. Mon. Not. R. 

Astron. Soc. 125:1370-1382.

Duriscoe, D. 2015 (submitted). Photometric 

indicators of visual night sky quality 

derived from all-sky luminance maps. 

Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and 

Radiative Transfer. 

Garstang, R. H. 1986. Model for artificial 

night-sky illumination. Publication of 

the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 

98:364-375. Available at: http://adsabs.

harvard.edu/full/1986PASP...98..364G 

(accessed 29 July 2014)

Jensen, H. W., F. Durand, J. Dorsey, M. 

M. Stark, P. Shirley, and S. Premoze. 

2006. A physically-based night sky 

model. Proceedings of the 28th annual 

conference on computer graphics and 

interactive techniques. Available at: http://

graphics.stanford.edu/~henrik/papers/

nightsky/nightsky.pdf (accessed 29 July 

2014)

Moore, C. A. 2001. Visual estimations of 

night brightness. George Wright Forum 

18:4655.

Moore, C. A., J. M. White, and F. Turina. 2013. 

Recommended indicators of night sky 

quality for NPS state of the park reports, 

interim guidance. Natural Sounds and 

Night Skies Division, WASO-Natural 
76

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Resource Stewardship and Science. April 

10, 2013. 

National Park Service. 2006. Management 

Policies 2006: The guide to managing the 

National Park System. Washington, DC. 

180 pp.

National Park Service. 2010. Stargazing in 

parks. NPS Natural Resource Program 

Center Air Resources Division Night 

Sky Program. Available from http://www.

nature.nps.gov/night (accessed 15 June 

2014).

National Park Service. 2014. Foundation 

Document: El Malpais National 

Monument. National Park Service, 

Denver, Colorado. 60p.

Royal Commission on Environmental 

Pollution. 2009. Artificial light in the 

environment. The Stationery Office 

Limited, London.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. Profile of general 

population and housing characteristics. 

Available at http://factfinder2.census.gov/

faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.

xhtml (accessed 15 June 2014).

White, J., D. Duriscoe, and C. Moore. 2012. 

Bortle Dark-Sky Scale: Key for the 

summer sky, latitudes 30o to 50o North. 

NPS Natural Sounds and Night Skies 

Division.
77

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Soundscape

4.3. Soundscape

4.3.1. Background and Importance

Our ability to see is a powerful tool for 

experiencing our world, but sound adds a 

richness that sight alone cannot provide. 

In many cases, hearing is the only option 

for experiencing certain aspects of our 

environment, and an unimpaired acoustical 

environment is an important part of 

overall National Park Service (NPS) visitor 

experience and enjoyment, as well as vitally 

important to overall ecosystem health. 

In a 1998 survey of the American public, 

72% of respondents identified opportunities 

to experience natural quiet and the sounds 

of nature as an important reason for having 

national parks (Haas and Wakefield 1998). 

Additionally, 91% of NPS visitors “consider 

enjoyment of natural quiet and the sounds 

of nature as compelling reasons for visiting 

national parks” (McDonald et al. 1995) 

(Figure 4.3.1-1). Despite this desire for quiet 

environments, noise continues to intrude 

upon natural areas and has become a source 

of concern in national parks (Lynch et al. 

2011).

A park’s natural soundscape is an inherent 

component of “the scenery and the natural 

and historic objects and the wildlife” 

protected by the Organic Act of 1916. NPS 

Management Policies (§ 4.9) (2006) require 

preservation of parks’ natural soundscapes 

and restoration of degraded soundscapes 

to natural conditions wherever possible. 

Additionally, NPS is required to prevent 

or minimize degradation of the natural 

soundscapes from noise (i.e., any unwanted 

sound). Although the management policies 

currently refer to the term soundscape as the 

aggregate of all natural sounds that occur in 

a park, differences exist between the physical 

sound sources and human perceptions of 

those sound sources. The physical sound 

Condition - Trend - Confidence Level

Good - Insufficient Data - Medium

Indicators/Measures

• Sound Level (2 measures)

Figure 4.3.1-1.

Elk vocalizations 

contribute to the 

natural sounds 

heard at El Malpais 

NM.

NPS
78

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

resources (e.g., wildlife, waterfalls, wind, rain, 

and cultural or historical sounds), regardless 

of their audibility, at a particular location, is 

referred to as the acoustical environment, 

while the human perception of that acoustical 

environment is defined as the soundscape. 

Clarifying this distinction will allow managers 

to create objectives for safeguarding both 

the acoustical environment and the visitor 

experience.

In addition, sound plays a critical role for 

wildlife communication. Activities such as 

courtship, predation, predator avoidance, and 

effective use of habitat rely on the ability to 

hear with studies showing that wildlife can be 

adversely affected by intrusive sounds. While 

the severity of the impacts varies depending 

on the species and other conditions, 

documented responses of wildlife to noise 

include increased heart rate, startle responses, 

flight, disruption of behavior, separation of 

mothers and young, and interference with 

communication (Selye 1956, Clough 1982, 

USDA 1992, Anderssen et al. 1993, NPS 1994, 

Dooling and Popper 2007, Kaseloo 2006).

Sound Characteristics

Humans and wildlife perceive sound as 

an auditory sensation created by pressure 

variations that move through a medium such 

as water or air. Sound is measured in terms of 

frequency (pitch) and amplitude (loudness) 

(Templeton and Sacre 1997, Harris 1998). 

Frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz), describes 

the cycles per second of a sound wave and is 

perceived by the ear as pitch. Humans with 

normal hearing can hear sounds between 

20 Hz and 20,000 Hz and are most sensitive 

to frequencies between 1,000 Hz and 6,000 

Hz. High frequency sounds are more readily 

absorbed by the atmosphere or scattered by 

obstructions than low frequency sounds. Low 

frequency sounds diffract more effectively 

around obstructions, therefore, travel farther.

The amplitude (or loudness) of a sound, 

measured in decibels (dB), is logarithmic, 

which means that every 10 dB increase 

in sound pressure level (SPL) represents 

a tenfold increase in sound energy. This 

also means that small variations in SPL can 

have significant effects on the acoustical 

environment. For instance, a 6 dB reduction 

in background noise level would produce a 

4x increase in listening area (Figure 4.3.1-2). 

Changes in the background noise level cause 

a change in listening opportunity. These 

lost opportunities will approach a halving 

of alerting distance and a 75% reduction 

of listening area for each 6 dB increase in 

affected band level (Barber et al. 2010).

SPL is commonly summarized in terms of dBA 

(A-weighted SPL). This metric significantly 

discounts sounds below 1,000 Hz and above 

6,000 Hz to approximate the variation in 

human hearing sensitivity. 

4.3.2. Data and 

Methods

Baseline acoustical 

monitoring data, 

including:

● sound level 

data in the form of 

A-weighted decibel 

readings (dBA) every 

second,

● continuous 

digital audio 

recordings,

● one third 

octave band data 

every second ranging 

from 12.5 Hz – 20,000 

Hz, and

Figure 4.3.1-2.

A 6 dB reduction in 

background noise 

level would produce 

a 4x increase in 

listening area (NPS 

NSNSD 2014).
79

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Soundscape

● meteorological data

were collected by the NPS Natural Sounds 

and Night Skies Division (NSNSD) scientists 

during the months of June and July, 2009. 

Acoustical monitoring systems were deployed 

for approximately 30 days each at three 

locations within the national monument: 

Lost Woman, Sandstone Bluffs, and Lava Falls 

(Figure 4.3.2-1) .

Sandstone Bluffs and Lava Flows monitoring 

sites were located on the eastern side of the 

park close to New Mexico Highway 117. The 

Lost Woman site was located on the western 

side of the park farther away from New 

Mexico Highway 53 than the other two sites 

were from Highway 117. The characteristics 

of all monitoring locations are summarized in 

Table 4.3.2-1.

Indicators/Measures

Sound Level (2 measures)

Sound levels at the monument were evaluated 

in two ways for the purposes of this condition 

assessment (1) using the on-site results 

from the acoustical monitoring effort (NPS 

NSNSD 2009) to determine percent time 

above reference sound levels, and (2) using 

the geospatial sound modeling result for the 

impact between natural and existing acoustic 

conditions at the monument (Mennitt et al. 

2013). 

The geospatial model estimated sound 

pressure levels for the continental United 

States by using actual acoustical measurements 

combined with a multitude of explanatory 

variables such as location, climate, landcover, 

Table 4.3.2-1. Location characteristics of

acoustical monitoring sites at El Malpais 

National Monument (excerpted from NPSNSNSD 2009). 

Location Dates 

Deployed Vegetation Elevation (m)

Lost 

Woman

6/9/2009-

7/14/2009

Ponderosa 

pine 2344

Sandstone 

Bluffs

6/11/2009-

7/15/2009

Pinyon 

Juniper, 

High use 

area

2130

Lava Falls 6/15/2009-

7/14/2009

Bare rock/

lava 2170

Figure 4.3.2-1.

Locations of 

2009 acoustical 

monitoring sites at 

El Malpais NM.
80

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

hydrology, wind speed, and proximity to noise 

sources (e.g., roads, railroads, and airports). 

The 270 m resolution model predicts daytime 

sound levels during midsummer. Each square 

of color on the map represents 270 m2 and 

each pixel on the map represents a median 

sound level (L50). It should be noted that 

while the model excels at predicting acoustic 

conditions over large landscapes, it may not 

reflect recent localized changes such as new 

access roads or development.

Model parameters useful for assessing a 

park’s acoustic environment include the 

understanding of a) natural conditions, b) 

existing acoustic conditions including both 

natural and human-caused sounds, and c) the 

impact of human-caused sound sources in 

relation to natural conditions. The L50 impact 

condition demonstrates the influence of 

human activities to the acoustic environment 

and is calculated by subtracting the natural 

condition from the existing condition. The 

three models are run separately, and NSNSD 

“zeroes” out all anthropogenic contributions 

like roads, development, and cities to predict 

impact, but the impact stats will not always 

be exactly equal to existing minus natural (E. 

Brown, NSNSD pers. comm.).

4.3.3. Reference Conditions 

Percent Time Above Reference Sound 

Levels

Human responses to sound levels can serve 

as a proxy for potential impacts to other 

vertebrates because humans have more 

sensitive hearing at low frequencies than most 

species (Dooling and Popper 2007). Table 

4.3.3-1 summarizes sound levels that relate 

to human health and speech, as documented 

in the scientific literature. The first, 35 dBA, 

is designed to address the health effects of 

sleep interruption. Recent studies suggest 

that sound events as low as 35 dBA can have 

adverse effects on blood pressure while 

sleeping (Haralabidis, 2008). The second value 

addresses the World Health Organization’s 

recommendations that noise levels inside 

bedrooms remain below 45 dBA (Berglund et 

al., 1999). The third value, 52 dBA, is based on 

the U.S. EPA’s speech interference threshold 

for speaking in a raised voice to an audience 

at 10 meters (32.8 ft) (USEPA 1974). This 

threshold addresses the effects of sound on 

interpretive presentations in parks. The final 

value, 60 dBA, provides a basis for estimating 

impacts on normal voice communications at 

1 meter (3.28 ft). Hikers and visitors viewing 

scenic vistas in the park would likely be 

conducting such conversations.

L50 Impact (Mennitt et al. (2013) 

Turina et al. (2013) developed two categories, 

urban and non-urban, of L50 impact reference 

conditions based on the proximity of a park 

to urban areas as identified by the U.S. Census 

Bureau (2010). Non-urban parks had at least 

90% of their areas outside designated Urban 

Areas (Turina et al. 2013).

Sound levels at non-urban parks, such as the 

monument, most often exhibit less divergence 

between existing and natural sound levels, 

making them quieter areas that are more 

susceptible to noise. Visitors likely have a 

greater expectation for quiet at non-urban 

parks and wildlife are likely more adapted to a 

noise-free environment. Accordingly, the L50

impact reference conditions for non-urban 

parks are more stringent than for urban parks.

Reference conditions for both percent time 

above reference sound levels and L50 impact 

measures are presented in Table 4.3.3-2. 

Table 4.3.3-1. Explanation of reference sound level values (NPS 2013). 

Sound Levels 

(dBA) Relevance

35 Blood pressure and heart rate increase in sleeping humans (Haralabidis et al. 2008)

45 World Health Organization’s recommendation for maximum noise levels inside bedrooms 

(Berglund et al. 1999)

52 Speech interference for interpretive programs (U.S. EPA 1974)

60 Speech interruption for normal conversation (U.S. EPA 1974)
81

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Soundscape

4.3.4. Condition and Trend

Percent Time Above Reference Sound Levels

Figure 4.3.4-1 shows the percent time sound 

levels were above the reference sound levels 

at each monitoring location during day 

(7 a.m. - 7 p.m.) and nighttime (7 p.m. - 7 a.m.) 

hours. Sound levels mainly exceeded the 35 

dBA metric with 13.0 to 44.2% of daytime 

hours above this level and Lost Woman 

representing the highest percent time above 

the reference. Sound levels exceeded the 45 

dBA metric 1.2 to 7.5% of the daytime hours, 

once again with Lost Woman representing the 

highest percent time above the reference level. 

Sound levels at all three sites rarely exceeded 

52 dBA during day or night. 

As would be expected, sounds were lower at 

night than during the day. Nighttime sound 

levels only exceeded the 35 dBA reference 

value 5.7% to 18.2% of the time. During the 

nighttime hours, sound levels exceeded the 

45 dBA reference level for recommended 

maximum noise levels inside bedrooms only 

0.41-0.57% of the time suggesting a quiet 

environment. 

Low frequency sounds (20-800 Hz) of which 

transportation noises are often a major 

contributor, comprised more of the sounds 

heard at the sites during both day and nighttime 

hours, with the exception of Lava Falls during 

the night. While the metrics presented in the 

snapshot report did not fully identify sound 

sources or the natural ambient conditions, it 

was noted that the sound sources of interest 

included small-engine aircraft taking off from 

a nearby airport (NPS-NSNSD 2009).

Aside from New Mexico State Highways 53 

and 117 flanking the northern and eastern 

boundaries of the monument, respectively, 

there are very few roads that bisect the park 

Table 4.3.3-2. Reference conditions used to assess the sound levels at El Malpais 

National Monument.

Indicator Measure Good Moderate Significant Concern

Sound

Level

% Time 

Above 

Reference 

Sound 

Levels

The majority of sound 

levels recorded were 

<44.99 dBA. 

The majority of sound 

levels recorded were 

between 45 - 51.99 dBA. 

The majority of sound 

levels recorded were >52 

dBA. 

L50 Impact

National Park Service Natural Sounds and Night Skies Thresholds for Non-urban 

Parks in dBA (Turina et al. 2013).

≤ 1.5 1.5 - ≤ 3.0 >3

Figure 4.3.4-1.

Percent time above 

reference sound 

levels within 

the 12.5-20,000 

Hz frequency 

recorded at El 

Malpais NM’s Lost 

Woman, Sandstone 

Bluffs, and Lava 

Falls acoustical 

monitoring sites.
82

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

(Figure 4.3.4-2; El Morro on the left and El 

Malpais on the right). In fact most of the park 

is comprised of an area >100 km2 without 

roads (NPS 2014, ESRI 2005). In addition, 

the monument is primarily surrounded 

by the even larger El Malpais National 

Conservation Area, managed by the Bureau 

of Land Management, which contains two 

areas of designated wilderness and a third 

wilderness study area. These protected areas 

will most likely contribute to maintaining the 

monument’s excellent soundscape condition.

Relative to the percent time above reference 

sound level measure, all monitoring locations 

are considered to be in good condition.

L50 Impact (Mennitt et al. (2013) 

Figure 4.3.4-2 shows the modeled mean 

impact sound level map for the monument, 

which was 0.38 decibels (dBA) above natural 

conditions, ranging from 0 dBA in the least 

impacted areas to 12.4 dBA in the most 

impacted areas. The map depicts the area 

most influenced by human-caused sounds 

(i.e., lighter colored areas), which is located 

in Grants, NM. The existing and natural 

acoustic environment condition maps for the 

monument are included in Appendix D.

Summary statistics of the L50 values for the 

natural, existing, and impact conditions are 

provided in Table 4.3.4-1. Average values 

represent the average L50 value occurring 

within the park boundary and since this value 

is a mean, visitors may experience sound 

levels higher and lower than the average L50.

A one decibel change is not readily perceivable 

by the human ear, but any addition to this 

difference could begin to impact a visitor’s 

listening ability to hear natural sounds or 

interpretive programs.

Mennitt et al. (2013) suggest that in a natural 

environment, the average summertime L50, 

which is the sound level exceeded half of the 

time (and is a fair representation of expected 

conditions) is not expected to exceed 41 

dBA. They also state that “an impact of 3 

dBA suggests that anthropogenic noise is 

noticeable at least 50% of the hour or more.” 

The modeled results for the monument were 

well below 41 dBA, and the average impact 

level was considered to be in good condition 

according to the reference thresholds 

developed by Turina et al. (2013).

Figure 4.3.4-2.

There are very few 

roads surrounding 

El Malpais NM, 

creating relatively 

large patches 

without roads. 

This contributes to 

the monument’s 

soundscape 

condition. Data 

Sources: NPS (2014) 

and ESRI (2005, 

2010).
83

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Soundscape

Soundscape

Indicator Measure

Sound Level

% Time Above 

Reference Levels

L50 Impact

Overall Condition and Trend

For assessing the condition of the national 

monument’s soundscape, we used one 

indicator with two measures, which are 

summarized in Table 4.3.4-2. Overall, we 

consider the soundscape at the national 

monument to be in good condition, with an 

unknown trend.

Level of Confidence and Key Uncertainties 

Monitoring was only conducted for one 

season in 2009, and while the results 

provided more data than what is typically 

available for most soundscape condition 

assessments, the information is already six 

years old and may no longer reflect current 

condition. Additionally, the information in 

the monitoring report was a ‘snapshot’ of the 

acoustical conditions. Further analysis will 

provide more information about the types 

of sounds recorded and an estimate of the 

natural ambient condition. 

4.3.5. Sources of Expertise

The NPS Natural Sounds and Night Skies 

Division (NSNSD) scientists help parks 

manage sounds in a way that balances the 

various expectations of park visitors with the 

protection of park resources. They provide 

technical assistance to parks in the form 

of acoustical monitoring, data collection 

and analysis, and in developing acoustical 

baselines for planning and reporting 

purposes. For more information, see http://

nps.gov/nsnsd.

Emma Brown, Acoustical Resource Specialist 

with the NSNSD, provided an NRCA 

Table 4.3.4-1. Values represent the 

minimum, maximum, and average 

L50 measurements in each acoustic 

environment (Excel table provided by E. 

Brown, 2015).

Acoustic 

Environment 

Condition

(dBA)

Min. Max. Avg..

Natural 25.1 29.8 27.8

Existing 24.2 38.7 28.0

Impact 0 12.4 0.38

Figure 4.3.4-3.

The modeled L50

impact sound level 

at El Malpais NM 

(Mennitt et al. 

2013). Lighter colors 

represent higher 

impact areas.
84

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

soundscape template used to develop this 

assessment and the sound model statistics 

and maps.

The NPS NPScape Program provides data 

and analysis related to resource conservation 

for parks and partners. The area without roads 

dataset was obtained from the program’s 

website. For more information, see http://

science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/npscape/

concept.cfm.

4.3.6. Literature Cited

Anderssen, S.H., R.B. Nicolaisen, and G.W. 

Gabrielsen. 1993. Autonomic response 

to auditory stimulation. Acta Paediatrica 

82:913-918.

Barber, J.R., K. R. Crooks, K. M. Fristrup. 

The costs of chronic noise exposure for 

terrestrial organisms. 2010. Trends in 

Ecology and Evolution 25.3:180-189.

Berglund, B., T. Lindvall, and D.H. Schwela 

(eds.). 1999. WHO. Guidelines for 

community noise. World Health 

Organization, Geneva.

Clough, G. 1982. Environmental effects on 

animals used in biomedical research. 

Biological Reviews 57:487-523.

Dooling, R., and A. Popper. 2007. The effects 

of highway noise on birds. Rockville, MD: 

Environmental BioAcoustics LLC.

ESRI. 2010. U.S. and Canada Detailed 

Streets. Compiled by Tele Atlas North 

America (2005), Inc., distributed by 

ESRI. Redlands, CA. DVD. Available 

at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/

monitor/npscape/gis_data.cfm (accessed 

December 2015).

Haas G.E., and T.J. Wakefield. 1998. National 

Parks and the American public: a 

summary report of the National Parks 

Conservation Association, conducted by 

Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 

Colorado.

Haralabidis A.S., K. Dimakopoulou, F. VignaTaglianti, M. Giampaolo, A. Borgini, 

M.L. Dudley, G. Pershagen, G. Bluhm, D. 

Houthuijs, W. Babisch, M. Velonakis, K. 

Katsouyanni, and L. Jarup. 2008. Acute 

effects of night-time noise exposure on 

blood pressure in populations living 

near airports. European Heart Journal 

Advance Access. Published online 

February 12, 2008. 

Harris, C. M. 1998. Handbook of Acoustical 

Measurements and Noise Control, 3rd 

edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Kaseloo PA. 2006. Synthesis of noise effects 

on wildlife populations. IN: Proceedings 

of the 2005 International Conference on 

Ecology and Transportation, Eds. Irwin 

CL, Garrett P, McDermott KP. Center 

for Transportation and the Environment, 

North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 

NC: pp. 33-35.

Lynch, E., D. Joyce, and K. Fristrup. 2011. An 

assessment of noise audibility and sound 

levels in U.S. National Parks. Landscape 

Ecology 26:1297-1309.

McDonald, C. D., R.M. Baumgartner, and 

R. Iachan. 1995. National Park Service 

Table 4.3.4-2. Summary of the soundscape indicator and measures and their 

contribution to the overall soundscape condition. 

Indicators of 

Condition Measures Condition Rationale for Condition

Sound Level

% Time Above 

Reference 

Sound Levels

Good

The majority of existing sound levels heard at all sites were 

<44.99 dBA, suggesting a relatively quiet environment. We 

consider this measure to be in good condition. 

L50 Impact Good

The modeled average impact sound level for the national 

monument of 0.38 dBA, which is considered to be in good 

condition based on threshold values for non-urban parks 

(Turina et al. 2013).
85

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Soundscape

aircraft management studies (US 

Department of Interior Rep. No. 94-2). 

Denver, CO: National Park Service.

Mennitt, D., K. Fristrup, K. Sherrill, and L. 

Nelson. 2013. Mapping sound pressure 

levels on continental scales using a 

geospatial sound model. Proceedings 

from Internoise Conference, Innsbruck, 

Austria, September 15-18, 2013. 11pp. 

National Park Service Organic Act. 1916. (16 

USC1). Available at http://www.nature.

nps.gov/naturalsounds/laws_policies 

(accessed May 8, 2014).

National Park Service. 1994. Report to 

Congress. Report on effects of aircraft 

overflights on the National Park System. 

21pp.

National Park Service. 2006. Management 

Policies 2006: The guide to managing the 

National Park System. Washington, DC. 

180 pp.

National Park Service. 2014. NPScape 

Standard Operating Procedure: Roads 

Measure – Road Density, Distance 

from Roads, and Area without Roads. 

Version [2016-01]. National Park Service, 

Natural Resource Stewardship and 

Science. Fort Collins, Colorado. Available 

at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/

monitor/npscape/gis_data.cfm (accessed 

December 2015).

National Park Service Natural Sounds and 

Night Skies Division. 2009. El Malpais 

National Monument: Acoustical 

monitoring snapshot: summer 2009. 6p.

National Park Service Natural Sounds 

and Night Skies Division. 2014. NRSS 

Monthly Webinar - Reducing the Noise 

Impacts of Park Operations Presentation. 

Available at http://sharenrss/comm/

Pages/WebinarNRSS.aspx (accessed 

March 20, 2014).

Selye, H. 1956. The stress of life. New York: 

McGraw-Hill.

Templeton, D. and Scare. 1997. Acoustics 

in the built environment: Advice for the 

design team. 2nd edition. D. Templeton 

(editor). Architectural Press: Boston, 

Massachusetts.

Turina, F., E. Lynch, and K. Fristrup. 2013. 

Recommended indicators and thresholds 

of acoustic resources quality NPS State 

of the Park reports interim guidanceDecember 2013. National Park Service 

Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division. 

10p.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. 2010 Census 

Urban and Rural Classification. Available 

at http://www2.census.gov/geo/tiger/

TIGER2010/UA/2010 (accessed June 28, 

2013). 

United States Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service. 1992. Report to Congress. 

Potential Impacts of Aircraft Overflights 

of National Forest System Wildernesses. 

United States Environmental Protection 

Agency. 1974. Information on levels of 

environmental noise requisite to protect 

public health and welfare with an adequate 

margin of safety. EPA, Washington, D.C. 

87

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Air Quality

4.4. Air Quality

4.4.1. Background and Importance

Under the direction of the NPS’ Organic Act, 

Air Quality Management Policy 4.7.1 (NPS 

2006), and the Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970 

(U.S. Federal Register 1970), the NPS has a 

responsibility to protect air quality and any air 

quality related values (e.g., scenic, biological, 

cultural, and recreational resources) that may 

be impaired from air pollutants. 

One of the main purposes of the CAA is “to 

preserve, protect, and enhance the air quality 

in national parks” and other areas of special 

national or regional natural, recreational, 

scenic or historic value. The CAA includes 

special programs to prevent significant air 

quality deterioration in clean air areas and 

to protect visibility in national parks and 

wilderness areas (NPS-ARD 2012a) (Figure 

4.4.1-1). 

Different categories of air quality areas have 

been established through the authority of the 

CAA: Class I and II. The air quality classes 

are allowed different levels of permissible air 

pollution, with Class I receiving the greatest 

protection and strictest regulation. The CAA 

gives federal land managers responsibilities 

and opportunities to participate in decisions 

being made by regulatory agencies that might 

affect air quality in the federally protected 

areas they administer (NPS-ARD 2005). 

Class I areas include parks that are larger than 

2,428 ha (6,000 acres) or wilderness areas over 

2,023 ha (5,000 acres) that were in existence 

when the CAA was amended in 1977 (NPSARD 2015a). Since El Malpais National 

Monument’s wilderness is proposed and not 

legislated, it is designated as a Class II airshed. 

However, it is important to note that even 

though the CAA gives Class I areas the greatest 

Figure 4.4.1-1.

El Malpais National 

Monument is located 

within a Class II 

airshed.

NPS

Indicators/Measures

• Visibility (1 measure)

• Ozone (2 measures)

• Wet Deposition (3 measures)

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Moderate - Insufficient Data - Medium
88

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

protection against air quality deterioration, 

NPS management policies do not distinguish 

between the levels of protection afforded to 

any unit of the National Park System (NPS 

2006).

Air Quality Standards

Air quality is deteriorated by many forms 

of pollutants that either occur as primary 

pollutants, emitted directly from sources such 

as power plants, vehicles, wildfires, and windblown dust, or as secondary pollutants, which 

result from atmospheric chemical reactions. 

The CAA requires the Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) to establish National 

Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (40 

CFR part 50) to regulate these air pollutants 

that are considered harmful to human health 

and the environment (EPA 2012a). The two 

types of NAAQS are primary and secondary, 

with the primary standards establishing limits 

to protect human health, and the secondary 

standards establishing limits to protect public 

welfare from air pollution effects, including 

decreased visibility, damage to animals, crops, 

vegetation, and buildings (EPA 2012a). 

The NPS’ Air Resources Division (NPSARD) air quality monitoring program uses 

EPA’s NAAQS, natural visibility goals, and 

ecological thresholds as benchmarks to assess 

current conditions of visibility, ozone, and 

atmospheric deposition throughout Park 

Service areas. 

Visibility affects how well (acuity) and how far 

(visual range) one can see (NPS-ARD 2002), 

but air pollution can degrade visibility. Both 

particulate matter (e.g. soot and dust) and 

certain gases and particles in the atmosphere, 

such as sulfate and nitrate particles, can create 

haze and reduce visibility.

Visibility can be subjective and value-based 

(e.g. a visitor’s reaction viewing a scenic vista 

while observing a variety of forms, textures, 

colors, and brightness) (Figure 4.4.1-2) or it 

can be measured objectively by determining 

the size and composition of particles in the 

atmosphere that interfere with a person’s 

ability to see landscape features (Malm 1999). 

The viewshed section (4.1) of this assessment 

addresses the subjective aspects of visibility, 

whereas this section addresses measurements 

of particles and gases in the atmosphere 

affecting visibility.

Ozone is a gaseous constituent of the 

atmosphere produced by reactions of 

nitrogen oxides (NOx

) from vehicles, 

powerplants, industry, and fire and volatile 

organic compounds from industry, solvents, 

Figure 4.4.1-2.

A cloudy day at El 

Malpais NM.

NPS
89

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Air Quality

and vegetation in the presence of sunlight 

(Porter and Wondrak-Biel 2011). It is one of 

the most widespread air pollutants (NPSARD 2003a), and the major constituent 

in smog. Ozone can be harmful to human 

health, and it is also phytotoxic, causing foliar 

damage to plants (NPS-ARD 2003a). The 

foliar damage requires the interplay of several 

factors, including the sensitivity of the plant 

to the ozone, the level of ozone exposure, and 

the exposure environment. The highest ozone 

risk exists when the species of plants are 

highly sensitive to ozone, the exposure levels 

of ozone significantly exceed the thresholds 

for foliar injury, and the environmental 

conditions, particularly adequate soil 

moisture, foster gas exchange and the uptake 

of ozone by plants (Kohut 2004).

Ozone penetrates leaves through stomata 

(openings) and oxidizes plant tissue, which 

alters the physiological and biochemical 

processes (NPS-ARD 2012b). Once the 

ozone is inside the plant’s cellular system, 

the chemical reactions can cause cell injury 

or even death (NPS-ARD 2012b), but more 

often reduces the plant’s resistance to insects 

and diseases, reduces growth, and reduces 

reproductive capability (NPS-ARD 2012c).

Air pollutants can be deposited to ecosystems 

through rain and snow (wet deposition) or 

dust and gases (dry deposition). Nitrogen and 

sulfur air pollutants are commonly deposited 

as nitrate, ammonium, and sulfate ions and 

can have a variety of effects on ecosystem 

health, including acidification, fertilization or 

eutrophication, and accumulation of mercury 

or toxins (NPS-ARD 2010, Fowler et al. 2013). 

Atmospheric deposition can also change soil 

pH, which in turn, affects microorganisms, 

understory plants, and trees (NPS-ARD 2010). 

Certain ecosystems are more vulnerable to 

nitrogen or sulfur deposition than others, 

including high-elevation ecosystems in the 

western United States, upland areas in the 

eastern part of the country, areas on granitic 

bedrock, coastal and estuarine waters, arid 

ecosystems, and some grasslands (NPS-ARD 

2015a). Increases in nitrogen have been 

found to promote invasions of fast-growing 

annual grasses (e.g., cheatgrass) and exotic 

species (e.g., Russian thistle) at the expense 

of native species (Brooks 2003, Allen et al. 

2009, Schwinning et al. 2005). Increased 

grasses can increase fire risk (Rao et al. 2010), 

with profound implications for biodiversity 

in non-fire adapted ecosystems. Nitrogen 

may also increase water use in plants like big 

sagebrush (Inouye 2006).

According to the EPA (2012a), in the United 

States, roughly two thirds of all sulfur 

dioxide (SO2 )and one quarter of all NOx

come from electric power generation that 

relies on burning fossil fuels.  Sulfur dioxide 

and nitrogen oxides are released from power 

plants and other sources, and ammonia is 

released by agricultural activities, feedlots, 

fires, and catalytic converters. In the 

atmosphere these transform to sulfate, nitrate, 

and ammonium and can be transported long 

distances across state and national borders, 

impacting resources, including at El Malpais 

National Monument (EPA 2012b).

Mercury and other toxic pollutants (e.g., 

pesticides, dioxins, PCBs) accumulate in the 

food chain and can affect both wildlife and 

human health. Elevated levels of mercury and 

other airborne toxic pollutants like pesticides 

in aquatic and terrestrial food webs can act as 

neurotoxins in biota that accumulate fat and/

or muscle-loving contaminants. Sources of 

atmospheric mercury include by-products 

of coal-fire combustion, municipal and 

medical incineration, mining operations, 

volcanoes, and geothermal vents. High 

mercury concentrations in birds, mammals, 

amphibians, and fish can result in reduced 

foraging efficiency, survival, and reproductive 

success (NPS-ARD 2015b). 

Additional air contaminants of concern 

include pesticides (e.g., DDT), industrial byproducts (PCBs), and emerging chemicals 

such as flame retardants for fabrics (PBDEs). 

These pollutants enter the atmosphere from 

historically contaminated soils, current day 

industrial practices, and air pollution (Selin 

2009). 

4.4.2. Data and Methods

The approach we used for assessing the 

condition of air quality within the park’s 

airshed was developed by the NPS-ARD 
90

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

for use in Natural Resource Condition 

Assessments (NPS-ARD 2015 b,c). 

NPS-ARD uses all available data from NPS, 

EPA, state, and/or tribal monitoring stations 

to interpolate air quality values, with a specific 

value assigned to the maximum value within 

each park. Even though the data are derived 

from all available monitors, data from the 

closest stations “outweigh” the rest.

Trends are computed from data collected 

over a 10-year period at on-site or nearby 

representative monitors. Trends are calculated 

for sites that have at least 6 years of annual 

data and an annual value for the end year of 

the reporting period.

Indicators/Measures 

Visibility (Haze Index)

Visibility is monitored by the Interagency 

Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments 

(IMPROVE) Program (NPS-ARD 2010). 

NPS-ARD assesses visibility condition status 

based on the deviation of the estimated current 

Group 50 visibility conditions from estimated 

Group 50 natural visibility conditions; (i.e., 

those estimated for a given area in the absence 

of human- caused visibility impairment, EPA454/B003- 005). Group 50 is defined as the 

mean of the visibility observations falling 

within the range of the 40th through the 60th 

percentiles, as expressed in terms of a Haze 

Index in deciviews (dv). A factor of the haze 

index is light extinction, which is used as an 

indicator to assess the quality of scenic vista 

and is proportional to the amount of light lost 

due to scattering or absorption by particles in 

the air as light travels a distance of one million 

meters (NPS-ARD 2003). The haze index for 

visibility condition is calculated as follows:

Visibility Condition/Haze Index (dv) = 

estimated current Group 50 visibility – 

estimated Group 50 visibility

(under natural conditions) 

The deciview scale scores pristine conditions 

as a zero and increases as visibility decreases 

(NPS-ARD 2015b).

For visibility condition assessments, annual 

average measurements for Group 50 visibility 

are averaged over a 5-year period at each 

visibility monitoring site with at least 3-years 

of complete annual data. Five-year averages 

are then interpolated across all monitoring 

locations to estimate 5-year average values 

for the contiguous U.S. The maximum value 

within monument boundaries is reported 

as the visibility condition from this national 

analysis.

Visibility trends are computed from the Haze 

Index values on the 20% haziest days and the 

20% clearest days, consistent with visibility 

goals in the Clean Air Act and Regional Haze 

Rule, which include improving visibility on 

the haziest days and allowing no deterioration 

on the clearest days. Although this legislation 

provides special protection for NPS areas 

designated as Class I, the NPS applies these 

standard visibility metrics to all units of the 

NPS. If the Haze Index trend on the 20% 

clearest days is deteriorating, the overall 

visibility trend is reported as deteriorating. 

Otherwise, the Haze Index trend on the 20% 

haziest days is reported as the overall visibility 

trend.

Indicators/Measures 

Level of Ozone (Human Health: Annual 

4th-highest 8hr concentration and 

Vegetation Health: 3-month maximum 

12hr W126)

Ozone is monitored across the U.S. through 

air quality monitoring networks operated by 

the NPS, EPA, states, and others. Aggregated 

ozone data are acquired from the EPA Air 

Quality System (AQS) database. Note that 

prior to 2012, monitoring data were also 

obtained from the EPA Clean Air Status and 

Trends Network (CASTNet) database.

The primary National Ambient Air Quality 

Standard (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone is 

set by the EPA, and is based on human health 

effects. The 2008 NAAQS for ozone was a 

4th-highest daily maximum 8-hour ozone 

concentration of 75 parts per billion (ppb). 

On October 1, 2015, the EPA strengthened the 

national ozone standard by setting the new 

level at 70 ppb. The NPS-ARD assesses the 
91

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Air Quality

status for human health risk from ozone using 

the 4th-highest daily maximum 8-hour ozone 

concentration in ppb. Annual 4th-highest 

daily maximum 8-hour ozone concentrations 

are averaged over a 5-year period at all 

monitoring sites. Five-year averages are 

interpolated for all ozone monitoring 

locations to estimate 5-year average values for 

the contiguous U.S. The ozone condition for 

human health risk at the park is the maximum 

estimated value within park boundaries 

derived from this national analysis.

Exposure indices are biologically relevant 

measures used to quantify plant response 

to ozone exposure. These measures are 

better predictors of vegetation response 

than the metric used for the human health 

standard. One annual index is the W126, 

which preferentially weighs the higher ozone 

concentrations most likely to affect plants 

and sums all of the weighted concentrations 

during daylight hours (8AM– 8PM). The 

highest 3-month period that occurs during 

the ozone season is reported in “parts per 

million-hours” (ppm-hrs) and used for 

vegetation health risk from ozone condition 

assessments. NPS-ARD will begin calculating 

W126 for April to September for 2014 end 

year (K. Pugacheva, NPS-ARD, pers. comm.). 

Annual maximum 3-month 12-hour W126 

values are averaged over a 5-year period at 

all monitoring sites with at least 3 years of 

complete annual data. Five-year averages 

are interpolated for all ozone monitoring 

locations to estimate 5-year average values 

for the contiguous U.S. The estimated current 

ozone condition for vegetation health risk 

at the park is the maximum value within 

park boundaries derived from this national 

analysis.

Indicators/Measures 

Wet Deposition (Nitrogen, Sulfur, and 

Mercury)

Atmospheric wet deposition is monitored 

across the United States as part of the National 

Atmospheric Deposition Program/ National 

Trends Network (NADP/NTN) for nitrogen 

and sulfur wet deposition and at the Mercury 

Deposition Network (MDN) for mercury wet 

deposition. 

Wet deposition is used as a surrogate for 

total deposition (wet plus dry), because wet 

deposition is the only nationally available 

monitored source of nitrogen and sulfur 

deposition data. Values for nitrogen (N) 

from ammonium and nitrate and sulfur (S) 

from sulfate wet deposition are expressed as 

amount of N or S in kilograms deposited over 

a one-hectare area in one year (kg/ha/yr).For 

nitrogen and sulfur condition assessments, 

wet deposition was calculated by multiplying 

nitrogen (from ammonium and nitrate) 

or sulfur (from sulfate) concentrations in 

precipitation by a normalized precipitation. 

Annual wet deposition is averaged over a 

5-year period at monitoring sites with at least 

3 years of annual data. Five-year averages 

are then interpolated across all monitoring 

locations to estimate 5-year average values 

for the contiguous U.S. For individual parks, 

minimum and maximum values within park 

boundaries are reported from this national 

analysis. To maintain the highest level of 

protection in the park, the maximum value is 

assigned a condition status. Wet deposition 

trends are evaluated using pollutant 

concentrations in precipitation (micro 

equivalents/liter) so that yearly variations in 

precipitation amounts do not influence trend 

analyses.. 

Total Mercury

The condition of mercury was assessed 

using estimated 3-year average mercury wet 

deposition (ug/m2/yr) and the predicted 

surface water methylmercury concentrations 

at NPS Inventory & Monitoring parks. 

It is important to consider both mercury 

deposition inputs and ecosystem susceptibility 

to mercury methylation when assessing 

mercury condition because atmospheric 

inputs of elemental or inorganic mercury 

must be methylated before it is biologically 

available and able to accumulate in food 

webs (NPS-ARD 2015c). Thus, mercury 

condition cannot be assessed according to 

mercury wet deposition alone. Other factors 

like environmental conditions conducive 

to mercury methylation (e.g., dissolved 

organic carbon, wetlands, pH) must also be 

considered (NPS 2015b).
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Annual mercury wet deposition 

measurements are averaged over a 3-year 

period at all NADP-MDN monitoring sites 

with at least 3 years of annual data. Threeyear averages are then interpolated across 

all monitoring locations using an inverse 

distance weighting method to estimate 3-year 

average values for the contiguous U.S. For 

individual parks, minimum and maximum 

values within park boundaries are reported 

from this national analysis.

Conditions of predicted methylmercury 

concentration in surface water are obtained 

from a model that predicts surface water 

methylmercury concentrations for hydrologic 

units throughout the U.S. based on relevant 

water quality characteristics (i.e., pH, sulfate, 

and total organic carbon) and wetland 

abundance (USGS 2015). The predicted 

methylmercury concentration at a park is the 

highest value derived from the hydrologic 

units that intersect the park.

4.4.3. Reference Conditions

The reference conditions against which 

current air quality parameters are assessed are 

identified by NPS ARD (2015c) for NRCAs 

and listed in Table 4.4.3-1.

Visibility

A visibility condition estimate of less than 2 dv 

above estimated natural conditions indicates 

a “good” condition, estimates ranging from 

2-8 dv above natural conditions indicate 

“moderate” condition, and estimates greater 

than 8 dv above natural conditions indicate 

“significant concern.” The NPS-ARD chose 

reference condition ranges to reflect the 

variation in visibility conditions across the 

monitoring network.

Ozone

The human health ozone condition thresholds 

are based on the 2015 ozone standard set by 

the EPA at a level to protect human health: 

4th-highest daily maximum 8-hour ozone 

concentration of 70 ppb. The NPS-ARD 

rates ozone condition as “good” if the ozone 

concentrations are less than 54 ppb, which 

is in line with the updated Air Quality Index 

(AQI) breakpoints; “moderate” if the ozone 

concentration is between 55 and 70 ppb; and 

of “significant concern” if the concentration 

is greater than or equal to 71 ppb.

The W126 condition thresholds are based on 

information in EPA’s Policy Assessment for 

the Review of the Ozone National Ambient 

Air Quality Standards (EPA 2014). Research 

has found that for a W126 value of:

● ≤ 7 ppm-hrs, tree seedling biomass loss 

is ≤ 2 % per year in sensitive species; and

● ≥13 ppm-hrs, tree seedling biomass loss 

is 4–10 % per year in sensitive species.

ARD recommends a W126 of < 7 ppm-hrs 

to protect most sensitive trees and vegetation 

and is considered good; 7-13 ppm-hrs to be 

in “moderate” condition; >13 ppm-hrs is 

considered to be of “significant concern” 

(NPS-ARD 2015b).

Wet Deposition

The NPS-ARD selected a wet deposition 

threshold of 1.0 kg/ha/yr as the level below 

which natural ecosystems are likely protected 

from harm, based on studies linking early 

Table 4.4.3-1. Reference conditions for air quality parameters (NPS-ARD 2015c).

Air Quality Indicator Significant 

Concern

Moderate Good Very 

Good

Visibility (dv) >8 2-8 < 2 n/a

Ozone: Human Health (ppb) ≥ 71 55-70 ≤ 54 n/a

Ozone: Vegetation Health (ppm-hrs) >13 7-13 <7 n/a

Total N and Total S Wet Deposition (kg/ha/yr) >3 1-3 < 1 n/a

Mercury Wet Deposition (μg/m2/yr) ≥ 9 and < 12 ≥ 6 and < 9 ≥ 3 and < 6 < 3

Predicted Methylmercury Concentration 

(ng/L)

≥ 0.075 and 

< 0.12

≥ 0.053 and 

< 0.075

≥ 0.038 and 

< 0.053

< 0.038
93

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Air Quality

stages of aquatic health decline correlated 

with 1.0 kg/ha/yr wet deposition of nitrogen 

both in the Rocky Mountains (Baron et al. 

2011) and in the Pacific Northwest (Schibely 

et al. 2014). Parks with less than 1 kg/ha/yr 

of atmospheric wet deposition of nitrogen 

or sulfur compounds are assigned “good” 

condition, those with 1-3 kg/ha/yr are 

assigned “moderate” condition, and parks 

with depositions greater than 3 kg/ha/yr to be 

of “significant concern.” 

Mercury

Ratings for mercury wet deposition and 

predicted methylmercury concentrations can 

be evaluated using the mercury condition 

assessment matrix shown in Table 4.4.3-2 to 

identify one of three condition categories. 

Condition adjustments may be made if the 

presence of park-specific data on mercury in 

food webs is available and/or data are lacking 

to determine the wet deposition rating (NPSARD 2015b).

4.4.4. Condition and Trend 

The values used to evaluate conditions for all 

air quality indicators and measures are listed 

in Table 4.4.4-1. 

Visibility

The estimated 5-year (2009-2013) value (4.1 

dv) for the park’s visibility condition fell 

within the moderate condition rating, which 

indicates visibility is degraded from the good 

reference condition of <2 dv above the natural 

condition (NPS-ARD 2015c). For 2004–2013, 

the trend in visibility at El Malpais NM 

improved on the 20% clearest days (Figure 

4.4.4-1) and remained relatively unchanged 

(no statistically significant trend) on the 20% 

haziest days (Figure 4.4.4-2) (IMPROVE 

Monitor ID: BALD1, AZ). The Clean Air Act 

visibility goal requires visibility improvement 

on the 20% haziest days, with no degradation 

on the 20% clearest days (excerpted from 

NPS-ARD 2015a).

Visibility impairment primarily results from 

small particles in the atmosphere that include 

natural particles from dust and wildfires 

and anthropogenic sources from organic 

compounds, NOx

 and SO2. The contributions 

made by different classes of particles to haze 

on the clearest days and on the haziest days are 

shown in Figures 4.4.4-3 and - 4, respectively, 

using data collected at Mount Baldy, Arizona’s 

IMPROVE monitoring location. 

The primary visibility impairing pollutants on 

both the clearest and haziest days from 2004-

2013 were ammonium sulfate and organic 

carbon (NPS-ARD 2015a). Ammonium 

sulfate originates mainly from coal-fired 

Table 4.4.3-2. Mercury condition 

assessment matrix (NPS-ARD 2015b).

Predicted 

Methylmercury 

Concentration 

Rating

Mercury Wet Deposition Rating

Very 

Low Low Moderate High Very High

Very Low

Low

Moderate

High

Very High

Condition: Green = Good, Yellow = Moderate, Red = 

Significant Concern

Table 4.4.4-1. Condition and trend results for air quality indicators at El Malpais 

National Monument (NPS-ARD 2015a).

Data Span

Ozone: 

Human 

Health (ppb)

Ozone: 

Vegetation

Health (ppmhrs)

Visibility 

(dv)

Total N 

(kg/ha/yr)

Total S 

(kg/ha/yr)

Mercury 

(μg/m2/yr)

Mercury 

(ng/L)

Condition: 

2009-2013

2011-2013 

for Mercury

Moderate 

(67.3)

Moderate 

(12.4)

Moderate 

(4.1)

Moderate 

(1.6)

Good 

(0.8)

Moderate 

(5.1-7.5)

Moderate 

(0.07)

Trend: 

2004-2013

The trend in visibility at El Malpais NM improved on the 20% clearest days and remained 

relatively unchanged (no statistically significant trend) on the 20% haziest days (IMPROVE 

Monitor ID: BALD1, AZ) (text excerpted from NPS 2015a).
94

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

power plants and smelters and organic carbon 

originates primarily from combustion of fossil 

fuels and vegetation. 

In 2013, the clearest days occurred during the 

winter months (Dec.-Feb.) (Figure 4.4.4-5) 

while the haziest days occurred during the 

spring/summer months (May, June, and 

August) (Figure 4.4.4-6).

Ozone

Ozone data used for the condition assessment 

were derived from estimated five-year (2009-

2013) values of 67.3 parts per billion for the 

4th highest 8-hour average and 12.4 parts 

per million-hours for the W126 Index, which 

resulted in a moderate condition rating for 

both human and vegetation health (NPSARD 2015a). 

Figure 4.4.4-1.

For 2004–2013, the 

trend in visibility 

at El Malpais NM 

improved on the 

20% clearest days. 

Credit: NPS-ARD 

2015a.

Figure 4.4.4-2.

For 2004–2013, the 

trend in visibility 

at El Malpais NM 

remained relatively 

unchanged (no 

statistically 

significant trend) 

on the 20% haziest 

days. Credit: NPSARD 2015a.
95

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Air Quality

An ozone risk assessment was conducted by 

Kohut (2004, 2007) for Southern Colorado 

Plateau parks, concluding that plants in the 

monument were at low risk of foliar ozone 

injury. However, ozone concentrations and 

cumulative doses at the park are high enough 

to induce foliar injury to sensitive vegetation 

under certain conditions (NPS-ARD 2015b). 

The three plants identified as ozone sensitive 

at the park during the Kohut (2004) effort 

are listed in Table 4.4.4-2. An additional 

four plants have also been identified as 

ozone sensitive at the park and are listed in 

Table 4.4.4-2 (Bell, in review). Of the seven 

ozone-sensitive plant species, six (85.7%) are 

bioindicators, which can reveal ozone stress 

in ecosystems by producing distinct visible 

and identifiable injuries to plant leaves (NPSARD 2006). These species are noted the table.

Wet Deposition

Wet N deposition data used for the condition 

assessment were derived from estimated five 

year average values (2009-2013) of 1.6 kg/ha/

yr, which resulted in a moderate condition 

rating (NPS-ARD 2015a). Wet S deposition 

data used for the condition assessment were 

derived from estimated five year average 

values (2009-2013) of 0.8 kg/ha/yr, which 

resulted in a good condition rating (NPSARD 2015a). No trends could be determined 

given the lack of nearby monitoring stations.

Sullivan et al. (2011a), studied the risk from 

acidification for acid pollutant exposure and 

Figure 4.4.4-3.

Visibility data 

collected at BALD1, 

AZ IMPROVE 

station showing 

the composition 

of particle sources 

contributing to 

haze during the 

clearest days by 

year from 2004-

2013. Credit: NPSARD 2015a.

Figure 4.4.4-4.

Visibility data 

collected at BALD1, 

AZ IMPROVE 

station showing 

the composition 

of particle sources 

contributing to 

haze during the 

haziest days by 

year from 2004-

2013. Credit: NPSARD 2015a.
96

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Figure 4.4.4-5.

Visibility data 

collected at BALD1, 

AZ IMPROVE 

station showing 

the distribution of 

clearest days by 

month for 2013. 

Credit: NPS-ARD 

2015a.

Figure 4.4.4-6.

Visibility data 

collected at BALD1, 

AZ IMPROVE 

station showing 

the distribution 

of haziest days by 

month for 2013. 

(Credit: NPS-ARD 

2015a.

Table 4.4.4-2. Ozone sensitive plants found at El Malpais National Monument (Bell,

in review; Kohut 2004).

Scientific Name Common Name Bioindicator

Artemisia ludoviciana White sagebrush Yes

Mentzelia albicaulis White blazingstar Yes

Parthenocissus quinquefolia* Virginia creeper No

Pinus ponderosa* Ponderosa pine Yes

Populus fremontii Cottonwood Yes

Populus tremuloides* Quaking aspen Yes

Salix scouleriana Scouler’s willow Yes

*These species only were identified by Kohut (2004) as ozone sensitive at El Malpais NM. 
97

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Air Quality

ecosystem sensitivity for Southern Colorado 

Plateau parks, which included the national 

monument. Pollutant exposure included 

the type of deposition (i.e., wet, dry, cloud, 

fog), the oxidized and reduced forms of 

the chemical, if applicable, and the total 

quantity deposited. The ecosystem sensitivity 

considered the type of terrestrial and aquatic 

ecosystems present at the parks and their 

inherent sensitivity to the atmospherically 

deposited chemicals. These risk rankings were 

considered low for acid pollutant exposure at 

the park, low for ecosystem sensitivity, and 

high for park protection to acidification.

Sullivan et al. (2011b), also developed risk 

rankings for nutrient N pollutant exposure 

and ecosystem sensitivity to nutrient N 

enrichment. These risk rankings were 

considered low for pollutant exposure at the 

park, low for ecosystem sensitivity, and high 

for park protection, with an overall summary 

risk of low for the park. 

Using three data sets, Landscape Fire and 

Resource Management Planning Tools Project 

(LANDFIRE), National Wetlands Inventory, 

and National Land Cover Data, nitrogensensitive vegetation for the monument was 

identified (E&S Environmental Chemistry, 

Inc. 2009). The LANDFIRE data set was 

the only one that contained N sensitive 

communities, including arid, semi-arid, 

grasslands, and meadows for the monument 

and locations are shown in Figure 4.4.4-7.

In general, nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium 

deposition levels have changed over the past 

20 years throughout the United States (Figure 

4.4.4-8). Regulatory programs mandating a 

reduction in emissions have proven effective 

for decreasing both sulfate and nitrate ion 

deposition primarily through reductions 

from electric utilities, vehicles, and industrial 

boilers, although a rise in ammonium ion 

deposition has occurred in large part due to 

the agricultural and livestock industries (NPSARD 2012d). A study conducted by Lehmann 

and Gay (2011), indicated a statistically 

significant decrease in sulfate concentrations 

from 1985-2009 in the area surrounding 

the monument, but an increase in nitrate 

concentrations, although not statistically 

significant. It seems reasonable to expect a 

continued improvement in sulfate deposition 

levels because of Clean Air Act requirements, 

however, at this time, ammonium levels are 

not regulated by the EPA and may continue to 

rise as a result (NPS-ARD 2010).

The 2011–2013 estimated wet mercury 

deposition is moderate at the park, ranging 

from 5.1 to 7.5 micrograms per square meter 

and predicted methylmercury concentrations 

in surface waters is moderate, at 0.07 

nanograms per liter. Based on these levels, the 

condition for mercury deposition warrants 

moderate concern. 

The degree of confidence in the mercury/

toxics deposition status is low because wet 

deposition and methylmercury concentration 

estimates are based on interpolated or 

modeled data rather than in-park studies.

Overall Condition and Trend

For assessing the condition of air quality, 

we used three air quality indicators. Our 

indicators/measures for this resource were 

intended to capture different aspects of 

air quality, and a summary of how they 

contributed to the overall condition is 

summarized in Table 4.4.4-3.

We consider the overall condition of air 

quality at El Malpais National Monument 

to be of moderate condition, with a medium 

confidence level for ozone and wet deposition 

because estimates are based on interpolated 

data from more distant monitors and high for 

visibility based on the IMPROVE monitoring 

station, BALD1, at Mount Baldy, Arizona. 

The trend in visibility at El Malpais 

NM improved on the 20% clearest days 

and remained relatively unchanged (no 

statistically significant trend) on the 20% 

haziest days (IMPROVE Monitor ID: BALD1, 

Air Quality

Indicators Measures

Visibility Haze Index

Ozone

Annual 4th Highest 8 

hr. Concentration

3-month maximum

12hr W126

Wet Deposition

Total N

Total S

Mercury
98

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

AZ) (extracted from NPS 2015a). Trends for 

the remaining indicators cannot be derived 

f since no monitoring sites are located near 

enough to be representative of the conditions 

at the park and on-site monitoring does not 

occur. 

Level of Confidence/Key Uncertainties/

Threats

A key uncertainty of the air quality section 

is knowing the effect(s) of air pollution, 

especially nitrogen deposition, on ecosystems 

at the parks. 

4.4.5. Sources of Expertise

The National Park Service’s Air Resources 

Division oversees the national air resource 

management program for the NPS. Together 

with parks and NPS regional offices, they 

monitor air quality in park units; provide air 

quality analysis and expertise related to all air 

quality topics. Ksienya Pugacheva, Natural 

Resource Specialist with Air Resources 

Division, provided expertise and an air 

quality resource condition review from which 

this assessment was based upon. Section was 

written by Kimberly Struthers, Science Writer 

at Utah State University.

Figure 4.4.4-7.

Locations of 

nitrogen sensitive 

vegetation at El 

Malpais National 

Monument using 

LANDFIRE data 

(E&S Environmental 

Chemistry, Inc. 

(2009).
99

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Air Quality

4.4.6. Literature Cited

Allen, E. B., L. E. Rao, R. J. Steers, A. 

Bytnerowicz, and M. E. Fenn. 2009. 

Impacts of atmospheric nitrogen 

deposition on vegetation and soils in 

Joshua Tree National Park. Pages 78–100 

in R. H. Webb, L. F. Fenstermaker, J.S. 

Heaton, D. L. Hughson, E. V. McDonald, 

and D. M. Miller, editors. The Mojave 

Desert: ecosystem processes and 

sustainability. University of Nevada Press, 

Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.

Baron, J.S., Driscoll, C.T., Stoddard , J.L., and 

Richer E.E. 2011. Empirical critical loads 

of atmospheric nitrogen deposition for 

nutrient enrichment and acidification 

of sensitive U.S. lakes. BIOSCIENCE. 

American Institute of Biological Sciences, 

61(8):602-613.

Bell, Michael D. In Review. Ozone Sensitive 

Plant Species on National Park Service 

and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lands: 

An Update to Results from the 2003 

Baltimore Ozone Workshop. Natural 

Resource Report NPS/NRARD/NRRX/Y. Available at https://irma.nps.gov/

NPSpecies/Reports/Systemwide/OzoneSensitive%20Species%20in%20a%20

Park (accessed January 12, 2016).

Brooks, M.L. 2003. Effects of increased 

soil nitrogen on the dominance of alien 

annual plants in the Mojave Desert.

Journal of Applied Ecology. 40:344–353.

E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc. 2009. 

Nitrogen Screening Project - Sensitive 

Vegetation. Geospatial Dataset-2170016. 

Geospatial Dataset. Available at 

https://irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/ 

Profile/2170016 (accessed September 14, 

2015).

Environmental Protection Agency. 2012a. 

National ambient air quality standards 

(NAAQS). Available at http://www.epa.

gov/air/criteria.html (accessed May 6, 

2015).

Environmental Protection Agency. 2012b. 

Acid rain. Available at http://www.epa.

gov/acidrain/what/index.html (accessed 

May 16, 2015).

Environmental Protection Agency. 2014. Policy 

Assessment for the Review of the Ozone 

National Ambient Air Quality Standards. 

EPA-452/R-14-006. U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, Research Triangle 

Park, North Carolina. Available at: http://

www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/

ozone/data/20140829pa.pdf (accessed 

September 6, 2015).

Fowler, D., J.A. Pyle, J.A. Raven, and M.A. 

Sutton. 2013. The global nitrogen cycle 

in the twenty-first century: introduction. 

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal 

Society B: Biological Sciences, 368(1621), 

20130165. Available at: http://doi.

org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0165 (accessed 

February 8, 2016).

Figure 4.4.4-8. Change in wet deposition levels From 1988-

2008 throughout the United States.

HTTP://WWW.NATURE.NPS.GOV/AIR/MONITORING/WETMON.CFM.
100

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.4.4-3. Summary of the air quality indicators/measures and their contributions to 

the overall air quality NRCA (excerpted from NPS-ARD 2015a).

Indicator Measure(s) Condition Condition Rationale

Visibility Haze Index Moderate Visibility warrants moderate concern at El Malpais NM. This 

status is based on NPS Air Resources Division benchmarks 

and the 2009–2013 estimated visibility on mid-range days 

of 4.1 deciviews (dv) above estimated natural conditions. 

For 2004–2013, the trend in visibility at El Malpais NM 

improved on the 20% clearest days and remained relatively 

unchanged (no statistically significant trend) on the 20% 

haziest days (IMPROVE Monitor ID: BALD1, AZ). The Clean 

Air Act visibility goal requires visibility improvement on the 

20% haziest days, with no degradation on the 20% clearest 

days. The degree of confidence at El Malpais NM is high 

because there is an on-site or nearby visibility monitor.

Level of Ozone Human Health: 

Annual 4thHighest 8-hour 

Concentration

Moderate Human health risk from ground-level ozone warrants 

moderate concern at El Malpais NM. This status is based on 

NPS Air Resources Division benchmarks and the 2009–2013 

estimated ozone of 67.3 parts per billion (ppb). No trend 

information is available because there are not sufficient 

on-site or nearby ozone monitoring data. The degree of 

confidence at El Malpais NM is medium because estimates 

are based on interpolated data from more distant ozone 

monitors.

Vegetation 

Health:

3-month 

maximum

12hr W126

Moderate Vegetation health risk from ground-level ozone warrants 

moderate concern at El Malpais NM. This status is based on 

NPS Air Resources Division benchmarks and the 2009–2013 

estimated W126 metric of 12.4 parts per million-hours 

(ppm-hrs). The W126 metric relates plant response to 

ozone exposure. A risk assessment concluded that plants 

in at El Malpais NM were at low risk for ozone damage 

(Kohut 2007; Kohut 2004). No trend information is available 

because there are not sufficient on-site or nearby ozone 

monitoring data. The degree of confidence at El Malpais NM 

is medium because estimates are based on interpolated data 

from more distant ozone monitors.

Wet Deposition Total N in kg/

ha/yr

Moderate Wet nitrogen deposition warrants moderate concern. This 

status is based on NPS Air Resources Division benchmarks 

and the 2009–2013 estimated wet nitrogen deposition of 

1.6 kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha/yr). Ecosystems 

in the park were rated as having low sensitivity to nutrientenrichment effects relative to all Inventory & Monitoring 

parks (Sullivan et al. 2011c; Sullivan et al. 2011d). No trend 

information is available because there are not sufficient 

on-site or nearby deposition monitoring data. The degree of 

confidence at El Malpais NM is medium because estimates 

are based on interpolated data from more distant deposition 

monitors.

Total S in kg/

ha/yr

Good Wet sulfur deposition is in good condition. This status 

is based on NPS Air Resources Division benchmarks and 

the 2009–2013 estimated wet sulfur deposition of 0.8 

kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha/yr). Ecosystems in the 

park were rated as having low sensitivity to acidification 

effects relative to all Inventory & Monitoring parks (Sullivan 

et al. 2011a; Sullivan et al. 2011b). No trend information is 

available because there are not sufficient on-site or nearby 

deposition monitoring data. The degree of confidence at 

El Malpais NM is medium because estimates are based on 

interpolated data from more distant deposition monitors..
101

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Air Quality

Inouye, R.S. 2006. Effects of shrub removal 

and nitrogen addition on soil moisture 

in sagebrush steppe. Journal of Arid 

Environments. 65: 604–618.

Kohut, R.J., 2004. Assessing the risk of foliar 

injury from ozone on vegetation in 

parks in the Southern Colorado Plateau 

Network. 81p.

Kohut, R.J., 2007. Ozone risk assessment 

for Vital Signs Monitoring Networks, 

Appalachian National Scenic Trail, and 

Natchez Trace National Scenic Trail. NPS/ 

NRPC/ARD/NRTR—2007/001. National 

Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Lehmann, C.M.B. and D.A. Gay. 2011. 

Monitoring long-term trends of acidic 

wet deposition in U.S. precipitation: 

results from the National Atmospheric 

Deposition Program. Power Plant 

Chemistry (13)7: 378-385.

Malm, William C. 1999. Introduction to 

visibility. Cooperative Institute for 

Research in the Atmosphere, Colorado 

State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523.

National Park Service. 2006. Management 

Policies 2006-The guide to managing the 

National Park System. Washington D.C. 

180pp.

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2002. Air quality in the national parks, 

second edition. Lakewood, Colorado. 

70pp.

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2003a. Air atlas summary tables for I&M 

parks. Available at http://www.nature.nps.

gov/air/Permits/ARIS/networks/docs/

SummariesAirAtlasRevised11072003.pdf 

(accessed May 6, 2015).

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2003b. Air emissions inventory. Available 

at https://irma.nps.gov/App/ (accessed 

May 6, 2013).

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2006. Ozone sensitive plant species, by 

park, November 2006. Available at http://

www.nature.nps.gov/air/Permits/ARIS/

docs/Ozone_Sensitive_ByPark_3600.pdf 

(accessed May 6, 2015).

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2010. Air quality in national parks: 2009 

annual performance and progress report. 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/

ARD/NRR—2010/266. National Park 

Service, Denver, Colorado.

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2012a. Clean Air Act and regulations. 

Available at http://www.nature.nps.gov/

air/Regs/cleanAir.cfm (accessed May 1, 

2015).

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2012b. Ozone effects on vegetation. 

Available at http://www.nature.nps.gov/

air/AQBasics/ozoneEffects.cfm (accessed 

May 6, 2015).

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2012c. Ozone effects on tree growth. 

Available at http://www.nature.nps.gov/

air/AQBasics/TreeGrowth/index.cfm 

(accessed May 6, 2015).

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2012d. Wet deposition monitoring. 

Available at http://www.nature.nps.gov/

Indicator Measure(s) Condition Condition Rationale

Wet Deposition 

continued

Mercury Moderate The 2011–2013 estimated wet mercury deposition is 

moderate at the park, ranging from 5.1 to 7.5 micrograms 

per square meter.

Predicted 

Methylmercury 

Concentration

Moderate The predicted methylmercury concentrations in surface 

waters is moderate, at 0.07 nanograms per liter.

Table 4.4.4-3. Summary of the air quality indicators/measures and their contributions to the overall air

quality NRCA (continued).
102

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

air/Monitoring/wetmon.cfm (accessed 

May 6, 2015).

National Park Service, Air Resources Division. 

2013. Air quality in national parks: trends 

(2000–2009) and conditions (2005–2009). 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRSS/

ARD/NRR—2013/683. National Park 

Service, Denver, Colorado.

National Park Service Air Resources Division. 

2015a. Air quality in parks. Available at 

http://nature.nps.gov/air/data/products/ 

parks/index.cfm (accessed December 30, 

2015).

National Park Service, Air Resources 

Division. 2015b. National Park 

Service Air Quality Analysis Methods: 

September 2015. Natural Resource 

Report NPS/NRSS/ARD/NRR–2015/

XXX. National Park Service, Denver, 

Colorado. Available at http://www.

nature.nps.gov/air/data/products/docs/

DRAFT_NPS-AirQualityAnalysis_

Methods_09-11-2015.pdf (accessed 

Sept. 28, 2015).

National Park Service, Air Resources 

Division. 2015c. Guidance for evaluating 

air quality in Natural Resource 

Conditions Assessments. Available 

at http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/

planning/docs/20150916_Guidance-ForEvaluating-AQ-In-NRCA.pdf (accessed 

Sept. 28, 2015).

Porter, E., and A. Wondrak-Biel. 2011. Air 

quality monitoring protocol and standard 

operating procedures for the Sonoran 

Desert, Southern Plains, and Chihuahuan 

Desert networks. Version 2.00. Natural 

Resource Report NPS/SODN/NRTR—

2011/390. National Park Service, Fort 

Collins, Colorado.

Rao, L. E., E. B. Allen, and T. Meixner. 2010. 

Risk-based determination of critical 

nitrogen deposition loads for fire spread 

in southern California deserts. Ecological 

Applications 20:1320–1335.

Schwinning, S.; Starr, B.I.; Wojcik, N.J.; Miller, 

M.E.; Ehleringer, J.E.; Sanford, R.L. 2005. 

Effects of nitrogen deposition on an 

arid grassland in the Colorado plateau 

cold desert. Rangeland Ecology and 

Management. 58: 565–574. 

Selin, N.E. 2009. Global biogeochemical 

cycling of mercury: a review. Annual 

Review of Environment and Resources 

34:43.

Sheibley, R.W., Enache, M., Swarzenski, 

P.W., Moran, P.W., Foreman, J.R. 2014. 

Nitrogen Deposition Effects on Diatom 

Communities in Lakes from Three 

National Parks in Washington State. 

Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 225.

Sullivan, T. J., G. T. McPherson, T. C. 

McDonnell, S. D. Mackey, and D. Moore. 

2011a. Evaluation of the sensitivity of 

inventory and monitoring national parks 

to acidification effects from atmospheric 

sulfur and nitrogen deposition: Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network (SCPN). 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/

ARD/NRR—2011/372. National Park 

Service, Denver, Colorado.

Sullivan, T. J., T. C. McDonnell, G. T. 

McPherson, S. D. Mackey, and D. Moore. 

2011b. Evaluation of the sensitivity 

of inventory and monitoring national 

parks to nutrient enrichment effects 

from atmospheric nitrogen deposition: 

Southern Colorado Plateau Network 

(SCPN). Natural Resource Report NPS/

NRPC/ARD/NRR—2011/330. National 

Park Service, Denver, Colorado. 

United States Federal Register. 1970. Clean 

Air Act. Public Law 95-124. Pages 5673-

5965.
103

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Surface Geology

4.5. Surface Geology

4.5.1. Background and Importance

Geologic resources are literally the bedrock 

of units in the National Park System. They 

make up the scenery and the landscape that 

is integral to the significance of most natural 

areas within the system (Figure 4.5.1-1).

Paleontological resources are irreplaceable 

records of past life and are protected by the 

Paleontological Resources Preservation Act 

of 2009. Geologic processes continue to shape 

park landscapes, impact park ecosystems, and 

may present hazards to park infrastructure 

and human safety.

Geology serves as the foundation of 

ecosystems and is a major determinant of 

topography, water and soil chemistry, fertility 

of soils, stability of hillslopes, and flow 

regimes of surface water and groundwater. 

These factors, in turn, influence biology, 

including the distribution of habitats and 

the locations of threatened and endangered 

species. Geology also influences human 

settlement patterns and how people use 

natural resources—for farming, ranching, 

industry, construction, hunting, fishing, and 

recreation.

Geologic resources make up our geoheritage. 

The National Park Service defines geoheritage 

as “the significant geologic features, 

landforms, and landscapes characteristic 

of our nation which are preserved for the 

full range of values that society places on 

them, including scientific, aesthetic, cultural, 

ecosystem, educational, recreational, tourism, 

and other values” (NPS 2013). 

Figure 4.5.1-1.

Lava flow surface 

features are one 

of El Malpais’ 

fundamental 

resources and 

values (NPS 2014). 

The monument’s 

geologic features, 

especially the 

McCartys Flow, 

including the lava 

rise pits shown here, 

have great research 

and educational 

significance serving 

as an analog for 

volcanic features on 

Mars and the Moon.

©LARRY CRUMPLER

Indicators/Measures

• Surface Lava Flow Features (1 

measure)

• Volcanic Vents and Edifices (1 

measure)

• Paleontological Resources (2 measures)

• Disturbed Lands (1 measure)

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Moderate - Stable - High
104

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Lava flow surface features are one of El 

Malpais NM’s fundamental resources and 

values (NPS 2014). The monument, especially 

the McCartys Flow, has great research and 

educational significance (Larry Crumpler, 

personal communication, 2015). Research 

into the McCartys Flow emplacement 

via inflation processes has provided new 

understanding into lava flow dynamics (see 

Appendix E) (Crumpler et al. 2013) and is 

part of a larger project to understand whether 

lava flows on Mars or the Moon may have 

undergone inflation (Zimbelman et al. 2012). 

Inflation is an emplacement process for 

basaltic lava flows first identified in Hawaii in 

1991 (Walker 1991).

By serving as an analog for lava flows on 

other planetary bodies, McCartys Flow is 

allowing researchers to identify and map 

specific surface features such as lava rise pits 

and flow margin terraces that may be found 

in inflated planetary lava flows (Zimbelman 

et al. 2013). This research to understand 

inflation processes and their morphological 

characteristics at the McCartys Flow is 

supported by NASA and is ongoing (Larry 

Crumpler, personal communication, 2015). 

Additionally, the McCartys Flow meets the 

criteria of a scientifically and educationally 

significant geoheritage site per the Geological 

Society of America definition (Geological 

Society of America 2012).

Surface Geology Overview

The landscape within El Malpais National 

Monument is dominated by young volcanic 

features produced during recent eruptions 

from the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field. The 

Zuni-Bandera field is notable for its lava flows 

of unusually large length and large volume 

and for its diversity of vent types and lava flow 

morphologies (Theilig 1990). 

The volcanic terrain of the Zuni-Bandera 

field has also shaped nearly every aspect of 

the monument’s natural and cultural history. 

Older rocks exposed in El Malpais include 

Precambrian igneous and metamorphic 

rocks that are mostly exposed north of the 

monument, but minor outcrops occur on 

the north boundary (KellerLynn 2012). 

Older sedimentary rocks are exposed in the 

monument in areas that were not buried by 

young lava flows (Figure 4.5.1-2). These areas 

are either on the outside margins of the lava 

flows, or as islands of older rocks , known as 

kipukas, that were not buried by lava flows. 

Kipukas in El Malpais NM have sedimentary 

substrates or consist of lava flows older than 

the surrounding flow (KellerLynn 2012). 

Appendix E provides further information 

about El Malpais’ surface geology.

Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field

The most recent phase of volcanic activity in 

the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field, known as 

the El Malpais phase, occurred during the 

last 60,000 years. Five young lava flows were 

emplaced in the monument. From oldest to 

youngest, these flows are the El Calderon, 

Twin Craters, Hoya de Cibola, Bandera and 

McCartys (Table 4.5.1-1) (Figure 4.5.1-3).

Mildly explosive eruptions also formed 

cinder cones such as Bandera Crater, Twin 

Craters, and El Calderon. Hoya de Cibola is 

a shield volcano that was formed from the 

buildup of lava flows that erupted effusively. 

The vent area for the McCartys Flow is a thick 

flow accumulation topped by a small scoria 

cone (Crumpler et al. 2013). Cinder fields 

surrounding cinder cones were mapped for El 

Calderon and Bandera Crater (Figure 4.5.1-

3) (Maxwell 1986 and KellerLynn 2012). 

Although they are not an edifice like a cone, 

cinder fields present an environment and 

are landscape features akin to cinder cones 

as they are both made up of accumulations 

of mostly loose cinders. Some plant species 

such as Phacelia serrate (cinders phacelia) 

Table 4.5.1-1. The young lava flows of

the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field exposed 

within El Malpais NM.

Flow Age (years before 

present)

McCartys Flow 3,900

Bandera Flows 11,000

Hoya de Cibola Flows >11,000

Twin Craters Flows 18,000

El Calderon Flows <60,000

After KellerLynn (2012) and Dunbar (2010). Young basaltic 

lava flows are notoriously hard to date by available 

techniques, and the errors for these values are relatively 

large.
105

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Surface Geology

Figure 4.5.1-2. Generalized geologic map of El Malpais NM showing areas of surficial deposits, 

Quaternary volcanic rocks, sedimentary rocks, and Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks. 

Quaternary volcanic rocks include the young lava flows, cinder cones and cinder fields of the El 

Malpais period of volcanism that took place within the last 60,000 years and the previous phases 

of volcanism. Given that the monument is situated over the five youngest lava flows of the 

Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field and the abundance of older volcanic rocks, sedimentary rocks are 

very rare within monument boundaries. Significant exposures of sedimentary rocks occur just 

north and east of monument boundaries. Map from KellerLynn (2012); NM Guidebook (2010).
106

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

grow exclusively or preferentially in cinder 

substrates (Bleakly 1997). 

Two previous periods of basaltic volcanism 

occurred in the Zuni-Bandera field. The 

first phase of volcanism began 700,000 years 

ago and erupted a series of fluid lava flows 

(Laughlin et al. 1993), mapped as old basalt 

flows (Maxwell 1986). The second period of 

volcanism, at approximately 150,000 years 

before present, produced a series of cinder 

cones known as the Chain of Craters, mostly 

to the west of monument boundaries, and 

associated lava flows (KellerLynn 2012). 

Cerro Bandera, the northern-most cinder 

cone in the Chain of Craters, is within 

monument boundaries (KellerLynn 2012).

Figure 4.5.1-3.

The young lava 

flows, vents, cinder 

cones and cinder 

fields of the ZuniBandera Volcanic 

Field found with El 

Malpais monument 

boundaries 

(Maxwell 1986 and 

KellerLynn 2012).
107

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Surface Geology

4.5.2. Data and Methods

We used four indicators to assess the current 

condition and trend for surface geology 

at El Malpais NM (Table 4.5.2-1). Three 

indicators, with one measure each, evaluated 

the condition of lava flow surface features, 

volcanic vents and edifices, and disturbed 

lands. The paleontological resources indicator 

had two measures: freeze-thaw index and 

human impacts.

Indicator/Measure

Lava Flow Surface Features (Lava flow 

intactness)

The lava flow intactness measure evaluated 

whether lava flow surfaces features were 

in natural condition. Lava flows are the 

predominant physical features of El Malpais 

landscape, and are exposed at the surface in 

most areas of the monument. 

Information on lava flow surface features 

is provided in the El Malpais Geologic 

Resources Inventory (KellerLynn 2012), 

the original geology map of the El Malpais 

lava field (Maxwell 1986), volcanological 

research and reports by Crumpler et al. 

(2013), Zimbelman et al. (2010, 2012, and 

2013), Crumpler (2011), Garry et al. (2011), 

and Dunbar and Phillips (2004). Most of 

this research has been into the emplacement 

of the McCartys Flow and analysis of the 

flow’s inflation structures. Dunbar and 

Phillips (2004) provided the geochronology 

of the Zuni-Bandera field, and Dunbar (2015) 

provided a virtual field trip to El Malpais.

Only the youngest lava flow in El Malpais, the 

McCartys Flow, retains its glassy rind on the 

upper few millimeters of the surface (Dunbar 

and Phillips 2004). Delicate surface features 

such as tachylite (glass) are more susceptible 

to disturbances.

Indicator/Measure

Volcanic Vents and Edifices (Vent and 

edifice intactness)

The vent and volcanic edifice intactness 

measure evaluated whether volcanic vents 

and edifices were in natural condition. 

Information on vent and volcanic edifices 

is provided in the El Malpais Geologic 

Resources Inventory (KellerLynn 2012), the 

original geology map of the El Malpais lava 

field (Maxwell 1986), work deciphering the 

volcanic history of the cinder cones associated 

with the Twin Craters flows (Cascadden et al. 

1997), and the geochronology of the field 

(Dunbar and Phillips 2004).

Volcanic vents and edifices in El Malpais 

NM include cinder cones, a shield volcano, 

the elevated vent platform for the McCartys 

Flow, plus a few vents from earlier phases 

of volcanism in the Zuni-Bandera field. 

The volcanic vents and edifices indicator 

also included the Bandera and El Calderon 

cinder fields and the mixed Twin Craters 

lava flow and pyroclastic deposit geologic 

map unit, as these units are found only in the 

close proximity of vents and were deposited 

either predominantly or in part via fallout 

from pyroclastic eruptions. These vents and 

edifices and their impacts are summarized in 

Table 4.5.2-2. 

World War II Bombing Range Impacts to Lava 

Flow and Cinder Cone Conditions

Between late 1942 and May 1944, a 23-km2 

(9-mi2 square mile) area of lava flow around 

McCartys Crater was used as the Kirtland 

Demolition Bombing Range for training 

using live munitions from the Kirtland Army 

Airfield (Bering Sea Environmental 2015). 

The McCartys Crater target area is designated 

as a High Explosive Bombing Range. 

When El Malpais NM was established in 

1987, the lands within the former World 

Table 4.5.2-1. The indicators and

measures used to assess surface geology 

condition at El Malpais NM.

Indicator Measures

Lava Flow Surface 

Features

Lava Flow Intactness

Volcanic Vents 

and Edifices

Vent and Edifice Intactness

Disturbed Lands Abandoned Mineral Lands 

(AML) Prioritization Ranking

Paleontological 

Resources

Freeze-Thaw Index

Human Impacts
108

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

War II bombing range were incorporated in 

the national monument. In the late 1980s, 

several 45-kg (100-pound) general purpose 

bombs (Figure 4.5.2-1) and a bomb tail fuse 

were blown in place by US Army Explosive 

Ordnance Disposal specialists (Bering Sea 

Environmental 2015). In 1994 and 1995, two 

additional bomb removal actions were taken 

on behalf of the US Army Cops of Engineers 

in a 2.6-km2

 (1-mi2) area around McCartys 

Crater and in six 1.3 km (0.5-mile) grids 

northeast and southeast of the crater. During 

these actions, 25 general purpose bombs and 

38 nose/tail fuses were destroyed on site, and 

1900 pounds of inert debris were removed 

(Bering Sea Environmental 2015).

In 2006, a subcontractor for the US Army Corps 

of Engineers conducted a field inspection 

of the Kirtland Demolition Bombing Range 

and did not observe any “Munitions and 

Explosives of Concern” (e.g., unexploded 

ordinance, discarded military munitions, or 

munition components) within the response 

site. However, munitions debris and expended 

fuses were observed. Additionally, ten surface 

soil samples were analyzed for explosives, but 

only an explosives-related chemical was only 

detected in one sample at a level well below 

screening criteria (Bering Sea Environmental 

2015). 

The Technical Project Planning Memorandum 

for Meeting No. 1, Kirtland Demolition 

Bombing Range Cibola County, New Mexico, 

Figure 4.5.2-1. A bomb found in the Kirtland 

Demolition Bombing Range on McCartys Flow 

in 1984 (Crumpler et al. 2013).

©LARRY CRUMPLER

Table 4.5.2-2. Known volcanic vents and edifices in El Malpais NM.

Vent Type Notes

McCartys Vent (Qcm) Elevated flow 

accumulation with 

small cinder cone

The cinder cone has been impacted as its use as a target 

in the World War II bombing range. Small explosive craters 

give it a “lumpy” appearance and it is littered with sharp 

metal fragments.

Bandera Crater (Qcb) Cinder cone The largest cinder cone in El Malpais NM, and a classic 

example of a breached cinder cone.

Bandera Cinder Field (Qvb) Cinder field The Bandera cinder field includes 4 AML sites.

Hoya de Cibola (Qvw) Shield volcano Small shield volcano with vent at the summit.

Cerro Candelaria (Qct) Cinder cone Large cinder cone.

Lava Craters (Qct) Cinder cone Small breached spatter cone.

Twin Craters (Qct) Cinder cones A series of three small cinder cones over a fissure-like vent 

with a northeastern trend.

Lost Woman Crater (Qct) Cinder cone Large cinder cone with a smaller subsidiary cone to the 

north.

Twin Crater Mixed 

Pyroclastics and Flow (Qvt)

Mixed cinders and 

flows

Area mapped as cinder deposits and lava flows 

undifferentiated. May include additional vent areas.

El Calderon Crater (Qcc) Cinder cone Breached cinder cone. An AML site for a former cinder 

quarry is on the northeast side of the cinder cone.

El Calderon cinder field 

(Qvc)

Cinder field Cinder field preserved in areas not covered by the El 

Calderon Flow on mostly the west side of the cinder cone.

Cerro Bandera (Qc) Cinder cone Part of the Chain of Craters eruptive phase.

Cerro Encierro (Qb) Cinder cone Formed a low edifice in what is now the northwestern part 

of the Hole-in-the-Wall kipuka.

Unnamed vent (Qb) Unknown No edifice.
109

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Surface Geology

in support of Remedial Investigation/

Feasibility Study (Bering Sea Environmental 

2015) was used to evaluate the condition of 

the geologic surface features and McCartys 

crater for the impact of the bombing range.

Additional information about the impact of 

the World War II bombing range on El Malpais 

surface geology is available in Crumpler et al. 

(2013). The “somewhat lumpy” appearance 

of the McCartys scoria cone (Figure 4.5.2-2)

results from small detonation craters from 

explosives. The area is also littered with small 

pieces of shrapnel. 

Indicator/Measure

Disturbed Lands (Abandoned Mineral 

Lands ranking)

Information on Abandoned Mineral Lands 

(AML) sites in El Malpais were available in 

the NPS AML Inventory and Assessment 

Report, a comprehensive inventory and 

assessment of AML sites in the National Park 

System (Burghardt et al. 2014) and database 

(National Park Service 2015a). Six sites are 

in El Malpais NM containing a total of 28 

features (Burghardt et al. 2014 and NPS 

2015a). The Geologic Resources Inventory 

indicated that there are four additional sites 

within the monument that are not part of the 

NPS AML database (KellerLynn 2012).

Burghardt et al. (2014) listed criteria used to 

prioritize AML features for remedial action. 

Each site was assigned rankings for hazards, 

access, resource significance, and resource 

impacts. Table 4.5.2-3 provides these rankings 

for El Malpais’ six sites using additional 

information from the NPS service-wide AML 

database (NPS 2015a). 

The hazard and access elements were assigned 

numeric rankings between 0 and 5 (low to 

high) by the NPS AML program based on the 

presence of identifiable characteristics, such 

as a highwall which is a vertical wall formed 

from excavation into a hillside (hazard 

element), or the AML site being accessible by 

a good road leading to it (access element). The 

resource significance and resource impact 

rankings had possible values of 0, 2 or 4 for 

low, medium and high. 

The NPS prioritization system for sites that 

need mitigation was based on the severity of 

public safety hazard and the level of impact on 

park resources (Burghardt et al. 2014). Sites 

with a hazard level of at least 3, or a resource 

impact level of 4, are assigned as high priority. 

Medium priority AML have either a hazard 

Figure 4.5.2-2. Small craters from the detonation of general purpose bombs dropped during 

training exercises from the Kirtland Army Air Base during World War II are visible on the sides 

and in the crater of McCartys Crater. The entire area around McCartys vent and the surrounding 

lava flow has been impacted by these ordnance explosions.

©LARRY CRUMPLER
110

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

level or resource impact level of 2. All other 

AML features are considered low priority. 

The six AML sites in El Malpais were all 

surface mines (quarries) (NPS 2015a). Five 

of the sites were mined for cinders or “lava 

rock,” and the other site, which is off of New 

Mexico 117, was quarried for sandstone. 

The Calderon AML site is on the northeast 

flank of the El Calderon cinder cone (Figure 

4.5.2-9), the Candelaria 1 - 4 sites are on the 

Bandera cinder field, and the ELMA Quarry 

is in the Dakota Sandstone in the southeastern 

portion of the monument. 

Indicator/Measure

Paleontological Resources (Two measures)

We used two measures to evaluate the 

condition of paleontological resources. The 

freeze-thaw index measured the impact 

that frost weathering may have on fossils. 

Human impacts evaluated whether there are 

inadvertent or intentional impacts caused 

by humans on paleontological resources. 

Overall, these two measures determined 

whether paleontological resources remained 

in natural condition. Information was derived 

mostly from the NPS Southern Colorado 

Plateau Inventory and Monitoring Network 

paleontological inventory and monitoring 

report (Tweet et al. 2009). Additional 

information was used from the Geologic 

Resource Inventory (KellerLynn 2012) and 

the geologic map of the El Malpais lava field 

and surrounding areas (Maxwell 1986). 

NPS Management Policies (NPS 2006) do not 

allow for intervention in natural processes 

such as weathering and erosion except in 

special situations. Therefore, the impact of 

natural weathering and erosion on El Malpais’ 

fossils was not considered in this assessment.

