SMITHSONIA N CONTRIBUTION S T O ANTHROPOLOG Y • NUMBE R 3 5 

The Flowering of Man 

A Tzotzil Botany of Zinacantan 

VOLUME I 

Dennis E. Breedlove 

and Robert M. Laughlin 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS 

Washington, D.C. 

1993 
AB STRAC T 

Breedlove, Dennis E., and Robert M. Laughlin. The Flowering of Man: A Tzotzil Botany of 

Zinacantan. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, number 35, 2 volumes, 706 pages, 52 

figures, 3 maps, 10 appendices, 66 plates, 1993.—This encyclopedic presentation of the plant 

knowledge of the Trotzil-speaking Mayans of Zinacantan, in the highlands of the state of 

Chiapas, Mexico, is the fruit of 30 years' investigation, beginning in 1960. Dennis E. Breedlove, 

botanist, and Robert M. Laughlin, ethnologist, gained their information from many hundred 

men, women, and children. Seventy-three men and two women, representing 26 Zinacantec 

communities, were hired consultants. The total of 2686 Tzotzil names for generics, specifics, 

and varietals refers to Latin determinations of 1484 species with an additional 30 identifications 

by genus. 

Introductory chapters describe the methodology and provide the geographic, historic, cultural, 

and linguistic context for "the Flora." lohn B. Haviland details Zinacantec flower marketing. 

"The Flora" is organized by life form, set or isolate, genus, species, and variety, according to 

native taxonomic principles. A morphological description of each plant is followed by its 

cultural context. 

The appendices include tables of Mayan botanical name cognates, a survey of plant 

cultivation per hamlet, Tzotzil-Latin and Latin-Tzotzil indices, a Tzotzil plant name synonymy, 

a listing of plant uses,and a massive cultural omnibus, providing a broad range of Tzotzil 

vocabulary devoted to plants. 

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is 

recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. COVER DESIGN: floral embroidery 

on man's tunic. 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Breedlove, Dennis Eugene. 

The flowering of man : a Tzotzil botany of Zinacantan / Dennis E. Breedlove and Robert M. Laughlin. 

p. cm.—(Smithsonian contributions to anthropology ; no. 35) 

Includes bibliographical references and index. 

1. Tzotzil Indians—Ethnobotany. 2. Tzotzil Indians—Names. 3. Tzotzil Indians—Social life and customs. 

4. Ethnobotany—Mexico—Zinacantan. 4. ZinacanliSn (Mexico)—Social life and customs. I. Laughlin, Robert 

M. II. Tide. III. Series. 

GNl.S54no. 35 

[F1221.T9] 

301 s—dc20 92-17800 

[581.6T097275] CIP 

© The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American 

National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48—1984. 
Contents 

VOLUME I 

Page 

Epigraphs v 

Foreword, by Terence E. Hays vi 

Acknowledgments, by Robert M. Laughlin ix 

Key to Tzotzil Pronunciation, by Robert M. Laughlin xi 

Participants, by Robert M. Laughlin xii 

From Beginning to End, by Robert M. Laughlin 1 

Phytogeography of Zinacantan, by Dennis E. Breedlove 11 

Into the Whirlwind, by Robert M. Laughlin 19 

Where Have All the Flowers Gone? by Robert M. Laughlin 31 

Eating and Drinking, by Robert M. Laughlin 37 

On the Mend, by Robert M. Laughlin 43 

Dressing Our Lords, by Robert M. Laughlin 45 

For a Handful, a Fistful, by Robert M. Laughlin 49 

Lordly Sunbeams, Lordly Shadows, by Robert M. Laughlin 67 

Flowers for a Price, by lohn B. Haviland 77 

Poetic License, by Robert M. Laughlin 101 

What's in a Name? by Robert M. Laughlin 109 

The Flora, by Dennis E. Breedlove and Robert M. Laughlin 113 

"Vines" 117 

"Trees" 142 

"Plants" 203 

Literature Cited 283 

VOLUME II 

Appendices 

Appendix 1: Cultivated Plant Survey (1982-1983) and Gazetteer, by Robert 

M. Laughlin 287 

Appendix 2: Mayan Plant Name Cognates and Notes, by Robert M. Laughlin . . 297 

Appendix 3: Tzotzil-Latin, by Dennis E. Breedlove 315 

Appendix 4: Latin-Tzotzil, by Dennis E. Breedlove 361 

Appendix 5: Tzotzil Plant Name Synonymy, by Robert M. Laughlin 383 

Appendix 6: Plant Use, by Robert M. Laughlin 413 

Appendix 7: Cultural Omnibus, by Robert M. Laughlin 445 

Appendix 8: Holy Cross Day Prayer (Tzotzil), as told to Robert M. Laughlin . . 585 

Appendix 9: Colonial Dictionary, by Robert M. Laughlin 593 

Appendix 10: Glossary of Botanical Terms, by Dennis E. Breedlove 603 

Plates 1-66 609 

General Index 675 

FIGURES 

FRONTISPIECE: Floral embroidery on man's tunic, 1990 xiv 

1. The valley of Zinacantan Center, 1977 3 

2. The triumvirate and their safari, 1981 7 

3. Landscape northwest of Yaleb Taiv, 1977 16 

4. Landscape northwest of Yaleb Taiv, 1989 17 

iii 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

5. Thatched roof house, Zinacantan Center, 1977 20 

6. Household accoutrements, 1977 21 

7. Young weaver, 1977 22 

8. Weaving palm hat, 1977 23 

9. Cold frames for chrysanthemums, Pat Osil, 1989 25 

10. Scarlet runner bean harvest, October 1977 39 

11. Metate platform, 1977 40 

12. Decanting cane liquor, 1977 41 

13. Household altar, Zinacantan Center, 1977 46 

14. Christ on Good Friday, Naben Chauk, 1984 47 

15. Breaking ground in Zinacantan Center, 1977 68 

16. Farmer with herbicide sprayer, 1983 69 

17. Flailing com in the highlands, 1976 71 

18. Lowland field house, corn harvest, 1976 72 

19. A walk in October 1977 75 

20. All Saints* Day at the cemetery, Zinacantan Center, 1977 80 

21. Arranging flower stall at the market, Tuxtla Gutierrez, 1983 87 

22. Zinacantecs loading flowers at the lamaica Market, Mexico City, 1985 93 

23. Tools (ax, machete, weed-clearing hook, billhook) 506 

24. Tools (planting stick, rake, pick) 507 

25. Tools (weeding hoe, cultivating hoe) 508 

26. Sling 509 

27. Mouse trap 509 

28. Dove trap 510 

29. Water gourd 511 

30. Gourds (soul-recalling gourd, rattle gourd) 512 

31. Ceremonial rattle 512 

32. Tobacco gourd 513 

33. Tortilla gourd 513 

34. Basket 514 

35. Elderberry fence 532 

36. Felled tree fence 533 

37. Brush fence 533 

38. Maguey fence 533 

39. Sod fence 534 

40. Fences (stone fence, barbed wire fence) 534 

41. Gate and fence 535 

42. Stile 535 

43. Weaver in house yard 536 

44. Roof plan of traditional house: plan of tie beams 537 

45. Elevation of house frame (posts, tie beam, roof beam plate, main roof 

beam) 538 

46. Elevation of house frame (purlin, cross piece) 539 

47. Roof plan of traditional house, A-frame and roof purlins in place 540 

48. Roof plan with rafters in place 541 

49. Roof plan with wattle in place 542 

50. Elevation of traditional house in construction 543 

51. Block house in construction 543 

52. Modern house and yard 544 

MAPS 

1. Chiapas 12 

2. Zinacantan 13 

3. Grijalva River Valley 24 
EPIGRAPHS 

What is ethnobotany? Is it the study of the flowering of man? 

Thomas Newby White III 

In order to amuse (Dr. lohnson) till dinner should be ready, he was taken out to walk in the 

garden. The master of the house, thinking it proper to introduce something scientifick into the 

conversation, addressed him thus: "Are you a botanist, Dr. lohnson?" "No, Sir (answered 

Johnson), I am not a botanist; and (alluding, no doubt, to his near-sightedness), should I wish to 

become a botanist, I must turn myself into a reptile." 

James Boswell 

One April day I had a talk with a native about the blue flowers which were abundant and in 

great variety at the side of the path. This was on the slope of a hill looking to the sea, about a mile 

from Mousehole. I saw a girl crossing a grass field, and as she was making for a gate opening 

on to the path, I waited for her and when she came out we went on together for some distance. 

But when I talked to her about the flowers growing in profusion by the hedge-side and along 

the borders of the path she assured me that she never looked at them and knew nothing about 

them. Well, yes, she did know three or four wild flowers by their names. 

"But surely," I said, "You must know these that are so common—these little blue flowers, for 

instance, what do you call them?" and I plucked a spray of speedwell. She said they were violets, 

and when I picked a violet and pointed out the difference in shape and size and colour she agreed 

that they were a little unlike when you looked at them, "but," she said, "we never look at them 

and we call all these little blue ones violets." "But," I persisted, "flowers are the most beautiful 

things on the earth and we all love and admire them and are glad to see them again in 

spring—surely you must know something more than you say about them—you must have been 

accustomed to gather them in your childhood." But she would not have it. "We never take notice 

of wild flowers," she said; "they are no use and we call them all violets—all these blue ones." 

And she pointed to the hedge-side, where there were violet, forget-me-not, bird's eye and 

ground-ivy all growing together. 

WH. Hudson 

May I pass before Thy flowery face, 

May I pass before Thy flowery eyes, 

Holy torches, 

Holy candles. 

For one moment, 

For two moments, 

I arrive kneeling, 

I arrive bending low, 

At the thresholds, 

At the altars, 

Of the holy fathers, 

The holy mothers, 

My flowery Father, 

My flowery Lord. 

Romin Teratol 

—Como estan las flores? 

M.W. Laughlin 

—Ya estamos floriendo! 

Xun Lopis Mentes (smiling broadly) 
Foreword 

From the chronicles of Herodotus, with their detailed notes on the food habits observed 

by him and other travelers, to the records of medicinal uses of plants compiled by Otto 

Brunfels and other pre-Linnaean medieval herbalists, and the token chapter or paragraphs 

on "subsistence behavior" in the most recent ethnographic report, beliefs and practices 

regarding plants have been a subject of long-standing interest in the wider study of human 

thought and behavior. The cumulative result is a vast body of information regarding 

people's relationships with the plant world, although for any given people our knowledge 

of their folk botany tends to be partial. With this book, the Tzotzil Maya join a handful of 

peoples for whom a comprehensive (if never complete) ethnobotany seems attainable. 

In North America, plant uses were the subject of many specialized studies in the early 

decades of the twentieth century, resulting largely from the "salvage ethnography" 

attempts by researchers from the Bureau of American Ethnology and by students in the 

Boas-Kroeber-Lowie tradition. These monographs typically consisted of two parts: an 

introductory section, describing the general ecological features of the area, with an 

ethnographic sketch of its aboriginal inhabitants; and the main section of the report, 

including a list of the economically useful plants found in the region, the "native name" for 

each of the plants, and a description of the plant lore and ways in which each was used in 

secular and ceremonial life. Such information was generally obtained by seeking out native 

speakers of the language concerned who also remembered the relevant details of social life, 

which often was no longer a living reality. The search frequently entailed the use of only 

one or a few informants (usually aged) who provided all that we will ever know, except for 

what archaeology might tell us, regarding the thoughts, beliefs, and behavior of 

populations sometimes numbering in the thousands. 

This utilization of few informants and reliance on "memory culture," both of which were 

unavoidable conditions of research in societies that had undergone radical changes, and 

sometimes near-extinction, in the nineteenth century, doubtless had significant effects on 

the quality as well as the quantity of the information obtained. Two further limitations, 

moreover, constrained ethnobotanical research of this kind by the very definitions of the 

problems it set for itself. The first of these restrictions derived from the selection of the 

focus of investigation, viz., plants that were utilized in "important" ways. Instead of 

investigating relationships with the plant world in a broad sense, "Classical Ethnobotany" 

had a much narrower, although legitimate, concern, and resembled what has come to be 

known as "Economic Botany." The second major internal restriction of these studies was 

rooted in their relegation of the investigation of linguistic and semantic aspects of plant 

knowledge to a minor place in the endeavor. Although "native names" for plants were 

collected and reported whenever possible, there was seldom shown any intensive concern 

with the conceptual systems of nomenclature and classification that underlay informants' 

labeling of plant specimens. The emphasis was nearly always on what people did with 

plants, rather than what they thought about them. 

A major turning point in ethnobotany was marked by Harold Conklin's doctoral 

dissertation at Yale University in 1954, "The Relation of Hanun6o Culture to the Plant 

World." There, and in subsequent published work, Conklin suggested a new program for 

the study of people's relationships with their botanical environments. The objective was to 

produce comprehensive and systematic descriptions of local floras as both biological and 

cultural phenomena, with ethnobotany inextricably embedded in ethnography. "Native 

names" for plants would no longer be mere appendages to information on plant uses, but 

would assume critical importance as both clues and tools for eliciting statements that, 

combined with first-hand observation of everyday life, would allow the ethnographer to 

vi 
NUMBER 35 

construct models of how the natural world is conceptualized by those who live in it and 

draw sustenance (and not only of the physical kind) from it. With its emphasis on semantic 

analysis of terminological systems, and the modeling of culture as a system of concepts, 

categories, and rules or standards—including but not limited to those pertaining to 

plants—the "New Ethnobotany" emerged in the late 1950s and 1960s as one specialized 

focus within what would be called "Ethnoscience," "Ethnographic Semantics," and "the 

New Ethnography." 

One of the major arenas in which these new approaches were tested and refined was the 

state of Chiapas in the central highlands of Mexico, where Evon Z. Vogt's "Harvard 

Chiapas Project" was initiated in 1957, a "project" that would involve well over 100 

fieldworkers over the next two decades and include collaborators from the University of 

Chicago, Stanford University, and the University of California at Berkeley and Irvine. 

Vogt's Harvard students and colleagues concentrated on the Tzotzil-speaking Maya 

communities near the ladino town of San Cristdbal de Las Casas, while the collaborators 

focused on their Tzeltal-speaking neighbors. Among the earliest of Vogt's fieldworkers 

was Robert M. Laughlin, who began his research in Zinacantan in 1959 and has been 

returning regularly ever since; indeed, as I write these remarks he is headed there on 

another field trip. 

As Laughlin relates in this book (p. 1), in 1963 he "resolved to compile a monumental 

dictionary of the Tzotzil language," to which his botanist colleague, Dennis E. Breedlove, 

responded: "How can you write a dictionary and leave out the plants?" Well, here are "the 

plants," but also much more. With his intimate knowledge of Zinacantec culture and 

everyday life, Laughlin realized that there was literally no end to "relevant material" in the 

pursuit of Tzotzil ethnobotany, conceived as "not merely the systematic study of the plant 

lore of a people, but rather a study of the flowering of man" (p. 5). And so more fieldwork 

was required—more plants to collect, more questions to ask, more texts to record, more 

activities to observe—and the stacks of cards and notebooks grew throughout the 1960s, 

1970s, and 1980s. 

During this time Breedlove also collaborated with another botanist, Peter H. Raven, and 

Brent Berlin, one of the Stanford ethnographers who was focusing on the ethnobotany of 

the Tenejapa Tzeltal neighbors of the Zinacantecs. That research resulted in the most 

influential series of early publications in "the New Ethnobotany," epitomized by the 

now-classic Principles of Tzeltal Plant Classification (Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven, 

1974). Following the appearance of that book, Laughlin tells us (p. 9), he had in mind "a 

companion Tzotzil volume," but "soon this subject took on a life of its own." 

Although Berlin's work has always been characterized by the deep immersion in Tzeltal 

culture implied by the phrase "a botanical ethnography" in the subtitle of his book, one of 

his major concerns was with elucidating the folk classification and nomenclature system 

employed by the Tzeltal. For Laughlin, "native taxonomy was not our goal, but rather our 

vehicle for reaching a better understanding of native thought" (p. 9). Thus, "The Flora" that 

makes up the bulk of the present book is not organized simply as "a native taxonomy 

explained in ultimate detail," but as "an encyclopedia of botanical information, 

demonstrating simultaneously the flowers and the flowering of man in Zinacantan" (p. 9). 

But The Flowering of Man is even more than an encyclopedia. The best features of 

"Classical Ethnobotany" are incorporated as we are given remarkably detailed information 

on the complete flora of the region, including plant morphology, range, cultivation 

techniques (if applicable), and the "significance" of each plant for Zinacantecs, in both the 

secular and cosmological senses of the term. Sadly, we learn that much of the traditional 

folk knowledge of plants is disappearing rapidly, as is much of the vegetation itself and the 

Zinacantecs' direct utilization of their plant world. The past 25 years have been a period 

witnessing a "whirlwind of change" as the population has more than doubled, the economy 

has changed from its subsistence base to one oriented toward markets and money, and the 

society and culture have been radically transformed. Although the future of the Tzotzil 

may be uncertain, their past is reasonably well-known and it is documented herein, through 
v

» l SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Laughlin's historical scholarship and his and Breedlove's research in the community over 

a thirty-year period. Thus we have an invaluable record, not of a "memory culture" but of 

one that was lived, observed, and recorded. 

Throughout their decades of fieldwork, like Berlin and most practitioners of 

"ethnoscience," Laughlin and Breedlove have been appreciative of the heuristic value of 

formal elicitation and analytical methods, but also have been aware that these approaches 

must always be adjuncts to, rather than substitutes for, traditional ethnographic procedures, 

i.e., immersion in the language as it is spoken (and not merely elicited onto a tape recorder) 

and in everyday life as it is lived. The result is a richly contextualized systematic 

presentation of Tzotzil plant folk taxa and their interrelationships. The authors employ the 

analytic schema developed by Berlin and others, thereby adding another much-needed case 

to those now available from South America, New Guinea, Indonesia, and elsewhere, which 

have advanced our understanding of "universal" principles of folk biological classification 

and nomenclature and, in turn, general features of human cognition. Moreover, with such 

a comprehensive portrayal of Tzotzil folk botany, the prospects for controlled comparisons 

with that of the neighboring Tzeltal are obvious and exciting. 

Finally, there is the poetry of it all, both literally, in Laughlin's treatment of descriptive 

phrases and analogies showing the "poetic association between the flora and man, between 

the flora and the cosmos" (p. 95), and emergent in his sensitive renderings of Tzotzil texts, 

shamans' prayers, and the ethnographic portraits of "Lordly Sunbeams" and the like, 

which suffuse the narrative portions of the book. Given the now-sizeable ethnographic 

literature on Zinacantan produced by other members of the Chiapas Project, Laughlin 

seizes this opportunity to give us humanistically drawn capsules, inviting us ever deeper 

into the Tzotzil "experience" of their plant world. 

The Flowering of Man is, then, not only in part but in whole, a "cultural omnibus," 

combining Tzotzil economic botany, ethnoscience, and culture in the broadest sense: a 

melange whose hybrid vigor augurs the flowering of a "Newer Ethnobotany." 

Terence E. Hays 

Department of Anthropology and Geography 

Rhode Island College 

Providence, Rhode Island, 1991 
Acknowledgments 

Through the years many members of the clerical staff of the Department of 

Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution have fed seemingly endless revisions of 

multilingual text into their typewriters and word processors while, at the same time, 

keeping an itinerant curator in contact with his home base. For this we wish to give special 

thanks, in chronological order, to Paula Cardwell, Karen Willson, Laurice Stewart, Darla 

Hawkins, Maria Catala, Helen Morrill, Denise Hughes, Lawan Tyson, and Joyce 

Sommers. 

Johanna Humphrey, also of the Department of Anthropology, with the aid of Dale Child 

and Hazel I. Bobb, has been most helpful in transferring this material to computer diskettes 

and preparing indexes. 

Early documents included in this study were consulted in the Latin American Library, 

Tulane University, and the Archivo Historico Diocesano de San Crist6bal. 

We are indebted to Barbara Keller, who for over 12 years has been indispensable to us 

in keeping all the plant identification records and transferring them to the manuscript. 

Without her there could not be a Flowering of Man. 

In our search for Mayan plant name cognates, we are indebted to the anthropologists and 

linguists who kindly made their word lists available to us. Terrence Kaufman's huge store 

of vocabularies collected by himself and by colleagues in the Proyecto Lingufstico 

Francisco Marroqufn added cognates from many Mayan languages. Brent Berlin, Victoria 

Bricker, Nicholas Hopkins, and Kathryn Josserand generously responded to our pleas for 

more names. 

Over the years a great number of professional botanists have helped with identification 

of plants in their respective areas of interest. These annotated specimens have been 

valuable sources of reference in the preparation of the treatment. In particular we thank F. 

Almeda, California Academy of Sciences (Melastomataceae, Symplocaceae); WR. 

Anderson, (Malpighiaceae, Rubiaceae); R. Barneby, New York Botanical Garden 

(Astragalus, Cassia, Chamaecrista, Dalea, Marina, Senna); B. Bartholomew, California 

Academy of Sciences (Theaceae); D. Bates, Cornell University (Malvales); J. Beaman, 

Michigan State University (Caryophyllaceae); M. Bourell, California Academy of 

Sciences (Bryophyta); H. Bravo, Instituto de Biologia, UNAM (Cactaceae); C.R. Broome, 

University of Maryland (Centaurium); W Burger, Chicago Natural History Museum 

(Piperaceae); K. Burt-Utley, University of New Orleans (Begoniaceae); L. Constance, 

University of California, Berkeley (Hydrophyllaceae, Apiaceae); Thomas Croat, Missouri 

Botanical Garden (Araceae, Sapindaceae); T.F. Daniel, California Academy of Sciences 

(Acanthaceae); G. Davidse, Missouri Botanical Garden (Poaceae); A. Day, California 

Academy of Sciences (Polemoniaceae); A. Delgado S., Instituto de Biologia, UNAM 

(Phaseolus, Vigna); D. Denham, Boulder, Colorado (Gesneriaceae); M. Denton, 

University of Washington (Oxalis); T. Duncan, University of California, Berkeley 

(Ranunculus); J.A. Dwyer, St. Louis University (Rubiaceae); F. Ehrendorfer, Botanisches 

Institut der Universitat, Wien (Galium); C. Epling, deceased (Labiatae); C. Etienne, Santa 

Rosa (Polygalaceae); R.C. Foster, Harvard University (Sisyrinchium); P.A. Fryxell, Texas 

A & M University (Malvales); A. Gentry, Missouri Botanical Garden (Bignoniaceae); H.S. 

Gentry, Desert Botanical Garden (Agave, Phaseolus); T. German, Instituto de Biologia, 

UNAM (Galactia); F.W Gould, deceased (Poaceae); S. Graham, Kent State University 

(Cuphea); R. Grether G., UAMIZ (Mimosa); WL. Handlos, Bailey Hortorium 

(Tripogandra); F.J. Hermann, U.S. Forest Service Herbarium (Carex, Juncaceae); H. 

Hernandez M., Instituto de Biologia, UNAM (Calliandra); M. Hurt, Missouri Botanical 

Garden (Euphorbiaceae and Eriocaulaceae, Smilax); P.C. Hutchinson, Escondido, 

California (Cactaceae); H. Utis, University of Wisconsin (Capparidaceae); H.S. Irwin, New 

IX 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

York Botanical Garden (Cassia); C. Jeffrey, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Cucurbitaceae); M. Johnston, University of Texas, Austin (Rhamnaceae); B.T. Keller, California 

Academy of Sciences (Actinidiaceae and Dilleniaceae); H. Kennedy, Harold L. Lyon 

Arboretum (Marantaceae); M. Kimnach, Huntington Botanical Garden (Cactaceae, 

Crassulaceae); T. Koyama, New York Botanical Garden (Cyperaceae except Carex); B.A. 

Krukoff, deceased (Erythrina, Menispermaceae); J. Kuijt, University of Lethbridge 

(Loranthaceae); L.R. Landrum, Arizona State University (Myrtaceae); M. Lavin, 

University of Texas (Cracca); D. Lorence, Pacific Tropical Garden (Monimiaceae and 

Rubiaceae); C.L. Lundell, University of Texas, Dallas (Myrsinaceae, Myrtaceae, many 

other miscellaneous families); B. Maguire, New York Botanical Garden (Cusia); D. Mally, 

California Academy of Sciences (Orchidaceae); PC. Mangelsdorf, Harvard University 

(races of maize); E. McClintock, University of California, Berkeley (ornamentals, 

Saxifragaceae); R. McVaugh, University of Michigan (Asteraceae, Lobeliaceae, Burseraceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae); F. Meyer, U.S. National Arboretum (Valeriana, 

Magnolia); H.N. Moldenke, Oregon (Eriocaulaceae, Verbenaceae); E. Molseed, deceased 

(Iradaceae, except Sisyrinchium); H.E. Moore, deceased (Geraniaceae, Arecaceae); Reid 

Moran, San Diego Natural History Museum (Crassulaceae); R.A. Moreno, Instituto de 

Biologia, (Crotalaria); C.V Morton, deceased (ferns, Smilax, Solanum); C.H. Muller, 

University of California, Santa Barbara (Quercus); D. Neill, Missoui Botanical Garden 

(Erythrina); L.I. Nevling, Chicago Natural History Museum (Thymelaeaceae); R. Ornduff, 

University of California, Berkeley (Nymphoides); Timothy Plowman, deceased (Erythroxylaceae, Brunfelsia); T.P. Ramamoorthy, Instituto de Biologia, UNAM (Lamiaceae, 

Ludwigia); P.H. Raven, Missouri Botanical Garden (Onagraceae); K.H. Rechinger, 

Naturhistorisches Museum, Wien (Rumex); C. Reeder, University of Arizona (Muhlenbergia, Sporobolus); L. Rico A., Instituto de Biologia, UNAM (Acacia, Pithecellobium); 

CM. Rogers, Wayne State University (Linum); R.C. Rollins, Harvard University 

(Cruciferae); V. Rudd, California State University, Northridge (Fabaceae); J. Rzedowski, 

Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Mexico, D.F. (miscellaneous monocotyledons); J. Sauer, 

University of California, Los Angeles (Phytolaccaceae, Amaranthus); B. Schubert, Arnold 

Arboretum (Desmodium, Dioscorea); E.E. Sherff, deceased (Asteraceae, Coreopsidinae); 

L. Shinners, deceased (Convolvulaceae); C. Soto E., Instituto de Biologia, UNAM 

(Crotalaria); M. Sousa S., Instituto de Biologia, UNAM (Fabaceae); A.R. Smith, 

University of California, Berkeley (pteridophytes); L.B. Smith, National Museum of 

Natural History (Bromeliaceae, Begonia); H.C.M. Snelders, Utrecht (Burmanniaceae); T. 

Soderstrom, deceased (Poaceae, bamboos); J.A. Steyermark, Instituto Botinico, Caracas 

(Rubiaceae); J.L. Strother, University of California, Berkeley (Asteraceae); O. T611ez V, 

Instituto de Biologia, UNAM (Tephrosia, Dioscorea); R. Torres C, Instituto de Biologia, 

UNAM (Bauhinia); G. Tucker, Duke University (Cyperaceae); B.L. Turner, University of 

Texas, Austin (Asteraceae); J.F. Utley, University of New Orleans (Bromeliaceae); H.A. 

Wahl, Pennsylvania State University (Chenopodium); G. Wallace, Los Angeles State and 

County Arboretum (Monotropaceae); D. Wasshaussen, National Museum of Natural 

History (Acanthaceae); U.T. Waterfall, deceased (Physalis); R.E. Weaver, Arnold 

Arboretum (Lisianthius); G. Webster, University of Calfornia, Davis (Euphorbiaceae); T. 

Wendt, Herbario-Horatio, Escuela Nacional de Agricultura, Chapingo, Mexico (Polygalaceae); L.O. Williams, Chicago Natural History Museum (Orchidaceae and many families 

done in conjunction with the Flora of Guatemala); D.R. Windier, Towson State University 

(Crotalaria, Neptunia); R.P. Wunderlin, University of South Florida (Bauhinia); J. 

Wurdack, National Museum of Natural History (Melastomataceae); S. Zarate P., Instituto 

de Biologia, UNAM (Leucaena). 

J.F. Copp of La Jolla, California, has consistantly helped with transport of specimens 

and material to and from the field. 

To provide the botanical sets with visual evidence, Terry Bell labored for a decade with 

infinite patience and artistry, transposing dried leaves and flowers and fleshy fruits to our 

plates. 
NUMBER 35 

Antun Teratol kindly lent us his tunic to be photographed by Douglas Bryant for the 

frontispiece. 

Thor Anderson's illustrations faithfully dramatize the human setting of the flora of 

Zinacantin. 

For their insights on culture change we are indebted to Frank Cancian, George Collier, 

and Daniel Mountjoy. 

John Haviland has put this human setting into motion. 

The authors' absences and presences, unpredictable as well as predictable, were suffered 

by their wives, Nancy Breedlove and Mimi Laughlin, with amazing grace. Their 

encouragement in this quixotic search for truth, for many truths, spurred us on and brought 

us home. 

Financial support for this study was provided by the California Academy of Sciences 

and by the Smithsonian Institution through Fluid Research Fund awards, the Research 

Opportunities Fund, the Scholarly Studies Program, the Spencer Fullerton Baird Fund, and 

the Walcott Research Fund. Additional funding was provided by the National Geographic 

Society. A special thanks to Thomas, Marian, and Sarah Tilton for their help and support 

throughout the project. 

Whatever truths are reported in this book were provided knowingly and unknowingly by 

our Zinacantec participants, particularly by Maryan Martinis who always knew he had the 

last word. 

Robert M. Laughlin 

1990 

Key to Tzotzil Pronunciation 

There are five Tzotzil vowels, a, e, i, o, u, pronounced as in Spanish. When they occur 

initially in a word they are pre-glottalized; that is, they begin abruptly, as in German. The 

following consonants are pronounced as in English: ch, (d, f, g, Spanish loans), k, 1, m, n, 

p, s, t, and y. J is pronounced as h in English, tz as ts, x as sh, and r as in Spanish r, "pero." 

V is pronounced as in English, except when occurring in Spanish loan words that in Tzotzil 

form consonant clusters, such as kv (kventa), jv (jveves), when it is pronounced as a w. W 

occurs in only one loan word of unknown origin, wapo. ' is a glottal stop, pronounced as 

a "catch" in the voice, such as in uh-oh, or Hawai'i. The glottal catch combines with other 

consonants to form the glottalized consonants ch', k', p', t', and tz'. B is also a glottalized 

consonant. When b occurs before another consonant, or finally, it is pronounced as a 

pre-glottalized m. Stress is marked on three-syllable Spanish loans, otherwise it falls on the 

root syllable. The alphabetical order for Tzotzil is given as follows: a,', b, ch, ch', d, e, f, 

g, i, j , k, k', 1, m, n, o, p, p', r, s, t, t', tz, tz', u, v, x, and y. 
xii SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Participants 

The participants in this encyclopedic venture number many hundreds: men, women, and 

children, the majority of these were unwitting contributors who, by a chance remark, added 

another bit of information. Seventy-five individuals, representing 26 communities, were 

paid for their efforts. Because of the aura of suspicion aroused by taking a woman "into the 

woods" we hired only two women, on one occasion, as plant collectors. Consequently the 

source of our information is heavily weighted on the male side. Initial training in plant 

collecting was provided by j'Alux Mentes Ton of Tenejapa, who had been the principal 

consultant of Berlin and Breedlove. Xun Lopis Mentes of Chamula provided many leads 

for further investigation. 

The persons named below served either as plant collectors or, being religious officials, 

had special knowledge of the plants used for church and chapel decoration. Many of the 

former spent hours in the preparation of plants and the supplying of knowledge about 

them. Fifty were from highland communities, 24 from temperate communities, and three 

from the lowlands (two of whom also provided information from the highlands). They 

varied in age from 18 years to their mid-sixties, but most were in their thirties or forties. 

Of these, four began working with us in the first stage of plant identification (1966) and 

resumed work in the second stage (1978-1980s). It is noteworthy, perhaps, that of the 

eight contributors who were shamans, five became so after engaging in extensive plant 

collecting. 

Throughout the years of our research, Maryan Martinis, native of the upper end of 

Zinacantan Center, has been number one (as identified in Laughlin 1975). At the age of 35, 

when we initiated our project, he already possessed a remarkable storage of knowledge 

concerning the flora: plant habitats, morphology, growth, cultivation, and use. He was a 

fearless explorer who loved the challenge of penetrating every corner of the township, no 

matter how forbidding. He was undaunted by the steepest slopes and the most hostile 

residents. As team leader he would let no "new" plant go uncollected. With careful 

attention to detail and great economy he could describe and define hundreds of plants. This 

same keenness was ever present in his efforts to iron out our bewilderment and untangle 

our misperceptions. His fierce appearance was belied by a shrewd, canny sense of humor. 

It is no wonder that this man became an unofficial lawyer for the town, and later rose 

rapidly through the religious hierarchy, reaching the pinnacle of grand alcalde before his 

mid-fifties. The ascent of Maryan Martinis was financed not only by us, but also by 

sensible, large-scale corn farming, by flower cultivation, and by the sale of flowers and 

fruits in Tuxtla Gutierrez. During our last plant collecting expedition he slyly confessed his 

entrance into shamanhood. 

Note: In the list below, (1) = 1966; (2) = 1978-1980; (1,2) = both 1966 and 

1978-1980). 

Community Personnel 

Apas (1) Antun Tanjol, Maryan Emantis, Telex Xulub Te'; (2) Manvel 

Perez Sanchez 

Atz'am (Vo'-bitz) (1) Chep Boch, Markux Xantis; (2) Lol Sanches Ernandes, Romin 

Sanches Ernandes 

Bik'it Joyijel (2) Maryan Vaskes Ernandes, Xun Ernandes Vaskes 

Chak Toj (2) Martin Vaskes Lopes 

Chaynatik (1,2) Xun Konte 

Chikinibal Vo' (2) Maryan Lopes Peres 

Elan Vo' (1) Xun Lopis; (2) Maryan Chiku' 

Jech Toch' (2) Maryan Jimenes Lopes 

Jok' Ch'enom (1) Mikel Konte; (2) Maryan Emantis, Xun Montejo Ernandes 
NUMBER 35 

Jtek Lum 

Kelem Ton 

Mas an 

Muk'ta Jok' 

Na Chij 

Naben Chauk 

Paste' 

Pat Osil 

Petz Toj 

P'ij 

Sak Lum 

San Mikulax 

Santa Rosa 

Sek'emtik 

Selva 

Stzellejtik 

(in Vo'-ch'oj Vo' 

Alto) 

(in Vo'-ch'oj Vo' 

Bajo) 

(1) Maryan Peres Mochilum, Romin Teratol; (1,2) Antzelmo Peres 

Peres, Chep Emantis; (2) Loxa Krus, Maryan Teratol, Matal Lopis 

Tanchak, Rafael Peres Ramires, Xun Teratol Lopis 

2) Antun(?) 

2) Xun Tanchak 

1) Manvel Ximenes; (2) Markux Ernandes Peres 

1) Chep Peres, Maryan Vaskis; (2) Manvel Peres Peres 

1) Mikel Vaskis; (2) Antun Vaskes, Manvel Vaskes Peres, Maryan 

Peres Buluch, Mikel Peres Peres, Petul Uch, PetuI Vaskes 

1) Maryan Xulub Te'; (2) Manvel Ernandes Peres, Martin Lopes 

Lopes, Romin Lopes Vaskes 

1) Palas Xut; (2) Maryan de la Krus Peres, Petul de la Krus Ernandes 

2) Xun Ernandes Konsares 

2) Antun Vaskes 

2) Antun Giyen Peres, Antun Giyen Peres, Manvel Giyen Peres, Xun 

Sanches Peres 

2) Antun Xilon Ernandes, Lol Xilon Peres, Manvel Gomes Selestino, 

Xap Gomes Peres 

2) Petul Uch, Xun Teratol Lopes 

1) Antun Vaskis; (2) Lol Peres Asyenta, Lukax Montejo Sanches, 

Romin Peres, Telex Vaskes Peres 

2) Marselino Gomes Ernandes, Palas Gomes, Ernandes 

2) Matyo Tanchak, Palas Muchik 

1) Maryan Chiku', Maryan Sarate; (1,2) Maryan Martinis; (2) Petul 

Gonsales Peres, Xun Peres Peres, Xun Vaskes 
FRONTISP~ECE.-Floral embroidery on man's tunic, 1990. 
The Flowering of Man 

A Tzotzil Botany of Zinacantan 

VOLUME I 

Dennis E. Breedlove 

and Robert M. Laughlin 

From Beginning to End 

A Personal Reminiscence by Robert M. Laughlin 

The Old Look 

It could not have been more inauspicious—the beginning of 

all this. Day after day I sat in Zinacantan in the dark of my 

host's thatched roof house dumbly trying to grasp the torrent of 

Tzotzil sounds. My desperation to stretch my legs, to escape the 

compound, inspired a new tactic: Learn plant names! 

A dusty box of mostly sterile specimens sits in my 

Washington office, testament to my first botanical failure. 

Although the Zinacantecs accorded each of these bits of leaves 

and twigs a confusing multitude of names, the Smithsonian 

scholars claimed they could not be named at all! 

Hoping to give focus to my fieldwork in Chiapas, my project 

director, Evon Vogt, suggested I study the economic basis of 

Zinacantan—corn cultivation. But I fled into the world of 

myths and dreams. 

Four years later, in 1963, I resolved to compile a 

monumental dictionary of the Tzotzil language. Systematic 

compilation continued for three years, producing thousands of 

words. With a sigh of relief I decided the end was near. At this 

very time Dennis Breedlove was deeply involved with Brent 

Berlin and Peter Raven in their equally monumental ethnobotanic study of the neighboring Tzeltal Indians of Tenejapa. 

Perhaps I was celebrating my conclusion. "How can you write 

a dictionary and leave out the plants?" Dennis asked me 

accusingly. My feeble remonstrations prompted an immediate 

offer to provide equipment, training for myself and my plant 

collectors, followed by shipment and identification of my 

specimens. How could I refuse? 

Dennis E. Breedlove, Department of Botany, California Academy of 

Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 94118. Robert 

M. Laughlin, Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, 

Washington, D.C. 20560. 

Because a description of my ethnobotanical efforts was 

provided in the introduction to my dictionary (Laughlin, 1975) 

I will draw freely from that source. 

As a first step to arouse the interest of my Indian colleagues 

in botanical collecting and to give me some idea of the scope of 

the Tzotzil botanical lexicon, I asked four men from Zinacantin 

Center to write separate lists of all the plant names they could 

recall. Combining the results of their one day's endeavor 

produced a master list of over 650 names! The multiplicity was 

surprising, for Zinacantecs are far less dependent on uncultivated plants than the neighboring Tenejapanecs or even 

Chamulas. 

The first collections were made on 14 February 1966. In an 

effort to assure some control over the naming procedure, the 

original team of from two to four collectors was comprised of 

residents of the ceremonial center only. Whenever possible, 

they collected an original and three copies of all plants in fruit 

and flower from each of the major habitats. The specimens 

were named separately by the collectors, numbered, and dried. 

A file of plant lore was developed with the aid of the following 

questionnaire, which I asked my collectors to apply to every 

plant soon after an example of it was secured. 

1. What is it called? If it has another name, where do they 

use that name? 

2. Have you heard stories about why it was named that? 

3. If you don't know its name, what is it like? 

4. Is it a tree, a plant, a vine, or not any of these? 

5. Is there a form -tik or -altik? (expanse or large expanse 

of). 

6. Where does it grow: in the highlands, temperate zone, or 

lowlands? 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

7. Where does it grow: in the yard, in the woods, in fields, 

etc.? 

8. Is it cultivated? When? How? Who does it? 

9. What part of it is used? 

10. Who uses it? 

11. What is it used for? 

12. Is it "cold" or "hot"? 

13. What effect does it have? 

14. How is it gathered? Who brings it? When? Is it bought or 

gathered? 

15. How many are used? 

16. How is it prepared? 

17. Is it used alone or is there another ingredient? If so, what 

is it? 

18. How is it taken? 

19. How much is drunk? After meals or not? 

20. When is it used? If it is medicine, how often is it taken? 

21. Is it the preferred kind? If not, what is? 

22. If it is poisonous, what remedy is there? 

At the end of five months, overweening pride goaded me to 

try to determine whether my team's essential agreement on 

plant names and uses was shared by members of the outlying 

hamlets. Together, we chose individuals whom we thought 

would be knowledgeable. Several were shamans. Obvious 

ignoramuses were speedily replaced. Before collecting, each 

initiate was asked to name all of the plants that he could. His 

knowledge was tested against the master list from Zinacantan 

Center to fill out his own list and to spot variant pronunciations. 

On a rotating basis the additional collectors, ideally one from 

each of the major hamlets, accompanied by one or two from the 

original team, collected through January 1967. They, too, were 

asked to identify the plants and to respond to the items in the 

questionnaire. Over 3000 numbered specimens were obtained, 

of which several were species new to science; 1170 species 

were represented, as well as another 100 identifications at the 

generic level. Examples for nearly every one of the plant names 

on the master list were secured, and so the collection was 

comprehensive both from the botanical and lexical point of 

view. 

This dry account gives no hint of the pleasures of plant 

collecting: the mornings spent in crisp pine forests and along 

torrid lowland stream beds, the nights beneath giant fig trees, 

the dizzying verbal duels as we sorted and prepared the plants 

for drying. Nor does it hint at the problems: the collectors sunk 

deep in hangovers, the collectors who, rather than wrinkling 

their pants, would rely on me to bother climbing a tree to 

wrench down a spectacular orchid. Imagine a collecting party: 

myself, three veteran teammates from the Center, and three 

hamlet beginners. Everyone has been instructed that I only 

want genuine names, and that unfamiliarity with the plant 

should cause no concern. First, the beginners would be asked to 

name each plant. If they answered, "I don't know," four or five 

times, the veterans would begin exchanging superior winks. 

After the first 15 minutes of collecting, no plant was ever left 

unnamed. An enormous lexicon of several thousand names was 

created with extreme variations from one individual to the next. 

Some control was provided by having the members of the 

original team all from Zinacantan Center and by collecting in 

the same localities many times throughout the year. The 

variations seldom could be explained by noting the origins of 

the collectors, nor was it a simple question of the ignorance or 

wisdom of the collector, though this was a critical, but elusive 

factor. The impact of group dynamics upon the choice of plant 

names was terrible to behold. Of paramount importance was the 

social criteria of the collector within the team, such as his age 

or bonds of friendship. Social position and temperament often 

determined who would align with whom in assigning which 

names. Efforts to prevent collectors from influencing their 

colleagues' decisions frequently were unsuccessful. Even so, 

there was substantial agreement on culturally significant plants. 

Having completed a year of collecting in January 1967, I 

returned to the "States" (USA). The botanical information, 

written in three languages, by various collaborators, formed a 

small mountain of lined paper pads, graph sheets, and typed 

lists, which had to be thoroughly threshed, sifted, and weighed. 

I had to decide which plant names were genuine and which 

spurious. Phone calls to Dennis in California were frequent. As 

the botanical identifications came trickling in, the Latin names 

and the common English names had to be matched with all 

their Tzotzil equivalents. An endless shuffling of cards filled 

every day from dawn to dark. As we slowly began to impose 

some order on the material, I became obsessed with doubts 

about the value of my collection. I was well aware that a project 

that had brought together 3000 specimens, 22 informants not 

always sober, and countless thousands of names would 

demonstrate inconsistencies. 

I was haunted by an experiment I had tried just before I left 

Chiapas. No plant is more central to Zinacantec culture than 

com. Everyone grows com, everyone talks about com, 

everyone depends upon com for survival. My collaborators 

from Zinacantan Center collected 20 ears of com that they 

claimed were different from each other and which they called 

by different names. I strung the ears up across the room and 

brought in five men, each from a different hamlet. I asked them 

to name the com. They were free to handle the ears, chip off 

kernels, and so forth. If each informant had assigned a different 

name to each ear there would be 100 names. For these 20 ears 

that Paul Mangelsdorf assigned to 16 races the team provided 

47 different Tzotzil names. Forty-one descriptive terms of such 

features as shape, color, habitat, season, and size were used to 

produce a majority of the distinctive names. Despite this 

extraordinary diversity, which might lead one to believe that 

these men were thoroughly confused by the array of com—and 

they confessed bewilderment at the time—not a single one 

mistook an ear of highland com for an ear of lowland com, 

whereas the mistakes in identifying temperate com that grows 

in the foothills only confirmed its intermediate quality. 
NUMBER 35 3 

FIGURE 1.-The valley of Zinacanth Center, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 

Subsequent tests I performed in the "States" on professors son, the Zinacantec farmers had excelled. Why should I worry? 

and students only confirmed my fears that we lead our lives But 1 did! During the plant collecting enterprise I had 

quite acceptably, undaunted by our prodigious ignorance about watched with fascination, but also with horror, the development 

much that surrounds us. American testees coped no better of a complex Tzotzil botanical taxonomy. My fellow collectors, 

identifying cars than bugs, cereals than vegetables. In compari- confronted with hundreds of weeds that they had never paid the 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

least attention to, became expert taxonomists, adept at 

distinguishing fine-grained differences in form and habitat, and 

applying names accordingly. The Tzotzil life forms ("vine," 

"tree," "plant") and generics were unaffected, but the specific 

and varietal names were a tribute to the perceptivity and 

inventiveness of teams of Tzotzil botanists. 

Simultaneously, my anthropology colleagues (including 

Brent Berlin in Tenejapa) were engaged in discovering native 

taxonomies by means of "contrast level" studies and the 

elaboration of semantic dimension keys. The mapping of native 

words in hierarchies of different levels of generality—life form, 

genus, species, and variety—seemed entirely reasonable and 

incumbent upon me as I entered the plant names in the 

dictionary. I balked, however, at using keys, and called on 

natural scientists to back me up (Bulmer and Tyler, 1968:353): 

In so far as Karam informants are prepared to construct 

artificial keys at the behest of the anthropologist, or even, 

possibly, instructing their children (we have no evidence on 

this point), the characters which they consciously draw 

attention to may, in fact, only constitute a very small part of 

the total configuration which is the basis for the informant's 

actual recognition of examples of particular specimens. As 

Simpson puts it, such, "non-technical recogniton— 

identification—is normally not by...separate characters but 

by a mental image of the whole animal." 

Another technique that achieved its best results here in the 

highlands of Chiapas was "programmed specification," where 

native phrases and statements were carefully manipulated in a 

question and answer form "to elicit further statements about a 

given topic in a way that preserves as much of the native 

thought pattern as possible" (Colby, 1966:17). Although I 

appreciated the sophistication and precision of this method, 

which often illuminated the structure of segments of native 

thought, I was constrained by temperament from subduing 

either myself or my fellow lexicographers to such inexorable 

rigors. Even the very simple questionnaire that we used to 

derive plant lore soon proved frustrating. Some of the questions 

(2, 7, 10, 13, 21) evoked automatic answers or no answer at all. 

Others (15, 19) demanded a specificity that I didn't believe was 

real. For most herbal cures there is no traditionally accepted 

formula for the prescriptions nor for the quantity nor schedule 

of application. 

As the dictionary went to press I was dogged by two major 

concerns regarding the botanical material: (1) the reliability of 

the entries, and (2) the cultural relevance of taxonomy. 

Addressing the first concern, I commented (Laughlin, 

1975:16): 

An informant's consistency can only be tested by multiple 

collections. The five botanists from Zinacantan Center 

collected an average of 1400 plants. Ten of the hamlet 

botanists collected an average of 380 plants, but even with 

this high number, multiple collections of a single plant 

cluster around the commonest plants. Not only must many 

collections be made, but there must be many collectors. 

This is of utmost consequence in ethnoscientific studies. 

Nearly three years passed before 80% of my specimens 

were identified and this was achieved under inconceivably 

favorable circumstances. Unless the investigator combines 

a comprehensive knowledge of plants in general, with a 

specific knowledge of the flora of the particular area, he 

must wait for the specimens to be identified by a host of 

specialists in various herbaria. Few botanists wield such 

control, and certainly no anthropologist. Without the Latin 

referent, it is difficult to know which questions to ask. 

Knowing now that Zinacantecs use five different names for 

one species of mallow I could ask more pointed questions, 

but even then I would have to collect new specimens as 

vouchers, because my original dried specimens would be 

too greatly altered in form to be recognized by informants. 

And then I would have to wait for the new specimens to be 

identified to be sure that we had collected the same species. 

Only because of the uniquely comprehensive study by 

Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven of ethnobotany in the closely 

allied language, Tzeltal, is my data susceptible to some 

verification. 

And I closed my remarks with (Laughlin, 1975:16-17): 

As a last remonstrance, I would like to add the observations 

of two students of Navajo linguistic behavior. They point 

out that any domain can be classified in a multiplicity of 

ways, that a "people's perception of their culture is not 

always shown by taxonomy." They "suggest that ethnoscience should focus its attention on the total system of 

lexical semantic relationships in the cultural universe—not 

merely on the taxonomic one" (Perchonock and Werner, 

1969:237). 

How that should be done is not suggested by them nor will 

it be by me! 

Mulberry Street 

After relinquishing my ethnobotanical responsibilities so 

jauntily, it seems scarcely possible that just two years later, in 

1975, Dennis and I were at it again: We reasoned that it would 

make good sense, for the benefit of botanists, to simply extract 

the plant entries from the dictionary and publish them 

separately, fortified with an introduction by Breedlove. But 

skimming through the dictionary pages I was reminded that a 

vast amount of botanical information was scattered throughout. 

In addition to the entries that referred specifically to plant 

morphology, agricultural techniques, tools, etc., relevant 

material was buried within the definitions. For instance, 

examples had been given for verbs and adjectives, as nulilan, 

"keep gnawing or eating clean /bone, corncob, mango pit/, keep 

chopping at (with dull axe or billhook)" (Laughlin, 1975:259), 

tomk'in, "break badly /cornstalk, leg, arm/" (Laughlin, 

1975:343), sak-yoman, "white (face of invalid, flowers, dried 

weeds)" (Laughlin, 1975:304). Why not add a glossary? So I 

spent the next months scouring the dictionary and cataloging 

the terms. 
NUMBER 35 

The next notion was far more treacherous. It involved the 

addition of considerable botanical material that I had excluded 

deliberately from the dictionary: yit'ix names. When the 

attributive, yit'ix, literally, "jealous," is placed before a plant 

name it denotes that the plant in question is similar to the 

named plant. The English attributives, "bastard," and "false," 

are comparable except that they specify a single species as, 

"bastard evening primrose," whereas yit'ix can be freely tacked 

onto the name of any plant with similar features. Although 

these are not true names, they obviously are of critical value in 

establishing relationships between plants. And so, all these 

names had to be added to the Tzotzil-Latin, Latin-Tzotzil card 

files that had been created for the production of the dictionary. 

There existed still another set of information relative to an 

ethnobotany. Years before, at Dennis' suggestion, when we 

made the plant collections, I had recorded what name had been 

assigned to every plant by each member of the team. From the 

field notes I extracted now the number of times each named 

plant had been collected and how many people had identified it. 

The total of plant identifications was roughly 10,000! 

This led us inexorably to the conclusion that we had amassed 

for ourselves an enormous responsibility that obliged us to 

return to "the field" to set our record straight, generating a 

Tzotzil ethnobotany that would rival in understanding and 

rigorous elegance the monumental Principles of Tzeltal Plant 

Classification (Berlin et al., 1974). 

Now it became our task to convince our home institutions, 

and eventually the National Geographic Society, that our forays 

to Zinacantan merited their dollars! And so was spawned a 

series of modest proposals. In 1978, after a previous monthlong joint endeavor, I opined that "a short field session" would 

do the trick—"fill in the gaps and provide solutions to 

taxonomic problems." Four years later I proposed "a final 

three-month field session." And now, in January 1987, I find 

myself still ensconced in "the field." 

My procession of proposals, modest financially, glowed with 

vainglorious descriptions of our past achievements: "Never 

before have two related systems of native taxonomy been 

examined and compared with the depth and breadth of 

knowledge that can be marshalled by the principal investigators 

of this project." For the future flowering of our study I 

promised everything: 

Introductory chapters will describe the geographic, botanical, and human setting, the economic, aesthetic, and ritual 

use of the flora, the methods of collection and interviewing, 

and the classificatory principles of the native taxonomic 

system. Because the research methods of the Tzeltal study 

have been outlined in print so meticulously, they will not 

require lengthy discussion in this study. Greater emphasis 

will be placed on the medicinal, symbolic, and ritual 

aspects of plants in Tzotzil culture. And as previous work 

among both the Tzeltal and Tzotzil have concentrated 

exclusively on men's plant knowledge, an attempt will be 

made to interview female weavers and midwives. It will be 

the purpose of the introductory chapters to demonstrate that 

ethnobotany is not merely the systematic study of the plant 

lore of a people, but rather a study of the flowering of man. 

In presenting the human habitat of the flora it will become 

abundantly clear that "the worlds in which different 

societies live are distinct worlds—not merely the same 

world with different labels attached" (Sapir, 1929:209). 

This from the 1978 draft. 

Two years later: 

We will investigate the functional aspect of the taxonomy, 

going beyond the "whats" to the "whys." This project aims, 

then, to provide not only a detailed description of native 

plant taxonomy and use, but an exploration in depth of 

native world view. 

Then from the 1981 draft: 

... we may consider investigating the economic aspects of 

Zinacantec cultivation and marketing. 

And to think that I saw it on Mulberry Street!1 So much for 

the visions. What were the attainments? Or, first, what 

intentions did we disregard? 

We abandoned our plan to compare the Tzotzil and Tzeltal 

taxonomic systems, deciding to leave that for some other 

ethnoscientist. Nor did we compare the cultural significance of 

plants in Tenejapa and Zinacantan as Brent Berlin's and my 

focus of attention had not been identical, and Tenejapa shamans 

had been reluctant to reveal their medical knowledge. 

I failed to interview female midwives and weavers, partly 

from shyness or laziness, and partly because of my inability to 

identify immediately the plants that would be involved. The 

proscription against taking women "into the woods" caused our 

title to be more literally true than we had intended or desired! 

We carefully sidestepped an in-depth study of the functional 

aspect of the taxonomy, preferring to treat it simply as a 

convenient way for the Zinacantecs and ourselves to discuss the 

flora. Unprincipled perhaps? 

Considerable investigation has already been made of 

traditional Zinacantec cultivation and marketing (Bunnin, 

1966; Cancian, 1965, 1972; Collier, 1975). Enormously 

complex changes have occurred under government stimulus, 

and so a thorough update would have required a major study, 

requiring sophisticated economic expertise not available to us. 

Consequently, we chose to narrow our concentration and asked 

John Haviland to provide a description of the dynamics of the 

flower industry. 

In my pleas for financial support I was quick to point out the 

urgency of our research: 

It has become abundantly clear that the younger generation, 

because of truck transportation, does not know a quarter of 

what is known by the elders or by even the middle-aged 

people. This makes it all the more important to gather 

'This refers to the outlandish vision of Theodor Seuss Geisel ("Dr. Seuss") 

in his And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street (New York: The Vanguard 

Press). 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

botanical information which may be returned to the people 

(1981). 

In the past five years the environment, both natural and 

cultural, has changed at an ever more accelerating rate. 

Population pressure and industrial greed have brought the 

decimation of the forests and the reduction of arable land 

available to Indians. This, together with inflation and 

bilingualism, is propelling the younger generation out of 

their cornfields and into the oil fields. Traditional knowledge of the natural world, preserved only orally, is receding 

rapidly as modem civilization, with its factory-made 

materials for clothing, shelter, transport, agriculture, health, 

education, and even ritual decoration, advances apace, 

changing forever the relationship between man and nature 

(1982). 

Fortunately our pleas reached sympathetic ears! 

The New Look 

Confident that the native taxonomy of the Tzotzil flora 

would resemble closely the Tzeltal model, our first task on 

returning to Chiapas in 1976 was to try to discover some order 

in our mass of plant names. Although we eschewed folk keys 

and triad tests, we did use a modified paired comparison 

technique. Two of the most reliable members of the original 

collecting team (Antzelmo Peres and Chep Atz'am) were 

presented with stacks of cards. Each card contained a single 

plant name. I asked my colleagues to sort the cards into groups. 

After a morning's labor, working separately, they presented me 

with their results. The great majority of the cards were grouped 

together on the basis of morphology, a few because of their use. 

Many plants were set aside as belonging to no group. Of course 

Antzelmo's and Chep's taxonomies were not identical! The 

afternoon was spent arguing over the "truth." Some of the 

differences were resolved and some remained to be examined at 

a later date with other consultants. 

Re-enlisting our major veteran plant collector, Maryan 

Martinis, as well as Antzelmo and Chep, we spent a month, 

Dennis and I together, taking one-day field trips to try to 

establish a bit of order on our material. 

The following year a new dimension was added to our 

project by my discovery of a Spanish-Tzotzil dictionary 

compiled in Zinacantan (Laughlin and Haviland, 1988) almost 

surely at the end of the 16th century. It contained a significant 

number of plant names and revealed the degree of introduction 

of European plants at the time. It verified the persistence of 

Zinacantec plant names over a span of four hundred years. This 

dictionary, in addition, had a wealth of terms referring to 

agricultural practices. 

In 1978, with nearly all the new collections identified, we 

established a work pattern that was to persist until the project's 

end. Joint sessions in California alternated with series of field 

trips. For 10 days (all that we could stand) we would pore over 

our original data and our new field notes, checking specimens 

painstakingly in the herbarium, sipping our tea. Then we would 

hurtle over the hill, with our Bohemias, to wrestle with our 

problems the next day under the Bolinas sun. We weeded out 

native misidentifications, and pruned away the excess native 

descriptive terminology. That is, the bewildering array of plant 

names that distinguished size, habitat, color, etc., often proved 

to be redundant, overlapping, or overloaded terms that were 

produced by the native collectors to prove that they were just as 

discriminating as the foreign collectors. From out of what 

seemed a veritable chaos of names in 1976 emerged a 

comprehensible and comprehensive native taxonomic structure. The first draft of "The Flora" was executed. 

What We Did on the Road 

Our collecting trips in Chiapas now had a new look. Gone 

were the days of five-man teams of Zinacantec collectors, 

drunk or sober, alone or chaufferred by an ignorant gringo 

anthropologist or by an even more ignorant ladino student, as 

they repeated or invented plant names by the score. No, now we 

managed some control! The team was composed always of 

botanist, anthropologist, and one or two (occasionally three), 

generally sober native collectors. Collectors from the hamlets 

were always accompanied by a collector from the center. In this 

way we could distinguish better between differences of opinion 

or the addition of merely synonymous names. 

On many of our initial collecting ventures we would leave 

San Crist6bal around 8 or 9 A.M., drive slowly down a road, 

making frequent stops. Dennis would point to every different 

plant, tree, or vine and ask for its name, while I would inquire 

about its use. If Dennis wanted a collection, that would be made 

in quadruplicate when possible. We kept separate notebooks, 

noting the collection number in both. I included the Tzotzil 

names and the Latin name, if known. I would also jot down the 

life form and any cultural information for further questioning. 

We would eat a picnic lunch and return around dusk. 

In the course of a single day 20 or 30 plants would have been 

collected and 200-300 species of plants would have been 

identified. If there were two native collectors, that meant 

400-600 sight identifications! To our regret, now, we kept no 

tally of the number of plants that our consultants were unable to 

identify. Our trips were usually jovial affairs, sometimes 

raucous, as when Antzelmo cut a 15-foot white-flowered yucca 

inflorescence and marched with it at the head of our procession 

to the truck, intoning a mock prayer. 

Increasingly the trips were targeted on a particular habitat or 

were designed to fill a known gap, solve a taxonomic problem, 

or to revise and expand my omnibus of Tzotzil botanical 

vocabulary. On the last matter, after I had shown five sagittate 

leaves to the same Zinacantec colleague in one day, to make 

sure of his consistency in applying descriptive terms, and in 

which endeavor he had offered me four synonyms, my 

daughter, who had accompanied us, commented to me, much to 

my surprise, "Dad, he must think you're awfully dumb!" 
NUMBER 35 7 

FIGURE 2.-The triumvirate and their safari, 198 1. (Photo by Nancy Breedlove.) 

During the decade of 1976-1986 we made repeated visits to 

all the natural habitats known by Zinacantecs, in all seasons, 

and also, in all seasons, to the highland and lowland markets. 

During this same period our Zinacantec consultants made an 

additional 30,000 identifications. 

After each collecting trip I would interview the consultants, 

from 9 A.M. to 2 P.M., in my office, notebook at hand, to glean 

any further information on the plants we had seen. 

There were long periods in Chiapas when I was alone or 

Dennis was occupied with other projects, but always I had the 

consolation, the assurance, that he, by himself, or with the aid 

of a large company of botany colleagues, would provide us 

with reliable identifications-no mean feat! 

Two resources, drawn originally from the dictionary, and 

seeming to have added up to no more than a cultural midden, 

proved to be of extreme utility: the "Cultural Omnibus" and a 

digest of plant use. Both served as questionnaires for expanding 

and deepening my knowledge of the interaction between man 

and plants. Almost magically their volume was doubled, 

revealing many beliefs and practices that had entirely escaped 

my notice. 

In addition I recorded, transcribed and translated a significant body of plant origin myths, agricultural prayers, and 

autobiographical accounts. For each plant of cultural significance I routinely inquired, "Mi oy smelol?" "Is there 

traditional knowledge about it?" This would often disclose 

what we would call "superstitious" beliefs about plant care or 

human interaction with plants. It might bring forth a sentence or 

two about the plant's origin, or a whole myth. Occasionally I 

learned these traditional stories after a day of collecting in the 

lowlands, sitting around the fire, seldom equipped with a tape 

recorder. From the many folktales I had transcribed in the 
8 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

1960s, told by both men and women, I selected sections 

relevant to this study. And so the mythic information included 

in "The Flora" varies greatly from mere snippets to whole 

transcribed narratives. This is the traditional knowledge that is 

passed on and shared by family members or fellow workers 

around the hearth, in the fields, or during any appropriate 

informal activity. I also made an effort to observe and 

sometimes participate in domestic, agricultural, or religious 

affairs for which my knowledge was decidely limited. But, 

indeed, on almost every occasion that I was in contact with 

Zinacantecs, for whatever reason, planned or spontaneous, I 

came home with a new bit of botanical information. 

Returning to California to prepare the second draft of "The 

Flora," we were reminded continually of the necessity for 

extensive fieldwork by botanist-anthropologist-native consultant teams working throughout the year, for although our 

framework of investigation remained relatively intact, considerable revisions and additions were made. 

Close examination of synonymous names and of yit'ix 

names provided independent evidence of the scope of each 

native generic and specific denominator. Often the collector, 

though he did not know, or could not recall the name of a plant, 

realized its similarity to known plants; e.g., he might call k'isis, 

the bald cypress, yit'ix toj, "false pine." Or his assertion that 

plant "a" was a "false b" demonstrated that while "a" was not 

"b," they were sufficiently similar to be included in the same 

set. Often a collector, incorrectly, would call plant "a" plant 

"b," which we had already concluded was a member of the 

same set. So, even consultants' errors were valuable in 

establishing the range of a set. 

Returning once again to "the field" we checked every set, 

plant by plant, to add to or define more precisely the 

relationships, synonymy and use. 

It became apparent that it was vain to search for the 

Zinacantec botanic taxonomy as every individual carries his 

own taxonomy, which itself may vary from one moment to the 

next. Instead, the taxonomy that emerged proved to be a 

pragmatic means to enter quickly into the Zinacantec realm of 

botany, following a map as accurate, as genuine, as that 

possessed by any native individual. Although no Zinacantec is 

familiar with every region or would agree to every detail, all 

Zinacantecs would be in substantial accord, for this was the 

product of the canvassing of many minds. 

Variation is not limited to taxonomic structure, nor to the 

names for plants, but even extends to the adjectives that may be 

used to describe leaf shape, fruit shape, or the rustling sounds 

of windblown seeds. 

On the Road Again 

In 1982-1983 we narrowed our focus to those plants that 

were of critical importance to the culture for economic or 

religious reasons. Already we had amassed a bewildering 

profusion of varietal names for the major cultivated plants: 

com, beans, squashes, chilies, fruits, and flowers. 

In addition to joint market visits and journeys to the 

cultivated fields, I embarked on a survey designed to produce a 

complete inventory of the plants grown by Zinacantecs in the 

center, in each and every hamlet and colony as well as in 

several temperate localities, and in the lowlands generally. I 

visited nearly every community, discovering an extraordinary 

number of crops, particularly in the temperate zone, many 

recently introduced, whose presence had not been suspected by 

me, nor even by many Zinacantecs with whom I spoke. 

Highlanders denied their existence. Our chief consultant, 

Maryan Martinis, could not be persuaded that an elephant ear 

was cultivated, despite our visit to a planting! 

The number of varieties, each of which had to be collected 

and analyzed, rife with synonymous names, reached astronomical proportions. 

Equipped with a long list of the varieties of com that had 

eluded us, I made an expedition to the lowlands with two 

Zinacantecs, to be greeted in sun-dried field after field by great 

white mounds of threshed corncobs. One week too late! After 

a breakdown, we drove for miles past empty fields, with 

occasional stops to make furtive dashes into fields to filch a few 

ratty ears. After futile searches for open restaurants or adequate 

camping sites we slept fitfully in my VW Safari, battered by a 

frigid wind, returning home the next day with our prizes. 

Persistence had prevailed, nearly every missing ear was in the 

bag! 

No less challenging was my determination to make an 

inventory of all the plants, trees, and vines used to decorate 

each church or chapel, noting at what fiesta, how many plants 

were present, and by whom supplied. The suspicions of each 

clique of sacristans, stewards, and wardens had to be allayed 

even if it meant dancing with them the night through! 

So much for Chiapas. I made pilgrimages to the John Wesley 

Powell Library of Anthropology (National Museum of Natural 

History), the Library of Congress, and the Cathedral of 

Learning (University of Pittsburgh) to examine dictionaries and 

word lists of every Mayan language to reveal related plant 

names. 

Again in California, we confronted the problem that 

Linnaean taxonomy seldom stoops to consider the varieties of 

cultivated plants. How were we to cope with the endless 

varieties of bean, each exhibiting the finest distinctions, when 

nearly all these beans were subsumed by Linnaeus and his 

disciples under a single term, Phaseolus vulgaris? What we had 

characterized earlier as a "nomenclatural mess" of com 

varieties finally surrendered to a sensible ordering by race. An 

exhaustive search of horticultural tomes uncovered a variety of 

pear now rarely cultivated in Zinacantan that is known to have 

been in cultivation in Europe since 1628! 

The Finishing Touch 

At this last stage we have fed "The Flora," the "Cultural 

Ominibus," and many of the introductory chapters into word 

processors, permitting us to revise the text continually: from 
NUMBER 35 

shifting whole blocks of material, to revising cultural and 

botanical descriptions, updating fluctuating Latin names, and 

correcting typographical errors. This system also facilitates the 

creation of the necesary indices. If this is the end, what have we 

wrought? 

Inspired at the outset by Principles of Tzeltal Plant 

Classification (Berlin et al., 1974), we strove to present a 

companion Tzotzil volume. But soon this subject took on a life 

of its own. Although we followed the neighboring work in 

broad outline, using "The Flora" as the base, with introductory 

discussions of research methods, native taxonomic principles, 

and the cultural utility of plants, we became convinced that the 

Zinacantecs maintained a greater latitutude of choice, a greater 

variety and flexibility in their principles! "The truth" was 

overrun by many truths. Native taxonomy was not our goal, but 

rather our vehicle for reaching a better understanding of native 

thought, and for delivering a disparate collection of knowledge. 

Consequently, our presentation has been branded as "uneven." 

We take that as a compliment, a recognition of the very nature 

of a people's knowledge. 

Instead of a native taxonomy explained in ultimate detail, 

this "Flora" is an encyclopedia of botanical information, 

demonstrating simultaneously the flowers and the flowering of 

man in Zinacantan. Or, if you wish, it may be seen as a flower 

cart of botanical knowledge. 

Behind it rides the "Cultural Omnibus," a ponderous 

conveyance chock-full of every Tzotzil flowery word and 

expression that I could find. Here is revealed the Zinacantecs' 

extraordinary awareness of shape, sound, smell, color, and 

texture in their floral environment. Here, too, appear dramatically the analogies, conscious and subconscious, between the 

flora and mankind as they flourish daily and nightly in 

Zinacantdn. 

It is clear that these "isolated peasants" share with millions of 

other Mayan peasants throughout southern Mexico and 

Guatemala a world view that is radically different from 

Western perceptions. 

We hope, as you see this ungainly, overloaded vehicle pass 

by you will realize that it bears "a distinct world, not merely the 

same world with different labels attached!" 

Phytogeography of Zinacantan 

Dennis E. Breedlove 

The township of Zinacantan is located along the dry western 

slope of the Central Plateau, which adjoins the Central 

Depression. Zinacantan is spread over 117 square kilometers 

with an additional 3249 hectares in the lowland colony of Santa 

Rosa. The vegetational types are dry in nature with pockets of 

wet vegetation occuring along steep canyons and near tops of 

the ridges of Pij (P'ij) and Cerro Huitepec (Muk'ta Vitz). The 

substrate rocks throughout most of the township are marine 

limestone of Cretaceous to Miocene age. There is a broad band 

of a sandy conglomerate near Ixtapa. The higher peaks have 

extrusions of volcanic rocks. The limestone slopes are 

dissected by steep-walled ravines and are punctuated by sink 

holes and caves. These limestones are 1000-2000 m thick and 

are capped with a red lateritic clay soil. The soil derived in the 

region of conglomerates is poor and sandy and supports a 

depauparate pine savanna. There is very little cultivation on this 

soil. A dark rich sandy clay loam is common on valley floors 

and alluvial fans and is the most prized for cultivation. 

Originally, the dry exposed slopes supported a succession of 

dry forest types with Tropical Deciduous Forest, Thorn 

Woodland, and Short Tree Savanna at the lower elevations and 

Pine Oak Forest on the slopes above 1200 m. Wet forest 

associations were widespread at elevations above 1800 m 

especially on steep north slopes and slopes along major 

watercourses. Evergreen Cloud Forest was most common at the 

highest elevations and Pine Oak Liquidambar Forest or 

Montane Rain Forest probably at elevations between 1800 and 

2300 m on the slopes surrounding the valleys of Navenchauc 

(Naben Chauk), Nachig (Na Chij) and Zinacantan Center (Jtek 

Lum). Temperate Riparian Forest is a major component along 

streams from 1400 to 2700 m. Seasonal Evergreen Forest is a 

common element along waterways and steep ravines at lower 

elevations (below 1400 m). 

At the present time these primary forest types have a much 

reduced distribution in the township of Zinacantan. They exist 

only in areas that are inaccessable or infertile because of soil or 

elevation. Most of the present vegetation is composed of 

second growth shrub and forest associations that have 

considerably fewer species and are much less complex in their 

makeup. Fallow ground and cultivated land also account for a 

considerable portion of the township in any given year. 

Climate 

Most of Zinacantan has a mild, even climate. Annual rainfall 

varies from 90 mm to 250 mm, depending on the location. 

Although rain may fall in any month, most precipitation falls 

between May an October. There are three distinct seasons. The 

rains begin in mid-May with afternoon thundershowers, which 

continue until early October. There is often a 2-3 week hiatus 

(canicules or dog days) in late July and early August. From 

November into February the region is beset with a sequence of 

driving mist storms (nortes), which although they do not leave 

significant amounts of precipitation do make dirt roads and 

trails difficult to travel. At the lower elevations all but the very 

strongest of these storms are felt as high overcast. From 

February until the onset of rains in May is the dry season proper 

with only occasional local thunderstorms. This is the season to 

bum the fields. The sky is filled with a smoky haze, the sun 

often visible as a red disk. The hottest days of the year occur 

here. 

As mentioned before, temperature and rainfall vary greatly 

throughout the township. At the lowest elevations (hot country, 

500 to 1000 m) in the Central Depression and the lower edge of 

the Central Plateau, the mean monthly temperature varies from 

22°C to 28°C, and the annual rainfall fluctuates from 95 to 125 

mm. At intermediate elevations (temperate country or hamlets 

1000 to 1800 m), the mean monthly temperatures vary from 

17°C to 23°C while the annual rainfall ranges from 120 to 160 

mm. At the highest elevations (cold country, 1800 to 2900 m), 

mean monthly temperatures vary from 10°C to 17°C, and the 

annual rainfall ranges from 125 to 220 mm. Throughout the 

region the coldest months are November through February. 

Frosts are common during these months in exposed areas at the 

highest elevations and occur occasionally on flats in the path of 

cold air drainage as low as 1500 m (E. Garcia, 1965, 1973). 

Vegetation 

Throughout the body of the text, reference is made to 

vegetational associations followed by a temperature-elevation 

statement (e.g., Tropical Deciduous Forest of temperate and 

lowland areas). The same associations may occur in more than 

one zone and have a different species composition or 

physiognomic aspect in the different areas. For this reason the 

vegetational associations are here given separate characterizations for each temperature-elevation zone in which they occur. 

For a complete treatment of the vegetational associations of 

Chiapas, reference should be made to Breedlove (1981). 

HOT COUNTRY VEGETATION (500-1000 M) 

Although most of the township of Zinacantan is not within 

11 
12 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

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MAP 1.—Chiapas. 
NUMBER 35 13 

the limits of hot country, per se, much of the land the 

Zinacantecs rent for milpa is in the Central Depression and as 

such has typical hot country vegetation. The area has two 

overriding climatic factors that directly affect the type of 

vegetation present there. Very high monthly mean temperatures 

(22°C to 28°C) account for the large diversity of tropical 

genera, and a prolonged dry season (up to 7 months) is 

responsible for the deciduous nature of most of the vegetation. 

TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST.—This is a diverse and 

wide-ranging association, which occurs from Sinaloa to 

Panama. In the Central Depression of Chiapas, it is the most 

prominent and common vegetational association. Characteristically it has a tremendous number of species of trees that are 

co-dominant. These are deciduous or semi-deciduous and are 

usually 10 to 20 m tall with straight, slightly buttressed trunks 

and spreading crowns. The canopy consists of a single layer 

and can be continuous or discontinuous. With a few exceptions 

the forest is completely deciduous by March-April and many of 

the dominants flower at this time. The understory is sparse and 

made up mostly of annual growth during the rainy season. 

Lianas and epiphytes are not a conspicuous element except 

along ravines and ridges where they become locally abundant. 

This association grades into Seasonal Evergreen Forest along 

streams, into Short Tree Savanna in areas of poor soils, into 

Thorn Woodland in extreme dry locations, and finally grades 

into Pine Oak Forest with a rise in altitude. In the Central 

Depression the most common dominant trees are Albizzia 

caribaea (Urban) Britton & Rose, Bucida buceras L., B. 

macrostachya Standley, Bursera simaruba (L.) Sargent, Cecropia peltata L., Cedrela oaxacensis C. de Candolle & Rose, 

Ceiba aesculifolia (Kunth) Britton & Baker, Cochlospermum 

vitifolium Willdenow ex Sprengel, Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & 

Pavon) Oken, Elaeodendron trichotomum (Turczaninow) Lundell, Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacquin) Grisebach, Eysenhardtia adenostylis Baillon, Gliricidia sepium (Jacquin) Steudel, Godmania aesculifolia (Kunth) Standley, Heliocarpus 

terebinthinaceus (de Candolle) Hochreutiner, Hura polyandra 

Baillon, Hymenaea courabaril L., Leucaena spp., Luehea 

Candida (de Candolle) Martius, Lysiloma acapulcense (Kunth) 

Bentham, L. auritum (Schlechtendal) Bentham, Pithecellobium 

duke (Roxburgh) Bentham, Plumeria rubra L, Poeppigia 

procera Presl, Pseudobombax ellipticum (Kunth) Dugand, 

Spondias mombin L., Stemmadenia obovata (Hooker & Arnott) 

Schumacher, Swietenia humilis Zuccarini, Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacquin) Nichols, T. rosea (Bertoloni) de Candolle. 

THORN WOODLAND.—In especially dry locations such as the 

western slopes of low rocky ridges, there occurs an assemblage 

of shrubs and thin-trunked low trees. Many of the woody 

species are variously spiny or divaricately branched. A mature 

stand often presents an inpenetrable thicket 1 to 4 m tall. This 

association is found in areas that experience the severest dry 

seasons and most of the woody species are deciduous. During 

wet periods the understory is made up of a thin cover of grasses 

and herbs. Although this is a very common and widespread 

association in Mexico to the north of Chiapas, in the Central 

Depression it has a scattered and local occurrence. Legumes 

SI I l I l I I ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I l I I i I I I I I I 

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MAP 2.—Zinacantan. 
14 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

and cacti are the most prominent members of this association. 

Some of the common species found here are Acacia cochliacantha Humboldt & Bonpland,/4. cornigera (L.) Willdenow, A. 

farnesiana (L.) Willdenow, A. pringlei Rose, Bauhinia 

pauletia Persoon, Bursera diversifolia Rose, Cordia dodecandra de Candolle, C. spinescens L., Dalea versicolor Zuccarini, 

Diphysa floribunda Peyritsch, Erythroxylon havanense Jacquin, Haematoxylon brasiletto Karsten, Jacquinia macrocarpa 

Cavanilles, Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck, N. lutea 

Rose, Opuntia spp., Piptadenia flava Bentham, Pisonia 

macranthocarpa J. Donnell-Smith, Pithecellobium lanceolatum 

(Kunth) Bentham, Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) de Candolle, 

Sageretia elegans (Kunth) Brongniart, Stenocereus eichlamii 

(Britton & Rose) Buxbaum, Zizyphus amole (Sesse & Mocino) 

M.C Johnston. 

SHORT TREE SAVANNA.—This vegetational formation occurs at scattered locations throughout the Central Depression. It 

is characterized by low-crowned trees spaced on a grassland. 

The soils are poorly drained and contain very litle nutrient 

material and are usually made up of compacted sandy deposits. 

Four species of trees, Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) de Candolle, 

Crescentia alata Kunth, C. cujete L., and Curatella americana 

L., essentially define this association. The grassland contains 

many species of herbs and grasses with Trachypogon spp. often 

dominant. The trees are usually 4 to 10 m tall; however, some 

individuals may attain a height of 20 m. Acacia pennatula 

(Schlechtendal & Chamisso) Bentham, Pinus oocarpa Schiede, 

Psidium guineense Swartz, or Quercus oleoides Schlechtendal 

& Chamisso often form savanna-like vegetation usually not in 

association with the four trees mentioned above. 

EVERGREEN SEASONAL FOREST.—In areas where watercourses cut through hills or are otherwise protected, the forest 

that occurs along them reflects this protection with a much 

wetter tropical aspect. Most of the species of trees and also 

shrubs of the understory are evergreen. The canopy is 

continuous and often is formed in two layers. Many of the trees 

are buttressed and attain a height of 25 to 35 m. Lianas and 

large epiphytes (aroids and bromeliads) are common. The 

understory contains a diverse woody element. This forest 

experiences the same severe dry season as the surrounding 

deciduous vegetation. In the Central Depression it is restricted 

to a gallery-like aspect but elsewhere in Chiapas in areas with 

slightly more precipitation, it has a wider distribution and 

intergrades with Tropical and Montane Rain Forest associations. Some of the more common trees encountered in this 

formation are Bernoullia flammea Oliver, Brosimum alicastrum Swartz, Bumelia pleistochasia J. Donnell-Smith, Calycophyllum candidissimum (Vahl) de Candolle, Ceiba pentandra 

(L.) Gaertner, Chrysophyllum mexicanum Brandegee ex Standley, Coccoloba barbadensis Jacquin, Cupania dentata de 

Candolle, Exothea paniculata (Jussieu) Radlkofer, Ficus 

glabrata Kunth, F. glaucescens (Liebmann) Miquel, Guettarda 

combsii Urban, Hyperbaena mexicana Miers, Licania arborea 

Seemann, Machaerium biovulatum Michelli, Rheedia edulis 

Triana & Planchon, Sapindus saponaria L., Sterculia mexicana 

R. Brown, Styrax argentum Presl. In the understory the 

following species are common: Amyris chiapensis Lundell, 

Ardisia escallonioides Schlechtendas & Chamisso, Bourreria 

huanita (LaLlave & Lexara) Hemsley, Calyptranthes chiapensis Lundell, Chiococca sessilifolia Miranda, Clusia flava 

Jacquin, Dalbergia glabra (Miller) Standley, Eugenia acapulcensis Steudel, E. yunckeri Standley, Exostema caribaeum 

(Jacquin) Roemer & Schultes, Gentlea venosissima (Ruiz & 

Pavon) Lundell, Karwinskia calderonii Standley, Machaerium 

riparium Brandegee, Psychotria erythrocarpa Schlechtendal. 

TEMPERATE COUNTRY VEGETATION (1000-1800 M) 

This is a zone of transition from the tropical vegetation types 

of the Central Depression to the cool north-temperate types of 

vegetation on the mountain peaks. The lower portion of this 

zone is mostly Tropical Deciduous Forest and Evergreen 

Seasonal Forest as described above. This part of temperate 

country is still under the effect of the rain shadow produced by 

the mass of the Central Plateau. There are many narrowly 

endemic species that occur here and are not found in the same 

vegetational associations at lower elevations in the Central 

Depression. Some of these are Ateleia tomentosa Rudd, 

Catoferia chiapensis A. Gray, Erythrina goldmanii Standley, 

Eugenia carranzae Lundell, E. laughlinii Lundell, Euphorbia 

pseudofulva Miranda, Lopezia langmanniae Miranda, Micropholia sericea L.O. Williams, Phyllanthus mcvaughii Webster, 

Pitcairnia breedlovei L.B. Smith. Pine Oak Forest interfingers 

with these associations and becomes the prevalent type of 

vegetation in the upper part of this zone. In the canyon that runs 

from Salinas (Atz'am) towards Ixtapa and in the upper reaches 

of the canyons that drain towards El Zapotal (San Lukax), 

Evergreen Seasonal Forest grades into Montane Rain Forest 

especially on the north slopes of the tributaries. 

PINE OAK FOREST.—This association occurs on dry ridges 

and slopes from 1200 to 2600 m. Oaks are found singly or in 

small groups as low as 900 m and pines first appear about 1000 

m. The trees are usually 15 to 40 m tall and openly spaced with 

a discontinuous canopy. The understory is composed of a low 

cover of herbs and shrubs or in some situations a grassland. 

This grassy cover may be artificially maintained by a 

combination of burning and grazing. Epiphytes are abundant 

especially on the horizontal branches of the oaks and are at 

times so numerous as to obscure those branches. Pine Oak 

Forest intergrades into Evergreen Cloud Forest on the ridges 

approaching the high peaks. Streams that run through zones of 

Pine Oak usually are lined with Temperate Riparian Forest or 

Evergreen Seasonal Forest at the lower edge of the temperate 

area. The most common trees found in this association are 

Arbutus xalapensis Kunth, Buddleia skutchii Morton, Crataegus pubescens (Kunth) Steudel, Ehretia latifolia de Candolle, Erythrina chiapasana Krukoff, Juniperus gamboana 

Martinez, Pinus michoacana Martinez, P. montezumae Lamb, 
NUMBER 35 15 

P. oaxacana Mirov, P. oocarpa Schiede, P. patula ssp. 

tecunumanii (Equilez & Perry) Styles, P. pseudostrobus 

Lindley, P. teocote Schlechtendal & Camisso, Quercus 

acutifolia Nee, Q. candicans Nee, Q. castanea Nee, Q. 

crassifolia Humboldt & Bonpland, Q. crispipilis Trelease, Q. 

elliptica Nee, Q. laurina Humboldt & Bonpland, Q. peduncularis Nee, Q. polymorpha Schlechtendal & Camisso, Q. rugosa 

Nee, Q. segoviensis Liebmann. The common woody plants of 

the understory are Amelanchier nervosa (Decaisne) Standley, 

Buddleia crotonoides A. Gray, Calliandra grandiflora 

(L'Heritier) Bentham, Ceanothus coeruleus Lagasca, Chiococca phaenostemon Schlechtendal, Desmodium nicaraguense 

Oersted ex Bentham & Oersted, Garrya laurifolia Hartweg, 

Holodiscus argenteus (L.f.) Maximowicz, Ilex vomitoria 

Aiton, Indigofera thibaudiana de Candolle, Lippia chiapasensis Moldenke, Litsea neesiana (Schaur) Hemsley, Mahonia 

volcania Standley & Steyermark, Monnina xalapensis Kunth, 

Myrica cerifera L., Rhamnus mucronata Schlechtendal, R. 

serrata Humboldt & Bonpland ex Schultes, Rhus schiedeana 

Schlechtendal, R. terebinthifolia Schlechtendal & Camisso, 

Solanum chrysotrichum Dunal, S. lanceolatum Cavanilles, S. 

nigricans Martens & Galeotti, S. pubigerum Dunal, Ternstroemia oocarpa Rose, Viburnum hartwegii Bentham. 

Second-growth Shrub Associations: When Pine Oak Forest is cut over, the residue burned, planted to maize, and after a 

few years allowed to grow back, the regeneration begins with a 

scrub association that can last for as long as 10 years. This 

vegetation is extremely diverse and variable because the plants 

that are involved are from a variety of sources. Some are 

remnants of the forest that is being replaced; others are woody 

weeds that only occur after disturbances. Physically it is a 

dense cover of shrubs, vines, and rank herbs up to three meters 

tall. The most common species encountered are Acacia 

angustissima (Miller) Kuntze, Acalypha unibracteata Mueller 

de Aargau, Ageratina pringlei (Robinson & Greenman) King & 

H. Robinson, Ambrosia cumanensis Kunth, Archibaccaris 

androgyna (Brandegee) Blake, Baccharis serraefolia de Candolle, B. trinervis (Lamarck) Persoon, B. vaccinioides Kunth, 

Bidens squarrosa Kunth, Bouvardia longiflora (Cavanilles) 

Kunth, Calea trichotoma J, Donnell-Smith, C. urticifolia 

(Miller) de Candolle, Calliandra grandiflora (L'Heritier) 

Bentham, C. houstoniana (Miller) Kuntze, Ceanothus coeruleus Lagasca, Chromolaena collina (de Candolle) King & H. 

Robinson, Comarostaphylos discolor (Hooker) Diggs, Coreopsis mutica de Candolle, Coriaria ruscifolia L., Desmanthodium 

perfoliatum Bentham, Galphimia glauca Cavanilles, Gaultheria odorata Willdenow, Lantana hirta Graham, L. hispida 

Kunth, Lippia graveolens Kunth, L. myriocephala Schlechtendal & Camisso, L. substrigosa Turczaninow, Malvaviscus 

arboreus Cavanilles, Montanoa hexagona Robinson & Greenman, Perymenium ghiesbreghtii Robinson & Greenman, 

Peteravenia phoenicolepis (Robinson) King & H. Robinson, 

Phyllanthus grandifolius L., Pluchea odorata (L.) Cassini, 

Rubus adenotrichus Schlechtendal, R. humistratus Steudel, R. 

trilobus Seringe, Salvia cinnabarina Martens & Galeotti, S. 

holwayi Blake, 5. lasiantha Bentham, 5. myriantha Epling, S. 

polystachya Ortega, S. purpurea Cavanilles, S. rubiginosa 

Bentham, S. tiliifolia Vahl, Senna guatemalensis var. chiapensis (Standley) Irwin & Barneby, S. incarnata (Bentham) Irwin 

& Barneby, 5. septentrionalis (Viviani) Irwin & Barneby, 

Smallanthus maculatus (Cavanilles) H. Robinson, Tithonia 

diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Gray, T. rotundifolia (Miller) Blake, 

T tubaeformis (Jacquin) Cassini, Verbesina perymenioides 

Schultz-Bipontinus ex Klatt, V. turbascensis Kunth, Vernonia 

deppeana Lessing, V. leiocarpa de Candolle, Viguiera cordata 

(Hooker & Amott) D'Arcy. 

MONTANE RAIN FOREST.—Throughout Chiapas this is a 

common formation on steep slopes between 1000 to 2000 m 

that experience some rain in all months of the year and have 

well-draining soils. In Zinacantan these conditions are very 

limited in distribution to a few remote locations. This 

association was much more widespread before the advent of 

intensive cultivation. There are two layers of canopy and a 

dense understory of woody plants. The canopy trees are usually 

25 to 35 m tall. Many are buttressed. The understory of shrubs 

and small trees is between 5 and 15 m tall. Epiphytes and lianas 

are abundant through all layers of this formation. Alfaroa 

mexicana Stone, Ardisia densiflora Krug & Urban, Dendropanax arboreus (L.) Decaisne & Planchon, Ilex brandegeana Loesner, Meliosma matudae Lundell, Oecopetalum 

mexicanum Greenman & Thompson, Oreopanax xalapensis 

(Kunth) Decaisne & Planchon, Quercus corrugata Hooker, Q. 

insignis Martens & Galeotti, Synardisia venosa (Masters) 

Lundell, Turpinia occidentalis Don, Ulmus mexicana Liebmann, Zunila alba (Lundell) Lundell are some of the common 

forest trees. In the understory one finds the following: Acalypha 

macrostachya Jacquin, Chamaedorea concolor Martius, Eugenia rhombea (Berg) Krug & Urban ex Urban, Lozanella 

enantiophylla (J. Donnell-Smith) Killip & Morton, Mollinedia 

guatemalensis Perkins, Myrcianthes fragrans (Swartz) McVaugh, Myriocarpa longipes Liebmann, Parathesis donnellsmithii Mez, P. leptopa Lundell, Rapanea juergensenii Mez, 

Siparuna nicaraguensis Hemsley, Trophis mexicana (Liebmann) Bureau, Urera alceifolia Gaudichaud. 

COLD COUNTRY VEGETATION (1800-2900 M) 

At the present time much of this area is covered by Pine Oak 

Forest. Some of this forest is second growth with many fewer 

species of trees. Abies guatemalensis Rehder, Pinus ayacahuite 

Ehrenberg, P. oaxacana Mirov, P. pseudostrobus Lindle, 

Quercus crassifolia Humboldt & Bonpland, Q. crispipilis 

Trelease, Q. laurina Humboldt & Bonpland, and Q. rugosa Nee 

are the principal trees of this zone. A striking characteristic of 

the plants of this region is the predominance of north-temperate 

genera at all levels of the vegetation from herbs to trees. Three 

vegetational formations have very limited distribution in cold 
16 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOmGY 

FIGURE 3.-Landscape northwest of Yaleb Taiv, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 

country. (1) Bunch Grassland occurs on a few high ridges with 

the following clump-forming grasses: Festuca amplissima 

Ruprecht, Muhlenbergi gigantea (Foumier) Hitchcock, M. 

macroura Kunth, M. rohusta (Foumier) Hitchcock, Stipa ichu 

(Ruiz & Pavon) Kunth, S. virescens Kunth, and Triseturn 

irazuense (Kunze) Hitchcock. This formation may be of 

secondary origin; however, it appears stable and is probably 

maintained by grazing and harvesting for thatch. (2) Evergreen 

Cloud Scrub is limited to a few wind-swept ridges near the 

highest peaks. It is composed of a dense mat of thick-leaved 

shrubs. Common plants are Acaena elongata L., Gaultheria 

cumingii Sleumer, G. odorata Willdenow, Gnaphaliurn salicifoliurn (Bertoloni) Schultz-Bipontinus, Lycopodiurn spp., Oxylobus oaxacanus Blake, Pernettya ciliata (Schlechtendal & 

Camisso) Small, P. hirsuta (Martens & Galeotti) Camp, 

Ternstroemia lineata ssp. chalicophila Loesener, Ugni myricoides (Kunth) Berg, Vacciniurn confertum Kunth, K 

geminiflorum Kunth, V. haematinum Standley & Steyermark. 

(3) There are a few locations in the high valleys with boggy 

land or standing water that have a characteristic Herbaceous 

Marsh. The common plants are Carex spp., Cyperus spp., 

Lythrum vulneraria Schrank, Rhynchospora spp., Scirpus spp., 

Typha latifolia L. 

EVERGREEN CLOUD FOREST,-On the tops of the highest 

peaks and ridges, on steep north-facing slopes, and at the heads 

of canyons at elevations of 2300 to 2900 m occurs this plant 

association. It is superficially similar to Montane Rain Forest 

and elsewhere in Chiapas it has a broad range of intergradation 

with Montane Rain Forest. In Zinacanth the stands of 

Evergreen Cloud Forest are isolated from other optimum 

formations and intergrade with Pine Oak Forest. Precipitation 

in some form falls in every month; however, that which falls in 

the dry season (February through May) is mostly through 

condensation from the daily fogs. This forest has one or 

sometimes two layers forming the canopy. The trees are closely 

spaced and up to 40 m tall. Epiphytes are abundant and are 

mostly ferns and bryophytes. There is a dense understory of 

shrubs. The common canopy trees are Abies guatemalensis 

Rehder, Chiranthodendron pentadactylon Larreategui, Clethra 

lanata Martens & Galeotti, Drimys granadensis L., Meliosrna 

matudae Lundell, Microtropis contracta Lundell, Olmediella 

betschleriana (Goeppert) Loesener, Oreopanax capitatus (Jacquin) Decaisne & Planchon, Persea donnell-smithii Mez ex I. 

Donnell-Smith, Photinia matudae Lundell, Pinus ayacahuite 

Ehrenberg, Quercus benthamii A. de Candolle, Styrax ramirezii Greenman, Weinmannia pinnata L., Wimmeria chiapensis 

Lundell. In the understory the following plants are common: 

Cavendishia crassifolia (Bentham) Hemsley, Celastrus vulcanicola J. Donnell-Smith, Chusquea foliosa, Cyclanthera 
NUMBER 35 

FIGURE 4.-landscape northwest of Yaleb Taiv, 1989. (Photo by Robert M. Laughlin.) 

langaei Cogniaux, Daphnopsis selerorum Gilg, Deppea grandiflora Schlechtendal, Dryopteris wallichiana (Sprengel) Hyland, Fuchsia paniculata Lindley, F splendens Zuccarini, 

Gentlea micranthera (J. Donnell-Smith) Lundell, Greigia 

oaxacana L.B Smith, Marattia weinmanniifolia Liebmann, 

Miconia oligotricha (de Candolle) Naudin, Rapanea juergensenii Mez, Saurauia oreophila Hemsley, Smilax domingensis Willdenow, Symplocos breedlovei Lundell, Ternstroemia 

lineata ssp. chalicophila hesener. 

TEMPERATE RIPARIAN FOREST.-T~~S association borders 

all streams above 1400 m regardless of the surrounding 

vegetation. It is composed of genera of temperate plants that 

can tolerate roots in water most of the yea.. Most of the trees are 

deciduous and lose their leaves in the dry season when the 

water in the streams is at the lowest level or dry. Aside from 

mosses, these forests have few epiphytes. The trees vary from 

10 to 30 m tall. The most common trees and shrubs of this 

formation are Acer negundo ssp. mexicanum (de Candolle) 

Wesmael, Alnus acuminuta ssp. arguta (Schlechtendal) Furlow, A. jorullensis Kunth, Berchemia scandens (Hill) Trelease, 

Cornus excelsa Kunth, Crataegus pubescens (Kunth) Steudel, 

Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth, Platanus mexicana Moricand, 

Salix bonplandiana Kunth, S. chilensis Molina, S. taxifolia 

Kunth, Taxodium mucronutum Tenore. 
Into the Whirlwind 

Robert M. Laughlin 

San Lorenzo Zinacantan, a prosperous Mayan township in 

the highlands of the state of Chiapas, Mexico, has been the 

focus of intensive anthropological and linguistic research for 30 

years. Responding to the cultural vitality of the Zinacantecs, 

Evon Z. Vogt chose this community to be a laboratory for the 

study of social and cultural change. His Harvard Chiapas 

Project fielded over a hundred students who investigated many 

aspects of Zinacantec life, from a wide variety of perspectives. 

Shortly after we began our ethnobotanic research in 1963, their 

publications confirmed our conviction of the importance of 

plants in Zinacantec culture and provided us with a substantial 

foundation for further study.1 

The encyclopedic presentation in "The Flora" of myriads of 

discrete ethnobotanical details gives no hint of the whirlwind of 

change that has beset Zinacantan in the past 25 years. 

During this period the population has swelled from roughly 

8000 to nearly 20.000.2 

In 1963 most Zinacantecs lived in one-room houses with 

wattle-and-daub walls and high-pitched thatch roofs. The 

number of plant species known to have been used for the 

construction of a traditional house is impressive: 

House Component 

wattle 

pole wall 

mainpost 

roof 

lashing 

thatch 

No. of Plant Species 

23| 

10} 106 

611 

55) 

34 

25 (9 commonly) 

These picturesque houses have all but disappeared. The loss 

of wattle-and-daub walls and thatch roofs means a great 

reduction in the variety of plants used for house construction. 

The roof structure now is essentially built of pine. Those people 

with sufficient resources build 1-3 room adobe or brick houses 

with tile roofs. A few are building flat-roofed cement or cement 

block structures. Far down the economic scale, and usually in 

the temperate hamlets, are pole-walled houses with galvanized 

metal or laminated cardboard roofs. 

Inside the house the most dramatic changes have been 

caused by the introduction of electricity: light bulbs, a radio, a 

tape recorder, possibly a record player, a television set, and a 

clothes iron. Also new are tortilla presses, metal pots and 

bowls, and plastic containers. Frequently the pole beds have 

been replaced by plank beds, sometimes enclosed by brightly 

colored plastic sheeting. 

The most noticeable change is in the clothing. The woven 

palm hat was largely replaced by one of woven plastic, before 

it, too, gave way to Texas-style sombreros, and then bare heads. 

Factory-made pants, belts, shirts, and sweaters, jackets, shoes, 

sneakers, and boots for men now predominate. The neckerchief 

is disappearing, leaving only the pin-striped red tunic to mark 

a man from Zinacantan, but that tunic, once plain, now sports 

an ever more exuberant display of floral embroidery. Women's 

blouses and shawls, too, are growing bright flowers. Wide 

ribbon bows perch on their heads. Earrings and plastic sandals 

are becoming fashionable. 

The past 25 years have witnessed a profound change in the 

economic, social, political, and religious structures of Zinacantan, spurred by the economic boom of the 1970s, and now 

modified by a much tighter economy. 