Freeze-Thaw Index

The impact of frost weathering on 

paleontological resources was measured 

via the freeze-thaw index. The freeze-thaw 

index is the number of 24-hour periods per 

year when temperatures pass across the 

freezing threshold (Santucci et al. 2009). If 

climate change would cause an increase in the 

freeze-thaw index, it would have a negative 

impact on paleontological resources If it 

decreases the freeze-thaw index, then the rate 

of weathering and erosion due to physical 

factors theoretically should be decreased.

The Period of Record Daily Climate 

Summary for the Grants Municipal Airport 

weather station, a National Weather 

Service cooperative station that is closest 

to El Malpais NM, provides average daily 

maximum and minimum temperatures for 

the period of record from 1953 to 2012 

(Western Regional Climate Center 2015). The 

30-Year Daily Temperature and Precipitation 

Summary provides average daily maximum 

and minimum temperatures for 1981 to 2010. 

Table 4.5.2-3. Prioritization rankings for Abandoned Mineral Lands at El Malpais NM.

Site

Number 

of 

Features*

Hazard 

Rating Hazards Access Rating Access

Resource 

Significance 

Rating

Resource Significance

Resource 

Impact 

Ranking

Resource 

Impact

Priority 

Ranking

Calderon 4 2 (Medium) Highwalls 4 (High) Improved 

Dirt Road

0 (Low) Unknown impact to 

biological resources

2 (Medium) Moderate 

visual impact

Medium

Candelaria 1 3 2 (Medium) Highwall 4 (High) Improved 

Dirt Road

0 (Low) Unknown impact to 

biological resources

4 (High) High visual 

impact

High

Candelaria 2 6 2 (Medium) Highwalls 5 (High) Paved Road 0 (Low) Unknown impact to 

biological resources

2 (Medium) Moderate 

visual impact

Medium

Candelaria 3 5 1 (Low) Highwalls 5 (High) Paved Road 0 (Low) Unknown impact to 

biological resources

2 (Medium) Moderate 

visual impact

Medium

Candelaria 4 1 2 (Medium) 5 (High) Paved Road 0 (Low) Unknown impact to 

biological resources

2 (Medium) Moderate 

visual impact

Medium

ELMA 

Quarry

8 3 (High) Highwall 5 (High) Paved Road 0 (Low) Unknown impact to 

biological resources

2 (Medium) Moderate 

visual impact

High

* Number of features only includes features that need remedial action. The ELMA Quarry site includes one additional feature that does not need mitigation.

Data are from Burghardt et al. 2014 and NPS 2015a.
111

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Surface Geology

Using average daily high and low temperatures 

for the period of record, 193 days per year 

had temperatures that crossed the freezing 

threshold for the period of record. For the 

1981 to 2010 interval, there were 183 days per 

year when the average temperature crossed 

the freezing point (Western Regional Climate 

Center 2015) (Table 4.5.2-4).

The climate change exposure brief for El 

Malpais NM (Monahan and Fisichelli 2014) 

provided information on the climate-change 

exposure by evaluating 25 climate variables, 

including temperature, that experienced 

“extreme” values in the past 10-30 years 

relative to the historical range of variability. 

“Extreme” conditions are defined as 

exceeding 95% of the historical range.

4.5.3. Reference Conditions

Geologic resources can be sensitive or 

robust depending on how easily they may be 

damaged, and some types of resources may be 

more vulnerable to damage than others (Gray 

2005). The reference conditions by which 

surface geology conditions were assessed are 

listed in Table 4.5.3-1. 

Surface geology features that had no concerns 

or issues and are in a natural state and do 

not present a hazard were considered to be 

in good condition. If there were some areas 

of moderate concerns related to impacts 

and pose some hazards, the condition was 

considered to be moderate. A condition of 

significant concern existed when significant 

impacts to features have been identified and 

posed hazards. 

Our reference conditions for the Abandoned 

Mineral Land prioritization ranking measure 

were based on the system used in the NPS 

AML Inventory and Assessment Report 

(Burghardt et al. 2014) and data available 

in the AML database (NPS 2015a). AML 

sites that were assigned a low priority for 

mitigation are considered to be in good 

condition. Sites with a medium priority were 

considered to be in moderate condition, and 

high priority AML sites were considered to be 

of significant concern. AML sites that do not 

require mitigation were also considered to be 

in good condition. 

Paleontological resources that have no 

concerns or issues and are in a natural state 

related to them were considered to be in good 

condition. If there are some areas of moderate 

concerns related to impacts to paleontological 

resources, the condition was considered to be 

moderate. A condition of significant concern 

existed when impacts or potential impacts to 

fossil resources have been identified.

4.5.4. Condition and Trend 

We used four indicators with a total of five 

measures to assess the condition of geologic 

resources at El Malpais NM as summarized in 

Table 4.5.4-1.

The surface geology features of El Malpais area 

have had a long history of human use. Most 

uses, including grazing, logging and travel 

corridors like the Zuni-Acoma Trail, have had 

relatively minor impacts to surface geologic 

resources. However, cinder, “lava rock,” and 

sandstone surface mining and quarrying and 

the use of the McCartys crater and lava flow 

as an aerial bombing range during World War 

II have had significant impacts on the geologic 

features in what is now El Malpais NM.

Lava Flow Surface Features

In general, most lava flow surface features 

are robust and not sensitive to many types of 

potential impacts. Delicate surface features 

such as tachylite (glass) are more susceptible 

to disturbances. Only the McCartys Flow 

retains its glassy rind (Dunbar and Phillips 

2004). While the lava flows are mostly intact, 

the Lava Falls Trail area on the McCartys 

Flow is experiencing heavy use and the flow 

surface in that area is becoming worn (Larry 

Crumpler, personal communication, 2015). 

Table 4.5.2-4. Freeze-Thaw Index for 

Grants Municipal Airport.

Interval

Number of days average daily 

temperatures cross freezing 

threshold

Period of Record 193

1981-2010 183

Data from Western Regional Climate Center (2015).
112

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Because the lava flow surface features are 

largely intact and in natural condition, we 

considered this indicator to be in good 

condition. 

Volcanic Vents and Edifices

At least eight volcanic vents for the El 

Malpais phase are found within monument 

boundaries (Figure 4.5.1-3). An additional 

three vents from earlier phases of volcanism in 

the Zuni-Bandera field are also present in the 

monument (Maxwell 1986 and KellerLynn 

2012). 

Cinder cones are very sensitive to disturbances. 

For example, quarry sites on cinder cones 

are difficult to recontour (NPS 2015a). An 

additional example of the sensitivity of cinder 

cones to human disturbances is the closure of 

Sunset Crater Volcano to hiking since 1973 

(NPS 2015b). Cinder cones, like many other 

geologic resources, are nonrenewable parts of 

the planet’s geodiversity and geoheritage, and 

damage to or loss of cinder cones may lead to 

loss of important volcanological information 

(Gray 2004).

Hoya de Cibola, Lost Woman Crater, Twin 

Craters, Lava Crater, and Cerro Candelaria 

are in natural condition.

Several of the volcanic vents and edifices in El 

Malpais NM have been adversely impacted 

by human activities. The El Calderon cinder 

cone is the site of a former cinder quarry with 

two vertical cuts into the side of the cone that 

is visible from a considerable distance (NPS 

2015a) (Figure 4.5.4-1). The Bandera Cinder 

Field was also the site of cinder surface mines 

and contains four AML sites (NPS 2015a). The 

impacts of quarrying on these cinder cones 

will be discussed under the AML measure.

Because some of the volcanic vents and edifices 

have been impaired by human activities prior 

to the establishment of El Malpais NM, and 

others are in natural condition, we consider 

this measure to be in moderate condition.

World War II Bombing Range Impacts to Lava 

Flow and Cinder Cone Conditions

The use of McCartys Crater and the 

surrounding McCartys Flow in World War 

II as an aerial bombing range (well prior to 

the establishment of the national monument) 

adversely impacted the scoria cone and surface 

of the surrounding lava flow. McCartys Crater 

is pocked by explosive depressions (Figure 

4.5.4-1), and metal fragments (e.g., bomb 

debris) are common in the area (Crumpler et 

al. 2013). 

Explosive Ordinance Disposal specialists 

undertook several bomb removal actions and 

clean up of ordinance debris in the 1980s and 

1990s in the Kirtland Demolition Bombing 

Range (Bering Sea Environmental 2015). 

However, given the extremely rough nature 

of the surface of the lava flows in El Malpais, 

especially the McCartys Flow in and around 

Figure 4.5.2-3.

Tree mold in the El 

Calderon lava flow.

©LARRY CRUMPLER
113

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Surface Geology

the bombing range, it is likely that “Munitions 

and Explosives of Concern” remain in El 

Malpais NM. For example, in 2010, military 

Explosive Ordnance Disposal specialists 

destroyed a 45-kg (100-pound) general 

purpose bomb that had been located on the 

Bandera Flows approximately 10.7 km (6.6 

mi) north of McCartys Crater, well outside of 

the Kirkland Demolition Bombing Range.

The access to the McCartys Crater target area 

of the bombing range is very difficult given 

the extremely rugged terrain. Visitation levels 

to the World War II bombing range are very 

low, minimizing the risk that unexploded 

ordinance will be encountered. 

In late 2014, a remedial investigation and 

feasibility study was initiated by the US Army 

Corps of Engineers at the Kirtland Demolition 

Bombing Range as part of a program to 

address formerly used defense sites that may 

contain munitions and explosives of concern 

(Bering Sea Environmental 2015). The 

investigation uses existing data and collection 

of additional field data to characterize 

munitions contamination, prepare a site 

prioritization protocol, prepare a plan, and 

submit a decision document for the site. The 

objectives of the study are to determine the 

presence, extent and nature of munitions 

and explosives of concern and munitions 

components at the High Explosive Bombing 

Range at the McCartys Crater target area 

(Bering Sea Environmental 2015). 

Paleontological Resources

Paleontological resources may be body fossils, 

which are the actual remains of organisms, or 

trace fossils, which are evidence of biological 

activity, such as tracks or burrows. In situ 

paleontological resources can be impacted by 

Table 4.5.3-1. Reference conditions used to assess the current condition of geology for each indicator.

Indicator Measure Good Moderate Concern Significant Concern

Lava flow surface features Lava flow intactness No concerns or issues 

about lava flow surface 

features have been 

identified. Lava flows are 

in a generally natural state 

and function.

Some areas of moderate 

concern related to impacts 

to lava flow surface 

features.

Areas of concern have 

been identified that have 

the potential to impact lava 

flow surface features.

Volcanic vents and 

edifices

Vent and edifice 

intactness

No concerns or issues 

about volcanic vents 

and edifices have been 

identified. Vents and 

edifices are in a generally 

natural state and function.

Some areas of moderate 

concern related to impacts 

to volcanic vents and 

edifices exist.

Areas of concern have 

been identified that have 

the potential to impact 

volcanic vents and edifices.

Disturbed lands

Abandoned Mineral 

Lands Prioritization 

Ranking

AML sites that require 

mitigation are ranked as 

low priority by the NPS 

AML Program.

AML sites that require 

mitigation are ranked as 

medium priority by the NPS 

AML Program.

AML sites that require 

mitigation are ranked as 

high priority by the NPS 

AML Program.

Paleontological resources

Freeze-Thaw Index The average number of 

days per year that go 

through the freeze-thaw 

cycle decrease or remain 

constant compared to 

the period of record and 

is not an area of concern 

related to paleontological 

resources.

The average number of 

days per year that go 

through the freeze-thaw 

cycle increase slightly 

compared to the period 

of record and is an area of 

slight to moderate concern 

related to paleontological 

resources.

The average number of 

days per year that go 

through the freeze-thaw 

cycle increase compared 

to the period of record 

and is an area of concern 

related to paleontological 

resources..

Human Impacts No concerns or issues 

about human impacts to 

paleontological resources 

have been identified. 

Paleontological resources 

are in a generally natural 

state and function.

Some areas of moderate 

concern related to human 

impacts on paleontological 

resources exist.

Areas of concern have 

been identified about 

human impacts that have 

the potential to impact 

paleontological resources.
114

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

natural processes, accelerated erosion due to 

climate change, and human activities, such as 

illegal collection.

Most of the rock units exposed in El Malpais 

are volcanic in origin (Maxwell 1986 and 

KellerLynn 2012). Fossils are generally rare 

in volcanic rocks. Tree molds (Figure 4.5.2-

2) are one of the few types of fossils that may 

be common in basaltic lava flows and are the 

most significant paleontological resources at 

El Malpais (KellerLynn 2012). Appendix E 

provides further information on El Malpais 

fossil resources.

Human Impacts

With the exception of the tree molds that have 

been documented in the park’s geodatabase, 

fossil locations in El Malpais are not well 

known. Paleontological resources in El 

Malpais are not being monitored (David 

Hays, personal communication, 2015). It is, 

therefore, not known if vandalism or theft 

of fossils is occurring. The impact of human 

activities on paleontological resources 

within El Malpais is unknown, although tree 

mold fossils would likely be very difficult to 

remove from the encompassing lava flows. 

Further, most caves in El Malpais are closed 

to visitation, protecting the paleontological 

resources within them from potential 

vandalism or theft, although it is likely that 

fossil sites in caves may be very susceptible to 

potential disturbances. Because the impact of 

human activities on fossils is unknown, this 

measure is in unknown condition.

Table 4.5.4-1. Indicator, measure, and rationale of surface geology condition.

Indicator of 

Condition Measure Condition Rationale for Condition

Lava flow 

surface features

Lava flow 

intactness

Good The lava flow surface features are largely intact; e.g., in 

natural condition, in El Malpais NM. Heavy use in the 

Lava Falls area of the McCartys flow has impacted the 

surface of the flow there. Additionally, detonations in 

the Kirkland Demolition Bombing Range have impacted 

the surface of the flow, especially in the vicinity of the 

vent. Unexploded ordinance and munitions may remain 

in the area.

Volcanic vents 

and edifices

Vent and 

edifice 

intactness

Moderate Overall, volcanic vents and edifices are in moderate 

condition. While some edifices such as Hoya de Cibola 

and the vents that produced the Twin Craters Flows 

are in natural condition, others have been significantly 

impacted by human activities prior to the establishment 

of El Malpais NM. The McCartys Crater was used as a 

range for aerial bombing in World War II, and metal 

bomb fragments and small craters from explosions 

remain. Cinder quarrying occurred at El Calderon and in 

the Bandera Cinder Field.

Disturbed lands

Abandoned 

Mineral Lands 

Prioritization 

Ranking

Significant 

Concern

Two AML sites in El Malpais are ranked as high priority 

for mitigation by the NPS AML program because 

of their hazards or high resource impact and easy 

access for visitation. Four additional sites are assigned 

a moderate priority for mitigation by the NPS AML 

program.

Paleontological 

resources

Freeze-Thaw 

Impact

Good The freeze-thaw index is decreasing because of fewer 

number of days per year that go through the freezethaw cycle. A lower freeze-thaw index should mean 

that frost weathering has less of an impact on fossils.

Human Impacts Unknown The monument’s fossil resources are poorly known and 

are not being monitored. However, tree mold fossils, 

while rare and unusual, would be difficult to remove 

from the encompassing lava flow, and most caves in El 

Malpais are closed to visitation, protecting the fossils 

therein. 
115

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Surface Geology

Freeze-Thaw Index

Diurnal and annual changes in temperatures 

that fluctuate above and below the freezing 

temperatures cause increased weathering 

and erosion of geologic features. Frost 

weathering includes mechanical processes 

that disintegrate, split and breakup rock via 

the great pressure caused by freezing water in 

rock pore spaces or in cracks (Jackson 1997). 

The impact of frost weathering on 

paleontological resources was assessed using 

the freeze-thaw index. The average daily 

high temperature at the Grants Municipal 

Airport weather station is above freezing, 

while winter lows are typically below freezing 

(Western Regional Climate Center 2015). 

Therefore, any change in the freeze-thaw 

index is dependent on the average number 

of days per year that the low temperature is 

below freezing. The climate change exposure 

brief for El Malpais NM (Monahan and 

Fisichelli 2014) also indicated that the mean 

temperature of the coldest quarter has gotten 

significantly warmer compared to historical 

conditions.

The average number of days that experienced 

a freeze-thaw cycle in the period of record 

(1953-present) was 193, and between 1981 

and 2010, it was 183. Therefore, the freezethaw index for El Malpais NM has decreased, 

and the condition of fossils for this measure 

is good. 

Climate change predictions for the Colorado 

Plateau include warmer winter temperatures 

(BLM 2014), which would further decrease 

the freeze-thaw index. Winter temperatures 

are estimated to increase approximately 2.5°C 

(4.2°F) by 2050 and 3.0°C (5.4°F) by 2090 

(BLM 2014), meaning fewer low temperatures 

below freezing.

AML Prioritization Ranking

AML sites are locales that contain facilities, 

structures, and disturbances associated 

with past mineral exploration, extraction, 

processing, and transportation for which 

the NPS takes action to mitigate, reclaim, or 

restore in order to reduce hazards and impacts 

to park resources (Burghardt et al. 2014). 

The Calderon AML site covers 2 acres, and 

has four features (a surface mine, a highwall, 

a loading area, and a road). The highwall 

presents a medium hazard rating due to the 

potential for falls. The site has a high access 

rating, and a moderate resource impact 

rating due to its moderate visual impact (NPS 

2015a).

The Candelaria 1 contains four sites that are 

on private lands within monument boundaries 

Figure 4.5.4-1.

The vertical cut in 

the quarry on the 

El Calderon cinder 

cone.

©PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY
116

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

and are east of Bandera Crater. These four sites 

cover a total of 8.1 hectares (20 acres) and are 

all quarry sites for cinders and/or “lava rock,” 

containing features such as surface mines 

and waste rock piles. Candelaria 1 and 3 also 

include highwalls, although the highwall in 

Candalaria 3 is assigned a low hazard rating 

(NPS 2015a). 

Candelaria 1 is assigned a high prioritization 

rating because it has high resource impact 

ranking (4), and the other three sites are 

assigned medium prioritization because of 

moderate resource impact (2) (Burghardt et 

al. 2014). 

ELMA Quarry is a sandstone surface mine 

site covering 10 acres adjacent to New 

Mexico 117 near the Lava Falls area. The site 

contains nine features including the quarry 

itself, two historic structures, and waste rock 

consisting of large sandstone blocks and 

gravel piles (NPS 2015a). The quarry presents 

a highwall with a hazard rating of 4 (high) and 

moderate resource impact ranking (2). The 

historic structures may have cultural resource 

significance since the structures apparently 

date from the 1940s (NPS 2015a). 

El Malpais contains six inventoried AML 

sites with a total of 28 features. Twenty-seven 

of these features require mitigation (NPS 

2015a). Two AML sites, Candelaria 1 and 

ELMA quarry, are assigned a high priority 

for mitigation by the NPS AML program 

(Burghardt et al. 2014). Two additional sites 

have moderate priority for mitigation. Because 

the AML sites in El Malpais have high and 

moderate priority rankings, we consider that 

AML site prioritization ranking measure is in 

the condition of significant concern.

Geology

Indicators Measures

Lava Flow Surface 

Features 1 Measure

Volcanic Vents & 

Edifices 1 Measure

Paleontological 

Resources 2 Measures

Disturbed Lands 1 Measure

Overall Condition

Of the four indicators for the assessment of 

geologic resources at El Malpais, one was in 

good condition (lava flow surface features), 

one was in moderate condition (volcanic vents 

and edifices), one in a condition of significant 

concern (disturbed lands), and one was 

unknown (paleontological resources). The 

overall condition of surface geology features 

at El Malpais is considered to be moderate.

Trend

The trend of the condition of geologic 

resources in El Malpais is generally stable. 

NPS Management Policies (NPS 2006) 

prohibit human activities such as mining and 

aerial bombing that impacted surface geology 

features prior to the establishment of El 

Malpais NM. However, the impacts of those 

past activities linger. Quarry sites on cinder 

cones are difficult to mitigate (KellerLynn 

2012), and mitigation of the impairment of 

the McCartys Crater vent area from aerial 

bombing has not been proposed (Bering Sea 

Environmental 2015). 

Volcanologist Larry Crumpler of the New 

Mexico Museum of Natural History and 

Science, who has been studying the McCartys 

Flow for many years, has noticed impacts 

from recreational use in the Lava Falls area 

(Larry Crumpler, personal communication, 

2015). The glassy rind (tachylite) that has 

been retained on the surface of the McCartys 

Flow is more susceptible to trampling than 

the surfaces of the older lava flows. Likewise, 

cinder cones and other cinder landscape 

features are more susceptible to damage from 

recreational activities such as hiking because 

they are mostly made up of loose material 

that does not withstand disturbance well. 

The trend of sensitive geologic resources 

such as cinder cones may be more likely to be 

unstable than the trend of more robust ones 

like tree mold fossils. 

Level of Confidence/Key Uncertainties

We have a high level of confidence in this 

condition assessment because a number of 

recent reports and datasets by the NPS and 

partners were available (e.g., KellerLynn 

2012, Burghardt et al. 2014, and Tweet et 

al. 2009) for this assessment. Further, the 

McCartys Flow has been the subject of 

recent and ongoing recent research into its 

emplacement via inflation (Crumpler et al. 
117

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Surface Geology

2013, Zimbelman et al. 2010, 2012, 2013, and 

Garry et al. 2011). 

Key uncertainties include the condition 

of paleontological resources, and whether 

recreational use will continue to impact lava 

flow surfaces features such as in the Lava Falls 

area of the McCartys Flow (Larry Crumpler, 

personal communication, 2015), and on 

cinder cones.

4.5.5. Sources of Expertise

Allyson Mathis is a science writer for 

Utah State University and a geologist by 

training. Larry Crumpler, Research Curator 

Volcanology and Space Sciences at the New 

Mexico Museum of Natural History and 

Science, provided invaluable information 

about the research into the emplacement 

of the McCartys lava flow via inflation 

processes, on the location of tree molds, 

and on the condition of the McCartys Flow 

and gave permission to use numerous 

photographs. Eric Weaver is acting Chief of 

Natural Resources at El Malpais NM. David 

Hays was the Chief of Natural Resources at El 

Malpais NM until March 2015.

4.5.6. Literature Cited

Bering Sea Environmental. 2015. Technical 

Project Planning Memorandum for 

Meeting No. 1. Kirtland Demolition 

Bombing Range, Cibola County, 

New Mexico. FUDS Project No. 

K06NM045301. In support of Remedial 

Investigation/Feasibility Study. U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers and South Pacific 

Division Range Support Center. Available 

at https://bseak.sharefile.com/download.

aspx?id=s4b0e85e20c046d1b (accessed 

March 31, 2015).

Bleakly, David L. 1997. Plantlife on the 

lava—the vegetation and flora of El 

Malpais. Pages 113–138 in K. Mabery, ed. 

Natural history of El Malpais National 

Monument. Bulletin 156. New Mexico 

Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, 

Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Bureau of Land Management. 2014. Climate 

on the Colorado Plateau. Available at 

http://www.blm.gov/ut/st/en/prog/more/

CPNPP/Historic_Climate_Conditions.

html (accessed September 1, 2015).

Burghardt, J. E., E. S. Norby, and H. S. Pranger, 

II. 2014. Abandoned mineral lands in the 

National Park System—comprehensive 

inventory and assessment. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/NRSS/

GRD/NRTR—2014/906. National Park 

Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Available 

at http://nature.nps.gov/geology/aml/

inventory/NPS_AML-IandA-Report_

Septermber2014_screen.pdf (accessed 

April 14, 2015).

Cascadden, T. E., A. M. Kudo, and J. 

W. Geisman. 1997. Discovering the 

relationships in a family of volcanoes—

Cerro Candelaria, Twin Craters, Lost 

Woman Crater, and Lava Crater. 

Pages 53–59 in K. Mabery, editor. 

Natural history of El Malpais National 

Monument. Bulletin 156. New Mexico 

Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, 

Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Crumpler, Larry. 2011. Zuni-Bandera field 

and McCarty’s lava flow. New Mexico 

Volcano Collection. New Mexico 

Museum of Natural History and Science. 

Available at http://nmnaturalhistory.

org/volc_zuni.html (accessed March 17, 

2015).

Crumpler, L.S., Aubele, J.C., Zimbelman, J.R., 

Self, S., J.E. Bleacher, and W.B. Garry. 

2013. McCartys lava flow field, El Malpais, 

and traverse log to Lava Falls. In Zeigler, 

K., J.M. Timmons, S. Timmons, and S. 

Semken. New Mexico Geological Society 

Guidebook, 64th Field Conference: 

Geology of the Route 66 Region: Flagstaff 

to Grants, p. 75-85.

Dunbar, N. 2010. El Malpais National 

Monument. Pages 25-34 in L. Greer Price, 

editor. The Geology of Northern New 

Mexico’s Parks, Monuments, and Public 

Lands. New Mexico Bureau of Geology 

and Natural Resources, Socorro, New 

Mexico, USA.
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Dunbar, N. 2015. Virtual Field Trip to the 

basalts of the Zuni-Bandera Malpais. 

El Malpais National Monument. New 

Mexico Bureau of Geology & Mineral 

Resources Available at https://geoinfo.

nmt.edu/tour/federal/monuments/

el_malpais/zuni-bandera/home.html 

(accessed September 13, 2015).

Dunbar, N. W., and F. M. Phillips. 2004. 

Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of lava flows in 

the Zuni–Bandera volcanic field, northcentral New Mexico, USA. Pages 51–59 

in S. M. Cather, W. C. McIntosh, and S. A. 

Kelley, editors. Tectonics, geochronology, 

and volcanism in the Southern Rocky 

Mountains and Rio Grande rift. Bulletin 

160. New Mexico Bureau of Geology and 

Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, 

USA. Available at http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/

staff/dunbar/publications/documents/

dunbarphillipszunibandera2004_000.pdf 

(accessed March 22, 2015).

Garry, W.B., J.E. Bleacher, J.R. Zimbelman, 

and L.S. Crumpler. 2011. Inflated lava 

flows on Earth and Mars. IAG Planetary 

Geomorphology Working Group. 

Available at Available at http://www.

psi.edu/pgwg/images/Oct11Image.html 

(accessed December 5, 2014).

Geological Society of America. 2012. 

Geoheritage. GSA Position Statement. 

Available at http://www.geosociety.

org/positions/pos20_Geoheritage.pdf 

(accessed June 9, 2015).

Gray, Murray. 2004. Geodiversity: Valuing 

and Conserving Abiotic Nature. 

Chichester,U.K.: John Wiley & Sons.

Gray, Murray. 2005. Geodiversity and 

geoconservation: What, why and how? 

The George Wright Forum. v. 22, n. 

3. pp. 4-12. Available at http://www.

georgewright.org/223gray.pdf (accessed 

June 8, 2015).

Jackson, Julia A. 1997. Glossary of Geology. 

Fourth Edition. American Geological 

Institute.

KellerLynn, K. 2012. El Malpais National 

Monument: geologic resources inventory 

report. Natural Resource Report NPS/

NRSS/GRD/NRR—2012/578. National 

Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Available at https://irma.nps.gov/App/

Reference/Profile/2189181 (accessed 

March 29, 2015).

Laughlin, A. W., F. V. Perry, P. E. Damon, 

M. Shafiqullah, G. WoldeGabriel, W. 

McIntosh, C. D. Harrington, S. G. Wells, 

and P. G. Drake. 1993. Geochronology 

of Mount Taylor, Cebollita Mesa, and 

Zuni–Bandera volcanic fields, Cibola 

County, New Mexico. New Mexico 

Geology 15(4):81–92. Available at http://

glorietageo.com/pubs/Paul-D-pubs/

Reduced-files/Geochronology-ofcebollita-mesa.pdf (accessed June 2, 

2015).

Maxwell, C. H. 1986. Geologic map of El 

Malpais lava field and surrounding area, 

Cibola County, New Mexico (scale 

1:62,500). Miscellaneous Investigations 

Series Map I-1595. U.S. Geological 

Survey, Washington, D.C., USA. Available 

at http://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/

proddesc_9332.htm (accessed March 20, 

2015).

Monahan W. B. and N. A. Fisichelli. 2014. 

Recent Climate Change Exposure of El 

Malpais National Monument. National 

Park Service. Resource Brief-2212626. 

Available at https://irma.nps.gov/App/

Reference/Profile/2212626 (accessed 

May 29, 2015).

National Park Service. 2006. Management 

Policies. Available at http://www.nps.gov/

policy/mp2006.pdf (accessed April 21, 

2015).

National Park Service. 2013. Geologic 

heritage terms. Available at http://www.

nature.nps.gov/geology/geoheritage/

geologic_heritage_terms.cfm (accessed 

June 9, 2015).
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National Park Service. 2014. Foundation 

Document. El Malpais National 

Monument. 60 p.

National Park Service. 2015a. NPS Servicewide AML database. El Malpais National 

Monument. Excel datasheet provided by 

John Burghadt April 24, 2015.

National Park Service. 2015b. Frequently 

asked questions. Sunset Crater Volcano 

National Monument. Available at http://

www.nps.gov/sucr/faqs.htm (accessed 

June 17, 2015).

Santucci, V. L., J. P. Kenworthy, and A. L. Mims. 

2009. Monitoring in situ paleontological 

resources. Pages 189–204 in R. Young and 

L. Norby, editors. Geological monitoring. 

Geological Society of America, Boulder, 

Colorado. Available at http://www.

nature.nps.gov/geology/monitoring/files/

geomon-08.pdf (accessed May 22, 2015).

Theilig, E. 1990. Zuni-Bandera field, New 

Mexico. in C. A. Wood and J. Kienle, 

Volcanoes of North America, Cambridge 

University Press, 303-305.

Tweet, J. S., V. L. Santucci, J. P. Kenworthy, 

and A. Mims. 2009. Paleontological 

resource inventory and monitoring—

Southern Colorado Plateau Network. 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/

NRPC/NRTR—2009/245. TIC# D-59. 

National Park Service, Fort Collins, 

Colorado. SENSITIVE REPORT - Do 

Not Distribute.

Walker, George PL. 1991. Structure, and origin 

by injection of lava under surface crust, of 

tumuli, “lava rises”, “lava-rise pits”, and 

“lava-inflation clefts” in Hawaii. Bulletin 

of Volcanology: 53. p. 546-558 Available 

at http://www.higp.hawaii.edu/~scott/

Workshop_reading/Walker_1991.pdf 

(accessed September 10, 2015). 

Western Regional Climate Center. 2015. 

Period of Record Daily Climate Summary. 

Grants Milan Municipal Airport. http://

www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.

pl?nm3682 (accessed May 29, 2015).

Zimbelman, J.R., W. B. Garry, L. S. Crumpler, 

J. E. Bleacher, and S. Self. 2010. Field 

investigation of inflated pahoehoe basalt 

lava flows, with application to lava 

flows on other planets. 41st Lunar and 

Planetary Science Conference. Available 

at http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/

lpsc2010/pdf/1826.pdf (accessed April 

14, 2015). 

Zimbelman, J. R., W. B. Garry, J. E. Bleacher, 

and L. S. Crumpler. 2012. Terraced 

margins on the inflated McCartys basalt 

lava flow, New Mexico. 43rd Lunar and 

Planetary Science Conference. Available 

at http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/

lpsc2012/pdf/1831.pdf (accessed April 

14, 2015).

Zimbelman, J. R., W. B. Garry, J. E. Bleacher, 

L. S. Crumpler, S. Self, J.C. Aubele, S.M. 

Baloga, L.S. Glaze, and R.A. Schultz. 2013. 

Inflation processes at the McCartys lava 

flow field, New Mexico, with application 

to identifying inflated lava flows on 

planetary surfaces. 44th Lunar and 

Planetary Science Conference. Available 

at http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/

lpsc2013/pdf/2120.pdf (accessed April 

14, 2015).

121

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Caves and Cave Ice

4.6. Caves and Cave Ice

4.6.1. Background and Importance

Subsurface features, especially lava tube caves 

(Figure 4.6.1-1), are included in El Malpais 

NM’s fundamental resources and values 

(NPS 2014). El Malpais contains among the 

longest lava tube systems in the world, with 

a cumulative length of more than 95 km (60 

mi) (Marinakis 1997). The monument also 

contains the southernmost ice caves on the 

continent. 

Caves are protected by the Federal Cave 

Resources Protection Act (1998), which 

protects and preserves significant caves on 

Federal lands for “perpetual use, enjoyment, 

and benefit of all people.”

Ice caves contain perennial or seasonal 

ice, and these ice deposits may be up to a 

few thousand years old and may provide 

important paleoclimate information (Dickfoss 

et al. 1997). Additionally, the ice deposits are 

frequently associated with cultural resources 

as they have been utilized by people from 

prehistoric to historic times.

At El Malpais, lava tube caves are mostly 

found in the El Calderon, Hoya de Cibola, 

Twin Craters, and Bandera lava flows, with 

at least one tube in older volcanic deposits 

(Figure 4.6.1-2). The lava tube caves are in 

15 major cave/lava tube systems (Marinakis 

1997). Long sections of collapsed tubes also 

exist in the monument, and entryways into 

lava tube caves are often through piles of 

rubble formed via breakdown. 

Lava tube caves reveal important information 

about the emplacement of fluid lava flows, 

and may also contain rare secondary 

minerals. Additionally, lava tube caves 

Figure 4.6.1-1.

Big Skylight Cave 

is one of four lava 

tube caves open to 

recreational caving 

in El Malpais NM.

NPS

Indicators/Measures

• Cave Meteorology (2 measures)

• Perennial and Seasonal Ice (1 measure)

• Direct Visitor Impacts (1 measure)

• Stability-Breakdown (no measure)

• Rare Minerals (no measure)

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Unknown - Unknown - Unknown
122

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

provide important habitat for bats, cavedependent organisms, and have unique 

plant and invertebrate assemblages growing 

in moss gardens in entrances and skylights 

(Bleakly 1997, KellerLynn 2012 and Wynne 

2013). These entryways and skylights provide 

distinct microclimates that differ from the 

rest of the monument and are similar to 

Arctic climates (KellerLynn 2012). Other 

microclimates exist in caves including in 

twilight and dark zones and near ice bodies.

4.6.2. Data and Methods

We used five indicators to assess the current 

condition and trend for caves and cave ice at 

El Malpais NM. Measures were developed to 

evaluate the condition of cave meteorology, 

perennial and seasonal ice, and direct visitor 

impact. Measures were not developed for 

stability-breakdown and rare minerals 

indicators.

Information about the condition of cave 

and cave ice was available in a variety of 

reports and publications, supplemented by 

information from Eric Weaver, El Malpais 

Cave Specialist and acting Chief of Natural 

Resources. Lindsey (1951) provided the first 

general descriptions of the lava tube caves 

and ice caves in the El Malpais area. Carlton 

(1988) provided the first comprehensive 

resource inventory of El Malpais’ lava tube 

caves. In 1997, Marinakis (1997) prepared a 

cave inventory and management consulting 

report that provided comprehensive 

information on the monument’s lava tubes, 

including information on the status of cave 

ice. Additionally, information on El Malpais 

caves is in the park’s Geologic Resources 

Inventory (KellerLynn 2012). 

Indicator/Measures

Cave Meteorology (Temperature and 

Humidity)

Limited information on temperature and 

humidity condition in El Malpais lava tube 

caves is available. Ingham et al. (1996 and 2004) 

presented information from data loggers 

deployed in two caves between 1993-1995 

in a study that was originally geared towards 

understanding the impact of a planned 

prescribed fire on lava tube caves (a fire that 

was never ignited). Beucher and Northup 

(2011) provided temperature and relative 

humidity information from microloggers 

placed in 10 El Malpais caves between late 

January and late April 2011 as part of an effort 

to assess whether microclimates in caves 

used as bat hibernacula were suitable for the 

growth of Pseudogymnoascus destructans, 

the fungus responsible for White Nose 

Syndrome. Most of these dataloggers showed 

diurnal changes in temperature and humidity, 

although dataloggers in more interior sections 

of caves (such as in the mud room of Junction 

Cave) showed less variation than dataloggers 

in other sections of caves (Beucher and 

Northup 2011).

Because El Malpais caves are shallow, 

temperature and humidity conditions inside 

Figure 4.6.1-2. Map showing the major volcanic units of El Malpais 

NM and the major lava tubes. Geology from KellerLynn (2012).
123

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Caves and Cave Ice

caves have a connectivity with atmospheric 

conditions at the surface, with both annual 

and diurnal cycles evident (Ingham et al. 

2004). Because specific information about 

temperature conditions inside caves is 

limited, we used information from the 

Recent Climate Change Exposure Brief for 

El Malpais NM (Monahan and Fisichelli 

2014) to assess atmospheric conditions that 

may impact cave meteorology. Figure 4.6.2-1 

shows the historical range of variability and 

the most recent percentile for annual mean 

temperature with an increase in annual 

mean temperature since approximately the 

mid-1980s (Monahan and Fisichelli 2014). 

The temperature variables of mean annual, 

mean warmest quarter, mean coldest quarter 

and mean coldest month were all also 

“extreme warm,” meaning that they were 

>95th percentiles across 10, 20, and 30-year 

intervals.

Indicator/Measure

Perennial and Seasonal Ice (Presence/

Absence)

This indicator uses the presence/absence 

of cave ice to provide a limited assessment 

of the condition of seasonal ice. We chose 

the presence/absence measure because 

information on the quantity and other aspects 

of cave ice is not known. 

Perennial or seasonal ice has been documented 

in at least 40 caves inside of El Malpais NM 

(Marinakis 1997; NPS 2012; NPS 2015a) 

(Table 4.6.2-1). Carlton (1988) provided the 

first systematic inventory of El Malpais caves 

and included information on the presence 

and condition of ice; however, his report did 

not incorporate the cave numbering system 

currently used to designate El Malpais caves. 

Marinakis (1997) documented ice in 30 caves, 

noting general descriptions of the ice. Six 

caves held significant or massive perennial ice 

with 24 caves containing amounts of seasonal 

or perennial ice. One cave that previously 

held an ice pool no longer contained ice 

as the pool had been filled by breakdown 

(Marinakis 1997). Since 1997, monument 

staff have documented ice in ten additional 

caves (NPS 2015a), including seven caves not 

known by Marinakis (1997).

Thirty-four of these ice caves are currently 

known to monument staff with their locations 

identified (NPS 2015a). Of these 34 caves, ice 

was documented as present in 20 of these 

caves at least once between 2000 and 2008, 

and ice was absent at least once in four caves. 

Figure 4.6.2-1. Time series showing the historic range of variability and the most recent 

percentile for mean annual temperature at El Malpais. The gray line shows temperature 

averaged over progressive 10-year intervals (10-year moving windows), the blue line shows 

mean temperature for each year, and the red asterisk show the average temperature of the most 

recent 10-year interval (2003-2012) (from Monahan and Fisichelli 2014).
124

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.6.2-1. Known Ice Caves in El Malpais NM.

Cave # ArcGIS 

(Yes/No)1 Description (Marinakis 1997) Ice Present (Year)1

Ice Absent 

(Year)1

Ice Present 

20122 Ice Present 20151

001 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Unknown Unknown

002 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Unknown Unknown

005 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Unknown Unknown

006 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice Yes Yes

007 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001, 2005 Unknown Unknown

010 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001, 2008 Unknown Seasonal

012 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice Unknown Seasonal

013 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Unknown Unknown

014 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Yes Unknown

016 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Yes Seasonal

021 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Unknown Unknown

023 Yes Massive perennial ice Unknown3 Seasonal

029 Yes Massive perennial ice Yes Yes, perennial

032 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice No Unknown

055 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 2000 Unknown Unknown

056 Yes Perennial ice Unknown Unknown

079 Yes None reported Yes Unknown

092 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice No Yes; massive 

perennial ice

093 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Unknown Yes, perennial

097 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Unknown Unknown

099 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Yes Unknown

102 Yes None reported 2001 Unknown Unknown

128 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice Unknown Unknown

143 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2001 Seasonal Unknown

147 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2002 Unknown Yes, perennial

165 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice 2000 2001 Unknown Unknown

188 Yes Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice Unknown Unknown

233 Yes N/A 2001 Yes Yes, perennial

234 Yes N/A No Seasonal

235 Yes N/A 2001 Unknown Seasonal

236 Yes N/A 2001 Yes Seasonal

250 Yes N/A 1999 2005, 2010 Unknown Unknown

455 Yes N/A Unknown Yes, massive 

perennial

457 Yes N/A Unknown Yes, massive 

perennial

033 No Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice N/A Unverified

053 No Significant perennial ice N/A Unknown

067 No Significant perennial ice N/A Unknown

070 No Significant perennial ice N/A Unknown

084 No Former ice pool filled by breakdown N/A N/A

094 No Lesser amounts of seasonal or perennial ice N/A Unverified

1NPS (2015a)

2

 NPS (2012)

3

 A 2013 monitoring photo showed ice in this cave.
125

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Caves and Cave Ice

In 2012, an initiative to monitor cave ice 

evaluated 13 caves (NPS 2012). Perennial 

ice was found in eight caves, one cave had 

seasonal ice, and four caves did not contain 

ice. In 2015, El Malpais staff monitored 

conditions in 15 caves where ice has been 

documented (NPS 2015a). Seasonal ice was 

present in 11 caves and perennial ice was 

present in four caves. 

Repeat photography of ice deposits in caves 

can provide information on the condition 

of ice over a period of time (Figure 4.6.2-2). 

Because of the seasonal variation in the 

amount of ice in caves (greatest in early spring 

and lowest in early fall), these comparisons 

are most useful when the month or season of 

the photographs are known.

Indicator/Measure

Direct Visitor Impacts (Degree of Impact)

We used the degree of impact measure to 

assess direct visitor impacts. Four caves 

(Xenolith, Junction, Big Skylight and Giant 

Ice Caves) are open to recreational caving 

with a required permit in El Malpais NM 

(NPS 2013).

El Malpais NM instituted a cave permitting 

system in 2013 to provide access to a limited 

number of caves, while the remaining caves in 

El Malpais are closed to recreational use (NPS 

2013). Prior to 2010, when all El Malpais caves 

were temporarily closed to recreational caving 

because of concern related to the spread of 

White Nose Syndrome, permits were not 

required to enter caves in the monument. 

Through October 2015, 838 caving permits 

had been issued for the year, with 2,865 cavers 

(Table 4.6.2-2). 

Direct visitor impacts to El Malpais caves 

are known to exist, and in 2015, El Malpais 

NM resource management staff began 

implementation of a documentation 

program to record visitor impacts in caves as 

mapping is completed (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). 

Monitoring and trip reports by NPS staff 

and the Sandia Grotto of the National 

Speleological Society have noted visitor 

impacts when observed.

Direct visitor impacts may include vandalism, 

dust, lint, trash, food, broken features, 

polishing or smoothing of surfaces, compacted 

floors, and footprints. The impact assessment 

protocol includes visual identification of 

the amount of trash, evidence of human 

presence and spray paint or vandalism at 

monitoring stations (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). 

Junction Cave’s impact assessment and 

map shows the majority of the cave with 

at least some to significant impacts (NPS 

2015b) (Figure 4.6.2-3). Monument staff 

are in the process of conducting an impact 

assessment for Xenolith Cave in conjunction 

with building a trail using reflective markers 

and have started photo-monitoring in Cave 

110 (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 

2015).

Indicator/Measure

Stability-Breakdown (No measure)

Breakdown refers to both the broken deposits 

of rock material from the ceiling and walls of 

caves and the rockfall and other mass wasting 

processes that deposit them. Breakdown 

covers the floors of many lava tube caves in 

El Malpais, and the deposits may be as much 

as several meters deep in some caves (Rogers 

and Mosch 1997b).

Cave maps show areas of breakdown, but few 

El Malpais caves have been mapped, although 

areas of new breakdown caused by rockfall 

have been documented by cave researchers 

(Eric Weaver, personal communication, 

Table 4.6.2-2. Number of permitted

cavers at El Malpais NM 2013-2015.

Year No. of Permits No. of Cavers

2013 338 1219

2014 877 3238

2015* 838 2865

*

Data for 2015 are through October 31. Information 

provided by Eric Weaver, Cave Management Specialist, El 

Malpais NM.
126

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

2015). A pool that previously held ice was 

filled in and that cave (084) no longer contains 

ice (Marinakis 1997 and Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015).

Indicator/Measure

Rare Minerals (No measure)

Fourteen secondary minerals or mineraloids 

have been identified in El Malpais lava tube 

caves (Rogers and Mosch 1997b). Seven of 

these minerals are rare in cave environments, 

and El Malpais has some of the first 

occurrences of these minerals in caves (Table 

4.6.2-3).

These minerals often are part of fragile 

speleothems such as angel hair, powder, 

“snowballs,” or part of moonmilk, which 

is white deposit with a cottage cheese-like, 

tufted or fibrous texture present in a few El 

Malpais caves (Rogers and Mosch 1997b). 

Some of these minerals, such as mirabilite, 

may undergo seasonal changes as Na-sulfate 

minerals may dissolve under wet conditions 

(Rogers and Mosch 1997b and McHenry 

2008).

4.6.3. Reference Conditions

Reference conditions for caves and cave ice 

indicators are in Table 4.6.3-1. No reference 

conditions were developed for stabilitybreakdown and rare minerals indicators. 

since no measures were identified.

The reference condition for cave meteorology 

is whether the temperature and humidity 

conditions in cave remain within their 

natural range of variability, and are not being 

impacted by changes in surface conditions or 

by human visitation in caves.

The reference condition for cave ice is that 

ice is present in all caves in which it has 

been previously documented. Because 

information on ice occurrence is limited, 

Figure 4.6.2-2. Repeat photographs of the thick ice wall 

in Cave #029. Large amounts of charcoal are present on the 

floor, likely from fires from early visitors. This cave shows 

significant impact from human activity (Sandia Grotto 

2003). The upper left photo is from the late 1980s, month 

unknown, and the upper right photo was taken on April 

4, 2003. The photo on the left was taken on May 21, 2015. 

This photo sequence shows an apparent decrease in ice 

since the late 1980s. Note that the exact date of the 1980s 

photo is unknown and that the volume of ice in caves is 

seasonally dependent, so the actual trend of ice in this 

cave may not be illustrated by this sequence. However, 

during monitoring in May 2015, El Malpais staff observed 

markings on the wall of the cave that showed that the ice 

had receded by approximately 2 m (6.6 ft) (Eric Weaver, 

personal communication, 2015).

NPS ©SANDIA GROTTO

©SANDIA GROTTO
127

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Caves and Cave Ice

we did not develop reference conditions 

beyond the presence/absence measure. The 

presence/absence measure does not provide 

information about the quantity of ice or any 

other variable. 

The reference condition for direct visitor 

impacts is that caves have no impact or a low 

level of impact and that cave resources cave 

resources exist in their natural condition and 

are intact.

4.6.4. Condition and Trend 

We used five indicators to assess the condition 

of caves and cave ice at El Malpais NM as 

summarized in Table 4.6.4-1. 

Cave Meteorology

Temperature and humidity conditions in 

caves have significant impacts on cave features 

such as ice deposits, mineral and speleothem 

condition, and cave ecology and cave 

organisms. Cave meteorology conditions, 

especially in the shallow lava tube caves at 

El Malpais NM, may be sensitive to changes 

Figure 4.6.2-3. Junction Cave Impact Assessment Map. Map provided by El Malpais NM.

Table 4.6.2-3. Rare cave minerals documented in El Malpais NM (Rogers and Mosch (1997) and Hill and Forti 

(1997)).

Mineral/Speleothem Formula Cave Notes

Minerals

Burkeite Na6(CO3)(SO4)

2 108 Rare mineral usually found in saline lake deposits. The first known cave 

occurrence of burkeite was in El Malpais.

Cristobalite SiO2

A low temperature form of cristobalite is a component of coralloids with 

calcite. It is known from lava tube caves in El Malpais and in California.

Epsomite MgSO4•7H2O 025, 110 Occurs as angel hair deposits and transparent silky crystals.

Glaserite (K,Na)Na(SO4)

2

Only known from a few caves in El Malpais, Western Australia, Namibia and 

Sicily.

Mirabilite Na2SO4•10H2O 006, 008, 

054, 110

Occurs with thenardite in coralloids, angel hair and loose powder. Its 

occurrence may be seasonal in nature as the mineral dissolves under wetter 

conditions.

Thenardite Na2SO4 110, 150 Formed from dehydration of mirabilite. Occurs as “snowballs,” loose 

powder or hair.

Trona Na3

(CO3)(HCO3)•2H2O 038 Only known as a cave mineral from El Malpais and three other lava tube 

caves in the world.

Speleothem

Moonmilk n/a 025, 110 Uncommon speleothem consisting of calcite and other minerals. Bacteria 

may be involved in its formation. 
128

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

caused by the presence of people in caves, 

and to atmospheric conditions at the surface. 

Monitoring of two El Malpais caves in the 

mid-1990s showed that both caves had strong 

diurnal and seasonal variations in temperature 

and humidity conditions indicating that 

conditions inside El Malpais caves are related 

to conditions at the surface (Ingham et al. 

1996 and 2004). Heat from the surface may 

be transported into El Malpais caves via 

conduction and via air movement (Ingham et 

al. 2004). The amount of airflow is dependent 

on the number of entrances the cave has, 

barometric pressure, wind and the relative 

temperature between the surface and interior 

of the caves. Some caves, especially those 

with a single entrance caves with a downward 

slope, are cold traps as more dense cold air is 

not able to mix with warmer air (Ingham et 

al. 2004). However, cold traps are not limited 

to caves with only one entrance, and at least 

one El Malpais cave with three entrances has 

a significant cold trap (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015).

The deeper sections of a cave have less 

temperature variation than areas closer to the 

entrance (Ingham et al. 2004 and Beucher and 

Northup 2011). Additionally, the presence 

of a melting ice body in a cave can buffer the 

temperature nearby as melting ice absorbs 

heat (Ingham et al. 2004).

Each cave has its own unique microclimate 

and relationship with conditions at the surface 

and different sections of a single cave may also 

have their unique microclimates. Beucher 

and Northup (2011) present data from 22 

microloggers in ten caves for an approximately 

two month interval. Most dataloggers showed 

diurnal variation, but some dataloggers 

recorded nearly constant temperature. 

Further, the temperatures recorded at some 

dataloggers showed a seasonal trend and 

others did not (Beucher and Northup 2011). 

No current information on cave meteorology 

conditions were available for this assessment, 

so the condition of this indicator is unknown.

While little specific information exists on the 

temperature and humidity conditions inside 

El Malpais caves, climatic conditions at the 

surface have a warming trend (Monahan and 

Fisichelli 2014). The mean annual temperature 

as measured in progressive 10-year intervals 

has increased significantly since the early 

1980s. Therefore, while the condition of cave 

meteorology at El Malpais is unknown, the 

warming conditions at the surface may be 

causing an increase in temperature in at least 

some cave as almost all heat in El Malpais 

caves originates from the surface (Ingham et 

al. 2004).

Perennial and Seasonal Ice

The condition of permanent and seasonal ice 

in El Malpais NM is unknown due to limited 

data. The initial inventories of lava tube caves 

in El Malpais (Carlton 1988 and Marinakis 

1997) documented caves that contained 

ice. Marinakis (1997) documented a total of 

Table 4.6.3-1. Reference conditions used to assess the current condition of caves and cave ice for each 

indicator.

Indicator Measure Good Moderate Concern Significant Concern

Cave Meteorology Temperature and 

Humidity

Temperature and humidity 

conditions in caves are 

within their natural range 

of variability.

Temperature and humidity 

conditions in caves have a 

slight departure from their 

natural range of variability.

Temperature and humidity 

conditions in caves have 

been altered from their 

natural range of variability.

Cave Ice Presence/Absence Seasonal or perennial ice 

is present in all caves that 

have been documented as 

containing ice.

Seasonal or perennial ice 

is present in a medium 

number of caves that 

have been documented as 

containing ice.

Seasonal or perennial ice is 

present in few caves that 

have been documented as 

containing ice.

Direct Visitor Impacts Degree of Impact Caves have no impact or a 

low level of impact.

Caves have some impact. Caves have significant 

impact.

Stability-Breakdown n/a

Rare Minerals
129

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Caves and Cave Ice

30 ice caves of which 25 caves are in the El 

Malpais cave database (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). Ice was documented 

as present at least once by El Malpais NM 

staff at least once between 2000 and 2008 

(NPS 2015a). In 2012, ice was present in five 

caves, absent in two caves, and in unknown 

condition in 17 of the ice caves documented 

by Marinakis (1997) (NPS 2012). In 2015, 

seasonal or perennial ice was present in the 

nine caves that were monitored, although one 

of the caves (029) that had been documented 

by Marinakis (1997) as having massive 

perennial ice only held seasonal ice (NPS 

2015a). 

Since the 1997 inventory conducted by 

Marinakis (1997), ten additional caves 

have been documented as containing ice 

(NPS 2015a). Of the 40 total lava tube caves 

documented to have contained ice, 15 caves 

contained ice in 2015, with the presence/

absence of ice in 24 caves being unknown 

(NPS 2015a). The only documented ice 

cave known to have completely lost its ice 

pool is cave 084, where breakdown filled the 

former ice pool (Marinakis 1997). Although 

the presence/absence of ice in many caves 

in 2015 is unknown because they were not 

monitored, ice was present in all caves that 

were monitored (NPS 2015a). Whether the 

relative amount of ice has changed in these 

caves is unknown, at least one cave (023) 

apparently had less ice (NPS 2015a). Ice in 

El Malpais lava tubes can be very sensitive 

to slight disturbances. The presence of NPS 

staff in one area of a cave during monitoring 

in summer 2015 was significant enough 

to begin melting (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015).

Photo monitoring can be an important tool in 

measuring the vital signs of cave ice, although 

it is important that repeat photography take 

place in the same season(s) as ice volume 

and condition is very sensitive to seasonal 

conditions (Toomey 2009). A great deal 

of ice can accumulate over a winter but 

then disappears via ablation or melting 

during the summer (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). Although the overall 

trend of ice in El Malpais lava tube caves is 

unknown, NPS staff observed that the ice wall 

in Cave #029 previously was approximately 

2 m (6.6 ft) higher than it currently is (Eric 

Weaver, personal communication, 2015), 

suggesting that the volume of ice has decreased 

since the 1980s.However, because the date 

Table 4.6.4-1. Indicators, measures, and rationale used to assess the current condition of caves and cave ice.

Indicator Measure Condition Rationale for Condition

Cave 

Meteorology

Temperature 

and Humidity

Unknown Temperature and humidity conditions in El Malpais caves are unknown. However, because 

the lava tube caves are shallow and because many caves have more than one opening, 

there is a connectivity between conditions at the surface and conditions inside caves. The 

annual mean temperature at El Malpais has risen significantly since the 1980s, suggesting 

that temperatures inside caves also may be increasing.

Permanent 

and Seasonal 

Ice

Presence/

Absence

Unknown The condition of permanent and seasonal cave ice in El Malpais is unknown. Cave ice has 

been documented in 40 caves within the national monument. Monitoring in 15 of these 

caves in 2015 found at least seasonal ice in each cave, but the relative quantity of ice in 

these caves is not known. Warming climatic conditions at the surface may lead to warmer 

conditions inside caves, potentially decreasing the amount of cave ice.

Direct Visitor 

Impacts

Degree of 

Impact

Unknown The Impact Assessment Map for Junction Cave showed that the majority of the cave 

had significant impact. However, the impact assessment for Junction Cave is the only 

assessment completed to date in El Malpais, and this cave has more visitor impacts than the 

other lava tubes open to recreational caving (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 2015). 

Therefore, the condition for direct visitor impact is unknown.

StabilityBreakdownn/a Unknown Breakdown is a common feature of El Malpais caves. Much of the breakdown probably 

formed during cooling after cave formation, but heavily jointed ceilings and walls can be 

unstable causing additional breakdown events. Formation of new breakdown has been 

documented, but the condition of stability-breakdown at El Malpais is unknown.

Rare Minerals n/a Unknown El Malpais contains several minerals that very rarely occur in caves, including burkeite, 

cristobalite, glaserite, thenardite and trona. Many of these minerals occur as part of fragile 

speleothems or deposits such as angel hair, loose powder, “snowballs,” or moonmilk. The 

rare minerals in El Malpais caves are not being monitored, so their condition is unknown.
130

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

of the 1980s photograph is not known, the 

comparison may not be representative of any 

long-term trend. 

Additionally, the climatic conditions at the 

surface, including both temperature and 

precipitation, can impact the amount of ice in 

caves (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). Winter (November - March) 2014-

2015 was significantly warmer than average 

with near normal amounts of precipitation 

(Western Regional Climate Center 2015), 

and even so, at least some ice was present at 

some point during the year in all monitored 

ice caves (NPS 2015a).

Additional information about ice caves in 

the El Malpais region includes long term 

monitoring of the privately owned Candelaria 

Ice Cave, revealing that it has had a complex 

history of accumulation and ablation 

(Dickfoss et al. 1997). An ice cliff showed 

significant horizontal ablation, but the ice pool 

had accumulation during most time intervals. 

The current condition of Candelaria Ice Cave 

is not known.

Direct Visitor Impact

The Junction Cave Impact Assessment Map 

shows significant impacts in most areas of 

the cave including multiple social trails, some 

spray paint, mud sculptures and broken glass 

(Eric Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). Junction Cave is the most visited 

of El Malpais caves and has more direct 

visitor impacts than the other caves open to 

recreational caving (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015), whereas visitor impact 

in Big Skylight and Giant Ice Cave is relatively 

small (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). Junction and Xenolith Caves are more 

accessible than the other two open caves 

and, therefore, receive significantly more 

use. Junction Cave is closed to protect bats 

during the winter (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). 

El Malpais NM staff are in the process of 

establishing caves in trails using reflective 

markers (Figure 4.6.4-1) and will assess the 

effectiveness of established trails on reducing 

visitor impacts in caves in the future (Eric 

Weaver, personal communication, 2015. 

Direct visitor impacts in lava tube caves at El 

Malpais NM may be more permanent than 

impacts in wet limestone caves undergoing 

active speleogenesis (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). Most of the features 

in the lava tube caves formed during or 

immediately after lava flow emplacement, 

including lava benches, levees, linings, 

lava balls (Rogers and Mosch 1997a). Lava 

stalactites, stalagmites and lavacicles also 

resulted from the formation of lava tubes 

(Marinakis 1997). Secondary mineral 

deposits, such as gypsum and other sulfates, 

also probably formed at the time of eruption 

(Dillon et al. 2009), although there are 

different mechanisms by which these mineral 

deposits my form. But because many key 

features of lava tube caves are not undergoing 

active cave processes, they may not be able to 

heal themselves like those in wet limestone 

caves.

Additionally, large group sizes may cause 

additional direct visitor impacts to caves 

(Eric Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). Large school groups have visited El 

Malpais lava tubes, with groups as large as 80 

individuals. Monument staff plan to develop 

a raised platform through Junction Bridge (a 

short cave segment immediately adjacent to 

Junction Cave) to provide a caving experience 

more appropriate for large groups (Eric 

Weaver, personal communication, 2015). The 

overall condition of caves relative to direct 

visitor impacts is unknown.

Stability-Breakdown

Much of the breakdown at the entrances 

to and in El Malpais caves and skylights 

likely formed during initial cooling of the 

lava flows (Rogers and Mosch 1997a), but 

the formation of breakdown is an ongoing 

process. The ceilings and walls of lava tube 

caves are generally heavily jointed, decreasing 

their stability, and loose blocks may be found 

in cave ceilings. Areas of new breakdown 

have been recorded in El Malpais caves (Eric 

Weaver, personal communication, 2015). 

Because El Malpais caves are not being 

monitored for stability-breakdown, the 

condition of this indicator is unknown.
131

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Caves and Cave Ice

Rare Minerals

The rare minerals in El Malpais caves are not 

being monitored. However, as part of cave 

impact assessments and cave mapping, El 

Malpais staff are inventorying the locations 

of secondary cave minerals (Eric Weaver, 

personal communication, 2015). It is usually 

not possible to differentiate between some 

of the unusual minerals and more common 

carbonates and sulfates in the field without 

using analytical methods. (Eric Weaver, 

personal communication, 2015).

Many of these minerals occur as components 

of fragile or delicate speleothems or cave 

features. Mirabilite may only be seasonally 

present as it dissolves under wetter conditions. 

Most of the rare minerals in El Malpais lava 

tubes are Na-sulfates or Na-carbonates, 

including burkeite, thenardite and trona. 

These minerals may also be impacted by 

seasonal changes in the lava tubes such as 

those that occur in lava tube caves at Craters 

of the Moon National Monument (McHenry 

2008). 

Overall Condition and Trend

The overall condition and trend of the caves 

and cave ice in El Malpais NM is unknown. 

Although, areas of concern exist including a 

warming climate trend and visitor impacts.

4.6.5. Sources of Expertise

Allyson Mathis, a science writer for Utah State 

University, authored this assessment. Eric 

Weaver is the Cave Management Specialist 

and acting Chief of Natural Resources at 

El Malpais NM and provided information 

about the park’s cave resource management 

program.

4.6.6. Literature Cited

Bleakly, David L. 1997. Plant life on the lava—

the vegetation and flora of El Malpais. 

Pages 113–138 in K. Mabery, editor. 

Natural history of El Malpais National 

Monument. Bulletin 156. New Mexico 

Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, 

Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Carlton, Kent. 1988. Lava Tube System 

Resource Inventory Report. El Malpais 

National Monument. 100 p. Sensitive 

Report - Do Not Distribute.

Dickfoss, P. V., J. L. Betancourt, L. G. 

Thompson, R. M. Turner, and S. 

Tharnstrom. 1997. History of ice at 

Candelaria Ice Cave, New Mexico. 

Pages 91–112 in K. Mabery, editor. 

Natural history of El Malpais National 

Monument. Bulletin 156. New Mexico 

Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, 

Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Dillon, Julian R., Polyak, Victor J, and 

Asmerom, Yemane. 2009. Dating of 

Quaternary Eruption Events Using 

U-Series Ages of Lava Cave Gypsum 

Crusts. Geological Society of America 

Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 41, 

No. 7, p. 193. Available at https://gsa.

confex.com/gsa/2009AM/finalprogram/

abstract_167216.htm (accessed 

November 19, 2015).

Hill, Carol A., and Forti, Paolo. 1997. Cave 

Minerals of the World. Second Edition. 

National Speleological Society. 463 p.

Caves and Cave Ice

Indicators Measures

Cave Meteorology Temperature and 

Humidity

Perennial and 

Seasonal Ice Presence/Absence

Direct Visitor 

Impacts Degree of Impact

StabilityBreakdown No measures

Rare Minerals No measures

Figure 4.6.4-1.

Reflective trail 

markers to reduce 

direct visitor 

impacts have been 

installed in Xenolith 

Cave.

NPS
132

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Ingram, K.L., Northup, D.E., and W.C. 

Welbourn. 1996. Lava Tube Fire Impact 

Study El Malpais National Monument 

New Mexico Final Report. Available at 

https://irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/

Profile/177763 (accessed November 17, 

2015).

Ingram, K.L., Northup, D.E., and W.C. 

Welbourn. 2004. Climate modeling for 

two lava tube caves at El Malpais National 

Monument, New Mexico USA: AMCS 

Bulletin 19: 126-131. Available at http://

www.vulcanospeleology.org/sym11/

ISV11p7.pdf (accessed December 1, 

2014).

KellerLynn, K. 2012. El Malpais National 

Monument: geologic resources inventory 

report. Natural Resource Report NPS/

NRSS/GRD/NRR—2012/578. National 

Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Reference/Profile/2189181 (accessed 

March 29, 2015).

Lindsey, Alton A. 1951. Vegetation and 

Habitats in a Southwestern Volcanic 

Area. Ecological Monographs: 21, 227-

253. Available at http://www.jstor.org/

stable/1943559 (accessed October 22, 

2015).

Marinakis, Harry A. 1997. The Lava Tube 

Cave Systems of El Malpais National 

Monument and the Surrounding 

Lava Beds. A Cave Inventory and 

Cave Management Consulting Report 

Prepared Under Contract for the National 

Park Service. Sensitive Report - Do Not 

Distribute. Sensitive Report - Do Not 

Distribute.

McHenry, Lindsay J. 2008. Unusual Sulfate 

Cave Mineral Deposits at Craters of 

the Moon National Monument, Idaho: 

Potential Analogue for Meridiani 

Planum, Mars. Available at https://

pantherfile.uwm.edu/lmchenry/www/

McHenryCOM08.pdf (accessed 

November 18, 2015).

Monahan WB and Fisichelli NA. 2014. 

Recent Climate Change Exposure of El 

Malpais National Monument. National 

Park Service. Resource Brief-2212626. 

Available at https://irma.nps.gov/App/

Reference/Profile/2212626 (accessed 

November 18, 2015).

National Park Service. 2012. Ice_Cave_List.

xlsx. Excel Spreadsheet. October 4, 2012. 

Provided by El Malpais NM. 

National Park Service. 2013. Visitor WNS 

Screening & Recreational Caving Permit 

SOP. Sensitive Document - Do Not 

Distribute.

National Park Service. 2014. Foundation 

Document. El Malpais National 

Monument.

National Park Service. 2015a. NPS 2015 

ELMA cave data. Excel Spreadsheet. 

November 24, 2015. Allyson Mathis and 

Eric Weaver collaboration.

National Park Service. 2015b. Junction Cave 

Impact Assessment Map. Jpg file.

Rogers, B. W., and C. J. Mosch. 1997a. In 

the basement—lava-tube origins and 

morphology. Pages 61–68 in K. Mabery, 

editor. Natural history of El Malpais 

National Monument. Bulletin 156. New 

Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral 

Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Rogers, B. W., and C. J. Mosch. 1997b. 

Snowballs in the underground—lavatube deposits and morphology. Pages 83–

90 in K. Mabery, editor. Natural history 

of El Malpais National Monument. 

Bulletin 156. New Mexico Bureau of 

Mines and Mineral Resources, Socorro, 

New Mexico, USA.

Sandia Grotto. 2003. Initial Report - Navajo 

Ice Cave. July 2003. Caves of El Malpais 

National Monument Project (ElMaP). 

Sensitive Report - Do Not Distribute.

Toomey, R.S., III. 2009. Geological monitoring 

of caves and associated landscapes, in 

Young, R., and Norby, L., Geological 

Monitoring: Boulder, Colorado, 
133

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Caves and Cave Ice

Geological Society of America, p. 27–

46, doi: 10.1130/2009.monitoring(02). 

Available at https://www.nature.nps.gov/

geology/monitoring/files/geomon-02.pdf 

(accessed November 24, 2015).

Western Regional Climate Center. 2015. El 

Morro National Monument. Monthly 

Average of Average Daily Temperature. 

Available at http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/

cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?nm2785 (accessed 

November 20, 2015).

Wynne, J. J. 2013. Inventory, conservation, 

and management of lava tube caves at 

El Malpais National Monument, New 

Mexico. Park Science 30(1):45-55. 

Available at http://www.nature.nps.gov/

parkscience/Archive/PDF/Article_PDFs/

ParkScience30(1)Summer2013_45-55_

Wynne_3651.pdf (accessed November 

18, 2015).

135

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Tinajas

4.7. Tinajas

4.7.1. Background and Importance

Ephemeral aquatic habitats at El Malpais 

National Monument are limited and occur 

as freshwater rock pools known as tinajas. 

Globally these pools occur in every biome, 

varying greatly in size. The interactions 

between the geology and climate determine 

the morphology, hydrology, and biology of 

the pools (Jocque et al. 2010).

Tinajas at El Malpais NM are found in eroded 

depressions on sedimentary rock substrates 

found at the eastern side of the park and smaller 

ones are found on the lava flows (KellerLynn 

2012) (Figure 4.7.1-1). These pools are 

ephemeral and volumes of water held in them 

is typically low. The source of input to these 

catchments is meteoric precipitation (Figure 

4.7.1-1) and environmental conditions such 

as high temperature ranges within daily and 

annual cycles results in extreme fluctuations 

of water levels in the tinajas. These rapid 

fluctuations in water availability require a 

high stress tolerance in species that utilize 

these habitats.

The organism community structure found 

in tinajas is typically simple and comprised 

of aquatic opportunists or specialists with 

dispersal and recolonizing adaptations 

necessary for survival (Graham 2002). 

There are three types of pool dispersers: 

passive (such as large branchiopods like Triops

and fairy shrimp), terrestrial (amphibians and 

toads), and aerial (insects). Passive dispersers 

usually travel relatively short distances, relying 

on wind and/or overflow between pools 

and exhibit high endemicity. The terrestrial 

and aerial species are active dispersers and 

migration usually occurs during their adult 

phases (e.g, toads vs. tadpoles, insect adults 

vs. larvae, etc.). In general, a higher number of 

passive dispersers have been found in North 

Figure 4.7.1-1.

Dry tinajas located 

on top of Sandstone 

Bluffs at El Malpais 

National Monument.

©PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Indicators/Measures

• Climate Variables (2 measures)

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Moderate - Insufficient Data - Low
136

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

American pools; however, this may be a result 

of a lack of comprehensive research (Jocque 

et al. 2010). 

Tinajas that are intermittently dry usually 

have lower species richness, contain 

organisms that can quickly disperse, such 

as branchiopods with smaller cysts, and 

have species that can remain dormant for 

several years. The research suggests that as 

the diversity of communities decrease with 

decreasing hydroperiod, biotic interactions 

become less important (Therriault & Kolasa 

2001; Wellborn et al., 1996 as cited in Jocque 

2010). Conversely, large rains or multiple rain 

events provide more opportunity for dispersal 

as well as organism diversity (Graham 2002). 

During Wupatki National Monument’s 

ephemeral pool inventory, no Branchiopoda 

species were found within the pools that 

were of similar in size/depth (volumes of 

0.09, 0.32, 0.12 m/m3

) to those likely found 

throughout El Malpais NM (Graham 2002). 

However, at least one species of Triops has 

been observed throughout some of the tinajas 

by park and NPS Southern Colorado Plateau 

Inventory and Monitoring Network (SCPN) 

staff (D. Hays, Former Branch Chief of NR, 

pers. comm. 2015), which may suggest that El 

Malpais represents a higher species richness 

in similar sized tinajas. Steve Monroe, NPS 

SCPN Hydrologist, observed several species 

in the sandstone tinajas along the eastern 

side of the park, including fairy shrimp, 

canyon tree frogs (both tadpoles and adults), 

and springsnails. The latter are particularly 

significant since there has been discussions 

of nominating some species of springsnails 

in New Mexico for endangered status (S. 

Monroe, SCPN Hydrologist, pers. comm.).

To date, no formal studies have been 

conducted at the park to determine tinaja 

community presence, composition, or trends, 

but Lightfoot et al. (1994) found Canyon 

Treefrog (Hyla arenicolor) to be common 

in tinajas and stock tanks on the east side of 

the park. Later, during the park’s 2002-2003 

herpetofauna inventory, Nowak and Persons 

(2008) did not locate this species, suggesting 

that drought conditions during the time of the 

survey may have been the cause. 

4.7.2. Data and Methods

Since species communities are dependent on 

the length and frequency of pool inundations, 

the active communities likely reflect the 

prevailing climate conditions. As such, climate 

variables of precipitation and Reconnaissance 

Drought Index (RDI) were used to assess 

tinaja condition given the lack of survey data.

Indicator/Measure

Climate Variable: Amount of Precipitation

Mean annual precipitation was determined 

using 1938-2015 data from the El Morro 

National Weather Service (NWS) cooperative 

weather station (coop ID 292785). Individual 

months were not used for annual statistics 

if more than five days were missing (WRCC 

2016).

Indicator/Measure

Climate Variable: Reconnaissance Drought 

Index

RDI for El Malpais was calculated using 1939-

2015 data from the El Morro NWS weather 

station (coop ID 292785) (WRCC 2015), 

filtered to remove waters years in which any 

month was missing seven or more precipitation 

or temperature values (water years: 1942-43, 

1947-50, 1952, 1955, 1965, 2000-01, 2012, and 

2014) (Jodi Norris, personal communication, 

2016), using the DrinC software package 

(Tigkas et al. 2013). Annual RDI was estimated 

using the Thornthwaite method of estimation 

for potential evapotranspiration, which is 

based on mean air temperatures (Jodi Norris, 

personal communication, 2015).

The RDI time scale is yearly and 

incorporates both precipitation and 

potential evapotranspiration into its 

calculations (Tsakaris and Vangelis 2005). The 

incorporation of potential evapotranspiration 

provides important advantages over other 

drought indices and is more suitable in cases 

of a changing environment (Fuchs 2012), but 

it does not provide insight into occurrence, 

frequency, or temporal distribution of intense 

precipitation events. As such, its use is more 

appropriate for application at the landscape 

scale (Stephen Monroe, Hydrologist, 

Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 
137

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Tinajas

National Park Service, review comment 

included in ELMO historic pool assessment 

review, 2015).

It’s important to note that data from the 

Grants, New Mexico coop station, which 

is closer to El Malpais, were not used for 

either measure. The station had a short data 

record and was not very consistent with the 

surrounding stations, whereas the El Morro 

station record was longer and reasonably 

consistent with several of the surrounding 

stations. Also, the El Morro station is close 

enough to El Malpais to use as a general 

record of drought stress for El Malpais NM 

(Jodi Norris, personal communication, 2015).

4.7.3. Reference Conditions

The reference conditions by which tinaja 

condition was assessed are listed in Table 

4.7.3-1.

4.7.4. Condition and Trend 

The average annual precipitation for the 

period of record (1938-2015) was 13.6 inches, 

with a range of 7.8 - 19.5 inches (Figure 

4.7.4-1) (WRCC 2016 - Station #292785). 

Precipitation was well above average in 

2015, with 17.45 inches, which is one of the 

highest amounts on record, suggesting an 

improvement in the recent drought conditions 

that occurred from 2012-2014. The western 

half of Cibola County New Mexico, where 

the park is located, is still considered to be 

abnormally dry (Figure 4.7.4-2) (National 

Drought Mitigation Center 2016). Taking this 

into account, along with the high amount of 

rainfall in 2015, this measure was considered 

to be in good to moderate condition.

The normalized RDI value for 2015 was 

0.25, which indicates near normal conditions 

(Figure 4.7.4-3) (Nicolas et al. 2011). However, 

the longer-term trend of RDI in the region 

for several years preceding 2015 were either 

negative (i.e., 1999, 2002-2004, 2007-2008, 

2011, 2013) or very low (i.e., 2005-2006, 2009-

2010), suggesting overall drier conditions, 

warranting a moderate condition rating. 

Figure 4.7.4-1.

The average annual 

precipitation from 

1938-2015 was 13.6 

inches (WRCC 2016 - 

Station #292785).

Table 4.7.3-1. Reference conditions for tinajas. 

Indicator Measures Good Moderate Significant Concern

Climate Variables

Amount of 

Precipitation

Current rainfall 

average has remained 

stable and/or 

increased compared 

to the average for the 

period of record.

Current rainfall 

average is 

moderately less than 

the average for the 

period of record.

Current rainfall 

average is 

significantly less than 

the average for the 

period of record.

Degree of 

Drought

No recent drought 

conditions over the 

period of record.

Abnormally dry 

to mild drought 

conditions over the 

period of record.

Severe to exceptional 

drought conditions 

over the period of 

record.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Tinajas

Indicator Measures

Climate Variables

Amount of 

Precipitation

Degree of Drought

Overall Condition

The conditions for both measures are 

summarized in Table 4.7.4-1, with an overall 

condition rating of moderate.

Uncertainties

Recent climate change models for the 

southwestern United States predict possible 

scenarios ranging from hotter and drier 

(less frequent, higher intensity rain events); 

to warm and wet (slight increase in rainfall 

frequency as well as an increase in the 

intensity of rain events); or what’s known as 

Feast or Famine (high degree of variability, 

but increase in intensity of rain events) 

(Stephen Monroe, Hydrologist, Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network, National Park 

Service, review comment included in ELMO 

historic pool assessment review, 2015), which 

will influence the water availability in tinajas.

Figure 4.7.4-3. RDI for El Malpais NM using data (1939-2015) from the El Morro National 

Weather Service station. RDI calculated by Jodi Norris, Landscape and Quantitative Ecologist, 

SCPN, using the DrinC software package. Figure Credit: Jodi Norris.

Figure 4.7.4-2. According to the National 

Drought Mitigation Center (2016), the western 

half of Cibola County, where El Malpais is 

located, is still in an abnormally dry condition, 

although greatly improved during 2015. 

Rectangle shows approximate location of the 

park.
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Tinajas

The confidence level for this assessment is 

low given the fact that no formal studies have 

been conducted and that the availability of 

water is likely variable throughout the park. 

4.7.5. Sources of Expertise

Jodi Norris, Landscape and Quantitative 

Ecologist, Southern Colorado Plateau 

Network, calculated RDI using data from the 

El Morro National Weather Service station 

and prepared Figure 4.7.2-1. Steve Monroe, 

Hydrologist for the NPS Southern Colorado 

Plateau Inventory and Monitoring Network, 

and Joel Wagner, Wetlands Specialist with the 

NPS Water Resources Division, reviewed this 

assessment.

4.7.6. Literature Cited

Driver, E. A., 1981. Calorific values of pond 

invertebrates eaten by ducks. Freshwat. 

Biol. 11: 579–581 as cited in Graham 2002.

Fuchs, Brian. 2012. Drought Indices and 

Indicators in use around the World. 

Available at http://drought.unl.edu/

Portals/0/docs/workshops/03222012_

Kingston_Jamaica/Brian%20Fuchs-

-SPI%20and%20SPEI.pdf (accessed 

October 2, 2105).

Graham, T.B. 2002. Survey of aquatic 

macroinvertebrates and amphibians at 

Wupatki National Monument, Arizona, 

USA: An evaluation of selected factors 

affecting species richness in ephemeral 

pools. Hydrobiologia 486: 215–224.

Jocque, M., B. Vanschoenwinkel and L. 

Brendonck. 2010. Freshwater rock pools: 

a review of habitat characteristics of 

faunal diversity and conservation value. 

Freshwater Biology. doi:10.1111/j.1365-

2427.2010.02402.x. 16p.

KellerLynn, K. 2012. El Malpais National 

Monument: geologic resources inventory 

report. Natural Resource Report NPS/

NRSS/GRD/NRR—2012/578. National 

Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Lightfoot, D.C., D.L. Bleakly, R.R. Parmenter, 

and J.R. Gosz. 1994. Vegetation and 

wildlife inventory of El Malpais National 

Monument. Final Report . University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Nowak, E.M., and T.B. Persons. 2008. 

Inventory of amphibians and reptiles for 

twelve national parks in the Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network. Final report 

to the National Park Service, Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network, Flagstaff, AZ.

Nicolas, Dalezios R., Anna Blanta, Nicos 

Spyropoulos, Nicholas Pismichos, 

and Evangelia Boukouvala. 2011. 

Spatiotemporal classification of 

drought severity. Proceedings of the 

International Conference on Information 

and Communication Technologies 

for Sustainable Agri-production and 

Environment. Available at http://ceurws.org/Vol-1152/paper14.pdf (accessed 

October 1, 2015).

Therriault T.W. & Kolasa J. 2001. Desiccation 

frequency reduces species diversity and 

predictability of community structure 

in coastal rock pools. Israel Journal of 

Zoology, 47, 477–489 as cited in Jocque 

2010.

Table 4.7.4-1. Summary of tinaja condition rationale.

Indicator of 

Condition Measure Condition Rationale for Condition.

Climate 

Variables

Amount of 

Precipitation

Good to 

Moderate

Precipitation was well above average in 2015 but below 

in several of the most recent years, warranting a good to 

moderate condition rating. 

Reconnaissance 

Drought Index

Moderate Even though drought conditions improved in 2015, drought 

conditions have prevailed in the region most recently, 

warranting a moderate condition rating.
Tigkas D., Vangelis H., Tsakiris G., 2013. The 

Drought Indices Calculator (DrinC). 

In proceedings of 8th International 

EWRA conference “Water Resources 

Management in an Interdisciplinary and 

Changing Context”, R. Maia et al. (eds.). 

Porto, Portugal, 26-29 June 2013. p.1333-

1342. Available at http://drinc.ewra.net/

DrinC_EWRA_Porto2013.pdf (accessed 

September 21, 2015).

Tsakiris, G. and H. Vangelis. 2005. Establishing 

a Drought Index Incorporating 

Evapotranspiration. European Water 

9/10: 3-11. Available at http://mtercek.

webfactional.com/rdi.pdf (accessed 

September 29, 2015).

U.S. Drought Monitor. 2015. U.S. Drought 

Monitor Map Archive. New Mexico. 

Available at http://droughtmonitor.unl.

edu/MapsAndData/MapArchive.aspx 

(accessed October 1, 2015).

Wellborn G.A., Skelly D.K. & Werner E.E. 

1996. Mechanisms creating community 

structure across a freshwater habitat 

gradient. Annual Review of Ecology 

and Systematics, 27, 337–363 as cited in 

Jocque 2010.

Western Regional Climate Center. 2016. 

Monthly sum of precipitation. El Morro 

National Monument. Available at http://

www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.

pl?nm2785 (accessed January 5, 2016).
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

4.8. Vegetation- Piñon and Juniper

4.8.1. Background and Importance 

Piñon pine (Pinus edulis) and one-seed 

juniper (Juniperus monosperma) (piñonjuniper) is a major habitat type found within 

the boundaries of El Malpais NM, and it 

comprises approximately 20% of the total 

area of the monument according to recent 

vegetation mapping efforts by Muldavin et 

al. (2013; Figures 4.8.1-1 and 4.8.1-2). Piñonjuniper habitats have considerable value to 

wildlife. Piñon-juniper woodlands serve an 

important role as cover, particularly thermal 

cover during winter, for large mammals such 

as mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk 

(Cervus elaphus) (Fairchild 1999; Gillihan 

2006). They also provide food sources for 

many wildlife species. 

Piñon nuts are consumed by a variety of both 

mammal and bird species, and some of these 

species, such as Piñon Jays (Gymnorhinus 

cyanocephalus), even specialize on this food 

source (Balda 2002; Figure 4.8.1-3, on left). 

Juniper berries also provide a food source 

for a variety of wildlife, such as Townsend’s 

Solitaires (Myadestes townsendi; Figure 4.8.1-

3, on right), which winter in areas of juniper 

(Bowen 1997). In addition to providing 

food, piñons and junipers provide nesting 

habitat for a variety of species (Gillihan 

2006). Because of their food and other values, 

piñon-juniper woodlands support a higher 

abundance and diversity of birds than many 

other forest types, as well as one of the highest 

proportions of obligate or semi-obligate bird 

species (Gillihan 2006; Paulin et al. 1999). 

Also, as noted in Section 4.15 of this report, 

some bat species at El Malpais NM may use 

this type of vegetation for roosting (ChungMacCoubrey 1996).

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Good – Unchanging – High

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Figure 4.8.1-1.

Piñon-juniper 

vegetation atop 

El Calderon at El 

Malpais NM.

Indicators/Measures

• Are the species present and their 

distributions consistent with supply and 

demand of light, water, nutrients, and 

growing space, and within their natural 

range of variability?

• Are stand densities within their range 

of natural variability for their growing 

conditions?

• Are the age class distributions of piñons 

and junipers consistent with the expected 

range of variability for this site/ecosystem 

type?

• Do the trees and understory plants 

appear vigorous and healthy for this site/

ecosystem type?

• Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) 

operating within a natural range of 

variability?

• Are the current levels of insects and/or 

disease within the normal range for this 

ecosystem type?
142

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment © SALLY KING

Figure 4.8.1-2.

Distribution of the 

two main categories 

of Piñon-juniper 

vegetation at El 

Malpais NM based 

on recent vegetation 

mapping (Muldavin 

et al. 2013). 

Figure 4.8.1-3.

Piñon Jays (on 

left), specialize 

on piñon nuts as 

a food source, 

and Townsend’s 

Solitaires (on right) 

eat juniper berries. 

© ROBERT SHANTZ
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

4.8.2. Data and Methods 

We adapted criteria developed by Edmonds 

et al. (2011), in consultation with piñonjuniper experts, to evaluate the condition 

of piñon-juniper habitat at El Malpais NM. 

Eight indicators were presented by Edmonds 

et al. (2011), including two that are related to 

water (aquatic species and clean flows from 

streams) and do not apply to the monument. 

One additional indicator, wildlife, was also 

eliminated (but addressed elsewhere in this 

assessment), leaving five original indicators. 

These remaining five were split apart for 

clarity (into six indicators), and formed 

the basis of our piñon-juniper indicators/

measures. It should be noted that although 

the “clean flows from streams” indicator was 

eliminated, it is related to soil erosion, and we 

report on instances of erosion if they were 

observed/are known to exist.

Indicators/Measures

• Are the species present and their 

distributions consistent with supply and 

demand of light, water, nutrients, and 

growing space, and within their natural 

range of variability? (1)

• Are stand densities within their range 

of natural variability for their growing 

conditions? (2)

• Are the age class distributions of piñons 

and junipers consistent with the expected 

range of variability for this site/ecosystem 

type? (3)

• Do the trees and understory plants 

appear vigorous and healthy for this site/

ecosystem type? (4)

• Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) 

operating within a natural range of 

variability? (5)

• Are the current levels of insects and/or 

diseases within the normal range for this 

ecosystem type? (6)

The first indicator/measure assesses whether 

the species and their distributions are within 

the natural range expected for the vegetation 

type (community). The second indicator/

measure assesses tree densities within the 

plant communities, which can provide insight 

into the dynamics of a community to indicate 

condition. For example, if trees are more dense 

than expected, it could mean that conditions 

are conducive for those species and ecological 

processes such as fire are absent from the 

system. Higher than expected tree densities 

can lead to suppression of understory plant 

growth and diversity, and to reduced water 

yield in streams and springs because of 

increased transpiration by the trees. If trees 

occur in lower densities than expected, 

there could be some factor negatively 

affecting their recruitment or survival (e.g., 

fire or insects/disease or drought). The 

third indicator/measure, focusing on age 

class distribution, can reveal information 

on natural processes, such as seedling 

recruitment, fire, or other disturbances, that 

are characteristic of different types of plant 

communities. Information obtained under 

the fourth indicator/measure can indicate 

whether nutrient cycling, water supply, light 

supply, etc., are operating within parameters 

that support the plant communities. The 

plants’ physical appearance can provide 

information pertaining to this measure. 