In 1963 Zinacantan was populated by relatively independent 

peasant com farmers. A small minority was comprised of 

growers and merchants of flowers and fruits, as well as salt 

merchants. 

The principal agent of change was improved transport. In the 

highlands a network of rough roads was developed to connect 

the hamlets to the highway, and in the lowlands the remaining 

forests were made accessible for felling and conversion to 

cornfields. 

Previously, Zinacantecs had descended the mountains on 

foot, with their mules, to rent ladino lands on either side of the 

Grijalva River. Each year Zinacantec intermediaries, who knew 

a bit of Spanish, would renew contracts with the same 

landowners to parcel out the land and agree on the rent. But 

these ladinos now were turning their property into pasture land 

for cattle. So, the hours spent on foot were replaced by hours 

standing on trucks, followed by perhaps another hour on foot to 

reach an unfamiliar landlord. The farmers, too, had to deal with 

often unfriendly ladino truck owners to transport their harvest. 

Their difficulties eased in the 1970s as Zinacantecs themselves 

became truck owners. 

Rapid transportation, however, had mixed blessings, for 

there is now a whole generation of men who are ignorant of the 

plants that grew along the foot trails to the lowlands; plants 

useful for food, medicine, and construction. "I only know a 

quarter of what my father knows," is a frequent refrain. 

The prosperity of the 1970s spawned multiple government 

development programs. 

Milpa Production 

Many varieties of hybrid com and beans were introduced. 

The Mexican Department of Agriculture (SARH) periodically 

19 
FIGURE 5.-Thatched roof house, Zinacanth Center, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
NUMBER 35 

FIGURE 6.-Household accoutrements, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
22 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 7.-Young weaver, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
NUMBER 35 23 

FIGURE 8.-Weaving palm hat, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
24 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

l\ i 

TUXTA */—'" " 

iTuxtla Gutierrez,! 

^y-^v1 '-k" 

C^£7 • Kelem Ton 

/Betanya Nantaburt' 

" \ _~ • • Nantayapa 

^J Muk'ta Nab 

/ 1 

V \ 

<L 

m Santa Rosa \" \ ( 

•£ J 

V 

• Rekreo s^^^K-

-*a~^^ Amux Ton 

(Acaia) 

\ 

Jobe l (San Crislobal L C ) 

• Tzajal Poso ^ N 

Limox Jol 

f (Teopisca) 

J f % Trapich 

^ ^ • Valalupa 

B )^Lolores . Bik'it Karmen 

"•' ^~^!>^ s / • Limatik 

> t ^ " Ch'abentik • 

/ """-v^^ Mankolik „,•»*"'*' 

Muk'ta Karmen • ^ 

I Ankostura 

C *Sero Bankil 

J 

i 

f 0 

<C— 

- Paved road 

- Gravel road 

5 10 

< i 

. 

N 

' 

Km 

MAP 3.—Grijalva River Valley. 

donated seed com impregnated with pesticide. Herbicides and 

chemical fertilizers were offered at very low prices, their 

purchase stimulated by constant promotion on the government 

"Indian" radio, by bank credits and insurance policies. 

Farmers were quick to abandon the planting of local varieties 

of com and beans. They also abandoned the ejido lands on the 

mountain slopes, which could only be reached on foot and 

which gave low yields. The billhook, particularly useful for 

weeding on the rocky slopes, became an obsolete tool, replaced 

by its companion, the machete. But other traditional farm tools 

such as digging sticks, flails, hoes and axes (both requiring 

handles), provided an unchanging inventory of tree species in 

use: 74. The wide spread of barbed wire inevitably reduced the 

number of plant species employed in fencing. Here, too, the 

variety was extreme: (1) posts, rails, stiles—143; (2) lashing— 

24. 

Traditionally Zinacantec farmers prepared their lowland 

rented fields with a team of Zinacantec and Chamula laborers 

whom they fed and paid wages in com and cash. Weeding by 

hoe was acknowledged to increase the humidity of the soil, but 

could take weeks. When confronted with rising salaries and 

food costs, the farmers chose herbicides, which could be 

applied by a small team of workers in a short time. 

This meant an end to the friendships between Zinacantecs 

and the neighboring Chamulas that had been renewed every 

year by joint labor. The introduction of plastic water bottles and 

the use of weed-killer also greatly reduced the cultivation of 

gourds. Edible wild plants found growing in the milpa and 

previously protected by the farmer, now received their dose of 

lethal spray. 

A further novelty was the rental of tractors for cultivating in 

Zinacantan Center and in the flat, humid lands surrounding the 

Presa Angostura. Here milpa was replaced by fields devoted 

exclusively to com. 

The establishment of government (ANDSA) warehouses for 

com assured the sale of harvests. 

Fruit Culture 

The cultivation of peaches was greatly expanded as was that 

of apples, pears, and plums. Zinacantecs were trained to graft 

and to spray apple trees with pesticides. 

Truck Gardens and Flower Culture 

The building of stone and cement water reservoirs and the 

laying of long sections of hose permitted the irrigation of 

cabbages, radishes, and coriander. To stimulate early flowering, irrigation was applied to fields of carnations, gladiolas, 

feverfew, and baby's breath. Chemical fertilizers, replacing 

compost and animal manure, and herbicides soon were in wide 

use. Pesticides became popular in the cultivation of cabbages 

and carrots, and fungicides for potatoes. 
NUMBER 35 25 

FIGURE 9.--Cold frames for chrysanthemums, Pat Osil, 1989. (Photo by Robert M. Laughlin.) 

SARH was responsible for the introduction of greenhouses, 

i.e., cold frames devoted to the cultivation of fancy chrysanthemums. Materials and seeds were donated on condition that the 

first year's profits be shared with the department. This program 

was adopted speedily, especially in Zinacanffi Center and the 

hamlet of Pat Osil. 

In the temperate hamlets peanuts, sweet potato, and sesame 

culture were introduced on a small scale. 

Marketing 

Zinacantec capitalist ventures began in the late 1960s, 

encouraged by the National Indian Institute (INI). The 

cantina-dry goods stores in Zinacanth Center had all been the 

property of ladinos. IN1 set up a CONASUPO store and placed 

it under the direction of a local Indian. At the same time an 

Indian established a corn mill. In the 1970s, cantina-stores, 

blaring rancheros from their loudspeaker, and corn mills 

popped up in the hamlets. 

For the tourist trade, women and children sat along the 

roadside in Naben Chauk, selling flowers and fruits. They also 

made and sold yam Huichol "god's eyes" seen by some 

Zinacantec in the National Museum of Anthropology in 

Mexico City! Before long these "god's eyes" were replaced. 

Now the roadside was decorated with long-stemmed, outrageously bright flowers, woven with plastic cord. 

Zinacantecs, famous in the nineteenth century as muleteers, 

took to the wheels: The local conveyance of corn farmers and 

their crops was expanded to include purchase of corn in the 

government warehouses at reduced cost, and transport to 

Tabasco and Veracruz where sales could be made at inflated 

prices. 

As early as 1944 the hamlet of Naben Chauk had been a 

center for the commercial cultivation of fruit trees (peach, 

avocado, sweet lemon, lime, and coffee), vegetables (cabbage, 

field mustard, potatoes, chayotes, watermelon, and pumpkin 

squash), and flowers (geraniums). These had been marketed in 

Chiapa de Corzo, Tuxtla GutiCrrez, and as far distant as Arriaga 

on the Pacific Coast. It was no wonder, then, that the people of 

this hamlet were to become the leaders in extending trade 

routes to the Pacific Coast, to Juchiffi, and to many towns 

throughout the state. It was they who dared to venture as far 

north as Mexico City to purchase gladiolas and football 

chrysanthemums for sale in Chiapas. Bootleg Chamula cane 

liquor was also taken to the coast, hidden under bundles of 

flowers. 
26 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

A permanent nucleus of Zinacantec traders settled in the state 

capital. Zinacantecs continued to control the sale of com in the 

San Cristobal market, as well as the sale of tortillas and flowers. 

Weekly markets were established in the hamlets of Na Chij, 

Naben Chauk, and Sek'emtik. 

Trucks, and later vans, linked Zinacantan Center and many 

hamlets to San Cristobal. The multiplication of native 

ownership of trucks is indicative of Zinacantec prosperity, from 

2 in 1970, to 20 in 1975, to 69 in 1981.3 

Reforestation 

Highland and temperate forests in Zinacantan were disappearing at an alarming rate. Even steep-forested slopes were 

being stripped to make cornfields, to supply timber for house 

construction, and to supply the average 16 kilos of firewood 

used daily to feed and warm homeowners. The gathering of 

firewood now demanded even longer trips. Religious officeholders, who required great quantities of firewood for the 

preparation of festival meals, had their wood brought in by the 

truckload. An experiment in breadmaking soon folded for lack 

of available wood. 

The government responded to the stripping of forests by 

initiating reforestation programs in every hamlet. Teams of 

young men were offered attractive salaries to plant just two 

kinds of trees: pines and cypress. 

A side effect of reforestation was commented on by a man of 

Sek'emtik when he was asked what his neighbors in Chaynatik 

planted around their houses: "Oh, they can't be bothered to 

plant anything much there anymore since they are getting paid 

for reforestation." 

Construction 

For many years, youths had done part-time work on the 

roads. Now the building of roads connecting hamlets to the 

highway enlisted the labor of the whole adult male population. 

The same was true for the introduction of piped water systems, 

schools, and chapels. 

The conversion of native housing from thatch-roofed houses 

to tile-roofed ones swept through the whole township, again 

occupying the efforts of the male population. To this was added 

the restoration of the Church of St. Sebastian and the rebuilding 

of the Chapel of Lord Esquipulas and the Church of St. 

Lawrence in Zinacantan Center, the last gutted by a mysterious 

fire. The courthouse in Zinacantan Center was also remodeled. 

At the same time the state capital of Tuxtla Gutierrez was 

remodeled and three major hydroelectric projects were set in 

motion, demanding a vast force of Indian peon laborers. More 

adventurous Zinacantecs traveled to construction projects as far 

distant as Villahermosa, Tabasco, and the nuclear plant of 

Laguna Verde in Veracruz. Although many were employed to 

carry the buckets of cement, others were trained to become 

skillful masons. 

Economic and Social Consequences 

This vast array of new opportunities for gaining wealth had 

a strong impact on Zinacantan. 

In 1967 in the hamlet of Na Chij, virtually every adult man 

(96%) grew com. By 1983 the number had shrunk to 59%, and 

of these only 23% restricted their labors to com production. 

Now 14% were merchants, 7% truck owners, 5% masons, and 

5% worked for the government, mainly in reforestation. 

A subsistence economy had become a money economy. 

Increased wealth and diversity of occupation meant that a large 

sector of the population had "become heavily dependent on 

trends in the regional and national economies."4 Managerial 

skills "of a capitalistic nature" were now required to keep 

families solvent.5 

In 1967 roughly half the population of Na Chij was of higher 

economic means. By 1983 this proportion had dropped to 40%, 

but the wealthy entrepreneurs were much wealthier. The 

emergence of class differences had become apparent. But the 

changes in internal social structure went deeper for, previously, 

young wage earners had become com farmers in their maturity 

as com had been "the only road to prosperity."6 Consequently 

Zinacantec society was dominated economically, socially, and 

politically by older men. But now the wealthy young truck 

owners and merchants were seizing positions of power. 

Formerly, wedding godparents had been chosen from among 

the older men "of reason," who could counsel bride and groom 

in formal couplets. They were being replaced by young truck 

owners able to provide eloquent counsel. 

Previously, young men courted their fiancees for two years 

in a process of extended gift-giving that made them heavily 

indebted to their parents. Bride service, too, was the rule. But 

with increasing frequency youths now eloped and marriages 

were settled for a fee considerably less than the cost of a 

traditional courtship. Parents and in-laws could no longer count 

on the young man to aid them economically. This, too, 

contributed to the development of class differences where the 

families were divided into those who hired fellow Zinacantecs 

and those who were hired by their neighbors. 

Retrenchment 

The boom of the 1970s was followed by the economic crisis 

of 1982. Gasoline prices spiraled, and so the cost of transport 

made farming in distant locations unprofitable. Reports flooded 

in of ladino landowners who told the Zinacantec farmers after 

they had cleared strips of forest for their cornfields, "Get out, 

I'm bringing cattle in!" 

Construction projects were suddenly terminated in midstream. Wage laborers who had ventured to the Gulf Coast 

tropical region saw their return bus tickets cut deeply into their 

earnings. After working in the industrially contaminated 

environment many came home with lingering illnesses, and 

others returned penniless, victims of knife-point gang robberies. 
NUMBER 35 27 

As alternative means for gaining a living shrunk, there was a 

return to local com farming. Although 66% of household heads 

in the hamlet of Apas grew com in 1981, their percentage had 

risen to 79% by 1987. Farmers began to cultivate the ejido 

lands that had lain fallow for years on mountain slopes. Mules, 

by this time rare, were suddenly a valuable possession. Wage 

earners also turned to the cultivation of flowers and fruit. 

Leases were signed authorizing heavy timbering in the pine 

forests, activities that extended roads down the slopes. In 1987 

a German company was converting a section of the cloud forest 

on the sacred mountain overlooking Zinacantan Center to 

charcoal for shipment abroad—this at the price of $5 a tree! 

Despite the economic retrenchment, trading continues 

vigorously. In Apas 26% of the married men are merchants, and 

66% are part-time wage laborers ranked in descending order 

socially: (1) mason, (2) milpero, (3) peon. 

Responding to the huge influx of tourists, "regional 

clothing" stores have sprung up along the highway in Naben 

Chauk and Na Chij, the latter identified as such in English! 

Women have organized to establish a similar store in 

Zinacantan Center. 

The wealthy continue to flourish: a truck owner in Apas 

irrigates his vegetable garden with his own electric pump and 

hires 25 of his neighbors to work in his cornfields. 

Class differences, then, are becoming even sharper as more 

and more Zinacantecs must work for other Zinacantecs. 

Politics 

Many of the same trends visible in the economic and social 

spheres can be seen in the political structure of Zinacantan. 

Under national government orders the civil officials, who 

had traditionally served for one year without pay, were required 

to serve for a paid three-year term. Community service, with 

religious overtones, became a secular salaried job, but the 

salary was sufficiently low to promote constant complaints of 

corrupt political practices. 

Traditionally the presidente was more of a magistrate than a 

mayor, responsible for the settlement of all major disputes, 

except those involving murder. But in the 1970s many 

Zinacantecs were able to communicate with ladinos in Spanish 

and some became very sophisticated in dealing with the ladino 

world. Self-trained Zinacantec "lawyers" served as intermediaries, skirting the magistrate and bringing local disputes to the 

attention of the political and judicial authorities in San 

Cristobal and even Tuxtla. These new opportunities for a larger 

voice, however often have proved to be very costly, supplying 

a rich livelihood for unscrupulous ladino lawyers and 

bureaucrats. This pattern of decentralization was extended by 

the creation of agendas, or subordinate political units, in nine 

hamlets. In 1963 the total number of hamlets was 15. By 1987 

there were 15 highland hamlets, 14 temperate hamlets, and 6 

colonies in the temperate and lowland zone. The increase in the 

number of hamlets was due in large part to fragmentation as a 

result of political disputes between groups of neighbors. The 

lowland colony of Santa Rosa was wrestled away from ladino 

owners after years of judicial struggle. 

lust as outside interests promoted economic changes, the 

national parties, PRI and PAN, seized on local contests to 

advance their cause. But then Zinacantecs internalized their 

political skills, prolonging the life of long-standing factions 

under the name of "Camioneros" (truckers) and "Campesinos" 

(farmers), whose descriptive terms are only suggestive of the 

nature of the parties. They even split the single organization of 

shamans into two: those seeking divine support for the 

"truckers" and those for the "farmers!" 

Religion 

Here, too, a monolithic structure has been affected similarly 

by outside pressures. For several centuries the Mayan Catholics 

of Zinacantan have directed a religious hierarchy of rotating, 

unpaid servants of the various aspects of Christ, the Virgin 

Mary, and a host of saints. Service in this hierarchy, based 

primarily in Zinacantan Center, brought personal prestige and 

supernatural life insurance and, because of its cost, tended to 

reduce class differences. In 1963 it had this form: 

2 scribes 

2 musicians 

4 sacristans 

2 alcaldes 

4 prefects 

14 ensign-bearers 

26 stewards and 

8 constables 

judge ordinary 

ritual tutors 

In the 1970s, however, responding to the efforts of the 

bishop and a vigorous Dominican friar to extend the church's 

doctrine and catechistic activities, chapels were built in many 

hamlets. A new church was constructed in Naben Chauk and a 

new Christ figure installed. This decentralization, which 

required the establishment of 14 new positions at the bottom 

level, helped the hierarchy cope with (1) the expanding 

population, and (2) the new segment of wealthy entrepreneurs. 

In this decade, despite the conversion of a relatively small 

number of townspeople to evangelical Protestantism, and the 

refusal by many of the nouveau riche to participate, the 

religious hierarchy continues to flourish, though positions are 

not in the high demand of the mid-sixties. 

Education 

Traditionally, it was the role of the children to aid in 

shepherding and gathering of firewood. During their hours in 

the meadows and forests, with their mothers and older sisters, 

they gained considerable knowledge about the plants and trees 

that surrounded them. A compulsory elementary education, 

first for boys and later for girls, also, has undoubtedly lessened 

their familiarity with the flora. 

The education system in Zinacantan in the 1960s included 

bilingual training in Tzotzil and Spanish, but when this was 

abandoned by the National Indian Institute (INI) it was never 
28 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

replaced by the federal or state school system. Education has 

been strictly in Spanish. Schools and basketball courts were 

constructed in every hamlet in the 1970s. A few secondary 

schools, boasting "tele-educacion," are now in operation, 

expanding opportunities for more highly paid wage labor. At 

the same time an experimental school in Tzotzil literacy has 

aroused great interest among young and old, men and women, 

eager to become "smart." 

Health 

Although the construction of a hospital in San Cristobal, 

providing free service for Indians, has improved the quality of 

modem medical care, this has been balanced by the extreme 

rise in the cost of medicines available in pharmacies. A national 

interest in herbal medicine is beginning to reach Zinacantan. 

There has been no restudy of traditional medicine, but 

shamans, bonesetters, and midwives are still active in great 

numbers. Although many continue to perform their services in 

exchange for comestible goods, others have joined the money 

economy, charging cash fees. 

Contact with the ladino world has caused important dietary 

changes. Traditionally, Indian food was boiled. Now much is 

fried in lard. The Zinacantec diet was essentially that for "a 

small planet": com, beans, greens, chili, squash, occasionally 

mushrooms, bread, eggs, chicken, fish and snails, pork and 

beef. The proportion of pork and beef in the diet has increased 

greatly. Thirty years ago there was only one fat individual in 

Zinacantan, a man who was known to be sick! Overeating was 

not a general problem here. Whereas Zinacantecs consider 

skinniness ugly or a sign of illness, when they saw enormously 

fat people in the United States they asked with amazement, 

"What do they eat?" Now, with the change of diet and the loss 

of exercise, obesity, particularly among men, is a frequent 

sight. Visions of ancient Mayan lords sitting stupendously on 

their thrones have been replaced by the modem Mayan truckers 

seated imperiously in the cantina, before metal tables studded 

with beer bottles. Cane liquor, once a necessary ingredient of 

any significant social event, is drunk with more moderation. 

Once it was unthinkable for a young man, whether Indian or 

foreign anthropologist, to refuse a drink when it was offered in 

a formal ceremony. Now, a shake of the head is accepted. The 

recent inroads of evangelical Protestantism have also reduced 

drinking. An exasperated Catholic exclaimed, "They just say 

they're not feeling well today, and who of us has not said that?" 

(The traditional Catholics are exasperated because the "proper 

way" to conduct a social event is with liquor.) The increased 

consumption of soft drinks has brought to Zinacantecs gold and 

silver-plated smiles! The health of babies, always a perilous 

situation, has been endangered by the adoption of bottle 

feeding. Could it be that in response to the new burden of 

anxieties, many older people's hair is turning gray—a rare sight 

in the 1960s! 

The Future 

Although Zinacantecs have survived many periods of 

extreme hardship and have capitalized on moments of 

prosperity, and whereas they hold their heads up with pride, 

eager to gain the next advantage, there is an underlying fear of 

what the year 2000 will bring. 

A few Zinacantecs are aware of the negative effects of 

chemical fertilizer, how the land demands ever more fertilizer 

to produce, but the vast majority champions their use in all 

three ecological zones. Very few recognize the danger of 

herbicides and pesticides to their person or to their environment. It is a common practice to use old paraquat containers to 

hold drinking water! Pesticides may be applied to beans for 

storage, requiring a thorough rinsing before cooking. Seed com 

impregnated with pesticide sometimes is taken to market for 

sale. 

The production of com is now largely limited to the 

cultivation of hybrids. In the face of declining profits, and lured 

by the promise of rich rewards, some farmers clandestinely 

raise and/or sell marijuana and opium poppies. 

The huge population increase, coupled with deforestation 

and reduction of naturally fertile land at home and afar, has 

aroused concern. People wonder if hunger is on the horizon. 

"Economic diversification and a greater dependence on 

institutions of the larger society"7 have increased internal 

conflicts. Everyone is aware that their own town has become a 

hotbed of never-ending disputes, and many recognize that this 

problem is shared throughout the world. "Reason has ended, 

people are turning into dogs!" 

Possibly economic retrenchment will have a positive effect 

The outside world is losing its glamor as opportunities for jobs 

decrease steadily. Internal political disputes, arousing fever 

pitch excitement, are becoming wearisome to many, especially 

to the women. A period of consolidation may emerge, a 

reaffirmation of traditional values, a reinforcement of the 

conviction, always present, that the Zinacantecs are, in the eyes 

of their ancient gods, second to none. 

Unlike the rest of Mexico, economic pressures had not 

forced the inhabitants of Zinacantan to join the international 

wage labor market, but in 1988, two grandsons of Xun Vaskes, 

the late leader of Naben Chauk, were alerted by a radio 

announcement of job opportunities in the United States. 

Motivated partly by a spirit of adventure and partly by heavy 

indebtedness, they determined to cross the border as "wetbacks." One week after their arrival in Salem, Oregon, where 

they picked and canned strawberries, Chep Vaskes, at the age 

of 29, died mysteriously in his sleep. His body was returned to 

Naben Chauk. Chep, his flowered tunic and neckerchief 

covering the mortuary-provided tie and jacket, was interred on 

the mountaintop. His grave, with a green carpet of aromatic 

pine needles, was adorned with the daisies and chrysanthemums he had planted months before. His family keeps asking 

how this could be the result of the flowering of man. 
NUMBER 35 29 

Throughout Zinacantan young men, apprised of Chep's fate, 

are wondering about the alternatives, how to make a living in 

the future. 

Notes 

'Because of this vast amount of reliable information we feel 

free in the following introductory chapters and in "The Flora" 

to restrict our anthropological commentary to previously 

undescribed details, referring the reader to the splendid general 

ethnography of Evon Vogt (1969), to his study of Zinacantec 

religion (1976), to the studies of Zinacantec economies by 

Nicholas Bunnin (1966), Frank Cancian (1965, 1972), George 

Collier (1975), and Jack Stauder (1966), to the discussion of 

Zinacantec medical practices by Horacio Fabrega and Daniel 

Silver (1973), and to Zinacantec architecture by James 

Warfield(1966). 

Much of the material for this chapter has been drawn from 

the restudies by Frank Cancian (1986, 1987), and George 

Collier and Daniel Mountjoy (1988), which confirm and 

pinpoint present reality. Na Chij census figures are taken from 

Cancian (1987) and Apas census figures from Collier and 

Mountjoy (1988). 

2The population of Zinacantan in 1960 as recorded by the 

national census was 7650 (Collier 1975:158). In the 1980 

census it had grown to 13,006 (Instituto Nacional de 

Estadfstica, Geografia e Informatica, 1983:1, 89). Private 

censuses taken by Cancian in Na Chij and Collier in Apas 

suggest that the figure of 20,000 for 1988 is a reasonable 

estimate. 

3Cancian (1986:484). 

4Cancian (1987:134). 

5Cancian (1986:494). 

6Cancian (1987:135). 

7Cancian (1987:138). 
Where Have All the Flowers Gone? 

Robert M. Laughlin 

The early history of Zinacantan has been gleaned almost 

exclusively from the reports first, of Dominican friars, and later 

the secular clergy living among the Indians in Chiapas. The 

principal historian of the 16th century, the Dominican friar 

Tomas de la Torre, who lived in Zinacantan shortly after the 

Conquest (1545), was quoted extensively by Antonio de 

Remesal and Francisco Ximenez, whose reliability is seriously 

questioned in a forthcoming study by Jan de Vos. The 

16th-century Dominican lexicographer who gives us much 

information about plants is anonymous. The reports of the 

parish priests cited below are frequently the only record of their 

writers' existence. We must let them speak for themselves! 

In 1545 when Bishop Bartolome" de las Casas and his troupe 

of exhausted friars reached the interior of the New World, they 

"were stopped by the Indians of Chiapa who received them 

with many flowers and roses, placing garlands over their heads 

and giving them bouquets to carry in their hands."1 

Their reception was recorded at first hand: 

And this is the custom of the Indians, and whoever lives 

amongst them must suffer it. Every time we arrive at the 

towns they adorn us this way and they are skillful in 

gathering different flowers and fashioning handsome 

bunches. When they are able, they promenade with flowers 

and other perfumes in their hands because they are great 

admirers of fragrance. In the beginning we were greatly 

mortified to be walking so bedecked and right away we 

thought of the priests who had trained us and how they 

would laugh if they saw us like this; but now we do not care 

a whit. We wear the flowers into the church and there we 

leave them on the altar and this way we please and edify 

[the Indians]. [The friars] discovered that to receive them 

those Indians had newly built three or four huts decorated 

with many flowers. And they were given a generous 

luncheon; great quantities of fine fresh fish, melons of 

Castille and pineapples, all of which abound in this town.... 

[The elders] spoke to the priests in their tongue I do not 

know what gabble. Behind them came a crowd of men, 

many with gourds full of native cherries which are very fine 

and in great abundance.... There is the greatest wealth of 

native fruits, pineapples, bananas, jicamas, sweet potatoes, 

avocados, cherries and so forth. From here the whole area is 

furnished. Except for figs there are few fruits from Castille. 

But this is the motherland of melons, of citrons and 

oranges. Sweet basil plants grow so large that I do not know 

if they could not be described as shapely trees. To grow 

eggplants, cabbages, radishes and all other pot-herbs you 

have only to toss down the seeds and with no assistance 

they produce, especially the onions. The common herbs of 

the meadows and communal lands are amaranths and 

purslain. I strongly believe that there are not elsewhere in 

the Indies towns so richly provided with the necessities for 

the maintenance of mankind. Wheat also grows in irrigated 

fields. There is a handsome sugar mill.2 

From Chiapa the missionaries advanced painfully up the 

steep mountain trail to Zinacantan, the same trail that brought 

Aztec merchants in disguise, a century earlier, to barter for 

jaguar pelts, quetzal and cotinga feathers, and amber—also to 

spyEarliest contacts with the Spanish conquistadors had proven 

the loyalty of the Indians of Zinacantan. Their timely aid in the 

battle of Chamula, in 1524, had prevented the decimation of the 

Spanish force, as reported by Bemal Diaz del Castillo. Four 

years later the Zinacantecs traveled 30 leagues to welcome the 

next Spanish army with gifts of food and drink. They 

contributed their manpower first for the domination of the 

Zoques and Tzeltales, and then for the foundation of Spanish 

settlements. They even accompanied the Spaniards in their 

conquest of Honduras and El Salvador. But once the Spaniards 

had established their control, the Zinacantecs' "loyalty and 

obedience" did little to ward off their masters' cruel exertion of 

power.3 

Arriving in Zinacantan, the missionaries' devotion to peace 

and poverty speedily won the Indians' support, and so the friars 

chose Zinacantan to be their headquarters in the highlands. 

This town of Sinacantlan, which is large and the capital of 

all that Nation, is a league and a half from the City [Ciudad 

Real]. It is seated in a valley with many arroyos. It is near 

the high mountains, and it is in a depression, although it is 

at as high an altitude as the City It has a very cold 

climate although milder than the City and lacking morning 

mists. It is an impoverished land, only it abounds in many 

wonderful very cold springs. There is a spring here which 

pours out with the force of an ox. 

And there are innumerable pine and oak trees. There are 

many lime pits and an alabaster quarry The people of 

this town are bom more noble than the others of their 

Nation, and all or most are merchants, and they are known 

for this far abroad. They have salt wells in their towns. [The 

salt] from here is used in the whole area, as white salt does 

not occur elsewhere. They are common wells; whoever 

wishes makes salt for himself or for sale. Although this 

Town is barren, it abounds in many things. Since they are 

31 
32 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

merchants the others have recourse here for buying their 

necessities and also selling all that they bring. 

These people also presume greatly and they do not value 

planting, nor employment, because they say they are 

merchants. The Spaniards call all those of this Nation 

Quelenes, because the youths the Indians gave [the 

Spaniards] for service, they called Quelen [kelem—boy]. 

But they are called Sinacantecas in Nahuatl, and in their 

own language they are called Zotcil vinic [Sotz'il vinik] 

which means "bat man." This is because their ancestors 

appeared in the plain [surrounding] the City before the sun 

existed.4 They discovered a stone bat and they took it to be 

God and worshipped it. 

They walk naked and when the cold or a fiesta forces them 

to dress, they put a cloak over their shoulders, with two 

knots on the right side. The women dress like those of 

Yucatan because both share much in their languages and 

customs. 

They had many idols, they worshipped the Sun and 

sacrified to it, as to full rivers, springs, heavily foliaged 

trees, and high mountains they gave incense and gifts.5 

From scattered sources one leams that the chiefs had adobe 

houses, that the nobility had large numbers of wives, that 3-4 

chiefs from the most noble lineages shared civil authority, and 

that the subject towns of Zinacantan had caciques. Chiefs 

owned land privately; laborers were employed on land that was 

not their own. "Patriarchs" seem to have been guardians of the 

rights of commoners as against those of the chiefs. 

Three or four days after their arrival in Zinacantan the friars 

built a refuge for themselves: 

The cloister and the garden with rosemary from Spain, 

carnations, basil, lilies, roses of Castile and Alexandria, all 

so beflowered and fragrant as Paradise This was the first 

building that the Order had in the Province. 

The town agreed with great willingness and in just three 

days of work finished the job from the foundation to the 

roof, designing it wittily with cloister, bedroom, cells, 

studies, all with a string so it was a pleasure to watch.6 

The construction of this idyllic retreat was described in 

different terms by another friar who was witness to the event: 

In those times when the friars arrived at Zinacantan they 

were lodged in a little house which bore the name of House 

of the Town Leader. But as they do not respect anything 

there, after the last Mass the priests left in anger. Then they 

agreed that it would be more peaceful to build a hut next to 

the church so that in the rainy season they would not be 

obliged to go outside. They did not like being placed in the 

house of someone in the town. Until then they had not dared 

to ask the Indians for a house.... In three or four days they 

built the little house which they put next to the church, but 

it was built so badly, it was as poor as the poorest [house] 

of the saddest Indian. It had two rooms, and a little shelter. 

On the other wall they put stakes for a corral where they 

planted many flowers, as carnations, lilies, and fennel 

which Fray Jordan sent them from Oaxaca.... The house 

has miserable poles covered with mud. Fray Pedro de la 

Cruz became angry because the Indians did not make the 

wall straight, and he alone, with the strength of his arms 

could straighten it. 

In one of the rooms they made a dormitory that was ten feet 

wide, or two meters wide. It was so humid one could not 

sleep there. "It would be better if we moved to the other 

room," we said. The windows were just holes and the door 

of the hut was covered with mats. 

The house was not fenced in and whatever animal could 

have entered to break the wall and eat the thatch of the roof, 

so that it would not offer protection from the sun or the rain. 

We felt very happy, just thinking that we had a house.... 

The wall poles that were next to the bed of Fray Tomis de 

la Torre began to sprout. When the house had dried out, the 

next day it was filled with puddles of water. More than four 

springs came up inside the house and now it seemed as if it 

were a lake. Truly, the church was in the worst part of town, 

humid and full of arroyos.7 

From this wellspring came forth the evangelization, indoctrination and instruction of the Indians of highland Chiapas! 

Tomas de la Torre commented that "[the town] has pine trees 

of marvelous height and girth and other hardwood trees that 

they call Quitzizte [k'isis te'] which is the cypress, tendoc [ten 

toj], cotoc [kot toj], the juniper: nuculpat [nukul pat], oaks 

and other trees whose names in plain Spanish I do not know."8 

Zinacantan was a regional intermediary in the trade of luxury 

goods. It also had control of cotton and cacao in the subject 

lands. Shortly after the Conquest, Pedro de Estrada, encomendero, "established a sugar mill with the Indians of Canacantlan 

[sic] and its subject towns. He spent over two thousand gold 

pesos until he had it running and in order, and the said Indians 

have served him according to the taxation the governor and 

bishop made."9 

Recalling the military support provided by Zinacantan 

during the early years of the Conquest, the Spaniards called 

upon the town once again in 1595 to aid in their grandiose, but 

ill-starred expedition against the Lacand6n Indians. 

There were also six hundred Indian warriors from Chiapas 

[sic; the town's correct name is Chiapa], and two hundred 

from Zinacantlan.... A great many Indian bearers from 

Chiapa and Zinacantldn were provided to carry the 

baggage, and the Indians of both villages named their own 

captains. The assigned captains got their men ready, along 

with showy and elegant flags, drums, and trumpets. The 

men were well dressed and helmets nicely plumed. Arms 

were made for everyone: lances, bows and arrows, shields, 

armor—all at the cost of the villages. These Indians were so 

adept in bearing and in using these weapons, and so well in 

step in their formations and musters they looked like 

veteran soldiers in some of the more disciplined armies of 

Europe. All the Chiapas [sic] companies passed through 

Zinacantlan, marching behind the sons of Indian chiefs— 
NUMBER 35 33 

young, adventuresome men arrayed with fancy weapons 

and their arquebuses. 

Each one of the soldiers, in addition to his weapons, carried 

a large gourd in order to have water in the uninhabited and 

mountainous places, or to use as a buoy in swimming the 

rivers and lakes, should the occasion arise. 

The Zinacantlafr companies were mustered before the 

priests, and together with the Chiapas [sic] companies they 

marched in perfect order, like an army, to the city of 

Guatemala where all together they made a very impressive 

display. 

.. .In addition to the Indian bearers, more than a thousand 

Indian warriors came from the city of Guatemala, valiant 

and strong men—though poorly dressed, something which 

annoyed the Spaniards who recruited them, when they saw 

those of Chiapas [sic] so finely clothed.10 

The Spanish army was "guided by the Chiapanec Indians 

who swam more than three hundred paces and also carried little 

reed bundles on which they rested in the water."11 

It was probably at this very time that an anonymous 

Dominican friar compiled a monumental dictionary of the 

Tzotzil language spoken in Zinacantan. It has a treasury of 

botanical, agricultural, and culinary terms that provide a vivid 

description of Zinacantan in the early colonial period (see 

Appendix 9). 

The friar was careful to qualify his definitions, e.g., "com 

wine, it is not here, but if it were they would call it "12 And 

so one is led to believe that what is not qualified in that way in 

fact was present in Zinacantan. There are some surprises: cork 

tree (undecipherable Tzotzil), olive tree, dates (no Tzotzil 

provided), and flax. Other plants introduced in the colonial 

period that are no longer known by Zinacantecs include 

jasmine, dill, rosemary, rhubarb, lentils, leeks, and pifions. 

The process of naming plants unfamiliar to the Indians can 

be seen at an early stage—as in castillan potov (Spanish 

guava) for apple, castillan ixim (Spanish com) for wheat, 

castillan makum (Spanish blackberry) for mulberry and 

pomegranate, castillan tuix (Spanish onion) for leek, castillan 

toj (Spanish pine) for pinon, and castillan ich (Spanish chili) 

for pepper and spices. Another method was to pluralize the 

Spanish name—higos for fig (later becoming ik'ux), peras for 

pear (later becoming pelex), ajos for garlic (later becoming 

axux). 

From the vocabulary one learns of silk and cochineal culture, 

but especially of vineyards and wine production. There was dry 

season com and rainy season com as well as 60-day com. 

Indians were taught to plow with oxen, to fertilize with horse 

manure, to graft and to prune fruit trees. 

They witnessed the introduction of many kinds of bread, 

Easter cakes, pancakes, taffy, spices, molasses, nougat, vinegar, 

olive oil, walnut and parsley sauce. 

"Night after night" the Indians wove tribute cloth for their 

Spanish masters. 

Though their wooden idols had been burnt on St. Francis' 

Day, 1548, the anonymous lexicographer provided names for 

the reed shields they hung in the church and for painted images 

of a flower with a jaguar-dragon in the center. 

In 1616 the Zinacantecs were levied a tribute of cacao that 

"all Seville would have had difficulty in paying."13 

Shortly thereafter (1625), the English Dominican Thomas 

Gage journeyed to the region. He passed through San Felipe, 

which belonged then to Zinacantan. Here he was met by the 

Prior of Ciudad Real, "a merry fat Fryer."14 

.. .the whole village of St. Philip waited for us both men and 

women, some presenting unto us nosegaies, others hurling 

Roses and others flowers in our faces, others dancing before 

us all along the street, which was strowed with herbs and 

Orange leaves, and adorned with many Arches made with 

flowers and hung with garlands for us to ride under untill 

we came to the Church.15 

Santo Domingo Zinacantdn received mention again in 1708 

when a ladino mystic preached from a hollow oak tree, drawing 

crowds of Indian worshippers. In 1710, after the friars expelled 

him from his pulpit, he built a chapel. On the altar stood an 

image of the Virgin to whom the Zinacantecs offered candles, 

cacao, eggs, and tortillas. "The Chapel was decorated and lined 

with petates. The woods around have been cleared, fenced, and 

planted with milpas."16 When a friar tried to dissuade the 

Indians from their beliefs and "idolatry" and attempted to set 

fire to the chapel, "they said in their language that we were 

burning the house of God and they began to rebel."17 

Whereupon the friars quickly torched the chapel and banished 

the mystic. 

In 1748, reporting to the bishop on the state of his parish, the 

priest of Zinacantan remarked that "this town was formerly 

heavily populated

 18 

Its natives are proud and some are moderately religious. 

They are inclined to drunkenness, caused by the wretched 

cane liquor which they bring from Ciudad Real and 

elsewhere. And even they have learned to make it. But more 

commonly [their drunkenness] is caused by a drink they 

produce called chicha which they make from com, from 

apples and other fruits or from pulque which is prohibited 

as they use it immoderately, and commit great crimes. If it 

were not for that, it is very healthful, as it is cold, and they 

are of hot complexion, and it is so diuretic that neither the 

cider of Viscalla nor the beer of the North are better. They 

are inclined to steal, and to engage in business and trade 

with the other provinces. As is well known this is hurtful 

both spiritually and temporally. Spiritually, because taking 

them from their provinces at an early age, makes it 

extremely difficult for their education. Temporally, because, as said above, being inclined to steal, they cause 

great damage in the provinces, practicing one robbery after 

another, and with this absence failing to cultivate their good 

land, and they are always hungry, and for many months are 

wandering in search of provisions and carrying out their 

robberies.19 
34 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

The priest recorded that there were 280 married people, 20 

widowers, 55 widows, 108 boys, 112 girls, and many young 

children. 

Formerly the natives' houses were built of tile and plaster, 

but few of these remain, and most are of thatch. In their 

yards they have apple trees, pippins, pears, walnuts, 

clingstone peaches, free stone peaches, quinces, and other 

native fruit trees. In their gardens; roses, spikenards, 

carnations, stock, and other flowers both from Castile and 

native ones. Their forests are well-stocked with different 

kinds of pine, pinaveto, oaks [ensinas, robles], cedars, very 

large sage [salvia] with fine wood, cherries and very 

plentiful wild trees. They have many medicinal plants, as 

speedwell, angelica, violet, lengua de siervo, sarsparilla, 

algafita, mataliste and other herbs whose medicinal uses 

are known to the natives.20 

After describing the mineral resources of Zinacantan, the 

priest concludes: 

Surrounding the town are five ranches settled by inhabitants of Ciudad Real. They are so close that they intrude on 

the very plots and yards of the town. Their nearness causes 

much sorrow, and many inconveniences, as they are 

compelled to provide saddle horses to travellers for five or 

more leagues of the king's highway to the inconvenience 

both of the natives and the travellers.21 

Because Zinacantan was one of the few highland valleys to 

be deprived of its ancient patrimony, its inhabitants were forced 

to plant their com and beans on the surrounding rocky slopes. 

And so the majority of men became bearers and muleteers. 

In the middle of the eighteenth century 5 native religious 

brotherhoods (cofradias) were functioning. In addition to 4 

stewards, each brotherhood had a prioress, elected annually, 

whose duty it was to beg alms one day a week in the name of 

the saint she represented. Gifts of com, beans, cacao, cotton, 

and eggs, etc., were turned into money for the stewards. The 

prioresses swept the church, burnt incense, and decorated the 

altar with flowers for Mass. In 1793 they celebrated 24 fiestas 

annually. 

Other religious activities were anathema to the governor: 

The most serious mischief is provoked by the meetings 

which the natives customarily hold in private houses on the 

occasion of their festivities which in some towns are called 

Flowers, wakes for dead infants, and others in the same 

category at which they commit horrible excesses and [sink 

into] drunkenness 

Therefore, I absolutely prohibit such wakes and I order the 

governors never to permit them and [I order] them to punish 

vigorously all those who would oppose this resolution. I 

likewise order that none of the above mentioned meetings 

be held without the strict attendance of the governors, or at 

least without their permission, and in those which are held 

in the houses of the so-called cofradias, the governor or a 

judge must be present to oversee and avoid the said 

disorders which shall be punished with the same moderation applied in other cases.22 

In 1797 the priest reported: 

Sinacantan...has more than two thousand natives whose 

language is Tzozil; they are all corpulent, strong, agreeable, 

courteous and polite. They know their antiquity from early 

times, and are scarcely ignorant of their privileges. They 

did not resist Spanish arms, and helped to conquer the 

Chamulas. Despite the fertility of their land, they are 

extremely dedicated to trade and wander outside their land, 

penetrating the whole province and also that of Tabasco. 

Bemal Diaz del Castillo wrote: "The Zinacantecs are good 

people and great traders." Naturally friends of fiestas, they 

have one follow the other, announcing the future one before 

the present fiesta is concluded, perhaps lest they lose a bit 

of joy and distraction, falling asleep [the fiestas] make them 

feel less the weight of their great misery. Because with this 

recourse and perhaps with the absolute privation of other 

pleasures, their strength must endure hard and constant 

labor, bearing the weight of the day, and the cold up to 

seventy, eighty, and ninety years, at which age the Prophet 

only announces pains to us. These flee from the Indian who 

never lends his lips to complaint. I have seen that a minor 

stomach pain or a fleeting temperature are all they suffer 

from. The bark of paloxiote, taken in a decoction, pellitory 

to refresh the head and honey to soothe the breast are all the 

drugs they need. This appears to be due to the sweatbath in 

which they enter periodically and frequently— 

On the ranges of small mountains is cut a great multitude of 

wood sufficient to supply the City, although the natives are 

not very dedicated to timbering. 

Pine, oak (encina), ramajo, fat pine provide wood for the 

fire, fir (pinabete), cypress, and a white cedar provide 

boards for the houses, oak (cantulan) [k'an-tulan], hawthorn, tepegua, and others are very strong and incorruptible, 

willows, bald cypress (sabino), pines (Juncia, and chilca) 

[chilkat] provide shade to part of the arroyos, large and 

small that cut into the neighboring hills, and circling and 

cutting across each other fertilize the land. It is true that 

they sow several bushels of wheat which when well-cared 

for will produce more than a hundred, using three or four 

laborers who are inhabitants of the neighboring village. 

They have competent irrigation and a single plot which the 

priest planted produced 16 bushels from 3 quarts, what more 

can one say? They fence in their houses and their yards 

have wonderful fruit trees. These are, and in this order: 

cherry, which is the first to become green, peach, both large 

and small, white and yellow, and so abundant that in the 

town they pick annually at least two million. The fig grows 

much taller than in the other towns of the kingdom although 

usually it is not the best. The walnut whose root is used 

succesfully for black dye in painting, whose branches 

provide charcoal for drawing and whose fruit is one of the 

most marketable among these Indians. There are scarcely 

any for many leagues except here. They pick them when 
NUMBER 35 35 

they ripen, and although they could be used at the end of the 

dog days, or in September they only sell those that they 

have kept from the previous year, and they are better. There 

is a wild walnut that has a very small nut. The pear, 

although small also has a good flavor and produces 

abundantly. The apple is truly the best that this province 

boasts, aside from the great number of these trees, their fruit 

is enormous. They weigh up to six, seven, eight ounces, and 

(the Indians) pick many of this type and size. 

Enchanted with this abundance and beauty of fruit trees 

they see that a host of medicinal herbs bursts forth at their 

feet. The Indian is not ignorant of their virtues and knows 

how to use them successfully. Borage is a good cathartic for 

them, speedwell they use to refresh the head, willow for 

quinsy. I advise you here that there are two kinds of willow, 

false and true, that both are mixed in the yards and fields; 

one has a larger leaf that is less green, and this one has a 

broader flower. The thistle is a purgative, and the wild one 

has a root of great activity and strength for this. It has a 

purple flower and otherwise is like the cultivated one. 

Pennyroyal clots the blood. Dill is for wind, me for the ear. 

I see them apply four leaves to the eyes although it is 

powerful for throat sores. Yerba del toro is for the flux, 

alfilerillo for quinsy which from time to time is epidemic 

among these people. Above all palo mulato is for burning 

fevers. 

If one speaks of dyes, a small vine which spreads at the 

beginning of spring, and has a yellow color, gives this color 

to the thread. Dodder that they call candc [k'anak'] gives 

the flesh color for the head ribbons. The black earth which 

is dug up at the edges of the town provides black for the 

wool which is fixed with the leaf of a plant named hisbon 

[isbon] which is also here. For tanning they also use timbre. 

With its bark they give body and strength to their cane 

liquor. And it is this same tree to which attaches and fattens 

the age which provides oil for Chiapanec lacquer. I add a 

dye that I just discovered in a fruit of wild grape of the plant 

named lobuluec [lo'bol vet] which gives a fast dark 

purple.23 

The priest speaks of the two salt wells in Salinas lined with 

hollow cypress trunks, and how on the Fiesta of Our Lady of 

the Rosary it was said that a man, after fasting for a day, was 

lowered head first into the trunks to clean them. The priest did 

not witness this, but watched them briefly lower a small image 

of the Virgin on a tray with candles and incense into the wells. 

After this they covered the projecting trunks with new petates. 

Commenting on the profit made by mining the salt he said it 

compared favorably with the 2 peso monthly salary of a peon. 

In 1793 the former wealth of Zinacantan is touched upon 

again: how once they had superabundant mule trains that 

reached New Spain, and how they took bread and native 

products to Tabasco, returning with cacao. They had been 

famous for their abundant harvests of wheat, com, sheep, 

vegetables, and fruit. But "now they drink and show no respect 

for the priest."24 

Shortly after, in 1806, Zinacantan, with 404 tributaries 

(family heads), was the third largest town in Chiapas, following 

only San Bartolo and Chamula. But the Zinacantecs were so 

widely dispersed that the bishop urged, in 1819, that they be 

"reduced," i.e., concentrated.25 

More than half the Zinacantecs lived in hamlets near Chiapa 

de Corzo and Acala where they worked as day laborers, 

sharecroppers, and tenants. They were given tools and clothes 

on credit. After the harvest they paid the landholder with cacao, 

cochineal, cotton, and weaving. Returning from Tabasco they 

paid money or cacao. The parish priest wrote, "they do not 

possess enough land in the ejidos and unclaimed areas around 

their town because those which they own are absolutely 

sterile."26 

The priest described the depths of their distress: 

He who does not arrive home naked, dies by drowning on 

the road from the winter rains, and in the summer frozen by 

the ice, so that there is no old Zinacantec man, bachelor or 

boy, nor even woman who is not drunk the whole year. 

When not in the morning, in the afternoon or at night. They 

are forced to swindle and many to rob, and they are always 

poor, and pursued by tributes. Their sons and daughters are 

naked, and their women whom they mistreat cruelly, setting 

a bad example for them in every kind of vice, and very bad 

education, like those who live far from reason and wisdom. 

Worse, they go frequently to that city to sell their daughters. 

I mean to set them up as maids...many of whom return 

home violated and pregnant.27 

The priest concluded plaintively that all the people had 

breakfast before Mass and were still idolators, "as I have found 

in the woods, in caves, in hollow trees, and beneath boulders, 

dead chickens, candles, and incense burners."28 

In 1829 four hundred more Zinacantecs had been displaced 

to the lowland farms. Others continued trading in tropical 

Tabasco "whence they return only to die."29 

The parish priest in 1848 complained that Zinacantan was a 

town "composed entirely of idiot Indians without a single 

artisan nor anyone who knows any other means or industry. 

They are all subjected to farming."30 Then, with more 

sympathy, he spoke of "the frightful dispersion to which they 

are compelled, abandoning absoltely their town, moving to 

other jurisdictions, to serve as peons or as day laborers in the 

haciendas and ranches that are now so abundant."31 He pointed 

out that by the law of 1844 their land was measured and sold to 

ladinos. Arguing that "land is the only cause of their 

unhappiness," he plead for a donation of land lest the Indians be 

tempted by revolution "as we begin to fear,"32 and join towns 

with "a less pacific spirit."33 

The plight of the Zinacantecs grew only more desperate. By 

1855 nearly half of the households were headed by widows. 

Traders now shortened their routes, reaching only Pichucalco 

and Ixtacomitan at the Tabasco border, Simojovel, Tonala on 

the Pacific Coast, and Chiapa and Acala in the Grijalva River 
36 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Valley. A cloud of locusts had devastated the crops. Again the 

priest complained of drunkenness, how in "their festivities 

especially it is sure they will get drunk, usually the first to do so 

being the individuals who are members of the town government."34 

In 1856 Zinacantan was composed of 15 hamlets including 

Paste', Xul Vo', Na Chij, Apas, Naben Chauk, Jok' Ch'enom, 

Sek'emtik, Muk'ta Jok', Salinas (Atz'am), and X'ukun. 

Two decades later the male inhabitants of Zinacantan had 

largely abandoned muleteering for coffee labor. Long past the 

Mexican Revolution they were still working as peons and 

sharecroppers in Grijalva River Valley cattle ranches. 

In 1902 the volcano Santa Maria erupted in Guatemala, 

dropping a handspan-deep coat of ash on Zinacantan, toppling 

the Church of St. Lawrence and causing many sheep and horses 

to sicken and die. At this time, as a child, Xun Vaskis used to 

collect mushrooms with his grandmother under the giant pines 

that skirted the pond of Naben Chauk, where homed guans 

once called. "Long ago the huge trees weren't ever touched."35 

Com, beans and squash flourished on the valley floor. But 

when Xun reached manhood, around 1912, the ladino owner of 

the ranch of Yaleb Taiv gave permission to the Chamula 

squatters on his land to fell the forest. Charcoal, burnt logs, and 

topsoil, he explained, washed down and stopped up the sump, 

so the pond became a lake, flooding the ancient cornfields of 

Naben Chauk. 

In 1918-1919 the whole area was struck by famine and by 

the influenza epidemic. A year later the Carranza army waged 

war in Zinacantan. They had been preceded by bands of 

ravaging Villistas from 1914 to 1917, and were followed by the 

Obregon army in 1924. Few lives were lost, but the town felt 

besieged from all sides. So determined was the government to 

suppress the Church that Zinacantecs hid their saints in the 

heavily wooded mountains. 

Agrarian reform was very slow to reach the highlands of 

Chiapa. The Zinacantecs' first petition in 1925 was promptly 

forgotten. The second, in 1933, was not approved until 1940 

when there were 26 ladino ranches within town borders, 

comprising over 17,000 acres. In the twenty years from 1940 to 

1960, when the land was finally donated, there were repeated 

invasions and counterinvasions of property. Before 1960 only 

16% of the principal hamlet land was cultivable; 40% of the 

ejido land was cultivable, but when it was distributed it was 

apportioned not among the expected 20% of the population, but 

a mere 11 %. At least the communal land was doubled. 

The Zinacantecs' struggle to regain their land was not easily 

won. In 1961, the wife of a ladino landholder wrote to the 

president of Mexico, pleading with him to intervene "with your 

good heart and your influence... because I have no idea how we 

are going to deal with these stupid kids."36 

Although Zinacantecs no longer "wandered in the provinces" trading, at the beginning of this century they did sell 

peaches, chayotes, watermelon squashes, and potatoes in 

Chiapa de Corzo. After the construction of the Pan-American 

highway in 1947 they extended their trade to Arriaga on the 

Pacific Coast and later traded in Juchitin. The flower trade 

began in the late 1940s when neither the buyers nor the sellers 

knew the names of the daisies and gladiolas that were being 

marketed: From that inauspicious beginning, only those 

familiar with Zinacantec history would have predicted that 

forty years later Zinacantan would be the home of the Chiapa 

flower monopoly. 

Notes 

'Ximenes, 1929, vol. 1:348. 

2

Ibid., 348-350. 

3De Vos, 1985:89. 

4Linguistic and archeological evidence suggests that the 

Tzotzil speakers moved into the Chiapa highlands during the 

Middle Classic period, ca. A.D. 500, but the earliest potsherds 

found in Zinacantan date from the Late Classic and Early 

Post-Classic, ca. A.D. 1000, cf. McVicker, 1972. 

5Ximenes, 1929, vol. 1:359-360. 

6Remesal, 1932, vol. 2:128-129. 

7Ximenes, 1930, vol. 1:422-423. 

8

Ibid., 424-425. 

9Chamberlain, 1948:181. 

10Comparato, 1983:53-54. 

"Ibid., 57. 

12Laughlin, 1988, vol. 3:764. 

13Remesal, 1932, vol. 2:73. 

14Gage, 1655:95. 

15Ibid., 95. 

16Xim<mes, 1931, vol. 3:264. 

17Ibid., 264. 

18Monrroy y Calcadillo, 1748:2. 

19Ibid„ 3. 

20Ibid., 4. 

21

 Ibid., 4. 

22Hurtado, 1788. 

23de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797:1-3. 

24de Morales, 1793. 

25Samartin, 1819. 

26Wasserstrom, 1983:104. 

27Escarra, 1819. 

28Ibid. 

29Wasserstrom, 1983:135. 

30Correa, 1848b. 

31

 Ibid. 

32Correa, 1848a. 

"Correa, 1848b. 

34L6pez, 1855. 

35Laughlin, 1977:128. 

36Edel, 1966:170. 
Eating and Drinking 

Robert M. Laughlin 

I strew Thy lordly sunbeams, 

I scatter Thy lordly shade. 

Thou it is who knowest. 

Thou it is who seest, 

How I eat, 

How I drink. 

I ask nothing of my father, 

I ask nothing of my mother, 

I ask nothing of Thy child, 

I ask nothing of Thy offspring. 

I watch not at dusk, 

I watch not at dawn, 

At the edge of their fire, 

At the edge of their ashes, 

My beauteous Father, 

My beauteous Lord. 

I ask not for their com, 

I ask not for their beans, 

I ask not for Thy cross, 

I ask not for Thy passion, 

My beauteous Father, 

My beauteous Lord. 

Romin Teratol (common prayer) 

In Zinacantan the gods watch as their children exhaust their 

supply of com. The righteous ones, the worthy ones bear no 

jealousy for their neighbors' com, their neighbors' beans. They 

do not ask for riches, they wish only their fair share. 

It is a rare day in a Zinacantec household when no beans are 

eaten, and so basic is com that when one says, "My meal is 

finished," he is saying, "My com is gone," and, "Will you fold 

a tortilla?" means "Will you have a meal?" Not only are 

tortillas the staple, they are also the cutlery. And so, people who 

do not eat tortillas must live at the ends of the earth. It is they 

who gulp down their food like wild animals. And back home a 

"com swallower" is one who brags about what he, in fact, does 

not have. The importance of com and beans may be measured 

by the extraordinary number of native "species" of these two 

crops cultivated by Zinacantecs: 29 of com and 42 of beans. 

Although there is little variation in the preparation of beans, 

com is eaten in many forms. There are 8 ways to cook com 

kernels and com on the cob. There are 8 kinds of tortillas and 

7 kinds of tamales. There are 9 flavors of com chowder and 7 

of com gruel, as well as posol and pinole. 

Next in importance are greens of many kinds, potatoes, 

squashes, and tomatoes. 

Salt is the blessing of the meal and so is an obligatory 

seasoning. Most meals are seasoned with dry chilis or 

accompanied by fresh chili. Wild onions, Mexican tea, mint, 

coriander, and ground squash seeds are common condiments. 

Spices such as cloves, cinnamon, pepper, allspice, and ginger 

are used to season meat and com gruel. Other important 

condiments include lime, husk tomato, piper, and marsh 

marigold. Brown sugar, and now, increasingly, refined sugar 

are added in quantities to coffee. Com gruel, pinole, and mature 

squashes are sweetened. 

Fruit forms a large part of the diet, but is never eaten at a 

meal. Included as snacks are chayotes and com on the cob. On 

All Souls' Day these are the graveside offerings: chayotes, 

plantains, com on the cob, oranges, and sugarcane. Less 

frequent are bananas, sweet lemons, apples, and pears. These 

are the fruits that the soul of a person who dies on All Souls' 

Day carries to the dead. 

In the magical mountainous world of the summit of Muk'ta 

Vitz thrive tropical fruit trees: mangoes, mamey sapotes, 

sugarcane, and pineapples, but only those favored by the 

tutelary gods can see them. The fruits may be enjoyed on the 

mountaintop, but he who takes them home and eats them will 

die in an instant. 

Care should be taken not to eat fruits that have grown 

together, lest you have twins. They should be divided up among 

many or only eaten by old people. 

A tally of the plants that form a part of a Zinacantec's diet 

presents an extraordinary variety (Table 1). Of the 211 plants, 

68 are more than occasional. Perhaps it would be more correct 

to say, "very occasional," for most days of the week the diet 

seems extremely limited. Despite the availability of many fruits 

in the San Cristobal market only a few are purchased with 

regularity by Zinacantecs. 

Because of the men's trips to the lowlands to prepare their 

milpas, they have a much broader diet than women, but now 

that travel to the lowlands is mainly by truck, com farmers pick 

many fewer temperate and lowland fruits. 

According to the 1970, census most Zinacantecs eat bread 

once a week, fish less frequently, meat and eggs two days a 

week. 

When an individual falls ill the heat quality of the foods he 

eats is of importance. Most plants are classified as "hot," 

"medium," or "cold." It is a general rule that roots, tropical 

fruits, and greens are "cold," but the rule may be modified by 

a number of considerations. A hot-tasting root, such as a radish, 

is classified as "hot." A red stem, as of some sugarcane, is 

37 
38 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TABLE 1.—Diet: vegetables, fruits, etc. 

Food 

Greens 

Occasional greens 

Subtotal 

Other cooked food 

Occasional cooked food 

Subtotal 

Grains, nuts 

Occasional grains, nuts 

Subtotal 

Fruit 

Occasional fruit 

Subtotal 

Occasional other raw food 

Seasoning 

Food wrapper 

Drink 

Candy 

Total 

Minus repeats 

Cultivated 

6 

8 

14 

15 

11 

26 

6 

3 

9 

30 

16 

46 

8 

23 

3 

9 

5 

143 

111 

Wild 

0 

IK 

18 

0 

10 

10 

2 

8 

10 

3 

45 

48 

6 

3 

8 

5 

0 

108 

100 

Total 

32 

36 

19 

94 

14 

26 

11 

14 

5 

251 

211 

"hot." A bitter green, as watercress or mustard, is also "hot." A 

young pumpkin squash is "cold," but a more bitter, mature 

squash is "hot." A fresh chili is "cold," a dried chili, "hot." 

Coffee sweetened with refined sugar is "cold," that with brown 

sugar, "hot." 

These factors are weighed differently by each person. One 

stresses the aquatic, green quality of watercress, and classes it 

as "cold," whereas another stresses its piquant, bitter taste and 

have it "hot." There is endless room for disagreement! 

In the past, Indian food was boiled, but Ladino food was 

fried. Though this distinction is still recognized, frying with 

both lard and oil has become common in Indian cuisine. 

In the preparation of food it is acknowledged that cooks have 

different "hands." One will use up all the com dough on a few 

tortillas, but another will make a little dough stretch far. Or one 

woman's amaranth greens will always be bitter, whereas 

another's always sweet. In the preparation of tamales for a 

ritual meal special procedures are taken so that nothing will go 

amiss, for example, so that a cook's pregnancy will not spoil 

the tamales. Ritual com gruel also is protected from pregnancy. 

In both cases 3 rounds of cane liquor provide a final safeguard. 

Food and drink reign supreme in the consciousness of 

Zinacantan. Returning from a visit: "What did they give you to 

eat, what to drink, how much?" In the old days no serious 

business was carried out without a gift of cane liquor, the 

amount measured very closely by the importance of the 

occasion. 

The interaction between people is mirrored by their 

communication with the gods who are fed offerings of candles 

and indirectly partake of the ritual meals served at any 

significant event, whether it is for a birth, a baptism, a wedding, 

a funeral, a curing ceremony, or a religious official's banquet. 

Very often the banquet and accompanying libations seem to 

take precedence over all other activity, and so a religious 

official's inability to pray properly is overlooked if he is a 

generous provider of food. This was demonstrated recently by 

a ladino religious official whose ignorance of ritual Tzotzil was 

forgotten when he provided not one, but two cows for a meal! 

As everyone knows, a stingy official who provides sparingly 

for his guests will run out of com and pesos in a moment's 

notice, but the cash and com of a generous man will stretch and 

stretch. 

Recalling the birth of his child, Romin Teratol paid little 

attention to the actual birth; instead, he described at length the 

meal he served afterwards. A man who troops along behind a 

procession of religious officials is said to be waiting 

expectantly for a handout, like an old dog. 

Little is more satisfying to a Zinacantec man than to sit down 

at a long table with a peppermint cloth rolled out, a bottle of 

cane liquor at the head, bowls of chicken or beef broth before 

every person, and in the middle, salt bowls and towering stacks 

of tortillas. To be served more than you can eat—this is the 

good life! 

And for the women who have been sitting around the fire all 

day or all night, preparing the food, commenting on just how it 

should be done and how others failed to provide their guests as 

they should have, all the while slipping generous handfuls of 

food into their mouths until it is their turn for the repast—this, 

too, is the good life! 

These visions of bountiful meals are not restricted to "the 

earth's surface." Frequently a dreamer will recount in me 

greatest detail the ingredients of a meal that was just served 

him. The pleasure of eating and drinking in a dream is almost 

invariably awarded a dark interpretation. To eat good food is to 

be sold to the Earth, to get stomach ailments. Conversely, to eat 

meager fare is to eat abundantly on the earth's surface. To eat 

fruit is to get worms. The drinking of cane liquor, chicha, and 

com gruel usually portends a common cold or stomach distress. 

Throughout a Zinacantec's life he or she prays: 

May there not yet arise, 

May there not yet pass, 

The seeming good, 

The evil, 

The eater, 

The drinker. 

With these words, a Zinacantec begs that there be protection 

from witchcraft, that one's days may continue on this earth. 
NUMBER 35 39 

FIGURE 10.-Scarlet runner bean harvest, October 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 11.-Metate platform, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
NUMBER 35 41 

FIGURE 12.-Decanting cane liquor, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
On the Mend 

Robert M. Laughlin 

Three hundred and eighty-eight Linnaean species of plants 

with medicinal use in Zinacantah are recorded here: 

Plant 

'Vines" 

Trees" 

'Plants" 

Total 

Cultivated 

9 

27 

27 

63 

Wild 

33 

87 

205 

325 

This would seem to offer dramatic proof that herbal 

medicine is the key to Zinacantec curing practices, but that is 

not so, for the basis of restoring health in the most serious cases 

is always through communication to the gods via prayers and 

offerings. 

A shaman discovers his or her power through dreams that 

authorize the shaman to serve, as in this dream of installation: 

When I came out, it seems—when I obeyed the 

command [on the earth's surface], Our Lord arrived. He 

arrived. Our Lord arrived. "Well," he said, "Are you there?" 

he said. 

"I'm here," I said. 

"Fine!" he said. "Let's go! They say you are to learn 

your orders," he told me. Hm! 

I arrived at the house of Our Holy Father, Esquipulas. I 

went in there. "Are you there?" I asked. 

"Have you come?" they said to me. 

"I've come, sir," I said. I bowed to them. They looked 

like the elders with their red turbans. "Are you here, sir?" I 

bowed to them. "Sir!" I said. 

"Well," [one of them] said, "Have you come then, son? 

As for you, you will serve," he told me. "You will serve," 

he said. "Here is your little present," he said. Thi-s many 

flowers—I was given flowers. Flowers. Yes! 

They were beautiful, all Easter lilies, and so forth. "Here, 

see!" he said. "Receive these, please!" he said. Yes! 

"Walk with these!" he said. Hm! 

[Later] when they went to escort me [they gave me] two 

gourds, ceremonial gourds, as we say. For pinole, as we 

say. They are held [wrapped] in a cloth. Yes! 

Two gourds and a quart bottle of cane liquor. 

Then there was a staff. And, "Here, take this with you!" 

they told me. Yes! 

I took the staff with me. I took it with me. Yes! 

It was probably the bamboo staff. Yes! 

That's the way it is when I walk, where I walk. Yes! 

Wherever I walk, that's how Our Lord gave me [my 

power]. Yes! 

That's why I dreamt that way when Our Lord installed 

me. That's the way it was, indeed! Yes! 

Herbal remedies may form a part of a curing ceremony, but, 

except in the mending of bones, they take a secondary part, if 

present at all. 

Knowledge of herbal cures is widely shared by men and 

women. It is not a prerogative of shamans though they and 

hypochondriacs seem to be the best informed. A shaman who 

is not known for administering such cures nevertheless listed 

45 species that he had used. Many local and some internal 

illnesses may be cured by home remedies without the aid of a 

shaman. 

The restoration of health through herbs most often is viewed 

as a restoration of the proper body heat. Just as food is classed 

as "hot," "medium," and "cold," so are illnesses and their 

corresponding remedies. Again, as with food, the preparation 

of the herb may alter its heat. So, if it is boiled and the broth 

drunk, il may be "hot," but if it is crushed in cold water and the 

infusion taken it may be "cold." Some herbs' heat quality is not 

effected by their preparation. 

After a major curing ceremony no "cold" food may be 

consumed for the prescribed period of time the patient is being 

"cared for." After taking "hot" medicine the patient should be 

careful not to drink cold water, nor to step in mud or cold water 

lest swelling be induced. 

When the stems and leaves of plants are picked for medicinal 

purposes care is taken that they be the young tips. When the 

various plant parts are gathered, prepared, and administered 

they seldom are accorded special treatment, nor are they 

mentioned in prayers. 

A medicinal herb, spoxilin, "its medicine," jtunel, "useful 

one," or nichim, "flower," is often specific to one illness, but 

some, such as chamomile, feverfew, and fennel are cure-alls. 

In addition to the herbs that simply act to restore the proper 

heat, to dry out infections, to reduce swellings, etc., there are a 

number of herbs with distinctly magical properties. These are 

used in cases of witchcraft and soul-loss. The principal magical 

plants are tobacco, garlic, camphor, elderberry, and rue. Their 

strong odor is a powerful means for discouraging witches and 

Earth Lords from assaulting or retaining one's soul. They serve 

to "close their eyes." 

For the medicinal treatment of animals, Zinacantecs do not 

call upon the services of a shaman, though a bonesetter may be 

sought. 

Preparation of medicinal herbs consists of the following: 

1. Peeling 

2. Mashing raw between the palms of one's hands 

43 
44 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

3. Mashing raw between two stones 

4. Grinding on the metate 

5. Soaking 

6. Spraying with cane liquor 

7. Boiling 

8. Mixing in cold water 

9. Straining 

10. Placing in the night dew 

11. Toasting 

12. Burning and pulverizing 

13. Wilting on the fire (if in the field) or on the griddle. When 

prepared for animals the modes of preparation are limited to 

1-3, 7-9, and 13. 

The means of administration are as follows: 

1. Drinking 

2. Chewing 

3. Applying to eyes, ears, or nose 

4. Bathing or shampooing 

5. Exposing to steam 

6. Smoking body or clothes 

7. Bandaging 

8. Pressing leaves on body 

9. Rubbing or "sweeping" 

10. Striking body with nettles 

11. Striking earth to recall soul 

12. Calling soul 

13. Wearing medicine 

14. Burying medicine 

For animals the means of administration are limited to 1,4, 

7-9, and 13. 

A particular remedy is often confined to one plant, but it may 

consist of several plants. Not infrequently salt, sugar, chili, or 

cane liquor are added. For animals salt, sugar, or cane liquor 

may be added. The size and frequency of dosage varies greatly, 

but some medicines are known to be delicate. 

The "steam cure" is a complicated remedy. This treatment is 

given to reduce swelling or follows bloodletting. A fire is set in 

a round hole that has been dug in the floor of the steambath. 

Thirteen brown river pebbles are put in the fire and a variety of 

plants are placed on top. Sometimes the bones of a black 

vulture are added. A large gourd of urine (half the contents 

from one of the male assistants and half from one of the female 

assistants) is poured over the rocks. The patient sits on the 

leaves, covering himself with a blanket, enveloped in the steam. 

Despite the frequent lack of what we would call medicinal 

herbs in the treatment of patients, no shaman can cure without 

"flowers": an array of 10 or so plants used in the ritual bath and 

for decoration. To become a bonesetter a man is ordered in his 

dream to mend and erect a splintered tree. A midwife receives 

her "flowers" and is ordered to accept babies without scorn. A 

shaman receives his bamboo staff, ceremonial gourds, and 

"flowers." 

Indeed the major curing ceremony is called muk'ta nichim, 

"great flower," and the minor ceremony, bik'it nichim, "little 

flower." These ceremonies have been carefully described and 

illustrated fully by Vogt (1976), who points out the multiplicity 

of life force symbolism throughout the ceremonies; from the 

green pines, tender "flower" shoots, to the long-lasting blood 

red geraniums. Two corrections should be added. Following a 

curing ceremony the "flowers" may be placed in any tree (not 

specifically a tulan) next to the nearest shrine. Through 

interviews with Antzelmo Peres, Vogt discovered that the 

plants used as "flowers" possessed an inner soul, characterized 

by heat, color and strength (Vogt, 1976:89-91). Subsequently, 

Antzelmo Peres has denied the existence of such souls or their 

attributes, claiming that someone in that interview must have 

been drunk! 

It is no coincidence that the "flower" of the man's kerchief is 

a fuschia red pompon, that the "flower" of the fire is a spark, 

and the "flower" of cane liquor, the highest proof. Indeed, the 

naked Christ on the cross, wears nothing but a cloth flower to 

cover his loins. 
Dressing Our Lords 

Robert M. Laughlin 

To change the pine and floral adornments at the household 

altars, the chapels and churches, and at the crosses that mark 

gravesites and sacred points in the landscape is to "dress Our 

Lord," stz'akubtas kajvaltik. 

In 1977 when the sacristans were shown photographs of the 

interior of the Church of St. Lawrence taken in 1960, they were 

astonished and close to tears over the luxuriant floral 

decoration. In addition to the many familiar vases of lilies, 

gladiolas and daisies rising step by step on the altar, each and 

every tabernacle was enclosed in its dark green arch of bamboo 

palm fronds festooned with bright red bunches of geraniums. 

Of course the nave was carpeted with sweet-smelling pine 

needles. 

They say it was the priest who ordered that the pine needles 

be removed lest they rot the cement floor when it was newly 

laid. No one can recall when the arches disappeared. Since the 

mid-1980s the chancel floor and benches have been clothed in 

a thick, fresh cover of pine needles. 

During the past quarter of a century the old hamlet chapels of 

Atz'am and Sak Lum and the old ranch chapels of San Mikulax 

and Kelem Ton were joined by a new Chapel of Lord 

Esquipulas, and chapels in Apas, Bik'it Joyijel, Chak Toj, Elan 

Vo', Na Chij, Naben Chauk, Paste', and Sek'emtik. An 

examination of these 12 chapels and the chapel of Muk'ta Jok' 

shows that 100 different plants are used for religious 

decoration. Of these, 55 are cultivated and 45 are wild. 

Plant 

'Vines" 

Trees" 

'Plants" 

Cultivated 

4 

16 

35 

Wild 

2 

18 

25 

The majority are also used in the Church of St. Lawrence, but 

some substitutions are made in the temperate and lowland 

chapels. Bamboo palm arches and pine decorations occur in all 

but one hamlet. Generally two pines flank the chapel doorway 

and three, the cross, and in the official's house three are also for 

the cross and two flank the altar. Pine needles carpet the floors 

of eight chapels. The flowers of the bal te' or basic flower 

change are uniformly similar. Geraniums are absent only in the 

lowland community of Kelem Ton, which is also the only 

community lacking yellow marigolds for All Souls' Day. 

Chamomile and roses are widely used during Lent and red 

marigolds for Our Lady of the Rosary. 

Except in Elan Vo' and Kelem Ton, the Christmas 

decorations are the most lavish, with trees and an abundance of 

citrus fruits, bananas, sugarcane, popapples, chuchu', 

squashes, sedum, mosses, and bromeliads. Paralleling the 

minor creche in the Church of St. Sebastian with the procession 

Christmas Eve to the major creche in the Church of St. 

Lawrence are the creches in the hamlets with their processions 

from the rustic creche in the woods to the munificent chapel 

creche. The wild trees used in the framework of the mountain 

creches vary widely from one hamlet to another. 

Only in Atz'am and Sak Lum is k'oxox te' used for 

processional paths supplanting, or in addition to, the usual wax 

myrtle and rapanea. Fan palms are used frequently for 

decoration and palm fronds are distributed on Palm Sunday in 

many hamlets. 

Responsibility for providing the necessary decorations 

varies greatly from one hamlet to the next. In Apas, Muk'ta 

Jok' and Paste' only the officials are responsible. In Bik'it 

Joyijel the men take turns, becoming stewards for a single 

fiesta. In San Mikulax four men are selected each year to 

provide the flowers. In Na Chij both the officials and the deputy 

provide, whereas in Atz'am, it is the officials, the fiesta 

committee, and anyone who pleases. In Sak Lum and 

Sek'emtik the officials are aided by the fiesta committee. In 

Elan Vo' the officials, a palm man appointed by the deputy, and 

anyone may provide. Most complicated is Naben Chauk, where 

some decorations are supplied by the officials, some by the 

fiesta committee, some by the deputy, some by the flower 

merchants, some by the reforestation committee, and some by 

the godparents of the Christ Child. At the opposite extreme are 

Chak Toj and Kelem Ton, small communities that lack 

religious officials and whose chapels are decorated communally. 

The most eloquent testimony to the human and divine 

importance in maintaining the beauty and fragrance of the 

houses of Our Lords is given by Palas Muchik, chief musician 

of the stewards-royal, who is in charge of the Chapel of Lord 

Esquipulas. One night he had this dream: 

First a man came here to my house. He came in by my 

gate. "Are you here, Pancho?" he said. 

"I'm here," I said. 

"Ah, fine," he said. "You are supposed to go, because 

someone is going to talk to you here. You will be spoken to 

here above your house," he said. 

"All right," I said. I went. 

Then, I arrived there. 

"Have you come?" said the bishop. 

"I've come, padrecito," I said. 

"Ah, fine," he said. "Well, how are you?" he said. 

"I've nothing wrong. I'm all right," I said. 

"Ah, I want to ask you a favor. Won't you please take the 

shoulder bag here?" 

"Ah," I said. "What's it for?" I asked. 

"Please, scatter this for me, yourself. You're ahead of 

45 
46 SM ITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 13.-Household altar, Zinacantan Center, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
NUMBER 35 

FIGURE If-Christ on Good Friday, Naben Chauk, 1984. (Photo by John B. Haviland.) 

me, scatter these pine needles for me that you see here," he 

said. 

"Sure, why not," I said. 

"Let's go enjoy ourselves!" he said. 

"Let's go!" I said. So I started out on the highway here, 

the road that goes to Muk'ta Vitz. We went. I scattered the 

pine needles. This many pine needles, not a lot, but the 

amount remained the same. Oh, I scattered them. The 

bishop was right behind me. It was he who stepped on the 

pine needles I scattered. 

We went along. We came to a ridge up the-re. 

"Well, we've arrived here," he said. 

"All right," I said. 

"Look down in this direction!" he said. 

Well, I looked down at the lowlands. "You all say the 

lowlands are far away. You all say your friends have gone 

far away for the bean planting, but no, they're nearby," he 

said. 
48 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Maybe they're near," I said. 

"Yes, near, take a look!" I looked do-wn. The lowlands 

were nea-r, they were near now. I loo-ked down. Our 

friends were working. They were in the midst of planting. 

Some were hoeing, others were doubling com, but they 

were near now. I was looking at them from just this 

distance. "See! Those who are working, those who are 

traveling, we'll get to see from here, see!" he said. 

"Ah, fine," I said. 

"The lowlands are near. As for me, I can see down from 

here," he said. "Take a look, you can see all the lowlands 

well. Take a look!" he said. I looked, but I could see—all 

the lowlands. Oh, it was rea-lly visible, where rivers 

flowed, where the tall forests were, it was really visible. 

"Well, let's go!" he said. We had been standing there for 

maybe five minutes. "Let's go!" he said. 

"Let's go then!" I said. I scattered the pine needles still. 

We we-nt to the mountain. I arrived at the mountaintop. 

"Well, see here!" he said. "Scatter all the pine needles 

here now!" he said. 

"All right," I said. 

Then I scattered the pine needles. 

Then, "Thank you," he said. "Thank you for doing me 

the favor. This is fine," he said. 

"Well, don't mention it," I said. 

"See the beans, look!" he said. "Look at the com!" he 

said. There were just ibes beans, just yellow com. 

"Ah, fine," I said. 

"See!" he said. "I'm going to tell you to go say a few 

words. Why is the house of Our Lord Esquipulas so 

terrible? I don't think it is at all good any more. It hasn't any 

flowers any more. You don't hear anything good any more. 

Who is in charge?" he asked. 

"It's the shamans," I said. 

"Ah," he said. "But why?" he said. 

"Who kno-ws why. That's what they decided," I said. 

"But it didn't use to be that way," he said. 

"No, padrecito, but now pine needles aren't used," I 

said. 

"Ah," he said. "No," he said. "You tell them, you give 

orders, have pine needles given at the house of Our Lord 

Esquipulas. Pine needles are wonderful. It is pine needles 

that are wanted so much by Our Lords," he said. 

"I don't know if I'll be obeyed," I said. 

"Of course," he said. "Never mind if you give a 

command, never mind if you let them know, it isn't your 

fault. Whoever doesn't respect you, whoever doesn't obey, 

never mind," he said. "Tell them!" he said. 

"All right," I said. "Can I tell them?" I asked. 

"Yes, why not," he said. "Our Lord is unhappy that there 

aren't pine needles, no pine needles," he said. 

"All right," I said. 

"Then, I say thank you, go along!" he told me. I 

returned, it was my soul. 

"God, My Lord, what could it mean?" I said to myself. 

Then, who knows how long it was, maybe it was three or 

four weeks, I chatted about it when I went, too [to the 

shamans' meeting]. The shamans heard me talking about it. 

"Is it true that you had a dream, is it true that you dreamt 

about something?" they asked me. 

"Yes," I said. The shamans were gathered together. 

"Yes," I said. 

"What was it about?" 

"Like this. See, it was like this," I said. "He came by to 

escort me like this, but I don't know if it's just the madness 

of my dream. I don't know if I'm telling lies, because I 

don't know, but that was what I saw, indeed, but who 

knows if it is true or not. You, who are shamans, haven't 

you dreamt about it? You, who have souls, who have been 

sworn in at the foot of Our Lord Esquipulas, how about 

you? But me, I'm ignorant, but that's what I saw," I said. 

"Ah," they said. "But as for that, we have dreamt about 

that, too. We didn't want to talk about it. We certainly did 

talk that way, but we didn't believe ourselves. 'Forget it!' 

we said to ourselves," said [one of the shamans]. 

"You other shamans, have you seen it?" asked the senior 

shamans. 

"We've seen it, indeed, but we didn't want to say, but it 

isn't a joke, for Mr. Francis is probably telling the truth, 

because that is bad, it isn't a joke, it's true Our Lord here 

was used to having pine needles, but now there aren't any. 

It's bad that we've lost [the custom]," said the others. 

"Yes, that's true, indeed!" they said. 

"Well, but it would be good if we gave them, if we 

obeyed that. It's bad if we go out and don't obey. It's bad. 

But Mr. Francis is giving good advice. It isn't that he's 

getting drunk, he isn't a drunk, he's speaking like a real 

man. Why don't we accept? It would be good," they said. 

Pine needles are put there now. They are placed there on 

Saturday. They're there on Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, 

Wednesday, Thursday, Friday. 

Then on Saturday they are taken out. They sweep out the 

pine needles. They scrub [the floor] with soap. The inside of 

Our Lord's house is left good and clean. One week there are 

pine needles, one week no pine needles. That's how the 

year passes. That's how it has been left. 

Well, on New Year's, the day before the swearing in, it 

is the outgoing [officers] who give the pine needles, on the 

last day of December. The outgoing [officers] give them 

early on the thirty-first of December. 

Then at dawn on the first of January it is the new 

[officials] who give them. At midnight they give them. The 

outgoing [officials] take them out late on the thirty-first. 

The inside of Our Lord's house should be left we-11 

swe-pt. 

Then, early on the first of January, at midnight when the 

bells are rung... 

Then the bells are rung, the rockets are fired, candles are 

lit, mortars are exploded, then the pine needles are 

sca-ttered. The year is new, the pine needles are ne-w on 

the first of January. That's how it has been left. 
For a Handful, a Fistful 

Robert M. Laughlin 

At the celebration of Holy Cross Day in early May, kinsmen 

and neighbors who share a common waterhole travel to their 

wellspring, clean it, and offer flowers and candles, words and 

song, incense and libations there at the neighborhood shrines. 

The importance of this rite in preserving family and community 

solidarity has been thoroughly demonstrated (Vogt, 1969, 

1976). The ceremony's explicit purpose is revealed by the 

prayers intoned by the shaman in charge, who reaffirms the 

sacred bond between men and gods, man and nature, between 

farmers and their sustenance, maize. These prayers are invoked 

in remembrance and anticipation of the agricultural activities 

that consume the interest and lives of the members of that 

community.1 

The shaman, 

"I who am an utter dog, 

I who am an utter pig," 

explores the whole panoply of deities and cosmic forces, 

beginning with Jesus Christ, together with heaven and earth, 

kings and angels, snakes and thunderbolts, six holy Fathers, six 

holy Mothers, the Virgin Mary, Lord Esquipulas, the Savior, 

St. Lawrence, St. Dominic, St. Sebastian, and St. Michael to 

still watch over, for him, the young and the old, 

"Shouting at dusk, 

Shouting at dawn." 

He offers their meager gifts and asks, 

"May I prod Your lordly noses, 

May I prod Your lordly ears," 

so that, in one accord, in unison, without anger, the gods will 

favor his clients, 

"Wherever they leave their filth, 

Wherever they leave their rubbish." 

He asks that nothing harm them, nothing befall them, that they 

not yet be struck or frightened, 

"Wherever they walk, 

Wherever they travel, 

Wherever they borrow, 

Wherever they share, 

Your back yard, 

Your side yard." 

He addresses the holy wellspring, the holy headwater, 

"Your bathing place, 

Your shampooing place, 

Where it is used, 

Where it is consumed, 

By Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring, 

Where they wash off their filth, 

Where they wash off their dirt." 

Foreseeing his clients' need for com to keep them alive, he asks 

for protection, 

"Wherever they may get the pittance, 

Wherever they may get the trifle." 

Specifically he asks the gods to shield his clients from deadly 

serpents, which he refers to cryptically as "seeds," "kernels": 

"For my sake, still set aside, 

For my sake, still push aside, 

Your one seed, 

Your one kernel." 

He asks for protection when the com is planted: 

"Where their ten toes ache, 

Where their ten fingers ache, 

Where they scatter, 

Where they strew, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows." 

And he begs them to provide the rain necessary for their crops: 

"For my sake will You sprinkle in unison, 

For my sake will You water in unison, 

In holy accord may it be spilled, 

May it be pured now, 

.. .the water of Your faces. 

The water of Your countenances." 

Looking farther to the future, he asks that next year they may be 

the same, seem the same, so they may meet once again on this 

Holy Cross Day. 

At the house cross (translation of Holy Cross Day prayer; see 

Appendix 8 for Tzotzil original): 

"In the holy name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord, 

How much is it now My Father, 

How much is it now, My Lord? 

My lowly earth has returned, 

My lowly mud has returned, 

49 
50 SMITHSONIA

N CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Here, beside You, 

Here, before You. 

This many will I ready now. 

This many will I prepare now, 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

The cause for Your lordly fear, 

The cause for Your lordly shame. 

The holy day has arrived, 

The holy hour has struck has struck, 

For Your great fiesta, 

For Your grand festival, 

Together with the flowery holy earth, holy 

heaven, 

Holy ground, holy land, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord.2 

How much is it now, My Father, 

How much is it now, My Lord? 

Will it be well-accepted, 

Will it be well-received, 

However much comes, 

However little comes? 

They arrived with anxious heads, 

They arrived with anxious hearts, 

Your lowly children, 

Your lowly offspring. 

Will You watch for me with care their lowly 

backs? 

Their lowly sides? 

Shall nothing yet harm them, 

Shall nothing yet befall them, 

Wherever they walk. 

Wherever they travel. 

Wherever they climb down, 

Wherever they climb up, 

At dusk, At dawn, 

Before Your flowery faces, 

Before Your flowery countenances, 

Wherever they may find, 

Wherever they may get, 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

Of the cause for Your lordly fear, 

The cause for Your lordly shame.3 

Divine name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord, 

For this my lowly earth has returned. 

My lowly mud, 

Now beside Thee, 

Before Thee, 

My Lord, At the table: In the holy nam

e of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord, 

Take heed, holy tabletop, 

Take heed, sacred tabletop, 

However long, holy torches, 

However long, holy candles, 

Have You awaited here my lowly earth. 

My lowly mud, 

However many, 

However few You are, 

However many of You, My lordly Fathers, 

My lordly Mothers, 

However many of You I ready now, 

I prepare now. 

Are You well-readied now, 

Are You well-prepared now, 

Will You be well-accepted now, 

Will You be well-received now, 

By the holy earth, 

By the holy heaven. 

By the holy ground, the holy land, 

The holy king, the holy angel, 

The holy snake, the divine thunderbolt? 

However much I beg holy pardon now, 

I beg holy permit now, 

For the backs, 

For the sides, 

Of Your children, 

Your offspring. 

We have reached the hour, 

We have reached the day. 

Of Your great fiesta, 

Your grand festival. 

Holy Cross of May, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

For as many of Your great fiestas, 

Your grand festivals, 

Flowery holy earth, holy heaven, 

Holy ground, holy land, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt, 

Will You watch for me with care, 

Will You observe for me with care, 

All the backs. 

The sides. 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your lowly offspring? 

Will nothing yet befall them, 

Will their lowly backs not yet be struck, 

Will their lowly sides not yet be struck, 

Will their lowly backs not yet be frightened, 
NUMBER 35 51 

Wherever they walk, 

Wherever they travel, 

Wherever they share, 

Your back yard. 

Your side yard, 

Your lordly shadow, 

Your lordly cover, 

Wherever they leave their filth, 

Wherever they leave their rubbish, 

At dusk, 

At dawn, 

Before Your flowery faces, 

Before Your flowery countenances, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

Will the holy words be now in unison, 

Will the holy lips move now in unison, 

With the great holy Fathers, 

The great holy Mothers? 

Will You be accepted by all, 

Will You be received by all, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord? 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

For this my earth has returned, 

My mud, 

Beside Thee, 

Before Thee, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

Addressing the candles: 

In the holy name of the holy God, 

lesus Christ, My Lord, 

Take heed, My great holy Father, 

Take heed, My great holy Lord! 

However much there is now, My holy Father, 

However, much there is now, My holy Lord, 

Before Your lordly faces now, 

Before Your lordly countenances now, 

Great holy Fathers, 

Great holy Mothers, 

Great holy oceans, 

Great holy Lords. 

I ready the pittance, 

I ready the trifle, 

Of the cause for Your fear, 

The cause for Your shame, 

One lowly torch, 

One humble candle, 

One lowly chunk of incense, 

One humble cloud of smoke, 

One lowly flower, 

One humble leaf, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring.4 

For them I beg holy pardon, 

For them I beg divine forgiveness. 

The holy day has arrived. 

The holy hour has struck, 

For Your great fiesta, 

For Your grand festival, 

The holy cross of May. 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

Will the words be now in unison, 

Will the lips move now in unison? 

Will it be accepted now in holiness, 

Will it be received now in holiness, 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

Will the holy tabletop now arrive, 

Will the divine tabletop now arrive, 

Will the holy carnations now arrive, 

Will the holy lilies now arrive, 

Beside You, 

Before You? 

May You bear the hardship, 

May You endure the suffering, 

To watch for me now with care, 

To observe for me now with care, 

All the backs, 

The sides, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring. 

May nothing yet harm them, 

May nothing yet befall them, 

Where they leave their filth, 

Where they leave their rubbish, 

Where they borrow, 

Where they share, 

Your back yard, 

Your side yard, 

Your lordly shadow, 

Your lordly cover, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

For how long, My Father, 

For how long, My Lord, 

How much now, My Father, 

How much now, My Lord, 

Will You be able to watch for me, 

Will You be able to observe for me, 

Will You not yet frighten their backs, for me, 

Will You not yet frighten their sides, for me? 

May their backs not yet be struck, 
52 SMITHSONIA

N CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

May their sides not yet be struck, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

For as long as they walk here, 

For as long as they travel here, 

For as many dusks, 

For as many dawns, 

Before Your flowery faces, 

Before Your flowery countenances, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

Take heed, My holy Father, 

Take heed, My holy Lord! 

May You talk now in unison, 

May You speak now in unison, 

With the flowery holy earth, 

With the flowery holy heaven, 

Flowery holy ground, holy land, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

However much there is now, My Father, 

However much there is now, My Lord, 

I shall give up now, 

I shall leave now, 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

You who are My holy Fathers, 

You who are My holy Mothers.5 

Take heed, six holy Fathers, 

Take heed, six holy Mothers! 

Will You talk now in unison, 

Will You speak now in unison, 

With the holy wellspring, 

The holy wellspring, 

The holy headwater, 

Your bathing place, 

Your shampooing place, 

Where it is used, 

Where it is consumed, 

By Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring, 

Where they borrow, 

Where they share, 

Where they wash off their filth, 

Where they wash off their dirt, 

At dusk, At dawn, 

Before Your flowery faces, 

Before Your flowery countenances? 

May You talk together now in unison, 

May You speak together now in unison, 

May Your lordly heads not yet grow angry, 

May Your lordly hearts not yet grow angry, 

For as long as they walk, 

For as long as they travel, 

Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring, 

The young, shouting. 

The old, shouting, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

And the flowery holy earth, 

The flowery holy heaven, 

And the flowery holy land, holy gTound, 

Holy king, holy angel. 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt, 

My Lord. 

Take heed, My holy Father, 

Take heed, My holy Lord! 

May You accept for me now, with care, 

May You receive for me now, with care, 

The little, 

The bit, 

The cause for Your fear, 

The cause for Your shame. 

There is nothing to arrive in piles now, 

There is nothing to arrive in heaps now, 

A pittance arrives now, 

A trifle arrives now. 

Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring, 

They were worried, 

They were fretting. 

How would it pass, 

How would it take place, 

Your great fiesta. 

Your grand festival, 

You who are Our great holy Fathers, 

You who are our great holy Mothers. 

Will they still be the same. 

Will they still seem the same. 

Next year, before Your flowery faces, 

Next year, before Your flowery countenances? 

Will they still beg holy pardon, just the same, 

Will they still beg forgiveness, just the same, 

For their lowly backs, 

Their humble sides? 

Will You still stand erect, 

Will You still stand firm? 

In the holy name of My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May You talk now in unison, 
NUMBER 35 53 

May You speak now in unison, 

With Lord Esquipulas, great holy man, 

Lord Esquipulas, great holy Caucasian! 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

For how long now, My Father, 

For how long now, My Lord, 

May I prod Your lordly nose, 

May I prod Your lordly ears, now? 

How long for the pittance, 

How long for the trifle, 

The lowly torch, 

The humble candle, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring? 

With these I beg holy pardon, 

I beg divine forgiveness, 

For the backs, 

The sides, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring. 

So it may pass, 

So it may take place, 

Your great fiesta, 

Your grand festival, 

With the sacred, holy cross of May, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

In unison accept for me the pittance, 

In unison accept for me the trifle, 

There is nothing in piles, 

There is nothing in heaps, 

Just for Your great fiesta, 

Just for Your grand festival. 

Take heed, You who are My great holy Fathers, 

Take heed, My holy Mothers! 

Will You still watch in unison, 

Will You still observe in unison, 

All the backs, 

All the sides. 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring. 

For my sake You have not yet lost them, 

For my sake You have not yet discarded them, 

For my sake give to them still, above Your lordly 

feet, 

Above Your lordly hands, 

May nothing yet harm their backs, 

May nothing yet harm their sides, 

May their backs not yet be struck. 

May their sides not yet be struck, 

By the holy kings, 

By the holy angels, 

By the holy snakes, 

By the divine thunderbolts, 

May their backs not yet be frightened, 

May their sides not yet be frightened, 

By one of Your seeds, 

By one of Your kernels,6 

Flowery holy earth, 

Flowery holy heaven. 

Take heed. My holy Father, 

Take heed, My holy Lord! 

Talk together, in unison, 

Speak together, in unison, 

For my sake, still set aside, 

For my sake, still push aside, 

Your one seed, 

Your one kernel. 

For my sake do not frighten the backs, 

For my sake do not frighten the sides, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring, 

For as long as they walk, 

For as long as they travel, 

At dusk, 

At dawn, 

Before Your flowery faces, 

Before Your flowery countenances, 

Wherever they borrow, 

Wherever they share, 

Your back yard, 

Your side yard, 

Your lordly shadow, 

Your lordly cover, 

Wherever they leave their filth, 

Wherever they leave their rubbish, 

Downhill, 

Uphill, 

At dusk, 

At dawn, 

Before Your flowery faces, 

Before Your flowery countenances, 

May nothing yet harm their backs, 

May nothing yet harm their sides, 

Where they walk, 

Where they travel, 

Where they climb down, 

Where they climb up, 

Where their ten toes ache, 

Where their ten fingers ache, 

Where they scatter, 

Where they strew, 

Your lordly sunbeams. 

Your lordly shadows, 

My Lord,7 
54 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Will there still be talk in common, 

Will there still be speech in common, 

For my sake will You sprinkle in unison, 

For my sake will You water in unison, 

One of Your lordly sunbeams. 

One of Your lordly shadows? 

Shall we borrow, 

Shall we share, 

The water of Your faces. 

The water of Your countenances, 

Your bathing place, 

Your shampooing place, 

My Lord? 

In holy accord may it be spilled, 

May it be poured now, 

However much, 

However little, 

However much, My Father, 

However much, My Lord, 

Of the water of Your faces, 

The water of Your countenances, 

My Lord. 

May You still watch over them for me in divine 

accord, 

May You still observe them for me in divine 

accord, 

Will they still get, 

Will they still receive, 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

The cause for Your fear, 

The cause for Your shame, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

My Lord? 

May You watch over them for me in divine 

accord, 

May You observe them for me in divine accord! 

Take heed. My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May You talk in holy unison now, 

May You speak in holy unison now, 

With the holy Father, St. Lawrence, 

Father, St. Dominic, 

Heavenly woman, 

Heavenly lady. 

Flowery holy purchaser of heaven, 

Holy purchaser of paradise, 

My Lord.8 

However much, My divine holy Father, 

However much, My divine holy Lord. 

Will the talk be in unison now, 

Will the speech be in unison now, 

Will it be accepted in divine accord, 

Will it be received in divine accord, 

However much appears, 

However little appears, 

The torch, 

The candle, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring? 

Will the holy tabletop be proper now, 

Will the divine tabletop be proper now,9 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

And the flowery holy earth, 

The flowery holy heaven, 

The holy land, holy ground, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt? 

How long, My holy Father, 

How long, My holy Lord, 

Will You still watch for me with care, 

Will You still observe for me with care, 

All the backs, 

The sides. 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring? 

May their backs not yet be lost, 

May their sides not yet be lost, 

Still stand erect, 

Still stand firm, 

May their backs not yet be struck, 

May their sides not yet struck, 

By the holy king, 

By the holy angel, 

By the holy snake, 

By the divine thunderbolt, 

Take heed. My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May their backs not be frightened, 

May their sides not be frightened, 

By the holy earth, 

By the holy heaven. 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

May You still watch for me in divine accord. 

May You still observe for me in divine accord, 

Their backs. 

Their sides, 

For as long as they walk here, 

For as long as they travel here, 

Your lowly children. 

Your humble offspring. 

At dusk, 

At dawn, 

Your flowery faces, 

Your flowery countenances, 
NUMBER 35 55 

You who are My holy Fathers, 

You who are My holy Mothers, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

Talk now together in unison, 

Speak now together in unison, 

With the flowery holy Martyr, My Father, 

Flowery holy Martyr, My Lord!10 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

Will they be watched carefully now, 

Will they be observed carefully now, 

All the backs, 

All the sides, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring? 

For this their heads are anxious, 

For this their hearts are anxious, 

With this pittance, 

With this trifle, 

This many of their torches, 

This many of their candles, 

I beg holy pardon, 

I beg holy forgiveness, 

For their lowly backs, 

For their humble sides. 

How will it pass, 

How will it take place, 

Your great fiesta. 

Your grand festival? 