Under the next indicator/measure, fire scars, 

type of vegetation, age of trees, and even 

historical photographs to a certain extent, 

can provide information that helps assess the 

range of variation for ecological processes. 

The final indicator/measure focuses on the 

current condition of infestations from insects 

or certain diseases that may indicate overall 

rigor of the system.

Although we generally consider these six 

measures as falling into two groups, or 

types of indicators, ecological or vegetation 

characteristics (1-4 and 6) and ecological 

processes (5), there is also overlap among 

them. Therefore, we do not distinguish 

between the two groups throughout the 

assessment and treat each measure as having 

approximately equal weight. 

The Field Assessment

This assessment is based on a vegetation field 

assessment conducted at El Malpais NM on 

June 2-3, 2015, with piñon-juniper experts 

William Romme and Brian Jacobs, personnel 
144

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

from El Malpais National Monument, 

personnel from the Southern Colorado 

Plateau Network (SCPN), and one member 

of the NRCA writing team (these individuals 

are named in Section 4.8.5 of this chapter 

and/or Table A.1 of Appendix A). The field 

assessment report produced by W. Romme 

and B. Jacobs (i.e., Romme and Jacobs 2015) 

was used heavily in the following sections.

Areas of the park visited during the two days 

of field work included the El Calderon area, 

the western end of the Zuni-Acoma trail, 

the Sandstone Bluffs overlook area, the Lava 

Falls area, the west side of the park (and the 

El Malpais National Conservation Area, 

managed by BLM) via a drive on unimproved 

Road 42, and the Cerro Bandera area. 

Previously existing reports that were used in 

the assessment are cited as appropriate in the 

following sections.

4.8.3. Reference Conditions

Based more on ecological processes and 

dynamics of the vegetation (than on floristic 

composition and physiognomy, as in the 

vegetation mapping of Muldavin et al. 

2013), Romme and Jacobs (2015) concluded 

that there are two fundamentally different 

kinds of piñon-juniper habitats within the 

national monument: 1) persistent piñonjuniper woodlands, and 2) juniper-piñon 

savannas (Table 4.8.3-1). These two general 

habitat types form the basis for the reference 

conditions used to assess the condition 

of piñon-juniper habitats throughout the 

national monument. 

Note that Romme and Jacobs (2015) used 

a functional classification of the vegetation 

because it is more useful in the context of 

the condition assessment. The dynamics of 

Table 4.8.3-1. Piñon-juniper habitat types used as references (adapted from Romme et al. 2008, 2009). 

Fire regime information based on several sources (Romme et al. 2007, 2008, 2009; Floyd et al. 2000, 2004; 

Shinneman and Baker 2009). Reference photos below from Capulin Volcano NM (NPS photos; condition 

section [Table 4.8.4-1] contains photos for El Malpais NM).

Persistent Piñon-Juniper Woodland

Canopy: The canopy of persistent piñon-juniper woodlands ranges from sparse 

stands of scattered small trees growing on poor substrates to relatively dense stands 

of large trees on more productive sites. The canopy may be dominated by either 

piñon or juniper or both.

Understory: The understory of persistent piñon-juniper woodlands can be 

dominated by shrubs, forbs, or less commonly grasses. However, the understory is 

typically sparse with extensive areas of bare soil or rock.

Site Conditions: Persistent piñon-juniper woodlands may occur on a wide variety of 

substrates and topographic settings but are most commonly associated with rugged 

uplands with shallow, coarse-textured, and often rocky soils that support relatively 

sparse herbaceous cover.

Fire Regime: Stand replacing fires with low frequency and high intensity that most 

likely vary in size and extent. The fire interval in these stands is typically very long (at 

least multi-decadal), but more often measured in centuries. 

Piñon-Juniper (or Juniper-Piñon) Savanna

Canopy: The canopy of piñon-juniper savanna is typically characterized by low- to 

moderate-density within a well-developed grassland matrix. In some areas of the 

western United States, this type may have dense enough canopy to be considered as 

a woodland, but the key feature remains the relatively continuous grassland.

Understory: The understory of piñon-juniper savanna is consistently comprised of 

grasses.

Site Conditions: Piñon-juniper savanna typically occurs on moderately deep coarseto-fine textured soils on gentle upland and transitional valley locations. They are most 

common in areas where the precipitation is dominated by summer monsoon.

Fire Regime: The pre-1900 fire regimes in piñon-juniper savanna are not well 

understood, but are believed to be of lower intensity and more frequent than the 

woodland fire frequencies (e.g., at intervals of years or decades).
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

a piñon-juniper stand are more informative 

than the local species composition, because 

composition is primarily a reflection of soil 

and climate conditions and responds slowly 

to environmental stresses (W. Romme, pers. 

comm.). On the other hand, components 

such as tree density and fire frequency 

respond more quickly to environmental 

change, and affect the ecosystem as a whole. 

Their classification still includes species 

composition, just not as the first step in the 

classification process.

We considered the condition to be good 

for a given indicator within each piñonjuniper habitat type if it was consistent with 

maintaining:

● a fully functioning community of plants 

(and animals that each piñon-juniper 

habitat type supports),

● resilience to natural or anthropogenic 

disturbances that vary in intensity, 

duration, and size, while maintaining 

or sustaining the piñon-juniper habitat 

type’s inherent complexity, and

● the natural dynamics of the piñonjuniper habitat type with respect to 

productivity, nutrient capital, and 

biodiversity.

We considered the condition to be of 

moderate concern if there was some 

departure from the elements listed above 

for a given indicator, but that the piñonjuniper habitat type was capable of restoring 

itself to a good condition on its own, or with 

limited management intervention. Finally, we 

considered the condition to be of significant 

concern for a given indicator if there was 

substantial departure from the elements listed 

above that were either irreversible or would 

require substantial management intervention 

to return the condition to good. 

Reference Period

The period of time used as a reference for 

assessing vegetation at the national monument 

was the period of several centuries up to 

around 1880 (Romme and Jacobs 2015). In 

evaluating ecological change in the Southwest, 

this pre-1880 time period has often been 

used. Note that the remainder of this section 

(4.8.3) was taken directly from Romme and 

Jacobs (2015).

The several centuries prior to around 

1880 was not a time without any 

human impacts, nor a time without 

any ecological change. However, the 

rate and magnitude of human impacts 

and ecological changes increased 

dramatically beginning in the late 

19th century, with the onset of very 

heavy livestock grazing, industrial 

scale logging, and a market economy 

supported in part by an expanding 

network of railroads and capital 

from outside the region. Relative 

to what would come later, the pre1880 period can be viewed as a time 

of comparatively natural ecological 

characteristics and ecological 

processes. 

Puebloan people (notably Acoma, 

Zuni, and Laguna) have continuously 

occupied the area around El Malpais 

and El Morro National Monuments 

since at least the 1100s A.D., and 

Spanish explorers, missionaries, and 

settlers began to frequent the area 

in the early 1600s (Weber 2009). 

Although Puebloan people began 

raising European livestock as early as 

the 1600s, the lands within presentday El Malpais NM probably were 

not heavily influenced by this early 

grazing, because they were somewhat 

remote from settlements and lacked 

water (Grissino-Mayer 1995). It 

seems likely that early livestock 

grazing would have had greater 

impacts on the vegetation within 

present-day El Morro NM, because 

that area was closer to Zuni Pueblo, 

provided a reliable water source, and 

was situated along a well-used trading 

route. However, the magnitude 

of pre-1880 grazing impacts at El 

Morro NM is not well understood. 

Puebloan people also harvested trees 

for construction and fuel, but those 
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

impacts probably were localized and 

left little lasting impact.

Note that upon park review of the above text 

from the Romme and Jacobs (2015) report, it 

was pointed out that some relevant historical 

information was missing, and so we present 

it here: Also around the early 1600s, Ramah 

Navajo began grazing sheep and cattle in 

the area. They continued to graze sheep in 

the El Morro area and in El Morro’s Box 

Canyon until the late 1940s/early 1950s (Steve 

Baumann, Resources Management Chief, El 

Morro and El Malpais NMs, pers. comm.; 

Ferguson 2012, Bradford 2013). 

 Changes after 1880 

After the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad 

arrived at what would become 

Grants, New Mexico, in 1881, the 

intensity of livestock grazing in 

and around the malpais increased 

dramatically. The town of San Rafael, 

at the edge of the lava flows, became 

a center for tens of thousands of 

sheep that grazed on lands within the 

future monument (Grissino-Mayer 

1995). Large cattle companies also 

were established in the area, and 

horses were pastured on some of the 

kipukas within the malpais. Grazing 

intensity was greatest during the 

1880s, then decreased in the 1890s 

and through the 20th century, but 

continues in the areas surrounding 

the two monuments (Grissino-May 

1995). 

 Importance of Climatic Variation

It is important to recognize that 

regional climate was not static 

during the pre-1880 reference 

period, nor has it been unchanging 

since that time. A 2,129-year local 

climate reconstruction, based on 

tree-rings collected from ancient 

trees in El Malpais NM (GrissinoMayer 1995), reveals alternating 

wet and dry periods throughout 

the last two millennia. The driest 

period and the wettest period in the 

2,129-year chronology occurred in 

the late 1500s and in the late 1900s, 

respectively (Table 4.8.3-2). Indeed, 

very few portions of that long climate 

chronology would be described as 

“normal” or “average.” Wet periods 

generally favored vegetative growth, 

and severe droughts periodically 

stressed the vegetation as well as the 

people eking out a living in western 

New Mexico. Subsequently, the 20th 

century has been one of the wettest 

and warmest centuries in the last 

millennium. The long-term climate 

trends documented in the national 

monument also are seen across much 

of the Southwest (Swetnam and 

Betancourt 1998, Gray et al. 2003). 

Although the 20th century was a 

generally wet period overall, its 

climate also fluctuated, and included 

some noteworthy drought periods. 

Grissino-Mayer’s (1995) tree-ring 

based chronology extends only up to 

1992. However, instrumental climate 

records are available for El Morro 

NM as far back as March of 1938 

(http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdoweb/). We calculated average annual 

precipitation for the entire period 

of record (1939-2014), and also for 

individual decades from the 1950s 

through 2014.....The 1950s and 1960s 

were dry decades, consistent with 

the pattern in the tree-ring record. 

Indeed, many piñon and ponderosa 

pine trees died during that drought 

(Breshears et al. 2005).

The 1970s had close to average annual 

precipitation, and then the 1980s and 

1990s were very wet—although a few 

individual dry years occurred during 

those two decades of overall moist 

conditions. The first decade of the 

21st century turned relatively dry 

again, with most years having belowaverage precipitation even though the 

decade’s total precipitation was only 

a little below the long-term average 

as a result of one exceptionally wet 

year (2006 with 18.26 inches total). 

The climate since 2010 also has been 

dry, and the most recent three years 
147

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

(2012-2014) was the driest three-year 

period at El Morro NM since the 

1950s...Global climate models predict 

a trend of increasing temperatures 

and perhaps decreasing precipitation 

throughout the 21st century (IPCC 

2013).

4.8.4. Condition and Trend 

The complete field assessment report of 

Romme and Jacobs (2015) is included on the 

park’s final DVD. Their report also addresses 

condition of piñon-juniper in El Morro NM 

and contains more detailed information on 

some points than what we present here.

Table 4.8.4-1 describes the two types of piñonjuniper habitat at El Malpais NM based on 

the functional/dynamic classification of forest 

and woodland vegetation used by Romme and 

Jacobs (2015). Note that this table is similar to 

the table shown in the Reference Conditions 

section, but it presents information specific 

to the national monument’s piñon-juniper 

vegetation. Persistent piñon-juniper 

woodlands, usually characterized by 

centuries-old trees, are found scattered across 

the national monument landscape, in both 

small patches and extensive stands, in areas 

having rocky or thin soil that is unsupportive 

of abundant herbaceous growth (Romme 

and Jacobs 2015). They are often found on 

ridgetops, steep slopes, and cinder cones, 

but they are also found on flatter topography 

where soil conditions are better for deeprooted woody plants compared to herbaceous 

plants. During the field assessment in June at 

the national monument, persistent piñonjuniper woodlands were observed on the 

rim and slopes of El Calderon, on the east 

side of El Calderon, in Encerrito Kipuka, on 

the Sandstone Bluffs, east of the Lava Falls 

parking area, and along Highway 42 (which 

included areas off the monument; Romme 

and Jacobs 2015). 

The second type of piñon-juniper woodland, 

juniper-piñon savanna, also described in the 

table, consists of one-seed juniper and piñon 

pine trees within a grassland matrix. The tree 

density varies greatly. At El Malpais NM, 

these savannas are found around the margins 

Table 4.8.3-2. Synopsis of climate variability since the late 15th century at El Malpais

NM, based on a tree-ring chronology developed by Henri Grissino-Mayer. Adapted 

from Table 3.15 (pages 108-110) in Grissino-Mayer (1995), and taken from Romme and 

Jacobs (2015, Table 1a). 

Period Climate Conditions

1483-1540 A.D. Generally favorable moisture conditions, but numerous drought years 

interspersed among wet years

1541-1567 A.D. Great year-to-year variation, with more wet years than dry years

1568-1607 A.D. The “Great Drought,” seen throughout the West, worst short-term drought in 

the 2,129-year record at El Malpais NM

1608-1656 A.D. Generally favorable moisture conditions, with a few severe drought years

1657-1723 A.D. Variable moisture conditions, but few extremely wet or extremely dry years 

1724-1790 A.D. Generally unfavorable moisture conditions, with some wet years but many severe 

drought years

1791-1829 A.D. Great year-to-year variation, with numerous very wet years

1830-1889 A.D. Generally favorable moisture conditions, with many very wet years but also with 

occasional drought years

1890-1904 A.D. Generally unfavorable moisture conditions, with many more drought years than 

wet years; a brief but severe drought from 1891-1893

1905-1943 A.D. Very wet period, with variation from year to year but no extreme climate years

1944-1963 A.D. Severe drought period, most years with below-average moisture but no extreme 

climate years

1964-1992 A.D.

Very favorable moisture conditions overall, but highly variable with some 

extremely wet and extremely dry years; 1978-1992 saw the greatest precipitation 

in the 2,129-year record at El Malpais NM
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

of the park where the topography is gentle 

and soils are relatively deep and fine-textured 

(Romme and Jacobs 2015). During the June 

field assessment, juniper-piñon savanna 

was observed along the El Calderon loop 

trail in the vicinity of Junction Cave, Double 

Sinks, and Bat and Xenolith Caves, and along 

Highways 117 and 42. In the first area, oneseed juniper was the primary tree species and 

blue grama was the primary grass present. 

An important difference between these 

two piñon-juniper types that Romme and 

Jacobs (2015) point out is that “many of the 

savannas we see today probably were nearly 

treeless grasslands 100+ yrs ago. The relative 

abundance of trees vs. grasses apparently 

fluctuates over century-long time scales: 

grasses predominate during dry periods 

and after severe fires, whereas trees become 

increasingly abundant during wet periods and 

during long intervals between successive fires 

Table 4.8.4-1. Vegetation types dominated by piñon and/or juniper at El Malpais NM and El Morro NM 

(adapted from national monument vegetation maps and observations by Romme and Jacobs on June 2-4, 

2015). Fire regime information comes from Romme et al. (2009), Jacobs et al. (2008), and Grissino-Mayer 

(1995). Note that this classification is based on ecological processes and dynamics of the vegetation more 

than on floristic composition and physiognomy. Table (including photos) from Romme and Jacobs (2015).

Persistent Piñon-Juniper Woodland

Canopy: The canopy is composed of Pinus edulis and Juniperus monosperma, and 

ranges in density from moderately sparse to moderately dense, depending on local 

site conditions. Many of the trees are centuries old. Younger trees (<100 yr old) also 

are numerous, resulting in an all-aged stand structure.

Understory: Sparse to moderately dense cover of shrubs (e.g., Atriplex canescens, 

Rhus trilobata, Forestiera pubescens) and grasses (e.g., Bouteloua gracilis, 

Hesperostipa comata), usually with much bare ground. 

Site Conditions: Relatively dry sites, often steep and rocky, usually with coarsetextured soils, e.g., cinder cones or limestone kipukas.

Fire Regime: Lightning-ignited fires occur yearly, but most burn only a single tree 

and fail to spread. However, spreading canopy fires can occur under very dry, windy 

conditions, and these are severe, stand-replacing fires. Intervals between standreplacing fires at the scale of a 1-acre stand may be measured in decades or more 

likely in centuries.

Plant associations from Muldavin et al. (2013) likely to be found: Juniperus 

monosperma / Muhlenbergia pauciflora Woodland; Pinus edulis - (Juniperus 

monosperma, Juniperus deppeana) / Bouteloua gracilis Woodland; Pinus edulis / 

Achnatherum scribneri Woodland.

Juniper-Piñon Savanna

Canopy: The canopy is composed of Pinus edulis and Juniperus monosperma, with 

Juniperus monosperma usually the more abundant, within a well-developed grassland 

matrix. Tree density ranges from sparse to moderately dense. Many of the trees are 

<100 yr old, representing the process of tree expansion into grasslands that has 

occurred during the past century.

Understory: The understory is dominated by grasses. Bouteloua gracilis appears to 

be the major grass species in most areas, but others (e.g., Hesperostipa comata) are 

also found. Sparse shrubs (e.g., Atriplex canescens) and cacti (e.g., Opuntia imbricata) 

may be present as well.

Site Conditions: Relatively deep, fine-textured soils, usually on relatively gentle 

terrain. 

Fire Regime: The historical fire regime is not well understood, but may have been 

characterized by spreading fires at intervals of years or decades that burned through 

the grasses and thinned the trees.

Plant associations from Muldavin et al. (2013) likely to be found: Juniperus 

monosperma / Bouteloua gracilis Woodland. 
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

(Romme et al. 2009). The 20th century was a 

relatively wet period with few fires in this area 

(Grissino-Mayer 1995), and trees have greatly 

increased as a consequence.” 

Are The Species Present, And Their 

Distributions Consistent With Supply And 

Demand Of Light, Water, Nutrients, And 

Growing Space, And Within Their Natural 

Range Of Variability?

Persistent Piñon-Juniper Woodlands

In general, the species present and their 

corresponding distributions appear to be 

within their natural range of variability, and 

therefore, are in good condition. However, 

although native species predominate in most 

places visited, some non-native species were 

observed in specific locations. The main 

location was the El Calderon cinder cone, 

where small pockets of mullein (Verbascum 

thapsus) were observed (Figure 4.8.4-1). 

Also, near the base of the cinder cone under 

ponderosa pine trees and near persistent 

piñon-juniper woodland, cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum) was observed (W. Romme, pers. 

comm., July 28, 2015); cheatgrass was also 

observed in the general area along a dirt trail/

road near the parking lot. Overall, however, 

non-native plants did not appear to be very 

abundant or widespread in this woodland 

type. Although these plants are not currently 

causing direct impacts where they exist, 

some concern exists over them because both 

species are capable of expanding substantially, 

especially after fire. Such an expansion, if 

it occurred, could potentially threaten the 

ecological integrity of this community type 

that is poorly adapted to fire (see discussion 

in Romme and Jacobs (2015). Although 

we judge current condition to be good, 

this would be downgraded if these plants, 

especially cheatgrass, were to expand due 

to soil disturbance (for example, from fuel 

reduction and/or prescribed fire activities). 

Note that while exotic plants are addressed 

here to some extent, they are covered more 

thoroughly in the exotic plants section of the 

condition assessment (Section 4.13).

Juniper-Piñon Savannas

In juniper-piñon savannas, the species present 

and their distributions generally appear to be 

within their natural range of variability and in 

good condition. The dominant tree species in 

most of these savannas is one-seed juniper, 

as was probably the case historically (Romme 

and Jacobs 2015). 

Are Stand Densities Within Their Range 

Of Natural Variability For Their Growing 

Conditions?

Persistent Piñon-Juniper Woodlands

The condition for this indicator/measure 

deviates somewhat from the reference 

condition, but the persistent piñon-juniper 

woodlands at El Malpais are still considered 

to be in good condition for this indicator/

measure (Romme and Jacobs 2015; the reason 

for this judgement is described immediately 

below). Tree densities are likely greater 

than before 1900 in most stands due to infill 

driven by climate, which has occurred in 

piñon-juniper woodlands throughout the 

Southwest. It is natural for tree densities to 

increase and decrease in this vegetation type 

over century-long time scales. An increase in 

the tree density “probably is a mostly natural 

result of favorable climatic conditions for 

tree establishment and growth during the 

past century, plus a paucity of fires. Humancaused fire exclusion no doubt contributed to 

Figure 4.8.4-1. The 

exotic plant mullein 

(top) and where it 

was observed on El 

Calderon (bottom). 

This area of El 

Calderon was mined 

for cinders in the 

past (Eric Weaver, El 

Malpais NM, pers. 

comm.).

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY © PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY
150

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

the lack of fires. However, this vegetation type 

does not burn frequently in any case because 

of its inherent fuel structure; we suspect 

that most of the persistent piñon-juniper 

woodland in the national monument would 

have escaped fire in the past century even 

if humans were not present” (Romme and 

Jacobs 2015). Importantly, the understory 

vegetation appears healthy and diverse in the 

stands observed, so it does not appear that 

the densification of trees is adversely affecting 

the understory. The change is not considered 

to pose a serious threat to ecological integrity, 

and Romme and Jacobs (2015) do not suggest 

any management actions to address it. Rather, 

they point out that climate models indicate 

that more drought, and therefore fire, may 

occur in the future than occurred in the 

1900s, and that may lead to drought-caused 

mortality of piñon and juniper. 

Note that this paragraph, provided by 

Dr. Romme during review of this section, 

describes in more detail how drought 

conditions affect tree survival. 

Drought can lead to tree mortality 

both directly and indirectly. Direct 

drought-caused mortality occurs 

when trees simply cannot obtain 

enough moisture from the soil 

to make up for the water lost in 

transpiration, and they die. Even 

if drought is not severe enough to 

kill a tree outright, drought stress 

reduces a tree’s ability to produce 

defensive chemicals and resin with 

which to repel attacks by insects and 

disease; thus, mortality from insects 

or disease can be an indirect effect of 

drought. Dry conditions also allow 

for fires to burn more frequently 

and more intensely; thus, fire-caused 

mortality also can be an indirect effect 

of drought. This is why this report 

pays so much attention to climate 

variation, especially the occurrence 

and intensity of drought, both 

historical and future: it is because 

drought is often the ultimate cause 

of tree mortality, either directly or via 

insects, disease, or fire.

Juniper-Piñon Savannas

To address this indicator/measure, Romme 

and Jacobs (2015) wrote (note that it 

addresses both El Malpais and El Morro 

National Monuments): 

“Tree densities probably are greater 

in most stands than before 1900, and 

trees also appear to have expanded 

into former grasslands in many 

areas. The mechanism driving these 

processes of infill of pre-existing 

savannas and expansion into former 

grasslands is uncertain, but may be the 

result of a century of fire exclusion as 

well as the 20th century climate which 

was favorable for tree establishment 

and survival. Tree densities naturally 

wax and wane in this vegetation type 

over century-long time scales; current 

densities probably are at or above 

maximum typical densities. Extreme 

densification of juniper-piñon 

savannas potentially may threaten 

the ecological integrity of affected 

grasslands, may reduce ground water 

recharge, and may support highseverity crown fires. These negative 

changes may be happening in some 

savannas in eastern New Mexico. 

However, the current densities and 

visual impacts on grasslands in El 

Malpais NM and El Morro NM are 

much less dramatic than in those 

other places. Current tree densities 

do not appear to pose a serious threat 

to ecological integrity in El Malpais 

and El Morro.

Although the density of trees within savannas 

in El Malpais are probably greater than they 

were prior to the 1900s, they do not appear 

to be affecting the integrity of the savannas. 

However, because current densities are 

probably “at or above the highest typical 

densities in the juniper-piñon savanna type,” 

we consider current condition under this 

indicator/measure to be of moderate concern. 

Condition of grasslands is addressed in a 

separate section of the condition assessment. 

It is possible, however, that tree densities may 

have been similar to those seen today during 

past periods with moist conditions (e.g., 
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

the early 1500s, early 1600s, and mid-1800s; 

Romme and Jacobs 2015, see also Table 4.8.3-

2).

Note that there is an interesting and useful 

discussion of the possible mechanisms 

for the infill of pre-existing savannas and 

expansion of savannas into former grasslands 

in Romme and Jacobs (2015). Basically, the 

two alternative (or combined) explanations 

described are that: 1) frequent burning of 

juniper-piñon savannas may have occurred 

prior to the 1900s and thinned savannas and 

prevented establishment of trees in grasslands 

(i.e., fire exclusion model); and/or 2) climate 

in the 20th century was favorable for tree 

establishment and survival in most of the 

Southwest, and the expansion of juniper 

and piñon trees was the result (i.e., climate 

model). Romme and Jacobs (2015) stress that, 

because data are lacking to test and refine 

these models, uncertainty exists regarding the 

causes of tree densification at El Malpais NM. 

Are The Age Class Distributions Of Trees 

Consistent With The Expected Range Of 

Variability For This Site/Ecosystem Type?

Persistent Piñon-Juniper Woodlands

Although we have limited data that address 

the age class distribution of piñon-juniper 

at the national monument, the age classes 

appear to be within their natural range of 

variability (Romme and Jacobs 2015). Allaged population structures were observed, 

which are typical of this woodland type, 

with centuries-old trees, as well as younger 

trees <100 years old, present. Based on the 

information available, therefore, we consider 

condition to be good for this indicator/

measure. 

Juniper-Piñon Savannas

Based on limited information, the age classes 

appear to be approximately within their 

natural range of variability, and therefore are 

in good condition. It does, however, appear 

that a greater proportion of the population 

is made up of 10- to 100-year-old trees than 

probably occurred before 1900 (Romme and 

Jacobs 2015). Some centuries-old trees were 

observed in savannas that would have been 

considered savannas before 1900. However, 

old trees were not observed in areas where 

one-seed juniper is expanding into former 

grasslands. Note that this last point may also 

be addressed in the section in the report on 

grasslands, depending on the findings of that 

assessment.

Do The Trees And Understory Plants 

Appear Vigorous And Healthy For This 

Site/Ecosystem Type?

Persistent Piñon-Juniper Woodlands

For this piñon-juniper type, most individual 

trees and understory plants appeared healthy. 

Dead piñon trees, however, were observed 

in many areas. The trees appeared to have 

died within the last 5-10 years, probably due 

to recent drought conditions. Small-scale 

events such as this are natural, however, and 

the situation does not appear to threaten the 

ecological integrity of this woodland type 

(Romme and Jacobs 2015). Therefore, we 

consider condition under this measure to be 

good. 

Juniper-Piñon Savannas

Most trees and understory plants, including 

grasses and forbs, appeared healthy within the 

savannas observed. Therefore, condition was 

considered good for this indicator/measure. 

Are Ecological Processes (e.g., Fire) 

Operating Within A Natural Range Of 

Variability? 

Persistent Piñon-Juniper Woodlands

As described earlier in this section, persistent 

piñon-juniper woodlands burn rarely, except 

for single-tree ignitions that fail to spread, 

with intervals between stand-replacing fires 

on the order of centuries. It is possible that 

fire intervals have become somewhat longer 

due to fire exclusion in the 20th century, but 

intervals remain within the historical range 

of variability for this woodland type (Romme 

and Jacobs 2015). This possible change is not 

of particular concern, and the condition for 

this indicator/measure is considered to be 

good. 

Juniper-Piñon Savannas

There is considerable uncertainty in applying 

this indicator/measure to savannas (Romme 

and Jacobs 2015). The reason is that historical 

fire regimes of juniper-piñon savannas are 

not well understood. With the continuous 
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

fine-fuel cover that grasses provide and the 

frequency of dry weather, fires that spread 

may have been relatively frequent. If this was 

the case, then the infrequency of fires today 

(essentially no fire) is a substantial departure 

from the historical fire regime. Note that 

the increase in density of trees within the 

savannas at the national monument was 

discussed above. As also discussed there, 

Romme and Jacobs (2015) state “...we do not 

regard the densification of these savannas 

or the expansion of junipers into former 

grasslands as serious threats to the ecological 

integrity of the ...monument. Tree densities 

naturally wax and wane in this vegetation 

type over century-long time scales (Romme 

et al. 2009).” We consider condition for this 

indicator/measure to be of moderate concern, 

but we stress that there is more uncertainty in 

this case than with the other measures.

During the field assessment, some junipers 

were observed to have been killed by recent 

prescribed or wild fires.

Are the Current Levels of Insects and/or 

Disease within the Normal Range for this 

Ecosystem Type?

Persistent Piñon-Juniper Woodlands

We found no evidence that the level of insects 

and/or disease are outside the normal range 

for this ecosystem type. During the vegetation 

field assessment, trees were examined, but 

there was no evidence of tree mortality or 

morbidity due to insects or disease (Romme 

and Jacobs 2015). Insects and disease appear 

to pose no serious threat at this time, and 

condition for this indicator/measure is 

considered to be good. 

Juniper-Piñon Savannas

As with the woodland type, during the field 

assessment we found no evidence that the 

level of insects and/or disease are outside 

the normal range for savannas (Romme and 

Jacobs 2015). Insects and disease appear 

to pose no serious threat at this time, and 

condition for this indicator/measure is 

considered to be good. 

Overall Condition

For assessing the condition of piñon-juniper 

vegetation, we used a variety of indicators/

measures that were adapted from Edmonds 

et al. (2011). Two piñon-juniper experts, as 

well as additional ecologists with SCPN and 

park staff participated in the field assessment. 

All of the indicators/measures for this 

resource were intended to capture different 

aspects of the piñon-juniper communities 

located within the national monument. A 

summary of the indicators/measures and how 

they contributed to the overall condition is 

summarized in Table 4.8.4-2. 

As shown in the table, based on our 

assessment, the overall condition of piñonjuniper communities at El Malpais NM 

is good, although there are some areas of 

concern. Of the six indicators/measures 

for the two vegetation types (12 indicators/

measures total), ten are considered to be in 

good condition. Two (both for juniper-piñon 

savannas) are considered to be of moderate 

concern. Overall, the main areas of concern 

are the increase in density of trees in savannas, 

as well as the potential change in fire intervals 

in the savannas. Another area of concern, 

although we considered the condition good 

overall for the first indicator/measure, is the 

occurrence of the exotic plant, cheatgrass, in 

or near persistent woodlands on El Calderon; 

the plant’s current occurrence appeared to be 

low, but Romme and Jacobs (2015) considered 

it of potentially major ecological significance.

The main area of uncertainty with the 

indicators/measures in this condition 

assessment is with regards to the possible 

reduction in fire frequency in the savannas, as 

described in the next section. 

Based on our analysis and the information 

available, the condition of piñon-juniper 

vegetation at the national monument appears 

to have been generally stable over the last 

half century. Conditions for vegetation have 

Piñon-Juniper Vegetation

Indicators Measures

Ecological / Vegetation 

Characteristics 5 Measures

Ecological Processes 1 Measure
153

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

Table 4.8.4-2. Indicators/measures of piñon-juniper condition for persistent piñon-juniper woodlands and 

juniper-piñon savannas. Table based on Tables 6a and 6b in Romme and Jacobs (2015).

Community or Overall Indicator/Measure Condition Condition Rationale

Persistent PiñonJuniper Woodland

Is species presence & distribution 

consistent with conditions and within 

natural range of variability?

Good

(but some 

concern 

exists)

The condition is generally good, but some concern 

exists due to low levels of exotic species occurring in 

some locations. Both cheatgrass and mullein were 

observed, with cheatgrass being of particular concern 

due to its potential effect on fire frequency. Condition 

could change if species expand after soil disturbance.

Are stand densities within their range 

of natural variability for their growing 

conditions?

Good Condition is good, although there has probably been 

an increase in tree density over the 20th century due 

to climate conditions conducive to tree establishment/

growth. 

Are age class distributions of trees 

consistent with expected range of 

variability?

Good Although based on limited data, condition appeared 

good for this indicator. Centuries-old trees are present 

in most places, along with younger trees <100 yr old, 

resulting in all-aged population structures which are 

typical of this vegetation type.

Do the trees and understory plants 

appear vigorous and healthy?

Good Most individual trees and understory plants appeared 

healthy. However, some dead piñon trees were 

observed and probably died in the last 5-10 yrs due to 

drought conditions. Such small-scale mortality events 

are natural and do not appear to threaten ecological 

integrity.

Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) 

operating within natural range of 

variability?

Good Condition is good, although fire intervals may have 

lengthened somewhat due to 20th century fire 

exclusion. However, intervals remain within the 

historical range of variability for this vegetation type 

as this type rarely burns, with centuries long intervals 

between recurrent fires. 

Are the current levels of insects/ disease 

within the normal range?

Good Condition is good. There was little evidence of tree 

mortality or morbidity due to insects or disease.

Persistent PiñonJuniper Woodland 

Summary

Overall condition based on all six 

indicators/measures

Good Overall condition is good, with all of the 

indicators/measures good. Some concern does 

exist under the first indicator/measure; although 

current occurrence appears low, an increase in 

the exotic species present could increase fire 

frequency in this vegetation type.

Juniper-Piñon 

Savanna

Is species presence & distribution 

consistent with conditions and within 

natural range of variability?

Good Species presence and distribution generally appears 

to be within the natural range of variability, and is in 

good condition. The dominant tree species in most of 

these savannas is one-seed juniper, as was probably 

the case historically. 

Are stand densities within their range 

of natural variability for their growing 

conditions?

Moderate Tree densities probably are greater in most stands 

observed than before 1900, and trees also appear to 

have expanded into former grasslands in many areas. 

The mechanism driving these changes is uncertain, 

but may be the result of a century of fire exclusion 

and 20th century climate which was favorable for tree 

establishment/survival. Tree densities naturally wax 

and wane in this vegetation type over century-long 

time scales; current densities probably are at or above 

maximum typical densities. Condition is considered to 

be of moderate concern. However, current densities 

are much less dramatic than in other places in the 

state and do not appear to pose a serious threat to 

ecological integrity. 
154

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

been, on the whole, largely conducive for 

tree establishment and survival, although as 

described, there has been some mortality of 

trees over the last approximately 5-10 years. 

At this time, we consider the overall trend in 

condition as unchanging. However, see one of 

the points below regarding uncertainty and 

climate. 

Level of Confidence/Key Uncertainties 

Overall, our confidence in this assessment 

is high. However, as is generally the case, 

there are some uncertainties. One of the 

key uncertainties in the assessment is that 

surrounding the historical fire regimes of 

juniper-piñon savannas. As described in the 

preceding pages, historical fire regimes in this 

vegetation type are not well understood. For 

this reason, relatively more uncertainty exists 

with our interpretation of the departure 

from reference conditions for this indicator/

measure. Some uncertainty also exists 

surrounding the mechanisms of increased 

tree density within the savannas, and the 

potential effects of this increase.

There is also some uncertainty with the 

assessment overall, because it is based 

on a field visit to only some areas of the 

park. Due to the size and inaccessibility of 

much of the national monument, it was not 

possible to visit all areas dominated by the 

subject vegetation. On the other hand, the 

areas chosen were considered (by national 

monument personnel) to be representative of 

areas within the park.

There is at least one uncertainty regarding 

trend. Although we considered the trend 

in condition to be unchanging based on 

current information, there are predictions 

for future climate that could lead to a decline 

Community or Overall Indicator/Measure Condition Condition Rationale

Juniper-Piñon 

Savanna continued

Are age class distributions of 

trees consistent with expected 

range of variability?

Good Condition is good. Based on limited data, the age 

classes appear to be approximately within their 

natural range of variability, although 10 to 100-yrold trees probably constitute a greater proportion of 

the population than was typical before 1900. Some 

centuries-old trees are present.

Do the trees and understory 

plants appear vigorous and 

healthy?

Good Most trees and understory, including grasses and 

forbs, are healthy in appearance. This is the case even 

though tree densities are greater than probably existed 

prior to 1900. Condition is good for this indicator/

measure.

Are ecological processes 

operating within natural range 

of variability?

Moderate Historical fire regimes of juniper-piñon savannas 

are not well understood. Spreading fires may have 

been relatively frequent, given the continuous finefuel cover (grasses) and frequent occurrence of dry 

weather. If so, then the modern fire regime (essentially 

no fire) is quite different. However, empirical data 

are lacking, which makes this an area of major 

uncertainty. Based on the available information, we 

consider condition to be of moderate concern. Some 

juniper trees have been killed due to recent prescribed 

and/or wild fires.

Are the current levels of insects/ 

disease within the normal 

range?

Good Condition is good. There was little evidence of tree 

mortality or morbidity due to insects or disease.

Juniper-Piñon 

Savanna Summary

Overall condition based on 

all six indicators/measures

Good Overall condition is good, with four of the 

indicators/measures good and two of moderate 

concern. The increased tree density within 

savannas could increase the risk of high-severity 

crown fires under extremely dry and windy 

conditions.

Table 4.8.4-2. Indicators/measures of piñon-juniper condition for persistent piñon-juniper woodlands and juniper-piñon 

savannas. Table based on Tables 6a and 6b in Romme and Jacobs (2015) (continued).
155

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

in condition. If El Malpais NM experienced 

a major drought or extended drought 

conditions in the future, tree mortality could 

become more widespread, and the overall 

condition could decline. Romme and Jacobs 

(2015) wrote the following in the context 

of potentially managing the increase in tree 

densities in the piñon-juniper and ponderosa 

pine vegetation types at the national 

monument (which is an important point), but 

it also applies to this discussion of uncertainty 

in future conditions. 

...this increase [in tree densities] is 

in large part a manifestation of the 

climate of the 20th century, which 

was especially favorable for tree 

establishment and survival. But we 

are now moving rapidly out of the 

climate that characterized the 20th 

century. Higher temperatures, more 

frequent and severe droughts, and 

more frequent and difficult to control 

wildfires are in our future. Worldwide, 

trees are dying at an accelerated rate, 

especially old trees (Allen et al. 2010, 

Anderegg et al. 2013). We see this at 

El Malpais NM where the venerable 

650+ year-old Pseudotsuga menziesii 

named Yoda recently succumbed 

to the drought of the last several 

years. Thus, we may find that a new 

21st century management priority 

will be retaining trees in the face of 

deteriorating climate, rather than the 

imperative to reduce tree densities 

that probably made sense back in the 

climatically benign days of the late 

20th century. 

Even with these uncertainties, we have high 

confidence overall in this assessment. The 

field assessment consisted of two full days 

at El Malpais NM with two piñon-juniper 

vegetation experts, two ecologists with SCPN, 

a biologist/writer, and three personnel from 

El Malpais NM with a substantial knowledge 

of the park.

4.8.5. Sources of Expertise 

During the course of this assessment, we 

consulted with the following individuals 

who provided subject matter expertise and 

participated in a two-day field assessment at 

El Malpais: 

William H. Romme is Professor emeritus of 

fire ecology and senior research scientist in 

the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory 

at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 

CO. In addition to participating in the field 

assessment and co-authoring the report 

upon which this section is based, Dr. Romme 

reviewed the draft of this section. Brian J. 

Jacobs is a vegetation ecologist who recently 

retired from the NPS at Bandelier NM. 

Both of these subject matter experts have 

conducted research in the ecology of piñonjuniper ecosystems and are well-published in 

this topic.

Two individuals with the SCPN also 

participated in the field assessment at the 

park, Lisa Thomas, Program Manager for the 

SCPN, and Jim DeCoster, Plant Ecologist for 

the SCPN.

4.8.6. Literature Cited 

Allen, C.D., A.K. Macalady, H. Chenchouni, 

et al. 2010. A global overview of drought 

and heat-induced tree mortality reveals 

emerging climate change risks for forests. 

Forest Ecology and Management 259: 

660-684, as cited in Romme and Jacobs 

(2015).

Anderegg, W.R.L., J.M. Kane, and L.D.L. 

Anderegg. 2013. Consequences of 

widespread tree mortality triggered 

by drought and temperature stress. 

Nature Climate Change 3:30-36, as cited 

in Romme and Jacobs (2015). Balda, 

R.P. 2002. Pinyon Jay (Gymnorhinus 

cyanocephalus), The Birds of North 

America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: 

Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved 

from the Birds of North America Online: 

http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/.

Bowen, R.V. 1997. Townsend’s Solitaire 

(Myadestes townsendi), The Birds of North 

America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: 

Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved 

from the Birds of North America Online: 

http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Bradford, J.E. 2013. Without parallel 

among relics: an archeological history 

of El Morro National Monument, 

New Mexico. Archeology Program, 

Intermountain Region Cultural 

Resources, Intermountain Cultural 

Resources Professional Papers No. 71. 

Santa Fe. 

Breshears, D.D., N.S. Cobb, P.M. Rich, K.P. 

Price, C.D. Allen, R.G. Balice, W.H. 

Romme, J.H. Kastens, M.L. Floyd, J. 

Belnap, J.J. Anderson, O.B. Myers, and 

C.W. Meyer. 2005. Regional vegetation 

die-off in response to global-change-type 

drought. Proceedings of the National 

Academy of Sciences 102(42):15144-

15148, as cited by Romme and Jacobs 

(2015). 

Chung-MacCoubrey, A. 1996. Bat species 

composition and roost use in pinyonjuniper woodlands of New Mexico. Pp. 

118–123 in Bats and Forests Symposium, 

October 19–21, 1995 (R.M.R. Barclay and 

R.M. Brigham, eds.). Research Branch, 

British Columbia Ministry of Forestry, 

Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 

Working Paper 23/1996 1–292.

Edmonds, R.L., J.K. Agee, and R.I. Gara. 2011. 

Forest Health and Protection. Waveland 

Press Inc., Long Grove, IL.

Fairchild, J.A. 1999. Pinyon-juniper chaining 

design guidelines for big game winter 

range enhancement projects. USDA 

Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-9. 

Pages 278-280.

Ferguson, T.J. 2012. Appendix O: 

Anthropological Evidence for Cultural 

Affiliation at El Morro National 

Monument. In Cultural Affiliation Study 

of Atsinna and El Morro in Cibola County, 

New Mexico. Museum of Northern 

Arizona Report No. 150-483.

Floyd, M.L., W.H. Romme, and D.D. Hanna. 

2000. Fire history and vegetation pattern 

in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 

USA. Ecological Applications 10:1666–

1680.

Floyd, M.L., D.D. Hanna, and W.H. Romme. 

2004. Historical and recent fire regimes 

in piñon–juniper woodlands on Mesa 

Verde, Colorado, USA. Forest Ecology 

and Management 198:269–289.

Gillihan, S.W. 2006. Sharing the land with 

pinyon-juniper birds. Partners in Flight 

Western Working Group. Salt Lake City, 

Utah.

Gray, S.T., J.L. Betancourt, C.L. Fastie, and 

S.T. Jackson. 2003. Patterns and sources 

of multidecadal oscillations in droughtsensitive tree-ring records from the 

central and southern Rocky Mountains. 

Geophysical Research Letters 30 (6, 

1316):49-1-4, as cited by Romme and 

Jacobs (2015). 

Grissino-Mayer, H.D. 1995. Tree-ring 

reconstructions of climate and fire history 

at El Malpais National Monument, New 

Mexico. Dissertation, Department of 

Geosciences, University of Arizona, 

Tucson, as cited by Romme and Jacobs 

(2015).

IPCC, 2013. Summary for Policymakers. 

In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical 

Science Basis. Contribution of Working 

Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report 

of the Intergovernmental Panel on 

Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, 

G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, 

J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex 

and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge 

University Press, Cambridge, United 

Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, as 

cited by Romme and Jacobs (2015).

Jacobs, B.F., W.H. Romme, and C.D. Allen. 

2008. Mapping “old” vs. “young” piñonjuniper stands with a predictive topoclimatic model. Ecological Applications 

18:1627-1641, as cited by Romme and 

Jacobs (2015).

Muldavin, E., Y. Chauvin, T. Neville, P. 

Neville, A. Kennedy, H. Hulse, P. Arbetan, 

K. Schultz, M. Hall, and M. Reid. 2013. 

Vegetation Classification and Map: El 

Malpais National Monument. Natural 
157

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

Resource Technical Report NPS/SPCN/

NRTR–2013/803. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Paulin, K.M., J.J. Cook, and S.R. Dewey. 

1999. Pinyon-juniper woodlands as 

sources of avian diversity. pp. 240-243 in 

S. B. Monsen and R. Stevens, compilers. 

Proceedings: Ecology and management 

of pinyon-juniper communities within 

the Interior West. USDA Forest Service 

RMRS-P-9.

Romme, W., C. Allen, J. Bailey, W. Baker, B. 

Bestelmeyer, P. Brown, K. Eisenhart, L. 

Floyd-Hanna, D. Huffman, B. Jacobs, 

R. Miller, E. Muldavin, T. Swetnam, R. 

Tausch, and P. Weisberg. 2007. Historical 

and modern disturbance regimes of 

piñon–juniper vegetation in the western 

U.S. Tallahassee, FL, USA: Nature 

Conservancy, Fire Learning Network. 13 

p. [This is a short version of Romme et al. 

2008].

Romme, W., C. Allen, J. Bailey, W. Baker, B. 

Bestelmeyer, P. Brown, K. Eisenhart, L. 

Floyd-Hanna, D. Huffman, B. Jacobs, 

R. Miller, E. Muldavin, T. Swetnam, R. 

Tausch, and P. Weisberg. 2009. Historical 

and modern disturbance regimes of 

piñon-juniper vegetation in the western 

United States. Rangeland Ecology and 

Management 62:203-222.

Romme, W.H., and B. Jacobs. 2015. 

Assessment of the ecological condition 

of piñon-juniper and ponderosa pine 

vegetation at El Malpais and El Morro 

National Monuments, New Mexico. 36 

pages and appendix. 

Shinneman, D.J., and W.L. Baker. 2009. 

Historical fire and multidecadal drought 

as context for piñon-juniper woodland 

restoration in western Colorado. 

Ecological Applications 19:1231–1245.

Swetnam, T.W., and J.L. Betancourt. 1998. 

Mesoscale disturbance and ecological 

response to decadal climatic variability 

in the American southwest. Journal of 

Climate 11:3128–3147, as cited by Romme 

and Jacobs (2015).

Weber, D.J. 2009. The Spanish frontier in 

North America. The brief edition. Yale 

University Press, New Haven, CT, as cited 

by Romme and Jacobs (2015).

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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

4.9. Vegetation- Ponderosa Pine

4.9.1. Background and Importance 

New Mexico and Arizona contain 

approximately 6 million acres (2.5 million 

hectares) of ponderosa pine (Pinus 

ponderosa) forests (Graham and Jain 2005). 

Areas dominated by ponderosa pine make up 

a significant proportion of El Malpais NM, 

or about 56% of the total area of the national 

monument according to recent vegetation 

mapping efforts (Muldavin et al. 2013; Figure 

4.9.1-1 and 4.9.1-2). 

Ponderosa pine habitats are considerably 

valuable to wildlife. At least 250 species of 

vertebrates inhabit ponderosa pine forests in 

the Southwest (Allen et al. 2002). Patton et al. 

(2014) reported 48 mammals, 111 birds, and 

47 amphibians and reptiles, as well as 422 

arthropods in their database of species found 

in Arizona ponderosa pine forests. 

Figure 4.9.1-1.

Ponderosa pine 

vegetation in the El 

Calderon area at El 

Malpais NM.

Indicators/Measures

• Are the species present and their 

distributions consistent with supply and 

demand of light, water, nutrients, and 

growing space, and within their natural 

range of variability?

• Are stand densities within their range 

of natural variability for their growing 

conditions?

• Are the age class distributions consistent 

with the expected range of variability for 

this site/ecosystem type?

• Do the trees and understory plants 

appear vigorous and healthy for this site/

ecosystem type?

• Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) 

operating within the natural range of 

variability?

• Are the current levels of insects and/or 

disease within the normal range for this 

ecosystem type?

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Good – Unchanging – High

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY
160

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Wildlife species using these habitats include 

the Abert’s squirrel (Sciurus aberti), a 

“distinctive inhabitant” of ponderosa pine 

forests on the Southern Colorado Plateau 

(Figure 4.9.1-3; Northern Arizona University 

2015). This species of squirrel feeds on 

ponderosa pine seeds and the tree’s cambium 

layer, and the squirrel uses the tree for shelter 

and nesting. Among the other species that 

use these forests are mule deer (Odocoileus 

hemionus), elk (Cervus elaphus), chipmunks, 

and voles (Northern Arizona University 2015), 

and bats (Chung-MacCoubrey 1996). Many 

different bird species also use ponderosa 

pine habitats, such as Steller’s Jay (Cyanocitta 

stelleri), Brown Creeper (Certhia americana), 

White and Red-breasted Nuthatches (Sitta 

carolinensis and S. canadensis, respectively), 

Dark-eyed Junco (Junco hyemalis), and 

Figure 4.9.1-2.

Distribution of the 

two main categories 

of ponderosa 

pine vegetation 

at El Malpais NM 

based on recent 

vegetation mapping 

by Muldavin et al. 

(2013).

Figure 4.9.1-3.

Abert’s squirrels (Sciurus aberti) are 

a distinctive species 

of ponderosa pine 

forests on the 

Southern Colorado 

Plateau.

© ROBERT SHANTZ
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

Western Tanager (Piranga ludoviciana) 

(Northern Arizona University 2015), all of 

which are known to occur at El Malpais NM 

(Johnson et al. 2007). Ponderosa pine habitats 

are also valuable for their plant species 

diversity (Patton et al. 2014). 

4.9.2. Data and Methods 

We adapted criteria developed by Edmonds 

et al. (2011), in consultation with vegetation 

experts, to evaluate the condition of 

ponderosa pine habitat at El Malpais NM. 

Eight indicators were presented by Edmonds 

et al. (2011), including two that are related to 

water (aquatic species and clean flows from 

streams) and do not apply to the national 

monument. One additional indicator, 

wildlife, was also eliminated (but addressed 

elsewhere in this assessment), leaving five 

original indicators. These remaining five were 

split apart for clarity (creating six indicators), 

and formed the basis of our ponderosa pine 

indicators/measures. It should be noted that 

although the “clean flows from streams” 

indicator was eliminated, it is related to soil 

erosion, and we report on instances of erosion 

if they were observed/are known to exist.

The first indicator/measure assesses whether 

the species and their distributions are within 

the natural range expected for the vegetation 

type (community). The second indicator/

measure assesses tree densities within the 

plant communities, which can provide insight 

into the dynamics of a community to indicate 

condition. For example, if trees are more dense 

than expected, it could mean that conditions 

are conducive for those species and ecological 

processes such as fire are absent from the 

system. Higher than expected tree densities 

can lead to suppression of understory plant 

growth and diversity, and to reduced water 

yield in streams and springs because of 

increased transpiration by the trees. If trees 

occur in lower densities than expected, 

there could be some factor negatively 

affecting their recruitment or survival (e.g., 

fire or insects/disease or drought). The 

third indicator/measure, focusing on age 

class distribution, can reveal information 

on natural processes, such as seedling 

recruitment, fire, or other disturbances, that 

are characteristic of different types of plant 

communities. Information obtained under 

the fourth indicator/measure can indicate 

whether nutrient cycling, water supply, light 

supply, etc., are operating within parameters 

that support the plant communities. The 

plants’ physical appearance can provide 

information pertaining to this measure. 

Under the next indicator/measure, fire scars, 

type of vegetation, age of trees, and even 

historical photographs to a certain extent, 

can provide information that helps assess the 

range of variation for ecological processes. 

The final indicator/measure focuses on the 

current condition of infestations from insects 

or certain diseases that may indicate overall 

rigor of the system.

Although we generally consider these six 

measures as falling into two groups, or 

types of indicators, ecological or vegetation 

characteristics (1-4 and 6) and ecological 

processes (5), there is also overlap among 

them. Therefore, we do not distinguish 

between the two groups throughout the 

assessment and treat each measure as having 

approximately equal weight.

Indicators/Measures

• Are the species present and their 

distributions consistent with supply and 

demand of light, water, nutrients, and 

growing space, and within their natural 

range of variability? (1)

• Are stand densities within their range 

of natural variability for their growing 

conditions? (2)

• Are the age class distributions consistent 

with the expected range of variability for 

this site/ecosystem type? (3)

• Do the trees and understory plants 

appear vigorous and healthy for this site/

ecosystem type? (4)

• Are ecological processes (e.g., fire) 

operating within the natural range of 

variability? (5)

• Are the current levels of insects and/or 

disease within the normal range for this 

ecosystem type? (6)
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

The Field Assessment

This assessment is based on a vegetation field 

assessment conducted at El Malpais NM 

on June 2-3, 2015, with vegetation experts 

William Romme and Brian Jacobs, personnel 

from El Malpais NM, personnel from the 

Southern Colorado Plateau Network (SCPN), 

and one member of the NRCA writing team 

(these individuals are named in Section 4.8.5 

of this chapter and/or Table A.1 of Appendix 

A). The field assessment report produced by 

W. Romme and B. Jacobs (i.e., Romme and 

Jacobs 2015) was used heavily in the following 

sections.

Areas of the park visited during the two days 

of field work included the El Calderon area, 

the western end of the Zuni-Acoma trail, 

the Sandstone Bluffs overlook area, the Lava 

Falls area, the west side of the park (and the 

El Malpais National Conservation Area, 

managed by BLM) via a drive on unimproved 

Road 42, and the Cerro Bandera area. 

Previously existing reports that were used in 

the assessment are cited as appropriate in the 

following sections.

4.9.3. Reference Conditions 

Based more on ecological processes and 

dynamics of the vegetation (than on floristic 

composition and physiognomy, as in the 

vegetation mapping of Muldavin et al. 2013), 

Romme and Jacobs (2015) concluded that 

there are two fundamentally different kinds 

of ponderosa pine habitats within the national 

monument: 1) ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper 

woodland/savanna, and 2) ponderosa pinepiñon-juniper rocky woodland (Table 4.9.3-

1). These two general habitat types form 

the basis of the reference conditions used 

to assess the condition of ponderosa pine 

habitats throughout the national monument. 

Note that Romme and Jacobs (2015) used 

a functional classification of the vegetation 

because it is more useful in the context of 

the condition assessment. The dynamics of 

a piñon-juniper stand are more informative 

than the local species composition, because 

composition is primarily a reflection of soil 

and climate conditions and responds slowly 

to environmental stresses (W. Romme, pers. 

comm.). On the other hand, components 

such as tree density and fire frequency 

respond more quickly to environmental 

change, and affect the ecosystem as a whole. 

Their classification still includes species 

composition, just not as the first step in the 

classification process.

We considered the condition to be good for 

a given indicator within each ponderosa 

pine habitat type if it was consistent with 

maintaining:

● a fully functioning community of plants 

(and animals that each ponderosa pine 

habitat type supports),

● resilience to natural or anthropogenic 

disturbances that vary in intensity, 

duration, and size, while maintaining or 

sustaining the ponderosa pine habitat 

type’s inherent complexity, and

● the natural dynamics of the ponderosa 

pine habitat type with respect to 

productivity, nutrient capital, and 

biodiversity.

We considered the condition to be of 

moderate concern if there was some 

departure from the elements listed above for 

a given indicator, but that the ponderosa pine 

habitat type was capable of restoring itself to 

a good condition on its own, or with limited 

management intervention. And finally, we 

considered the condition to be of significant 

concern for a given indicator if there was 

substantial departure from the elements listed 

above that were either irreversible or would 

require substantial management intervention 

to return the condition to good. 

Reference Period

The period of time used as a reference for 

assessing vegetation at the national monument 

was the period of several centuries up to 

around 1880 (Romme and Jacobs 2015). In 

evaluating ecological change in the Southwest, 

this pre-1880 time period has often been 

used. Note that the remainder of this section 

(4.8.3) was taken directly from Romme and 

Jacobs (2015).
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

The several centuries prior to around 

1880 was not a time without any 

human impacts, nor a time without 

any ecological change. However, the 

rate and magnitude of human impacts 

and ecological changes increased 

dramatically beginning in the late 

19th century, with the onset of very 

heavy livestock grazing, industrial 

scale logging, and a market economy 

supported in part by an expanding 

network of railroads and capital 

from outside the region. Relative 

to what would come later, the pre1880 period can be viewed as a time 

of comparatively natural ecological 

characteristics and ecological 

processes. 

Table 4.9.3-1. Vegetation types dominated by ponderosa pine at El Malpais NM and El Morro NM (adapted 

from national monument vegetation maps and observations by Romme and Jacobs on June 2-4, 2015). Fire 

regime information comes from Grissino-Mayer (1995), Grissino-Mayer and Swetnam (1997), and Allen et al. 

(2002). Note that this classification is based on ecological processes and dynamics of the vegetation more 

than on floristic composition and physiognomy. Table (including photos) from Romme and Jacobs (2015).

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Woodland-Savanna

Canopy: The canopy is composed of Pinus ponderosa, Pinus edulis, and Juniperus 

monosperma; in places, Juniperus scopulorum and Juniperus depeanna are also 

present. Pinus edulis and Juniperus monosperma are more abundant on drier sites; 

Pinus ponderosa is more abundant on wetter sites; and Juniperus scopulorum and 

Juniperus depeanna are found only at the higher elevations. Many of the trees of all 

species are centuries old. Younger trees (<100 yr old) also are numerous, resulting in 

an all-aged stand structure. 

Understory: The understory is dominated by grasses, commonly Bouteloua gracilis, 

but a few shrubs may be present as well (e.g., Ribes cereum, Rhus trilobata). 

Site Conditions: Found most commonly on older lava flows having relatively well 

developed soil. 

Fire Regime: The historical fire regime was characterized mainly by spreading fires 

at intervals of years or decades that burned through the grasses and killed small trees 

and shrubs but spared most of the larger pine. More severe, stand-replacing fires also 

occurred in patches up to several acres. 

Plant associations from Muldavin et al. (2013) likely to be found: At least 

eight representative plant associations, such as Pinus ponderosa / Quercus gambelii 

Woodland; Pinus ponderosa / Festuca arizonica Woodland; Pinus ponderosa / 

Bouteloua gracilis Woodland.

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Rocky Woodland

Canopy: The canopy is composed mainly of Pinus ponderosa, Pinus edulis, and 

Juniperus monosperma. Many of the trees of all species are centuries old. Younger 

trees (<100 yr old) also are numerous, resulting in an all-aged stand structure.

Understory: The understory is composed of shrubs (e.g., Quercus undulata, Rhus 

trilobata, Forestiera pubescens), scattered grasses, and small trees, with much bare 

rock exposed. 

Site Conditions: Found on rugged terrain with much bare rock exposed, commonly 

young lava or sandstone bedrock. Little soil development except in cracks in the lava 

or bedrock. Woody plants are prevalent, probably because their roots can penetrate 

cracks to deep water sources. 

Fire Regime: Not well understood. Lightning-ignited fires occur yearly, but most 

apparently burn only a single tree or small group of trees and shrubs, and fail to 

spread over any larger area, except perhaps under extremely dry, windy conditions.

Plant associations from Muldavin et al. (2013) likely to be found: At least 

seven representative plant associations, such as Pinus ponderosa / Fallugia paradoxa 

Woodland; Pinus ponderosa / Fallugia paradoxa-Ribes cereum Woodland; Juniperus 

monosperma / Fallugia paradoxa; Pinus edulis - Juniperus spp. / Fallugia paradoxa 

Woodland.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Puebloan people (notably Acoma, 

Zuni, and Laguna) have continuously 

occupied the area around El Malpais 

and El Morro National Monuments 

since at least the 1100s A.D., and 

Spanish explorers, missionaries, and 

settlers began to frequent the area 

in the early 1600s (Weber 2009). 

Although Puebloan people began 

raising European livestock as early as 

the 1600s, the lands within presentday El Malpais NM probably were 

not heavily influenced by this early 

grazing, because they were somewhat 

remote from settlements and lacked 

water (Grissino-Mayer 1995). It 

seems likely that early livestock 

grazing would have had greater 

impacts on the vegetation within 

present-day El Morro NM, because 

that area was closer to Zuni Pueblo, 

provided a reliable water source, and 

was situated along a well-used trading 

route. However, the magnitude 

of pre-1880 grazing impacts at El 

Morro NM is not well understood. 

Puebloan people also harvested trees 

for construction and fuel, but those 

impacts probably were localized and 

left little lasting impact.

Note that upon park review of the above text 

from the Romme and Jacobs (2015) report, it 

was pointed out that some relevant historical 

information was missing, and so we present 

it here: Also around the early 1600s, Ramah 

Navajo began grazing sheep and cattle in 

the area. They continued to graze sheep in 

the El Morro area and in El Morro’s Box 

Canyon until the late 1940s/early 1950s (Steve 

Baumann, Resources Management Chief, El 

Morro and El Malpais NMs, pers. comm.; 

Ferguson 2012, Bradford 2013). 

 Changes after 1880 

After the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad 

arrived at what would become 

Grants, New Mexico, in 1881, the 

intensity of livestock grazing in 

and around the malpais increased 

dramatically. The town of San Rafael, 

at the edge of the lava flows, became a 

center for tens of thousands of sheep 

that grazed on lands within the future 

monument (Grissino-Mayer 1995). 

Large cattle companies also were 

established in the area, and horses 

were pastured on some of the kipukas 

within the malpais. Grazing intensity 

was greatest during the 1880s, then 

decreased in the 1890s and through 

the 20th century, but continues 

in the areas surrounding the two 

monuments (Grissino-Mayer 1995). 

 Importance of Climatic Variation

It is important to recognize that 

regional climate was not static 

during the pre-1880 reference 

period, nor has it been unchanging 

since that time. A 2,129-year local 

climate reconstruction, based on 

tree-rings collected from ancient 

trees in El Malpais NM (GrissinoMayer 1995), reveals alternating 

wet and dry periods throughout 

the last two millennia. The driest 

period and the wettest period in the 

2,129-year chronology occurred in 

the late 1500s and in the late 1900s, 

respectively (Table 4.9.3-2). Indeed, 

very few portions of that long climate 

chronology would be described as 

“normal” or “average.” Wet periods 

generally favored vegetative growth, 

and severe droughts periodically 

stressed the vegetation as well as the 

people eking out a living in western 

New Mexico. Subsequently, the 20th 

century has been one of the wettest 

and warmest centuries in the last 

millennium. The long-term climate 

trends documented in the national 

monument also are seen across much 

of the Southwest (Swetnam and 

Betancourt 1998, Gray et al. 2003). 

Although the 20th century was a 

generally wet period overall, its 

climate also fluctuated, and included 

some noteworthy drought periods. 

Grissino-Mayer’s (1995) tree-ring 

based chronology extends only up to 

1992. However, instrumental climate 

records are available for El Morro 

NM as far back as March of 1938 
165

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

(http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdoweb/). We calculated average annual 

precipitation for the entire period 

of record (1939-2014), and also for 

individual decades from the 1950s 

through 2014.....The 1950s and 1960s 

were dry decades, consistent with 

the pattern in the tree-ring record. 

Indeed, many piñon and ponderosa 

pine trees died during that drought 

(Breshears et al. 2005).

The 1970s had close to average annual 

precipitation, and then the 1980s and 

1990s were very wet—although a few 

individual dry years occurred during 

those two decades of overall moist 

conditions. The first decade of the 

21st century turned relatively dry 

again, with most years having belowaverage precipitation even though the 

decade’s total precipitation was only 

a little below the long-term average 

as a result of one exceptionally wet 

year (2006 with 18.26 inches total). 

The climate since 2010 also has been 

dry, and the most recent three years 

(2012-2014) was the driest three-year 

period at El Morro NM since the 

1950s...Global climate models predict 

a trend of increasing temperatures 

and perhaps decreasing precipitation 

throughout the 21st century (IPCC 

2013).

4.9.4. Condition and Trend 

The complete field assessment report of 

Romme and Jacobs (2015) is included on the 

park’s final DVD. Their report also addresses 

condition of ponderosa pine in El Morro NM 

and contains more detailed information on 

some points than we present here.

Ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper woodland/

savanna is found primarily in areas with 

gentle topography and where soils are finetextured and relatively deep. In these areas, 

the substrate is conducive to the growth of 

grasses and other herbaceous vegetation. At 

El Malpais NM, this ponderosa pine type 

appears most prevalent in the northwest area 

of the park on older lava flows (Romme and 

Table 4.9.3-2. Synopsis of climate variability since the late 15th century at El Malpais

NM, based on a tree-ring chronology developed by Henri Grissino-Mayer. Adapted 

from Table 3.15 (pages 108-110) in Grissino-Mayer (1995), and taken from Romme and 

Jacobs (2015, Table 1a). 

Period Climate Conditions

1483-1540 A.D. Generally favorable moisture conditions, but numerous drought years 

interspersed among wet years

1541-1567 A.D. Great year-to-year variation, with more wet years than dry years

1568-1607 A.D. The “Great Drought,” seen throughout the West, worst short-term drought in 

the 2,129-year record at El Malpais NM

1608-1656 A.D. Generally favorable moisture conditions, with a few severe drought years

1657-1723 A.D. Variable moisture conditions, but few extremely wet or extremely dry years 

1724-1790 A.D. Generally unfavorable moisture conditions, with some wet years but many severe 

drought years

1791-1829 A.D. Great year-to-year variation, with numerous very wet years

1830-1889 A.D. Generally favorable moisture conditions, with many very wet years but also with 

occasional drought years

1890-1904 A.D. Generally unfavorable moisture conditions, with many more drought years than 

wet years; a brief but severe drought from 1891-1893

1905-1943 A.D. Very wet period, with variation from year to year but no extreme climate years

1944-1963 A.D. Severe drought period, most years with below-average moisture but no extreme 

climate years

1964-1992 A.D.

Very favorable moisture conditions overall, but highly variable with some 

extremely wet and extremely dry years; 1978-1992 saw the greatest precipitation 

in the 2,129-year record at El Malpais NM
166

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Jacobs 2015). Due to variability in local soils 

and microclimate, as well as fire disturbance, 

stand structure also varies. Ponderosa pine 

dominates the canopy, and piñon pine 

(Pinus edulis), one-seed juniper (Juniperus 

monosperma), Rocky Mountain juniper 

(Juniperus scopulorum), and alligator juniper 

(Juniperus deppeana) may occur in varying 

amounts. The understory contains sapling 

ponderosa pine and saplings of the other 

species mentioned. At the highest elevations 

and on north-facing slopes, Douglas-fir 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) may also be present. 

The ground cover in these areas is diverse 

and nearly continuous. During the June field 

assessment, this ponderosa pine type was 

observed on the lower eastern and northern 

slopes of El Calderon, and along Highway 42 

in the vicinity of Cerro Bandera. 

The next few paragraphs come directly from 

Romme and Jacobs (2015) and summarize 

the history of fire in this vegetation type in the 

national monument area. The information 

aids in interpretation of the subsequent 

indicator/measure discussion:

Prior to 1880, low-severity fires 

recurred frequently. Those fires killed 

many of the small trees and shrubs 

and consumed some of the dead 

organic matter on the ground, but 

killed few of the large canopy pines. 

The herbaceous ground layer also was 

generally uninjured; aboveground 

parts of the plants might be burned 

off, but roots and rhizomes survived 

the fire and re-sprouted vigorously. 

Henri Grissino-Mayer sampled and 

cross-dated numerous fire-scarred 

trees and stumps in this vegetation 

type in the northwestern portion of 

El Malpais NM in the early 1990s 

(Grissino-Mayer 1995, GrissinoMayer and Swetnam 1997). Within 

a ca. 10 ha (25 acre) area, a fire was 

recorded approximately every 5-8 

yrs during the period from the mid1600s until 1880. Each fire did not 

necessarily burn the entire 10-ha area, 

but the fires in some years must have 

been extensive... More severe, standreplacing fire also probably occurred 

in patches of perhaps several acres; 

however, this component of the 

historical fire regime has not been 

investigated in El Malpais NM...

The fire regime in ponderosa pinepiñon-juniper woodland/savanna 

changed abruptly after 1880. Few 

extensive fires have occurred since 

that time; indeed, the 20th century 

witnessed the longest fire-free 

intervals in the past 600 years. NPS fire 

managers have been reintroducing 

fire to this vegetation type during 

the last couple of decades, but many 

sites still have gone for many decades 

without burning. As a consequence, 

some dense thickets of tree saplings 

have developed in places, and many 

stands probably have greater tree 

density today than they did before 

the 20th century. The story is further 

complicated by the intensive logging 

that took place throughout the 

region during the mid-20th century. 

Almost all merchantable ponderosa 

pine trees were cut across most of 

the accessible terrain in what is now 

the national monument. The canopy 

trees that we see today are mostly 

younger trees, left by the loggers 

because they were small at the time. 

Beneath the newly developing 

pine canopy, one can still trace the 

remnants of the pre-1900 forest in 

the form of moldering stumps. Some 

of these stumps contain multiple fire 

scars that document the pre-1880 fire 

regime (Figure 4.9.4-1 [Figure 3 in 

original report]).

An important discussion on the occurrence 

of piñons and junipers in this vegetation 

type was also provided in Romme and Jacobs 

(2015), and we present it here:

Piñon, junipers, and ponderosa 

pine apparently increased in density 

during the last century in much of 

the Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper 

Woodland-Savanna. In similar 

areas throughout the Southwest, it 

is sometimes suggested that piñon 
167

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

and juniper are “invading” the 

ponderosa pine forest, as a result 

of past fire exclusion. However, we 

think that this is a misinterpretation 

of the environmental gradients and 

ecological dynamics that characterize 

this vegetation type. The environment 

across much of El Malpais and El 

Morro National Monuments appears 

to straddle the lower portion of the 

ponderosa pine zone and the upper 

portion of the piñon-juniper zone. 

Consequently, all of these tree species 

find suitable habitats within the 

boundaries of the two monuments. 

Mature ponderosa pine trees are 

quite tolerant of low-severity fires, 

whereas piñon, the various juniper 

species, and small ponderosa pine 

seedlings or saplings are more easily 

killed by fire. Therefore, piñon and 

junipers are less abundant during 

periods of frequent fire, but become 

more abundant during long periods 

without fire— such as the 20th 

century. Although piñon and junipers 

probably have increased in this 

vegetation type since 1880, the climate 

and biogeographic location of the 

national monuments tell us that these 

species almost certainly were present 

before that time in at least small 

numbers throughout the ponderosa 

pine forests. Rather than “invading” 

the ponderosa pine forests, the piñon 

and junipers simply have increased 

their density in response to the lack 

of fire-caused mortality and the 

climate of the 20th century which 

has been generally favorable for tree 

establishment and survival in the 

region. The same mechanism has 

driven an increase in ponderosa pine 

density as well. Therefore, we include 

piñon and juniper in the name and 

characterization of this vegetation 

type, rather than identifying a “pure” 

ponderosa pine type that is being 

“invaded.” 

The second type of ponderosa pinedominated vegetation, ponderosa pine-piñonjuniper rocky woodland, is found in areas at 

El Malpais NM having rugged topography, 

especially young lava flows with bare rock and 

little soil development (Romme and Jacobs 

2015). The stand structure and composition 

in these areas varies greatly, largely due to 

variation in substrate characteristics and 

topography, with ponderosa pine, piñon 

pine, and one-seed juniper the dominant 

canopy species; Rocky Mountain juniper, 

Douglas-fir, and aspen (Populus tremuloides) 

may occur in some areas at higher elevations. 

Shrubs dominate the understory. During the 

June field assessment, these rocky woodlands 

were observed below the Sandstone Bluffs 

overlook area and along the west side of 

Encerrito Kipuka (which is near the western 

portion of the Zuni-Acoma Trail).

Stand structure and dynamics are also 

influenced by fire, but fire occurs less 

frequently in this type than in the woodland/

savanna type just described. Romme and 

Jacobs (2015) summarized information from 

Grissino-Mayer (1995) and Grissino-Mayer 

and Swetnam (1997) on the history of fire in 

ponderosa pine forests on the El Malpais NM 

landscape. The latter researchers found that 

a fire was recorded about every 11 yrs within 

a 30-acre (12.5-ha) area at Hoya de Cibola 

from the mid-1600s until 1880. Romme and 

Jacobs (2015) pointed out that even though 

fires do occur in these rocky woodlands, 

many of the trees go unburned for centuries. 

Figure 4.9.4-1.

Ponderosa pine 

stump on the 

east side of Cerro 

Bandera with fire 

scars from before 

1900. Source: 

Romme and Jacobs 

(2015).

NPS / ©WILLIAM ROMME
168

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Grissino-Mayer (1995) determined some 

living trees in the area to be >600 years old, 

with the oldest being a >1,200-year-old 

Douglas-fir.

Are the Species Present, and their 

Distributions Consistent with Supply and 

Demand of Light, Water, Nutrients, and 

Growing Space, and within their Natural 

Range of Variability?

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Woodland/

Savanna

In general, the species present and their 

corresponding distributions appear to be 

within their natural range of variability, and 

therefore, are in good condition. Native 

species were predominant in the areas 

observed, although pockets of exotic plant 

species may exist. For example, an exotic 

species was observed in at least one location. 

Near the base of the El Calderon cinder 

cone, a small amount of cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum) was observed under ponderosa 

pine trees and near persistent piñon-juniper 

woodland (W. Romme, pers. comm., July 28, 

2015). Concern exists over this plant because 

it is capable of expanding substantially, 

especially after fire and/or soil disturbance. 

Overall, however, exotic plants did not appear 

to be very abundant or widespread in this 

woodland type. Note that while exotic plants 

are addressed here to some extent, they are 

covered more thoroughly in the exotic plants 

section of the condition assessment (Section 

4.13).

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Rocky 

Woodland

In ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper rocky 

woodland, the species present and their 

distributions generally appear to be within 

their natural range of variability and in good 

condition. Native species predominate. 

Although pockets of exotic plant species may 

exist, no exotic species were observed during 

the field assessment (Romme and Jacobs 

2015). 

Are Stand Densities Within Their Range 

of Natural Variability For Their Growing 

Conditions?

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Woodland/

Savanna

The condition for this indicator/measure 

deviates somewhat from the reference 

condition for ponderosa pine-piñonjuniper woodland/savannas. Tree densities 

are probably greater than before 1900 in 

some stands due to fewer fires and favorable 

climate conditions for trees over the last 

century. The higher stand densities, however, 

do not appear to threaten the ecological 

integrity of the vegetation type. In general, 

understory vegetation does not appear to be 

suppressed, except possibly in some patches 

of relatively dense pine saplings (Figure 4.9.4-

2). Although some patches of dense pine 

saplings were observed, these stands were 

not comparable (in density) to those in other 

parts of the Southwest (e.g., in the forests 

near Flagstaff) where restoration programs 

have been undertaken (Friederici 2003, as 

described in Romme and Jacobs 2015). These 

increased densities in the national monument, 

however, may make this vegetation type more 

susceptible to somewhat larger and more 

severe wildfires than occurred historically 

(this is addressed in more detail below under 

the fifth indicator/measure). 

In summary, the density of trees has 

increased in some patches of vegetation, but 

Figure 4.9.4-2.

Patch of dense 

ponderosa pine 

saplings and 

small trees on the 

northeast side of 

Cerro Bandera. 

Source: Romme and 

Jacobs (2015).

NPS / ©WILLIAM ROMME
169

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

other areas are very open. Although there is 

spatial heterogeneity in the density of trees, 

we consider condition to be of moderate 

concern. Romme and Jacobs (2015) suggest 

that if stand structures more typical of the 

reference period are desired in the national 

monument, prescribed fire alone may be 

adequate to achieve this. 

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Rocky 

Woodland

Stand densities probably are somewhat greater 

in some areas today than before 1900 due 

to changes in fire frequency and, especially, 

favorable climatic conditions for trees 

throughout the past century. At El Malpais 

NM, in areas where this type grows on young 

lava flows, tree density is probably limited 

mostly by harsh environmental conditions. 

Where relatively higher stand densities do 

occur, they do not appear to pose any serious 

threat to ecological integrity. Condition under 

this indicator/measure is good. 

Are The Age Class Distributions Of Trees 

Consistent With The Expected Range Of 

Variability For This Site/Ecosystem Type?

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Woodland/

Savanna

Although we have limited data for this 

indicator/measure, the age classes appear to 

be within their natural range of variability in 

many areas (Romme and Jacobs 2015). The 

exception, however, is that in some areas 

the largest/oldest trees were removed during 

logging activities in the early/mid 20th century. 

The oldest trees observed today appear to be 

generally younger than 150 yrs old. Although 

this represents a departure from historical 

conditions, it does not appear to be an overall 

threat to ecological integrity. As the existing, 

oldest trees in the woodland/savanna type 

continue to grow and age, they will eventually 

take the place of those harvested in the 1930s. 

This has represented somewhat of a loss, 

however, to native species that use mature, 

living and dead trees for habitat. Overall, we 

considered condition good for this indicator. 

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Rocky 

Woodland

Based on limited information, the age classes 

generally appear to be within their natural 

range of variability. In some areas, however, 

20th century logging activities removed many 

of the old trees. The removal of these old 

trees does not appear to seriously threaten 

ecological integrity of this vegetation type. 

Also, much of the ponderosa pine-piñonjuniper rocky woodland is inaccessible and 

still has all-aged tree population structures, 

including trees that are centuries old. Overall, 

we consider condition to be good for this 

indicator/measure.

Do the Trees and Understory Plants 

Appear Vigorous and Healthy for this Site/

Ecosystem Type?

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Woodland/

Savanna

For this ponderosa pine type, most individual 

trees and understory plants appeared healthy. 

Dead ponderosa pine trees, however, were 

observed in many areas. The trees appeared to 

have died within the last 5-10 years, probably 

due to recent drought conditions. Small-scale 

events such as this are natural, however, and 

the situation does not appear to threaten the 

ecological integrity of this woodland type 

(Romme and Jacobs 2015). Additionally, the 

availability of some dead ponderosa pines 

is beneficial to wildlife that nest or roost in 

such areas (e.g., some species of bats [ChungMacCoubrey 1996]). Therefore, we consider 

condition under this indicator/measure to be 

good. 

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Rocky 

Woodland

As with the woodland/savanna type, most 

trees and understory plants appeared healthy 

in the rocky woodland type, except for the 

occurrence of dead ponderosa pine trees in 

some areas. Again, they appeared to have died 

within the last 5-10 years, probably due to 

recent drought conditions. The dead trees do 

not appear to threaten the ecological integrity 

of this ponderosa pine vegetation type, and 

such small-scale events are natural. Also, as 

mentioned above, some large, dead trees are 

important habitat for some wildlife species. 

Therefore, condition was considered good for 

this indicator/measure. 
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Are Ecological Processes (e.g., Fire) 

Operating within a Natural Range of 

Variability?

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Woodland/

Savanna

Romme and Jacobs (2015) summarized 

changes in fire frequency in ponderosa pine 

habitat in the El Malpais NM area over the 

past several centuries:

Intervals between successive fires 

were longer during the 20th century 

than in any previous century going 

back at least to the mid-1600s 

(Grissino-Mayer 1995, GrissinoMayer and Swetnam 1997). Lightning 

ignitions continued throughout the 

20th century, but spreading fires 

were essentially eliminated after ca. 

1880 as a result of the very heavy 

livestock grazing that removed the 

fine herbaceous fuels that formerly 

carried low-intensity fires through the 

woodlands. Active fire suppression 

began to be pursued vigorously 

around the mid-1930s—about the 

time that grazing began to be better 

regulated. Fires were reduced even 

further after 1945 as suppression 

became increasingly effective due to 

the availability of new fire-fighting 

technologies, e.g., aerial tankers and 

smoke jumpers.

These longer fire intervals generally exceed 

the historical range of variability for this 

ponderosa pine vegetation type. This is 

at least partially the reason for the greater 

tree densities observed in at least some 

stands at the national monument (described 

previously). The increased tree densities may 

make this vegetation type more susceptible to 

somewhat larger and more severe wildfires 

than typically occurred historically; however, 

this risk appears much less than in some other 

areas of Southwest ponderosa pine forests, 

such as around Flagstaff and on the Mogollon 

Plateau (see Romme and Jacobs 2015). 

We consider condition for this indicator/

measure to be of moderate concern. We note, 

however, that the fire management program 

at the national monument is reintroducing 

fire to the ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper 

woodland/savannas using prescribed fire and 

by allowing wildfires to burn where/when 

possible. 

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Rocky 

Woodland

Due to fire exclusion in the 20th century, 

fire intervals have lengthened considerably, 

even in areas of rugged topography and 

discontinuous fine fuels. This is also the 

case for this ponderosa pine vegetation type. 

However, even though the historical range of 

variability has been exceeded, the potential 

consequence of this is different than for the 

ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper woodland/

savannas. In the case of the rocky woodlands, 

fire probably did not play a critical role in 

maintaining the characteristic stand structure 

(Romme and Jacobs 2015). Additionally, the 

fire management program at the national 

monument is returning fire to this vegetation 

type using prescribed fire and allowing 

wildfires to burn where/when possible. For 

these reasons, and because overall ecological 

integrity does not appear to have been 

compromised by the lack of fire in the last 

century, we consider condition under this 

indicator/measure to be good. 

Are the Current Levels of Insects and/or 

Disease within the Normal Range for this 

Ecosystem Type?

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Woodland/

Savanna

We found no evidence that the level of insects 

and/or disease are outside the normal range 

for this vegetation type. During the vegetation 

field assessment, trees were examined, but 

there was no evidence of tree mortality or 

morbidity due to insects or disease (Romme 

and Jacobs 2015; Figure 4.9.4-3). Trees that 

died due to the recent drought contained 

evidence of engraver beetles, which do not 

kill trees but colonize the inner bark of trees 

that have recently died from other causes. 

Notably, no evidence of tree-killing mountain 

pine beetles was seen, namely, no pitch tubes 

on the bark nor any of the distinctive gallery 

markings created by this beetle (W. Romme, 

pers. comm., August 13, 2015). Insects and 

disease appear to pose no serious threat at 

this time, and condition for this indicator/

measure is considered to be good. 
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

Ponderosa Pine-Piñon-Juniper Rocky 

Woodland

As with the woodland/savanna type, during 

the field assessment we found no evidence 

that the level of insects and/or disease were 

outside the normal range for this ponderosa 

pine type (Romme and Jacobs 2015). As for 

the other ponderosa pine type, we found 

no evidence that insects or disease were the 

cause of trees that had died, and although 

bark beetle activity may have been observed, 

they were the type that typically colonize dead 

trees. Condition for this indicator/measure is 

considered to be good. 

Overall Condition 

For assessing the condition of ponderosa pine 

vegetation, we used a variety of indicators/

measures that were adapted from Edmonds 

et al. (2011). Two vegetation experts, as well 

as additional ecologists with SCPN, and park 

staff participated in the field assessment. All 

of the indicators/measures for this resource 

were intended to capture different aspects 

of the ponderosa pine communities located 

within the national monument. A summary 

of the indicators/measures and how they 

contributed to the overall condition is 

summarized in Table 4.9.4-3. 

As shown in the table, based on our 

assessment, the overall condition of 

ponderosa pine vegetation at El Malpais 

NM is good. There are, however, some areas 

of concern. Of the six indicators/measures 

for the two vegetation types (12 indicators/

measures total), ten are considered to be 

in good condition. Two (for the woodland/

savanna type) are considered to be of 

moderate concern. Overall, the main areas of 

concern for ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper 

woodland/savanna are the considerable 

increase in fire intervals (indicator/measure 

#5), which generally exceed the historical 

range of variability for this vegetation type, 

and the higher stand densities occurring 

today compared to pre-1900 (indicator/

measure #2). It should be noted, however, 

that the fire management program is working 

to reintroduce fire to the system. The other 

area of concern, although condition was 

ultimately judged to be good for the related 

indicator/measure, is the loss of some of the 

oldest ponderosa pine trees due to mid-20th 

century logging (indicator/measure #3). 

The main area of concern for the ponderosa 

pine-piñon-juniper rocky woodland, 

although condition was judged to be good for 

the indicator/measure, is the increase in fire 

intervals. Although it exceeds the historical 

range of variability, it appears less of an issue 

than for the other ponderosa pine type. As 

with the other type, fire managers at the 

national monument are reintroducing fire to 

this vegetation type as possible.

Based on our analysis and the information 

available, the condition of ponderosa pine 

vegetation at the national monument appears 

to have been generally stable over the last 

half century. Conditions for vegetation have 

been, on the whole, largely conducive for 

tree establishment and survival, although as 

described, there has been some mortality of 

trees over the last approximately 5-10 years. 

At this time, we consider the overall trend in 

condition as unchanging. However, see the 

last point below regarding uncertainty and 

climate. 

Level of Confidence/Key Uncertainties 

Overall, our confidence in this assessment 

is high. However, as is generally the case, 

Figure 4.9.4-3.

Checking for signs 

of insects and/or 

disease on one of 

the dead ponderosa 

pine trees observed 

at the national 

monument.

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Ponderosa Pine Vegetation

Indicators Measures

Ecological / Vegetation 

Characteristics 5 Measures

Ecological Processes 1 Measure
172

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.9.4-3. Indicators/measures of ponderosa pine condition for ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper woodland/

savanna and ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper rocky woodlands. Table based on Tables 6c and 6d in Romme and 

Jacobs (2015). 

Community Type Indicator/Measure Condition Condition Rationale

Ponderosa Pine-PiñonJuniper WoodlandSavanna

Is Species Presence & Distribution 

Within Natural Range of Variability?

Good In general, the species present and their distribution 

appear to be in good condition. Some exotic 

species are present in local areas, but native species 

predominate in most places. 

Are Stand Densities Within Their 

Range of Natural Variability For Their 

Growing Conditions?

Moderate Stand densities probably are greater in some areas 

today than before 1900 due to few fires and favorable 

climatic conditions for trees during the past century. 

These higher stand densities do not appear to pose 

any serious threat to ecological integrity, but they may 

make some areas more susceptible to somewhat larger 

and more severe wildfires than occurred historically. 

Overall, condition is of moderate concern. 

Are age class distributions of trees 

consistent with expected range of 

variability?

Good With limited data, the age classes appear to be 

within their natural range of variability in many areas. 

However, where heavy logging was conducted in 

the 20th century, many of the oldest trees were 

removed, and the oldest trees today are generally 

<150 yrs old. This departure from historical conditions, 

however, does not appear to pose any serious threat 

to ecological integrity, and overall, we considered 

condition good. 

Do the trees and understory plants 

appear vigorous and healthy?

Good Most individual trees and understory plants appeared 

healthy. However, dead ponderosa pine trees were 

observed in many areas and probably died in the last 

5-10 yrs due to drought conditions. Such small-scale 

mortality events are natural and do not appear to 

threaten overall ecological integrity. Therefore, we 

considered condition good.

Are ecological processes operating 

within natural range of variation?

Moderate Fire intervals have lengthened considerably due to 

20th century fire exclusion, and generally exceed 

the historical range of variation for this vegetation 

type. Condition, therefore, is of moderate concern. 

However, the fire management program at the national 

monument is reintroducing fire to this vegetation 

type via manager-ignited prescribed fire and allowing 

wildfires to burn when/where possible. 

Are the current levels of insects/ 

disease within the normal range?

Good Condition is good. We looked for, but saw, little 

evidence of tree mortality or morbidity due to insects 

or disease. Insects/disease appear to pose no serious 

threat at this time.

Ponderosa PinePiñon-Juniper 

Woodland-Savanna 

Summary

Overall condition based on all six 

indicators/measures

Good Overall condition is good, with four of the 

indicators/measures good and two of moderate 

concern. Longer fire intervals are of relatively 

greatest concern, followed by patches of increased 

tree densities.
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

Table 4.9.4-3. Indicators/measures of ponderosa pine condition for ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper woodland/savanna and

ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper rocky woodlands. Table based on Tables 6c and 6d in Romme and Jacobs (2015) (continued).

Community Type Indicator/Measure Condition Condition Rationale

Ponderosa PinePiñon-Juniper Rocky 

Woodland

Is Species Presence & Distribution 

Within Natural Range of Variability

Good In general, the species present and their distribution 

appear to be in good condition. Although they may 

exist, no exotic species were observed during the site 

visit. Therefore, native species predominate in most 

places. 

Are Stand Densities Within Their Range 

of Natural Variability For Their Growing 

Conditions?

Good Stand densities probably are somewhat greater in some 

areas today than before 1900 due to few fires and 

favorable climatic conditions for trees during the past 

century. However, on the most unfavorable substrates 

(e.g., young lava flows), tree density probably is limited 

by harsh environmental conditions. Where they occur, 

higher stand densities than were typical of historical 

conditions do not appear to pose any serious threat to 

ecological integrity. Condition is considered good. 

Are age class distributions of trees 

consistent with expected range of 

variability?

Good Condition is good. With limited data, the age classes 

appear to be within their natural range of variability 

in many areas. Although logging in the 20th century 

removed many of the old trees in some places, much 

of this habitat is inaccessible and still retains all-aged 

tree population structures including centuries-old trees. 

Past logging in these areas does not appear to pose 

any serious threat to ecological integrity.

Do the trees and understory plants 

appear vigorous and healthy?

Good Most individual trees and understory exhibit healthy 

appearances. However, dead ponderosa pine trees are 

seen in many areas. These dead trees appear to have 

died within the past 5-10 yrs, probably as a result of 

recent drought conditions. Small-scale mortality events 

of this kind are natural, and ecological integrity of this 

vegetation type is not threatened. Overall, condition is 

good for this indicator/measure.

Are ecological processes operating 

within natural range of variability?

Good Fire intervals have lengthened due to 20th century fire 

exclusion, even in areas of rugged topography and 

discontinuous fine fuels, and now generally exceed 

the historical range of variability for this vegetation 

type. However, a paucity of 20th century fire does 

not appear to have compromised overall ecological 

integrity, and fire is probably less important to stand 

structure than in the woodland/savanna type. Also, the 

fire management program at the park is reintroducing 

fire to this vegetation type (via prescribed fire and 

allowing wildfires to burn where/when possible). 

Condition was judged to be good.

Are the current levels of insects/ 

disease within the normal range?

Good Condition is good. We looked for, but saw, little 

evidence of tree mortality or morbidity due to insects 

or disease. Insects/disease appear to pose no serious 

threat at this time.

Ponderosa PinePiñon-Juniper Rocky 

Woodland Summary

Overall condition based on all six 

indicators/measures

Good Overall condition is good, with all six of the 

indicators/measures good. The are some minor 

concerns over increased fire intervals, as well as 

increased tree density in some places and the 

potential occurrence of exotic plants. 
174

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

there are some uncertainties. For example, 

some uncertainty exists with the assessment 

overall, because it is based on a field visit to 

only some areas of the park. Due to the size 

and inaccessibility of much of the national 

monument, it was not possible to visit all 

areas dominated by the subject vegetation. 

So, for example, some areas not observed 

might have had a higher incidence of exotic 

plants. On the other hand, the areas chosen 

were considered to be representative of areas 

within the park. 

Another area of uncertainty is the level of 

significance of the increased tree density in 

places within the woodland/savanna type 

(Romme and Jacobs 2015). Increased tree 

densities lead to an increased potential for 

spreading crown fires, but the high-density 

stands were patchily distributed rather than 

continuous.

There is at least one uncertainty regarding 

trend. Although we considered the trend 

in condition to be unchanging based on 

current information, there are predictions 

for future climate that could lead to a decline 

in condition. If El Malpais NM experienced 

a major drought or extended drought 

conditions in the future, tree mortality could 

become more widespread, and the overall 

condition could decline. Romme and Jacobs 

(2015) wrote the following in the context 

of potentially managing the increase in tree 

densities in the ponderosa pine vegetation 

types (and piñon-juniper types) at the 

national monument (which is an important 

point), but it also applies to this discussion of 

uncertainty in future conditions. 

...this increase [in tree densities] is 

in large part a manifestation of the 

climate of the 20th century, which 

was especially favorable for tree 

establishment and survival. But we 

are now moving rapidly out of the 

climate that characterized the 20th 

century. Higher temperatures, more 

frequent and severe droughts, and 

more frequent and difficult to control 

wildfires are in our future. Worldwide, 

trees are dying at an accelerated rate, 

especially old trees (Allen et al. 2010, 

Anderegg et al. 2013). We see this at 

El Malpais NM where the venerable 

650+ year-old Pseudotsuga menziesii 

named Yoda recently succumbed 

to the drought of the last several 

years. Thus, we may find that a new 

21st century management priority 

will be retaining trees in the face of 

deteriorating climate, rather than the 

imperative to reduce tree densities 

that probably made sense back in the 

climatically benign days of the late 

20th century. 

Even with these uncertainties, we have high 

confidence overall in this assessment. The 

field assessment consisted of two full days at 

El Malpais NM with two vegetation experts, 

two ecologists with SCPN, a biologist/writer, 

and three personnel from El Malpais NM 

with a substantial knowledge of the park. 

Furthermore, we should note that the El 

Malpias NM landscape contains a unique and 

significant resource (Grissino-Mayer 1995, 

Grissino-Mayer and Swetnam 1997, Allen et 

al. 2002, and Romme and Jacobs 2015) that 

bolstered our confidence in this assessment. 

Old living trees, stumps, logs, and snags 

containing fire scars and tree-ring records 

were used by researchers to analyze wildfire 

patterns back to 1333 (Grissino-Mayer and 

Swetnam 1997), and to reconstruct climate 

conditions back to 136 BC (Grissino-Mayer 

1995; p. 79, as cited in Romme and Jacobs 

2015).

4.9.5. Sources of Expertise 

During the course of this assessment, we 

consulted with the following individuals 

who provided subject matter expertise and 

participated in a two-day field assessment at 

El Malpais: 

William H. Romme is Professor emeritus of 

fire ecology and senior research scientist in 

the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory 

at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 

CO. In addition to participating in the field 

assessment and co-authoring the report 

upon which this section is based, Dr. Romme 

reviewed a draft of this section. Brian J. Jacobs 

is a vegetation ecologist who recently retired 
175

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

from the NPS at Bandelier NM. Both of 

these subject matter experts have conducted 

research on the ecology of ponderosa pine 

ecosystems and are well-published in this 

topic. 

Two individuals with the SCPN also 

participated in the field assessment at the 

park, Lisa Thomas, Program Manager for the 

SCPN, and Jim DeCoster, Plant Ecologist for 

the SCPN.

4.9.6. Literature Cited 

Allen, C.D., M. Savage, D.A. Falk, K.F. 

Suckling, T.W. Swetnam, T. Schulke, 

P.B. Stacey, P. Morgan, M. Hoffman, 

and J.T. Klingel. 2002. Ecological 

restoration of southwestern ponderosa 

pine ecosystems: a broad perspective. 

Ecological Applications 12(5): 1418-1433.

Allen, C.D., A.K. Macalady, H. Chenchouni, 

et al. 2010. A global overview of drought 

and heat-induced tree mortality reveals 

emerging climate change risks for forests. 

Forest Ecology and Management 259: 

660-684, as cited in Romme and Jacobs 

(2015). 

Anderegg, W.R.L., J.M. Kane, and L.D.L. 

Anderegg. 2013. Consequences of 

widespread tree mortality triggered by 

drought and temperature stress. Nature 

Climate Change 3:30-36, as cited in 

Romme and Jacobs (2015).

Bradford, J.E. 2013. Without parallel 

among relics: an archeological history 

of El Morro National Monument, 

New Mexico. Archeology Program, 

Intermountain Region Cultural 

Resources, Intermountain Cultural 

Resources Professional Papers No. 71. 

Santa Fe. 

Breshears, D.D., N.S. Cobb, P.M. Rich, K.P. 

Price, C.D. Allen, R.G. Balice, W.H. 

Romme, J.H. Kastens, M.L. Floyd, J. 

Belnap, J.J. Anderson, O.B. Myers, and 

C.W. Meyer. 2005. Regional vegetation 

die-off in response to global-change-type 

drought. Proceedings of the National 

Academy of Sciences 102(42):15144-

15148, as cited by Romme and Jacobs 

(2015). 

Chung-MacCoubrey, A. 1996. Bat species 

composition and roost use in pinyonjuniper woodlands of New Mexico. Pp. 

118–123 in Bats and Forests Symposium, 

October 19–21, 1995 (R.M.R. Barclay and 

R.M. Brigham, eds.). Research Branch, 

British Columbia Ministry of Forestry, 

Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 

Working Paper 23/1996 1–292.

Edmonds, R.L., J.K. Agee, and R.I. Gara. 2011. 

Forest Health and Protection. Waveland 

Press Inc., Long Grove, IL.

Friederici, P. (editor). 2003. Ecological 

restoration of southwestern ponderosa 

pine forests. Island Press and Ecological 

Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona 

University.

Ferguson, T.J. 2012. Appendix O: 

Anthropological Evidence for Cultural 

Affiliation at El Morro National 

Monument. In Cultural Affiliation Study 

of Atsinna and El Morro in Cibola County, 

New Mexico. Museum of Northern 

Arizona Report No. 150-483.

Graham, R.T., and T.B. Jain. 2005. Ponderosa 

pine ecosystems. USDA Forest Service 

Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-198. 2005.

Gray, S.T., J.L. Betancourt, C.L. Fastie, and 

S.T. Jackson. 2003. Patterns and sources 

of multidecadal oscillations in droughtsensitive tree-ring records from the 

central and southern Rocky Mountains. 

Geophysical Research Letters 30 (6, 

1316):49-1-4, as cited by Romme and 

Jacobs (2015). 

Grissino-Mayer, H.D. 1995. Tree-ring 

reconstructions of climate and fire history 

at El Malpais National Monument, New 

Mexico. Dissertation, Department of 

Geosciences, University of Arizona, 

Tucson, as cited by Romme and Jacobs 

(2015).
176

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Grissino-Mayer, H.D., and T.W. Swetnam. 

1997. Multi-century history of wildfire in 

the ponderosa pine forests of El Malpais 

National Monument. New Mexico 

Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources, 

Bulletin 156. Pages 163-171. 

IPCC, 2013. Summary for Policymakers. 

In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical 

Science Basis. Contribution of Working 

Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report 

of the Intergovernmental Panel on 

Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, 

G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, 

J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex 

and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge 

University Press, Cambridge, United 

Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, as 

cited by Romme and Jacobs (2015).

Johnson M.J., J.A. Holmes, M.A. Stuart, and 

J. Lynn. 2007. Avian inventories for six 

national parks in the Southern Colorado 

Plateau Network. Natural Resource 

Technical Report NPS/SCPN/NRTR–

2007/047. National Park Service, Fort 

Collins, Colorado.

Muldavin, E., Y. Chauvin, T. Neville, P. 

Neville, A. Kennedy, H. Hulse, P. Arbetan, 

K. Schultz, M. Hall, and M. Reid. 2013. 

Vegetation Classification and Map: El 

Malpais National Monument. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/SPCN/

NRTR–2013/803. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Northern Arizona University. 2015. Biotic 

communities of the Colorado Plateau: 

Ponderosa pine forest. Land Use History 

of North America, Colorado Plateau 

web pages. Available at http://cpluhna.

nau.edu/Biota/ponderosa_forest.htm. 

Accessed December 2014.

Patton, D.R., R.W. Hofstetter, J.D. Bailey, M.A. 

Benoit. 2014. Species richness and variety 

of life in Arizona’s ponderosa pine forest 

type. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-332. 

Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. 44 p.

Romme, W.H., and B. Jacobs. 2015. 

Assessment of the ecological condition 

of piñon-juniper and ponderosa pine 

vegetation at El Malpais and El Morro 

National Monuments, New Mexico. 36 

pages and appendix. 

Swetnam, T.W., and J.L. Betancourt. 1998. 

Mesoscale disturbance and ecological 

response to decadal climatic variability 

in the American southwest. Journal of 

Climate 11:3128–3147, as cited by Romme 

and Jacobs (2015).

Weber, D.J. 2009. The Spanish frontier in 

North America. The brief edition. Yale 

University Press, New Haven, CT, as cited 

by Romme and Jacobs (2015).
177

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

4.10. Vegetation - Grasslands and Shrublands

4.10.1. Background and Importance 

Grasslands at El Malpais National Monument 

occur on the older, more eroded flows. Old 

basalt plains (700,000 years old) and older 

cinder cones, as well as hills of sedimentary 

limestone and sandstone are prevalent around 

the perimeter of, or as islands (kipukas) within, 

the flows. These flows that have accumulated 

substantial sediments transported by wind 

and water over time support grasslands and 

other communities that are representative 

of typical non-volcanic landscapes of the 

southern Colorado Plateau (Muldavin et al. 

2013).

Shrublands, dominated by Apache plume, 

skunkbush sumac, and wax currant, occur 

at the lowest elevations of the monument on 

the more recent flows and cinder cones. On 

these sparsely vegetated young flows, fire is 

infrequent and limited in extent, creating an 

environment where trees and shrubs can live 

to extended ages and sites develop unique 

assemblages of species (Muldavin et al. 2013).

Shortgrass prairie is the most prevalent 

grassland type at the monument and occurs 

most commonly next to lava flows on alluvial 

and eolian deposited sediment or on old 

basalt plains on which more recent flows lie 

(Muldavin et al. 2013) (Figure 4.10.1-1).

According to the New Mexico Department 

of Game and Fish (NMDGF 2006) regarding 

the Western Great Plains Shortgrass Prairie 

community type, the description of which is 

primarily based on the Southwest Regional 

Gap Analysis Project (SWReGAP) and The 

Nature Conservancy (TNC) New Mexico 

ecoregions:

“This habitat forms a matrix system 

with blue grama dominating. 

Condition – Trend - Confidence

Good – Unknown - Medium

©PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Figure 4.10.1-1.

The largest area 

of grassland at El 

Malpais NM is the 

Fringed Sage/Blue 

Grama Lava Plains 

Grassland shown in 

the photo.

Indicators/Measures

• Soil/Site Stability (2 measures)

• Biotic Integrity (5 measures)
178

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Associated graminoids may 

include purple threeawn (Aristida 

purpurea), sideoats grama, hairy 

grama, buffalograss, needle and 

thread, prairie Junegrass (Koeleria 

macrantha), western wheatgrass, 

James’ galleta, alkali sacaton and sand 

dropseed. Although mid-height grass 

species may be present especially on 

more mesic land positions and soils, 

they are secondary in importance to 

the sod-forming short grasses. Sandy 

soils have higher cover of needle and 

thread, spike dropseed (Sporobolus 

cryptandrus), and soaptree yucca. 

Scattered shrub and dwarf-dwarf 

species such as sand sagebrush, 

prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), 

big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), 

fourwing saltbush (Atriplex 

canescens), spreading buckwheat 

(Eriogonum effusum), broom 

snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae), 

wolfberry (Lycium palida), may also 

be present. High variation in amount 

and timing of annual precipitation 

impacts the relative cover of cool 

and warm season herbaceous 

species. Large-scale processes such 

as climate, fire, and grazing influence 

this habitat. Fire is less important 

than other prairie habitats because 

the often dry and xeric climate 

conditions can decrease the fuel load 

and thus the relative fire frequency. 

The short grasses that dominate this 

habitat type are extremely drought 

and grazing-tolerant. These species 

evolved with drought and large 

herbivores and, because of their 

stature, are relatively resistant to 

overgrazing” (NatureServe 2004 as 

cited in NMDGF 2006).

Vegetation Inventories

Muldavin et al. (2013) provided a nice 

summary of previous botanical and vegetation 

studies conducted at El Malpais NM, which is 

included below. 

“The earliest description of the vegetation of 

the El Malpais area was provided by Lindsey 

(1951). He described and broadly mapped 

three vegetation belts on the lava flows, 

dominated respectively by (1) Pseudotsuga 

menziesii, (2) Pinus ponderosa, and (3) Fallugia 

paradoxa (Apache plume), with Pinus edulis 

(piñon pine) and Juniperus monosperma 

(oneseed juniper) trees as part of the Apache 

plume belt. In addition, Lindsey described the 

vegetation associated with specific geologic 

substrates, which included lava cones, cinder 

cones, cinder benches, granite hills, yellow 

sandstones, high Tertiary plains, and the ice 

caves. 

Bleakly (1994, 1997) mapped four broad 

vegetation zones: (1) Mixed Conifer, which 

was inclusive of Lindsey’s Douglas-fir and 

ponderosa pine belts; (2) Bare to Sparse 

Grass/Shrub, more or less equivalent to 

Lindsey’s Apache plume belt; (3) a Grass 

or Grass/Shrub zone that corresponds to 

Lindsey’s high Tertiary plains associated with 

the early Pleistocene volcanic surfaces; and 

(4) a Shrub/Conifer zone associated with 

sedimentary rock substrates and alluvial 

plains that supported pinyon and juniper 

woodlands and grasslands. He also provided 

a comprehensive vascular plant species list for 

the monument. 

Carroll (1989) produced a Biophysical Land 

Units (BLU) map at approximately 1:50,000 

scale, which covered the monument and the 

adjacent BLM lands of El Malpais National 

Conservation Area (NCA) (also part of the 

general management plan for the NCA by 

BLM [1990]). This map was developed using 

30-meter LANDSAT Thematic Mapper (TM) 

imagery from 1984 and has 11 BLU map units. 

BLUs use a combination of terrain, soil, and 

vegetation classes in the mapping process. 

Carroll (1989) identified eight vegetative 

classes which are similar in thematic content 

to Lindsey (1951) and Bleakly (1994): (1) 

Lava/lichen/pygmy scrub; (2) Sparse/bare; 

(3) Grass/shrub; (4) Shrub/ conifer; (5) Mixed 

conifer; (6) Pinyon-juniper woodland; (7) 

Deciduous; and (8) Ponderosa parklands” 

(descriptions excerpted from Muldavin et al. 

2013). 

Lightfoot et al. (1994) produced an inventory 

the same year Bleakly (co-author on this 

report) published maps of vegetation zones 
179

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

at the monument. The Lightfoot et al. report 

was both a vegetation and a wildlife inventory. 

Their primary objectives were to document 

plant and animal species occurrences, as well 

as identify corresponding plant and animal 

habitats and communities. An emphasis was 

made to identify habitats and species that are 

rare or distinctive to the monument.

In 2005, a collaborative project involving 

the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), NPS, 

Natural Heritage New Mexico (NHNM), 

and NatureServe was initiated with 

reconnaissance field surveys of the vegetation 

communities of the monument, followed by 

intensive field sampling from 2006 through 

2009. The vegetation survey data were 

entered into a database and used to develop a 

park-wide vegetation classification following 

the National Vegetation Classification 

System (USNVC) (Federal Geographic Data 

Committee [FGDC] 2008) guidelines. Map 

units were designed to support ecologically 

based natural resources management with 

an emphasis on uses for fire, wildlife, and 

recreation management (Muldavin et al. 

2013).

For this mapping project, Muldavin et al. 

(2013) mapped 16% of the monument as six 

shrubland units and 5% as five grassland map 

units (Table 4.10.1-1, Figure 4.10.1-2). The 

most common shrubland type was Apache 

Plume-Skunkbush Sumac Lava Scrub, 

followed by the largest area of grassland, 

which was the Fringed Sage/Blue Grama Lava 

Plains Grassland. Species most abundant 

in shrublands include (Bouteloua gracilis), 

Apache plume (Fallugia paradoxa), fourwing 

saltbush, prairie sagewort, and pigweed 

(Portulaca oleracea, an exotic species). In 

the grasslands, blue grama is also the most 

abundant species, distantly followed by 

western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), 

rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa), 

alkali sacaton (Sporobolus airoides), and spike 

dropseed.

Climate

The monument’s climate is characterized 

by cool-to-cold, relatively dry winters, and 

warm, wet (monsoonal) summers (Figure 

4.10.1-3). At the Grants airport (elevation 

1987 m), about 20 km north of the park, daily 

temperature ranges between -36.1 °C and 28.9 

°C (-32.9 °F and 84.0 °F ) in winter, and -2.2 °C 

and 41.1 °C (28.0 °F and 106.0 °F ) in summer 

(Muldavin et al. 2013). Winter and summer 

temperatures average 2.9 °C and 20 °C (37 °F 

and 70 °F), respectively. Values are averaged 

based on data obtained from the Western 

Regional Climate Center (http://www.wrcc.

dri.edu/climsum.html). The large differentials 

between the average monthly minimum and 

maximum temperatures over the course of a 

year reflect an essentially continental climate.

The average annual precipitation is 218 mm 

(Figure 4.10.1-3), of which approximately a 

third falls in winter (October through March) 

Table 4.10.1-1. The 11 shrubland and grassland National Vegetation Classification 

(NVC) map units identified by Muldavin et al. (2013) at El Malpais NM and their 

corresponding areas occupied.

Vegetation Map Unit Name Primary Class Area (hectares / acres)

Apache Plume Cinder Scrub Shrubland 12.6 31.1

Apache Plume-Skunkbush Sumac Lava Scrub Shrubland 6,289.8 15,542.5

Skunkbush Sumac-Gooseberry-Apache Plume-Lava Scrub Shrubland 572.5 1,414.6

Fourwing Saltbush Shrub-Steppe Shrubland 234.6 579.8

Sand Sagebrush Sandy Plains Shrubland Shrubland 65.8 162.7

Rubber Rabbitbrush/Blue Grama Shrub-Steppe Shrubland 369.7 913.6

Blue Grama-Mountain Muhly Lava Plains-Foothill Grassland Grassland 528 1,304.6

Fringed Sage/Blue Grama Lava Plains Grassland Grassland 863.9 2,134.8

Blue Grama/Mesa Dropseed Sandy Plains Grassland Grassland 223.8 553.1

Blue Grama Ruderal Grassland Grassland 77.7 192

Blue Grama-Western Wheatgrass Lowland Grassland Grassland 501 1,237.9
180

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Figure 4.10.1-2. Muldavin et al. (2013) mapped 16% of the monument as six shrubland units 

and 5% as five grassland map units.
181

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

and is delivered principally by low-pressure 

systems that sweep from west to east across 

the Southwest, and coalesce with moisture 

from the Pacific Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico 

(Muldavin et al. 2013).

Winter precipitation is generally followed 

by a seasonal dry period from April through 

June. This dry period is defined as much by 

the increased potential evapotranspiration 

that accompanies increased day length, solar 

radiation, and temperatures, as by decreased 

precipitation. The spring dry period is usually 

relieved by the onset of the Mexican/ Arizona 

monsoon, which lasts from July through 

September, and is associated mostly with 

short-duration, high-intensity thunderstorms. 

The thunderstorms can be localized, leading 

to high year-to-year variability of precipitation 

over small areas across the park (Muldavin et 

al. 2013).

Historical Context 

There is a long history of use of the monument 

and adjacent lands for hunting, farming, and 

ranching by Native American groups that was 

extended by European settlers. According 

to Muldavin et al. (2013), the ruggedness 

of much of the young lava flows on the 

monument, in combination with little running 

or ponding water, likely limited grazing in 

the 20th century, and therefore, these flows 

may still reflect much of their natural, presettlement character (although 19th century 

sheep grazing may still have been a factor). 

After 150 years of livestock grazing, grazing 

was formally terminated in 1998 as outlined 

in Public Law 100-225, which established the 

monument in 1987. 

4.10.2. Data and Methods 

This assessment is primarily based upon data 

collected at 150 plots in 2005-2006 for the 

vegetation mapping project (Muldavin et 

al. 2013) and supplemented with fire effects 

monitoring data from 30 plots sampled 

more recently (2006-2013) (Figure 4.10.2-1). 

These two projects implemented different 

sample designs and data collection methods 

to estimate vegetation and surface cover and 

any comparisons made in this document are 

qualitative and ad hoc. It is not our intent to 

imply any formal trend.

We considered soil/site stability and biological 

integrity as two categories of indicators for 

the assessment of grassland and shrubland 

condition at El Malpais NM using a modified 

approach based on methods presented by 

Pellant et al. (2005). 

Figure 4.10.1-3.

Climate conditions 

at El Malpais NM 

(http://science.

nature.nps.gov/im/

units/scpn/climate/

climate.cfm).
182

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Indicator/Measures

Soil/Site Stability (2 measures)

The methodology for the soil assessment used 

an approach based on those described in the 

qualitative assessment protocol “Interpreting 

Indicators of Rangeland Health (Pellant et al. 

2005), in which Soil/Site Stability qualitative 

measures (Table 4.10.2-1) were used to assess 

the ability of an area to limit redistribution 

and loss of soil resources by wind and water.

Assessment methods were modified from 

those outlined by Pellant et al. (2005) as 

Figure 4.10.2-1. There are 150 plots that were established in 2005-2006 for the vegetation 

mapping project (Muldavin et al. 2013) and 30 plots for fire effects monitoring data 

sampled more recently (2006-2013) at El Malpais NM.
183

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

reference sheets that describe a standard for 

comparison were not available as they have 

not been finalized for the national monument. 

Use of these reference sheets is required to 

conduct assessments of soil / site stability 

per the Pellant et al. protocol. In lieu of the 

Natural Resource Conservation Service 

(NRCS) reference sheets, our assessment is 

based upon the comparison of surface cover 

data collected for both the vegetation map 

and fire effects monitoring against expected 

cover as provided in the community type 

descriptions outlined in the vegetation map 

report (Muldavin et al. 2013). 

Soil Cover 

The amount of total cover (soil cover and 

vegetation cover) is the single most important 

dynamic factor affecting water erosion 

(Herrick et al. 2005). Most soil loss occurs 

in “unprotected” areas with uncovered bare 

soils (Davenport et al. 1998), whereas rock, 

gravel, vegetation, biological soil crusts, 

and even plant debris (litter and duff) can 

“armor” the soil, slowing the flow of water 

and permitting increased infiltration of water 

into the soil profile (Belnap et al. 2007). 

Biological Soil Crust 

Biological soil crusts (or “biocrusts”) are 

composed of a community of cyanobacteria, 

algae, lichens, and bryophytes. Lichens are 

a composite, symbiotic organism composed 

of a fungus and either a cyanobacteria or 

a green algae. Bryophytes are small, nonvascular plants, including mosses and 

liverworts. Biocrusts provide key ecosystem 

functions, such as increasing water and wind 

erosion resistance, contributing organic 

matter, and fixing atmospheric nitrogen. 

They contribute fixed carbon to soil through 

decaying and leaching processes (Lange 

2003). Some cyanobacteria and cyanolichens 

have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. 

This process reduces atmospheric nitrogen 

(N2

) to ammonia (NH4

+), which is usable 

by vascular plants (Belnap 2003). Biocrusts 

can be the dominant source of nitrogen for 

desert ecosystems. The distribution and 

species composition of biological soil crusts 

is influenced by climate, soil chemistry, and 

disturbance (Belnap et al. 2001).

Table 4.10.2-1. Indicators and measures used to assess grasslands and shrublands at El 

Malpais National Monument.

Indicator Measure Definition 

Soil/Site 

Stability

Soil Cover

Soil cover is the most important dynamic factor affecting water 

erosion. Most soil loss occurs in areas with uncovered, bare soils; 

soil cover slows water flow and provides resistance to erosion and 

greater stability. 

Biological Soil Crust 

Biological soil crusts provide key ecosystem functions, such as 

increasing water and wind erosion resistance, contributing organic 

matter, and fixing atmospheric nitrogen. 

Biotic Integrity

Landscape-scale 

Diversity

The extent to which landscape-scale diversity reflects spatial pattern 

of soils and disturbance.

Local Species 

Composition

The extent to which species composition within a site (e.g., 

ecological site) deviates substantially from the expected native 

species compliment either from exotics or native species.

General Life 

Cycles Relative to 

Disturbance

The proportion of annual, biennial, and perennial species relative to 

the time since disturbance. 

Relative proportion 

of functional groups 

(e.g., graminoid, 

forbs, shrubs, etc.)

The relative proportions of functional groups relative to what 

would be expected based on site characteristics (e.g., lack of forbs, 

excessive shrub density, etc.)

Relative proportion 

of C3 and C4 

species.

The relative proportions of C3 and C4 plants relative to what would 

be expected based on site characteristics
184

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Indicator/Measures

Biotic Integrity (5 measures)

Pellant et al. (2005) defines biotic integrity 

as the capacity of the biotic community to 

support ecological processes within the 

normal range of variability expected for the 

site, to resist a loss in the capacity to support 

these processes, and to recover this capacity 

when losses do occur. The five categories 

described below and in Table 4.10.2-1 are 

indicators as to the extent in which the biotic 

integrity of El Malpais NM grasslands and 

scrub/shrublands is intact.

Landscape-scale Diversity 

Daubenmire (1974 as cited in Muldavin et 

al. 2013) suggested that plant communities 

integrate all impinging environmental 

conditions, and hence, the classification and 

description of plant associations provides a 

framework for understanding the ecological 

composition and structure of a given 

landscape (Muldavin et al. 2013). The local 

species composition generally reflects local 

conditions of soils, moisture, disturbance, 

and other factors. As such, we would expect 

the diversity across a broader region to 

generally reflect the variation in these site 

characteristics; however, it is not reasonable to 

expect a one-to-one correspondence between 

local communities and their corresponding 

sites, because a multitude of factors can 

influence the local expression of vegetation 

communities at a given site. Rather, with this 

measure we are trying to determine if some 

reasonable level of landscape diversity exists 

and that it generally corresponds to changes 

in ecological conditions. To assess diversity 

of communities on the monument landscape, 

we looked to the soils (NRCS 2013) and 

geology (Muldavin et al. 2013) maps of the 

national monument to see how they aligned 

with the range of variability in the vegetation 

communities observed during the vegetation 

mapping effort (Muldavin et al. 2013).

Local Species Composition 

The intent behind this measure is to see if the 

species composition is generally consistent 

with what might be expected for the site, 

given the local conditions (soils, disturbance, 

moisture, etc). We considered this from two 

perspectives. First, we examined the degree 

to which the local communities consisted of 

native vs exotic species. Details about which 

exotic species are present and their effect 

on the site are presented in greater detail in 

Chapter 4.12. Here we simply provide an 

initial indication of the extent of invasion of 

exotic species by looking at the proportion of 

native and exotic species. Second, we looked 

at the species composition of the native species 

relative to what might be expected for that 

site. This was based on USNVC association 

descriptions (Muldavin et al. 2013) as well as 

plant composition described by NRCS (2013) 

in the soil surveys for Cibola County. Species 

noted in earlier surveys (Lindsey 1951, 

Bleakly 1994, Lightfoot et al. 1994) as being 

characteristic or dominant in shrublands 

or grasslands were also considered. Many 

grassland and scrub vegetation types at the 

national monument fall under a standard NVC 

description. Several others were provisional, 

meaning that they are under review before 

being made a standard; until that time the 

occurrences at the park are the best known 

examples of the individual community types 

and are the reference standard. For this 

assessment, comparisons were made between 

plot data (composition, lifeform, functional 

group, photosynthetic pathway) and the NVC 

descriptions. Significant departures, namely 

omissions or additions to species noted in the 

older studies, were also noted.

General Life Cycles Relative to Disturbance

It is generally expected that the number of 

annual species at a given site would be higher 

immediately following a disturbance and 

would shift toward an increasing number of 

perennials as time passes since a disturbance. 

The persistence of annuals after a disturbance 

could indicate some basis for concern. For 

example roadside areas that are frequently 

and unnaturally disturbed might be expected 

to have a greater persistence of annual species 

compared to interior sites. 

Relative Proportion of Functional Groups

The composition of functional groups can 

have a dramatic effect on grassland ecosystems 

and their associated processes (Tilman et 

al. 1997, Pellant et al. 2005). Tilman et al. 
185

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

(1997) found that functional composition 

and functional diversity were principal 

factors explaining plant productivity, plant 

percent nitrogen, plant total nitrogen, and 

light penetration. They further concluded 

that habitat modifications and management 

practices that change functional diversity and 

functional composition would likely have a 

dramatic effect on ecosystem processes.

Relative Proportion of C3 and C4 Species 

Higher temperatures and wetter conditions 

favor the growth of C4 plants. The Colorado 

Plateau, where the monument is situated, 

is an arid region with irregular rainfall, 

periods of drought, warm to hot growing 

seasons, and long winters with freezing 

temperatures (Davey et al. 2006). In this 

setting, the grasslands and shrublands 

support a solid mix of perennial C4 (warm 

season) and C3 (cool season) grasses (Paruelo 

and Lauenroth 1996). C4 photosynthesis is 

somewhat favored at El Malpais NM due to 

considerable precipitation falling during the 

warmer weather, which promotes vigorous 

growth during the summer months. 

The proportion of C3 and C4 grasses can also 

dramatically influence how these grassland 

communities respond to climate change and 

levels of CO2

, although the nature of such 

response has been much debated (Wand et al. 

1999). 

4.10.3. Reference Conditions 

Soil Cover/Site Stability

Pellant et al. (2005) described general 

reference conditions they considered to be an 

optimal functional state (their “none to slight” 

category) under natural disturbance regimes. 

They then described general descriptions 

for departures from that optimal state into 

four other categories of condition. These 

categories ranged from their optimal state to 

an extreme or total state of degradation. 

We considered the condition of grasslands and 

shrublands as “good” if the current condition 

fell either within Pellant et al.’s (2005) “none 

to slight”, or “slight to moderate” categories 

(Table 4.10.3 1). The “moderate” ranking was 

assigned if the departure from optimal fell 

within the “moderate” class. And finally, we 

considered the condition of grasslands and 

shrublands to be of “significant concern” if 

the departure from optimal fell within Pellant 

et al.’s “moderate to extreme” or “extreme to 

total” classes. 

It should be noted that in a shortgrass 

ecosystem, it is common for as much as 30%-

70% of the ground surface to be unvegetated, 

either as bare ground or areas covered in litter. 

In fact, at 15 grazed locations at the Shortgrass 

Steppe Long-Term Ecological Research 

(LTER) site in Colorado, bare ground 

accounted for at least 63% of surface cover 

(Lauenroth 2008). The shortgrass steppe is 

an ecosystem that, without even considering a 

lava substrate, is often sparsely vegetated, and 

our assessment categories reflect conditions 

normal for this specific system, that might 

cause similar conditions in more productive 

systems to score poorly.

Biotic Integrity

Determining definitive quantitative reference 

conditions for grassland and shrubland 

communities at El Malpais NM is somewhat 

problematic given the dynamic nature of 

these resources. Part of our consideration 

in choosing the measures we have used for 

biotic integrity is that they are moderately 

robust to the potentially substantial seasonal 

and annual variation that plant communities 

often exhibit. We began with a conceptual 

framework for assigning condition based on 

what might be expected for the site conditions 

at the national monument (Table 4.10.3-1). 

We recognize, however, that seasonal and 

annual variation in such things as rainfall and 

disturbance can results in dramatic shifts in 

specific measurement that are still within an 

acceptable range of natural variation. 

Our measure of landscape-scale diversity 

focuses on whether or not the diversity of 

plant communities reflects, to a reasonable 

extent, the diversity in site characteristics. As 

such, we used the spatial pattern of soil types 

(NRCS 2013) and geologic units (mapped by 

Maxwell 1986 in Muldavin et al. 2013) as a 

general reference for the extent and pattern 

of landscape diversity that might be expected.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

For the remaining measures, we used a 

combination of the USNVC descriptions 

(usnvc.org and in Muldavin et al. 2013), 

plant composition descriptions as described 

for each NRCS (2013) soil type, and expert 

opinion as a general reference for plant 

community characteristics that might be 

expected given the soil types that occur at El 

Malpais NM. It is important to note however, 

the global descriptions typically represent 

what are considered as the historic climax plant 

communities (HCPCs). Consequently we do 

not strictly adhere to the HCPCs as a reference 

condition in the sense that departures 

from that reference necessarily represent a 

degraded quality, especially in a system that 

is prescriptively burned— rather as a general 

guide to be used in conjunction with expert 

Table 4.10.3-1. Reference conditions used to assess the current condition for measures of grassland and 

shrubland soil/site stability and biotic integrity.

Indicator Measure Significant Concern Moderate Good 

Soil/Site Stability

Soil Cover

Significantly to extremely 

reduced throughout the 

site. Stabilization agents 

(biological soil crust, 

vegetation, or rock) are 

largely absent. 

Significantly reduced 

in at least half the sites 

examined..

Matches that expected for the 

site (or a minority of sites have 

slight reduction). Soil surface 

is stabilized by organic matter 

decomposition, rock, vegetation, 

or biological soil crust. Note that 

it is common for as much as 

30%-70% of the ground surface 

to be unvegetated, either as bare 

ground or areas covered in litter.

Biological Soil Crust

Greatly reduced occurrence 

of biological soil crust, 

or extensive signs of 

disturbance or degradation 

of soil crusts. 

Biological soil crusts show 

signs of disturbance or 

reduction compared to 

what is expected in natural 

ecosystems. 

Biological soil crust is present in 

the form and extent expected in 

natural ecosystems. 

Biotic Integrity

Species Composition 

and Landscape-scale 

Diversity 

Significant lack of spatial 

landscape heterogeneity that 

does not reflect the expected 

diversity for the soil types 

and sites. 

Moderate lack of spatial 

landscape heterogeneity 

that does not fully reflect 

the spatial pattern of soils 

and disturbance. 

Landscape-scale diversity reflects 

spatial pattern of soils and 

disturbance. 

Local-scale Species 

Composition 

Species composition deviates 

substantially from the native 

species compliment that 

would typically occur at such 

sites. Such a deviation could 

also be either from exotics or 

native species. 

Species composition 

moderately deviates from 

the expected native species 

compliment either from 

exotics or native species in 

such a way that does reflect 

typical types of natural 

disturbance (e.g., fire). 

Species composition reflects 

expected native species 

compliment consistent with the 

site characteristics (e.g., from 

ESDs). Species composition 

need not reflect expected climax 

communities if their current state 

reflects typical types of natural 

disturbance (e.g., fire). 

Response of 

Annual Species to 

Disturbance 

Substantially higher 

proportion of annual species 

than expected in sites not 

recently disturbed. 

Proportion of perennial 

species is moderately 

lower than what might be 

expected given the site and 

time since disturbance. 

Proportion of perennial species 

is approximately what would be 

expected given the site and time 

since disturbance. 

Relative Proportion of 

Functional Groups 

Proportions of functional 

groups differ substantially 

from what might be 

expected based on site 

characteristics (e.g., lack 

of forbs, excessive shrub 

density, etc.). 

Proportions of functional 

groups exhibit moderate 

departure from what might 

be expected given the site 

and disturbance history. 

Proportions of functional groups 

(e.g., grasses, forbs, and shrubs) 

are consistent with what might 

be expected given the site 

characteristics. 

Relative Proportion of 

C3 and C4 Species 

Sites dominated by C4 

species traditionally 

dominated by C3 species. 

Higher than expected 

proportion of C4 species 

given the ecological site and 

disturbance history. 

A mix and natural variability of 

C3 (cool season) and C4 (warm 

season) species for the site (to 

maximize resilience).
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

opinion to determine resource condition. 

Proposed community classifications based 

solely on what was observed at the national 

monument will naturally align well with 

species composition in our assessment, but 

as these descriptions will likely be setting 

the standard for these community types 

moving forward, we thought it appropriate 

to include these site specific classifications in 

establishing reference condition. 

4.10.4. Condition and Trend 

Soil Cover/Soil Stability 

Plot data from both the vegetation mapping 

(VM) effort and fire effects monitoring (FEM) 

show that the percent of bare soil is high at 

grassland and shrubland sites sampled at El 

Malpais NM (Figures 4.10.4-1, -2, -3). Based 

on the NVC descriptions, the extent of bare 

soil patches in these community types is to be 

expected in the geographic setting at the park, 

based on substrate and climate variables. FEM 

bare soil cover values ranged from 10% to 

60%, with a mean value of 38%; other ground 

surface (e.g., litter, rock, lichen) cover values 

ranged from 7%-36% with a mean of 18%. 

VM bare soil values ranged from 0% to 96% 

with the highest values found in the sparse 

vegetation / alluvial flat community. Other 

surface type cover values collected ranged 

from 0% to 79%. While sites with lower bare 

soil cover would be better protected from soil 

erosion, cover values at most sites fell within 

a range to be expected at the park. Assuming 

that the distribution and sample size of the 

sites sampled represent overall condition of 

El Malpais grasslands and shrublands, we 

consider the soil cover to be in good condition. 

Biological crust data were not specifically 

identified in the surface cover data in the 

VM effort, but at the 30 FEM sites used for 

this evaluation, they documented moss and 

lichen at six sites with cover never exceeding 

4%. VM data did include “Other” surface 

cover. Even if biological crusts fell under 

this category, values did not exceed 3.5%. 

Expected values are low based on the NVC 

descriptions, but at nearby El Morro NM, 

“continuous establishment of cryptobiotc 

crust” was common, perhaps due to the 

absence of grazing (Valentine-Darby et al. in 

prep). Additionally, there has been at least 

Figure 4.10.4-1. Fire 

effects monitoring 

plot sampled in 

2010 in southwest 

Cerro Bandera, 

eleven years postburn; predominant 

vegetation is blue 

grama. 

Figure 4.10.4-2.

Fourwing saltbush 

fire effects 

monitoring plot 

sampled in 2013.

Figure 4.10.4-3.

Blue grama/Mesa 

Dropseed Sandy 

Plains grassland fire 

effects monitoring 

plot sampled in 

2013.

NPS BAND FIRE ECOLOGY PROGRAM NPS BAND FIRE ECOLOGY PROGRAM NPS BAND FIRE ECOLOGY PROGRAM
188

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

one report of “plenty of biocrusts” on the El 

Malpais NM kipukas in areas that had been 

historically less disturbed (Bowker 2014). 

We do know that biological soil crusts are 

sensitive to mechanical disturbance such as 

from trampling (Belnap and Eldridge 2003) 

and may take considerable time to recover: 

200 years or more for moss and lichen crusts 

(Callison et al. 1985, Johansen 2001 as cited 

in Hilty et al. 2004). So it may very well be 

that grazing in accessible grasslands and 

shrublands has had impact on biological soil 

crust cover at El Malpais NM. However, 

additional data collected more systematically 

would be required before an assessment of 

condition could be confidently made.

Biotic Integrity 

Landscape-scale Diversity 

The spatial patterns of plant community 

distribution generally coincide with that of 

the soils (Figure 4.10.4-4) and geology (Figure 

4.10.4-5). Thus, landscape-scale diversity 

was considered in good condition with no 

evidence for any degrading trend.

Local Species Composition 

The Colorado Natural Heritage Program 

(CNHP 2005) description of Western Great 

Plains shortgrass prairie in good condition 

largely holds for data summarized for this 

assessment. Native grasses and shrubs are 

dominant. Species richness is often high 

and includes many native grasses as well as a 

diverse forb component. Cool season grasses 

maintain a healthy presence (CNHP 2005). At 

El Malpais NM, common cool season (C3) 

grasses are western wheatgrass, squirreltail 

(Elymus elymoides), and muttongrass (Poa 

fendleriana). Non-native species may be 

common on a very minor part of the land area 

(CNHP 2005).

More specifically, VM local species 

composition fell within a normal range 

of variability expected for Great Basin & 

Intermountain Dry Shrublands & Grasslands, 

Great Plains Shortgrass Prairie & Shrublands, 

and Southern Rocky Mountain Montane 

Shrublands, which are the most common 

vegetation grassland and shrubland types 

at the national monument. Canopy cover 

and species present at sampled sites for the 

vegetation map and for fire effects monitoring 

generally paralleled respective community 

type descriptions. Both of these efforts 

showed that scattered sites supporting the 

western wheatgrass-blue grama association 

were in a degraded state in that they 

demonstrated higher cover of annuals, 

woody species, and exotic species. Rubber 

rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa) sites also 

tended to be a bit weedier and woodier.

While Lindsey (1951) did not quantify species 

cover in his Apache plume belt, he did record 

common species and fourteen of these are 

still present in the Apache plume shrublands 

today. Four species within the same genus 

described by Lindsey also remain. Only 

two forbs, western germander (Teucrium 

canadense v. occidentale) and Fremont’s 

goosefoot (Chenopodium fremontii) were 

not recorded in the Apache plume shrubland 

plots by Muldavin et al. (2013) and in the 

FEM plots.

El Malpais NM is engaged in an active 

prescribed fire regimen, and livestock, with 

occasional exceptions by trespass cattle, has 

largely been removed from the monument. 

With measures in place to maintain and 

restore natural and historical conditions, 

we considered the overall condition of this 

measure to be good.

Exotic vs. Native Species 

One of the major threats to grasslands and 

other plant communities is invasive species. 

Invasive species have been directly linked 

to the replacement of dominant native 

species (Tilman 1999), the loss of rare 

species (King 1985), changes in ecosystem 

structure, alteration of nutrient cycles and 

soil chemistry (Ehrenfeld 2003), shifts in 

community productivity (Vitousek 1990), and 

changes in water availability (D’Antonio and 

Mahall 1991). 

Based on vegetation map sampling and fire 

effects monitoring of national monument 

grasslands and shrublands, 219 of 235 (93%) 

of the total species observed were native. All 

five exotic species recorded in the fire effects 

monitoring were forbs, with lambsquarters 

(Chenopodium album) and burningbush 
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

Figure 4.10.4-4. The distribution of soil types based on NRCS (2013).
190

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Qe Eolian Deposits (Holocene) Qvt Mixed Pyroclastics and Flows (Holocene and 

Pleistocene Volcanics) 

Kdp Paguate Tongue of Dakota Sandstone (Cretaceous) 

Qbc El Calderon Flows (Holocene and Pleistocene Volcanics) 

Ql Landslide Deposits (Pleistocene) Qcc El Calderon Crater (Holocene and Pleistocene Volcanics) Jz Zuni Sandstone and Wanakah 

Formation (Jurassic) 

Qvc El Caleron Cinder Field (Holocene and 

Pleistocene Volcanics) 

Qbm McCartys Flows (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Qbu Basalt Flows (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Psa San Andres Limestone (Permian) 

Qc Cinder Cones (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Qbb Bandera Flows (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Qv Volcanic Debris (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Py Yeso Formation (Permian) 

Qb Old Basalt Flows (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Qvb Bandera Cinder Field (Holocene and Pleistocene Volcanics) Qlt Lava Tube (Quaternary Lava Tube) pa Porphyritic Aplite (Permian) 

Kcc Crevasse Canyon Formation (Cretaceous) 

Qvw Hoya de Cibola Shield Volcano (Holocene 

and Pleistocene Volcanics) 

Kth Tres Hermanos Sandstone (Cretaceous) gg Gneissic Granite (Precambrian) 

Kmr Rio Salado Tongue (Cretaceous) 

Qbt Twin Craters Flows (Holocene and Pleistocene Volcanics) Kdt Twowells Tongue of Dakota Sandstone 

(Cretaceous) 

Wtr Water 

Qal Alluvium (Pleistocene) 

Qac Alluvium, Colluvium, and Soil (Holocene and 

Pleistocene) 

Qcm McCartys Crater (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Qcb Bandera Crater (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Qbw Hoya de Cibola Flows (Holocene and Pleistocene Volcanics) 

Qbo Oso Ridge Flows (Holocene and Pleistocene 

Volcanics) 

Qct Twin Craters Cinder Cones (Holocene and 

Pleistocene Volcanics) 

Kmw Whitewater Arroyo Tongue (Cretaceous) 

Kdo Clay Mesa Tongue of Mancos 

Shale and Lower Part of Dakota 

Sandstone (Cretaceous) 

Je Entrada Sandstone (Jurassic) 

Pg Glorieta Sandstone (Permian) 

Pa Abo Formation (Permian) 

ap Gneissic Aplite (Precambrian) 

Rds Roads 

Figure 7. The geology of ELMA as mapped by Maxwell (1986). This is an approximation based on screen digitizing of a scanned version of the original map. 

Introduction 9 

Figure 4.10.4-5. The geology of El Malpais NM (Muldavin et al. 2013).
191

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

(Kochia scoparia) decidedly higher in 

cover (Table 4.10.4-1). However, hogweed 

(Portulaca oleracea) was considerably more 

prevalent across the landscape (seven out of 

12 sites with exotics). There were 14 exotic 

species recorded at 84 VM sites (Table 

4.10.4-1). Only two of these were grasses, 

cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and stinkgrass 

(Eragrostis cilianensis), these found at five 

sites. The exotics most abundant in cover were 

hogweed, burningbush, and Russian thistle 

(Salsola tragus), similar to what was found 

in fire effects monitoring plots. These three 

species are also most widespread, occurring 

in the highest number of sites. It should also 

be noted that hogweed was also documented 

by Lindsey in 1951. The NPSpecies plant list 

(NPSpecies 2016), a current list maintained 

by the NPS of potential and observed 

plant species at the monument, reports 33 

species, or 6%, of all species documented 

as present in the monument as being exotic. 

Based on the low number of exotic species 

documented and the fact that the 53% of sites 

with exotics typically had one exotic species 

recorded there at <10% cover, we considered 

the current threat of exotics to El Malpais 

NM grasslands and shrublands to be fairly 

low. Note that the exotics plants assessment 

(section 4.13) considered the prevalence of 

exotic plants at a park-wide level, whereas the 

grasslands/shrublands assessment is focused 

on those communities where the majority of 

plots are located, providing more information 

for assigning a condition rating. 

General Life Cycles Relative to Disturbance 

The proportion of annual, biennial and 

perennial species provides an indication 

of the stability of the site, and it is generally 

expected that the proportion of annual 

species at a given site would be higher 

immediately following a disturbance, but 

would shift toward an increased proportion of 

perennials as time passes since a disturbance. 

The FEM and VM data revealed a similar 

abundance of annuals, with 15% and 13% 

cover, respectively. Graminoids were most 

often perennial. Forbs were considerably 

more variable among sites, accounting for 

approximately 97% of the annual species. 

We were unable to determine if VM plots 

experienced similar fire return intervals or 

intensity as nearby FEM plots as none of the 

VM plots fell within 150 meters of the FEM 

plots. But, the presence of annuals was quite 

low at the six FEM sites that have burned in 

the last 17 years. With few exceptions, sites 

with considerable number and/or cover of 

annual species, most of these species were 

Table 4.10.4-1. List of exotic plant species at El Malpais NM as recorded in the 2006-

2009 vegetation map (VM) project (Muldavin et al. 2013) and at the fire effects 

monitoring (FEM) plots sampled between 2006 and 2013. 

Scientific Name Common Name Project Effort

Amaranthus retroflexus redroot amaranth FEM

Chenopodium album lambsquarters FEM

Bromus tectorum cheatgrass VM

Convolvulus arvensis field bindweed VM

Eragrostis cilianensis stinkgrass VM

Erodium cicutarium redstem stork's bill VM

Kochia scoparia burningbush FEM, VM

Melilotus officinalis yellow sweetclover VM

Portulaca oleracea little hogweed FEM, VM

Salsola collina slender Russian thistle VM

Salsola tragus prickly Russian thistle FEM, VM

Tamarix chinensis five-stamen tamarisk VM

Tragopogon dubius yellow salsify VM

Tragopogon pratensis Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon VM

Verbascum thapsus common mullein VM
192

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

also exotic species indicating some kind of 

disturbance if not fire. Manyflower false 

threadleaf (Schkuhria multiflora), a native, 

annual forb, was the primary exception, 

occurring in great abundance (12 and 25%) at 

two of FEM sites in the southeast section of 

the monument referred to as the Homestead 

project by the Bandelier NM Fire Program.

As previously discussed, we did not have any 

expectation for the proportion of annuals, 

biennials, and perennials, to coincide exactly 

with historic climax plant communities, in 

part because of local site variability and not all 

sites are at a climax stage. At El Malpais NM, 

sites that exhibited relatively low proportion 

of perennials might have experienced more 

recent disturbance. Thus, it would not be 

surprising that we observe a higher proportion 

of annual species on these sites. The time 

frames over which we might expect a shift 

toward increasing perennial species likely 

depends on the intensity and duration of the 

disturbance. That said, 30% of the 235 species 

recorded were annual (15% of the annual 

species were exotic), which is fairly high. As 

represented by canopy cover, abundance of 

exotic annuals shoot up to 68% cover for both 

projects. It might be worthwhile to explore 

potential explanations a bit further. 

Given that most species recorded were 

perennial and native, and exotics are 

addressed elsewhere, we assigned a good 

condition overall with respect to this measure. 

Relative Proportion of Functional Groups 

Like our other measures, the proportion of 

functional groups was similar between the 

FEM and VM data. This proportion typically 

matched expectations of site potential with 

graminoids most highly represented, followed 

by a diversity of forbs and shrubs. VM plots 

showed higher shrub and lower graminoid 

values when compared with FEM data. These 

differences may be due, in part, to the fact that 

a higher percentage of VM plots were situated 

in shrublands while FEM plots placed a 

stronger emphasis on grasslands. A few sites 

exhibited a higher woody component than 

might be expected, but cover was still in the 

5-15% range. A far more extensive discussion 

regarding woody encroachment into 

grasslands may be found in the piñon-juniper 

assessment. Given the diversity of functional 

groups and low tree cover, we considered 

condition of this measure to be good. 

Relative Proportion of C3 and C4 Species

Results from summarizing the FEM 

monitoring data and the VM plot data revealed 

C4 graminoids to be far more prevalent, in 

both number and cover, than C3 grasses in 

most grassland and shrubland vegetation 

types (Table 4.10.4-2). The exceptions to this 

pattern were in the Apache Plume Rockland 

Shrubland, Fourwing Saltbush/ Alkali 

Sacaton and the Western Wheatgrass (a C3 

grass)/ Curly Gumweed associations. 

The balance of warm and cool season 

graminoids could fluctuate and tip either 

way in grasslands of this region (Paruelo et 

al. 1996, Epstein et al. 1997). High variation 

in amount and timing of annual precipitation 

impacts the relative cover of cool and warm 

season herbaceous species (NatureServe 

2004). El Malpais NM experiences warm 

mean annual temperatures (hot summers and 

cool to cold winters) and precipitation that, 

while drier than what falls to the east, falls 

primarily during the growing season. 

Predicted, generalized climate change impacts 

for this region are drier, hotter, and more 

severe storms (and more frequent, severe 

fires). Should these predictions be correct, it 

may alter C4 and C3 species composition. 

Table 4.10.4-2. The relative cover and 

number of C3 and C4 graminoid species 

found in the vegetation mapping project 

(VM) and during fire effects monitoring 

(FEM). 

Relative cover of C3 and C4 Graminoid Species

VM FEM

C3 7% 10%

C4 93% 90%

Number of C3 and C4 Graminoid Species

VM FEM

C3 11 6

C4 32 6
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

The Role of Fire and Grazing in Grassland 

Shrubland Condition at El Malpais NM

Grazing 

Large-scale processes such as climate, fire, 

and grazing influence this habitat. The short 

grasses that dominate this habitat type are 

extremely drought and grazing-tolerant. 

These species evolved with drought and 

large herbivores, and because of their 

stature, are relatively resistant to overgrazing 

(NatureServe 2004 as cited in NMDGF 2006).

As noted in the introduction, Muldavin et 

al. (2013) are of the opinion that historical 

livestock grazing has not played a significant 

role at El Malpais NM due to restricted access 

to some areas. Others have taken a different 

view, indicating that grazing has had more of 

an impact on modern condition of national 

monument grasslands and shrublands. In 

Lightfoot et al. (1994), Henri Grissino-Mayer 

(pers. comm.) purported that “grazing has 

probably been the greatest human-caused 

influence on the ecology in the El Malpais NM 

area. Although the grasslands surrounding 

the lava flows were the most heavily used, it 

is possible that interior lava flows were visited 

by sheep. The introduction of domestic sheep 

and the decline of the grasslands appear to 

correlate with the decrease in numbers of 

pronghorn and extirpation of bighorn sheep.”

Possible evidence for livestock grazing on 

the monument’s interior on older lava flows 

- Hoya de Cibola and Bandera- comes from 

the cultural resources survey of lava flow 

trails extending from the Sandstone Bluffs. 

The majority of trails on the monument’s lava 

flows are pre-contact\prehistoric, but cultural 

resource crews have documented segments 

of prehistoric trails that were modified/

enhanced possibly to accommodate pack 

animals as well as historic era camps on old 

lava near the monument’s north boundary, 

northeast of Sandstone Bluffs. The open 

grassland on the old flows in this area seem 

favorable for grazing (S. Baumann, Chief of 

Resources, pers. comm.).

In NMDGF (2006), authors state that “despite 

the shortgrass prairie’s apparent evolutionary 

adaptation to grazing, livestock use has been an 

agent of change. Much of this effect occurred 

in the late 1880s when livestock numbers 

peaked and shortgrass prairies were grazed 

beyond their sustainable use. Barbour (1988) 

stated, “When the shortgrass prairie was first 

grazed by domestic livestock, the original 

grasses persisted probably because of their 

low stature and natural resistance to grazing 

pressure. As abuse occurred (due to improper 

grazing use) and the grasses declined, weedy 

perennial species of cacti (Opuntia spp.), 

snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae) and yucca 

(Yucca) increased. Invader annuals have come 

from the brome (Bromus spp.), Russian thistle 

(Salsola tragus), barley (Hordeum spp.), and 

fescues (Festuca spp.) genera.” (in NMDGF 

2006). While all of these species referenced 

above have been documented at the national 

monument, they do not appear to be broadly 

distributed and have only gained footholds in 

a few community types.

It appears that experts might not agree on 

the extent to which national monument 

grasslands and shrublands might be degraded 

and the underlying cause. Strictly based on 

FEM and VM data, we certainly observed 

the presence of exotics, in some areas 

more commonly than others, but the highvalue, iconic species still appear to be amply 

represented. With livestock grazing now a 

much rarer occurrence, conditions should 

only improve. 

Fire

Historical records of fire frequencies for 

prairies of the southern Great Plains before 

settlement are generally nonexistent or 

unreliable because there are no trees to 

carry fire scars from which to estimate fire 

frequency (Ford and McPherson 1996). 

Although fire is generally reported to play 

a prominent role in health and functioning 

of grasslands (e.g., Joern and Keeler 1995), 

this role likely varies substantially among 

grassland types. In particular, the role of fire as 

a primary determinant of grassland structure 

likely decreases strongly from tallgrass prairie 

to shortgrass steppe as a result of the gradient 

in productivity and fuel (Kucera 1981, 

Oesterheld et al. 1999, Scheintaub et al. 2009). 

In fact, grassland experts Drs. Alan Knapp 

and William Lauenroth (pers comm.) suggest 

that fire probably plays a much lesser role in 
194

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

maintaining a healthy prairie in the shortgrass 

steppe than other drivers such as herbivory 

and climate variation.

One of the perceived benefits of fire in 

grassland systems is the reduction of litter. In 

tallgrass prairie, litter removal increases soil 

temperature and light leading to increased 

productivity (Hulbert 1988; Knapp and 

Seastedt 1986). However, shortgrass steppe 

has minimal litter accumulation (Burke et al. 

1998), and Scheintaub et al. (2009) reported 

a positive relationship between litter and 

productivity, suggesting that litter may 

facilitate, or at least not inhibit productivity 

as it does in tallgrass prairie. However, 

Scheintaub et al. (2009) also suggest that 

further research is needed on the relationship 

between litter and productivity in short grass 

steppe. 

According to Muldavin et al. (2013), savanna 

woodlands on the older flows and cinder 

cones at El Malpais NM tend to have the 

highest grass cover and hence the highest 

historical surface fire frequency - every three 

years (Grissino-Mayer et al. 1997). Fire 

frequency dropped off dramatically beginning 

in the late 19th century as a result of heavy 

livestock grazing. Grissino-Mayer (1995) 

reports that there was a major change in fire 

regimes in the malpais region ca. 1940, which 

is thought to reflect intensive and successful 

fire suppression efforts by land agencies. 

Before this time, fires in the often rugged 

and inaccessible sites received less attention, 

and therefore, suppression was less effective. 

Early grazing practices may have affected firecarrying grasses, resulting in minimal spread 

(NPS 2005).

The current (NPS 2005) fire management 

plan purports that most of the early fireadapted vegetative communities at the 

national monument have become altered 

from combinations of human use, early 

fire suppression, and climate change. The 

more open grasslands that occurred before 

the 1900s have changed to grass-shrub 

communities and piñon-juniper woodland 

with understories of non-native exotics. In 

some areas, ponderosa pine has been known 

to invade adjacent grasslands where fires 

have been suppressed (Allen 1984, 1989). 

Hence, some stands of the various savanna 

associations may be considered invasive 

depending on edaphic conditions and 

disturbance history (Muldavin et al. 2013).

In 1994, a limited controlled burn program 

was being initiated (K. Mabery, pers. comm. 

as cited in Bleakly 1994). By 2001, there was 

a fire management plan (NPS) in place that 

identified restoring fire as a keystone natural 

process that encourages native grassland 

ecosystems and reducing established noxious 

and non-native plant cover as prime objectives 

in grassland management. The national 

monument currently has an active prescribed 

fire program.

Overall Condition 

For assessing the condition of grasslands, 

we used a variety of indicators/measures 

that were not mutually exclusive but were 

intended to be different ways of capturing 

the essence of what we thought represented 

the condition of the El Malpais NM’s 

grasslands and shrublands. Vegetation 

community condition can be assessed from 

many different angles, but we chose two main 

categories for this resource. A summary of 

how they contributed to the overall grassland 

and shrubland condition is summarized in 

Table 4.10.4-3. 

Based on the indicators, data, and expert 

opinion, we consider the overall condition 

of the grasslands at El Malpais NM to be in 

good condition. While this condition appears 

to be stable with the cessation of livestock 

grazing almost 20 years ago and an active 

fire management program with objectives to 

manage for optimal ecological condition and 

to reinstate a more natural fire regime, the 

following has been suggested for this region of 

New Mexico in the light of changing climate:

“As for the current state of the 

shortgrass prairie, Dick-Peddie (1993) 

Grass and Shrublands

Indicators Measure

Soil/Site Stability 2 Measures

Biotic Integrity 5 Measures
195

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Vegetation

wrote, “The succession from plainsmesa grassland to juniper savanna 

will probably continue in many areas 

of the state. At the lower (drier) 

boundaries of plains-mesa grassland, 

many acres of grama grassland will 

become desert grassland, and much 

of the present desert grassland will 

become Chihuahuan or Great Basin 

desert shrubland. On many sites, 

these successional trends, which 

range users consider deterioration of 

grassland, were set in motion early 

in this century; subsequent range 

management efforts are unlikely to 

halt, let alone reverse the trend.” 

(NMDGF 2006).

Level of Confidence/Key Uncertainties 

Overall, our confidence in this assessment is 

moderate, given a number of uncertainties 

and limitations. Some of the key uncertainties 

for the grassland and shrubland assessment 

include annual variability, the effect of drought 

conditions and changing climate, the effect of 

recovery from disturbance, and the potential 

success of ongoing management actions.

Additionally, the assessment was based 

largely on data that are now somewhat dated, 

and in the case of the FEM data, were not 

collected in all representative areas of the 

monument as fire management has a stronger 

focus in the wooded regions. For example, 

NPS and academic ecologists conducted a 

field assessment of piñon pine-juniper and 

ponderosa pine communities for both the El 

Malpais NM and El Morro NM NRCAs in 

June 2015. They observed patches of dead 

and dying blue grama grass in portions of 

the grassland savanna at nearby El Morro 

NM. They attributed the cause to recent 

drought conditions since this keystone 

species is dependent upon summer rains 

Table 4.10.4-3. Summary of the indicators and measures and their contributions to the 

overall assessment of grassland and shrubland condition.

Indicator Measure Condition Condition Rationale

Soil/Site Stability

Soil Cover Good Bare soil predominates as would be expected in this 

location, given substrate and sparse vegetation cover. 

These conditions, while not ideal for slowing erosion 

and slowing water flow are normal in this setting. 

Gravel, rocks, biological soil crusts (moss and lichen), 

bedrock, and some litter contribute to ground cover 

(30%) and help protect the soil surface. 

Biological Soil Crust Unknown Some biological soil crusts (moss and lichen) were 

found, but data were scant. Condition of this measure 

could not be assigned. 

Biotic Integrity

Landscape-scale 

Diversity

Good Species composition is consistent with expected 

species based on spatial patterns of soils and geology; 

vegetation communities reflect the natural range of 

variation. 

Local Species 

Composition

Good Species composition is consistent with expected 

species; few exotics were commonly found, and many 

sites exhibited high diversity. 

General Life 

Cycles Relative to 

Disturbance

Good The proportion of annual, biennial and perennial 

species relative to the time since disturbance was 

not obviously consistent. There are sites with ruderal 

species for which the disturbance mechanism is 

unknown to the authors.

Relative Proportion 

of Functional 

Groups (e.g., 

graminoid, forbs, 

shrubs, etc.) 

Good The relative proportions of functional groups are 

consistent with what would be expected; there 

was a good diversity of grasses, forbs, subshrubs, 

and shrubs. Only slight and occasional woody 

encroachment was evident.

Relative Proportion 

of C3 and C4 

Species 

Good The relative proportions of C3 and C4 plants are 

consistent with what would be expected based on site 

characteristics and local climate variables.
196

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

and in August 2013 and 2014 precipitation 

levels were considerably lower than normal. 

This condition or trend in condition would 

not have been captured in this grassland/

shrubland assessment given the timing of 

data collection. 2015 precipitation levels 

were higher than average, both in annual and 

summer precipitation, so it will be interesting 

to see if this iconic grass is able to make a 

recovery if favorable conditions continue. For 

detailed information on the field assessment 

and their observations, see Sections 4.8 and 

4.9 and Appendix F.

4.10.5. Sources of Expertise 

During the course of this assessment, Laura 

Trader, Bandelier NM fire ecologist, provided 

the fire effects monitoring data and plot 

photos. Donna Shorrock, NPS IMR NRCA 

Coordinator, authored this assessment.

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plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling 

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Reconstructions of Climate and 

Fire History at El Malpais National 

Monument, New Mexico. Ph.D. 

dissertation, The University of Arizona, 

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climatic change in the American 

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and Mineral Resources Bulletin 156. 

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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Distinct Vegetation

4.11. Vegetation - Distinct Communities

4.11.1. Background and Importance 

The landscape of El Malpais National 

Monument consists of young basaltic lava 

flows with little soil development, cinder 

cones and cinder fields, and small areas of 

sedimentary rock substrate, including isolated 

areas such as in kipukas where older rocks 

(including volcanic ones) were surrounded 

by younger lava flows. As a result, strong 

alliances between geologic substrate and 

vegetation exist, a key aspect of the lava flowinfluenced ecosystem of El Malpais NM. 

The earliest ecological studies of the El 

Malpais region noted the strong influence of 

the young volcanic features on the region’s 

vegetation (Lindsey 1951), as evidenced by 

stands of stunted or deformed Pseudotsuga 

menziesii, (Douglas-fir) and Pinus ponderosa 

(ponderosa pine) growing on the Bandera and 

McCartys flows. Lindsey reported that the 

bedrock geology has a profound impact on 

the area’s vegetation, with many herbaceous 

plant species present only on a single geologic 

substrate type, and cinder cones having the 

most distinctive floras. 

Important biogeographic aspects and 

characteristics of the monument’s vegetation 

include ancient trees growing on the young 

lava flows, the endemic plant species Phacelia 

serrete (cinders phacelia), endemic and 

vulnerable plant associations, including ones 

that have only been found at El Malpais, and 

the vegetation communities found on kipukas. 

4.11.2. Data and Methods 

This assessment is based primarily on 

information available in the Vegetation 

Classification and Map: El Malpais 

National Monument (Muldavin et al. 2013), 

supplemented by additional, although limited, 

information.

Condition – Trend - Confidence

Unknown – Unknown - Unknown

NPS

Figure 4.11.1-1.

Phacelia serrate 

(cinders phacelia) is 

an endemic species 

that grows only on 

volcanic cinders and 

is a USFWS Species 

of Concern.

Indicators/Measures

• Ecological Integrity (no measures)
202

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Indicator

Ecological Integrity (no measures)

We used one indicator, ecological integrity, 

with no measures, for assessing current 

condition of the park’s distinct vegetation 

communities: ancient trees, Phacelia serrate, 

endemic and vulnerable plant associations, 

and the vegetation communities growing on 

kipukas. 

Ancient Trees

El Malpais contains some of the oldest living 

trees in the southwest (Grissino-Mayer et al. 

1997). These trees, along with dead wood 

found on the young lava flows, were essential 

in the establishment of a tree ring chronology 

extending from 136 BC to AD 1992 (GrissinoMayer 1996). The ancient trees used in the 

chronology were from two areas of the 

Bandera lava flows: the Cerro Rendija East 

(Lindsey) site, northeast of Cerro Rendija, 

and the Bandera Ice Caves site, along the 

perimeter of the lava tube southwest of 

Bandera Crater (Grissino-Mayer et al. 1997). 

Very old living Douglas-fir (Figure 4.11.2-

1) and ponderosa pine trees grow on the 

rough surfaces of the Bandera and McCartys 

lava flows in a uniquely mesic environment 

(Grissino-Mayer et al. 1997). Old pinyon 

pines and Rocky Mountain junipers are also 

present from the McCartys flow (Lindsey 

1951 and Wayman 2015), with the oldest 

trees being more than 400 years old (Wayman 

2015).

The ancient trees of El Malpais, while 

scientifically important, are not being 

monitored (David Hays, personal 

communication, 2015). For the most part, 

precise (GPS) locations of these trees are not 

known. However, two locations of ancient 

trees have been recorded (Figure 4.11.2-2) 

(Grant Harley, personal communication, 

2015). 

A 600-year old Douglas-fir, “Yoda,” died in 

2014 and at least one other 600-800-year 

old Douglas-fir had experienced “stripbarking,” which is a partial cambial dieback 

(Figure 4.11.2-1) (Grant Harley, personal 

communication, 2015).

Phacelia serrate

Phacelia serrate is an endemic species that 

grows on volcanic cinders in only two areas: 

the San Fransisco Peaks in Arizona, including 

Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument, 

and in El Malpais NM (NatureServe.org 

2015a). 

In 2011, NPS staff from El Malpais NM 

conducted a survey of cinders phacelia 

locations at El Calderon, Lost Woman Crater, 

Twin Craters, Bandera Crater, Cerro Bandera, 

and cinder cone hill (an area of NPS land 

on the north side of New Mexico 53) (NPS 

2011). Cinders phacelia was found growing in 

all locations except for Cerro Bandera, which 

was a site not previously surveyed. Older 

Figure 4.11.2-1. An ancient Douglas-fir 

growing on the Bandera lava flows in August 

2014. This tree has experienced a partial 

cambial dieback, causing part of its crown 

to die. If it lives, it will have a smaller crown 

(Grant Harley, personal communication, 2015). 

©GRANT HARLEY
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Distinct Vegetation

cinder cones such as Cerro Bandera have 

comparatively stable, well-developed soils 

(Muldavin et al. 2013), perhaps accounting for 

the absence of cinders phacelia there. These 

2011 monitoring reports provided limited 

data that confirmed the presence and location 

of the species, but did not use methodologies 

that allow for repeatable data collection.

Endemic and Vulnerable Plant Associations

Information on the endemic and vulnerable 

plant associations were compiled from 

the park’s Vegetation Classification and 

Map report (Muldavin et al. 2013) and are 

summarized in Table 4.11.2-1. 

Five plant associations are only known from El 

Malpais, and an additional six associations are 

regionally endemic; e.g., found in a restricted 

area of New Mexico and Colorado. Fourteen 

associations were designed “Park Specials” 

needing further documentation before 

being included in the National Vegetation 

Classification. Seven plant associations were 

classified as vulnerable, including Pinus edulis

/ Achnatherum scribneri Woodland, which 

is also regionally endemic (Muldavin et al. 

2013).

Vegetation Communities Growing on 

Kipukas

We identified all kipukas (areas of older rock 

surrounded by younger lava flows) within the 

boundary of El Malpais NM using geologic 

maps (KellerLynn 2012 and Maxwell 1986) 

(Figure 4.11.2-2). The rock type, or substrate 

for vegetation, of these kipukas was either 

volcanic, sedimentary or eolian. Information 

Figure 4.11.2-2. Map showing locations of kipukas by major substrate type: volcanic, sedimentary, and eolian. Areas 

of Quaternary alluvium (Qal) were grouped into substrate type based on the overall bedrock geology of the kipuka. 

Geologic mapping by Maxwell (1986) and KellerLynn (2012). Kipuka names are from Bleakly (1996) and Lewis (2003). 

The large kipukas that are mostly outside of the monument boundaries (Hole-in-the-Wall and Cerritos de Jaspe) are not 

shown except where inside the monument. Locations of the ancient Douglas-fir trees are from Grant Harley (personal 

communication, 2015). 
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.11.2-1. Endemic and Vulnerable Plant Associations present in El Malpais NM.

Plant Association

Map Unit Component1

Geologic Substrate2

Global 

Conservation 

Assessment 

Ranking3

Primary Secondary Related 

Inclusion

Only Known from El Malpais NM

Bouteloua gracilis - Sporobolus cryptandrus 

Herbaceous Vegetation 9D Old basalt flows GNRQ

Fallugia paradoxa - Rhus trilobata Shrubland 6C 6b, 6C McCartys, Bandera, Hoya de 

Cibola and El Calderon flows GNR

Pinus edulis - Juniperus spp. / Fallugia paradoxa 

Woodland 4D 4A, 4E 2C McCartys, Bandera and Twin Crater flows GNR

Pinus ponderosa / Fallugia paradoxa - Ribes 

cereum Woodland 2D, 2E 2B 2G Bandera, Twin Craters, Hoya de Cibola and El Calderon flows GNR

Populus tremuloides / Mixed Shrubs / Cinder 

Woodland 1A, 3A Bandera, Twin Craters and Old basalt flows GNR

Regionally Endemic

Artemisia frigida / Bouteloua gracilis Dwarfshrubland 9C Old basalt flows GNR

Juniperus monosperma / Muhlenbergia 

pauciflora Woodland 4H Sedimentary GNR

Juniperus monosperma / Quercus × pauciloba 

Woodland

4C, 5B, 

5G

McCartys and Bandera flows, and 

sedimentary GNR

Pinus edulis - Juniperus monosperma / Quercus 

× pauciloba Woodland 4C 4H McCartys and Bandera flows, and sedimentary G5

Pinus edulis - Juniperus scopulorum / Holodiscus 

dumosus Woodland 4E 1B 1A, 1B, 2B, 2D

Bandera, Twin Craters and El 

Calderon flows GNR

Pinus edulis / Achnatherum Scribneri Woodland4 4H Sedimentary G3

Park Specials

Atriplex canescens / Panicum obtusum 

Shrubland 7A Old basalt flows GNR

Bouteloua gracilis - Muhlenbergia montana 

Herbaceous Vegetation 9B Hoya de Cibola, El Calderon and Old basalt flows, and sedimentary GNR

Bouteloua gracilis Ruderal Herbaceous 

Vegetation 9E Old basalt flows GNA

Juniperus monosperma / Bouteloua gracilis - 

Sporobolus cryptandrus Woodland 4G, 5F El Calderon and Old basalt flows, and sedimentary GNR

Juniperus monosperma / Fraxinus cuspidata 

Woodland 5B, 5C Bandera and Twin Crater flows GNR

Pascopyrum smithii - Bouteloua gracilis 

Herbaceous Swale Vegetation 9F Old basalt flows G5

Pascopyrum smithii / Grindelia squarrosa 

Herbaceous Vegetation 9F Old basalt flows GNR

Pinus edulis - (Juniperus spp.) / Cinder 

Woodland 4A 4B Twin Craters, El Calderon and Old basalt flows GNR

Pinus edulis - Juniperus deppeana - Quercus 

grisea Woodland 4H Sedimentary GNR

Pinus ponderosa / Artemisia filifolia Woodland 3D Old basalt flows GNR

Populus tremuloides / Ribes cereum Woodland

1B, 2D, 

2G, 4E, 

6C

Bandera, Twin Craters, Hoya de 

Cibola and El Calderon flows GNR

Pseudotsuga menziesii / Holodiscus dumosus 

Lavaflow Woodland 1B Bandera flows GNR
205

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Distinct Vegetation

about the distribution of vegetation in El 

Malpais and its geologic substrate is available 

in Muldavin et al. (2013). 

Two plant associations, Pseudotsuga menziesii 

/ Quercus gambelii Forest and Pinus edulis

/ Achnatherum scribneri Woodland, were 

described as only growing on kipukas with 

sedimentary substrates, and one vegetation 

map unit, Douglas-fir/Gambel Oak Foothill 

Forest (1C) was restricted to a single kipuka 

within the monument boundary (Muldavin et 

al. 2013). However, this kipuka is Cerritos de 

Jaspe, a large kipuka that is mostly outside of 

the monument.

Of the 42 vegetation Level 2 map units, all 

but five were found growing on kipukas 

(Muldavin et al. 2013), indicating that 

kipukas usually support the same vegetation 

types as found in the rest of the monument. 

The five map units not found on kipukas 

are Douglas-fir/Gooseberry Cinder Forest 

(1A), Ponderosa Pine/Mountain Muhly Lava 

Woodland Savanna (3A), Pinyon-Juniper/

Blue Grama Cinder Woodland Savanna 

(4B), Oneseed Juniper/Wavyleaf Oak/Blue 

Table 4.11.2-1. Endemic and Vulnerable Plant Associations present in El Malpais NM continued.

Plant Association

Map Unit Component1

Geologic Substrate2

Global 

Conservation 

Assessment 

Ranking3

Primary Secondary Related 

Inclusion

Pseudotsuga menziesii / Ribes (leptanthum, 

cereum) Woodland 1A Bandera and Twin Craters flows GNR

Vulnerable

Bouteloua gracilis - Pleuraphis jamesii 

Herbaceous Vegetation 9B 9B El Calderon flows and sedimentary G2G4

Bouteloua gracilis Herbaceous Vegetation 9F 9A, 9B, 

9C 9A

Bandera, Twin Craters, Hoya de 

Cibola, El Calderon and Old basalt 

flows, and sedimentary

G4Q

Pinus ponderosa / Bouteloua gracilis Woodland 3B, 3C 2G, 3B, 

3C 2E, 3A

Bandera, Twin Craters, Hoya de 

Cibola and Old basalt flows, and 

sedimentary

G4

Pinus ponderosa / Carex inops ssp. heliophila 

Woodland 2F 2A, 2G 2E Bandera, Twin Craters and Hoya de Cibola flows G3G4

Pinus ponderosa / Schizachyrium scoparium 

Woodland 2E, 2G, 3B Bandera, Twin Craters and Hoya de Cibola flows G3G4

Sarcobatus vermiculatus / Sporobolus airoides 

Shrubland 9F Old basalt flows G3?

Data are from Muldavin et al. (2013).

1 Plant associations identified as part of Level 2 map units for El Malpais NM used in the Vegetation Classification and Map (Muldavin et al. 2013). Primary 

Components make up greater than 50% of areal extent of the map unit, Secondary Components are present in less than 50% of the map unit, and related 

inclusions occupy less than 10% of the area of the map unit. Map units are as designated in the vegetation map (Appendix F).

2 Geologic substrate that the vegetation map units occupy as identified in Table 8 in Muldavin et al. (2013). The geologic map for El Malpais NM is available in 

KellerLynn (2012) and Maxwell (1986). Identified substrates may include both lava flows and associated cinder cones.

3 Global Rank definitions (Natureserve.org 2015b and Sneddon 2010):

G2: Imperiled: (At high risk of extinction or elimination due to very restricted range, very few populations, steep declines, or other factors.)

G3: Vulnerable (At moderate risk of extinction or elimination due to restricted range, relatively few populations, recent and widespread declines, or 

other factors.)

G4: Apparently Secure (Uncommon but not rare; some cause for long-term concern due to declines or other factors.)

G5: Secure (Common; widespread and abundant.)

GNR: Unranked (Global rank not yet assigned).

GNA: Not applicable (A conservation status rank is not applicable because the species is not a suitable target for conservation activities.)

G#G#: Range Rank (A numeric range rank (e.g., G2G3) is used to indicate the range of uncertainty in the status of a community.)

G#Q: Questionable taxonomy (Taxonomic distinctiveness of this entity at the current level is questionable.)

G#?: Inexact numeric rank (Denotes inexact numeric rank.)

4 This regionally endemic association is also vulnerable (G3).
206

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Grama Foothill Woodland Savanna (5G), and 

Fourwing Saltbush Shrub-Steppe (7A). Map 

units 1A, 3A, and 4B are only found on cinder 

cones, and map units 5G and 7A are restricted 

to areas outside of the young lava flows. 

Two studies (Bleakly 1996 and Lewis 2003) 

looked at a subset of kipukas (mostly with 

sedimentary substrates) and provided 

information on their anthropogenic 

disturbances (grazing and logging) along with 

those on a select area of the surrounding lava 

flows (Table 4.11.2-2). Of the five kipukas 

studied by Lewis (2003), two (La Sopresa 

and North Kipuka) had been heavily logged 

and two other kipukas had been grazed 

(Mesita Blanca and Mesita Blanca South). 

Hidden kipuka did not have evidence of 

past logging or grazing. Of the nine kipukas 

studied by Bleakly (1996), four had been 

grazed, including two that were also in the 

Lewis study. Bleakly (1996) did not provide 

information on logging. Lewis (2013) also 

identified an area on the Hoya de Cibola lava 

flow between Hidden kipuka and Mesita 

Blanca that had no evidence of either logging 

or grazing.

4.11.3. Reference Conditions 

A logical reference condition for ecological 

integrity of the distinct vegetation communities 

is whether they are sustaining themselves, but 

without ongoing monitoring, this information 

is lacking. No reference conditions were 

developed for this assessment.

4.11.4. Condition and Trend 

The condition of the ecological integrity 

indicator for the identified distinct plant 

communities in El Malpais NM is unknown 

(Table 4.11.4-1.) 

Ancient Trees

Information on the current condition of 

the ancient trees used in the Malpais Long 

Chronology is extremely limited. In August 

2014, Grant Harley discovered that one of 

the ancient Douglas-fir trees (“Yoda”) had 

died since his previous visit in March 2014 

(Grant Harley, personal communication, 

2015). Recent drought conditions with high 

temperatures may have contributed to this 

mortality (Fleck 2014). In August 2014, 

another tree on the Bandera flows nearby 

showed similar signs of stress that Yoda 

had before its death (Figure 4.11.2-1). It is 

unknown how, and if, stress from climate 

change, such as the recent extreme warm 

conditions for five climate variables (Monahan 

and Fisichelli 2014), and/or drought may be 

impacting these old trees. 

Phacelia serrate

Based on photographs and population 

estimates in the 2011 cinders phacelia 

monitoring reports (NPS 2011), sizable 

Table 4.11.2-2. Known anthropogenic disturbances on kipukas in El Malpais NM. 

Kipuka1 Substrate Logged Grazed Reference

Mesita Blanca Sedimentary No Yes Lewis 2003; Bleakly 1996

Mesita Blaca South Sedimentary No Yes Lewis 2003; Bleakly 1996

Hidden Kipuka Sedimentary No No Lewis 2003; Bleakly 1996

La Sopresa Volcanic Yes Uncertain Lewis 2003

North Kipuka Volcanic Yes No Information Lewis 2003

Encerrito Sedimentary No information Uncertain2 Bleakly 1996

Los Medanitos Eolian & Volcanic N/A Yes Bleakly 1996

Los Medanitos SE Eolian N/A Yes Bleakly 1996

North Three Kipuka Sedimentary No information No Bleakly 1996

Middle Three Kipuka Sedimentary No information No Bleakly 1996

South Three Kipuka Sedimentary No information No Bleakly 1996

1

Figure 4.11.2-1 shows the location and the substrate type of these kipukas.

2

Bleakly (1996) did not provide information on the anthropogenic impacts to this kipuka. The author visited this site in 

February 2015 and noted that it did not have any geographic barriers that would prevent livestock access, and it is near 

Highway 53 with easy access to the general area. 
207

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Distinct Vegetation

populations of this endemic plant were 

present at several cinder cones. Current 

condition or any population trends for this 

species in the park is unknown. Staff from El 

Malpais NM plan to re-initiate monitoring in 

2016 (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). The overall population trend for this 

species is stable, although the plant will 

become scare to rare even in prime habitat 

in drought years as it is dependent upon 

precipitation (NatureServe.org 2015a).

The species has the Global Conservation 

Assessment Ranking of G3, Vulnerable (at 

moderate risk of extinction or elimination due 

to restricted range, relatively few populations, 

recent and widespread declines, or other 

factors) (NatureServe.org 2015a). It has a 

Natural Heritage New Mexico ranking of S2 

Imperiled (imperiled in NM because of rarity 

or because of some factor(s) making it very 

vulnerable to extirpation from New Mexico) 

(New Mexico Rare Plant Technical Council 

2005). It is also a US Fish and Wildlife Service 

species of concern (New Mexico Rare Plant 

Technical Council 2005).

Endemic and Vulnerable Plant Associations

El Malpais has a large number of endemic 

plant associations, with five plant associations 

only known from the monument, 14 Park 

Special associations and an additional six 

associations that are regionally endemic. This 

high degree of endemism likely is a result of 

not only the unique habitat available on the 

lava flows and cinder cones, but also the fact 

that El Malpais is situated along the southern 

edges of the Colorado Plateau and Rocky 

Mountains, and has the Basin and Range and 

Mogollon Rim to the south and east, each 

providing their own floristic components.