Perhaps next year Your flowery faces, 

Perhaps next year Your flowery countenances, 

If, just the same, they still gather together, 

If, just the same, they still join together, 

If, just the same, they still see with their faces, 

If, just the same, they still see with their 

countenances. 

They beg holy pardon, 

They beg divine forgiveness, 

For their lowly backs, 

For their humble sides, 

You who are Our holy Fathers, 

You who are Our holy Mothers. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May You bear the hardship now, 

May You endure the suffering now, 

Talk together now in divine accord, 

Speak together now in divine accord, 

With the holy Lord, Our Saviour, 

In the center of the holy heaven, 

In the center of the holy paradise, 

How much is it, my holy Father, 

How much is it, my holy Lord, 

How much is it now, My Father, 

How much is it now, My Lord, 

Will the words be now in unison, 

Will the lips move now in unison, 

With the Lord, St. Michael Archangel, My Father, 

With the lord, St. Michael Archangel, My Lord. 

How much, You who are My holy Fathers, 

How much, You who are My holy Mothers, 

Will You accept for me now in holiness, 

Will You receive for me now in holiness, 

However much, 

However little, 

Arrives beside You, 

Arrives before You, 

And the flowery holy earth, 

And the flowery holy heaven, 

And the flowery holy ground, holy land, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt? 

How will it pass, 

How will it take place, 

Your great fiesta, 

Your grand festival, 

My Lord? 

You shall still stand erect, 

You shall still stand firm. 

May nothing yet harm the backs, 

May nothing yet harm the sides, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring, 

For as long as they walk, 

For as long as they travel, 

For as many dusks. 

For as many dawns, 

Before Your flowery faces, 

Before Your flowery countenances, 

Wherever they borrow, 

Wherever they share, 

Your back yard, 

Your side yard, 

Wherever they leave their filth, 

Wherever they leave their rubbish, 

Wherever they use, 

Wherever they consume, 

The water of Your faces, 

The water of Your countenances, 

Your bathing place, 

Your shampooing place, 

Flowery holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt. 

How much is it, My holy Father, 

How much is it, My holy Lord? 

May You talk now in divine accord, 
56 SMITHSONIA

N CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

May You speak now in divine accord, 

May it be accepted in divine accord, 

May it be received in divine accord, 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

By the holy kings, 

By the holy angels, 

By the holy snakes, 

By the divine thunderbolts. 

By the flowery holy earth, holy heaven. 

Take heed, holy wellspring, 

Holy headwater, 

My Lord! 

May You accept for me in divine accord the 

pittance, 

The trifle. 

It does not arrive in piles, 

It does not arrive in heaps. 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

It is just a pittance, 

it is just a trifle, 

A drop now for Your lordly mouths, 

A drop now for Your lordly lips, 

Say Your lowly children, 

Say Your humble offspring, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

With this has ended Your great fiesta, 

Your grand festival. 

Take heed, My holy Father, 

Take heed, My holy Lord! 

How much is it now, My Father, 

How much is it now, My Lord, 

Are the words in unison, 

Do the lips move in unison, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord? 

May I pass before Your faces now, 

May I pass before Your countenances now, 

I have just prodded Your lordly noses, 

Your lordly ears, 

My holy Father, 

My holy Lord, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

How much is it now, My Father, 

How much is it now. My Lord, 

Take heed, holy torch, 

Take heed, holy candle! 

However much, My Father, 

However much, My Lord. 

My lowly mouth has returned, 

My humble lips. 

From Your lordly forum for talk, 

Your lordly forum for speech. 

Are the words now in unison, 

Do the lips move now in unison, 

Are You accepted in unison, 

Are You received in unison, 

By the holy heaven, 

By the holy ground, 

By the holy land, 

The holy king, the holy angel, 

The holy snake, divine thunderbolt. 

And the holy wellspring, 

And the holy headwater? 

How much shall I give up now, 

How much shall I leave now? 

Will You watch for me with care, 

Will You observe for me with care, 

All the backs, 

All the sides, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring. 

That they may not yet be lost, 

That they may not yet be discarded. 

That their backs not yet be struck, 

That their sides not yet be struck, 

That, for my sake You not yet frighten their backs, 

That, for my sake, You not yet frighten their 

sides, 

By Your seed, 

By Your kernel, 

Watch over them now for me with care, 

Observe them now for me with care, 

May You not frighten the backs, 

The sides, 

Of the young, 

The old, 

The round ones, 

The perched ones.

11 

For as long as they walk. 

For as long as they travel, 

Shouting at dusk. 

Shouting at dawn, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

Borrowing, 

Sharing, 

The water of Your faces. 

The water of Your countenances, 

Your bathing place, 

Your shampooing place, 

My holy Lord, 

Talk now in divine accord, 
NUMBER 35 57 

Speak now in divine accord, 

Watch still for me in divine accord, 

Observe still for me in divine accord, 

All the backs, 

The sides, 

Of Your lowly children, 

Your humble offspring, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May I pass before Your face, 

May I pass before Your countenance. 

May You grant me holy pardon, 

May You grant me divine forgiveness, 

When I am right, 

When I am not right, 

When I reach, 

When I do not reach, 

Your lordly forum for talk, 

Your lordly forum for speech, 

I, who am an utter dog, 

I, who am an utter pig, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May I pass before Your faces, 

May I pass before Your countenances, 

In the holy name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord." 

It is customary for a group of farmers working together in the 

lowlands to request that a shaman intercede for them; and so the 

Holy Cross Day rites may be preceded by a ceremony given 

before the clearing of the trees, undergrowth, or com stubble, so 

that the farmers will work happily, without fear, protected from 

the threat of snakes. This field ceremony is no longer practiced 

with frequency, but the Holy Cross Day prayers are still 

generally followed by a set of three field ceremonies. 

In each case if there is no shaman in the group then one of the 

farmers is asigned to call on a shaman. Presenting him with a 

bottle of cane liquor, they decide how many crosses should be 

made. The major shrine may be in the center of the cornfield, at 

the foot of an old tree, especially a fig (mutut), that is believed 

to have "soul" (ch'ulel), or at a nearby cave. A date is set and 

agreement is made to pay for the shaman's transportation and 

food. 

One person per group is sent to bring the candles and 

flowers, and one to bring food and liquor. Two wax and two 

tallow candles are brought for each cross, two pine tips, two 

geranium flowers, and pine needles. Sufficient aguardiente 

must be brought for the three rounds drunk at each cross. 

A shrine is also prepared at the campsite where offerings are 

made after returning from the other shrines. Here they eat a 

meal, usually of chicken. 

There is no need for the same shaman to serve at each of the 

ceremonies. If a shaman cannot be found, then all the older 

farmers pray together as best they can. 

The first ceremony in this set is held just prior to planting. As 

in the Holy Cross Day prayers, the shaman requests that his 

clients be protected from all danger, including snakes. He asks 

that water be granted for their crop so they may gain a handful, 

a fistful of the com on which they depend for life. 

"Despite their filth, 

Despite their rubbish, 

The nothing can not be, 

The nil can not be." 

"In the holy name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord, 

Take heed, My great holy Father, 

Take heed, My great holy Lord, 

However much, holy earth, holy heaven, 

Holy land, holy ground, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt, 

Will it be well-accepted now, 

Will it be well-received now, 

However much, 

However little, 

Of the cause for Your fear, 

The cause of Your shame, 

However many of our torches, 

However many of our candles? 

Our heads were anxious, 

Our hearts were anxious, 

How long shall we borrow, 

Shall we share, 

Your back yards, 

Your side yards? 

Shall nothing yet harm our backs, 

Shall nothing yet harm our sides, 

Have You not yet frightened our backs, 

Our sides, 

Have our backs not yet been struck, 

Have our sides not yet been struck, 

However much here beside You, 

Here before You? 

Here we scatter, 

Here we strew, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

Here in Your back yards, 

Here in Your side yards, 

Here where our brushhooks descended, 

Here where our digging sticks descended, 

Here where we leave our hardship, 

Here where we leave our suffering, 

Beside You, 
58 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Before You, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

Will You talk in unison, 

Will You speak in unison, 

Will You decide for me now with one accord, 

Will You consider for me with one accord, 

Will we borrow equally, 

Will we share equally, 

The water of Your faces, 

The water of Your countenances, 

Your lordly bathing places, 

Your lordly shampooing places? 

For my sake will You sprinkle with divine care, 

For my sake will You water with divine care, 

One of Your sunbeams, 

One of Your shadows, 

Which now we scatter, 

Which now we strew, 

Beside You, 

Before You? 

Shall we still get, 

Shall we still receive, 

A handful, 

A fistful, 

Of Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows? 

Despite their filth,12 

Despite their rubbish, 

The nothing can not be, 

The nil can not be. 

The cold hunger can not be, 

The cold thirst can not be, 

A single one can not be, 

A half one can not be. 

We can walk, 

We can travel, 

With our fathers, 

With our mothers, 

With our elder brothers, 

With our younger brothers, 

Until our bellies are full. 

Until our hearts are full, 

Until we have received, 

Until we have possessed, 

Your lordly sunbeams. 

Your lordly shadows, 

You who are Our great holy Fathers, 

You who are Our great holy Mothers, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May the words be now in unison, 

May the lips move now in unison, 

May it be accepted in divine accord, 

May it be received in divine accord, 

However much, 

However little. 

With the lord, Our Saviour, 

In the center of heaven, 

In the center of paradise, 

However much, My holy Father, 

However much, my holy Lord, 

Will You accept for me in unison, 

Will You receive for me in unison. 

The pittance. 

The trifle, 

Will the holy tabletop arrive, 

Will the divine tabletop arrive, 

There, beside You now, 

There, before You now? 

Will You talk together now in unison. 

Will You speak together now in unison, 

With St. Michael Archangel, 

In the center of heaven, 

With St. Michael Archangel, 

In the center of paradise? 

However much, my holy Father, 

However much, My holy Lord, 

Will You decide for me now with one accord. 

Will You consider for me now with one accord. 

For my sake will You still sprinkle equally, 

For my sake will You still water equally, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows? 

Here where we leave our hardship, 

Here where we leave our suffering. 

We brush off our sweat, 

We brush off our water. 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

Our ten fingers ache, 

Our ten toes ache,13 

Here beside You, 

Here before You, 

You who are Our great holy Fathers, 

You who are our great holy Mothers, 

Will You still favor our backs for me, 

Will You still favor our sides for me, 

Will they still be spilled. 

Will they still be scattered, 

All our ashes, 

All our dust,14 

We, who are Your lowly orphans, 

We, who are Your humble foundlings, 

Your ashes, 

Your dust. 
NUMBER 35 59 

May You bear the hardship, My Fathers, 

May You bear the hardship, My Lords, 

To watch still for me with care, 

To observe still for me with care, 

All the backs, 

All the sides,15 

Of Your sunbeams, 

Your shadows, 

You who are Our great holy Fathers, 

You who are Our great holy Mothers, 

My Lord. 

For my sake will You still sprinkle them, 

For my sake will You still water them, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord? 

May You talk together in divine accord, 

Speak together, 

With the flowery holy earth, 

Flowery holy heaven, 

Holy land, holy ground, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

Is the divine talk in accord, 

Is the divine speech in accord, 

May nothing harm our backs, 

May nothing harm our sides, 

May You not frighten our backs, 

May You not frighten our sides, 

Here beside You, 

Here before You, 

For my sake still set aside with care, 

For my sake still push aside with care, 

Your seed, 

Your kernel. 

May You not frighten our backs, 

May You not frighten our sides, 

You who are Our great holy Fathers, 

You who are Our great holy Mothers. 

So we have left the pittance 

We have abandoned the trifle, 

For this we have come with anxious heads, 

For this we have come with anxious hearts, 

However much, 

However little, 

The cause for Your fear, 

The cause for Your shame, 

Here beside You, 

Here before You, 

Grant a little pardon. 

A bit, 

Our torch, 

Our candle, 

Our chunk of incense, 

Our cloud of smoke, 

Our lowly flower, 

Our humble leaf, 

We have nothing in piles, 

We have nothing in heaps, 

We, who are Your lowly orphans, 

We, who are Your humble foundlings, 

We, who are Your ashes, 

We, who are Your dust. 

Holy name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord. 

May I pass before Your faces, 

May I pass before Your countenances, 

You who are My great holy Fathers, 

You who are My great holy Mothers. 

May You stand erect in divine unison, 

May You stand firm in divine unison, 

Holy name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord." 

Drinking cane liquor: 

"In the holy name of the holy God,16 

Jesus Christ, My Lord, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

However much now. My Father, 

However much now, My Lord. 

There is still a pittance, 

There is still a trifle, 

Of the cause for Your fear, 

Of the cause for Your shame, 

The first of Your shot glasses, 

The first of Your pitchers, 

My Lord. 

The dew of Your lordly mouths, 

The dew of Your lordly lips, 

However much I give up now, 

However much I leave now, 

Of our lowly torches, 

Our humble candles, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

Flowery holy earth, 

Flowery holy heaven, 

Flowery holy land, holy ground, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt. 

May I pass before Your face, 

May I pass before Your countenance, 

I receive it first, My Father, 

I receive it first, My Lord!" 

The second ceremony is given at the time of the second 
60 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

weeding (if two weedings are still carried out), usually around 

the Fiesta of St. Dominic (4 August), when high winds are 

frequent. The shaman implores the same host of deities to be 

ever watchful, to protect his clients from the witches who wish 

to play in their cornfields. He asks the gods to deflect the winds, 

lest his clients' labor, their hardship and suffering be in vain. 

Finally, he asks, 

"That nothing harm, 

Nothing befall, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows." 

"In the holy name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord, 

Take heed, My great holy Father, 

Take heed. My great holy Lord! 

How much is it now, My Father, 

How much is it My Lord, 

Flowery holy earth, holy heaven, 

Holy ground, holy land, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

How much is it, My Father, 

How much is it. My Lord, 

Will it be well-accepted now. 

Will it be well-received now, 

However much, 

However little, 

I give up now, 

I leave now, 

Here beside You, 

here before You, 

Here where our ten toes ache, 

Here where our ten fingers ache, 

Here, beside You, 

Here, before You, 

My Lord, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

Will You stand erect in divine goodness, 

Will You stand firm in divine goodness, 

Will You still watch for me with care, 

Will you still observe for me with care, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows? 

Will nothing yet harm them, 

Will nothing yet befall them? 

May it not yet arise now, 

May it not yet pass now, 

earthly seeming good, 

The earthly evil, 

The fiery heart, 

The crimson heart.17 

With divine care still shield them from it, for me, 

With divine care still deflect it from them, for 

me, 

May it still pass by on high, 

May it still pass by aloft, 

The seeming good, 

The evil, 

Over the backs, 

Over the sides. 

Of Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

Watch over them still for me at dusk, 

Watch over them still for me at dawn, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

For my sake divert from them still the path, 

For my sake divert from them still the course. 

Of the seeming good. 

The evil, 

The fiery-hearted, 

The crimson-hearted, 

By a distant mountain, 

By a distant ridge, 

May it pass. 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

Not yet now over the backs, 

Not yet now over the sides, 

of Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

For this I beg now holy pardon, 

For this I beg now divine forgiveness, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

Flowery holy earth, 

Flowery holy heaven. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed. My Lord! 

Talk now in divine accord, 

Speak now in divine accord. 

With the holy Father, holy St. Lawrence, 

My great holy Father, 

Father St. Lawrence, 

My great holy Lord. 

However much, My Father, 

However much. My Lord, 

However many of Your shining faces. 

However many of Your gleaming countenances, 

My holy Father, 

My holy Lord, 

I reach with talk, 

I reach with speech, 

However much for my pittance, 
NUMBER 35 61 

However much for my trifle. 

Our lowly torches, 

Our humble candles, 

With which we beg holy pardon, 

With which we beg divine forgiveness. 

Will nothing harm the backs, 

Will nothing harm the sides, 

Of Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

That we have scattered here, 

That we have strewn here, 

On top of Your flowery faces, 

On top of Your flowery countenances?18 

You who are Our great holy Fathers, 

You who are Our great holy Mothers, 

Here in a distant land, 

Here in a distant place. 

But may Your flowery faces not be far away, 

But may Your flowery countenances not be far 

away.19 

In unison watch over them for me, 

In unison observe them for me, 

In unison shield them from it, for me, 

In unison deflect it from them, for me, 

The seeming good, 

The evil, 

The fiery-hearted. 

The crimson-hearted. 

May it not pass, the seeming good, 

The evil, 

Over the backs. 

Over the sides, 

May they not provide the playground, 

May they not provide the amusement place,20 

Of the seeming good, 

The evil, 

However many beside. 

However many before. 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows. 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

Watch over them for me with care, 

Observe them for me with care, 

My holy Father, 

My holy Lord. 

For my sake will You still favor here our backs, 

Our sides. 

We are satisfied with a handful, 

A fistful, 

Of Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

My holy Father, 

My holy Lord. 

May it not be in vain that we bear the hardship, 

May it not be in vain that we endure the 

suffering, 

May it not be in vain that we brush off our sweat, 

May it not be in vain that we brush off our 

water. 

For my sake, favor our backs, 

For my sake, favor our sides, 

May it not play, 

May it not rejoice, 

The seeming good, 

The evil. 

May it pass by on high, 

May it pass by aloft, 

Over a distant mountain, 

Over a distant ridge, 

May its path be detoured, 

May its course be detoured, 

You who are Our Holy Fathers, 

You who are Our holy Mothers, 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May You talk together now in unison, 

May You speak together in unison, 

With the holy lord, Our Savior in the center of 

heaven, 

With the Lord, Our Saviour in the center of 

paradise. 

However much now, My Father, 

However much now, My Lord, 

Your faces are shining, 

Your countenances are gleaming, 

However much we beg holy pardon, 

We beg divine forgiveness, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

With the flowery holy earth, 

Flowery holy heaven, 

Flowery holy land, holy ground, 

Holy king, holy angel. 

However much, My holy Father, 

However much, my holy Lord. 

Will You accept for me now in unison, 

Will You receive for me now in unison, 

The pittance, 

The trifle? 

Nothing comes in piles, 

Nothing comes in heaps, 

We are a pittance now, 

We are a trifle now, 

We beg holy pardon, 

We beg divine forgiveness, 

Here, beside You, 
62 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Here, before You, 

Will You watch for me with care, 

Will You observe for me with care, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

That nothing yet harm. 

That nothing yet befall them. 

May it not yet arise, 

May it not yet pass, 

The seeming good. 

The evil, 

The fiery-hearted, 

The crimson-hearted. 

May it not yet be the playground of the seeming 

good, 

May it not yet be the playground of the evil, 

By the backs, 

By the sides, 

Of Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

Stand erect in goodness, 

Stand firm in goodness, 

Watch over them for me with care, 

Observe them for me with care, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

May You bear the hardship, 

The suffering, 

Deflect for me, 

Divert for me, 

However much the seeming good, 

However much the evil, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord, 

Pardon, My Father, 

Pardon, My Lord. 

However much now, My Father, 

However much now, My Lord, 

Flowery holy earth, holy heaven, 

Holy ground, holy land. 

Will it be well-accepted now, 

Will it be well-received now, 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

Our lowly torch, 

Our humble candle. 

Our chunk of incense, 

Our cloud of smoke, 

Our flower, 

Our leaf, 

That we have come to give up, 

Come to leave, 

Beside you. 

Before you. 

So, our heads are anxious, 

Our hearts are anxious, 

Over the pittance, 

The trifle, 

That nothing harm, 

Nothing befall, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

You who are Our holy Fathers, 

You who are Our holy Mothers. 

Take heed, my Father, 

Take heed, my Lord! 

In unison watch over for me. 

In unison observe for me, 

Where our brushhooks have descended, 

Where our digging sticks have descended, 

For this we came with anxious heads, 

For this we came with anxious hearts, 

With our elder brothers, 

With our younger brothers, 

With My Father, 

With My Lord, 

My Lord. 

May You bear the hardship, 

The suffering, 

Protect for me Your lordly sunbeams, 

Protect for me Your lordly shadows, 

For my sake do not discard them, My Father, 

For my sake do not discard them. My Lord. 

For this we beg holy pardon. 

Divine forgiveness. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

Grant a little holy pardon, 

Grant a bit of holy pardon, 

Here, beside You, 

Here, before You. 

We have brought nothing in piles, 

We have brought nothing in heaps. 

We are a pittance. 

We are a trifle, 

So we beg holy pardon, 

Beside You, 

Before You. 

Holy name, holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord, 

May I pass before Your face, 

Before Your countenance, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord." 

The third ceremony is celebrated before the harvest. Mindful 

of the necessity of bearing bags of com on steep slopes where 

a fall could be fatal, the shaman pleads again for protection for 
NUMBER 35 63 

his clients. He asks that the gods not be angry, that they not let 

the com hide itself from his clients' hands, that the gods not 

permit the witches to carry off what is the rightful due of his 

clients. 

"Give to our feet now, 

To our hands now, 

The pittance, 

The trifle." 

"In the holy name of the Holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord, 

Take heed, My great holy Father, 

Take heed, My great holy Lord! 

However much now, My Father, 

However much now, My Lord, 

Flowery holy earth, holy heaven, 

Holy ground, holy land, 

Holy king, holy angel, 

Holy snake, divine thunderbolt, 

However long now, My Father, 

However long now, My Lord, 

That I come kneeling, 

Come bowed low, 

Beside You, now, 

Before You, now, 

Will it be well-accepted now, 

Will it be well-received now, 

However much the pittance, 

However much the trifle, 

The cause for Your fear, 

The cause for Your shame, 

Our lowly torches, 

Our humble candles, 

With which we beg holy pardon, 

With which we beg divine forgiveness? 

However many we carry away now, 

However many we take away now, 

Of Your Lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

Holy Father, 

My holy Lord, 

Will You deliver to our ten toes, 

To our ten fingers? 

Will You favor our backs, 

Will You favor our sides, 

Will You favor for me our backs, 

Our sides, 

You who are Our holy Fathers, 

You who are Our holy Mothers? 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My holy Lord! 

Will we get from here, 

Will we take from here, 

The handful, 

The fistful, 

Of Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord? 

Take heed, holy earth, holy heaven! 

For this we beg holy pardon, 

For this we beg divine forgiveness, 

So we come now with a pittance, 

So we come now with a trifle, 

With our elder brothers, 

With our younger brothers, 

With my father, 

With my mother, 

However much now, My Father, 

However much now, My Lord. 

We have reached the hour, 

We have reached the day, 

To carry away, 

To take away, 

Your lordly sunbeams. 

Your lordly shadows, 

Here, beside You, 

Here, before You, 

My holy Father, 

My holy Lord. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

However much now, My Father, 

However much now, My Lord, 

May You bear the hardship, 

The suffering, 

To release for my Your lordly sunbeams, 

To release for me Your lordly shadows, 

To give them to our feet, 

To give them to our hands. 

May You not set them aside, 

May You not hide them from me, 

You who are Our holy Fathers, 

You who are Our holy Mothers, 

Holy earth, 

Holy heaven, 

Holy ground, holy land, 

Take heed, My holy Father, 

Take heed, My holy Lord! 

So we are a pittance, 

So we are a trifle now, 

However much, My holy Lord, 

Will You watch over them for me in unison, 

Will You observe them for me in unison, 

Where we pile them up, 

Where we set them down, 

Your lordly sunbeams, 

Your lordly shadows, 
64 SMITHSONIA

N CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

May seeming good not appear, 

May evil not appear, 

May the fiery-hearted not appear, 

May the crimson-hearted not appear, 

Shield them for me with care, 

Deflect them for me with care, 

Divert them for me with care, 

However much, My Father, 

My Lord. 

However much the pittance. 

However much the trifle, 

For my sake give them not to their feet, 

For my sake give them not to their hands, 

However many of Your lordly sunbeams, 

However many of Your lordly shadows. 

Give to our feet now, 

To our hands now, 

The pittance, 

The trifle. 

For this I come kneeling, 

For this I come bending low, 

So we come to carry. 

Come to take, 

Come to gather Your lordly sunbeams, 

Come to gather Your lordly shadows, 

Here, beside You, 

Here, before You, 

However many we have scattered here, 

However many we have strewn here, 

However much we bore our hardship here, 

However much we endured our suffering here, 

Here, where we brushed off our sweat, 

Here where we brushed off our water, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

May Your head not grow angry, 

May Your heart not grow angry, 

Now for this comes our pittance. 

Now for this comes our trifle, 

For this come our lowly torches, 

For this come our humble candles, 

For this comes our chunk of incense, 

For this comes our cloud of smoke, 

For this comes our flower, 

For this comes our leaf, 

However much before Your faces. 

However much before Your countenances, 

We carry away Your lordly sunbeams, 

We carry away Your lordly shadows, 

My Lord. 

Will You release their backs for me, 

Will You release their sides for me, 

May You not hide them from me. My Father, 

May You not hide them from me, My Lord. 

For this we beg holy pardon, 

Divine forgiveness, 

For this our heads were anxious, 

For this our hearts were anxious, 

For this comes our pittance, 

For this comes our trifle, 

Beside You, 

Before You. 

Talk in one accord, 

Speak in one accord now, 

With the holy center of heaven. 

With the holy center of paradise, 

However much now, My Father, 

However much now, My Lord. 

Will the pittance be accepted in one accord. 

Will the trifle be accepted in one accord, 

With the Lord, holy Saviour, My Father, 

Lord, holy Saviour, My Lord? 

Will the holy tabletop now, 

Will the divine tabletop now. 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

Our lowly torches, 

Our humble candles, 

With which we beg holy pardon. 

Divine forgiveness, 

Here before Thy flowery faces, 

Here before Thy flowery countenances, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord? 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

Will the words be now in unison, 

Will the lips move now in unison. 

For my sake wilt Thou favor our backs, 

Our sides, 

However much before Thy faces, 

Before Thy countenances. 

We take Thy lordly sunbeams. 

We take Thy lordly shadows, 

We gather them together. 

We set them together, 

My Lord. 

Will our poverty be watched over in holiness, 

Our scraps, 

Now will we take them away, 

Now will we carry them off, 

The pittance, 

The trifle, 

My Lord? 

For my sake wilt Thou favor our backs, 

For my sake wilt Thou favor our sides, 
NUMBER 35 65 

Will our ashes fall off here, 

Our dust? 

We who are Your orphans, 

We who are Your foundlings, 

Your ashes, 

Your dust, 

However long at dusk, 

However long at dawn, 

Before Your flowery faces, 

Before Your flowery countenances, 

My great holy Father, 

My great holy Lord! 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord, 

Grant a holy pardon now, in unison, 

Grant divine forgiveness now, in unison, 

We brought nothing in piles, 

We brought nothing in heaps. 

With a pittance, 

With a trifle, 

A drop now for Your mouths, 

A drop now for Your lips, 

Holy name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord. 

Take heed, My Father, 

Take heed, My Lord! 

However much now, My Father, 

However much now, My Lord, 

May I pass before Your face now, 

May I pass before Your countenance now. 

I have just finished giving up, 

I have just finished leaving, 

The pittance. 

The trifle, 

Beside You, 

Before You, 

Holy name of the holy God, 

Jesus Christ, My Lord." 

Notes 

1

 This, and the prayers that follow were intoned at lightning 

speed by Antzelmo Peres Peres in my house. Had they been 

recorded on site they would have been infinitely longer, but 

their content would have remained essentially the same. See 

Tzotzil original in Appendix 8. 

2This verse refers to the Earth Lords. 

3

 This is com. 

4

 Flower and leaf refer to cane liquor. 

5

 These are the tutelary gods. 

6

 Seeds and kernels are snakes. 

7

 Sunbeams and shadows are com. 

8

 Heavenly woman, heavenly lady is the Virgin Mary. The 

purchaser of heaven, of paradise, is Christ. 

9

 The tabletop refers to the offerings on the table. 

10

 The martyr is St. Sebastian. 

1

' The round ones, the perched ones are children. 

12Even though people defecate and dirty the gods' yards, 

they must eat tortillas. 

13This is literally, "ten hands" and "ten feet." 

14Will his clients die? 

15

 As if they had human form, the shaman refers to the backs 

and sides of the com plants. 

16

 After a brief pause, the shaman takes the glass and, holding 

it, recites the following lines. The last verse is a toast, after 

which he swallows the cane liquor. 

17

 This verse refers to witches. 

18This is the earth's surface. 

19

 Here the shaman pleads that although the cornfields are far 

from home the gods remain with them. 

20

 May the witches not make sport with their cornfields by 

sending wind. 
Lordly Sunbeams, Lordly Shadows 

(See Appendix 1) 

Robert M. Laughlin 

The techniques and economics of Zinacantec com farming 

have merited three monographs (Cancian, 1965, 1972; Collier, 

1975). Here I offer a handful of personal views. The first two 

are drawn from Xun Teratol, a young com farmer, who 

describes the hardships and care required by milpa agriculture. 

The second and third come from my field notes, which tell of 

bean planting and com harvesting with my compadre, Petul 

Vaskes, a man no longer young. (I do not mention here how, 

doubled over with stomach pain, I endured the bean-planting 

trip only three days before fleeing to the highlands). Whereas 

Xun Teratol spoke of the physical hardship and the details of 

handling com and the natural environment, these accounts 

show the demands made of Zinacantecs by farming in the 

lowlands that are owned and controlled by a dominant ladino 

society. The fourth view is provided by Petul Vaskes' ancient 

father, Xun, as he reminisces about the famine of 1918—divine 

punishment, he believes, of "Everyman's" ill-treatment of holy 

com. 

Learning to Grow Corn 

(Xun Teratol) 

"We'll tell what cornfield work is like. 

"When I first went to work, I went to clear the forest. My late 

father sent me and a worker to a place west of Acala. And we 

carried our tortillas and our posol. But it was terribly far away, 

as we went on foot. We started from Zinacantan Center and 

continued on to the lowlands. 

"When we arrived, it was about three o'clock in the 

afternoon. 

"We ate. When we finished we went to look for wood for our 

billhook handles, because my worker knew what kind of wood 

was strong. But as for me, I didn't know what was the strongest 

for a billhook handle. We went into the forest to look for 

billhook handles because, 'Tomorrow we'll start working 

early,' said my worker. 

"Well, I went, went to look for the billhook handle. My 

worker told me that the best was kanela te'. It was kanela te' 

that we used. But (the handle) was stuck in very tight, and a nail 

was driven in at the back of the billhook. 

"The next day we began work. But the land was very steep. 

"We began at the bottom, because you can't work from the 

top down, you have to work upwards. 

"As there were large trees they were felled by ax, but the 

small ones were felled with a billhook. 

"But the underbrush was cleared first carefully. When we 

finished clearing the underbrush then came the ax. We just 

worked with axes. But yes, indeed, it's harder with axes, less so 

with billhooks, because the billhook is just for the brush under 

the trees. 

"Then I found the ax very hard. I told my worker that and he 

felled the big trees. But one day of work was very difficult. My 

hands got terribly blistered. The second day was even harder, 

but by the fifth or sixth day it was all right. (My hands) just got 

used to it. The two of us cleared for 11 days. 

"Then [the wood] dries out for four weeks. And then we went 

to bum the wood. We went to light the fire underneath, but we 

had a good fire lane around the sides of the cleared land. When 

the fire came along it burnt well, but the fire didn't run away. 

But it was very scary. When we finished burning that was the 

end of the clearing of the forest. But the weeding is more 

difficult then [on newly burnt land]. It was finished. Then it was 

planted. Five to six seeds per hole. The clearing took 11 days 

for only two quarts of seed. When the planting was finished we 

returned. Again I went with just the same worker. 

"Then it seems we returned home. We arrived to eat together. 

But we ate chicken. Because that is what the proper way is, it 

can't be any old meal, because they say that is the way com will 

be planted well. Because, you see, chickens have long toes. 

And [with the meal we had] one shot of cane liquor apiece. 

That's all. 

"But when that was over we went for the replanting, because 

so much of the seed com doesn't come up. But I was the only 

com farmer [around], there weren't many com farmers. But it 

was terribly scary, because I didn't have many companions. 

"The replanting of the cornfield was over. I waited for the 

weeds to grow. When the weeds got thick, then I went to the 

weeding. I looked for a worker again, but it was just the same 

worker. But he was very strong-hearted, he wasn't ever scared. 

But we went again on foot. But the toasted tortillas and the 

posol were just carried on tumpline. It's true that trucks reached 

Acala, but we would have to climb back up and walk very far. 

That's why it would be about the same if we went the whole 

way on foot. 

"Well, we arrived, we looked for wood for our hoe handles. 

My worker looked for tux-nuk' te', but I looked for akit. But 

it was no good, it was very soft. It only lasted four days, but the 

tux-nuk' te' is harder. I just changed my hoe handle, it couldn't 

finish the work. But I thought this was very hard, too, as this 

was the first time I learned how to work. But it was because my 

67 
FIGURE 15.-Breaking ground in Zinacantan Center, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
NUMBER 35 

worker was kind and showed me how to do the work. But my 

father never showed me what the clearing and the planting were 

like. I never saw. So I asked my worker to teach me. But he 

worked very fast. But, as for me, I couldn't keep up with the 

way he worked. But my worker hurried tembly. But I, who was 

supposed to be the boss, just fell way behind. Then he worked 

slowly, he would rest from time to time. But no matter what, I 

couldn't keep up, because I had never learned before how to 

work. But it was so painful, too. That's how it was. We worked 

at the weeding for two weeks. But my father also said, 'Go 

double the corn, plant beans under the corn!' When the 

cornfield had dried out well, that was when the time came for 

bean planting. I looked for a companion, or a worker, as we say. 

"We went and doubled the corn. But the bean planting was 

not so hard. The work is easier. 

"First we doubled the corn, when that was over we scraped 

the ground for beans. We did the scraping one week before we 

planted. But the beans are planted closer together, not like corn. 

Three or four beans are planted together. But that wasn't so 

hard. Planting beans is easier work. Then we came back up. 

That's the way the bean planting ended. And then we went 

again when the beans and the corn had dried well. We went to 

look. But then we did the harvest and then we flailed the beans. 

But first we pulled up the bean plants, because if the bean plants 

are sitting there and the corn harvest is first, that's not right, 

because we musn't step on the beans or the pods will pop open. 

That's why the bean-pulling comes first. But the bean-pulling 

must be done early. It can't be done the whole day, because the 

sun gets too hot and the pods pop. It should be stopped at 10 or 

11 o'clock and then the bean-flailing starts. That's the way it is 

every day until it's finished. When that is over then we can 

begin the corn harvest. 

"Then we began the corn harvest. But it was difficult, too, 

because the land was so steep. We just carried half a bag of ears 

of corn. 

"We were in the lowlands for three weeks. But it was hard to 

finish the harvest, it was so slow, because [the land] was so 

steep. When the ground is level then it's much better. We can 

walk easily with a whole bag. But the way that was, you 

couldn't, you were afraid you would fall with it. But little by 

little it was finished. 

"Well, when all the corn was ready, then we camed it to the 

side of the highway, there near Acala. But it was terribly hard 

to bring it out, because we just brought it out by tumpline. The 

beans and the corn were just carried out on our heads. But it 

took a long time, because there were just two of us, me and my 

worker, the one who started the clearing. And it was he who 

worked until the corn was harvested and until it arrived at my 

house. But we did our best with the burden. We tried to get 

horses, but no luck. In Acala there are oxen that pull carts, but 

the cart couldn't get [to the field]. A horse could get in if there 

were any, but there weren't. That's why it came out with such 

difficulty on our heads. We borrowed the house of a ladino 

there on the roadside near Acala. 

"When we were ready we looked for a truck to go to the 

FIGURE 16.-Farmer with herbicide sprayer, 1983. (Photo by John B. 

Haviland.) 

house. Well, that's how I worked to the west of Acala. But I 

found it very hard, and besides, this was the first time that I 

tried out to see what the work was like. When that was over I 

just abandoned the land. Then I went to the west of Concordia. 

And I went to see where beans grew well, where the land was 

good. But then it was fine, I learned how to do all the work. 

Now I know how to clear the forest, and how to plant corn, 

weeding, or bean planting. Now it's fine. But the clearing and 

the weeding is harder. Weeding by hoe is hard. But now I can 

take the clearing. I just do the weeding with weed killer. But 

that's not so hard. It's not like where a hoe is needed. Everyone 

who works in the comfield does it the same way, because now 

we've seen how weed killer works." 

How to Grow Corn 

(Xun Teratol) 

"Well, we'll talk about the right way to work; the clearing, 

the planting, the weeding-the way I prepared my cornfield to 

the west of Ocozocuautla this year. 
70 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Well, I got ready. I looked for my workers. Three workers 

and two of us, too, with my younger brother, five of us in all. 

"We went together, two Chamulas and one countryman. But 

first it was the clearing, but it wasn't big trees, no, just small 

ones that can be chopped with a billhook or a machete. My 

workers just used billhooks, but I used a machete. But if the 

trees are bigger a billhook is needed. 

"When we started to work, it's the boss who takes the lead, 

it's he who watches how the work is going. Because it was my 

work, I watched carefully to see how my work was going. We 

began at the bottom of the work, not at the top or the sides, at 

the lower ground because the land was a bit steep. But if it's 

level we can work wherever we want, but that was a bit steep, 

but just a little bit. It was flat enough so we could work on it. 

We cleared as we went up, but not very fast and not very 

slowly, the work was at a good pace. I directed my workers [to 

stand] at my side. I was the first, then the others lined up. But 

the paid workers don't want to work too hard; they learned how 

I worked. If I worked slowly, they would work slowly, too. But 

they didn't want to do the work well, just when they felled [a 

tree], that's all. 'But no, that's no good,' I told them. 'But work 

well, cut up the trees well!' I told them. But some wanted to 

obey me and some didn't. But if the boss isn't there, the 

workers don't care at all. The clearing needs to have [the trees] 

chopped well and cut up into small pieces, not just lying on 

their branches. No, the trees should be pushed to the ground. If 

the trees aren't cut up into little pieces they won't bum. But if 

they are left well-chopped, then fine! Then they will surely 

bum, so that they turn to ash. But if they are chopped carelessly, 

then they won't bum at all. 

"One day I went to work for the owner [of the land]. I went 

to fix his fences. But the next day [when I came back] I looked 

at my work. But it was terrible; they hadn't chopped [the trees] 

properly. Some of the trees weren't cut. But it was me who took 

a second look. I cut them so they would bum well and dry out 

quickly. But if they are just felled, they won't dry out quickly. 

But if the boss doesn't care, the workers are delighted by it. But 

that's the way it is. The trees should be pushed well to the 

ground and cut into pieces, with their branches lopped off. 

"When the clearing was over, we came back [home]. And 

then we went to do the burning, but we went together with the 

other com farmers. We did the burning together. But first we 

set fire to the top. Two of us lit the fire, and one at each side of 

the cleared land. But we began at the top. The others just had 

fun watching. Because first there should be the firelane fire 

around the cleared land. Then when it is set afire at the bottom, 

then the fire gets going, then the fire gathers strength. Gradually 

it gets strong. But if it gets strong, the smoke grows black and 

it bums well. Where the fire didn't pass by, I lit it again, but it 

caught well, because it was well-chopped. If it isn't properly 

chopped, it is left poking up, but that's bad. But when it is 

chopped correctly, then it bums indeed. That's how the burning 

ended. 

"Then we went to do the fencing. Any kind of tree will do if 

it is planted when the moon is full. We made the fence. The 

posts were an armspan apart, and the posts were two meters tall. 

"When the fencing was finished we went to do the planting. 

We took our seed with us. I got workers, too. I told them how 

many seeds should be planted [per hole], just four or five com 

kernels. But each hole should be a meter apart, and the rows the 

same distance apart. But some people plant quickly and some 

don't. As for me, I can just plant a quart a day, but some can do 

more than a quart. Each has his own way. But one quart has to 

be planted. But there are workers who don't know how to work, 

they plant too close, but that's bad, they're crowded together. 

And there are others who plant too far apart, but that's wrong, 

too. It should be done just right. Well, that's all. 

"Then there is the weeding. But the weeding wasn't too hard, 

because it was rocky and hoes couldn't be used. I just put weed 

killer on it. But where the land is good, a hoe is fine. But there 

is a correct way with hoes, too. Where we find good land, fine, 

if we do the work, but some people don't care about their work. 

But no, as for weeding with a hoe, there are those who just turn 

the ground over, roll it over and don't scatter it. And it can be 

well-scattered, too. There are three ways. One kind is just 

pulled up and pulled up, it just lies sitting. And also mere is the 

kind if the [ground] is well-scraped up at the foot of the com 

plants and they don't scrape it up in the middle. But they leave 

it well-covered. But no, that's not right. What is good is if the 

weeds are shaken out, so long as the whole [field] is hoed, not 

just around the foot of the com plants. The weeds [should be] 

shaken out properly and left lying on the ground. But it isn't 

necessary to leave them piled up in the middle, no! They can't 

be left scattered, but so long as they are well-shaken out. Then 

if they feel the sun for a minute they'll die right off. But if they 

are with their dirt they won't die, because, you see, the weeds' 

roots are still clinging to the dirt. Then if a nor'easter comes, 

they'll revive right away, they won't die. They'll stay the same. 

But it wasn't worth a thing. It's true it was worth it for a little 

while, but not for long. [The weeds] just change places. But 

that's no use. It's better if the weeds are well-shaken out. But 

they should be left lying on top of the ground. That's really 

good, and it suits the com better. And people also use a 

billhook, but that's if the ground isn't good. But the billhook 

isn't used just on little [weeds], it's for when they are already 

big, when the weeds have reached our knees. Then it's better, 

but just a little. Weed killer is still better, but just a little bit, too. 

What is best is the hoe. Well, that's all. 

"For bean planting a hoe must be used, it is better. But the 

weeds are scraped up well. They are left in the rows of com 

stubble, but not between the rows. It's good if there are no 

weeds at all. That's better, indeed. But there are just three or 

four beans per hole, the same distance as the com stubble. Two 

rows of beans are put in. But they are not weeded. Just the place 

is weeded and planted, that's all. Then if [the bean plant] dries 

out, when it dries out it is pulled up. [The beans] are pulled with 

their stems and their leaves. They aren't picked. It is the pole 

bean that is picked, as it can't be pulled out, because it is 
NUMBER 35 

fastened to the corn stubble. Now the kind that is pulled out 

with its leaves is called bush bean. When it is pulled out it is left 

in little piles. It is gathered up later. But first a threshing floor 

is made, where the beans will be flailed. When it is ready, we 

pile them up at the edge of the threshing floor, when we have 

finished gathering them up. 

"A burlap bag is spread out on the threshing floor. When that 

is done, then the beans are scooped up and flailed. But just two 

people to a threshing floor. Then when we see the beans are 

well flailed we shake them out. The flail is rather thin, not very 

thick. If they are well-flailed we toss out [the pods], as many as 

we get in a day. And then we gather the beans when [the 

flailing] is over. Then they are winnowed. But they are not 

winnowed in a basket, just on a piece of plastic or a burlap bag, 

whatever there is. They are just spread out there on the 

threshing floor. We feel which direction the wind is coming 

from. We pay good attention to that. Wherever the wind lands, 

that's where we stretch out the plastic or the burlap. But we are 

behind the beans. They must be thrown up. When we throw 

them up, the dirt doesn't land with them, but between us or 

where we are standing, throwing [them]. But they should be 

tossed up with a gourd. Then when they are winnowed well, 

they are put in a burlap bag. As much as there is is gathered up. 

But that is the way it is every day until it is finished. 

"Now when the bean pulling is over, then the corn harvest 

begins. If it is dry, if it isn't raining it is good for the harvest. 

Then it is fine to gather it up and make a pile of all [the corn]. 

But if it is raining [the corn] should be stacked in burlap bags 

and protected from the rain. It can't be put in piles, because it 

will sprout if it gets wet. But it needs a good threshing floor 

first, too. Because where I grow corn there it rains so much, 

that's why it just has to be stacked in burlap bags. But if there 

are several workers, we can divide up; some harvest and some 

flail, so that the ears of corn don't pile up. Because if it's just 

corn kernels they need less space. But when the harvest begins 

it's done two rows at a time, because if it's too many [rows] a 

lot of corn may be left behind. 

"Now when the flailing is begun, first one looks for the posts 

for the sieve, and they are stuck in. Four cross poles [are 

needed] for where a rope is tied around the sieve. And there are 

four tall, but thin trees from which to hang the plastic or blanket 

or whatever is used to hold in the corn kernels. And a good 

ladder is needed because it is set up high. 

"Now when they finish making [the platform], then the corn 

can be flailed. But because there are so many nofeasters there 

where I work, the corn to be flailed must be gathered up very 

~CURE 17.-Flailing corn in the highlands, 1976. (Photo by John B. Haviland.) 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

quickly. But where there are no nofeasters it's better when it 

accumulates. But where I work the corn kernels are gathered up 

as soon as they jump out. But just the same they must be 

quickly stuck in the bag. But the rotten ones must be selected 

out from the seed corn for the next year. But my corn is not 

winnowed in the lowlands, just at home, because people say 

that if it is winnowed in the lowlands its soul will remain there. 

So I have it arrive home to be winnowed. 

If all the corn is ready, then one has to get a truck that will 

come all the way home. But it comes together with the corn, 

and that's all." 

Lowland Bean Planting, 18-20 September 1980 

(R. Laughlin) 

"We left Naben Chauk at 7:30 A.M., Petul Vaskes, his son, 

Antun [my godchild], and their group leader, Mario Iyen 

[Guillkn], a local ladino fully integrated into the culture. 

"Three hours later, mostly by paved road, we reached 

Revoluci6n Mexicana, where a few staples were bought, then 

on to the San Angel turnoff where we drove for about ten 

minutes before leaving the VW Safari. In the rainy season the 

next two leagues must be traveled on foot or by oxcart or horse. 

The San Pedro river must be forded 5 times. 

"At San Angel Mario asked a woman to pass the word to 

Petul's son, Manvel, who was coming by bus, that we had 

already arrived. He tossed a head of cabbage on the ground for 

her daughter to pick up. 

"Then we met the wife and daughters of thefinca owner on 

their oxcart. Mario gave them a bag of rolls and asked that they 

bring our bags of toasted tortillas, posol, etc., later in the day. 

We were given two papausas, left our bags at a neighboring 

house and were told that Manvel was already ahead of us. At 

the house where we left the car Mario had deposited a peach 

tree slip for the owner's son. 

"At the first river crossing we met ManveI and Matyo, a 

compadre of Mario's. They had lit a fire to warm their tortillas. 

We ate both black and white tortillas, mashed beans, previously 

fried egg, and lead tree beans. 

"We then stopped at a house where Mario gave the ladino 

owner a slug of cane liquor and a bag of bread, asking him to 

show us a small waterfall there. 

"As we walked along, Mario identified tree after tree for my 

benefit. We finally arrived at Finca San Vicente, a tile-roofed 

house with a main room and a bedroom at each end. The parlor 

had an altar to St. Anthony, but was otherwise bare except for 

FIGURE 18.-lowland kld house, corn harvest, 1976. (Photo by John B. Haviland.) 
NUMBER 35 73 

streamer-decorated ceiling and walls adorned with a mirror, old 

newspapers, and hardware store calendars boasting nude 

women. Wide corridors ran the length of the house. There was 

a cook house and small hut close by. Many chickens and a few 

turkeys ran up and down the front corridor. 

"The old owner, his legs sticking out of torn pants, and his 

feet stuck in broken rubber boots, accepted a bag of bread and 

two plastic liter bottles of cane liquor that were given by Antun 

in request for a piece of forest and a guided tour of the spot. The 

old man, nearly toothless, was not eager to make the deal 

because a previous group of Zinacantecs had refused to 

cooperate in fixing the road or in giving him any field work. He 

demanded one day of labor. 

"After the agreement was made we walked on towards 

Mario's fields, passing the house of one of the finca owner's 

sons where we left a bag of cookies. We passed through pine 

forest, and in the arroyos, tropical rain forest. 

"Mario's fieldhouse was about 20' long, 11' wide, and T 

high, thatched with palm. It was equipped with a metal 

wheelbarrow, a set of chairs, a metal cot, a radio, and a wide 

variety of household articles, even sheets! 

"Petul's house was not so large, roofed with plastic sheeting. 

The floor had a gutter around it. The hearth, just wood, was at 

the entrance. From the roof pole hung 2 bags of toasted tortillas, 

1 of posol, cotton blankets, extra shirts, pants, and tunics, hats, 

small bags of beans, dried chilies, and salt. The furniture was 

limited to 1 chair, 4 stools—one in the shape of a frog with 

mouth and eyes cut in it, and 1 petate. 

"On the ground were scattered the agricultural implements: 

herbicide [4 cans of Transquat, 1 can of Hierbester], 4 axes, 3 

machetes, 1 brush hook, 3 digging sticks, whetstones, 

flashlights, 3 tumplines, 2 plastic sheets, 1 large gourd, plastic 

bottles, one 5 gallon jerry can, plastic nets for carrying clothes, 

small nets and 1 plastic box for seed beans, bags of seed beans. 

There were 2 pairs of shoes. Cooking implements included 1 

enamel pot, 3 clay pots, 3 enamel bowls, 1 large and 1 medium 

enamel spoon. There were several packs of cigarettes. The food 

supplies lying on the ground were limited to peaches, lead tree 

pods, small tomatoes, 1 head of cabbage and 1 onion. Later the 

food transported by oxcart arrived: 2 more bags of toasted 

tortillas, 3 bags of posol, 1 small bag of potatoes, 2 cabbage 

heads, 1 bag of salt, and a bunch of coriander. 

"Before supper Petul's house was extended at the front so 

that the hearth area which had been outside could be covered 

with thin plastic sheeting. 

"Mario's group consisted of his young son, Romin, a boy 

from Petz Toj, and 3 ladino brothers from the barrio of San 

Diego in San Crist6bal. They had all been there a month and 

were anxious to leave. Mario's compadre slept and ate with us, 

but worked with Mario. 

"Most of Mario's com, planted on 15 May, had been 

doubled. Black jamdpa bush beans had just been planted in 2 

rows between the com rows, 4 to 5 beans in open holes that 

should not be more than an inch deep. 

"Supper was a pot of tomatoes, eventually seasoned with 

onion and chili. 

"The rain poured down just after we arrived and continued 

off and on all night. 

"The next morning Mario turned his radio on at 5 A.M., 

breakfast at 5:30 after we had all gone up the hill to the spot 

chosen for our toilet needs where there was a pile of corncobs 

for our use. Breakfast was tomatoes and beans. 

"We were in the bean field around 6:15. It had been cleared 

and sprayed with weed killer. The brush was left in 3 rows 

across the hillside as it was too wet to bum. We started at the 

top right hand comer and worked across, first planting a liter of 

white beans, then a liter of black jamdpa. The holes are made 

about 8" apart [a handspan]. The digging stick is always held in 

the right hand, stuck in, pushed forward and turned to make the 

hole wide enough to toss the beans in without bending over. 

Each planter starts a couple of holes ahead of the planter to his 

right [descending] or to his left [ascending or returning]. 

"In mid-moming we stopped for posol. At noonish we had 

lunch: a can of sardines, shrimp, beans, and ground squash 

seeds. 

"When the planting was near its end the workers began 

racing each other amid much joking and laughter. Mario's 

calculation of the amount of beans needed to plant the 

irregularly shaped plots of hillside was exactly right [as he 

pointed out]. 

"We then went to a field still covered with cut brush and with 

our digging sticks piled it up into rolls, which we pushed down 

the hill. We abandoned this around 3 P.M. when the rain came 

down in sheets, soaking all of us. We waited awhile in the finca 

owner's corridor, then continued on to Petul's house, leaving 

Mario behind as he had a change of clothes there and was 

reading to the owner's daughters, while we were shivering in 

the corridor. 

"Beans and tomatoes for supper. These were supplemented 

by ears of com that were roasted on the fire [after being 

snitched from the owner's com fields]. 

"On the third day Mario and his son fumigated between the 

rows of doubled com while the others planted jamdpa beans in 

the rows ahead of them. Transquat kills only grass, whereas the 

Hierbester is for broad-leaved plants. The two are mixed 

together. A small chili can of herbicide is mixed with 20 liters 

of water. Beans are not affected by it, but squash and chili are 

easily damaged. 

"I helped the finca owner's son double his com. Care must 

be taken to bend the stalks between the joints so they won't 

break off. Poisonous caterpillars are a peril in this process. 

"Because it often rains here in the mid-afternoon Mario 

expects his workers to work until 6 P.M. on a clear day. 

"The beans planted here are the same as those planted in 

Acala, but because it is more humid here they produce better. 

"Cooked beans only last a day here before turning sour. If 

they are poured into another pot that has been rinsed with cold 

water they will sour much faster. This can be arrested by 
74 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

boiling them immediately. 

"Supper—beans, also a soup made of cabbage, potatoes, 

tomatoes, seasoned with coriander, chili, and later a squeeze of 

lime juice." 

Lowland Corn Harvest, 11 November 1980 

(R. Laughlin) 

"I drove Petul Vaskes' wife, daughter, and granddaughter to 

the com harvest. Petul and his son, Manvel, were already there, 

camped at the side of a stream. On the other side of the stream 

was a large encampment of Naben Chauk people, including a 

grandmother, three or four young women, and a baby. No 

shelters had been put up. One fellow was lying in a hammock. 

The harvest had been very poor, because it had not rained 

sufficiently in August. Also, the people of Acala, living nearby, 

had come into their fields probably on All Souls' Day when 

they were in the cemetery, and had stolen both com and 

pumpkin squashes. Not only was the land steep, but strewn 

with river pebbles that increased the drying effect of the sun. 

"Because of the steepness Petul did not harvest two rows at 

a time as is done on flat land, but started at the bottom and 

harvested the whole bottom area first. He held the ear, inserted 

the metal com shucker that was slung around his right wrist and 

pulled it down from the tip of the ear to the middle and then 

away to the side so that the ear would pop out. Then he would 

break off the tip and pull off the silk. He carried a net on his 

back. Because much of the com had been knocked down by 

wind and covered with morning glory vines it was often 

difficult to find the ears of com. The runty ears were also hard 

to shuck because the husk was so thick and tough. 

"Petul's group had only had two ceremonies; one for Holy 

Cross Day and the other on 25 July for wind protection, but the 

latter had done no good because there was a heavy rainstorm 

with wind that knocked down a couple of large trees, frightened 

the people, and was held responsible for the death of a baby. 

"The threshing platform had already been set up. It consisted 

of four stakes, three of them projecting about three feet above 

the net. The platform was 5' x 6', with four horizontal poles 

fastened at shoulder height. 

"Although some of the women helped with the harvest most 

just sat around talking, embroidering tunics and cooking. 

Petul's women seemed to think it was a lark. They had brought 

down cabbage greens and fresh tortillas for us to eat. They 

cooked a pumpkin squash, but were apologetic that they had no 

sugar to sweeten it. Later, Xun Teratol told me that women now 

are less inclined to got to the lowlands than they used to. If they 

enjoy providing their men with soft tortillas, they may go down 

at any stage of the com farming. 

"The group was having a hard time getting the ladino 

landowner to lower his rent. Instead of going out and inspecting 

the fields as he had promised to do, he just sat by his truck and 

drank while they tried to convince him to be fair, considering 

the bad harvest. Apparently he starts drinking early in the day. 

The Famine 

(Xun Vaskes) 

"Long ago the famine came. Ooh, the famine, hell, it was a 

punishment from Our Holy Father! 

"Those who had sold a lot of their com nearly died. They ate 

[tortillas made of] banana roots and fern roots. 

"The poor...ooh, you came here to San Crist6bal and there 

weren't any tortillas. They were just thi-s big! One roll for two 

bits. But that's if there were any, and there weren't. 

"But it was some chastisement! 

"You see, the rain didn't come, none. The lowlands were laid 

waste by the sun. You couldn't see anything anymore. Nothing 

was left. Me, in the past...I had gotten a binful plus fifteen 

bushels of flailed com, but I hadn't sold it. If I had sold it I 

would have died. The Ixtapanecs went crazy, then. [They sold 

it for] five pesos a peck, but just solid money, not paper like it 

is now. 

"Five-peso pieces, but just round silver pieces if there were 

any, but there weren't. Me, I sold some after the com had lasted 

a while. I sold several bushels. 

"As soon as the com fields flowered with tassels the other 

poor people pulled them a-11 off [to eat]. They paid one quart 

[of com] for a week's [labor] if they had any, but they didn't. 

The other poor people didn't ask for pay anymore. The 

Chamulans, if they had two ceremonial gourds or one 

ceremonial gourd [filled with] a ball of weed leaves, greens, 

amaranth, they left—wherever it was they went looking for an 

employer. The Chamulans who weren't given [jobs] were just 

stretched flat, lying on their backs, dead on the road. Face up, 

they died. They died. It made no difference if it was an older 

man or a woman or a girl, still they perished. They died on the 

road to Zinacantan Center, of course, the Zinacantan Center 

road. An awful Chamulan girl passed by our house. There 

beneath the red-berried hawthorn, in the tiny gully, she died. 

She passed by my house. 'Eat!' she was told by my mother. But 

she didn't want to work, she did nothing. 'Work in the com 

field! Fluff wool!' she was told. 

"T don't want to,' she said. When she arrived, then, she had 

two ceremonial gourds [each filled with] a ball of amaranth 

greens and spider flowers. 

"You see she didn't want to fluff wool. She didn't want to. 

She just lazed about. My parents ate banana root. 

"Because it pleased me, and I had my own [supply], I 

supported them. My older brother and my father went as far as 

Chix-te'tik [Cherry Trees]. They found only eight ears, eight 

ears of dried com. That was all! 

"I said to my father, 'Never mind, father, I have some. Don't 

go again! It costs so much effort. I will support you,' I told him, 

because I was living separately, apart already. To my older 

sister I gave three pecks. But that was because I had some 

myself. [The com growing] in my little yard was already 

ripening. It grew. The holy com was turning yellow. 
NUMBER 35 

FIGURE 19.-A walk in October 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
76 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

'"Well, give me two or three pecks of your com and take the 

land here,' said my father. 

"'Fine, take it!' I told him. Me, what else could I do, because 

they were my parents? 

"Well, sir, I supported them. The Ixtapanecs, ooh, they asked 

favors. Hell, they had the money, but what good was it? Me, I 

had planted irrigated fields at Vunal. 

"So then I went to guard my com with a shotgun and a 

machete. There were two or three friends, long-panted ones 

[Ixtapanecs]. I was standing guard with them. The com ripened. 

I carried it [still] on the cob. But the robbers were killing 

people. If you met Ixtapanecs on the way they killed you. 

"Me, I didn't want to be killed. Because I was prepared when 

I traveled. There were three or four of us. We got together when 

we traveled during the famine. Not even here [in San Cristobal] 

was it [any better]. God, it was punishment! 

"Now the ladinos here, they haven't taken it to heart yet. 

Punishment will come, you'll see when, what year, it comes 

again. They step on the com. They throw it out. They eat it on 

the cob. 

"You see we had grown arrogant because we came to offer 

them [com] for the money we could get. 

"Well, you'll see, on whatever day it is, the chastisement is 

yet to come, you'll see! 

"Me, I felt the punishment. But tortillas, they weren't for sale 

any where then, 'That's the end of them, some other day.' There 

weren't even wheat buns or rolls. Ooh, [they sold them] for two 

bits, but they were this big! But we couldn't get filled up with 

those, either. We couldn't eat tortillas anymore. You would eat 

them, but on the sly. You would eat secretly, yes indeed! There 

wasn't anybody who ate. Everybody [ate] com tassels. The 

Chamulans [ate] fern root. Twice my parents ate banana root. 

'"Do you want to eat?' my mother asked me. 

" 'Hand it to me, I guess I'll eat some,' I told her. 

'"But it isn't edible. Don't eat any more, you'll just die,' I 

told my parents, because I had some [com] of my own. Me, I 

was kind to my parents. I was kind to my older brother. I was 

kind to my older sister, all of them, because I had some [com] 

of my own. Me, I had a lot stored away. That's why! But I 

wasn't punished. My father sold his. He wasn't careful. Me, I 

was scared. Long ago, then, it was a stiff punishment. Ooh, for 

everybody! Whoever had any [com], then, pai-d one quart for 

a week [of work]. Who knows if a quart would give enough to 

eat for two days. Who knows if it would be eaten in one or two 

[days] with as much as is eaten at each meal. Once it was a very 

stiff punishment. It will come again, you'll see, some day, some 

year! The holy rain isn't good like this. Some years it falls and 

some years it doesn't. But the price of com will rise here, you'll 

see, because they spill it and step on it all the time. Ehh, the 

holy com suffers so much here. I saw it. I saw it this morning. 

It suffers so. 

"The trouble is, it is offered up because the money flows out 

here. Here is where they keep buying things. But com is so hard 

to raise. It is so much work. There is exhaustion. There are, ooh, 

long trips to where the holy com is harvested. The holy com 

takes so many days!" 
Flowers for a Price1 

John B. Haviland 

Why the Valley of Naben Chauk Is Flooded2 

Old Mol Xun was sitting in the sun, picking the hard kernels 

off a pile of corncobs that lay on a plastic sheet by his front 

door, and pitching the seed com into a large basket. He told the 

following story about the origins of the village. 

Long ago, when people had not yet come to live in 

Naben Chauk, "The Lake of Thunder," tall pine trees 

covered the valley floor. Deer wandered through this forest, 

and jaguars and monkeys, too; and when the heavy summer 

rains came, ducks swam on the small lake that formed in the 

lowest comer of the valley, by the limestone sinkhole. 

Then the holy earth decided it should make this place 

attractive to human beings, and the sinkhole began to run 

free. The lake receded. The forest became deeper. 

Then came the Zinacantecs, first just three families, then 

their relatives, and in time their children. They cut clearings 

in the forests on the valley wall to build their houses and to 

plant their cornfields. Com, beans, squashes, and melons 

grew well in the fertile soil; and people gathered firewood, 

hunted game, and collected fruits and mushrooms in the 

woods. 

The people of Naben Chauk multiplied, and they began 

to clear more land for their milpas. Distant relatives came 

from the lowlands and, bargaining with the new settlers, 

bought land on the flat valley floor to build more houses. 

The hillsides were left to the pine trees. 

Other people went to work as squatters on the nearby 

ranch at Yaleb Taiv, "Where frost has fallen." The ladino 

owners were greedy for more cornfields, so they sent these 

squatters down towards the Naben Chauk valley, to clear 

the forests. They chopped the giant pine trees, and they 

slashed the grasses and the undergrowth, and they set fire to 

the cleared land to fertilize the fields they would plant. 

The people of Naben Chauk saw the soil and the ashes 

and the charred wood wash down the mountain sides 

towards the sinkhole, when the summer rains began again. 

But they also saw the white com, and the beans, and the 

squash that the Yaleb Taiv squatters harvested on the newly 

cleared land. There were also fruit trees—peaches, plums, 

and apricots—that people began to plant, by their houses 

and on the edges of new fields as they, too, cleared more 

forest. Soon, the fields yielded good harvests of beans and 

John B. Haviland, Department of Anthropology, Reed College, 

Portland, Oregon 97202. 

com and squash; and the household gardens began to grow 

abundant peaches, chayotes, and apples. 

But the sinkhole began to fill and clog with the silt, with 

the debris from the cleared fields, with the waste from 

house compounds. And once again the lake began to grow, 

filling the flatlands in the center of the valley each summer, 

rotting the cornfields that were foolishly planted nearby, 

driving people from their houses which suddenly sprouted 

springs in the middle of the hearth, or under the bed 

platform. 

What was once a forest became a village and then a 

small town. The jaguar and deer and wild ducks were 

hunted, chased away, forgotten, replaced by domestic 

turkeys and chickens, sheep, and finally by trucks and VW 

mini-buses. The peach trees grew old, had grafts, sprouted 

plum blossoms or fell to the axe to make way for newly 

discovered species. The cornfields were planted with 

potatoes, with cabbage, with herbs, and, finally, with 

flowers. 

So that was the result: the holy earth wanted its children 

to settle the valley of Naben Chauk. They came to live. 

They cleared the forest. They planted their com, their 

chayotes, their peaches. And the lake grew and grew, wider 

and wider, filling the valley, pushing back the houses, 

seemingly reclaiming from the flat lands what the people 

chopped from the hills. 

Corn, Mules, and Traders 

When one thinks of Zinacantecs—perhaps even when they 

think of themselves—one thinks of com. Vogt (1970:48) 

writes: "The Mayas have been maize cultivators par excellence 

for some 4500 years, and the Zinacantecs are no exception." 

Anthropologists have, understandably, seen Zinacantec life as 

revolving around the cultivation and consumption of com, 

taken as an ancient and honorable pursuit for human beings. 

Maize is ubiquitous. Riding up the Pan-American Highway 

through Zinacantan, in the fertile days of the Fiesta of San 

Lorenzo in August, can seem like a trip through one long, 

continuous cornfield, stretching from the valley below Muk'ta 

Jok' to the edge of Huitepec, near San Cristobal. Passing the 

valley of Naben Chauk, one will often lose track of the 

houses—patches of red tile, amidst oceans of com leaves. Even 

the poorest Zinacantec house has a stash of com; the richest 

will be stacked to the rafters with it. Two Zinacantecs, meeting 

for the first time and striking up an acquaintance, are likely to 

77 
78 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

ask, politely, "Where is your cornfield?" 

Nonetheless, one must not be misled by this conceptual 

preoccupation with com. Zinacantecs, since the arrival of the 

Spanish, have worked more than their own cornfields. 

Old Mol Xun himself farmed com in the valley of Naben 

Chauk, where his grandmother remembered the deer roaming 

before men inhabited the place; and he farmed in hot country up 

and down the Grijalva River valley. The memories from his 

youth, however, were filled not with the hoe and the digging 

stick, but with leather, pack saddles, and mules. Unlike his 

sons—whose dedication to com has kept them, for most of their 

lives, in the constant cycle of cultivation, moving only between 

their highland home in Naben Chauk and a succession of lands 

rented from lowland non-Indian ranchers, and investing what 

surplus they had in distinguished careers in Zinacantan's 

religious hierarchy—Mol Xun was a traveler. His career, both 

in the service of the saints and the town, was likewise 

distinguished. He made his living, however, not by growing but 

by trading, both selling his own goods and hauling those of 

others. He carried com and liquor to Chiapa de Corzo from the 

highlands. He brought coffee and cane from the far reaches of 

Tzeltal and Choi country up to San Crist6bal. He bought barrels 

from the Tojolabales, and ventured into the lowland Tzotzil 

regions of Soyalo and Bochil, buying their pigs and becoming 

acquainted, in the process, with their talking saints. He matched 

wits with the famous witches of Totolapa. He once carried the 

mail to Comitan, and took forty days to accompany his mule 

train to Tonala, on the Chiapas coast, with a cargo of highland 

bootleg. 

Mol Xun was a master of the cornfield, as well, and he spent 

a part of nearly every day up to his last hoeing "inside his 

fence,"3 somewhere on his ample lands in Naben Chauk, but 

his career illustrates a pattern in Zinacantec life that predates 

the reliance on agriculture that settled onto the community after 

the provisions of Revolution and Land Reform—Chiapas 

style—made Zinacantecs into the highland's premier "growers 

of milpa." In the last century, and up to the Revolution, 

Zinacantec muleteers were the teamsters of central Chiapas, 

known throughout the highlands as vendors of salt4 and as 

consummate traders. It is only men younger than Mol Xun's 

son, Petul—now in his seventies—who grew up "without 

knowing how to load a horse." 

By the nineteen-sixties, many people in Naben Chauk made 

their livings by other than the cultivation of com. Young men 

worked for salaries: building roads, mixing concrete for ladino 

masons, guarding construction sites and buildings against 

thieves, writing texts for Harvard anthropologists, and so on. 

Somewhat surprisingly, many such people simply farmed no 

corn at all. They had, in their own words, "forgotten about the 

hoe." If Zinacantec life depended centrally on the cultivation of 

com, the existence of such people seemed to suggest the 

beginning of the end for Zinacantec culture. In the terms of Mol 

Xun's story, most of these non-farmers were recreating in 

modem form the activities of their ancestors: trading (now not 

salt but flowers), and hauling (no longer with mule teams but 

now with trucks and minibuses). They had not, though, ceased 

to be Zinacantecs; indeed, their approach to these activities has 

an unmistakable Zinacantec stamp. 

Now let me describe some of the activities, practiced by 

Naben Chauk's "flower re-sellers,"5 activities that they qualify 

under the general rubric of chonolajel (from the verb chonolaj-

"practice selling"), known in Zinacantec Spanish as negocios, 

"business." It will begin, however, with Petul—old Mol Xun's 

son—a man who retreated from his father's trading profession 

to dedicate himself to the cultivation of com, but who still 

practices small-scale trading. 

Mi mu xlaj tana, ta jk'elanbe: "If they don't get sold later, 

I'll give them away." 

The Indians who engage largely in com farming include 

hosts of casual sellers, Zinacantecs who sell their seasonal 

produce and home-grown flowers, or who occasionally 

supplement their incomes by limited re-selling. In the village of 

Naben Chauk almost every household has someone setting out 

once or twice a month to try his (or her) hand at selling some 

fruit, grain, or leaf in a ladino market. Petul's household can 

illustrate the sorts of activities involved. 

The simplest venture involves transporting one bag at a time 

of the household's com hoard into market to meet current needs 

for cash. Clearly, those who can keep their com through the 

plentiful time after the harvest until the time of highest prices, 

during the following growing season, will realize the most 

profits—but demands for hard cash will not always wait. Petul 

has sold com in San Cristobal—his favorite market is the small 

plaza in San Ram6n where he can usually fetch a better price 

and get home earlier than by selling in the San Crist6bal central 

market—in January, when prices are low, to pay for curing 

ceremonies; or in April, when prices have not risen yet as high 

as they might, in order to fund his own upcoming farming 

operation or to pay for fertilizer. The procedure is always the 

same: haul out a sack of com from the house the previous 

afternoon to winnow and clean it; remeasure it into a new 

burlap sack; then hump the load down to the road before dawn 

the next morning, to load it onto a truck or combi. Arriving in 

town, one unloads the com in the selected market place, and 

pays the freight. There is then a further choice to make: whether 

to sell the entire load, wholesesale as it were, to one of the com 

resellers, many of whom are also Zinacantecs, or whether to 

spend hours in the process of "small-selling," by weight or 

dry-measure, to individual buyers. The latter process nets more 

but can require many hours standing in the market waiting for 

customers and haggling out the price with each one. 

Selling to the com resellers, who often have their agents 

waiting by the combi stops, has the advantage of getting the 

whole business over with quickly, and producing all the 

proceeds in a single wad of bills. The wad is, however, none too 

fat, for the market price of com, in terms of its comparative 
NUMBER 35 79 

buying power, has dropped steadily over the past decade. An 

eighty-kilogram bag of com that fetched US$14 in the San 

Crist6bal market in 1976 (just before the first modem 

devaluation of the Mexican peso), and that could still be bought 

for a bit over US$15, two years later in 1978, would bring only 

about US$13 from the com resellers at the same market in 

January 1988. In the same span, for example, the cost of bus or 

truck fare from Naben Chauk to town, converted to its US 

dollar equivalent, has nearly doubled,6 and other prices have 

followed a similar inflationary curve. 

A decade ago, Petul had surplus beans to sell as well, often 

hauling them, in a similar routine, to Tuxtla. There he also 

usually sold them in bulk to market shopkeepers for resale. 

Their markup, in turn, might be thirty percent (in 1976, from 

Petul's price of US$0.36 per kilo to the Tuxtla vendor's selling 

price of US$0.48). In 1988, Petul's farming operation had 

changed, and he had beans only to eat, not to sell. The price of 

beans had risen somewhat, but was still reputed to be 

ridiculously low.7 In January of that year, Zinacantecs could be 

seen on the streets of San Cristobal walking door to door 

hawking them. 

Com and beans are the staple foods in Petul's house 

compound, and they are also his staple commodities in 

commerce. But from time to time his commercial ventures 

include flowers, fruits, and sometimes other plants from the 

neighboring forests. Indeed, as real income from com 

diminishes it becomes increasingly necessary for Petul to try 

other means for bringing cash into the household. In the mid 

and early 1970s, Petul's family sold the products of their 

gardening rather casually. Neighbors would sometimes come to 

buy a few bunches of the family's kale, favored by Petul's wife. 

Occasionally a daughter would gather especially plentiful 

coriander and sell a few bunches of it during a trip to town, or 

in the Naben Chauk Saturday market. Once the entire family 

took greens, squash, spices, and some spare clothing, and made 

the trip to the hamlet Chikinibal Vo'. This village lies down the 

mountains from Naben Chauk, in somewhat hotter country 

where such crops do not grow and where the women, because 

they spend much of their time hauling water instead of 

weaving, find it hard either to garden or clothe themselves. 

Although the women sold their heavy produce and secondhand clothes in the center of the village, Petul carried greens 

from door to door. Finally, with their profits, the Naben Chauk 

family not only paid the truck fare, but also bought coffee from 

their warm-country countrymen. 

Other small-scale selling ventures depend on both changing 

seasons and changing fashions. When the peaches ripen in 

Naben Chauk—those same peaches that were planted in the 

early days of the hamlet—their owners have always harvested 

them and taken them to town, or at least to the highway, to turn 

them into cash. In the early 1980s, people in Naben Chauk 

discovered that their tired old peach trees could have plums 

grafted onto them, producing an earlier and richer crop; a rage 

of grafting has transformed peach blossoms to plum blossoms. 

Petul, who sold his peaches, and sometimes the few apples that 

the worms didn't get, in August—usually in Tuxtla where the 

prices are better—now also sells his plums there in June. This 

is free money: it grows on trees, if you have the time to lug it 

to market. The only variable is how soon your fruit ripens, or 

how late it lasts, and thus whether you avoid the seasonal glut 

and get a better price.8 

Other fashions have also come and gone through Naben 

Chauk. In the early 1980s, when Petul had a couple of regular 

hired workers from Chamula, he turned their expertise at 

growing potatoes to his advantage by getting them to plant 

some for him. There followed several tumultuous seasons 

trying to work out the marketing strategies for potatoes, 

especially given the seemingly irrational preferences of the 

market. Petul's daughters quickly discovered that red-skinned 

potatoes "cook up better"; inexplicably, ladino customers in 

Tuxtla roundly preferred the white-skinned variety. 

Other casual selling trips are governed by the calendar of 

fiestas rather than the seasons. There are times when Petul 

needs extra money, and thus tries to sell whatever can bring in 

some cash. This happens routinely before one of Zinacantan's 

major fiestas—for example, the festival of St. Lawrence in 

early August, when Petul often tries entrepreneurial flowerselling ventures. He may launch a trip that combines selling the 

bulk of his peach crop with harvesting and marketing whatever 

flowers are ripe, supplementing these commodities with 

bunches of greens or herbs from the garden. For such 

occasions, Petul is likely to rent a space on the market streets, 

or even a stall as yet unoccupied by its late rising Tuxtleco 

owner, to sell his own produce in smaller but more profitable 

quantities. 

There are also several crucial points in the year when selling 

suddenly becomes especially lucrative, or when demands for 

produce make selling especially attractive. An example is the 

period of the year around All Saints' and All Souls' Days (1-2 

November), when ladinos and Indians alike decorate graves 

and prepare feasts. Petul will again harvest and take to market 

(these days, usually Tuxtla) all the available flowers, garden 

produce, and any ripe chayotes. He will even lop off the tips of 

the cypress trees planted for shade and privacy around his yard, 

to sell them as adornment for household altars or flower 

garlands. On such occasions, Petul will leave for Tuxtla at 10 

P.M. the night before, sleeping on the truck in the Tuxtla market, 

so as to stake out a good space in the market during the wee 

hours of the morning. Even then the glut sometimes reduces 

hoped-for profits to a minimum.9 

At the Christmas season Petul's daughters will make a 

special trip to the wildest Naben Chauk forests to search out 

plants that he can add to his wares when he goes to sell in 

Tuxtla. They bring back various bromeliads (kilkil ech', uma' 

ech', and uchul ech'), moss (tzon te' ta ton), the fragrant 

leaves of Hierba Santa (jabnal), and even young palm plants 

(unen xan)—all things that can be sold to ladinos as 

decorations for creches. At Christmas, too, Petul sometimes 
FIGURE 20.-All Saints' Day at the cemetery, Zinacantan Center, 1977. (Photo by John Swope.) 
NUMBER 35 81 

makes experimental trips with his flowers to other markets 

around Tuxtla, to try his luck at milking the season for some 

extra profit. He has explored the bus network that links Tuxtla 

with a series of small colonies in the area, selling produce in the 

town plazas of new settlements such as Copoya, on the south, 

or towns near the Chicoasen dam on the north. It was on such 

a trip that Petul remarked that any flowers he didn't manage to 

sell he would simply donate to the local saint, to insure at least 

some non-material benefit from produce that could not be 

turned into cash. 

This casual "flower selling"—the family's cover term for all 

this commerce in flowers, fruits, and assorted garden and forest 

produce—is normally a supplement to Petul's normal profession, which is raising milpa. Nonetheless, from time to time, 

like his neighbors, Petul has engaged in such business more 

seriously. When one of his old-maid goddaughters was 

orphaned a few years ago, she took up active flower selling, 

despite the scandalous gossip that circulated about her for 

traveling alone by truck to such uncontrolled places as Tuxtla. 

Petul, seemingly inspired, also decided to try his hand, in the 

slow agricultural season between final weeding and harvest. He 

put together a small amount of capital and invested it in 

perishables, which he transported to the northern city of 

Pichucalco, on the Tabasco border—a place he chose, 

apparently, because it was not already claimed by other 

Zinacantec vendors. He made weekly trips for almost two 

months, at which point he was robbed on the bus home, losing 

his "starter" capital. Harvest was, by then, nearly upon him, so 

he abandoned the venture, perhaps with some relief. 

The Flower Sellers of Naben Chauk 

For several decades, Naben Chauk has been a center of floral 

commerce. Travelers to and from San Cristobal on the 

Pan-American Highway routinely stop on the edge of the valley 

to buy bouquets of flowers, or small buckets of fruit, from 

children hawking them with shouts and waves to passing cars. 

Whereas these children once ventured up to the road only 

sporadically, or when there was an abundant harvest of fruits, 

trying for a few chance pesos, there are now permanent 

tin-roofed flower stalls, staffed with adults. 

A study of the flower business in the early 1960s10 reported 

that most of the heads of household in Naben Chauk were 

"growing" flowers for sale, a practice begun by a few 

entrepreneurs in 1949, which grew rapidly throughout the 

1950s with the advent of cheaper seeds and bulbs. By 1963, 

there also existed a group of flower "sellers." Some grew their 

own produce, but most bought flowers from their hamlet 

neighbors, or from other Indians in San Cristobal. They 

transported these flowers, by bus and truck, for resale in the 

markets of Tuxtla Gutierrez, in the lowlands. Most of the 

flower growers in this period were average com farmers, like 

Petul, who filled their free time with the small scale but 

relatively lucrative flower crop. The flower vendors, on the 

other hand, were largely youths who were structurally 

"emigrants left behind"—that is, Zinacantecs in the position of 

those landless Indians who leave their village and their society 

permanently, but who, in this case, still could spend half or 

more of their time in their villages—between selling trips—and 

who could thus maintain "many aspects of a normal life in 

Zinacantan."11 That this situation was fragile, and that the 

flower vendors could bring major changes to Zinacantan was 

something students of the time foresaw.12 

Flower selling represents one obvious way in which the 

changing economics of plants have altered Zinacantec productive life. The range of flower varieties bought and sold evolves 

continually, but this is only one of a set of rapid shifts that hold 

great interest. The flower merchants of Zinacantan experience 

(and engineer) constant and dramatic changes in markets, costs, 

sources, methods, and in an emerging understanding of market 

forces and non-Indian flower-buying patterns, in a variety of 

places throughout the state and, indeed, the Republica 

Mexicana. 

Each year has brought something new in the business: 

permanent flower shops in Tuxtla, standing transport orders 

that have funded the purchase of trucks; weekly trips to the old 

Jamaica Market and lately the Central de Abastos, or Central 

Market, in Mexico City, as well as to Oaxaca and Puebla, to 

buy exotic flowers; and even air-freighted shipments of flowers 

arriving in Tuxtla in response to telephoned orders (sometimes 

in Tzotzil!). The ripples from these changes rebound off the 

social edges of village life, as well. The crucified figure of 

Christ, at Easter, is offered strange flowers with whose names 

the people of Naben Chauk—except for the flower sellers who 

bring them from Puebla—are unacquainted. The owner of 

Tuxtla's Floreria San Lorenzo—a flower shop named after the 

patron saint of modem Zinacantan—is rumored to have a 

three-story concrete house in Tuxtla for his non-Indian wife 

there, and to be building another identical dwelling in 

Zinacantan for his "real" wife. One flower seller now sports the 

same acrylic towel and plastic sandals in his Naben Chauk 

house that he wears when he sells flowers in the Tonala market. 

Moreover, the flower trade has produced further economic 

gradations within the hamlet of Naben Chauk. Some merchants—the richest ones, often truck owners themselves— 

earned their money entirely from buying flowers in bulk from 

distant markets and reselling them to other Indian retailers. 

Others enhance their reselling profits by cultivating their own 

flowers and fruit on highland land formerly dedicated to com, 

thus turning otherwise idle time at home in the village into cash 

at the market. At the other end of the spectrum, some 

Zinacantecs engage in flower trading on a tiny and haphazard 

scale, only supplementing other sources of income (com 

farming or wage labor, for example) by experimenting with 

small markets, or by contracting out their flower crop to regular 

merchants. The business has also produced a new class of 

peripheral Zinacantec wage laborers: truck drivers whose 

salaries buy both their mechanical and navigating skills; 
82 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

otherwise underemployed "hired hands," who sit and do the 

selling at somebody else's flower stall; even specialized flower 

haulers who pick up a few pesos hanging around on street 

comers near the markets waiting to help deliver a bundle, by 

tumpline, to its owner's market stall. 

Lavie chiyojtikin xa skotolik: "By now, everybody knows 

me." 

Selling flowers in the markets of Tonala and Arriaga, on the 

Chiapas coast, is both adventure and drudgery for the men from 

Naben Chauk. The place is hot, and, for most highlanders, 

incommodious. There's not a decent tortilla in sight, and bed is 

an egg carton laid on the sidewalk. But the coastal towns are 

also free from the prying ears and eyes of neighbors, the fences 

and the walls of the hamlet, the jealous intrigues of relatives, 

and the party politics of the Naben Chauk town hall. Here one's 

business is simple: first guarding, and then selling, one's load 

of cargo. At night, with money in your pocket, you can buy a 

meal, or see a movie, and no one is the wiser. 

For most vendors, the pattern is the same, week after week.13 

Take Lol, for instance. Early Thursday morning he arises early, 

as usual, perhaps in time to make the half-hour walk down the 

mountain to his woodland properties, where he has a field of 

daisies planted. He surveys them to see whether he can get a 

gross or two of the flowers ready for market that weekend. If so, 

he tells his wife to cut them during the day, along with two or 

three dozen calla lilies from inside the yard. Then he heads out 

to the highway in order to catch a minibus into San Cristobal 

before seven o'clock. He needs to meet with the flower vendors 

from Chamula, as well as his countrymen, regular suppliers 

from Zinacantan Center and Pat Osil, to arrange for his cargo 

the next day. He finds most of these people in the market in 

town, though he takes a municipal bus out to San Felipe to track 

down another of his regular suppliers who still owes him a 

bundle of one hundred dozen carnations that he had paid for in 

advance the previous week. He finds the man coming down the 

path from his house, and he arranges to pick up the flowers the 

following morning, there on the highway. 

Business complete, Lol flags down a Zinacantec truck 

passing through San Felipe on its scheduled trip from San 

Crist6bal to Tuxtla. He clambers into the cabin to gossip with 

the driver during the short ride back to Naben Chauk. He has 

the rest of the day to cut and bundle his own flowers, using the 

branches of the wax myrtle (satin) which has the singular virtue 

for this task that "it doesn't dry out, or wilt right away." He also 

prepares his plastic sheeting, his tumplines (which double as 

ropes), his hot-country clothing (packed carefully into an 

airline bag), and his "starter"—a wad of bills representing his 

capital for the next day's purchases. 

Friday is market day, so it requires an early start: Lol is up 

and on the road, with the other flower vendors, taking a truck to 

town by three A.M. Their regular ride to the coast is on a truck 

owned by Lol's brother; but that vehicle spends the night in Na 

Chij with the driver, so the vendors pay for another ride into 

San Crist6bal. It is still dark, and cold. The men have covered 

their lightweight clothes for the coast with sweaters, their 

woven tunics, even stocking caps. 

Out behind the San Cristobal market the flowers have begun 

to pile up. Lol takes delivery of the ones he had ordered the 

previous day. A Chamula grower had brought forty-four 

bunches of lilies, and Lol strikes a quick bargain for another 

thirty-three bunches, to complement those he had ready at 

home. He decides to pass up several offers of baby's breath, 

being sold by Zinacantecs from Sak Lum, because the flowers 

look suspicious and damp; he thinks they will begin to rot and 

stink in the Tonal£ heat. 

Finding rather few marketable flowers for sale—probably 

because of the rain, he thinks—and knowing that he has a load 

of about forty dozen chrysanthemums waiting for him in San 

Felipe, Lol turns to the vegetables, looking for a bargain. He 

buys an entire sack full of radishes from another Chamula, 

guessing by hefting it that it holds about three hundred 

bunches. The same man offers him "mustard greens," which 

upon inspection turn out to be watercress. Lol bargains him 

down and buys the Chamula's entire supply, secretly reckoning 

them to be cheap; he rushes off to find a couple of cardboard 

cartons to pack them in. 

By now the truck has arrived, and other vendors begin to 

load their things aboard. Lol remembers that he has taken 

orders for toasted tortillas, from a woman who sells them in her 

Tonala shop, so he buys several bagsful near the market. He 

also stops a non-Indian man with whom he has dealt before to 

buy two kilos of small plastic bags, of the proper size for 

holding one kilo of beans. He left beans in Tonala the previous 

week, and he wants the bags to be able to finish selling them 

this weekend. Partly because of this previous investment, and 

partly because of the poor quality of the flowers and vegetables 

for sale because of bad weather, Lol decides that he has enough 

cargo for the week. The other people on the truck buy 

carnations, daisies, feverfew, stock, both white- and lilaccolored; also freshly dug Chamula potatoes, a few cabbages, 

and several huge bags of spices: thyme, in tiny little dried 

bunches, and fresh coriander. One lone vendor from Zinacantan 

Center sells a bundle of small purple carnations, which a Naben 

Chauk man snaps up. 

It is 10:30 A.M., time to set out. The Tonala cargo has been 

loaded first, towards the front of the truck. The Arriaga load, to 

be removed first, is towards the back. The ladder is hauled 

inside, and the truck is off, Lol riding up front with his 

brother—the truck owner—and the driver, the rest of the 

vendors sitting on their flowers under the tarpaulin in back. It 

is a large white five-ton truck, with slat sides in the rear, 

covered against the damp morning air. 

Two more stops—one by the road in San Felipe to pick up 

the pre-ordered flowers: more lilies, a bundle of small 

carnations, and some Agapanthus or "Lily of the Nile" flowers, 

called simply yaxal nichim "blue flowers," but known to the 
NUMBER 35 83 

ladinos as agapango or cien-en-uno "one hundred in one," and 

die other at home in Naben Chauk. Here everyone picks up the 

last bundles readied by waiting wives and children. Lol has his 

own daisies and lilies, and also a few large watermelon squash 

culled from a brother's cornfield. Somebody has a boxful of 

aberrant out-of-season chayotes and a bundle of cypress tips. 

Another flower merchant loads a small bunch of straw flowers, 

known as siempre viva "always alive," which he has grown and 

intends to try selling. 

Lol is handed a small woven bag, full of fresh tortillas and a 

piece of fried egg to eat on the road, which he stuffs into the 

airline bag. 

Everyone relieves himself in the ditch: it will be four or five 

hours on the truck, and often roaming police patrol cars make 

it inconvenient and costly to stop and disgorge passengers on 

the road. This is a produce truck, officially not permitted to 

carry passengers—in fact, not permitted to carry more than 

three in the cabin, so that the four people riding there routinely 

duck below the dashboard when passing intersections where 

police are known to sequester themselves. 

The ride down the mountain begins, twisting through the 

lower hamlets of Zinacantah, past the tumoff to Ixtapa, down 

towards Chiapa, where it begins to get hot. The truck stops for 

gasoline, and the people in the cabin remove their Zinacantec 

tunics. Sweltering under the canvas, which has been securely 

tied down to keep out the prying eyes of police, the vendors 

stretch out to sleep upon bumpy beds of flowers. One Chamula 

kid who begged a ride, mistaking this truck for one of the 

regular Zinacantec trucks that work the San Crist6bal-Tuxtla 

run, pays his fare and exits on the outskirts of Tuxtla, amid 

guffaws from the Zinacantecs who imagine him humping his 

bag of who-knows-what all the way into the market in the 

midday sun. 

Once, when the patrol cars were fewer, the flower trucks 

would make a routine refreshment stop on the way through 

Tuxtla: a cold Coca Cola or a plastic bowl full of what among 

Tuxtlecos passes as ul, a com drink, typically flavored here 

with slightly burned chocolate. But now the truck owner wants 

to hurry on—there is too much chance of meeting a police car. 

In fact, just on the outskirts of town, one appears, lights 

flashing. The policemen signal to the driver to pull over, then 

speed on to stop another truck farther down the road. One 

policeman walks back towards the Zinacantecs. 

Lol curses and extracts a wad of bills from his pocket, 

peeling off a thousand-peso bill14 and handing it to the driver. 

The cop sticks his head in the window. "iComo estamos?" 

he asks indifferently, "How are we?" 

The driver hands over the bill, silently. 

"Orale pues," says the cop, and saunters back to the patrol 

car to join his partner. 

Passing through Ocozocoautla, the truck makes a detour 

through town. Though normally another Zinacantec truck 

brings flowers and produce to this market, one of the Naben 

Chauk people who sells there had sent for a supplementary 

load. The large vehicle lumbers through the narrow streets by 

the Ocozocuautla market, scraping mirrors against awnings, 

and passing close enough to some street vendors that Lol buys 

a mandarin on the fly. Two Zinacantecs appear, wearing only 

their plain white woven shirts, and celeste-colored trousers. 

They receive a bundle of flowers and what looks like a 

forty-liter plastic bag full of Chamula cane liquor—wrapped in 

newspaper and unsuccessfully hidden in one of the ubiquitous 

egg cartons. Then they disappear again into the market. 

The journey continues, out again on the open road. Lol 

suggests a soft-drink stop in Cintalapa, but the driver, not used 

to this route because he is only filling in for his brother, decides 

to press on. No more police cars appear, and after several more 

hours down the twisty coastal range, the truck arrives in 

Arriaga, the first flower stop. 

Four people on board plan to spend the weekend there 

selling: two Naben Chauk men with long-term histories selling 

in Arriaga, another boy who is the employee of this truck's 

owner—also a long-time Arriaga flower vendor who now stays 

with his truck rather than sitting for three days in the market, 

preferring instead to pay someone else to sell for him—and, 

surprisingly, a woman who says she is from Chenalho but 

whom all recognize to be a Chamula in disguise, who has 

managed to secure a regular ride with the Naben Chauk truck. 

The truck makes its way to the market, now quiet and largely 

deserted in the late afternoon, and the Arriaga cargo is 

unloaded. 

Lol steps off the truck and is immediately accosted by an old 

ladino man who asks him to promise to bring five liters of cane 

liquor down with him the following week. "My uncle is having 

a birthday," he explains. As Lol waits, another man comes up 

to the truck from the market. Before it can even be unloaded to 

the ground, he puts both hands on a large watermelon squash 

and starts to bargain for it. He wants it for taverna—a 

sweetened beer fermented inside the squash and known to pack 

a knock-out punch. Perhaps it will be someone else's birthday. 

Several of the Naben Chauk men go into the Arriaga market 

and pick up more bundles of flowers there. These are the exotic 

varieties, delivered, the previous night, from Mexico City by 

yet another Naben Chauk truck. 

Now the last half-hour ride down the road, past the fruit fly 

inspection station, and up behind the Tonala market. It is just 

beginning to get dark, and everyone wants to unload the 

flowers, which are by now feeling as tired as their owners. 

First Lol and the others unload the cargo that goes inside the 

market. All the flower sellers help each other in the process, 

with one man staying on the truck to hand bundles down, and 

the rest hauling one bundle after another up the back ramp and 

into the market. Despite the lateness of the hour, there is lots of 

activity in this part of the market, because another huge truck, 

filled with vegetables and fruits, has arrived from Puebla and is 

beginning to unload. As the Zinacantecs carry their flowers— 

wrapped in leaves, old pieces of plastic sheeting, and tied up 

with tumplines—the local merchants unload wooden crates of 
84 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

mandarins, and fiber bags of cabbages and potatoes, all 

delivered to their stalls by youths with wheeled carts. These 

same youths make joking remarks to the Zinacantecs, jostling 

them and grabbing at their loads as they pass. All seem to be old 

friends. 

Soon the Naben Chauk truck has unloaded half its cargo, and 

it moves around by the covered outside stalls where the 

younger Zinacantec vendors will sell. As the last flowers are 

unloaded, the driver stretches out on the sidewalk to rest up for 

the ride back to the highlands. Xun, the truck owner, takes up 

a broom and sweeps out the flatbed, then wanders around the 

truck, tying up the tarpaulin and brushing bits of debris from 

the paintwork. He has yet to collect the fares for both vendors 

and flowers. He is planning to return to Arriaga to see what 

produce he can carry back to Tuxtla—perhaps watermelons. 

Because of the poor weather, there was a smaller cargo than 

usual this week, and Xun is vaguely worried about his profits 

on this trip. He will charge the flower sellers just less than the 

price of a kilo of meat for their own fare down to Tonala, and 

the same amount for each of their bundles; but with the small 

load this week, the total will not amount to much. A recent 

dispute between the flower sellers has produced a competitor: 

another Naben Chauk truck now makes a flower run to Tonala, 

and Xun is beginning to wonder whether his weekly trip, with 

a reduced load, is still worthwhile. 

Once he has moved all his cargo inside the market, Lol stops 

to have a look at the things for sale from the Puebla truck. He 

has dealt with the owner—a fat Mexican woman with a 

clipboard in her hand—before, and he knows how much she is 

willing to bargain on her prices: not much. He decides to buy 

two dozen gigantic cabbages from her, as well as a bag of 

potatoes. The tangerines, though attractive, he figures to be too 

expensive, even though he is beginning to think that he has 

brought too little produce with him and will not have enough to 

keep selling for the whole weekend. He takes his new 

purchases back and sets to work preparing his wares. 

A few of the Zinacantecs, who have been selling in Tonala 

for several years, have regular spots within the market—not 

normal stalls, but conventional spaces in the aisles where they 

display their produce on Saturdays and Sundays. Lol, in fact, 

has a whole closetful of equipment, stored in various locked 

rooms around the market. For the moment, what he needs are 

his buckets and tubs, which he extracts from the market 

storeroom where he left them the previous week. The flowers 

first: they must be unwrapped and set in water to recover. 

"They must come to life, their souls must return," after being 

tied up so long. The other Zinacantecs who have positions 

inside the market do the same. The carnations and daisies, cut 

with long stems, are put directly into tubs that have been filled 

with water, taken from one of the fish stalls inside the market. 

The feverfew must be trimmed with a knife first, as must the 

lilies, for their stems have gotten crunched during transport. Lol 

also tears away the blackened petals of the lilies. The 

chrysanthemums must be untied and spread, so that they will 

regain their rounded shape. Lol divides the whole cargo of 

flowers in half, and he sets part aside, also in large water tubs, 

to hold until Sunday. Tomorrow he will have to drain and 

replenish the water, for it will turn black by morning. He may 

also have to add a headache tablet—Mejoral or aspirin—to the 

water if the flowers look droopy. 

Lol turns his attention, finally, to the vegetables. The 

watercress also has a very tired look about it, so Lol shakes out 

each bunch and lays them out on the floor on a cardboard box 

so they will not be so tightly bunched. He is afraid they will 

turn yellow before he can sell them. The radishes, packed 

tightly in a bag, seem to be just fine where they are. 

He decides to leave the Puebla cabbages and potatoes alone, 

too, and he strolls out to see how the others are doing. One of 

the Naben Chauk men has brought Chamula potatoes, freshly 

dug and red-skinned, and Lol examines them closely. No good, 

he reckons, too young and too damp. And the Chamulas sent 

them covered with dirt. They need to be washed, and then they 

are likely to start rotting straight away—not like me fancy 

imported potatoes that he has bought from the Puebla truck. 

They are ready to sell, straight from the sack. Another has had 

a disaster: the bagful of fresh coriander that he bought in San 

Crist6bal turns out to have been packed wet, and it is already 

beginning to rot. Against the protests of his fellows he hoists 

the entire bag onto his shoulder and carries it to the refuse heap, 

where he dumps it out. He will have to recoup these costs with 

something else. 

There is some discussion about the carnations. Most of the 

flower sellers have brought carnations from the highlands— 

small, fragrant, red ones, tied up in bunches of about fifteen 

each. But included with the fancy Mexico City flowers are also 

red carnations, these much fuller blossoms, tied up by die 

"dozen" (which, on inspection, turn out to have only eleven 

flowers each). One vendor, Maryan, has the idea that to 

distinguish these "finer" flowers further he should attach a 

sprig of cypress bough to each bundle, so he sets to work 

making this little adornment. 

Lol, however, has finished preparing his cargo, as it is now 

nearly 10 P.M. He has thought of trying to wash, but he decides 

that he won't be able to convince the market caretaker to open 

the toilet room where the water is. Instead, he decides he is 

ready to eat and go to sleep. Tonala is a hot place, and at night, 

when it is merely warm, the people swarm on the streets. They 

stay up to hours unheard of in the chilly Chiapas highlands— 

and likewise they arrive at the market long before dawn, unlike 

the people of San Crist6bal, who wait until it is light to venture, 

well bundled up, to the market. Leaving a couple of flower 

sellers who are still working on their loads, to guard the goods, 

Lol and a couple of companions set out for supper. 