The five plant associations that have been 

found only in El Malpais NM have not been 

assigned a Global Conservation Assessment 

Ranking (Muldavin et al. 2013). They are 

only known to grow on volcanic substrates. 

Four of these associations make up primary 

components (>50%) of vegetation map units, 

but Populus tremuloides / Mixed Shrubs / 

Cinder Woodland is only found as related 

inclusions (<10%) of two map units (1A, 

Douglas-fir/Gooseberry Cinder Forest and 

3A, Ponderosa Pine Cinder Forest Savanna) 

where it occurs only on steep sideslopes of 

and the bottom of Bandera Crater (Muldavin 

et al. 2013).

One of the six regionally endemic plant 

associations, Pinus edulis / Achnatherum 

Scribneri Woodland, has a vulnerable (G3) 

Global Conservation Assessment Ranking 

(Muldavin et al. 2013). Four regionally 

endemic associations are unranked 

(GNR). These regionally endemic plant 

associations make up primary and/or 

secondary components of map units, except 

for Juniperus monosperma / Muhlenbergia 

pauciflora Woodland, which only occurs as 

related inclusion on sedimentary substrates 

(Muldavin et al. 2013).

The Park Special plant associations have 

mostly GNR Global Conservation Assessment 

Rankings. Ten of these associations grow only 

on volcanic substrates, including four that are 

restricted to young volcanic units. One Park 

Special, Pinus edulis - Juniperus deppeana - 

Quercus grisea Woodland, only occurs as a 

related inclusion on sedimentary substrates.

Seven plant associations are vulnerable, with 

either G2G4, G3, G3? G3G4, G4, or G4Q 

Global Conservation Assessment Rankings. 

Two of these associations, Pinus ponderosa 

/ Schizachyrium scoparium Woodland and 

Sarcobatus vermiculatus / Sporobolus airoides

Table 4.11.4-1. Indicators, measures, and their contributions to the overall distinct 

vegetation condition rationale.

Indicator of Condition Measure Condition Rationale for Condition.

Ecological Integrity n/a Unknown The ancient trees, cinders phacelia, endemic and vulnerable 

plant associations, and vegetation communities growing 

on kipukas are not being monitored. Therefore, their 

current condition is unknown. 
208

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Shrubland, only occur as related inclusions 

(Muldavin et al. 2013).

Vegetation Communities Growing on 

Kipukas

Most of the plant associations and vegetation 

map units found in El Malpais NM also occur 

on kipukas. Only two plant associations and 

one map unit were restricted to kipukas. 

Therefore, with these exceptions, the 

vegetation on kipukas is similar the vegetation 

in the rest of the national monument and is 

likely in similar condition.

The small subset of kipukas (mostly with 

sedimentary substrates) that were studied 

(Bleakly 1996 and Lewis 2003) included 

kipukas both without the anthropogenic 

impacts of logging and/or grazing and 

those that had been logged and/or grazed. 

Additionally, relatively inaccessible areas of 

the lava flows, such as between Mesita Blanca 

(grazed) and Hidden kipuka (ungrazed), were 

identified as being undisturbed (Lewis 2003). 

Therefore, a correlation between kipukas and 

lack of anthropogenic disturbance(s) may 

not exist, as has previously been postulated 

(Grissino-Mayer 1995, Lewis 2003, and NPS 

2014). 

Plant associations and vegetation map units 

that only are found on sedimentary rocks, 

including kipukas, are rare in the monument 

because sedimentary rocks are rare. However, 

there are other plant associations that are 

restricted to other types of substrates, 

including ones only found on cinder cones 

or on the young lava flows of the El Malpais 

phase of volcanism. For example, Pinus edulis

- (Juniperus spp.) / Cinder Woodland, and 

Pseudotsuga menziesii / Ribes (leptanthum, 

cereum) Woodland are Park Specials that are 

only present on cinder cones (Muldavin et al. 

2013). Other associations, such as the Park 

Special Juniperus monosperma / Fraxinus 

cuspidata Woodland, only grow on lava flow 

surfaces. Vegetation growing on kipukas, 

with different plant associations on ones with 

volcanic, sedimentary and eolian substrates, 

is but one part of the monument’s distinctive 

biogeography, which includes endemic 

plant associations (including Park Specials), 

cinders phacelia, the ancient trees in stunted 

forests on the McCartys and Bandera flows, 

and plant associations that only grow on 

cinder cones or the young lava flows.

The biogeography on the monument’s 

vegetation is not island biogeography, (e.g., 

resulting from isolation). Vastly different 

geologic substrates with differing levels of 

soil development are in close proximity to 

one another, precluding geographic isolation. 

Further, the McCartys lava flow, which is El 

Malpais’ youngest, is approximately 3,900 

years old, which is too old for its eruption to 

have impacted the modern vegetation of the 

monument.

Veg-Distinct Communities

Indicator Measure

Ecological Integrity n/a

Overall Condition

The overall condition of the distinct 

vegetation communities in El Malpais NM is 

unknown. However, the condition of aspects 

of the monument’s distinct vegetation that are 

part of the broad ecological categories (i.e., 

pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine assessed 

in Sections 4.8 and 4.9, respectively), are 

likely to be the same as that for the broader 

ecosystem (e.g., good). 

4.11.5. Sources of Expertise 

Allyson Mathis, a science writer for Utah 

State University, authored this section. 

Grant Harley, Assistant Professor in the 

Department of Geography and Geology at the 

University of Southern Mississippi, provided 

information about and photographs of the 

ancient trees. Dr. Henri Grissino-Mayer, 

Professor and Associate Department Head 

at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville 

reviewed the assessment and provided two 

additional literature sources concerning the 

malpais (Rother 2010 and Pilote 2012), which 

are included in the final DVD sent to the park.

4.11.6. Literature Cited 

Bleakly David L. 1996. Vegetation and Flora 

of Certain Kipukas, El Malpais National 

Monument, NM. Albuquerque, NM. 

Unpublished Report-172945. 
209

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Distinct Vegetation

Fleck, John. 2014. The bell tolls for a tough old 

tree. Albuquerque Journal. September 2, 

2014. Available at http://www.abqjournal.

com/455364/news/drought-finally-killsa-650yearold-nm-tree.html (accessed 

March 24, 2015).

Grissino-Mayer, H.D. 1995. Tree-Ring 

Reconstructions of Climate and 

Fire History at El Malpais National 

Monument, New Mexico. Ph.D. 

dissertation, The University of Arizona, 

Tucson. 407 pp. Available at http://

arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/

bitstream/10150/191192/1/azu_td_hy_

e9791_1995_423_sip1_w.pdf (accessed 

November 28, 2015).

Grissino-Mayer, H.D. 1996. A 2129-year 

reconstruction of precipitation for 

northwestern New Mexico, U.S.A. In 

Dean, J.S., Meko, D.M., and Swetnam, 

T.W., editors. Tree Rings, Environment, 

and Humanity, Tucson. The University 

of Arizona. 191–204. Available at http://

agecon.nmsu.edu/fward/age384/

spring-2010/readings/malpais1996%20

(2).pdf (accessed March 24, 2015).

Grissino-Mayer, H., T. W. Swetnam, and R. K. 

Adams. 1997. The rare old-aged conifers 

of El Malpais-Their role in understanding 

climatic change in the American 

Southwest. In: K. Maybery (compiler), 

Natural History of El Malpais, pages 

155–162. New Mexico Bureau of Mines 

and Mineral Resources Bulletin 156. 

Available at http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/

downloads/malpaisclimate97.pdf 

(accessed March 24, 2015).

KellerLynn, K. 2012. El Malpais National 

Monument: geologic resources inventory 

report. Natural Resource Report NPS/

NRSS/GRD/NRR—2012/578. National 

Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Available at https://irma.nps.gov/App/

Reference/Profile/2189181 (accessed 

March 29, 2015).

Lewis, Daniel B. 2003. Fire Regimes of 

Kipuka Forests in El Malpais National 

Monument, New Mexico. MS Thesis. 

University of Tennessee. Available at 

http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/downloads/

D a n i e l % 2 0 L e w i s % 2 0 t h e s i s . p d f 

(accessed March 22, 2015).

Lindsey, Alton A. 1951. Vegetation and 

Habitats in a Southwestern Volcanic 

Area. Ecological Monographs: 21, 227-

253. Available at http://www.jstor.org/

stable/1943559 (accessed October 22, 

2015).

Maxwell, C. H. 1986. Geologic map of El 

Malpais lava field and surrounding area, 

Cibola County, New Mexico (scale 

1:62,500). Miscellaneous Investigations 

Series Map I-1595. U.S. Geological 

Survey, Washington, D.C., USA. Available 

at http://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/

proddesc_9332.htm (accessed March 20, 

2015).

New Mexico Rare Plant Technical Council. 

2005. New Mexico Rare Plants. Phacelia 

serrata (Cinders phacelia). Available at 

http://nmrareplants.unm.edu/rarelist_

single.php?SpeciesID=144 (accessed 

October 31, 2015).

Monahan W. B. and N. A. Fisichelli. 2014. 

Recent Climate Change Exposure of El 

Malpais National Monument. National 

Park Service. Resource Brief-2212626. 

Available at https://irma.nps.gov/App/

Reference/Profile/2212626 (accessed 

May 29, 2015).

Muldavin, E., Y. Chauvin, T. Neville, P. 

Neville, A. Kennedy, H. Hulse, P. Arbetan, 

K. Schultz, M. Hall, and M. Reid. 2013. 

Vegetation Classification and Map: El 

Malpais National Monument. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/SPCN/

NRTR–2013/803. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado. Available at 

https://irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/

Profile/2203664 (accessed June 29, 2015).

National Park Service. 2011. El Malpais 

National Monument. Cinder’s phacelia 

survey 2011. Unpublished reports.
210

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

National Park Service. 2014. Foundation 

Document. El Malpais National 

Monument.

Natureserve.org. 2015a. Phacelia serrata. 

NatureServe Explorer: An online 

encyclopedia of life [web application]. 

Version 7.1. NatureServe, Arlington, 

Virginia. Available at http://explorer.

natureserve.org/servlet/ NatureServe?s

earchName=Phacelia+serrata (accessed 

October 13, 2015).

Natureserve.org. 2015b. Global Conservation 

Status Definitions. Available at http://

explorer.natureserve.org/granks.htm 

(accessed October 25, 2015).

New Mexico Rare Plant Technical Council. 

2005. New Mexico Rare Plants. Phacelia 

serrata (cinders phacelia). Available at 

http://nmrareplants.unm.edu/rarelist_

single.php?SpeciesID=144 (accessed 

October 27, 2015).

Pilote, A.J. (2012) Interacting effects of fire 

activity, climate, and habitat diversity on 

forest dynamics, El Malpais National 

Monument, New Mexico, USA. M.S. 

thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 

100 pp.

Rother, M.T. (2010) Influences of climate and 

anthropogenic disturbances on wildfire 

regimes of the

Zuni Mountains, New Mexico, U.S.A. M.S. 

thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 

Tennessee. 153 pp.

Sneddon, L. A. 2010. Global Conservation 

Status Ranks of State-Rare Vegetation 

Associations in the Eastern Rivers 

and Mountains Network. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/

N E R / E R M N / N RT R — 2 0 1 0 / 1 5 1 . 

National Park Service. Philadelphia, 

PA. Available at https://science.

nature.nps.gov/im/units/ermn/assets/

docs/inventories/ERMN_2167719_

GlobalRanksVegetation_Sneddon_NPS_

NER_NRTR_2010_151.pdf (accessed 

October 25, 2015).

Wayman, Sarah Jones. 2015. Stand Dynamics 

of a Unique Pygmy Forest, El Malpais 

National Monument, New Mexico, U.S.A. 

Master’s Thesis, University of Tennessee. 

Available at http://trace.tennessee.edu/

utk_gradthes/3420/ (accessed October 

31, 2015).
211

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Exotic Plants

4.12. Exotic Plants 

4.12.1. Background and Importance 

Globalization of commerce, transportation, 

human migration, and recreation in recent 

history has introduced invasive exotic 

species to new areas at an unprecedented 

rate. Biogeographical barriers that once 

restricted the location and expansion of 

species have been circumvented, culminating 

in the homogenization of Earth’s biota. 

Approximately 4-19% of species introduced 

into the United States may become invasive 

(USFWS 2012). 

Invasive species have been directly linked 

to displacing several native species of plants 

(Pimentel et al. 1999). Approximately 42% of 

threatened and endangered species are at risk 

primarily because of alien-invasive species 

(Pimentel et al. 2005). Exotic plants cause 

changes in ecosystem structure, alteration of 

nutrient cycles and soil chemistry, alteration 

of normal successional trajectory of a system 

(Ehrenfeld 2003, Emery 2012), negative 

impacts to agriculture (Pimentel 2009), and 

limitations on water availability (USFWS 

2012) (Figure 4.12.1-1). 

The spread of invasive species is one of the 

most environmentally serious global changes, 

causing economic and environmental 

damage in the United States and worldwide 

(UCSUSA 2008). Consequently, the dynamic 

relationships among plants, animals, soil, 

and water established over many thousands 

of years are at risk of being destroyed in a 

relatively brief period. For the National Park 

Service (NPS), the consequences of these 

invasions present a significant challenge 

to the management of the agency’s natural 

resources “unimpaired for the enjoyment of 

future generations.” National parks, like land 

managed by other organizations, are deluged 

by new exotic species arriving through 

Figure 4.12.1-1.

Verbascum thapsus

(common mullein) 

is a species of 

special concern at El 

Malpais NM because 

it grows well on 

young basaltic lava 

flows and cinder 

deposits. 

Indicators/Measures

• Potential to Alter Native Plant Communities (1 measure)

• Prevalence of Exotic Plants (1 measure)

Condition – Trend - Confidence

Unknown – Unknown - Medium

©ALLYSON MATHIS
212

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

predictable (e.g., road, trail, and riparian 

corridors), sudden (e.g., long-distance 

dispersal through cargo containers and air 

freight), and unexpected anthropogenic 

pathways (e.g., weed seeds in restoration 

planting mixes). Nonnative plants claim an 

estimated 4,600 acres per day on federal 

lands alone in the western United States, 

quadrupling their range from 1985-1995, 

claiming approximately 17 million acres (BLM 

2011) and significantly altering local flora. For 

example, in Great Smoky Mountains National 

Park, over 1⁄4 of the plants (27%) are nonnative species. On the big island of Hawaii 

35% of the plants are non-native (Pimentel 

et al. 2005). Invasive plants are dominant on 

approximately 5% of the lands managed by 

the NPS (NPS 2009).

4.12.2. Data and Methods

In assessing current condition and trend 

for exotic plants at El Malpais National 

Monument, we used two indicators. The first 

indicator, which has one measure, evaluates 

the overall impact an exotic plant has on the 

native plant communities throughout the 

monument. This indicator utilizes known 

natural history characteristics of exotic plant 

species in order to characterize their impact 

on natural ecosystems. 

The second indicator, also with one measure, 

assesses the prevalence of the exotic plant 

species in the monument.

Information on exotic plant species that have 

been documented at El Malpais includes 

species lists in Excel spreadsheets or PDF 

documents, El Malpais NM (ELMA) (2009), 

Southern Colorado Plateau Network (SCPN) 

(2014), and NPSpecies (NPS) (2015), and 

published reports, Lightfoot et al. (1994), 

Bleakly (1997) and Muldavin et al. (2013).

Table 4.12.2-1 lists the 38 species of exotic 

plants that have been documented in El 

Malpais NM. Three species (Eschscholzia 

californica ssp. mexicana, Lepidium 

densiflorum and Oxalis corniculata) that have 

been reported in El Malpais NM as exotic 

species are excluded from this table as their 

nativity is unclear (USDA-NRCS 2015a).

Indicator/Measure

Potential to Alter Native Plant 

Communities (Significance of Exotic Plant 

Impact)

The first indicator and measure, potential to 

alter native plant communities (significance 

of exotic plant impact), was derived from 

the Handbook for Ranking Exotic Plants 

for Management and Control (Hiebert 

and Stubbendieck 1993). The handbook’s 

analytical approach provides NPS managers 

with scientific information that encompasses 

the full array of significant factors that 

measure the ecological impact of an exotic 

species.

For the purposes of this assessment, Hiebert 

and Stubbendieck’s significance of exotic 

plant impact was modified to capture only 

its innate ability to become a pest. The innate 

ability for a species to become a pest section 

quantifies the characteristics, such as ability to 

reproduce vegetatively, the number of seeds 

per plant, germination requirements, and the 

plant’s competitive ability, that preadapt it to 

become a problem. 

The numerical ranking for this measure 

ranged between 0 - 50 possible points, 

with 50 representing the highest possibility 

of impacting and altering the native plant 

communities and zero being the lowest. 

We assigned the numerical rankings to the 

following categories:

● 40 - 50 = Highest Concern

● 35 - 39 = High Concern

● 30 - 34 = Medium Concern

● 0 - 29 = Low Concern

The significance of exotic plant impact 

rankings for each exotic species documented 

in El Malpais is reported in Table 4.12.2-

2. Six species were ranked as having the 

highest concern, with five additional species 

having high concern. Six species, Acroptilon 

repens (Russian knapweed), Carduus nutans 

(nodding musk thistle), Cirsium vulgare

(bull thistle), Convolvulus arvensis (field 

bindweed), Tamarix chinensis (Chinese 

tamarisk) and Ulmus pumila (Siberian elm) 
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Exotic Plants

Table 4.12.2-1. Exotic plant species documented in El Malpais NM.

Species Common Name Lightfoot et 

al. 1994 Bleakly 1997 ELMA 2009 SCPN 2014 NPSpecies 

2015

Acroptilon repens Russian knapweed X X X X X

Amaranthus albus pigweed X X X X

Amaranthus blitoides prostrate pigweed X X X X X

Amaranthus retroflexus1 redroot pigweed X X X False Report

Bromus tectorum cheatgrass X X X X X

Carduus nutans nodding musk thistle X X X

Cichorium intybus chicory X X

Cirsium vulgare bull thistle X X X X X

Convolvulus arvensis field bindweed X X X X X

Eragrostis cilianensis stinkgrass X X

Eragrostis curvula weeping lovegrass X X X X X

Eragrostis lehmanniana Lehmann lovegrass X X X False Report

Erodium cicutarium redstem filaree X X X X X

Kochia scoparia kochia X X X X

Lactuca serriola prickly lettuce X X X X X

Marrubium vulgare horehound X X X X X

Medicago lupulina black medic clover X X X X X

Melilotus spp. yellow sweetclover X X X X X

Mollugo cerviana carpetweed X

Panicum miliaceum Broomcorn millet X

Poa compressa Canada bluegrass X

Poa pratensis Kentucky bluegrass X X

Polygonum aviculare common knotgrass X

Portulaca oleracea common purslane X X

Rumex crispus curly dock X X X X X

Salsola spp. prickly Russian thistle X X X X X

Setaria viridis green foxtail X X X X X

Sisymbrium altissimum tumbleweed mustard X X X X X

Solanum elaeagnifolium silverleaf nightshade X

Sonchus asper spiny sowthistle X X X X X

Tamarix chinensis Chinese tamarisk X X X X

Taraxacum officinale dandelion X X X X

Tragopogon dubius common salsify X X X X X

Tragopogon pratensis meadow salsify X X X X X

Tragus berteronianus burr grass X

Tribulus terrestris puncturevine X X X

Ulmus pumila Siberian elm X X X X X

Verbascum thapsus common mullein X X X X X

Eschscholzia californica ssp. mexicana, Lepidium densiflorum and Oxalis corniculata have been reported at El Malpais, but are excluded from this list as their 

nativity is unclear.
214

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.12.2-2. Significance of exotic plant impact ranking for species recorded at El 

Malpais (Lightfoot et al. 1994, Bleakly 1997, ELMA 2009, SCPN 2014, and NPS 2015) 

using a subset of Hiebert and Stubbendieck’s (1993) Handbook for Ranking Exotic 

Plants for Management and Control.

Species Common Name Noxious Ranking

Acroptilon repens1 Russian knapweed X Highest

Bromus tectorum1 cheatgrass Highest

Convolvulus arvensis1 field bindweed X Highest

Eragrostis curvula1 weeping lovegrass Highest

Poa pratensis1 Kentucky bluegrass Highest

Tamarix chinensis1 Chinese tamarisk X Highest

Carduus nutans2 nodding musk thistle X High

Eragrostis lehmanniana2 Lehmann lovegrass High

Portulaca oleracea2 common purslane High

Solanum elaeagnifolium2 silverleaf nightshade High

Sonchus asper2 spiny sowthistle High

Cirsium vulgare bull thistle X Medium

Erodium cicutarium redstem filaree Medium

Kochia scoparia kochia Medium

Lactuca serriola prickly lettuce Medium

Marrubium vulgare horehound Medium

Medicago lupulina black medic clover Medium

Panicum miliaceum Broomcorn millet Medium

Rumex crispus curly dock Medium

Salsola spp. prickly Russian thistle Medium

Setaria viridis green foxtail Medium

Sisymbrium altissimum tumbleweed mustard Medium

Taraxacum officinale dandelion Medium

Tribulus terrestris puncturevine Medium

Amaranthus albus pigweed Low

Amaranthus blitoides prostrate pigweed Low

Amaranthus retroflexus redroot pigweed Low

Cichorium intybus chicory Low

Eragrostis cilianensis stinkgrass Low

Melilotus officinalis (spp.) yellow sweetclover Low

Mollugo cerviana carpetweed Low

Poa compressa Canada bluegrass Low

Polygonum aviculare common knotgrass Low

Tragopogon dubius common salsify Low

Tragopogon pratensis meadow salsify Low

Tragus berteronianus burr grass Low

Ulmus pumila Siberian elm X Low

Verbascum thapsus3 common mullein Low

1 Species considered to be of highest concern using the significance of exotic plant impact, innate ability to become a pest 

measure (Hiebert and Stubbendieck 1993) are highlighted in the darker tone.

2 Species considered to be of high concern using the significance of exotic plant impact, innate ability to become a pest 

measure (Hiebert and Stubbendieck 1993) are highlighted in the darker tone.

3 Species of special concern is highlighted in the brown tone.

Eschscholzia californica ssp. mexicana, Lepidium densiflorum and Oxalis corniculata have been reported at El Malpais, but are 

excluded from this list as their nativity is unclear.
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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Exotic Plants

are New Mexico state noxious plants (USDANRCS 2015b).

Indicators/Measures

Prevalence of Exotic Plants (Number of 

Observations in Vegetation Mapping Plots) 

The prevalence of exotic plants has one 

measure: the number of observations 

recorded in vegetation mapping plots 

(Muldavin et al. 2013) (Table 4.12.2-3).

Muldavin et al. (2013) reported the cumulative 

number of all observations for vascular plants 

encountered in vegetation mapping and 

classification plots in the report’s Appendix 

B. Mapping plots each were visited once 

between 2006 and 2009. Plots were usually 

400 m2

 (4305 ft2), although size and shape 

were modified as needed to fit the structure 

of a community. In standard plots, a list of all 

vascular plant species, stratified by life form 

and height, and with a cover estimate was 

recorded. In quick plots, only the cover of 

dominant species in each strata was recorded. 

Muldavin et al. (2013) recorded a total of 476 

plots, including 253 standard plots.

Because of the rough terrain of El Malpais, 

especially the surface of the young lava 

flows, the location of plots were generally 

constrained to the outer portions of flows, 

along trails, and/or within two miles from a 

road (Muldavin et al. 2013) (Figure 4.12.2-1).

4.12.3. Reference Conditions

Whenever an exotic plant is present that 

has the biological characteristics to alter 

native plant communities, there is cause for 

concern. However, early detection of these 

species provides managers with the necessary 

information to apply a rapid response 

management strategy before the exotic plant 

becomes established. If a rapid response 

is not implemented, the exotic plant may 

become established and potentially degrade 

the integrity of the native plant communities.

Our good, moderate, and significant concern 

reference conditions are based upon both 

an exotic plant’s ability to alter native plant 

communities as well as its prevalence. A 

summary of the reference conditions is shown 

in Table 4.12.3-1.

A good reference condition is the capability 

for primary communities to be maintained. 

By this, we mean that ecological attributes 

(e.g., species composition, structure, etc.) and 

natural processes remain within the natural 

variation for the community type. 

A moderate condition is assigned to exotic 

plant species that have been ranked as high or 

highest concern but prevalence remains low, 

Table 4.12.2-3. Prevalence of exotic plant 

species detected in vegetation mapping 

2006-2009 (Muldavin et al. 2013).

Species

No. of 

Observations in 

Mapping Plots

Portulaca oleracea2 127

Salsola spp. 126

Kochia scoparia 58

Verbascum thapsus3 56

Bromus tectorum1 27

Amaranthus spp.4 22

Cirsium spp.4 5

Erodium cicutarium 4

Marrubium vulgare 4

Convolvulus arvensis1 3

Mollugo cerviana 3

Melilotus spp. 2

Taraxacum officinale 2

Eragrostis cilianensis 1

Lactuca serriola 1

Poa pratensis1 1

Rumex spp.4 1

Setaria viridis 1

Tamarix chinensis1 1

Tragopogon dubius 1

Tragopogon pratensis 1

Poa compressa 1

Tragus berteronianus 1

Solanum elaeagnifolium2 1

1 Species considered to be of highest concern in (Table 

4.12.2-2) are highlighted in the darker tone.

2 Species of high concern (Table 4.12.2-1) is highlighted in 

the lighter tone.

3 Species of special concern is highlighted in the brown tone.

4 Amaranthus, Cirsium, and Rumex were only identified 

at the genus level in Muldavin et al. (2013) and their 

observations may have included exotic and native species.
216

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

or when a plant has been assigned a medium 

impact ranking score and is found in medium 

prevalence. 

A condition of significant concern is assigned 

when an exotic plant is ranked as high or 

highest for its ability to alter native plant 

communities and occurring at medium to high 

prevalence levels. A species with a moderate 

impact ranking and high prevalence is also of 

significant condition.

Further consideration of condition is 

warranted on a case by case basis, especially 

for species with low prevalence, or when a 

species’ prevalence may be increasing. Given 

the early detection and rapid response model 

for the control of exotic plants, species with 

low prevalence may be considered to be 

Figure 4.12.2-1.

Location of 

vegetation mapping 

and classification 

plots used by 

Muldavin et al. 

(2013). 
217

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Exotic Plants

in moderate condition even though they 

may have low or medium impact rankings. 

Further, species that scored low in the Hiebert 

and Stubbendieck’s (1993) innate ability to 

become a pest ranking system may considered 

to be of moderate condition depending on the 

individual characteristics of a species, and the 

unique attributes of the NPS site, regardless 

of prevalence.

4.12.4. Condition and Trend

Thirty-eight exotic plant species have been 

documented within El Malpais according to 

published species lists (Lightfoot et al. 1994 

and Bleakly 1997), and in NPS-managed 

databases or spreadsheets (ELMA 2009, 

SCPN 2014, and NPS 2015). These species 

were assessed for their potential to alter native 

plant communities and their prevalence. 

Exotic plants at El Malpais NM have 

significant potential to alter native plant 

communities. Six exotic species were ranked 

as having the highest exotic plant impact, and 

five species have a high exotic plant impact. 

Thirteen species have a medium ranking and 

14 species were ranked low for exotic plant 

impact. One species is of special concern.

Information about the prevalence of exotic 

plants at El Malpais NM is extremely limited. 

Muldavin et al. (2013) reported observations 

of exotic plant species in vegetation mapping 

and classification plots. In field work that 

took place in 2006-2009, 24 exotic species 

were observed in plots at least once. 

Potential to Alter Native Plant 

Communities

While the presence of any exotic plant 

species can alter primary ecological 

communities, plants with highest or high 

significance of exotic plant impact have 

inherent characteristics that preadapt them to 

become invasive (Hiebert and Stubbendieck 

1993). Species of special concern have 

characteristics that make their impacts in 

the type of ecosystems found in El Malpais 

especially significant. 

Six species recorded as occurring in El 

Malpais NM are considered to be the highest 

concern based upon their significance of 

exotic plant impact (Table 4.12.4-1). Five 

additional species are of high concern for 

exotic plant impact, and one additional 

species (Verbascum thapsus) is of special 

concern. Because twelve of the 38 exotic plant 

species that have been found in El Malpais 

NM are either of highest or high concern for 

exotic plant impact or are species of special 

concern, we find that this indicator is in the 

condition of significant concern. 

Species of Highest Concern

Acroptilon repens is a New Mexico noxious 

plant. Ranked as highest for its exotic plant 

impact, Russian knapweed has the potential 

to form dense monocultures from widely 

spreading root systems (USDA Forest Service 

2001). The plant also releases allelopathic 

compounds. 

Exotic bromes such as Bromus tectorum 

(cheatgrass) are well known to dramatically 

Table 4.12.3-1. Descriptions for determining condition based on exotic plant potential

to alter native plant communities impact ranking and degree of prevalence.

Prevalence of 

Exotic Plant

Potential to Alter Native Plant Communities Impact Ranking

Low Medium High Highest

Low Good 

Condition*

Good 

Condition* Moderate Condition Moderate Condition

Medium Variable* Moderate Condition Significant Concern Significant Concern

High Variable* Significant Concern Significant Concern Significant Concern

* Species in these cells may warrant further consideration of condition on a case by case basis. 
218

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

change the character of an ecosystem, 

including such changes as major shifts in 

community composition and structure 

(Knapp 1996) as well as substantial alteration 

of fire regimes (Whisenant 1990). In many 

cases these changes have become, for all 

practical purposes, irreversible (Knapp 1996). 

From a standpoint of significance of impact to 

a park’s native grassland community, Bromus 

tectorum is one of the highest exotic plant 

concerns (Folts-Zettner SOPN biologist, 

personal communication, 2014). It adds 

biomass to the ecosystem, outcompetes 

other cool season grasses and is especially 

competitive during times of drought. 

While Convolvulus arvensis produces seed, 

it reproduces predominantly by its persistent 

root system. Once field bindweed gets 

established, it is very difficult to control and is 

highly competitive with native species (USDA 

Forest Service 2004).

Eragrostis curvula (weeping lovegrass) is 

native to southern Africa and was planted 

in the United States for erosion control and 

livestock forage. Weeping lovegrass is a tall 

bunch grass that produces abundant seed, 

can germinate in a variety of conditions, is 

highly competitive, and has significant impact 

to natural ecosystems (USDA Forest Service 

2009).

Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass) produces 

abundant seed and is generally highly 

competitive, but is intolerant to drought 

(USDA Forest Service 1993). The species 

is extremely difficult to control and has an 

extremely high potential to alter native plant 

communities. 

Table 4.12.4-1. Significance of exotic plant impact for species documented in El Malpais NM.

Scientific Name Common Name Rationale for Rating1

Highest Exotic Plant Impact

Acroptilon 

repens

Russian 

knapweed

Russian knapweed reproduces vegetatively has the potential to form dense monocultures via its root 

system. The species is listed as a noxious species in New Mexico.

Bromus 

tectorum

cheatgrass Cheatgrass is a highly invasive plant that can have a significant adverse impacts on natural 

ecosystems, especially grasslands. It is also extremely competitive during period of drought. 

Convolvulus 

arvensis

field bindweed Convolvulus arvensis reproduces predominantly vegetatively, and is very difficult to control once 

established. Field bindweed is listed as a noxious species in New Mexico. 

Eragrostis 

curvula

weeping 

lovegrass

Weeping lovegrass is many seeded, and can outcompete native species and have significant impact 

on natural ecosystems.

Poa pratensis Kentucky 

bluegrass

 Kentucky bluegrass produces a great deal of seed, has a high potential to alter native plant 

communities, and is extremely difficult to control.

Tamarix 

chinensis

Chinese 

tamarisk

A riparian species that utilizes a great deal of water and outcompetes native plants and reduces 

biodiversity, Chinese tamarisk is listed as a noxious species in New Mexico.

High Exotic Plant Impact

Carduus nutans nodding musk 

thistle

Nodding musk thistle is listed as a noxious species in New Mexico. The species produces abundant 

seed and outcompetes native species.

Cirsium vulgare bull thistle Cirsium vulgare also is a many-seeded thistle that is listed as a noxious species in New Mexico.

Eragrostis 

lehmanniana

Lehmann 

lovegrass

Lehmann lovegrass produces abundant seed and can have a significant impact in natural ecosystems. 

It was identified in Lightfoot et al. (1994), Bleakly (1997) and ELMA (2009), but identified as a false 

report in NPSpecies (2015).

Portulaca 

oleracea

common 

purslane

Common purslane can produce a thick mat that is difficult to control.

Sonchus asper spiny sowthistle Spiny sow thistle may form dense monocultures. The species produces abundant seeds that may be 

dispersed great distances.

Species of Special Concern

Verbascum 

thapsus

common 

mullein

Mullein grows well in disturbed areas and undisturbed areas such as on cinder cones and lava flows 

where other vegetation is sparse. This biennial species produces a great deal of seed that remains 

viable in the soil for an extremely long tine. Since mullein is known to be invasive in other areas with 

young basaltic lava flows and cinder deposits, it was considered a species of special concern at El 

Malpais NM.
219

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Exotic Plants

Tamarix chinenses, which is on the New 

Mexico list of noxious plants, is highly 

competitive in riparian habitats, outcompetes 

native species and reduces natural biodiversity. 

Species of High Concern

Carduus nutans (nodding musk thistle) 

has a high potential to alter native plant 

communities at El Malpais. This exotic thistle, 

which is also a New Mexico noxious species, 

produces abundant seed, can outcompete 

native species, and is difficult to control 

(USDA Forest Service 2002a).

Also listed as a New Mexico noxious 

species, Cirsium vulgare is a biennial thistle 

reproduces exclusively by seed, which it 

produces abundantly (USDA Forest Service 

2002b). Bull thistle grows extremely well in 

disturbed sites.

Eragrostis lehmanniana (Lehmann lovegrass) 

was listed as a false report for El Malpais NM 

in NPSpecies (NPS 2015), although it was 

reported for the monument in Lightfoot et 

al. (1994), Bleakly (1997) and ELMA (2009). 

Lehmann lovegrass is a warm-season grass 

that produces abundant seed (USDA Forest 

Service 1992).

Portulaca oleracea (common purslane) 

reproduces entirely by seed and can form 

a thick monocultural mat that is difficult to 

control (University of California Agriculture 

and Natural Resources 2007).

Sonchus asper (spiny sow thistle) may form 

a dense monoculture and its seeds may be 

spread long distances by animals and by wind 

(Arizona Wildland Invasive Plant Working 

Group 2005). While it usually is found in 

disturbed sites, it has been found in areas 

such as dry washes that have had no human 

disturbances. 

Species of Special Concern

Verbascum thapsus (common mullein) is 

designated as a species of special concern 

at El Malpais. While only ranked low for its 

exotic plant impact using the Hiebert and 

Stubbendieck (1993) system, the species has 

an innate ability to become a pest in open 

landscapes, especially those with substrates of 

young basaltic lava flows and cinder deposits. 

The species is at least locally common at other 

NPS sites in the continental United States with 

similar volcanic resources, including Capulin 

Volcano National Monument, Sunset Crater 

Volcano National Monument, Craters of 

the Moon National Monument, Lava Beds 

National Monument and Lassen Volcanic 

National Park. In Hawaii, mullein is on the 

state noxious weeds list, and is under active 

management at Hawaii Volcanoes National 

Park where there are extensive infestations 

(Benitez et al. 2012). 

Mullein is a biennial plant that grows up to 

2 m (7 ft) in height. Each plant can produce 

more than 100,000 seeds that remain viable 

for multiple years (USDA Forest Service 

2008). Generally understood to only occupy 

disturbed lands, mullein also grows in 

undisturbed open areas such as meadows 

on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada 

Mountains in California (California Invasive 

Plant Council 2015) and in Hawaii, especially 

on areas of weathered lava flows with sparse 

vegetation and pockets of soil (Benitez 

et al. 2012). Mullein appears to be highly 

competitive in these environments and is not 

replaced by successional species (California 

Invasive Plant Council 2015). 

Verbascum thapsus is native in Eurasia where 

it is found mostly on dry stony hillsides and 

woodlands (Starr et al. 2003). Cinder deposits 

appear to provide similar habitat, and mullein 

is common on cinder cones in Hawaii (Pacific 

Island Ecosystem at Risk 2011), and at 

Capulin Volcano NM (Bennetts et al. 2012). 

At Capulin Volcano, active management of 

mullein has decreased population density 

(Folts-Zettner and Sosinski 2012). 

Prevalence

Information on the prevalence of exotic 

species in El Malpais NM is very limited. 

Observations of exotic plants in vegetation 

mapping and classification plots were 

reported by Muldavin et al. (2013); however, 

this information is not current as field work 

for mapping was conducted in 2006-2009. 

Further, these study plots were designed for 

vegetation mapping and classification and 

not explicitly for the detection of exotic plant 
220

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

species. While many of the plots were located 

near roads and trails because of the difficulty 

of access because of El Malpais’ rough 

volcanic terrain, they were not inherently 

designed to monitor along a vector as in FoltsZettner et al. (2013). Additionally, these plots 

also did not capture the condition of the 

interior of the monument, especially in the 

central parts of the young lava flows where 

the very rough terrain most likely has limited 

direct human disturbances. 

Muldavin et al. (2013) observed 24 of the 

38 species documented at El Malpais at 

least once in vegetation classification plots. 

Portulaca oleracea was the exotic species 

observed the most in mapping plots, 

followed by Salsola spp., Kochia scoparia 

and Verbascum thapsus. Eleven exotic 

plant species were observed only one time. 

Tamarix chinenses was reported from the

Sporobolus airoides Monotype Herbaceous 

Vegetation association, which is only known 

at the Northwest New Mexico Visitor Center, 

for monument lands (Muldavin et al. 2013).

Exotic Plants

Indicators Measure

Potential to Alter 

Native Plant 

Communities

1 Measure

Prevalence of 

Exotic Plants 1 Measures

Overall Condition and Trend

In assessing the condition of exotic plants 

in the national monument, we used two 

indicators that were intended to be different 

ways of capturing the essence of what 

we thought represented an exotic plant’s 

potential for concern.

Several factors contribute to an exotic plant’s 

ability to threaten the integrity of a native 

ecosystem including its inherent ability to alter 

native plant communities and its prevalence. 

Thus, our measures for this resource were 

intended to capture different aspects of these 

contributing factors. A summary of how 

they contributed to the overall exotic plants 

condition assessment is in Table 4.12.4-2.

The potential for exotic species present in the 

NRA to alter native plant communities is of 

significant concern because eleven species, 

29% of the exotic species documented in the 

monument, were ranked as highest or high for 

their significance of exotic plant impact based 

on their innate ability to become a pest.

Exotic plants have an unknown extent within 

the monument. The overall trend for the 

condition of exotic plants at El Malpais was 

also unknown. 

After analyzing all the available information 

about exotic plant species at El Malpais NM, 

we consider the overall condition for exotic 

plants to be in an unknown condition with an 

unknown trend. 

Level of Confidence/Key Uncertainties

Overall, we have a medium level of confidence 

in this assessment, although the prevalence 

and trend of exotic plants at El Malpais is not 

known due to lack of available data. 

Application of the Hiebert and Stubbendieck 

(1993) Handbook for Ranking Exotic Plants 

for Management and Control to determine 

exotic plant impact provides high confidence 

for the significance of exotic plant impact 

measure. However, an uncertainty for this 

measure is the general variability in how a 

given exotic plant species will respond to 

localized conditions. What may be considered 

a non-threatening plant in one region may 

become a nuisance in a different region.

4.12.5. Sources of Expertise

Allyson Mathis, a science writer for Utah 

State University, authored this section. Exotic 

species rankings using the Handbook for 

Ranking Exotic Plants for Management and 

Control (Hiebert and Stubbendieck 1993) 

were done by Allyson Mathis, Kim Struthers, 

researcher/science writer, Utah State 

University, Tomye Folts-Zettner, biologist/

botanist, Southern Plains Network and Lori 

Makarick, Vegetation Program Manager, 

Grand Canyon National Park.

4.12.6. Literature Cited

Arizona Wildland Invasive Plant Working 

Group. 2005. Sonchus asper. Plant 

Assessment Form. Available at http://

sbsc.wr.usgs.gov/research/projects/

swepic/SWVMA/PLANTPDF/
221

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Exotic Plants

Sonchus_asper_AZ_PAF.pdf (accessed 

July 7, 2015).

Benitez, D.M., R. Loh, T. Tunison, N.G. 

Zimmer, J. Makaike, R. Mattos and M. 

Casali. 2012. The distribution of invasive 

plant species of concern in the Kīlauea 

and Mauna Loa strip areas of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, 2000-2010. 

Technical Report No. 179. The Hawai`iPacific Islands Cooperative Ecosystem 

Studies Unit & Pacific Cooperative 

Studies Unit, University of Hawai`i, 

Honolulu, Hawai`i. Available at http://

manoa.hawaii.edu/hpicesu/techr/179/

v179.pdf (accessed July 7, 2015).

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Yost. 2012. Capulin Volcano National 

Monument: Natural Resource Condition 

Assessment. Natural Resource Report 

NPS/SOPN/NRR—2012/492. National 

Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 

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water/nrca/assets/docs/CAVO_NRCA_

Final.pdf (accessed July 8, 2015).

Bleakly, David L. 1997. Plantlife on the lava—

the vegetation and flora of El Malpais. 

Pages 113–138 in K. Mabery, editor. 

Natural history of El Malpais National 

Monument. Bulletin 156. New Mexico 

Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, 

Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Bureau of Land Management. 2011. Invasive 

species. Available at http://www.blm.

gov/wo/st/en/res/Education_in_BLM/

Learning_Landscapes/For_Kids/

homework_helpers/invasive_species.

html (accessed November 6, 2013).

California Invasive Plant Council. 2015. 

Verbascum thapsus. Invasive Plants 

of California’s Wildland. Available at 

http://www.cal-ipc.org/ip/management/

ipcw/pages/detailreport.cfm@

usernumber=87&surveynumber=182.

php (accessed July 8, 2015). 

Ehrenfeld, J. G. 2003. The effects of exotic 

plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling 

processes. Ecosystems 6:503–523.

El Malpais National Monument. 2009. 2009 

ELMA Exotic Plants Characteristics and 

Controls. Excel spreadsheet. Provided by 

El Malpais National Monument.

Emery, S. 2012. Succession: A Closer 

Look. Nature Education Knowledge 

3(10):45. Available at http://www.

nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/

Table 4.12.4-2. Indicators, measures, and their contributions to the overall exotic 

plants condition rationale.

Indicator Measure Condition Rationale for Condition.

Potential to Alter 

Native Plant 

Communities

Significance of 

Exotic Plant Impact

Significant Concern This measure is based on the premise that 

species with the highest innate ability to 

become a pest generally cause the most severe 

problems in natural ecosystems. Six of the 

38 species of exotic plants documented in El 

Malpais were ranked as having the highest 

innate ability to become a pest, and 5 species 

were ranked as high. There was one species 

of special concern. Therefore, we consider this 

measure to be of significant concern.

Prevalence of 

Exotic Plants 

Number of 

observations 

in vegetation 

mapping plots

Unknown The prevalence of exotic plants at El Malpais 

is unknown. The reporting of exotic plant 

observations in vegetation mapping and 

classification plots in 2006-2009 provides 

limited information on the occurrence of 

exotic plants. However, specific information 

about exotic plants in the interior of the 

monument and along vectors is unknown.
222

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

succession-a-closer-look-13256638 

(accessed November 6, 2013).

Folts-Zettner, T., R. Bennetts, K. Gallo, S. 

Studd, M. Powell, K. Beaupre, and H. 

Sosinski. 2013. Multi-Network Exotic 

Plant Monitoring Protocol and Standard 

Operating Procedures : A collaboration 

among the Southern Plains, Chihuahuan 

Desert and Sonoran Desert Networks 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/

SOPN/NRTR—2013/XXX. National 

Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Folts-Zettner, T., and H. Sosinski. 2012. 

Exotic plant monitoring in the Southern 

Plains Network: project report 2012. 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/

SOPN/NRTR—2012/655. National Park 

Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Available 

at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/

sopn/assets/docs/Monitoring_Reports/

SOPN_IEP_2012_final_small.pdf 

(accessed July 8, 2015).

Hiebert, R. D. and J. Stubbendieck. 1993. 

Handbook for Ranking Exotic Plants 

for Management and Control. Natural 

Resources Report NPS/NRM, RWO/

NRR-93/08. National Park Service, 

Denver, Colorado.

Knapp, P. A. 1996. Cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum L.) Dominance in the Great 

Basin Desert: history, persistence, and 

influences to human activities. Global 

Environmental Change 6:37–52.

Lightfoot, D.C., D.L. Bleakly, R.R. Parmenter, 

and J.R. Gosz. 1994. Vegetation and 

wildlife inventory of El Malpais National 

Monument. Final Report. Cooperative 

Agreement Contract CA 7029-0007. 57 p.

Muldavin, E., Y. Chauvin, T. Neville, P. 

Neville, A. Kennedy, H. Hulse, P. Arbetan, 

K. Schultz, M. Hall, and M. Reid. 2013. 

Vegetation Classification and Map: El 

Malpais National Monument. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/SPCN/

NRTR–2013/803. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado. Available at 

https://irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/

Profile/2203664 (accessed June 29, 2015).

National Park Service. 2015. El Malpais 

National Monument Non-native Vascular 

Plant List. Excel Spreadsheet. Available at 

https://irma.nps.gov/NPSpecies/Search/

Advanced (accessed June 29, 2015).

National Park Service. 2009. Invasive Species 

Management. Available at http://www.

nature.nps.gov/biology/invasivespecies/

index.cfm (accessed July 8, 2014).

Pacific Island Ecosystem at Risk. 2011. 

Verbascum thapsus. Available at http://

www.hear.org/pier/species/verbascum_

thapsus.htm (accessed July 8, 2015).

Pimentel, D. 2009. Invasive plants: their role in 

species extinctions and economic losses 

to agriculture in the USA. Chapter 1 in 

Management of Invasive Weeds. Springer 

Science.

Pimentel, D., L. Lock, R. Zuniga, and D. 

Morrison. 1999. Environmental and 

economic costs associated with nonindigenous species in the United States. 

Available at http://www.grida.no/

geo/GEO/Geo-2-084.htm (accessed 

November 6, 2013).

Pimentel, D. R. Zuniga and D. Morrison. 

2005. Update on the environmental and 

economic costs associated with alieninvasive species in the United States. 

Ecological Economics 52 (2005) 273–288.

Southern Colorado Plateau Network. 2014. El 

Malpais NM Plant List. PDF document. 

Provided by El Malpais NM.

Starr, Forest, Kim Starr and Lloyd Loope. 

2003. Verbascum thapsus. Available at 

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/

reports/pdf/verbascum_thapsus.pdf 

(accessed July 8, 2015). 

Union of Concerned Scientists (UCSUSA). 

2008. Invasive species. Available at http://

www.ucsusa.org/ssi/invasive-species/

(accessed November 6, 2013).
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University of California Agriculture and 

Natural Resources. 2007. Common 

purslane. Statewide Integrated Pest 

Management Program. Available at 

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/

PESTNOTES/pn7461.html (accessed 

July 7, 2015).

USDA Forest Service. 1992. Eragrostis 

lehmanniana. Fire Effects Information 

System. Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/

database/feis/plants/graminoid/eraleh/all.

html(accessed July 7, 2015).

USDA Forest Service. 1993. Poa pratensis. 

Fire Effects Information System. Available 

at http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

pla nt s /g ra m i n o id /p o apra /al l . ht m l 

(accessed July 7, 2015).

USDA Forest Service. 2001. Acroptilon repens. 

Fire Effects Information System. Available 

at http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

plants/forb/acrrep/all.html (accessed July 

7, 2015).

USDA Forest Service. 2002a. Carduus nutans. 

Fire Effects Information System. Available 

at http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

plants/forb/carnut/all.html (accessed July 

7, 2015).

USDA Forest Service. 2002b. Cirsium vulgare. 

Fire Effects Information System. Available 

at http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

plants/forb/cirvul/all.html (accessed July 

7, 2015).

USDA Forest Service. 2004. Convolvulus 

arvensis. Fire Effects Information System. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

plants/vine/conarv/all.html (accessed 

July 7, 2015).

USDA Forest Service. 2008. Verbascum 

thapsus. Fire Effects Information System. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

plants/forb/vertha/all.html (accessed July 

7, 2015).

USDA Forest Service. 2009. Eragrostis curvula 

Fire Effects Information System. http://

www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

graminoid/eracur/all.html (accessed July 

7, 2015).

USDA-NRCS. 2015a. PLANTS database 

Available at http://plants.usda.gov/java/ 

(accessed June 25, 2015).

USDA-NRCS. 2015b. New Mexico state 

listed noxious weeds. Available at http://

plants.usda.gov/java/noxious?rptType=St

ate&statefips=35 (accessed July 25, 2015).

United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. 

Invasive species. Available at http://www.

fws.gov/invasives/faq.html#q5 (accessed 

November 6, 2013).

Whisenant, S. 1990. Changing fire frequencies 

on Idaho’s Snake River plains: ecological 

and management implications. From 

Proceedings from the Symposium on 

Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Dieoff and 

Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and 

Management. US Forest Service Gen.:. 

Tech. Rep. INT -276. 4–10.

225

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Cave Ecology and Species

4.13. Cave Ecology and Species

4.13.1. Background and Importance

Cave ecosystems and dependent species are 

important parts of the distinct biogeography 

at El Malpais NM. El Malpais is one of more 

than 125 NPS units that contain cave or karst 

resources. Caves in NPS units such as Carlsbad 

Caverns, Mammoth Cave, Great Basin, Lava 

Beds and Chickamauga and Chattanooga are 

known to have important cave ecosystems 

and species where all or some aspects of the 

cave’s biota and ecology are being monitored 

(Baker et al. 2015).

A cave ecosystem is defined by the NPS 

Cave Ecology Inventory and Monitoring 

Framework “as the community of living 

organisms in conjunction with the nonliving 

components of their environment that 

include both organisms that live entirely in 

the cave (e.g., cave obligate invertebrates) as 

well as those that may only come in contact 

with the cave periodically (e.g., bats) or in a 

small way (e.g., tree roots)” (Baker et al. 2015). 

Caves provide habitat for many species that 

are wholly or partially dependent on them, 

and provide unique environments for some 

plants and animals at cave entrances (Baker 

et al. 2015). Caves, especially the shallow lava 

tubes at El Malpais that may have multiple 

entrances, have great connectivity with the 

surrounding landscape, with some species 

being cave-obligate (troglobites), and other 

species using caves for all of their life cycle 

(troglophiles), or using caves for shelters but 

foraging on the surface (trogloxenes) (Baker 

et al. 2015). Additionally, species that use cave 

entrances and twilight zones (eisodophiles 

and eisodoxenes) or hunt deep within caves 

or in cave entrances but live on the surface 

(xenosylles) are important parts of both cave 

and surface ecosystems. Species that are 

found in caves but cannot survive in the cave 

environment are known as accidentals.

4.13.1-1.Cave 

entrance flora 

includes moss 

gardens at cave 

entrances and 

under skylights. 

These areas contain 

distinct vegetation 

assemblages and 

also are extremely 

important for 

invertebrates 

(Wynne 2013).

NPS

Indicator/Measure

• Cave-dependent Species (2 measures)

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Unknown- Unknown - Unknown
226

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

The ecology of lava tube caves is substantially 

different than karst caves for a variety of 

reasons, including the shallow nature of most 

lava tubes with great nutrient input from the 

surface, more interaction between surface 

and subsurface species and the presence of 

root systems in some caves (Baker et al. 2015).

Species found in El Malpais caves, including 

at cave entrances and skylights, include 

microbes, invertebrates, vertebrates and 

plants (Northup and Welbourn 1997, and 

Wynne 2013). 

Vertebrates

Bats are the most common species of 

vertebrates present in El Malpais caves and will 

be assessed in Section 4.15. Only extremely 

limited information about the occurrence of 

other vertebrate species is available. Northup 

and Welbourn (1997) documented only one 

accidental vertebrate species. 

Wynne (2013) searched for the presence 

of vertebrates via direct observation, and 

the presence of signs such as scat, feathers 

and skeletal remains. Small carnivore scat, 

either ringtail (Bassariscus astutus), skunk 

(Conepatus sp.) or raccoon (Procyon lotor), 

was observed in two caves. Signs of recent 

packrat (Neotoma spp.) activity was present in 

two caves, and the carcass of a gopher snake 

(Pituophis catenifer) was found in the twilight 

zone of one cave. And a barn owl (Tyto alba) 

was observed roosting near a cave entrance.

Bones of other vertebrates have also been 

observed in El Malpais lava tubes, but 

it is unknown whether these bones are 

fossiliferous or modern given the preservation 

capabilities of caves (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). A ringtail skeleton 

observed Wynne (2013) may be between 

1,000 and 10,000 years old.

Microbes

Microbial mats, some of which are informally 

known as “lava wall slime,” are present 

in some El Malpais caves (Northup and 

Welbourn 1997, Snider 1999, Northup et al. 

2004, Moya et al. 2009, Northup et al. 2011, 

Northrup 2011, and Northup and Lavoie 

2015). The white, tan to gold microbial mats 

have been documented in five El Malpais 

caves (012, 147, 148, 261 and 315), including 

two caves with visible microbial communities 

associated with root curtains (148 and 261) 

(Northup 2011). While the park doesn’t have 

an exact count on the number of caves, they 

have documented the presence of microbial 

colonies in many more caves than what has 

been systematically inventoried (E. Weaver, 

personal communication, 2016).

The microbial mats include bacterial and 

algal mats (Northup et al. 2004). Bacterial 

mats in Cave 012 did not have associated 

invertebrates, but invertebrates were found 

on algal mats (Northup et al. 2004).

Root curtains provide carbon and nitrogen 

in the cave environment and root zones 

contained a higher level of diversity at the 

phlyum level for microbial species than other 

parts of the caves (Snider 1999).

Microbial mats that have different colors 

have different species composition (Moya et 

al. 2009 and Northup 2001), and each cave 

has a distinct community of microorganisms 

(Northup 2011). Additionally, microbial 

mats in El Malpais contain novel species and 

possible novel high taxonomic units (Northup 

et al. 2011). 

A comparison of microbial mats in Cave 012, 

which was open to recreational caving until 

2010 and four caves (147, 148, 261 and 315) 

that have never been open to recreational use 

suggested that human use does not impact the 

microbial mats (Northup 2011).

4.13.2. Data and Methods

Limited inventory information related to cave 

ecology and species is available. Currently, no 

systematic program to monitor cave ecology 

and species at El Malpais NM is in place, 

but NPS staff will be implementing a cave 

management program (Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). 

A study of six lava tube caves between 1993 

and 1995 provided baseline information on 

cave fauna (Table 4.13.2-1) (Northup and 

Welbourn 1997). 
227

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Cave Ecology and Species

In 2007 and 2008, research teams visited 10 

El Malpais caves to inventory arthropods 

and look for vertebrate signs (Table 4.13.2-1)

(Wynne 2013).

Additional information about cave ecology 

and species, including cave entrance floras, 

is available in Lindsey (1951), Lightfoot et al. 

(1994), and Bleakly (1997).

Indicator

Cave-Dependent Species (2 Measures)

We used one indicator, cave-dependent 

species, with two measures (invertebrates and 

cave entrance floras), for assessing current 

condition of the park’s cave ecology and 

species. 

Measure

Invertebrates

Visual inspections, pitfall trapping and 

extraction from substrates were used to 

conduct baseline inventory invertebrates 

in six El Malpais caves (Northup and 

Welbourn 1997). Sixty-one invertebrate 

species were found, including 5 troglobites, 

10 troglophiles, 2 trogloxenes, 2 guanophiles 

and 41 accidentals (Table 4.13.2-1) (Northup 

and Welbourn 1997).

Wynne (2003) used three techniques to 

inventory arthropods in 11 caves (including 

10 in El Malpais NM and one on adjacent 

BLM land): opportunistic collecting, 

baited pitfall trapping, and timed searches. 

Fifty-nine arthropod morphospecies were 

identified (Table 4.13.2-1), including at least 

13 orders and two classes (Wynne 2013). 

The classification of these morphospecies 

included one troglobite, two questionable 

troglobites, five troglophiles, 18 questionable 

troglophiles, 7 trogloxenes, one questionable 

Figure 4.13.2-1. Functional groups for cave-dependent species found during inventory efforts in 

10 El Malpais NM caves and one BLM cave in 2007-2008 (Wynne 2013). 

WYNNE (2013)

Table 4.13.2-1. Arthropod morphospecies and other 

(non-bat) vertebrate observations by Wynne (2013).

Cave #

No. of arthropod 

species (Northup 

and Wellbourn 

1997)

No. of arthropod 

morphospecies

(Wynne 2013)

No. of other 

vertebrates

(Wynne 2013)

008 35 15 —

012 33 16 —

029 24 — —

054 13 2 1

061 26 1 2

062 8 13 1

110 n/a 4 —

262 n/a 11 1

303 n/a 15 —

315 n/a 22 —
228

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

trogloxene, 21 eisodophile, one parasite, one 

accidential and two unknown morphospecies 

(Figure 4.14.2-1) (Wynne 2013). Additionally, 

at least 7 new species were discovered, a 

new species documented by Northup and 

Welbourn (1997) was confirmed, and range 

expansions for two species of parasitic wasps 

were documented (Wynne 2013). Wynne 

(2013) was only able to resample one of the 

5 troglobites documented by Northup and 

Welbourn (1997).

Two microhabitats were especially important 

to arthropods in El Malpais caves: root 

curtains exposed in the ceilings of some caves 

and cave entrance floras consisting of “moss 

gardens” (Northup and Welbourn 1997 and 

Wynne 2013). The microbial mats present on 

the floors and walls of some caves is another 

specialized habitat for cave arthropods 

(Northup and Welbourn 1997).

Measure

Cave Entrance Floras

Very limited information on cave entrance 

flora at El Malpais NM exists. These cool mesic 

environments have unique plant assemblages 

including ferns, mosses, lichens and mesic 

vascular plants (Muldavin et al. 2013). Cave 

entrance floras at El Malpais typically consist 

of “moss gardens” and cryptogams that occur 

in entrances and under skylights in a number 

of caves in the monument. Lindsey (1951) 

collected 28 species of moss from the El 

Malpais lava flows, mostly from the entrances 

of ice caves or from crevices in the lava flow 

surfaces, including an arctic-alpine moss 

Homomallium incurvatum that is not included 

in the species occurrences for North America 

in the Natural Resources Conservation 

Service Plants Database (USDA NRCS 2015). 

Lightfoot et al. (1994) documented 16 species 

of moss in the national monument. Lindsay 

(1951), Lightfoot et al. (1994) and Bleakly 

(1997) noted a distinct zonation in cryptogam 

species at ice cave entrances and identified 

them as one of the most unusual and 

important biological features of El Malpais. 

Both Northup and Welbourn (1997) and 

(Wynne 2013) indicated that arthropod 

diversity is great in moss gardens at cave 

entrances and that cave entrance floras 

provide important and sensitive microhabitats 

for arthropods. Approximately 25% of 

the arthropods detected by Northup and 

Welbourn (1997) were from moss gardens. 

The El Malpais Vegetation Classification and 

Map likely undersampled some microclimates 

such as those that occur at cave entrances 

(Muldavin et al. 2013).

As El Malpais staff map caves, they are 

documenting the presence/absence of moss 

gardens at cave entrances (Eric Weaver, 

personal communication, 2015). Caves with 

seasonal or perennial ice are more likely 

to have moss gardens at entrances and/or 

skylights. The moss gardens in Cave 012 have 

been roped off and monument staff are in the 

process of installing protective ropes around 

the moss gardens in Cave 008 (Eric Weaver, 

personal communication, 2015).

4.13.3. Reference Conditions

Reference conditions for cave-dependent 

species are in Table 4.13.3-1. The reference 

conditions for good condition for 

invertebrates and cave entrance flora are the 

presence and persistence of native species.

4.13.4. Condition and Trend 

The condition of cave-dependent species 

in El Malpais is unknown. Inventories of 

arthropods have only occurred in 10 caves 

(Northup and Welbourn 1997 and Wynne 

Table 4.13.3-1. Reference conditions used to assess the current condition of cave ecology and species for each 

indicator.

Indicator Measure Good Moderate Concern Significant Concern

Cave-dependent Species

Invertebrates Presence and persistence of 

native species 

Some loss of species and 

threats to populations

Increasing loss of species 

and threats to populations

Cave Entrance Floras Presence and persistence of 

native species 

Some loss of species and 

threats to populations

Increasing loss of species 

and threats to populations
229

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Cave Ecology and Species

2013), a small proportion of the 441 caves 

documented in El Malpais NM. Further, many 

cave species are cryptic because they have small 

populations, restricted range and low rates of 

reproduction making them difficult to detect 

(Baker et al. 2015), and difficult to determine 

their presence and persistence. Multiple site 

visits are often required to compile a baseline 

overview of species composition (Wynne 

2013). Further, caves may contain endemic 

species that occur in only a single cave such as 

the troglomorphic bristletail (order Diplura: 

family Campodeidae) found near the terminus 

of Cave 054 (Wynne 2013). Additional 

inventory work in El Malpais caves, especially 

in important microclimates such as deep 

zones, root curtains, microbial mats and in 

cave entrance floras, is needed (Wynne 2013). 

Pools of water and/or ice bodies in caves may 

also provide unique and important habitats 

for invertebrates (Northup and Welbourn 

1997, Wynne 2013 and Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). The invertebrates in 

El Malpais caves are not being monitored.

Given the range of microclimates present 

in El Malpais caves with a great range of 

temperature and humidity conditions, there 

is a high potential for additional endemic 

invertebrate species to be found in monument 

caves (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 

2015). Cave environments, especially those 

of lava tubes, are also highly fragmented and 

separated from one another, further giving the 

possibility for endemism (Baker et al. 2015).

The terminus of Cave 054 has been closed 

to recreational caving to protect the 

troglomorphic bristletail that lives there 

(Wynne 2013)

The plant species compositions of cave 

entrance floras are largely unknown. These 

areas may contain plants found nowhere else 

in the national monument, and given that the 

El Malpais ice caves are the southernmost 

ice caves in North America, the entrance 

floras of these caves may contain plants that 

require a cooler and more mesic environment 

than typically found in New Mexico. Moss 

gardens found underneath skylights and 

in cave entrances also are one of the riches 

habitats for cave invertebrates (Northup and 

Welbourn 1997 and Wynne 2013). 

Cave entrance floras are fragile and are 

susceptible to impacts from trampling. Moss 

gardens in two caves (008 and 012) either 

are or will be roped to protect them (Eric 

Weaver, personal communication, 2015). The 

establishment of marked trails, such as the one 

in Xenolith Cave, may reduce visitor impacts 

to invertebrates and cave entrance flora. The 

condition of cave entrance flora in El Malpais 

caves is not being monitored.

Cave Ecology and Species

Indicators Measures

Cave-dependent 

species 2 measures

Overall Condition

The overall condition of cave ecology and 

species in El Malpais NM is unknown. 

Only a small portion of the total number 

of species that live in or utilize El Malpais 

caves most likely have been documented, 

and the park recently submitted a proposal 

for 2018 funding to map of the moss gardens 

and inventory the invertebrates contained in 

them. They will begin the process of mapping 

Table 4.13.4-1. Indicators, measures, and their contributions to the overall cave ecology and species condition 

rationale.

Indicator of Condition Measure Condition Rationale for Condition.

Cave-dependent 

Species

Invertebrates Unknown The condition of invertebrates in El Malpais caves is unknown because 

limited inventory information for arthropods only exists for 10 El Malpais 

caves. Invertebrates in El Malpais caves are not being monitored.

Cave Entrance Floras Unknown The condition of cave entrance flora in El Malpais caves is unknown. A 

full inventory of cave entrance flora has not been completed, and species 

composition of the flora is also unknown. Cave entrance flora in El Malpais 

caves are not being monitored.
230

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

the moss gardens beforehand, which will be 

a significant focus in 2016 (E. Weaver, pers. 

comm. 2016).

Cave biodiversity is generally low compared 

to other environments because of fewer food 

resources, less habitat diversity and decreased 

ecotones (Baker et al. 2015). However, caves 

provide distinct ecological resources for 

species that are partially or wholly dependent 

on caves for their survival. El Malpais caves 

contain known endemic species and most 

likely contain others that have yet to be 

documented.

4.13.5. Sources of Expertise

Allyson Mathis, a science writer for Utah State 

University, authored this section. Eric Weaver 

is the Cave Management Specialist and acting 

Chief of Natural Resources at El Malpais NM 

and provided much information about the 

cave resource management program.

4.13.6. Literature Cited

Baker, G. M., S. J. Taylor, S. Thomas, K. 

Lavoie, R. Olson, H. Barton, M. Denn, 

S. C. Thomas, R. Ohms. K. L. Helf, J. 

Despain, J. Kennedy, and D. Larson. 2015. 

Cave ecology inventory and monitoring 

framework. Natural Resource Report 

NPS/NRPC/NRR—2015/XXX. National 

Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Available at https://www.nature.nps.gov/

geology/caves/publications/Final_Cave_

Ecology_Inventory_and_Monitoring_

Framework_nrssaim2015.pdf (accessed 

December 1, 2015).

Bleakly, David L. 1997. Plantlife on the lava—

the vegetation and flora of El Malpais. 

Pages 113–138 in K. Mabery, editor. 

Natural history of El Malpais National 

Monument. Bulletin 156. New Mexico 

Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, 

Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Lightfoot, David C., David L. Bleakly, Robert 

R. Parmenter and James R. Gosz. 1994. 

Vegetation and Wildlife Inventory of 

El Malpais National Monument. Final 

Report.

Lindsey, Alton A. 1951. Vegetation and 

Habitats in a Southwestern Volcanic 

Area. Ecological Monographs: 21, 227-

253. Available at http://www.jstor.org/

stable/1943559 (accessed October 22, 

2015).

Moya M., M.G. Garcia, M.N. Spilde, and D.E. 

Northup. 2009. Composition of Bacterial 

mats in El Malpias, National Monument, 

New Mexico, USA: Comparison and 

contrasts with bacterial communities in 

Hawai’i lava tubes. Proc Int Congr Speleol 

2:709–713. Available at http://www.

caveslime.org/pubs/Moya09ELMAICS.

pdf (accessed December 8, 2015).

Muldavin, E., Y. Chauvin, T. Neville, P. 

Neville, A. Kennedy, H. Hulse, P. Arbetan, 

K. Schultz, M. Hall, and M. Reid. 2013. 

Vegetation Classification and Map: El 

Malpais National Monument. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/SPCN/

NRTR–2013/803. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado. Available at 

https://irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/

Profile/2203664 (accessed June 29, 2015).

Northup, Diana E. 2011. Characterizing Under 

Surveyed Microbial Mat Communities in 

the Lava Caves of El Malpais National 

Monument. Final Report to the Western 

National Park Association.

Northup, Diana E., Cynthia A. Connolly, 

Amanda Trent, Vickie M. Peck, Michael 

N. Spilde, W. Calvin Welbourn, and 

Donal O. Natvig. 2004. The Nature of 

Bacterial Communities in Four Windows 

Cave, El Malpais National Monument, 

New Mexico, USA. AMCS Bulletin 19. 

Pages 119-125. Available at http://www.

vulcanospeleology.org/sym11/ISV11p6.

pdf (accessed December 8, 2015).

Northup, Diana E. and Kathleen H. Lavoie. 

2015. Microbial Diversity and Ecology 

of Lava Caves. Pages 161-192 in Annette 

Summers Engel, editor. Microbial 

Life of Cave Systems (Life in Extreme 

Environments). Walter de Gruyter GmbH 

& Co, Berlin, Germany.
231

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Cave Ecology and Species

Northup, D.E., L.A. Melim, M.N. Spilde, 

J.J.M. Hathaway, M.G. Garcia, M. 

Moya, F.D. Stone, P.J. Boston, M.L.N.E. 

Dapkevicius, and C. Riquelme. 2011. Lava 

Cave Microbial Communities Within 

Mats and Secondary Mineral Deposits: 

Implications for Life Detection on Other 

Planets. Astrobiology. V. 11, p. 601-618. 

Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

gov/pmc/articles/PMC3176350/pdf/

ast.2010.0562.pdf (accessed December 8, 

2015).

Northup, Diana E. and W. Calvin Welbourn. 

1997. Life in the Twilight Zone—Lavatube Ecology. Pages 69-81 in K. Mabery, 

editor. Natural history of El Malpais 

National Monument. Bulletin 156. New 

Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral 

Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Quigg, J. M., M. T. Boulanger, and M. 

D. Glascock. 2009. Geochemical 

characterization of Tecovas and Alibates 

source samples. Presented Paper. 

67th Annual Plains Anthropological 

Conference, October 14–17, 2009, 

Norman, Oklahoma, USA, as cited in 

KellerLynn 2011.

Santucci, V. L., A. P. Hunt, and L. Norby. 2001. 

Oil and gas management planning and the 

protection of paleontological resources: 

a model application at Lake Meredith 

National Recreation Area and Alibates 

Flint Quarries National Monument. 

Park Science 21(1):36-38. Also available 

online at: http://www.nature.nps.gov/

ParkScience/archive/PDF/Article_PDFs/

ParkScience21(1)FallWinter2001_36-38_

Santucci_et_al_2358.pdf (Accessed May 

13, 2014).

Snider, Jessica. 1999. Comparison of 

Microbial Communities on Roots, 

Ceilings and Floors of Two Lava Tube 

Caves in New Mexico. University of 

New Mexico MS Thesis. Available 

at https://repository.unm.edu/

bitstream/handle/1928/11135/J%20

R%20Snider%20thesis%20final.

pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed 

December 8, 2015).

USDA Natural Resources Conservation 

Service. 2015. Homomallium incurvatum. 

Plants Database. Available at http://plants.

usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=HOIN5 

(accessed December 16, 2015).

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2014. Texas 

Earthquake Information. Available at: 

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/

states/?region=Texas (Accessed May 13, 

2014).

Wynne, J. J. 2013. Inventory, conservation, 

and management of lava tube caves at 

El Malpais National Monument, New 

Mexico. Park Science 30(1):45-55. 

Available at http://www.nature.nps.gov/

parkscience/Archive/PDF/Article_PDFs/

ParkScience30(1)Summer2013_45-55_

Wynne_3651.pdf (accessed November 

18, 2015)./books?id=Tm1Y6rHY5HMC

&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f

=false (Accessed May 13, 2014)

233

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Mammals

4.14. Mammals

4.14.1. Background and Importance

World-wide, the class of animals known as 

mammals is extremely diverse. Different 

mammal species are able to swim, fly, climb, 

burrow in the ground, live in trees, hop and 

run. Mammals also vary tremendously in size, 

from large members of the class, such as bear 

and elk, to small members, such as shrews 

and some bats. Approximately 151 mammal 

species live in the state of New Mexico (Frey 

and Yates 1996), and 78 mammal species 

(including subspecies) are known to live in 

Cibola County (extant species; New Mexico 

Department of Game and Fish [NMDGF] 

2015a; Figure 4.14.1-1).

Only a few studies of mammals in or in the 

immediate vicinity of El Malpais NM have 

been conducted. Additional studies have 

been conducted specifically on bats, but bats 

and their study are the focus of Section 4.15 

(although we present some of the results here, 

as appropriate). The most recently conducted 

survey of mammals in the national monument 

was that by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS), “Mammal Inventories for Eight 

National Parks in the Southern Colorado 

Plateau Network,” in 2003 and 2004 (Bogan 

et al. 2007). 

Bogan et al. (2007) had a goal of documenting 

as many species as possible, and they focused 

on groups of mammals having the most 

species, such as rodents and carnivores. 

They also incorporated information from the 

mammal inventories that preceeded theirs. 

The two previous studies were Hooper 

(1941) and Lightfoot et al. (1994). Hooper 

(1941) looked at mammals on the lava fields 

and adjacent lands of the area (including 

lands outside of the present day national 

monument). No comprehensive mammal 

inventories or monitoring at the park have 

been conducted since the 2003-2004 Bogan 

Indicators/Measures

• Species Occurrence (1 measure)

Figure 4.14.1-1. The 

American black bear 

is one of the large 

mammals known 

to occur in Cibola 

County and at El 

Malpais NM. 

NPS/MURPHY 

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Insufficient Data - Insufficient Data -

Medium
234

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

et al. (2007) work. Unfortunately, current 

condition and trends cannot be determined 

due to the lack of current data.

Note that this assessment focuses on 

mammals as a group, but only on species 

occurrence. Bats are included in this section 

so that we address all mammals in the park as 

a whole. However, the next major section of 

the assessment focuses on bats alone. This is 

because bats are of particular interest to the 

park, and recent information exists on them 

from research and monitoring related to 

White-nose syndrome. 

4.14.2. Data and Methods

This limited assessment is based on the 2003-

2004 USGS mammal inventory at the national 

monument (Bogan et al. 2007), as well as the 

supplemental sources described below. We 

also reviewed the NPSpecies list of mammals 

for the park (NPS 2014).

We used one indicator/measure of condition-- 

species occurrence: presence/absence. 

Indicators/Measures

Species Occurrence: Presence/Absence

Species Occurrence: Presence/Absence

Because there is no recent information to 

assess current condition of mammals at El 

Malpais NM, we used the 2003-2004 surveys 

to assess the occurrence of native and nonnative mammal species at the park. We also 

used a report on bat sampling to supplement 

information on the occurrence of bat species, 

and we included the results of the work of 

Lightfoot et al. (1994) in the early 1990s. We 

also reviewed the NPSpecies list of mammals 

for the park (NPS 2014). As discussed above, 

see Section 4.15 of the condition assessment 

for a separate (and more detailed) assessment 

of bats, specifically, at the national monument. 

The Occurrence of Species of Conservation

Concern

We also used the surveys of Bogan et al. (2007) 

to generate a list of species of conservation 

concern (note that we use this term in a general 

sense). The list was complied by comparing 

the list of species observed during 2003-2004 

surveys (and the other surveys) at the national 

monument to a federal/state list of endangered 

and threatened species (described below) and 

those of Greatest Conservation Need in New 

Mexico (described below). We also reviewed 

the NPSpecies list for the park (NPS 2014) to 

see whether any additional species should be 

included.

Primary Data Sources

Bogan et al. (2007)

In the eight parks that Bogan et al. (2007) 

surveyed, their main objective was to 

document the occurrence of at least 90% of 

the mammal species expected to occur at each 

park using their field inventory and a review 

of existing records. Additional objectives 

included providing baseline information 

for future monitoring, and describing the 

distribution and abundance of species of 

management interest (e.g., endangered 

species, exotic species). In order to observe 

as many species as possible, a variety of 

sampling methods were used: trapping, mistnetting, scat and track surveys, spotlighting, 

and opportunistic observations. Details of 

each method are contained in Bogan et al. 

(2007). The researchers spent 69 persondays on the work in 2003 and 2004 for a total 

of 3,010 trap-nights, 9 net-nights, 6 hours of 

spotlighting, and 67 miles (108 km) of walking 

to observe carnivores and diurnal mammals. 

As discussed below in section 4.14.4, they 

recorded more than 40 species of mammals 

at the park during surveys. Note that in 

reviewing records for each species observed 

by the various studies, Bogan et al. (2007) 

provided a few changes/clarifications, which 

we followed and presented in our table in 

section 4.14.4. 

Secondary Data Sources

Lightfoot et al. (1994)

Lightfoot et al. (1994) conducted surveys for 

mammals at the national monument as part 

of a larger vegetation and wildlife inventory. 

Not many details are presented in the report 

regarding survey methods for mammals. 

However, this group of animals was recorded 

during study site visits (in general, multiple 

visits to 101 study sites), using Sherman 

live traps (for small mammals), using mist 
235

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Mammals

nets for bats, and while driving at the park, 

particularly along state highways 117 and 53 

and county road 42. Lightfoot et al. (1994) 

also included additional information on the 

earlier study by Hooper (1941). Of the 162 

species of vertebrates observed, Lightfoot et 

al. (1994) reported 36 mammal species.

Valdez et al. (2002) 

Valdez et al. (2002) conducted a study on bats 

in 1999 and 2000 in the national monument 

and adjacent lands. They surveyed bats using 

mist nets and echolocation detectors, and in 

addition to documenting the occurrence and 

distribution of bats at the monument, they 

collected information on relative abundance, 

reproduction, and seasonal activity. Their 

specific results are discussed in more detail 

in section 4.14.4 and in section 4.15 on 

bats, but they recorded at least 14 species 

during their work, with the dominant ones 

including Western small-footed myotis 

(Myotis ciliolabrum), long-eared myotis (M. 

evotis), long-legged myotis (M. volans), and 

big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus).

NPSpecies List for the National Monument

The NPSpecies list for the park was used 

to see whether additional species have 

been documented in the park that were not 

recorded by Bogan et al. (2007), Lightfoot et 

al. (1994), or Valdez et al. (2002). We also used 

the list as supporting information for the lists 

shown in the subsequent tables.

Protected/Rare Species Lists

In New Mexico, wildlife species are 

designated as threatened and endangered 

under the New Mexico Wildlife Conservation 

Act (NMDGF 2015b). For each endangered 

or threatened species, the NMDGF develops 

a recovery plan. A database of all vertebrate 

species in New Mexico, including threatened 

and endangered species, is maintained and 

can be searched online (NMDGF 2015a). 

The database is called the Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M). Under 

the Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service (USFWS) lists species 

as threatened, endangered, or candidates for 

listing. Lists of federal and state-listed species 

(i.e., USFWS 2015a and NMDGF 2015a) were 

obtained and compared to the list of mammal 

species recorded at the national monument.

Under the Comprehensive Wildlife 

Conservation Strategy (CWCS) for New 

Mexico, Species of Greatest Conservation 

Need (SGCN) have been designated in the 

state (NMDGF 2006). Of the 452 vertebrate, 

mollusc, and arthropod SGCN statewide, 42 

are mammals. There are lists of SGCN for the 

entire state, as well as those for each of the 

individual ecoregions in New Mexico. The 

ecoregion in which El Malpais NM occurs 

is the Arizona-New Mexico Mountains. The 

BISON-M database maintains information on 

which species are SGCN, and it provides lists 

of species so designated for Cibola County 

(and other counties; NMDGF 2015a).

4.14.3. Reference Conditions

No reference conditions were developed for 

this resource topic. This is because no two 

similar studies or surveys to compare species 

occurrence exists (e.g., to examine changes 

in species occurrence over time). However, 

the information presented from the surveys/

inventories that do exist provides a good 

baseline for future monitoring and assessment 

for mammal species occurrence at the national 

monument. In other words, if standardized 

surveys of mammals are conducted in the 

future, the new survey results could be 

compared to the survey/inventory results 

from the early 2000s. The survey results from 

the early 2000s could become the reference 

conditions for the future assessments. 

Figure 4.14.4-1. Elk 

at El Malpais NM. 

NPS 
236

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 4.14.4-1. Mammal species recorded in El Malpais NM during surveys by Bogan et al. (2007; in 2003-

2004), as well as by Valdez et al. (2002; in 1999-2000) and Lightfoot et al. (1994; early 1990s). Notes/entries 

with a letter are explained in the Comments column, and notes with a number are found below the table.

Common Name Scientific Name Bogan et 

al. (2007)

Valdez et 

al. (2002) 1

Lightfoot et 

al. (1994) Comments

Abert's squirrel Sciurus aberti a X a On Bogan et al. (2007) list, but 

observed by NPS

American badger Taxidea taxus Probably present per Bogan et al.; 

Recorded on park trail cameras at 

least twice in 2014-2015 (E. Weaver, 

ELMA)

American black bear Ursus americanus X X

Banner-tailed kangaroo rat Dipodomys spectabilis X X

Big brown bat Eptesicus fuscus X X X

Big free-tailed bat Nyctinomops macrotis X

Black-tailed jackrabbit Lepus californicus X X

Bobcat Lynx rufus X

Botta's pocket gopher Thomomys bottae X X

Brazilian free-tailed bat Tadarida brasiliensis X X X

Brush mouse Peromyscus boylii X X

California myotis Myotis californicus X X X

Canyon bat 3 Parastrellus hesperus 3 X

Cave myotis Myotis velifer b b

 NPS (2014) considers this a mistake 

(i.e., a “false report”)

Cliff chipmunk Neotamias dorsalis X X

Collared peccary (javelina) Pecari tajacu c c On Bogan et al. (2007) list; based 

on voucher from Albert et al. (2004); 

Recorded on park trail cameras in 

2011 (E. Weaver, ELMA)

Colorado chipmunk Neotamias quadrivittatus X X

Coyote Canis latrans X X

Crawford's desert shrew Notiosorex crawfordi Probably present per Bogan et al. 

Deer mouse Peromyscus maniculatus X X

Desert Cottontail Sylvilagus audubonii X X

Dwarf shrew Sorex nanus X NPS (2014) considers this a mistake 

(i.e., a “false report”)

Elk Cervus elaphus X

Fringed myotis Myotis thysanodes X X X

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus X X

Gunnison's prairie dog Cynomys gunnisoni X X

Hoary bat Lasiurus cinereus X X

Hog-nosed skunk (whitebacked) Conepatus leuconotus d d

 Species listed as present by Bogan et 

al., but not observed by them

House mouse Mus musculus Probably present per Bogan et al. 

Kit fox Vulpes macrotis X

Long-eared myotis Myotis evotis X X X

Long-legged myotis Myotis volans X X

Long-tailed weasel Mustela frenata X
237

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Mammals

Common Name Scientific Name Bogan et 

al. (2007)

Valdez et 

al. (2002) 1

Lightfoot et 

al. (1994) Comments

Mexican gray wolf 2 Canis lupus baileyi Documented by NPS and USFWS 

Mexican woodrat Neotoma mexicana X X

Mogollon vole Microtus mogollonensis X

Mountain lion Puma concolor X X

Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus X X

North American (common) 

porcupine

Erethizon dorsatum X X

Northern grasshopper mouse Onychomys leucogaster X

Northern raccoon Procyon lotor Probably present per Bogan et al. 

Northern rock mouse Peromyscus nasutus X e e

 Lightfoot et al. recorded So. rock 

mouse, but it only occurs in Mexico

Ord's kangaroo rat Dipodomys ordii X f X f Bogan et al. reviewed voucher 

specimen, but also appears to have 

observed species per their Table 12 

Pallid bat Antrozous pallidus X X

Pinyon mouse Peromyscus truei X X

Plains pocket mouse Perognathus flavescens X

Pronghorn Antilocapra americana X X

Red fox Vulpes vulpes X g g Bogan et al. (2007) observed tracks

Ringtail Bassariscus astutus X

Rock squirrel Spermophilus variegatus X X

Silky pocket mouse Perognathus flavus X X

Silver-haired bat Lasionycteris noctivagans X X X

Spotted bat Euderma maculatum X X

Spotted ground squirrel Spermophilus spilosoma X h h

 observed just off park

Stephens's woodrat Neotoma stephensi Probably present per Bogan et al.

Striped skunk Mephitis mephitis i i Bogan et al. listed as present, but 

not observed by them

Tawny-bellied cotton rat Sigmodon fulviventer X

Townsend's big-eared bat Corynorhinus townsendii X X X

Western harvest mouse Reithrodontomys 

megalotis

X X

Western small-footed myotis Myotis ciliolabrum X X X j j Lightfoot et al. recorded as M. 

subulatus

Western spotted skunk Spilogale gracilis Probably present per Bogan et al. 

Western white-throated 

woodrat

Neotoma albigula X X

White-footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus j j

 Bogan et al. (2007) considered this 

species observation as “unconfirmed”

White-nosed coati (or 

coatimundi)

Nasua narica Reported by NPS employee in 1995 

(King 1995)

1 Valdez et al (2002) reported two additional bat species; Bogan et al. (2007) considered one of them as a misidentified species that is already in the table; 

the other species (Yuma myotis [Myotis yumanensis] is unconfirmed because it was observed only by ultrasonic recordings and may have been confused with 

another species (Bogan et al. 2007).

2

 Gray wolf was noted as extirpated by Bogan et al. 2007. However, as discussed in the text, Mexican gray wolves were documented in the park in 2014.

3 Previously known as Western pipistrelle (Pipistrellus hesperus).

Table 4.14.4-1. Mammal species recorded in El Malpais NM during surveys by Bogan et al. (2007; in 2003-2004), as well as

by Valdez et al. (2002; in 1999-2000) and Lightfoot et al. (1994; early 1990s). Notes/entries with a letter are explained in the 

Comments column, and notes with a number are found below the table (continued).
238

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

4.14.4. Condition and Trend

More than 50 species of mammals have been 

recorded at El Malpais NM during surveys 

by Bogan et al. (2007), Valdez et al. (2002), 

and Lightfoot et al. (1994). Several additional 

species were noted as “probably present” by 

Bogan et al. (2007) and are discussed in this 

section. 

Species Occurrence: Presence/Absence

Of the more than 50 mammal species, 46 

species were recorded during the 2003-2004 

surveys by Bogan et al. (2007; Table 4.14.4-

1; Figure 4.14.4-1). [Note that these authors 

stated they observed 45, but one additional 

species was included in a table showing 

the number of individuals observed during 

surveys]. They recorded 21 rodent species, 

12 bat species, eight carnivore species, three 

ungulate species, and two lagomorh species. 

Thirty of these 46 species were also recorded 

by Lightfoot et al. (1994) in the early 1990s. All 

of the twelve bat species observed by Bogan et 

al. (2007) were also observed by Valdez et al. 

(2002), but Valdez et al. (2002) observed two 

additional bat species not reported by Bogan 

et al. (2007). Also note that Valdez et al. (2002) 

recorded two additional bat species that are 

addressed in the footnote to Table 4.14.4-

1. Also, there are four species (shown in the 

table) reported only by Lightfoot et al. (1994); 

three of the species are considered either as 

“false reports” or unconfirmed by NPS (2014) 

or Bogan et al. (2007).

There are six additional species that are 

considered probably present at El Malpais 

NM (Table 4.14.4-1) per Bogan et al. (2007). 

One of these, American badger, has since 

been confirmed in the park. It was recorded at 

least two times in 2014-2015 on trail cameras 

(Eric Weaver, Acting Natural Resources 

Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, pers. comm.).

The USGS surveys in 2003-2004 are the 

most comprehensive mammal surveys at the 

national monument to date, and they provide 

a firm baseline for future monitoring. Bogan 

et al. (2007) also provided some information 

on the number of individuals of the various 

species captured or observed during their 

surveys. A few of the species observed in the 

highest numbers were: the Brazilian freetailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis, 64 counted) 

among the bats; deer mouse (Peromyscus 

maniculatus, 45) among the rodents; 

American black bear (Ursus americanus,

8) among the carnivores; and mule deer 

(Odocoileus hemionus, 16) among the hoofed 

mammals. 

Table 4.14.4-2. Species detected at El Malpais NM that are Species of Greatest 

Conservation Need (SGCN) according to the New Mexico Department of Game 

and Fish (NMDGF 2006) and/or state or federally-designated as threatened or 

endangered.

Common Name Scientific Name Federallylisted (USFWS)

State-listed 

(NMDGF)

NM SGCN

(NMDGF)

Abert’s squirrel Sciurus aberti SGCN

American black bear Ursus americanus SGCN

Gunnison’s prairie dog Cynomys gunnisoni (zuniensis) 1 SGCN

Mexican gray wolf 2 Canis lupus baileyi E E SGCN

Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus SGCN

Spotted bat Euderma maculatum T SGCN

1

 = The list of SGCN for Cibola County (from BISON-M; NMDGF 2015a) provides the subspecies shown; the list of SGCN 

in the Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (i.e., NMDGF 2006) does not designate a subspecies.

2

 = This species was not recorded by any of the surveys at the park, but wolves were observed and documented in 2014 

(David Hays, former Natural Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, pers. comm.).
239

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Mammals

In total, there are approximately 55 species 

that have been recorded in the park (or 

immediately adjacent to it, including the gray 

wolf that was considered unconfirmed and 

extirpated by Bogan et al. 2007), and five 

species that probably occur. There are several 

additional species that are unconfirmed but 

may occur. Also, a single white-nosed coati 

(or coatimundi; Nasua narica) was observed 

in the park by an NPS employee in 1995 (King 

1995). Other new species may be discovered 

in the future. For example, Bogan et al. (2007) 

suggested that the grassy parcel near Grants 

may harbour more grassland species. 

The Occurrence of Species of Conservation 

Concern

There are six species out of those documented 

at El Malpais NM that are listed as species of 

conservation concern on one or more of the 

lists described in Section 4.14.2 (Table 4.14.4-

2). One species (subspecies), the Mexican 

gray wolf (Canis lupus baileyi), is listed as 

endangered with both the USFWS and the 

State of New Mexico. Another species, the 

spotted bat (Euderma maculatum), is listed as 

threatened with the State, and four additional 

species are considered Species of Greatest 

Conservation Need (SGCN) in New Mexico.

The Mexican gray wolf is a subspecies of 

the gray wolf (Canis lupus). Gray wolves 

(including the baileyi subspecies) were placed 

on the endangered species list by the USFWS 

in the 1970s. In 2013, the USFWS proposed to 

delist the gray wolf but maintain the Mexican 

gray wolf as endangered (USFWS 2015b). 

Although the gray wolf is noted by Bogan 

et al. (2007) as unconfirmed or extirpated, a 

few individuals were documented at the park 

in early 2014 (David Hayes, former Natural 

Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, pers. 

comm.). The wolves (a pair) were captured in 

the park and transported to the Blue Range 

Wolf Recovery Area, because they were outside 

of the designated “primary recovery zones” 

and “recovery areas” for the nonessential 

experimental population (USFWS 2015c). 

Whether additional Mexican gray wolves 

will move into the park is unknown. If they 

do return, because the USFWS has recently 

revised the rules governing management 

of the experimental population within the 

Mexican Wolf Experimental Population Area 

(USFWS 2015c), they will not be removed 

again (D. Hayes, former Natural Resources 

Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, pers. comm.). 

Under the new rule, the park is within a zone 

where the wolves will be allowed to “naturally 

disperse into and occupy, and where Mexican 

wolves may be translocated” (USFWS 2015c). 

Valdez et al.’s (2002) record of the spotted bat 

in 1999-2000 was the first known occurrence 

of the species in the county. Bogan et al. 

(2007) also observed the species in 2004 by 

way of their audible, conspicuous calls. The 

echolocation sound made by the species is 

low enough to be heard by the human ear 

(Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum 2015). The 

spotted bat also stands out because of its 

coloration and markings. It has a black body 

with two large white spots on its shoulders and 

one white spot on its rump, and its underbelly 

is white. Its ears and wings are pinkish. The 

bat has a large range but is considered one of 

the rarest bats in North America (ArizonaSonora Desert Museum 2015).

Table 4.14.4-3. Indicator and measure of mammal condition.

Indicator Measure of 

Condition Condition Rationale for Condition.

Species 

Occurrence

Presence/absence Unknown There is no current information available on mammals at the 

national monument. The most recent surveys were conducted 

in 2003-2004 (i.e., Bogan et al. 2007). Although condition 

can not be determined at this time, the 2003-2004 work, as 

well as earlier surveys by Lightfoot et al. (1994) and Valdez et 

al. (2002) provides baseline information for future monitoring 

and assessment. One of the species documented at the park 

is considered federally and state endangered, and another 

species is listed as threatened with the state. Six species, 

including these two endangered/threatened species, are 

listed as New Mexico Species of Greatest Conservation Need.
240

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Overall Condition and Trend

To assess condition of mammals at El Malpais 

NM, we used one indicator/measure that 

is summarized in Table 4.14.4-3. Current 

condition can not be assessed due to the lack of 

recent data. The information presented in this 

condition assessment is from the most recent 

survey at the park, conducted in 2003-2004 by 

the USGS-University of New Mexico, as well 

as previous surveys by Lightfoot et al. (1994) 

and Valdez et al. (2002). Fifty-four mammal 

species have been recorded or are known to 

occur in the park, with an additional six that are 

probably present (Bogan et al. 2007). Trends 

in species occurrence can not be assessed 

due to the lack of available data. However, 

the 2003-2004 surveys provide good baseline 

information (or reference conditions) for 

future monitoring and condition assessment. 

Six of the species documented at the park are 

considered SGCN, including one species that 

is federally and state-listed and one species 

that is state-listed.

4.14.5. Sources of Expertise

No outside experts were consulted for this 

resource topic. This section was authored by 

biologist Patty Valentine-Darby.

4.14.6. Literature Cited

Albert, S., C.A. Ramotnik, and C.G. Schmitt. 

2004. Collared peccary range expansion 

in northwestern New Mexico. The 

Southwestern Naturalist 40:524–528, as 

cited by Bogan et al. (2007).

Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. 2015. 

Animal fact sheet: Spotted bat. Available 

at http://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/

bats/Spotted%20bat.php. Last accessed 

March 10, 2015.

Bogan, M.A., K. Geluso, S. Haymond, and 

E.W. Valdez. 2007. Mammal inventories 

for eight national parks in the Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/SCPN/

NRTR-2007/054. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado.

Frey, J.K. and T.L. Yates. 1996. Mammalian 

diversity in New Mexico. New Mexico 

Journal of Science 36:4-37. 

Hooper, E.T. 1941. Mammals of the lava 

fields and adjoining areas in Valencia 

County, New Mexico. Miscellaneous 

publications, Museum of Zoology, 

University of Michigan, No. 51. Universtiy 

of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 

King, A. 1995. White-nosed coati observation. 

Memo to NPS, El Malpais NM Central 

Files, January 26, 1995.

Lightfoot, D.C., D.L. Bleakly, R.R. Parmenter, 

and J.R. Gosz. 1994. Vegetation and 

wildlife inventory of El Malpais National 

Monument. Final Report. University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

National Park Service (NPS). 2014. NPSpecies 

List for El Malpais National Monument. 

Full list with details. Obtained November 

2014 from https://irma.nps.gov/npsecies.

New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish (NMDGF). 2006. Comprehensive 

Wildlife Conservation Strategy for New 

Mexico. New Mexico Department of 

Game and Fish. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 

526 pp + appendices. Available at http://

www.wildlife.state.nm.us/conservation/

comp_wildlife_cons_strategy/.

New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 

(NMDGF). 2015a. Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M). 

Searchable database available at http://

www.bison-m.org/databasequery.aspx. 

Last accessed March 11, 2015.

New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish (NMDGF). 2015b. Threatened 

and endangered species: Recovery 

plans, reports, reviews. Webpage 

available at http:www.wildlife.

state.nm.us/conservation/wildlifespecies-information/threatened-andendangered-species/. Last accessed 

March 3, 2015.

Mammals

Indicators Measures

Species Occurrence Presence/Absence
241

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Mammals

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWS). 2015a. 

Species listed in New Mexico based on 

published historic range and population. 

Environmental Conservation Online 

System., available at http://ecos.fws.gov/

tess_public/reports/species-listed-bystate-report?state=NM&status=listed. 

Last accessed January 30, 2015. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 

2015b. Endangered and Threatened 

Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status 

for the Mexican Wolf. Final Rule. Federal 

Register, Vol. 80, No. 1, pp. 2488-2511, 

January 16, 2015.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2015c. 

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and 

Plants; Revision to the Regulations 

for the Nonessential Experimental 

Population of the Mexican Wolf. 

Final Rule. Federal Register, Vol. 80, No. 

1, pp. 2512-2567, January 16, 2015.

Valdez, E.W., M.A. Bogan, L. Ellison, and S. 

Haymond. 2002. Bat survey of El Malpais 

National Monument and adjacent 

areas, New Mexico, 1999 and 2000. 

Unpublished report submitted by the 

U.S. Geological Survey. 

243

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Bats

4.15. Bats

4.15.1. Background and Importance

World-wide, about one-fourth of all mammal 

species are bats (Tuttle 1988). Nearly 50 

bat species inhabit the U.S. and Canada 

(USFWS 2015), and nearly 30 species occur 

in New Mexico (Valdez et al. 2002; Figure 

4.15.1). Most bats in the U.S. and Canada are 

insectivorous (Tuttle 1988). Across the globe, 

bats consume large numbers of insects (some 

of which are agricultural and/or human pests), 

and they pollinate plants and disperse seeds 

(Bat Conservation International [BCI] 2015). 

Their droppings (or guano) are also a natural 

fertilizer. Bats are sometimes considered a 

keystone species (BCI 2015, Wynne 2013). 

When large numbers of bats inhabit a cave, 

they deposit a substantial amount of organic 

material (guano) into the cave system (Wynne 

2013). In temperate areas, bats migrate or 

hibernate due to cold winter temperatures. 

Some species migrate long distances, such as 

from Canada to Mexico or the Gulf states, 

but more species migrate shorter distances 

(such as 300 miles or less) to find a suitable 

hibernation location (Tuttle 1988). Bats may 

hibernate for up to six months or more, 

during which time they survive on reserves 

of stored fat. This group of mammals tends 

to be “very loyal to their birthplaces and 

hibernating sites” (Tuttle 1998). Caves at El 

Malpais National Monument are used by 

bats for both hibernacula (winter hibernation 

sites) and maternity roosts (sites where female 

bats raise their young). During fieldwork 

in August of 2004, for example, Bogan et 

al. (2007) observed an estimated 15,000 to 

20,000 bats emerging from Bat Cave in the El 

Calderon area of the national monument.

4.15.2. Data and Methods

As discussed in the previous section on 

Mammals, there have been only a small 

number of inventories/surveys of mammals 

Indicators/Measures

• Species Occurrence (1 measure)

• White-nose Syndrome/Fungus (1 measure)

• Habitat Availability/Condition (1 measure)

Figure 4.15.1-1.

Townsend’s 

big-eared bat 

(Corynorhinus 

townsendii), one 

of the bat species 

occurring in New 

Mexico and El 

Malpais NM.

© ROBERT SHANTZ

Condition – Trend - Confidence

Good - Insufficient Data - High
244

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

as a group in or in the immediate vicinity of El 

Malpais NM. There have been some additional 

surveys and studies on bats specifically, 

including those to survey/monitor for the 

presence of White-nose syndrome (WNS) 

and the fungus that causes the disease. Whitenose syndrome, a recently-discovered disease 

that affects hibernating bats, has resulted 

in the mortality of nearly 6 million bats in 

eastern North America (USFWS 2014). [Note 

that a brief discussion of WNS was provided 

in Section 2.2.3, Resource Issues Overview, 

but we include additional details throughout 

this assessment]. 

This assessment is based on the handful of 

mammal/bat inventories/surveys that have 

been conducted at the national monument 

and studies/surveys on WNS and the fungus 

that causes the disease. Various sources of 

information from the park were also used. 

The indicators/measures and how they were 

assessed, as well as the data and information 

sources used, are described below. 

We used three indicators, each with one 

measure, to assess the condition of bats at El 

Malpais NM. 

Indicators/Measures

Species Occurrence: Presence or Absence

Species Occurrence : Presence or Absence

To examine bat species occurrence at the 

national monument, we compiled the list of 

bat species that have been documented at 

the park and determined whether any of the 

species that were recorded in older surveys 

have failed to be recorded in recent years. 

Unfortunately, the most recent surveys are 

now four years old, and they examined species 

occurrence within the park as a secondary 

objective (and therefore used some different 

methods than earlier surveys). However, 

the information presented provides a list 

of species documented during the various 

surveys/sampling. This information is also 

supplemented with current information from 

park staff on some of the species, such as the 

estimated number of Mexican (or Brazilian) 

free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) using 

Bat Cave in the summer. Additionally, 

the occurrence of federally and/or state 

listed species, as well as Species of Greatest 

Conservation Need (SGCN), are discussed. 

Data Sources

Note that the data sources below are not 

described in chronological order.

Bogan et al. (2007)

The most recently conducted inventory/

survey of mammals in the national monument 

was that by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) in 2003 and 2004 (Bogan et al. 2007), 

and this inventory included bats. The main 

objective of this work was to document the 

occurrence of at least 90% of the mammal 

species expected to occur at the park using 

a field inventory and review of existing 

records. For bats, sampling methods included 

mistnetting and opportunistic observations. 

However, because the earlier work by Valdez 

et al. (2002; described below) was thorough, 

they did not emphasize bat surveys (Bogan et 

al. 2007). Their work included mistnetting in 

late May and late August of 2004, as well as 

cave emergence observations in late August, 

2004. Even with their limited survey effort, 

they detected 12 species of bats. 

Valdez et al. (2002)

In 1999 and 2000, Valdez et al. (2002) focused 

their work on bats in the national monument 

and adjacent lands. They surveyed bats with 

mistnets and echolocation detectors, and in 

addition to documenting the occurrence and 

distribution of bats, they collected information 

on relative abundance, reproduction, and 

seasonal activity. The researchers sampled 

and conducted visual searches for active bat 

roosts in the summer of each year. Mistnets 

were used in 17 locations in and near the park, 

within a variety of habitats, that had natural 

and man-made water impoundments. There 

were a total of 30 net-nights in 1999 and 56 in 

2000. Bat calls were recorded at the mistnet 

sites and along transects. Roost searches were 

conducted in the summer of 2000 in lava tube 

caves. Valdez et al. (2002) documented a total 

of 15-16 species.

Valdez (2012)

Upon request of El Malpais NM personnel, 

the USGS sampled for evidence of WNS in 

bats in 2011 in the national monument and 
245

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Bats

surrounding areas (Valdez 2012). During 

the work, Valdez recorded eight species of 

bats, all of which had been recorded at the 

national monument previously. The work was 

carried out using mistnets at water sources 

near habitat that may be used for hibernation. 

Sampling was conducted during the spring 

(starting March 29) and summer (to August 

5), but focused on the spring period (March 

20 to June 20). Aspects of the study as related 

to the fungus and disease are included under 

the next indicator and measure discussion. 

Lightfoot et al. (1994)

Lightfoot et al. (1994) conducted surveys for 

mammals at the national monument as part 

of a larger vegetation and wildlife inventory. 

Few details are presented in their report 

regarding survey methods for mammals, 

but bats were surveyed using mistnets and 

general observations. Lightfoot et al. (1994) 

also included additional information from an 

earlier study by Hooper (1941). Lightfoot et 

al. (1994) reported nine species of bats during 

their work. 

Ongoing Survey Efforts by National 

Monument Personnel

Information on bats obtained through 

discussions with park personnel was also 

included where appropriate (for any of the 

three indicators/measures). This consists 

of two main efforts of park personnel: 1) a 

multi-year effort to monitor use of Bat Cave 

by Mexican free-tailed bats in summer; and 

2) a December 2014-February 2015 survey of 

approximately 160 lava tube caves to search 

for use by hibernating bats. 

In the first survey effort, park personnel are 

presently working on obtaining estimates of 

the population of bats using Bat Cave. They 

estimate the number of bats emerging in 

the evening approximately once per week 

from mid-June to early August (Eric Weaver, 

Acting Natural Resources Branch Chief, El 

Malpais NM, pers. comm.). Estimates are 

made primarily by making and reviewing 

visual recordings, although live visual counts 

(using night-vision goggles in the dark) are 

also conducted. Counts were also conducted 

in 2012, 2013, and 2014. There are also 

data on bat numbers from 1999, but park 

personnel are unclear at this time whether the 

1999 count was conducted using the same or 

different methods. 

In the second park survey effort, park 

personnel are surveying lava tube caves for 

use by hibernating bats (Eric Weaver, Acting 

Natural Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais 

NM, pers. comm.). The survey was conducted 

in December 2014-February 2015, and plans 

are for the same, and additional, caves to be 

surveyed in December 2015-January 2016. 

Note that according to E. Weaver, plans are 

to survey caves with a known bat population 

every year, and caves with the potential to 

support bats every other year.

Other Data/Information Sources 

The NPSpecies List for the park (NPS 

2014) was also used to assess this indicator/

measure, primarily as supporting information 

for specific species. Additional reports 

(e.g., Wynne 2011 and 2013) used for other 

indicators/measures, were also reviewed.

Indicators/Measures

Occurrence of Pseudogymnoascus 

destructans and/or WNS: Presence/

Absence

Occurrence of P. destructans and/or WNS: 

Presence/Absence

This indicator/measure includes the 

occurrence of the fungus that causes WNS 

and the occurrence of the disease (or 

symptoms) in bats. In some hibernacula in the 

Eastern U.S., all or nearly all of the bats have 

died from WNS (USFWS 2014). The disease 

is caused by a fungus, originally known 

as Geomyces destructans, but now called 

Pseudogymnoascus destructans (USFWS 

2014). White-nose syndrome is named for the 

white fungus that grows on the muzzle and 

other parts of the bats’ bodies (USFWS 2014). 

The disease is thought to spread primarily 

through direct contact between bats, but it is 

also believed possible to spread the fungus to 

new hibernacula on shoes, clothing or gear 

(USFWS 2015). Research is currently being 

conducted on how to control and prevent the 

spread of the fungus (USFWS 2014). 
246

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

In the U.S., the occurrence of WNS has 

been confirmed in seven species of bats 

that hibernate in caves, and the fungus has 

been observed on an additional five species 

(USFWS 2014). Of these species, one from 

each group is known to occur at El Malpais 

NM (big brown bat [Eptesicus fuscus] and 

silver-haired bat [Lasionycteris noctivagans], 

respectively). Based on the available 

information, large concentrations of these 

species have not been observed hibernating in 

the national monument’s caves, but the park’s 

recent hibernacula survey indicated that both 

species may hibernate in park caves in at least 

small numbers. Currently, the closest state 

with confirmed cases of WNS is Arkansas, 

although the fungus (but not yet WNS) was 

recently confirmed in eastern Oklahoma 

(Figure 4.15.2-1, USFWS 2015). 

At El Malpais NM, efforts are being made to 

look for the fungus in caves that show evidence 

of bat use (Northup 2013), and to look for 

evidence of the fungus on bats or the disease 

in bats (Valdez 2012). We used the results of 

these surveillance/monitoring efforts (from 

2010 and 2011, respectively) and more recent 

observations from the same researchers (i.e., 

Northup et al. 2015) to assess this indicator/

measure of condition for bats. 

Data Sources

Valdez (2012)

The Valdez (2012) work was described under 

the previous indicator/measure, although we 

provide a few additional details here. The 

period for sampling described above was 

used to focus sampling efforts around the 

time when bats emerge from their hibernacula 

(Valdez 2012). This time frame would also be 

conducive to observing signs of the fungus, 

such as hyphae (long, branching, filamentous 

structures of fungi) growing on the wings, 

nose, and ears of bats. Weather conditions 

were also a consideration. Sampling locations 

used were those near unobstructed water 

surfaces in proximity to areas of known or 

potential hibernacula (such as lava tubes). 

Most of the sites were along the western 

and northwestern edges of the national 

monument on Forest Service and Bureau of 

Land Management-managed lands. A total of 

18 sites were sampled between March 29 and 

August 5, for a total of 88 net-nights.

Figure 4.15.2-1.

Map showing 

occurrence of WNS, 

dated 5/28/15. 

Occurrences with 

solid color are 

confirmed, while 

those with dots are 

suspected (this may 

be difficult to see at 

this scale). At this 

time, the closest 

known (confirmed) 

occurrence of WNS 

to New Mexico is in 

Arkansas, and the 

closest occurrence of 

the fungus (but not 

WNS) is Oklahoma. 

Map available online 

at https://www.

whitenosesyndrome.

org/resources/map.
247

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Bats

Northup (2013)

The overal goal of Northup (2013) was to 

determine whether the fungus that causes 

WNS was present in caves at El Malpais NM. 

Ten lava caves with evidence of bat activity 

and/or microclimate conditions suitable for 

P. destructans were sampled in October and 

November of 2010 within the park (Northup 

2013). The researchers sampled soils and 

guano deposits at regular distance intervals 

within the caves, for a total of two to 12 

samples taken per cave. They used DNA 

analysis of the samples to look for sequences 

that matched P. destructans. Three levels of 

tests were used to analyze the samples, with 

the third test (real-time PCR test developed 

by Minnis et al. 2013) being the most accurate.

Northup et al. (2015)

In 2014-2015, Northup et al. (2015) conducted 

further research related to WNS in the caves 

at the national monument. There were three 

main goals of their research: 1) to find close 

relatives of P. destructans in park caves (that 

previous research showed were in some cave 

soils); 2) to develop a baseline of the bacteria 

and fungi that live on bats that do not have 

WNS; and 3) to test for natural defenses 

against WNS by culturing Actinobacteria (a 

group of bacteria known to produce natural 

antibiotics) from park bats (Northup et al. 

2015). To meet these goals, soils were sampled 

from caves having conditions suitable for P. 

destructans, and bats were captured from 

six caves (with roosting bats) and on the 

surface using mistnets at sources of water. 

The researchers swabbed the bats to collect 

samples to determine the microbiota present, 

and while the bats were being handled, 

researchers examined bats (e.g., wings, ears, 

muzzle) for signs of P. destructans infection. 

Indicators/Measures

Habitat Availability & Condition: Available 

Habitat with Minimal Disturbance

Habitat Availability & Condition: Available 

Habitat Free from/with Minimal Human 

Disturbance

The purpose of this indicator/measure is to 

examine the availability and condition of 

habitat for bats at the national monument. 

This is a general and descriptive aspect of 

the assessment. There are a number of caves 

at the park that are known to be used by bats 

for winter hibernacula and/or for raising 

young (i.e., maternity roosts). However, “...

the vastness of the lava-tube system across the 

park and the amount of use by bats throughout 

is poorly known” (Valdez 2012). Therefore, 

there are probably more caves that are used 

by bats than are currently known, and some 

of them are probably relatively inaccessible 

(there are at least 290 lava tube caves in the 

national monument [Wynne 2013]). Because 

this is an area with incomplete information, in 

this section we focus on the caves for which 

information exists. 

Also, bats require habitat for foraging and 

drinking, as well as for roosting (e.g., Taylor 

2006). Although foraging and drinking 

requirements are discussed somewhat under 

this indicator, the focus is on roosting habitat. 

As reported by numerous studies (see Wynne 

2011 Introduction), bats are very sensitive 

to disturbance by humans when roosting, in 

maternity colonies, and hibernating. Bats in 

maternity roosts may abandon the cave and/

or their young if repeatedly disturbed (Valdez 

et al. 2002). 

Roosting habitat addressed includes both 

caves and forests/woodlands, as some 

species roost in dead or dying and/or living 

trees. Information to support this aspect 

of the assessment comes primarily from 

on-site vegetation field assessments that 

were conducted in June 2015 for this report 

(described in more detail below), as well 

as from communications with national 

monument personnel. 

Data Sources

For information on the caves that are used by 

bats and which bat species use the caves, we 

used the sources described under the first two 

indicators/measures, as well as a few additional 

sources (Carlton [1988], Wynne [2011 and 

2013], and Buecher and Northup [2011]). See 

the Data Sources sections under the first two 

indicators/measures for descriptions of the 

following studies: Bogan et al. (2007), Valdez 

et al. (2002), Valdez (2012), Northup (2013), 

Northup et al. (2015), and Lightfoot et al. 
248

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

(1994), and the two ongoing survey efforts by 

national monument personnel. 

For information on the conditions of the 

caves, we used information from the national 

monument on cave closures and other 

miscellaneous sources (e.g., the park website, 

public pamphlets). Cave closures have 

been used at the park to minimize or avoid 

disturbance of bats by humans. This included 

a closure of all of the caves to the public in 

late 2010 due to the threat of WNS. Some of 

the caves were later reopened to the public, at 

least during certain times of the year.

Information on which bats use trees, caves, 

or other sites for roosting came from various 

sources, especially the Stokes Beginner’s Guide 

to Bats (Williams et al. 2002). Additionally, as 

noted above, information on the condition of 

ponderosa pine and piñon-juniper habitats 

came primarily from the vegetation field 

assessments conducted on June 2-3, 2015 for 

the assessments of these vegetation types at 

the national monument (Sections 4.8 and 4.9). 

As discussed in greater detail in those sections 

of the report, we visited a number of areas 

within the park, primarily in the El Calderon 

area, the western end of the Zuni-Acoma 

Trail, the Sandstone Bluffs area, the Lava Falls 

area, and the Cerro Bandera area. As noted 

elsewhere in this document, much of the park 

is fairly inaccessible due to the various lava 

flows, so management, and hence our visits, 

were focused along the perimeter of the park.

4.15.3. Reference Conditions

Reference conditions for this assessment are 

shown in Table 4.15.3-1. Reference conditions 

are described for resources in good, moderate 

concern, and significant concern conditions 

for each of the three indicators and measures.

4.15.4. Condition and Trend

Up to 15 bat species have been recorded by 

one or more of the four surveys/inventories 

that have been conducted on bats/mammals 

at El Malpais NM (Table 4.15.4-1). Seven 

of the species were recorded by all four 

studies. One of the species, the spotted bat 

(Euderma maculatum), is listed as threatened 

with the State of New Mexico (New Mexico 

Table 4.15.3-1. Reference conditions for bats at El Malpais NM.

Indicator/Measures Significant Concern Moderate Concern Good

Species Occurrence: Presence or 

Absence

We consider condition to be of 

significant concern if the bat 

fauna (species) at the national 

monument in recent/current 

years is less than it has been in 

past years (species have been 

lost, especially those that were 

considered common in the past).

We consider condition to be 

of moderate concern if the bat 

fauna (species) at the national 

monument in recent/current 

years is less than it has been in 

past years (some species have 

been lost/not detected in recent 

years).

We consider condition to be 

good if the bat fauna (species) 

at the national monument 

in recent/current years is 

approximately the same as in 

past years (no species that would 

be expected to occur at the park 

appear to have been lost).

Occurrence of 

Pseudogymnoascus destructans

(Fungus that Causes WNS) and 

WNS: Presence or Absence

We consider condition to be 

of significant concern if P. 

destructans has been detected, 

either the fungus itself or 

symptoms of WNS in bats, at El 

Malpais NM. 

---------------------------

We consider condition to be 

good if there is no known 

occurrence of P. destructans or 

WNS at El Malpais NM.

Habitat Availability & Condition: 

Available Habitat Free from 

or with Minimal Human 

Disturbance

We consider condition to be 

of significant concern if either 

important sites/locations are 

no longer available for roosting 

(including raising young and/

or wintering), or human 

disturbance is at a level that is 

not conducive to bat use (or bat 

use has consistently decreased).

We consider condition to be 

of moderate concern if sites/

locations are available for 

roosting (including raising 

young and/or wintering), but 

the number of known sites has 

decreased somewhat, or a low 

level of disturbance to them is 

occurring.

We consider condition to 

be good if sites/locations 

are available for roosting 

(including raising young and/or 

wintering), with minimal human 

disturbance.
249

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Bats

Department of Game and Fish [NMDGF] 

2015). This species was recorded for the 

first time in Cibola County by Valdez et al. 

(2002). This species, but none of the others, 

is also considered a Species of Greatest 

Conservation Need (SGCN) in New Mexico 

(NMDGF 2015).

Species Occurrence: Presence or Absence

Although it would be preferable to have bat 

surveys from the last year or two, no such 

information is available. The most recent 

mistnet sampling was conducted in 2011 

(except for some limited mistnet sampling in 

2014 for specific purposes [i.e., Northup et al. 

2015]). Comparing the bat species observed 

in 1999-2000 by Valdez et al. (2002) and in 

2003-2004 by Bogan et al. (2007; the lists were 

nearly the same) to that by Valdez (2012) in 

2011, six species were not observed in 2011 

that had been observed previously. These are 

the big free-tailed bat (Nyctinomops macrotis), 

California myotis (Myotis californicus), 

hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus), pallid bat 

(Antrozous pallidus), spotted bat, and canyon 

bat (Parastrellus hesperus). Valdez explains 

some of these differences as being due to the 

differences in sampling locations between 

the efforts and the “uncommon species” 

captured by Valdez et al. (2002). The pallid 

Table 4.15.4-1. Bat species recorded in El Malpais NM during surveys by Valdez (2012), Bogan et al. (2007), 

Valdez et al. (2002), and Lightfoot et al. (1994). Notes/entries with a letter are explained in the Comments 

column, and notes with a number are found below the table. All of these species were also listed in Table 

4.14.4-1 in the previous section on Mammals.

Common Name Scientific Name

Lightfoot et 

al. (1994) 

in early 

1990s

Valdez et 

al. (2002)1 

in 1999-

2000

Bogan et 

al. (2007) 

in 2003-

2004

Valdez 

(2012) 

 in 2011

Comments

Big brown bat 2 Eptesicus fuscus 2 X X X X

Big free-tailed bat 3 Nyctinomops macrotis 3 X

Mexican (or Brazilian) freetailed bat 2

Tadarida brasiliensis 2 X X X X

California myotis 4 Myotis californicus 4 X X X

Cave myotis Myotis velifer a a

 NPS (2014) considers 

this a mistake (i.e., a 

“false report”), as does 

Valdez (2012)

Fringed myotis 2 Myotis thysanodes 2 X X X X

Hoary bat 2 Lasiurus cinereus 2 X X

Long-eared myotis 2 Myotis evotis 2 X X X X

Long-legged myotis 2 Myotis volans 2 X X X

Pallid bat 2 Antrozous pallidus 2 X X

Silver-haired bat 2 Lasionycteris noctivagans 2 X X X X

Spotted bat 3 Euderma maculatum 3 X X b b A single bat was heard 

during sampling

Townsend's big-eared bat 2 Corynorhinus townsendii 2 X X X X

Canyon bat 4, 5 Parastrellus hesperus 4, 5 X

Western small-footed 2 

myotis

Myotis ciliolabrum 2 X c X X X c Lightfoot et al. recorded 

as M. subulatus

1 Valdez et al. (2002) reported two additional bat species; Bogan et al. (2007) considered one of them as a misidentified species that is already in the table; 

the other species (Yuma myotis [Myotis yumanensis] is unconfirmed because it was observed only by ultrasonic recordings and may have been confused with 

another species (Bogan et al. 2007).

2 Species has been documented at the park by net capture and voucher specimen (Valdez 2012).

3 Species has been documented at the park by distinct audible and ultrasonic calls and flight observations (Valdez 2012).

4 Valdez (2012) reports that there are no voucher representatives for this species; he suggests the species may occur at the park, but probably in small numbers.

5 Previously known as Western pipistrelle (Pipistrellus hesperus).
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

bat, for example, was captured in a location 

by Valdez et al. (2002) that was not sampled 

in 2011. The hoary bat was captured in low 

numbers by the earlier studies, and it may be 

uncommon at the national monument (Valdez 

2012); the species may only be present when 

it migrates through the park. Valdez (2012) 

questioned the occurrence of two of the 

species (California myotis and canyon bat; 

see footnote to the table), suggesting they may 

have been misidentified by the earlier studies. 

Although the spotted bat was not captured 

in 2011, Valdez reported that a single spotted 

bat was heard overhead during sampling. No 

discussion was provided by Valdez (2012) 

on the absence of the big free-tailed bat, but 

neither was concern expressed for the lack 

of capture of this species. NPS (2014) notes 

the spotted bat as rare and the big free-tailed 

bat as of unknown abundance. Based on 

the information presented here, we do not 

have any particular concerns for species 

occurrence. 

Valdez et al. (2002) indicated that the bats they 

observed were using the area for foraging, 

roosting, or stopover points during migration. 

They identified a handful of dominant species 

based on their mistnet sampling (Western 

small-footed myotis [Myotis ciliolabrum], 

long-eared myotis [M. evotis], long-legged 

myotis [M. volans], and big brown bat 

[Eptesicus fuscus]); the species were common 

in habitats at middle and high elevations. 

The three species captured most frequently 

during the 2011 sampling by Valdez (2012) 

were long-eared myotis (most abundant), 

Western small-footed myotis, and fringed 

myotis (M. thysanodes; third most abundant). 

Four of these five species were documented 

by all of the four studies, and the fifth (longlegged myotis) was documented by three of 

the studies. Valdez et al. (2002) considered El 

Malpais NM to have a moderately diverse bat 

community. 

Most of the species in Table 4.15.4-1 are 

residents in the area, but a few are known to 

migrate in the spring and fall (Barbour and 

Davis 1969, as cited by Valdez 2012). The 

species known to migrate include the hoary 

bat, Mexican free-tailed bat, big free-tailed 

bat, and, possibly, silver-haired bat.

Mexican (or Brazilian) free-tailed bats have 

been known to use Bat Cave in the summer 

months for a number of years (Carlton 1988; 

Figure 4.15.4-1). Carlton (1988) reported 

that, based on a personal communication 

with a Dr. Alton Lindsey, the size of the 

maternity colony in Bat Cave may once have 

been much larger than it is today (on the 

order of a few million bats). It was suggested 

that the decrease in numbers began in the 

early 1950s with the onset of guano mining. 

As described previously, park personnel have 

been estimating the number of bats using the 

cave in summer over the last few years. From 

the 2012 to 2015 estimates, a conservative 

estimate of the peak population is 45,000-

50,000 bats (Eric Weaver, Acting Natural 

Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, 

pers. comm.). 

The four main surveys for species occurrence 

(shown in the table) were conducted in 

the spring and summer months (although 

Lightfoot et al. may have included 

observations in other months). The park’s 

recent effort to survey lava tube caves for use 

by hibernating bats was conducted in winter 

months (December 2014-February 2015). 

At least five species listed in the table were 

observed during the hibernacula survey: big 

brown bat, long-eared myotis, long-legged 

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Figure 4.15.4-1. Bat Cave, in the El Calderon area of El Malpais NM. The 

cave is closed to the public to protect roosting bats. 
251

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Bats

myotis, silver-haired bat, and Townsend’s 

big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii). 

Additional species of Myotis may also have 

been present, but the survey protocol does 

not call for reporting them by species. In 

this case, observations of long-eared and 

long-legged myotis were recorded because 

it represents the first time that the species 

have been observed hibernating in caves 

in the national monument (Eric Weaver, 

Acting Natural Resources Branch Chief, El 

Malpais NM, pers. comm.). Overall, bats 

were observed in approximately 30 of the 

caves surveyed. The greatest count was of 

226 Townsend’s big-eared bats in one cave 

in February. Also, based on her work on bats 

at the national monument, Debbie Buecher 

has also observed fringed myotis and western 

small-footed myotis roosting in lava tube 

caves (Buecher, unpublished results, as cited 

in Northup 2013)]. 

In summary, although the species occurrence 

comparison made here is limited, it does not 

point to particular concerns for any species 

at this time. Additionally, seven of the species 

listed in Table 4.15.4-1 (those observed by 

three or four of the inventories) have also 

been observed by one or more of the survey 

efforts in 2014 and/or 2015 (i.e., big brown 

bat, Mexican free-tailed bat, long-eared 

myotis, long-legged myotis, silver-haired 

bat, Townsend’s big-eared bat, and Western 

small-footed myotis). We therefore consider 

condition of bats under this indicator/

measure to be “good.” We do not have 

sufficient information to report a trend in 

condition. 

Occurrence of P. destructans and/or WNS: 

Presence/Absence

The ten caves at the national monument 

tested by Northup (2013) for the presence 

of P. destructans included some of those 

specifically mentioned in this condition 

assessent as having known summer or 

winter bat roosting colonies (e.g., Bat Cave, 

Junction Cave). Based on the results of the 

most accurate test used (Level 3 Test), all ten 

of the caves were negative for the presence 

of P. destructans. Northup (2013) reported 

that, of the caves sampled, Junction Cave 

was at the greatest risk due to microclimate 

conditions, presence of hibernating bats, and 

the presence of a P. destructans relative with 

similar genetic sequences. Concern was also 

expressed for Cave #108 and Four Windows 

Cave. 

Managers at El Malpais NM close Junction 

Cave every winter to protect the hibernating 

Townsend’s big-eared bats. Access to 

all caves, including Junction Cave, was 

prohibited in 2010 due to WNS concerns, 

and when Junction Cave was reopened in 

2013 it was done so only in the non-winter 

months. Northup (2013) also discussed the 

importance of educating the public on WNS 

and efforts to minimize its spread (which 

NPS and the national monument are doing), 

and continued monitoring of the caves with 

the most conducive microclimate conditions 

for the fungus and the presence of roosting 

bats. Both of these activities are being done 

at the national monument. For example, both 

Valdez and Northup have continued their 

research/monitoring on WNS at the park in 

2014 and 2015 (Eric Weaver, Acting Natural 

Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, 

pers. comm.; Northup et al. 2015). The park 

is also requiring staff and visitors to the caves 

to follow the USFWS White-Nose Syndrome 

Decontamination Protocol. 

The goals of the Northup et al. (2015) work 

were described in Section 4.15.2. During their 

work, which included handling captured bats 

from caves and the surface at El Malpais NM, 

they found no evidence of P. destructans or 

WNS. However, they did observe, for the 

first time in four years of capturing bats at 

the national monument, a bat (a Western 

small-footed myotis) that had visible colonies 

of fungus. These fungal colonies contained 

close relatives of P. destructans, but no P. 

destructans. Close relatives of P. destructans

were also found in cave soil/guano cultures 

(as had been previously reported; Northup 

2013). 

During the USGS sampling described in 

Valdez (2012), 421 bats of eight species were 

documented on the national monument and 

adjacent lands (see Table 4.15.4-1 for species). 

None of the captured bats showed evidence 

of the fungus or WNS. However, Valdez 
252

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

noted that it is possible that subtle signs of the 

disease or fungus may have gone undetected, 

such as due to negative impacts to spring 

sampling by cold, snowy weather and winds. 

Valdez (2012) stressed the importance of 

continued monitoring for the disease through 

the use of mistnetting and cave monitoring. 

Based on the results of these three studies 

(Northup 2013, Northup et al. 2015, and 

Valdez 2012), we consider the condition 

for this indicator/measure to be good at this 

time. However, awareness and concern for 

bats at the national monument remains high 

as this fungus and disease continues to be 

studied and monitored. Furthermore, only a 

small proportion of the lava tube caves at El 

Malpais NM have been/are being monitored 

for P. destructans, and it is possible that other 

important (and as of yet undiscovered) winter 

hibernacula exist. It is also worth keeping 

in mind that at least some caves within the 

national monument have microclimate 

conditions suitable for the WNS fungus, and 

relatives of P. destructans have been found in 

park cave soil/guano and on at least one bat.

Habitat Availability & Condition: Available 

Habitat Free from/with Minimal Human 

Disturbance

As mentioned in the Data and Methods 

section, we primarily addressed bat roosting 

in caves and/or trees in this indicator (Table 

4.15.4-2), but bats in general, and some of the 

bats that occur at the national monument, 

may also roost in other sites. Bats may roost in 

or on a variety of structures, such as beneath 

exfoliating bark, in tree cavities, amongst tree 

foliage, in abandoned insect and bird nests, 

in rock crevices, in small and large caves, and 

in a variety of man-made structures (Murray 

and Kunz 2004). Table 4.15.4-2 also shows 

which bat species that have been reported at 

El Malpais NM have been documented in 

the park’s caves. Note, however, that as the 

hibernaculum survey and other future work 

continues to be conducted, additional species 

may be observed and added to the list. Based 

on the various reports and surveys reviewed, 

at least eight species have been observed using 

caves at the national monument. 

Based on the available information, including 

the continued, observed use of some of 

the caves by bats, we consider that habitat 

availability and condition for bats with 

respect to caves is good. National monument 

management allows only a small number of 

caves to be visited by the public, and before 

the public is allowed to enter a cave they 

must obtain a free permit and speak with a 

ranger about cave protection/visitation rules. 

Further, the park uses cave closures of some 

caves during times that the bats are present 

and sensitive. For example, Bat Cave is closed 

to the public, including during the spring and 

summer months when Mexican free-tailed 

bats are in their maternity roost. Junction 

Cave is closed during the winter (~October 

through mid-April; Wynne 2013) to protect 

hibernating Townsend’s big-eared and other 

bats, and a gate was recently installed to 

prevent unauthorized human entry during 

the closed period (Eric Weaver, Acting 

Natural Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais 

NM, pers. comm.). Additionally, although 

an area of great uncertainty, we can suppose 

that other caves within the park that are in 

relatively inaccessible locations are quite free 

from human disturbance. The uncertainty, 

however, is how many such caves exist that 

are used by bats for roosting. 

With regards to bats that roost in trees, the only 

information available for this assessment are 

results and general impressions from the field 

visit on June 2-3, 2015, to the park. The piñonjuniper and ponderosa pine-dominated areas 

of the park were generally considered to be 

in good condition. Both living and dead trees 

were observed and could serve as potentially 

suitable roosting sites. Although not present 

in alarming numbers at this time, dead/dying 

trees, such as ponderosa pines and piñon 

pines, were observed. Tree deaths were 

believed to be due to dry conditions over the 

past several years (Romme and Jacobs 2015). 

Some of the bat species that occur at the 

national monument are known to roost 

in piñon-juniper and ponderosa pine 

woodlands. For example, fringed myotis 

(Myotis thysanodes) and long-legged myotis 

(Myotis volans) were found roosting (in 

maternity roosts) with 30 to more than 
253

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Bats

Table 4.15.4-2. Bat species recorded in El Malpais NM, showing whether they roost or hibernate in caves 

or trees, and whether they have been observed in caves at the national monument. Note that a lack of 

observation/documentation does not mean that they do not occur. Also, cave names are included in only a 

few instances. 

Common Name Scientific Name

Roosts in 

Caves (C), 

Roosts in 

Trees (T) 1

Documented 

Cave Roost at 

ELMA? 2

Cave-use Sources 3 Comments: 

Big brown bat Eptesicus fuscus C, T Yes Wynne 2011 and 

2013; ELMA 2015

Junction Cave, hibernaculum

Big free-tailed bat Nyctinomops macrotis rock 

crevices

Mexican (or Brazilian) 

free-tailed bat

Tadarida brasiliensis C Yes Carlton 1988; 

Valdez et al. 2002; 

Bogan et al. 2007; 

Wynne 2011 and 

2013; ELMA 2015

summer, maternity roost in Bat 

Cave. Number of bats using 

the cave in summer has been 

estimated at various times, and is 

being done currently by park staff. 

Peak (conservative) estimate from 

2012-2015 is 45-50,000 bats.

California myotis Myotis californicus C, T Maybe 4 see footnote “4” below.

Cave myotis Myotis velifer C

Fringed myotis Myotis thysanodes C, T Yes Northup 2013 

(citing Buecher 

unpublished)

Hoary bat Lasiurus cinereus T

Long-eared myotis Myotis evotis C, T Yes ELMA 2015

Long-legged myotis Myotis volans C,T Yes ELMA 2015

Pallid bat Antrozous pallidus C, T

Silver-haired bat Lasionycteris noctivagans C, T Yes ELMA 2015; 

Buecher & Northup 

2011

hibernating in winter

Spotted bat Euderma maculatum C

Townsend's big-eared 

bat

Corynorhinus townsendii C Yes Wynne 2011 and 

2013; Valdez et 

al. 2002; Buecher 

and Northup 2011; 

ELMA 2015

both hibernaculum (e.g., Junction 

Cave) and summer (Braided 

Cave, Bat Cave); largest known 

hibernaculum ~100 bats (per 

Wynne 2011); maternity up to a 

few hundred.

Canyon bat Parastrellus hesperus C

Western small-footed 

myotis

Myotis ciliolabrum C, T Yes Valdez et al. 2002; summer, Braided Cave, 75-100 

individuals; winter, see footnote 

“3” below.

1 Although we mention only caves and trees as potential roost sites here, some species may also use rock crevices or cliffs, rock piles, mines, or other manmade structures (e.g., buildings and bridges). We also did not specify whether bats that use trees use live or dead trees, or foliage. This information is based 

primarily on Williams et al. (2002) and Chung-MacCoubrey (1996). 

2

 Note that this is a working list of the species that have been documented in the national monument’s caves based on park reports/sources, and that other 

species may use the caves; and ELMA (2015) does not generally distinguish between species of Myotis. 

3

 ELMA (2015) is the park’s winter hibernacula survey (results from Dec. 2014-Feb. 2015).

4

 Buecher and Northup (2011) observed hibernating myotis in a few caves; the bats were either Western small-footed myotis or California myotis (species 

identification could not be made without disturbing the bats).
254

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

200 bats in ponderosa pine snags and live 

ponderosa pines having long, vertical cracks 

(Chung-MacCoubrey 1996). The roost trees, 

in the Cibola National Forest south of the 

national monument, were located in the 

ecotone of ponderosa pine and piñon-juniper 

habitats or in drainages with piñon-juniper 

on the slopes. The same researcher observed 

long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis) roosting in 

live and dead junipers. 

Although we have no specific information 

on bat use of piñon-juniper, ponderosa pine, 

or other vegetation at El Malpais NM, we 

consider condition good for this aspect of 

the assessment because of the availablity and 

condition (see above) of these areas at the 

park. 

Although we have little current information 

on it (most recent is from Valdez (2012), 

Valdez (2012) points out the importance of 

a large pool of water, Laguna de Juan Garcia, 

situated in the northwest corner of the park, 

for bats (Figure 4.15.4-2). The pool, used for 

drinking and possibly foraging, is “the only 

known water source in the park that appears 

to hold water throughout the year” (Valdez 

2012). The pool, within ponderosa pine 

forest and near piñon-juniper woodland, is 

also important because it is accessible to all 

of the bat species, even those that are less 

maneuverable. During sampling in 2011, this 

sampling location had the greatest number of 

captures during a single night and the highest 

species diversity; it was also the location where 

the spotted bat was heard calling overhead 

(Valdez 2012). Valdez (2012) also reported 

that the ponderosa pine forest surrounding 

Laguna de Juan Garcia probably provides 

foraging habitat for species that are able to 

maneuver amongst the vegetation (e.g., longeared myotis).

In summary, for the reasons stated in this 

section, we consider condition under this 

indicator/measure to be good at this time. 

However, some concern has been expressed 

for potential disturbance to some caves 

due to their easily accessible location and 

considerable use by bats. 

Overall Condition and Trend

For assessing the condition of bats, we used 

three indicators with one measure each. All 

three indicators are summarized in some 

detail in Table 4.15.4-3. Each of the indicators/

measures was judged to be in good condition. 

Although we are not comfortable judging an 

overall trend in condition due to insufficient 

information in some areas, one could make a 

case for a stable trend in at least the second 

and third indicators/measures (and the first 

indicator/measure for the more common 

species). 

Although some of the bat species that have 

been documented at the national monument 

have not been observed in recent years 

(possibly due to their relative rarity or the 

areas of the park they use), many of the species 

are observed regularly during surveys of 

caves during winter, during mistnet sampling 

for WNS surveillance, or during summer 

roost counts (in the case of the Mexican freetailed bat). The spotted bat, a species listed as 

threatened with the State, was recorded in the 

national monument and in the county for the 

first time by Valdez et al. (2002). 

The threat of WNS is a concern for bats 

throughout North America, although to date 

its closest confirmed presence to El Malpais 

NM is in Arkansas (see Figure 4.15.2-1). 

Based on three monitoring efforts at the park, 

Valdez (2012), Northup (2013), and Northup 

et al. (2015), neither P. destructans nor WNS 

have been detected in caves or bats within 

Bats

Indicators Measures

Species Occurrence One Measure

WNS/Fungus One Measure

Habitat Avail. / Condit. One Measure

NPS

Figure 4.15.4-2.

Laguna de Juan 

Garcia, an important 

pool of water for 

bats at El Malpais 

NM, located in the 

northwest corner of 

the park. 
255

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Bats

the national monument to date. National 

monument staff are well-alerted, however, 

to the threat from WNS and the fact that, 

based on recent research and monitoring 

efforts, some park caves have microclimate 

conditions suitable for P. destructans. 

With regards to habitat availability and 

condition for bats, we also consider the 

condition to be good. As described, different 

caves have various microclimate conditions 

that are suitable for use by different species, 

and very few of the park’s caves are open to 

the public. The entrance to Junction Cave was 

recently gated to assure that people can not 

enter the cave during its winter closure. Some 

concern, however, does exist for bats using 

Bat Cave for their summer maternity roost; 

this cave is closed to human entry throughout 

the year, but a gate can not be used to secure 

the entrance due to issues this species has with 

gates (Eric Weaver, Acting Natural Resources 

Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, pers. comm.). 

To deal with this, however, in 2016, park 

managers will be installing sensors to detect 

human movement in the cave, which will then 

notify law enforcement of the unauthorized 

entry (Eric Weaver, Acting Natural Resources 

Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, pers. comm.). 

Table 4.15.4-3. Indicators and measures of bat condition. 

Indicator Measure of 

Condition Condition Rationale for Condition

Species Occurrence Presence / 

Absence

Good Comparing the bat species observed in 1999-2000 by Valdez et al. (2002) and in 

2003-2004 by Bogan et al. (2007; the lists were nearly the same) to that by Valdez 

(2012) in 2011, six species were not observed in 2011 that had been observed 

previously. However, some of the differences were probably due to differences in 

sampling locations between the efforts and the fact that some of the species are not 

common. Also, at least seven species have been documented by park staff and/or 

Northup et al. (2015) in 2014-2015. Based on the information available, we do not 

have any particular concerns for species occurrence at this time. There is insufficient 

data to judge trends. 

Occurrence of P. 

destructans and/or 

WNS 

Presence / 

Absence

Good The monitoring work of Valdez (2012) captured >400 bats of eight species, 

and none of the captured bats showed evidence of the fungus or WNS. Valdez 

noted, however, that some subtle signs of the disease or fungus could have gone 

undetected. Samples collected and analyzed by Northup (2013) from 10 caves in 

the national monument were negative for the presence of P. destructans using the 

most accurate test available. Based on these results (and those of Northup et al. 

2015), we consider the condition for this indicator/measure to be good at this time. 

However, awareness and concern for bats at the national monument remains high 

as this fungus and disease continues to be studied and monitored. Furthermore, 

only a small proportion of the lava tube caves at El Malpais NM have been/are being 

monitored for P. destructans, and it is possible that other important (and as of yet 

undiscovered) winter hibernacula exist. 

Habitat Availability 

& Condition 

Available Habitat 

Free from/with 

Minimal Human 

Disturbance

Good We addressed primarily bat roosting (in winter and summer) in caves and/or trees 

in this indicator. At least eight species have been observed using caves at the 

national monument, some for hibernating and some for maternity roosts. Based 

on the available information, including the continued, observed use of some of the 

caves by bats, we consider habitat availability and condition for bats with respect 

to caves to be good. Only a small number of caves are open to the public, and 

prior to cave entrance the public must obtain a permit and speak with a ranger 

about cave protection/visitation. Also, the park uses cave closures of some caves at 

especially sensitive times for bats. Additionally, more caves (fairly free from human 

disturbance) are probably used for roosting than are currently known. Although we 

have no specific information on bat use of piñon-juniper, ponderosa pine, or other 

vegetation at El Malpais NM, some of the species that occur at the park are known 

to roost in trees in these habitats. We consider condition good for this aspect of 

the assessment because of the availability and condition (judged to be good) of 

these areas at the park. Additionally, one relatively large and open pool of water 

on the northeast corner of the park is known to be a valuable resource for drinking 

and possibly foraging. Overall, we consider condition to be good for this indicator/

measure.
256

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Bats that use trees for roosting also have 

habitat in good condition available to them.

Overall, the condition of bats at El Malpais 

NM is good, but continued concern will exist 

over the westward expansion of WNS. Other 

positive results of the Northup et al. (2015) 

research at the national monument is that 

bacteria (belonging to the genus Streptomyces) 

from bats at the park (sampled from at least 

three different caves) inhibited the growth 

of P. destructans in laboratory tests. These 

bacteria may represent a potential natural 

defense against WNS (Northup et al. 2015). 

Level of Confidence/Key Uncertainties

Bats are an interesting and significant 

component of the wildlife at El Malpais NM, 

and they have been the subject of a number 

of inventories/surveys and studies in recent 

years. Although we based our assessment on 

these studies, there are some uncertainties 

related to the assessment (described below). 

Still, overall, we have high confidence in our 

assessment. 

Some of the key uncertainties include that 

there has been no comprehensive mistnet 

sampling in recent years with the purpose 

of inventorying the species that occur at the 

park. If we had such information, we could 

have assessed condition under the first 

indicator with more confidence. Another area 

of uncertainty is that many of the lava tube 

caves have not yet been surveyed for roosting 

bats. Also, only a small proportion of the lava 

tube caves (10 caves) have been/are being 

monitored for the fungus that causes WNS. 

It also appears that little work has been done 

on habitat in the national monument used by 

bats above ground. In our assessment under 

the third indicator/measure for bats, we relied 

on the piñon-juniper and ponderosa pine 

vegetation assessments conducted for this 

natural resource condition assessment.

El Malpais NM staff also have concerns for 

the park due to its location relative to the 

most western-known occurrence of WNS 

(Arkansas, as of May 2015). The microclimate 

conditions in some caves at El Malpais NM 

are suitable for sustaining the WNS fungus, 

and the caves also provide optimal locations 

for bats to hibernate during the winter. An 

additional factor is the heavy visitation of 

some of the caves by U.S. and international 

travelers. Together, these factors may put the 

caves at risk of being the “first contact” for 

P. destructans in New Mexico (Eric Weaver, 

Acting Natural Resources Branch Chief, El 

Malpais NM, pers. comm.). However, this is 

an uncertainty at this time, and El Malpais 

NM managers are taking precautions against 

the disease. 

4.15.5. Sources of Expertise

No experts were consulted for this resource 

topic. However, the assessment was based 

on studies and monitoring conducted for 

the national monument, and many questions 

were answered and information supplied by 

Eric Weaver, Cave Management Specialist 

and Acting Natural Resources Branch Chief, 

El Malpais NM. This section was authored by 

biologist Patty Valentine-Darby. 

4.15.6. Literature Cited

Barbour, R.W., and W.H. Davis. 1969. Bats of 

America: Lexington, Kentucky. University 

Press of Kentucky. 286 pp., as cited by 

Valdez (2012).

Bat Conservation International. 2015. Bats are: 

Important. Webpage available at http://

www.batcon.org/why-bats/bats-are/batsare-important?tmpl=component. Last 

accessed August 3, 2015.

Bogan, M.A., K. Geluso, S. Haymond, and 

E.W. Valdez. 2007. Mammal inventories 

for eight national parks in the Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/SCPN/

NRTR-2007/054. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado.

Buecher, D.C. and D. Northup. 2011. January 

2011 bat census at El Malpais National 

Monument. 14 pp.

Carlton, K. 1988. Preliminary evaluation of 

the biota of the lava tube systems of El 

Malpais National Monument. 10 pp.

Chung-MacCoubrey, A. 1996. Bat 

species composition and roost use in 
257

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Bats

pinyon-juniper woodlands of New 

Mexico. Pp. 118–123 in Bats and Forests 

Symposium, October 19–21, 1995 

(R.M.R. Barclay and R.M. Brigham, 

eds.). Research Branch, British Columbia 

Ministry of Forestry, Victoria, British 

Columbia, Canada, Working Paper 

23/1996 1–292.

Hooper, E.T. 1941. Mammals of the lava 

fields and adjoining areas in Valencia 

County, New Mexico. Miscellaneous 

publications, Museum of Zoology, 

University of Michigan, No. 51. Universtiy 

of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 

Lightfoot, D.C., D.L. Bleakly, R.R. Parmenter, 

and J.R. Gosz. 1994. Vegetation and 

wildlife inventory of El Malpais National 

Monument. Final Report. University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Minnis, A.M., D.L. Lindner. 2013. 

Phylogenetic evaluation of Geomyces 

and allies reveals no close relatives of 

Pseudogymnoascus destructans, comb. 

Nov., in bat hibernacula of eastern North 

America. Fungal Biology 117(9):638-649.

doi: 10.1016/j.funbio.2013.07.001, as 

cited by Northup (2013).

Murray, S.W., and T.H. Kunz. 2004. Bats. 

Pages 39-45. Available online at http://

www.bu.edu/av/cecb/pdf/2004/murray_

kunz_bats.pdf. Accessed July 14, 2015.

National Park Service (NPS). 2014. NPSpecies 

List for El Malpais National Monument. 

Full list with details. Obtained November 

2014 from https://irma.nps.gov/npsecies.

New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 

(NMDGF). 2015. Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M). 

Searchable database available at http://

www.bison-m.org/databasequery.aspx. 

Last accessed March 11, 2015.

Northup, D.E. 2013. Phase III– 

Characterization of Geomyces spp. 

from soil samples from the lava caves 

of El Malpais National Monument. 

Final Report for CPCESU Cooperative 

Agreement P1 2 AC 1 0 7 7 2 / U N M - 8 3 . 

University of New Mexico.

Northup, D.E., D. Buecher, A. Porras-Alfaro, 

N. Caimi, and A. Kooser. 2015. Searching 

for close relatives of Pseudogymnoascus 

destructans, El Malpais National 

Monument. Final Report for CPCESU 

Cooperative Agreement #H1200090005 

Task Agreement Number P14AC00588/

Project # UNM-99. University of New 

Mexico.

Romme, W.H. and B. Jacobs. 2015. Assessment 

of the ecological condition of piñonjuniper and ponderosa pine vegetation 

at El Malpais and El Morro National 

Monuments, New Mexico. 36 pages and 

appendix. Report included in Appendix 

F. 

Taylor, D. 2006. Forest management and 

bats. Bat Conservation, International. 

16 pp. Available at www.batcon.org/pdf/

ForestMgmtandBats.pdf. 

Tuttle, M.D. 1988. America’s neighborhood 

bats. University of Texas Press, Austin.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2014. Whitenose syndrome: the devastating disease 

of hibernating bats in North America. 

Fact sheet available at https://www.

whitenosesyndrome.org/about-whitenose- syndrome.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2015. Whitenose syndrome.org: a coordinated 

response to the devastating bat 

disease. Website with information on 

white-nose syndrome (https://www.

whitenosesyndrome.org), last accessed 

August 3, 2015.

Valdez, E.W. 2012. Surveillance for whitenose syndrome in the bat community at 

El Malpais National Monument, 

New Mexico, 2011. U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 2012-1097. 

Valdez, E.W., M.A. Bogan, L. Ellison, and S. 

Haymond. 2002. Bat survey of El Malpais 

National Monument and adjacent 
258

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

areas, New Mexico, 1999 and 2000. 

Unpublished report submitted by the 

U.S. Geological Survey. 

Williams, K., R. Mies, D. Stokes, and L. Stokes. 

2002. Beginner’s guide to bats. Stokes 

Guide. Little, Brown and Company, New 

York.

Wynne, J.J. 2011. Ecological inventory of 

lava tube caves, El Malpais National 

Monument, New Mexico. Final Report. 

Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, 

Arizona. 

Wynne, J.J. 2013. Inventory, conservation, 

and management of lava tube caves at 

El Malpais National Monument, 

New Mexico. Park Science 30(1):45-55.
259

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Landbirds

4.16. Landbirds

4.16.1. Background and Importance

Hundreds of species of birds occur in the 

American Southwest, as do some of the best 

birdwatching opportunities. Bird watching is 

a popular, longstanding recreational pastime 

in the United States and forms the basis of a 

large and sustainable industry (Sekercioglu 

2002). Birds are a highly visible component 

of many ecosystems (Figure 4.16.1-1). They 

are considered good indicators of ecosystem 

health because they can respond quickly 

to changes in resource and environmental 

conditions (Canterbury et al. 2000, Bryce 

et al. 2002). Relative to other vertebrates, 

birds are also highly detectable and can be 

efficiently surveyed with the use of numerous 

standardized methods (Bibby et al. 2000, 

Buckland et al. 2001). Like other wildlife, 

birds are also inherently valuable.

Only a few studies of birds at El Malpais NM 

have been conducted. Before the early 1990s, 

birds in the park were “poorly known and 

undocumented” (Lightfoot et al. 1994); during 

this time, the most extensive information 

on birds in the general vicinity of the park 

were records for the entire county (from 

the New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish [NMDGF], as described by Lightfoot 

et al. 1994). However, in the early 1990s the 

University of New Mexico (i.e., Lightfoot et 

al. 1994) conducted observational surveys at 

the national monument, recording over 100 

species of birds. The next, and most recent 

standardized inventory of birds at El Malpais 

NM was conducted by the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) Biological Resources 

Division, in 2002-2003 (i.e., Johnson et 

al. 2007). Johnson et al. (2007) carried out 

surveys mainly during the breeding season, 

but also during the winter. No comprehensive 

avian inventories or monitoring at the park 

have been conducted since the 2002-2003 

Johnson et al. (2007) work, although informal 

observations by park personnel along some 

Figure 4.16.1-1.

Juniper Titmouse 

(Baeolophus 

ridgwayi) is one of 

the many species 

of birds known to 

inhabit El Malpais 

NM.

Indicators/Measures

• Species Occurrence (1 measure)

© ROBERT SHANTZ

Condition – Trend - Confidence

Unknown - Insufficient Data - Medium
260

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

roads at the park exist for more recent years 

(and are discussed below). Due to the lack 

of current, standardized data, condition and 

trends of landbirds cannot be determined at 

this time.

4.16.2. Data and Methods

For this limited assessment, we used one 

indicator/measure of condition-- species 

occurrence: presence/absence, focusing on 

which landbird species have been observed at 

the national monument by the three survey/

observation efforts. 

Indicators/Measures

Species Occurrence: Presence/Absence

Species Occurrence: Presence/Absence

To assess species occurrence at the national 

monument, we used the 2002-2003 USGS 

bird surveys, as well as the observational 

surveys conducted by Lightfoot et al. (1994) 

and the observational sightings along roads 

conducted by park personnel in the past few 

years. We also reviewed the NPSpecies list of 

birds for the park (NPS 2014a). 

The 2002-2003 work was based on 

standardized bird surveys (primarily during 

the breeding season), while the other two 

sources of information used more informal 

methods. Because the methods used were 

not the same, it would be inappropriate 

to compare the results of the surveys 

directly. With the use of the three sources of 

information, we evaluated species occurrence 

by assembling a list of species that have 

been recorded at the national monument. 

Because the resources used to compile the 

list included periods throughout the year, the 

list of species is not confined to species that 

breed within the park. 

The Occurrence of Species of Conservation 

Concern

Our intent for this aspect of the assessment 

was to determine which species that occur 

or have occurred at El Malpais NM are 

considered species of conservation concern 

at either national or local scales. Note that 

we use the phrase “species of conservation 

concern” in a general sense; it is not specifically 

tied to use by any one agency or organization. 

We took the overall list of species for the 

national monument recorded by Johnson et 

al. (2007), Lightfoot et al. (1994), and park 

staff (from 2011-early 2015), and compared 

it to multiple species of conservation concern 

lists (e.g., a federal/state list of endangered 

and threatened species, those of Greatest 

Conservation Need in New Mexico, and 

those used by other organizations). The 

specific lists we used are described below.

There have been a number of such 

organizations that focus on the conservation 

of bird species. Such organizations may differ, 

however, in the criteria they use to identify 

and/or prioritize species of concern based on 

the mission and goals of their organization. 

They also range in geographic scale from 

global organizations, such as the International 

Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 

who maintains a “Red List of Threatened 

Species,” to local organizations or chapters 

of larger organizations. This has been, and 

continues to be, a source of confusion, and 

perhaps frustration, for managers and others 

who need to make sense of and apply the 

applicable information. In recognition of this, 

the U.S. North American Bird Conservation 

Initiative (NABCI) was started in 1999; it 

represents a coalition of government agencies, 

private organizations, and bird initiatives 

in the United States working to ensure the 

Figure 4.16.2-1.

Bird Conservation 

Regions in North 

America.
261

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Landbirds

conservation of North America’s native 

bird populations. Although there remain a 

number of sources at multiple geographic 

and administrative scales for information 

on species of concern, several of which are 

presented below, the NABCI has made great 

progress in developing a common biological 

framework for conservation planning and 

design.

One of the developments from the NABCI 

was the delineation of Bird Conservation 

Regions (BCRs) (U.S. North American 

Bird Conservation Initiative 2014). Bird 

Conservation Regions are ecologically 

distinct regions in North America with 

similar bird communities, habitats, and 

resource management issues (Figure 4.16.2-

1). El Malpais NM, as well as El Morro NM, 

lie within the Southern Rockies - Colorado 

Plateau BCR (BCR-16; Figure 4.16.2-2). 

Conservation Organizations Listing Species of 

Conservation Concern

Below we identify some of the organizations/

efforts that list species of conservation 

concern; these are the listings we used for this 

condition assessment. Appendix G presents 

additional details on each of the organizations/

efforts. Note that in addition to the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service (USFWS) maintaining 

a list of endangered and threatened species 

(first bullet below), they maintain a list of 

species protected under the Migratory Bird 

Treaty Act (MBTA; USFWS 2016). This 

Act, which protects 1,026 birds, regulates 

“the taking, possession, transportation, 

sale, purchase, barter, exportation, and 

importation of migratory birds” (USFWS 

2013a). Although we did not compare the 

list of birds that have been recorded at El 

Malpais NM to this extensive list, the MBTA 

is discussed in Appendix G. An updated list of 

species protected under the Act can be found 

in USFWS (2013a).

● U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Under the 

Endangered Species Act, the USFWS 

lists species as threatened, endangered, 

or candidates for listing. 

● New Mexico Department of Game 

and Fish (NMDGF): In New Mexico, 

wildlife species are designated as 

threatened and endangered under the 

Figure 4.16.2-2.

Bird Conservation 

Regions in the 

vicinity of El Malpais 

NM and El Morro 

NM. Both parks are 

within the Southern 

Rockies - Colorado 

Plateau BCR (BCR 

16).
262

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

New Mexico Wildlife Conservation Act 

(NMDGF 2015a). For each endangered 

or threatened species, the NMDGF 

develops a recovery plan. A database of 

all vertebrate species in New Mexico, 

including threatened and endangered 

species, is maintained and can be 

searched online (NMDGF 2015b). The 

database is called the Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M).

● USFWS: This agency also developed 

lists of birds of conservation concern 

according to: the Nation, USFWS 

Region, and BCR. 

● The National Audubon Society (NAS) 

and American Bird Conservancy 

(ABC): These groups combined efforts 

to produce a “Watch List,” based on, 

but not identical to, the Partners in 

Flight approach to species assessment 

(see below). The 2007 WatchList has 

two primary levels of concern: a “Red 

Watchlist,” which identifies what these 

organizations consider as species of 

highest national concern; and a “Yellow 

WatchList,” which is made up of species 

that are somewhat less critical.

● Partners in Flight (PIF): This is a 

cooperative effort among federal, state, 

and local government agencies, as 

well as private organizations. PIF has 

adopted BCRs as the geographic scale 

for updated regional bird conservation 

assessments. At the scale of the individual 

BCRs, there are species of Continental 

Importance (Continental Concern [CC] 

and Continental Stewardship [CS]) 

and Regional Importance (Regional 

Concern [RC] and Regional Stewardship 

[RS]). We did not include the CS or RS 

species in our assessment. The list for 

BCR 16 was be obtained online (Rocky 

Mountain Bird Observatory 2015).

● NM Species of Greatest Conservation 

Need (SPGN): Under the Comprehensive 

Wildlife Conservation Strategy (CWCS) 

for New Mexico, SGCN have been 

designated in the state (NMDGF 2006). 

Of the 452 vertebrate, mollusc, and 

arthropod SGCN statewide, about 74

are birds. There are lists of SGCN for 

the entire state, as well as those for each 

of the individual ecoregions in New 

Mexico. The ecoregion in which El 

Malpais NM occurs is the Arizona-New 

Mexico Mountains (NMDGF 2006). 

The BISON-M database maintains 

information on which species are 

SGCN, and it provides lists of species so 

designated for Cibola County (and other 

counties; NMDGF 2015b). Note that we 

obtained both the ecoregion list from 

NMDGF (2006) and the county list from 

NMDGF (2015b), and the lists differed 

somewhat. To take a conservative 

approach in our assessment, we 

compared both lists to our list of species 

for the national monument. 

Data Sources

Data/information used as part of this 

assessment include: surveys conducted 

by Lightfoot et al. (1994) in 1991-1993; 

surveys conducted by Johnson et al. (2007) 

in 2002-2003; and observations made by 

park personnel along roads in 2011-early 

2015. These efforts to collect information on 

occurrence of birds at El Malpais NM are 

described below. 

Lightfoot et al. (1994)

Lightfoot et al. (1994) made routine 

observations of birds at the national 

monument as part of a larger vegetation and 

wildlife inventory. This group of animals was 

surveyed by making observations during 

study site visits (in general, multiple visits to 

101 study sites) and while driving at the park, 

particularly along state highways 117 and 53 

and county road 42. The overall survey was 

conducted over three years in the early 1990s 

(1991-1993); birds were observed during all 

three years at various times throughout the 

calendar year. Lightfoot et al. (1994) reported 

observing more than 100 bird species. 

Johnson et al. (2007) Avian Inventory

In 2002-2003, the USGS conducted avian 

inventories at El Malpais NM primarily 

during the breeding season (Johnson et al. 

2007). From May 19-July 10, three breeding 

season surveys were conducted each year. 

The researchers used point-count surveys 

in the main habitat types at the national 

monument-- ponderosa pine, pinyonjuniper, mixed pinyon-juniper/ponderosa 
263

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Landbirds

pine, grassland, and shrubland. Both random 

and non-random points were used, for a 

total of 207 point-count surveys at 69 pointcount stations. Incidental observations and 

area-search surveys were also conducted 

during each breeding season, emphasizing 

habitat not covered well during point-count 

surveys. In February of 2003, a one-day, nonbreeding winter survey was conducted. For 

each species recorded during the breeding 

season, they reported evidence of breeding 

(e.g., bird seen carrying nesting material, 

adults seen carrying food, pair observed in 

suitable nesting habitat). Johnson et al. (2007) 

reported a total of more than 70 species 

during their work.

El Malpais NM eBird Data

No comprehensive, park-wide or habitatspecific surveys of birds have occurred at 

the park since that by Johnson et al. (2007) 

in 2002-2003. However, park personnel 

and trained volunteers have conducted 

observations (i.e., recorded sightings) of birds 

along Highway 53 and/or 117 regularly from 

January/February until May/June, and more 

sporadically throughout the remainder of the 

year, since 2011 (David Hays, former Natural 

Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, 

pers. comm.). The sightings are uploaded and 

maintained in eBird (Audubon and Cornell 

Lab of Ornithology 2015). Records used for 

this condition assessment were provided by 

park staff in March, 2015. 

eBird is an online checklist program that 

was launched in 2002 by the Cornell Lab of 

Ornithology and National Audubon Society 

(Audubon and Cornell Lab of Ornithology 

2015). eBird reports on the occurrence 

(presence or absence) of bird species, as well as 

other information, using data from checklists 

provided by recreational and professional 

bird watchers. Cumulative lists of bird species 

are available for El Malpais NM based on 

observations from park personnel (see above) 

and others. Lists are available for several 

locations along Highways 117 on the east side 

of the park and 53 along the northwest side 

of the park. eBird data for the park from the 

eBird website include years prior to 2011; we 

examined data from the pre-2011 years for 

records on additional bird species. 

 NPSpecies List

The list of birds for the national monument 

from NPSpecies was also reviewed (NPS 

2014a; obtained from IRMA in November 

2014). We used the list as supporting 

information and for the inclusion of additional 

species not recorded in the three park survey/

observation efforts. 

4.16.3. Reference Conditions

No reference conditions were developed for 

this resource topic. This is because no two 

similar studies or surveys to compare species 

occurrence exist (e.g., to examine changes 

in species occurrence over time), and no 

comparable recent information is available. 

For example, surveys by Johnson et al. 

(2007) were conducted during the breeding 

season only, while observations by Lightfoot 

et al. (1994) occurred throughout the year. 

However, the information presented from 

the surveys/inventories that do exist provides 

a good baseline for future monitoring and 

assessment for bird species occurrence at 

the national monument. In other words, if 

standardized surveys of birds are conducted 

in the future, the new survey results could 

be compared to the survey/inventory results 

from the early 2000s (and the results of 

Lightfoot et al. 1994). The survey results from 

the early 2000s could become the reference 

conditions for the future assessments. Even if 

we had presented the results of the Johnson 

et al. (2007) work as our reference conditions 

now, we would not have had any current 

information on species occurrence to judge 

condition.

4.16.4. Condition and Trend

There have been a total of approximately 183 

bird species reported at El Malpais NM from 

the 2002-2003 USGS surveys, the 1991-1993 

University of New Mexico surveys, and/or 

the 2011-early 2015 observations by national 

monument staff/volunteers (Appendix H). 

Note that a number of additional species 

appear on the NPSpecies list for the park 

(NPS 2014a), and they are discussed below.
264

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Starting with the earliest of the three survey/

observation efforts, Lightfoot et al. (1994) 

recorded a total of 109 species. Johnson et 

al. (2007) recorded 75 species, 70 during 

their point count surveys and five during 

the additional area searches and incidental 

observations. Recall that the USGS/Johnson 

et al. (2007) surveys were conducted almost 

entirely during the breeding season. Park 

staff/volunteers have reported a total of 168 

species during their observations (subspecies 

are excluded from this number, as are 

cases where the genus but not species was 

identified). Because the entire list of species 

recorded from these three survey efforts 

is lengthy, it is presented in the appendix. 

However, note that 76 species were reported 

from one survey only, 46 species were 

reported by two surveys, and 61 species were 

reported by all three surveys.

Prior to obtaining the eBird data from park 

personnel, a search of data from the eBird 

site revealed that 91 bird species had been 

recorded for the park from 1993 to 2014. 

There were only six species that appeared 

in this dataset but not that from the park for 

2011-early 2015; these six species are shown 

in a footnote in Appendix H. The park eBird 

dataset for 2011-early 2015 included many 

species not included in the 1993-2014 eBird 

dataset.

For the 70 species recorded by Johnson et al. 

(2007) during point count surveys, analyses 

were also conducted to examine species 

distribution and relative abundance across 

habitats. A brief summary of some of this 

information is presented here because they 

are the only such analyses that have been 

conducted at the national monument, and 

they are of interest. For example, the greatest 

number of species were detected in ponderosa 

pine habitat (54), followed by pinyon-juniper 

and mixed pinyon-juniper/ponderosa pine 

habitats (47 and 45, respectively). Twentytwo species were observed in grassland 

habitat. Overall (for all habitat types 

combined), species recorded in the highest 

numbers during point counts were: Cassins’s 

Kingbird (Tyrannus vociferans), Ash-throated 

Flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascens), Pinyon 

Jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus), Rock 

Wren (Salpinctes obsoletus), Mourning Dove 

(Zenaida macroura), Northern Mockingbird 

(Mimus polyglottos), and Chipping Sparrow 

(Spizella passerina), respectively.

Additional Species from NPSpecies List

The NPSpecies list for the park (NPS 

2014a) contained 33 additional bird species 

(excluding those only “probably present”) 

that were not recorded by the three surveys/

observation efforts used for the assessment. 

The vast majority of these species are noted as 

rare or uncommon migrants, but four of the 

species are noted as rare breeders (Common 

Grackle [Quiscalus quiscula], Northern 

Saw-whet Owl [Aegolius acadicus], Painted 

Redstart [Myioborus pictus], and Western 

Screech-Owl [Megascops kennicottii]). Note 

that we did not include these birds when 

compiling the list of species of conservation 

concern, and they do not appear in Appendix 

H. 

Species of Conservation Concern

There are 46 species that have been recorded 

during one or more of the three surveys/

observation efforts at El Malpais NM that are 

listed as species of conservation concern on 

one or more of the lists described in Section 

4.16.2 and Appendix G (Table 4.16.4-1). Table 

4.16.4-2 indicates in which surveys the species 

were observed. Only eight of the species were 

detected in all three survey efforts.

● USFWS / Listed Species: There are no 

bird species listed by the USFWS as 

endangered or threatened (USFWS 

2015) that are known to occur at the 

national monument (Table 4.16.4-1). 

However, as discussed below (under 

Federally-listed Species), there are three 

species that may occur outside the park 

and/or within the county (and could 

pass through the park) and of which 

park personnel are aware (NPS 2014b). 

● State of New Mexico / Listed Species: 

Three state-listed birds, all threatened, 

have been recorded at the national 

monument (Gray Vireo [Vireo vicinior], 

Bald Eagle [Haliaeetus leucocephalus], 

and Peregrine Falcon [Falco peregrinus]; 

Johnson et al. 2007, NPS 2014a, NMGFD 

2015b).
265

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Landbirds

Table 4.16.4-1. Summary of species detected during the three sets of surveys/observations (Johnson et al. 

2007, Lightfoot et al. 1994, and the park’s eBird data for 2011-early 2015) at El Malpais NM of conservation 

concern, as listed by government agencies and non-governmental organizations.

Common Name

Listed Species Species of Conservation Concern Lists

Notes

Federal1 State2 US Fish & Wildlife 

Service

NAS/

ABC3

Partners in 

Flight

State (NMDGF) National 5

Conservation 

Strategy4

USFWS NMDGF National Region 

2

BCR 

16

2007 

Watch 

List

BCR 16 Species of 

Greatest 

Conservation 

Need

CC RC

Bald Eagle T • • • •

Band-tailed Pigeon •

Bendire’s Thrasher • • • • • • •A A=on SGCN county list only.

Black-chinned 

Sparrow • • • •

Black-throated Gray 

Warbler •

Brewer’s Sparrow • • • •

Burrowing Owl • • •

Calliope 

Hummingbird • •

Cassin's Finch • • •

Chestnut-collared 

Longspur • • •

Clark’s Nutcracker •

Common 

Nighthawk •

Common Poorwill •

Eared Grebe •A A=on SGCN county list only.

Ferruginous Hawk • • •

Flammulated Owl • • • • •

Golden Eagle • • • •

Grace’s Warbler • • • • •

Gray Vireo T • • • • • • •

Juniper Titmouse • •

Lark Bunting • •

Lazuli Bunting •

Lewis’s Woodpecker • • • • • •A A=on SGCN county list only.

Loggerhead Shrike • • • •

Long-billed Curlew • • • • •A A=on SGCN county list only

Mountain Bluebird •

1

 Federal Listed Species Codes 2 State Listed Species Codes 3 NAS/ABC - 2007 Watchlist

 T = Threatened PT= Proposed Threatened T = Threatened • = Red List 

 E = Endangered E = Endangered • = Declining or Rare

4

 PIF NCS Categories 5 Species of Greatest Conservation Need

CC = Continental Concern RC = Regional Concern in Cibola County / Arizona-New Mexico Mountains ecoregion)
266

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Common Name

Listed Species Species of Conservation Concern Lists

Notes

Federal1 State2 US Fish & Wildlife 

Service

NAS/

ABC3

Partners in 

Flight

State (NMDGF) National 5

Conservation 

Strategy4

USFWS NMDGF National Region 

2

BCR 

16

2007 

Watch 

List

BCR 16 Species of 

Greatest 

Conservation 

Need

CC RC

Mountain Plover • • • • •

Mourning Dove •

Northern Goshawk •

Northern Harrier •A A=on SGCN county list only

Olive-sided 

Flycatcher • • • •

Peregrine Falcon T • • • •

Pinyon Jay • • • • • • •

Prairie Falcon •

Rufous 

Hummingbird •

Sage Sparrow • •

Sage Thrasher •A A=on SGCN county list only

Scaled Quail • •

Solitary Sandpiper • •

Swainson’s Hawk • •

Virginia’s Warbler • • •

Western Sandpiper •

White-faced Ibis •A

A=on SGCN county list only; 

Observed just outside park 

by Lightfoot et al. 1994.

Williamson’s 

Sapsucker • •

Wilson’s Phalarope •

Yellow Warbler •

1

 Federal Listed Species Codes 2 State Listed Species Codes 3 NAS/ABC - 2007 Watchlist

 T = Threatened PT= Proposed Threatened T = Threatened • = Red List 

 E = Endangered E = Endangered • = Declining or Rare

4

 PIF NCS Categories 5 Species of Greatest Conservation Need

CC = Continental Concern RC = Regional Concern in Cibola County / Arizona-New Mexico Mountains ecoregion)

Table 4.16.4-1. Summary of species detected during the three sets of surveys/observations (Johnson et al. 2007, Lightfoot

et al. 1994, and the park’s eBird data for 2011-early 2015) at El Malpais NM of conservation concern, as listed by government 

agencies and non-governmental organizations (continued).
267

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Landbirds

Table 4.16.4-2. Species of conservation concern detected during one, two, or three 

of the three sets of surveys/observations at El Malpais NM. Note that Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) included some species that were observed just outside of national monument 

boundaries.

Common Name

Johnson et al. 

(2007) in 2002-

2003

Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) in 1991-

1993

eBird/Park 

Observations 

2011-early 2015

Bald Eagle •

Band-tailed Pigeon • •

Bendire’s Thrasher •

Black-chinned Sparrow •

Black-throated Gray Warbler • • •

Brewer’s Sparrow • •

Burrowing Owl • •

Calliope Hummingbird •

Cassin's Finch • •

Chestnut-collared Longspur •

Clark’s Nutcracker • •

Common Nighthawk • • •

Common Poorwill • •

Eared Grebe •

Ferruginous Hawk •

Flammulated Owl •

Golden Eagle • •

Grace’s Warbler • • •

Gray Vireo • •

Juniper Titmouse • • •

Lark Bunting •

Lazuli Bunting •

Lewis’s Woodpecker • •

Loggerhead Shrike • •

Long-billed Curlew •

Mountain Bluebird • • •

Mountain Plover • •

Mourning Dove • • •

Northern Goshawk • •

Northern Harrier • •

Olive-sided Flycatcher •

Peregrine Falcon •

Pinyon Jay • • •

Prairie Falcon •

Rufous Hummingbird • •

Sage Sparrow •

Sage Thrasher • •

Scaled Quail •

Solitary Sandpiper •

Swainson’s Hawk •

Virginia’s Warbler • • •

Western Sandpiper •
268

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

● USFWS / Birds of Conservation

Concern: There are 26 species that have 

been recorded at the national monument 

that have been identified by USFWS as 

having the greatest conservation need 

at a National, USFWS Regional, or BCR 

geographic scale (USFWS 2008).

● NAS / ABC: There are 19 species that 

occur or have occurred at the national 

monument that are included on the 

NAS/ABC 2007 WatchList. Four species, 

Bendire’s Thrasher (Toxostoma bendirei), 

Black-chinned Sparrow (Spizella 

atrogularis), Lewis’s Woodpecker 

(Melanerpes lewis), and Mountain Plover 

(Charadrius montanus), are on the Red 

List. The other 15 species are on the 

Yellow List, either because of population 

declines (7) or because they are rare (8).

● PIF: Twenty of the 46 bird species in 

Table 4.16.4-1 are listed by PIF as either 

CC or RC (recall we did not include 

the stewardship categories). Eight of 

the species are listed as Continental 

Concern and 17 of the species are listed 

as Regional Concern (some species are 

listed as both). 

● New Mexico Species of Greatest 

Conservation Need: Twenty-seven of 

the species recorded during one or 

more of the survey/observation efforts 

are considered Species of Greatest 

Conservation Need in Cibola County 

/ the Arizona-New Mexico Mountains 

ecoregion (NMDGF 2006, 2015b).Ten 

of the species appear only on this list 

(i.e., as only a SGCN).

Federally-listed Species

There are three federally-listed bird species 

that are not known to occur within the 

national monument but are known from or 

may occur in Cibola County (USFWS 2015; 

NMDGF 2015b); these are the Mexican 

Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis lucida; 

threatened), Southwestern Willow Flycatcher 

(Empidonax traillii extimus; endangered), and 

Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus 

occidentalis, western population; threatened). 

Two areas of critical habitat have been 

designated for the Mexican Spotted Owl 

in the Cibola National Forest north of the 

national monument (one north of Interstate 

40 and one south of the interstate [but north 

of Highway 53]; USFWS 2004). To date, no 

Mexican Spotted Owls have been recorded in 

the national monument (David Hays, former 

Natural Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais 

NM, pers. comm). The park informally 

consulted with the USFWS in the 1990s 

concerning the owl, and it was concluded that 

the monument did not contain habitat suitable 

(in composition, density, or aspect) for nesting 

or roosting (Lujan 1999); occasional visits by 

foraging owls, however, were not ruled out. 

This was based on two field trips by USFWS 

and NPS personnel to potential owl habitat 

within the monument.

Information from BISON-M for the 

Southwestern Willow Flycatcher indicates 

that the species is rare in Cibola County. 

Additionally, critical habitat has been 

designated for the species in the state (in 

nearby counties), but the habitat is not in close 

proximity to the national monument (USFWS 

2013b); critical habitat was designated in the 

two counties south of Cibola County, Catron 

and Socorro, but not close to the southern 

Cibola County border. The critical habitat in 

Socorro County extends north into Valencia 

County (the county to the east of Cibola) to 

the east of Interstate 25. 