There are currently two eating places favored by the 

Zinacantecs at night: one regular restaurant where one can get 

a plate of chicken and a soft drink for about the cost of the truck 

fare down, the other a twenty-four hour taco joint, with a 
NUMBER 35 85 

television, and a sour-faced waitress, where one orders by the 

piece. Lol elects the latter because of the late hour. Around the 

comer from the tacos there is a boxing match in progress, in 

what looks like a makeshift ring in someone's patio. As they 

gulp down eight tacos apiece, the Zinacantecs can hear the 

shouted bets, even over the din of the Mexican variety show on 

the television, and the steady chopping of the taco-maker's 

cleaver as he works over a pig's head by the entrance. By now, 

everyone has been awake for almost twenty hours, and it is time 

to get back to the market and go to sleep. 

There are several choices here, too. The market is locked up 

at night, except for one rear entrance; but sleeping inside is 

stuffy and unpleasant. Sleeping outside on the empty market 

counters is better, and there one can keep an eye on the 

otherwise unprotected flowers and vegetables; but near the 

building, under the trees, there are always swarms of 

mosquitos. It seems best, tonight, to stretch out on the sidewalk, 

across the street from the market, where one can both sleep 

better and still watch the goods. There is only one worry: a 

crazy man, half naked and muttering to himself, who has 

suddenly appeared near the market. The Zinacantecs lay out 

dieir beds—again, folded egg cartons—on the street, side by 

side, remove their sandals, loosen their belts, and stretch out to 

sleep. Lol carefully hides the huge stones that one of the 

Zinacantecs uses to weigh down his plastic sheeting, so that 

neither madman nor thieves can use them to crush his head 

during the night. Thankfully, the madman finds a step near the 

market and himself nods off. 

In the morning, he has gone. It is four o'clock and the 

Saturday market begins to come to life. Trucks filled with local 

produce draw up to disgorge their contents, currently mostly 

oranges and melons. The ladino shopkeepers arrive to uncover 

their stands and lay out their wares: plastic shoes, bags, belts, 

razors, flashlights, acrylic garments. They dislodge one of the 

Zinacantecs who, worried about the madman rifling his 

vegetables or upsetting his tubs of flowers, had moved up to 

sleep on one of their tables during the night. The other 

Zinacantecs unwrap the blankets that had protected them from 

marauding mosquitos and wander back to their own cargo, 

setting out mats and plastic bags and preparing for the day's 

sales. 

Lol's setting up is more complicated. First he must retrieve 

some additional equipment, which he has stored in the locked 

back room of one of the butchers, near where he sells his 

flowers. He has a stool and several wooden crates, which he 

fashions into a makeshift table, covered with a piece of plastic. 

He also has a wooden cashbox, with a supply of change. His 

complicated system of accounting means keeping the proceeds 

from different sales separate, and the different compartments of 

the box serve this end. He also has a five-kilo scale, which he 

extracts from the box to inspect. It has taken to working badly, 

sticking instead of balancing smoothly, and he fiddles with its 

adjustments and thinks of trying some oil. 

Finally he has a half-empty sack of black beans, and a metal 

measuring can. He purchased the beans the previous week from 

another Zinacantec, and he intends to sell what remains over 

the next two days. 

He begins to arrange his wares by pouring a heap of beans 

out onto his table and measuring a few kilograms into plastic 

bags. Then he stores the flowers and packed vegetables for 

Sunday's sales in the butcher's back room, and arranges the rest 

of the produce on and around his stand: the expensive flowers 

in their tub, on the wall behind him, die rest arranged in 

bunches next to the beans, and the vegetables stacked to one 

side. The radishes are arranged in a circle with the red tubers on 

the outside and the leaves meeting inside. Lol strips the yellow 

leaves from the watercress, and does a last minute touch up to 

any blackened lily petals or withered daisies. Although all the 

cabbages came at the same price from the Puebla truck, he 

selects 10 of them and sorts them into two categories—large 

and small. He will sell the two groups at different prices. 

Almost immediately he has his first sales, but not from 

ordinary customers—some of the regular vegetable vendors 

have been attracted by his handsome radishes, and ask him to 

sell them some on the cheap so that they can, in turn, sell them 

at their own stalls. What's more, they want them on credit. Lol 

obliges, carefully noting down in a small, tattered notebook 

their names and the numbers of bunches they carry away. 

Soon the first marketers begin to appear, and quickly Lol is 

busy selling flowers, beans, cabbages. He has a stash of old 

newspapers—bought there in the market—and string which he 

uses to tie up the bundles of flowers. The plastic bags he bought 

in San Cristobal are for the beans, which he first measures 

either by the kilo or in a liter measuring cup before deftly tying 

them up in the bags. The exact measurements here are critical, 

because Lol's profit margin on beans is tiny and depends on a 

level measuring can or a perfectly balanced scale. One man, a 

regular customer with a ten thousand peso debt from the 

previous week, stops by to pay what he owes. At the same time, 

however, he orders another ten kilos of beans—also on 

credit—and says he will send his helper along for them later in 

the morning. Many of his customers call Lol by name, and 

banter with him as they complain about his prices. "Here," says 

Lol, "everyone knows me. They all look for Lorenzo." 

The coffee woman, from a restaurant on the second floor of 

the market, comes by to take breakfast orders. Lol decides on 

two pieces of sweet bread and a glass of ul, a thick hot gruel, 

but ladino style, made from rice or comstarch, rather than com 

dough. He has by now discovered that his lilies appear to be 

inferior to those of his neighbor; and that the cabbages simply 

will not fetch a price that will render him a profit. Only the 

watercress, which though still looking wilted, is not to be found 

elsewhere in the market, seems to sell well, and Lol stands firm 

on his price. He steps across the aisle to consult with the 

neighbor, another Naben Chauk man called Chaparrito, 

"Shorty." 

"I didn't think you could sell those Puebla cabbages," says 

Shorty. "The only way you can make a profit on cabbages is to 
86 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

buy them from Chamulas. The best thing to do is cut them up 

and sell halves." Shorty also has a suggestion about the beans, 

which appear to have been dusted with a pesticidal powder. 

"Rub them off between your hands," he urges, "and then they 

will look blacker." The two men agree not to go below a 

minimum price for the lilies, and Lol asks Shorty to keep an eye 

on his stall while he goes outside briefly. 

The other Zinacantecs are doing a brisk business in the open 

air. Crowds pass on the street. Young boys, hauling loads for 

stall owners, call at Lol and threaten him with mock punches as 

he sits down to relax with a Naben Chauk friend, selling beets 

(brought from San Cristobal) and mandarins (bought in Tonal£ 

the night before). They watch with curiosity and make 

appropriate comments as a peanut vendor, apparently himself a 

Tzotzil-speaking Chamula, walks past. The sun is up and it is 

beginning to get hot. 

Back inside the market, the meat vendors are also beginning 

to work up some energy. Their selling style is aggressive and 

strident, perhaps because the meat itself has a limited life on the 

counter, and the best cuts go fast. Lol is sandwiched between a 

beef lady, whose husband appears only to cut the major joints, 

leaving the piece-by-piece selling to her, and a chicken lady, 

who sets up a table next to Lol's tubs of carnations. Both talk 

directly to almost everyone who passes by, sometimes trying to 

clutch at them to catch their attention. Lol sits silently, only 

occasionally brandishing an old broom handle when a dog 

comes too near where he sits. His regular customers come to 

him, and he usually waits until a prospective customer has 

finished pawing through the radishes or shaking the bunches of 

daisies, before he offers her a price or ventures a suggestion. He 

bargains only minimally, having decided on his prices the night 

before in consultation with the other Naben Chauk people. 

Little by little his piles begin to diminish. Lol carefully puts 

the beans proceeds in a plastic bag, and the money from the sale 

of the daisies—products of his own gardening—under a piece 

of cardboard in his cashbox, so as to keep these accounts 

separate. There is a constant commerce in small bills, as the 

vendors begin to call on each others' cash supplies to make 

change, as the day wears on. The restaurant lady comes by to 

collect her glass and the price of the com drink, and to see what 

Lol will have for lunch, there at the stall. The chicken lady sells 

her last battery hen, and leaves temporarily to bring more from 

the main stall of which she is only a satellite. The beef lady 

begins to spread sea salt on the remaining pieces of meat 

hanging from the rack in front of her. She also calls out to Lol 

to save her several bunches of watercress and radish, and she 

sends her daughter across the aisle to pick out four bunches of 

flowers, which Lol gives her for nothing. 

Outside the Zinacantecs are now in direct sunlight, and they 

pull back their wares into the shade of the trees or erect 

emergency tents made out of plastic sheeting and woven 

fertilizer bags. The crowds have thinned, fleeing the midday 

heat. The flowers, and their owners, are beginning to wilt, but 

they eat their lunches there at the stalls, hoping to catch some 

late shoppers. Lol emerges again, this time to gossip with the 

other Zinacantecs about political machinations within the 

market. Some of the Tonala stall owners have, it appears, 

lodged a complaint about the growing number of Zinacantecs 

who are selling vegetables that they buy in Tonala instead of 

highland produce. The market administrator is being asked to 

prohibit them from the market, but Lol scoffs at the business. 

"They want to be the only ones who eat," he says, "but this is 

a public market." No one has said anything to him, in any case, 

and it is only the newer vendors, selling outside the market 

without established positions, who have been criticized. 

Throughout the afternoon sales are slow. Lol, in fact, packs 

up everything but a few tired-looking flowers and—ever 

hopeful—the cabbages, and settles back to read the latest issue 

of Kalimdn, a superhero comic, which he borrows from Shorty. 

The butchers close up shop, admonishing Lol to be sure to lock 

the storeroom after he puts his things away. The chicken lady 

goes into a frenzy of hawking to rid herself of the last wings and 

feet and herself departs. The fish vendors, with whom Lol has 

had several long conversations about market politics, stack the 

remaining fresh fish on an ice-filled wheelbarrow, and head for 

home. It appears to be time to prepare for the evening. 

Tonala's three movie theaters, closed for many years, have 

once again become an attraction in the town. Shorty proposes 

that they go to the only decent picture in town, a kung fu movie 

showing near the central plaza, and he asks the watchman to 

give him access to the washroom to take a bath. Lol stores his 

flowers and follows suit. Lol quickly reviews his take for the 

day and discovers that he has managed to earn back his costs 

and has a small profit, after one day of selling. Both men take 

the money for their evening meal and the movie ticket from 

their cashboxes, and set out, returning to find the other 

Zinacantecs already asleep on the sidewalk. 

The next day, Sunday, proceeds much like Saturday, except 

that Lol and his companions begin to feel anxious to head for 

the highlands by early afternoon. Lol manages to sell nearly 

everything except the poorest of his daisies, a bunch of 

extremely haggard-looking calla lilies, and the wretched 

cabbages, which he has been trying to sell at a loss. Finally he 

trades the lot, with much obscenity and mutual criticism, with 

one of the Zapotec ladies from Juchitan, who also sells flowers 

and fruits. She gives him two watermelons, which he stuffs 

inside his airplane bag, and she reminds him that he still has not 

brought her the bootleg cane liquor he has promised for 

months. He threatens to come back and marry her, husband or 

no husband (and, in his case, wife or no wife). 

Then he stores his tubs and boxes away, hides his wad of 

bills on his person, and leaves the market, giving farewell 

greetings to the several Naben Chauk men who are still trying 

to sell their last bunches of flowers or a final watermelon 

squash. A couple of ladino women call after him, "Adios, 

Lorenzo!" He heads for the first-class bus station. He hopes to 
NUMBER 35 87 

be in time for the 4 o'clock direct bus to nxtla, where he can 

get a second-class bus home to Naben Chauk, and go to sleep 

in his own bed before midnight. 

The History of the Flower Business 

Lo1 and his companions have organized their lives for nearly 

twenty years around weekly trips to lowland markets, selling 

flowers and fruit, and occasionally supplementing their income 

with other related ventures. Lo1 undoubtedly gave the 

watermelons he smuggled back from Tonalh to his children to 

eat-they had to be smuggled because fruit is not permitted 

past the fruit fly checkpoint on the outskirts of Tonalh, and bl 

ran the risk of confiscation as he carried them home on the 

Crist6bal Col6n bus. At certain seasons of the year, however, it 

is worthwhile bringing larger quantities of hot country fruits 

back from the coast, to sell at fiestas in the highlands. 

Sometimes watermelons, lemons, or mangos are cheap and 

plentiful in Aniaga, and the flower vendors arrange with their 

truck driver to carry quantities home for resale. And Lo1 is just 

one among many; flower resellers ply their trade in Tuxtla 

Gutierrez and Chiapa de Corzo, in Cintalapa and Ocozocoautla, 

in Aniaga, or even as far as Huixtla and Pijijiapan, on the 

I".,. .' I. P 

Chiapas coast. l5 

However, the Zinacantec flower trade has not always been so 

elaborate. According to Bunin (1966), the flower business 

began in Naben Chauk sometime prior to 1950, doubtless aided 

in its early growth by the construction of the Pan-American 

Highway, which linked Naben Chauk and its neighboring 

hamlets directly by road to markets in San Cristbbal, lbxtla, 

and beyond.16 This is when an increasing number of Naben 

Chauk people began to grow flowers for sale, furthering the 

process that, in Mol Xun's recollections, began with the felling 

of the forests and produced Naben Chauk's lake. Indeed, many 

farmers planted their flower fields on the flat, damp valley 

floor, and even on the very edge of the lake (or, at least, where 

they calculated the lake would reach during the wet season), to 

simplify irrigation. Commercial flower growing, then, appears 

to have nearly a forty-year history-long enough that for most 

people in Naben Chauk, flowers, like peaches, have always 

been there. 

The personal reminiscences of both Petul, now in his 

seventies, and bl, thirty years younger, show us how the 

business has evolved from a casual supplement to household 

ready cash to a personally transforming profession. Moreover, 

the progression from Mol Xun, the muleteer, to his son Petul, 

FIGURE 21.-Arranging flower stall at the market, 'hxtla GutiCrrez, 1983. (Photo by John B. Haviland.) 
88 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

the com farmer par excellence, to his nephew Lol, the 

comerciante or "businessman" with a shadowy other life in 

Tonala, demonstrates the genealogy of economic and social 

change in Zinacantan. 

Finding Jalisco 

Lol had mentioned that Petul, his uncle, was one of the 

oldtimers who used to go to Tonala, and who were selling there 

when he took up the business as a youth. Petul, in turn, 

attributes his start in Tonala17 to one Antun T'ot'ob, who was 

the first to discover the road down to the coast, sometime 

around 1949 or 1950. 

Before that, during peach season, Petul and his father, Mol 

Xun—along with others from Naben Chauk—used to sell their 

peaches, their hawthorns, their chayotes, and watermelon 

squash to a casero, a man from Chiapa de Corzo, named Juan 

Xantis (Sanchez). They would set out with their mules from 

Naben Chauk before dawn, arriving in Chiapa about noon, with 

their peaches all packed into big bags. Often Juan Xantis would 

ride up the road to intercept them above Chiapa, not far below 

Ixtapa, probably to avoid competition from other peach buyers. 

Petul says they used to do this for many years. They would 

often sell all their cargo on the road and then turn around and 

come straight home. This Xantis had over a dozen horses, and 

he would take the produce back to Chiapa himself. When asked 

what he did with the stuff, he would say that he sold it in a place 

too far away for the Zinacantecs to get to. "Jalisco," he called 

it.18 

At some point, Antun T'ot'ob, unsatisfied and curious, 

decided to find out where this place was. He made an 

expedition with one of the ladino men from Naben Chauk, who 

had moved there from Salinas after the new Pan-American 

Highway had replaced the old road from the lowlands. The 

highway already passed through Naben Chauk at that point, 

although it was not yet paved. The two men went to Chiapa de 

Corzo, then took a truck to Tuxtla, walked to the far edge of 

town, and from there made their way by truck or bus to 

Arriaga—which is where they discovered the casero had been 

selling the peaches all along. 

When Antun came back to Naben Chauk, he told the others 

that they were being robbed by the Chiapanec. They decided to 

mount an expedition as a group to the newfound market. Petul 

himself decided to take four sacks of peaches. 

They stacked their loads up by the first curve, where the 

highway passes through Naben Chauk, and they waited all 

night for a truck that would take them. Finally a huge truck 

responded to their calls of "Arriaga!"19 The truck driver agreed 

to take them but told them the charge for their bundles would be 

very high: three pesos per sack of peaches. He refused to 

bargain the price down to 2.50 pesos. Each person paid a fare 

of fifteen pesos.20 They left about dawn and got to Arriaga in 

late afternoon, piling their stuff up by the side of the road. 

Antun asked whether they might want to go on to Tonala, a 

place he had never been but only heard about. He suggested 

they could simply ask where the market was and try their luck 

at selling. So they flagged down a bus and went down the road 

to Tonala. The fare was 2.50 pesos per person and another 3 

pesos per sack. 

When they arrived, all the townspeople gathered around to 

see what they had brought, and they sold almost the entire load 

the first afternoon. They slept overnight. The next day, the 

remaining peaches were quickly sold, with people asking when 

they would be back next with more of the same. Petul 

remembers that this first trip was near the end of peach season 

already, so they didn't have many more trips left that year. He 

also remembers that on that first trip he came home with the 

almost incredible sum of 2500 pesos, which would have been 

a small fortune in those days. 

They saw the casero Juan Xantis in Arriaga on that trip, and 

Petul remembers speaking with him. "Have you arrived, 

Petul?" asked the Chiapanec. "Where is my load of peaches?" 

"Well, that's all finished now," Petul replied, "since I have seen 

the road for myself." After that Petul never remembers seeing 

that casero again. 

For the next seven or eight years, Petul made regular trips to 

Tonala, and elsewhere on the coast. He always preferred 

Tonala, because that's where he seemed best able to sell his 

peaches. Other men of his generation from Naben Chauk also 

traveled regularly to the coast: Antun, who had first made die 

trip, as well as Petul's brothers-in-law and friends. They made 

the trip to Pijijiapan about twice, doing very well, and on to 

Pueblo Nuevo, where they didn't sell much because of 

competing fruit coming down from the highlands of Motozintla. Once they also set out for Tapachula, but never got that 

far, having been warned that there were already plenty of 

peaches there. 

Petul remembers that they always used to go down to Tonala 

in their traditional short pants and dieir beribboned handwoven palm hats, called semet "griddle" for their flat, 

wide-brimmed shape. As a result they underwent lots of 

ribbing: "your penis will be visible," people joked, "and your 

legs will get sunburned." People urged them to wear long pants. 

Petul's father, Mol Xun, when he came to hear of diis new 

fashion, mercilessly mocked the people involved for "making 

themselves into non-Indians." He also criticized Petul for 

wasting his money on storebought trousers. 

During this period of selling peaches, old Mol Xun never 

went to the Chiapas coast, although Petul remembered his 

father's telling him of going there long ago to deliver cane 

liquor, by horse, taking forty days for the round trip. The 

tradition of Zinacantec commerce, first by mule and foot, later 

by bus, and most recently by trucks owned by Zinacantecs, 

themselves, thus has a long tradition. 

Why did Petul stop going to Tonala to sell? Too many young 

men, he says, who had gotten their starts following die trail 

blazed by men of Petul's generation, started to take over the 

business—people like Lol. These young men wouldn't give the 
NUMBER 35 89 

older men space any more, because they began to set up a more 

or less permanent trade there (unlike Petul and his companions, 

who used to go only once or twice a year during the peach 

season). The advent of flowers totally transformed the business. 

Jun vwelta chiyelk'an xa ox li aktavuse: "Once, I 

remember, the passing bus tried to steal me." 

How, men, does Lol remember his own path to becoming a 

flower seller? His story21 gives a clear picture of the evolution 

of the life of the new Zinacantec flower sellers. 

Lol began selling flowers, on the highway at the edge of the 

Naben Chauk valley, when he was a boy, barely into his teens. 

When he began to sell flowers, however, he was already 

experienced in the world of ladino work. Never attracted to 

com farming in the lowlands, where his father routinely took 

him, as soon as he was old enough to travel on his own, he 

began to earn money for the family by working on paying jobs, 

such as road building and construction. 

Lol began to learn Spanish, not in school—which he 

attended for a total of one half day—but rather doing road work 

in the lowlands, smuggled onto the job by his older brother 

who, like Lol, preferred earning some money to sitting in a 

classroom. Lol was, he remembers, still too young to drink the 

tequila that the Mexican road workers offered, although little 

by little, though, he learned to read from them. 

It was when he worked on construction sites in Tuxtla that 

Lol also began to enter the fringes of market life. Sometimes 

early in the morning, sometimes in the afternoon, after 

finishing his daily quota of trenches dug or bricks laid, he 

would go to the Tuxtla market and sit around on the street 

comers where people unloaded their cargo. There he could 

often pick up a few centavos hauling fruits and flowers from the 

trucks to the market stalls, or even carrying some lady's 

shopping bags. 

Back in Naben Chauk, Lol began commerce in flowers 

himself, buying them from neighbors and hawking them to 

passing vehicles on the Pan-American Highway. The only 

flowers to be had at that time were red geraniums, ubiquitous in 

Zinacantec ritual and grown for profit mainly by two Naben 

Chauk brothers, who made their living this way. Lol would buy 

a small quantity, whenever he had time free from the cornfield 

or the construction site, and set himself up in a small makeshift 

flower stall on the edge of the Pan-American Highway. 

Sometimes alone, and sometimes with a few friends, he would 

hold the flowers aloft to passing cars and buses, selling to 

whoever "had the urge to buy them." 

Little by little, Lol began perfecting his trading techniques. 

He first added red gladioli, bought from a new flower grower 

whose fields were on the valley floor. He would find some 

thick sticks, and tie the geraniums to them so that they would 

stand up in an eye-catching display. Then he would array the 

gladioli against a horizontal pole and wait for passing Mexicans 

to buy them. The profits were meager, but they were sufficient 

for him to continue with the business for several years, 

whenever his obligations to his father's cornfields left him free 

time. 

Once, he remembers, a passing bus tried to "steal" him. 

Stopping apparently to buy his flowers, several Mexicans, who 

Lol was convinced were going to abduct him, got off the bus. 

He ran away in terror, leaving his flowers lying where they 

were, and finding them gone when he finally returned to have 

a look. Soon thereafter, disillusioned with the roadside 

business, Lol began to look for other ways to make a living. 

Although people from Naben Chauk were, by this time, 

growing large quantities of commercially saleable flowers, few 

were actively involved in selling the flowers in ladino markets. 

They might sell a few flowers to hamlet-mates who needed 

them for curing ceremonies or for offerings at the church, but 

only a few specialists were, in those days, carrying flowers for 

resale to the markets of Tuxtla and San Crist6bal. One of these 

was Maryan P., whom Lol approached in conversation, 

begging to be taken along on a selling trip to Tuxtla. Maryan 

agreed and set Lol to work going house to house in Naben 

Chauk buying daisies for resale in the Tuxtla market. People 

had, according to Lol, perhaps seen a daisy here or there being 

sold in a marketplace. They had begun to start cultivating them, 

though most of the growers "didn't know how to sell them." 

Maryan P., now with Lol as his apprentice, began taking 

quantities of daisies to Tuxtla to sell. 

Lol began making the trip himself, throughout the week, 

selling his daisies on the Tuxtla streets near the old central 

market. The flowers came exclusively from Naben Chauk, and 

Lol remembers clearly the price spiral of the early years. A load 

of one hundred bunches of daisies went from three tostones 

(half-peso coins) to two pesos, to three pesos. Lol's profit on 

such a bundle would, in turn, be two or three pesos. With 

particular clarity he recalls one spectacular success on a New 

Year's day when he chanced to be the only flower seller in the 

market. On that day he sold the flowers retail at three bunches 

for "two bits" (twenty-five centavos), or eight pesos per 

hundred bunches. This profit was cause for celebration when he 

brought it home to his family. 

All during Lol's youth he remembers Naben Chauk's 

peaches. The older men, of his father's generation, used to sell 

the fruits during the height of the season. His uncles, including 

Petul, were part of the group of men who went regularly to 

Tonala. Lol's father had many peach trees, and he would 

ordinarily sell his entire crop to a neighbor, Mikel Buluch, who 

would pay him five centavos for two peaches, the variety called 

karera, which used to be planted throughout the Naben Chauk 

valley before fancier new peach varieties, along with plums, 

pears, and apples, were introduced. 

By this time, old Maryan P., Lol's first mentor, had also 

begun to carry flowers to Tonala. Again Lol asked to 

accompany him, and again the old man agreed to take Lol on as 

apprentice. The first trip took place in the early 1960s. The two 

men traveled by second-class bus to Tuxtla, changing there for 

another bus to Arriaga. Before entering the town they got off at 
90 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

the Tonala crossroads to flag down a passing vehicle on the 

short, gravel-paved stretch to Tonala. On this trip the two men 

took only two bundles of flowers, one of white daisies and the 

other of small white carnations. 

Arriving at the Tonala market, Lol and his guide faced 

another problem: where to set themselves up to sell. The 

problem was that another pair of Zinacantecs, also from Naben 

Chauk, was already in Tonala. They, too, were regular flower 

vendors who left the highlands in order to arrive with their 

flowers late on Fridays. Lol's guide, Maryan P., had calculated 

the schedule so as to get to Tonala about the time their rivals 

would be finishing their loads of flowers. The plan was sound, 

but at first, early on Saturday morning, there was simply no 

place for them to set up, because the other Zinacantecs had 

claimed all the available flower-selling space. By around ten 

o'clock, one of the Naben Chauk men finished selling all he 

had. As he prepared to go back to the highlands, he spoke to Lol 

and Maryan, offering them his place at the market. They set up 

their wares and themselves began selling, staying until late the 

next day, Sunday, long after the other Zinacantecs had gone 

home. 

This was Lol's first visit to the coast, and apart from flower 

selling, which was diverting albeit slow, he found the 

experience frightening and unpleasant. Worst of all was the 

heat: a hot sun that meant one felt like drinking one soft drink 

after another, day and night. In those days the market sat behind 

the municipal palacio, to one side of a large movie theater at 

one edge of the town square. The Zinacantecs slept out in the 

open, or under the roof in front of the town hall where, Lol 

remembers, the soldiers "watched after them" at night, also 

making it unnecessary to sleep right in the market with the 

flowers. 

When the flowers were finished, Lol and his partner returned 

to the highlands by flagging down a truck at the gasoline station 

on the outskirts of Tonala and seeing how far they could get 

before taking a bus. This happened about 1961, four years 

before Lol married, although the exact dates are lost in Lol's 

memory, as are the costs, long ago, of flowers or transport. 

Lol accompanied Maryan P. on several more trips, until he 

saw for himself that it was "worthwhile," and gained the 

confidence to try for himself. The old man continued to sell, 

and Lol would accompany him to Tonala, but carrying his own 

cargo. He experimented with selling in other places. In 

Cintalapa, between Tuxtla and the coast, Lol found the people 

unpleasant. In Arriaga, the first stop on the coast, where Lol 

also tried selling, people wouldn't pay good prices for his 

produce. In those days he could buy fruit in Naben Chauk at the 

rate of fifty large peaches for between two and three tostones 

(fifty-centavo coins)—an average, say, of three centavos each; 

in Arriaga he could resell the peaches for at most three for 20 

centavos, or worse, at five centavos apiece. In Tonali, by 

contrast, people gladly paid ten centavos each. Lol also tried 

selling farther away, in Tapachula, before he established 

himself in Tonala. 

Thereafter, he began to make regular trips to the coast every 

Friday, returning to the highlands on Mondays after selling all 

he could. Sometimes when he had left-over cargo in Tonate, he 

would go early on Sunday mornings to Pjijiapan, farther down 

the coast, to try to hawk the left-over produce near the train 

station, or walking from door to door. Once he had a regular 

routine, he thereafter rarely missed the weekend trips. During 

peach season, he sometimes made two trips in a week, returning 

to Naben Chauk late on Sunday in order to buy more fruit in 

San Crist6bal before going back down to the coast on Monday. 

By this time, by his own reckoning, Lol was beginning to get 

smarter. There was a large group of elder Zinacantecs, 

including several of Lol's uncles, who banded togemer to carry 

the peach crop to market in Tonala and Arriaga. They were, as 

Lol puts it, the one who gave the orders for Arriaga and Tonall 

They had made a regular arrangement with the owner of a 

pickup truck from Chiapa de Corzo to take them down to the 

coastal markets every week, or every three days, depending on 

the season. Lol asked them if they would take him with them on 

these trips. "No room," was the reply. These men wanted no 

one else to invade the market. 

Lol did follow a couple of these senior men on their buying 

trips to San Crist6bal. They would buy peaches from 

non-Indian women from town, who would sell their crop in die 

small plaza at the foot of the church of Guadalupe in town. 

Sometimes they would contract with a Zinacantec to climb the 

peach trees and harvest the fruit himself. Zinacantec resellers 

competed with each other to comer the peach crop, intercepting 

potential vendors as they walked into San Crist6bal on dieir 

way to market. 

Unsuccessful in finding a ride to the coast with the older men 

from his hamlet, Lol decided simply to set out on his own. He 

would transport his cargo of peaches and flowers home from 

San Cristobal by truck. Then, despite the relatively high cost, 

he would stop the second-class bus as it passed through Naben 

Chauk, and make the trip to Tonala in that way. He discovered 

that he could get to Tonald before the others. They would arrive 

and greet him angrily when they found that he was already in 

the market selling. 

This was clearly a time of much competition and animosity 

between the Zinacantecs who engaged in reselling. Lol quickly 

found a companion, another man who could not capture a ride 

from the Naben Chauk elders. This man was called Juan Goat, 

an evil-tempered man with a scraggly beard, which stuck out in 

clumps like a goat's. He had come from another hamlet to take 

a Naben Chauk bride. His father-in-law was one of the Naben 

Chauk elders who sold peaches in Tonala, but he had a falling 

out with the other men and no longer was included in die 

pick-up group. He and Lol began to transport their loads to 

Tuxtla by truck, then making their way to the far side of the city 

in order to try to flag down a ride to the coast on the large 

corn-transport trucks. Juan Goat was experienced at this 

business, knowing which trucks tended to charge exorbitant 

fares—and cursing them as they passed. Lol followed the older 
NUMBER 35 91 

man's lead, learning the details of the complicated network of 

transport between highland and coast. 

Lol's memories of his growing involvement with the flower 

trade focus, in fact, on transport. After he and Juan Goat got 

tired of flagging down trucks on the road out of Tuxtla, they 

started investigating bus schedules in more detail. There was 

the green bus, known as "Corzo," that left TUxtla for the Coast 

at 9 A.M.; there were slower second-class buses to Arriaga; and 

from Arriaga there were several different trucks that would 

carry the Zinacantecs to Tonala, in particular a very large 

com-hauling truck belonging to a Chiapanec called Belisario, 

with whom Lol often rode. 

It was through Belisario that Lol met old Jos6, another ladino 

from Chiapa de Corzo, who had a small flatbed truck with 

wooden slat sides. Jos6 would drive from San Crist6bal, where 

his wife had a house, down to Tonali to buy fresh shrimp and 

fish, which he then transported back to the highlands for sale. 

Sometimes he would take a small quantity of fruit or flowers 

with him—Lol remembers that even though he owned a truck 

he was still wretched enough to try peddling the flowers on the 

Tonala streets—but his principal interest was the fish. Lol made 

Jos6's acquaintance and begged a ride for Juan Goat and 

himself; the fare was three pesos for each bundle of flowers and 

five pesos for each person. This arrangement lasted for a long 

time, giving way finally when one of Jose's brothers-in-law, a 

certain Humberto who had a larger truck, began to take the 

Zinacantecs on a regular basis. At first, Humberto arranged to 

take Lol and his Zinacantec friends in another small pickup, 

taking them to Arriaga and Tonala and dropping them off once 

or twice a week, depending on the season. 

About this time, Lol reports, his fortunes began to change. 

Before he had been the apprentice, watching the older people 

sell and learning from them how to travel, how to sell, how to 

negotiate the Tonala marketplace. Now, however, people began 

to come to him. "Do you have a truck?" they would say. "I do," 

he would tell them. "Let's have a drink," they would say, "we 

want to go too. Take us with you." From learner Lol was 

transformed into boss. He began to have, as he put it, his own 

men—his own followers. As some of the old timers began to 

give up the business, some of the other elders themselves 

started coming to Lol, begging to be included in his trips. 

Lol also began to establish contacts in Tonala. An elderly 

woman, near whose stall he often set up his flower stand at the 

market, became his friend and adviser. She gave him hints 

about how to display his wares, and how to set prices. She gave 

him space for some of his marketing paraphernalia—clothes, a 

money box, measures and weights—and she often let him sleep 

over at her house. After she retired from the market stall, she 

remained a resource for him, letting him bathe at her house, and 

from time to time advising him about some of his more dubious 

enterprises (such as selling bootleg cane liquor, smuggled from 

the highlands to coastal cantinas). 

During this period, Lol also decided to marry, putting 

together the necessary capital during a year-long courtship. He 

would take his prospective wife's family's chayotes with him 

to the coast, and deliver the profits to his in-laws-to-be. 

Humberto did so well with his transport business, that he 

ultimately bought a brand new seven-ton Dodge truck. Now he 

could really hold cargo! Humberto also acquired a woman 

partner who sold radishes, lettuces, and tomatoes in Tonala\ 

The truck would leave from San Crist6bal each Friday, and 

then return from the coast on Sunday or Monday, leaving Lol 

and his partners off at home in Naben Chauk. The cost was 

higher—five pesos per load of cargo and ten pesos per 

person—but still less than the bus fare, and clearly both more 

secure and more convenient than standing by the roadside. The 

added cargo capacity, and also the need to fill the truck to make 

the journey profitable, meant that more of Lol's "friends" 

began to join the regular weekend trip to the coast—with 

flowers, with fruit, sometimes with the vegetables that could be 

found in the San Crist6bal market. 

Lol reckons the crucial dates from this period with a 

genealogical calendar, anchored to a transport milestone: the 

shift from a dependence on non-Indian transport to the use of a 

Zinacantec-owned truck. The social details are complex, 

although the economics are simple: Lol and his friends 

calculated that it would be both cheaper and more reliable to 

organize their flower business around a fellow Zinacantec's 

truck, once Zinacantecs began to own their own vehicles. The 

chronology, as Lol reconstructs it, was as follows. Lol married 

in 1965, and his first two children, sons, were bom in 1966 and 

1969. During that time he was "working with Humberto," that 

is, transporting his cargo of flowers to Tonala on the 

Chiapanec's truck. By this time, the flower business was 

changing. The elders from Naben Chauk, including Lol's 

uncles, had gotten too old and had started to withdraw not just 

from regular trading but even from seasonal peach selling, 

leaving the rigors of distant travel to the younger men who 

dedicated themselves to the trade, and who, like Lol, had 

acquired both linguistic and practical expertise in negotiating a 

non-Indian world. 

The case of Xun Martines was typical: like many elder men 

of his generation, he would invest large amounts of cash in 

buying and transporting peaches to Tonala during the fruit 

season, which normally came just as the cornfield weeding 

season finished. The quick profit on peaches could thus offset 

the costs of intensive cornfield labor. A single disaster, 

however, could wipe out one's investment and sour one's 

enthusiasm, and this is what happened to Martines. One entire 

load of peaches, perhaps packed wet, perhaps mishandled on 

the road, arrived damaged in Tonala. There ensued a massive 

argument with the other peach vendors, both Zinacantecs and 

natives of Tonala. Unable to sell the fruit to the Tonald 

resellers, the hapless Xun had to throw the entire load onto the 

market rubbish heap. "Forget it," he said—according to 

Lol—and "went back to the milpa." 

At the same time, younger men from Naben Chauk—men 
92 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

with neither their own land nor much experience at farming 

com—began to approach Lol, now known as an expert at 

"business," for help in launching their own flower selling 

careers. Most of these youths were unmarried or newly 

married; many were Lol's cousins or childhood playmates. 

None of them knew "where to sell or how to sell," but all were 

anxious to learn. Coming to Lol with a bottle, they would beg 

for the chance to join Lol's group. "Let's drink," they would 

say, "take us down with you to sell. Show me the road." Lol 

claims credit for giving most of the Naben Chauk flower 

vendors their start in Arriaga and Tonala. 

It was as the group of "his people" grew that Lol became 

friendly with one of the first Zinacantec truck owners, a man 

from Na Chij. The fares on other trucks and buses had begun to 

rise; from five pesos per person, the cost had risen to seven, and 

then to ten pesos. Lol took his own bottle to his wealthy 

countryman, proposing a deal in which the truck owner would 

make a regular weekly trips to Tonald, just as the Chiapanec 

had been doing. Within a year, by 1971 or so, Lol had sealed 

this arrangement by making the truck owner his compadre, 

convincing the man to serve as baptismal godfather to his third 

child, a daughter, and later to the sibling who followed 

thereafter. 

The flower sellers were agreed that it was better to travel 

with a countryman, especially when he had his truck sitting 

there ready and waiting. More than municipal loyalty was at 

work however: with the Na Chij man the vendors could travel 

on credit, leaving payment for a trip until after the selling was 

complete and profits were in hand. Lol recalls, in fact, that 

before he made the truck owner his compadre they occasionally 

had drunken arguments: 

"Sometimes we would ask to ride on credit down to the 

coast. We wouldn't pay him when he left us off, but only 

after we had finished selling. Then sometimes he would get 

drunk, the poor old fellow, and he would say to me, 'You 

bastard, are you ever going to pay your debt?' 

'"I'll pay it, of course,' I would say, 'but I don't have it 

now.' We used to fight with each other, when he would get 

drunk. 

"But when he was sober, he'd always just say, 'Let's 

go.' He knew we'd all pay sooner or later. Anyway, my 

compadre made a success of it, in the end. He really made 

most of his money by hauling flowers to Tonala and 

Arriaga." 

In fact, from a tentative beginning with a rickety secondhand truck, which ultimately broke down entirely on the road to 

Arriaga, this Na Chij truck owner progressed to a new three-ton 

truck, and later to a huge seven-ton truck, which carried enough 

cargo that Naben Chauk flower sellers who traded in 

Ocozocoautla and Cintalapa also joined the weekly trip from 

the highlands. A few people from other hamlets, particularly 

Apas, joined the trip from time to time. Again, Lol was the 

boss; people who wanted to join the journey negotiated with 

him. 

Lol's regular trading in Tonala thus now spans more than 

twenty years. From an irregular beginning, selling seasonal 

fruit from a curb-side stand, Lol has gradually incorporated 

himself fully into the TonaM market. Each Naben Chauk man 

now has a well-defined spot at the market where he, or his 

designated replacement, sells every week. There was a time, 

however, when a scrambling competition for space threatened 

the unity of Lol's "group." 

"You see, I didn't always go every week. I occupied 

myself with other things sometimes, you see. But then 

when I would go back the next week, well I didn't know 

where to set up my stand. That Chep Tojtik had seen my 

spot before, and he never failed to go down, every single 

week. So I would arrive on Friday, and I wouldn't have any 

place to set myself down. Well that's because Chep had told 

his brother Maryan: 'Here. Take this spot; it's unoccupied.' 

But that's where I would have gone to set up my stall. So 

we were about to start fighting about it, trying to steal each 

other's spot. We were going to become enemies over it. 

"But then I decided—just forget it. Never mind. And I 

found another spot." 

Finding a good spot at the market had been a matter of 

getting to Tonala early and staking one's claim. Moreover, me 

competition involved more than Zinacantecs. Lol remembers 

that the ladinos from the nearby ranches would often storm into 

the market early on Saturday mornings and chase the Indians 

away, in order to set out their own produce. However, once the 

Zinacantecs established a regular system of transport, die rest 

of the organization—places to sell, prices on common produce, 

cooperation over watching cargo, eating, and entertainment— 

became similarly regimented. Each Zinacantec now pays a 

standing market rent on his place, which is accordingly 

reserved for him by the market administrator. Most of die 

regular vendors, like Lol, have an arrangement widi one of die 

stall owners for storing buckets, scales, boxes, plastic sheets. 

Most, too, have their regular customers, week after week. 

Lol's memories of his flower-selling career end, however, 

with a lament. He thinks with envy of old Jos6 from Chiapa de 

Corzo, the man who used to give him a ride to the coast. 

"And that old Jose" that I told you about, the guy widi die 

little truck. Today he has a house of two stories. There's a 

big house there, with a sort of arch, on the comer near die 

gasoline station, on the road out towards San Crist6bal.... 

That's where Josd's house is. It's a very nice house, two 

stories. He even has a car. That's all from his selling, mat's 

how he made it. And he used to do that, too: when he 

couldn't sell all his fruits and flowers at the market, he 

would go out hawking them from door to door." 

Worse, Lol looks around at the other Naben Chauk men 

whose flower-selling careers he helped to start, and he 

compares their circumstances to his own. His brother, his 
NUMBER 35 

cousin, his nephew, and several of his earlier apprentices, have 

all gone from flower vendors to truck owners. Indeed, Lo1 

currently transports his own flowers on his brother's truck, 

bought, Lol calculates, on the brother's profits from selling 

flowers in Arriaga (a task the brother now contracts out to a 

younger man, while he himself stays with the truck). Worse 

still, another flower-vendor 's truck has recently22 started a 

competing weekly trip to Tonal6 and Arriaga, prompting a 

bitter division within the group of Naben Chauk men who sell 

flowers there. 

Despite his brick house with a concrete roof in Naben Chauk, 

and despite his political career as a hamlet official, Lo1 

compares himself unfavorably with his fellows in the flower 

business. 

"They have made a success out of it. But not me-I 

drink too much liquor! I never managed to save any money. 

Can't afford a truck." 

Jamaica 

hl's reminiscences bring us close to the present day, but 

omit what is in some ways the most noteworthy aspect of the 

recent flower business in Naben Chauk: its expansion into 

distant markets, and the concomitant expansion in knowledge 

and experience, social and otherwise, among the flower sellers. 

In the late 1970s, a group of Zinacantecs began to look beyond 

the San Crist6bal markets, and their own or their neighbors* 

gardens, for the flowers they would sell in lowland markets. 

Around 1980, one enterprising Naben Chauk flower vendor, 

Maryan K., now himself a truck owner, introduced an 

innovation into the business. He had been involved in selling 

flowers for some years, and being an inquiring fellow (bl says 

he has "a clever and lively head"), he had made the 

acquaintance of some of the other flower traders who arrived in 

Tuxtla This group included some who knew of the flower 

markets in Mexico City. Once he got wind of the possibility of 

buying flowers more cheaply in distant markets, he decided to 

investigate, traveling by bus and asking around in Puebla and 

Mexico City. 

Maryan made one trip entirely on his own to Mexico City, 

and then he invited his friend Lnl, and together they made two 

more trips by bus, amving at the huge Jamaica flower market 

in the center of Mexico City. They hired commercial transport 

trucks to haul their flowers back to Arriaga (whence Maryan 

went to lhxtla to sell them, and Lol to Tonalti). Then they 

decided to find a truck of their own, and bl contracted with his 

cornpadre, the truck owner from Na Chij, who at that point had 

never been to Mexico City. It was Maryan K. himself who 

guided that first truck into the city. 

By the mid 1980s, men from Naben Chauk had a flourishing 

trade in exotic flowers, which were acquired on weekly trips to 

Mexico City, in several Zinacantec trucks. These trips continue 

to the present day, and as I noted at the beginning of this 

RGuRE 22.-Zinacantecs loading flowers at the Jamaica Market, Mexico City, 

1985. (Photo by John B. Haviland.) 

chapter, they are now supplemented by telephoned orders and 

airfreight delivery from the Distrito Federal to the Tuxtla 

airport! 

The trips to Mexico City have furthered the practical and 

social education that spending long periods selling and living in 

ladino towns had already begun for these Zinacantecs. The 

following brief sketch of a typical trip23 may suggest how the 

commerce in flowers is changing, and has the potential further 

to change, the foundations of Zinacantec life. 

The trip began in Naben Chauk about 3 A.M. on a Tuesday. 

The ride to Mexico City was simply a longer version of the 

weekly ride down to the Chiapas coast. The food was worse, 

the fatigue more intense, and the police bribes more costly. 

These costs were, in turn, calculated into the overall price-in 

1981, about 5000 pesos," split among the ten flower 

buyers-set for the trip by the truck owner. The Zinacantecs, 

alternately standing and dozing in the back of the empty truck, 

made their way across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, through 
94 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

rural Veracruz, and into the center of the country, arriving 

about nightfall at the toll highway leading up into the 

mountains near Orizaba. 

As the truck wound up the highway, the fog rolled in, night 

fell, and it began to rain. Tarpaulin beds became tarpaulin 

roofs, as the truck began the nightmarish ride up the two-lane 

toll highway into Orizaba. The road was bumper-to-bumper 

with traffic, mostly gigantic trucks competing with each other 

to leap into the left-hand lane and pass the cowed passenger 

cars that had the misfortune to be on the road. "Damned little 

cars," muttered the Na Chij driver as he slammed the gears and 

passed about half a dozen of them on a blind curve. He had now 

been driving almost non-stop for nineteen hours—having left 

his bed before 2 A.M.—and he had another four or five to go 

before reaching the Jamaica Market. 

About midnight, somewhere on the toll road beyond Puebla, 

the truck again pulled to the side of the road. Another 

Zinacantec track was there, waiting. Another was expected. 

Because there were only a few people who knew how to 

navigate the complex route from the toll-road exit in Ixtapalapa 

into the bowels of the Federal District where the flowers were 

to be had, the owners were waiting to distribute the competent 

pilots among the three Zinacantec tracks. Finally, the three 

tracks set off in tandem, into the city. 

The roads were deserted at this hour—almost 1 A.M. on 

Wednesday morning—and Lol's track wove its way to the 

market, where there was still parking space in the Zinacantecs' 

favorite street. It was now very cold, and it would be several 

hours before the market would begin to stir. The driver claimed 

the cabin as his bedroom, and immediately plunged into a 

desperate sleep. The rest of the Zinacantecs accommodated 

themselves among the bedrolls in the rear—each man carefully 

putting his airline bag, which contained his bankroll for 

purchasing flowers, under his head. 

At three o'clock, a light-skinned, blue-eyed ladino from 

Michoacan popped his head over the side of the track and 

shouted: "The flowers have arrived!" The Jamaica Market had 

been transformed. All the neighboring streets—still lit with 

streetlamps—now teemed with people. Tracks jammed with 

flowers were parked in every available space. Bundles, on 

backs and on wheeled carts, were hurried to and fro. 

Instantly the Zinacantecs were on their feet, digging in bags 

for their tumplines and their wads of money. It was time to 

survey the goods and check out the prices. Lol and his brother 

clambered down off the track, and began to confer on what 

sorts of flowers they were after. Then they set out in different 

directions to survey the week's offerings, planning to meet 

again at the track to compare prices. The unit of flowers was the 

gruesa—a dozen dozen—and soon Lol and his companions 

were hauling carnations, chrysanthemums, and several varieties that, according to Lol, had "no name" back to their growing 

stacks of cargo. Other Zinacantecs contracted men with 

pushcarts to bring the goods to the track. 

By the time it was light, Lol had spent almost 8000 pesos25 

on his flowers. As each new load of flowers appeared, Lol 

pulled a wad of banknotes from his pocket, and, in consultation 

with his companions—sometimes disguising the normal 

Spanish number words with archaic vigesimal locutions in 

Tzotzil—he compared prices and quantities. He still wanted to 

buy a few more things, but he now was planning a trip into the 

center of Mexico City where he knew a man who would sell 

him bullets for his .22 rifle back in Naben Chauk. 

Later, the Zinacantecs stacked the truck high with the 

flowers they had bought, preparing for the return trip to 

Chiapas. The driver, who had slept without moving since 

arriving, roused himself about 10 A.M. and went off in search of 

some food. Within the hour they would set out again on the 

highway, and he would put in another twenty-four hour shift 

without sleep. All together, the Naben Chauk buyers had spent 

more than 30,000 pesos—the equivalent of two-and-a-half 

months' wages for a skilled Zinacantec mason, back in Naben 

Chauk. The track was filled to overflowing, and die Zinacantecs prepared themselves for the tight squeeze as they rode 

another twenty hours back to Arriaga, atop this floral bed. 

Their schedule was carefully timed. They had left Naben 

Chauk so as to be at the Jamaica market early on Wednesday 

for the arrival of fresh flowers. They would leave before noon, 

hitting the hottest part of the return journey only after sunset, 

passing through the scorching lowlands of Veracruz and 

Oaxaca at night. They would deliver the flowers to Arriaga, and 

then to Tuxtla and Chiapa de Corzo during Thursday. Vendors 

could thus begin to sell the produce on the following weekend, 

picking up the flowers and transporting them to their final 

markets on Friday for sale on Saturday and Sunday. During a 

seven day week, as Lol put it: "I only get one day free, on 

Monday." 

Mother's Day 

At some seasons of the year, Lol does not even get to rest on 

Mondays. An especially active season for the flower trade 

comes at All Saints' and All Souls' Days (1-2 November), 

when most Mexicans make elaborate offerings, including food 

and flowers, to their deceased relatives. At this season, many 

Zinacantecs take what flowers and produce they can harvest 

from their gardens and fields, and head for ladino markets to try 

to turn the traditional All Souls' ritual into cash. 

However, the real professionals among Naben Chauk's 

flower sellers say that they sell the most flowers on another day, 

the 10th of May. In Mexico this is the Dla de las Madres, 

"Mother's Day," a highly commercial national celebration of 

Mexican-style motherhood. This is a time when the professional flower sellers make a special effort to procure a plentiful 

supply of top-quality flowers. 

When there is an extraordinary market for flowers, the 

regular sources of supply—including the vast Jamaica market 

or, in recent years,26 the central produce market in the 

capital—are insufficient to meet these Naben Chauk vendors' 
NUMBER 35 95 

needs. In the same spirit of entrepreneurial adventurism present 

throughout the evolving flower trade in Zinacantan, Naben 

Chauk traders have in recent years made special forays to other 

markets, in search of cheaper and better flower varieties. 

To give a final example, an abortive but instructive 

expedition in search of more flowers took place a few days 

before Mother's Day in 1984. Almost as an experiment, Lol 

and his companions set out to Oaxaca in search of flowers, a bit 

unsure of the exact whereabouts of the village, but trusting to 

their business expertise to guide them. They ultimately found 

their way to the community of San Antonino, known by Lol as 

San Antonfn—a place that he had visited the previous year at 

All Saints' Day. 

Huge fields of flowers, being tended and watered, were 

visible along the road. However, as the Naben Chauk 

merchants ate in the little plaza, an Apas track drove up. The 

other Zinacantecs had already been in the town a few hours, and 

they furnished the black news that there were no flowers to be 

had. They were leaving, they announced, although the sceptical 

Naben Chauk merchants did not trust their words. 

Members of the Naben Chauk group began to fan out, asking 

random people passing in their horse-drawn carts: "^Vende 

flor?" "Do you sell flowers?" Some even knocked on people's 

doors. Someone produced a couple of telephone numbers, 

apparently belonging to former flower vendors from a previous 

trip, while others walked around the parched back streets of the 

town, trying to find addresses that people on the plaza 

suggested. 

It was evident that there weren't any flowers after all. Most 

of the apparently abundant crop had been pre-ordered and paid 

for by other people—not Zinacantecs. The few flowers that 

were stacked in people's patios were rather poor. Lol went out 

to the fields, on the north edge of town—flat and fertile looking 

land. Instead of the endless beautiful flowers he expected, 

however, he found only a few planted fields, of rather tired 

aspect. Some kind of worm had rained the crop. 

Lol immediately began to hatch new plans. He thought of 

trying to get a telephone message to his sons in Naben Chauk 

to tell them not to give away his own crop of feverfew. (He had 

been planning to share it with other merchants, confident that 

he would be able to replace it with better flowers from afar). 

There was now no time to strike out to Acasingo (in Puebla) or 

to Mexico City to get an adequate load. Lol had been planning 

to make a killing during this selling spree, and he had almost 

twenty-five thousand pesos27 to spend on cargo. But at this rate, 

he wouldn't be able to find that many flowers, let alone buy 

them. 

When I left the Naben Chauk party, Lol was in a quandry, 

about to mount a house-by-house search for flowers, with 

approaching rain clouds promising to rain the plan of going to 

the fields themselves, in the cool of the night, to cut flowers 

from those vendors who still had crops to sell. In the end, Lol 

and his companions tried to rescue the trip by buying flowers in 

the central Oaxaca market the following day, returning to 

Chiapas with a fairly massive loss. 

Ikuch xa yu'un, li prove: "He made a success of it, the poor 

fellow." 

This trip to Oaxaca makes plain a central feature of the 

Naben Chauk flower business: its riskiness. Flowers are 

inherently an uncertain commodity, both because of their 

obvious perishability, and because—unlike much edible produce—both the supply and demand are evanescent and 

unpredictable. The business therefore depends on a precise 

sense of timing, and on a good dose of luck. Lol and his 

companions had counted more on luck than on good business 

sense when they set out in search of Oaxaca flowers, to find the 

crop already sold or promised to others. Similarly, more than 

one Naben Chauk merchant has squandered a small fortune in 

start-up capital investing in a load of flowers from Mexico City 

that either dried out on return or rotted unsold in a lowland 

market town. 

At All Saints' day in 1983, one Naben Chauk flower seller 

lost forty-five thousand pesos28 in a single weekend when the 

track returning from Mexico City broke down at Tapanatepec, 

still on the hot coastal plains of Oaxaca, raining almost the 

entire load of flowers. On this occasion, the Zinacantec had sent 

his partner to buy for the two of them in Mexico City, while he 

himself set out in the other direction, towards Comitan near the 

Guatemalan border, also in an optimistic search for cheap 

flowers. Both ended up with nothing but an empty purse. 

During that same season, Lol made major trips both to 

Mexico City and to Puebla, buying huge loads of flowers that 

he ended up selling at a loss—falling several thousand pesos 

short of covering his initial investment, his travel costs, and his 

running expenses. Another Naben Chauk flower vendor 

reportedly spent over one hundred thousand pesos29 in the 

Jamaica Market during the same weekend, and no one doubted 

that he would suffer a severe loss. 

On the other hand, the economics of flower selling are 

clearly such that its most successful practitioners gradually 

transform themselves into track owners, some of Zinacantan's 

richest citizens. This is Lol's own observation: that people who 

have "survived" the rigors of selling end up rich men, who 

thereafter make their livings "sitting down," i.e., riding shotgun 

on their own tracks. 

The small-scale or casual flower vendor relies on transforming each load for sale into a profit sufficient to cover running 

costs and to contribute something to his household economy. 

For a man who farms com, both cultivating and selling flowers 

can supplement income that is otherwise limited to post-harvest 

boom and pre-harvest bust. But when the "starter," the pool of 

capital required to maintain the trade, disappears in a 

disaster—the broken down truck or the robbery in Pichucalco—people like Petul simply give the business up. Lol, a 

full-time flower vendor, insulates himself against such temporary setbacks by investing his profits, not only in houses with 
96 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

concrete roofs, but also in loans to his fellow Zinacantecs. 

Money loaned when Lol is flush becomes reserve savings 

when, tapped out, he calls the loans in again. Lol's contacts 

with flower growers, with people in the Tonala market, with 

trackers, all represent part of the cultural capital that allows him 

to survive the vicissitudes of the market. He also diversifies his 

trade, hauling liquor and com, and living always on the lookout 

for something he can sell at a profit if he just carries it to the 

right market. 

At the big-time end of the scale, there are no fewer than six 

truck owners in Naben Chauk who have been active for years as 

flower sellers. Lol's brother, the man who now hires a youth to 

sell flowers for him in his old spot in Arriaga, is one. Another, 

the man with whom Lol avoided a fight over who had rights to 

a good spot in the Tonala market, has two trucks. Two or three 

additional tracks belonging to Naben Chauk flower sellers 

make, or have regularly made, the weekly ran to the Central de 

Abasto in Mexico City—a trip that by January 1989 cost the 

merchants over two million pesos30 for track fare alone. A 

couple of the owners of these tracks are major suppliers of 

flowers in Chiapa de Corzo and Tuxtla. The economics of 

Zinacantec truck ownership require detailed study. But it seems 

clear that participating in this large scale floral enterprise, as 

well as hauling Zinacantec com, beans, and bodies, has 

contributed to the efflorescence of Naben Chauk tracking, a 

latter-day, gasoline-powered analog of the mule teams that, 

according to Mol Xun, once grazed in the Naben Chauk 

valley.31 

It remains to try to quantify what Lol means when he says 

that someone "has made a go of it,"32 or that selling flowers "is 

worthwhile."33 The changing value of the peso, and rampant 

inflation, have made calculating costs and prices a complex 

matter. In what follows I will try to render values in the 

relatively more stable US dollar equivalent. I will also venture 

some comparisons with such relevant costs as the price of meat. 

Petul reported that first trip to Tonala to sell peaches, which 

cost him $1.40 in track fare, and $0.50 per bag of peaches, 

yielded the astronomical profit of $200; having no other fixed 

guide to purchasing power or wages in that period, we observe 

that, if we believe Petul, the total earnings from a trip were 

roughly 140 times the cost of one-way transport. Put another 

way, Petul's remembered profit was $100 per bag of peaches, 

200 times the cost of transport (which, in this case, was the only 

cost, as they were his own peaches). Even by the early 1960s, 

when an agricultural worker's daily wage was only about 

$0.50, this would have been an astounding haul, even for only 

one such weekend in a year. 

Bunnin (1966) writes that, in 1963, a dedicated flower 

vendor from Naben Chauk reported his own average earnings 

as about $8 per month, whereas Bunnin estimated that he could 

be earning up to about $5 for a four-day trip to Tuxtla. Again, 

this is to be compared with a daily wage for Indian laborers of 

about $0.50. 

In February 1976, the Zinacantec tracks still charged about 

$1.60 to take a flower seller to Tonala, and each bundle of 

flowers (or bag of peaches, etc.) cost $3.20. The difference 

between the selling price and the cost of 100 bunches of 

carnations (which were bought in San Cristobal for $12 per 

hundred) was only about $4. (In that same period, Zinacantecs 

were paying their milpa workers about $1 per day, though 

laborers in Tuxtla and Chiapa could earn about diree times 

that.) In this year, Lol would carry flowers, peaches, cabbages, 

and earn a profit of about $20 per weekend, after all his costs 

were paid. Lol's earnings were thus well above those of com 

workers, but not appreciably better than those of laborers in 

higher-paying jobs. 

By 1985, the figures were inflated and the profits were much 

better. On a flower-selling trip in April of that year, I calculated 

Lol's total outlay to be about $130, including $8 for truck 

fare.34 On the flowers he sold during this trip, his profit (by my 

calculation) was about $150, and he also earned about $120 

selling his own plums and hog plums, bought in Chiapa. Thus 

his total profit for the week was $270, about twice the value of 

his original investment. 

To put this sort of wage in perspective, workers on 

government development projects (road building or reforestation, for example)—the best jobs Zinacantecs could find in 

those days—in 1983 earned a weekly salary equivalent to die 

cost of about 30 kilos of meat. An experienced Zinacantec 

mason, in 1981, could earn a daily salary equivalent to about 

four-and-a-half kilos of meat. Lol's weekly earnings, from diis 

flower trip at least, equaled about 80 kilos of meat, or over ten 

kilos per day. 

I should add that on this same trip, in 1985, Lol made a 

further profit of about $53 on a load of 200 liters of cane liquor, 

which he transported to Tonala on the flower truck—that's 

another sixteen kilos of meat. 

In January 1988, times were hard again, for flower sellers as 

well as for nearly everyone else in Chiapas. Now a bridge 

worker's weekly salary would buy only twenty kilos of meat, a 

skilled mason's only about ten kilos, and a truck driver's only 

six kilos. Selling flowers (seventy-five dozen lilies, as well as 

thirty-three dozen carnations) and vegetables (mostly radishes 

and cabbages), Lol's profits for the weekend were about $90, or 

about forty-five kilos of meat. He was still earning more man 

laborers (or track drivers), but in terms of buying power, 

flowers were paying half as much as they had three years 

before. 

As a final note, it is worthy comparing how floral prices have 

fluctuated over the period of the Naben Chauk flower industry. 

Bunnin's 1963 study showed the following prices (per 100 

bunches, converted to equivalent US dollars) for a variety of 

retail flowers in the Tuxtla market: 

1963 (Bunnin, 1966) 

Lily $12.00 

Gladiolus $ 8.00 

Carnation $ 1.20 

Daisy $ 0.80 

It is not clear what size bunches these were; similarly, die fancy 
NUMBER 35 97 

grade flowers from distant markets had not yet reached the 

Zinacantec vendors. 

In 1976, when the peso still had the same parity against the 

dollar, carnations cost ten times as much, and made a handsome 

profit when sold in Tonala. 

1976 (February) 

Carnations 

Buy 

$12.01 

Sell 

$16.02 

In 1983, after several devaluations, the selling prices in 

Tonala had hardly changed at all when converted into dollars, 

although the Tuxtla retail prices were low. Daisies continued to 

be cheap. 

1983 (August) 

Carnations 

Daisies 

Sell Tonald Sell Tuxtla 

$16.25 $3.25-$6.50 

$0.65 

In 1985, flowers had the following prices in different retail 

markets. 

1985 (April) 

Carnations 

Daisies 

Gladiolus 

Chrysanthemums 

Feverfew 

Cypress boughs 

Calla lilies 

San Cristdhal 

$4.00 

$3.27 

$2.05 

$6.15 

Tonald 

$10.00 

$13.00 

$ 4.50 (per dozen) 

$82.00 

$ 9.22 

$ 6.83 

$16.39 

Finally, in 1988 I recorded the following prices for the 

flowers that were carried to Tonala in January. 

1988 (January) 

Lilies 

Chrysanthemums 

Carnations 

Lilies of the Nile 

Feverfew 

San Cristobal 

$13.15 

$ 8.77 

$11.00 

$65.80 

$ 8.80 

Tonald 

$36.00 

$16.00 

$22.00 

$66.00 

$87.70 

$22.00 

(Mexico price) 

(10 dozen) 

$29.00 

Since the early 1980s, when business was booming, there has 

clearly been massive inflation in flower prices, coupled with a 

fairly severe reduction in real profits for the Zinacantec flower 

sellers. At least some of the people who were "surviving well" 

during the rapid expansion of the flower business during that 

earlier period have now gone on to become track owners, 

apparently by taking advantage of windfall profits. But the days 

of those profits have gone. Zinacantecs who stayed in the 

business or who were lured into it by seemingly easy money 

have been disappointed. Present day flower merchants—or at 

least the small-scale retailers—cannot reproduce the high levels 

of income of that earlier period. Perhaps this is why Lol, 

working harder than ever down in Tonala, laments the fact that 

he "drank away" his profits from past years, and that nowadays 

"he feels himself poor." 

Yik'al chkom li bak'ine: "Perhaps sooner or later I'll leave 

her." 

Bunnin's 1963 study of the Zinacantec flower business 

divided it into two social universes: the flower growers, who 

were on his analysis merely extending practices of normal 

Zinacantec life to the cultivation of a new cash crop; and the 

flower sellers, who were the residue within the community of 

extreme external pressures towards change—in his words, 

"emigrants left behind." Unlike those who respond to economic 

and social pressures inside Zinacantan by leaving the community entirely, this group of largely young men do spend more 

than half of their time outside the municipality, buying and 

selling flowers; but they keep their homes and families in 

Naben Chauk. According to Bunnin (1966:232): 

Since they maintain their place inside the community 

while at the same time developing new links with the 

outside world, they are marked—unlike the flower 

growers—as carriers of penetrating change in the pattern 

of life in Zinacantah. 

I said at the outset that the flower sellers of Naben Chauk 

have not ceased to be Zinacantecs. This is certainly true, as far 

as it goes; but there is little doubt that the flower sellers have 

already done much to transform the notion of what being a 

Zinacantec means. The transformation continues. Let me end 

this extended essay with a personal vignette, from a trip to 

Tonald with my Naben Chauk friends and compadres in 

January 1988. 

Manvel, who has been selling in Tonald nearly as long as 

Lol, is a handsome man with a large family back in Naben 

Chauk. His eldest son, Xun, a frail lad who was often sick as a 

child, frequently accompanied him on his weekly trips to the 

coast. 

Some years ago his mother-in-law came to gossip at my 

house, and she had nothing but harsh words for Manvel. "You 

see he's building a new house," she said. "When that is finished 

he will leave his wife [the speaker's daughter] and move alone 

into the new house." 

The following year, Naben Chauk bubbled with rumors that 

Manvel's wife wanted to leave him. Even as we trudged up the 

mountainside on a major, expensive curing ceremony for her, 

Manvel confided to me that she always seemed angry with him: 

this hot condition was part of what the ceremony was designed 

to cure. 

The next year, when I arrived in Naben Chauk after a 

nine-month absence, the women of the house compound where 

I live couldn't wait to blurt out the latest scandal. Over fresh 

tortillas, I was regaled with tales of Manvel's misdeeds: people 

said he had another wife, down in Tonala. He had, reportedly, 

spent thousands of pesos on a trackload of beer for the wedding 

celebration; and he even had a child with the new woman. 

Everybody said it was true, but Manvel continued to deny it. 

I was curious, but not convinced. Neither Manvel nor the 

other flower sellers had said a thing. When I went down to 

Tonala, Manvel seemed normal; he followed his usual routine, 

and we even traveled home to Naben Chauk together on the 

same first-class bus. 
98 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Nonetheless, in January 1988, having joined my friends as a 

"fellow Zinacantec merchant," and after we had all prepared 

our flowers and vegetables for sale the following day, and were 

laying out our egg-carton beds on the sidewalk, Manvel said to 

me, "Well, sleep well. I'll see you tomorrow." 

"And where are you off to," I asked, unthinkingly. 

"I have to go over there," he said, gesturing vaguely with his 

head, and quickly trotting off into the night. 

The following day, as I chatted with a fat ladino woman who 

sold chicken in the market, conversation dwelt on current hard 

times. "No money," she said, "and the government doesn't care 

about us. We can't even support our families anymore." She 

looked around. "And for Manuelito it's worse," she continued, 

"since he has two families to support now. And that new wife 

of his is always asking him for money." 

So there it was. Brazenly, I asked Manvel to present me to 

his new wife, and, after a moment's hesitation, he took me 

home with him for lunch. A handsome woman, whom I had 

seen for some years selling atole in the market, cooked us fish, 

garnished with cabbage and radishes from Manvel's own 

market stall. She sat silently and watched us as we ate and 

talked in Tzotzil, which she clearly did not understand. 

How was it, then? I asked Manvel. What did his wife back in 

Naben Chauk have to say? 

"Oh, I still deny it to her," he told me, "even though my 

mother-in-law is always accusing me. But this arrangement 

isn't working out too well, anyway. This woman always 

complains that I don't give her enough. Her brothers may beat 

me, but, perhaps, sooner or later, I'll have to leave her." 

Back in the market, preparing to go back to the simpler world 

of Naben Chauk, I sat for a while, in the slack selling hours of 

an early Sunday afternoon. Xun, Manvel's son, had been 

waiting in Tonala when we arrived the previous Friday 

afternoon, and I asked him when he had come down from the 

mountains. 

"Oh, I have been here a month," he said. "I don't like to go 

home much: it's too cold." He rearranged a pile of mandarins 

on his stand, and I noticed that he was selling exclusively fruits 

and vegetables that could be acquired right there in Tonala. 

"Sometimes my father brings me some things to sell, but 

mostly I buy my load right here. Right now the only things I 

have from home are some beans, which I sell little by little." 

What did his mother have to say about his father's new wife? 

"Well, we don't talk about it. But I give her money myself 

when I go home." 

A group of uniformed Tonala school children walked by, 

looking without much interest at Xun's avocados and bananas. 

He glanced at me with haggard eyes—he still didn't look well, 

I thought. "You know," he said, "I would like to go to school 

here, too. But I have to keep working." 

"Do you know any people here in Tonala?" 

"Well, there's this girl. Her father runs that refreshment stand 

just by the steps inside the market. He has given me permission 

to talk to her. But she isn't here today, otherwise I would take 

you by so you could see her." 

It was getting close to 4:00, when the bus would depart for 

the highlands, so I said good-bye to Xun, bidding him, in 

Tzotzil, to be strong as he stayed behind, selling his vegetables, 

and the last of his father's flowers. 

Notes 

•My thanks are due especially to my compadres Lol 

Vaskes, Natil Xun Vaskes, and Mol Petul Vaskes of Naben 

Chauk, for their friendship and companionship, at home and on 

the road; to Leslie K. Devereaux for mutual fieldwork; to the 

Australian National University, the Instituto de Investigaciones 

Antropologicas of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de 

Mexico, Reed College, and the National Geographic Society 

for financial and logistic support; to Robert M. Laughlin and 

Frank Cancian for comments on various drafts; and to Lourdes 

de Leon for everything else. 

2

 See the tale of this name, in the words of my late compadre 

Mol Xun Vaskes in Laughlin (1977:126-129), and the 

introductory chapter "Where have all die flowers gone?" My 

version of this (hi)story is also due to Mol Xun, especially to 

conversations with him around our house compound during an 

idyllic stay in Naben Chauk between January and June 1976. 

ta yut (s)mok 

4

 Even as late as 1967, on my first trip to the township of 

Chenalhoo, in the company of a Zinacantec cargoholder in 

search of cheap meat, we were greeted by locals, who 

recognized our Zinacantec costumes, with the question, "Do 

you have salt to sell?" 

5

j-'ekel-nichim 

6

In 1976, a track ride to Tuxtla from Naben Chauk, for 

example, cost 6 pesos (= US$0.48). In 1988, the same truck ride 

costs 2000 pesos (= US$0.88), and the bus costs 2700 pesos 

(= US$1.18). 

7

In Tonala, Zinacantecs were selling black beans at 1200 

pesos (= US$0.53) per kilo, and a bagful in San Crist6bal was 

reputed to cost about 100,000 pesos (= US$43.86), which 

would average out to about US$0.50/kilo. 

8

In the first years of the plum rage, a box of early plums 

could fetch the equivalent of US$6. In 1987, in die early part of 

the season (the first week of June), a box was worth about 

US$3.80, but a few weeks later the price was about half that. 

9At All Saints' Day, 1983, Naben Chauk people bought 

carnations in San Cristobal for resale in Tuxtla, but because of 

the number of flowers that appeared, and the especially hot 

weather, flowers that had been bought for 25 pesos a bunch 

(= US$16.25 per hundred) were unloaded in Tuxtla for only 10 

pesos (- US$6.50 per hundred). Cypress boughs dropped from 

10 pesos to 2 pesos a bunch during the week before the All 

Saints' Day, and Petul's take on the 60 bunches he carried to 

Tuxtla was the equivalent of US$1.30. 
NUMBER 35 99 

10Bunnin(1966). 

»Bunnin( 1966:231). 

12Bunnin (1966:232). 

13I sketch a composite view, based on trips to Tonala in 

February 1976, August 1983, April and July 1984, April 1985, 

and January 1988. 

14The ethnographic present here is January 1988. Exchange 

rate, US$1 = Mex$2300. 

15

 By 1988 there were separate trucks making regular flower 

deliveries to four different zones: in addition to the two weekly 

trucks (which sometimes went twice in a week) to Tonala and 

Arriaga, there was another for Cintalapa-Ocotzocuautla, another for Pijijiapan and Huixtla, and then the regular ran of 

hourly tracks on the route between San Crist6bal and Chiapa de 

Corzo and Tuxtla. I have not included regular tracks bound for 

Mexico City and Puebla to buy better flower varieties, which I 

describe in a later section. 

16Bunnin's researches, in 1963, were confined to Zinacantec 

flower selling in these two nearby cities, and do not mention 

flower selling in more distant markets on the Chiapas coast, for 

example. 

17The following section is drawn from my field notes of 12 

April 1984. 

18Jalisco was the name of the community where the train 

station was located. By the 1930s the community had been 

absorbed into an expanding Arriaga. 

19Petul recalls that Antun T'ot'ob had stopped calling it 

"Jalisco" now that he knew the name of the real destination. 

20This would have made Petul's cost 27 pesos, at a time 

when the daily wage a com farmer paid a worker would have 

been less than four pesos. 

21

 The following notes are drawn from Tzotzil conversations 

with Lol recorded in April 1984. The description offered here 

is considerably less fluid than Lol's own narrative and dialogic 

presentation, whose flavor is retained in only a few passages in 

what follows. 

22In early 1988. 

23Based on my notes from May 1981. 

24

 A little over US$200 at 1981 rates. 

25

 More than US$300 at the exchange rates of the time, 

though this money included investments from several of the 

other Tonala flower sellers who had given Lol their money and 

sent him to buy for them all. 

26

 The regular vendors at the Jamaica market were evicted by 

force and the market was razed in a series of moves by the 

municipal government in 1986 and 1987 to centralize food and 

produce distribution in the Distrito Federal. Rower selling has 

been relocated in the Central de Abasto. 

27

 At the time, almost US$150, and all of this money Lol's. 

28

 About US$288. 

29

 More than US$600. 

30

 Almost US$900, split among ten flower buyers. In 

addition, each man had between 800,000 and 1.5 million pesos 

(US$350-$650) to invest in flowers in Mexico City. 

3

'It has also produced a most interesting new category of 

Zinacantec: the track driver. Sitting on the curb in Tonala, in 

January 1988, as the last of the flowers were being unloaded 

from a Naben Chauk track, I had a long conversation with our 

driver, a youth in his early twenties from Na Chij, who told me 

that he had never hoed com in his life. His father, one of 

Zinacantan's first truck owners, had put all his sons to work as 

drivers, and this youth, from the time he learned to handle a 

stick shift and an overdrive button, had made his living with 

vehicles. At the time he was earning 120,000 pesos, or about 

US$50, a month at this full-time job. He did not help with the 

unloading. 

32ikuch xa yu'un 

33xlok' kventa 

34Lol worked out his costs a different way: he figured he had 

brought about $60 worth of flowers (feverfew and daisies) and 

fruit (plums) from home in Naben Chauk, but he didn't count 

this as cost—this is simply what it would have cost him to buy 

similar produce. Similar, he did not count into his own outlay 

the $20-$30 worth of flowers that he "borrowed" from his 

hamlet mates, to replace at a later date with equivalent flowers 

of his own. 

Poetic License 

Robert M. Laughlin 

The Zinacantecs' recognition of physical similarities has 

generated a scientific classification of plants—a plant taxonomy. But this same perceptivity and attention to shared shapes 

and colors, sounds and smells, textures and movements also 

creates a poetic association between the flora and man, between 

the flora and the cosmos. 

Tzotzil terms for plant morphology demonstrate the use of 

human or animal anatomy and clothing to name plant parts 

(Tables 2 and 3). 

The process of applying human anatomic terms to plant 

morphology may be reversed so that plant parts contribute to 

the labeling of human morphology: 

snichimal yut k'obol, lit. the flowers of the inside of the hand, i.e., palmar lines 

yanal eal, lit. the leaf of the mouth, i.e., lips 

bek' atil, lit. the seed of the penis, i.e., testicles 

bek' satil, lit. the seed of the eye, i.e., eyeball 

Less static, infinitely progressive is the association provided 

by adjectives and verbs to give a comparison, often surprising, 

often humorous, of plants and man. Frequently these associations are not consciously recognized until the appropriate 

moment, though some have become universally known 

analogies, i.e., the chubby legs of a healthy child and the thick 

cornstalks of a healthy young com plant; a useless man and 

TABLE 2.—Tzotzil anatomic botanical terms. 

Head 

Hair 

Forelock 

Eye or face 

Ear 

Nose 

Mouth 

Whisker 

Neck 

Arm 

Claw or toenail 

Milk or breast, nipple 

Belly 

Belly button 

Back 

Penis 

Ass 

Leg 

Foot 

Skin 

Grease 

Heart 

Intestines 

Flesh 

Joint 

Blood 

Pus 

Breath 

Fart 

sjol 

sjol 

stzatzal 

stz'utujal 

ssat 

xchikin 

sni' 

sti'il 

yisim 

sunk' 

sk'ob 

yich'ak 

xchu' 

xch'ut 

xmixik' 

spat 

yat 

xchak 

yakan 

yok 

snukulal 

svuntoal 

syol 

sbikil 

sbek'tal 

ska'av 

xch'ich'el 

spojoval 

yik' 

stzis 

tuber, heart, head, disk, florets, stamens, and 

pistil 

corn silk 

down, fiber 

chaff 

clove, grain, grain of wood, kernel, bean, 

berry, burr, fruit, nut, pod, bulbule 

wing, tepal 

top, tip, end, sprout 

edge 

root 

neck of fruit, section of trunk chopped all the 

way around 

branch 

tendril 

milky sap, eye of potato, nipple-like protrusion at end of fruit 

middle section 

calyx 

upper surface, shell, skin, pith 

stamens and pistil 

basal end, large log 

stem, intemode, pedicel 

stem, trunk 

skin 

inner skin, membrane 

kernel embryo, pit, hilum, core, basal scar, 

disk florets, stamen and pistil, heartwood 

stringy pulp 

pith, soft wood, nut meat, edible part of fruit 

node 

red sap 

milky sap 

odor 

citrus rind oil 

101 
102 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TABLE 3.—Tzotzil raiment botanical terms. 

Skirt 

Pants 

Stockings 

Purse 

Bag 

Spurs 

Machete 

stzek 

svex 

smeriax 

xchuival 

svorxail 

yexpuxa) 

smachitail 

skin, sheath, bare fruiting stalk 

sheath 

large, leafy stipules 

seed membrane 

skin 

prop root 

seed pod 

scattered com and beans; well-dressed people and cornstalks 

laden with beautiful ears. 

The majority of associations listed below were offered 

during the compilation of a general dictionary, lacking a 

specific focus on botany (Table 4). 

It is hardly a great leap from here (Table 4) into male joking 

speech to reduce men to bananas and women into chayotes! 

After examining the wealth of analogy in everyday conversation, it is not surprising to find analogies extended to ritual 

speech, including prayer. Indeed these poetic substitutions are 

so pervasive that they render the couplets nearly unintelligible 

to the foreign initiate. 

The tutelary gods are described as ch'ul-yij, ch'ul-k'on, 

holy ripe, holy yellow. Each of the deities is addressed 

lanichimal ba, lanichimal sat, Thy flowery visage, Thy 

flowery face. Christ, together with the male saints, is addressed, 

nichimal jtot, nichimal kajval, my flowery father, my flowery 

lord. 

Children, too, have their metaphoric denominators: snich, 

sk'elom, his flower, his sprout; p'ejel, luchul, round, perched; 

nichim, lavalena, flower, pink, asasena, lavalena, lily, pink. 

TABLE 4.—People and plants: mutually descriptive terms. 

STEM, TRUNK, PLANT 

thin-legged (person)—skinny-stemmed (plant) 

long-legged (person)—long-stemmed (plant) 

jingling (money)—rustling (reeds) 

bare teeth or wrinkle nose in disgusl—put leafless branch in fire 

messy (woman's hair)—stalky (cabbage) 

black (grimy old hat)—(frost-bitten and willed plants) 

black (erect penis)—(large standing tree partially consumed by fire) 

dark (dirty legs)—(fallen bumed trees) 

cross-legged, sitting with legs tucked under—not yet headed (cabbage) 

tall and skinny (person)—branchless (standing tree) 

barely sprouting (pubic hair of virgin)—(weeds) 

become loose (tooth, fingernail, toenail)—flake off (bark) 

glossy brown (legs after being rubbed with a stone and oiled for fiesta)— 

(sugarcane) 

in tatters (clothing)—dangling and swaying (Spanish moss, torn banana leaves) 

grow healthily (child)—(tree) 

toppling over into ravine (person)—(tree) 

splitting open suddenly (virgin's vagina)—(straight-grained wood) 

grow old (man)—(tree) 

rocking back and forth slumped forward (drunken woman, person on 

horse)—swaying (heavily laden branch) 

drawn (face), clinging (infant who clings to mother s blouse and refuses to be 

set down)—clinging (vine, bean plant) 

stomach juices lhat rise to one's mouth when nauseated—chicha, "sour water" 

stocky (person)—low and heavily foliaged (tree) 

in motionless group (people)—in a clump (bush bean plants pulled up for 

flailing) 

pale (thighs)—(bamboo) 

white (bone)—(barkless trunk) 

white (person with clean clothes)—(split wood) 

white (fallen drunk)—(lumber) 

white (buttocks of person defecating)—(potato, cabbage) 

walking feebly (sick person)—weightless (trunk) 

too widely spaced (teeth)—plants 

dripping (mucous)—protruding (sprout, saguaro cactus) 

thick (beard)—thick (moss, bromeliads) 

bowed (head of drunk)—bowed down (heavily laden tree) 

sitting or standing dumbly—sitting (large log) 

recovering (sick children)—wiggling (fence posts, trees in wind) 

bak-'ok 

bix-'akan 

xchak'ak'et 

xchivan 

ch'etel 

ik'-lusan 

ik'-te'an 

ik'-telan 

jetzel 

juljul 

jumul 

xkoch 

k'an-tilan 

xliklajet 

slin sba 

xlip'ip' 

xli'vluj 

xmolib 

xni'et 

nitil 

pajal vo' 

petzpetz 

potol 

sak-ch'alan 

sak-julan 

sak-la'an 

sak-metzan 

sak-pisan 

ssayson 

taman 

tomol 

tzonol 

t/.'uvul 

vanal 

xvechlajet 
NUMBER 35 103 

TABLE 4.—Continued. 

STEM, TRUNK, PLANT (continued) 

with neck pushed into shoulders by heavy burden—bowed down (small, heavily 

laden tree) 

curly (hair)—crooked (sticks) 

LEAVES 

black (fallen muddy drunk)—(palm for hat) 

glossy black (hair of young girl)—(black dyed palm) 

fall out entirely (teeth)—fall off entirely (leaves), drop off (fruit) 

glistening (face, legs, greased or oiled hair)—glossy (leaf) 

running in crowd—rustling (leaves, fruit) 

puffy (face of person from the cold)—in a small pile (pine needles) 

black and blue (bruise)—green (grass stain) 

FLOWERS 

wake up (person)—open (evening primrose, cut flower after it is watered) 

floppy (hat brim)—withered and drooping (flowers) 

curled up (sleeping person)—(closing flowers, leaves, bean pod) 

white (mouth of drunk with spittle)—(double roses) 

white (face of invalid)—(flowers) 

conical-headed (Chamula wearing traditional hat)—capitate (onion flower) 

FRUIT 

red (virgin's urethra)—(inside of watermelon) 

red (blood)—(chili water) 

red (face from sunburn)—(chilies on plant or in sauce) 

bumpy (face of person suffering acne)—(pineapple) 

glossy black (hair of young girl)—(cherries in cluster) 

black (scrotum)—(grapes, cherries) 

wide open (anus)—split open (base of chayote, overripe papausa) 

long and pointed (tight pants)—(pear, avocado) 

staring wide-eyed—swollen (healthy ibes bean pod) 

become sunken (cheeks)—become mushy (fruit) 

white (face with sickness or fear)—(inside of unripe watermelon) 

hard (penis), constipated, unable to urinate, immobile (foetus that won't 

descend)—hard (banana or avocado that won't ripen) 

sitting in the sun (hatless person)—large and ripe (squash) 

flatulence—spray of citrus rind 

squashed (excrement)—(fruit) 

beautiful (girl's eyes)—peeping forth (young squashes, gourds or chayotes) 

green (insufficiently dyed wool of sash)—(sliced white sapote) 

be wounded—be damaged 

CORNSTALK, PLANT 

red (blood-stained clothing, clothing stained with red dye, tunics worn by men 

of Apas)—brown (stunted corn plants) 

fat and healthy (baby)—thick and healthy (cornstalk, stem of squashes, gourds, 

reeds, sugarcane) 

scraping sound (drunk dragged by the arms)—(corn stubble dragged on the 

ground) 

kneel (person)—grow upwards (flattened corn plant) 

brown (dirty clothes)—yellow (cornfield ruined by rain) 

brown (muddy clothing)—yellow (seared cornfield) 

stand or project crookedly (broken leg or arm)—(corn beaten down by the 

wind) 

peek (person), peer (prisoner)—peep out (corn plant that sprouts and withers) 

chubby (legs of child or girl)—thick (young cornstalks) 

break (leg, arm)—(cornstalk in wind) 

moving (girl's tangled hair in wind)—(corn stubble in wind) 

blue (legs of woman stained with newly dyed skirt)—green (cornfield) 

vutz'ul 

xotajtik 

ik'-chexan 

ik'-tz'uyan 

xkokoj 

xlebebet 

xlininet 

t/.opol 

yax-k'o'an 

xjulav 

lusul 

moeh'ol 

sak-potzan 

sak-yoman 

tom-jol 

chak-bojan 

chak-juban 

chak-voch'an 

chinkul 

ik'-tz'uyan 

ik'-vojan 

kaval 

pajpaj 

pitajtik 

xpuk'tzaj 

sak-pak'an 

te'-tzinan 

t'ijil 

tzisil 

xamal 

yalal matzal 

yax-set'an 

xyayij 

chak-pujan 

ja'al t'omol 

xjochochet 

skejan sba 

k'an-ch'etan 

k'an-loman 

smechan sba 

snach'an sba 

p'osajtik 

xtomk'ij 

xxiket 

yax-balan 
104 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TABLE 4.- Zonlinued. 

valalik 

sbalsba 

chak-ch'etan 

chak-nexan 

chak-vitan 

xchik'inaj 

k'an-bek'an 

k'an-jeman 

k'ojoj 

xpu'klij 

sak-bek'an 

sak-let'an 

tan pukuk 

xin 

xin 

yalal matzal 

ch'aj 

ik'-butan 

kankan 

oyyip 

sak-bajan 

sak-juxan 

t'ant'an 

CORN LEAF 

curled up (beautiful eyelashes)—(leaves of corn plants just beginning to be 

seared) 

CORN FLOWER 

roll over and over (fighting people)—be in flower 

CORN EAR, KERNELS 

brown (hair)—(corn silk) 

brown (hair)—(corn silk) 

brown (single hair), red (nose of person in cold, clitoris)—brown (corn silk) 

sweat (person)—(ripe corn) 

brown (brush burn, nearly bald head)—yellow (corn kernels) 

yellow (excrement)—(corn in large piles) 

acrid (burnt hair)—(burnt corn gruel) 

scattering suddenly (people)—spilling suddenly (corn) 

clean (clothing)—white (corn kernels) 

white (semen)—(spilt corn gruel) 

lit. ashes and dust, i.e., useless man—corn or beans scattered around floor 

smelly (body odor)—sour (corn dough) corn or beans scattered around floor 

smelly (body odor)—sour (corn dough) 

well-dressed (people)—beautiful (young corn ears) 

LAND 

lazy (person)—unproductive (land) 

black (fallen drunk wrapped in robe)—(fire-burnt hill) 

bald (person)—denuded (land) 

be strong (person)—be productive (land) 

white (white-haired and bald on top)—(denuded land) 

bare (whiskerless face)—(land) 

naked (person)—denuded (land) 

The paired terms snichim ba, snichim sat, his flowery 

visage, his flowery face, extends dramatically to include days, 

the day of one's life, the day of one's service (in the religious 

hierarchy), the floral decoration of an office holder's altar, as 

well as a steward's chaplet. 

The crucial elements of a religious service are similarly 

identified: 

floral decorations and cane liquor—nichim, yanal te', 

flower, tree leaf 

cane liquor and meal—xxi'obil, sk'exobil, the cause for 

dread, the cause for shame (before Our Lord) 

cane liquor—stz'utujal, snak'obal, His dew, His shade 

candles—ch'ul-toj, ch'ul-kantela, holy pine, holy candle 

incense—j-p'ej yo jpom, j-p'ej yo jch'ail, a chunk of my 

lowly incense, a cloud of my humble smoke 

Money is termed j-sil akrusil, j-sil apaxyonal, a splinter of 

Thy cross, a sliver of Thy passion. Com is xxojobal, 

snak'obal, the sunbeam, the shadow (of Our Lord). As if com 

plants had human form, the gods are implored to watch over 

All the backs, 

All the sides, 

Of Your sunbeams, 

Your shadows. 

The snake is latz'unubike, lavovolike, Your seed. Your 

kernel. 

Finally, to rejoice is xmuyubaj, xnichimaj. The former term 

is derived from mu, fragrant, whereas the latter is to flower. 

Not surprisingly, nichimajel is Paradise. 

The seminal importance of analogy extends to the field of 

medicine, where a quick examination of the giant tuber of die 

wild yam, or the long, fleshy pseudobulb of a terrestrial orchid, 

or the pendulous finger-like projections of the cecropia flower 

provide conclusive evidence of why these particular plants are 

employed for penis enlargement! 

To stimulate hair growth, cattails and certain lushgrowing 

vines are used. The father of an unmarried girl may soak the 

vine for her shampoo so the boys will fall in love wim her, for 

they think that long hair makes a good pillow. Her father will 

also be happy to receive her suitors' cane liquor. 

Similarity between plants and man is not limited to surface 

qualities. Although the Zinacantec dialect of Tzotzil distinguishes between the birth of animals and man, x'ayan, and 

plants, xvok', the Chamulan dialect includes man under -vok'. 

Man and plants grow, xch'i, are subject to sickness, chamel, 

and die, xcham. Fruits are wounded or damaged, xyayij, and 

an old tree that is cut down and sends forth new shoots, 
NUMBER 35 105 

rejuvenates xcha'-kremaj. Plants and man are weak, k'un, or 

strong, tzotz. 

Digging still deeper, both plants and man are ascribed a soul, 

ch'ulel. This term, derived from the now-forgotten, archaic 

word for god, ch'u, has more than one meaning. Strictly 

speaking, a foetus receives its soul from the tutelary gods, and 

that soul is fixed more securely in the baby through baptism. In 

this sense soul is a sacred quality, a mystical force. But it is also 

possible to say of a child, iyul xa xch'ulel, lit. "his soul has 

returned," i.e., he has become responsible. The same phrase 

may be applied to a grown person, meaning, he has come to his 

senses, or to a drank who had passed out, or to a sick person 

regaining consciousness. 

Pursuing the subject of souls, it must be remembered that 

Zinacantecs are not prone to holding philosophical discussions 

either among themselves or with anthropologists. Information 

gleaned from chance remarks or from observations made in the 

context of work, worship, or play are likely to be denied in a 

formal interview. As there is no formal training, a great variety 

of belief and conviction exists. Some objects are ascribed souls, 

with no reason given, whereas the presence of a soul in other 

objects is given a specific rationale. 

Briefly, deities, the Earth Lord, the saints' images, crosses, 

fire, and salt have souls. Named rocks, cliffs, and caves bear the 

soul of the Earth Lord. A new house receives its soul through 

a shaman's offering of prayers and candles. Bells have souls, as 

do cars if diey have been blessed by a priest. Musical 

instruments have souls as do com gruel pots, being recipients 

of cane liquor. Furniture has no soul, but tools acquire the soul 

of their owner. It is widely believed that if you leave your tool 

in the field or the woods overnight the weeds or the trees will 

beat it so that the next day you will feel too exhausted to work. 

Like tools, clothes assume their owner's soul. They are censed 

when their owner is sick and some are burned when he dies. 

Candles, incense, and cane liquor have souls. Food has a soul 

as it keeps us alive. 

All plants have a soul; they know when to flower even 

though they have no father and no mother. Plants and trees talk 

to each other. But there are those who claim that only useful 

plants have souls, while others explain it this way: "weeds do 

not have good souls," they are not sensible, not responsible— 

"they are like people who pay no attention to what you say to 

them." 

A specially strong soul is the property of medicinal plants 

and the "flowers" of a curing ceremony, for they defend us. At 

a curing ceremony the flowers, incense, pine, cross, cane 

liquor, and candles talk together (tzobol k'op) and are then 

united to Our Lord. 

Before the introduction of herbicides and the devastation of 

the forests, it was believed that the souls never departed from 

weeds and trees, as the vegetation always sprouted back up. But 

they do feel pain when cut. The sap is their blood. 

At night the souls of plants interact with man "beneath the 

earth's surface," when he dreams, when his soul sees. 

Analogies are embedded in the visions of the soul in a 

systematic way. Sometimes they are interpreted straightforwardly, sometimes stood on their head to provide an 

explanation for one's nocturnal adventures. And so, to see or 

eat a cabbage head gives warning not to set out on a trip, lest 

one be murdered on the trail. To gather firewood is to die, for 

green wood is used to line the grave. To hoe is to dig one's 

grave. To receive a tortilla gourd and a waterjug is to receive a 

girl's soul, to foresee the birth of a girl, and agricultural tools 

signify a boy's birth. To receive a female visitor is to become 

prosperous, to receive the corn's soul, but to give com away is 

to lose its soul. The reverse logic, though, is just as 

predominant, so, to see heaps of com is to become poor, to eat 

or drink well, to become sick, to eat meager fare, to eat 

abundantly. 

Via this system of interpretation, this nighttime vision of the 

flora, shamans, midwives, and bonesetters receive their power 

from the gods. Shamans are given their bamboo staffs, shamans 

and midwives their gourds and flowers, whereas bonesetters are 

ordered to set upright a tree that has fallen in smithereens. 

By analogy, too, is explained the origin or the names of 

various plants. The first woman was created from a watermelon 

squash. Of a noticeably pregnant woman they joke, "now she 

has a watermelon squash!" Because the Virgin Mary had no 

breasts Our Lord gave her the mammiform chuchu' fruits. 

From the milk of Mary's breasts sprouted potatoes, claim some, 

while others tell how she boiled three river pebbles. Chili 

sprouted from the drops of Christ's blood. Christ rubbed his 

wounds with white com and so created the red form. Or, too, 

Thunderbolt's daughter was struck by her husband and wiped 

her nose with an ear of com. Magueys are the product of 

Christ's spit, which he rubbed on the rocks with his finger. The 

prickly pear, petok, was created from clouds, tok. The glossy 

black avocado, tzitz, is derived from the egg of the junco, 

tzitzil ul. And everyone knows where the apple that stuck in 

men's throats came from. 

The Flood stories tell of how squirrels received their tails 

from "squirrel tail grass," and how coatimundis received theirs 

from "coati tail" bamboo because they were eating "coati's 

white sapote" fruit, and squirrels were eating "squirrel's 

avocado" fruits. Even earlier, tontikil ch'aben provided a 

mattress for Mary to lay the Christchild on to change his 

diapers, while they were hiding in a banana grove. 

And later, while Christ's back was turned, the Devil created 

cane liquor by pissing three times around the cauldron of 

boiling sugar water. Analogies continue as Rabbit dirties the 

papayas, leaving round, black pellets inside them, and then 

tricks Skunk into strumming his guitar in the reeds, believing 

that a wedding party is approaching to the sound of skyrockets. 

Alas for Skunk, the cracks and pops are the reeds Rabbit had set 

fire to. 

The poverty of Zinacantan is explained, too, by analogy, for 

when the Indian king departed for Mexico City, the ladinos of 

San Cristobal strew pine needles at his feet, while the Indians 

scattered coins. 

But most striking of all is the play and counterplay of images 
106 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

when a man discovers a beautiful dahlia, which, as he stoops to 

pick it, turns into a hideous, fat snake, and then is transformed 

into the dazzling daughter of Thunderbolt. 

Equipped with blood and soul, plants also express their 

emotions and reveal their personality. This statement should 

not be taken literally, "for plants have no faces, how can we see 

them talk? When we say that a plant cries, that is just a figure 

of speech." 

How do wild plants, trees, and vines figure in the panorama? 

Both ximo' and xut, the ancestors' com and beans, were so 

fussy and complaining that Our Lord banished them to the 

wilds. When weeds are left uncut, but bowed down to be cut the 

next day, "they suffer." Weeds that are weeded and trees that 

are felled "get angry." The weeder is considered by his victims 

to be a "murderer," jmilvanej, and should he leave his tool out 

overnight they will "beat it," chmajvan. Oak wood, tzajal 

tulan, which sparks in the fire is said to "get angry," and 

"scold." Weeds that have felt the blade of the hoe are "jealous" 

of those next to them that are still untouched. Weeds that 

overgrow a cornfield "laugh." 

A tree such as tzajal kachimpa te', having very dense 

heartwood extremely difficult to cut, is "so stronghearted." 

When weeds survive a weeding, the frustrated farmer may 

exclaim, "they don't feel the hoe, the fuckers rebelled." The 

soul of a tree that is girdled and refuses to die, always 

producing scar tissue, is known to retaliate, chyaluvan, and 

cause the death of its persecutor. The soul of any large tree that 

is cut may chase, snutzvan, and frighten, ssibtasvan, the 

axeman. 

This is what is said of "stupid" or "useless" vegetation. 

Many of the negative personality traits seen above are shared 

by useful plants. They may be "rebellious," as koko'on, which 

will not grow again after a lot has been pulled up. Or they may 

be "uncooperative sometimes" as unen mu, which is always 

bitter when cooked by some people, or a fruit tree that does not 

fruit. White bush beans are known to be "small-" or 

"weak-hearted," i.e., unpredictable, sometimes producing well, 

sometimes not, regardless of the planter. Red and black bush 

beans are "strong-hearted." A plant may be "distracted in heart" 

and fail to grow in the dry season. It may become "lazy" and 

stop growing altogether. Or it may be very discriminating and 

"see who will treat it well," as tobacco that will not grow in 

everyone's yard. 

Of course, useful plants, just as weeds and wild trees, 

"suffer." Bean plants "suffer" if they are left unpicked. Beans 

"suffer" when spilled and stepped on. Plants do not "grow 

used" to some regions where they are cultivated, they do not 

"feel at home." Plants have "two hearts," are unhappy if they 

are not cared for, or if they do not grow well. They become 

"depressed" if they are planted on unproductive land or are not 

weeded. Unweeded plants "cry." 

But a well-weeded plant, a plant that flourishes, is of "one 

heart." It is happy. If it grows fast and robustly it is 

"industrious." A plant such as pimil anal, a succulent that 

usually flourishes, "doesn't disobey" or "doesn't know how to 

disobey." Some plants are known to "endure," as an herb that 

is stored inside and retains its flavor when dry. Other plants 

"know two ways," as a medicinal herb that is a remedy for two 

kinds of sickness, or a food plant that is cooked in two different 

styles. Squashes and chayotes "learn from" or "picture" the 

stars so as to produce many fruit. Com and beans "visit" among 

themselves, mixing strains of different colors. 