Common Name

Johnson et al. 

(2007) in 2002-

2003

Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) in 1991-

1993

eBird/Park 

Observations 

2011-early 2015

White-faced Ibis •

Williamson’s Sapsucker •

Wilson’s Phalarope •

Yellow Warbler • •

Table 4.16.4-2. Species of conservation concern detected during one, two, or three of the three

sets of surveys/observations at El Malpais NM (continued).
269

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Landbirds

Overall Condition and Trend

To assess condition of landbirds at El 

Malpais NM, we used one indicator/measure 

that is summarized in Table 4.16.4-3. The 

information presented in this assessment is 

from the most recent standardized surveys 

at the park, conducted in 2002-2003 by the 

USGS (Johnson et al. 2007), as well as previous 

surveys by the University of New Mexico 

(Lightfoot et al. 1994) and observations 

by national monument staff/volunteers in 

2011-early 2015. 

At least 183 bird species have been recorded 

in the national monument; this number does 

not include subspecies, which park staff 

have been recording in recent years. Current 

condition and trends can not be assessed due 

to the lack of recent data from standardized 

sampling (or at least comparable efforts). 

However, the three surveys/efforts conducted 

to date provide good information on species 

occurrence in general. The Johnson et al. 

(2007) work focused on species breeding 

within the park, while the other efforts 

included numerous observations outside of 

the breeding season. Forty-six of the species 

documented at the park appear on one or 

more various lists of species of conservation 

concern. Three species, including the 

Bald Eagle (Figure 4.16.4-1), are listed as 

threatened with the State of New Mexico. 

Although we judge the condition unknown 

due to insufficient data in the context of the 

condition assessment, it seems clear that El 

Malpais NM is inhabited by a diverse array 

of birds, at least some of which breed in the 

park. 

Level of Confidence/Key Uncertainties

The key uncertainties related to this 

assessment are the overall lack of data (e.g., 

no two sources of information/data of 

comparable methods and effort). Additionally, 

Landbirds

Indicator Measure

Species Occurrence Presence/Absence

Figure 4.16.4-1.

A pair of Bald 

Eagles (Haliaeetus 

leucocephalus) 

at a snag in the 

North Pastures at El 

Malpais NM.

NPS

Table 4.16.4-3. Indicator/measure of landbirds condition.

Indicator Measure Condition Condition Rationale

Species 

Occurrence

Presence/

absence Unknown

We used one indicator/measure, species occurrence, to assess 

the condition of landbirds at El Malpais NM. There are no 

current data representative of the entire park to assess current 

condition of birds at the national monument. The most recent 

standardized surveys were conducted in 2002-2003 during the 

breeding season (i.e., Johnson et al. 2007). Recent observations 

(2011-early 2015) have been conducted by park personnel from 

January/February until May/June and throughout the remainder 

of the year along roads bordering the monument (Highway 53 

and 117). Although condition can not be determined at this 

time, the three efforts to survey/observe birds at the park have 

led to a substantial list of birds. At least 183 bird species have 

been recorded (and more if subspecies are included), including 46 

species that appear on one or more lists of birds of conservation 

concern. This list includes three state-listed (threatened) 

bird species (Bald Eagle, Gray Vireo, and Peregrine Falcon).
270

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

only the 2002-2003 surveys by Johnson et al. 

(2007) were conducted primarily during the 

breeding season, and this was the only study 

that provided evidence of breeding by birds 

observed.

4.16.5. Sources of Expertise

No outside experts were consulted for this 

resource topic. This section was authored by 

biologist Patty Valentine-Darby.

4.16.6. Literature Cited

Audubon and Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 

2015. Searchable database of bird sitings 

and related information. Available at 

http://ebird.org/content/ebird/. Last 

accessed March 24, 2015. 

Bibby, C. J, N. D. Burgess, D. A. Hill, and S. 

Mustoe. 2000. Bird census techniques. 

Second ed. London: Academic Press.

Bryce, S. A., R. M. Hughes, and P. R. 

Kaufmann. 2002. Development of a bird 

integrity index: Using bird assemblages 

as indicators of riparian condition. 

Environmental Management 30:294–310.

Buckland, S. T., D. R. Anderson, K. P. 

Burnham, J. L. Laake, D. L. Borchers, 

and L. Thomas. 2001. Introduction to 

distance sampling: Estimating abundance 

of biological populations. Oxford, U.K.: 

Oxford University Press.

Canterbury, G. E., T. E. Martin, D. R. Petit, 

L. J. Petit, and D. F. Bradford. 2000. Bird 

communities and habitat as ecological 

indicators of forest condition in regional 

monitoring. Conservation Biology 

14:544–558.

Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 2015. The birds 

of North America. Online. (http://bna.

birds.cornell.edu/bna/). Last accessed 

May 4, 2015.

Johnson M.J., J.A. Holmes, M.A. Stuart, and 

J. Lynn. 2007. Avian inventories for six 

national parks in the Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/SCPN/

NRTR– 2007/047. National Park 

Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Lightfoot, D.C., D.L. Bleakly, R.R. Parmenter, 

and J.R. Gosz. 1994. Vegetation and 

wildlife inventory of El Malpais National 

Monument. Final Report. University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Lujan, J. 1999. National Park Service letter to 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service concerning 

the Mexican Spotted Owl. Letter from El 

Malpais NM Superintendent John Lujan 

to Brian Hanson, Acting Field Supervisor 

of New Mexico Ecological Services Field 

Office, USFWS, dated November 23, 

1999.

National Park Service (NPS). 2014a. 

NPSpecies List for El Malpais National 

Monument. Full list with details. 

Obtained November 2014 from https://

irma.nps.gov/npsecies.

National Park Service (NPS). 2014b. 

Wilderness and Backcountry Stewardship 

Plan, Draft Environmental Assessment. 

El Malpais National Monument, Grants, 

New Mexico. Draft revised March 4, 

2014.

New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish (NMDGF). 2006. Comprehensive 

Wildlife Conservation Strategy for New 

Mexico. New Mexico Department of 

Game and Fish. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 

526 pp + appendices. Available at http://

www.wildlife.state.nm.us/conservation/

comp_wildlife_cons_strategy/.

New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish (NMDGF). 2015a. Threatened 

and endangered species: Recovery 

plans, reports, reviews. Webpage 

available at http:www.wildlife.

state.nm.us/conservation/wildlifespecies-information/threatened-andendangered-species/. Last accessed 

March 3, 2015.

New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 

(NMDGF). 2015b. Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M). 
271

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Landbirds

Searchable database available at http://

www.bison-m.org/databasequery.aspx. 

Last accessed March 11, 2015.

Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory (RMBO). 

2015. Partners in Flight species assessment 

database [bird list for BCR 16]. Available at 

http://rmbo.org/pifassessment/Database.

aspx#. Accessed April 27, 2015.

Sekercioglu, C. H. 2002. Impacts of 

birdwatching on human and avian 

communities. Environmental 

Conservation 29:282–289.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 

2004. Endangered and Threatened 

Wildlife and Plants; Final Designation of 

Critical Habitat for the Mexican Spotted 

Owl; Final Rule. 50 CFR Part 17. Federal 

Register, Vol. 69, No. 168, August 31, 

2004. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2008. Birds 

of Conservation Concern 2008. United 

States Department of Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Division of Migratory 

Bird Management, Arlington, Virginia. 85 

pp. [Online version available at <http://

www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/>].

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 

2013a. General Provisions; Revised List 

of Migratory Birds; Final Rule. 50 CFR 

Parts 10 and 21. Federal Register, Vol. 78, 

No. 212, November 1, 2013.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 

2013b. Endangered and Threatened 

Wildlife and Plants; Designation of 

Critical Habitat for Southwestern Willow 

Flycatcher; Final Rule. 50 CFR Part 17. 

Federal Register, Vol. 78, No. 2, January 

3, 2013.[See maps on pages 527, 529, and 

534].

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWS). 2015. 

Species listed in New Mexico based on 

published historic range and population. 

Environmental Conservation Online 

System, available at http://ecos.fws.gov/

tess_public/reports/species-listed-bystate-report?state=NM&status=listed. 

Last accessed January 30, 2015. [Note: 

this site also provides county lists].

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 

2016. Migratory Bird Treaty Act, Birds 

Protected. USFWS webpage, last updated 

September 16, 2015, http://www.fws.

gov/birds/policies-and-regulations/lawslegislations/migratory-bird-treaty-act.

php. Last accessed February 8, 2016. 

U.S. North American Bird Conservation 

Initiative. 2014. Main page. Online. 

Available at http://www.nabci-us.org. 

Last accessed July 2, 2014. 

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Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Herpetofauna

4.17. Herpetofauna

4.17.1. Background and Importance

The American Southwest is well known for 

its abundance and diversity of reptiles. The 

region is less well known for its amphibians, 

but they are abundant in some habitats, 

particularly during favorable weather 

conditions. Amphibians and reptiles are, 

together, referred to as herpetofauna or 

“herps.” At least 123 species of herpetofauna 

(166 including subspecies) occur in the state 

of New Mexico (Degenhardt et al. 1996; 

Figure 4.17.1-1). 

Amphibians and reptiles are important 

members of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. 

Amphibians constitute an important part of 

the food web; they consume insects and other 

invertebrates, and they are prey for a long list 

of fish, reptile, bird, and mammal species. 

Reptiles too serve as both predators and prey 

for many animals, such as small mammals, 

birds, and other reptiles. Amphibians are also 

viewed as indicators of wetland ecosystem 

health (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency 2002). They are sensitive to a variety 

of threats due to their permeable skin and 

complex life histories, and, thus, can serve as 

early indicators of ecosystem change when 

monitored over long time scales. Like birds, 

reptiles and amphibians are also of aesthetic 

value to visitors of national park units.

El Malpais NM is located in west-central New 

Mexico on the slopes of the Zuni Mountains. 

Much of the park is surrounded by Cibola 

National Forest and the El Malpais National 

Conservation Area. Plant communities found 

at the park include ponderosa pine forests 

and pinyon-juniper woodlands, as well 

as grasslands and shrublands. Substantial 

portions of the park’s lava flows are sparsely 

vegetated. The park contains little surface 

water. Sources of water for wildlife include 

ponding at the edges of lava flows due to 

Indicators/Measures

• Species Occurrence (1 measure)

Figure 4.17.1-1.

Canyon treefrog, 

one of the 

herpetofaunal 

species found at El 

Malpais NM; the 

treefrog shown here 

is resting on lava. 

NPS / MURPHY)

Condition – Trend – Confidence

Insufficient Data - Insufficient Data -

Medium
274

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

runoff from rain or snowmelt, tinajas in 

sandstone outcrops, and a few intermittent 

drainages (Thomas et al. 2006).

No current information is available on the 

herpetofauna of El Malpais NM. The most 

recent information is from surveys conducted 

at the park (and 11 other Southern Colorado 

Plateau Network parks) by the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) Southwest Biological Science 

Center in 2002-2003 (Nowak and Persons 

2008). As it is the most recent, comprehensive 

source of information on herpetofauna for the 

park, this chapter summarizes the Nowak and 

Persons (2008) report. Unfortunately, current 

condition and trends cannot be assessed due 

to the lack of current data. 

Prior to the 2002-2003 Nowak and Persons 

(2008) surveys, two other surveys of reptiles 

and amphibians were conducted within the 

park (Lightfoot et al. 1994) or in the vicinity 

of the park (Gehlbach 1965), and the results 

of these studies are also discussed here.

4.17.2. Data and Methods

This limited assessment is based on the 

2002-2003 amphibian and reptile surveys 

conducted by the USGS (i.e., Nowak and 

Persons 2008). We used one indicator/

measure of condition-- species occurrence: 

presence/absence.

Indicators/Measures

Species Occurrence: Presence/Absence 

Species Occurrence: Presence/Absence

Because there is no recent information to 

assess current condition, we used the 2002-

2003 surveys to assess the occurrence of 

amphibian and reptile species at the national 

monument. We also included information on 

species reported in the park during the earlier 

inventory by Lightfoot et al. (1994).

 The Occurrence of Species of Conservation 

Concern

The surveys by Nowak and Persons (2008) 

and Lightfoot et al. (1994) were used to 

generate a list of species of conservation 

concern (note that we use this term in a general 

sense). The list was compiled by comparing 

the list of species observed during the two 

surveys to a federal/state list of endangered 

and threatened species (described later) and 

those of Greatest Conservation Need in New 

Mexico (described later). We also reviewed 

the NPSpecies list for the park (i.e., NPS 

2014) to see whether any additional species 

should be included. 

Primary Data Sources

Nowak and Persons (2008)

The primary objectives of this work were to 

provide a baseline inventory of herpetofauna 

and document 90% of the herpetofauna 

species present at the park, identify species of 

special concern, and make recommendations 

for a monitoring program (Nowak and Persons 

2008). In order to observe as many species as 

possible, a variety of sampling methods were 

used: general surveys, night driving, time-area 

constrained searches (TACS), and nocturnal 

general surveys. About 119 person-hours were 

spent on the surveys in 2002-2003. General 

surveys were visual encounter surveys that 

were not defined or limited by area or time; 

they were conducted primarily during the 

daytime. The TACS were visual encounter 

surveys that involved moving through each 

habitat in a systematic manner within the 

sampling area and for a predefined period 

of time, while searching potential habitats 

within the sampling area. Random TACS 

plot surveys were conducted within both 1 

and 10-hectare areas. Finally, night driving 

surveys were used and are especially effective 

for snakes and amphibians. Additional details 

on these methods are provided in Nowak and 

Persons (2008). These researchers also named 

several additional species that probably occur 

or may occur at the park. 

Lightfoot et al. (1994)

Lightfoot et al. (1994) conducted surveys 

for reptiles and amphibians at the national 

monument as part of a larger vegetation 

and wildlife inventory. Not many details are 

presented in the report regarding survey 

methods for amphibians and reptiles. This 

group of animals was recorded during study 

site visits (in general, multiple visits to 101 

study sites) and while driving at the park, 

particularly along state highways 117 and 53 

and county road 42. Lightfoot et al. (1994) 

included additional information on the earlier 
275

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Herpetofauna

study by Gehlbach (1965), which focused 

on amphibians and reptiles of the Zuni 

Mountains area, including land around the 

present-day park (Lightfoot et al. 1994). 

Protected/Rare Species Lists

In New Mexico, wildlife species are 

designated as threatened and endangered 

under the New Mexico Wildlife Conservation 

Act (New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish [NMDGF] 2015a). For each endangered 

or threatened species, the NMDGF develops 

a recovery plan. A database of all vertebrate 

species in New Mexico, including threatened 

and endangered species, is maintained and 

can be searched online (NMDGF 2015b). 

The database is called the Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M). Under 

the Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service (USFWS) lists species 

as threatened, endangered, or candidates for 

listing. Lists of federal and state-listed species 

(i.e., USFWS 2015 and NMDGF 2015b)

were obtained and compared to the list of 

amphibian and reptile species recorded at the 

national monument.

Under the Comprehensive Wildlife 

Conservation Strategy (CWCS) for New 

Mexico, Species of Greatest Conservation 

Need (SGCN) have been designated in the 

state (NMDGF 2006). Of the 452 vertebrate, 

mollusc, and arthropod SGCN statewide, 

47 are reptiles and amphibians. There are 

lists of SGCN for the entire state, as well as 

those for each of the individual ecoregions 

in New Mexico. The ecoregion in which 

El Malpais NM occurs is the Arizona-New 

Mexico Mountains. The BISON-M database 

maintains information on which species are 

SGCN, and lists of species so designated 

for Cibola County (and other counties) are 

available (NMDGF 2015b). 

4.17.3. Reference Conditions

No reference conditions were developed for 

this resource topic.

4.17.4. Condition and Trend

A total of 21 species of amphibians and 

reptiles were recorded at El Malpais NM 

during 2002-2003 surveys by USGS (Nowak 

and Persons 2008) and/or during the early 

1990s surveys by University of New Mexico 

(Lightfoot et al. 1994). Several additional 

species are noted as “probably present” or 

“unconfirmed” by Nowak and Persons (2008) 

and NPS (2014). These species are discussed 

in this section as appropriate.

Species Occurrence: Presence/Absence

Of the 21 species, 18 were recorded during 

the 2002-2003 surveys (Table 4.17.4-1). Five 

of the 18 species are amphibians, and 13 of 

the species are reptiles. Seventeen of the 

21 species were recorded during the early 

1990s surveys by Lightfoot et al. (1994; three 

amphibians and 14 reptiles). Fourteen of the 

21 species were observed in both surveys. 

There were only three species that were 

recorded by Lightfoot et al. (1994) but not 

by Nowak and Persons (2008), with the 

occurrence/identification of one of the species 

(Chihuahuan whiptail [Cnemidophorus 

exsanguis]) questioned by Nowak and 

Persons (2008). The other two species 

were canyon treefrog (Hyla arenicolor) and 

many-lined, or variable, skink (Eumeces 

multivirgatus). Nowak and Persons (2008) 

suggested the drought conditions during their 

sampling may have affected their detection of 

the canyon treefrog. NPS (2014) noted both 

of these species as uncommon in the park.

Most of the herpetofauna species recorded 

at El Malpais NM during 2002-2003 are 

widespread and common species (Nowak 

and Persons 2008). One exception to this is 

the mountain treefrog, which was detected 

by Nowak and Persons (2008) at only one 

location. It was found in the northwestern 

portion of the monument, and this is about 

90 miles (145 km) north of the closest known 

population. This species was not observed by 

Lightfoot et al. (1994). 

Both Nowak and Persons (2008) and Lightfoot 

et al. (1994) provide some information on 

where particular species were observed, as 

well as which species were observed in the 

highest total numbers. 

The authors of the 2002-2003 inventory 

estimated that inventory completeness at 

the park was 78%, meaning that additional 
276

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

species are likely to be found at the national 

monument with additional surveys. Although 

not shown in the table, five additional 

species are probably present at the national 

monument (with a high probability of 

occurrence) according to Nowak and Persons 

2008): Woodhouse’s toad (Bufo woodhousii), 

ring-necked snake (Diadophis punctatus), 

night snake (Hypsiglena torquata), mountain 

patch-nosed snake (Salvadora grahamiae), 

and black-tailed rattlesnake (Crotalus 

molossus). Nowak and Persons (2008) used 

information provided by Gehlbach (1965) 

and Degenhardt et al. (1996) to conclude that 

these species probably occur in the park.

No comprehensive surveys or monitoring of 

amphibians and reptiles have been conducted 

at the park since the 2002-2003 surveys. 

Therefore, we can not provide any additional 

information as to which species occur in the 

park at this time. 

Table 4.17.4-1. Amphibian and reptile species recorded in El Malpais NM during surveys in 2002-2003 by 

Nowak and Persons (2008) and in the early 1990’s by Lightfoot et al. (1994). For the species recorded by one 

or both of these surveys, we also indicate whether they were reported by Gehlbach (1965).

Common Name Scientific Name Nowak and 

Persons (2008)

Lightfoot et 

al. (1994)

Gehlbach 

(1965) 1

NPSpecies 

(NPS 2014)

Amphibians

Canyon treefrog Hyla arenicolor X X X

Mexican spadefoot Spea multiplicata X X X X

Mountain treefrog Hyla eximia X X

Plains spadefoot Spea bombifrons X X X

Tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum X X X X

Western chorus frog Pseudacris triseriata X X X

Reptiles: Lizards

Chihuahan whiptail Cnemidophorus exsanguis X 2 X 2

Eastern collared lizard Crotaphytus collaris X X X X

Eastern fence Lizard Sceloporus undulatus X X X X

Great Plains skink Eumeces obsoletus X X X X

Greater short-horned lizard Phrynosoma hernandesi X X X X

Lesser earless lizard Holbrookia maculata X X X X

Ornate tree lizard Urosaurus ornatus X X X X

Plateau striped whiptail Cnemidophorus velox X X X X

Variable skink / Many-lined skink Eumeces multivirgatus X X X

Reptiles: Snakes

Black-necked garter snake Thamnophis cyrtopsis X X X

Gopher snake (or Bull snake) Pituophis catenifer X X X X

Striped whipsnake Masticophis taeniatus X X X X

Western diamond-backed 

rattlesnake

Crotalus atrox X X X X

Western rattlesnake Crotalus viridis X X X X

Western terrestrial garter snake Thamnophis elegans X X X X 1

 Information from Gehlbach (1965) was only included for species that were recorded by Nowak & Persons (2008) and/or Lightfoot et al. (1994). 

2 Persons and Nowak (2008) questioned the identification (and occurrence) of this species by Lightfoot et al. (1994); therefore, the NPSpecies list shows it as 

“unconfirmed.”

Additional Notes: There are also five species noted by Nowak & Persons/NPSpecies as “probably present,” and six additional species as “unconfirmed.”
277

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions - Herpetofauna

The Occurrence of Species of Conservation 

Concern

There are three species that have been 

observed at El Malpais NM during 2002-2003 

surveys and/or early 1990s surveys that are 

listed as species of conservation concern on 

one or more of the lists described in Section 

4.17.2 (Table 4.17.4-2). Although none of 

the species are federally or state-listed as 

endangered or threatened, three species are 

considered Species of Greatest Conservation 

Need (SGCN) in New Mexico (USFWS 2015, 

NMDGF 2015b; Table 4.17.4-2). These three 

species are the tiger salamander, Eastern 

collared lizard, and Western diamond-backed 

rattlesnake (Figure 4.17.4-1). The appendix of 

NMDGF (2006) also lists the Western chorus 

frog and mountain treefrog as SGCN for the 

state, and these species have been recorded 

at the national monument; however, these 

two species are not on the SGCN list for the 

ecoregion in which the park occurs (ArizonaNew Mexico Mountains; NMDGF 2006). 

Overall Condition and Trend

To assess condition of herpetofauna at El 

Malpais NM, we used one indicator/measure, 

summarized in Table 4.17.4-3. Current 

condition cannot be assessed due to the lack of 

recent data. The information presented in this 

section (4.17) is from the most recent survey 

at the park, conducted in 2002-2003 by the 

USGS Southwest Biological Science Center, 

as well as previous surveys by Lightfoot et al. 

(1994). Combined, the studies documented 

21 species in the national monument. Trends 

Herpetofauna

Indicator Measure

Species Occurrence Presence/absence

Figure 4.17.4-1.

Western diamondbacked rattlesnake 

is a SGCN in New 

Mexico. 

NPS / MURPHY

Table 4.17.4-2. Species detected during 2002-2003 and early 1990s surveys at El

Malpais NM that are SGCN according to NMDGF (NMDGF 2006). None of the species 

are federally or state-listed as endangered/threatened.

Common Name Scientific Name NM SGCN(NMDGF)

Tiger salamander 1 Ambystoma tigrinum SGCN

Eastern collared lizard Crotaphytus collaris SGCN

Western diamond-backed rattlesnake Crotalus atrox SGCN

1

 = In the list of SGCN for Cibola County, the scientific name given for tiger salamander is Ambystoma mavortium 

mavortium; however, additional information provided in BISON-M reports the scientific name Ambystoma tigrinum (and 

this name is used in NMDGF 2006). 

Table 4.17.4-3. Indicator and measure of herpetofauna condition.

Indicator of 

Condition Measure Condition Rationale for Condition.

Species 

Occurrence

Presence/absence Unknown There is no current information available on 

amphibians and reptiles at the national monument. 

The most recent surveys were conducted in 2002-

2003 (i.e., Nowak and Persons 2008). Although 

condition can not be determined at this time, 

the 2002-2003 work, as well as earlier surveys 

by Lightfoot et al. (1994) provides baseline 

information for future monitoring and assessment. 
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

in species occurrence cannot be assessed 

due to the lack of available data. However, 

the 2002-2003 surveys provide good baseline 

information for future monitoring and 

condition assessment.

4.17.5. Sources of Expertise

No outside experts were consulted for this 

resource topic. This section was authored by 

biologist Patty Valentine-Darby.

4.17.6. Literature Cited

Degenhardt, W.G., C.W. Painter, and A.H. 

Price. 1996. Amphibians and Reptiles of 

New Mexico. University of New Mexico 

Press. First Edition. 

Gehlbach, F.R. 1965. Herpetology of the Zuni 

Mountains region, northwestern New 

Mexico. Proceedings of the United States 

National Museum 116:243-332, as cited 

by Lightfoot et al. (1994) and Nowak and 

Persons (2008).

Lightfoot, D.C., D.L. Bleakly, R.R. Parmenter, 

and J.R. Gosz. 1994. Vegetation and 

wildlife inventory of El Malpais National 

Monument. Final Report. University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM.

National Park Service (NPS). 2014. NPSpecies 

List for El Malpais National Monument. 

Full list with details. Obtained November 

2014 from https://irma.nps.gov/npsecies.

New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish (NMDGF). 2006. Comprehensive 

Wildlife Conservation Strategy for New 

Mexico. New Mexico Department of 

Game and Fish. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 

526 pp + appendices. Available at http://

www.wildlife.state.nm.us/conservation/

comp_wildlife_cons_strategy/.

New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish (NMDGF). 2015a. Threatened 

and endangered species: Recovery 

plans, reports, reviews. Webpage 

available at http:www.wildlife.

state.nm.us/conservation/wildlifespecies-information/threatened-andendangered-species/. Last accessed 

March 3, 2015.

New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 

(NMDGF). 2015b. Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M). 

Searchable database available at http://

www.bison-m.org/databasequery.aspx. 

Last accessed March 3, 2015.

Nowak, E.M., and T.B. Persons. 2008. 

Inventory of amphibians and reptiles for 

twelve national parks in the Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network. Final report 

to the National Park Service, Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network, Flagstaff, AZ.

Thomas, L.P., M.N. Hendrie (editor), C.L. 

Lauver, S.A. Monroe, N.J. Tancreto, S.L. 

Garman, and M.E. Miller. 2006. Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network Phase Three– 

Appendix E, Park Narratives. Appendix 

to Vital Signs Monitoring Plan for the 

Southern Colorado Plateau Network. 

Natural Resource Report NPS/SCPN/

NRR-2006/002. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 

2002. Methods for evaluating wetland 

condition: Using amphibians in 

bioassessments of wetlands. Office of 

Water, U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, Washington, DC. EPA822-R-02-022.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2015. 

Species listed in New Mexico based on 

published historic range and population. 

Environmental Conservation Online 

System, available at http://ecos.fws.gov/

tess_public/reports/species-listed-bystate-report?state=NM&status=listed. 

Last accessed January 30, 2015. 
279

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

Chapter 5: Discussion of Natural Resource 

Condition Assessment Findings and 

Considerations for Park Planning

5.1. Introduction

The primary purpose of the Natural Resource 

Condition Assessment (NRCA) Chapter 5 is to 

provide a “big picture” - broader application 

of resource condition findings for El Malpais 

National Monument (Albright 2010). We will 

fulfill this purpose by:

● creating a framework that connects the 

natural resource findings to El Malpais 

National Monuments’s purpose and 

significance statements (refer to Table 

5.2-1),

● delivering completed State of the Park

natural resource condition summary 

tables for each of the topics assessed 

(refer to sections 5.3-5.20); and

● providing resource condition briefs 

for each assessed topic, highlighting 

potential management and project 

considerations with park staff input.

These Chapter 5 reporting pieces are value 

added products that can be used by park 

managers for a variety of resource planning 

and comprehensive park management 

purposes (Jeff Albright, NRCA Program 

Coordinator, pers. comm. August 23, 2013). 

Efficiency is gained by providing these 

products because they deliver information to 

park staff that directly meet other reporting 

requirements, such as those for the State of 

the Park report.

5.2. Connecting Natural Resource 

Condition Assessment Topics to 

Park Purpose, Significance, and 

Fundamental Resources & Values

Managing the natural resources at El Malpais 

NM is inextricably tied to its purpose and 

significance. It is most often within this 

interdisciplinary perspective that managers 

consider potential actions and alternatives 

when addressing resource issues or needs. 

During the park’s on-site NRCA scoping 

meeting, participants reviewed resource 

topics selected for the condition assessment 

El Malpais National 

Monument preserves 

the surface 

and subsurface 

geologic features, 

and provides 

opportunities to 

experience these 

resources in their 

natural setting (NPS 

2014a).

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

and identified how those resources were 

connected to the park’s purpose, significance 

and fundamental resources and values, 

as identified in the park’s foundation 

document (NPS 2014a). Table (Table 5.2-1) 

summarizes the results of this exercise and 

provides a “snapshot” overview of how each 

natural resource topic assessed ties into the 

park’s primary reasons for establishment. 

The geologic features and associated lavainfluenced ecosystems are strongly connected 

to the reasons the monument was established 

as a national park unit.

5.3. State of the Park Reporting

As part of the stewardship of national parks 

for the American people, the NPS has begun 

to develop State of the Park reports to assess 

the overall status of each park’s resources. 

The key purposes of each State of the Park

report are to:

● Provide to visitors and the American 

public a snapshot of the status and trend 

in the condition of a park’s priority 

resources and values.

● Summarize and communicate complex 

scientific, scholarly, and park operations 

factual information and expert opinion 

using non-technical language and a 

visual format.

● Highlight park stewardship activities 

and accomplishments to maintain or 

improve the State of the Park.

● Identify key issues and challenges 

facing the park to help inform park 

management planning (NPS 2012).

Table 5.3-1 provides an overall summary 

of natural resource conditions based 

upon NRCA findings. The viewshed and 

soundscape landscape-scale resources were 

in good condition, and the night sky condition 

was good to moderate. The physical resources 

were in moderate condition, if rated. And all 

of the biological resources that were rated 

were in good condition. With the monument 

being a relatively young park unit, established 

on December 31, 1987, it has yet to have the 

same breadth and depth of research and 

inventory and monitoring efforts as older 

parks have, which was reflected in several of 

the unknown condition ratings.

Resource Condition Briefs

Each resource condition summary brief, 

(5.4-5.20) details these condition ratings by 

including a State of the Park summary table of 

indicators and measures. Condition rationale, 

noteworthy highlights, management 

opportunities and considerations may also be 

included in each resource brief.

For all but the bats, caves, including 

paleoclimate research, and vegetation 

resource topics, ELMA has not developed 

specific project statements or written 

planning/management documents. Resource 

issues, threats, and disturbances change as 

does the budget request system and criteria 

for making budget requests – often annually. 

The NR staff submits budget requests for 

project funds to assist with management 

priorities and/or to mitigate resource threats 

and impacts. The process for making budget 

requests is the NPS Project Management 

Information System (PMIS). NR staff uses 

PMIS to address management issues (as 

projects) and to conduct research – project 

ideas. Project statements for research have 

been developed for the resource topics 

below. All other research topic areas would 

be handled through the same budget request 

process and research proposals developed 

accordingly based on current resource 

status/condition, current knowledge, partner 

contributions/researcher interest, if available, 

staffing levels, and other needs that could 

change annually with the budget cycle.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

Table 5.2-1. Summary of natural resource topic relevance (denoted by black dots) as it relates to El 

Malpais National Monument’s purpose and significance statements identified in the park’s Foundation 

Document (NPS 2014a). 

Natural Resource Condition 

Assessment Topics

Viewshed

Night Sky

Soundscape

Air Quality

 Surface Geology

Caves and Cave 

Ice

Tinajas

Piñon-Juniper

Ponderosa Pine

Distinct 

Vegetation

Exotic Plants

Cave Ecology

Mammals

Bats

Birds

Herpetofauna

I. Park Purpose

Preserves, protects, and interprets natural 

and cultural resources that are an integral

part of the volcanic wilderness, including 

the Grants Lava Flow and Chacoan great 

house community of Las Ventanas.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

I. Park Purpose

Preserves, protects, and interprets natural 

and cultural resources that are an integral

part of the volcanic wilderness, including 

the Grants Lava Flow and Chacoan great 

house community of Las Ventanas.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

II. Park Significance

Volcanic Processes: Protects many lava 

flows, young and old, that are home

to a rich diversity of associated volcanic 

geologic features including one of the 

longest lava tube systems in the world.

•

Caves: Preserves a high density and 

diversity of ecologically significant lava 

tube caves, including the southernmost 

ice caves in the United States. Access to 

a number of these caves provides a rare 

self-guided recreational and educational 

experience.

• • • • • • •

Lava-influenced ecosystem: Produced 

uncommon vegetation associations, 

unusual growth forms, and plant

communities sheltered from modern 

disturbances.

• • • • • • • • • •

Lava-influenced cultural landscape: 

preserves and protects a cultural

landscape influenced by volcanic 

landforms, including the Chacoan great 

house community of Las Ventanas, 

ancient and historic trail networks, basalt 

architecture, and ritual landscapes.

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Wilderness: The wilderness-a 

vast volcanic landscape, provides 

opportunities for inspiration and solitude, 

physical and navigational challenges, and 

scientific discovery.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

III. Fundamental Resources and Values

Lava surface features (and associated 

landscapes) • • • • •

Lava subsurface features (and associated 

cave-dependent) • • • • • • •
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Natural Resource Condition 

Assessment Topics

Viewshed

Night Sky

Soundscape

Air Quality

 Surface Geology

Caves and Cave 

Ice

Tinajas

Piñon-Juniper

Ponderosa Pine

Distinct 

Vegetation

Exotic Plants

Cave Ecology

Mammals

Bats

Birds

Herpetofauna

Unusual vegetation (islands of 

undisturbed vegetation, or kipukas, 

which are rare to the Southwest.)

• •

Archeology and other heritage resources • • • • • • • • • • • • •

IV. Other Important Resources and Values

Wilderness character • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Other Heritage Resources • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Recreation and education • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Table 5.2.1. Summary of natural resource topic relevance (denoted by black dots) as it relates to El Malpais National

Monument’s purpose and significance statements identified in the park’s Foundation Document (NPS 2014a) continued.
283

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

Table 5.3-1. State of the Park Natural Resource Summary Table

Priority Resource 

or Value 

Condition 

Status/Trend Summary of Overall Condition Rating

Natural Resources

Viewshed

Viewsheds are considered an important part of the visitor experience. Features on the visible 

landscape influence the enjoyment, appreciation, and understanding of a park. We used 

one indicator, scenic and historic integrity, to assess viewshed condition at the national 

monument. The indicator had two measures, 1) intactness of view, and 2) conspicuousness 

of noncontributing features, both of which were judged to be in good condition. The vast 

majority of the landscape seen from the assessment vantage points appears intact with few 

noncontributing features. 

Night Sky

Quantitative measures of sky brightness (all-sky light pollution ratio, maximum vertical and 

horizontal illuminance, and zenith sky brightness) and an assessment of sky quality (the Bortle 

Dark Sky Scale) were used to assess the condition of the night sky at El Malpais NM. Data 

collected from Cerro Encierro and the lower meadow indicates good night sky conditions while 

data collected at Sandstone Bluffs indicate moderate night sky conditions. Overall, the night 

sky condition at El Malpais is considered good to moderate depending on location within the 

national monument.

Soundscape

We used one indicator, with two measures to assess soundscape condition. Both the percent 

time above reference sound levels and the L50 impact measure were in very good condition.

Air Quality

The air quality assessment included visibility, ozone for human and vegetation health, and 

wet deposition for total nitrogen, total sulfur, and mercury- all of which were in moderate 

condition, except for total sulfur, which was good, based upon NPS Air Resources Division 

reference criteria.

Surface Geology

We used four indicators to assess the condition of surface geology in El Malpais NM. Lava flow 

surface features were in good condition, and volcanic vents and edifices were in moderate 

condition. Paleontological resources were in good condition for freeze-thaw impact and 

unknown condition for human impacts. Disturbed lands were in the condition of significant 

concern. Overall, the condition of surface geology is moderate with a stable trend.

Caves and Cave Ice

The overall condition and trend of the caves and cave ice in El Malpais NM is unknown. 

Although, areas of concern exist including a warming climate trend and visitor impacts.

Tinajas

One indicator, with two measures, was used to assess tinaja condition. Since no formal 

inventories have been conducted to assess the presence of water-dependent organisms, 

climate variables of mean annual precipitation and the Reconnaissance Drought Index were 

used as proxies for condition. Even though the park received a high amount of rainfall in 2015, 

the effects from the previous years’ drought warranted a moderate condition rating.

Piñon-Juniper

Piñon-juniper vegetation within the national monument is of two types based on a functional 

classification: persistent piñon-juniper woodlands, and juniper-piñon savannas. Although there 

are a few concerns, such as the increase in tree density in savannas, the overall condition of each 

type and of the types combined is considered to be good. At this time, we consider the overall 

trend in condition as unchanging.

Ponderosa Pine

Ponderosa pine vegetation within the national monument is of two types based on a functional 

classification: ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper woodland/savanna, and ponderosa pine-piñonjuniper rocky woodland. Although there are a few concerns, such as the increase in fire intervals 

in both types and the higher stand densities compared to pre-1900 in the woodland/savanna 

type, the overall condition of each type and of the types overall was considered to be good. At 

this time, we consider the overall trend in condition as unchanging. 

Grasslands and 

Shrublands

Grasslands at El Malpais NM occur on the older, more eroded flows, while shrublands occur on 

the more recent flows (at relatively low elevations) and cinder cones. We used two indicators 

(soil/site stability and biotic integrity), with a total of seven measures to assess grassland condition 

at the national monument. Of the seven measures, sixwere determined to be in good condition 

and the condition of one was unknown. Overall, grassland condition was found to be good.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Priority Resource 

or Value 

Condition 

Status/Trend Summary of Overall Condition Rating

Distinct Vegetation

The overall condition of the distinct vegetation communities in El Malpais NM is unknown. 

However, the condition of aspects of the monument’s distinct vegetation that are part of the 

broad ecological categories (i.e., pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine assessed in Sections 4.8 

and 4.9, respectively), are likely to be the same as that for the broader ecosystem (e.g., good).

Exotic Plants

We used two indicators, potential to alter native plant communities and prevalence of exotic 

plants, to assess the condition of exotic plants in El Malpais NM. The condition for the significance 

of exotic impact measure was of significant concern. Information about the prevalence of 

exotic plant species in the monument was extremely limited, consisting of observations during 

vegetation mapping (Muldavin et al. 2013). Therefore, the prevalence of exotic plants was 

unknown. Overall, the condition of exotic plants is unknown with an unknown trend. 

Cave Ecology and 

Species

The overall condition of cave ecology and species in El Malpais NM is unknown. Only a small 

portion of the total number of species that live in or utilize El Malpais caves most likely have 

been documented, but the park recently submitted a proposal for 2018 funding to map of the 

moss gardens and inventory the invertebrates contained in them to learn more about these 

resources. 

Mammals

We used one indicator/measure, species occurrence (presence/absence), to assess the condition 

of mammals at the national monument. Although a relatively comprehensive inventory effort 

was conducted in 2003-2004 by the USGS Southwest Biological Science Center, current 

condition is unknown because no recent information is available. However, the 2003-2004 

work (and an earlier, less comprehensive study) provides baseline information for future 

monitoring and condition assessment. More than 50 mammal species have been documented 

in the park.

Bats

We used three indicators with one measure each to assess the condition of bats at El Malpais NM. 

Each of the three indicators/measures was judged to be in good condition at this time. Although 

condition was judged to be good for each indicator/measure and overall, some concerns do exist 

due to the westward expansion of white-nose syndrome from the eastern U.S. As of May 2015, 

this disease was confirmed in bats as far west as Arkansas.

Birds

To assess the condition of landbirds at El Malpais NM, we used one indicator/measure, species 

occurrence (presence/absence). Although standardized surveys were conducted in 2002-2003 

by the USGS Southwest Biological Science Center, we were unable to assess current condition 

because there is no current information available. The 2002-2003 work (and an earlier, less 

comprehensive study) provides baseline information for future monitoring and condition 

assessment. More than 180 bird species have been recorded in the national monument.

Herpetofauna

We used one indicator/measure, species occurrence (presence/absence), to assess the 

condition of herpetofauna at the national monument. Although a substantial survey effort was 

conducted in 2002-2003 by the USGS Southwest Biological Science Center, we were unable 

to assess current condition because there is no current information available. The 2002-2003 

work (and an earlier study) provides baseline information for future monitoring and condition 

assessment. 

Table 5.3.1. State of the Park Natural Resource Summary Table continued.
285

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

El Malpais National Monument contains approximately 39,255 hectares (ha) (97,000 acres) of recommended 

wilderness, which encompasses 85% of the park’s area. The other undeveloped areas within the park that were not 

considered suitable as wilderness are currently managed as backcountry (NPS 2014b). 

The NPS’ NPScape Program uses the percent area of land 

protected as an indication of conservation status that “offers 

insight into potential threats (e.g., how much land is available 

for conversion and where it is located in relation to the park 

boundary) as well as opportunities (e.g., connectivity and 

networking of protected areas)” (Monahan et al. 2012). 

Adjacent to the park’s eastern and south-central boundaries 

lie 24,929 ha (61,600 acres) of Bureau of Land Management’s 

(BLM) Cebolla Wilderness and 16,001 ha (39,540 acres) of 

BLM’s West Malpais Wilderness. Monahan et al. (2012) cite 

that for the majority of parks, < 20% of the surrounding 

local landscape within an ecologically-meaningful 30 km 

buffer (NPS 2011) is protected. Using USGS’ Protected 

Areas Database (2012), 20.5% of the area surrounding the 

monument is designated as permanently protected land. 

An additional 18.3% of the area is designated as land that is 

protected but some extractive uses are permitted (e.g., U.S. 

Forest Service land).

This high percentage of protected area preserves the 

park’s landscape-scale resources— viewshed, night sky, 

and soundscape. Even though the park’s viewshed and 

soundscape are in excellent condition, certain areas of the 

night sky are impacted by both Albuquerque and Santa Fe, 

New Mexico’s light pollution, underscoring the need for 

surrounding landscapes to remain within their natural states. Protected area surrounding El Malpais NM.

Viewshed from Sandstone Bluffs Stars in the night sky Female elk

Viewshed Night Sky Soundscape

Landscape-scale Resources Summary
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.4. Viewshed Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.4 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone viewshed 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.4.1. Noteworthy Highlights

El Malpais NM was established to preserve, protect, and interpret natural and cultural resources 

that are an integral part of the volcanic wilderness, including the Grants Lava Flow and 

Chacoan great house community of Las Ventanas. The Pueblos of Zuni, Acoma, and Laguna, 

and the Ramah Navajo, consider El Malpais an important part of their history and culture. 

The majority of the landscape as seen from the three vantage points used in the assessment is 

dominated by natural features, so there are no major impediments to experiencing a “sense 

of place.” Impressive views are available to the visitor at the three vantage points used (El 

Calderon, Bandera Volcano/Crater, and the Sandstone Bluffs overlook).

5.4.2. Condition Rationale

To assess viewshed condition at El Malpais NM, we used one indicator with two measures 

(Table 5.4.2-1). The scenic and historic integrity of the viewshed is in good condition, with 

both measures being found to be in good condition. From the vantage points, the small number 

of noncontributing features seen are relatively minor and inconspicuous, leaving the national 

monument intact from a scenic standpoint. This allows the visitor to imagine the landscape 

from an historic and cultural point of view. The main noncontributing feature is the parking 

area and entrance road at the Sandstone Bluffs overlook, but most visitors to this location are 

probably facing away from the noncontributing features to take in the impressive view of the 

lava flows, vegetation, and distant mountains. The visitor to the national monument has mostly 

excellent views of the landscape from the three vantage points used in the assessment. 

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

A sweeping view 

towards the south 

from Sandstone 

Bluffs Overlook.
288

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.4.2-1.Summary of overall viewshed condition, indicators and measures, and rationale 

for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Viewshed

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Scenic and Historic 

Integrity

Intactness of View

Overall, the vast majority of the landscape appears intact.

Views are mainly intact with few noncontributing features, 

consistent with good condition.

Conspicuousness of Noncontributing Features

Noncontributing features are relatively inconspicuous, 

consistent with good condition. The most conspicuous noncontributing feature is the parking area and entrance road at 

the Sandstone Bluffs overlook. However, most visitors to this 

location are probably facing away from the noncontributing 

feature to take in the impressive view of the lava flows, 

vegetation, and distant mountains. Overall, condition is good 

for this measure. 
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.5. Night Sky Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.5 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone night sky 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.5.1. Noteworthy Highlights

The light domes from nearby cities minimally affect night skies in the national monument. The 

dark night skies within the monument provide an opportunity to engage visitors from nearby 

cities that might not otherwise have the opportunity to view dark night skies or learn about the 

celestial environment.

5.5.2. Condition Rationale

Approximately 85% of El Malpais National Monument is recommended wilderness. Therefore, 

the national monument is considered a non-urban NPS unit, or park with at least 90% of its 

property located outside an urban area (Moore et al. 2013). For non-urban NPS units, the 

thresholds separating reference of conditions good, moderate, and significant concern are 

more stringent than those for urban NPS units because these areas are generally more sensitive 

to the effects of light pollution. The majority of qualitative and quantitative measures of night 

sky indicators (Table 5.5.2-1) is within the good to moderate thresholds, but depends somewhat 

on the location where data were gathered. 

NPS NSNSD

A view of the starry 

night sky.
290

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.5.2-1.Summary of overall night sky condition, indicators and measures, and rationale 

for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Night Sky 

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition Status/

Trend Rationale

Sky Brightness

All-sky Light Pollution Ratio

Sky brightness, as measured by ALR, indicates good to 

moderate condition overall at El Malpais NM. This condition 

is based on NPS NSNSD benchmarks for non-urban parks, 

on ground-based measurements taken at three locations 

within the park, and a modeled estimate for the entire 

park. Ground-based data from Cerro Encierro (0.20) and 

the lower meadow (0.09) indicate good condition while 

data from Sandstone Bluffs (0.35) indicate moderate 

condition. The modeled ALR, derived from the 2001 World 

Atlas of Night Sky Brightness, was 0.17 and indicates good 

condition. Confidence level is high.

Maximum Vertical 

Illuminance

Sky brightness as measured by maximum vertical 

illuminance was 0.19 milli-Lux at Cerro Encierro and 0.08 

milli-Lux at the lower meadow. These values reflect a 

rating of 48% above average natural conditions for Cerro 

Encierro and 20% above average natural conditions for 

the lower meadow. At Sandstone Bluffs maximum vertical 

illuminance was 0.36 milli-Lux, or 90% above average 

natural conditions. Specific benchmarks for condition 

classes have not been set; however, condition is estimated 

as good at Cerro Encierro and the lower meadow, 

and moderate at Sandstone Bluffs (J. White, personal 

communication, Nov. 2015).

Horizontal Illuminance

Sky brightness as measured by horizontal illuminance 

was 0.06 milli-Lux at Cerro Encierro and 0.07 milli-Lux at 

the lower meadow. These values reflect a rating of 8% 

above average natural conditions for both Cerro Encierro 

and the lower meadow. At Sandstone Bluffs horizontal 

illuminance produced a value of 0.09 milli-Lux, or 11% 

above average natural conditions. Specific benchmarks for 

condition classes have not been set; however, condition is 

estimated as good for all three locations (J. White, personal 

communication, Nov. 2015). 

Zenith Sky Brightness

Zenith sky brightness indicates good to moderate condition 

overall at El Malpais NM. This condition is based on NPS 

Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division benchmarks for 

non-urban parks and on ground-based measures of zenith 

sky brightness at Cerro Encierro (21.74), the lower meadow 

(21.84), and at Sandstone Bluffs (21.54). Condition is good 

at Cerro Encierro and the lower meadow, and moderate at 

Sandstone Bluffs. Confidence level is high.

Sky Quality Bortle Dark Sky Scale

Sky quality as assessed by the Bortle dark sky scale indicates 

good to moderate condition overall at El Malpais NM. This 

condition is based on NPS NSNSD benchmarks for nonurban parks and on the qualitative assessment of Bortle 

class 3 at Cerro Encierro (good condition), Bortle class 2 at 

the lower meadow (good condition), and Bortle class 4 at 

Sandstone Bluffs (moderate condition). These classes are 

consistent with a rural sky at Cerro Encierro, a typical dark 

sky at the lower meadow, and the transition from rural to 

suburban skies at Sandstone Bluffs. Because this measure is 

qualitative, it has low confidence level.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.6. Soundscape Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.5 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone soundscape 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.6.1. Noteworthy Highlights

Most of El Malpais NM is comprised of an area >100 km2 without roads (NPS 2014c, ESRI 

2005/2010). In addition, the monument is primarily surrounded by the even larger El Malpais 

National Conservation Area, managed by the Bureau of Land Management, which contains 

two areas of designated wilderness and a third wilderness study area. These protected areas 

will most likely contribute to maintaining the monument’s excellent soundscape condition.

5.6.2. Condition Rationale

Soundscape condition was assessed using sound level as an indicator of condition (Table 

5.6.2-1). We used the on-site results from the NPS Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division 

acoustical monitoring effort (NPS NSNSD 2009) to determine percent time above reference 

sound levels, and the geospatial sound modeling result for the impact between natural and 

existing acoustic conditions at the monument (Mennitt et al. 2013). The majority of existing 

sound levels recorded at the monument was <44.99 dBA, suggesting a very quiet environment, 

resulting in a good condition rating. In addition, the modeled average impact sound level for 

the national monument was within the good condition rating threshold for non-urban parks 

based on Turina et al. (2013) reference conditions. Overall, we considered the monument’s 

soundscape to be in very good condition. 

NPS - ELK

Female elk and calf.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.6.2-1.Summary of overall soundscape condition, indicators and measures, and rationale 

for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Soundscape

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Sound Level

% Time Above Reference 

Sound Levels

The majority of existing sound levels heard at all sites were 

<44.99 dBA, suggesting a relatively quiet environment. We 

consider this measure to be in good condition. 

L50 Impact

The modeled average impact sound level for the national 

monument of 0.38 dBA, which is considered to be in good 

condition based on threshold values for non-urban parks (Turina 

et al. 2013).
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

El Malpais is a Spanish word for “the badlands,” which is evident in the rugged landscape comprised of lava tubes, 

cinder cones, ice caves, and a surprising amount of distinct vegetation due to the volcanic substrate. Most of the physical 

resources assessed for the El Malpais National Monument’s NRCA are reliant upon processes that originate far outside 

the park’s jurisdictional boundary and at global scales (e.g., climate change).

Recent climate results for El Malpais NM indicate that conditions have already begun shifting beyond the historical 

range of variability, with the 2003-2012 decade representing the warmest one on record (Monahan and Fisichelli 2014). 

Garfin et al. (2014) expects more sustained extreme heat and fewer and less extreme cold periods. Overall, it’s likely 

that future climate change will increasingly affect all aspects of park resources and operations (Monahan and Fisichelli 

2014), especially on physical resources such as cave ice and tinaja water availability.

Climate change vulnerability assessment planning can help park managers identify and develop potential management 

actions to manage for inevitable change. The National Wildlife Federation (Stein et al. 2014) suggests that a climatesmart approach to management includes the following overarching themes:

● Act with intentionality – be deliberate and transparent in management actions and link direct and indirect climate 

impacts to management actions;

● Manage for change, not just persistence – change is likely the only constant. Focus on sustaining ecological functions, 

rather than historical assemblages of plants and animals;

● Reconsider goals, not just strategies – conservation goals are the ends and the strategies are the means to achieve 

those goals. Goals may need to be considered within a climate-related context answering the what, why, where, 

and when of the intended goals;

● Integrate adaptation into existing work– use adaptation strategies while considering natural resource decision 

processes.

Physical Resources Summary

View of sky Inflation pits Cave ice Dry tinaja

Air Quality Surface Geology Caves and Cave Ice Tinajas
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.7. Air Quality Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.7 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone air quality 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.7.1. Condition Rationale

We used three indicators and seven measures to assess air quality condition at El Malpais NM, 

including ozone levels, visibility, and wet deposition of sulfur, nitrogen, and mercury (Table 

5.7.1-1). All indicators and measures were in moderate condition, except for total sulfur, which 

was good, based on NPS Air Resources Division reference conditions. For 2004–2013, the trend 

in visibility at the park improved on the 20% clearest days and remained relatively unchanged 

(no statistically significant trend) on the 20% haziest days (IMPROVE Monitor ID: BALD1, 

AZ). The Clean Air Act visibility goal requires visibility improvement on the 20% haziest days, 

with no degradation on the 20% clearest days. Like most airsheds, the park’s air quality is 

largely influenced by activities and operations that occur outside its boundaries, making its 

condition dependent on local, regional, and national planning.

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

A photo of the sky 

and vegetation at 

El Malpais NM.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.7.1-1.Summary of overall air quality condition, indicators and measures, and rationale 

for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Air Quality

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Visibility Haze Index

Visibility warrants moderate concern, with medium confidence 

based on the 2009–2013 estimated visibility on mid-range days 

of 4.1 deciviews (dv) above estimated natural conditions. For 

2004–2013, the trend in visibility at El Malpais NM improved 

on the 20% clearest days and remained relatively unchanged 

(no statistically significant trend) on the 20% haziest days 

(IMPROVE Monitor ID: BALD1, AZ). The degree of confidence is 

high because there is an on-site or nearby visibility monitor.

Level of Ozone

Human Health: Annual 

4th-Highest 8-hour 

Concentration

Human health risk from ground-level ozone warrants moderate 

concern, with medium confidence based on the 2009–2013 

estimated ozone of 67.3 parts per billion (ppb). No trend 

information is available because there are not sufficient on-site 

or nearby ozone monitoring data.

Vegetation Health:

3-month maximum

12hr W126

Vegetation health risk from ground-level ozone warrants 

moderate concern, with medium confidence based on the 

2009–2013 estimated W126 metric of 12.4 parts per millionhours (ppm-hrs). The W126 metric relates plant response to 

ozone exposure. A risk assessment concluded that plants in El 

Malpais NM were at low risk for ozone damage (Kohut 2007; 

Kohut 2004). No trend information is available because there 

are not sufficient on-site or nearby ozone monitoring data. 

Wet Deposition

Total N

Wet nitrogen deposition warrants moderate concern, with 

medium confidence based on the 2009–2013 estimated 

wet nitrogen deposition of 1.6 kilograms per hectare per 

year (kg/ha/yr). Ecosystems in the park were rated as having 

low sensitivity to nutrient-enrichment effects relative to all 

Inventory & Monitoring parks (Sullivan et al. 2011a,b). No trend 

information is available because there are not sufficient on-site 

or nearby deposition monitoring data.

Total S

Wet sulfur deposition is in good condition, with medium 

confidence based on the 2009–2013 estimated wet sulfur 

deposition of 0.8 kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha/yr). 

Ecosystems in the park were rated as having low sensitivity to 

acidification effects relative to all Inventory & Monitoring parks 

(Sullivan et al. 2011a). No trend information is available because 

there are not sufficient on-site or nearby deposition monitoring 

data. 

Mercury

The 2011–2013 estimated wet mercury deposition is moderate 

at the park, ranging from 5.1 to 7.5 micrograms per square 

meter.

Predicted Methylmercury 

Concentration

The predicted methylmercury concentrations in surface waters 

is moderate, at 0.07 nanograms per liter.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.8. Surface Geology Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.8 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone surface geology 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.8.1. Noteworthy Highlights

El Malpais NM’s surface geology is mostly the result of recent basaltic volcanic activity that 

produced a series of lava flows and volcanic vents and edifices. The characteristics of and 

structures found within these features provide important information about volcanological 

processes and have great education and research significance. Most notably, research conducted 

on the McCartys Flow has provided great insight into inflation, a lava flow emplacement process 

that was only identified relatively recently (Walker 1991), and has subsequently identified as 

having taken place in planetary bodies (Zimbelman et al. 2013).

5.8.2. Condition Rationale

Overall, the condition of surface geology at El Malpais NM is moderate. Lava flow surface 

features are in good condition as they are largely intact, although the Lava Falls area shows sign 

of impact from visitor use. Some volcanic vents and edifices have been impacted by quarrying, 

and McCartys Crater has significant impacts from its use as Kirkland Demolition Bombing 

Range in World War II. The vent and edifice intactness measure is in moderate condition. The 

freeze-thaw index is decreasing, and paleontological resources are in good condition for the 

freeze-thaw index. However, El Malpais’ fossil resources are poorly known and are not being 

monitored, so they are in an unknown condition for the human use measure. Disturbed lands 

are of significant concern because two sites are ranked as high priority for mitigation by the 

NPS AML program.

©LARRY CRUMPLER

A photo of 

McCartys flow 

inflation pits.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.8.2-1.Summary of overall surface geology condition, indicators and measures, and 

rationale for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Surface Geology

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Lava flow surface features Lava flow intactness

The lava flow surface features are largely intact; e.g., in natural 

condition, in El Malpais NM. Heavy use in the Lava Falls area of 

the McCartys flow has impacted the surface of the flow there. 

Additionally, detonations in the Kirkland Demolition Bombing 

Range have impacted the surface of the flow, especially in the 

vicinity of the vent. Unexploded ordinance and munitions may 

remain in the area.

Volcanic vents and edifices Vent and edifice intactness

Overall, volcanic vents and edifices are in moderate condition. 

While some edifices such as Hoya de Cibola and the vents 

that produced the Twin Craters Flows are in natural condition, 

others have been significantly impacted by human activities 

prior to the establishment of El Malpais NM. The McCartys 

Crater was used as a range for aerial bombing in World War II, 

and metal bomb fragments and small craters from explosions 

remain. Cinder quarrying occurred at El Calderon and in the 

Bandera Cinder Field.

Disturbed lands Abandoned Mineral Lands 

Prioritization Ranking

Two AML sites in El Malpais are ranked as high priority for 

mitigation by the NPS AML program because of their hazards 

or high resource impact and easy access for visitation. Four 

additional sites are assigned a moderate priority for mitigation 

by the NPS AML program.

Paleontological resources

Freeze-Thaw Impact

The freeze-thaw index is decreasing because of fewer number 

of days per year that go through the freeze-thaw cycle. A lower 

freeze-thaw index should mean that frost weathering has less 

of an impact on fossils.

Human Impacts

The monument’s fossil resources are poorly known and are not 

being monitored. However, tree mold fossils, while rare and 

unusual, would be difficult to remove from the encompassing 

lava flow, and most caves in El Malpais are closed to visitation, 

protecting the fossils therein. 
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.9. Caves and Cave Ice Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.9 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone caves and cave 

ice resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity 

Program (http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and 

include the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.9.1. Noteworthy Highlights

El Malpais contains among the longest lava tube systems in the world, with a cumulative length 

of more than 95 km (60 mi) (Marinakis 1997). The monument also contains the southernmost 

ice caves on the continent. 

5.9.2. Condition Rationale

We used five indicators to assess the condition of caves and cave ice at El Malpais NM as 

summarized in Table 5.9.2-1. Conditions are currently unknown due to lack of current 

monitoring data. Park staff are developing inventory and monitoring strategies that will help 

inform their future management of the park’s cave and cave ice resources.

5.9.3. Management and Project Considerations

Cave and Paleoclimate Research

Project Title: Climate and Vegetation Reconstructions Using Ice and Guano Cores in Lava 

Tubes at El Malpais NM

Project Abstract: Various research projects at El Malpais and El Morro National Monuments 

have documented climate changes within our parks. Since the early 1980s ELMA and ELMO 

have experienced a change in temperature of over 3 degrees Fahrenheit and additional increases 

in temperature are expected (Monahan and Fisichelli 2014). The period between 2012 and 

2014 was the driest in the region since the 1950s (Romme and Jacobs 2015). As our climate 

continues to warm and drought/fire conditions increase in frequency, we can expect important 

changes in vegetation at the Monuments. ELMA has several potentially significant archives for 

understanding the paleoclimate of both Monuments. The use of dendrochronology is the most 

established climate proxy at ELMA, providing a climate history up to 137 BC (Grissino-Mayer 

1995). Other potential proxies (stable isotopes, pollen, trace elements) that can be measured 

NPS

Big Skylight cave 

is one of four lava 

tube caves open 

to recreational 

caving in El 

Malpais National 

Monument.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

in perennial ice and guano cores, can further help calibrating the climatic signal with existing 

dendrological studies. Thoroughly studying these cores have the potential to significantly 

expand our knowledge of the environment and climate evolution of the region. The perennial 

ice deposits in our lava tubes likely contain a record back to the early Holocene (Dickfoss et 

al. 1997). Likewise, bat guano (accumulated in lava tubes) can be precisely dated using the 

radiocarbon method and contains several environmental proxy indicators such as pollen 

grains, stable isotopes, and charcoal, which can be analyzed and provide “snapshots” of the 

vegetation and precipitation changes, as well as natural fires during different climate regimes.

Table 5.9.2-1.Summary of overall caves and cave ice condition, indicators and measures, and 

rationale for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Caves and Cave Ice

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Cave Meteorology Temperature and Humidity

Temperature and humidity conditions in El Malpais caves are 

unknown. However, because the lava tube caves are shallow 

and because many caves have more than one opening, there is 

a connectivity between conditions at the surface and conditions 

inside caves. The annual mean temperature at El Malpais has 

risen significantly since the 1980s, suggesting that temperatures 

inside caves also may be increasing.

Permanent and Seasonal 

Ice Presence/Absence

The condition of permanent and seasonal cave ice in El Malpais 

is unknown. Cave ice has been documented in 40 caves within 

the national monument. Monitoring in 15 of these caves in 

2015 found at least seasonal ice in each cave, but the relative 

quantity of ice in these caves is not known. Warming climatic 

conditions at the surface may lead to warmer conditions inside 

caves, potentially decreasing the amount of cave ice.

Direct Visitor Impacts Degree of Impact

The Impact Assessment Map for Junction Cave showed that 

the majority of the cave had significant impact. However, the 

impact assessment for Junction Cave is the only assessment 

completed to date in El Malpais, and this cave has more visitor 

impacts than the other lava tubes open to recreational caving 

(Eric Weaver, personal communication, 2015). Therefore, the 

condition for direct visitor impact is unknown.

Stability-Breakdown n/a

Breakdown is a common feature of El Malpais caves. Much 

of the breakdown probably formed during cooling after 

cave formation, but heavily jointed ceilings and walls can be 

unstable causing additional breakdown events. Formation of 

new breakdown has been documented, but the condition of 

stability-breakdown at El Malpais is unknown.

Rare Minerals n/a

El Malpais contains several minerals that very rarely occur in 

caves, including burkeite, cristobalite, glaserite, thenardite 

and trona. Many of these minerals occur as part of fragile 

speleothems or deposits such as angel hair, loose powder, 

“snowballs,” or moonmilk. The rare minerals in El Malpais caves 

are not being monitored, so their condition is unknown.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.10. Tinajas Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.10 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone tinajas resource 

brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program (http://

www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include the 

contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.10.1. Noteworthy Highlights

The water and associated organisms found in tinajas may have cultural relevance for the 

park. Branchiopods have been used as a food source in various cultures, and fairy shrimp can 

aggregate, forming large populations. This would likely have provided an easy source of protein 

for indigenous people on an otherwise harsh landscape (Driver 1981 as cited in Graham 2002).

5.10.2. Condition Rationale

Given the lack of data to assess condition of organisms that use tinajas, we used two climaterelated measures to assess water conditions (Table 5.10.2-1). The average annual precipitation 

measure for the period of record (1938-2015) was well above average in 2015, with 17.45 

inches, which is one of the highest amounts on record, suggesting an improvement in the 

recent drought conditions that occurred from 2012-2014. However, the western half of Cibola 

County New Mexico, where the park is located, is still considered to be abnormally dry, which 

resulted in a good to moderate condition rating. The normalized Reconnaissance Drought 

Index (RDI) value for 2015 was 0.25, which indicates near normal conditions, however, the 

longer-term trend in the region for several years preceding 2015 were either negative (i.e., 1999, 

2002-2004, 2007-2008, 2011, 2013) or very low (i.e., 2005-2006, 2009-2010), suggesting overall 

drier conditions, warranting a moderate condition rating for the RDI measure. 

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Dry tinajas in 

sandstone.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.10.2-1. Summary of overall tinajas condition, indicators and measures, and 

rationale for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Tinajas

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Climate Variables

Amount of Precipitation

Precipitation was well above average in 2015 but below 

in several of the most recent years, warranting a good to 

moderate condition rating. 

Reconnaissance Drought 

Index

Even though drought conditions improved in 2015, drought 

conditions have prevailed in the region most recently, 

warranting a moderate condition rating.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

Even though the landscape throughout El Malpais National Monument is rugged, and at times barren with little to 

no soil development, strong alliances between geologic substrate and vegetation exist. The vegetation communities 

assessed for the park’s NRCA are key aspects of the lava flow-influenced ecosystem of the monument, supporting many 

types of vegetation, including endemic and vulnerable plant associations and species.

While the conditions of piñon-juniper , ponderosa pine, and grass/shrublands were considered to be good, some 

areas of concern and uncertainty pertain to the increase in density of trees in grasslands, to the potential change in 

fire interval/frequency in the grasslands, and to the increased tree density in places within the woodland/savanna 

vegetation community type (Romme and Jacobs 2015). Increased tree densities can lead to an increased potential for 

spreading crown fires, but the high-density stands observed during a 2015 field visit were patchily distributed rather 

than continuous. According to Romme and Jacobs (2015), the increase in tree densities “is in large part a manifestation 

of the climate of the 20th century, which was especially favorable for tree establishment and survival. But we are 

now moving rapidly out of the climate that characterized the 20th century. Higher temperatures, more frequent and 

severe droughts, and more frequent and difficult to control wildfires are in our future. Worldwide, trees are dying at 

an accelerated rate, especially old trees (Allen et al. 2010, Anderegg et al. 2013). We see this at El Malpais NM where 

the venerable 650+ year-old Pseudotsuga menziesii named Yoda recently succumbed to the drought of the last several 

years. Thus, we may find that a new 21st century management priority will be retaining trees in the face of deteriorating 

climate, rather than the imperative to reduce tree densities that probably made sense back in the climatically benign 

days of the late 20th century.”

This concept will require a shift in the traditional fire management approach to incorporate ecologically-based objectives 

rather than a hazard fuel reduction paradigm. Restoration treatments need to be better understood at the local level by 

evaluating models that are adapted for local conditions, such as those found throughout El Malpais NM. 

Another area of concern and uncertainty park-wide is the occurrence of the exotic plant, cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), 

While its occurrence was low in or near persistent woodlands on El Calderon during the 2015 field visit, Romme and 

Jacobs (2015) considered it of potentially major ecological significance if it should spread. Increases in nitrogen have 

been found to promote invasions of fast-growing annuals (e.g., cheatgrass), which in turn, can increase the risk of fire 

(Rao et al. 2010). All of these factors need to be considered within the context of a rapidly changing climate.

Juniper tree Ponderosa pine forest Flowers in grasslands Old Douglas fir Common mullein

Piñon-Juniper Ponderosa Pine Grasslands and 

Shrublands Distinct Vegetation Exotic Plants

Vegetation Resources Summary
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.11. Piñon-Juniper Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.11 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone piñon-juniper 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.11.1. Noteworthy Highlights

Piñon pine (Pinus edulis) and one-seed juniper (Juniperus monosperma) (piñon-juniper) is a 

major habitat type found within the boundaries of El Malpais NM, comprising about 20% of 

the park’s total area (Muldavin et al. 2013). Piñon-juniper habitats have considerable value to 

wildlife, serving as cover, nesting and roosting habitat, and a source of food (e.g., juniper berries 

and piñon nuts). Based on a functional classification scheme, there are two fundamentally 

different kinds of piñon-juniper habitats within the national monument: persistent piñonjuniper woodlands, and juniper-piñon savannas. The first type is characterized by centuriesold trees and fire intervals that are very long (at least multi-decadal, but more often measured 

in centuries). The second type usually has a low- to moderate-density canopy within a welldeveloped grassland matrix, and more frequent fires. 

5.11.2. Condition Rationale

The overall condition of piñon-juniper vegetation at the national monument is good, although 

there are some areas of concern. Of the six indicators/measures for the two vegetation types 

(12 indicators/measures total, Table 5.11.2-1), ten are considered to be in good condition. Two 

(both for juniper-piñon savannas) are considered to be of moderate concern. Overall, the main 

areas of concern are the increase in tree densities in savannas, and the potential change in 

fire intervals in the savannas. Another area of concern, although we considered the condition 

good overall for the indicator/measure, is the occurrence of the exotic plant, cheatgrass, in or 

near persistent woodlands on El Calderon; the plant’s current occurrence appeared to be low. 

Based on our analysis, the condition of piñon-juniper vegetation in the park appears to have 

been generally stable over the last half century, and we consider the overall trend in condition 

as unchanging at this time. 

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Juniper tree.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

5.11.3. Management and Project Considerations 

Resource Topic Vegetation

The results of the following project could apply to several for the vegetation resources discussed in 

the NRCA, but primarily to vegetation associations on the lava flows since previous studies focused 

on the flow margins.

Project Title: Vegetation monitoring in remote locations of ELMA

Project Abstract: El Malpais National Monument is roughly 114,000 acres of rugged lava flows; 

94% of this land is backcountry or wilderness. Not only has it been nearly 10 years since the last 

vegetation survey, but the majority of the 2006-2009 survey was completed along the edges of the 

park as more remote areas were considered too difficult to access. This left extensive areas of land 

uninvestigated, and while previous surveyors were confident in their work, it is difficult to accept 

assumptions about such a unique landscape. We believe that an in-house team familiar with the 

terrain could safely and efficiently hike out to the more remote areas and establish several survey 

plots during overnight trips. The previous study indicated it would be necessary to use a helicopter 

to get to any remote area that was without established trails. To mitigate this issue, GPS routes will 

be created using the specialized knowledge that the Natural Resource division has accumulated 

of access points and pathways into the deeper portions of the lava. These routes could easily be 

created in advance and would benefit many future projects. The proposed project would expand 

upon the previous vegetation inventory and classification project and would include three major 

parts: plant survey plots, vegetation classification map development, and accuracy assessments. 

Park staff will create new plots as well as visit original plots to observe changes to the landscape 

in the last decade; an especially important task as the impacts of climate change cumulate. The 

previous vegetation inventory and classification project found 17 plant associations classified 

as “park specials”. These plant associations were not previously established in the National 

Vegetation Classification System and many are likely to be specific to the lava flows and cinders of 

El Malpais. An additional 6 plant associations are regionally endemic, found only in very restricted 

regions. Continued assessments will give valuable insight on these unique plant groups, and assist 

in management decisions of the 7 plant associations considered to be vulnerable. We have limited 

knowledge of the health or potential threats, such as exotic species, to these areas. Increased plant 

inventories of El Malpais will provide a quantitative measure of the floral health of our park. This 

data will back up any potential management decisions such as restoration or preservation projects, 

weed removal, or habitat conservation.

In addition, park staff are drafting a vegetation and fire management environmental assessment for 

future planning efforts. The plan will include all vegetation types found throughout the monument.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

Table 5.11.2-1. Summary of overall piñon-juniper condition, indicators and measures, and 

rationale for assigning condition at El Malpais National Monument.

Piñon-Juniper Vegetation

Community Type Indicators/Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Persistent Piñon-Juniper 

Woodland

Is species presence & 

distribution within natural 

range of variability?

The condition is generally good, but some concern exists due 

to low levels of exotic species occurring in some locations. Both 

cheatgrass and mullein were observed, with cheatgrass being of 

particular concern due to its potential effect on fire frequency. 

Condition could change if species expand after soil disturbance.

Are stand densities within 

their range of natural 

variability for their growing 

conditions?

Condition is good, although there has probably been an 

increase in tree density over the 20th century due to climate 

conditions conducive to tree establishment/growth. 

Are age class distributions 

of trees consistent 

with expected range of 

variability?

Although based on limited data, condition appeared good for 

this indicator. Centuries-old trees are present in most places, 

along with younger trees <100 yr old, resulting in all-aged 

population structures which are typical of this vegetation type.

Do the trees and 

understory plants appear 

vigorous and healthy?

Most individual trees and understory plants appeared healthy. 

However, some dead piñon trees were observed and probably 

died in the last 5-10 yrs due to drought conditions. Such smallscale mortality events are natural and do not appear to threaten 

ecological integrity.

Are ecological processes 

operating within natural 

range of variability?

Condition is good, although fire intervals may have lengthened 

somewhat due to 20th century fire exclusion. However, 

intervals remain within the historical range of variability for this 

vegetation type as this type rarely burns, with centuries long 

intervals between recurrent fires. 

Are the current levels of 

insects/ disease within the 

normal range?

Condition is good. There was little evidence of tree mortality or 

morbidity due to insects or disease.

Persistent Piñon-Juniper 

Woodland Summary

Overall condition based 

on all six indicators/

measures

Overall condition is good, with all of the indicators/

measures good. Some concern does exist under the first 

indicator/measure; although current occurrence appears 

low, an increase in the exotic species present could 

increase fire frequency in this vegetation type.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.11.2-1. Summary of overall piñon-juniper condition, indicators and measures, and rationale for assigning condition at

El Malpais National Monument continued.

Piñon-Juniper Vegetation

Community Type Indicators/Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Juniper-Piñon Savanna

Is species presence & 

distribution consistent 

with conditions and within 

natural range of variability?

Species presence and distribution generally appears to be within 

the natural range of variability, and is in good condition. The 

dominant tree species in most of these savannas is one-seed 

juniper, as was probably the case historically. 

Are stand densities within 

their range of natural 

variability for their growing 

conditions?

Tree densities probably are greater in most stands observed 

than before 1900, and trees also appear to have expanded into 

former grasslands in many areas. The mechanism driving these 

changes is uncertain, but may be the result of a century of fire 

exclusion and 20th century climate which was favorable for tree 

establishment/survival. Tree densities naturally wax and wane 

in this vegetation type over century-long time scales; current 

densities probably are at or above maximum typical densities. 

Condition is considered to be of moderate concern. However, 

current densities are much less dramatic than in other places 

in the state and do not appear to pose a serious threat to 

ecological integrity.

Are age class distributions 

of trees consistent 

with expected range of 

variability?

Condition is good. Based on limited data, the age classes 

appear to be approximately within their natural range of 

variability, although 10 to 100-yr-old trees probably constitute 

a greater proportion of the population than was typical before 

1900. Some centuries-old trees are present.

Do the trees and 

understory plants appear 

vigorous and healthy?

Most trees and understory, including grasses and forbs, are 

healthy in appearance. This is the case even though tree 

densities are greater than probably existed prior to 1900. 

Condition is good for this indicator/measure.

Are ecological processes 

operating within natural 

range of variability?

Historical fire regimes of juniper-piñon savannas are not well 

understood. Spreading fires may have been relatively frequent, 

given the continuous fine-fuel cover (grasses) and frequent 

occurrence of dry weather. If so, then the modern fire regime 

(essentially no fire) is quite different. However, empirical data 

are lacking, which makes this an area of major uncertainty. 

Based on the available information, we consider condition to be 

of moderate concern. Some juniper trees have been killed due 

to recent prescribed and/or wild fires.

Are the current levels of 

insects/ disease within the 

normal range?

Condition is good. There was little evidence of tree mortality or 

morbidity due to insects or disease.

Juniper-Piñon Savanna 

Summary

Overall condition based 

on all six indicators/

measures

Overall condition is good, with four of the indicators/

measures good and two of moderate concern. The 

increased tree density within savannas could increase the 

risk of high-severity crown fires under extremely dry and 

windy conditions.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.12. Ponderosa Pine Resource Condition Brief 

The contents of sub-chapter 5.12 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone ponderosa 

pine resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity 

Program (http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and 

include the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.12.1. Noteworthy Highlights

Areas dominated by ponderosa pine make up a significant proportion of El Malpais NM- about 

56% of the total area (Muldavin et al. 2013). Ponderosa pine habitats are of considerable value 

to wildlife, with at least 250 species of vertebrates inhabiting them in the Southwest (Allen et 

al. 2002). Based on a functional classification, there are two fundamentally different kinds of 

ponderosa pine habitats at the park: ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper woodland/savanna, and 

ponderosa pine-piñon-juniper rocky woodland. The first type is found primarily in areas with 

gentle topography and where soils are fine-textured and relatively deep, while the second type 

is found in areas having rugged topography (especially young lava flows with bare rock and 

little soil development). 

5.12.2. Condition Rationale

The overall condition of ponderosa pine vegetation at the national monument is good. There 

are, however, some areas of concern. Of the twelve indicators/measures for the two ponderosa 

pine types (six for each type; Table 5.12.2-1), ten are considered to be in good condition. Two 

(for the woodland/savanna type) are considered to be of moderate concern; these main areas 

of concern are the increase in fire intervals, which generally exceed the historical range for the 

type, and higher stand densities occurring today compared to pre-1900. Although all measures 

were considered good for the rocky woodland type, an increase in fire intervals was noted. 

Fire managers at the park are reintroducing fire to the system where and when possible. The 

condition of ponderosa pine vegetation in the park appears to have been generally stable over 

the last half century, and we consider the overall trend in condition as unchanging at this time.

5.12.3. Management and Project Considerations

Park staff are drafting a vegetation and fire management environmental assessment for future 

planning efforts. The plan will include all vegetation types found throughout the monument.

© PATTY VALENTINE-DARBY

Ponderosa pine 

woodland.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.12.2-1. Summary of overall ponderosa pine vegetation condition, indicators and 

measures, and rationale for assigning condition at El Malpais National Monument.

Ponderosa Pine Vegetation

Community Type Indicators/Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Ponderosa Pine-PiñonJuniper Woodland-Savanna

Is species presence & 

distribution within natural 

range of variability?

n general, the species present and their distribution appear to 

be in good condition. Some exotic species are present in local 

areas, but native species predominate in most places. 

Are stand densities within 

their range of natural 

variability for their growing 

conditions?

Stand densities probably are greater in some areas today than 

before 1900 due to few fires and favorable climatic conditions 

for trees during the past century. These higher stand densities 

do not appear to pose any serious threat to ecological integrity, 

but they may make some areas more susceptible to somewhat 

larger and more severe wildfires than occurred historically. 

Overall, condition is of moderate concern.

Are age class distributions 

of trees consistent 

with expected range of 

variability?

With limited data, the age classes appear to be within their 

natural range of variability in many areas. However, where 

heavy logging was conducted in the 20th century, many of 

the oldest trees were removed, and the oldest trees today 

are generally <150 yrs old. This departure from historical 

conditions, however, does not appear to pose any serious threat 

to ecological integrity, and overall, we considered condition 

good. 

Do the trees and 

understory plants appear 

vigorous and healthy?

Most individual trees and understory plants appeared healthy. 

However, dead ponderosa pine trees were observed in many 

areas and probably died in the last 5-10 yrs due to drought 

conditions. Such small-scale mortality events are natural and do 

not appear to threaten overall ecological integrity. Therefore, 

we considered condition good.

Are ecological processes 

operating within natural 

range of variability?

Fire intervals have lengthened considerably due to 20th century 

fire exclusion, and generally exceed the historical range of 

variation for this vegetation type. Condition, therefore, is of 

moderate concern. However, the fire management program at 

the national monument is reintroducing fire to this vegetation 

type via manager-ignited prescribed fire and allowing wildfires 

to burn when/where possible. 

Are the current levels of 

insects/ disease within the 

normal range?

Condition is good. We looked for, but saw, little evidence of 

tree mortality or morbidity due to insects or disease. Insects/

disease appear to pose no serious threat at this time.

Ponderosa Pine-PiñonJuniper WoodlandSavanna Summary

Overall condition based 

on all six indicators/

measures

Overall condition is good, with four of the indicators/

measures good and two of moderate concern. Longer fire 

intervals are of relatively greatest concern, followed by 

patches of increased tree densities.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

Table 5.12.2-1. Summary of overall ponderosa pine vegetation condition, indicators and measures, and rationale for

assigning condition at El Malpais National Monument continued.

Ponderosa Pine Vegetation

Community Type Specific Indicators/

Measures

Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Ponderosa Pine-PiñonJuniper Rocky Woodland

Is species presence & 

distribution consistent 

with conditions and within 

natural range of variability?

In general, the species present and their distribution appear 

to be in good condition. Although they may exist, no exotic 

species were observed during the site visit. Therefore, native 

species predominate in most places.

Are stand densities within 

their range of natural 

variability for their growing 

conditions?

Stand densities probably are somewhat greater in some areas 

today than before 1900 due to few fires and favorable climatic 

conditions for trees during the past century. However, on the 

most unfavorable substrates (e.g., young lava flows), tree 

density probably is limited by harsh environmental conditions. 

Where they occur, higher stand densities than were typical of 

historical conditions do not appear to pose any serious threat to 

ecological integrity. Condition is considered good.

Are age class distributions 

of trees consistent 

with expected range of 

variability?

Condition is good. With limited data, the age classes appear 

to be within their natural range of variability in many areas. 

Although logging in the 20th century removed many of the 

old trees in some places, much of this habitat is inaccessible 

and still retains all-aged tree population structures including 

centuries-old trees. Past logging in these areas does not appear 

to pose any serious threat to ecological integrity.

Do the trees and 

understory plants appear 

vigorous and healthy?

Most individual trees and understory exhibit healthy 

appearances. However, dead ponderosa pine trees are seen in 

many areas. These dead trees appear to have died within the 

past 5-10 yrs, probably as a result of recent drought conditions. 

Small-scale mortality events of this kind are natural, and 

ecological integrity of this vegetation type is not threatened. 

Overall, condition is good for this indicator/measure.

Are ecological processes 

operating within natural 

range of variability?

Fire intervals have lengthened due to 20th century fire 

exclusion, even in areas of rugged topography and 

discontinuous fine fuels, and now generally exceed the 

historical range of variability for this vegetation type. However, 

a paucity of 20th century fire does not appear to have 

compromised overall ecological integrity, and fire is probably 

less important to stand structure than in the woodland/

savanna type. Also, the fire management program at the park is 

reintroducing fire to this vegetation type (via prescribed fire and 

allowing wildfires to burn where/when possible). Condition was 

judged to be good.

Are the current levels of 

insects/ disease within the 

normal range?

Condition is good. We looked for, but saw, little evidence of 

tree mortality or morbidity due to insects or disease. Insects/

disease appear to pose no serious threat at this time.

Ponderosa Pine-PiñonJuniper Rocky Woodland 

Summary

Overall condition based 

on all six indicators/

measures

Overall condition is good, with all six of the indicators/

measures good. The are some minor concerns over 

increased fire intervals, as well as increased tree density in 

some places and the potential occurrence of exotic plants. 
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

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313

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.13. Grasslands and Shrublands Resource Condition Brief 

The contents of sub-chapter 5.13 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone grasslands 

and shrublands resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic 

Identity Program (http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy 

standards and include the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact 

for the public.

5.13.1. Noteworthy Highlights

Based on the data used for the assessment, high-value, iconic grassland species appear to 

be amply represented at the national monument; few exotics were commonly found, and 

many sites exhibited high species diversity. Also, there was a good diversity of grasses, forbs, 

subshrubs and shrubs, with only a low level of woody encroachment. With livestock grazing 

now a much rarer occurrence, conditions are expected to improve.

5.13.2. Condition Rationale

Two indicators were used to assess the condition of grasslands and shrublands at El Malpais 

NM: those of soil/site stability and biotic integrity. For the soil/site stability indicator, one 

measure was found to be in good condition, while the other was unknown. For the biotic 

integrity measure, all five measures were found to be in good condition. Overall, the condition 

of grasslands at the national monument is good. This condition appears to be stable at the 

present time, with the cessation of livestock grazing almost 20 years ago.

5.13.3. Management and Project Considerations

Park staff are drafting a vegetation and fire management environmental assessment for future 

planning efforts. The plan will include all vegetation types found throughout the monument.

NPS BAND FIRE ECOLOGY PROGRAM

Grassland with 

wildflowers.
314

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.13.2-1. Summary of overall grasslands and shrublands vegetation condition,

indicators and measures, and rationale for assigning condition at El Malpais National 

Monument.

Grasslands and Shrublands

Community Type Specific Indicators/

Measures

Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Soil/Site Stability

Soil Cover

Bare soil predominates as would be expected in this location, 

given substrate and sparse vegetation cover. These conditions, 

while not ideal for slowing erosion and slowing water flow are 

normal in this setting. Gravel, rocks, biological soil crusts (moss 

and lichen), bedrock, and some litter contribute to ground 

cover (30%) and help protect the soil surface. 

Biological Soil Crust

Some biological soil crusts (moss and lichen) were found, 

but data were scant. Condition of this measure could not be 

assigned. 

Biotic Integrity

Landscape-scale Diversity

Species composition is consistent with expected species 

based on spatial patterns of soils and geology; vegetation 

communities reflect the natural range of variation. 

Local Species Composition

Species composition is consistent with expected species; few 

exotics were commonly found, and many sites exhibited high 

diversity. 

General Life Cycles Relative 

to Disturbance

The proportion of annual, biennial and perennial species relative 

to the time since disturbance was not obviously consistent. 

There are sites with ruderal species for which the disturbance 

mechanism is unknown to the authors.

Relative Proportion of 

Functional Groups (e.g., 

graminoid, forbs, shrubs, 

etc.) 

The relative proportions of functional groups are consistent with 

what would be expected; there was a good diversity of grasses, 

forbs, subshrubs, and shrubs. Only slight and occasional woody 

encroachment was evident.

Relative Proportion of C3 

and C4 Species 

The relative proportions of C3 and C4 plants are consistent with 

what would be expected based on site characteristics and local 

climate variables.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.14. Distinct Vegetation Resource Condition Brief 

The contents of sub-chapter 5.14 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone distinct 

vegetation resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity 

Program (http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and 

include the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.14.1. Noteworthy Highlights

Important biogeographic aspects and characteristics of the monument’s distinct vegetation 

include ancient trees growing on the young lava flows, the endemic plant species Phacelia 

serrete (cinders phacelia), endemic and vulnerable plant associations, including ones that have 

only been found at El Malpais, and the vegetation communities found on kipukas. 

5.14.2. Condition Rationale

The overall condition of the ecological integrity indicator for the distinct vegetation at the 

national monument is currently unknown. (Table 5.14.2-1). The types of distinct vegetation 

included the condition aspects evaluated for condition in the broad vegetation community 

assessments (i.e., pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine assessed in Sections 4.8 and 4.9, 

respectively), where conditions are likely to be the same (e.g., good) where they overlap. 

5.14.3. Management and Project Considerations

Park staff are drafting a vegetation and fire management environmental assessment for future 

planning efforts. The plan will include all vegetation types found throughout the monument.

NPS

Phacelia serrete

(cinders phacelia) 

(shown here) is an 

endemic species 

that grows on 

volcanic cinders 

in only two areas 

- one of those 

areas includes El 

Malpais National 

Monument.
316

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.14.2-1. Summary of overall distinct vegetation condition, indicators and measures, 

and rationale for assigning condition at El Malpais National Monument.