Corn's personality is no different from that of the rest of the 

flora. It "suffers" when unweeded or spilled and stepped on. It 

"grows tired o f its place on a steep slope and turns yellow. It 

"gets angry" and "rebels" when it is not weeded. If planted in 

poor soil it "gets lazy" and stops growing. Com "cries" if it is 

not weeded or if it is sold to a government warehouse. But it 

"endures" if it grows even when it is weeded only once. Of 

course it "feels better" when well-weeded. 

There are forms of com ears, however, which, acting in 

consonance with their name and shape, are thought to be 

threatening to people, or to have souls that even consume the 

souls of the neighboring com. Figures of speech, maybe, but 

once the grain has been removed, their cobs are speedily 

broken. 

In this world of personified flora the Zinacantecs have also 

personified many of the major elements of the universe. The 

sun is Christ, Our Holy Father, and the moon is the Virgin 

Mary, Our Holy Mother. The Thunderbolt, an aspect of the 

Earth Lord, is addressed, "Holy King, Holy Angel, Holy 

Serpent." The Earth Lord is also envisioned as a wealthy ladino 

rancher, in charge of distributing rain and wind, lord of the land 

and the forest. Me' Ik', Mother Wind, is the embodiment and 

origin of wind. With her hair a tangle of leaves and twigs, she 

is said to emerge from caves, when mist and drizzle are 

especially thick, to steal the soul of com. Me' K'inubal, 

Mother Nor'easter, the rainbow, is a cold Chamulan female 

devil who also steals corn's soul. 

When giving a new house its soul, the shaman prays to Our 

Lord, the tutelary gods, the saints, and die Earth Lord, that the 

inhabitants of the house may prosper. At the Holy Cross Day 

ceremonies and the agricultural ceremonies these same deities 

are importuned to protect the farmer from injury and snakebite, 

to provide sufficient rain, to protect the cornfield from wind 

and to grant a decent harvest. 

For many, the stages of the moon are of critical importance. 

When the moon is full or waning slightly, all trees, com, and all 

flowers except carnations should be planted. Fruit trees planted 

at this time will not grow too tall and will fruit earlier. Rafters 

and houseposts, lashing vines, thatch, and highland fence posts 

are cut so they will not become wormeaten. Com is doubled 

and flailed. 

When the moon is young, fruit trees should not be planted 

lest they (1) not root firmly, (2) grow tall and be blown down 

by the wind, (3) have flowers fall, (4) fruit later. Posts should 

not be planted lest they rot. Carnations should be planted so 

they will grow tall. Com flailed during a waxing moon will be 
NUMBER 35 107 

weevil-eaten. 

Nothing should be planted when there is no moon, for the 

seeds will "picture" or "imitate" the moon and grow underground. 

If a person is drowned, the river is said to have "gotten its 

meal," ista xa sve'el, and will no longer flood. The same 

expression is used if the sky clears after constant rain, 

presuming that a horse or other animal has perished. 

Attention is paid to birds as weather omens. If a buzzard's 

wings whir or grackles flock, a nor'easter is coming, but if the 

swallows flock it will lift. 

To influence the natural elements, a variety of magical 

means may be employed. To bring rain at weeding time you 

should place three gourds half-filled with water at the 

eavesdrop of your house, or you should toss 13 empty river 

snail shells in the sky. To stop a rainbow (that signifies the end 

of rain), a bullet may be fired at its foot. To stop hail, hot coals 

are tossed at it three times. To lift a nor'easter, eat watermelon 

squash, or, claim some, cheerfully, drink lots of cane liquor! 

Innumerable techniques to enhance and protect the crops can 

be found scattered throughout the Flora. 

Magical means (metz'tael) are also used by envious people 

and witches to damage an enemy's crop. So, a witch may pray 

in caves, calling forth wind to blow down an enemy's com 

crop. Or he may transform himself into a rainbow and stand 

over an enemy's fruit trees. The rainbow's heat first kills the 

leaves at the top of the tree. 

Simpler methods may also be taken (1) to cause a peach tree 

to die, bury a stick of pine at its foot, (2) to cause the stems of 

watermelon squash and chayote to die, boil the stems of 

ch'aben and place them on top, (3) to cause watermelon squash 

and chayote flowers to drop off, cut the young stems and eat 

them with a lot of green chilies, (4) to cause bean flowers to 

drop off, smoke a lot in the field, (5) to cause the blossoms of 

commercial flowers to die, blow tobacco water on them, (6) to 

cause a cornfield to die, sprinkle tobacco on it. By prayer a 

witch may "disorient," ssokbe sjol, the Earth Lord so that the 

beams at the comers of an enemy's house will creak and the 

inhabitants fall ill. 

Unquestionably, much of this "knowledge of the elders" is 

known more by hearsay than by practice, and is vanishing. 

These methods in no way exhaust the repertory of what 

Frazer (1890) would call "sympathetic magic." The Flora is 

peppered with activities that recognize and respond to 

similarities between man and the universe, man and plants, 

plants and the universe. Man's state of mind is reflected on the 

plants and the universe so that a grudging planter will have a 

meager harvest. 

A brief inventory of agricultural techniques that rely upon 

analogy to enhance one's crops suggests the power of 

association in Zinacantec philosophy. These are what the elders 

call smelol, "the true way": 

1. Whistle to produce well-formed gourd tips. 

2. Tighten belt to produce gourd with constricted center. 

3. Plant chilies barefoot to produce thin-skinned fruits. 

4. Piss on chili plants to produce hot chilies. 

5. Place chicken feet in seed bag to produce strong-rooted 

com. 

6. Before planting com, provide meal of chicken, iguana, or 

armadillo for strong roots. 

7. Do not whistle when planting com lest one cause wind 

damage. 

8. Plant watermelon squash in the afternoon when the sun 

is low so that the runners not grow long and barren. 

9. Plant watermelon squash at night when there are many 

stars so there will be many fruit. 

10. Plant watermelon squash with a piece of brown sugar, 

carried on oak bark or a piece of broken pot so squashes will be 

sweet and have a thick rind. 

11. Plant chayotes on fiesta days characterized by an 

abundance of fruit, such as Christmas and All Souls' Day, so 

chayotes will bear well. 

12. Sit cross-legged when planting chayotes so tubers will be 

near the surface. 

13. Chew coyol fruits, which are always bome in large 

clusters, and spit the seeds on avocado trees, chili, or 

watermelon squash plants so they will fruit well. 

14. Do not cut down a ceiba or you will swell up and die. 

15. Do not scratch your head when harvesting chayote tubers 

or they will become stringy. 

16. Do not plant com on a Sunday, "dog's holiday," or your 

crop will be eaten by dogs. 

17. Do not harvest chayote tubers or potatoes until the 

afternoon, when their souls return from their noon bath, clean 

and white. 

18. Do not sell or deny that you have tobacco or mint, or the 

plants will lose their souls and die. 

19. Do not eat beans on Lenten Fridays or in Holy Week or 

they will turn into flies. 

20. Do not plant com during Holy Week or com will be 

infested with com smut, the smoke of ludas' cigar. 

21. Do not plant or cut wood from Holy Wednesday to 

Easter, lest Our Lord suffer one's pain. 

Proceeding from these analogic techniques, there are others 

that require verbal games. Some plants must be referred to by 

other names, as castor bean, which is termed Mary's greens, 

maruch itaj, so that the leaves will not be bitter. Certain 

poisonous plants must be spoken to directly to avoid being 

blistered, whereas other plants are ordered to grow or to fruit. It 

is said that people, to protect themselves, dance before poison 

ivy. Others slash avocado trees to persuade them to fruit. 

Zinacantec farmers' poetic techniques in farming do little to 

reduce the drudgery, the hard work. Of this they are well aware. 

When com farmers are about to go to the steamy lowlands to 

cultivate their fields there is a standard expression to describe 

their prospects, "then the balls will certainly sweat!" 

But their recognition of the pain, exhaustion, and danger in 

com farming is tempered by a respect for hard labor in the 
108 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

fields: "There is good food if you know how to work, son!" 

Coupled with their industry is a respect for careful use of the 

com. And so they say disparagingly of a man who spends his 

resources on cane liquor, "He finished scooping up all his 

com." This attitude is often expressed with an added reverence 

towards com, their very sustenance: "He doesn't care about his 

com, he sells it right off," "they don't care for it anymore, it just 

lies scattered." 

Zinacantecs are often embarrassed, shy, about speaking of 

these "superstitions," "old wives' tales," as we would call them. 

But just as a Zinacantec denies belief in one custom, he will 

swear the validity of another. It must be a very cynical 

Zinacantec to doubt that disrespect towards com, ill treatment, 

will not be repaid with divine punishment, with hunger and 

poverty, brought down by corn's lament. 

Mixed with polvo and likido, powder and liquid, insecticide 

and herbicide, who is to say whether the poetic license of 

Zinacantan, binding man and plant to the universe, can persist. 
What's in a Name? 

Robert M. Laughlin 

Scanning the botanical plant names in Appendix 2, it may be 

seen that many are pan-Mayan; 174 appear in two or more 

languages. Of these, by far the largest number are for "trees": 

97, whereas 51 are for "plants" and 26 for "vines." Considering 

the small number of species of "vines" as opposed to "plants," 

the figures demonstrate the cultural importance of the former 

(including beans), and the relative insignificance of the latter 

(including "weeds"). The greatest degree of sharing occurs 

between the neighboring Chiapan languages: Tzeltal, Tojolabal 

and Choi, as well as the bordering Guatemalan languages: Chuj 

and Kanjobal. Three terms are borrowed from some MixeZoque language: kokov, compare with Zoque kakawa, potov, 

compare with Sierra Popoluca patan, and tzima', compare 

with Zoque tfima. These derive from proto-Mixe-Zoque 

kakawa, elma, and pataw. A dozen Nahuatl loans (not all 

listed in Appendix 2) may have been borrowed in part from 

Spanish. These are amat, amolyo, jikamo, kakaxon (jobel), 

makulixkuat, met, mosote (jobel), nantzi'. otot, tempix, tzon 

(te'), and vamuch (te'). Four terms, jutuju, mukumu, 

nankipu, and tuturu, may possibly have originated in 

Chiapanec. Some cognates refer to closely related species, 

whereas others may focus on plant parts or even use, as tux for 

cotton seed, chi for maguey fiber, sakil for squash seed, aj for 

skyrocket rather than for reed, and otot for house rather than for 

bamboo. 

Because of the introduction of plants from Europe, there are 

a large number of Spanish loan words. There are also native 

plants, particularly from the Grijalva Valley lowlands, whose 

names are Spanish in origin or combine Spanish and Tzotzil 

words. 

A comparison of Tzotzil and Tzeltal plant term cognates 

shows dramatically that cultural significance acts as a strong 

conservative force. Of the cognates, 87% are cultivated plants, 

80% are protected, 45% wild, but useful, and only 17% are 

insignificant. "Names of plants that are considered to be 

important are retained over long periods of time, while names 

of insignificant plants disappear at a much faster rate" (Berlin, 

Breedlove, Laughlin, and Raven, 1973:163). 

In 1963 we introduced a new occupation in Zinacantan that 

came to be known as sa'-tz'i'lel, "plant searching," a name that 

established tz'i'lel as equivalent to flora, or to our general use 

of "plant," including trees, vines, etc. 

LIFE FORM 

Under the umbrella of "plant" we discovered three major 

categories of "life forms": ak', "vine," plants with viny, 

twining stems; te', "tree," plants with erect, woody stems, 

generally growing more than two meters tall when mature; 

tz'i'lel, "plant," plants that are neither viny nor woody nor 

tall-growing. As in Tenejapa, mushrooms and fungi are 

considered to be members of the fauna rather than the flora, but, 

unlike Tenejapa, there are no wholly unaffiliated or anomalous 

plants—every plant is a member of at least one of the three life 

forms. This does not mean that everyone assigns a plant to the 

same category. There were differences of opinion between 

different observers and between the allocations of a plant by the 

same observer at different times. Woody or herbaceous plants 

that spread widely may be called "vine." Vines that are more 

bush-like may be called "tree," or "plant." Shrubs, sub-shrubs, 

and stunted or young trees may be classed variously as "tree," 

or "plant." This last is the most frequent overlap, but a few 

plants have been assigned by different individuals to each one 

of the life forms. Some kinds of plants are by their very nature 

anomalous, or, as cacti, have closely related species ranging 

from plant to vine to tree. Moreover, individual members of the 

same species may sprawl to varying degrees, or grow to 

varying heights and sturdiness. 

Unlike in Tenejapa, where graminaceous plants are assigned 

a major category, Zinacantecs subsume these under "plant," 

sometimes granting them a subdivision, jobel, "grass." 

Two, further complications arose: tz'i'lel may also carry the 

connotation of weed or useless plant, while a name, ak', 

may not refer to a vine, but to a tree whose bark is used for 

lashing. 

SETS AND ISOLATES 

The life form is composed of sets of plants and isolates that 

do not seem to belong to any set. The sets consist of plants that 

are seen by Zinacantecs as being more similar to the other 

members of the set than to any other plant. As mentioned 

before, these gestalt sets usually represent a pattern of shared 

morphological features, a similar silhouette, though a few are 

based on a shared single trait, as toxicity, or similarity of use, 

as commercial flowers. 

There are a number of plants whose silhouette seems more 

important to the Zinacantecs than their life form membership. 

Columnar cactuses, though classed as "tree," are grouped with 

the prickly pears, and sprawling or low-growing cacti are 

classed as "plants." Similarly, datura and hibiscus, though 

"trees," are most strongly associated with shrubby "plants" 

bearing trumpet or bell-shaped flowers, as tobacco and four 

o'clock. 

109 
110 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

The sets that emerged from our study are not named by 

Zinacantecs; they correspond in Tenejapa to "covert complexes" (Berlin, Breedove, Raven, 1974:160). For convenience 

sake we have supplied them with names and ordered them 

alphabetically in the Flora. Our criteria in choosing the name of 

one of the members of the set to carry the name for the entire set 

was (1) if it was the most prominent culturally, or (2) if it had 

the most number of specific forms, (3) if it was a native Tzotzil 

term rather than a Spanish loan, or (4) was the least descriptive 

of a number of descriptive terms. 

In addition to the sets that compose a life form are the 

isolates, or plants that have not yet been associated by 

Zinacantecs with any other plant. Further questioning may 

reveal relationships that have escaped us to date. 

GENERICS 

The generic members of a set may be monotypic or 

polytypic, i.e., be one of a kind, or have two or more specific 

components. In some cases, particularly among the "plants," 

the generic name is a collective noun, generally descriptive, 

that we have described as representing a non-Linnaean 

assemblage of morphologically diverse plants, usually sharing 

a particular trait signaled by the name. Many of these Linnaean 

species bear an additional name and occur in other sets. 

Most generic names of plants are composed of one, two, or 

three words, with the third word usually ak', tz'i'lel, or te'. 

Generic names of two words usually consist of an adjective and 

a noun, as "white tree," a noun describing a noun, as "cotton 

tree," or a noun possessing a noun, as "jaguar('s) whiskers." In 

the latter case the possessed noun precedes the possessor. 

When evoking botanical names, two descriptive terms 

dominated our conversations—batz'i, "genuine" or "true," and 

yit'ix, "bastard" or "false." Semantically, yit'ix is "the jealous 

one." In only two Instances, batz'i te', oak, and batz'i itaj, 

kale, is batz'i a necessary component of the name. In all others 

it is a useful means for signaling the true, the basic one of two 

or more related species. In the Flora we have retained batz'i in 

many instances for the sake of clarity. Tenejapans employ 

batz'il widely as a necessary component, but Zinacantecs add 

the corresponding descriptive term only when required to for 

purposes of distinction. The importance of botanical concerns 

is illustrated by yit'ix, a term that could logically be used for 

the even more diverse realm of insects, or for birds and 

mammals, but it is restricted to the botanical world. With such 

a handy term any unknown plant can be easily described. We 

never included yit'ix as a name, though the term was extremely 

useful in discovering what plants were considered to resemble 

or be distantly related to a plant. The Latin names of plants 

designated "yit'ix" are entered under the extended range of that 

particular plant. 

Within the broad scope from genuine to false the Zinacantecs 

use a number of means in the naming system to establish 

relationship. The commonest is to have an animal possess the 

TABLE 5.—Animal possessors. 

Animal possessor 

Horse 

Mouse 

Fox 

Deer(or sheep) 

Bird 

Raven 

Pig 

Squirrel 

Cow (or bull) 

Jaguar 

Rabbit 

Opossum 

Coati 

Coyote 

Goat 

Turkey 

Buzzard 

Chachalaca 

White-tipped dove 

Mockingbird 

Groove-billed ani 

Towhee 

Snake 

Rattlesnake 

Wasp 

Deer fly 

Caterpillar (different kinds) 

Plant names 

8 

8 

7 

7 

6 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

plant, so, mouse's chayote is a relative of chayote (see Table 5). 

Almost always, a plant possessed in this way is wild and of less 

utility than the genuine form. Although these names usually are 

used to distinguish generics, occasionally they indicate 

specifics, as yuch'ul vo' bolom, jaguar's orchid. The possessor 

may also be a spook, Judas or an ancestor. 

Another way to express a similar distance is to add the 

appropriate ak', tz'i'lel, or te' to the name, so, xantiya is a 

watermelon, and xantiya ak' is a wild vine resembling a 

watermelon, aj-te' is a white sapote, and aj-te' te' is a wild, 

lowland tree. 

Zinacantecs employ a broad expanse of descriptive terms. 

Some are applicable to native genera, species and variety, but 

most focus on the lower two levels. 

Most prominent is size: large, medium, small, dwarf, tiny. 

Color vies with size. It may be combined with spotting and 

striping, and variegation. 

Most frequently, color and size terms are not attached to the 

generic in everyday speech. When asked, "What kinds of 

such-and-such are there?" the individual will answer, "There's 

a big one and a little one," or, "There's a red one and a white 

one." Then, in subsequent conversation on the subject he will 

naturally refer to "big ," "red ," etc. 

Shape terms are legion, referring to root, bark, stem, leaf, 

flower, and fruit. Here is an incomplete sampling: pendulous, 

erect, hollow, flat, thick, thin, brittle, stiff, hard, soft, strong, 

wide, double, round, long, squat, protuberant, tubular, nippled, 
NUMBER 35 111 

curly, cross-shaped, four-sided, inflated, clustered, etc. 

Texture is also prominent: downy, downy-tipped, spiny, 

leathery, bumpy, smooth, bald, slippery, sticky, and milky. 

Flavor and odor penetrate the naming process: bitter, sweet, 

sour, acrid, fragrant and stinky. 

Manner of growth is considered, whether ground-growing or 

vine-like, i.e., bush or pole (bean). 

The speed of growth is also noted: forty-day, early and late. 

Time of day and time of year is another component: dusk 

(flowering), Corpus Christi (planting, flowering), All Souls' 

Day and Christmas (maturing). 

Habitat and location may figure in the name: rock-growing, 

cliff-growing, epiphytic, aquatic, and terrestrial, lowland, 

temperate, highland, Chiapan, Ixtapanec, San Lucas, Ocozocuautla, etc. This leads to foreign, fine, hybrid, cultivated, first 

cultivated, and wild. 

Equally important in the naming process is the use of plants: 

possession by elders or ancestors indicating former use, 

remedies for a great variety of illnesses, poisons, cooking 

herbs, flowers used on specific fiestas as that of Our Lady of 

Guadalupe or Christmas, gourds for calling souls, holding 

tobacco, or rubbing the body, thatch for houses or packsaddles, 

ships, shampoo, edible fruits. But use names are infrequent for 

vines (16) and trees (24). Remedy names for plants occur very 

often, particularly as synonyms. 

Related to shape and use is the distinction between boy and 

girl. The female form is thicker and preferred. 

With considerable imagination, Zinacantecs name plants for 

their resemblance to an animal, e.g., shrimp, or to an animal's 

body part (Table 6). 

There are a smaller number of names associated with 

animals, such as ant path tree, bumblebee perch, hummingbird 

nest perch, antlion plant, coyote tree, butterfly vine. The 

association may be one of appearance, as antlion plant, or of 

use, as ant path tree. 

The resemblance of plants to man-made objects is noted: 

machete, old woman's tumpline, old man's walking stick, 

rosary, needle, bell, and penny. 

A few names compare one plant to another: orange sweet 

lime, ear of com bromeliad, custard apple oak, watermelon 

squash (shaped), pumpkin squash. 

There are a few descriptive names that avoid the above 

categories, as sky pillar, three months, magdalen vine, etc. 

Of course many plant names have no descriptive, possessive, 

use, or association elements. The majority of these consist of a 

single word or a single word combined with ak', te', or tz'i'lel. 

Now there is the problem of synonyms, of which we 

recorded 1134, ignoring the distinction between singular and 

plural adjectives, as muk'ta and muk'tik, also ignoring the 

distinction between terms with identical meanings, as bik'it 

and k'ox, "small." When one of the plant collectors, Antzelmo 

Peres, a shaman, was asked how he could communicate with 

his patients' families if he told them to bring a handful of X for 

the cure and they called it Y "No problem at all, I just describe 

TABLE 6.—Animal body part names. 

Animal Body part 

Deer(or sheep) 

Dog 

Bull, cow 

Mouse, rat 

Rabbit 

Pig 

Gopher 

Opossum 

Coati 

Rooster 

Jaguar 

Squirrel 

Bird 

Armadillo 

Ram 

Cat 

Turkey 

Crocodile 

Rattlesnake 

Horse 

Buzzard 

Fox 

Frog 

Firefly 

Cricket 

neck 

ear 

tail 

hoof 

burp 

tongue 

tooth 

paw 

tail 

vagina 

penis 

forehead 

horn 

tongue 

tail 

ear 

claw 

tail 

ear 

fur 

penis 

fart 

ear 

tail 

whiskers 

fart 

tail 

penis 

cockscomb 

bristle 

whiskers 

tail 

ear 

tail 

claw 

shit 

ear 

penis 

claw 

wattle 

tail 

fangs 

shit 

shit 

rib 

bone 

wing 

spit 

the plant to them!" 

The majority of synonyms fall into a limited number of 

categories: 

1. Slightly different spelling, e.g., nankipu, nankito. 

2. Substitution of a Spanish for a Tzotzil term or vice-versa, 

e.g., tzo' xulem te', matabey, ch'ix te', kevrajacha. 

3. Addition or subtraction of a descriptive, often referring to 

size or color, or of te', ak', and tz'i'lel, e.g., sakil karnero te', 
112 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"white ," equals karnero te', ajo' te' equals ajo'. 

4. Substitution of one descriptive for another, with the same 

meaning, e.g., kilon ech' "pendulous ," for kilkil ech'. 

5. Substitution of one descriptive for another, with different 

meanings, e.g., tzajal pom tz'unun "red ," is the same 

plant as muil pom tz'unun "fragrant " 

6. Substitution of one animal possessor for another, or one 

animal's association for another's, e.g., ne bolom "jaguar tail," 

is the same plant as sne lakarto "crocodile's tail." 

7. Substitution of a descriptive for a use term or vice-versa, 

e.g., ik'al ok tzib "black-stemmed fern," is the same plant as 

poxil sarampyo "measles medicine." 

8. Substitution of one use for another, e.g., poxil sep' 

"mange medicine," is the same plant as poxil chakal, "boil 

medicine." 

9. Substitution of a generic or specific name by that of a 

closely related plant, e.g., Lagascea helianthifolia, is named 

both tzojoj and sakil sun, "white sun." 

We had thought originally that synonymous names could be 

traced to particular hamlets, and although this is so for a limited 

number of names, in most cases the choice appears to be highly 

individualistic. On one occasion we had Antzelmo Peres and 

his wife separately identify a number of plants. To our great 

consternation, we discovered that they agreed on only a quarter 

of the names—those most culturally significant. We then 

recalled that Anselmo's wife was an orphan child from 

Magdalenas who was adopted by a Zinacantec when she was 

about 8 years old, and indeed some of her names did not sound 

as if they were from Zinacantan. When a next-door neighbor 

was questioned, she raised the percentage of agreement to over 

60%. 

We have no doubt that the number of plant names is limited 

only by the number of people who were asked to provide 

names. In the absence of written records the mind is free to play 

with wonderful ingenuity. An American student, investigating 

the ethnozoology of Zinacantan, dutifully included as a 

member of his list of birds, unen sonso mut "stupid little bird," 

and though no one dared in seriousness to provide me with a 

"stupid little plant," there were times when they surely felt our 

fastidious search for names deserved such a reward! 
The Flora 

The Flora 

Dennis E. Breedlove and Robert M. Laughlin 

The flora is divided into its three life forms: "vine" (ak'), 

"tree" (te'), and "plant" (tz'i'lel). Each life form is composed of 

a varying number of sets followed by the isolates, which do not 

seem to belong to any of the above sets. 

Each set is introduced by stating the total of its generic 

members, followed by a description of its characteristic 

features. 

Regardless of the set name, its generic constituents are listed 

alphabetically. The Tzotzil name is presented first. If it 

occurred in the colonial dictionary (Laughlin, 1988) it is starred 

(*). When possible, an English translation, enclosed in quotes, 

is provided next, but should one of the component terms of the 

Tzotzil name be untranslatable or have a variety of references, 

it is left in Tzotzil. If a plant is known to grow in expanses or 

large expanses, the suffixes -tik or -altik may be appended, 

e.g., trikotik, wheat field, trikoaltik, large wheat field. This is 

indicated by (-tik, -altik). Next, also within parentheses, the 

synonyms are listed alphabetically. If they occurred in the 

colonial dictionary they, too, are starred. The same criteria that 

was used in deciding set names dictated the choice of which 

synonym should be given as the major generic name. All 

synonyms are also listed in Appendix 5 with a translation, 

when possible. Next in sequence is the common English name, 

if such exists, followed by the Latin name or names. The Latin 

name is tagged by numbers, e.g., (1-7), to indicate how many 

separate times the plant was identified and by how many 

individuals. Major cultivars that were seen endless times by 

endless numbers of consultants were simply marked (1-1). 

Discussion of the plant begins with a description of its 

morphology, whether cultivated, adventive, or wild, and its 

range. Then follows a cultural description initiated by historical 

or mythological context, cultivation or gathering practices, use 

(of root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit) for construction, tools, 

religious decoration, remedy, food, etc., and, finally, sale. 

Remedies and foods are further characterized as being "hot" 

(k'ixin), "medium" (lek no'ox), or "cold" (sik). Their 

temperature may be a quality of their natural state or may be 

changed by the method of their preparation. Generally 

speaking, roots, greens, and fruits are "cold," but if they have a 

spicy or bitter flavor they are described frequently as "hot." 

There is considerable variation in the ascription of temperature; 

the determining factors are not well understood. 

For the sake of precision, a plant's use is tied to the particular 

Latin species identified by a consultant as having that 

application, even though other members of the generic may 

well have the same use. 

The extended range follows. This is an alphabetical listing of 

Latin names referring to plants identified by consultants as 

being yit'ix or similar to the generic in question. 

If the generic is polytypic, the total of specific members is 

listed. 

The nominate form of the specific is presented first. It may 

be signaled by the adjective batz'i, "genuine." The botanical 

and cultural description adheres to the format for generics. 

Most varietals are indented, following the description of the 

specific. A few, however, show differences that were considered by the consultants as being so minor that they hesitated 

giving them varietal names. These are simply noted within the 

description of the specific. The format for the botanical and 

cultural description of varietals and isolates is identical to that 

of generics and specifics. 

The final tally for the contents of this Flora is as follows: 

"Vines" 

"Trees" 

"Plants" 

Total 

Genera 

"Vines" 

"Trees" 

"Plants" 

Total 

Species 

"Vines" 

"Trees" 

"Plants" 

Total 

Varietals 

"Vines" 

'Trees" 

"Plants" 

Total 

Grand Total 

Genera 

"Vines" 

"Trees" 

"Plants" 

Total 

Species 

"Vines" 

Sets 

10 

35 

35 

80 

Set Members 

88 

220 

253 

561 

103 

154 

257 

514 

17 

2 

31 

50 

1125 

Isolates 

7 

40 

47 

94 

7 

39 

39 

85 

5 

6 

6 

17 

196 

Total 

95 

260 

300 

655 

110 

193 

296 

599 

22 

8 

37 

67 

1321 

CONTEMPORARY SYNONYMS IN TZOTZIL 

Sets 

96 

248 

323 

667 

82 

Isolates 

10 

27 

27 

64 

7 

Total 

106 

275 

350 

731 

89 

115 
116 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Trees" 

"Plants" 

Total 

Varietals 

"Vines" 

"Trees" 

184 

281 

547 

3 

3 

37 

29 

73 

221 

310 

620 

"Plants" 

Total 

Grand Total 

7 

13 

1227 

0 

1 

138 

7 

14 

1365 

The total of 2686 Tzotzil names for generics, specifics, and 

varietals refers to Latin determinations of 1484 species with an 

additional 30 identifications by genus. 
NUMBER 35 117 

'Vines": "Ak' Sets" 

"Chenek' Set" 

aros chenek' 

ik'al aros chenek' 

sakil aros chenek' 

tzajal aros chenek' 

botil 

ik'al botil. 

sakil botil 

tzajal botil 

tz'ibal botil 

sakil tz'ibal botil 

tzajal tz'ibal botil 

ibes 

ik'al ibes 

k'anal ibes 

sakil ibes 

tzajal ibes 

javas 

k'anal javas 

sakil javas 

krem javas 

tzeb javas 

tzajal javas 

javas kajve 

kantela chenek' 

ik'al kantela chenek' 

k'anal kantela chenek' 

te'tikal kantela chenek' 

karvensa 

ik'al karvensa 

sakil karvensa 

many a chenek' 

batz'i manya chenek' 

soktomal manya chenek' 

x'ak'il chenek' 

chana x'ak'il 

ik'al x'ak'il 

ik'al x'ak'il ta olon osil 

k'anal ton tz'unun 

k'anal x'ak'il 

muk'ta ik' 

sakil ton tz'unun 

sakil x'ak'il 

santoal ik' 

santoal tzoj 

tzajal x'ak'il 

tzajal x'ak'il ta olon osil 

tzo' t'ul 

tz'ibal x'ak'il 

120 

Vigna umbellata (Fabaceae) 

Vigna umbellata (Fabaceae) 

Vigna umbellata (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus 0?abaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus fl^abaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus ssp. darwinianus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus ssp. darwinianus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus ssp. darwinianus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus ssp. darwinianus (Fabaceae) 

Vicia faba (Fabaceae) 

Viciafaba (Fabaceae) 

Vicia faba (Fabaceae) 

Viciafaba (Fabaceae) 

Mucuna pruriens var. utilis (Fabaceae) 

Vigna unguiculata (Fabaceae) 

Vigna unguiculata (Fabaceae) 

Vigna vexillata (Fabaceae) 

Cicer arietinum (Fabaceae) 

Pisum sativum (Fabaceae) 

Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae) 

Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris 0?abaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris 0?abaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris fl?abaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris fFabaceae) 

xchenek' tzajal om 

xlumil chenek' 

ik'al xlumil 

sakil xlumil 

tzajal xlumil 

tzo' bail xlumil 

vayu' xlumil 

ik'al pat 

ik'al xlumil 

ik'al pat 

sakil pat 

sakil pat ivriro 

kvarentano 

muk'ta ik' 

muk'ta sakil xlumil 

sak-vayan xlumil 

sakil xlumil 

tzajal xlumil 

tz'ibal xlumil 

xut 

xut ak' 

xvet' 

ik'al xvet' 

sakil xvet' 

tzajal xvet' 

tz'ibal xvet' 

'Ch'um-te' Set" 

ch'um-te' 

sakil ch'um-te' 

k'ox sakil ch'um-te' 

muk'ta sakil ch'um-te' 

t'arax ch'um-te' 

sakil t'arax ch'um-te' 

yaxal t'arax ch'um-te' 

tzop ch'um-te' 

sakil tzop ch'um-te' 

yaxal tzop ch'um-te' 

yaxal ch'um-te' 

k'ox yaxal ch'um-te' 

muk'ta yaxal ch'um-te' 

ch'um-te' ch'o 

batz'i ch'um-te' ch'o 

ch'ix ch'um-te' ch'o 

Rhynchosia pyramidalis (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris 

Phaseolus vulgaris 

Phaseolus vulgaris 

Phaseolus vulgaris 

Phaseolus vulgaris 

Phaseolus vulgaris 

(Fabaceae) 

(Fabaceae) 

(Fabaceae) 

0?abaceae) 

(Fabaceae) 

(Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris O^abaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris (J'abaceae) 

Phaseolus coccineus O^abaceae) 

Galactia acapulcensis (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus lunatus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus lunatus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus lunatus (Fabaceae) 

Phaseolus lunatus (Fabaceae) 

125 

ch'um-te' pox 

juxob-bail ak' 

polotz' 

Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cyclanthera bourgeana (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucumis anguria (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cyclanthera langaei (Cucurbitaceae) 

Echinopepon horridus (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sicyos microphyllus (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucumis anguria (Cucurbitaceae) 

Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cyclanthera langaei (Cucurbitaceae) 
118 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

xantiya ak' 

xavon ak' 

xenebal pox 

Mail Set" 

ch'ako' 

ch'um 

baril ch'um 

korndta ch'um 

mail ch'um 

mail 

chij-chon mail 

sak-vayan mail 

sakil mail 

tz'ibaltik mail 

yaxal mail 

melon 

batz'i melon 

chi'il melon 

pepino 

sakil 

kometa sakil 

setajtik sakil 

telajtik sakil 

volajtik sakil 

tz'ol 

batz'i tz'ol 

sakil tz'ol 

yaxal tz'ol 

kvarentlno tz'ol 

xantiya 

Melothria pendula (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cayaponia attenuata (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cayaponia racemosa (Cucurbitaceae) 

Polyclathra cucumerina (Cucurbitaceae) 

Schizocarpum attenuatum (Cucurbitaceae) 

Sicyos microphyllus (Cucurbitaceae) 

127 

"Noch'och' Set" 

noch'och' 

131 

Cucurbita galeottii (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita moschata (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita moschata (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita moschata (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita ficifolia (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita ficifolia (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita ficifolia (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita ficifolia (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita ficifolia (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucumis melo var. conomon (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucumis melo var. reticulatus (Cucurbitaceae) 

Solanum muricatum (Solanaceae) 

Cucurbita mixta (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita mixta (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita mixta (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita mixta (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita pepo var. melopepo (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita pepo var. melopepo (Cucurbitaceae) 

Cucurbita pepo var. melopepo (Cucurbitaceae) 

Citrullus vulgaris (Cucurbitaceae) 

"Makom Set" 

makom 

batz'i makom 

ch'ail makom 

tuxum makom 

tzajal makom 

tz'unbalal makom 

makom ch'ix 

makom tz'i'lel 

xoto-chak 

131 

Ruhus adenotrichus (Rosaceae) 

Rubus irasuensis (Rosaceae) 

Rubus fagifolius (Rosaceae) 

Rubus coriifolius (Rosaceae) 

Rubus sapidus (Rosaceae) 

Rubus humistratus (Rosaceae) 

Fragaria vesta (Rosaceae) 

Buettneria aculeata (Sterculiaceae) 

Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae) 

Rubus eriocarpus (Rosaceae) 

yat kotom ak' 

'Pek' Me'el Set" 

chenek' ak' 

Monstera acuminata (Araceae) 

Monstera siltepecana (Araceae) 

Philodendron hederaceum (Araceae) 

Philodendron radiatum (Araceae) 

Philodendron tripartitum (Araceae) 

Philodendron warscewiczii (Araceae) 

Syngonium neglectum (Araceae) 

Syngonium podophyllum (Araceae) 

Syngonium salvadorense (Araceae) 

Monstera deliciosa (Araceae) 

Philodendron hederaceum (Araceae) 

epal nich 

jikamo 

jikamo ak' 

kakaxon ak' 

katu' ch'ix 

leb sotz' 

majaVa ak' 

ne saben 

ox-'u 

pek' me'el 

yak'il vob 

yich'ak mis 

yok' tz'i' ak' 

132 

Calopogonium coeruleum fabaceae) 

Canavalia hirsutissima (Fabaceae) 

Centrosema pubescens (Fabaceae) 

Cologania broussonettii (Fabaceae) 

Cologania glabrior (Fabaceae) 

Nissolia fruticosa (Fabaceae) 

Pachyrrhizus erosus O^abaceae) 

Pachyrrhizus strigosus (Fabaceae) 

Rhynchosia discolor (fabaceae) 

Rhynchosia minima (Fabaceae) 

Nissolia fruticosa (Fabaceae) 

Pachyrrhizus erosus (Fabaceae) 

Pachyrrhizus strigosus O^abaceae) 

Pachyrrhizus vernalis (Fabaceae) 

Gouania polygama (Rhamnaceae) 

Machaerium biovulatum O^abaceae) 

Machaerium chiapense (Fabaceae) 

Machaerium cobanense (Fabaceae) 

Machaerium riparium (Fabaceae) 

Mimosa invisa (Fabaceae) 

Schrankia leptocarpa (Fabaceae) 

Dalbergia glabra (Fabaceae) 

Heteropteris beecheyana (Malpighiaceae) 

Sageretia elegans (Rhamnaceae) 

Canavalia glabra (Fabaceae) 

Canavalia hirsutissima (Fabaceae) 

Canavalia villosa (Fabaceae) 

Centrosema pubescens (Fabaceae) 

Cologania broussonettii (Fabaceae) 

Zanthoxylum culantrillo (Rutaceae) 

Zanthoxylum foliolosum (Rutaceae) 

Canavalia hirsutissima (Fabaceae) 

Centrosema plumieri (Fabaceae) 

Centrosema pubescens O^abaceae) 

Macroptilium atropurpureum (Fabaceae) 

Puyu' Set" 

amolyo 

133 

Ipomoea microsticta (Convolvulaceae) 
NUMBER 35 119 

bikil tz'i' ak' 

ch'uxuv ak' 

kampana ak' 

batz'i kampana ak' 

sakil kampana ak' 

pik'ok' 

batz'i pik'ok' 

k'ox pik'ok' 

sakil pik'ok' 

puyu' 

k'anal puyu' 

k'ox puyu' 

sakil puyu' 

tzajal puyu' 

yaxal puyu' 

sakil ak' 

'T'ut' Ak' Set" 

karos ak' 

ne inatab 

p'uk 

sik'ol ak' 

t'ut' ak' 

batz'i t'ut' ak' 

k'ox t'ut' ak' 

Ipomoea triloba (Convolvulaceae) 

Mandevilla subsagittata (Apocynaceae) 

Mandevilla tubiflora (Apocynaceae) 

Cobaea scandens (Polemoniaceae) 

Bonamia sulphurea (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea hederacea (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea signata (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea tyrianthina (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea purpurea (Convolvulaceae) 

Operculina pinnatifida (Convolvulaceae) 

Merremia umbellata (Convolvulaceae) 

Operculina pteripes (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea sp. (Convolvulaceae) 

Jacquemontia pentantha (Convolvulaceae) 

Calonyction aculeatum (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae) 

Merremia aegyptia (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea pedicellaris (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea suffulta (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea hederacea (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea lindenii (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea seducta (Convolvulaceae) 

Ipomoea pauciflora (Convolvulaceae) 

134 

Smilax bona-nox (Smilacaceae) 

Smilax jalapensis (Smilacaceae) 

Dioscorea convolvulacea (Dioscoriaceae) 

Dioscorea floribunda (Dioscoriaceae) 

Dioscorea cymosula var. cinerea 

(Dioscoriaceae) 

Dioscorea cf. dugesii (Dioscoriaceae) 

Dioscorea nelsonii (Dioscoriaceae) 

Smilax domingensis (Smilacaceae) 

Smilax subpubescens (Smilacaceae) 

Smilax mollis (Smilacaceae) 

Tzu Set" ... . 

jay 

k'ox jay 

muk'ta jay 

pulum vo' 

tzu 

batz'i tzu 

ik'ob-bail tzu 

kometa tzu 

muk'ta tzu 

nene' tzu 

tzual moy 

sme' 

stot 

135 

Lagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae) 

Lagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae) 

Lagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae) 

Lagenaria 

Lagenaria 

Lagenaria 

Lagenaria 

Lagenaria 

Lagenaria 

Lagenaria 

Lagenaria 

siceraria 

siceraria 

siceraria 

siceraria 

siceraria 

siceraria 

siceraria 

siceraria 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

(Cucurbitaceae) 

"Tz'usub Set" 

axux ak' 

bars in ak' 

chikin chij 

kanava ak' 

kranata 

kranata ak' 

k'anal ak' 

Io'bol ak' 

lo'bol kotom 

m6mela ak' 

mikulax itaj 

pepen ak' 

pojov ak' 

tz'itesob jolol 

tz'itesob jolol ak' 

tz'usub 

batz'i tz'usub 

sakil tz'usub 

136 

Pachyptera hymenaea (Bignoniaceae) 

Cydista diversifolia (Bignoniaceae) 

Fernaldia pandurata (Apocynaceae) 

Antigonon guatemalense O'olygonaceae) 

Passiflora ligularis (Passifloraceae) 

Passiflora filipes (Passifloraceae) 

Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae) 

Passiflora pavonis (Passifloraceae) 

Passiflora subpeltata (Passifloraceae) 

Gaudichaudia albida (Malpighiaceae) 

Gonolobus uniflorus (Asclepiadaceae) 

Gonolobus prasinanthus (Asclepiadaceae) 

Anemopaegma puberulum (Bignoniaceae) 

Matelea aspera (Asclopiadaceae) 

Stigmaphyllon humboldtianum (Malpighiaceae) 

Blepharodon mucronatum (Asclepiadaceae) 

Ipomoea pauciflora (Convolvulaceae) 

Mandevilla subsagittata (Apocynaceae) 

Mandevilla tubiflora (Apocynaceae) 

Matelea sp. (Asclepiadaceae) 

Sarcostemma bilobum (Asclepiadaceae) 

Ampelopsis mexicana (Vitaceae) 

Sarcostemma bilobum (Asclepiadaceae) 

Vitis bourgeana (Vitaceae) 

Ampelopsis mexicana (Vitaceae) 

Antigonon flavescens (Polygonaceae) 

Cissus cacuminis (Vitaceae) 
120 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

tz'usub ak' 

uva 

vako' ak' 

ve'el inatab 

xinal ak' 

yak' xulem 

yat vakax ak' 

olates 

ich ak' 

Serjania triquetra (Sapindaceae) 

Urvillea ulmacea (Sapindaceae) 

Vitis tiliifolia (Vitaceae) 

Didymaea alsinoides (Rubiaceae) 

Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae) 

Aristolochia maxima (Aristolochiaceae) 

Aristolochia sericea (Aristolochiaceae) 

Ampelocissus acapulcencis (Vitaceae) 

Cissus cacuminis (Vitaceae) 

Cissus sicyoides (Vitaceae) 

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Vitaceae) 

Matelea prosthecidiscus (Asclepiadaceae) 

Hiraea aff. fagifolia (Malpighiaceae) 

Pithecoctenium crucigerum (Bignoniaceae) 

Clematis dioica (Ranunculaceae) 

roxa 

batz'i tzajal roxa 

ik"ik-lo'an roxa 

sak-pak'an roxa 

sak-vayan roxa 

sak-vayan tzajal roxa 

sak-vilan tz'unbalal roxa 

k'anal roxa 

k'ox tzajal roxa 

makom roxa 

sakil roxa 

te' ak' 

kururin 

k'an-ak' 

batz'i k'an-ak' 

k'ox k'an-ak' 

Clematis grossa (Ranunculaceae) 

Melothria pendula (Cucurbitaceae) 

Mikania cordifolia (Asteraceae) 

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae) 

Cuscuta corymbosa var. grandifolia 

(Convolvulaceae) 

Cuscuta tinctoria (Convolvulaceae) 

Cuscuta yucatana (Convolvulaceae) 

yak' max 

yat tz'i' ak' 

Rosa chinensis (Rosaceae) 

Rosa chinensis (Rosaceae) 

Rosa chinensis (Rosaceae) 

Rosa chinensis (Rosaceae) 

Rosa chinensis (Rosaceae) 

Rosa chinensis (Rosaceae) 

Rosa banksiae (Rosaceae) 

Rosa multiflora (Rosaceae) 

Rosa roxburghii (Rosaceae) 

Rosa chinensis (Rosaceae) 

Adenocalyma apurense (Bignoniaceae) 

Anemopaegma puberulum (Bignoniaceae) 

Antigonon flavescens (Polygonaceae) 

Bunchosia montana (Malpighiaceae) 

Canavalia glabra (Fabaceae) 

Combretum fruticosum (Combretaceae) 

Didymaea alsinoides O^ubiaceae) 

Gouania polygama O^hamnaceae) 

Hiraea reclinata (Malpighiaceae) 

Passiflora sexiflora (Passifloraceae) 

Petastoma patelliferum Q3ignoniaceae) 

Quassia amara (Simaroubaceae) 

Serjania psilophylla (Sapindaceae) 

Dalechampia scandens (Euphorbiaceae) 

Bomarea acutifolia (Liliaceae) 

Bomarea hirtella (Liliaceae) 

"Chenek' Set" 

"Chenek'* (-tik, -altik, or -ultik)" is a set comprising 14 

generics, all but three of which are cultivated plants. They are 

herbaceous vines with 3-foliate leaves, showy, pea-like 

flowers, and elongate legumes for fruits. Only the peanut is not 

an obvious "bean." They are all vines or sprawling, twining 

plants. Most of the generic terms are used without the set 

marker chenek', although clearly conceptually they are 

included in chenek'. The two generics representing the 

common bean Phaseolus vulgaris are subdivided into a vast 

array of specifics recognizing color markings, size, shape, 

growth habits, and habitat, producing 26 specific names, which 

under intense study may prove to differentiate insufficiently or 

too highly. The term xut, in addition to its generic use, may 

refer to bean plants that have become adventive and have 

smaller flowers and beans. These would occur in highland com 

fields that have lain fallow. The commonest kinds are xut botil 

and xut chenek' (muk'ta ik'), though xut ibes is found 

occasionally. 

Seed beans are selected not at harvest, but before planting. 

They may be taken to the Church of St. Lawrence on Easter to 

be blessed. 

If the bean planter smokes a cigarette while he is planting, 

the beans will "see" the smoke and will not drop their flowers 

later if he, inadvertently, or an enemy, deliberately, smokes in 

his field. Deer may be serious pests, especially for kantela 

chenek'. Beans are susceptible to excessive humidity, uch, 

which causes the flowers to drop off and die pods to shrivel. 

Beans should be picked while the pods are still yellow, k'on, 

for if they are allowed to dry completely they will become 

weevil-ridden. If a child has cradle cap it is tiiought that his 

father's bean fields will produce well. However, if beans are 

mistreated, their soul (shared with com) will cry and complain 

to the Earth Lord and to the gods in heaven, thus calling down 

a famine upon mankind. As beans are not partial to sandy soil, 

they are never planted with dry season lowland com. 

Beans are boiled, seasoned with salt, chili, and sometimes 

coriander, mexican tea, or onions. They are "cold." 

Beans that are left in their pods get less worm-eaten. 
NUMBER 35 121 

Beans that are flailed and left in the sun shrink and later cook 

slowly, as do beans that are put in cold water, but there are other 

beans that, for no known reason, also cook slowly. If they do 

not cook they are ground on the metate and drank like com 

gruel. 

When cooking dry beans the pot is only half filled to allow 

for swelling, but when the beans are fresh the pot is filled. 

Pich'bil chenek', "clumped beans," consisting of a lump of 

beans crashed in the hand, is served with two tortillas to 

shamans at the annual community ceremonies. They are also 

given to children. For bean tamales cf. ixim. 

Only white beans may be eaten on Lenten Fridays or during 

Holy Week, for other beans are said to turn into flies. Beans 

may not be eaten by a patient after a major curing ceremony. 

As a remedy for smallpox (muk'ta kuyel) 13 beans and 13 

50 coins formerly were put in water and left outside overnight 

to feel the dew. The water was drunk the next morning and also 

used to wash the affected parts. It was "cold." 

As a remedy for an eye disorder, possibly cataract, 

jch'ul-me'tik ta sat, 13 black beans and 13 50 coins are put in 

water together with Ixtapa salt (this information must date from 

the early 1960s when 50 coins were still common). The cup is 

left outside every night for three nights, and each morning one 

of the coins is placed against the eye until the heat of the body 

has warmed it, then replaced with a cool one. A few beans are 

also placed on the eye (Fabrega and Silver, 1973:245). The 

water may also be used as an eye lotion. It is "cold." Sheep that 

eat beans are said to get diarrhea and ran away, but bean pods 

after flailing are fed to sheep. If lowland cows break into the 

milpa and eat beans, these will swell up in their stomach with 

fatal results. 

Beans may be resold and are sold at market. 

1. Aros chenek' is the rice bean Vigna umbellata, a native of 

tropical Asia, a twining annual with yellow flowers, which is 

occasionally cultivated in lowland areas, but very seldom by 

Zinacantecs. The bean is the same shape as a grain of rice 

although a little bigger (3-5 mm long). The pods are so small 

and narrow that they are difficult to pick. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Ik'al aros chenek', "black rice bean," has shiny black 

beans. 

b. Sakil aros chenek', "white rice bean," has light tan 

beans. 

c. Tzajal aros chenek', "red rice bean," is the most 

common form with bright red beans. 

2. Botil (-tik, -altik) is the scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus 

coccineus, a coarse tuberous-rooted perennial vine with profuse 

clusters of bright red flowers. The fruits are green, flattened 

pods, and the 4-5 seeds are large (16-20 cm long) 

kidney-shaped beans. 

Because of its exuberant growth this bean is planted by only 

a few people in yards or around the edge of com fields, often 

with support. It is planted in all the temperate communities 

except Minax and the lower hamlets of the Atz'am valley, and 

in all the highland communities, except Apas. Plants often 

persist for many years, appearing wild as second growth 

engulfs them. They are not planted together with com as they 

break the com leaves. One to two beans are planted more than 

an armspan apart in March-May, but they are known to grow 

for only certain people. These beans produce a small crop the 

first year followed by two years of great productivity. The 

fourth year the plant flowers in abundance, but the leaves 

yellow and few if any beans appear. The harvest is from 

December to February. 

The young leaves and flowers are boiled with young 

watermelon squash leaves. The beans may be boiled fresh after 

removing the pods or they are allowed to dry, are flailed, and 

then are boiled for more than a day, together with chili, salt, and 

onions. The flowers, beans, and occasionally the tuberous roots 

of this plant are eaten. Preparatory to boiling, the roots are dried 

for a week. People uproot the whole plant, wash die roots and 

dry the plant for a week, at which time it is boiled. 

The leaves may be crashed in cold water and the water given 

to a poisoned dog. 

The beans are sold at market. Bean tamales are sold at market 

in Chamula. 

Specifics: 4. Every specific may also have a flat, latz, form 

where the pods are distinctly flattened and narrow, and the 

seeds are brightly colored or lustrous and closer together, but 

smaller and shorter, angular and flat on one or both ends. 

a. Ik'al botil, "black botil," refers to individuals with 

dark purple-black beans. 

b. Sakil botil, "white botil," refers to plants that produce 

light tan beans. 

c. Tzajal botil, "red botil," has dusty maroon beans. This 

is the most common variety. It is preferred for wedding 

and carnival tamales as it does not sour easily. 

d. Tz'ibal botil, "spotted botil" (pinto botil, pirik' botil, 

tz'ibkun botil, tz'ibkuron botil), has spotted beans. 

There are two varieties. 

(1) Sakil tz'ibal botil, "white spotted botil," has tan 

beans with black spots. 

(2) Tzajal tz'ibal botil, "red spotted botil," has 

maroon beans with black spots. These are known 

to "visit" with the solid maroon form (tzajal 

botil), mixing on the same plant. 

3. Ibes (-tik, -altik) refers to Phaseolus coccineus ssp. 

darwinianus, a perennial tuberous-rooted, coarse cultivated 

vine with large, thin trifoliate leaves and white flowers. The 

seeds (4-5 to a pod) are 14-16 mm long, kidney-shaped, and 

rounded with dark, mottled markings. 

This bean is planted in humid fields in all the temperate 

communities except Minax and in all the highland communities. In temperate hamlets it takes the place of x'ak'il chenek'. 

Two beans are planted with the com at the foot of a tree or are 

provided with a single scarlet runner bean or preferably with 

also a black paskva bean or a white ton tz'unun bean. The 

harvest is from November to lanuary. The beans may be picked 
122 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

when young and eaten fresh. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Ik'al ibes, "black ibes" (ik'-soman ibes), has dark 

reddish black beans. To cure a sheep of "hot wind," 

leaves of this bean are mashed in cold water, salt is 

added, and the water is given to the sheep to drink. 

b. K'anal ibes, "yellow ibes" (tz'ibaltik ibes), has 

yellow-tan beans and a yellowish pod. It may "visit" 

the reddish podded tzajal ibes. 

c. Sakil ibes, "white ibes" (vayu' chenek'), has white 

beans. 

d. Tzajal ibes, "red ibes," has reddish maroon beans. 

This form and the yellow variety are the commonest. 

These red beans may be used for wedding and carnival 

tamales, but they sour quickly. 

4. Javas (-tik, -iltik) (castillan chenek'*) is the faba bean, 

Viciafaba. The pod contains 4-5 seeds and turns black when 

mature. 

It is cultivated in Chaynatik, Joyijel, and all highland 

communities, but in Naben Chauk it has been mostly replaced 

by the more lucrative flower culture. The beans are soaked for 

two days and nights so they will sprout in one week rather than 

two. One to three beans are planted to a hole in May between 

the com plants or in rows between the rows of com after the 

com has sprouted. They may also be planted earlier in the 

corral, two handspans apart and watered. 

They may be damaged by aphids, jays, and flickers. The 

harvest is in early November, around All Souls' Day. 

The leaves are applied to bums, either ground and applied 

when green or burnt and the powder applied. 

The beans are seasoned with mexican tea, chili, and salt and 

may be boiled, /oasted, or fried in lard. They are "cold" when 

young, but "hot" when old. 

This bean is classed as a "plant." 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'anal javas, "yellow javas," has yellowish beans. It 

is cultivated rarely. 

b. Sakil javas, "white javas," has white beans. It is the 

commonest variety. It has two forms. 

(1) Krem javas, "boy javas" (chimpu javas), has 

narrow beans on a single stalk. Two to three beans 

are planted in a hole. This bean does not cook 

well. 

(2) Tzeb javas, "girl javas" (muk'tik javas, tranjero javas), has wide beans and 3-4 stalks. One 

bean is planted to a hole. 

c. Tzajal javas, "red javas," has dull reddish brown 

beans. It is planted infrequently. It is known to "visit" 

with the white beans, mixing on the same plant. 

5. Javas kajve (kaxlan kajve, nes-kajve) is Mucuna 

pruriens var. utilis, a bean imported from Africa as a substitute 

for coffee. It is an herbaceous vine with large, pinnately 

trifoliate leaves with large, asymmetric, ovate leaflets, pubescent above and below, 8-15 cm long. The flowers are large, 

dark, brownish purple, to about 4.5 cm long. The legume is 

oblong, densely pubescent with stiff irritating hairs. The seeds 

are shiny and black 1-1.5 cm long. 

This bean, grown in the lowland areas, has not been seen in 

cultivation by the Zinacantecs who insist on classifying it as a 

type of coffee rather than a bean. We hope some day they will 

leam "the truth." It is sold by ladinos at market. It is seldom, if 

ever, bought by Zinacantecs. 

6. Kantela chenek' (-tik, -altik), "candle bean" refers to 

wild and cultivated members of the genus Vigna. These are 

sub-erect to spreading vigorous annuals. The flowers are 

off-white to yellow, veined with purple. The 7-8 seeds to a pod 

are almost round although angled in outline and 8-12 mm 

long. The cultivated form, Vigna unguiculata, is the cow pea of 

Asiatic origin introduced into the area. 

These are grown or occur wild in the lowland areas and 

Minax. The seed beans may be scattered or 1-3 beans planted 

with the com, but the plant spreads across 3-4 rows and if the 

com is not doubled, the bean plant will pull the com to the 

ground where it rots. Some people do not plant it until early 

August, lest it be eaten by bean beetles. The harvest is in 

December-Ianuary. It is very difficult to harvest because the 

plants are hard to pull up and the beans break in their pods 

when flailed and must be picked and shelled individually. 

Specifics: 3. Each cultivated specific may have a latz, 

flat-ended form, with beans 7-10 mm long and closely spaced. 

a. Ik'al kantela chenek', "black candle chenek'," has 

dull black, slightly mottled seeds. The latz variety, 

known as tzo' chij, "sheep shit," is the preferred form. 

These are both Vigna unguiculata. 

b. K'anal kantela chenek', "yellow candle chenek'" 

(sakil kantela chenek'), has dull tan beans. It is the 

least common variety and is a form of Vigna 

unguiculata. 

c. Te'tikal kantela chenek', "wild kantela chenek'" 

(kantela ak'), is Vigna vexillata, a wild occurring 

species similar to the cultivated plants but more 

pubescent and with smaller flowers. It occurs in 

lowland second growth. No use is reported. 

7. Karvensa (tik), (arveja, arvensa) refers to me pea 

Pisum sativum and the chick pea Cicer arietinum). The latter is 

very rarely cultivated and only a black form has been seen. 

Karvensa is classed as both "plant" and "vine." 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Ik'al karvensa, "black karvensa," refers to the single 

occurrence of Cicer arietinum observed cultivated by 

a ladino farmer in the Grijalva Valley. Normal white 

(tan) chick peas when encountered in the market are 

grouped with Pisum sativum. 

b. Sakil karvensa, "white karvensa," the pea (Pisum 

sativum), is grown in Chaynatik, Joyijel, Sak Lum, and 

in most highland communities. It is also grown by 

Chamulans. 

Peas are planted in the rainy season, 2-3 to a hole, or in the 
NUMBER 35 123 

dry season if irrigated. They are spaced 2-3 handspans apart. 

They mature in 3 months. They are seldom, if ever, eaten by 

Zinacantecs. 

8. Manya chenek' (-tik, -altik) is the peanut Arachis 

hypogaea, which is cultivated in temperate areas. Peanuts, 

especially when they are eaten fresh, are reputed to cause 

erections. They are fed to stallions when they want them to 

mate. A bag of peanuts is included in the net of fruit given by 

the elders to each of the scribes on the fiestas of St. Sebastian 

and St. Laurence. They are "cold." 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i manya chenek', "real peanut," refers to the 

small-shelled form cultivated most commonly in 

Tenejapa and sold frequently on San Cristobal street 

comers. This peanut has been introduced recently into 

Masan, Minax, and Potovtik, where it is cultivated by 

a few people. The peanuts are planted in the rows 

between the com, one peanut to a hole, the same 

distance apart as the clumps of com. They are hilled. 

b. Soktomal manya chenek', "Chiapan peanut," is the 

large hollow-shelled form cultivated in Chiapa de 

Corzo and formerly sold by a few Zinacantecs in San 

Cristobal. 

9. X'ak'il chenek' "vine bean" (ak'il chenek', chobtikal 

chenek', k'ajbenal chenek'), refers to pole beans, rapid 

growing, twining plants of Phaseolus vulgaris. These all need 

support either from poles or com plants. The flowers are in 

short lax racemes, and the color varies from white fading 

yellow, to pink and lavender. The pods are slender with 4 to 8 

seeds. 

In discussing and selecting pole beans a distinction is made 

between "xte'-pat" or "te'-pat," "hard pod," and "xk'un-pat" 

or "xk'un," "soft pod," or "soft" beans. The former have thin 

brittle pod walls, whereas the latter have soft, thick pod walls 

even when dry. Their pods also curl up. They may be cooked 

and eaten together with the beans even when dry. 

In temperate communities a distinction may be made 

between early, santoal, beans (All Souls' Day), and late, 

paskva or paxku'al, beans (Christmas). Although Zinacantecs 

are aware that there are differences between highland and 

lowland pole beans, i.e., the highland black and red beans are 

smaller, rounder, and tastier, mas tot, "thicker" than lowland 

beans, some forms seem to cross over in the temperate zone to 

a much greater degree than bush beans. 

None of the red pole beans are used for wedding or Carnival 

tamales. 

Beans are planted throughout the township together with 

com: in La Selva and Naben Chauk in the first two weeks of 

March, in other highland and temperate communities in late 

April and May, and in the lowlands in late May and June. 

If only an almul or a liter are planted, the farmer does it 

himself, first planting a quart of com then adding the beans, 

2-3 per hole, 2 rows at a time. If he plants 3-4 almul he gets 

2-3 helpers. Two workers plant the com followed by 1 bean 

planter. When the last 2 rows of com are planted only 1 row of 

beans is planted so that the next day it can be seen where work 

ended. If there are 6 workers, 4 plant com, 2 plant beans. 

In the lowlands, if 1 or 2 cups are planted the 1-2 workers 

plant com till noon then plant the beans. If 1 kvarto is planted, 

even if there are 3 to 4 com planters there is only 1 bean planter. 

He plants beans in the 3-4 rows, and falls way behind. When 

the com planters have finished, they help him finish. Not 

everyone plants pole beans because in some places they don't 

produce. Also, many workers are needed at harvest time or else 

the cows will eat the beans. 

The beans are harvested with the com. 

Specifics: 14. 

a. Chana x'ak'il has rounded reddish brown beans 8-12 

mm long. It is grown in highland and temperate areas. 

It is fast-cooking and especially tasty. 

b. Ik'al x'ak'il, "black x'ak'il" (batz'i chenek', paskva 

chenek', paxku'al chenek', yut mokal chenek'), has 

lustrous black beans 8-12 mm long. It is planted 

throughout the township. There is a "soft pod" form. 

c. Ik'al x'ak'il ta olon osil, "lowland black x'ak'il," is 

the lowland variety. 

d. K'anal ton tz'unun, "yellow hummingbird egg," has 

small 6-9 mm lustrous yellow beans. This is cultivated infrequently in the temperate zone. 

e. K'anal x'ak'il (t'oskin chenek') has yellow brown 

beans. It is planted in highland and temperate 

communities. The term t'oskin refers only to the 

temperate bean. 

f. Muk'ta ik', "large black" (lansa vitzal chenek', vara 

chenek'), is a long-podded variety with large beans 

that is grown at all elevations. 

g. Sakil ton tz'unun, "white hummingbird egg," has 

small 6-9 mm lustrous white beans. It is cultivated in 

highland and temperate zones. 

h. Sakil x'ak'il, "white x'ak'il," has dull white beans 

8-12 mm long. It is cultivated in temperate and 

lowland communities. It has a "soft pod" form, 

i. Santoal ik', "All Souls' Day black," is a fast-growing 

temperate black bean, 

j . Santoal tzoj, "All Souls' Day red," is a fast-growing 

temperate red bean, 

k. Tzajal x'ak'il, "red x'ak'il," has lustrous maroon-red 

beans 8-12 mm long. It is planted throughout the 

township. A "soft pod" form occurs. 

1. Tzajal x'ak'il ta olon osil, "lowland red x'ak'il," has 

slightly bigger beans than the above. There is a "soft 

pod" form also, 

m. Tzo' t'ul, "rabbit shit" (vola x'ak'il), has very round 

gray-brown beans 8-12 mm long. It is grown at all 

elevations. 

n. Tz'ibal x'ak'il, "striped x'ak'il" (k'anal tz'irin 

x'akil, pinto x'ak'il, pirik' x'ak'il, tz'ibaron x'ak'il, 

tz'ibirin x'ak'il, tz'ibkun x'ak'il), has tan beans 
124 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

7-10 mm long with black mottlings. It is grown at all 

elevations. In temperate communities it is described as 

fast growing, santoal. This white-podded form may 

"visit" with the black-podded ik'al x'ak'il, mixing on 

the same vine. 

10. Xchenek' tzajal om, "red spider's chenek'," is 

Rhynchosia pyramidalis (1-1) a vine with small yellow and 

maroon pea flowers about 1 cm long. They are arranged in 

spikes arising in the axils of the trifoliate leaves. The leaflets 

are ovate, broad at the base and drawn out at the tip, 5-10 cm 

long. The seed pods are medially constricted. The pod contains 

two seeds, which are bright, shiny red with a black spot at one 

end. It grows in second growth of the lowland area. 

The beans of this vine, resembling the color pattern of a 

black widow spider, serve as an antidote for a black widow bite. 

To counter the "cold" of the bite, 13 splinters of pitch pine and 

a handful of kururin root are boiled with three beans. The 

"hot" broth is drunk. 

11. Xlumil chenek', "ground bean," refers to non-twining or 

little-twining plants of Phaseolus vulgaris. These bush beans, 

having 5-6 seeds per pod, do not need com plants or poles for 

support. Some claim that the same bean can produce bush or 

pole bean plants depending on how it is planted, others deny 

this vigorously. As with pole beans, a distinction is made 

between "hard pod" and "soft pod" beans. In discussing bush 

beans a distinction is often made also between seeds that are 

7-10 mm long or 10-13 mm long; the former are described as 

"vola" or "volajtik," "round," or "chimpo," "small," whereas 

the latter are "telajtik," "long," or "muk'ta," "large." Lowland 

black bush beans are given a third distinguishing set of terms: 

the round, small beans being "sme'," "female," and the long, 

large beans, "si£t," "male." 

A further distinction is made between highland bush beans 

and lower temperate and lowland beans. The latter are 

somewhat larger. 

Red and black beans are strong-hearted, tzotz yo'on, and 

white beans are small-hearted, bik'it yo'on, or weak-hearted, 

k'un yo'on, that is, they are unpredictable, sometimes 

producing well, sometimes not, regardless of the planter. 

Bush beans are planted when the moon is young so the tips 

will be tender, but beans planted when there is no moon will not 

come up. 

Highland bush beans are planted by only a few people in 

some of the communities. There is a variety of cultivation 

techniques. Where irrigation is available they may be planted in 

the dry season, 4-5 beans to a hole, spaced 20 cm apart in rows 

30 cm apart. They are harvested in April-May. If planted in the 

cornfield, after the com has sprouted, two rows are planted 

similarly between the rows of com. Some people plant two 

bean plants between the com plants, too, but that makes 

weeding difficult. They are harvested with the com. They may 

be pulled up or picked by hand, dried in the sun, flailed and 

winnowed. 

In the lowlands and lower temperate communities, bush 

beans are not planted together with the com because it is too 

shady and they grow very scrawnily. Instead, they are planted 

in September by many people when the com is ripe and is being 

doubled. They require fertile land. 

The rows between the com are hoed to remove the weeds, 

but this hoeing is much easier than mid-summer weeding, for 

the roots are not so firmly set. It is done prior to the doubling of 

the com so as not to disturb the com plants. The beans are 

planted in two rows as above, but after they are tossed in the 

holes they are not covered over. One kvarto and one big cup or 

four big cups can be planted by one man per day. A really fast 

worker can plant two kvarto per day, two janika per week. 

They are harvested with the com from December to January. 

Unlike the com threshing floor that must be accessible to 

tracks, the bean threshing floor may be in the middle of the 

cornfield. 

Young beans can be eaten fresh or, when mature, dried and 

boiled. The spent pods are used as fodder for sheep. 

Specifics: 14. 

Highland: 

a. Ik'al xlumil, "black xlumil," has solid black beans, 

more intensely black than the lowland form. 

b. Sakil xlumil, "white xlumil," has white beans. 

Soft-podded beans occur. This is planted very infrequently. 

c. Tzajal xlumil, "red xlumil" (koxo mol), has dull red 

maroon beans, 8-12 mm long, brighter and smaller 

than the lowland form. Soft-podded beans occur. 

These beans are used by a bride's family to make the 

wedding tamales. The cantors feed die spooks bean 

tamales on Carnival Monday. For Carnival each cantor 

provides one-half janika of beans. 

d. Tzo' bail xlumil, "gopher shit xlumil" (vara chenek'), is a long-podded variety of black bean recently 

introduced by the government into Zinacantan Center. 

e. Vayu' xlumil, "tan xlumil," has tan beans. It is planted 

very infrequently. 

Lowland: 

f. Ik'al pat, "black pod," has a dark pod, 20 cm long, widi 

the black beans 10-13 mm long and widely spaced 

within the pod. One kvarto produces 1 l/i janika. 

g. Ik'al xlumil, "black xlumil" (belakrus chenek', 

verakrusano chenek'), has black beans 7-10 mm 

long. This form is more productive and cooks faster 

than muk'ta ik', but it is getting mixed togetiier and 

lost. One kvarto of seed produces 1 '/2 janika. 

(1) Ik'al pat, "black pod," has a dark pod, 12 cm 

long. 

(2) Sakil pat, "white pod," has a light pod, 9 cm long, 

with 5-10 closely spaced, flat-ended beans. 

(3) Sakil pat ivriro, "hybrid white pod," has a light 

pod, 15 cm long, with 10-15 closely spaced, 

flat-ended beans. This variety is the most prized as 

the top of the plant is covered with pods, and is 
NUMBER 35 125 

undoubtedly the result of recent introduction. 

h. Kvarentano is a fast-growing, highly prized black 

bean that produces two janika per kvarto. 

i. Muk'ta ik', "large black" (jamapa chenek', muk'ta 

ik' k'ajbenal chenek', vega chenek'), has dull black 

beans 10-13 mm long. Because these plants grow a bit 

taller, attaching themselves to the com stubble and 

fruiting at the top, they take longer to produce a crop. 

They are also harder to pull up at harvest time, but the 

beans are heavier than the ik'al xlumil. One kvarto 

produces only one janika. It may take as many as six 

pot fulls of water to cook. See ik'al xlumil above. 

j . Muk'ta sakil xlumil, "large white xlumil," has white 

beans 10-13 mm long. There is a soft-podded form. 

k. Sak-vayan xlumil, "tan xlumil," has tan beans. It is 

cultivated infrequently. 

1. Sakil xlumil, "white xlumil," has white beans 7-10 

mm long. There is a soft-podded form. 

m. Tzajal xlumil, "red xlumil," has dull red beans 

10-13mm long. 

n. Tz'ibal xlumil, "striped xlumil" (tz'ibaron xlumil, 

tz'ibirin xlumil), has tan beans with black markings, 

10-13 mm long. It is cultivated infrequently. 

12. Xut (-tik) (te'tikal xut) is the term for wild members of 

Phaseolus coccineus, the scarlet runner bean. They differ from 

the cultivated forms in having an annual or perennial habit, 

small leaflets with prominent reticulate veins beneath, smaller, 

shorter inflorescences, and beans that are dull black with 

irregular mottling and are 10-12 mm long. They occur in 

second growth in temperate and highland areas. 

It is said that this bean was once cultivated, but it was so 

fussy, always demanding to be weeded and frequently 

complaining to Our Lord so that, in exasperation, He banished 

it to the wilds. 

Some people eat the flowers, boiled with beans, meat, or 

watermelon squash flowers or young fruit. They are "cold." 

The roots may be boiled and eaten too. Only poverty-stricken 

people eat the bean. They are gathered by women. 

Extended range: Phaseolus vulgaris. 

13. Xut ak' is Galactia acapulcensis, a slender herbaceous 

vine with softly pubescent stems pinnately trifoliate leaves with 

elliptic to oblong ovate leaflets, 4-8 cm long. The magenta to 

purple pea flowers are racemose and about 1 cm long. The 

legume is linear, pubescent, 3-3.5 cm long. It occurs in second 

growth of lowland and temperate locations. 

14. Xvet' (-tik) (patax, pataxet) refers to lima and seiva 

beans, Phaseolus lunatus, annual vines with pale yellowish, 

pink, and white flowers. The seeds, three to a pod, are 12-15 

cm long, flat and angled on the ends. 

They are planted in April and May by a few people in about 

half the temperate communities and in the lowlands. One to two 

beans are planted to a hole with the com. They fruit all year. 

There may be three pickings, but the major harvest is in 

January-February. They are not a preferred variety of bean 

because they spread too widely, all stages of flower and fruit 

occur simultaneously, and their thorns enter one's hands during 

harvesting. 

The leaves and beans are reputed to be fatal to sheep. 

To prepare the beans for eating, they are boiled once when 

fresh and twice when dry. They are "medium." 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Ik'al xvet', "black xvet'," has black beans. 

b. Sakil xvet', "white xvet'," has off-white beans with 

scattered black markings. 

c. Tzajal xvet', "red xvet'," has dull maroon-red beans. 

d. Tz'ibal xvet', "striped xvet'" (pinto xvet', pirik' 

xvet', tz'ibirin xvet', tz'ibkuron xvet'), has blackand-white streaked beans. 

"Ch'um-te' Set" 

The "ch'um-te' set" contains eight generics, which are 

herbaceous, mostly perennial vines in the squash family 

(Cucurbitaceae) with fruits substantially smaller than those in 

the mail set. 

l./Ch'um-te', "ch'um tree" (tik, -altik), is the chayote 

Sechium edule, a commonly cultivated vine with many 

variants. The plant is a vigorous, herbaceous perennial arising 

each year from thick, fibrous, starchy tubers. These tubers 

(ko'san) are edible and reminiscent of potatoes in flavor. The 

flowers are small white and in pedunculate axillary clusters. 

The fruit is ovoid and variously covered with spines. Some 

strains have no spines at all. The stems and leaves are very like 

those of squash. 

An extraordinary variability and complexity of belief and 

practice is associated with the cultivation Qf chayotes. 

From one week to one month prior to planning, a hole is dug 

one meter wide and a meter deep. It may be filled with compost, 

cow, sheep, or chicken manure, and ashes. Some do not use 

sheep manure, claiming that it harbors June bug grubs. The 

ashes, however, are said to kill the grabs. The lime water used 

to boil the com for tortillas is tossed in the hole daily. 

The proper time for planting is most commonly said to be on 

St. Andrew's Day (sk'in jtottik apuxtol, 30 November) and 

during the Christmas season when the chayotes are sprouting, 

either on 20-22 December (xoj-k'at'ixtik, ventex mamal) or 

on Christmas Eve. The chayote will imitate the abundance of 

fruit, both the hawthorn apples that the dudes string on their 

necklaces and the fruit hanging on the pine trees flanking the 

creche. All Souls' Day, with the graves piled with fruit, is also 

appropriate, as is Epiphany, the Fiesta of St. Sebastian, and 

Carnival (xlok' penton). Planting should be done when the 

moon is full. Chayotes should be planted in the cool of the dusk 

so that the vines will not grow long and sterile, or they should 

be planted when the stars have appeared, ensuring productivity. 

To persuade the chayote roots to remain close to the surface, 

the planter should either sit cross-legged or with his legs 

outstretched. If he prefers, he may have three girls and one boy 
126 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

sit cross-legged, or have three young girls sit with their legs 

pointing to the hole. Neighbors' children may be borrowed for 

this purpose. Also, the planter will know which direction die 

roots will grow by placing the chayote on its side, with its 

bottom facing the preferred direction. Two to four, but most 

commonly three, chayotes are placed in a hole, either touching 

one anodier or with the ends of their sprouts in contact. Eight to 

fifteen chayotes may be lined up in a row, touching each other. 

To influence productivity, 2-3 or 13 pebbles or 13 kernels of 

red, white, or yellow com may be placed with the chayotes. 

Some farmers place three corncobs radiating out from the 

chayotes or else, after covering the chayotes with dirt, place 

them on top. This is to ensure that the tubers will not grow 

deep. The chayotes are placed 20-40 cm deep in the hole. 

An old potsherd may be placed on top of the hole to keep the 

chickens away. Gophers may become serious pests by eating 

the roots. Young plants are watered. When the sprouts surface 

diey may be staked, ashes poured on the ground, and die ashes 

enclosed in a ring of stones. Young plants may be protected 

with a fence. Some farmers provide an arbor for their vines. To 

stimulate growth, the vines should be cut back on St. Andrew's 

Day. The first new shoots in the spring should be pruned to 

assure abundant fruit. An old plant fruits earlier in the year. 

The farmer with a green thumb (sk'abal) will have vines 

producing fruit in a year. For others, the vines may never fruit 

or not fruit for two years. One should not point at flowering 

chayote vines lest the flowers drop off. Nor should one point at 

young chayotes, squashes, or gourds when they are still on the 

vine or they will rot. The fruits are harvested from August 

through November in the highland hamlets, continuing into 

January in the temperate hamlets. If the vine produces few 

fruits it is said tha/i^'will have many tubers. They may be resold 

and are sold at market. 

To provide extra assurance that the tubers are growing close 

to the surface the farmer should roll on the ground three times 

before beginning to dig them up. He may have a child roll on 

the ground in his stead. Digging may be done early in the 

morning, but it is preferable to delay until after mid-day when 

the chayote souls are bathing. By mid-afternoon the souls will 

have returned and the tubers will be clean and white, with thin 

skins. Care should be taken not to scratch one's head lest the 

tubers be fibrous. Chayote tubers are dug from November to 

mid-January. If dug too soon they will be too young and small; 

if dug after the plants have sprouted again they will be stringy. 

They are sold at market. 

The "cold" young shoots are boiled and eaten as greens. 

Chayote leaves are stuck in the top of a pot of chayotes or com 

on the cob to keep the steam in. The fruit has two large, starchy 

seeds with a fleshy covering and is boiled and eaten whole 

except for the skin. The "cold" young fruits and tubers are 

boiled, seasoned with salt and chili, and eaten as part of the 

meal. The young fruits are first peeled, rinsed, chopped into 

4-5 pieces, and then boiled with beef or boiled and fried with 

eggs. The ripe fruits, though they are not considered to be 

"fruit" (lo'bol), are boiled and eaten cold as between-meal 

snacks. When the water has evaporated the chayotes are ready 

to be served. Care should be taken not to let the fire go out 

beforehand for then die skins will be difficult to remove. The 

fruits may be smeared with honey. Chayotes are given as 

essential offerings to the dead on All Souls' Day. In male 

joking speech they are the standard reference for female 

genitals. Cf. batz'i ch'aben, sakil ich. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Sakil ch'um-te', "white ch'um tree," is a white variety 

with a uniform covering of thick spines. There are two 

forms. 

(1) K'ox sakil ch'um-te', "small white ch'um tree," 

is a small-fruited form. It is rather infrequent. 

(2) Muk'ta sakil ch'um-te', "large white ch'um 

tree," is the very common large-fruited form. 

b. T'arax ch'um-te', "hairless ch'um tree" (fan ch'umte', fax ch'um-te'), is an almost completely spineless 

form that is commonly grown in northern Mexico and 

the United States as a cash crop. There are two 

varieties. 

(1) Sakil t'arax ch'um-te', "white hairless ch'um 

tree," is a more oblong form grown by ladinos in 

San Fernando and harvested in December and 

January. It is reputed not to produce edible roots. 

(2) Yaxal t'arax ch'um-te', "green hairless ch'um 

tree," is a round green spineless form, grown by a 

few Zinacantecs in Na Chij and Zinacantan 

Center. A temperate strain is widely grown, 

especially in Bik'it Joyijel, where it is harvested in 

great quantities in March. 

c. Tzop ch'um-te', "fuzzy "ch'um tree" (tzav ch'umte', tzopin ch'um-te', tzotziron ch'um-te'), is a 

variety with very fine, soft spines and small tubers. It 

is cultivated in Larrainzar and by a few Zinacantecs in 

highland and temperate communities. It prefers yellow 

soil. There are two forms. 

(1) Sakil tzop ch'um-te', "white fuzzy ch'um tree." 

(2) Yaxal tzop ch'um-te', "green fuzzy ch'um tree." 

d. Yaxal ch'um-te', "green ch'um tree," is a green 

variety with a uniform covering of thick spines on the 

fruit. In this variety the fruit is green even on the 

interior. There are two forms. 

(1) K'ox yaxal ch'um-te', "small green ch'um tree," 

is a rather infrequent small-fruited form. 

(2) Muk'ta yaxal ch'um-te', large green ch'um 

tree," is the very common large-fruited form. It is 

said to be slightly sweeter than the white-fruited 

form. 

2. Ch'um-te' ch'o, "mouse ch'um tree," refers to thinstemmed annual or perennial vines with small white flowers 

and spinescent fruits 2-5 cm long. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i ch'um-te' ch'o, "genuine mouse ch'um tree," is 

Cyclanthera bourgeana (9-27), though some speakers 
NUMBER 35 127 

extend the term in a non-Linnaean fashion to include 

all those vines listed under 2b. It is a herbaceous 

perennial vine with small spinose fruits and superficially is very similar to Sechium edule (ch'um-te'). It 

is common in highland forest situations, second 

growth, and in disturbed ground such as yards and 

cornfields. Pig owners pull up the plants in the rainy 

season to feed their pigs. They are eaten also by sheep, 

horses, and cattle. 

Extended range: Gonolobus sp. 

b. Ch'ix ch'um-te' ch'o, "spiny mouse ch'um tree" 

(tzop ch'um-te' ch'o), refers to Cucumis anguria 

(1-1), Cyclanthera langaei (3-3), Echinopepon horridus (1-3), and Sicyos microphyllus (1-1). These are 

wiry, herbaceous vines with small white flowers and 

small spiny fruits. They occur throughout the township 

in disturbed and second growth habitats. 

3. Ch'um-te' pox, "ch'um tree medicine" (ch'ako' ak', 

xantiya ch'o), is Cucumis anguria (5-11), a coarse, hispid, 

annual vine with yellow flowers and small (3-5 cm long) 

ovoid, spinescent fruits. It is common in the lowland areas, 

especially in disturbed areas such as roadsides and second 

growth. 

The vine is used to lash field houses. 

For a laxative, one fruit is brewed. A man's dose is a cup 

filled up to the first joint of the middle finger. A woman's dose 

is a cup filled to the first joint of the forefinger. The "hot" tea 

is drank once before breakfast. An overdose is reputed to be 

fatal. 

4. Juxob-bail ak', "vine for rubbing oneself (ch'upak' ak', 

xavon ak'), is the dishrag gourd Luffa cylindrica (3-3), an 

introduced cultivated vine with white flowers and cylindrical, 

green, spongy fruits up to 50 cm long, the dried central portion 

of which is used as a vegetable sponge. It occurs as a cultivated 

plant and an occasional adventive in the lowlands. 

This vine is not grown by Zinacantecs. The skin of the fruit 

provides soap suds. The fibrous pith is used by ladinos as a 

sponge for cleaning the body. 

5. Polotz' (ch'upak') is the herbaceous vine Cyclanthera 

langaei (7-13). It is perennial with thick, starchy tubers. The 

flowers are white, the leaves five-parted. It has an erect spiny 

fruit. It is common in highland and temperate second growth 

and wet forest associations. 

The plants were cultivated formerly. The crushed tubers are 

used for shampoo and occasionally to launder wool clothing. A 

handful of the tubers is crashed in cold water and a cupful of the 

infusion administered to rabid dogs twice a day for three days. 

6. Xantiya ak', "watermelon vine" (mail ak', melon ak', 

xantiya antivo), is Melothria pendula (2-5), a delicate vine 

with brittle, palmate leaves and small yellow flowers, which 

mature into miniature watermelon-like fruits 3-4 cm long. The 

vine is common in wet and dry temperate and lowland forests 

and in second growth. 

The "cold" fruit is eaten at weeding time. 

7. Xavon ak', "soap vine" (ch'upak' ch'o), refers to 

Cayaponia attenuata (3-5) and C. racemosa (1-2), small 

herbaceous vines with lobed leaves and clusters of small yellow 

flowers. The fruits are ellipsoid, brown, fistulous, and 2-3 cm 

long. They are common in tropical deciduous forest and second 

growth in lowland areas, particularly in cornfields and in 

banana groves. 

A handful or two of the fruits are gathered by women and 

pounded on rocks to produce soap for laundering and 

shampooing. 

Extended range: Galium aschenbornii. 

8. Xenebal pox, "vomiting medicine" (ch'um-te' ak', 

xenobal), refers to the wild chayote-like vines Shizocarpum 

attenuatum (1-2), Polyclathra cucumerina (1-4) and Sicyos 

microphyllus (1-2), thin-stemmed, wiry, herbaceous perennials with racemes of small, white flowers and small, spiny fruits. 

They are common in second growth and disturbed ground near 

cornfields throughout the township. 

As a remedy for angry rebelliousness in children, the leaves 

are bruised and mixed in cold water. The child is given a small 

cupful of this "hot" infusion before breakfast, once. For 

tuberculosis and "wind" (sikil kolo'al ik'), a bunch of P. 

cucumerina is brewed and the "hot" tea drank. 

Extended range: Gonolobus sp. 

"Mail Set" 

The "mail set" is comprised of eight generics, members of 

the squash family (Cucurbitaceae). These are coarse herbaceous vines with large fleshy stems and scabrous, large, 

heart-shaped leaves. The flowers are yellow and up to 10 cm 

across. 

1. Ch'ako' (-tik) is a wild form of squash Cucurbita 

galeottii (4-6) with round or pear-shaped fruits similar to 

miniature bottle gourds. It has a green skin with white or 

yellowish striping. It is locally common in second growth and 

roadsides of lowland areas. 

This squash is said to be the result of cows eating pumpkin 

squash seeds, the excreted seeds producing ch'ako'. 

The young greens may be eaten boiled. The fruits are very 

hard-skinned and very bitter to the taste. The gourds may be 

used as shot glasses for agricultural ceremonies. They are used 

rarely by the ensign-bearers for ceremonial gourds. Children 

use the gourds as toys, rolling them down steep slopes. They 

may be cut in half and taken home for one's children to play 

with. 

2. Ch'um* (-tik, -altik, -ch'umaltik) is the pumpkin squash 

Cucurbita moschata (5-7), a coarse, annual vine. The fruit 

exhibits a vast variety of forms (most very large, up to 0.5 m in 

diameter). They all have a thick, hard, outer shell and thick, 

yellow or orange flesh and brown skin. The seeds are tan with 

a thin, irregular margin and are embedded in a mass of coarse 

strings. 

Pumpkin squashes are planted when the com is planted in the 

lowlands, and in the lower temperate communities. Squashes in 

the temperate zone never attain the size of lowland squashes. 
128 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

The seeds may be mixed with the seed com and 1-2 or (less 

frequently) 2-3 seeds may be dropped in the same hole as the 

com. Some farmers take care to plant them in two adjacent 

holes, then skipping a number of holes and again planting them 

in two adjacent holes. A second technique that may be 

employed in the same field is to plant 3-4 or 5-6 seeds in 

mounds of compost, ash, or in leafcutter ant nests. Some claim 

that the ants never touch the squash plants, others maintain that 

once the area around the nest has been swept clean and the 

workers have established their trails, then the plants won't be 

bothered. Deer are known to eat the leaves. A productive plant 

will provide 15-20 squashes. Fruit is picked in November and 

December when the com is harvested. Frequently the squashes 

will be broken open and only the seeds taken, as the squashes 

are difficult to transport. Their fruits and seeds are sold at 

market. One should not point at squash or gourd vines lest the 

young fruit rot. 

The "cold" flowers and tender shoots are boiled and eaten by 

workers in the cornfields. They may be mixed with beans. The 

"cold" young squashes are also eaten in the cornfield in August 

and September, boiled and seasoned with salt, chili, coriander, 

and mint. The juice of a young fruit may be drank as a purge. 

The "hot" ripe fruits may be roasted. A hole is dug, sticks piled 

in and burned, and when they have become embers, pieces of 

pumpkin squash are placed on top, covered with a flat rock and 

mud. But if too "hot" they may cause constipation. When 

steamed, brown sugar is added. If cooked in the lowlands, the 

pot is covered with pumpkin squash leaves. In the highlands, 

watermelon squash or com leaves are used. As some people get 

sick from eating pumpkin squash sweetened with brown sugar, 

"cold" refined sugar may be substituted. Eating too much 

pumpkin squash is said to cause fever. When steamed, the flesh 

should have the consistency of lard. Ripe pumpkin squash, 

whether roasted or steamed, is not served at a meal. Cooked 

pumpkin squash may be placed on the household altars on All 

Souls' Day. 

During the Posadas each steward must provide between 15 

and 30 squashes, which may be watermelon squashes or 

pumpkin squashes. They are eaten by the stewards, every 

morning, during the Posadas, in front of the church of SU 

Lawrence so the Christ Child will be bom. Each morning they 

present a bowlful to the civil authorities. A few pumpkin 

squashes are hung on the pine trees flanking the creche. They 

are also used for creche decoration in Apas, Atz'am, Na Chij, 

Paste', and Sak Lum. In temperate hamlets the squashes may be 

fed to pigs. In the lowlands they are fed to horses. 

The seeds, classed variously as "hot" and "cold," are toasted 

and ground and the powder sprinkled on snails, beans, potatoes, 

and occasionally tomatoes and com chowder. On Lenten 

Fridays and during Holy Week, this powder, seasoned with 

ground chili, is used to flavor white beans. They may also be 

toasted and eaten whole. They may be ground and drank in cold 

water as a purge. 

The acidity (syail) of the pulp of this squash may bum the 

hands of a person assigned the task of removing the seeds from 

many squashes. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Baril ch'um, "barrel ch'um" (volajtik ch'um), is a 

round or pumpkin-shaped form. 

b. Korneta ch'um, "comet ch'um" (xotajtik ch'um), is 

a crook-necked variety. Some claim its flesh is sweeter 

than the "barrel ch'um." 

c. Mail ch'um, "watermelon squash ch'um" (telajtik 

ch'um), is an oblong form, shaped like a watermelon 

squash. 

d. Setajtik ch'um, "squat ch'um," is a round form, wider 

than it is tall. 

To these shape distinctions is added rind quality. All of the 

above may be soft-skinned (xk'un or xk'un-pat) or hardskinned (te'-pat). Neither shape nor rind quality can be 

determined by examining the seed. Seeds from a single squash 

can produce plants with soft-skinned or hard-skinned fruits (but 

not mixed on a vine). The soft-skinned variety has a shiny 

yellowish brown, smooth skin. Many claim that the flesh is 

sweeter than the hard-skinned variety. It is preferred over other 

types of ch'um, because the rind is edible, although this leads 

to problems, as wandering cows find it attractive. The 

smooth-skinned, crook-necked variety has smaller fruits than 

the hard-skinned form. The hard-skinned form has a darker 

mottled brown, rough skin. The seeds should not be exposed to 

the dew lest they produce fruits with very thin skins. The 

soft-skinned, round and oblong-shaped forms may rarely have 

warty skin (jol tuluk', turkey head). These fruits, never 

predominating on a vine, are said to be especially sweetfleshed. 

3. Mail* (-tik) (mayil) is the watermelon squash Cucurbita 

ficifolia (3-2) also called Malabar or Angora gourd. This is a 

large, rambling, perennial vine arising from tuberous roots. The 

foliage is prickly. The fruit has the shape, soft, fleshy texture, 

and green mottled exterior markings of the watermelon. It has 

black or white seeds. 

Watermelon squash appears in the following creation tale: 

Man was made of mud. He was told how to grow com, 

how to make tortillas. 

"But who will make the tortillas?" he asked. 

"Your wife." 

"Who is she?" he asked. He was shown a watermelon 

squash lying on the ground. The squash turned into a 

woman. 

"This is your wife. She will feed you. You live with her. 

I will be back in a few days. Our Lord brought a devil to 

show man how to sleep with his wife. 

Our Lord came back again. "How are things going?" he 

asked. 

"Fine, my wife is pregnant," he said. (Today when a 

woman becomes pregnant we say, "Oy xa smail." "Now 

she has a watermelon squash.") 
NUMBER 35 

Our Lord told man to plant com. He gave man a pen and 

told him to become smart. 

Watermelon squash is planted in the temperate and highland 

communities on Candelaria, 2 February, in March (St. Joseph's 

Day, 19 March), and at Carnival (xlok' penton ta tajimoltik), 

April, and May. The hole should be dug one month prior to 

planting and filled with sheep or chicken manure or compost, 

and ashes. Two to six seeds are planted to a hole, either in a 

corral, an old corral site, or in a row of com in the cornfield. A 

great variety of techniques is associated with the planting of 

watermelon squash. The seeds should be carried on a piece of 

oak (batz'i te') bark or on a thick potsherd so that the squashes 

will have thick rinds. A chunk of brown sugar should also be 

placed on the bark or potsherd and a bite taken out at each hole 

so that the squashes will be sweet. This practice is very 

common. To assure a plentiful crop, the planter may also carry 

with him a shoulder bag filled with pine cones, or 13 river 

pebbles. Planting should only be done when the moon is full. It 

may be done early in the morning, but more frequently it is 

postponed until after 2 or 3 P.M., or in the late afternoon when 

the sun is low, so that the vines will be short and have many 

fruits. Others wait until dusk or 8-9 o'clock when the sky is 

filled with stars, so their abundance may be imitated. It should 

not be planted near broad beans, cabbage, or flowers, for it will 

crowd them out. 

The first sprouts should be cut off, twice, to promote vigor 

and abundant fruit. When the vine is flowering, coyol seeds 

should be chewed and spat on the plant to assure many fruit. 

Watermelon squashes, however, require a green thumb 

(sk'abal). When the vine runs across hard-packed ground, it 

cannot put down roots and must be covered with dirt. A board 

is placed under a watermelon squash if it is lying on the ground. 

Small watermelon squashes are used to decorate the creche in 

San Mikulax. Young watermelon squashes are harvested in 

August, ripe squashes in October and November. They are sold 

at market. Cf. batz'i ch'aben, ch'um. 

The "cold" tips and flowers are boiled and eaten. "Cold," 

young squashes are boiled and seasoned with salt, chili, and 

coriander, or with brown sugar and fresh com kernels. When 

people spend the night in the cornfield they may roast a 

watermelon squash. A hole is dug, a fire lit, and the squash 

placed on the embers. A hole is cut in the squash to insert sugar, 

then embers are placed on top and dirt on top of them for the 

night. Ripe squash if boiled or steamed with brown sugar is 

"hot," but with refined sugar is "cold." (Squash sweetened with 

brown sugar disagrees with some people.) Orange rind may be 

added for flavoring. When steamed, the pieces of squash are 

placed on the bottom of the pot, rind down, and then stood 

around the sides, rind out, so the flesh will not bum. Then other 

layers are added. The top layer is placed with the rind on top. It 

is covered with watermelon squash leaves or com leaves. On 

top of them is placed a cloth or a clay or metal bowl turned 

upside down so the steam will not escape. It is best when 

129 

cooking watermelon squash not to have children around lest 

they taste it and say it is chi', "sweet," for then it will become 

sour. To ensure that it be sweet, the cook, when chopping up the 

squash should exclaim, "mail tz'i'," "dog watermelon squash." 

Ripe watermelon squash is not served at a meal. Cooked 

watermelon squash and pumpkin squash is placed on die 

household altar on All Souls' Day. For use during the Posadas 

cf. ch'um. It is said jokingly that one can make a nor'easter lift 

by eating watermelon squash. The fruits are used as horse 

fodder. The seeds are toasted and eaten whole. They may be 

ground and used to season snails, beans, potatoes, and 

occasionally tomatoes and vokol ich. They are classed 

variously as "hot" and "cold." 

Watermelon squash leaves may be stuck in at the top of a pot 

of com on the cob to keep the steam in. 

To cause measles to erupt, the patient drinks the "hot" water 

that comes to the top of a pot of watermelon squash (sba a'lel 

mail) dyed red with the fruit of vo'ox. For fever sores the 

"cold" rind is scratched off and rubbed on the lips. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Chij-chon mail, "striped snake mail" or "gopher snake 

mail," is a light-green form speckled with white "like 

a turkey egg." 

b. Sak-vayan mail, "whitish mail" (k'an-tzu mail), is a 

slightly darker form. 

c. Sakil mail, "white mail", is a white form with pale 

green mottling. This variety is preferred as a remedy 

for measles. 

d. Tz'ibaltik mail, "striped mail," is a light-green form 

striped with white. 

e. Yaxal mail, "green mail," is a dark-green form. 

There is considerable disagreement over the relation of seed 

color to skin color. The seeds within a fruit are of uniform 

color, and the fruits on a vine are of uniform color though some 

claim that green, speckled, and striped may occur on the same 

vine. Black seeds usually produce green or striped varieties, but 

white seeds usually produce white squashes, although crossovers occasionally occur. 

4. Melon (-tik, -altik) refers to musk melons and cantaloupes. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i melon, "genuine melon" (castillan ch'um*, 

melon*), probably refers to the musk melon Cucumis 

melo var. conomon (1-2), no longer in cultivation. It is 

an oblong melon with smooth mottled orange-yellow 

skin and yellow mushy flesh. The clever exploits of 

Rabbit in the melon patch are familiar to all (Laughlin, 

1977,T21,T49). 

These insipid-tasting melons, once very common, have 

nearly disappeared from the local markets. They are cultivated 

by lowland ladinos in their yards, by Zinacantecs in Santa 

Rosa, and by a few Zinacantecs who rent bottomland along the 

Rio Grijalva and the Presa Angostura. Three or six to seven 
130 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

seeds are planted in November. A hole is made with a pointed 

stick, which is swirled around in the sand. Six or seven seeds 

are planted in a circle, each seed 10 cm apart and each circle 6 

m apart. When planted near the reservoir 3-4 seeds are placed 

in a hole, and after the plants are a few inches high, sand is 

brought from the riverbed and poured on the base of the plants. 

The vines should be separated so they do not touch. The harvest 

is from February to early April. They may be resold and sold at 

market. 

Musk melons are classed variously as "cold," "medium," and 

"hot." They are eaten rind and all and then the rind is spit out. 

The seeds may be stored for their medicinal use. (Stingy people 

sell them to those in need.) To reduce fever, the seeds are 

ground and mixed with water, which is then strained. A cup of 

the "medium" infusion is drank. To make a refreshing drink, 

refined sugar is added. This is also administered to sick 

chickens. 

b. Chi'il melon, "sweet melon," is the cantaloupe 

Cucumis melo var. reticulatus, a recent introduction to 

the markets of highland Chiapas. 

This "cold" fruit may be lethal if eaten when one is angry. 

The seeds have the same use as above. They are resold at 

market. 

5. Pepino, Solanum muricatum (1-1), is a plant introduced 

from Peru. It is an erect perennial or small shrub with alternate, 

finely pubescent or silky, oblong leaves about 5-7 cm long. 

The flowers are bright blue and 3-5 mm across. The fruit is 

purple, ovoid, and 10-15 cm long. 

It is raised in Tuxtla and Larrainzar and is sold at market in 

San Cristobal and Tuxtla. The "cold" fruit is rarely eaten by 

Zinacantecs. 

6. Sakil, "white," is the cushaw Cucurbita mixta (2-2), a 

coarse, soft, hairy, annual vine cultivated for its very large 

(often up to 1 m long) fruits with tan skin occasionally striped 

with green. Its large, white seeds have prominently ridged 

margins. 

Cushaws are planted occasionally in some of the lower 

temperate communities as well as in the lowlands. They are 

planted in the same manner as pumpkin squashes. Because 

these squashes are too bitter to eat when ripe they are picked 

when still young in late July and August, at the second 

weeding. The seeds may be taken in September, at beanplanting time. They are sold at market. 

Marauding cows eat young cushaws. The "cold" flowers and 

tender shoots are boiled and eaten, alone or mixed with beans. 

The young fruits are boiled and seasoned with salt, chili, and 

mint, coriander, or mexican tea. Young cushaws are "cold." 

After the seeds are removed they are fed to horses. Cushaws are 

fed to pigs in the temperate hamlets. The seeds are toasted, 

ground, and eaten, but are not mixed with pumpkin squash 

seeds. These "cold" seeds are used to season beans, etc., but are 

not considered as tasty as pumpkin squash seeds. They may be 

eaten whole. The round forms are preferred as they have more 

seeds. Cf. ch'um. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Korneta sakil, "comet white," is a crook-necked form. 

b. Setajtik sakil, "squat white," is a round form, wider 

than tall. 

c. Telajtik sakil, "long white," is an oblong-shaped form. 

These are very bitter. 

d. Volajtik sakil, "round white," is a round form. 

7. Tz'ol (-tik) is the summer squash Cucurbita pepo var. 

melopepo (1-3), also called bush scallop. Very few forms of 

this diverse species of Cucurbita are cultivated in Chiapas. The 

Zinacantec types are round and flat on both ends or oblong, 

10-20 cm in diameter, with a thin, hard shell and thin, pale 

yellow flesh. The skin is green, often striped lighter. The seeds 

are tan-white with a prominent margin. Cf. ch'um. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i tz'ol, "genuine tz'ol," is the round-fruited form. 

It is planted at a full moon in most of the temperate and 

highland communities in May and June, both in corrals 

and in cornfields. If irrigation is available, it may also 

be planted in the dry season. One to six seeds are 

planted to a hole. If planted in rows the seeds are 

60-80 cm distance in rows 1 m apart. The plants are 

later hilled. Some farmers provide sheep manure. 

Rainy season squashes are harvested from August 

through October. Dry season squashes, planted in 

March and bringing a higher price, are harvested in 

May. Flowers and fruits are sold at market. 

The "cold" flowers and young tips are boiled and eaten alone 

or mixed with beans. The "cold" fruits should be eaten when 

young, lest they become bitter. They are boiled and seasoned 

with salt, chili, and mint, coriander, or Mexican tea. Two 

varieties are recognized. 

(1) Sakil tz'ol, "white tz'ol," having white fruits. 

(2) Yaxal tz'ol, "green tz'ol," having green fruits. 

b. Kvarentano tz'ol (kaxlan tz'ol, tz'ol ka') is equivalent to zucchini cultivars, having an oblong form with 

smaller seeds and borne on a bushy plant that does not 

spread. 

It is planted in most of the temperate and highland 

communities. If irrigation is available it may be planted 

throughout the year. It is planted the same way as above. 

Flowers and fruits are sold at market. 

The "cold" flowers (but not tips) and fruits are eaten, 

seasoned as above. 

8. Xantiya (-tik) (xanchiya) is the watermelon Citrullus 

vulgaris (4-10). Rabbit's clever exploits occur both among 

melons and watermelons (Laughlin, 1977, T49). 

Watermelons are grown at the same time and in the same 

fields as musk melons, by the ladinos of Chiapa de Corzo and 

by a few Zinacantecs. Four to six seeds are planted to a hole. 

The harvest is from February to early April. They may be resold 

and are sold at market. 

Watermelons are classed variously as "hot" and "cold." To 

eat watermelon late in the day is said to cause fever. 
NUMBER 35 131 

"Makom Set" 

The "makom set" includes four generics, plants with either 

fruit or vegetative characteristics similar to the blackberries 

(Rubus). 

1. Makom (-tik, -altik) (makum*) refers to blackberries 

and strawberries. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Batz'i makom, "genuine makom" (makom mut, 

makom vet, pajal makom, tanal makom), refers to 

Rubus adenotrichus (12-18) and R. irasuensis (2-7). 

These are coarse vines often forming thickets several 

meters across. The leaves have 3-5 leaflets and are 

coarsely dentate. The stems are densely armed with 

stout prickles. The flowers are white to pink and occur 

in many-flowered terminal clusters. The fruit is purple 

to black and very sour. The berries are 2-4 cm long. 

These plants are very common, especially on brushy, 

second growth slopes in the temperate and highland 

hamlets. Ladinos use the fruits to flavor cane liquor. 

The "cold" berries are eaten by people and birds. As a 

remedy for dysentery, a small bunch of the fruit is crashed in 

the hand and mixed with cold water and sugar. A cup of the 

"cold" infusion is taken. This same infusion may chase a 

hangover away. 

b. Ch'ail makom, "bitter makom," is Rubus fagifolius 

(1-4), a coarse vine often climbing to the top of the 

canopy in the wet highland forests, also forming 

thickets 2-3 m tall in second growth. The leaves are 

digitally divided and glossy green and impressed 

veined on the upper surface. The flowers are white and 

in large terminal clusters. The fruit is 2-3 cm long and 

extremely sour. 

c. Tuxum makom, "sparsely seeded makom (ik'al 

makom, kaxlan makom, muk'ta makom, p'utum 

makom, vol-jol makom), refers to Rubus coriifolius 

(5-12) and R. sapidus (3-6), large vines with thick 

spinose stems. The leaves are 3-5 foliate. The flowers 

are white and in large terminal inflorescences. They 

are common vines in temperate and highland forests 

and in second growth. 

The "cold," slightly sour berries are eaten by people and 

birds. They are sold at market. To relieve heartburn (me' 

vinik), or dysentery, the berries are mashed in cold water and 

sweetened with refined sugar. One cup of the "cold" infusion is 

drank. 

d. Tzajal makom, "red makom" (ik'al makom), is 

Rubus humistratus (2-3), a prostrate vine that hugs the 

ground in bare areas and exposed earth banks. 

Occasionally it climbs in low bushes. The stems root 

readily at the nodes and the plants often form 

impenetrable brambles. The stems are densely covered 

with prickles. The flowers are white and sparse, the 

fruit is black with few aggregates and very sour. It is 

common in second growth in the highland areas. 

The fruits are eaten by rabbits, 

e. Tz'unbalal makom, "cultivated makom" (muk'tik 

makom), refers to cultivated Fragaria vesca (1-2) 

hybrids, the modem strawberry. Perennial herbs with 

trifoliate leaves, the plants produce runners that root 

and form new plants at the nodes; the flowers are 

white, arranged in several-flowered scapes. These are 

commonly grown by ladinos and are seen occasionally 

in markets. 

2. Makom ch'ix, "makom thorn" (makom ak'), is 

Buettneria aculeata (5-16), a large woody vine, often forming 

thickets, with ribbed stems that have coarse recurved prickles. 

The leaves are ovate-elliptic and up to 10 cm long. The flowers 

are small, greenish yellow, and in axillary clusters. The fruit is 

a hard sphere each 2 cm in diameter and covered with stiff 

spines 1 cm long. It is common in second growth in temperate 

and lowland areas. 

Extended range: Gouania polygama. 

3. Makom tz'i'lel, "makom plant" (k'ox makom), is the 

mock strawberry Duchesnea indica (3-4), a small, creeping, 

yellow-flowered herb, vegetatively very similar to Fragaria, 

common in wet, disturbed forest situations and fencerows in 

the highlands. The fruit is a red, pithy, insipid aggregate similar 

in size and shape to a strawberry. 

Mice and children eat the "cold" fruit. 

4. Xoto-chak, "coiled bottom" (makom xoto-chak, tan 

makom, tan sat makom), is the wild raspberry Rubus 

eriocarpus (7-10). This is a slightly armed, sprawling shrub 

with trifoliate, strongly bicolored leaves. The stems are 

glaucous. The flowers are white and in axillary and terminal 

clusters. The fruit is red to purple, up to 2 cm long with a 

delicate flavor. The plants occur sporadically in thickets along 

streams and on steep, brushy slopes in highland areas. 

The "cold" fruit is eaten by people and birds. It is sold at 

market in June. To relieve fever, the tips are crashed in cold 

water for a "cold" infusion. 

Extended range: Achimenes Candida, an herb with bicolored 

leaves similar to those of Rubus eriocarpus. 

"Noch'och' Set" 

The "noch'och' set" includes two generics, aroid vines with 

affinities to the members of the pok'ok' set of plants. 

1. Noch'och', "clinging," refers to Monstera acuminata 

(1-1), M. siltepecana (1-1), Philodendron hederaceum (1-1), 

P. radiatum (1-1), P. tripartitum (1-1), P. warscewiczii (1-1), 

Syngonium neglectum (1-1), S. podophyllum (1-1), and S. 

salvadorense (1-1). All large-leaved succulent-stemmed epiphytic vines with large fleshy fruits with red seeds, its leaves 

are large and extremely variable ranging from entire ovate 

shapes to variously lobed or divided margins. Some leaves 

attain a length of over 1 meter. These plants are a prominent 

part of any mature temperate or lowland forest. 
132 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

2. Yat kotom ak', "coati penis vine" (lo'bol ak', lo'bol 

chuch), refers to Monstera deliciosa (1-4) and Philodendron 

hederaceum (3-5). These two vines are superficially quite 

similar to those included in noch'och'. The significant 

difference probably relates to the absence of oxalate crystals in 

the fruits of these making them palatable. They occur in the 

same habitats as noch'och'. 

The fruit of P. hederaceum is eaten by people and birds. 

"Pek' Me'el Set" 

1. Chenek' ak', "bean vine" (chenek' ch'o ak', machita 

ak'), is a non-Linnaean grouping of legume vines with large, 

flat, legume fruits and usually 3-parted leaves. It includes 

Calopogonium coeruleum (2-8), Canavalia hirsutissima (3-

6), Centrosema pubescens (2-2), Cologania broussonettii 

(1-4), C. glabrior (2-3), Nissolia fruticosa (1-3), Pachyrrhizus erosus (2-2), P. strigosus (1-6), Rhynchosia discolor 

(2-2), and R. minima (1-2). These are common vines 

throughout the township. 

Extended range: Capparis flexuosa. 

2. Epal nich, "many flowers," is Nissolia fruticosa (1-1), a 

woody vine with dense racemes of tiny yellow or greenish 

yellow pea flowers, 4-6 mm long. Leaves are compound with 

five elliptic leaflets from about 4 to 7 cm long. The fruit is 

compressed and extended into a terminal wing, and may be 

sickle-shaped. This is a very common plant in second growth 

and tropical deciduous forest in the lowland areas. 

3. Jikamo (-tik) (jikamu) is the cultivated tuber, jikama, 

Pachyrrhizus erosus (1-4). It is an herbaceous vine with large, 

trifoliate leaves and deeply lobed leaflets 5-6 cm long with 

spikes of blue pea flowers 1.5-2 cm long. The fruit is a softly 

pubescent legume. A native of central Mexico, its cultivation in 

Chiapas appears to be post-Conquest. Roys (1931) cited Motul 

(16th century ms.) describing cultivation of this plant by the 

Choi, who named it chicham. 

The seeds of this perennial crop are planted by the people of 

Acala and Chiapa de Corzo, one to a hole in rows 20 cm apart, 

or, if in the cornfield, 2 m apart between the rows of com. 

Planting may be in May or November. The root is sold at 

market from November through February. 

The very starchy, sweet root is classed variously as "hot" and 

"cold." It is eaten raw very occasionally by Zinacantecs, but if 

much is eaten it is said to cause burps. 

Extended range: Calopogonium coeruleum,, a bright blueflowered legume vine. 

4. Jikamo ak', "jikamo vine" (tz'ipak ak', yuka' ak'), is 

Pachyrrhizus strigosus (2-2) and P. vernalis (1-1), wild 

relatives of jikamo. The leaves of these two species are larger 

than those of P. erosus and not as deeply lobed or not lobed at 

all. The plants in general are very similar to P. erosus. The 

tubers are not edible. They are common in second growth in 

lowland areas. 

5. Kakaxon ak', "kakaxon vine," is Gouania polygama 

(1-1), a sprawling woody vine with alternate rounded or ovate 

leaves and spikes of tiny white flowers 2 mm across. Immature 

fruits are distinctly 3-angled and mature into 3-winged 

propeller-like fruits about 1 cm across. It occurs in second 

growth and tropical deciduous forest of the lowlands. 

6. Katu' ch'ix, "cat thorn," refers to Machaerium biovulatum (1-1), M. chiapense (1-1), M. cobanense (1-1), and M. 

riparium (1-1), woody vines with wide stems up to 6 cm in 

diameter and alternate leaves with many leaflets. The flowers 

are small, up to 2 cm long, purple, violet, or white in large 

terminal or axillary inflorescences. The fruit is a compressed 

legume extended into a terminal wing, much like a samara. 

These are occasional plants along streams in seasonal evergreen forest of the lowlands. 

7. Leb sotz', "bat net" (-tik), refers to Mimosa invisa (2-8) 

and Schrankia leptocarpa (1-2). These are trailing herbs with 

recurved prickles on the stems. The leaves are alternate and 

composed of numerous small leaflets that collapse on die rachis 

when touched or at night (sensitive plants). The flowers are 

pink and in round clusters 7-15 mm across. The fruit of 

Schrankia leptocarpa is a pencil-shaped legume about 6-8 cm 

long bearing many straight prickles. The fruit of Mimosa invisa 

is somewhat compressed and smaller, about 1.5-2 cm long and 

pubescent. They are common in second growth and pine-oak 

forests in temperate and lowland areas. 

It is eaten by horses. 

Extended range: Anoda cristata. 

8. Majava ak', "majava vine" (tzajal ak', tzajal majava 

ak'), is the very woody vine Dalbergia glabra (1-2), which has 

prominent, woody, nodal spurs. It is a liana with once pinnately 

divided leaves that have ovate leaflets about 1 cm long. The 

flowers are small, white, and in dense, axillary clusters. The 

fruit is flat, thin, few-seeded and samara-like (4-7 cm long). It 

is very common along streams in seasonal evergreen forests in 

lowland areas. 

The vine is used for house lashing. 

9. Ne saben, "weasel tail" (k'asal ak', ton ak', tzajal pek' 

me'el, tzajal te' ak', yak' moletik), is Heteropteris beecheyana (4-5), a woody vine with reddish stems and leaves and 

large, terminal clusters of pink flowers. The fruits have red 

papery wings 1.5-4 cm long. It occurs in second growth, 

pine-oak forest, and tropical deciduous forests in temperate and 

lowland areas. 

The vine, stripped of its bark, is used to lash fences and the 

flowers are used for altar decoration. They are sold at market. 

10. Ox-'u, "three months," is Sageretia elegans (6-9), a 

sprawling shrub with some stems twining. The leaves are small 

and leathery, the flowers are in terminal panicles. The fruit is 

red, juicy, sweet, and with a single seed. This is a common 

plant in second growth in temperate and lowland areas. 

The name of this plant is derived from the belief that if one 

steps on one of its thorns it will remain embedded for three 

months. The trunk is used for firewood. The "cold" fruit is 

eaten by birds and people. In Muk'ta Jok' it is used also for die 
NUMBER 35 133 

arched frame of the Christmas creche. 

11. Pek' me'el, "woman's tumpline" (barsin ak', machita 

ak', yaxal ak') refers to the jack beans Canavalia glabra 

(7-8), C. hirsutissima (5-8), and C. villosa (1-2). These are 

coarse vines with showy purple or pink flowers and large leaves 

divided into three leaflets. The fruit is a large, thick-walled 

legume up to 15 cm long. They are common in second growth 

and pine-oak and tropical deciduous forests in the temperate 

and lowland regions. The vine often climbs into the canopy. 

It is widely used as lashing for roof poles and rafters, fences, 

and stock corrals, but is more brittle than pik'ok'. It is believed 

that it was once used by women for their tumplines. 

Extended range: Centrosema pubescens, Galactia striata, 

Gouania polygama, Heteropteris beecheyana, Pachyrrhizus 

erosus, P. strigosus, Rhynchosia discolor, R. longeracemosa, 

Serjania punctata, Solanum dulcamaroides, and Turbina 

corymbosa. Rhynchosia discolor and R. longeracemosa are 

used to lash roof poles, beams, and fence posts. 

The basic and extended ranges are often referred to 

collectively as chenek' ak', "bean vine." 

12. Yak'il vob, "fiddle string" (chenek' ch'o ak', yak'il 

vob ak'), is Cologania broussonettii (2-5) a thin, wiry vine 

with alternate 3-parted leaves and small purple pea flowers 

1.8-3 cm long. Stems, leaves, and calyces of the flowers and 

fruit are softly pubescent. The legumes are about 4 cm long. It 

is common in second growth in temperate and highland areas. 

13. Yich'ak mis, "cat's claw" (-tik) (yich'ak katu', yich'ak 

maxu'), refers to Zanthoxylum culantrillo (1-5) and Z. 

foliolosum (3-7), sprawling shrubs, often vine-like, with 

dense, woody stems covered with recurved spines. The leaves 

are divided into many small, leathery leaflets. The flowers are 

small, white, and in clusters. The fruits are brown or red 

follicles with lustrous black seeds. They are common in 

thickets and wet forests in temperate and highland localities. 

A bunch of stems may be tied with a 2 m long green ribbon 

and left on the trail where one's prospective girlfriend will pass 

by. If she picks it up, this indicates she will accept the boy's 

advances. 

Extended range: Dalbergia glabra, Machaerium biovulatum, Mimosa adenantheroides, and Solanum oaxacanum. 

14. Yok' tz'i' ak', "dog's tongue vine," is a non-Linnaean 

grouping of legume vines with large flowers with protruding 

keels. It includes Canavalia hirsutissima (1-2), Centrosema 

plumieri (1-4), C. pubescens (1-2), and Macroptilium 

atropurpureum (2-6). This flower form, however, is very 

common in the Chiapas legumes and this term will probably 

apply to other plants as well. These vines are common in 

second growth of lowland, temperate, and highland situations. 

Extended range: Cologania procumbens. 

"Puyu' Set" 

The "puyu' set" is comprised of seven generics. It centers 

around members of the Convolvulaceae, which are wiry vines 

with large, showy flowers. 

1. Amolyo (-tik) (amalyo) is Ipomoea microsticta (1-3), a 

small vine with round leaves and purple tubular flowers, 

common in second growth and disturbed situations in the 

lowland areas, especially in cornfields. 

The seeds were planted occasionally in May, but this 

cultivation apparently had ceased by the 1960s. The fruit is 

pounded on a stone and dissolved in water for women's 

shampoo. It is prized for softening the hair. 

Extended range: Ipomoea alba. 

2. Bikil tz'i' ak', "dog intestines vine," is Ipomoea triloba 

(1-1), a common, small-flowered vine of second growth in the 

temperate and lowland regions. The flowers are purple and in 

tight clusters. The leaves are lobed. It grows in second growth 

sprawling over shrubs. 

It is used for house lashing. 

3. Ch'uxuv ak', "muscle vine" (bak ak'), refers to 

Mandevilla subsagittata (1-3) and M. tubiflora (1-1). These 

are extensive, wiry vines with opposite, cordate leaves and 

bright yellow, tubular flowers 5-8 cm long. The fruit is a 

paired, elongated capsule 10-20 cm long. These plants are 

common in second growth and tropical deciduous forest 

situations in temperate and lowland areas. 

4. Kampana ak', "bell vine," refers to two morning 

glory-like vines. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i kampana ak', "genuine bell vine," is Cobaea 

scandens (1-2), a lowland vine sometimes cultivated 

by ladinos for its showy, lavender, bell-shaped 

flowers, which are 7 cm across. The calyx lobes are 

broadly ovate, 3 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. It is a soft, 

herbaceous vine with pinnately divided leaves. The 

leaflets are broadly elliptic, 9-11 cm long and 4-5 cm 

wide. 

Extended range: Ipomoea pedicellaris. 

b. Sakil kampana ak', "white bell vine," is Bonamia 

sulphurea (1-2), a thick, wiry vine forming mats on 

shrubs and small trees in tropical deciduous forest. The 

leaves are 3-7 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, alternate, 

broadly elliptic, with an apiculate apex. Both the upper 

and lower leaf surface is covered with a felty 

tomentum. The flowers are white and in small, axillary 

clusters. 

Extended range: Ipomoea pauciflora. 

5. Pik'ok' (-tik) also centers on morning glories. 

Children play with the flowers, impaling them one above die 

other on twigs. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i pik'ok', "genuine pik'ok'" (tzajal ak', tzotziron pik'ok'), refers to Ipomoea signata (1-2) and /. 

tyrianthina (4-7), large, showy, flowered vines, 

commonly climbing in trees or on steep banks and 

making a bright display when flowering. The flowers 

are pink, lavender, or purple, open campanulate, 4-6 
134 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

cm long. This plant occurs in pine oak forest, and 

tropical deciduous forest in lowland and temperate 

regions. 

The fresh vines are used for lashing roof poles, but are 

known to be brittle, and are not present in the dry season. They 

are also used as dog leashes. Children make ropes from them 

and lasso each other. 

Extended range: Ipomoea hederacea and /. triloba. 

b. K'ox pik'ok', "small pik'ok'," refers to Ipomoea 

purpurea (3-5), sprawling vines often forming mats on 

bare ground or exposed earth banks. The leaves are 

heart-shaped or trilobate, 2-8 cm long, and the flowers 

are tubular, campanulate, purple and up to 5 cm long. 

It is very common in second growth of temperate and 

highland hamlets. 

It is used to lash corrals. 

c. Sakil pik'ok', "white pik'ok'," is Operculinapinnatifida (1-4). This is a fleshy vine that forms large 

colonies in the lowland forests. The flowers are white 

and tubular campanulate. The leaves are pinnately 

divided. The fruit is a fleshy ovoid capsule 2 cm 

across. 

6. Puyu' (-tik, -altik) refers to a different group of morning 

glories. 

Children play with the showy flowers. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. K'anal puyu', "yellow puyu'" (k'anal pik'ok' ak', 

yich'ak mut ak'), refers to Merremia umbellata (1-4) 

and Operculina pteripes (2-7), clambering vines with 

strong, thin stems often climbing to the tops of trees or 

completely covering them. The flowers are yellow or 

orange and occur in terminal clusters. The plants are 

common in tropical deciduous forest and second 

growth in the lowland areas. 

b. K'ox puyu', "small puyu'" (k'ox yaxal puyu', tzotzil 

ak', tzotzin ak'), refers to Ipomoea sp. (2-5) and 

Jacquemontia pentantha (2-5). These are small wiry 

vines with tight clusters of blue flowers. The plants 

often form mats on com plants, shrubs, and small trees 

in second growth in the temperate and lowland areas. 

They are used for lashing roof poles and sheep corrals. 

Extended range: Gonolobus barbatus and Gronovia scandens. 

c. Sakil puyu', "white puyu'" (puyu'al chobtik, sakil 

nich puyu'), refers to Calonyction aculeatum (1-1), 

Ipomoea alba (1-4), and Merremia aegyptia (1-2), 

vines similar to k'anal puyu' except that the leaves are 

lobed and the flowers white. They are common in 

second growth in temperate and lowland areas. 

They are a pest in the cornfields and are eaten by horses. 

d. Tzajal puyu', "red puyu'" (ik'-lo'an puyu', mis tz'i' 

ak', muk'ta puyu'), refers to Ipomoea pedicellaris 

(3-7) and /. suffulta (2-3), vines very similar to sakil 

puyu' and k'anal puyu'. The flowers are magenta to 

purple. The plant is common in temperate and lowland 

second growth as well as pine oak and tropical 

deciduous forests. 

Ipomoea pedicellaris is used together with ground whippoorwill bones in a love potion. The bird is killed on a 

Thursday and hung in a treetop for exactly two weeks. If the 

bones are clean, they are taken down, burned and ground into 

powder, together with the morning glory. Taking the powder 

with him when he goes to talk to a girl, the boy should toss it 

at her or rub it on her neck or back when he embraces her. The 

following Thursday he should talk to her, because no matter 

how obstinate she has been, she cannot fail to fall in love and 

elope. 

Extended range: Valeriana scandens. 

e. Yaxal puyu', "blue puyu'" (ik'al nich puyu' ak', 

k'ox pik'ok' ak', puyu'al vitztik, yax-'ulan puyu'), 

refers to Ipomoea hederacea (3-7), /. lindenii (1-3), 

and /. seducta (1-2), vines similar to k'anal puyu' 

except that the flowers are large, brilliant blue or 

purple, tubular campanulate 7-10 cm long. They are 

common in second growth and grassy slopes throughout the hamlet. 

They are eaten by mules. 

7. Sakil ak', "white vine" (jifob na, pojov ak', poxil 

yayijel), is Ipomoea pauciflora (2-3), a common showy vine in 

the tropical deciduous forests and thom woodland of the 

lowland regions. It is a large, shrubby vine with thick, woody 

stems. In forest areas the stems climb into the crowns of the low 

trees, but in sparse shrub formations the stems fall back on the 

plant and it forms a shrub. The large white flowers are 

accentuated by flowering in the dry season when the plant is 

leafless. 

It is used in lashing the beams and comer posts of field 

houses and also to lash fences. The "cold" sap is applied to cuts 

for three days. 

Extended range: Jacquemontia nodiflora. 

"T'uf Ak' Set" 

The "t'uf ak' set" is comprised of five generics, members of 

Smilax or Dioscorea. These are wiry vines with large, ovate, 

glossy leaves. The fruits are a 3-winged capsule on Dioscorea 

and a fleshy, red or black berry in Smilax. 

1. Karos ak', "hoop vine" (ch'ix ak', t'uf ak'), refers to 

Smilax bona-nox (1-2) and 5. jalapensis (19-13), the spiny 

catbriars. Wiry vines with abundant spines on the stems, the 

leaves are dark green, elliptic-ovates and turn black upon 

drying. These are common in pine oak and evergreen cloud 

forests of temperate and highland areas, especially along 

streams. 

It is used by children to make hoops. The leaves are eaten by 

sheep. 

2. Ne inatab, "iguana tail" (chachi' ak', kilon ak'), refers to 

the glabrous lowland vines Dioscorea convolvulacea (1-1) and 
NUMBER 35 135 

D. flohbunda (1-1). These are thin-stemmed vines arising 

from thick fleshy roots with corky plates. The leaves are 

lance-ovate up to 8 cm long. The flowers and fruit are similar 

to p'uk. They occur in seasonal growth and pine oak and 

tropical deciduous forest of temperate and lowland areas. 

3. P'uk (kilon ak', ojov ak', stz'itesob at, tz'itesob at) 

refers to wild yams Dioscorea cymosula var. cinerea (1-2), D. 

cf. dugesii (2-6), and D. nelsonii (1-4). These are wiry vines 

arising from a giant tuber often 1 m across. The leaves are 

heart-shaped, the flowers are in axillary racemes, and the fruits 

are 3-winged and up to 3 cm long. The plants are common in 

tropical deciduous and seasonal evergreen forests in the 

lowlands. 

One "cold" root may be gathered by virgin boys who wish to 

enlarge their penises. The root is peeled and eaten raw. As 

much of the tuber is chewed as the length desired for the penis. 

This tuber is not considered to be as effective as yat kotom. In 

famine years the "cold" root was boiled and ground with com 

or mixed with potatoes. The root is also known to be a fish 

poison. 

4. Sik'ol ak', "cigarette vine" (nok'ol sik'ol ak'), is Smilax 

domingensis (1-1). This is a giant woody vine often covering 

the crowns of trees. The stems are up to 5 cm in diameter and 

reddish brown. The leaves are glabrous, greenish brown, 

elliptic and 3-5 cm long. The flowers and berries are similar to 

t'uf ak'. It occurs in the crowns of trees in wet forest 

formations from evergreen cloud forest and wet pine oak 

forests in the highlands, to seasonal evergreen forest and 

montane rain forest in the temperate areas. It is used by lowland 

ladinos to decorate their household altars. 

5. T'uf ak'*, "t'uf vine," refers to catbriars. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i t'ut' ak', "genuine t'uf vine" (ch'ulul ak', 

ik'al tz'usub, f tit'ak ak'), is the catbriar Smilax 

subpubescens (4-4), a coarse glabrous vine with 

leathery, dark-green ovate leaves and small flowers in 

axillary clusters. The fruits are red berries. It is 

common in thickets along streams in temperate and 

highland locations. Some speakers include the spiny 

forms under this term. 

Three "cold" tips may be crushed and used by women when 

shampooing their hair, to cool their heads and stimulate hair 

growth. The stems are split in half and used for lashing fences. 

Young stems are brittle, but mature stems do not rot in the rainy 

season and last for two years. They are seldom used for house 

lashing because they become wormeaten. The leaves are eaten 

by sheep. 

b. K'ox t'ut' ak', "small t'uf vine," is the much more 

delicate Smilax mollis (6-3), a vine with alternate, 

ovate, palmately veined, pubescent leaves that are 

6-15 cm long and 2-7 cm wide. The flowers arise in 

short umbels in the axils of the leaves. They are about 

4 mm long. The berries are orange and round about 8 

mm in diameter. It occurs in wet forests of temperate 

and highland hamlets. 

"Tzu Set" 

The "tzu set" is comprised of three generics, all forms of the 

bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria. It is an herbaceous vine very 

similar to squash, with large, white flowers in racemes. The 

gourds are green to yellow when fresh and have a hard outer 

layer and a pulpy interior mixed with fibrous strands and black 

seeds. 

They are planted in lower temperate communities and in the 

lowlands. 

If the Zinacantec farmer has no gourd seeds, he commonly 

buys them from lowland ladino ranchers. Two to six seeds are 

planted in or next to the lowland cornfields in May and June 

when the com is planted. Just as pumpkin squashes, they may 

be planted between clumps of com or in fertile spots, including 

leafcutter ant nests. A green thumb (sk'abal) is required for 

growing gourds. They should be planted when the moon is full, 

lest they put out long, unproductive vines. They are harvested 

at the com harvest, from November through January. Care 

should be taken not to expose gourd seeds to dew at night, lest 

they produce gourds with thin rinds. 

There are two methods for preparing gourds for use. In the 

first, the end of the gourd is broken and the gourd is placed on 

a fire, if still green, to remove the outer rind. Then it is buried 

in the ground for two days. When it is dug up, the pulp is 

removed and the inner surface is scraped and rinsed. The gourd 

is set in the sun for 2-3 days to dry. Then, the outer surface is 

scraped with a knife. Following the second method, after the 

gourd is taken off the fire it is allowed to cool. Rather than 

burying the gourd, it is placed for a week in a stone corral in the 

river, and branches are placed on top to prevent it from rising to 

the surface; however, not only does this method take longer, it 

also produces foul-smelling gourds. Prepared gourds are sold at 

market. 

Gourds, regardless of their shape, are classified according to 

the nature of their rinds. Suy gourds have hard, thin rinds. Tzo' 

ka\ "horse shit," gourds have soft, thick rinds that break easily. 

They are not mixed on a single plant. 

Marauding cows eat young gourds. Cf. ch'um. 

1. Jay (-tik) is a flat, round gourd 10-15 cm tall and 15-20 

cm broad. It is planted in the lower temperate communities and 

in the lowlands. When planting these gourds, the farmer should 

sit cross-legged so that the fruit will be properly flat. Cf. 

ch'um. Some claim that there are two specifics according to 

size, others, that the size is individual. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'ox jay, "small jay," is a small form. 

It is used to store tortillas, to carry the snacks on a curing 

ceremony trip to the shrines and to scoop com. Formerly it was 

widely used as a container for seed com when planting. It is 

used to decorate the creche in Apas. 

If a prospective parent dreams of receiving this gourd, he or 

she will have a girl baby. 

b. Muk'ta jay, "large jay," is a large form. 

It is used as a basin for "flower water" to bathe newborn 
136 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

babies and patients. Large lacquered gourds, presumably from 

Chiapa de Corzo, are used in the Church of St. Lawrence to 

store the wigs, crowns, clothing, and other adornments of the 

saints. 

2. Pulum vo', "water drawer" (yak'il pulum vo'tik, yak'il 

pulum vo'altik, pulin vo', pulun vo'), is a large, almost round 

gourd 30-40 cm tall and 20-30 cm broad. Some claim that 

they grow on the same vine as jay. 

They are used to store tortillas and eggs. Formerly, the 

stewards used two of these gourds to carry meat to the tithing 

man of Atz'am on New Year's Day and Mid-year's. 

If a prospective parent dreams of receiving this gourd, he or 

she will have a girl baby. Cf. ch'um. 

3. Tzu* (yak'il tzutik) refers to bottle-shaped or oblong 

gourds. 

When planting bottle-shaped gourds, the planter should 

fasten his sash or belt very tight (some say for just a moment) 

so that the gourd will be narrow-waisted, permitting it to be 

easily attached with a cord. He should also whistle so that the 

top of the gourd will be pleasingly shaped, as pursed lips. 

Thick-waisted gourds, described as barrel-shaped (baril, 

barin) or pear-shaped (peron), are produced by disturbing the 

tips of the vines. 

There is considerable ambiguity in determining which 

gourds represent specific classes, i.e., whether their size or 

shape is produced by a genetic difference inherent to the seeds 

or the various shapes result from different ecologic exposures 

such as shade, sun, etc. Gourd leaves may be wilted on the fire 

and rubbed on itchy growths (jak'ob ik') on one's legs to 

reduce the discomfort. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Batz'i tzu, "genuine tzu," is a large gourd holding a 

liter. These are used to store water and holy water. 

They are used by the cantors to store chicha and by the 

mortarmen to store gunpowder. Plastic containers have 

largely replaced gourds when the use is not ceremonial. 

b. Ik'ob-bail tzu, "person-calling tzu" (k'ox tzu, 

lok'esob-bail tzu), is a small, bottle-shaped gourd, 

borne on a short vine. Some claim that its seed is larger 

than that of nene' tzu, others, that the same seed 

produces both sizes of gourd. 

Shamans use this gourd as a whistle to recall the soul of a 

person who has suffered soul-loss. This size gourd may be used 

to place in the coffin (tzual anima), providing the corpse with 

water on its journey. 

d. Korneta tzu, "comet tzu," is a crook-necked gourd. 

Some claim that it has a narrow seed, others, that it is 

a spore. These are used only as children's toys. 

d. Muk'ta tzu, "large tzu," is a very large bottle-shaped 

gourd holding up to five liters. They are also used to 

carry holy water to the cemetery. Some claim that 

these are merely large individuals of batz'i tzu. 

e. Nene' tzu, "baby tzu" (k'ox tzu), is a miniature 

bottle-shaped gourd (8-12 cm tall), bome on a short 

vine. 

One of these gourds may be strung on a baby's bracelet as a 

protection against "evil eye." As a remedy for hernia, six "hot" 

leaves are heated and bound to the scrotom with a rag. Three 

hot leaves are similarly bound to die navel. They remain for 

two weeks. At the end of this period the patient eats a chicken 

boiled with chili and black pepper. 

f. Tzual moy, "tobacco tzu" (tzual bankilal), is a small, 

oblong gourd used to carry prepared tobacco. There are 

two varieties. 

(1) sme', "female." 

(2) stot, "male," a slightly smaller form with a 

pointed end. 

Its seed has faint white stripes. 

"Tz'usub Set" 

The "tz'usub set" is a large group of 21 generics, many with 

thick, milky or juicy sap and coarse, soft-wooded stems. 

1. Axux ak', "garlic vine," is Pachyptera hymenaea (1-2), 

a large woody vine with showy, pink, lavender or purple, 

tubular, bilabiate flowers about 4-6 cm long. The leaves are 

bifoliate, the leaflets broadly elliptic or broadly ovate. The fruit 

is a thick oblong capsule. The flowers and foliage have a strong 

odor similar to garlic. It occurs in the canopy of tropical 

deciduous forests of the lowlands. 

As a remedy for "hot" sicknesses, the root is crushed and 

mixed with cool water, providing a "cold" infusion. As a 

remedy for "cold" sicknesses, the root is brewed, and die tea 

drunk. As a remedy for "wind," the root may be mixed widi 

soro te'. 

2. Barsin ak', "spotted vine" (chan-tzelav ak', nichim 

anima), refers to Cydista diversifolia (3-4), a large woody vine 

with showy, tubular, bilabiate, purple flowers, 3-4 cm long. 

The leaves are simple or bifoliate. The leaflets are heart-shaped 

or rounded with an acuminate tip. The branchlets are distinctiy 

4-sided. The fruit is a linear capsule about 30 cm long 

somewhat resembling a dry bean pod. It occurs in die canopy of 

tropical deciduous forest in lowland areas. 

The vine is used for house and fence lashing. It is split in two 

for lashing thatch and roof poles, used whole for purlins, roof 

rods, and rafters. 

Extended range: Pithecoctenium crucigerum. 

3. Chikin chij, "deer ear" or "sheep ear" (chikin chij ak', 

keb chij, keb vakax ak', vakax itaj), is Fernaldia pandurata 

(3-8), a vigorous perennial, herbaceous, vines with opposite, 

ovate, finely soft pubescent leaves up to 10 cm long. The 

flowers are white, tubular salverform, up to 5 cm long, and in 

axillary racemes each about 15 cm long. The fruits are in paired 

slender follicles up to 10 cm long. The seeds have tufts of white 

hairs. These plants are common in scattered locations in 

tropical deciduous forests and persist after the forest is cleared. 

At weeding time some of the plants are left undisturbed 

while others are pulled up, chopped and boiled, sometimes 
NUMBER 35 137 

together with mikulax itaj, seasoned with salt, chili, and lime 

juice and eaten as greens. They are classed variously as 

"medium" and "hot." If a large portion of these greens are 

eaten, a stomach ache may ensue. 

Extended range: Mesechites trifida. 

4. Kanava ak', "kanava vine" (kamaba ak', yaxal barsin 

ak'), is Antigonon guatemalense (2-3), a rampant vine with 

tough, wiry stems and thin, cordate-ovate alternate leaves up to 

5 cm long. The flowers are pink with the calyces enlarging in 

fruit, turning the masses of vines into a profusion of color. 

These are very common plants in second growth, especially 

along roads or in fencerows throughout the lowland areas. 

Forty to sixty vines are used to lash roof poles for a thatched 

roofed house. It is also used for fence lashing. 

Extended range: Matelea prosthecidiscus. 

5. Kranata (-tik) (kranate') is the cultivated popapple 

Passiflora ligularis (3-4), a coarse, perennial, glabrous vine 

with large, round leaves. It often attains considerable size, with 

the stems reaching high into the crowns of trees near where it 

has been planted. The flowers are large and showy, about 8-10 

cm across. The five petals are pink or white and about 3 cm 

long. Above them is a purple and white fringe-like corona 

surrounding the central structures of the flower. The fruit is a 

large capsule 6-8 mm long, filled with soft, black seeds 

surrounded by a translucent sweet-acid flavored pulp. Both 

seeds and pulp are eaten. The taste is similar to pomegranate. 

The leaves are known to be poisonous. It is found only in 

cultivation in the temperate hamlets. 

Popapples are grown in the temperate hamlets and in Naben 

Chauk. Planting techniques vary greatly. The fruit may be hung 

in the sun for a week and the seeds kept, or a popapple may be 

fed to a 2-3 year old child. After he defecates, the seeds are 

planted two to a hole. This procedure is said to benefit the child, 

causing him to grow stronger. Some plant the seeds in 

June-July, others on St. Andrew's Day (30 November) and 

Ventex Mamal (20 December). The seeds may be planted in a 

seed bed with sheep manure and transplanted to an arbor a year 

later. Slips, with both ends cut off, may be planted. Some 

maintain that if the slip is bent into a U and planted that way it 

will develop more branches. Others pull up young plants and 

transplant them, digging a hole 60 cm deep filled with sheep 

manure. For popapples to grow well a green thumb (sk'abal) is 

required. When slips are planted, the farmer may set down his 

machete next to the slip and tell it, "Yu'un xach'i, mi mu 

xach'i yu'un chajmil ta j-moj!" "Grow! If you don't grow I'll 

kill you once and for all!'" Some claim that the vine will fruit 

in a year, others say 2-3 years, still others 3-5 years. The 

harvest is from August through March, with the heaviest 

fruiting in November. In Jok' Ch'enom and Sek'emtik there is 

a second fruiting in May. Gophers may become serious pests by 

eating the roots. 

The "cold" fruits are sold on the roadside and at market. 

Three dozen stemmed fruits are provided by the Junior Steward 

of St. Anthony and the Stewards of St. Sebastian on the eighth 

Posada to decorate the trees that flank the creche. They are also 

widely used to decorate the creches of Apas, Atz'am, Na Chij, 

Naben Chauk, Paste', and San Mikulax. 

Extended range: Passiflora membranacea, a similar wild 

species of popapple, and Stigmaphyllon puberum, a large, 

glabrous vine with similar leaves. 

6. Kranata ak', "popapple vine" (kranata chuch), refers to 

Passiflora filipes (1-1), P.foetida (1-1), P. pavonis (1-1), and 

P. subpeltata (2-4). These are common vines in second growth 

and pine-oak forests in temperate and highland areas. They are 

similar to the cultivated popapple. The leaves are lobed and the 

fruit of P. subpeltata is not very palatable although some admit 

the fruit is sour and "cold." 

Children play with the fruit. 

Extended range: Antigonon guatemalense, Gonolobus barbatus, and Matelea quirosii. 

I. K'anal ak', "yellow vine" (tzajal ak'), is Gaudichaudia 

albida (3-7), a small, wiry-stemmed vine with elliptic, 

pubescent leaves. The flowers are yellow and occur in dense 

axillary clusters. The fruit is a red samara. The seed portion is 

covered with irritating hairs. It is common in second growth in 

temperate and lowland areas. 

8. Lo'bol ak', "banana vine" or "fruit vine" (lo'bol chuch), 

is Gonolobus uniflorus (2-2), a slender herbaceous vine, of 

moist canyons in montane rain, and evergreen cloud forest of 

the temperate and highland areas. The leaves are opposite, 

5-10 cm long, thin, softly pubescent and oblong-ovate with 

deeply cordate bases. The basal lobes are sometimes incurved 

and up to 1.5 cm long. Flowers are 3-5 cm broad, green or 

cream. The five petals are acute and reticulate patterned and 

surround a five-pointed star-shaped corona in the center of the 

flower. The fruit is a hard woody follicle with thick ridges 

about 10 cm long similar to some types of banana. Seeds are 

blackish and flat with copious long white silky hairs. It fruits in 

the dry season. 

The young fruit serves as children's toys and may be eaten 

roasted. 

9. Lo'bol kotom, "coati's banana" or "coati's fruit" 

(ch'um-te' ak', yax-'on ak'), is Gonolobus prasinanthus 

(1-1), a slender herbaceous vine, with opposite narrow 

heart-shaped leaves. The flowers are green and axillary, 3-6 to 

a node, about 1.5-2 cm across. The fruit is a smooth woody 

follicle containing seeds with copious white silky hairs. It 

occurs in seasonal evergreen forests of the temperate and 

lowland regions. 

10. Memela ak', "tortilla vine," is Anemopaegma puberulum (1-2), a woody vine with thick, glossy, ovate leaves and 

large, tubular yellow flowers. It has smooth fat fruits about the 

size of a small tortilla. It occurs in tropical deciduous forests in 

the lowland areas. 

II. Mikulax itaj, "nicholas greens" (boka itaj), is the 

lowland herbaceous perennial milkweed Matelea aspera (3-3). 

It has slender vines with thin, opposite, ovate, cordate leaves, 
138 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

and the flowers are green tinged with maroon and in axillary 

umbellate clusters. The fruit is an ellipsoid capsule covered 

with fleshy tuburculate spines. The seeds have tufts of white 

hair. These are common in lowland forests and second growth 

situations. 

The vine is sometimes used in lashing. At weeding time in 

the lowland cornfields, care is taken not to dig up the plants 

whose tuberous roots have sprouted fresh shoots. These are cut, 

boiled, and eaten as greens. They are classed variously as 

"medium" and "hot." 

Extended range: Cynanchum rensonii, Cynanchum sp., and 

Gonolobus niger. 

12. Pepen ak', "butterfly vine" (yaxal ak'), is Stigmaphyllon humboldtianum (4-3), a wiry woody vine with opposite, 

rounded, ovate or heart-shaped leaves to 9 cm long, cordate or 

broadly rounded at the base. The leaf margin may be entire or 

lobed, often variable in shape on the same plant. The flowers 

are yellow and in long pedunculate axillary umbellate clusters. 

The fruit is a samara, the wings about 3 cm long. It occurs in 

second growth and along roadsides in the lowlands. 

Extended range: Matelea quirosii. 

13. Pojov ak', "milky sap vine" (chikin ful ak'), is a 

non-Linnaean grouping of six, and probably more, species of 

lowland vines, all of which have thick, white sap that exudes 

profusely from breaks in the stems or leaves. The plants 

included under this designation are Blepharodon mucronatum 

(1-1), Mandevilla subsagittata (2-3), M. tubiflora (1-2), 

Matelea sp. (1-2), and Sarcostemma bilobum (1-1), all of the 

closely related families Asclepiadaceae (milkweeds) and 

Apocynaceae (dogbanes) along with Ipomoea pauciflora (1-1) 

of the Convolvulaceae (morning glories). This non-Linnaean 

grouping is remarkably uniform morphologically; all with 

large, entire leaves attached oppositely and flowers in terminal 

yellow or white clusters. They are common vines in the 

lowland dry forests. 

14. Tz'itesob jolol, "hair grower," is Ampelopsis mexicana 

(2-3), a woody vine arising from a fleshy rootstock. The vine 

is leafless most of the year. The young stems, tendrils, and 

flowers are reddish brown. The flowers are in terminal cymes. 

The young stems, including those with flowers, entwine the 

shrubs and trees in which they clamber often to the canopy. The 

fruit is a fleshy drupe up to 5 mm in diameter. They are 

common plants in tropical deciduous forests and because of the 

nature of the roots persist in second growth in the lowland 

areas. 

This vine may be gathered by the father of an unmarried girl. 

The vine is soaked in cold water and the water used to wash the 

girl's hair so that it will grow long, and so that the boys will fall 

in love with her, for they think that long hair makes a good 

pillow. The father will also be happy to receive her suitors' 

cane liquor. Three vines are mashed and soaked in a pottery 

bowl. The girl washes her hair with the "cold" infusion in the 

morning for three days. 

Extended range: Cissus cacuminis, C. rhombifolia, C. 

sicyoides, and Parthenocissus quinquefolia, all wild grape 

relatives. 

15. Tz'itesob jolol ak', "hair grower vine," is Sarcostemma 

bilobum (1-1), a wiry vine with thin, opposite, cordate-ovate 

leaves up to 5 cm long. The flowers are white and in axillary 

umbellate clusters. The fruit is an elliptic, fleshy capsule up to 

8 cm long; the seeds have tufts of white hair. A common plant 

in ravines, it is often very showy, climbing over shrubs in 

temperate hamlets and in second growth in the lowland areas. 

To prevent hair from falling out and to induce its growth, the 

plant is crushed and soaked in water that is placed outside 

overnight before being used to bathe the hair. 

16. Tz'usub (tz'usub ak', tz'usum, tz'usum ak', tz'uxub), 

refers to wild grapes and grape-like vines. 

The fruits of these vines became the food of the survivors of 

the Flood who were turned into monkeys by Our Lord. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i tz'usub, "genuine grape" (tzajal tz'usub), is 

Vitis bourgeana (6-10), the highland native grape. 

These are large, woody vines with stems 10 or more 

meters long. The leaves are thin, large, and heartshaped. The flowers are in large clusters and the fruit 

is a small, sour, purple grape with a large seed. 

The fruit is eaten occasionally. As a remedy for pink eye 

(satil), a young tip is cut and three drops of its "hot" sap are 

applied to the eye. 

b. Sakil tz'usub, "white grape" (ve'el vokoto in part), for 

some speakers focuses on Vitis tiliifolia (1-4), the 

native grape scattered to common in temperate and 

lowland areas. It differs from V bourgeana in that the 

leaves are more pubescent. For others this is a 

non-Linnaean grouping of grape-like vines including 

Ampelopsis mexicana (1-1), Antigonon flavescens 

(1-1), Cissus cacuminis (1-1), Serjania triquetra 

(2-2), and Urvillea ulmacea (1-1). 

Antigonon flavescens is used to lash wall boards and roof 

poles. 

17. Tz'usub ak', "grape vine" (ch'ulelal pox), is Didymaea 

alsinoides (2-2), delicate herbaceous perennial vines with 

ovate leaves to 4 cm long. The flowers are small, green turning 

red; the fruits are black and two-lobed, about 5 mm across. The 

plants occur growing enmeshed in shrubs in second growtii and 

pine-oak forests of the temperate and highland hamlets. 

When the vine is mature it may be used for fence and house 

lashing. The fruit may be rubbed on the face of a child suffering 

discoloration from "embarrassment" (apon). 

18. Llva (tz'usub*) is the cultivated grape Vitis vinifera 

(2-3). This is seen only in the market, and is rarely, if ever, 

purchased by Zinacantecs. In the colonial Tzotzil dictionary 

tz'usub is given as the name for grape, and from the many 

terms referring to grape cultivation and wine-making it may be 

surmised that cultivated grapes were introduced into the area 

shortly after the Conquest. 

19. Vako' ak', "vako' vine" (tzotz-ni' ak', vako ak', wapo 
NUMBER 35 139 

ak', yat karnero ak'), refers to Aristolochia maxima (2-3) and 

A. sericea (2-3), woody vines with thick corky bark on older 

stems. The leaves are obovate, up to 6 cm long, soft pubescent. 

The flowers are maroon to purple and in the shape of the classic 

Dutchman's pipe. The fruit is a 6-ribbed capsule up to 10 cm 

long, which becomes a conspicuous pendulous element in 

tropical deciduous and seasonal evergreen forests. They occur 

in lowland and temperate areas. 

The woody stem of A. sericea, if it gives off a slight odor, is 

prized as a medicine for stomach "wind." It is classed then as 

vinik, "man." If it is odorless, it is termed antzil, "female," and 

has no use. Sections of the corky, thick, ribbed old wood of A 

maxima are cut, the bark is trimmed, and a piece 40 cm long is 

crashed on a rock and soaked in water for an hour. The "hot" 

infusion is drunk before breakfast for 3-4 days. 

The vine may be stored, but then the stem is cut into small 

sections after being debarked. If the patient takes the tea this 

way, however, he must abstain from cold water and "cold" 

foods for eight days. The tea may be taken without the 

intervention of a shaman, but if there is swelling or cramps, a 

shaman is required and the vine will be mixed with tobacco, 

kururin root, soro te' root, tentzun, and ch'ail pox. A large 

bowl of the herb tea is drank 2-3 times. If there is no 

alleviation after the second dose it is thought the patient will 

not recover. Sections of vine may be bought by a person in 

need. For further medicinal uses cf. muk'ta kachu toro te'. 

Extended range: Prestonia mexicana. 

20. Ve'el inatab, "iguana food" (f an-'ak', f anf an ak', 

and tzajal ak' in part), refers to Ampelocissus acapulcensis 

(1-2), Cissus cacuminis (3-5), C. sicyoides (2-4), and 

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (2-3), all members of the grape 

family. These vines are common in dry lowland forests and in 

second growth. They are characterized by thick, soft stems and 

large leaves. The flowers are usually red and the fruit is fleshy 

and purple. 

The plant is widely noted as a food for iguanas and birds with 

the fruit, flowers, leaves, and sap being utilized. As a remedy 

for pink eye (satil), the patient cuts the young tip and places 

three drops of the "cold" sap in the eye. Women who wish to 

make their hair grow mash the vine on a stone and mix it with 

cold water. They wash their hair applying the paste twice a day 

for two or three days. 

Extended range: Vitis tiliifolia. 

21. Xinal ak', "stinky vine," is Matelea prosthecidiscus 

(1-2), a coarse, rank, thick-stemmed vine with large, thick 

opposite, cordate-ovate leaves up to 20 cm long. The stems and 

petioles have stiff, erect hairs. Flowers are green and in short 

axillary clusters. The fruit is an elliptic capsule to 12 cm long 

covered with fleshy tubercles 5 mm long. The seeds have tufts 

of long white hair. It is an uncommon plant in primary forests 

in lowland regions. 

22. Yak' xulem, "buzzard's vine," is Hiraea aff. fagifolia 

(1-1), a woody vine with opposite narrowly elliptic leaves 

11-16 cm long and yellow flowers 1-1.5 cm broad, arranged 

in clusters along the stem. The fruit is a samara with a globose 

body and large, thin, rounded wings about 2 cm wide. It occurs 

in undisturbed situations in tropical deciduous forests. For 

menstrual failure, chips of the wood are brewed to provide a 

"hot" tea. 

23. Yat vakax ak', "bull penis vine" (chan-tzelav ak', ch'ix 

ak', juxob-bail ak'), is the temperate and lowland vine 

Pithecoctenium crucigerum (5-8), a common woody vine in 

the dry lowland forests. It is characterized by large, elliptic, 

flattened, spiny fruits. The seeds are flat with broad, almost 

transparent wings. The leaves are bifoliate or trifoliate with 

broadly ovate leaflets, cordate or rounded at the base. The 

flowers are white or yellowish, large, 3-4 cm long and tubular. 

The vine is used for lashing roof poles, fences, and fences 

across streams. The soft inside of the fruit is used by com 

farmers to wipe off sweat and dirt. 

Isolates 

1. Ich ak', "chili vine" (-tik) (be xinich ak', ichi ak', ichil 

ak', muk'ta tz'usub, poxil sal-tz'i'), refers to the virgin's 

bowers Clematis dioica (8-19) and C. grossa (4-10), woody 

vines with stems often 10 or more meters long. The flowers are 

white and in large, showy clusters, fruits are white plumes 

attached to clusters of seeds. Leaves are trifoliate with 3 ovate 

leaflets 8-10 cm long. It is very common in secondary 

formations of temperate and highland areas. The name, be 

xinich ak', "ant path vine," may refer to the ants that are 

attracted to the nectar when it is in flower. 

The vines are used to lash roof rods, purlins, rafters, and 

fences. They are considered to be stronger than k'am-xoch' 

lashing, but are hard to find. They are used to decorate the 

forest creche in Atz'am. As a remedy for laundry hands, 

women crash three flowers and bandage the hand with them 

5-6 times. To remove sal-tz'i' blemishes, the "hot" seeds are 

crushed and rubbed on the affected part, though the remedy 

causes a sharp sting. 

Extended range: Melothria pendula and Mikania cordifolia. 

2. Kururin (kurarina, kururin ak', kururina) is Cissampelos pareira (9-17), a thin wiry vine with heart-shaped leaves 

ands small flowers in axillary clusters. The fruit is red, fleshy, 

6-8 mm long. It is common in temperate and lowland forests. 

This is a variable plant and some speakers recognize this by 

placing some individuals of this plant in the extended range. 

The root, having a great variety of medicinal uses, may be 

stored in the house for a year. As a remedy for "wind" and 

stomach swelling (ik' ta jchuttik), the root is brewed. The 

"hot" tea may be drank alone or laced with strong cane liquor. 

One cup is drank before breakfast for three days. Unlaced tea 

may be taken for postpartum "cold" and malaria. It may also be 

given to mules suffering "wind." Laced tea is taken to relieve 

painful urination. No shaman is required for "wind" (sikil 

kolo'al ik'); a "hot" tea of the root, brewed together with rue, 

tentzun, and the root of soro te' may be taken. As a remedy for 
140 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

snakebite or the bite of a black widow spider, four roots are 

crashed and brewed. A cup of the tea may be given to people or 

mules so afflicted. In another remedy for snakebite, four tips 

are brewed with six splinters of pitch pine. The victim drinks 

the "hot" tea immediately after being bitten, and one or two 

times afterward. The tea may also be made by brewing the roots 

in cane liquor or by crashing the fruit and brewing it. The latter 

prescription is also a cure for black widow and tarantula bites. 

For further medicinal uses cf. muk'ta kachu toro te', poxil 

yerva, vako' ak', xchenek' tzajal om. 

Extended range: Sarcostemma bilobum. 

3. K'an-ak' "yellow vine" (-tik) refers to the dodders, a 

group of orange parasitic vines. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i k'an-ak', "genuine yellow vine," refers to 

Cuscuta corymbosa var. grandifolia (1-4) and C. 

tinctoria (5-13). This is a slender, parasitic, brightorange, leafless vine with clusters of white flowers. It 

is common in second growth as a parasite on many 

species of shrubs in the temperate and highland areas. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan commented that "this 

vine that they call canac gives a flesh color for their 

hair ribbons" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

The entire plant is gathered by women. A netful is brewed 

with batz'i chil jabnal to dye wool yellow. The wool is then 

dyed blue in San Cristobal to provide green wool for sashes and 

skirts. 

Extended range: Sarcostemma bilobum, Cassytha filiformis. 

b. K'ox k'an-ak', "small yellow vine," is the minute 

Cuscuta yucatana (1-1), an herbaceous hair-like wiry 

vine that parasitizes herbs in open grassy fields of the 

highland regions. The stems are leafless and strawcolored with very small white flowers about 1-2 mm 

across. 

4. Roxa (-tik, -iltik) (ch'ixal nichim*, nich rosa*, rosa*) 

refers to the cultivated members of the genus Rosa. In 1545 the 

first Dominican friars in Zinacantan received rose bushes, Rose 

of Castile (Rosa gallica) and Rose of Alexandria (Rosa 

damascena), from Fray Jordan de Piamonte in Oaxaca 

(Ximehes, 1929(1):423). Thomas Gage (1620) mentioned 

observing Rose of Alexandria in Chiapas in 1620. Neither 

seems to be present in Chiapas at this time. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Batz'i tzajal roxa, "genuine red rose" (tz'unbalal 

tzajal roxa), refers to the red-flowered individuals of 

the cultivated bush rose Rosa chinensis (10-11). 

Although this rose can grow in lowland areas (it is 

common in gardens in Tuxtla) it is found cultivated 

mostly in the temperate and highland areas. This is a 

typical ornamental plant in which all the color and 

shape types have been highly selected so that there is 

a tremendous morphological variation. Zinacantecs 

recognize this variation with many descriptive 

designations for the different forms: 

(1) Ik"ik'-lo'an roxa, deep red rose. 

(2) Sak-pak'an roxa, fat pink rose. 

(3) Sak-vayan roxa, pink rose. 

(4) Sak-vayan tzajal roxa, pink red rose. 

(5) Sak-vilan tz'unbalal roxa, pink cultivated rose. 

Slips 40 cm long are planted in the yards generally in the 

rainy season, but they may also be planted in the dry season if 

watered. 

The flowers are put in altar vases by people visiting the 

churches. They are used to decorate graves on All Souls' Day 

and when the family lights candles at the graves on the Fiesta 

of St. Sebastian, during Carnival and Holy Week, on St. Peter 

the Martyr's Day, St. John's Day, and the Fiesta of St. 

Lawrence. 

Each ensign-bearer provides a large bowl of rose petals for 

the first three Lenten Fridays, and two bowls for the last three 

Lenten Fridays. Each steward and the cantors provide a bowl 

for every Lenten Friday and for Tuesday and Wednesday of 

Holy Week. A large basket of rose petals is provided by each 

steward on Maundy Thursday to "bury" a small image of 

Christ, and a basket of white rose petals is provided by each of 

the cantors and the Stewards of the Holy Cross on Good Friday. 

The petals are strewn on the processional patii. Each steward 

provides half a small basket of rose petals on Holy Cross Day. 

In Chak Toj the flowers are used to decorate the creche. Roses 

are also offered in San Mikulax on Holy Cross Day. They are 

offered in Sak Lum on the fifth Friday of Lent, in Apas on the 

sixth Friday of Lent, and in Paste', and Naben Chauk on Good 

Friday. 

As a remedy for fever sores, "cold" pink blossoms are dried 

on the griddle and the powder rubbed on, twice a day for two or 

three days. The flower may also be chewed or crashed and 

rubbed on the lips. It induces salivation. To reduce the "heat" of 

heartburn (me' vinik) and majbenal, die flower may be 

crashed in cold water and the "cold" infusion taken, or the 

flower may be scalded in boiling water and the "cold" tea 

drank. 

b. K'anal roxa, "yellow rose" (k'ox k'anal roxa), is 

Rosa banksiae (1-5), a sprawling viny plant with few 

thorns and small yellow flowers in tight clusters. The 

leaves are compound widi narrowly elliptic leaflets, 

acute at both the tip and base about 3-4 cm long. It is 

grown only in the highland regions. 

The flowers are used for altar decoration, especially during 

Holy Week, and for grave decorations. 

c. K'ox tzajal roxa, "small red rose" (bik'tal tzajal 

roxa, k'ox sak-vayan roxa, tz'unbalal bik'tal tzajal 

roxa), is the viny rose Rosa multifiora (6-4), another 

cultivated, variable, ornamental rose differing from R. 

chinensis in having terminal clusters of flowers ratiier 

than solitary flowers, and somewhat smaller leaflets. 

Both R. chinensis and R. multifiora have stout prickles 

on the stems and branchlets. 

It is grown in yards and along fences in temperate and 
NUMBER 35 141 

highland regions. 

d. Makom roxa, "blackberry rose," is Rosa roxburghii 

(1-2), an uncommonly cultivated rose with fruits that 

are covered with spines. The flowers are red and leaves 

are compound with many small, elliptic leaflets 1.5-2 

cm long. It is known in only one lowland location, El 

Trapiche. 

e. Sakil roxa, "white rose" (muk'ta sakil roxa, tz'unbalal sakil roxa), refers to the white-flowered individuals of Rosa chinensis (2-4). 

White roses have the same use as red roses. In addition, 

white rose petals are offered in Chak Toj on Good Friday, white 

rose petals are used in Atz'am on Our Lady of the Rosary, and 

white rose petals and elderberry blossoms are strewn on the 

patii of the Christ Child on Christmas Eve in Atz'am. 

After taking a store-bought laxative, water may not be drank 

for one day. Instead, three flowers are brewed and a cup of the 

"cold" tea is drunk before breakfast and following the laxative. 

Or the laxative may be mixed with the tea. 

5. Te' ak', "woody vine" or stiff vine," is a non-Linnaean 

grouping that focuses on woody vines that are too brittle to be 

used for lashing. These are mostly members of the pek' me'el 

and tz'usub sets. It includes Adenocalyma apurense (1-1), 

Anemopaegma puberulum (1-2), Antigonon flavescens (1-1), 

Bunchosia montana (1-1), Canavalia glabra (1-1), Combretum fruticosum (1-4), Didymaea alsinoides (1-1), Gouania 

polygama (1- 2), Hiraea reclinata (1-4), Passiflora sexiflora 

(1-1), Petastoma patelliferum (1-4), Quassia amara (1-1), 

and Serjania psilophylla (1-1). Some speakers subdivide this 

term into three classes: sakil, "white," tzajal, "red," and yaxal, 

"blue-green." 

The "cold" fruit of A. apurense is edible. It is sold in Acala, 

Chiapa de Corzo, and San Cristobal. 

6. Yak' max, "monkey's vine" Dalechampia scandens 

(1-1), is an urticating, herbaceous vine with hand-like flowers. 

The leaves are alternate, 3-lobed cordate at the base softly 

pubescent beneath. They range in size from 4.5-12 cm long. It 

occurs in the tropical deciduous forests and second growth of 

the lowlands. 

7. Yat tz'i' ak', "dog's penis vine" (lo'bol chij, poxil 

sal-tz'i' ak', sal-tz'i' ak'), refers to Bomarea acutifolia (2-2) 

and B. hirtella (7-17). These plants have a slender vine arising 

from a branched, edible tuber. The leaves are alternate, 

parallel-veined lanceolate with a long tapering apex and 

rounded base; the capsule is subglobose. The enclosed seeds 

are covered with a red pulp. The flowers are large, tubular, 

orange, spotted with purple and in pendent terminal clusters. 

The plants are common in second growth and evergreen cloud 

forests of the temperate and highland locations. 

Zinacantecs are not aware that the root is edible. To remove 

sal-tz'i' blemishes, the "medium" berries are rubbed on the 

affected part. 

Extended range: Asclepias sp., Gentiana laevigata, and 

Smilacina scilloides. 
142 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Trees": "Te' Sets" 

'Aja-te'es Set" . 

aja-te'es 

aja-te'es 

k'ox aja-te'es 

tzis uch 

'Bak Te' Set" 

ajval te' 

bak te' 

majob ik'al 

148 

ventex mol 

"Bix Set" . . 

aj 

antzil aj 

vinik aj 

yajil ama 

bix 

antzil bix 

ton bix 

chanib 

Gaultheria odorata (Ericaceae) 

Vaccinium confertum (Ericaceae) 

Litsea glaucescens (Lauraceae) 

149 

Stillingia acutifolia fjiuphorbiaceae) 

Dodonaea viscosa (Sapindaceae) 

Jacquinea macrocarpa (Theophrastaceae) 

Picramnia tetramera (Simaroubaceae) 

150 

ik'ob chij 

meno 

ne kotom 

k'ox ne kotom 

muk'ta ne kotom 

otot 

k'anal otot 

yaxal otot 

Phragmiles australis (Poaceae) 

Gynerium sagittatum (Poaceae) 

Arundo donax (Poaceae) 

Olmeca reflexa (Poaceae) 

Otatea fimbriata (Poaceae) 

Lasiacis hispida (Poaceae) 

Rhipidocladum bartlettii (Poaceae) 

Rhipidocladum pittieri (Poaceae) 

Lasiacis divaricata (Poaceae) 

Pennisetum purpureum (Poaceae) 

Chusquea liebmanni (Poaceae) 

Chusquea foliosa (Poaceae) 

Bambusa vulgaris var. vittata 

(Poaceae) 

Bambusa vulgaris var. vulgaris 

(Poaceae) 

'Boch Set" 

boch 

boch te' 

chachi' 

nantzi' 

tzima' 

151 

Crescentia cujete (Bignoniaceae) 

Randia aculeata (Rubiaceae) 

Randia cineria (Rubiaceae) 

Parmentiera aculeata (Bignoniaceae) 

Byrsonima crassifolia (Malpighiaceae) 

Crescentia alata (Bignoniaceae) 

bik'it choch 

choch 

ch'ilim te' 

mail te' 

putzkuy 

Stemmadenia eubracteata (Apocynaceae) 

Stemmadenia obovata (Apocynaceae) 

Thevetia ovata (Apocynaceae) 

Thevetia plumeriaefolia (Apocynaceae) 

Hymenaea courbaril (Fabaceae) 

Pseudobombax ellipticum (Bombacaceae) 

Cochlospermum vitifolium (Cochlospermaceae) 

sal-te' 

sakil sal-te' 

tzajal sal-te' 

saya-vun 

tux-nuk' te' 

xinal te' 

Chalon Set" 

chalon 

Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae) 

Bursera simaruba (Burseraceae) 

Morus celtidifolia (Moraceae) 

Luehea Candida (Tiliaceae) 

Gyrocarpus americanus (Gyrocarpaceae) 

154 

Inga vera ssp. spuria (Fabaceae) 

tz'erel 

'Chijil Te' Set" . . 

chijil te' 

batz'i chijil te' 

xutax chijil te' 

chix te' 

batz'i chix te' 

chix te' mut 

ch'it 

jich'il anal ch'it 

muk'ta tzajal ch'it 

sakil ch'it 

Inga xalapensis (Fabaceae) 

Inga fagifolia (Fabaceae) 

Inga jinicuil (Fabaceae) 

Inga punctata (Fabaceae) 

154 

Bot Set" 

akit 

be xinich te' 

bot 

bot 

ch'ich' bot 

choch 

152 

Guazuma ulmifolia (Slerculiaceae) 

Cordia alliodora (Boraginaceae) 

Heliocarpus donnell-smithii (Tiliaceae) 

Heliocarpus mexicanus (Tiliaceae) 

Croton draco (Euphorbiaceae) 

tzajal ch'it 

tzotzin ch'it 

yaxal ch'it 

ch'ix ak' 

Sambucus mexicana (Caprifoliaceae) 

Sambucus canadensis (Caprifoliaceae) 

Prunus serotina (Rosaceae) 

Prunus serotina (Rosaceae) 

Diospyros nicaraguensis (Ebanaceae) 

Wimmeria acuminata (Celastraceae) 

Chrysophyllum cainito (Sapotaceae) 

Chrysophyllum mexicanum (Sapotaceae) 

Eugenia acapulcensis (Myrtaceae) 

Eugenia amatenangensis (Myrtaceae) 

Eugenia carranzae (Myrtaceae) 

Eugenia laughlinii (Myrtaceae) 

Ardisia escallonioides (Myrsinaceae) 

Schoepfia vacciniiflora (Olacaceae) 

Eugenia yunkeri (Myrtaceae) 

Xylosma intermedium (Flacourtiaceae) 

Celtis iguanaea (Ulmaceae) 
NUMBER 35 

ik'al te' 

ik'al vinik 

makulixkuat 

nampivo 

paxamum 

batz'i paxamum 

muk'ta paxamum 

treno 

vax te' 

yak'jnibak 

143 

yisim bolom 

Bourreria huanita (Boraginaceae) 

Ehretia latifolia (Boraginaceae) 

Hippocratia volubilis (Celastraceae) 

Garrya laurifolia (Garryaceae) 

Muntingia calabura (Eleocarpaceae) 

Ehretia tinifolia (Boraginaceae) 

Malpighia mexicana (Malpighiaceae) 

Symplocos limoncillo (Symplocaceae) 

Symplocos vernicosa (Symplocaceae) 

Ligustrum lucidum (Oleaceae) 

Trema micrantha (Ulmaceae) 

Daphnopsis americana (Thymeliaceae) 

Xylosma flexuosum (Flacourtiaceae) 

Xylosma intermedium (Flacourtiaceae) 

Xylosma quichense (Flacourtiaceae) 

"Chilkat Set" . . . 

arsyal te' 

chilkat 

batz'i chilkat 

k'ox chilkat 

te'tikal chilkat 

ch'a-te' 

bik'it ch'a-te' 

157 

muk'ta ch'a-te' 

ch'a-te' pox 

ch'ail pox 

mes te' 

poxil ik' 

poxil tza'nel 

"Ch'upak' Te' Set" . . 

ch'upak' te' 

muk'ta ch'upak' te' 

sakil ch'upak' te' 

tzajal ch'upak' te" 

makom uch 

tz'in-te' 

Baccharis trinervis (Asteraceae) 

Senecio salignus (Asteraceae) 

Baccharis glutinosa (Asteraceae) 

Trixis inula (Asteraceae) 

Ageratina bustamenta (Asteraceae) 

Ageratina ligustrina (Asteraceae) 

Ageratina mairetiana (Asteraceae) 

Ageratina pringlei (Asteraceae) 

Chromolaena collina (Asteraceae) 

Pachythamnus crassirameus (Asteraceae) 

Stevia ovata (Asteraceae) 

Stevia polycephala (Asteraceae) 

Stevia serrata (Asteraceae) 

Ageratina ligustrina (Asteraceae) 

Stevia lucida (Asteraceae) 

Calea urticifolia (Asteraceae) 

Baccharis vaccinioides (Asteraceae) 

Stevia lucida (Asteraceae) 

Stevia polycephala (Asteraceae) 

Baccharis serraefolia (Asteraceae) 

158 

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) 

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) 

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) 

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae) 

Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae) 

k'am-xoch' 

k'orok' te' 

mumun 

mumun te' 

'Kachimpa Te' Set" 

chin te' 

ich te' 

kachimpa te' 

matal ak' 

K'an-te' Set" 

barsin te' 

brasil 

chenek' te' 

Chiranthodendron pentadactylon 

(Sterculiaceae) 

Cecropia peltata (Moraceae) 

Piper auritum (Piperaceae) 

Piper amalgo (Piperaceae) 

Piper decurrens (Piperaceae) 

Piper hispidum (Piperaceae) 

Piper jacquemontianum (Piperaceae) 

Piper marginatum (Piperaceae) 

Piper tuberculatum (Piperaceae) 

159 

Hura polyandra (Euphorbiaceae) 

Toxicodendron striatum (Anacardiaceae) 

Comocladia guatemalensis (Anacardiaceae) 

Toxicodendron radicans (Anacardiaceae) 

160 

Guettarda macrosperma (Rubiaceae) 

Piscidia carthagenensis (Fabaceae) 

Haematoxylon brasiletto (Fabaceae) 

Clitoria polystachya (Fabaceae) 

ch'aben te' 

ch'ix-ni' te' 

jach'ub te' 

kamaron te' 

kan61a te' 

Gliricidia ehrenbergii (Fabaceae) 

Godmania aesculifolia (Bignoniaceae) 

Harpalyce formosa var. goldmanii 

(Fabaceae) 

Inga vera ssp. spuria (Fabaceae) 

Pistacia mexicana (Anacardiaceae) 

Senna hirsuta var. hirta (Fabaceae) 

Senna pallida (Fabaceae) 

Indigofera suffruticosa (Fabaceae) 

Indigofera thibaudiana (Fabaceae) 

Gliricidia ehrenbergii (Fabaceae) 

Platanus mexicana (Platanaceae) 

Alvaradoa amorphoides (Simaroubaceae) 

"Jabnal Set" 

jabnal 

jabnal te' 

159 

Oreopanax peltatus (Araliaceae) 

Oreopanax xalapensis (Araliaceae) 

sakil kan61a te' 

tzajal kanela te' 

kanelo 

k'an-te' 

k'anal te' 

milob ch'o te' 

pinto te' 

putzul chij 

yax-'ib te' 

Hauya elegans (Onagraceae) 

Calycophyllum candidissimum (Rubiaceae) 

Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Lauraceae) 

Diphysa floribunda (Fabaceae) 

Mahonia berriozabalensis (Berberidaceae) 

Mahonia volcania (Berberidaceae) 

Gliricidia sepium (Fabaceae) 

Wimmeria pubescens (Celastraceae) 

Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae) 

Senna cobanensis (Fabaceae) 

Senna pallida (Fabaceae) 

Senna skinneri (Fabaceae) 
144 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

yax-te' 

'K'at'ix Set" . . 

isbon 

k'at'ix 

k'anal k'at'ix 

sijom k'at'ix 

tzajal k'at'ix 

Senna tonduzii (Fabaceae) 

Eysenhardtia adenostylis (Fabaceae) 

162 

Cornus excelsa (Comaceae) 

Crataegus pubescens (Rosaceae) 

Crataegus pubescens (Rosaceae) 

Crataegus pubescens (Rosaceae) 

'La Set" . . 

chaya itaj 

chon la 

. 163 

Maya' 

la 

batz'i la 

kilajtik la 

k'ox la 

muk'tik la 

sakil la 

'Machita Te' Set" 

chenek' chij te' 

mdchita te' 

nichim te' 

"Mantzana Set" . . . 

mantzana 

batz'i matzana 

kamosa mantzana 

per6te mantzana 

tranjero mantzana 

mahtzana te' 

nimpronix 

nimpronix te' 

pelex 

batz'i pelex 

kaxlan pelex 

Cnidoscolus aconitifolius 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

Wigandia urens (Hydrophyllaceae) 

Wigandia urens var. caracasana 

(Hydrophyllaceae) 

Urtica chamaedryoides (Urticaceae) 

Gronovia scandens (Loasaceae) 

Tragia nepetifolia (Euphorbiaceae) 

Urera caracasana (Urticaceae) 

Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Euphorbiaceae) 

Cnidoscolus multilobus (Euphorbiaceae) 

Cnidoscolus tubulosus (Euphorbiaceae) 

164 

Senna atomeria (Fabaceae) 

Delonix regia (Fabaceae) 

Caesalpinia exostema (Fabaceae) 

Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Fabaceae) 

164 

'Met Set" ... . 

chi 

pino chi 

te'tikal chi 

kaxlan tok'oy 

met 

chi met 

lo'balal met 

muk'ta met 

paxak' 

chimpo paxak' 

Malus pumila (Rosaceae) 

Malus pumila (Rosaceae) 

Malus pumila (Rosaceae) 

Malus pumila (Rosaceae) 

Amelanchier denticulata (Rosaceae) 

Cydonia oblonga (Rosaceae) 

Duranta repens (Verbenaceae) 

Pyrus communis (Rosaceae) 

Pyrus pyrifolia (Rosaceae) 

165 

Agave sisalana (Agavaceae) 

Furcraea guatemalensis (Agavaceae) 

Yucca elephantipes (Agavaceae) 

Agave kewensis (Agavaceae) 

Agave chiapensis (Agavaceae) 

Agave americana (Agavaceae) 

Bromelia hemisphaerica (Bromelikinya paxak' 

muk'ta paxak' 

paxak'il te'tik 

potpot paxak' 

aceae) 

Bromelia pinguin (Bromeliaceae) 

Ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae) 

Greigia oaxacana (Bromeliaceae) 

Bromelia plumieri (Bromeliaceae) 

'Naranja Set" 

alaxax 

elamonix 

kajve 

kajve te' 

konkon 

konkon 

k'anal konkon 

lima 

chu' lima 

ch'ulul lima 

pimil pat lima 

limon 

mantarina 

batz'i mantarina 

k'ol-pat mantarina 

naranja 

jayal pat naranja 

pimil pat naranja 

sila 

yich'ak mut 

167 

'Olnob Set" 

chojchoj 

ch'ich' ni' 

kevrajacha 

krus ch'ix 

lotz'om chij 

molino te' 

olnob 

batz'i olnob 

paka' olnob 

tzajal olnob 

pit 

sakil ch'ix 

suk 

ik'al suk 

sakil suk 

tamarin 

tzo' xulem te' 

vamuch te' 

Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae) 

Citrus aurantifolia (Rutaceae) 

Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae) 

Casearia commersoniana (Flacourtiaceae) 

Casearia corymbosa (Flacourtiaceae) 

Cavendishia crassifolia (Ericaceae) 

Galphimia glauca (Malpighiaceae) 

Citrus limonia 'Millsweet' (Rutaceae) 

Citrus limetta (Rutaceae) 

Citrus limonia (Rutaceae) 

Citrus limonia 'Eureka' O^utaceae) 

Citrus reticulata (Rutaceae) 

Citrus reticulata (Rutaceae) 

Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae) 

Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae) 

Citrus medica (Rutaceae) 

Fuchsia paniculata (Onagraceae) 

169 

Acacia cornigera (Fabaceae) 

Calliandra confusa O^abaceae) 

Calliandra grandiflora (Fabaceae) 

Calliandra houstoniana (Fabaceae) 

Acacia pennatula (Fabaceae) 

Pisonia aculeata (Nyctaginaceae) 

Pisonia macranthocarpa (Nyctaginaceae) 

Mimosa albida (Fabaceae) 

Poeppigia procera (Fabaceae) 

Leucaena leucocephala (J^abaceae) 

Leucaena collinsii (Fabaceae) 

Leucaena diversifolia (Fabaceae) 

Enterolobium cyclocarpum fj'abaceae) 

Acacia farnesiana (Fabaceae) 

Lysiloma acapulcense (Fabaceae) 

Lysiloma divaricatum (Fabaceae) 

Lysiloma auritum (Fabaceae) 

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae) 

Lonchocarpus minimiflorus (Fabaceae) 

Lonchocarpus rugosus 0?abaceae) 

Pithecellobium dulce (Fabaceae) 
NUMBER 35 

voy chij te' 

xaxib 

batz'i xaxib 

muk'ta xaxib 

xaxib ch'ix 

yolnob ch'o 

Bauhinia divaricata (Fabaceae) 

Bauhinia pauletia (Fabaceae) 

Bauhinia ungulata (Fabaceae) 

Acacia angustissima (Fabaceae) 

Calliandra portoricensis (Fabaceae) 

Calliandra tetragona (Fabaceae) 

Mimosa pigra (Fabaceae) 

Aeschynomene compacta (Fabaceae) 

Aeschynomene purpusii (Fabaceae) 

Chamaecrista nictitans ssp. disadenia var. pilosa (Fabaceae) 

Desmanthus virgatus (Fabaceae) 

Indigofera thibaudiana (Fabaceae) 

Machaerium chiapense (Fabaceae) 

Senna occidentalis (Fabaceae) 

Senna pallida (Fabaceae) 

Senna skinneri (Fabaceae) 

Tephrosia cinerea (Fabaceae) 

On Set" 

aj-te' 

bik'it aj-te' 

ch'ulul aj-te' 

muk'ta aj-te' 

aj-te' te' 

chinin 

itzompi 

ja'as 

kovana te' 

lumpisera 

manko 

batz'i manko 

chitom manko 

tranjero manko 

xok manko 

muy 

no'chi' on 

batz'i on 

ch'ail on 

tzitz on 

yax-'on 

oven 

tzitz 

tzitz te' 

uch 

yaj-te' kotom On Te' Set" 

.172 

Casimiroa edulis (Rutaceae) 

Casimiroa edulis (Rutaceae) 

Casimiroa edulis (Rutaceae) 

Tabebuia rosea (Bingoniaceae) 

Persea scheideana (Lauraceae) 

Licania platypus (Rosaceae) 

Pouteria mammosa (Sapotaceae) 

Swietenia humilis (Meliaceae) 

Platymiscium dimorphandrum (Fab-

aceae) 

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) 

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) 

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) 

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) 

Manilkara achras (Sapotaceae) 

Pouteria campechiana (Sapotaceae) 

Persea americana (Lauraceae) 

Persea americana (Lauraceae) 

Persea americana (Lauraceae) 

Persea americana (Lauraceae) 

Persea donnell-smithii (Lauraceae) 

Persea americana var. drymifolia 

(Lauraceae) 

Beilschmiedia riparia (Lauraceae) 

Dipholis matudae (Sapotaceae) 

Licaria peckii (Lauraceae) 

Nectandra coriacea (Lauraceae) 

Ocotea chiapensis (Lauraceae) 

Styrax argentum (Styracaceae) 

Diospyros digyna (Ebanaceae) 

Elaeodendron trichotomum (Celas-

traceae) 

176 

muk'ta on te' 

nap'ap' on te' 

sakil te' 

145 

caceae) 

Comarostaphylos discolor (Eri-

caceae) 

Arbutus xalapensis (Ericaceae) 

Arbutus xalapensis (Ericaceae) 

Acer negundo ssp. mexicanum (Ac-

eraceae) 

'Pitz'otz' Set" 

pitz'otz' 

sat pukuj 

tuil te' 

ve'el kulajte' 

"Po'on Set" 

amat 

ch'u-te' 

bik'it ch'u-te' 

sakil ch'u-te' 

inop 

jovos 

batz'i jovos 

yaxal jovos 

kajanab te' 

maluk 

m6mela te' 

mojan 

mutut 

po'on 

batz'i po'on 

te'tikal po'on 

po'on ch'ix 

te'el uli' 

176 

Monnina xalapensis (Polygalaceae) 

Solanum aligerum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum brachystachys (Solana-

ceae) 

Solanum cervantesii (Solanaceae) 

Cestrum aurantiacum (Solanaceae) 

Cestrum guatemalense (Solanaceae) 

Solanum brachystachys (Solana-

ceae) 

Solanum nudum (Solanaceae) 

Cordia foliosa (Boraginaceae) 

Cordia spinescens (Boraginaceae) 

Rauvolfia tetraphylla (Apocyna-

ceae) 

177 

Ficus glabrata (Moraceae) 

Ficus glaucescens (Moraceae) 

Cedrela oaxacensis (Meliaceae) 

Cedrela odorata (Meliaceae) 

C. salvadorensis (Meliaceae) 

Ceiba pentandra (Bombacaceae) 

Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae) 

Mastichodendron capiri var. tempisque (Sapotaceae) 

Oreopanax capitatus (Araliaceae) 

Genipa caruto (Rubiaceae) 

Clusia rosea (Clusiaceae) 

Ceiba aesculifolia (Bombacaceae) 

Ficus cookii (Moraceae) 

Ficus cotinifolia (Moraceae) 

Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae) 

Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae) 

Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae) 

Ximenia americana (Olacaceae) 

Ficus elastica (Moraceae) 

"Pom Set" . . . 

pom 

ach'el pom 

batz'i pom 

pom ka' 

"Sun Set" 

k'ail 

179 

Bursera bipinnata (Burseraceae) 

Bursera excelsa (Burseraceae) 

Bursera steyermarkii (Burseraceae) 

180 

on te' 

k'ox on te' Comarostaphylos arbutoides (Eri

-

Smallanthus maculatus (Asteraceae) 

Smallanthus oaxacanus (Asteraceae) 

Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae) 
146 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

ton k'ail 

tzojoj 

'Tilil Set" ... . 

bak amuch te' 

bakel amuch te' 

Tithonia longiradiata (Asteraceae) 

Tithonia rotundifolia (Asteraceae) 

Tithonia tubaeformis (Asteraceae) 

Montanoa hexagona (Asteraceae) 

Lagascea helianthifolia (Asteraceae) 

ja'as te' 

karnero te' 

k'ol-k'ox 

k'os 

sakil k'os 

tzajal k'os 

k'oxox te' 

batz'i k'oxox te' 

ik'al k'oxox te' 

poxil poslom 

tilil 

yaxal mol 

"Toj Set" . 

k'isis 

nukul pat 

ok'il te' 

180 

Clethra mexicana (Clethraceae) 

Calyptranthes chiapensis (Myrtaceae) 

Styrax argentum (Styraceae) 

Coccoloba barbadensis (Polygonaceae) 

Coccoloba diversifolia (Polygonaceae) 

Coccoloba liebmannii (Polygonaceae) 

Coccoloba mayana (Polygonaceae) 

Phyllantus grandifolius (Euphorbiaceae) 

Synardisia venosa (Myrsinaceae) 

Parathesis chiapensis (Myrsinaceae) 

Parathesis leptopa (Myrsinaceae) 

Ternslroemia lineata ssp. chalicophylla (Theaceae) 

Ternslroemia oocarpa (Theaceae) 

Cleyera theaeoides (Theaceae) 

Rhamnus mucronata (Rhamnaceae) 

Rapanea juergensenii (Myrsinaceae) 

Licania arborea (Rosaceae) 

. . . 182 

(TaxoditOj 

ajan toj 

batz'i toj 

chak-toj 

ik'al toj 

k'uk' toj 

sakil k uk toj 

tzajal kuk' toj 

tzajal toj 

Taxodium mucronatum 

aceae) 

Cupressus benthamii var. lindleyi 

(Cupressaceae) 

Juniperus comitana (Cupressaceae) 

Juniperus gamboana (Cupressaceae) 

Pinus michoacana (Pinaceae) 

Pinus montezumae var. rudis O'inaceae) 

Pinus pseudostrobus (Pinaceae) 

Pinus oaxacana (Pinaceae) 

Abies guatemalensis (Pinaceae) 

Pinus ayacahuite (Pinaceae) 

Pinus oocarpa (Pinaceae) 

Pinus teocote (Pinaceae) 

'Ton Bek' Set" 184 

presa 

ton bek' 

Fraxinus uhdei (Oleaceae) 

Juglans regia (Juglandaceae) 

jom akan 

k'an-'ich 

batz'i k'an-'ich 

k'ox k an-'ich 

nam te' mol 

top'ol 

k'anal top'ol 

k'ox top'ol 

xolom 

Piptothrix areolaris (Asteraceae) 

Coreopsis mutica var. microcephala 

(Asteraceae) 

Perymenium ghiesbreghtii (Asteraceae) 

Verbesina hypsela (Asteraceae) 

Verbesina perymenioides (Asteraceae) 

Verbesina punctata (Asteraceae) 

Verbesina steyermarkii (Asteraceae) 

Verbesina turbascensis (Asteraceae) 

Perymenium grande var. nelsonii 

(Asteraceae) 

Lasianthaea fruticosa (Asteraceae) 

Vernonia leiocarpa (Asteraceae) 

"Tulan Set" ... . 

batz'i te' 

chikin-ib 

batz'i chikin-ib 

jayal pat chikin-ib 

sakil chikin-ib 

kachu toro te' 

muk'ta kachu toro te' 

yaxal kachu toro te' 

kampor 

nok 

sakil nok 

tzajal nok 

paj-'ul 

k'ox paj-'ul 

muk'ta paj-'ul 

tzajal paj-'ul 

sap yok 

tempix 

tulan 

k'an-tulan 

k'evex tulan 

sakil tulan 

tzajal tulan 

tz'otz'op 

tz'utuj te' 

185 

'Top'ol Set" 185 

tz'utuj te' te' 

"Turasnu Set" 

prixku' 

Quercus crassifolia (Fagaceae) 

Quercus castanea (Fagaceae) 

Quercus crispipilis fFagaceae) 

Quercus oleoides (Fagaceae) 

Quercus laurina (Fagaceae) 

Quercus elliptica (Fagaceae) 

Quercus sapotifolia (Fagaceae) 

Bucida macrostachya (Combretaceae) 

Godmania aesculifolia (Bignoniaceae) 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Myrtaceae) 

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae) 

Alnus acuminata ssp. arguta (Betulaceae) 

Alnus jorullensis (Betulaceae) 

Rhus terebinthifolia (Anacardiaceae) 

Rhus schiedeana (Anacardiaceae) 

Pistacia mexicana (Anacardiaceae) 

Quercus candicans (Fagaceae) 

Dendropanax arboreus (Araliaceae) 

Quercus segoviensis (Fagaceae) 

Quercus polymorpha (Fagaceae) 

Quercus peduncularis (Fagaceae) 

Quercus rugosa (Fagaceae) 

Quercus acutifolia (Fagaceae) 

Carpinus caroliniana (Betulaceae) 

Ostrya virginiana var. guatemalensis (Betulaceae) 

Ulmus mexicana (Ulmaceae) 

188 
NUMBER 35 147 

k'anal prixku' 

sakil prixku' 

sirvela 

ik"ik'-lo'an sirvela 

k'anal sirvela 

sakil sirvela 

tzajal sirvela 

turasnu 

batz'i turasnu 

karirat turasnu 

kaxlan turasnu 

luranko turasnu 

merokotom turasnu 

"Tzelo-pat Set" . 

sitit 

sakil sitit 

tzajal sitit 

suil itaj 

batz'i suil itaj 

k'ox suil itaj 

tzelo-pat 

bak tzelo-pat 

batz'i tzelo-pat 

chan-tzelav tzelo-pat 

sak-nich te' 

muk'ta sak-nich te' 

sak-nich te' 

tzotz-ni' te' 

Prunus persica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus persica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus domestica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus domestica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus domestica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus domestica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus persica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus persica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae) 

Prunus persica (Rosaceae) 

Prunus persica (Rosaceae) 

190 

Vernonia deppeana (Asteraceae) 

Vernonia oxacana (Asteraceae) 

Pluchea odorata (Asteraceae) 

Liabum glabrum var. hypoleucum 

(Asteraceae) 

Liabum andrieuxii (Asteraceae) 

Buddleia nitida (Loganiaceae) 

Buddleia skutchii (Loganiaceae) 

Buddleia americana (Loganiaceae) 

Buddleia crotonoides (Loganiaceae) 

Buddleia crotonoides ssp. amplexicaulis (Loganiaceae) 

"Tzotz-ni' Te' Set" . . . 

ajo' te' 

atz'am te' 

chivo te' 

kastanya 

k'ux-pevul 

moy te' 

191 

Saurauia oreophila (Actinidiaceae) 

Saurauia scabrida (Actinidiaceae) 

Viburnum hartwegii (Caprifoliaceae) 

Aloysia chiapensis (Verbenaceae) 

Sterculia apetala (Sterculiaceae) 

Solanum chrysotrichum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum lanceolatum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum torvum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum erianthum (Solanaceae) 

Lippia cardiostegia (Verbenaceae) 

Lippia myriocephala (Verbenaceae) 

Lippia chiapasensis (Verbenaceae) 

Lippia substrigosa (Verbenaceae) 

Viburnum jucundum (Caprifoliaceae) 

"Xan Set" . . 

koko 

nap 

palma 

xan 

batz'i xan 

pik' xan 

192 

Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae) 

Acrocomia mexicana (Arecaceae) 

Sabal mexicana (Arecaceae) 

Brahea dulcis (Arecaceae) 

Brahea dulcis (Arecaceae) 

'Yuch' Max Set" . 

tz'oban 

batz'i tz'oban 

k'anal tz'oban 

k'ox tz'oban 

yuch' max 

batz'i yuch' max 

k'ox yuch* max 

tzotzin yuch' max 

yuch' max pox 

Isolates 

chil jabnal 

batz'i chil jabnal 

Brahea nitida (Arecaceae) 

193 

Phymosia rosea (Malvaceae) 

Abutilon purpusii (Malvaceae) 

Ayenia mexicana (Sterculiaceae) 

Malvaviscus arboreus var. arboreus 

(Malvaceae) 

Triumfetta grandiflora (Tiliaceae) 

Triumfetta semitriloba (Tiliaceae) 

Triumfetta speciosa (Tiliaceae) 

Triumfetta dumetorum (Tiliaceae) 

Triumfetta polyandra (Tiliaceae) 

Acaena elongata (Rosaceae) 

194 

tzajal chil jabnal 

ch'ib 

batz'i ch'ib 

muk'ta ch'ib 

palma ch'ib 

ik'ux 

ik'al ik'ux 

yaxal ik'ux 

jach'ub te' 

jasfnto te' 

kakav te' 

kamusa te' 

kilkil nichim 

sakil kilkil nichim 

tzajal kilkil nichim 

yaxyax-'ulan kilkil nichim 

klaVo 

kokov 

kranata lo'bol 

k'ask'as te' 

k'evex 

batz'i k'evex 

chin-jol k'evex 

Miconia oligotricha (Melastomataceae) 

Leandra subseriata (Melastomataceae) 

Miconia guatemalensis (Melastomataceae) 

Miconia mexicana (Melastomataceae) 

Chamaedorea elatior (Arecaceae) 

Chamaedorea ernesti-augustii (Arecaceae) 

Chamaedorea nubium (Arecaceae) 

Chamaedorea concolor (Arecaceae) 

Ficus carica (Moraceae) 

Ficus carica (Moraceae) 

Erythroxylon rotundifolium (Erythroxylaceae) 

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) 

Oecopetalum mexicanum (Icacinaceae) 

Bocconia arborea (Papaveraceae) 

Bocconia frutescens (Papaveraceae) 

Asparagus setaceus (Liliaceae) 

Acalypha hispida (Euphorbiaceae) 

Bougainvillea buttiana (Nyctaginaceae) 

Bougainvillea glabra (Nyctaginaceae) 

Eugenia caryophyllus (Myrtaceae) 

Theobroma bicolor (Sterculiaceae) 

Punica granatum (Punicaceae) 

Iresine angustifolia (Amaranthaceae) 

Iresine nigra (Amaranthaceae) 

Annona cherimola (Annonaceae) 

Annona purpurea (Annonaceae) 
148 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

k'anal k'evex 

papaiisa k'evex 

k'olo-max 

k'unil te' 

linkon te' 

Annona reticulata (Annonaceae) 

Annona diversifolia (Annonaceae) 

Olmediella betschleriana (Flacourtiaceae) 

Lopezia langmanniae (Onagraceae) 

Acalypha macrostachya (Euphorbiaceae) 

Acalypha mollis (Euphorbiaceae) 

Myriocarpa heterostachya (Urticaceae) 

Myriocarpa longipes (Urticaceae) 

Myriocarpa yzabalensis (Urticaceae) 

lo'bol 

batz'i lo'bol 

chan-tzelav lo'bol 

chimpo lo'bol 

k'ox lo'bol 

mantzana lo'bol 

mol lo'bol 

natikil lo'bol 

sakil lo'bol 

sera lo'bol 

tzajal lo'bol 

lo'bol vet 

luchamaria 

mora 

mukumu 

nankipu 

nuk' chij 

papaya 

papaya 

Musa acuminata x M. bulbisiana 

(Musaceae) 

Musa acuminata x M. bulbisiana 

(Musaceae) 

Musa acuminata x M. bulbisiana 

(Musaceae) 

Heliconia librata (Musaceae) 

Heliconia schiedeana (Musaceae) 

Musa acuminata x M. bulbisiana 

(Musaceae) 

Musa textilis (Musaceae) 

Musa acuminata x M. bulbisiana 

(Musaceae) 

Musa acuminata x M. bulbisiana 

(Musaceae) 

Musa acuminata x M. bulbisiana 

(Musaceae) 

Musa acuminata x M. bulbisiana 

(Musaceae) 

Coriaria ruscifolia (Coriariaceae) 

Rheedia edulis (Clusiaceae) 

Chlorophora tinctoria (Moraceae) 

Euphorbia leucocephala (Euphorbiaceae) 

Cordia dentata (Boraginaceae) 

Cordia dodecandra (Boraginaceae) 

Cordia sebestena (Boraginaceae) 

Rubus trilobus (Rosaceae) 

Carica papaya (Caricaceae) 

papSya mut 

paraiso te' 

patax 

k'ox patax 

patax nichim 

k'anal patax nichim 

moraro patax nichim 

sakil patax nichim 

tzajal patax nichim 

pimenta 

batz'i pimenta 

kaxlan pimenta 

piyon te' 

pomos 

ik'al pomos 

sakil pomos 

tzajal pomos 

potov 

batz'i potov 

kaxlan potov 

sakil kaxlan potov 

tzajal kaxlan potov 

tzajal potov 

satin 

sik'ol te' 

soro te' 

tok'oy 

batz'i tok'oy 

kilajtik tok'oy 

k'ox tok'oy 

turasnu te' 

tzajal te' 

vo'ox 

vux te' 

x'ukun 

yisim mut bolom 

Carica cauliflora (Caricaceae) 

Melia azedarach (Meliaceae) 

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae) 

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae) 

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae) 

Plumeria alba (Apocynaceae) 

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae) 

Pimenta dioica (Myrtaceae) 

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae) 

Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Euphorbiaceae) 

Ceanothus coeruleus (Jihamnaceae) 

Gymnopodium floribundum var. antigonoides (Polygonaceae) 

Holodiscus argenteus (Jtosaceae) 

Psidium guineense (Myrtaceae) 

Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae) 

Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae) 

Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae) 

Myrica cerifera (Myricaceae) 

Hyperbaena mexicana (Menispermaceae) 

Petiveria alliacea (Phytolaccaceae) 

Salix bonplandiana (Salicaceae) 

Salix humboldtiana (Salicaceae) 

Salix babylonica (Salicaceae) 

Salix taxifolia (Salicaceae) 

Agonandra racemosa (Opiliaceae) 

Acalypha unibracteata (Jiuphorbiaceae) 

Bixa orellana (Bixaceae) 

Curatella americana (Dilleniaceae) 

Davilla nitida (Dilleniaceae) 

Erythrina chiapasana (pabaceae) 

Erythrina goldmanii (Fabaceae) 

Bumelia obtusifolia var. buxifolia 

(Sapotaceae) 

"Aja-te'es Set" 

The "aja-te'es set" includes two generics, which are 

highland and temperate shrubs with thick, fragrant, ovateelliptic leaves and fleshy, purple fruits. 