Distinct Vegetation

Community Type Indicators/Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Ecological Integrity n/a

The ancient trees, cinders phacelia, endemic and vulnerable 

plant associations, and vegetation communities growing on 

kipukas are not being monitored. Therefore, their current 

condition is unknown. 
317

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.15. Exotic Plants Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.15 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone exotic plants 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.15.1. Condition Rationale

The overall condition of exotic plants at El Malpais NM is unknown (Table 5.15.1-1). The 

condition of the potential to alter native plant communities indicator is of significant concern 

since six species with the highest rankings for exotic plant impact and five species with high 

rankings for exotic plant impacts have been documented in the park. Thirteen additional 

species had medium rankings. Verbascum thapsus is of special concern since this species 

typically grows in disturbed areas but is invasive in open landscapes, especially in areas with 

basaltic substrates. The prevalence of exotic plants is unknown. Information on the occurrence 

of exotic plant species was limited to only vegetation mapping plots that were sampled between 

2006 and 2009 (Muldavin et al. 2013).

5.15.2. Management and Project Considerations

Park staff are drafting a vegetation and fire management environmental assessment for future 

planning efforts. The plan will include all vegetation types found throughout the monument

© ALLYSON MATHIS - COMMON MULLEIN

Common mullein.
318

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.15.1-1. Summary of overall exotic plants condition, indicators and measures, and 

rationale for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Exotic Plants

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Potential to Alter Native 

Plant Communities

Significance of Exotic Plant 

Impact

This measure is based on the premise that species with the 

highest innate ability to become a pest generally cause the 

most severe problems in natural ecosystems. Six of the 38 

species of exotic plants documented in El Malpais were ranked 

as having the highest innate ability to become a pest, and 

5 species were ranked as high. There was one species of 

special concern. Therefore, we consider this measure to be of 

significant concern.

Prevalence of Exotic Plants Number of observations in 

vegetation mapping plots

The prevalence of exotic plants at El Malpais is unknown. 

The reporting of exotic plant observations in vegetation 

mapping and classification plots in 2006-2009 provides limited 

information on the occurrence of exotic plants. However, 

specific information about exotic plants in the interior of the 

monument and along vectors is unknown.
319

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

Many data gaps in long-term monitoring and research have been identified for the wildlife resources group of topics 

assessed for the NRCA as shown by the unknown condition ratings, except for bats, which are in good condition. 

However, El Malpais National Monument, within the greater El Malpais Conservation Area and adjacent U.S. National 

Forest land, provides large tracts of unfragmented habitat and connectivity for species found throughout the region. In 

addition, the rugged terrain of the volcanic landscape and restricted or difficult access to most caves and areas of the 

park, affords a layer of protection that will help park managers achieve conservation goals.

A key area of uncertainty is that many of the lava tube caves have not yet been surveyed for roosting bats and other cavedependent species. Also, only a small proportion of the lava tube caves (10 caves) have been/are being monitored for the 

fungus that causes White-nose syndrome (WNS), a recently-discovered disease that affects hibernating bats resulting in 

the mortality of nearly 6 million bats in eastern North America (USFWS 2014). El Malpais NM staff also have concerns 

for the park due to its location relative to the most western-known occurrence of WNS (Arkansas, as of May 2015). The 

microclimate conditions in some caves at El Malpais NM are suitable for sustaining the WNS fungus, and the caves also 

provide optimal locations for bats to hibernate during the winter. An additional factor is the heavy visitation of some of 

the caves by U.S. and international travelers. Together, these factors may put the caves at risk of being the “first contact” 

for P. destructans in New Mexico (Eric Weaver, Acting Natural Resources Branch Chief, El Malpais NM, pers. comm.). 

However, this is an uncertainty at this time, and El Malpais NM managers are taking precautions against the disease. 

Park staff are also currently developing a comprehensive cave monitoring program, which will help reduce some of the 

existing data gaps.

There are likely several additional wildlife species that are currently unconfirmed but may be discovered in the future 

with additional monitoring. For example, Bogan et al. (2007) suggested that the grassy parcel near Grants may harbor 

more grassland species than what is currently included in the park’s species lists.

Overall, the natural and undeveloped qualities that the monument preserves, along with additional wilderness areas 

managed by the Bureau of Land Management and protected land with some extractive uses, managed by the U.S. 

Forest Service, provides structural and functional corridors for species to persist. It may be necessary to identify which 

corridors and areas are most important to maintaining intact trophic levels of species.

Cave moss Bobcat Townsend’s Big-eared bat Scott’s oriole Plateau striped whiptail

Cave Ecology and 

Species Mammals Bats Birds Herpetofauna

Wildlife Resources Summary
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.16. Cave Ecology and Species Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.16 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone cave ecology 

and species resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic 

Identity Program (http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy 

standards and include the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact 

for the public. 

5.16.1. Noteworthy Highlights

Cave biodiversity is generally low compared to other environments because of fewer food 

resources, less habitat diversity and decreased ecotones (Baker et al. 2015). However, caves 

provide distinct ecological resources for species that are partially or wholly dependent on caves 

for their survival. El Malpais caves contain known endemic species and most likely contain 

others that have yet to be documented.

5.16.2. Condition Rationale

One indicator, with two measures was used to assess the overall condition of cave ecology 

and species in El Malpais NM (Table 5.16.2-1). Since only a small portion of the total number 

of species that live in or utilize El Malpais caves most likely have been documented, and a 

cave entrance flora inventory has yet to be completed, the condition is unknown at this time. 

However, park staff recently submitted a proposal for 2018 funding to map the moss gardens 

and inventory the invertebrates contained in them. They will begin the process of mapping the 

moss gardens beforehand, which will be a significant resource management focus in 2016 (E. 

Weaver, pers. comm. 2016).

5.16.3. Management and Project Considerations 

Moss Garden Management, Protection, and Research 

Project Title: Inventorying and assessing risk of habitat loss for invertebrates in moss gardens 

at ELMA

Project Abstract: The moss gardens in the entrance and skylights of the lava tubes at ELMA 

are one of the Park’s most significant and largely undervalued resource, containing unique 

and isolated ecosystems that often provide a habitat that supports endemic species (Wynne 

NPS

Cave entrance 

flora includes moss 

gardens at cave 

entrances and 

under skylights. 

These areas contain 

distinct vegetation 

assemblages and 

also are extremely 

important for 

invertebrates 

(Wynne 2013).
322

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

and Shear 2016; Wynne 2013). There are 28 species of moss that have been identified at ELMA, 

including an arctic-alpine moss (Lindsey 1951) supported in a low elevation region by the cool cave 

environment. Unfortunately, due to their remote locations, we have limited information about this 

resource and the life that it supports. The few studies of the ecology of moss gardens conducted 

at ELMA (Northup and Welbourn 1997; Wynne 2013) have been limited in extent to the more 

accessible caves of ELMA. Results of these studies suggest that a more extensive survey would 

provide substantial and significant results. Beyond these studies, our records indicate the presence/

absence of moss gardens without any inventory of the invertebrates; additionally, photomonitoring 

of a select few moss gardens was conducted briefly in the 1990s. This project seeks to 1) document, 

identify, and measure moss gardens at ELMA, 2) establish permanent photomonitoring sites to 

monitor change in health and area size of moss gardens, 3) inventory invertebrate and bryophyte 

species contained within the moss gardens, 4) increase our knowledge on how external climatic 

changes affect the microclimates in lava tube caves (hereafter “lava tubes”), and 5) share our results 

with the public and through professional publications.

Moss Garden Management and Protection

ELMA will conduct a mini Bioblitz to map and create photo points for moss gardens in up to 40 

caves. The work will be conducted by ELMA Resources Management staff and volunteers from the 

Sandia and Pajarito Mesa Grattos. This is not a PMIS project but an ELMA Base-funded project 

and Centennial kickoff to be conducted in May 2016 and monitored throughout the year.

Table 5.16.2-1. Summary of overall cave ecology and species condition, indicators and

measures, and rationale for assigning condition assessment at El Malpais National Monument.

Cave Ecology and Species

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Cave-dependent Species

Invertebrates

The condition of invertebrates in El Malpais caves is unknown 

because limited inventory information for arthropods only exists 

for 10 El Malpais caves. Invertebrates in El Malpais caves are 

not being monitored.

Cave Entrance Floras

The condition of cave entrance flora in El Malpais caves is 

unknown. A full inventory of cave entrance flora has not 

been completed, and species composition of the flora is also 

unknown. Cave entrance flora in El Malpais caves are not being 

monitored.
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Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.17. Mammals Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.17 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone mammals 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public

5.17.1. Noteworthy Highlights:

Approximately 55 mammal species have been recorded at El Malpais NM during 2003-2004 

surveys by Bogan et al. (2007) and/or during the early 1990s surveys by Lightfoot et al. (1994). 

Additional species are believed to occur. During the 2003-2004 surveys, researchers recorded 

21 rodent species, 12 bat species, eight carnivore species, three ungulate species, and two 

lagomorh species. Six of the species documented at the park are considered Species of Greatest 

Conservation Need, including one species that is federally and state-listed (Mexican gray wolf) 

and one species that is state-listed (spotted bat). 

5.17.2. Condition Rationale: 

The current condition of mammals at El Malpais NM, assessed using one indicator/measure, 

species occurrence (presence/absence), is unknown (Table 5.17.2-1). There is no current 

information on mammal species as a group, with the most recent surveys having been conducted 

in 2003-2004 by Bogan et al. (2007). However, note that this assessment focuses on mammals 

as a group; we conducted a separate assessment focusing on bats only, as bats are of particular 

interest in the park and a substantial amount of recent information is available on them. 

Approximately 55 species of mammals have been documented in the national monument, and 

additional species are thought to occur. Although condition and trends of mammals cannot 

be determined at this time, the 2003-2004 surveys (and earlier work) provide good baseline 

information for future monitoring and condition assessment. 

©ROBERT. SHANTZ - BOBCAT

Bobcat.
324

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.17.2-1. Summary of overall mammal condition, indicators and measures, and 

rationale for assigning condition at El Malpais National Monument.

Mammals

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Species Occurrence Presence / Absence

There is no current information available on mammals (as a 

group) at the national monument. The most recent surveys were 

conducted in 2003-2004 (i.e., Bogan et al. 2007). Although 

condition can not be determined at this time, the 2003-2004 

work, as well as earlier surveys by Lightfoot et al. (1994) and 

Valdez et al. (2002) provides baseline information for future 

monitoring and assessment. One of the species documented 

at the park is considered federally and state endangered, 

and another species is listed as threatened with the State. Six 

species, including these two endangered/threatened species, are 

listed as New Mexico Species of Greatest Conservation Need.
325

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.18. Bats Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.18 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone bats resource 

brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program (http://

www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include the 

contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.18.1. Noteworthy Highlights

Bats are an ecologically important and interesting group of mammals. Approximately 15 species 

of bats have been documented at El Malpais NM. Several species are known to use the national 

monument’s caves. These include the Mexican (or Brazilian) free-tailed bat and Townsend’s 

big-eared bat, which roost in relatively large numbers (the first in the summer, and the second in 

the winter). One of the species recorded in the national monument, the spotted bat, is listed as 

threatened with the State of New Mexico, as well as a Species of Greatest Conservation Need. 

Bats have been the subject of research and monitoring in the park in recent years because of the 

threat of white-nose syndrome (WNS), which was first discovered in eastern North America.

5.18.2. Condition Rationale

We used three indicators, each with one measure, to assess the condition of bats at El Malpais 

NM (Table 5.18.2-1). Under these three indicators, species occurrence, occurrence of P. 

destructans and/or WNS, and habitat availability and condition, current condition was judged 

to be good. Under the third indicator, we addressed primarily bat roosting (in winter and 

summer) in caves and trees. At least eight species have been observed using caves at the park, 

and managers are using various methods to protect bats from human disturbance (e.g., cave 

closures during sensitive times for bats). Even though condition under the second indicator 

is currently good, the threat from WNS remains with the closest confirmed presence of the 

disease in Arkansas (as of May 2015). Based on monitoring efforts at the park, neither P. 

destructans nor WNS have been detected in caves or bats within the national monument, but 

microclimate conditions are suitable for the fungus in some caves. 

5.18.3. Management and Project Considerations 

Project ideas for mitigating the threat of White-nose Syndrome (WNS) are summarized in the 

following abstract, which was submitted as a budget request in the NPS Project Management 

Information System.

NPS / SHAWN THOMAS - TOWNSEND’S BIG-EARED BAT

Townsend’s bigeared bat.
326

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.18.2-1. Summary of overall bat condition, indicators and measures, and rationale 

for assigning condition at El Malpais National Monument.

Bats

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Species Occurrence Presence / Absence

Comparing the bat species observed in 1999-2000 by Valdez 

et al. (2002) and in 2003-2004 by Bogan et al. (2007; the lists 

were nearly the same) to that by Valdez (2012) in 2011, six 

species were not observed in 2011 that had been observed 

previously. However, some of the differences were probably 

due to differences in sampling locations between the efforts 

and the fact that some of the species are not common. Also, at 

least seven species have been documented by park staff and/or 

Northup et al. (2015) in 2014-2015. Based on the information 

available, we do not have any particular concerns for species 

occurrence at this time. There is insufficient data to judge 

trends. .

Occurrence of P. 

destructans and/or WNS Presence / Absence

The monitoring work of Valdez (2012) captured >400 bats of 

eight species, and none of the captured bats showed evidence 

of the fungus or WNS. Valdez noted, however, that some subtle 

signs of the disease or fungus could have gone undetected. 

Samples collected and analyzed by Northup (2013) from 10 

caves in the national monument were negative for the presence 

of P. destructans using the most accurate test available. Based 

on these results (and those of Northup et al. 2015), we consider 

the condition for this indicator/measure to be good at this 

time. However, awareness and concern for bats at the national 

monument remains high as this fungus and disease continues 

to be studied and monitored. Furthermore, only a small 

proportion of the lava tube caves at El Malpais NM have been/

are being monitored for P. destructans, and it is possible that 

other important (and as of yet undiscovered) winter hibernacula 

exist. 

Habitat Availability & 

Condition 

Free from / with Minimal 

Human Disturbance

We addressed primarily bat roosting (in winter and summer) in 

caves and/or trees. At least eight species have been observed 

using caves at the park, some for hibernating and some for 

maternity roosts. Based on the available information, including 

the continued, observed use of some of the caves by bats, we 

consider habitat availability and condition for bats with respect 

to caves to be good. Only a small number of caves are open to 

the public, and prior to cave entrance the public must obtain a 

permit and speak with a ranger about cave protection/visitation. 

Also, the park uses cave closures of some caves at especially 

sensitive times for bats. Additionally, more caves (fairly free from 

human disturbance) are probably used for roosting than are 

currently known. Although we have no specific information on 

bat use of piñon-juniper, ponderosa pine, or other vegetation 

at El Malpais NM, some of the species that occur at the park 

are known to roost in trees in these habitats. We consider 

condition good for this aspect of the assessment because of 

the availability and condition (judged to be good) of these areas 

at the park. Additionally, one relatively large and open pool of 

water on the northeast corner of the park is known to be a 

valuable resource for drinking and possibly foraging. Overall, 

condition is good for this indicator/measure.
327

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

Project title: Investigating Natural Defenses of Bats

Project Abstract: WNS is expected to reach New Mexico within the next five years, making 

the gathering of baseline information of New Mexico bats to be of paramount importance. 

Many western species of bats in ELMA are analogous to eastern species; therefore, our research 

is capable of having far-reaching impacts on the understanding of P. destructans and potential 

treatments of WNS. Identifying antimicrobial agents that inhibit the growth of P. destructans 

on bats and their habitat is in the early stages of development. Little is known about the natural 

defenses of bats and the role they play in combating P. destructans. Since 2013, six ELMA bat 

species were swabbed for DNA analysis of their microbiome and to culture Actinobacteria. 

Actinobacteria produce microbial agents, which are often abundant in caves. By culturing 

bacteria, our previous studies have determined that some naturally-occurring bacteria in 

ELMA caves inhibit P. destructans. By 2015, 900 isolates were cultured and more than 20, from 

five different genera of Actinobacteria, were shown to inhibit P. destructans. The next phase to 

determine the natural defenses of bats against P. destructans is to screen these isolates for the 

polyketide synthase type II (PKS II) gene group. Preliminary screening of 43 actinobacterial 

isolates from four ELMA sites found nine isolates positive for PKS II. We propose gene 

sequencing of positive isolates to determine PKS II gene diversity of NM bats and differences 

between these genes among different bat species.
328

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Page Left Intentionally Blank
329

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.19. Landbirds Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.19 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone landbirds 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.19.1. Noteworthy Highlights

At least 183 landbird species have been recorded in the national monument during surveys 

in the 1990s (Lightfoot et al. 1994) and 2002-2003 (Johnson et al. 2007) and observations by 

national monument staff/volunteers in 2011-early 2015. Forty-six of the species appear on one 

or more of the various lists of species of conservation concern. Three species (Bald Eagle, Gray 

Vireo, and Peregrine Falcon) are listed as threatened with the State of New Mexico. Although 

we judge the condition unknown due to a lack of recent comprehensive surveys, it seems clear 

that El Malpais NM is inhabited by a diverse array of birds, at least some of which breed in the 

park.

5.19.2. Condition Rationale

Using the species occurrence indicator to assess the condition of landbirds at El Malpais NM, 

we found current condition and trends to be unknown (Table 5.19.2-1). There are no current 

data representative of the entire park to assess current condition. The most recent standardized 

surveys were conducted in 2002-2003 during the breeding season. Recent observations 

(2011-early 2015) were made by park personnel throughout portions of the year along roads 

bordering the monument (Highway 53 and 117). Although condition cannot be determined 

at this time, the three efforts to survey/observe birds at the park have led to a substantial list 

of birds. At least 183 bird species have been recorded, including 46 species that appear on one 

or more lists of birds of conservation concern. This list includes three state-listed bird species 

but no federally-listed species. The 2002-2003 standardized surveys (and earlier work) provide 

baseline information for future monitoring and condition assessment. 

NPS - SCOTT’S ORIOLE

Scott’s oriole
330

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.19.2-1. Summary of overall landbird condition, indicators and measures, and 

rationale for assigning condition at El Malpais National Monument.

Landbirds

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Species Occurrence Presence / Absence

We used one indicator/measure, species occurrence, to assess

the condition of landbirds at El Malpais NM. There are no

current data representative of the entire park to assess current

condition of birds. The most recent standardized surveys were 

conducted in 2002-2003 during the breeding season (i.e., 

Johnson et al. 2007). Recent observations (2011-early 2015) 

have been conducted by park personnel from January/February 

until May/June and throughout the remainder of the year along 

roads bordering the monument. Although condition and trend 

cannot be determined at this time, the three efforts to survey/

observe birds at the park have led to a substantial list of birdsat least 183 bird species (and more if subspecies are included), 

including 46 species that appear on one or more lists of birds of 

conservation concern.
331

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

5.20. Herpetofauna Resource Condition Brief

The contents of sub-chapter 5.20 were designed to be placed into a stand-alone herpetofauna 

resource brief at a later date. The final resource brief will follow NPS Graphic Identity Program 

(http://www.nps.gov/hfc/services/identity/) format and layout policy standards and include 

the contact information of at least one NPS employee as a point contact for the public.

5.20.1. Noteworthy Highlights

A total of 21 species of amphibians and reptiles were recorded at El Malpais NM during 2002-

2003 surveys by USGS (Nowak and Persons 2008) and/or during the early 1990s surveys by 

the University of New Mexico (Lightfoot et al. 1994). Several additional species were noted 

as “probably present” or “unconfirmed” by Nowak and Persons (2008). Of the 21 species, 

18 were recorded during the 2002-2003 surveys (i.e., five amphibian and 13 reptile species). 

None of the species are federally or state-listed as endangered or threatened, but three are 

considered Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN) in New Mexico. 

5.20.2. Condition Rationale

The current condition of amphibians and reptiles at the national monument, assessed using 

one indicator/measure, species occurrence (presence/absence), is unknown (Table 5.20.2-1). 

There is no current information available on the herpetofauna of the park with which to assess 

condition. The most recent surveys were conducted by the USGS Southwest Biological Science 

Center in 2002-2003. Some earlier surveys by Lightfoot et al. (1994) were also reviewed for 

the assessment. Combined, the studies documented 21 species in the national monument. 

Although condition and trends cannot be determined, the 2002-2003 surveys (and earlier 

work) provide good baseline information for future monitoring and condition assessment.

©ROBERT. SHANTZ - PLATEAU STRIPED WHIPTAIL

Plateau striped 

whiptail.
332

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Table 5.20.2-1. Summary of overall herpetofauna condition, indicators and measures, and 

rationale for assigning condition at El Malpais National Monument.

Herpetofauna

Indicators of Condition Specific Measures Condition 

Status/Trend Rationale

Species Occurrence Presence / Absence

There is no current information available on amphibians and 

reptiles at the national monument. The most recent surveys 

were conducted in 2002-2003 (i.e., Nowak and Persons 2008). 

Although condition can not be determined at this time,the 

2002-2003 work, as well as earlier surveys by Lightfoot et al. 

(1994), provides baseline information for future monitoring and 

assessment.
333

Chapter 5: Discussion of NRCA Findings and Considerations for Park Planning

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337

Appendix A: Team Members, Subject Matter Experts/Reviewers, and GIS Data

Appendix A: Team Members, Subject Matter 

Experts/Reviewers, and GIS Data Summary

Table A.1. El Malpais National Monument NRCA Project Team Members

El Malpais NM NRCA Project Team

Jeff Albright, NPS Water Resources Division’s Coordinator of the NRCA Report Series

Lisa Baril, Utah State University Science Writer

Steve Baumann, NPS El Malpais and El Morro National Monuments’ Resources Management Chief

Nina Chambers, Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative Science Writer

Mitzi Frank, NPS El Malpais and El Morro National Monuments’ Superintendent

Dave Hays, NPS El Malpais and El Morro National Monuments’ Natural Resources Branch Chief (Former)

Allyson Mathis, Utah State University Science Writer

Donna Shorrock, NPS Intermountain Region Natural Resource Condition Assessment Regional Coordinator

Kim Struthers, Utah State University Science Writer/Editor

Lisa Thomas, NPS Southern Colorado Plateau Inventory and Monitoring Network Program Manager

Patty Valentine-Darby, University of West Florida Biologist and Writer/Editor

Eric Weaver, NPS El Malpais and El Morro National Monuments’ Physical Science Technician and Acting Natural Resources Branch Chief

Table A.2. El Malpais National Monument NRCA Subject Matter Experts and/or Assessment Reviewers

Subject Matter Expert/Assessment Reviewer Topic(s) Project Deliverable(s)

Jeff Albright, National Park Service Water Resources Division, 

Natural Resource Condition Assessment Series Coordinator Full report Program Level Review

Steve Baumann, National Park Service El Malpais and El Malpais 

National Monuments Resources Management Chief Full report Park Expert Review

Eric Weaver, National Park Service El Malpais and El Malpais 

National Monuments Physical Science Technician and Acting 

Natural Resources Branch Chief

Full report Park Expert Review

Stephen Monroe, National Park Service Southern Colorado Plateau 

I&M Network Program Hydrologist Tinajas Reviewed Tinajas section

Joel Wagner, National Park Service Water Resources Division 

Wetlands Program Lead Tinajas Reviewed Tinajas section

Ksienya Pugacheva, National Park Service Air Resources Division, 

Natural Resource Specialist Air Quality Reviewed air quality section and provided NRCA template

Tim Connors, National Park Service Geologic Resources Division, 

Geologist Surface Geology Reviewed Surface Geology sections

Vince Santucci, National Park Service Geologic Resources Division, 

Senior Paleontologist/GRD Liaison

Surface Geology: 

Paleontological 

Resources

Reviewed Paleontological Resources section

Lisa Thomas, National Park Service Southern Colorado Plateau I&M 

Network Program Manager Vegetation topics Reviewed Vegetation sections and participated in field assessment

Dale Pate, National Park Service Geologic Resources Division, 

National Cave and Karst Program Coordinator

Caves and Cave 

Ice, and Cave 

Ecology

Reviewed Caves and Cave Ice, Cave Ecology 

sections

Jim DeCoster, National Park Service Southern Colorado Plateau 

I&M Network Plant Ecologist Vegetation Participated in the field assessment

Chad Moore, National Park Service Natural Sounds and Night Skies 

Division Night Skies Program Manager Night Sky

Provided information pertaining to night sky 

data collection methodology and interpretation 

of results. 
338

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Subject Matter Expert/Assessment Reviewers Topic(s) Project Deliverable(s)

Jeremy White, National Park Service Natural Sounds and Night 

Skies Division Physical Scientist Night Sky Reviewed Night Sky sections including Bortle Key Appendix C

Dr. Henri D. Grissino-Mayer, The University of Tennessee, Professor 

and Associate Department Head, Department of Geography

Distinct Vegetation 

Communities

Reviewed Distinct Vegetation Communities 

section

Myron Chase, National Park Service, Intermountain Regional 

Office, Regional IPM an d Invasive Species Coordinator Exotic Plants Reviewed Exotic Plants section

Mike Wrigley, National Park Service, Intermountain Regional Office, 

Wildlife Biologist Wildlife Reviewed Wildlife sections

Emma Brown National Park Service Natural Sounds and Night Skies 

Division Acoustical Resource Specialist Soundscape Reviewed Soundscape section provided NRCA template

Dr. William H. Romme, Professor emeritus of fire ecology and 

research scientist in the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, 

Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.

Vegetation

Participated in the field assessment, co-authored 

the report upon which the vegetation section 

was based, and reviewed the draft of this 

section.

Brian Jacobs, Vegetation Ecologist who recently retired from the 

NPS at Bandelier NM Vegetation

Participated in the field assessment and coauthored the report upon which the vegetation 

section was based

Table A.3. Summary of GIS Data Used in El Malpais National Monument’s NRCA 

Chapter or 

Natural Resource GIS Data/Map GIS Data Source

Chapter 2

Wilderness Map Wilderness map provided by ELMA staff

El Malpais National Monument Vicinity ESRI online map

Housing Density NPS NRSS NPScape Program provided map.

Southern Colorado Plateau Network 

Precipitation

Map obtained from NPS Southern Colorado Plateau Inventory and 

Monitoring website: http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/scpn/

climate/climate.cfm/

Watersheds Data obtained from USGS National Map - Hydrography website: 

http://nhd.usgs.gov/ and base map from ESRI online

Major Volcanic Features Geology dataset originated from NPS Geologic Resources Division and 

provided by ELMA staff

Viewshed

Viewshed Vantage Points Coordinates GPSd and provided on final DVD to park and IMR GIS

Viewshed Analysis Analysis files provided on final DVD to park and IMR GIS

Housing Density Data obtained from NPS NPScape website: http://science.nature.nps.

gov/im/monitor/npscape/gis_data.cfm

Road Density Data obtained from NPS NPScape Website: http://science.nature.nps.

gov/im/monitor/npscape/gis_data.cfm

Night Sky ALR Map NPS NRSS Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division provided map.

Soundscape and 

Appendix D

Acoustical Monitoring Locations Coordinates taken from NPS NRSS Natural Sounds and Night Skies 

Division Acoustical monitoring snapshot report (2009).

Areas Without Roads Data obtained from NPS NPScape website: http://science.nature.nps.

gov/im/monitor/npscape/gis_data.cfm

L50 Impact, Natural, and Existing Maps NPS NRSS Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division provided map.

Air Quality Locations of Nitrogen sensitive vegetation Data obtained from NPS IRMA website: https://irma.nps.gov/

DataStore/

Table A.2. El Malpais National Monument NRCA Subject Matter Experts and/or Assessment Reviewers (cont.)
339

Appendix A: Team Members, Subject Matter Experts/Reviewers, and GIS Data

Surface Geology 

and Appendix E

El Malpais lava flows, vents, cinders cones and 

fields

Geology dataset originated from NPS Geologic Resources Division and 

provided by ELMA staff

Lava Flow Surface Image obtained from Google Earth

Volcanic Vents and Floes Image obtained from Google Earth

Caves and Cave 

Ice

Major volcanic units and lava tubes Geology dataset originated from NPS Geologic Resources Division and 

provided by ELMA staff

Junction Cave impact map Map provided by ELMA staff

Tinajas Drought map Obtained from National Drought Mitigation Center

Vegetation: 

Piñon-Juniper Vegetation Communities Vegetation data layer was provided by ELMA staff.

Vegetation: 

Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Communities Vegetation data layer was provided by ELMA staff.

Vegetation: 

Grasslands and 

Shrublands

Vegetation Communities Vegetation data layer was provided by ELMA staff.

Fire Effects and Vegetation Map Plot Locations

Vegetation data layer was provided by ELMA staff and fire effects 

data were provided by Laura Trade, Bandelier New Mexico Fire 

Program

Soil Types Data obtained from Natural Resource Conservation Service

Geology Map obtained from Muldavin et al. 2013

Vegetation: 

Distinct and 

Appendix G

Geologic Substrates and Ancient Trees Geology dataset originated from NPS Geologic Resources Division and 

provided by ELMA staff and papers or researchers cited in section

Vegetation Map Map obtained from Muldavin et al. 2013

Exotic Plants Vegetation Map Plot Locations Vegetation data layer was provided by ELMA staff

Bats White-nose syndrome map Obtained from www.whitenosesyndrome.org

Birds Bird Conservation Regions In North America Data obtained from North American Bird Conservation Initiative 

website: http://www.nabci-us.org

Table A.3. Summary of GIS Data Used in El Malpais National Monument’s NRCA (cont.)

341

Appendix B: Viewshed Analysis Steps

Appendix B: Viewshed Analysis Steps

The process used to complete El Malpais and 

El Morro National Monuments’ viewshed 

analyses is listed below.

Downloaded 12 of the 1/3 arc second national 

elevation dataset (NED) grid (roughly 

equivalent to a 30 m digital elevation model 

[DEM]) from The National Map Seamless 

Server (http://seamless.usgs.gov/) (USGS 

2015) and created a mosaic dataset. The x and 

y values for the NED are in arc seconds while 

the z data are in meters. The DEMs were 

reprojected into NAD83 Albers Meter to get 

all data in meters and into a geographic extent 

that covered the entire area. 

Prepared observation point layers for 

viewshed analyses by importing GPSd points 

for all vantage point locations selected for 

viewshed analysis. Exported data a shapefile. 

Added field named “OFFSETA” (type = 

double) to shapefile and set value to an 

observer height of 1.68 m (~5’6”).

Ran Viewshed Analysis using the Viewshed 

Tool in ESRI’s ArcGIS 10.2, Spatial Analyst 

Toolbox, ran viewsheds using the following 

inputs.

● Input raster = 1/3 arc second NED 

● Input point observer feature = obs_

point.shp.

The rasters were reclassified into visible 

areas only, converted to polygons, and 

merged into one dataset for each park. 

The two datasets were reprojected into the 

Albers Equal Area Conic USGS projections 

to use NPS NPScape’s housing and road 

density tools (NPS 2011a). Text attributes 

were added to both datasets for the area of 

analysis identifier (NPS 2011b). 

Housing (CONUS, Density, SERGoM, 

1970 - 2100, Metric Data (ESRI 9.3 File 

Geodatabase) (Theobald 2005) and road 

(United States and Canada, Density - All 

Roads, ESRI, 2005, Metric Data (ESRI 9.3 

File Geodatabase) (ESRI 2010) GIS datasets 

were downloaded from NPScape’s website 

at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/

npscape/gis_data.cfm?tab=1. 

Standard Operating Procedures for both 

density tools (NPS 2014a,b) were followed 

based on NPScape instructions: https://

irma.nps.gov/DataStore/Reference/

Profile/2193329 and https://irma.nps.gov/

DataStore/Reference/Profile/2193334.

Literature Cited

ESRI. 2010. U.S. and Canada Detailed Streets. Compiled by Tele Atlas North America (2005), 

Inc., distributed by ESRI. Redlands, CA. DVD. Available at http://science.nature.nps.gov/

im/monitor/npscape/methods_sourcedata.cfm. Accessed October 19, 2015. 

National Park Service (NPS). 2011a. NPScape: Monitoring landscape dynamics of U.S. 

National Parks. Natural Resource Program Center, Inventory and Monitoring Division. 

Fort Collins, Colorado. http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/npscape/.

National Park Service (NPS). 2011b. NPScape NPS boundary-derived areas of analysis SOP: 

Park, 3km, and 30km areas of analysis. National Park Service, Natural Resource Program 

Center. Fort Collins, Colorado. Available at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/

npscape/citation.cfm. Accessed October 19, 2015.

National Park Service (NPS). 2014a. NPScape Standard Operating Procedure: Housing 

Measure – Current and Projected Housing Density. Version [2015-03-19]. National Park 

Service, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science. Fort Collins, Colorado. Available at 

http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/npscape/citation.cfm. Accessed October 19, 

2015.
342

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

National Park Service (NPS). 2014b. NPScape Standard Operating Procedure: Roads Measure 

– Road Density, Distance from Roads, and Area without Roads. Version [2015-03-19]. 

National Park Service, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science. Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Available at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/npscape/citation.cfm. Accessed 

October 19, 2015.

Theobald, D.M. 2005. Landscape patterns of exurban growth in the USA from 1980 to 2020. 

Ecology and Society 10:32. Available at http://www.ecologyandsociety.org. Accessed 

October 19, 2015.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2015. The national map - elevation. Available at http://viewer.

nationalmap.gov/basic/?basemap=b1&category=ned,nedsrc&title=3DEP%20View. 

Accessed October, 14, 2015.
343

Appendix C: Bortle Dark-Sky Scale

Appendix C: Bortle Dark-Sky Scale
344

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment
345

Appendix D: Soundscape Models

Appendix D: Soundscape Models

Figure D-1.

Natural CONUS 

soundscape model 

zoomed to El 

Malpais NM.

Figure D-2.

Existing CONUS 

soundscape model 

zoomed to El 

Malpais NM..
346

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Mennitt et al. (2013) developed a geospatial sound model by mapping sound pressure levels on a 

continental U.S. scale. The model included biological, climatic, geophysical, and anthropogenic 

factors to assess expected sound pressure levels for natural and existing conditions. The model 

suggested that the area within and surrounding El Malpais NM had a natural L50 dBA average 

of 27.8 (Figure D-1) and an existing L50 dBA average of 28.0 (Figure D-2) (Emma Lynch, 

Acoustical Resource Specialist, NPS Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division, provided Excel 

spreadsheet with values). The L50 represents the sound level reported that is exceeded 50 

percent of the stated time period.

The impact of anthropogenic sound sources to the national monument’s soundscape, which is 

the existing L50 dBA minus natural L50 dBA, was estimated to be an average of 0.38 dBA (map is 

included in the assessment). For further details refer to the soundscape assessment in section 

4.3. 

As NSNSD’s predictive soundscape model continues to be developed and refined, it is intended 

to help park staff anticipate impacts by projecting future developments that have the potential 

to degrade soundscape condition. 

Literature Cited

Mennitt, D., K. Fristrup, K. Sherrill, and L. Nelson. 2013. Mapping sound pressure levels 

on continental scales using a geospatial sound model. Proceedings from Internoise 

Conference, Innsbruck, Austria, September 15-18, 2013. 11pp. 
347

Appendix E: Geology Assessment

Appendix E: Geology Background

The landscape of El Malpais National Monument is dominated by basaltic volcanic rocks 

erupted in the El Malpais phase between 60,000 and 3,900 years before present in the ZuniBandera Volcanic Field. Five young basaltic lava flows (El Calderon, Twin Craters, Hoya de 

Cibola, Bandera and McCartys) make up most of the El Malpais landscape. These lava flows 

have a range of surface morphologies and were emplaced via a variety of processes. McCartys 

Flow is the youngest of these lava flows and provides important insight into lava flow inflation 

processes. 

Two previous periods of basaltic volcanism occurred in the Zuni-Bandera field. The first phase 

of volcanism began 700,000 years ago and erupted a series of fluid lava flows (Laughlin et al. 

1993), mapped as old basalt flows by Maxwell (1986). The second period of volcanism, at 

approximately 150,000 years before present, produced a series of cinder cones known as the 

Chain of Craters mostly to the west of current monument boundaries, along with associated 

lava flows (KellerLynn 2012). Cerro Bandera, the northernmost cinder cone in the Chain of 

Craters, is within monument boundaries (KellerLynn 2012).

Lava Flow Surface Features

Basaltic lava flows are typically fluid and able to 

spread out and travel great distances from their 

vents. Pahoehoe (ropy surface) flows (Figure E-1) 

are more fluid than aa (blocky) lavas, and travel 

at greater speeds. A pahoehoe flow surface may 

transition into aa downstream, and an eruption 

may change from one type of lava to another 

(Zimbelman et al. 2010). Both types of flows may 

be fed via channels and tubes (Kilburn 2000), but 

inflation processes only occur in pahoehoe flows 

(Larry Crumpler, personal communication, 

2015).

The El Calderon Flows are the oldest of the major lava flows found in El Malpais NM, and are 

less than 60,000 years old (KellerLynn 2012). The eruption of the El Calderon Flows marked 

the initiation of the El Malpais phase of volcanism. Lava traveled from the vent approximately 

35 km (22 miles) to the northeast, although much of the original extent of this lava flow has 

been buried by younger eruptions (KellerLynn 2012).

The Twin Craters Flows likely erupted from four main cinder cones that were active within a 

narrow time range approximately 18,000 years before present (KellerLynn 2012). These flows 

are exposed in the northern part of the monument and appear to be the shortest in length of 

the five major lava flows in El Malpais NM (Maxwell 1986). The Twin Craters Flows consist 

primarily of tube-fed pahoehoe, but also contain channelized aa lava (Dunbar 2010). They 

have lost much of their ropy pahoehoe structure and the original glassy surface rind given their 

age (Dunbar and Phillips 2004).

The Hoya de Cibola Flows are the only flows of the El Malpais phase of volcanism to be 

associated with a shield volcano. A shield volcano is a low, broad volcanic edifice made up of 

very fluid basalt lava flows (Jackson 1997). The other eruptions in the field either produced 

Figure E-1. Pahoehoe surface on the 

McCartys Flow

©LARRY CRUMPLER
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

cinder cones such as El Calderon and Lost Woman Crater, or did not form a significant edifice, 

such as the McCartys Flow.

The Hoya de Cibola shield volcano is in the southwestern part of the monument (KellerLynn 

2012). Pahoehoe lava flowed primarily east and southeast from the vent area, and probably also 

flowed to the northeast, but was buried by younger lava flows. Kipukas with volcanic substrates 

in the northeastern area of the monument are interpreted to consist of Hoya de Cibola flows 

on the basis of composition, flow similarity, vegetation and weathering (Maxwell 1986). 

The second youngest lava flows in El Malpais, the Bandera Flows (Figure E-2), are the only 

ones that consists mostly of aa lava, versus pahoehoe. Blocky aa lavas have a rougher surface 

than pahoehoe lavas and have an extremely rugged, jagged, and rubbly surface (Jackson 1997). 

The Bandera Flows also have an extensive network of lava tubes, collapsed lava tubes, and 

contain tree mold fossils (Figure E-3) (KellerLynn 2012). These flows retain much of their 

surface structures, but have lost their original glassy surface (Dunbar and Phillips 2004).

The McCartys Flow is the most recent lava flow in the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field, and is 

approximately 3,900 years old (Dunbar and Phillips 2004). The flow is complex and was active 

over a period of many years (Larry Crumpler, personal communication, 2015). It was erupted 

from a vent area marked by an elevated platform of flow accumulations and a very small scoria 

cone less than 15 m (50 ft) tall (Crumpler et al. 2013).

As the youngest lava flow in the Zuni-Bandera Volcanic Field, and the product of one of the 

youngest eruptions in the southwest, surface features of the McCartys Flow are very well 

preserved. The surface of the flow consists of ropes, slabs, ridge-and-furrow lineations, and 

lava shatter zones (Crumpler et al. 2013). Other structures on the flow includes squeeze-ups, 

lava blisters, and lava driblets. The upper few millimeters of the surface consists of black 

volcanic glass called tachylite (Crumpler et al. 2013). The margins of flows are characterized 

by “toes,” or lobes formed from breakouts, and may have several benches or levels. Lava Falls 

is a lava drip that formed during a breakout from one of the small lobes of the flow (Crumpler 

et al. 2013). 

Figure E-2. A lava channel in aa lava on the Bandera Flows. Figure E-3. A tree mold on the Bandera 

Flows. 

©LARRY CRUMPLERNPS
349

Appendix E: Geology Assessment

Inflation Structures - McCartys Flow

Important research into the mechanism of basaltic lava flow emplacement has occurred on 

the McCartys Flow since the 1930s and continues today with implications for understanding 

lava flows in planetary bodies. This research is applicable to basalts on Mars and the Moon 

(Crumpler et al. 2013; Zimbelman et al. 2013; 2012; 2010; Garry et al. 2011). The McCartys 

Flow (Figure E-4) is well-suited for study because it is one of the largest young lava flows on 

the planet, is well preserved with small scale features retained, and occurs in a simple setting of 

a broad sloping valley floor (Crumpler et al. 2013). 

The surface of McCartys Flow is characterized by the presence of many large circular 

depressions, especially in the southern portion of the flow (Figure E-4). These depressions 

were previously thought to be collapsed lava tubes (Crumpler et al. 2013), but recent research 

has shown that they are lava rise pits formed via inflation (Crumpler et al. 2013; Zimbelman et 

al. 2013; 2012; and 2010; Garry et al. 2011).

Pahoehoe lava flows may either be emplaced via channels, tubes or as sheets (Garry et al. 

2011). Much of the McCartys Flow was emplaced as sheets (Crumpler et al. 2013). Sheets 

are likely to form in large areas with very gentle slopes, and inflation is an important process 

for the emplacement of sheet flows (Garry et al. 2011). Flows inflate underneath cooled flow 

surfaces when lava supply is greater than the ability for a lava flow to spread laterally due to 

cooling at the flow margins. Inflation thickens the lava flow and produces a uniform uplift of 

the solidified surface. 

Lava rise plateaus produced by inflation (Figure E-4) have been identified in the central and 

southern parts of the McCartys Flow, including in a large area near the vent and the region near 

Lava Falls (Zimbelman et al. 2013 and Crumpler et al. 2013). The plateau near Lava Falls was 

inflated more than 10 m (33 ft) (Crumpler et al. 2013). The surface of inflated plateaus can be 

relatively flat, with only minor relief across distances of 100 m (330 ft) (Crumpler et al. 2013). 

Lava rise pits (also known as inflation pits) are uninflated zones of an inflated plateau where 

the solid upper crust and hardened bottom surface of a lava flow were not separated by further 

injection of liquid lava (Crumpler et al. 2013). Lava rise pits may form when topographic 

obstacles beneath a lava flow exist, and where the flow is thereby thinner. The thinner area 

will solidify more quickly and be unable to inflate (Garry et al. 2011; Crumpler et al. 2013). The 

floors of lava rise pits may consist of broken slabs of cooled lava or may have been flooded by 

molten material from the pit margins during inflation (Garry et al. 2011). 

Because they form via an entirely different mechanism, lava rise pits are rarely connected to 

significant subsurface voids, unlike collapsed areas of lava tubes (Garry et al. 2013). On the 

McCartys Flow, lava rise pits are commonly 10 to 20 m (33 to 66 ft) in diameter with steep 

margins characterized by deep cracks or clefts (Figure E-5) (Crumpler et al. 2013). Lava 

“squeeze-outs” may occur on the slopes leading towards the depression where fluid lava 

escaped via clefts in the cooled surface of the flow. 

Detailed work on the McCartys Flow, including mapping using differential GPS surveys, 

has been key in understanding the emplacement mechanism of the lava flow, providing new 

insight into the formation of basaltic lava flows. The work at McCartys Flow is part of a larger 

project to understand whether lava flows on Mars or the Moon may have undergone inflation 

(Zimbelman et al. 2012). By serving as an analog for lava flows on other planetary bodies, 

McCartys Flow is allowing researchers to identify and map specific surface features such 

as lava rise pits and flow margin terraces that may be found in inflated planetary lava flows 

(Zimbelman et al. 2013). This research, supported by NASA, to understand inflation processes 
350

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

and their morphological characteristics at the McCartys Flow is continuing (Larry Crumpler, 

personal communication, 2015). 

Volcanic Vents and Edifices

Basaltic lavas do not produce explosive eruptions because they have low viscosity. Eruptions 

consisting of bursts of volcanic blocks, bombs and tephra, fire fountains, and small ash and 

cinder columns yield cinder cones and associated cinder fields. Coarser grained material falls 

around vents to produce cinder cones or more widely during periods of higher explosivity.

Figure E-4. Google Earth image showing the Lava Falls parking lot near the southern end of the McCartys Flow. The 

inflated rise plateau surface of the lava flow is relatively flat, and contains a number of circular depressions that are lava 

rise pits where the lava flow did not inflate. There was as much as 10 m (33 ft) of inflation or thickening of the lava flow 

in this area. Image by Google Earth (accessed June 3, 2015).
351

Appendix E: Geology Assessment

The eruptions were mildly 

explosive (Strombolian type) 

to nonexplosive or effusive 

(Hawaiian type), as is typical for 

basaltic volcanoes. 

Cinder cones are small 

volcanoes that are the most 

common type of volcano on land 

(Vespermann and Schmincke 

2000). They have steep sides 

with either a conical, horseshoe, 

or elongated shape with craters 

filled by debris reworked from 

the rim of the cone. They are 

made up of layers of loose 

or welded cinders, volcanic 

bombs and blocks, and ash that 

accumulated around a vent. 

Cinder cones typically occur in fields. Each eruptive vent is monogenetic, meaning that it erupts only 

once (Vespermann and Schmincke 2000). The Chain of Craters produced prior to the El Malpais phase of 

volcanism is a good example of a field of monogenetic cinder cones. 

Cinder cone eruptions usually produce only a small volume of erupted material. While the cinder cones 

of Zuni-Bandera field are of average size (less than 200 m [660 ft] tall), the lavas flows erupted from the 

cinder cones are of larger volume than typical (Theilig 1990). 

Most of the volcanic edifices in El Malpais NM are cinder cones (Maxwell 1986 and KellerLynn 2012). 

The El Calderon and Bandera flows were erupted from single vents associated with cinder cones. The 

Twin Craters Flows were erupted from several cinder cones in a very short period of time.

El Calderon Crater (Figure E-6) is an approximately 60 m (200 ft) tall cinder cone that is breached to the 

northeast where rafted pieces of the cinder cone were carried away by the lava flow eruption. A cinder field 

covering 0.53 square km (0.20 square mi) was also produced during this eruption. This volcano is the most 

impacted of the cinder cones in El Malpais NM due to quarrying. An abandoned cinder quarry there has 

two vertical mine cuts that expose the stratification of the cinders (NPS 2015). An 8-km (5-mi) loop trail 

leads to the cinder cone and provides a view into 

the crater. The NPS recently constructed stairs on 

a former social trail leading to the rim of the crater 

(Eric Weaver, personal communication, 2015).

At least four vents were active during the eruption 

of the Twin Craters Flows: Lost Woman Crater, 

Twin Craters, Lava Crater and Cerro Candelaria 

(Figure E-7). Lost Woman Crater, Twin Craters, 

and Lava Crater are aligned on a northeastern 

trend, and Cerro Candelaria is east of Lava Crater 

(Cascadden et al. 1997). The four vents erupted 

within a short period of time. Field relationships 

Figure E-5. The steep margin of a lava rise pit on the surface of 

the McCartys Flow.

Figure E-6. El Calderon in the distance.

©LARRY CRUMPLER ©USGS
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

demonstrate that the eruption of Twin Craters was followed by that of Lost Woman Crater and 

then by Lava Crater.

Cerro Candelaria and Lost Woman Crater are the largest of the cinder cones associated with 

the Twin Craters eruption, and are both approximately 110 m (360 ft) tall. Twin Craters actually 

consists of three small cinder cones aligned on a northeast trend of a probable fissure-type 

vent. A smaller unnamed cinder cone appears to be located north of Lost Woman Crater 

(Maxwell 1986). Lava Crater is a small spatter cone, which is a type of cinder cone that consists 

of cinders or pieces of lava that have been welded together as they were still molten when 

they landed, typically in low explosivity eruptions. This cone was breached to the northeast by 

Figure E-7. Google Earth image showing the four vents (Lost Woman Crater, Twin Craters, Lava Crater and Cerro 

Candelaria) that produced the Twin Craters Flows, with Bandera Crater in the background. The dashed line shows the 

N38°E trend on which three of the cinder cones are aligned (Cascadden et al. 1997). Modified from a Google Earth image 

(accessed June 3, 2015).
353

Appendix E: Geology Assessment

a small lava flow. In addition to these cinder 

cones, a larger area of mixed pyroclastics and 

lava flows were mapped for the Twin Craters 

eruptive events (Maxwell 1986). There may 

be additional small vents for the Twin Craters 

flows. 

Bandera Crater is an ideal example of a 

breached cinder cone (Figure E-8) (Maxwell 

1986). It was breached on the south side by 

the eruption of the Bandera Flows, with a 

collapsed lava tube also marking the direction 

of lava travel away from the vent. A large field 

of small cinders covering 3.9 square km (1.5 

square mi) area surrounds the cinder cone on 

all but the south side with cinders covering 

sedimentary rocks and older basalt flows 

(Maxwell 1986). Four AML (Abandoned 

Mineral Lands) sites consisting of cinder 

quarries and related features are located in 

the Bandera cinder field (NPS 2015). Bandera 

Crater and much of the cinder field are in a 

private inholding within monument boundaries. 

Hoya de Cibola is the only shield volcano produced during the El Malpais phase of volcanism. 

It is a very small shield, being only approximately 2.4 km (1.5 mi) in diameter and 90 m (300 ft) 

high (KellerLynn 2012). The vent is located at the summit.

The McCartys vent area consists of a very small cinder cone on top of a broad platform of lava 

flow accumulations and cinders. This vent area is unusual in that it lacks a significant edifice 

per se, but is also not a fissure. The central McCartys scoria cone is very small, with a diameter 

of approximately 75 m (246 m), although the overall vent area is approximately 250 m (820 

ft) wide. The vent platform has a broad convex surface with ramparts around the margins 

(Crumpler et al. 2013).

The area around the vent for the McCartys Flow has been substantially impacted by the use of 

McCartys Crater as a target area for a World War II bombing range.

At least three vent areas from older phases of volcanism in the Zuni-Bandera field have been 

documented in El Malpais. Cerro Bandera is a cinder cone that was active during the Chain of 

Craters phase of volcanism (Maxwell 1986). The crater of this cinder cone is less distinct than 

those of the El Malpais phase of volcanism due to its greater age.

Two vents for the first phase of volcanism in the Zuni-Bandera field are found within monument 

boundaries. One vent, Cerro Encierro, is in the northwest part of the Hole-in-the-Wall, a large 

kipuka with a volcanic substrate. Cerro Encierro is a small edifice approximately 43 m (140 ft) 

tall. Another vent on the west boundary apparently did not produce an edifice.

Paleontological Resources

Table E-1 summarizes information about El Malpais’ known fossil resources. Most of the rock 

units exposed in El Malpais are volcanic (Maxwell 1986 and KellerLynn 2012), and fossils are 

generally rare in volcanic rocks. Tree molds (Figure E-2) are the most significant paleontological 

resources at El Malpais (KellerLynn 2012). Tree molds are only known from four other NPS 

Figure E-8. Bandera Crater is the largest cinder cone in El Malpais 

NM. It is breached on one side by the eruption of the lava flow. Welded 

cinders or spatter can be seen inside the rim of the crater. 

©LARRY CRUMPLER
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

units (Craters of the Moon National Monument, Lava Beds National Monument, Puuhonua o 

Honaunau National Historical Park and Hawaii Volcanoes National Park) (KellerLynn 2012).

At El Malpais, tree molds have been reported in the El Calderon, Bandera and McCartys flows 

in El Malpais NM (Eric Weaver, personal communication 2015 and Larry Crumpler, personal 

communication, 2015). Ten tree mold locations are included in the park GIS database (Eric 

Weaver, personal communication, 2015), although additional tree molds are present in the 

monument. For example, the tree mold shown in Figure 4.5.2-3 is in the El Calderon flow 

(Larry Crumpler, personal communication, 2015). It is likely that many more tree molds may 

be found in the monument’s young lava flows.

Because sedimentary rocks themselves are relatively rare within the monument and because 

not all sedimentary units contain fossils, the exposure of fossiliferous units within monument 

boundaries is also limited. Only three of the sedimentary rock units exposed in the monument 

are known to contain fossils: The Tres Hermanos Sandstone, the Oak Canyon Member of 

the Dakota Formation, and the San Andres Limestone (Tweet et al. 2015). However, specific 

information about what types of fossils are found in these units is lacking. Possible types of 

fossils include primarily marine invertebrates, with trace fossils, pollen and vertebrate fossils 

also potentially present.

While fossils have not been found in monument in the Abo Formation, Yeso Formation, 

Glorieta Sandstone, Entrada Sandstone, Zuni Sandstone, and the Cubero Tongue, Clay Mesa 

Tongue and Paguate Tongue Members of the Dakota Sandstone, they are known to occur in 

these units elsewhere (Tweet et al. 2015).

The lava tube caves in El Malpais contain a variety of undated vertebrate skeletal remains, 

packrat middens and other evidences of life (Tweet et al. 2015 and Eric Weaver, personal 

communication, 2015). Some of the bones are found deep in caves and may have mineral 

coatings as thick as 10-cm (3.9 in) (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 2015). Perennial 

cave ice deposits may contain Holocene twigs like those recovered from Candelaria Ice Cave 

(Dickfoss et al. 1997). 

Bones of animals that are no longer living in the area or that have calcite or gypsum deposits on 

them are most likely prehistoric (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 2015). The vertebrate 

skeletal remains and packrat midden deposits are found on the rocky surfaces of the cave 

floors, and it is impossible to know whether the remains are modern or prehistoric without the 

Table E-1. Known paleontological resources1 in El Malpais NM. 

Rock Unit Age Fossils

McCartys Flow 3,900 years old Tree molds

Bandera Flow 11,000 years old Tree molds

El Calderon Flow <60,000 years old Tree molds

Tres Hermanos Sandstone Upper Cretaceous Unspecified “shell” fossils

Oak Canyon Member, Dakota 

Sandstone2

Upper Cretaceous Unspecified fossils

San Andres Limestone Upper Cretaceous Unspecified fossils

Information is from Tweet et al. (2015), El Malpais tree mold geodatabase (Eric Weaver, personal communication, 2015) and 

Larry Crumpler (personal communication, 2015).

1 Paleontological resources that may be found in lava tube caves, such as twigs, skeletal remains, and packrat middens, are 

not included in this table. Please see text for discussion of these resources.

2 The Oak Canyon Member of the Dakota Sandstone is part of the Kdo unit (Clay Mesa Tongue of Mancos Shale and Lower 

Part of Dakota Sandstone) on the geologic map (KellerLynn 2012 and Maxwell 1986).
355

Appendix E: Geology Assessment

availability of absolute age determinations. But given the preservation capability of lava tubes 

caves, they likely contain significant Holocene fossils that have not yet been documented (Eric 

Weaver, personal communication, 2015).

Literature Cited

Cascadden, T. E., A. M. Kudo, and J. W. Geisman. 1997. Discovering the relationships in a family 

of volcanoes—Cerro Candelaria, Twin Craters, Lost Woman Crater, and Lava Crater. Pages 

53–59 in K. Mabery, editor. Natural history of El Malpais National Monument. Bulletin 

156. New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Crumpler, L.S., Aubele, J.C., Zimbelman, J.R., Self, S., J.E. Bleacher, and W.B. Garry. 2013. 

McCartys lava flow field, El Malpais, and traverse log to Lava Falls. In Zeigler, K., J.M. 

Timmons, S. Timmons, and S. Semken. New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 64th 

Field Conference: Geology of the Route 66 Region: Flagstaff to Grants, p. 75-85.

Dickfoss, P. V., J. L. Betancourt, L. G. Thompson, R. M. Turner, and S. Tharnstrom. 1997. 

History of ice at Candelaria Ice Cave, New Mexico. Pages 91–112 in K. Mabery, editor. 

Natural history of El Malpais National Monument. Bulletin 156. New Mexico Bureau of 

Mines and Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Dunbar, N. 2010. El Malpais National Monument, National Park Service. Pages 24–34 in L. G. 

Price, editor. The geology of northern New Mexico’s parks, monuments, and public lands. 

New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

Dunbar, N. W., and F. M. Phillips. 2004. Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of lava flows in the Zuni–

Bandera volcanic field, north-central New Mexico, USA. Pages 51–59 in S. M. Cather, 

W. C. McIntosh, and S. A. Kelley, editors. Tectonics, geochronology, and volcanism in the 

Southern Rocky Mountains and Rio Grande rift. Bulletin 160. New Mexico Bureau of 

Geology and Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, USA. Available at http://geoinfo.

nmt.edu/staff/dunbar/publications/documents/dunbarphillipszunibandera2004_000.pdf 

(accessed March 22, 2015).

Garry, W.B., J.E. Bleacher, J.R. Zimbelman, and L.S. Crumpler. 2011. Inflated lava flows on 

Earth and Mars. IAG Planetary Geomorphology Working Group. Available at Available at 

http://www.psi.edu/pgwg/images/Oct11Image.html (accessed December 5, 2014).

Jackson, Julia A. 1997. Glossary of Geology. Fourth Edition. American Geological Institute.

KellerLynn, K. 2012. El Malpais National Monument: geologic resources inventory report. 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRSS/GRD/NRR—2012/578. National Park Service, 

Fort Collins, Colorado. Available at https://irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/Profile/2189181 

(accessed March 29, 2015).

Kilburn, Christopher R. J. 2000. Lava flows and flow fields. In Sigurdsson, Haraldur. 

Enclyclopedia of Volcanoes, Academic Press, 683-696.

Laughlin, A. W., F. V. Perry, P. E. Damon, M. Shafiqullah, G. WoldeGabriel, W. McIntosh, C. D. 

Harrington, S. G. Wells, and P. G. Drake. 1993. Geochronology of Mount Taylor, Cebollita 

Mesa, and Zuni–Bandera volcanic fields, Cibola County, New Mexico. New Mexico 

Geology 15(4):81–92. Available at http://glorietageo.com/pubs/Paul-D-pubs/Reducedfiles/Geochronology-of-cebollita-mesa.pdf (accessed June 2, 2015).
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Maxwell, C. H. 1986. Geologic map of El Malpais lava field and surrounding area, Cibola 

County, New Mexico (scale 1:62,500). Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map I-1595. 

U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., USA. Available at http://ngmdb.usgs.gov/

Prodesc/proddesc_9332.htm (accessed March 20, 2015).

National Park Service. 2015. NPS Service-wide AML database. El Malpais National Monument. 

Excel datasheet provided by John Burghadt April 24, 2015.

Theilig, E. 1990. Zuni-Bandera field, New Mexico. in C. A. Wood and J. Kienle, Volcanoes of 

North America, Cambridge University Press, 303-305.

Tweet, J. S., V. L. Santucci, and T. Connors. 2015. Paleontological resource inventory and 

monitoring: Southern Plains Network. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/SOPN/

NRR—2015/XXX. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. SENSITIVE REPORT 

- Do Not Distribute.

Vespermann, Dirk and Hans-Urlich Schminke. 2000. Scoria cones and tuff rings. In Sigurdsson, 

Haraldur. Enclyclopedia of Volcanoes, Academic Press, 683-696.

Zimbelman, J.R., W. B. Garry, L. S. Crumpler, J. E. Bleacher, and S. Self. 2010. Field investigation 

of inflated pahoehoe basalt lava flows, with application to lava flows on other planets. 41st 

Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Available at http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/

lpsc2010/pdf/1826.pdf (accessed April 14, 2015). 

Zimbelman, J. R., W. B. Garry, J. E. Bleacher, and L. S. Crumpler. 2012. Terraced margins on 

the inflated McCartys basalt lava flow, New Mexico. 43rd Lunar and Planetary Science 

Conference. Available at http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2012/pdf/1831.pdf 

(accessed April 14, 2015).

Zimbelman, J. R., W. B. Garry, J. E. Bleacher, L. S. Crumpler, S. Self, J.C. Aubele, S.M. Baloga, 

L.S. Glaze, and R.A. Schultz. 2013. Inflation processes at the McCartys lava flow field, 

New Mexico, with application to identifying inflated lava flows on planetary surfaces. 44th 

Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Available at http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/

lpsc2013/pdf/2120.pdf (accessed April 14, 2015).
357

Appendix F: Distinct Vegetation Assessment

Appendix F: El Malpais Vegetation Map

Vegetation map is from Muldavin, E., Y. Chauvin, T. Neville, P. Neville, A. Kennedy, H. Hulse, P. Arbetan, K. Schultz, 

M. Hall, and M. Reid. 2013. Vegetation Classification and Map: El Malpais National Monument. Natural Resource 

Technical Report NPS/SPCN/NRTR–2013/803. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Available at https://

irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/Profile/2203664 (accessed June 29, 2015).
358

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment
359

Appendix G: Background on Bird Species of Conservation Concern Lists

Appendix G: Background on Bird 

Species of Conservation Concern Lists

This appendix provides background 

information on the organizations and efforts 

to determine species of birds that are in 

need of conservation. The information 

presented here supports Section 4.16.2, Data 

and Methods, of the landbirds chapter. This 

appendix contains some of the same, but 

additional, information as that section of the 

report.

One component of the landbird condition 

assessment was to examine species 

occurrence in a conservation context. We 

compared the list of species that occur at El 

Malpais National Monument (NM) (i.e., 

those detected during one or more of three 

surveys and/or observation efforts at the park) 

to lists of species of conservation concern 

developed by several organizations. There 

have been a number of such organizations 

that focus on the conservation of bird species. 

Such organizations may differ, however, 

in the criteria they use to identify and/or 

prioritize species of concern based on the 

mission and goals of their organization. 

They also range in geographic scale from 

global organizations such as the International 

Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 

who maintains a “Red List of Threatened 

Species,” to local organizations or chapters 

of larger organizations. This has been, and 

continues to be, a source of confusion, and 

perhaps frustration, for managers and others 

who need to make sense of and apply the 

applicable information. In recognition of this, 

the U.S. North American Bird Conservation 

Initiative (NABCI) was started in 1999; it 

represents a coalition of government agencies, 

private organizations, and bird initiatives in 

the U.S. working to ensure the conservation 

of North America’s native bird populations. 

Although there remain a number of sources 

at multiple geographic and administrative 

scales for information on species of concern, 

the NABCI has made great progress in 

developing a common biological framework 

for conservation planning and design.

One of the developments from the NABCI 

was the delineation of Bird Conservation 

Regions (BCRs) (U.S. North American 

Bird Conservation Initiative 2014). Bird 

Conservation Regions are ecologically 

distinct regions in North America with similar 

bird communities, habitats, and resource 

management issues. 

The purpose of delineating these BCRs was 

to:

● facilitate communication among the bird 

conservation initiatives;

● systematically and scientifically 

apportion the U.S. into conservation 

units;

● facilitate a regional approach to bird 

conservation;

● promote new, expanded, or restructured 

partnerships; and 

● identify overlapping or conflicting 

conservation priorities.

G.1. Conservation Organizations 

Listing Species of Conservation 

Concern

Below we present a summary of some of the 

organizations that list species of conservation 

concern and briefly discuss the different 

purposes or goals of each organization. 

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

The Endangered Species Act, passed in 1973, 

is intended to protect and recover imperiled 

species and the ecosystems upon which they 

depend. It is administered by the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the Commerce 

Department’s National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS). USFWS has primary 

responsibility for terrestrial and freshwater 

organisms, while the responsibilities of 

NMFS are mainly marine wildlife, such as 

whales, and anadromous fish.

The USFWS also protects birds under the 

Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA; USFWS 

2016). This act “makes it illegal for anyone to 
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

take, possess, import, export, transport, sell, 

purchase, barter, or offer for sale, purchase, or 

barter, any migratory bird, or the parts, nests, 

or eggs of such a bird except under the terms 

of a valid permit issued pursuant to Federal 

regulations” (USFWS 2016). An up-to-date 

list of the bird species protected by the Act 

(1,026 birds) can be found in (USFWS 2013). 

At least one of four criteria need to be met 

for a species to be listed under the Act: 1) it is 

covered by the Canadian Convention of 1916, 

as amended in 1996; 2) it is covered by the 

Mexican Convention of 1936, as amended 

in 1972; 3) it is listed in the annex to the 

Japanese Convention of 1972, as amended; 

and/or 4) it is listed in the appendix to the 

Russian Convention of 1976. Note that in the 

condition assessment, we did not compare 

the list of species recorded at El Malpais NM 

to the MBTA list. However, at least some of 

these species would be included in the other 

species of conservation concern lists we used.

State of New Mexico

In New Mexico, wildlife species are designated 

as threatened or endangered under the New

Mexico Wildlife Conservation Act (NMDGF 

2015a). For each endangered or threatened 

species, the New Mexico Department 

of Game and Fish (NMDGF) develops a 

recovery plan. A database of all vertebrate 

species in New Mexico, including threatened 

and endangered species, is maintained and 

can be searched online (NMDGF 2015b). 

The database is called the Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M).

USFWS Birds of Conservation 

Concern

The USFWS has responsibilities for wildlife, 

including birds, in addition to endangered 

and threatened species. The Fish and Wildlife 

Conservation Act, as amended in 1988, 

further mandates that the USFWS “identify 

species, subspecies, and populations of 

all migratory nongame birds (i.e., Birds 

of Conservation Concern) that, without 

additional conservation actions, are likely 

to become candidates for listing under the 

Endangered Species Act” (USFWS 2008). The 

agency’s 2008 effort, Birds of Conservation 

Concern, is one effort to fulfill the Act’s 

requirements. The report includes both 

migratory and non-migratory bird species 

(beyond those federally-listed as threatened 

or endangered) that USFWS considers 

the highest conservation priorities. Three 

geographic scales are included--National, 

USFWS Regional, and the NABCI BCRs. 

The information used to compile the lists 

came primarily from the following three bird 

conservation plans: the Partners in Flight 

North American Landbird Conservation Plan, 

the U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan, and 

the North American Waterbird Conservation 

Plan. The scores used to assess the species are 

based on factors such as population trends, 

distribution, threats, and abundance. 

National Audubon Society/American 

Bird Conservancy 

The National Audubon Society and American 

Bird Conservancy each formerly published 

their own lists of bird species of concern, but 

have recently combined efforts into a single 

“Watch List”. This collaborative effort was 

based on a concern by these organizations 

that there were too many lists with similar 

purposes (Butcher et al. 2007). Their 2007 

WatchList is based on, but not identical to, the 

Partners in Flight (PIF) approach to species 

assessment (described below). 

The 2007 WatchList has two primary levels 

of concern: a “Red WatchList” and a “Yellow 

WatchList”, although the latter is subdivided 

into two categories. The Red WatchList 

identifies what these organizations consider 

as species of highest national concern. This 

list overlaps considerably with the IUCNs 

“Red List” (not presented here), thus, can 

essentially be considered as a list of globally 

threatened birds that occur in the United 

States (Butcher et al. 2007). The Yellow 

WatchList is made up of species that are 

somewhat less critical, but serves as an early 

warning list of birds that have the potential of 

being elevated to the Red WatchList. Species 

on this list can be there either because their 

populations are declining or because they are 

considered rare.

Partners in Flight

Partners in Flight is a cooperative effort 

among federal, state, and local government 

agencies, as well as private organizations. One 
361

Appendix G: Background on Bird Species of Conservation Concern Lists

of its primary goals, relative to listing species 

of conservation concern, is to develop a 

scientifically based process for identifying 

and finding solutions to risks and threats 

to landbird populations. Their approach 

to identifying and assessing species of 

conservation concern is based on biological 

criteria to evaluate different components 

of vulnerability (Panjabi et al. 2005). Each 

species is evaluated for six components 

of vulnerability: population size, breeding 

distribution, non-breeding distribution, 

threats to breeding, threats to non-breeding, 

and population trend. The specific process is 

presented in detail in the species assessment 

handbook (Panjabi et al. 2005).

The PIF assessments are conducted at 

multiple scales. At the broadest scale, the 

North American Landbird Conservation 

Plan (Rich et al. 2004) identifies what PIF 

considers “Continental Watch List Species” 

and “Continental Stewardship Species.” 

Continental Watch List Species are those that 

are most vulnerable at the continental scale, 

due to a combination of small and declining 

populations, limited distributions, and high 

threats throughout their ranges (Panjabi et 

al. 2005). Continental Stewardship Species 

are defined as those species that have a 

disproportionately high percentage of their 

world population within a single Avifaunal 

Biome during either the breeding season 

or the non-migratory portion of the nonbreeding season.

More recently, PIF has adopted BCRs, the 

common planning unit under the NABCI, 

as the geographic scale for updated regional 

bird conservation assessments. These 

assessments are available via an online 

database (http://www.rmbo.org/pif/pifdb.

html) maintained by RMBO. At the scale of 

the individual BCRs, these same principles 

of concern (sensu Continental Watch List 

Species) or stewardship (sensu Continental 

Stewardship Species) are applied at the BCR 

scale. The intention of this approach is to 

emphasize conservation of species where it 

is most relevant, as well as the recognition 

that some species may be experiencing 

dramatic declines locally even if they are not 

of high concern nationally, etc. There are two 

categories (concern and stewardship) each 

for Continental and Regional levels. The 

details of the criteria for inclusion in each 

can be found in Panjabi et al. (2005), and a 

general summary is as follows. Note that in 

our Chapter 4 landbird analysis, we did not 

use the two stewardship categories. 

Criteria for Species of Continental 

Importance

A. Continental Concern (CC) 

● Species is listed on the Continental 

Watch List (Rich et al. 2004).

● Species occurs in significant numbers in 

the BCR.

● Future conditions are not enhanced by 

human activities.

B. Continental Stewardship (CS)

● Species is listed as Continental 

Stewardship Species (Rich et al. 2004).

● Relatively high density (compared to 

highest density regions) and/or a high 

proportion of the species occurs in the 

BCR.

● Future conditions are not enhanced by 

human activities. 

Criteria for Species of Regional 

Importance

Regional scores are calculated for each species 

according to which season(s) they are present 

in the BCR. The formulae include a mix of 

global and regional scores pertinent to each 

season (see Panjabi et al. 2005 for details). The 

criteria for each category are:

A. Regional Concern (RC)

● Regional Combined Score > 13 (see 

Panjabi et al. 2005 for details).

● High regional threats or moderate 

regional threat combined with 

significant population decline.

● Occurs regularly in significant numbers 

in the BCR.

B. Regional Stewardship (RS)

● Regional Combined Score > 13 (see 

Panjabi et al. 2005 for details).

● High importance of the BCR to the 

species.
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El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

● Future conditions are not enhanced by 

human activities. 

New Mexico Species of Greatest 

Conservation Need 

Under the Comprehensive Wildlife 

Conservation Strategy (CWCS) for New 

Mexico, Species of Greatest Conservation 

Need (SGCN) have been designated in the 

state (NMDGF 2006). More than one-fourth 

(i.e., 26%) of the state’s vertebrate, mollusc, 

and crustacean animals are considered 

SGCN. Of the 452 vertebrate, mollusc, and 

arthropod SGCN statewide, about 74 are 

birds. There are lists of SGCN for the entire 

state, as well as those for each of the individual 

ecoregions in New Mexico.

G.2. Literature Cited

Butcher, G. S., D. K. Niven, A. O. Panjabi, D. 

N. Pashley, and K. V. Rosenberg. 2007. 

WatchList: the 2007 WatchList for United 

States birds. American Birds 61:18-25.

New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish (NMDGF). 2006. Comprehensive 

Wildlife Conservation Strategy for New 

Mexico. New Mexico Department of 

Game and Fish. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 

526 pp + appendices. Available at http://

www.wildlife.state.nm.us/conservation/

comp_wildlife_cons_strategy/.

New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish (NMDGF). 2015a. Threatened 

and endangered species: Recovery 

plans, reports, reviews. Webpage 

available at http:www.wildlife.

state.nm.us/conservation/wildlifespecies-information/threatened-andendangered-species/. Last accessed 

March 3, 2015.

New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 

(NMDGF). 2015b. Biota Information 

System of New Mexico (BISON-M). 

Searchable database available at http://

www.bison-m.org/databasequery.aspx. 

Last accessed March 11, 2015.

Panjabi, A. O., E. H. Dunn, P. J. Blancher, 

W. C. Hunter, B. Altman, J. Bart, C. J. 

Beardmore, H. Berlanga, G. S. Butcher, S. 

K. Davis, D. W. Demarest, R. Dettmers, 

W. Easton, H. Gomez de Silva Garza, E. 

E. Iñigo-Elias, D. N. Pashley, C. J. Ralph, 

T. D. Rich, K. V. Rosenberg, C. M. Rustay, 

J. M. Ruth, J. S. Wendt, and T. C. Will. 

2005. The Partners in Flight handbook 

on species assessment. Version 2005. 

Partners in Flight Technical Series No. 

3. Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory 

website: http://www.rmbo.org/pubs/

downloads/Handbook2005.pdf.

Rich, T. D., C. J. Beardmore, H. Berlanga, 

P. J. Blancher, M. S. W. Bradstreet, G. S. 

Butcher, D. W. Demarest, E. H. Dunn, W. 

C. Hunter, E. E. Iñigo-Elias, J. A. Kennedy, 

A. M. Martell, A. O. Panjabi, D. N. Pashley, 

K. V. Rosenberg, C. M. Rustay, J. S. 

Wendt, T. C. Will. 2004. Partners in Flight 

North American Landbird Conservation 

Plan. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Ithaca, 

NY. Partners in Flight website. http://

www.partnersinflight.org/cont_plan/

(VERSION: March 2005). 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2008.

Birds of Conservation Concern 2008. 

United States Department of Interior, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of 

Migratory Bird Management, Arlington, 

Virginia. 85 pp. [Online version available at 

<http://www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/>].

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 

2013. General Provisions; Revised List of 

Migratory Birds; Final Rule. 50 CFR Parts 

10 and 21. Federal Register, Vol. 78, No. 

212, November 1, 2013.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 

2016. Migratory Bird Treaty Act, Birds 

Protected. USFWS webpage, last updated 

September 16, 2015, http://www.fws.

gov/birds/policies-and-regulations/lawslegislations/migratory-bird-treaty-act.

php. Last accessed February 8, 2016. 

U.S. North American Bird Conservation 

Initiative. 2014. Main page. Online. 

Available at http://www.nabci-us.org. 

Last accessed July 2, 2014. 
363

Appendix H: Bird Lists

Appendix H: El Malpais NM Bird Lists

Listed below are the bird species recorded at El 

Malpais NM during 2002-2003 surveys during 

the breeding season (Johnson et al. 2007), 

bird observations in 1991-1993 by Lightfoot 

et al. (1994), and observations/sightings by El 

Malpais NM staff/volunteers from 2011-early 

2015 along Highways 53 and 117 bordering 

the park. A total of 183 species are listed here; 

subspecies are not included. 

Common Name Scientific Name

Johnson et al. 

(2007) in 2002-

2003

Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) in 1991-

1993 1

eBird/Park Data 

2011-early 2015 2

Acorn Woodpecker Melanerpes formicivorus X X X

American Crow Corvus brachyrhynchos X X

American Goldfinch Spinus tristis X

American Kestrel Falco sparverius X X X

American Pipit Anthus rubescens X

American Robin Turdus migratorius X X X

American Tree Sparrow Spizella arborea X

Ash-throated Flycatcher Myiarchus cinerascens X X X

Baird's Sandpiper Calidris bairdii X

Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus X

Band-tailed Pigeon Patagioenas fasciata X X

Barn Owl Tyto alba X

Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica X X

Belted Kingfisher Megaceryle alcyon X

Bendire's Thrasher Toxostoma bendirei X

Bewick's Wren Thryomanes bewickii X X X

Black-capped Chickadee Poecile atricapillus X

Black Phoebe Sayornis nigricans X

Black-chinned Hummingbird Archilochus alexandri X X X

Black-chinned Sparrow Spizella atrogularis X

Black-headed Grosbeak Pheucticus melanocephalus X X X

Black-throated Gray Warbler Setophaga nigrescens X X X

Black-throated Sparrow Amphispiza bilineata X X

Blue Grosbeak Passerina caerulea X X

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher Polioptila caerulea X X

Blue-winged Teal Anas discors X

Brewer's Blackbird Euphagus cyanocephalus X X

Brewer's Sparrow Spizella breweri X X

Broad-tailed Hummingbird Selasphorus platycercus X X X

Brown Creeper Certhia americana X X X

Brown-headed Cowbird Molothrus ater X X X

Bullock's Oriole Icterus bullockii X X X

Burrowing Owl Athene cunicularia X X

Bushtit Psaltriparus minimus X X X

Calliope Hummingbird Selasphorus calliope X

1

 Note that Lightfoot et al. (1994) included some species that were observed outside of national monument boundaries, but it is difficult 

to determine which species these are.

2

 The following species appear in the eBird database from observers other than national monument staff/volunteers: American White 

Pelican, Cactus Wren, Common Grackle, House Sparrow, Phainopepla, and Western Screech-Owl.
364

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Common Name Scientific Name

Johnson et al. 

(2007) in 2002-

2003

Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) in 1991-

1993 1

eBird/Park Data 

2011-early 2015 2

Canyon Towhee Melozone fusca X X X

Canyon Wren Catherpes mexicanus X X

Cassin's Finch Haemorhous cassinii X X

Cassin's Kingbird Tyrannus vociferans X X X

Cassin’s Sparrow Peucaea cassinii X

Cedar Waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum X X

Chestnut-collared Longspur Calcarius ornatus X

Chipping Sparrow Spizella passerina X X X

Cinnamon Teal Anas cyanoptera X

Clark's Nutcracker Nucifraga columbiana X X

Clay-colored Sparrow Spizella pallida X

Cliff Swallow Petrochelidon pyrrhonota X X X

Common Nighthawk Chordeiles minor X X X

Common Poorwill Phalaenoptilus nuttallii X X

Common Raven Corvus corax X X X

Cooper's Hawk Accipiter cooperii X X

Cordilleran Flycatcher Empidonax occidentalis X X X

Crissal Thrasher Toxostoma crissale X

Curve-billed Thrasher Toxostoma curvirostre X X

Dark-eyed Junco Junco hyemalis X X X

Downy Woodpecker Picoides pubescens X X

Dusky Flycatcher Empidonax oberholseri X X X

Eared Grebe Podiceps nigricollis X

Eastern Meadowlark Sturnella magna X X

Eurasian Collared-Dove Streptopelia decaocto X

European Starling Sturnus vulgaris X

Evening Grosbeak Coccothraustes vespertinus X

Ferruginous Hawk Buteo regalis X

Flammulated Owl Psiloscops flammeolus X

Gadwall Anas strepera X

Gambel’s Quail Callipepla gambelii X

Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos X X

Golden-crowned Kinglet Regulus satrapa X

Grace's Warbler Setophaga graciae X X X

Gray Flycatcher Empidonax wrightii X X

Gray Vireo Vireo vicinior X X

Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias X X

Great Horned Owl Bubo virginianus X X

Greater Roadrunner Geococcyx californianus X X X

Great-tailed Grackle Quiscalus mexicanus X

Green Heron Butorides virescens X

Green-tailed Towhee Pipilo chlorurus X X

1

 Note that Lightfoot et al. (1994) included some species that were observed outside of national monument boundaries, but it is difficult 

to determine which species these are.

2

 The following species appear in the eBird database from observers other than national monument staff/volunteers: American White 

Pelican, Cactus Wren, Common Grackle, House Sparrow, Phainopepla, and Western Screech-Owl.
365

Appendix H: Bird Lists

Common Name Scientific Name

Johnson et al. 

(2007) in 2002-

2003

Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) in 1991-

1993 1

eBird/Park Data 

2011-early 2015 2

Green-winged Teal Anas crecca X X

Hairy Woodpecker Picoides villosus X X X

Hammond's/Dusky Flycatcher Empidonax hammondii/

oberholseri

X

Hepatic Tanager Piranga flava X X X

Hermit Thrush Catharus guttatus X

Horned Lark Eremophila alpestris X X X

House Finch Haemorhous mexicanus X X X

House Wren Troglodytes aedon X X

Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea X

Juniper Titmouse Baeolophus ridgwayi X X X

Killdeer Charadrius vociferus X X

Ladder-backed Woodpecker Picoides scalaris X X

Lapland Longspur Calcarius lapponicus X

Lark Bunting Calamospiza melanocorys X

Lark Sparrow Chondestes grammacus X X X

Lazuli Bunting Passerina amoena X

Lesser Goldfinch Spinus psaltria X X X

Lewis's Woodpecker Melanerpes lewis X X

Lincoln's Sparrow Melospiza lincolnii X X

Loggerhead Shrike Lanius ludovicianus X X

Long-billed Curlew Numenius americanus X

Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus X

Long-eared Owl Asio otus X

MacGillivray's Warbler Geothlypis tolmiei X

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos X

Merlin Falco columbarius X

Mountain Bluebird Sialia currucoides X X X

Mountain Chickadee Poecile gambeli X X X

Mountain Plover Charadrius montanus X X

Mourning Dove Zenaida macroura X X X

Nashville Warbler Oreothlypis ruficapilla X

Northern Flicker Colaptes auratus X X X

Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis X X

Northern Harrier Circus cyaneus X X

Northern Mockingbird Mimus polyglottos X X X

Northern Pintail Anas acuta X

Northern Pygmy-Owl Glaucidium gnoma X

Northern Rough-winged 

Swallow

Stelgidopteryx serripennis X

Olive-sided Flycatcher Contopus cooperi X

Orange-crowned Warbler Oreothlypis celata X

1

 Note that Lightfoot et al. (1994) included some species that were observed outside of national monument boundaries, but it is difficult 

to determine which species these are.

2

 The following species appear in the eBird database from observers other than national monument staff/volunteers: American White 

Pelican, Cactus Wren, Common Grackle, House Sparrow, Phainopepla, and Western Screech-Owl.
366

El Malpais National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Common Name Scientific Name

Johnson et al. 

(2007) in 2002-

2003

Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) in 1991-

1993 1

eBird/Park Data 

2011-early 2015 2

Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus X

Pine Siskin Spinus pinus X X

Pinyon Jay Gymnorhinus 

cyanocephalus

X X X

Plumbeous Vireo Vireo plumbeus X X X

Prairie Falcon Falco mexicanus X

Purple Martin Progne subis X X

Pygmy Nuthatch Sitta pygmaea X X X

Red Crossbill Loxia curvirostra X X X

Red-breasted Nuthatch Sitta canadensis X X X

Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus X

Red-naped Sapsucker Sphyrapicus nuchalis X

Red-tailed Hawk Buteo jamaicensis X X X

Red-winged Blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus X

Rock Pigeon Columba livia X

Rock Wren Salpinctes obsoletus X X X

Rose-breasted Grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus X

Rough-legged Hawk Buteo lagopus X

Ruby-crowned Kinglet Regulus calendula X X

Rufous Hummingbird Selasphorus rufus X X

Rufous-crowned Sparrow Aimophila ruficeps X X

Sage Sparrow Amphispiza belli X

Sage Thrasher Oreoscoptes montanus X X

Sagebrush Sparrow Artemisiospiza nevadensis X

Savannah Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis X X

Say's Phoebe Sayornis saya X X X

Scaled Quail Callipepla squamata X

Scott's Oriole Icterus parisorum X X X

Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striatus X X

Solitary Sandpiper Tringa solitaria X

Song Sparrow Melospiza melodia X

Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularius X

Spotted Towhee Pipilo maculatus X X X

Steller's Jay Cyanocitta stelleri X X X

Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swainsoni X

Swainson's Thrush Catharus ustulatus X

Townsend's Solitaire Myadestes townsendi X X X

Townsend's Warbler Setophaga townsendi X

Tree Swallow Tachycineta bicolor X

Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura X X X

Vesper Sparrow Pooecetes gramineus X X X

Violet-green Swallow Tachycineta thalassina X X X

1

 Note that Lightfoot et al. (1994) included some species that were observed outside of national monument boundaries, but it is difficult 

to determine which species these are.

2

 The following species appear in the eBird database from observers other than national monument staff/volunteers: American White 

Pelican, Cactus Wren, Common Grackle, House Sparrow, Phainopepla, and Western Screech-Owl.
367

Appendix H: Bird Lists

Common Name Scientific Name

Johnson et al. 

(2007) in 2002-

2003

Lightfoot et al. 

(1994) in 1991-

1993 1

eBird/Park Data 

2011-early 2015 2

Virginia's Warbler Oreothlypis virginiae X X X

Warbling Vireo Vireo gilvus X X

Western Bluebird Sialia mexicana X X X

Western Kingbird Tyrannus verticalis X X X

Western Meadowlark Sturnella neglecta X X X

Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri X

Western Scrub-Jay Aphelocoma californica X X X

Western Tanager Piranga ludoviciana X X X

Western Wood-Pewee Contopus sordidulus X X X

White-breasted Nuthatch Sitta carolinensis X X X

White-crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia leucophrys X X

White-faced Ibis Plegadis chihi X

White-throated Sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis X

White-throated Swift Aeronautes saxatalis X X X

White-winged Dove Zenaida asiatica X

Wild Turkey Meleagris gallopavo X X

Williamson's Sapsucker Sphyrapicus thyroideus X

Wilson's Phalarope Phalaropus tricolor X

Wilson's Warbler Cardellina pusilla X X

Wood Duck Aix sponsa X

Yellow Warbler Setophaga petechia X X

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker Sphyrapicus varius X

Yellow-headed Blackbird Xanthocephalus 

xanthocephalus

X

Yellow-rumped Warbler Setophaga coronata X X X

Zone-tailed Hawk Buteo albonotatus X

Total number of bird 

species

75 109 168

1

 Note that Lightfoot et al. (1994) included some species that were observed outside of national monument boundaries, but it is difficult 

to determine which species these are.

2

 The following species appear in the eBird database from observers other than national monument staff/volunteers: American White 

Pelican, Cactus Wren, Common Grackle, House Sparrow, Phainopepla, and Western Screech-Owl.

The Department of the Interior protects and manages the nation’s natural resources and cultural heritage; provides scientific and 

other information about those resources; and honors its special responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and affiliated 

Island Communities.

NPS 103/134142, September 2016
National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science 

1201 Oak Ridge Drive, Suite 150 

Fort Collins, Colorado 80525

www.nature.nps.gov

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