1. Aja-te'es is a generic term delimiting two specific classes 

that are both glossy-leaved, dense shrubs of second growth 

situations. They have white or pink urn-shaped flowers and 

small, round, fleshy, edible, many-seeded, purple berries. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Aja-te'es, "lordly te'es" (-tik, -altik) (aja-te'is, k'ox 

on te', muk'ta aja-te'es), is the very common wild 

wintergreen Gaultheria odorata (6-9), a loosely 

branching shrub up to 2 m tall, which occurs in 

thickets on mountain tops or along trails in highland 

hamlets. The leaves are alternate, short-petiolate, 

broadly oblong-elliptic or oblong-ovate, rounded or 

subcordate at die base, 2.5-7.5 cm long. The flowers 

are in a terminal raceme with up to 20 pendent 

blossoms with a reddish rachis and bracts. 

Because the forest is now distant, this shrub is transplanted 

in Zinacantan Center. The plant is used to adom a patient's bed 

and is a basic ingredient of "flower water." As a remedy for 

smajben k'ak'al, a bunch of tips is crashed and mixed widi 

cold water. The patient's head is bathed and the remaining 

water is drank. The berries are eaten by shepherds. Most 

speakers consider them to be "cold." 
NUMBER 35 149 

Extended range: Clethra suaveolens, Karwinskia humboldtiana, Litsea glaucescens, Viburnum elatum. 

b. K'ox aja-te'es, "small lordly te'es," is the wild 

blueberry Vaccinium confertum (2-5). This is a 

common plant often forming thickets on windswept 

high elevation ridges. It is a dense shrub 2-3 feet tall 

with small, alternate, leathery, acute, ovate leaves, 

9-16 mm long. The flowers are about 1 cm long, white 

fading pink, and are in axillary clusters. 

It is gathered indiscriminately with wild wintergreen for 

"flower water." As a remedy for majbenal, three tips are 

crashed in warm salt water. One cup is drank. It is "cold." It is 

also an antidote for dog poisoning. As a remedy for chest pain 

(me' vinik) or anger (k'ak'al o'onil) seven or eight tips are 

crashed in cold water together with batz'i vixobtakil. A cup is 

drunk before breakfast. To relieve the effects of a hot sun, a 

handful is crushed and rubbed on one's hair while washing it. 

A poisoned dog may be given cold water in which the tips have 

been crashed, sometimes together with scarlet runner bean 

leaves. To make a refreshing drink the berries are crushed in 

cold water. For further medicinal use cf. antzil aj. 

2. Tzis uch, "opossum fart" (-tik) (axux tzis uch, tzis 

chauk*), is the bush laurel Litsea glaucescens (6-10), an 

aromatic shrub with glabrous elliptic, lanceolate, or ovate 

leaves to 8 cm long and purple, fleshy, drupaceous fruits. The 

flowers are small and greenish yellow borne in axillary clusters 

shorter than the leaves. It is a common element in the 

understory of the pine-oak forests of temperate highland 

hamlets. 

It seems that the opossum once lacked an odor. It was 

asked, "Why don't you let your presence be known, how 

come your odor doesn't spread?" 

"But how can I leave behind my odor? I haven't any 

odor. I just fart. That stinks," it said. Opossum was shown 

the laurel bush and told it was its fart. 

"Listen, bathe with that. Wherever you walk you'll have 

an odor." So the laurel was made. Wherever the opossum 

walks now it has an odor. The opossum has a rank odor 

wherever it walks. Yes! When it is killed it has a very rank 

odor. It's some animal! So the laurel was made. 

In Zinacantan Center and Sek'emtik where the forest is now 

at some distance from the habitations, these shrubs may be 

transplanted to the yard for convenience. The wood is used for 

mortar gunpowder. It is also used for firewood by com farmers 

spending the night in their temperate zone fields. The sprigs are 

a basic ingredient of "flower water" and are used to adorn a 

patient's bed and the crosses during curing ceremonies. They 

are "cold." Whoever takes a sweat bath brews a handful of the 

sprigs and bathes himself with the water. A bath of bush laurel 

water is effective in relieving the pain of fire ant stings. A 

corpse is bathed with bush laurel water. The leaves are used to 

season roast pork. For further medicinal use cf. antzil aj, ik'al 

toj. 

Extended range: Berchemia scandens, Litsea neesiana 

(though a few speakers include this in the basic range). 

"Bak Te' Set" 

The "bak te' set" has four generics, all shrubby plants with 

glossy leaves. 

1. Ajval te', "lord tree" (-tik), is Stillingia acutifolia (9-12), 

a small, dense shrub with milky sap, glossy, alternate 

lanceolate leaves 5-14 cm long, and small flowers in terminal 

spikes. The capsules are 3-lobed, 5-8 mm broad. They are very 

common in waste ground, roadsides, and second growth 

situations in the highlands. 

The trunk is used by some people for firewood, though its 

sap blisters one's skin. It is also used for slingshots. Some use 

the branches to wrap flowers for transport. To relieve warts the 

"hot" sap is applied once a day for two days. 

The tips are used in "steam cures." As a remedy for "wind" 

or poslom, a "hot" tea is taken, brewed from the tips of ajval 

te' together with those of xutax chijil te', chilkat, bik'it 

ch'a-te', muk'ta ch'a- te', ik'al te', mes te', sakil pom 

tz'unun, tzajal pom tz'unun, sakil pomos, and tzajal pomos. 

(This use is vehemently denied by one informant.) The leaves 

may be mashed and made into balls that are left around the 

house as cockroach poison. Care should be taken not to use the 

leaves for toilet paper! 

Extended range: Croton ciliatoglandulifer and Solanum 

aligerum. 

2. Bak te', "skinny tree" (-tik) (bak-julan te' bak ni' te', 

bak xul, xul, xul te', xulal na), is the clammy hopseed bush 

Dodonaea viscosa (13-17), a shrub with alternate, lanceolate, 

sticky, lustrous leaves 5-12 cm long. The flowers are small, 

yellowish, in small lateral clusters. The fruits are 1.5-2.5 cm 

wide with three papery wings, which are broad, thin and 

conspicuously veined. They are common elements in the 

shrubby second growth formation of temperate areas. 

The trunk is used for roof rods, wattle, chayote, and popapple 

arbors, and firewood. 

Extended range: Rhamnus capraeifolia var. grandifolia, 

Styrax argentum. The trunk of R. capraeifolia var. grandifolia 

is used for hoe handles. 

3. Majob ik'al, "wind beater" (majob ik'al te'), is 

Jacquinea macrocarpa (7-11), a densely branched shrub with 

thick, glossy, oblanceolate or oblong obovate spine-tipped 

leaves 3-8 cm long. The flowers are small, 8-10 mm long, and 

orange in few-flowered terminal racemes. The fruit is round, 

orange, thick-skinned, and about the size of a plum. They are 

common in the understory of tropical deciduous forests and 

occasional in second growth situations in the lowland areas. 

The trunk is used for firewood. As a remedy for "wind," 

three or four branches are used to beat the affected part until it 

bleeds. Then a rag, soaked in alcohol or turpentine, is bound 

around it. This is a "hot" remedy. 

4. Ventex mol, "elder's rosary" (-tik) (ventex, ventex 

mamal, yu mamal), is Picramnia tetramera (8-11), a shrub 

with pinnately divided leaves. The leaflets are small, thick and 

ovate 10-15 cm long. The flowers are small and dark red in 

long racemes that become pendulous in the fruit. The fruits are 

bright red, hard, marble-sized berries. It is common in the 
150 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

shrubby second growth formations of highland and temperate 

areas. 

As a remedy for "wind," a small bunch of the "hot" leaves is 

wilted before the fire and bound to the affected part. Children 

string the berries on thread to make necklaces. They also play 

marbles with them. 

Extended range: Bunchosia lanceolata. 

"Bix Set" 

The "bix set" includes seven generics, all bamboos, reeds or 

sprawling, reed-like plants. 

1. Aj* (-tik) refers to the large reeds that occur in moist areas 

and along streams in temperate and lowland areas. Tricked by 

Rabbit into believing that the popping of burning reeds was the 

skyrockets celebrating a wedding, skunk strums his guitar and 

has a hot time (Laughlin, 1977, T166). 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Antzil aj, "female aj," is Phragmites australis (4-10), 

a tall reed often occurring in large colonies. The stems 

are hard and hollow, 2-4 cm in diameter and up to 3 m 

tall. The leaves are fibrous and up to 1 cm long and 

clustered near the tops of the stems. 

Both slips and young plants are transplanted occasionally in 

many of the temperate and all of the highland communities in 

the rainy season, either in clumps or in rows. The short, thick 

stems of a clump are classified as antzil, or "sme'," "female," 

and multiply when transplanted, whereas the slender, tall stems 

are vinik or "stot," "male," and do not multiply. The former are 

used by women for shed rods. Both kinds of reeds are used for 

roof poles and wattle and may be bought for the purpose. Two 

dozen are provided by each of the Stewards of Our Lady of the 

Rosary on the eighth Posada for the construction of the creche. 

The reeds may be split and used for stewards' floral arches. 

They are also used for the framework of the petate bull and 

fireworks. For the "flower water" in which a newborn baby is 

bathed, the tips of antzil aj are brewed for a baby girl, and those 

of vinik aj are brewed for a boy. Batz'i vixobtakil and sakil 

k'os may be added. A more elaborate prescription would add to 

the reeds (1) batz'i vixobtakil, (2) wild blueberry, (3) bush 

laurel, (4) a tip of ajan toj, (5) lilac fuchsia, (6) geraniums, (7) 

six plants of krus ech', (8) three ears of highland yellow com, 

and (9) ach'el pom. These are brewed in two gourdfuls of holy 

water. The bath is "cold." A young child who fails to grow 

because his soul has been taken by an adult is bathed with water 

in which the young tips have been brewed together with those 

of bush laurel and batz'i vixobtakil. 

Extended range: Lasiacis procerrima, L. sorghoidea, and 

Pennisetum hambusiforme. 

b. Vinik aj, "male aj," is Gynerium sagittatum (2-2), a 

plant very similar in morphology, habit, and habitat to 

Phragmites, but differing in having a pithy stem, 

serrate leaves, and a distinctive villous pubescent patch 

on the stems opposite the attachment of the leaves. It 

occurs only at lower elevations and is never cultivated. 

c. Yajil ama, "flute aj" (vinik aj), is Arundo donax 

(1-1), a plant very similar in morphology, habit, and 

habitat to Phragmites, but having longer intemodes 

and a different flower structure. 

It is grown in the lower temperate communities and is used 

for flutes. 

2. Bix (-tik) refers to stout, erect, solid-stemmed bamboos, 

2-3 m tall, with numerous narrow leaves giving a feathery 

appearance. They occur in the understory of mixed oak and 

tropical deciduous forests in temperate areas. Zinacantecs are 

aware that bamboos die after flowering. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Antzil bix, "female bix," is Olmeca reflexa (1-2). It is 

characterized by hollow, green stems striped with 

purple, up to 5 m long, which occur in localized 

populations in pine-oak rain forests in the temperate 

cold country parajes. It is used by female shamans for 

their staffs. 

b. Ton bix, "hard bix," is Otatea fimbriata (2-4). It is 

characterized by purple, glaucous stems with a dense, 

hard center that attains a height of 3 m in large colonies 

in tropical deciduous forests mixed with oak in the 

temperate hamlets. 

It is said that bamboo's soul went to the afterworld, where it 

lingered for 12 years. During this time, in the recent past, 

bamboo could not be found anywhere. 

The trunk may be used for wattle. The trunk is cut by men 

and brought home to be used for loom bars and warping bar 

poles. Because it is "hot," women toss their loom bars outside 

to stop the hail. Stewards use bamboo for their banner poles. 

Male shamans use this bamboo for their staffs. Shamans are 

instructed in their initiatory dreams to take the bamboo staff to 

protect themselves from watchdogs wherever they must go on 

their curing trips. They are told to shake the staff at the dogs, 

but not to strike them, lest the dogs die. 

The versatility and power of a shaman's staff was demonstrated one night when a curing party was en route to the next 

mountain shrine and a wheel of their vehicle fell off. Their 

progress was brought to a grinding halt. Though the metal of 

the frame was too bent for the wheel to be reinserted, and 

though there were no metal tools available, the shaman was not 

to be undone. Exclaiming, "I can get a replacement for diis!" he 

crossed himself, muttered a brief prayer, and stuck his staff into 

the lip of the frame, laboriously forcing it open. After die wheel 

fell off two more times, for lack of a suitable substitute for a 

cotter pin, both ends of the staff were in splinters, but with the 

further aid of wire from a barbed-wire fence the curing party 

proceeded in triumph to the next six shrines! Cf. also xchenek' 

tzajal om. 

3. Chanib*, "four," refers to Lasiacis hispida (1-2), 

Rhipidocladum bartlettii (1-2), and R. pittieri (2-2), sprawling 

bamboos with thin, hollow canes to 8 m long and delicate, 

spreading foliage. They are locally abundant in ravines in the 

understory of tropical deciduous forests in the lower temperate 

and lowland areas. 

The dried stems are split and used by Chamulans for 

basket-making. 
NUMBER 35 151 

4. Ik'ob chij, "sheep caller" (bik'tal aj, tz'utuj jobel, yaj 

kotom, yama chij), is Lasiacis divaricata (6-9), a tall, 

delicately branched, woody, perennial grass with a diffusely 

branched inflorescence terminating in small, black seeds. It is 

very common in the understory of pine-oak and tropical 

deciduous forests, especially along ravines. It is classed as 

jobel, "grass." 

The trunk is cut into segments and perforated with a knife 

and used as a child's toy, as a sheep whistle, and a deer lure. 

The plants may be used in fences to make them impassible to 

livestock. 

5. Meno (meskero) is Pennisetum purpureum (2-5), a 

coarse perennial with woody stems to 2 m tall topped by a 

feathery inflorescence 10-20 cm long. It is very common in 

marshy flats and sandy places along streams in the temperate 

and lowland areas. It is classed as "plant" and "grass." 

It is eaten by horses. 

6. Ne kotom, "coati tail" (-tik), refers to two species of 

Chusquea. These are large, spreading, and sprawling bamboos 

mat often form dense stands or brakes in the understory of 

moist pine-oak and evergreen cloud forests in the highlands. 

The young culms have their leaves held close to the stem and 

resemble the bushy tail of a coati. 

After the Flood, when one of the survivors claimed that he 

had subsisted on yaj te' kotom fruit, this bamboo was stuck on 

his ramp and he was converted into a coati. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'ox ne kotom, "small coati tail," is Chusquea 

liebmanni (1-2), a sprawling bamboo with canes 2-3 

cm in diameter and 2-4 m long. The leaves are 

bunched closely along the entire length of the stems. It 

is very common in the understory of wet pine-oak and 

evergreen cloud forests. It often persists after the forest 

is cleared. It is classed variously as ak', "vine," and 

te', "tree." 

Extended range: Lasiacis divaricata, Olmeca reflexa, Otatea 

fimbriata, Paspalum sp., and Rhipidocladum pittieri. 

b. Muk'ta ne kotom, "large coati tail," is Chusquea 

foliosa (2-6), a giant species with almost solid canes 6 

cm in diameter and 8-15 m long. It is known only 

from a few localities near the tops of high peaks in 

evergreen cloud forest near Zinacantan Center. 

The trunk is used for loom bars and wattle. 

7. Otot (-tik, -altik) (taro), refers to the true bamboos 

Bambusa. These are tall, coarse plants with hollow stems, often 

6-15 cm in diameter and up to 20 m tall. They are commonly 

cultivated by ladinos and occasionally persist as if naturalized 

in lowland areas. 

The trunk is used for purlins, fieldhouse mainposts, and 

fence posts. It is also used by ladinos as the wattle for their 

sugar mills. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'anal otot, "yellow bamboo," is Bambusa vulgaris 

var. vittata (2-6), a variety with yellow stems. 

b. Yaxal otot, "green otot," is Bambusa vulgaris var. 

vulgaris (2-2), with dark green stems. 

"Boch Set" 

The "boch set" is a group of five generics, all lowland trees, 

often found in savannas or poor soil situations. The trees are 

short, up to 5 meters tall, have leaves that are glossy above and 

leathery, and most have large elliptic or ovoid fruits up to 20 

cm long. 

1. Boch (pisis boch te') is the cultivated calabash tree 

Crescentia cujete (2-3), characterized by its large, round gourd 

fruits often 25 cm in diameter borne on the stems. The leaves 

are short petiolate, oblanceolate, rounded at the apex, alternate 

at the base, 5-15 cm long. The flowers are white or greenish 

with dark purple veins, tubular, 4.5-7.5 cm long arising at the 

nodes on old wood. It is grown by ladinos in their yards, and by 

Zinacantecs in Kelem Ton. It also occurs in lowland savannas. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. Bats are 

known to frequent its flowers. The fruit is used for half gourds 

for serving com gruel and ceremonial gourds for serving 

coffee. It is sold at market. If a person has been struck by a car 

or severely beaten, causing his blood to collect in his heart, the 

seeds and pith are brewed and the tea drank to "sweep away" 

the blood. The same tea is taken for constipation or urinary 

stoppage. It is "hot." The person who dreams of receiving this 

gourd will become a shaman. 

2. Boch te', "boch tree" (ch'ix te' in part, krus ch'ix, k'ib 

te', limon ch'ix, potov te', poxil tanal eal, sboch pukuj. 

tzima' ch'ix), refers to the common temperate and lowland 

shrub elements Randia aculeata (9-15) and R. cinerea (3-6). 

These are spinescent shrubs with small, gourd-like fruits bome 

on the stems. The stems are divaricately branched with opposite 

small glabrous obovate leaves or large pubescent ovate leaves. 

The flowers are white, terminal and sessile. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. 

3. Chachi' is the cultivated guajilote tree Parmentiera 

aculeata (3-7), similar to Crescentia, but with spines on the 

stems. The leaves are trifoliate with broadly elliptic leaflets 

2.5-6.5 cm long. It has an elongated, fleshy, insipid, fibrous, 

sausage-shaped fruit. It is planted by ladinos for fencerows in 

lowland areas, and by Zinacantecs in their yards in the 

lowlands, in Masan, Minax, and Potovtik. The fruit matures in 

April and May. 

Under a shaman's direction the fruit is boiled or roasted and 

the seeds eaten as a remedy for whooping cough. It is "hot." 

When eaten raw, the fruit is classed variously as "hot," 

"medium," and "cold." 

4. Nantzi' (chi', nanchi') is the nance Byrsonima crassifolia 

(4-7), a very abundant lowland savanna tree, occurring also in 

some temperate areas (Bik'it Nich, Ixtapa). It is a low tree with 

glossy, green, obovate to broadly elliptic leaves 3.5-12 cm 

long and round yellow, sweet fruits about the size of a cherry. 

The flowers are yellow fading to orange, about 1 cm broad, 

arranged in a terminal raceme. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. The bark may 

be stored in the house for a year to be used as a remedy for loose 

teeth. It is chewed raw or is brewed and the "hot" tea held in the 

mouth. Nance bark tea is also a remedy for bloody dysentery. 
152 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

It has been classed as both "medium" and "cold." The fruit is 

sold at market from June to November. It is used to flavor cane 

liquor or eaten fresh. It is "hot." 

5. Tzima' (tzima, tzima' boch) is the wild calabash tree 

Crescentia alata (2-7), which occurs in lowland savannas and 

has a narrowly elliptic gourd fruit and trifoliate leaves, with 

oblanceolate leaflets and a winged petiole resembling the 

leaflets. It is a tree about 30 feet tall with a rounded or spreading 

crown. The branches are thick and the bark irregularly fissured. 

The flowers are 6-7 cm long, greenish and purple-brown with 

streaks of purple. The fruit is an elliptic gourd-like pod. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. The fruit is 

used for gourds, rattles, strainers, and whistling tops. 

To prepare gourds for rattles the end is pierced, the gourd is 

boiled, and the insides cleaned out with a stick or wire. 

"Bot Set" 

The bot set includes 11 generics, all having large, round or 

palmate leaves and most with very soft wood. 

1. Akit (-tik) is the comomon lowland tree Guazuma 

ulmifolia (5-9). This fuzzy-leaved low tree has small, oblong, 

hard, spiny fruits up to 3 cm long, with a distinct chocolate 

odor. The leaves are alternate on short, pubescent petioles. 

They are obovate, acuminate at the apex, cordate and 

asymmetric at the base. The margins are serrate. The flowers 

are small, yellowish or whitish, clustered in small, axillary, 

branched inflorescences. These are common in fencerows and 

in the understory of tropical deciduous forests. 

The trunk is used for hoe and billhook handles, for digging 

sticks, for barbed-wire fence posts, and for firewood. The bark 

is gathered and may be stored at home for as long as a year to 

be used as a remedy for diarrhea and dysentery. A handful is 

brewed and the tea drunk before breakfast and supper for three 

or four days. It is classed variously as "medium" and "hot." The 

fruits are eaten by children. Three or four fruits may be peeled 

and chewed for cough medicine. They are "hot." 

Extended range: Neopringlea viscosa, Xylosma intermedium. 

2. Be xinich te', "ant path tree" (na xinich te', te'el 

marimpa, xinich te'), is the lowland tree Cordia alliodora 

(3-7), a large, hardwooded tree with terminal clusters of 

paniculate white flowers and swellings at the nodes of the 

branchlets, which house fiercely stinging ants. The foliage 

smells like strong garlic when dried. The leaves are alternate, 

elliptic, 9-15 cm long, petiolate acute to attenuate at the apex. 

The flowers are sessile with a tubular, conspicuously striate 

calyx, about 4-7 mm long. The petals are white and 6-16 mm 

long. This tree occurs in a variety of lowland primary and 

secondary forest associations but most commonly montane rain 

forest and seasonal evergreen forest. 

The trunk is used for making marimbas, house mainposts, 

doors, com bins, lamp stands, chairs, table legs, coffers, 

crosses, gunstocks, slingshots, gates, fence posts, hoe handles, 

and digging sticks. 

3. Bot refers to two soft-wooded low elevation trees with 

large, thin, gray, soft pubescent, cordate leaves. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Bot (-tik) (bot ak', tz'am-te'al na) refers to Heliocarpus donnell-smithii (5-11) and H. mexicanus (1-1), 

common second growth and tropical deciduous forest 

trees of the lowlands. They have large, alternate thin, 

heart-shaped leaves, palmately veined from the base, 

very soft wood, and bark that is fibrous and leathery. 

The flowers are yellow or cream-colored, small, and in 

terminal or axillary branched inflorescences. The fruit 

is sessile or petiolate, ellipsoid 6-7 mm long graypubescent with a fringe of long hairs around its 

margins. They are also planted by ladinos as coffee 

shade trees and grown in X'ukun. 

The trunk is used for roof rods and purlins of houses and for 

rafters and roof poles of fieldhouses. The bark is used to bind 

thatch and to lash roof poles, wattle, and fences. 

b. Ch'ich' bot, "blood bot," is Croton draco (1-1), a tree 

whose sap turns red. The leaves are alternate, 

heart-shaped, 12 cm long or less, with an acuminate 

apex, densely pubescent below. The upper leaf 

surfaces, stems and petioles are pubescent with a 

granular appearance to the hairs. The flowers are small, 

arranged in an elongate raceme. The fruit develops into 

a 3-lobed, globose, pubescent capsule 7-8 mm long. 

The three seeds are gray or brown, dull and roughened, 

about 6 mm long. It occurs in fencerows and second 

growth and tropical deciduous forest of the lowlands. 

4. Choch is a generic with two specific segregates, bodi 

lowland dogbane trees with showy yellow flowers and large, 

bilocular fruits. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Bik'it choch, "small choch" (bik'it choch te'), refers 

to Stemmadenia eubracteata (1-1) and S. obovata 

(5-10). These are small trees with opposite obovate 

leaves, 6-20 cm long, acute at the apex and attenuate 

at the base. The flowers are 7-8 cm long and die 

2-celled ovary develops into two diverging large, diick 

follicles. These occur in the understory of tropical 

deciduous forest. 

It is used for firewood. 

b. Choch (choch te', muk'ta choch te', pojov choch) 

refers to Thevetia ovata (3-13) and T plumeriaefolia 

(3-5). These may be small trees or shrubs with milky 

sap. The leaves are alternate, oblanceolate, rounded at 

the apex with the secondary veins almost perpendicular to the midvein. The flowers are yellow, tubular, 

expanding into five lobes 2.5-6 cm long. The fruit is 

broader than long, 3-5 cm broad. Common in 

fencerows and second growth. 

The trunk is gathered by boys or by their fathers for 

slingshots. The trunk is also used for firewood. As a 

preventative or remedy for whooping cough, eight to ten fruits 

are strung on a necklace and worn by young children. Young 

children may also wear them as a protection against evil eye. 

They are "medium." For toothache the seed is crushed and a 
NUMBER 35 153 

very small amount is held against the tooth. The pain is eased 

immediately, but the tooth will fall out a month later. If too 

much is put in the mouth the person risks losing all his teeth. It 

is reputed to be poisonous. It is "very hot." 

Extended range: Thevetia peruviana. 

5. Ch'ilim te', "powdery tree" (kokov te'), is the lowland 

tree Hymenaea courbaril (3-3), which occurs along streams in 

seasonal evergreen and tropical deciduous forest. It is a large, 

hard-wooded tree with glossy leaves, pinnately divided into 

two sessile, inequilateral leaflets, 4-9 cm long and a thick 

woody legume pod about 11 cm long 4 cm wide with the seeds 

imbedded in a yellow edible powdery pulp. The flowers are 

white about 1.5-2 cm long bome in densely flowered panicles. 

The pods are sold by ladinos at market in San Cristobal and 

Tuxtla from January to May. The sweet, yellow powder that 

surrounds the seed is licked. It is "cold." 

6. Mail te', "watermelon squash tree," is Pseudobombax 

ellipticum (3-6), a lowland tree up to 15 m tall with large 

palmately lobed leaves, with broadly elliptic leaflets, rounded 

at the apex, 9-15 cm long, soft wood, and large, pendent, 

squash-shaped fruits, 10-15 cm long. The flowers are white or 

in some instances bright pink, large, and showy arising on stout 

branches devoid of leaves. The calyx is cup-shaped, 10-15 mm 

long. The petals are about 5-9 cm long, linear or oblong, 

pubescent. The stamens are numerous, and longer than the 

petals. It is common in tropical deciduous forest along streams. 

Extended range: Gyrocarpus americanus. 

7. Putzkuy (-tik) (xam-pelipe te') is Cochlospermum 

vitifolium (3-4), a showy, yellow-flowered, soft-wooded tree 

of tropical deciduous second growth forests of lowland areas. It 

has large, palmately lobed leaves, with elliptic lobes. The 

flowers have five oblong-obovate petals, 4.5-5.5 cm long, 

about 4 cm wide, with an emarginate apex. The stamens are 

numerous, shorter than the petals with large, linear, curved 

anthers about 5 mm long. The fruit is about 4.5 cm long, ovoid 

and velvety, gray-pubescent. Branches are planted in X'ukun in 

the dry season to make living fences. 

The trunk is placed around the base of the threshing platform 

to keep the com from scattering. Farmers also fashion the trunk 

into log stools for their lowland fieldhouses. 

8. Sal-te' "scaly tree" (-tik) refers to two lowland, scaly, 

red-barked trees. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil sal-te', "white scaly tree" (pinyon), is Jatropha 

curcas (3-4), a tree commonly used by ladinos in 

lowland areas as a living fence post. The wood is soft 

and has a thick clear sap. The leaves are alternate, 

heart-shaped, palmately veined, pubescent, about 

7-16 cm long, on long petioles. The flowers are small, 

greenish yellow, or white in a dichotomously branched 

inflorescence, shorter than the leaves. The capsules are 

ellipsoid 2.5-4 cm long. 

To relieve a cough the bark is brewed. The tea is "hot." 

b. Tzajal sal-te', "red scaly tree" (muk'ta sal-te'), is the 

gumbolimbo Bursera simaruba (5-9), a striking, 

red-barked tree, up to 20 m tall, common in the 

lowland forests, and occasionally planted in some 

temperate locations. The wood is soft and the sap 

produces and aromatic resin. The leaves are pinnately 

divided with 5-7 pairs of elliptic leaflets, which are 

glabrous, asymmetric at the base, apiculate at the apex, 

and 5.5-11 cm long. The flowers are 3-parted, 

fragrant, greenish yellow in short panicles, shorter than 

the leaves. The fruit is a 3-valved, black, ovoid 

capsule, 6-10 mm long containing 1-3-angled seed. 

In Jok' Ch'enom, when the leaves fall in the dry 

season, the branches are cut off and planted in living 

fences. 

For loose teeth, three chips of bark are chewed. They are 

"hot." As a remedy for "white" dysentery, four chips are 

brewed. A bowl of the "hot" tea is drank before breakfast for 

three days. The same tea may be taken for a cough. For bloody 

dysentery the chips are pounded and soaked in cold water, 

sometimes together with akit bark. The infusion is "cold." 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan reported that this tree was 

used to lower "burning fever" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

Extended range: Trichilia hirta, T. martiana, and Zanthoxylum mayanum. Trichilia martiana is used for fence posts and 

firewood. 

9. Saya-vun, "saya paper" (makum saya-Hun*, salya-vun, 

saya-Hun*), is the wild mulberry Morus celtidifolia (3-5). It 

has large, hispid, palmately veined leaves 3-lobed or entire and 

hard, red wood. This temperate tree, now scarce, was once a 

common component of montane forests and pine-oak forest. 

The leaves are alternate, with serrate margins 3.5-18 cm long. 

The flowers are inconspicuous, monecious in spikes 1-2 cm 

long. The fruit is juicy and red or black and superficially similar 

to a blackberry. 

The heartwood is used for house posts. The trunk is also used 

for fiddle bows and ax handles. Although silkworms are 

mentioned in an early colonial manuscript from Zinacantan, 

nothing of their culture persists to today (Diccionario en 

Lengua Sotzil). This tree, whose name is included in the 

colonial dictionary as saya-Hun and makum saya-Hun, could 

have been the host, though reference is also made to an 

introduced form, castillan saya-Hun. The fruit is eaten. 

Extended range: Goya minutiflora, Onoseris onoseroides. 

10. Tux-nuk' te', "cotton tree," is the lowland tree Luehea 

Candida (6-11), characterized by large, coarsely pubescent 

leaves 10-20 cm long, showy white and yellow flowers 

4.5-5.5 cm long and a large, ribbed follicle 5-6 cm long whose 

shape is reminiscent of the fruit of Abelmoschus (Spanish 

cotton). 

The trunk is used for the mainposts and roof rods of 

fieldhouses, for the sides of the com threshing platform, for 

fence posts and rails, for hoe and billhook handles, digging 

sticks, flails, and slingshots. It is used by ladinos for plow 

handles, cotton flails, and cattle corrals. The branches are used 

for brush fences. 

11. Xinal te', "stinky tree" (soro te', tuil te', xam-pilpe te'), 

is Gyrocarpus americanus (5-9). This is a small or mediumsized tree or shrub with smooth whitish bark. The leaves are 
154 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

large, palmately lobed, on long petioles. The flowers are small 

and greenish in tight clusters at the ends of a terminal branched 

umbel-like inflorescences, which are produced when the tree is 

leafless. The fruits are ellipsoid, velvety pubescent, about 2 cm 

long with two apical linear-spatulate wings, 5-8 cm long. It is 

a common component of the tropical deciduous forest in the 

lowlands. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. For the 

"steam cure" in the lowlands, the leaves of this tree may be 

combined with tobacco, garlic, and chili. To relieve "wind" the 

leaves may be brewed or crashed in cold water, providing a 

"hot" potion. The liquid is also used to bathe the patient. For a 

person suffering the effects of "evil eye" or a swollen belly the 

tips may be used as a substitute for elderberry to "sweep away" 

the sickness, massaging the belly downwards. 

"Chalon Set" 

The "chalon set" consists of two generics, both legumes of 

the genus Inga. They have large, pinnately divided leaves and 

ribbed, elongate pods with large seeds surrounded by a pulpy 

white, sweet aril. 

1. Chalon refers to Inga vera ssp. spuria (3-6), and /. 

xalapensis (1-2). These species have pubescent, pinnately 

divided leaves with narrowly elliptic to broadly oblong leaflets. 

The rachis of the leaf is prominently winged. The flowers are 

white, 13-25 mm long, with long exerted stamens. The pods 

are pubescent, somewhat terete, and strongly ribbed. They are 

also commonly used by ladinos as coffee shade trees and are 

common elements of the lowland and temperate forests, 

especially along streams. 

It is planted in the lower temperate hamlets. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse mainposts, fence posts, and 

firewood. The "cold" fruit matures in June. 

2. Tz'erel (f erel te', tz'elel te') refers to Inga fagifolia 

(1-2), /. jinicuil (1-2), and /. punctata (1-2). These species 

have glabrous, elliptic leaflets 5-18 cm long, and the rachis of 

the leaf is not winged. The flowers are small, about 5-7 mm 

long, white with long exerted stamens, borne in lateral spikes. 

The pods are glabrous, oblong, and somewhat flattened. It 

occurs along streams or on shady slopes and is an element of 

seasonal evergreen forest in temperate and lowland regions. 

They are commonly used by ladinos as coffee shade trees, but 

rarely so by Zinacantecs who plant it only in Sak Lum. 

The trunk is used for firewood. The fruit is eaten. 

Extended range: Senna cobanensis. 

"Chijil Te' Set" 

The "chijil te' set" is a diverse grouping of 13 generics. 

These are all shrubs or small trees with small, fleshy fruits and 

dark green leaves. 

1. Chijil te', "striped tree" (-tik, -altik), refers to the 

elderberries Sambucus. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i chijil te', "genuine striped tree," is the low and 

middle elevation species Sambucus mexicana (9-10), 

a soft-wooded shrub with pithy, almost hollow stems 

and large, pinnately divided leaves. The leaflets are 

sessile, the lowest ones frequently trifoliate, narrowly 

ovate, oblanceolate or elliptic, 3.5-9 cm long, serrate. 

The small white flowers are 5-7 mm in diameter and 

borne in a flat-topped, branched inflorescence. The 

fruit is a purple, fleshy, one-seeded berry in dense 

terminal clusters. The seeds are sharply angled and, 

although the pulp is sweet, damage can result to the 

intestinal tract if the seeds are ingested. 

It is grown in all but one of the temperate and all of the 

highland communities. It occurs in the wild in second growth in 

the temperate and some highland hamlets. 

Slips may be planted for fencerows at any time of die year. 

The '/2-1 m slips have had the terminal end removed. The 

basal end is sometimes cut to a point. Because many of die slips 

die, some Zinacantecs plant them very close together; others 

plant them a handspan apart. They may be planted between die 

posts of barbed-wire fences. The trunk is used for scarlet runner 

bean poles and to support pole beans that have sprang up 

outside the com field. Children ride elderberry "bulls" and also 

use the stem for popguns to shoot out wild clover root pellets. 

Women who are too lazy to go to the woods gather elderberry 

for firewood. 

As a remedy for a child suffering the effects of "evil eye," the 

shaman sprays three tips with a salty infusion of poxil apon 

and "sweeps" the child's body with the tips. The "cold" 

infusion is also drank. Alternatively, 12 tips are divided into 

three bunches of four tips each, or 13 tips are distributed so diat 

the middle bunch receives five tips. The same cure may be used 

by an adult for depression (ti'ol). Elderberry tips are used in die 

"steam cure." A person suffering from the heat of majbenal 

takes an infusion in which three tips have been crashed with 

fennel in cold salt water. A simple infusion of six tips crashed 

in cold water is taken for stomachache and may also be given 

to chickens suffering from cough and blackening combs. It 

serves also as an antidote for dog poison. Elderberry flowers are 

ingredients in two "hot" teas for relieving coughs. In the first, 

three flowers are brewed with orange rind and marigold (kelem 

vo'tus) flowers. A small cup is drank before breakfast for three 

days. In the second, one flower is brewed widi six red hawthorn 

fruits. For further medicinal use cf. mes te'. The flowers are 

strewn on the path of the Christ Child on Christmas Eve in 

Atz'am. The leaves, flowers, and berries are fed to sheep in the 

meadows. Birds eat the berries. For further use cf. tilil. 

b. Xutax chijil te', "judas striped tree" (tuil chijil te'), is 

the high-elevation Sambucus canadensis. It is very 

similar to S. mexicana, but with larger leaflets, an 

obtuse or rounded leaf base rather than an acute or 

wedge-shaped base as in 5. mexicana, and more 

closely serrate leaf margins. Some speakers segregate 

two varieties of this plant based on the stem color: 

sakil, "white," and ik'al, "black." 

It is grown and occurs naturally on disturbed moist slopes in 
NUMBER 35 155 

most of the temperate and all but two of the highland 

communities. This species of elderberry has many of the same 

uses as the preceding one, but the trunk may be used for 

household crosses as it is so "strong-hearted" that witches 

cannot enter the yard. It is not used as above to treat chickens 

and dogs. In treating "evil eye" this species is considered to be 

more effective, especially if the tips are from the dark-stemmed 

variety. The leaves are also used for bone breaks. 

Judas' cigarette is called "syol chijil te'," "elderberry heart," 

diough it is made of com stubble. 

2. Chix te'* (-tik), "chix tree," refers to black cherries. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i chix te', "genuine chix tree" (chich te', 

kapulin, lo'balal chix te'), is the form of black cherry, 

Prunus serotina (6-8), native to the mountains around 

Mexico City and introduced into the Chiapas highlands some time after the Conquest, where it now 

occurs as an element of pine-oak forest near major 

populations. It is a large tree to 40 feet tall with dark 

bark and thin, elliptic to ovate-lanceolate leaves, about 

5-2 cm long, acuminate at the apex, rounded at the 

base, with serrulate margins. The flowers are small and 

white about 10 mm broad, borne in long terminal or 

lateral racemes. The fruit is large and sweet. Occasionally saplings are transplanted. 

In 1797 this was reported by the priest of Zinacantan to be 

the commonest fruit tree in the people's yards (de Leon y 

Goicoechea, 1797). 

The trunk is used for fence posts, hoe handles, and digging 

sticks. The heartwood is used for gunstocks, ax handles, the 

sides of guitars and fiddles, fiddle scrolls, fiddle bows, and 

warping bars. Because of its lightness it is chosen for the 

bobbins of woollen cloth looms. Although some use it for 

house posts, others claim that it "bites" and will not allow 

children raised in the house to reach maturity. If cherry wood is 

placed on the fire, its smoke will kill one's chickens. Cherry 

switches are considered to be the best for horses. As a remedy 

for bloody dysentery, three chips of the inner bark together with 

three chips of the inner bark of a peach tree are brewed. The tea 

is set to cool and a shot glassful is drank before breakfast and 

at bedtime. This very bitter tea may be sweetened with refined 

sugar. It is "cold." 

The tips may be used together with elderberry to "sweep 

away wind." They are used for the "steam cure." The leaves 

may be fatal to sheep, causing them to grow progressively 

thinner. The fruit is eaten by people and birds. It ripens from 

April through June and is sold at market in San Cristobal. It is 

generally classed as "cold." 

b. Chix te' mut, "bird's chix tree" (tzajal chix te'), refers 

to the wild members of the same species Prunus 

serotina (4-5), which differ from the above only by the 

small, sour fruit. 

It seems that man's mistreatment of this tree is the reason for 

its sour fruits (Laughlin, 1977, T36). Although the fruits are not 

eaten by people, the other uses are identical to those of the 

sweet-fruited variety. 

Extended range: Prunus barbata. 

3. Ch'it refers to lowland and temperate shrubs with glossy, 

green leaves and small, red or white, insipid fruits. 

Specifics: 6. 

a. Jich'il anal ch'it, "narrow-leaved ch'it," refers to 

Diospyros nicaraguensis (1-1) and Wimmeria acuminata (1-1). These are medium-sized trees with very 

dense, hard wood 30-50 feet tall with thin green 

alternate elliptic leaves and small white or greenish 

yellow flowers. The fruit is winged in Wimmeria and a 

small fleshy drape in Diospyros. They occur in tropical 

deciduous forest of the lowlands. 

b. Muk'ta tzajal ch'it, "large, red ch'it," refers to 

Chrysophyllum cainito (1-1) and C. mexicanum 

(1-1). These are large trees, 20-40 feet tall with 

alternate, elliptic, coriaceous leaves. The secondary 

veins are parallel and very closely spaced. The flowers 

are small, white or yellow, in axillary clusters. The 

fruit is a berry, green maturing purple-black, 5-8 cm 

or more long in C. cainito and 1-2 cm long in C. 

mexicanum. It occurs as an understory tree in tropical 

deciduous and seasonal evergreen forests of the 

lowlands. 

c. Sakil ch'it, "white ch'it" (ch'it te'), refers to the brash 

cherries Eugenia acapulcensis (3-3), E. amatenangensis (1-2), E. carranzae (2-7), and£. laughlinii 

(3-5). These are all dense shrubs with smooth, white 

bark and small, red, sweet fruits. The leaves are 

ovate-elliptic, 2-4 cm long, glossy green and opposite. 

The wood is hard, fine-grained, and white with a 

surface that turns red when fired. They occur in second 

growth and along streams in temperate and lowland 

regions. 

The trunk is used for ax, billhook, and hoe handles, digging 

sticks, loom bars, fence rails, and fieldhouse mainposts. 

Extended range: Cestrum aurantiacum. 

d. Tzajal ch'it, "red ch'it" (bik'tal anal te'), refers to 

Ardisia escallonioides (2-1) and Schoepfia vacciniiflora (3-4), shrubs superficially very similar to 

the Eugenias, but differing in having alternate leaves, 

red stems, and the fruits in racemes rather than clusters. 

The wood of these shrubs is brittle. 

The range and habitat are the same as those of sakil ch'it. 

e. Tzotzin ch'it, "downy ch'it," is Eugenia yunkeri 

(3-5). It is a densely branched evergreen tree to 30 feet 

tall, with opposite, leathery, elliptic leaves, 4-6 cm 

long and velvety-pubescent beneath. There are axillary 

clusters of white flowers and purple fleshy berries to 2 

cm long. It occurs as an understory element of seasonal 

evergreen and tropical deciduous forest of lowland and 

temperate areas. The trunk is used for ax handles. 

f. Yaxal ch'it, "green ch'it," is the dark, green-leaved 

lowland shrub Xylosma intermedium (2-2). The stems 

are armed with thorns or unarmed. The leaves are 

alternate ovate or ovate-elliptic. The flowers are very 

small and white in axillary clusters. The fruit is a 
156 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

subglobose berry, reddish black and about 4-5 mm in 

diameter. 

The trunk is used for hoe and ax handles, spindles, fence 

posts, and firewood. 

4. Ch'ix ak', "spiny vine" (chi ak', chix te' ak', ch'ix te', 

lo'bol jti'-sip, nantzi bejuko), is the hackberry Celtis 

iguanaea (3-5). It is a lowland vine-like shrub sprawling over 

trees and establishing thickets especially along small water 

courses. The wood is very hard and the branches have thick 

spines. The orange, pea-sized fruits are delightfully sweet. The 

leaves are alternate, very rough-pubescent, broadly elliptic to 

broadly obovate, 4-11 cm long, rounded to acute at the apex, 

rounded at the base. The veins are prominent and light-colored 

beneath, with three to five major palmate veins arising from the 

base of the leaf. Zinacantecs class this shrub as "vine." 

The bark is used for house lashing. The fruits are "hot." 

Extended range: Mimosa pigra. 

5. Ik'al te', "black tree" (muk'ta ch'it, muk'ta ik'al te'), 

refers to the temperate and lowland trees Bourreria huanita 

(1-2) and Ehretia latifolia (4-8). These are small trees with 

brittle wood and glossy elliptic or broadly elliptic leaves that 

blacken when they dry. Ehretia latifolia has clusters of round, 

white fruits that have hard-angled, stone-like seeds surrounded 

by insipid pulp. They are about 13 mm long. Bourreria huanita 

has larger, darker, ovoid fruits about 18 mm broad. 

Ehretia latifolia is used as a coffee shade tree in Jok' 

Ch'enom. When these trees occur in fields planted to com they 

are left undisturbed, lest wind, ik', destroy the crop. The wood 

is used for brash fences. The fruit of E. latifolia is eaten by 

children. 

Extended range: Coccoloba mayana, Hippocratia volubilis. 

6. Ik'al vinik, "black man" (ik'al te', k'ox ik'al te'), is the 

temperate and highland second growth shrub Garrya laurifolia 

(8-10), a plant with brittle wood and dark-green elliptic leaves 

8-12 cm long that blacken when they dry. The fruits are round, 

black, 8-10 mm broad and arranged on terminal racemes. 

The trunk is used for roof poles, wattle, and firewood, though 

some say that the smoke will be fatal to one's chickens and will 

turn people black and kill them. Use of the wood for hoe 

handles, etc., is also said to have fatal consequences. For 

medicinal use cf. tzelo-pat. 

Extended range: Tournefortia densiflora. 

1. Makulixkuat (chix te' ak', chix te' mut, kapulin ak') is 

the Jamaica cherry Muntingia calabura (6-14), a common tree 

in secondary growth and tropical deciduous forest of the 

lowlands, with solitary, white flowers borne in the axils of the 

leaves, 2-2.5 cm broad soft, pubescent oblong-lanceolate leaves 

6-14 cm long, and a sweet, red, cherry-like fruit. 

The trunk is used for wattle and firewood. The bark is used 

to lash fieldhouses, houses with wooden walls, and fences. The 

fruit is eaten by people and iguanas. It is classed variously as 

"hot" and "cold." 

8. Nampivo is Ehretia tinifolia (1-2), a tree cultivated by 

ladinos in the lowlands, in fencerows, and as a street tree. The 

leaves are alternate, elliptic to obovate 4-13 cm long, rounded 

or acute at the apex, acute at the base. The flowers are small, 

white arranged in long terminal panicles. The fruits are white, 

edible, fleshy, sweet drapes. 

9. Paxamum (paxamun) refers to glossy-leaved trees with 

medium-sized, fleshy, sweet fruits. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i paxamum, "genuine paxamum," is Malpighia 

mexicana (1-2), a small tree commonly cultivated by 

lowland ladinos. It has opposite, ovate or oblong-ovate 

leaves that are softly pubescent beneath, 4.5-12 cm 

long. The flowers are small in axillary, short, branched 

inflorescences, much shorter than the leaves. The fruit 

is fleshy, ovoid, 12-18 mm broad. 

The sweet, red fruit is sold on the street in Tuxtla. It is "cold." 

b. Muk'ta paxamum, "large paxamum" (paxamum te', 

sakil ik'al te'), applies to the temperate and highland 

trees Symplocos limoncillo (2-3) and S. vernicosa 

(3-4). These are glossy, dark- green leaved trees with 

elliptic, single-seeded fruits with a thin, purple, fleshy 

covering. The flowers are pink or white, 5-merous, 

about 8-10 mm long, bome in a few-flowered raceme. 

The wood is hard, red, and fine-grained. These trees 

occur in steep ravines with evergreen cloud and 

montane rain forests. 

The trunk is used for hoe and billhook handles, digging 

sticks, and fence posts. The fruit is eaten. 

Extended range: Ardisia escallonioides, Croton guatemalensis, Rhamnus sp., and Viburnum elatum. 

10. Treno (ik'al te', preno te', sak-nich te') is the 

cultivated highland tree Ligustrum lucidum (1-4), characterized by dark-green, broadly ovate to ovate oblong leaves 

acuminate at the apex, rounded at the base, and terminal 

clusters of small, white flowers. The fruit is bluish black, ovoid, 

6-8 mm long. In Zinacantan its occurrence is restricted to one 

large tree in the courtyard of the Church of St. Lawrence. It is 

commonly planted elsewhere in the highlands of Chiapas. 

Before the kiosk was built in 1946, the musicians used to play 

under this tree. 

11. Vax te', "vax tree" (chix te' ak', nukul pat te', tzajal 

ak', vax, vax ak'), is the common temperate and lowland 

Mexican hackberry bush Trema micrantha (11-16). It is a 

small tree with hispid leaves and small, orange fruit. The leaves 

are alternate, short-petiolate, 6-15 cm long, acute to acuminate, rounded or subcordate at the base. The flowers are very 

small, greenish or yellowish in small dense axillary clusters. 

The leathery bark is split into strips and used for lashing 

fieldhouses and houses with wooden walls. The leaves are 

thought to be poisonous to eat. 

12. Yak' jnibak, "Ixtapanec's vine" (nukul te'), is 

Daphnopsis americana (3-4), a lower temperate and lowland 

tree to 5 m tall with glossy, lanceolate leaves 5-15 cm long and 

small clusters of green fruits about 1 cm long. The flowers are 

small, in terminal umbellate inflorescences. The bark strips into 

strong leather-like pieces, and is used by Ixtapanecs for house 

lashing. It occurs in seasonal evergreen and tropical deciduous 

forests and along the rocky margins of savannas near Ixtapa, 

and can occur in almost pure stands. 
NUMBER 35 

13. Yisim bolom, "jaguar whiskers" (ch'ix bolom), refers to 

the sparsely-branched, temperate shrubs Xylosma flexuosum 

(4-4), X. intermedium (1-1), and the highland shrub X. 

quichense (2-3). These plants flower on the stem. They have 

reduced petals and very showy, long stamens giving the 

appearance of a bush covered with long, reddish yellow hair. 

The fruit is red and single seeded. 

"Chilkat Set" 

The "chilkat set" is a grouping of eight generics referring to 

stiffly branched shrubs in the daisy family. They all have 

terminal clusters of small, variously colored flowers. 

1. Arsyal te', "whip tree," is Baccharis trinervis (1-1), a 

sprawling shrub with stems up to 4 m long of second growth in 

die temperate region especially common along ravines. It has 

glabrous leaves and terminal clusters of white flowers arranged 

in dense heads. The leaves are alternate, short-petiolate ovate to 

narrowly elliptic 4-8 cm long, conspicuously 3-nerved from 

die base. The stems grow long and straight from the sprawling 

clump of the main plant each year. 

The stems are cut for horse whips. 

2. Chilkat (-tik) refers to three willow-leaved shrubs. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i chilkat, "genuine chilkat" (chilkan), is the 

highland shrub Senecio salignus (8-13), a densely 

branched, yellow-flowered, willow-leaved plant with 

large, dense terminal clusters of yellow composite 

flowers with heads 7-10 mm broad. This is a very 

common shrub of second growth and fencerows of the 

highland hamlets. It flowers in April-May making a 

very showy display. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan mentions chilca as one of 

the trees that provided shade in the arroyos (de Leon y 

Goicoecha, 1797). 

The trunk is used for firewood. To relieve the pain of an 

embedded thom, the leaves are burned and used as an overnight 

poultice. A "hot" tea made from the leaves is a remedy for 

postpartum hemonhaging. The leaves or flowers are put in bags 

of beans to kill weevils, but they are reported by many to be 

ineffectual. The flowers are known to cause hay fever. A small 

basket of chilkat flowers is provided by each steward for the 

fourth Lenten Friday and for Tuesday of Holy Week. The 

cantors and stewards of the Holy Cross each provide a basket 

for Good Friday. The flowers are strewn on the processional 

path. They are used also in Naben Chauk on the fourth Lenten 

Friday, in Apas for the sixth Lenten Friday, and in Chak Toj for 

Good Friday. 

b. K'ox chilkat, "small chilkat" (chilkat), is Baccharis 

glutinosa (2-4). For temperate-dwelling speakers this 

is the local chilkat. Shrubs or small trees with short 

petiolate or subsessile narrowly linear leaves with 

three prominent veins. They are attenuate at both the 

apex and the base and are about 5-12 cm long, 3-15 

mm wide. The flowers are dirty white to yellowish and 

157 

in large terminal clusters. It is a common shrub along 

dry ravines in temperate hamlets. 

The trunk is used for chayote and popapple arbors. 

c. Te'tikal chilkat, "wild chilkat," is Trixis inula (1-1), 

an erect, much-branched shrub with alternate, subsessile, elliptic leaves, 3-10 cm long. The flowers are 

yellow composite flowers in heads about 1.5 cm long 

bome in large leafy panicles. It occurs in the second 

growth of temperate and lowland regions. 

3. Ch'a-te' (-tik), "bitter tree," refers to softwooded shrubs 

of the tribe Eupatoriae in the Compositae (daisy) family, which 

are common in second growth and as an understory of pine-oak 

and evergreen cloud forest. They all have terminal clusters of 

small heads of flowers, which are tipped with feathery pappus 

in fruit. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Bik'it ch'a-te', "small bitter tree" (ch'a-te' ka'), refers 

to Ageratina bustamenta (1-1), A. ligustrina (1-4), A. 

mairetiana (2-4), A. pringlei (1-1), Chromolaena 

collina (1-2), Pachythamnus crassirameus (1-1), 

Stevia ovata, S. polycephala (1-3), and 5. serrata 

(1-1). These are shubs from 3-15 feet tall with 

opposite, ovate or elliptic leaves, 3-12 cm long with 

acute apices. The flowers are white or pink and 

arranged in lateral and terminal clusters. Ageratina 

ligustrina is an extremely variable species, and some of 

the most divergent elements are included in this 

grouping. These occur in second growth and the 

understory of pine-oak forest of the temperate and 

highland hamlets. 

Although these shrubs may be used as mordants, they are 

considered to be less effective than Ageratina ligustrina. A 

"cold" tea of S. ovata is drank to reduce fever. Sheep avoid 

eating S. serrata. Its leaves are ground into a powder to stanch 

a cut. 

b. Muk'ta ch'a-te', "large bitter tree" (pom ch'a-te'), is 

the common highland shrub Ageratina ligustrina 

(7-10). It occurs in second growth and in the 

understory of pine-oak and evergreen cloud forest. It is 

a soft-wooded shrub with lustrous, elliptic, irregularly 

toothed, leaves 5-10 cm long, and terminal clusters of 

white to pink flowers often covering the entire shrub. 

A bundle of stalks and leaves is gathered by women and 

boiled two or three times with black earth and wool. It acts as 

a mordant for dyeing the wool for robes, ceremonial robes, 

skirts, and ceremonial huipils. Thirteen tips are used in the 

"steam cure." 

4. Ch'a-te' pox, "bitter tree medicine" (nap'ap' poxil ik', 

poxil ik', tz'akob-bail, tz'akob-bail pox), is Stevia lucida 

(4-6), a highland shrub very similar to ch'a-te'. It has lavender 

flowers in heads about 12 mm long, 2 mm broad, bome in large 

terminal panicles and waxy-glutinous leaves, which are 

opposite, narrowly lanceolate to lance-ovate, 3-14 cm long. It 

occurs along paths and roadbanks in the understory of pine-oak 

forests. 

As a remedy for "wind" the shaman cuts a bunch of sprigs 
158 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

and beats the patient's body with them once a day for four days. 

They are "hot." The "hot," young leaves are used for a bone 

break. 

5. Ch'ail pox, "bitter medicine" (tik) (ch'a-te' te', ch'a-te' 

tz'i'lel, pox jnibak, spox jnibak), is the lowland and 

temperate shrub Calea urticifolia (5-7), characterized by 

narrow, scabrous leaves 4-12 cm long and terminal clusters of 

small yellow flowers. It is classed variously as "tree," and 

"plant." It occurs in second growth and waste ground. 

Because of its medicinal use this plant may be stored dry for 

as long as a year. The parents of a child who indulges in temper 

tantrums may gather the tips and crash them in cold water. The 

child is forced to drink a cup of the infusion so that he will 

vomit his anger. This same infusion may be taken by adults for 

malaria and stomachache (sikil ik'). Alternatively the tips may 

be brewed, but after the patient drinks the "hot" tea he must not 

drink cold water for as many days as the shaman prescribes. 

The tips may be boiled and the "hot" water used to bathe a 

person suffering from diarrhea. To reduce swelling a "hot" tea 

is made from a small bunch of this plant together with similar 

amounts of wild basil and k'ox yax-chel. One cup is drank 

before breakfast for as many days as necessary. For further 

medicinal use cf. vako' ak'. 

Extended range: Baccharis serraefolia, Calea ternifolia. 

6. Mes te', "broom tree" (-tik), is the Mexican broom brush, 

Baccharis vaccinioides (8-10), a large shrub up to 6 m tall, 

with small, thick leaves. The flowers are white in terminal 

clusters of heads, and the shrubs are unisexual. These are 

common, often forming dense stands, in disturbed areas such as 

roadsides, fallow fields, or pastures throughout the highland 

area. 

The trunk is used for bean poles and firewood. The branches 

are used to wrap bundles of flowers for transport. They are used 

occasionally for brooms. To transfer "wind" from a patient's 

body to another person, branches are rubbed on his body and 

left on a trail. The shaman may also use elderbery and pine tips, 

placing the mes te' on the bottom of the pile and the pine on the 

top. A horse suffering "wind" is given cane liquor to drink and 

its belly is struck with the branches. A sheep suffering the same 

malady is stretched out by two people and its belly struck 

similarly. A person suffering "wind" takes a "hot" tea brewed 

with 6-9 tips. Thirteen slivers of pine may be added to this tea. 

When a woman misses her period she may place seven tips 

upside down in a pot and brew them for a "hot" tea. The tips are 

used in the "steam cure." For further medicinal use cf. 

chan-tzelav tzelo-pat, k'an-ak'. 

7. Poxil ik', "wind medicine" (nap'ap' tz'i'lel, tz'akobbail, tz'akob-bail pox), refers to Stevia lucida (2-5) and S. 

polycephala (3-6), delicately branched shrubs with terminal, 

flat-topped clusters of white composite flowers. The leaves are 

opposite, short petiolate, ovate to elliptic, 4-12 cm long, with 

serrate margins. It is common in the grassy understory of 

pine-oak forests in the highlands. Zinacantecs classify this 

plant variously as tz'i'lel, "plant" and te', "tree." It is 

subdivided into two varieties. The first, sme', "female," refers 

to S. lucida (cf. ch'a-te' pox), plants with wider leaves whose 

underside is sticky to the touch. The second is stot, "male," the 

plants with narrower, whiter, smoother leaves of 5. polycephala. 

As a remedy for "wind," five tips are brewed. A large cup of 

the "hot" tea is drank before breakfast for two days. Or a bunch 

of the tips is boiled and the "hot" water used to bathe the 

affected part once daily for three days. To mend a bone break 

the bonesetter uses three handful s of young leaves, preferably 

of the "female" variety. 

8. Poxil tza'nel, "diarrhea medicine" (bak tz'i'lel, ch'ix 

pox, sakil mes te'), is Baccharis serraefolia (6-8), an erect, 

single-stemmed plant to 2 m tall with small, leathery ovate to 

oblong-ovate 1.5-6 cm long leaves and terminal clusters of 

small, white unisexual composite flowers in an openly 

branched inflorescence. It is common in second growth in 

highland and temperate areas especially along streams. 

As a remedy for diarrhea, a small handful of leaves is brewed 

for a "hot" tea. This same tea is given to sheep suffering 

diarrhea after eating peach or cherry leaves. 

"Ch'upak Te' Set" 

The "ch'upak' te' set" includes three generics, which are 

brittle-stemmed shrubs with large, thin, mostly palmately lobed 

leaves. 

1. Ch'upak' te', "ch'upak' tree" (tik) (milob tz'i'), is die 

castor bean Ricinus communis (12-15), a coarse herb often 

developing a secondarily woody habit to 3 m tall. It has large, 

palmately lobed leaves and small flowers. The fruit splits into 

three bean-like seeds. It is a common plant of waste places at all 

elevations. It is planted by a few people in Zinacantan Center. 

It is classed both as "tree," and "plant." 

Three "hot" leaves are applied to a bone break and many to 

the aching body (k'asemal). The seeds were once ground and 

used for laundry soap. They are still used to poison dogs and 

other animal pests that steal young com. The "hot" beans are 

mixed with com dough and bits of glass, then stuffed into a cow 

intestine and hung up in the cornfield. 

Extended range: Datura stramonium, another coarse herb 

with poisonous properties. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Muk'ta ch'upak' te', "large ch'upak' tree," refers to 

the very large plants regardless of color. 

b. Sakil ch'upak' te', "white ch'upak' tree," refers to 

white-stemmed and flowered plants. 

c. Tzajal ch'upak' te', "red ch'upak' tree," refers to 

plants with red stems and flowers. 

2. Makom uch, "oppossum makom," is jimson weed 

Datura stramonium (1-3), a plant that grows in rubbish heaps 

and in fencerows throughout the township. It is classed as 

tz'i'lel, "plant." It is a coarse weedy herb 1 m or less tall with 

large ovate to elliptic leaves, which are sinuate to shallowly 

lobed 8-30 cm long. The flowers are large, white-tinged violet, 

trumpet-shaped to 27 cm long. The fruit is ovoid, 2.5-3.5 cm 

long, and armed with numerous spines. 

3. Tz'in-te', "tz'in tree (yuka, yuka te', yuka'), is Manihot 

esculenta (3-6), cultivated by lowland ladinos. Large plants 
NUMBER 35 159 

arising from thick tuberous roots. The leaves are large, 

palmately lobed into 3-7 divisions, which are narrowly linear 

or oblanceolate, 8-15 cm long. The petioles are long, green at 

the base, red towards the leaf blade. The flowers are about 1 cm 

long in terminal panicles. The term yuka te' refers to the wild 

form. Ladinos boil the tuber with sugar to make candy. 

Yucca has been introduced recently to some of the lower 

temperate communities, where it is grown by a few people. It is 

planted by cuttings in the rainy season. It produces edible roots 

in one year. There seldom is a large enough crop to sell. 

The tuber, sold at market by ladinos, is rarely eaten by 

Zinacantecs. They class it variously as "hot" and "cold." 

Extended range: Cleome spinosa, Euphorbia pulcherrima, 

and Manihot aesculifolia. 

"Jabnal Set" 

The "jabnal set" includes six generics, all trees or shrubs 

with soft wood and large, peltate or ovate leaves. 

1. Jabnal, "leaf (-tik) (kelem jabnal, yich'ak mut), is 

Oreopanax peltatus (6-7), a small to medium-sized tree with 

peltate palmately lobed leaves, which are rusty pubescent 

below, 10-26 cm long and small flowers arranged in round, 

pubescent clusters 5-15 mm in diameter in terminal racemes. 

This tree was formerly a prominent element of evergreen cloud 

forests in the highlands. 

These trees, now increasingly scarce, and occasionally 

cultivated, provide the leaves most often used to wrap bean 

tamales for weddings and other ceremonial occasions. They are 

preferred to k'am-xoch' leaves as they are larger and smoother. 

The leaves from both trees are removed before eating the 

tamale. The cantor needs 400-500 leaves for Carnival 

Saturday. Those in charge of the ceremonies for Holy Cross 

Day and the groom's family also need leaves for tamales. 

Extended range: Senna nicaraguensis, Urera caracasana. 

2. Jabnal te', "leaf tree" (sakil yich'ak mut, yich'ak mut), 

is Oreopanax xalapensis (4-5), a small to medium-sized tree 

with digitately compound leaves. The leaflets are narrowly 

elliptic to obovate, 10-25 cm long, acuminate at the apex, 

attenuate at the base. The flowers are in small round clusters, 

5-15 mm in diameter arranged in an elongate terminal raceme. 

It is a common element of montane rain forest and wet oak 

forests in the temperate and highland regions. 

3. K'am-xoch', "loop xoch'" (-tik), is the highland tree 

Chiranthodendron pentadactylon (6-5). These are large, 

buttressed trees to 30 m tall with massive trunks to 2 m in 

diameter, scattered on a few high ridges, mostly individuals left 

from primary forests of Zinacantan. The leaves are large and 

velvety, and lobed in the shape of a hand. The flowers are 

apetalous with a large, broadly expanded, red stamineal 

column, also in the shape of a hand. 

The trunk is used for firewood. The bark from its suckers is 

preferred for house lashing, but the cliff-growing trees are 

difficult to access. The leaves are used to wrap bean tamales 

(chenek'ul vaj) and com tamales (pisil vaj). Cf. jabnal. 

Extended range: Bakeridesia sp., Senecio sp. 

4. K'orok' te', "k'orok' tree" (be xinich te', k'oro te'), is 

the common lowland second growth tree Cecropia peltata 

(4-8), which has hollow stems occupied by colonies of 

stinging ants. It attains a height of 15-25 m and is common 

along streams. The leaves are very large and palmately lobed. 

The flowers are minute and massed in pendulous finger-like 

clusters. 

The trunk, split and stripped of bark, is used for threshing 

platforms. To lengthen one's penis, a bowl of pozol should be 

placed at the foot of this tree at a distance corresponding to the 

length desired. When the shadow of the tree reaches the bowl, 

the pozol is drank and the tree should be hugged. When one's 

penis has grown to the desired length the tree should be felled 

lest the penis continue to grow. Any suckers that sprout from 

the stump later should also be cut. 

5. Mumun (-tik, -altik) (mum) is Piper auritum (4-9), a 

soft-stemmed shrub common in moist places in primary and 

secondary forests of the temperate and lowland areas. It has 

large cordate leaves as much as 60 cm long and 35 cm wide. 

The basal lobes are rounded, one of them 1.5-3 cm longer than 

the other. The rat-tail inflorescence is 20-25 cm long and is 

opposite the leaves. 

Young plants are transplanted occasionally in the rainy 

season in the lowlands and in most of the temperate and 

highland communities. They may be planted by slip, but this is 

considered undependable. 

When the Virgin Mary was hiding in the banana grove with 

the Christ Child she laid her baby on a carpet of mumun and 

ch'aben leaves. 

The young stems may be peeled and eaten raw. The pungent 

leaves are boiled and eaten as greens. More commonly they are 

used to season beans and snails and to provide an edible 

wrapping for bean tamales. They are classed variously as "hot" 

and "cold." They are sold at market. The plants, however, 

should not be cut indiscriminately or their caterpillars 

(xchanul) will eat them up. 

6. Mumun te', "mumun tree," refers to the wild, non-edible 

species of Piper: P. amalgo (1-1), P. decurrens (1-1), P. 

hispidum (1-1), P. jacquemontianum (1-1), P. marginatum 

(1-1), P. tuberculatum (1-1), all shrubs with rat-tail inflorescences. The leaves are variable, but all are alternate and 

petiolate and sheathing the stem. These are common shrubs in 

second growth and along streams in seasonal evergreen forest 

in the temperate and lowland areas. 

As a remedy for constipation or urinary stoppage (makel) 

the leaves are brewed to provide a "hot" tea. 

"Kachimpa Te' Set" 

The "kachimpa te' set" is comprised of four generics. 

1. Chin te', "eczema tree" (luchleb vet, xinal te'), is Hura 

polyandra (1-1), a large, deciduous tree with corky-ribbed 

bark, glabrous, broadly ovate leaves, cordate at the base with 

prominent, parallel secondary veins, 9-20 cm long, a viscous, 

irritating sap, and round-ribbed, hollow, woody, apple-sized 

fruits. The female flowers are large, about 6 cm long, solitary in 
160 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

the upper leaf axils. The male flowers are small, arranged in 

small spikes along a thick rachis, 5-8 cm long. It occurs in 

mature tropical deciduous forest along streams in the lowlands. 

When this tree is chopped, its "rays" and its sap cause 

blisters. 

2. Ich te', "chili tree," is a poison sumac, Toxicodendron 

striatum (1-1). This tree is reputed to be so toxic that its "rays" 

may cause death by merely passing near it. The leaves are 

pinnately divided into lance-oblong, ovate, or elliptic leaflets, 

5-13 cm long. The flowers are small white and in large axillary 

panicles. The fruit is oval, white with black striations, about 7 

mm in diameter. Touching the leaves or sap will cause a 

blistering rash. It is a prominent member of seasonal evergreen 

and montane rain forests occuring in Zinacantan only along 

streams in temperate hamlets. 

3. Kachimpa te', "kachimpa tree" (ch'in te', kachumpa 

te'), is Comocladia guatemalensis (3-5), a soft, rusty, 

pubescent, small tree to 10 m tall with red sap and wood that 

may be very irritating to the skin. The leaves are large and 

pinnately compound. The leaflets are oblong-oval, rusty 

pubescent, and 9.5 cm long or less. The flowers are minute, red, 

and in large, terminal panicles and produce black, date-sized 

fruits. It is very common in tropical deciduous forest and is 

used by ladinos in fencerows. Some people recognize two 

varieties: sak, "white," and tzoj, "red," referring to the color of 

the heartwood. The latter is ascribed a "very strong heart" (toj 

tzotz yo'on) responsible for causing more severe itching. 

Like poison ivy and poison sumac, this tree has "rays" 

(xojobal) that blister some people who merely walk by it, 

perhaps because they are fearful. Several individuals remarked 

that the "rays" of these plants are visible at night. To prevent 

any ill effects when chopping the tree you should first call it by 

name several times or cross yourself and address this arboreal 

woman endearingly, "Chin, kunen, te'," "Little girl, my baby, 

tree!" The itching may be relieved by bathing the affected parts 

with salt water. The trunk is used for house mainposts. 

4. Matal ak', "magdalen vine" (xmatal ak'), is poison ivy 

Toxicodendron radicans (1-2), a woody vine with toxic oils 

causing skin rashes. The leaves are glossy, alternate, and 

tri-foliate. The leaflets are mostly ovate from 4-12 cm long 

with acute to acuminate apices. Like poison oak or poison ivy 

of the north, the leaves turn bright red in the fall. The flowers 

are small, green, white, or yellowish in axillary panicles. Fruits 

are white berries bome in axillary clusters up to 8 cm across. It 

occurs clambering up large trees in the montane and evergreen 

cloud forests, as well as pine-oak forests of the temperate and 

highland regions. It is classed as a "vine." 

The ill effects resulting from contact with this vine, from 

passing in its shadow or from exposure to its "rays" (xojobal), 

may be avoided by a variety of techniques. The person may 

return to the vine and tell it to exchange names with his. 

Another method is to dance in front of it. Or when you see this 

vine you should say, "Matal, ta jk'elot," "Magdalen, I am 

looking at you." Or you should say, "Magdalen, I am visiting 

you, I am talking to you. Come, come let's talk to each other." 

Or, "Me'el Matal mu k'u xacha'leon, lakil xa!" "Mother 

Magdalen, don't do anything to me, I saw you!" Because if you 

don't see the vine it is surely saying to itself, "Chkak'be pox, 

chkak'be chamel," "I'll give him medicine, I'll give him 

sickness." A not so subtle procedure is to whip it with a 

tumpline or a rope. 

To relieve the itching, the affected part should be bathed with 

lime water in which oak bark has been boiled together with the 

tips of k'ox paj-'ul. 

"K'an-te' Set" 

The "k'an-te' set" is a loose grouping of 16 generics. They 

are all lowland trees with smooth, flaky bark, peeling in large, 

thin strips. All flower profusely with bright showy clusters and 

most have fine-grained hardwood. 

1. Barsin te', "spotted tree" (barbaskova te'), refers to 

Guettarda macrosperma (1-1), and Piscidia carthagenensis 

(1-1). These are trees 30-60 feet tall with leaf blades that are 

broadly ovate or broadly obovate, apiculate, or acute at the 

apex. Guettarda macrosperma has entire opposite leaves and P. 

carthagenensis has pinnately divided leaves. The leaflets are 

opposite each other on the rachis and are similar in size and 

shape to those of G. macrocarpa. These occur in tropical 

deciduous forest (Piscidia) and seasonal evergreen and 

montane rain forest (Guettarda). 

The root is pounded on a rock and used to poison fish. It is 

also steeped in water and the liquid applied to a dog's belly to 

remove fleas and lice, but this must be done with care, for the 

root is so "hot" (k'ok', ya) that if the liquid gets in the dog's 

eyes it will cause blindness. The trunk is used for hoe handles, 

digging sticks, and threshing platforms. 

2. Brasil (-tik) (chak-te'*, frasil, prasil) is the common 

lowland tree, bloodwood Haematoxylon brasiletto (3-7), a 

small tree with a convoluted trunk, very hard, red wood, peely 

bark, pinnately compound leaves with obovate leaflets, 

emarginate at the apex, 10-20 mm long and clusters of bright, 

yellow flowers about 1 cm long. It often flowers when leafless. 

The pods are thin and flat, 3-5 cm long. The wood is an 

important dye source. It occurs as a common element in mom 

scrub and tropical deciduous forest. 

The trunk is used for fence posts. The heartwood is used for 

com shuckers. Chamulans soak the heartwood in water to dye 

the margins of net bags red and yellow. The heartwood may be 

steeped and the "hot" solution drank as a cough medicine. 

Extended range: Phyllanthus mcvaughii, Pithecellobium 

duke, and Wimmeria pubescens. 

3. Chenek' te', "bean tree," is a non-Linnaean grouping of 

shrubs and trees with pea flowers or pea-like pods. It includes 

Clitoria polystachya(l-4), Gliricidia ehrenbergii (1-2), 

Godmania aesculifolia (1-3), Harpalyce formosa var. goldmanii (1-1), Inga vera ssp. spuria (3-5), Pistacia mexicana 

(1-2), Senna hirsuta var. hirta (1-3), and S. pallida (2-4). 

The trunks of some are used for firewood. 

4. Ch'aben te', "ch'aben tree" (k'ox yax-'ib), refers to 

Indigofera suffruticosa (1-2), and /. thibaudiana (3-4), 
NUMBER 35 161 

densely branched shrubs with long, dense terminal racemes of 

small orange or maroon flowers. The leaves are pinnate with 

elliptic to oval leaflets. The pods are linear, 1.5-3 cm long, 

narrow, 2 mm thick and densely crowded and reflexed on the 

peduncle. They are common in second growth and fallow fields 

diroughout the township. Their use in providing indigo dye is 

not known today. 

Extended range: Sesbania emerus and Spartium junceum. 

5. Ch'ix-ni' te', "spiny-tipped tree," is Gliricidia ehrenbergii (1-2). This is a shrub or small tree with pinnately divided 

leaves. The leaflets are pubescent below, elliptic to oblongelliptic, 1-5 cm long. The flowers are magenta to lavenderpink, 12-15 mm long in densely flowered axillary racemes. 

The pods are oblong about 4 cm long. It is common in second 

growth and rocky exposed slopes of the temperate and highland 

regions. 

6. Jach'ub te', "comb tree" (sakil jach'ub te'), is the 

sycamore Platanus mexicana (2-3), a large tree locally 

abundant along temperate and lowland streams. It has straight 

trunks, peely bark, large, palmately lobed leaves 9-23 cm long, 

6-19 cm wide and minute flowers in pendulous ball-shaped 

inflorescences 2.5-3 cm in diameter. 

The trunk is used for roof purlins and rafters of fieldhouses, 

bridge planks, ax handles, fence posts, and firewood. The wood 

is used for combs. 

7. Kamaron te', "shrimp tree" (tzajal jach'ub te'), is the 

common lowland tree of second growth forests Alvaradoa 

amorphoides (3-9). It is a small tree with pinnately compound 

leaves, up to 15 cm long with small leaflets and pendent, 

caticin-like inflorescences that enlarge in fruit to 8 cm long and 

turn pink, resembling a shrimp. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse mainposts, fence posts, and 

firewood. The heartwood is used for combs that are sold in San 

Crist6bal. 

Extended range: Lonchocarpus rugosus and Senna foetidissima var. grandiflora. 

8. Kanela te', "cinnamon tree" (-tik) (kovana te'), is the 

generic for two lowland trees with red and white peely bark. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil kanela te', "white cinnamon tree," is the sparsely 

distributed, temperate and lowland tree Hauya elegans 

(4-9), a medium-sized tree with tan, peely bark, 

alternate ovate, pubescent leaves 6-11 cm long, and 

large, showy, white, tubular flowers to 10 cm long. 

The capsule is woody, cylindrical, about 6 cm long, 

splitting longitudinally downward from the apex to 

release the winged seeds. It occurs in tropical 

deciduous forest and dry oak forests of temperate and 

lowland areas often along steep ravines. 

It is used for rafters, roof rods, and purlins of houses and for 

mainposts, roof rods, and ridge poles of fieldhouses, hoe 

handles, digging sticks, fence posts, fence rails, and firewood. 

Extended range: Psychotria sp. 

b. Tzajal kanela te', "red cinnamon tree," is the 

common, lowland tree of streamsides Calycophyllum 

candidissimum (4-12), a large, hardwood tree with 

peely red bark and glabrous, opposite ovate leaves 

about 4-12 cm long. The small white flowers are 

subtended by a showy white bract 5-8 cm long, which 

is broadly ovate to rotund and narrowed abruptly into 

a thin petiole. The inflorescence is terminal and 

dichotomously branched. The fruits are pubescent, 

oblong, about 6-10 cm long. It occurs in seasonal 

evergreen forest. 

The trunk is used for rafters, roof rods, and purlins of houses 

and for fieldhouse mainposts, cross beams, roof poles, and 

firewood. 

Extended range: Wimmeria pubescens. 

9. Kanelo is cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum, a spice 

rarely cultivated in Mexico and at present only known from the 

coast of Chiapas near Tapachula. Imported bark is sold in 

markets. The peely bark must remind Zinacantecs of the other 

members of this set. 

It is used to flavor com gruel, rice, and pork. It is "cold." 

Ladinos make a refreshing red drink from it. 

10. K'an-te', "yellow tree," is Diphysa floribunda (4-4), a 

temperate and lowland tree with large, finely divided, pinnately 

compound leaves with oblong leaflets, 8-22 mm long and 

bright yellow pea flowers about 1 cm long, arranged in 

racemes. The pods are oblong about 4-7 cm long and inflated. 

It occurs in second growth and tropical deciduous forests. 

The trunk is prized for house mainposts. It is also used for 

bobbins for cotton-cloth looms, ax, hoe, and billhook handles, 

digging sticks, and firewood. 

Extended range: Dalea versicolor, Mahonia berriozabalensis, M. volcania, Phyllanthus mcvaughii, and Tecoma stans. 

11. K'anal te', "yellow tree," is Mahonia berriozabalensis 

(1-4) and M. volcania (1-2). These are glabrous-leaved shrubs 

or small trees with pinnately divided alternate leaves. The 

leaflets are elliptic to oblong ovate and may have entire or spiny 

margins. The flowers are small and yellow in axillary racemes 

and develop into an ellipsoid, dark-blue drape about 7-11 mm 

long. The wood is bright yellow. These occur on rock outcrops 

in primary forest of the temperate and lowland areas. 

The root is pounded and used as fish poison. 

12. Milob ch'o te', "rat killer tree" (mataraton, ratonero), 

is the common lowland tree Gliricidia sepium (1-4). It is a 

medium-sized tree with smooth, peely bark and pinnately 

compound leaves with elliptic or ovate elliptic leaflets, 3-6 cm 

long. It flowers when leafless and presents a showy display of 

purple blossoms, 2-2.5 cm long. It is often planted by ladinos 

for living fencerows, and occurs in second growth and tropical 

deciduous forest throughout the lowlands. 

The seeds, leaves, and bark may be ground with com for rat 

poison. 

Extended range: Indigofera thibaudiana. 

13. Pinto te', "spotted tree" (palopinto, potosoara), is the 

common lowland tree Wimmeria pubescens (4-5), a densely 

branched, hard-wooded tree with peely red and gray bark and 

small, obovate clustered leaves 1-2 cm long. The flowers are 
162 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

small, arranged in axillary inflorescenses and the fruit is 

3-winged and red, turning the entire tree red when the fruit is 

mature. It is a common element of tropical deciduous forests. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse mainposts, hoe and billhook 

handles, digging sticks, flails, fence posts, and firewood. 

14. Putzul chij, "sheep's putzul or deer's putzul" (-tik), is 

the common lowland, yellow trumpet bush Tecoma stans 

(9-18), a small tree with pinnately divided leaves and large, 

showy, tubular, yellow flowers 3.5-5 cm long. The leaflets are 

elliptic to narrowly ovate with serrate margins, 4.5-12 cm 

long. The pods are linear, narrow, pendent, commonly 25 cm 

long, about 8 mm broad. It occurs in fencerows, along roadcuts 

in second growth, and occasionally in primary tropical 

deciduous forests and pine-oak forest of lowland and temperate 

regions. 

The trunk is used for house walls, hoe, billhook, and pick 

handles, digging sticks, fence posts, and firewood. As a remedy 

for skin disease (chin), a small bunch of leaves is dried on the 

griddle and ground into a "cold" powder, which is applied to 

the affected part. The itching caused by poison ivy may be 

alleviated by bathing the blisters with a solution made by 

boiling these leaves. 

Extended range: Senna foetidissima var. grandiflora, S. 

pallida var. brachyrrachis, and S. polyantha. 

15. Yax-'ib te', "green armadillo tree" (Ian te', na vonon 

te', putzul fen, santa roxa te', santa roxail te', tzis chitom 

te', xinal te'), refers to the sennas Senna cobanensis (2-4), 5. 

pallida (1-2), S. skinneri (1-4), and 5. tonduzii (5-7). These 

are small trees with large, pinnately compound leaves and large 

clusters of bright, yellow-orange flowers. The foliage in some 

is foetid. They occur for the most part in second growth and 

fencerows of temperate and lowland areas. 

The trunk of all but the first species is used for house 

mainposts, roof purlins, steambaths, com bins, gates, benches, 

beds, crosses, gunstocks, slingshots, hoe handles, fence posts 

and firewood. Ladinos decorate their graves and churches with 

the flowers. 

Extended range: Gliricidia ehrenbergii, Machaerium chiapense, and Turpinia occidentalis. 

16. Yax-te', "green tree," is the common temperate and 

lowland tree, kidney wood Eysenhardtia adenostylis (4-6). 

This tree is superficially similar to k'an-te', but differs in 

having smaller leaflets, which are black dotted below and 

10-15 cm long racemes of small white pea flowers about 8 mm 

long. The wood was an important dye source for 17th and 18th 

century Europe. It occurs in second growth and tropical 

deciduous forest of the lowlands. 

The trunk is prized for house mainposts. It is also used for 

lintels, doors, com bins, steambaths, beds, benches, chairs, 

hooks, lamp stands, bobbins for cotton cloth looms, fiddle 

bows, ax, billhook, and hoe handles, digging sticks, flails, fence 

posts, and firewood. To prevent the spread of sickness among 

chickens, the bark or the wood is soaked in their drinking water. 

Extended range: Diphysa floribunda, Euphorbia pseudofulva, Gliricidia ehrenbergii, and Indigofera thibaudiana. 

"K'at'ix Set" 

The "k'at'ix set" includes two generics, both divaricately 

branching shrubs to trees with white wood. They occur along 

streams in temperate and highland areas. 

1. Isbon (-tik, -altik) is the common creek dogwood Cornus 

excelsa (6-11) that occurs along streams in temperate and 

highland situations. It has fine-grained, white wood and the 

stems can grow quite straight. The leaves are elliptic, 5-10 cm 

long, and have the nerves strongly impressed. The flowers are 

white, 3.5-4.5 mm long, and in terminal clusters. The fruit is 

blue, fleshy drape, 5-6 mm in diameter. 

The trunk has a great variety of secular and ceremonial uses, 

including hoe and billhook handles, digging sticks, machete 

hooks, hooks, stirring rods, warping bar poles, crossbeams and 

wattle, fence posts, sheep corral rails, tethering posts, dog 

hobbles, bean poles, shepherds' switches, slingshots, snares, 

tamale platforms, drumsticks, dram collars, and firewood. 

Dogwood poles were used as frames for the floral arches at die 

church entrances, but have been replaced by metal reinforcing 

rods. They are still used as frames for the floral arches of die 

stewards and the grand alcalde. Two dozen rods are cut by die 

Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary of which 18 of die best are 

chosen on the ninth Posada to make the frame of die straw bull. 

Twelve rods are brought by the godfathers of the Christ 

Children on the ninth Posada to make the creche in the Church 

of St. Sebastian. Dogwood poles are also used to make the 

creche frame in Atz'am, Chak Toj, Sak Lum, San Mikulax. 

Dressed poles are carried as walking sticks by the prefects 

every Sunday and at every fiesta; by the publicans and 

stewards-royal on New Year's Day and at the Fiesta of St. 

Sebastian; by the constables on 23-25 December, and at die 

Fiesta of St. Sebastian. Dogwood is used for the tediering post 

of the straw bull and for the bows and arrows of the sak-joletik 

and ka'benaletik at the Fiesta of Ka'benaletik St. Sebastian. 

The branches are used for brash fences. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan reported: "Black earth, 

which they get at the edge of town, gives the black color to the 

wool. It is fixed with leaves of a plant called hisbon which is 

also here" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). This function is now 

served by ch'a-te', but it may be that its former use is 

confirmed by its name, for -bon means dye or paint. 

2. K'at'ix (-tik) (ch'ix) is the hawthorn Crataegus pubescens (15-15), a densely branched, spinescent tree common 

near creeks and sinks in pine-oak forest of the highland area. 

The leaves are short-petiolate, oblanceolate or obovate, 4-7 cm 

long. The flowers are white with petals about 1 cm long, in lax 

terminal clusters. The fruits can be large or small, red or yellow, 

and individuals of all types occur mixed throughout the 

highlands. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan cited manzanillo as having 
NUMBER 35 163 

"very strong and incorruptible" wood (de Leon y Goicoechea, 

1797). 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'anal k'at'ix, "yellow hawthorn," the yellow fruited 

form. 

b. Sijom k'at'ix is the small-fruited form regardless of 

color, though most are red. 

c. Tzajal k'at'ix, "red hawthorn," the red fruited form. 

It is grown in a few of the temperate and all but one of the 

highland communities. 

Hawthorn saplings are pulled up in the rainy season and 

transplanted two meters apart either for fencerows or within the 

yard. If the latter, apple or pear slips are grafted onto them from 

December to March. The grafting of apples is reported to be 

more successful than that of pears. Planting may also be done 

by slip, but is less successful. 

The roots of any red-fruited hawthorn have medicinal 

importance when the husband of a postpartum woman "cannot 

endure" the necessary period of chastity (which should last 

more dian two weeks and preferably a month or even two 

months after childbirth). By sleeping with his wife she is apt to 

become infested with worms which may be fatal unless she is 

given a tea of hawthorn roots to which has been added freshly 

squeezed sugarcane juice. The "hot" tea kills the worms. By 

drinking this tea the woman imitates the hawthorn that causes 

its fruit to drop in great numbers and pile up on the ground. In 

the same way the woman discharges the worms. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, com bin posts, fence 

and corral posts, bed posts, bed and com bin planks, billhook, 

hoe, rake, and ax handles, digging sticks, slingshots, the dudes' 

horses, and firewood. Women use the spines for tenterhooks. 

The spines are also used to extract snails from their shells. 

The branches are used for brash fences. The leaves are eaten 

by sheep. 

The fruits, which ripen in November and December, are 

eaten by people, sheep, and pigs. When eaten raw they are 

"cold," and if many are eaten will cause hiccups; when boiled 

with brown sugar they are "hot." Ladinos make hawthorn apple 

jam. The fruit is sold at market in San Cristobal and Tuxtla. 

Large hawthorn apples are gathered by the assistants of the 

Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary to decorate the creche and 

the Church of St. Sebastian. They also provide the large 

hawthorn apples that are strung on henequen fiber for the 

dudes' necklaces. Four or six almudes, half yellow and half 

red, are provided on the eighth Posada for such purposes. Ten 

armspans of strung hawthorn apples are required from each of 

the Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary to decorate the creche. 

Three armspans apiece are needed for the Church of St. 

Sebastian. These fruits are widely used for creche decoration in 

Apas, Atz'am, Chak Toj, Na Chij, Naben Chauk, Paste', Sak 

Lum and San Mikulax. 

"La Set" 

1. Chaya itaj, "chaya greens" (-tik), is Cnidoscolus 

aconitifolius c.v. 'Maya' (1-3). Slips of this edible shrub are 

planted in most of the temperate hamlets. Unlike sakil la it is 

classed uniformly as "tree." This cultivated form of C. 

aconitifolius lacks the characteristic stinging hairs found on 

wild plants. It is a shrub or small tree with palmately lobed 

leaves on long, slender petioles. The flowers are white and 

arranged in a terminal dichotomously branched inflorescence. 

The capsules are 3-celled and about 8 mm long. 

2. Chon la, "snake la" (k'an-'ich la, la ka', la te', muk'ta 

la, tzajal la), refers to Wigandia urens (4-7) and W. urens var. 

caracasana (4-6), large shrubs (to 3 m tall) with huge leaves 

with soft, slightly irritating hairs. The flowers are bright blue 

and in elongate, terminal panicles. It is very common in second 

growth roadsides, and rocky outcrops in temperate and 

highland areas. 

Bush nettle was a snake with a mortal bite, so Our Lord 

transformed it into a plant. 

As a remedy for "wind," three or four "hot" leaves are used 

to beat the affected part. 

3. La (-tik) refers to herbs and soft-wooded shrubs with 

stinging hairs on the leaves and stems. 

Specifics: 7. 

a. Batz'i la, "genuine la" (kilkil la), is the nettle Urtica 

chamaedryoides (1-4), a small woody herb that is an 

occasional pest in cornfields in highland areas. It 

grows in yards and along fences. It is a simple or 

branched herb with stinging hairs. The leaves are 

opposite, elliptic to ovate, dentate, 1.5-6 cm long. The 

flowers are tiny, white, in axillary clusters, shorter than 

the petioles. 

As a remedy for "wind," a small handful of the "hot" leaves 

is used to beat the affected part so that the "wind" will depart 

with the blood that is shed. 

b. Kilajtik la, "pendulous la" (k'ox la, la ak', xelajtik 

la), is Gronovia scandens (4-8), an herbaceous vine 

with stinging hairs and pale yellow, tubular flowers 

about 7-10 mm long. The inflorescence is opposite the 

leaves, slender, and branched. The leaves are alternate, 

long petiolate, cordate, and deeply 5-lobed, 3-8 cm 

long. It is common in the understory of tropical 

deciduous forest and the second growth formations of 

lowland areas. It is an occasional pest in the cornfields. 

It is classed variously as ak', "vine," and tz'i'lel, 

"plant." 

c. K'ox la, "small la" (bik'tal la, poxil sep'), refers to 

Tragia nepetifolia (2-3), a small perennial, erect plant 

with slender branches and stinging hairs concentrated 

on the fruits. The leaves are small, alternate, triangular, 

triangular linear, or ovate with serrate margins, 1-5 

cm long. The flowers are very small, in short spikes 

opposite the leaves. The capsules are 3-lobed, 6-7 mm 
164 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

broad, and pubescent with stiff white hairs. It occurs in 

second growth, rocky outcrops, and waste ground in 

temperate and lowland areas. 

To relieve aches caused by "wind," the affected part is struck 

with the nettle. As a remedy for mange, the plant is crashed and 

mixed with cane liquor and, if the patient is a man, woman's 

urine, and, if a woman, a man's urine. The medicine is applied 

to the affected parts. It is classed as a "plant." 

d. Muk'tik la, "large la," is Urera caracasana (1-1), a 

shrub or small tree 10-25 feet tall with abundant 

stinging hairs, caustic sap, and broadly ovate, pubescent leaves, which are often 30 cm long. The flowers 

are very small in axillary clusters. The fruit is about 

2-3 mm in diameter, fleshy, orange-red, and is bome 

in large clusters on the old wood, at times covering the 

branches of the shrub beneath the leaves. It occurs 

along streams in tropical deciduous forest in the 

lowlands. 

e. Sakil la, "white la" (la ka', muk'ta la), refers to 

Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (7-14), C. multilobus (1-

1), and C. tubulosus (2-3), soft-wooded shrubs with 

fiercely stinging hairs and caustic, white, latex-like 

sap. The flowers are white and in terminal clusters. 

These shrubs are common in second growth and 

disturbed ground along roadsides in lowland and 

temperate areas. They are classed variously as "tree" 

and "plant." 

To relieve aches caused by "wind," the affected part is struck 

with this nettle. The "hot" sap may applied to boils (chakal) so 

they will burst. 

"Machita Te' Set" 

The "machita te' set" is a group of three generics, all 

caesalpinoid orange-flowered trees or shrubs, with long, flat 

pods. 

1. Chenek' chij te', "sheep bean tree" or "deer bean tree" 

(machita te'), is Senna atomeria (1-2), a common lowland 

tree with long, narrow, sickle-shaped pods 16-35 cm long and 

large, yellow flowers bome in few-flowered axillary racemes. 

The leaves are pinnate with 1-5 pairs of broadly oblong to 

suborbicular leaflets 2-10 cm long. It occurs in second growth 

and tropical deciduous forest. 

Extended range: Tephrosia lanata. 

2. Machita te', "machete tree," is Delonix regia (3-5), a tree 

cultivated in the lowlands by ladinos and especially popular as 

a street tree in Tuxtla and Chiapa. It has finely divided, 

compound leaves 30-50 cm long, with oblong leaflets 4-10 

mm long and large, bright-orange flowers. The fruit is a flat pod 

(40-50 cm long), which hangs pendulously from the tree. 

The trunk is used for firewood. 

Extended range: Bauhinia pauletia and Senna atomeria. 

3. Nichim te', "flower tree" (k'ox machita te', yaxal ch'ix), 

refers to Caesalpinia exostemma (1-4) and C. pulcherrima 

(3-4), spiny shrubs with large, terminal panicles of brightorange flowers with five spreading, imbricate petals and long 

exerted stamens. The leaves are coarsely decompound with 

leaflets 1.5-2 cm long. These are common in waste ground and 

in second growth situations of the lowlands. 

The flowers are cut and sold by ladinos and Zinacantecs. 

"Mantzana Set" 

The "mantzana set" is a group of five generics, all having 

pomaceous fruits. 

1. Mantzana (tik, -altik) (castillan potov*) is the apple 

Malus pumila (6-4). Zinacantecs recognize four specifics, but 

with the materials at hand it is impossible to apply modem 

varietal names to these plants. The situation is complicated 

further by the recent influx of apples shipped to the San 

Cristobal market from central and northern Mexico. 

Because the apple that Adam stole from Our Lord's orchard 

stuck in his throat, men have adam's apples today (Laughlin, 

1977, T54). According to another tradition, a ladina mistress 

went out of her house, leaving her maid to guard the apples, but 

she ate three apples. When the mistress returned she accused 

her maid of the deed. Her maid insisted that no one touched die 

apples. "But you can see the sign on your mouth. You ate diree 

apples." Her maid continued to deny it, but the ladina, who is 

Our Holy Lady, knows. She tells her maid that she will suffer 

for it. Her maid becomes pregnant and has a difficult five-day 

delivery. Because of her, women have pain giving birth. 

In early colonial times the apple was known under die name 

of castillan potov, castilian guava. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan commented that die apple 

was the sixth most common tree to be found in die yards. "[It] 

is truly the best that this Province boasts. Aside from die great 

number of trees, the fruit is exceptionally large, weighing up to 

6, 1, 8 ounces and they pick many of this size" (de Leon y 

Goicoechea, 1797). 

Apples are planted in a few of die temperate and all of die 

highland communities by seed, seedling, slip, or graft. Grafting 

and the planting of slips is done from December through 

February. Slips are planted with compost and sheep manure, 

compost and ashes, or fertilizer and lime. They are watered in 

the dry season and transplanted in the rainy season. 

Apples are classed as "cold." They are eaten raw or may be 

boiled together with peaches and refined sugar until diey form 

the consistency of com gruel. They may be soaked in cane 

liquor to give it a fruity flavor. Apples are frequent grave 

offerings on All Souls' Day. Cf. ixim. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Batz'i mantzana, "genuine apple" (mantzana ulo', 

pajal mantzana), is a small, sour apple, once the 

dominant variety, but now, because of grafting and die 

introduction of new varieties, very scarce. These 

apples are sold at market by Chamulans in August. 
NUMBER 35 165 

b. Kamosa mantzana, "suede apple," is a yellow apple 

grown by Chamulans and by a few highland Zinacantecs in their yards. The harvest is in September and 

October. It was a favorite apple for All Souls' Day 

offerings. 

In 1748 the priest of Zinacantan listed camuesas or pippins 

among the local fruit trees (Monrroy y Calcadilla, 1748). This 

may be the golden pippin, "the most highly prized dessert apple 

in the 16th and 17th centuries" (Harrison, Masefield, and 

Wallis, 1973:48). 

c. Perote mantzana, "perote apple," is a tough, sour, 

green highland apple that has nearly disappeared. It 

fruits from August to October. 

d. Tranjero mantzana, "foreign apple" (kaxlan mantzana, tanjero mantzana), refers to three varieties: the 

first, sakil, "white," or k'anal, "yellow," is yellow 

delicious, the second, tzajal, "red," is red delicious, 

and the third, tz'ibal, "striped," is gravenstein. 

These varieties have been introduced into temperate and 

highland hamlets in increasing numbers in recent years by 

government assistance. They fruit in August. They may be 

resold and are sold at market. 

2. Mantzana te', "mantzana tree" (mantzana ka'), refers 

to me highland shrubs Amelanchier denticulata (3-8) and A. 

nervosa (2-4). These are low shrubs with small, thick, ovate, 

bicolored leaves 3-4.5 cm long and small, red or pink, 

apple-like fruits up to 2 cm in diameter. The flowers are white 

with five petals and many stamens arranged in a terminal 

few-flowered raceme. They are common elements in highland 

second growth situations especially on rocky exposed slopes. 

The trunk is used for hoe handles, digging sticks, and 

firewood. The fruit is eaten by birds. 

Extended range: Viburnum acutifolium ssp. blandum. 

3. Nimpronix (-tik, -altik) (membrillo*, rimponix) is the 

quince Cydonia oblonga (2-3). It is a small tree, thickly 

branched with ovate leaves, which are woolly beneath. The 

flowers are pink with five petals and numerous stamens. The 

fruit is similar to an apple or a pear. A few Zinacantecs in many 

of the highland communities plant quince saplings in their 

yards and in gullies during the rainy season. They should not, 

however, be planted by young people. The trees fruit in 5-6 

years. 

The trunk is used for Sir Spook's walking stick and for the 

walking sticks of the other Carnival spooks. Stewards use the 

trunks for tamale platforms when tamales (pisil vaj) are 

steamed and then distributed at the change of office. 

Stewards-royal use the trunks similarly every other Saturday 

for the visit of the tithing man. To curb a child's rebelliousness, 

a switching of the hands with a quince switch is considered 

particularly effective. Quinces are sold at market in San 

Cristobal and Chiapa de Corzo in August. They are eaten raw 

or roasted and are also used to flavor cane liquor. They are 

"cold." Quince confection is made by ladinos. At the Fiesta of 

St. Sebastian the grand and petty Spanish lords buy this 

confection and distribute it to the other entertainers. 

4. Nimpronix te', "nimpronix tree," is Duranta repens 

(1-1), shrubs from about 8-10 feet tall with long pendent 

branches. The leaves are small, alternate, obovate to elliptic, 

glabrous, 2.5-7.5 cm long. The flowers are white, 8-15 mm 

across, with a short tube expanding into five lobes. They are 

arranged in terminal and axillary racemes. The fruit is yellow, 

globose, 7-12 mm in diameter, fleshy, and edible, with a single 

seed, and enclosed by the calyx. It occurs in second growth of 

temperate and lowland regions. 

5. Pelex (-tik, -altik) (peras*) is the pear Pyrus communis 

(4-6), and P. pyrifolia (1-1). 

Pears are planted in the same way as apples, but if a young 

person does the planting, for his own protection, he should snip 

off the top of the tree once it is established. 

The trunk is used for firewood. Pears are generally classed as 

"cold." They are eaten raw or are boiled with refined sugar until 

they form the consistency of com gruel. Cf. ixim. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i pelex, "genuine pear," is a sweet, small-fruited 

form very like the cultivar "madeleine," which has 

been known in cultivation since 1628. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan reported that this was the 

fifth commonest yard tree. "Though small, it is tasty and 

provides in abundance" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

This variety, which does not fruit for 8-10 years, has nearly 

disappeared. It is sold at market in June and July. It is grown in 

a few of the highland communities. 

b. Kaxlan pelex, "castilian pear" (muk'ta pelex, pera, 

peron), Pyrus pyrifolia, the oriental pear, is a very 

large-fruited form that fruits in 4-5 years. It is grown 

in a few of the temperate and many of the highland 

communities. It may be resold and is sold at market 

from late August to early November. It may be a grave 

offering on All Souls' Day. 

"Met Set" 

The "met" set includes four generics, all succulent plants 

with rosetted, fibrous leaves. 

1. Chi* (-tik) is the generic term for the narrow-leaved 

agave-like plants. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Pino chi, "fine chi" (batz'i chi, tz'unbalal chi), is the 

cultivated Agave sisalana (2-4). The sword-shaped 

leaves are about 1-2 m long and about 10 cm wide 

with entire margins. The flowers are yellow, 4.5-6 cm 

long, with the ovary and petals being about equal. The 

stamens are long with anthers about 2.5 cm long. It is 

grown by ladinos in low and temperate regions 

including the ejido land of Bik'it Nab, Muk'ta Nab, 

and X'ukun. 

The fiber was bought formerly for the weaving of nets and 

shoulder bags and for the sewing of hats. It is now sewn on the 
166 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

hats of the sak-joletik for the Fiesta of St. Sebastian to give 

them their white-haired appearance. Fiber tumplines are 

replacing leather ones. 

b. Te'tikal chi, "wild chi" (chi met), is Furcraea 

guatemalensis (5-9), a stalked, rosetted plant common 

in second growth temperate situations and in the 

understory of dry oak forest. It has narrow spinemargined leaves, 10-15 cm wide, and a stalk of 

pendulous, white flowers, 1 -2 m long. The flowers are 

about 6 cm long, with ovary and petals about equal. 

The stamens are short, included in the corolla. The 

anthers are V-shaped and about 2 mm long. 

The fiber is used for house lashing, nets, and ropes. The leaf 

is burnt first and stripped. 

The fiber is tied around com kernels in deadfalls for rats. 

2. Kaxlan tok'oy, "castilian willow" (chi met, chi vet, 

tok'oy, tok'oy chi, tok'oy te'), is the bulb stem yucca Yucca 

elephantipes (6-10), a tree to 10 m tall with rosettes of stiff 

narrow dagger-like leaves on the ends of the stems. The flowers 

are white, campanulate, about 3-4.5 cm long, arranged in large 

terminal panicles. The fruit is oblong ovoid with a white or 

yellowish flesh and black seeds. It occurs as a scattered element 

of the lowland and temperate dry forests and is often planted 

near Chamulan and Tenejapan crosses. Ladinos plant it in 

fencerows. 

As a remedy for earache and deafness, a leaf is roasted under 

the ashes and the juice squeezed into the ear. 

Extended range: Beaucarnea goldmanii. 

3. Met (-tik, -altik) refers to the broad-leaved agaves. These 

were created by Our Lord when He spat on his finger and 

rubbed it on the rocks. During the famine of 1918, maguey 

stalks were peeled, ground raw on the metate, and mixed with 

the com dough to make tortillas. The inflorescence stalk may 

be split and used to make traps to catch doves live. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Chi met (k'ox j'alnom met, lo'balal met) is Agave 

kewensis (3-4), similarly occurring on rock outcrops 

and cliff faces in the temperate and highland areas. It 

differs from A. chiapensis in having bright yellow 

flowers that are arranged in large clusters on a 

branched inflorescence. 

The "cold" inflorescence stalk is roasted and eaten. It is said 

that the redder stalks are bitter, but others claim that the flavor 

is all in the "hand" of the person who cuts the stalk. When 

someone goes to get it, he should not refer to it as komenal 

met, "maguey inflorescence, but rather, vale' "sugarcane" or 

svale'al tontik, "rock sugarcane," lest it be ticklish when it is 

eaten. 

b. Lo'balal met, "edible met" (batz'i met, bik'it met, 

komenal met), is Agave chiapensis (5-8), a plant with 

thick, spine-margined leaves in a clumped rosette up to 

one meter across. The flowers are produced on an 

elongated stalk 1.5-2 m tall. They are about 6-7 cm 

long, yellow or green tinged with reddish brown, with 

stamens twice as long as the corolla. The anthers are 2 

cm long. Each flower is subtended by an ovate or 

triangular bract, long acuminate at the apex and 

arranged in a long narrow unbranched inflorescence. It 

occurs on rock outcrops and cliff faces in the temperate 

and highland areas. 

Chamulans roast the core. They dig a hole, pile wood on the 

bottom, make a layer of stones on the top, and then put in the 

core that has been well-wrapped with leaves so no dirt will 

enter. The wood is lit. When a good fire is burning, earth is 

piled on top. The core is roasted for three days and three nights. 

Chamulans bring the roasted core to Zinacantan Center on 

major fiestas. The individual leaf bases are broken from the 

core and sold. They are generally classed as "hot." The "cold" 

young inflorescence stalk may be roasted and eaten. The 

inflorescence stalk is also split and used for corral posts. 

The plants are used to decorate the creche in Chak Toj. 

As a cure for warts, a dry pod should be shaken next to the 

warts, then when you are in your house and see lightning 

flashes you should sit with your back to the open door and, as 

the lightning flashes, you should quickly rub your warts widi 

three com cobs, one after another, then toss them over your 

shoulder far outside. Finally, you should ran around diree 

clumps of closely spaced ch'ix jobel diree times with your eyes 

shut tight. After a couple of weeks your warts will disappear. 

c. Muk'ta met, "large met" (muk'ta j'alnom met, 

yax-met), is Agave americana (3-8). The rosettes are 

up to 2 m across and the stalk is up to 3 m tall. The 

leaves are spine-margined, and up to 30 cm wide and 

often striped white and green. The flowers are yellow, 

8.5-9 cm long, the ovary longer than the petals. The 

stamens are long-exerted with yellow-green anthers 

2.5-3 cm long. They are arranged in an openly 

branched inflorescence. It is cultivated and used for 

fencerows throughout the highlands. 

Young plants are transplanted a handspan apart for fencerows at any time of the year. 

The "cold" inflorescence stalk is roasted and eaten like 

sugarcane. The stalk may also be split and used as posts to 

enclose vegetable patches. Children use the leaves as sleds to 

slide down banks. The leaves were used as candle holders on 

major fiestas. The spines were cut off and square holes cut in a 

row down the center of each leaf. The leaves were placed at the 

foot of the altar. The Stewards of St. Sebastian provided two 

dozen leaves for the Fiesta of St. Sebastian. The Stewards of the 

Holy Cross provided four dozen leaves for die fourth Lenten 

Friday and for Holy Week. The Stewards of the Holy Cross still 

use six leaves apiece for their household altars on the fourth 

Lenten Friday and during Holy Week. The publican provides 

15 for the church in Apas on the sixth Lenten Friday, and one 

dozen are used in Naben Chauk on the fourth Lenten Friday. 

4. Paxak' (-tik, -iltik) refers to the pineapple and its wild, 

terrestrial relatives, all classed as tz'i'lel, "plant." All are 

rosetted, fibrous-leaved plants. 
NUMBER 35 167 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Chimpo paxak' (jol itajil paxak', paxak' ch'o) is the 

wild Bromelia hemisphaerica (2-5), a large rosette 

with narrow, spiny leaves 1 m long. The flowers and 

fruits are on a stout stalk. The flowers are tubular, 

narrow, about 4.5 cm long with a wooly tubular calyx 

in a large, woolly head-like inflorescence, 8-10 cm 

long, 4-6 cm wide. The inflorescence is closely 

subtended by a woolly leaf-like oblong bract with an 

abruptly long acuminate tip. The fruits are large, black, 

glabrous fusiform, about 6 cm long. Lowland ladinos 

plant it in fencerows. It occurs in the rocky understory 

of tropical deciduous forests. 

The fruit, classed variously as "hot" and "cold," is eaten by 

squirrels, rats, and people, but eating it raw will cause one's 

mouth to bleed. 

Extended range: Hechtia glomerata. 

b. Kinya paxak', "banana paxak'" (yat chitom paxak'), 

is Bromelia pinguin (3-5), a plant similar to B. 

hemisphaerica, but with a longer, more open inflorescence. The flowers are about 6 cm long. The fruit is a 

yellow and pink, fusiform berry. It occurs in second 

growth and waste ground in the lowlands. 

The fruit is eaten by squirrels, rats, magpie jays, and people, 

but, if eaten in quantity, especially when raw, will cause 

bleeding of the gums. Classed as "hot," the fruit is eaten raw, 

roasted, or boiled. It is sold at market occasionally. 

c. Muk'ta paxak', "large paxak" (batz'i paxak', jolom 

paxak'*), is the pineapple Ananas comosus (1-2). It is 

not cultivated locally, but may be resold by Zinacantecs and is sold at market in San Cristobal from June to 

January. 

The fruit is eaten raw and is used to flavor the chicha that is 

provided by the entertainers at the Fiesta of St. Sebastian and 

by the cantors at Carnival. It is classed variously as "hot," 

"medium," and "cold." 

d. Paxak'il te'tik, "forest paxak'," is Greigia oaxacana 

(1-2), a rosetted plant with small inflorescences buried 

in the leaf axils. The leaves are linear with very short, 

small spines along the margins. The flowers are about 

3.5-4.5 cm long, tightly clustered in a bracteate 

head-like inflorescence. The bracts are glabrous, 

triangular-ovate, 2.5-4.5 cm long, and strongly imbricate. In Zinacantan this bromeliad occurs only in the 

understory of evergreen cloud forest on Muk'ta Vitz. 

e. Potpot paxak', "clustered paxak'" (potom paxak', 

setom paxak', setomal paxak'), is Bromelia plumieri 

(3-6), a large, rosetted plant common in the understory of tropical deciduous forests. Margins of the 

leaves are clothed with curved spines and the base is 

covered with dense scale-like hairs. The inflorescence 

is sessile in the rosette and colored bright pink to red. 

The flowers are tubular, lavender, very hairy at the 

base, 9-11 cm long. The bracts are red. The fruits are 

covered with brown, irritating hairs, which must be 

rubbed off with leaves before they can be eaten. 

The fruit is classed variously as "'hot" and "cold." 

"Naranja Set" 

The "naranja set" is a loose grouping of 11 generics, 

including the citrus fruits, coffee, and three wild plants. Coffee 

and the latter plants all have glossy, green, citrus-like leaves 

and fragrant white flowers produced in a showy profusion. 

1. Alaxax is the sour orange Citrus aurantium (1-2). It is a 

rough-skinned, globose fruit about 7-8 cm in diameter. It is 

acid with 10-12 segments and a hollow, red core. 

A very few Zinacantecs in Bik'it Joyijel, X'ukun, and in 

most of the highland communities grow sour oranges in their 

yards. Young plants are transplanted in the rainy season. 

Compost and sheep manure may be used. 

An almud basket or a burlap bagful of young tips are 

gathered or purchased by wedding petitioners. These, together 

with geranium blossoms, are made into wedding bouquets that 

are distributed to each of the wedding guests during the dance 

and tied to the harp and guitar. Some guests make the leaves 

whistle. Three or four leaves may be brewed as a substitute for 

coffee. The tea is "hot." The juice may be used to season 

cabbage and kale. 

2. Elamonix (-tik, -altik) (elomonix, limon, limones*) is 

the lime Citrus aurantifolia (1-4). The fruit is yellowish green, 

thin-skinned, round-oblong, and about 11/2 inches in diameter. 

The pulp is abundant and very acid. 

Limes are planted in the lowlands and in many of the 

temperate communities. In Santa Rosa one seed is planted to a 

hole filled with black earth 3 m apart. A circle of stones is made 

around the tree, and compost is piled on the earth inside so that 

the heat of the sun will not be felt. It fruits in 3-6 years. 

To reduce fever the leaves may be brewed in sweetened 

water, and the "cold" tea drank at bedtime. The fruit is sold at 

market from June to mid-March. It is "cold." Lime juice and 

sugar are added to water for limeade. Lime juice is used 

together with chili, mint, coriander, and salt to flavor beef 

broth. It is also used to flavor fish, shrimps, snails, radishes, 

cabbage, kale, amaranth, ch'aben, and wild nightshade. To 

cure a hangover, radishes and cabbage, seasoned with lime 

juice, is eaten. For skin irritation (Jak'ob ik') the juice is mixed 

with white salt and applied. To ease chest pains (me' vinik) or 

bloody dysentery a glass of the sweetened juice is drunk. White 

salt may be substituted for refined sugar. Lime juice and white 

salt is given to a dog as an antidote for poisoning. This is also 

a remedy for chicken disease. Or they may be given lime juice 

in which prickly pear pads have been chopped up and in which 

a tomato has been crashed. All these remedies are "cold." 

Bartenders may serve sliced limes and radishes as hors 

d'oevres, cf. kokov. 

3. Kajve (-tik) (kajvel, kape) is the cultivated coffee Coffea 

arabica (4-6). It is a small tree with white sweet-smelling 
168 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

flowers in clusters in the axils of the glossy, opposite, elliptic 

leaves. The flowers are about 2.5 cm long with a short tube 

expanding into five white petals. The berries are first green, 

turning red when ripe, and containing two seeds or coffee 

beans. 

Zinacantecs plant coffee in some of the temperate communities and in ejido land below Apas. One berry may be planted to 

a hole and the seedling transplanted in two years, or plants that 

have sprouted from fallen berries are pulled up when they are 1 

m tall and transplanted 1 fi m apart. It fruits in 3-4 years. The 

coffee groves are weeded twice a year: in June (St. John's Day) 

and again in November (All Saint's Day). The berries are 

picked three times, from mid-February to Holy Week. After 

picking, the berries are ground on a metate or in a mill to loosen 

the skin. They are soaked in water for 2-3 days until the water 

foams. Then they are rinsed and spread in the sun for 4-5 days 

to dry. 

The trunk is used for ax, hoe, billhook, and pick handles, for 

slingshots, fiddle bows, and firewood. The coffee beans are 

sold to fellow Zinacantecs or at market. They are roasted on the 

griddle and ground, either on a metate or in a grinder. All but 

the poorest Zinacantecs drink sweetened coffee. It is "hot." 

Bitter coffee is taken for malaria. Ground coffee is sprinkled on 

wounds to induce clotting, cf. kokov. 

4. Kajve te', "coffee tree" (lo'bol k'ux kumum, ventex 

mamal), refers to the temperate and lowland shrubs Casearia 

commersoniana (1-2) and C. corymbosa (4-7). These are 

densely branched, deciduous shrubs with alternate elliptic 

leaves and clusters of angular, ovoid, orange fruits. The flowers 

are small, about 8 mm broad, and clustered in the axils of the 

leaves. The plants in fruit resemble coffee plants. The fruits are 

eaten by birds. They occur in second growth and in the 

understory of tropical deciduous forest. 

Extended range: Citharexylum donnell-smithii, Eugenia 

amatenangensis, and Viburnum elatum. The trunk of the latter 

is used for fence posts and firewood. 

5. Konkon refers to one highland and one lowland shrub, 

both with very showy flowers from November to January. They 

are classed as "plant." 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Konkon is Cavendishia crassifolia (3-4), a thickleaved shrub with white and pink flowers in terminal 

racemes. The leaves are leathery, glossy, alternate, 

elliptic with an abruptly acuminate top and impressed 

veins. The flowers are tubular-urn shaped, about 15 

mm long with five lobes. The fruit is round and about 

6-8 mm in diameter and fleshy with many minute 

seeds. It is common in exposed situations in evergreen 

cloud forests of the high mountain ridges. 

The flowers are gathered for sale by Chamulans and ladinos. 

They are put in altar vases. Zinacantecs may substitute 

sprays of this shrub for orange tree sprays normally used in 

wedding bouquets. 

b. K'anal konkon, "yellow konkon" (k'anal yich'ak 

mut, muil te', snichim jsoktom, va'al nich), is 

Galphimia glauca (4-8), a glossy-leaved shrub widi 

dense, terminal clusters of bright yellow flowers, 

which become papery and turn orange in fruit. The 

leaves are opposite, elliptic to ovate, 2.2-6.0 cm long, 

lighter below than above. The flowers have petals 

about 7-12 mm long and develop into glabrous, 

smooth capsules about 3.5-4.5 mm long. This is a 

very common plant in second growth on rocky slopes 

of the temperate regions. It occasionally occurs in oak 

forest. 

Ladinos, especially of Chiapa de Corzo, the people of 

Muk'ta Jok', and Zinacantecs from the temperate hamlets 

gather the flowers for sale in the lowlands to adom altars. 

Extended range: Celastrus vulcanicola and Viburnum 

hartwegii. 

6. Lima (-tik, -iltik) (limas*) refers to sweet limes and sweet 

lemons. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Chu' lima, "breast lima" (lima jmalalena), is the 

sweet lemon Citrus limonia cv.' Millsweef (2-4). The 

fruit is depressed at the top around the prominent 

nipple. It is grown in Magdalenas and Oxchuc. It is 

also cultivated in the lowlands and in a few of the 

temperate and highland communities. 

On the eighth Posada the Stewards of the Sacrament and the 

Senior Steward of St. Dominic provide three dozen stemmed 

fruits (one dozen apiece) to adom the Christmas trees that flank 

the creche. They are also used to decorate the creche in Apas, 

Na Chij, Naben Chauk, Sak Lum, and Sek'emtik. Thirty fruits 

are placed in the net of fruit given by the fiance" to his fiancee. 

A smaller number is included in the net of fruit presented by die 

elders to each of the scribes on the fiestas of St. Sebastian and 

St. Lawrence. The fruit is "cold." For medicinal use cf. inojo. 

b. Ch'ulul lima, "smooth lima" (chitom lima, jax-chu' 

lima, lima chinchina, naranja lima), is the sweet 

lime Citrus limetta (3-4). The fruit is similar to the 

common lime C. aurantifolia. It is about the size of a 

lemon with thin yellow rind and abundant, sweet, 

insipid juice. It is planted in the lowlands, in Tenejapa, 

and in some of the temperate communities. 

The fruit is used to decorate the creche in Atz'am. 

The fruit is sold at market from September through 

December. It is "cold." 

c. Pimil pat lima, "diick-skinned lima" (bik'it tubajtik 

lima, chu' lima), is an unnamed cultivar of die sweet 

lemon Citrus limonia (1-2). This is less commonly 

cultivated and has the same range as chu' lima. Some 

fruits have a small nipple, whereas omers growing on 

the same tree have none. 

The seeds are planted in June, one to a hole. When die 

seedlings are 60 cm to 1 '/2 m tall they are transplanted. The tree 

fruits in 5-6 years. 

The fruit is given as grave offerings on All Souls' Day. 
NUMBER 35 169 

The trunk is used for firewood. The fruit is sold in market in 

November and December. It is "cold." 

7. Limon (muk'ta elamonix) is the lemon Citrus limonia 

cv. 'Eureka' (1-2). This true lemon, generally scarce in 

Chiapas, is cultivated in Magdalenas and Santa Marta. It is an 

oval, somewhat mammilate fruit with an acid pulp. The skin is 

yellow, conspicuously gland-dotted, thick and rough. It is sold 

at market. 

8. Mantarina is the tangerine Citrus reticulata (2-6). 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i mantarina, "genuine mantarina" (mantzana 

naranja), is the small tangerine sold at market from 

October through March. The fruits are usually sold 

attached to their stems, bearing one or two leaves. 

They are smaller than oranges, and the skin is a deeper 

orange or a reddish color. It is loose and separates 

easily from the fruit. The pulp is sweet and juicy. They 

are generally classed as "hot." They decorate the 

creche in Apas, Chak Toj, Paste', and San Mikulax. 

b. K'ol-pat mantarina, "rattling rind mantarina" (k'olpat naranja), is the large tangerine with a thick, warty 

skin, which is sold at market when still green. They are 

sold from November through April. They are generally 

classed as "hot." 

9. Naranja (-tik) (naranjas*) is the cultivated orange Citrus 

sinensis (2-4). 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Jayal pat naranja, "thin-skinned orange" (ch'ulul pat 

naranja), is the Valencia type that is planted in the 

rainy season by the Tenejapanecs. It may be resold and 

is available in the market every month of the year 

except June. Twenty fruits of this or the thick-skinned 

variety are placed in the net of fruit given by the fiance 

to his fiancee. A smaller number are included in the net 

of fruit presented by the elders to each of the scribes on 

the fiestas of St. Sebastian and St. Lawrence. The fruit 

is "hot." These oranges are essential grave or household altar offerings on All Souls' Day, and for the 

Christmas creche in most communities. 

b. Pimil pat naranja, "thick-skinned naranja," is the 

navel type but with seeds. Although these oranges are 

rarely cultivated in the highlands because they do not 

fruit there for many years, they are cultivated in the 

lowlands and most of the temperate communities. 

Seeds or seedlings are planted in the rainy season. 

They fruit in 4-5 years. 

In the temperate hamlets women used the spines formerly for 

tenterhooks. As a substitute for coffee, poor people prepare a 

"hot" tea of orange leaves or rind. For cough medicine a tea of 

orange rind, marigold blossoms (kelem vo'tus), and elderberry 

blossoms (batz'i chijil te') is brewed. The rind is also used to 

flavor cane liquor and watermelon squash. Three-dozen 

stemmed thick-skinned oranges (one dozen apiece) are provided by the Senior Steward of St. Anthony and the Stewards 

of the Holy Cross on the eighth Posada to decorate the pine 

trees flanking the creche. Thick-skinned oranges, sweeter than 

the thin-skinned variety, may be resold and are sold at market 

in December. They are sold in Zinacantan Center at Christmas 

and New Year's. They are "hot." Cf. jayal pat naranja. 

10. Sila (silo) is the citron Citrus medica (1-4). The fruit is 

large and elongate, resembling a the shape of a pear. It has a 

rough, thick, spongy, greenish yellow to golden-yellow rind, 

and a small sour pulp, which is very acid. It is grown by 

lowland ladinos, by the people of Chenalhd, and in some of the 

temperate communities. 

The rind is used by ladinos for lemonade. The fruit, classed 

variously as "medium" and "cold," is very rarely eaten by 

Zinacantecs. The Stewards of the Holy Cross formerly 

provided a few fruits on the eighth Posada to decorate the pine 

trees flanking the creche. The fruits are still used to decorate the 

creche in Atz'am and Sak Lum. For stomach ache a tea is made 

of the leaves. 

11. Yich'ak mut, "bird claw," is the lilac fuchsia Fuchsia 

paniculata (3-5). It is a glabrous-leaved shrub with large, 

terminal panicles of lilac flowers. The leaves are alternate, 

elliptic and narrowly elliptic or narrowly obovate, 6-15 cm 

long. The flowers are about 10-12 mm long, tubular, with 

spreading lobes and exerted stamens. The fruit is a round, 

purple, fleshy berry. It is common in moist ravines in the 

evergreen cloud forests of the highland area. 

The tips are used in the "flower water" to bathe newborn 

babies. Cf. antzil aj. 

"Olnob Set" 

The "olnob set" is comprised of 17 generics, legume trees 

and shrubs with finely divided leaves. 

1. Chojchoj (-tik, -altik) (xulub vakax ch'ix) is the bull's 

hom acacia Acacia cornigera (5-10), a shrub or small tree with 

large, swollen, nodal spines in the shape of a bull's horns, in 

which stinging ants make their nest. The yellow flowers are in 

a dense raceme. The fruit is a swollen, apiculate pod. It is very 

common in the understory of the tropical deciduous forest and 

in lowland second growth situations. 

Zinacantecs note that this tree likes to live separately. The 

ants' intense foraging under this tree has given rise to the belief 

that the tree is a woman who has swept diligently. The wood is 

reputed to be so "hot" (k'ok') that if used for hoe handles the 

com will not grow. The branches are used for brush fences. 

2. Ch'ich' ni', "bloody nose" (-tik) (ch'ich' ni' te', tzajal 

xaxib), refers to Calliandra confusa (1-1), C. grandiflora 

(5-12), and C. houstoniana (7-12), shrubs with large, red 

flowers in terminal racemes. The color is produced by the long, 

filamentous stamens. The leaflets are linear, 4-7 mm long. The 

pods are flat, pubescent, and up to 10 cm long. They are 

common elements in shrubby second growth formations at all 

elevations. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood, but some 
170 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

believe that putting it in the fire will cause nosebleeds. It is used 

in Chak Toj for the framework of the creche. The branches are 

used for brash fences and are fed to sheep and horses. The 

"cold" flower is passed two or three times near the nose to stop 

nosebleeds. 

Extended range: Calliandra caeciliae. 

3. Kevrajacha (-tik) (ch'ix te', kebrajacha, kervajacha, 

kervejacha, sakil ch'ix te') refers to Acacia pennatula 

(10-16), a dense, low tree of grassy savannas of temperate 

areas. The trunks have large branches with projecting, often 

branched spines. The flowers are small and yellow, and the pod 

is thick and flattened and 4-6 cm long. 

The trunk is used for roof rods, fence rails and posts, and 

firewood. Saplings may be used for hoe handles. The tender 

shoots and pods are eaten by horses. The spine is used to extract 

snails from their shells. 

4. Krus ch'ix, "cross spine" (sakil ch'ix), refers to Pisonia 

aculeata (1-1) and P. macranthocarpa (1-5), stiff, divaricately branched trees with thick spines opposed on the stem 

like a cross. The leaves are opposite, entire, thin, large, and 

broadly elliptic to broadly ovate, up to 12 cm long in P. 

aculeata or smaller and elliptic to oblanceolate to about 8 cm 

long as in P. macranthocarpa. The flowers are small and 

greenish in axillary clusters. The fruit is club-shaped or oblong 

about 1-7 cm long, 5-angled with stiff stipitate black glands on 

the angles. The trees occur in tropical deciduous forest of 

lowland areas and are especially common along ravines. 

5. Lotz'om chij, "deer cramp" or "sheep cramp" (chame-'at 

ch'ix, lot'om ch'il, lotz'om chij ch'ix, lotz'om chij tz'i'lel), is 

Mimosa albida (12-18), a very common, sprawling subshrab 

with divided, sensitive leaves, with broad ovate leaflets up to 7 

cm long, prickly, wiry stems and terminal, spherical clusters of 

pink flowers. The divided leaves are likened to deer hoofs. It is 

common in disturbed situations and second growth in 

temperate and lowland areas. It is classed variously as te', 

"tree," tz'i'lel, "plant," and ak', "vine." 

It is eaten by sheep. 

Extended range: Mimosa adenantheroides. 

6. Molino te', "mill tree" (molinyo, mololinyo), is Poeppigia procera (2-3), a large tree that becomes covered in 

yellow flowers at the end of the rainy season (October). They 

are arranged in small, many-flowered, dense, terminal panicles 

and have five imbricate petals, 8-10 mm long. The leaflets are 

oblong, 1-2 cm long, and glabrous. The fruit is a short, 

glabrous flat pod, 4-9 cm long. The tree is a common element 

in tropical deciduous forest. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouses, fence posts, gates, and 

beds. 

7. Olnob (-tik, -altik) (onob) refers to Leucaena, lowland 

trees with clusters of flat pods bearing edible beans. 

"There is good evidence that 2000 years ago Mayans used 

leucaena for this same purpose (nitrogen fixation and soilbuilding), at least in the Yucatan Peninsula" (National 

Academy of Sciences, 1977:71). 

The edible seed contains mimosin, a toxic amino acid, 

which, when eaten in quantity, has been reported to cause hair 

loss among humans in Central America and Indonesia. Sheep 

growers have experimented with this attribute of leucaena, 

providing their sheep with an exclusive diet of the forage for 10 

days as a substitute for shearing—"a stroke of the hand is all 

that is needed to separate wool from skin" (ibid., 39). 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i olnob, "genuine olnob" (sakil olnob), is 

Leucaena leucocephala (3-6), a tree with large round 

clusters of white flowers up to 2 cm in diameter. The 

divided leaves have narrow leaflets about 6-16 mm 

long, and the fruit is a long flat, glabrous pod 15-20 

cm long. It is cultivated and occurs wild in the 

lowlands in second growth forests and tropical 

deciduous forest. Many lowland ladinos plant the 

beans in their yards. 

In Santa Rosa, Kelem Ton, and the lower temperate 

communities the beans are planted with a digging stick just 

before the first rains, 1-2 to a hole, 2-3 armspan's distance. 

Seedlings may also be transplanted in the rainy season. They 

are cultivated as well in the temperate hamlets and in Muk'ta 

Jok', fruiting in three years. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, rafters, roof rods, roof 

purlins, fiddle bows, fence posts, bobbins, and firewood. The 

heartwood is used for com shuckers. The "cold" tips are eaten 

raw. The "cold" beans are sold at market in their pods from 

September through December. They are also eaten raw. 

Zinacantecs claim that some individuals suffer hair loss, not by 

excessive consumption of these beans, but rather by eating 

them after having eaten beef, iguana, chicken, eggs, fish, snails, 

or ch'aben earlier in the day. Those who are affected lose all 

their hair in a week or two week's time. Some maintain that the 

beans of any olnob may have this effect, others restrict it to 

paka' olnob. 

Extended range: Piptadenia flava. 

b. Paka' olnob is Leucaena collinsii (3-7), a tree with 

large, round clusters of white flowers, about 2 cm in 

diameter, narrow leaflets, about 4-8 mm long, and 

long pods (15-25 cm long). They occur in second 

growth forests and tropical deciduous forests of 

lowland areas. Individuals are often left untouched 

when fields are cleared for com. It is cultivated 

occasionally, as in Minax. Zinacantecs recognize two 

varieties, sak, "white," and tzoj, "red," according to 

the color of the pods. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, rafters, roof rods, 

purlins, fence posts, ax and pick handles, and digging sticks. 

The heartwood is used for com shuckers and drumsticks. If the 

com farmer runs out of food he may chew the bark with 

tortillas. The tips and buds, predominately classed as "cold," 

are eaten by some at weeding time. The branches are eaten by 

horses. The pods, maturing in January and February, are sold at 
NUMBER 35 171 

market. The beans, generally classed as "hot," are eaten raw 

with tortillas. They are said to kill worms. 

c. Tzajal olnob, "red olnob," refers to Leucaena diversifolia (5-11), trees with small leaflets, 4-7 mm long, 

small pods, 5-10 cm, and small clusters of white or 

pink flowers. It is a low tree common in second growth 

temperate and lowland forests. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, rafters, roof rods, roof 

purlins, fence posts, fiddle bows, hoe, pick, and billhook 

handles, and firewood. The heartwood is considered to be the 

strongest wood for ax handles. It is also used for com shuckers. 

The tips and beans (which mature from December to early 

January) are classed variously as "cold" and "hot." The beans 

become bitter when fully ripe. They are sold at the fiesta of St. 

Sebastian by people from Atz'am. They are sold at market in 

San Cristobal by Elan Vo' merchants. 

8. Pit is the guanacaste Enterolobium cyclocarpum (3-7). 

These are immense trees with swollen trunks and a large 

spreading canopy. The flowers are small, white, in round 

clusters 1-1.5 cm in diameter. The fruit is a flat round pod 

contorted into the shape of an ear, 4-6 cm across. It is common 

in the tropical deciduous forest. Large trees are often left when 

fields are cleared for planting. Cows are said to spread the seeds 

in their patties. Ladinos use the trunks for dugouts. 

The trunk was once used for drums. 

The trunk is also used for fence posts, corral posts, and 

firewood. As an antidote for black widow spider bite, a "hot" 

tea of the bark may be taken. The "hot" sap is drank for 

whooping cough. The fluff that surrounds the seeds was 

formerly used for soap. The seeds, generally classed as "hot," 

are roasted and eaten. For further medicinal use cf. tz'oban. 

Extended range: Jacaranda acutifolia. 

9. Sakil ch'ix, "white spine" (-tik) (sakil kevrajacha), is 

Acacia farnesiana (5-10), a densely branched shrub or small 

tree with clusters of small, yellow flowers and short, thick pods. 

The branches have long, stiff, white spines at the nodes. It is 

common in temperate savannas and in lowland second growth. 

The root is brewed for a "hot" tea for tuberculosis. The trunk 

is used for firewood, and the branches for brash fences. 

Extended range: Diphysa spinosa. 

10. Suk (-tik) refers to the shaggy-barked legumes Lysiloma. 

The two specific classes are distinguished by the color of their 

bark. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Ik'al suk, "black suk" (tzajal suk), refers to Lysiloma 

acapulcense (3-5) and L. divaricatum (2-4), mediumsized trees with flat pods hanging from the branchlets. 

The flowers are white and in racemes of buttons. The 

leaflets are linear, very small, 2-9 mm long, pubescent 

or glabrous. These trees are common elements in 

tropical deciduous forests. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse mainposts, fence posts, 

benches, and firewood, but is very hard to cut. 

The branches are used for brash fences. 

b. Sakil suk, "white suk," is Lysiloma auritum (5-6), a 

tree very similar to those included in ik'al suk, but 

with the leaflets glabrous and flowers in globose 

clusters. The pods are 5-7 cm wide, up to 20 cm long, 

covered with a dark maroon-red skin, and bome in 

clusters. These are also common in tropical deciduous 

forests of lower temperate and lowland areas. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse mainposts, rafters, roof 

purlins, ax handles, and fence posts. Ladinos use it for cattle 

corrals, floor boards and oxcarts. The branches are used for 

brash fences. 

11. Tamarin (tamarin te') is the tamarind Tamarindus 

indica (3-8), a cultivated tree in lowland areas. It is a large tree 

up to 25 m tall with a widely spreading crown. The leaflets are 

oblong, 12-25 mm long. The pale yellow flowers are about 

9-11 mm long and bome in few to several-flowered racemes 

that are shorter than the leaves. The pod is thick, brown, and 

scaly, 5-15 cm long, 2 cm wide. The seeds are brown, shiny, 

and 1 cm broad. Ladinos plant the seeds in their yards in the 

rainy season. They soak the fruit in sweetened water for a 

refreshing beverage. The fruit is sold at market from December 

to April. 

The "cold" tamarind drink is also taken to allay fever. The 

fruit may be brewed to provide a "medium" tea for dysentery. 

Extended range: Mimosa nelsonii. 

12. Tzo' xulem te', "buzzard shit tree" (matabey), refers to 

Lonchocarpus minimiflorus (1-2) and L. rugosus (2-3), 

medium-sized trees with pinnately divided leaves, large oblong 

elliptic leaflets, 2-5 cm long, pubescent below, and with 

prominent veins, clusters of purple pea flowers, and short, flat 

pods. They are scattered in the tropical deciduous forest, 

especially streamside situations and in lower pine-oak forests. 

The trunk is used by ladinos for ox yokes. 

This is a coffee shade tree. The trunk is used for fence posts 

and firewood. 

Extended range: Senna atomaria and Harpalyce formosa 

var. goldmanii. 

13. Vamuch te' (vamoch) is guamuchil, Pithecellobium 

dulce (3-7), a medium-sized tree with pinnately divided leaves 

and broad, ovate leaflets. The flowers are white and in dense 

racemes. The fruit is a thick pod in which the seeds have a 

fleshy, sweet, aril. It is common in tropical deciduous forests 

and thorn scrub, where it is sometimes cultivated by the ladinos 

in the lowlands. 

The trunk is used for metate platforms, planks, chairs, 

tables, chests, beds, benches, gunstocks, slingshots, crosses, 

gates, doors, and com bins. The "hot" resin is brewed as a tea 

for whooping cough. The fruit is eaten by orioles and humans. 

Extended range: Acacia pringlei. 

14. Voy chij te', "sheep hoof tree" or "deer hoof tree" (-tik) 

(voy ch'ix te'), refers to Bauhinia divaricata (5-18), B. 

pauletia (3-3), and B. ungulata (2-6). These are shrubs or 

small trees with leaves divided into two leaflets resembling the 

hoof of a sheep or deer. The flowers are white or pink and 
172 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

showy. The fruit is a flat pod. They are scattered to common in 

second growth and tropical deciduous forest in the lowlands. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse roof poles, ax, hoe, and pick 

handles, digging sticks, fence posts, and firewood. 

Extended range: Calliandra emarginata, Senna nicaraguensis, and Pithecellohium duke. 

15. Xaxib (-tik, -altik) refers to thinly branched shrubs or 

small trees, with divided leaves and feathery, white or red 

flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i xaxib, "genuine xaxib" (k'a'esob nukul, k'ox 

xaxib, timbre, timpre), is Acacia angustissima 

(18-21), a variable plant that is a shrub or small tree 

with buttons of small, white flowers arranged in lax 

terminal panicles. The leaflets are linear, 4-7 mm 

long. The stems are occasionally spinescent. The fruit 

is a thin flat pod. It occurs in dry, second growth 

situations at all elevations. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan recorded that "for tanning 

they use timbre, whose bark gives body and strength to their 

sugarcane drinks. And it is to this same tree that the little worm 

fastens and fattens that provides the oil for Chiapanec lacquer" 

(de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

The trunk is used for tamale platforms, bean poles, com and 

flower stakes, digging sticks, and firewood. The bark of this 

tree was especially prized as a tanning agent. In San Sigro, after 

the children climbed the trees and stripped the bark down to the 

ground, causing the trees to die, the ejido representative 

prohibited the practice. The bark was sold by the arroba to the 

people of Acala and Chiapa de Corzo, who ground the bark, 

placing it under and over the hides which were allowed to soak 

in troughs of water for 4-6 days (though some report for two 

weeks). Some say the hides are soaked with lime water, others, 

that the hides are covered with ashes after soaking. 

The branches are used for brash fences, and are eaten by 

horses, cattle, and sheep. 

The fruit is deemed poisonous and may be lethal to 

unsuspecting children. 

b. Muk'ta xaxib, "large xaxib" (k'a'esob nukul, xaxib 

te'), are Calliandra portoricensis (5-7) and C. 

tetragona (3-5), thinly branched shrubs or small trees 

with large, terminal clusters of white flowers with 

numerous stamens, 1.5-2 cm long, the leaflets are 

oblong-linear, 8-16 mm long. The stems are angled 

with recurved spines. This plant occurs in second 

growth in temperate and lowland areas. 

The trunk is used for digging sticks and fence posts. 

The bark was sold to be used as a tanning agent. The leaves 

are thought to be poisonous. 

16. Xaxib ch'ix, "xaxib spine," is Mimosa pigra (1-1). It is 

a stiff erect shrub with pubescent leaflets. The stem is armed 

with stout recurved prickles and the rachis of the leaves with 

stiff straight spines. The flowers are pink in dense, round heads. 

The pods are about 3-8 cm long and densely pubescent with 

rather stiff brown hairs. It occurs along sandy stream banks and 

in waste ground near standing water in the lowlands. 

17. Yolnob ch'o, "rat's olnob" (olnob te', vax tz'i'lel, 

xaxib te', yolnob chij, yolnob ka', yolnob vakax, yolnob 

vet), is a non-Linnaean term applied to Aeschynomene 

compacta (1-1), A. purpusii (1-1), Chamaecrista nictitans 

ssp. disadena var. pilosa (1-2), Desmanthus virgatus (2-1), 

Indigofera thibaudiana (2-2), Machaerium chiapense (1-2), 

Senna occidentalis (2-6), 5. pallida (1-1), 5. skinned (1-2), 

and Tephrosia cinerea (1-1). These are temperate and lowland 

shrubs or perennial herbs with pinnately divided leaves and flat 

pods. They occur predominately in waste ground or second 

growth formations. They are classed variously as "tree" and 

"plant." 

The branches are used for brush fences. They are eaten by 

sheep and horses. 

"On Set" 

The "on set" is a loose association of 16 generics, all trees 

with glossy elliptic leaves and large globose fruits. 

1. Aj-te', "reed tree" (-tik), is the white sapote Casimiroa 

edulis (2-5), a tree up to 20 m tall. The leaves are palmate with 

five elliptic leaflets and lateral panicles of greenish yellow or 

whitish flowers about 8 mm broad. The fruit is green or 

yellowish, resembling an apple, 6-10 cm broad. This tree 

occurs wild in temperate and highland areas, where it is 

protected. It also is used as a shade tree in the coffee groves. It 

is planted in most of the temperate and all but one of die 

highland communities. In San Sigro the fruit does not ripen 

until April. 

The trunk was used formerly to make log stools. It is used for 

fence posts and bridges. The fruit is not esteemed by 

Zinacantecs, who scornfully classify it as "fit for Chamulans," 

who eat it together with tortillas. It is sold in Chamula and San 

Cristohal in August and September. It is "cold." The seed may 

be stored and utilized as a remedy for boils (chakal). It is 

ground and the powder applied to the boil. This remedy is 

"cold." The seed may be put in the fire to split and dien is 

applied hot to the boil, then replaced by another, etc. This "hot" 

remedy has a more involved variant: a part of die seed is 

ground, mixed with tallow and urine and applied. If die boil 

does not shrink, three seeds are crashed, mixed with tallow, and 

brewed in strong cane liquor. This is applied in a compress so 

the boil will burst. The sore is later bathed with k'ox pak' chak 

tea. For further medicinal use cf. k'anal sat mes. To rid one's 

yard of gophers the seed may be inserted or burned in the 

gopher's burrow so that its teetii will fall out. 

White sapotes are subdivided into three classes, all occurring 

in the same environment and having identical uses. The fruits 

of each have white or yellow (sweeter) flesh. Cf. ixim. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Bik'it aj-te', "small reed tree," has smooth leaves and 

smooth, round, hawthorn-sized fruit. This is the 
NUMBER 35 173 

sweetest variety. Whereas the other two varieties fruit 

in August, this ripens in September. 

b. Ch'ulul aj-te', "smooth reed tree," is a white sapote 

with smooth leaves and round, smooth-skinned fruits, 

die size of a small orange. The flavor is considered 

superior to that of the large-fruited variety. 

c. Muk'ta aj-te', "large reed tree," is a form with rough, 

thick leaves and large, irregularly shaped fruits that 

have a rough skin and furrows. The flavor of 

individual fruits varies as much as that of avocados. 

2. Aj-te' te', "reed tree tree," is the common lowland tree 

Tabebuia rosea (2-5). It has large, digitally compound leaves 

and large clusters of tubular, purple flowers that cover the tree 

in the dry season when it is leafless. The leaflets are broadly 

elliptic to ovate, 8-16 cm long. The flowers are 5-8 cm long 

with a small tubular, lobed calyx, 1.5-2 cm long. The fruit is an 

elongate, narrow pod up to 20 cm long with papery winged 

seeds. 

The leaves are used for bone breaks. 

3. Chinin (koyoy): this lowland tree is a large, leatheryskinned, yellow, stringy-meated form of Persea scheideana. It 

grows in San Lucas and Bik'it Nich and fruits in May through 

mid-August. It is "cold." This variety, prized by ladinos, is 

seldom bought by Zinacantecs who claim that it causes burps. 

It may be buried in pine needles to ripen and be resold. 

4. Itzompi (jisan-tzotz, matz'an-tzotz) is the lowland tree 

son sapote Licania platypus (1-6). It is a tree up to 20 m tall 

with large oblong leaves, 15-35 cm long, rounded at the base, 

acute at the apex. The flowers are small, about 6 mm broad, 

white in gray-pubescent panicles. The fruit is large and heavy, 

ovoid, 8-20 cm long, 5-14 cm broad, dark brown. The flesh is 

deep yellow, juicy, and sweet. There is one seed about 3-8 cm 

long, 2.5-4.5 cm broad, covered with dense fibrous hairs. Slips 

are transplanted by ladinos in the rainy season. It occurs along 

streams in seasonal evergreen forest. 

The fruit is sold in Zinacantan Center during the Fiesta of St. 

Lawrence. It is generally considered to be "hot." The pit may be 

stored to serve in a variety of medicinal teas. For a baby 

suffering stomach ache the pit is chopped up and brewed 

together with brown sugar or preferably honey. The tea is 

"hot." The pit may also be brewed to provide a "hot" tea for 

dysentery or infant hernia. To calm whooping cough a 

decoction of son sapote pits and walking stick insects is drank. 

For other medicinal uses cf. j'ak'-'uch, tan pox. 

5. Ja'as (-tik) is the mamey sapote Pouteria mammosa 

(2-7). A large tree to 30 m tall with a large trunk and shaggy to 

smooth reddish brown bark. The leaves are obovate, 7-30 cm 

long, acute at the apex, alternate at the base. The flowers are 

about 10 mm long, sessile and densely clustered on older 

branches below the leaves. The fruit is 10-15 cm long, 

ellipsoid or globose, brown. The flesh is pink or yellowish, 

sweet with one large, glossy brown seed with a large, pale scar 

on one side. It is commonly cultivated by lowland ladinos and 

occurs in the wild along streams in seasonal evergreen forest. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. Dropping 

many sapotes down, Rabbit wedged poor Coyote's jaws open 

so he could flee (Laughlin 1977, T166). The fruit is harvested 

by Zinacantecs in Kelem Ton. The fruit may be resold and is 

sold at market from January to July. To speed ripening it may 

be buried in pine needles. It is classed both as "hot" and "cold." 

The pit may be boiled, the skin removed and then cut in pieces, 

dried in the sun, toasted on the griddle, and ground into powder, 

which is added as seasoning to com gruel (pamal ul). To soften 

their hair, women may rub it with the pit when shampooing. As 

a remedy for cramps the pit may be ground and brewed to 

provide a "hot" tea, or the pit may be toasted and rubbed on the 

afflicted area. 

Extended range: Eriobotrya japonka. 

6. Kovana te', "kovana tree" (kovano te', marimpa te'), is 

the lowland tree Swietenia humilis (4-4). It is a small tree with 

dense foliage, pinnately compound leaves with elliptic, long 

acuminate leaflets, 6-15 cm long, and large, woody, erect 

ellipsoid fruits, 20-30 cm long. The flowers are about 1 cm 

broad in open axillary panicles, shorter than the leaves. 

The trunk is used for marimbas, fence posts, fieldhouse roof 

and wall poles, and firewood. 

7. Lumpiscra (lumpijera) is the lowland tree Platymiscium 

dimorphandrum (1-2). It is a small tree with pinnately divided 

leaves with elliptic to ovate leaflets, 5-15 cm long, and 

racemes of white flowers, about 1 cm long. It occurs in tropical 

deciduous forest and seasonal evergreen forest. It is a very 

common element of tropical deciduous forest. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse roof poles, fence posts, and 

firewood. 

8. Manko (-tik, -altik) is the mango Mangifera indica. It is 

cultivated in suitable locations throughout the lowland area. 

When Xut, the Christchild, was hiding in the banana grove 

with the Virgin Mary she offered him one of her fruits, a 

banana. 

"I don't want to eat it very much. You see, I have a fruit. 

I'll bring it for you. We'll see what the fruit is like. But that 

would be better," said Xut. 

"Ah, what is the fruit like?" asked [Our Holy Mother]. 

"See, it's good," said Xut. 

"See what I'm eating," he said. Our Holy Father [Xut] 

ate. He ate mangoes. He just ate mangoes. "But this will 

multiply. It will grow anywhere. It won't disobey. But see, 

I'm eating it. I'll plant its pit. I'll make it multiply. You'll 

see! It will grow everywhere. It won't disobey. But see, I'm 

eating it. I'll plant its pit. I'll make it multiply. You'll see! 

It will grow everywhere," said [Xut]. 

"Ah, is it good?" [asked Our Holy Mother]. 

"It's good, try eating it!" said Our Holy Father. He ate a 

lot, he finished it. "But my fruit is very sweet. Your fruit is 

less so. But it's eaten differently. My fruit is better," said 

Xut. 

"Ah!" said [Our Holy Mother]. 
174 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Well, let it multiply then. If it grows have everyone eat 

it. They'll learn since I'm eating it too. They'll eat it too," 

said [Xut]. 

"Ah!" said [Our Holy Mother]. 

"They'll learn since I'm eating the fruit. They'll learn, 

but [the banana] doesn't grow everywhere. It has its own 

place where it grows. The other one doesn't disobey. It 

grows wherever you plant it." said her son. 

"Ah!" said [Our Holy Mother]. 

"The other [fruit] everyone will eat, said [Xut]. 

Then Xut explains to his mother how parakeets will come 

and peck out the middle of the fruit and eat it. 

"It's the one that eats lots of fruit and young com to 

today—the parakeet. Yes! That's why it is shot. They kill it. 

They kill it. Yes!" 

"So the mango multiplied. Xut ate it. That's how the 

mango was bom. Yes!" 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Batz'i manko, "genuine mango," is the small-fruited 

form, with very fibrous seeds, cultivated by lowland 

ladinos and by Zinacantecs in Kelem Ton and Santa 

Rosa. 

The trees fruit in March, April, and May, but by June the fruit 

is wormy. To speed ripening the fruits may be buried in pine 

needles. They are resold by Zinacantecs. They are "hot." 

Mangoes are sold at market in Zinacantan Center on the fourth 

Friday of Lent and during Holy Week. Each steward presents 

10 mangoes to their musicians and to the sacristans on Corpus 

Christi. 

b. Chitom manko, "pig mango" (baroso manko), is a 

fibrous form with larger, yellower, sweeter fruit, which 

grows adventive in the lowlands along streams. It 

fruits at the same time as the batz'i manko. It is "hot." 

c. Tranjero manko, "foreign mango," is the large-fruited 

form with few fibers. It grows in groves in lowland 

towns. The fruit is sold at market from late April to 

early August. Zinacantecs resell the fruit in Tuxtla. It is 

"hot." 

d. Xok manko, "mottled mango," is a small-fruited form 

with short fibers and a large seed. The black mottling 

of the skin increases as the season progresses. 

Both pits and saplings are planted in many of the temperate 

communities in the rainy season, but they should not be planted 

by young people. They are used by Zinacantecs as coffee shade 

trees. They fruit in 6 to 10 years. Mangoes seldom fruit in 

Atz'am, but they are common in the temperate hamlets of lok' 

Ch'enom, Masan, Potovtik, and occur also in Muk'ta Jok' and 

the towns of Burrero, Ixtapa, and Soyal6. The fruits ripen in late 

June and continue into August. 

The trunk is used for firewood. The "cold" bark is boiled and 

the tea drank for dysentery. A wooden mango is kept by the 

Senior Steward of Our Lady of the Rosary in his coffer. It is 

removed and washed on St. Rose Day. The fruit is sold at 

market. It is "hot." 

9. Muy is the chico sapote Manilkara achras (2-7), a large 

tree up to 30 m tall with a very thick trunk. The leaves are 

coriaceous, elliptic to oblong, 5-12 cm long, 3.5-5.5 cm wide, 

the nerves are almost obscure. The flowers are solitary in the 

leaf axils, about 14 mm long. The fruit is variable in size and 

shape, usually ovoid or globose, 3-9 cm in diameter. The skin 

is rusty brown with a pebbled surface. The meat is white with 

the texture of a pear. It occurs wild along streams throughout 

the lowland area and is cultivated by ladinos. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. The 

commercial use of its sap for chicle is not known by 

Zinacantecs. Zinacantecs harvest the trees occurring in Kelem 

Ton. The fruit is sold by ladinos at market from October to 

April. It is "hot." 

10. No'chi' (k'anas te', nochi, tzo' olol, tzo' unen) is the 

yellow sapote Pouteria campechiana (2-2). A tree to 20 m tall 

with a broad spreading crown and irregularly furrowed brown 

trunk, the leaves are elliptic, alternate, 9-20 cm long, acute at 

the apex and base. The flowers are small and axillary. The fruit 

is ellipsoid, about 5-10 cm in diameter and up to 20 cm long, 

yellow, green or brown. The flesh is yellow and sweet, with 

1-4 seeds. It is cultivated in the lowlands by ladinos, and by a 

few Zinacantecs in Santa Rosa. The pit is planted in June. It 

occurs naturally along streams in seasonal evergreen forest. 

The fruit is sold in San Crist6bal from July to January. It is 

classed variously as "hot" and "cold." 

11. On* (lo'balal on*) refers to the Mexican and Guatemalan races of the avocado Persea americana. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Batz'i on, "genuine avocado" (pimil pat on), refers to 

the thick, hard, warty-skinned forms of die Guatemalan race of the avocado Persea americana. These are 

large or medium-sized trees with alternate, oval to 

elliptic leaves, 10-30 cm long, acute or acuminate at 

the apex. The inflorescence of small greenish flowers 

is paniculate and gray pubescent. It is known only in 

cultivation. It is grown in the yards of Pat Osil and 

most temperate communities and in the coffee groves. 

Some believe that avocados must not be planted by 

young people, though the young planter may protect 

himself by burying several pits togetiier and, when 

they sprout, pulling up all but one. Both pits and 

saplings are planted, generally in the rainy season. 

Compost or sheep manure may be applied. When the 

seedlings are l'/2 m tall they may be transplanted in 

rows. The tree is reported to fruit after 5-15 years. 

Fruiting is encouraged by slashing the trunk or 

"feeding" it with meat. On St. Andrew's Day or Holy 

Saturday, the owner of the tree, accompanied by a 

friend, visits the uncooperative tree to "give it a 

tumpline." He takes his machete or his ax and scolds 

the tree, slashing it three times, saying, "I'm going to 

cut you down!" Then, his friend offers him a shot of 
NUMBER 35 175 

cane liquor—"Take pity on it, here is a little cane 

liquor, don't cut down my avocado!" "But I'm going 

to cut it down, it doesn't fruit," replies the owner. 

"Don't cut it down, we'll see if it doesn't fruit next 

year," urges his friend. The two drink the cane liquor 

together and the following year the avocado, out of 

gratitude, provides a bounty of fruit. Slashed avocado 

trees may be seen in Zinacantan as witnesses to this 

technique that is practiced also in Veracruz (Coe and 

Diehl, 1980). 

A non-fruiting avocado tree may also be convinced to fruit 

by giving it its "meal, hanging a pig head, horse or cow bones, 

or fresh sheep meat in its branches. It is said that if a cow or pig 

is slaughtered beneath an avocado tree it is good to hang some 

of the meat in the tree so it will fruit better. To prevent the 

pregnant wife of the owner of an avocado tree from spoiling the 

fruit she should take three bites out of three fruits. 

The trunk is used for log stools and firewood. The fruit is 

harvested from December to March and is sold at market in San 

Cristobal. The avocado is the only fruit that is eaten raw with 

salt and tortillas as part of a meal. It is "cold." As a remedy for 

bloody dysentery the pit is chopped up and brewed. The tea is 

"cold." As a remedy for boils (chakal) the pits are placed on the 

fire to split and then pressed against the boil until they cool, 

when another is applied. It is "hot." 

b. Ch'ail on, "bitter avocado," is a smaller, not so tasty 

form of the Guatemalan race with little flesh. It grows 

wild in temperate habitats such as Atz'am and Ibestik 

in steep ravines in montane rain forest. 

c. Tzitz on is a maroon, thin-skinned avocado with bright 

green, sweet meat of the Mexican race of Persea 

americana. The fruit has two forms: 6-7 cm long and 

ovoid or 8-12 cm long with a narrow, crooked neck. It 

is cultivated by Zinacantecs in Pat Osil and most of the 

temperate communities, especially Atz'am. Fruit is 

produced in 8 to 10 years. The fruit matures from 

October through November. 

d. Yax-'on, "green avocado" (ch'ulul on, pajajtik on, 

va'ajtik on), applies to the larger-fruited forms of the 

Mexican race of Persea americana and thin-skinned 

interracial hybrids cultivated by lowland ladinos and 

by Zinacantecs of Kelem Ton, and Santa Rosa, and in 

Masan and Minax. These have thin skins and sweet, 

green flesh. Zinacantecs recognize red- and greenskinned varieties. They are planted similarly to the 

hard-skinned forms. The fruit matures in late June 

through August. It is resold by Zinacantecs, who may 

bury it in pine needles for ripening. 

12. Oven (oven on, oven te', yoven chuch) is Persea 

donnell-smithii (1-2), a tree common in the evergreen cloud 

forest of the high mountain ridges. It is similar to Persea 

americana except that the leaves are densely pubescent and the 

fruit is small. 

When the survivors of the Flood were asked what they ate, 

one held up an oven fruit in his hand and said that it was 

delicious. "Won't you try it?" he asked the boss. "No, I don't 

want it. Take it away! That's what you'll live on. I'll give you 

a tail, I'll give you fur, get going!" And that is how the squirrel 

was created. 

The trunk is used for gunstocks. Zinacantecs report that the 

acid-tasting fruit is eaten by Chamulans. It is "cold." 

Extended range: Ilex brandegeana. 

13. Tzitz (ik'al tzitz) refers to the small, thin, shiny, 

purple-skinned forms of the Mexican race of Persea americana 

var. drymifolia. The ovoid fruits, 5-8 cm long, have bright 

green meat. The odor of the strongly-scented leaves and fruit is 

similar to that of the herb Tagetes lucida, which is also called 

tzitz, a clear homonym. The phonetic value of this name is 

extended to explain the creation of the tree by a yellow-eyed 

junco, tzitzil-'ul: 

"How do you live?" the junco was asked. 

"As for me, I have eggs," it said. 

"What are your eggs like?" (someone) asked. "Look!" it 

said. Its eggs were glossy black. 

"What are your eggs called, then?" 

"They're called tzitzal lo'bol (tzitzal fruit)," it said. 

"Ah," he said. "Tzitzal fruit—is it edible?" 

"It is." 

"But how does it grow?" 

"Look, I bury it in the ground. You'll see, I bury it in the 

ground where I scratch," it said. It dug a hole for it, the 

junco dug up the ground. 

"You'll see, in four or five days," it said. [That meant] in 

four or five years. "In four or five days," it said. 

"Ah, I guess we'll see," he said. Already the bird's egg 

had big sprouts. It was the tzitz avocado that came up, the 

tzitz avocado that came up. It was the glossy black little 

tzitz as we call it. It was [the junco's] egg that was 

transformed like that long ago. 

This form occurs wild and is planted in many of the 

temperate and most of the highland communities in the same 

way as batz'i on. It fruits in 5 to 9 years. The leaves are used as 

a substitute for Tagetes lucida to season com gruel. The fruits 

are sold at market in May and early June and again in late 

October and early November. They are classed variously as 

"cold" and "hot." 

14. Tzitz te', "tzitz tree," refers to the wild trees Beilschmiedia riparia (1-1), Dipholis matudae (1-1), Lkaria peckii 

(1-4), Nectandra coriacea (3-7), Ocotea chiapensis (1-1), 

and Styrax argentum (1-1). These small to medium-sized trees, 

occur in temperate forests and have pungent leaves and small 

avocado-like fruits. 

The stems were once used for bodkins. The trunk of L. peckii 

is used for threshing platform posts and for the drams of the 

elders' and ensign-bearers' musicians. Birds eat the fruit. The 

trunk of 5. argentum is used for wattle, roof poles, and gate 

rails. 
176 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

15. Uch (-tik, -altik) is the black sapote Diospyros digyna 

(1-6), tall trees to 35 m, with alternate, leaves on short petioles, 

narrowly elliptic to 30 cm long. The fruits are large and 

globose, 4-7 cm broad, chive green or yellowish green. The 

flesh is black and seeds are 1.5-2 cm long, smooth to 

somewhat compressed. The flowers are white and fragrant in 

small axillary clusters. The name of this tree is a homonym of 

the name for opossum. Once the flesh of its fruit was grayish 

white, the color of opossum fur (as it still is when unripe). The 

ancestors called it opossum's fruit, but the a chicken flew up, 

crunched its seeds, and shat in the fruit, so its flesh turned 

black. Sometimes now the people call it "chicken shit uch." 

This tree is cultivated by ladinos in temperate and lowland 

areas and occurs naturally in seasonal evergreen forest along 

steep ravines. Individual trees often persist long after habitation 

in areas that have been abandoned. Such trees are harvested by 

the new Zinacantec settlers of Kelem Ton. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and for firewood. The fruit 

is sold at market by ladinos from October to April. Zinacantecs 

may bury the fruits in pine needles to speed ripening before 

reselling. If many fruit are eaten a stomach ache will follow. 

The pit is reputed to be poisonous. The fruit is classed variously 

as "cold," "medium," and "hot." 

Extended range: Diospyros nicaraguensis. 

16. Yaj-te' kotom, "coati's reed tree" (sakil k'oxox te'), is 

the lowland tree Elaeodendron trkhotomum (2-6). It is a 

medium-sized tree with opposite, leathery, ovate leaves, 8-13 

cm long and a hard, walnut-shaped fruit, 1-2.5 cm long. The 

flowers are in small, few-flowered axillary clusters. The tree is 

scattered in lowland areas. 

After the Flood one of the survivors is asked what he ate. 

When he points out this fruit that fills his canoe he is told that 

because all the com has rotted he can subsist on it, but he is 

condemned to live in caves. Provided with a striped face and a 

bushy tail, to this day coatis eat the fruit. 

"On Te' Set" 

The "on te' set" is composed of two generics referring to 

highland trees and shrubs with shiny, red bark and soft, brittle 

wood. 

1. On te', "avocado tree" (-tik, -altik), refers to the 

manzanitas and madrones. These are plants with red, peely 

bark, small, red or black, flesh-covered, single-seeded fruits, 

and white um-shaped flowers in terminal clusters. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'ox on te', "small avocado tree," refers to the shrubby 

manzanitas Comarostaphylos arbutoides (1 -2) and C. 

discolor (6-9). These shrubs have dark red, peely 

bark, glossy, green, elliptic to obovate leaves, 3.5-11 

cm long, with serrulate or crenulate margins and 

terminal racemes of white, um-shaped flowers, 6-7 

mm long. The single-seeded fuits are covered with 

black papillate flesh. They are a common element in 

second growth formations and on rock outcrops in 

highland areas. 

The tips may be used in the "steam cure." 

b. Muk'ta on te', "large avocado tree," is the madrone 

Arbutus xalapensis (2-3), a medium-sized tree with 

smooth, orange-red, peely bark and glossy, elliptic 

leaves, 8-14 cm long, very similar to leaves of 

avocado. The flowers are um-shaped, white or pinkish, 

6-8 mm long, in a many-flowered terminal panicle. It 

is a common element in the pine-oak forests of 

temperate and highland areas. 

Madrone wood and the wood of the bush laurel are 

considered to be best for mortar gunpowder. The trunk is used 

for bean poles and for firewood. It smokes very little. If the 

madrone has many blooms this is a sign that mangoes, which 

fruit at the same time as the madrone, will bear many fruits. The 

flowers are scattered on the processional path of the Christ 

Child in Atz'am. The berry is eaten by robins, band-tailed 

pigeons, and people. It is "cold." 

c. Nap'ap' on te', "sticky avocado tree" (xuch'al on te'), 

also refers to Arbutus xalapensis (3-6), but is 

restricted to those members of the population widi 

sticky glandular pubescence that have on occasion 

been segregated by botanists as a separate species A. 

glandulosa. 

Three tips are used to mend a broken bone. They are "hot." 

2. Sakil te', "white tree," is the box elder Acer negundo ssp. 

mexicanum (4-7), a soft-wooded tree that is common along 

highland streams. It has large, soft, pubescent, pinnately 

compound leaves, with ovate, acuminate, serrate leaflets, 5-16 

cm long, and red catkin-like clusters of flowers that resemble 

bunches of hair on the leafless stems. The fruit is a samara, 

about 2.5-3 cm long. 

Slips are planted in Zinacantan Center for fencerows. The 

trunk is used for house mainposts, but is scarce. The trunk is 

split and used for sheep corrals and fences for vegetable and 

flower gardens. Some say that if it is burned for firewood die 

smoke will kill one's chickens. The branches may be used to 

wrap flowers for transport. 

"Pitz'otz' Set" 

The "pitz'otz' set" includes four generics, soft-wooded 

shrubs with small flowers in terminal inflorescences and 

elliptic leaves. All are classed variously as "plant" and "tree," 

demonstrating the ambiguous application of "tree" to nonwoody shrubs. 

1. Pitz'otz' (-tik) (lo'bol mut, ve'el chij) is Monnina 

xalapensis (13-17), a glabrous-leaved shrub with terminal 

racemes of blue and yellow flowers. The leaves are alternate, 

narrowly elliptic to oblanceolate, short petiolate, 3.5-7 cm 

long. The flowers are similar to pea flowers, about 6 mm long. 

The fruits are fleshy, purple drapes with a single seed. These 

shrubs are common in the understory of the open pine-oak 
NUMBER 35 177 

forests of highland and temperate areas. 

Sheep eat the leaves. Birds eat the berries. To cure laundry 

hands (esel k'obol), women crush the "hot" leaves or ripe 

berries on their palms for three or four days. The berries may 

also be crushed on the fingernails to cure unen k'obol, an 

infection under the fingernails that causes them to fall out. 

Extended range: Cuphea cyanea, Fuchsia encliandra ssp. 

tetradactyla, F. thymifolia ssp. minimiflora, and Ludwigia 

octovalvis. 

2. Sat pukuj, "devil's eye" (-tik) (sakil ik'al te'), refers to 

Solanum aligerum (9-13), S. brachystachys (1-1), and S. 

cervantesii (2-3). These are glabrous-leaved shrubs with 

terminal or axillary cymes of nodding, white flowers and small, 

green or red, tomato-like fruits. They are common in the 

understory of evergreen cloud forests and wet canyons in 

pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. 

Thirteen tips form a basic ingredient of the "steam cure." 

Birds eat the berries. 

3. Tuil te', "stinky tree" (bik'tal xinal te', ik'al te', xavon 

te'), refers to the temperate and highland shrubs Cestrum 

aurantiacum (5-10), C. guatemalense (3-5), Solanum 

brachystachys (4-4), and S. nudum (1-1). These are shrubs 

with glossy, dark green, foetid leaves and fleshy, round, white 

(Cestrum) or black (Solanum) fruits. 

The trunk is used in the construction of brash fences and for 

fence posts and firewood. The berries of Cestrum are mashed 

and used for laundry soap. 

Extended range: Cestrum nocturnum, Ligustrum ovalifolium, Solanum cervantesii, and Tournefortia densiflora. 

4. Ve'el kulajte', white-winged dove food" (ajval te' in 

part, barsin te', ik'al sat tz'i'lel, sak-paran te' in part, ve'el 

chuch, ve'el mut, yich koyote, yich xulem), refers to Cordia 

foliosa (2-6), C. spinescens (4-10), and Rauvolfia tetraphylla 

(5-6), shrubs with scabrous or glabrous, elliptic leaves and 

terminal inflorescences. The fruits are small, fleshy drapes. 

They occur in the understory of tropical deciduous forest and in 

lowland second growth formations. 

The trunk is used for firewood. White-winged doves and 

red-billed pigeons eat the fruit. 

"Po'on Set" 

The po'on set includes 12 generics, mostly broad-leaved 

evergreen lowland trees, many with edible fruits, large trunks, 

and large, thin, compound leaves. 

1. Amat refers to the wild fig trees Ficus glabrata (3-7) and 

F. glaucescens (2-7), large, buttressed trees with thick, fibrous 

bark and white, milky sap. The leaves are alternate, large, thick, 

entire and ovate, 8-23 cm long. They occur along streams in 

the seasonal evergreen forests of the lowlands. 

The edible fruit is classed variously as "hot" and "cold." It is 

also eaten by birds and river snails. Jaguars are said to toss 

these fruit at people to frighten them away. Some believe that 

the tree's soul will kill the person who chops it down, others 

use the trunk for benches, shelves, lamp stands, gates, fence 

posts, and firewood. The buttress is used for metate platforms. 

2. Ch'u te'*, "God tree" (-tik) (santo te', tuil te'), refers to 

the tropical cedars. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Bik'it ch'u-te', "small God tree," is Cedrela oaxacensis (2-3), a medium-sized tree common in the tropical 

deciduous forest. It is very similar to C. odorata, but 

differs in being a much smaller tree and having very 

large, woody obovoid fruits, about 12 cm long and 4 

cm thick. 

For use cf. sakil ch'u te'. 

b. Sakil ch'u-te', "white God tree," refers to the common 

wild and cultivated Cedrela odorata (4-5) and C. 

salvadorensis (1-1), large trees with red, aromatic 

wood, large pinnately compound leaves with ovate or 

oblong ovate leaflets, 5 to about 23 cm long. The 

flowers are small in large, terminal panicles. The fruit 

is small, oblong, woody and hangs in clusters. When 

mature it splits open from the apex into five segments 

releasing the winged seeds. Ladinos living in temperate areas plant them in fencerows. They also occur 

along streams, in seasonal evergreen forest (C. 

odorata), and on steep slopes in montane rain forest of 

temperate hamlets. 

Because of the unceasing aroma exuded by its wood, this tree 

is thought to have divine qualities. In 1977, when the Church of 

St. Lawrence was gutted by fire and the patron saint consumed 

by flames, the bishop donated a plaster image of St. Lawrence 

as a replacement. It was not long before the town decided that 

their patron saint must be made of Spanish cedar. A search was 

made throughout the township until a tree suitable for carving 

was discovered. That tree, in the form of St. Lawrence, now 

stands above the altar. The trunk is also used for crosses, 

drams, fiddles, fiddle bows, coffers, benches, shelves, lamp 

stands, chairs, tables, doors, gunstocks, and grain measures cf. 

nukul pat. 

3. Inop (-tik) (pansuro te') is Ceiba pentandra (3-3), the 

legendary tree of life of the classic Maya. They have immense, 

swollen trunks, which branch after 40-50 m. The trees, when 

leafless, bear flowers in clusters. The flowers are white or pink 

with petals 3-3.5 cm long and densely silky-hairy outside. The 

leaves are digitately compound, with 5-7 oblanceolate or 

oblong leaflets, 8-20 cm long. The fruits are similar to C. 

aesculifolia (mojan). In this region they occur along streams in 

the seasonal evergreen forests of the lowlands and are planted 

in market places and town squares. 

Young trees, having straight trunks, are classed as "male," 

(vinik or stot), whereas the old trees, with swollen trunks, are 

"female," (sme'). Ceibas are considered to be "sources of 

water" (me' vo') and accordingly should not be felled. He who 

does so will swell with water and die. Although some claim that 

the same fate awaits the person who hugs a ceiba, others assert 

that a man who wishes to become fat should hug a "female" 
178 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

ceiba, briefly wrap his sash around its trunk, or walk around it 

three times. To fatten a pig some ceiba bark should be mixed 

with its com, or it should be provided with a leash made from 

the same bark. 

4. Jovos refers to two lowland trees with elliptic, singleseeded, fleshy fruits bome on the stems below the terminal leaf 

clusters. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i jovos, "genuine jovos" (chitom po'on, k'anal 

po'on, ovos, po'on chitom, po'on te', simaron 

po'on, te'tikal po'on, yat chitom po'on), is the wild 

hog plum Spondias mombin (9-11), medium-sized 

trees with pinnately divided leaves and plum-sized, 

oblong fruits bome on the stems. These are yellow or 

orange and sweet. The fruits that have large pits and 

little flesh are termed jovos, while those that are very 

juicy are termed po'on. The trees are common in the 

tropical deciduous forests of the lowlands and are 

planted in fencerows by ladinos. 

At the time of the Flood the racoon ate mutut fruit and wild 

hog plums and was given stripes and a tail. 

Lowland ladinos graft mango slips onto the trunk. The trunk 

is used for benches. The stems are debarked and used as 

stoppers for water gourds and powder homs. The fruit is eaten 

by birds and by people. It is sold at market in April, May, and 

October. Hog plums are eaten raw or used to flavor cane liquor. 

They are classed variously as "hot" and "cold." 

Extended range: Trichilia hirta and Zanthoxylum mayanum. 

b. Yaxal jovos, "green jovos," is the wild sapote 

Mastkhodendron capiri var. tempisque (1-2), a 

medium-sized or large tree scattered along small 

streams in seasonal evergreen forest in the temperate 

and lowland areas. The leaves are glossy, entire, 

elliptic, 6-12 cm long, on long petioles, 5-9 cm long 

with a conspicuous white margin. The flowers are 

cream-colored, 7-8 mm long, arranged in dense 

clusters on the stems below the leaves. The green fruit, 

the same size and shape as that of Spondias mombin, is 

sweet, with a milky sap. It is "hot." 

5. Kajanab te', "shelf tree" (bik'it k'os, matapalo, sakil 

mutut, yaxal bot te'), is the highland tree Oreopanax capitatus 

(5-10), a soft-wooded tree often epiphytic of the evergreen 

cloud forest with leaves and stems very similar to mutut. The 

flowers are small and clustered into heads that are arranged in 

panicles or racemes, about 9 cm long. The fruits are about 5 

mm in diameter, globose. Because of its medicinal use slips are 

planted in Pat Osil. 

It is used for firewood, and the "hot" leaves are wilted 

(causing great cracking and popping sounds) and applied to 

bone breaks and aching bodies (k'asemal). 

6. Maluk (malok) is Genipa caruto (3-7), a medium-sized 

tree with large, opposite, entire, obovate to oblong leaves, 

1.5-3.5 cm long, and tubular white flowers, 2-4.5 cm long. It 

has apple-sized, soft, fleshy fruits that are bome in the dry 

season, when the tree is leafless. It is scattered in the lowland 

areas in second growth and tropical deciduous forest. 

The trunk is used for fence posts. The edible fruit is generally 

classed as "cold." 

7. Memela te', "perforated tortilla tree" (pik'in te'), is 

Clusia rosea (6-9), a small to medium-sized tree with very 

thick, glabrous, obovate leaves, 10-20 cm long. The flowers 

are large, fleshy, and red and white. The fruit is a thick, fleshy 

capsule with red, arilate seeds. The bark is smooth. The sap is 

thick and clear. This is a common tree in dry, steep canyons and 

cliff faces in temperate regions mostly with pine-oak forest but 

occasionally in tropical deciduous forest or seasonal evergreen 

forest. 

The mother of a girl who does not want to make tortillas 

gathers three leaves and places them on the griddle. When 

piping hot, she places them in her daughter's hands and presses 

her hands together. It is considered to be an effective 

punishment. 

Extended range: Oreopanax obtusifolius. 

8. Mojan (ajan te', mujan, nanta') is the common lowland 

tree Ceiba aesculifolia (6-9) with large, spinescent trunks, 

digitately compound leaves, with 5-8 elliptic or obovate 

leaflets, 5-15 cm long, and large, white flowers, 10-16 cm 

long. The fruits are woody and elliptic, 12-18 cm long, smooth 

and brown. The seeds are globose and imbedded in the wool 

inside the capsule. It occurs as a dominant in tropical deciduous 

forest. 

The trunk is used for benches, fence posts, and firewood. 

Deer eat the flowers and fruit. The "hot" seeds, resembling com 

kernels, are eaten raw. 

9. Mutut (-tik) is the common wild fig Ficus cookii (11-17) 

and F cotinifolia (1-2). These are glossy, ovate-leaved trees 

with smooth trunks and thick, milky sap. The leaves are about 

6-15 cm long. The fruits are sessile or short pedunculate, 

globose, about 1 cm in diameter, subtended by a bilobate 

involucre. They are a common element in temperate and 

lowland forests. Lowland ladinos plant them in fencerows. 

The fruits are eaten by birds. To induce clotting, die bark is 

cut and the "medium" sap is collected on a leaf and poured on 

a cut. Some use the trunk for fence posts and firewood, but it is 

widely believed that to fell diis wild fig will cause die rain to 

stop because it is the "source of water" (me' vo'). Old trees, 

credited with a soul, will receive the com field offering if they 

are standing near a com field. Cf. batz'i jovos. 

10. Po'on* (-tik, -altik) refers to cultivated and some wild 

hog plums. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i po'on, "genuine po'on," is the cultivated shrub 

Spondias purpurea (2-4), a densely branched, short 

tree with red, very sweet, plum-like fruits. The leaves 

are pinnately divided into 5-12 pairs of subsessile 

leaflets. The flowers are bome in large panicles when 

the tree is leafless. They are bright red or red-purple 

with petals about 3 mm long. 
NUMBER 35 179 

Lowland ladinos and Zinacantecs in Kelem Ton and Santa 

Rosa and in a few of the temperate hamlets cultivate these trees. 

After the tree fruits, and just before the first rains, branches are 

lopped off, cut into 1 m sections and planted in holes 3 m apart 

filled with black earth. It takes 4-5 years to produce many fruit. 

The "cold" tips are chewed for chest pain (me'-vinik). The 

fruit may be resold and is sold at market in April and early May. 

It is eaten raw or used to flavor cane liquor. It is classed 

variously as "hot," and "cold." 

Extended range: Trichilia hirta. The trunk is used for fence 

posts and firewood. 

b. Te'tikal po'on, "wild po'on," refers to both Spondias 

mombin (1-2) and S. purpurea when they occur in 

fencerows. The fruit of the former is not as sweet as 

that of the cultivated hog plum and the latter is a 

purplish fruited variety. Both are medium-sized trees. 

11. Po'on ch'ix, "po'on spine," is Ximenia americana 

(4-7), a densely branched, spinescent shrub or small tree with 

entire, elliptic leaves, 3-7 cm long, and acrid, plum-like fruits. 

The flowers are small, tightly clustered in the leaf axils, and 

white with fringed petals. It occurs in a variety of habitats from 

dry pine-oak forests of temperate hamlets to savannas and 

tropical deciduous forest in the lowlands. 

The fruit is eaten by birds and by some people. 

Extended range: Zanthoxylum sp. 

12. Te'el uli', "rubber tree" (pojov te', uli' te'), is the rubber 

tree Ficus elastka (3-5). It is cultivated by lowland ladinos. 

Rubber gum was once smeared on cloth to make raincapes, 

although the source of gum was probably Castilleja elastka. 

"Pom Set" 

1. "The pom (-tik) set" is a set of two generic terms referring 

to Burseras. These are all thick-trunked trees or shrubs with 

resinous sap that can be made into incense. After slashing, the 

trunk becomes very red. The resin of the different kinds of 

Bursera may be mixed together and may also be mixed with pit 

resin. The "hot" resin is used to plug cavities. It is applied once 

a day for three days. The whitest resin is used to resin fiddle 

strings. Both resin and chips are sold by the people of Muk'ta 

Jok'. 

Long ago when people saw the incense tree they did not 

know what it was. They thought it was a useless tree that 

hardly grew. Our Lord told them, "It will grow tall. It will 

have fruit." He cut a strip of bark off. "Come, look in three 

days!" he said. 

They came back to look and then they saw the resin. Our 

Lord took it. "This is the tree's smoke," he said. "It is very 

fragrant. Use it with flowers in your curing ceremonies!" he 

said. Our Lord gave them a censer and an ember. "This is 

how you cense the patient, this is how you cense the 

clothes." he said. 

Then he told them, "There are two kinds, genuine 

incense and mud incense, but mud incense is not as good." 

In ritual speech, incense is referred to as j-p'ej yo jpom, 

j-p'ej yo jch'ail, my lowly chunk of incense, my humble cloud 

of smoke (the person marker may vary). 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Ach'el pom, "mud pom" (tzo' ka' pom), is Bursera 

bipinnata (8-13), shrubs or trees to 10 m tall. The 

leaves are fem-like, pinnate two or more times into 

small ovate leaflets. The inflorescence is small and 

few-flowered. The fruits are green or red, ovate, about 

6-7 mm long. 

It is planted in a few of the temperate communities. 

The trunk is used for firewood and incense, but the incense 

is less fragrant than that of batz'i pom. For swelling, 13 

splinters are brewed with gunpowder, but batz'i pom is 

considered more effective. For a loose tooth, 13 splinters are 

brewed together with 13 splinters of tzajal tulan. One cup of 

the "hot" tea is also drunk before breakfast. The fruit is eaten by 

white-winged doves. For further medicinal use cf. antzil aj. 

b. Batz'i pom, "genuine pom" (muk'ta pom, pom 

ryox), is Bursera excelsa (7-12). The leaves of this 

tree are pubescent, alternate and pinnately divided into 

ovate or oblong ovate, coarsely crenate leaflets, 2.5-5 

cm long. The rachis is sometimes winged. The flowers 

are small in axillary panicles, shorter than the leaves. 

The fruit is glabrous, subglobose, about 1 cm long. 

Lowland ladinos plant slips in fencerows in April. 

Fencerows of this tree are also planted in many of the 

temperate communities. 

The trunk is used for incense. The wood is cut into slivers 15 

cm long and then chopped into chips. An ensign-bearer 

entering office presents six chips to the corresponding 

musician. The cantors and judge ordinary give three apiece to 

the musicians and to father spook. An elder, when entering 

office should have six burlap bagfuls of incense. The elder's 

wife bums the incense three times daily. Stewards and 

stewards-royal need eight bagfuls. One basket is required by 

the official in charge of each Holy Cross Day ceremony. One 

basket is needed for a curing ceremony. Three or six "hot" 

splinters are a basic ingredient of "flower water." For swelling, 

13 splinters are brewed with gunpowder. One cup of the "hot" 

tea is drunk before breakfast. The fruit is eaten by white-winged 

doves. 

Extended range: Zanthoxylum mayanum. 

2. Pom ka', "horse pom" (sotz' te'), is Bursera steyermarkii 

(3-3). These are broad shrubs, 2-3 m tall. The leaves are large, 

pubescent pinnately divided into three ovate to elliptic leaflets, 

4-6.5 cm long, or unifoliate. The panicle is few-flowered and 

produces fruit very close to the stem. The capsules are about 8 

mm long. The shrub occurs on limestone outcrops in tropical 

deciduous forest in the lowlands. 

As a remedy for heartburn (k'ak'-nuk'), a tea of bark and 

wood chips, brewed with brown salt, is taken. A "hot" tea of six 

or 13 splinters is taken for "wind." The leaves are used for the 

"steam cure." 
180 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Sun Set" 

The "sun set" is a group of four generics, all large-headed, 

soft-wooded shrubs, with daisy-like flowers. 

1. K'ail (-tik) (k'ayil) refers to Smallanthus maculatus 

(10-11) and S. oaxacanus (2-2), soft-wooded shrubs with 

large, pinnately lobed, scabrous leaves, large yellow heads of 

flowers, and fleshy achenes. They are very common in wet, 

open places, waste ground, and second growth situations in the 

highland and temperate areas. 

The root is brewed to make a "hot" tea for "wind." The 

leaves may be brewed for a "hot" tea for postpartum 

hemorrhaging. The plant is used as fodder for sheep and horses. 

On Christmas Eve in Atz'am, the cave where the Christ Child 

is bom is decorated with the flowers. They are also strewn, 

together with the flowers of sak-nich te' and rose petals, on the 

processional path to the church. 

Extended range: Ageratina chiapense, Matudina corvii, and 

Montanoa sp. 

2. Sun (-tik) refers to Tithonia diversifolia (4-6), T. 

longiradiata (2-4), T rotundifolia (1-2), and T tubaeformis 

(4-6). These are weedy shrubs with large, pubescent leaves and 

large, yellow, terminal, sun flowers. They are common in 

second growth shrubby waste ground formations of all 

elevations. They are classed variously as "tree" and "plant." 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse walls. To relieve aches and 

swelling in the limbs the "hot" leaves are warmed, made into a 

ball, and rubbed on the affected area. As a remedy for 

tuberculosis three leaves are brewed and the "hot" tea is drank 

once daily for three days. 

3. Ton k'ail, "hard k'ail" (tik) (muk'tik k'ail, sak-nich 

te'), is Montanoa hexagona (4-8), a large shrub or small tree 

with white, rayed, daisy-like flowers in terminal clusters 

maturing into inflated papery balls in fruit. The leaves are large, 

soft, pubescent, and palmately lobed. These are common in 

rocky, exposed sites in the highland area. 

The trunk is used for the roof rods of hip-roofed houses, but 

the trees are often very difficult of access. 

Extended range: Montanoa speciosa, M. tomentosa ssp. 

xanthiifolia. The latter is cultivated by ladinos and the flowers 

used to decorate altars. 

4. Tzojoj (joj, sakil sun, soj) is Lagascea helianthifolia 

(6-6), a sparsely branched shrub with terminal rayless clusters 

of white flowers. The leaves are large, clasping, opposite, and 

very rough-pubescent. It is a common element in the 

understory of open pine-oak forests and second growth of 

temperate regions. It is classed variously as "tree" and "plant." 

"Tilil Set" 

The "tilil set" includes 10 generics. All are forest trees or 

shrubs with large, entire, glossy leaves and small round fruits. 

1. Bak amuch te', "toad bone tree" (toj-cho' te'), is the 

temperate and highland tree Clethra mexicana (1-1), a 

medium-sized tree, often a dominant in wet oak forests and 

evergreen cloud forests, with large, obovate, coarsely serrate 

leaves, 9-15 cm long and pubescent below, and small, white 

flowers in dense, terminal, arching racemes. The fruits are 

small, dry, many-seeded capsules. 

The trunk is used for rafters and sheep corral rails. 

2. Bakel amuch te', "toad bone tree," is Calyptranthes 

chiapensis (1-1). This shrub or small tree has subsessile 

opposite leaves, with cordate bases and acute to attenuate 

apices. They are glabrous oblong-ovate, ovate or lanceolate, 

10-21 cm long. The small, pinkish flowers are bome in a 

terminal or axillary branched inflorescence. The fruit is round, 

black, 7-12 mm in diameter, with a small collar-like projection 

at the apex. It occurs along streams in the tropical deciduous 

forest of lowland areas. 

Extended range: Colubrina elliptka, Parathesis chiapensis, 

P. leptopa, and Rhamnus mucronata. 

3. Ja'as te', "mamey sapote tree," is Styrax argentum (1-2), 

a large tree up to 25 m tall. It is a common element of seasonal 

evergreen and tropical deciduous forests of the lowlands. The 

leaves are alternate, gTay-pubescent beneath, variable in shape, 

lanceolate, oblong or obovate, 7-16 cm long. The flowers are 

white fading pink, 9-15 mm long, in terminal or axillary 

racemes or panicles. The calyx is cup-shaped, pubescent, and 

4-5 mm long. The fruit is subglobose to ellipsoid, 0.7-2 cm 

long, with an apiculate tip and a wrinkled, pubescent outer skin. 

The trunk is used for wattle, roof poles, and firewood. The 

berry is eaten. 

4. Karnero te', "sheep tree" (sakil karnero te', sne ba), 

refers to the sea grapes Coccoloba barbadensis (2-5), C. 

diversifolia (1-1), C. liebmannii (1-1), and C. mayana (3-7). 

These are trees, 10-30 m tall, with thick, glossy leaves and 

small, hard, round fruits in long, lateral racemes. They occur in 

a variety of primary forest associations including tropical 

deciduous, seasonal evergreen, and montane rain forests in die 

temperate and lowland areas. 

The trunk is used for hoe and billhook handles, digging 

sticks, fence posts, and firewood. 

Extended range: Ehretia tinifolia and Lkania arborea. 

5. K'ol-k'ox, "child's rattle" (-tik) (k'ol-k'ox moletik), is 

Phyllanthus grandifolius (10-10), a glossy, thick-leaved shrub 

with large, round, inflated, red fruits the size of small apples. 

The leaves are short-petiolate, broadly ovate or broadly elliptic, 

4.5-12 cm long, 2.5-7 cm broad. The flowers are small, pink, 

and in pendent axillary clusters. It is common in second growth 

formations in temperate areas. 

The trunk is used for firewood. The tips are eaten, boiled, as 

greens. Children play with the fruit. The seeds may be toasted 

and eaten. 

Extended range: Bunchosia lanceolata, Garcia nutans, 

Malpighia glabra, and Viburnum acutifolium ssp. lautum. 

6. K'os (-tik) is a generic term for two members of the 

Myrsinaceae with large, glossy, ellipic leaves and clusters of 

red, fleshy single-seeded fruits. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil k'os, "white k'os," is Synardisia venosa (3-6), a 
NUMBER 35 181 

small to medium-sized tree with large, oblanceolate 

glabrous leaves, 15-25 cm long, and pink flowers on 

large terminal panicles. The fruits are small, up to 1 cm 

in diameter, round, and single-seeded with a fleshy, 

red to purple covering. It is a common element in 

montane rain forest, seasonal evergreen forest, and wet 

canyons in pine-oak forests of the temperate areas. 

In everyday speech the descriptive term sakil, "white," is not 

used, as k'os most usually refers to this plant. 

Slips or young plants are transplanted in the rainy season by 

a few individuals in the highland hamlets. Some believe that if 

die planter is young he should have a ceremony in his house, 

followed by a visit to Kalvaryo. When the tree has grown, die 

tips should be cut and used in a second, similar ceremony and 

visit. It is widely believed that this tree requires a "green 

thumb" (sk'abal) to propagate in one's yard, and there are 

those who claim that the tips of a cultivated tree are ritually less 

powerful than the tips from a wild tree. 

One tip is a basic ingredient of "flower water." The tips are 

also used to adom a patient's bed. Eighteen tips are required for 

a major curing ceremony, and nine for a minor one (three for 

each cross). They are classed as "medium" or "cold." For 

further medicinal use cf. antzil aj, ik'al toj. 

Extended range: Oreopanax capitatus, Senecio uspantanensis. 

b. Tzajal k'os, "red k'os" (bakel amuch te', k'ox k'os, 

muk'ta k'oxox te', pimenta te', pimyenta te'), refers 

to the common temperate and lowland shrubs Parathesis chiapensis (4-7) and P. leptopa (1-2). These are 

glossy-leaved shrubs with clusters of fleshy red or 

purple, small, round, single-seeded fruits. The leaves 

are alternate, oblanceolate, obovate or elliptic, acute or 

acuminate at the apex, attenuate at the base, 6-22 cm 

long. The flowers are in terminal or axillary panicles. 

They are pink or white with petals 7-8 mm long. They 

occur along streams and on moist slopes usually as an 

element of montane rain or seasonal evergreen forests. 

The trunk is used for house posts and fence posts. The leaves 

are used to mend broken bones. 

Extended range: Colubrina erecta and Rhamnus mucronata. 

7. K'oxox te', "toasted tortilla tree," refers to three common 

highland and temperate trees that have opposite, elliptic, glossy 

leaves and nodding, fragrant, axillary, white flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i k'oxox te', "genuine toasted tortilla tree" 

(naranja te', tzajal k'oxox te'), is the very abundant 

temperate and highland tree Ternslroemia lineata ssp. 

chalkophila (7-9), and T. oocarpa (2-4), denselybranched, small trees that are often dominant in the 

understory of evergreen cloud forests or wet oak 

forests. The leaves are glossy, leathery, oblongobovate, 7-13 cm long. The flowers are solitary in the 

leaf axils with five pinkish white petals about 7-10 cm 

long. The fruit is round and the seeds have bright, red 

arils. The wood turns a reddish yellow when cut. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. Just before 

jumping on a deer's back the Charcoal Cruncher's head was 

seen feasting on the fruit of this tree (Laughlin, 1980:303). In 

recent years when the use of pine has been forbidden by the 

state, the constables have provided a bundle of branches of this 

tree to decorate the processional path on the fourth Lenten 

Friday, Wednesday of Holy Week, and Good Friday. It is used 

in Sak Lum on the fifth Lenten Friday. Two bundles of this tree, 

of wax myrtle and of tilil, are provided by the Junior Stewards 

of the Holy Cross, and St. Dominic on the Fiesta of the 

Immaculate Conception, and the same by the Junior Stewards 

of Our Lady of the Rosary, St. Anthony, and St. Sebastian on 

the Fiesta of Our Lady of Guadalupe to decorate the old wing 

of the Church of St. Lawrence. It is used for the processional 

path in Atz'am on Christmas Eve. 

Extended range: Diospyros nicaraguensis, Drimys 

granadensis, Ilex vomitoria, and Myrcianthes fragrans. 

b. Ik'al k'oxox te', "black toasted tortilla tree" (ch'ulul 

anal k'oxox te', muk'ta k'oxox te'), is Cleyera 

theaeoides (2-2), a large shrub or small tree with 

glabrous, alternate, obovate, short-petiolate leaves, 

2-15 cm long. The flowers are white or greenish 

yellow, solitary in the leaf axils with five petals about 

5-8 mm long. The fruit is globose about 8 mm in 

diameter. This is a very common tree of the understory 

of evergreen cloud and wet oak forest. 

The trunk is used for rafters, roof rods, purlins, fence posts, 

and firewood. 

8. Poxil poslom, "poslom medicine" (pimenta te', sat vet), 

is Rhamnus mucronata (1-1). This is a shrub up to 15 feet tall 

with alternate, narrowly elliptic to narrowly ovate leaves, 3-10 

cm long. The flowers are small, greenish, solitary or fasciculate 

in the leaf axils. The fruit is purple black, subglobose, with 

3-cells, about 6-8 mm in diameter. It is a common plant in the 

understory of the pine-oak forests in the highland and 

temperate regions. 

As a remedy for poslom the leaves are brewed together with 

those of a number of other plants. The tea is "hot." 

9. Tilil (-tik) is the common highland shrub Rapanea 

juergensenii (4-7). It is a dense shrub with alternate obovate, 

glabrous leaves, 6-12 cm long. The flowers are small and 

bome in dense clusters on the old stems. The fruits are small, 

round, single-seeded berries, 5-6 mm in diameter. It occurs as 

a dominant in the understory of the evergreen cloud forests. A 

few Zinacatecs are now transplanting this shrub to their yards. 

Recently, when the state government has forbidden the 

cutting of pine, branches of this shrub have been substituted for 

cross decoration, especially so in Na Chij where the church 

stands alongside the Inter-American Highway. One tip is a 

basic ingredient of "flower water." They are used to adom a 

patient's bed. For further medicinal use cf. ik'al toj. Prior to 

1985 and the paving of the churchyard, a bundle was required 

to mark the processional path on the fourth Friday of Lent, 
182 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Wednesday of Holy Week, and Good Friday. These were 

provided by the constables. These are used similarly in Naben 

Chauk on the fourth Lenten Friday and in Chak Toj and Naben 

Chauk on Good Friday. On Holy Saturday, at 5 P.M., those who 

are in the Church of St. Lawrence beat themselves with these 

branches together with wax myrtle and elderberry as they 

shout, "Kuxan bek'et, kuxan bek'et, tzjam ti' tak'in," 

"Revive flesh, revive flesh, the door to the bell is opening," as 

the churchbell once again rings. On Holy Cross Day three 

branches are provided by the Stewards of the Holy Cross to 

decorate each of 11 crosses. On Independence Day the 

schoolhouse pillars are decorated with two small bundles 

provided by men, appointed by the magistrate, who have failed 

to do their communal labor. The constables provide two small 

bundles to decorate the courthouse pillars on New Year's. Cf. 

batz'i k'oxox te'. Branches may be used to decorate the 

graveyard crosses on All Souls' Day. 

Extended range: Cleyera theaeoides, Microtropis contracta, 

Ternslroemia lineata ssp. chalkophila, and T oocarpa. 

10. Yaxal mol, "green old man" (ik'al k'oxox te'), is the 

lowland tree Licania arborea (4-7). These trees are scattered 

in lowland areas as a riparian element of tropical deciduous and 

seasonal evergreen forests and have thick, dark green, broadly 

oval, 4-11 cm long, and small, hard, round fruits. The flowers 

are small, white in tight clusters in large terminal or axillary 

panicles. The fruit is ovoid, 2-3 cm long, and contains one 

seed. Probably because of the hardness of their wood they are 

often left undisturbed after clearing of the land. They resemble 

giant, green sentinels. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse rafters, fence posts, and 

firewood. 

"Toj Set" 

The "toj set" is a group of four generics that includes all the 

coniferous trees that occur in the township. 

1. K'isis* (saus, savus) is the bald cypress Taxodium 

mucronatum (4-6), a giant-tranked, often buttressed tree that is 

common along fast-moving streams in lower temperate and 

lowland areas. The leaves are thin, soft, deciduous, and 6-12 

mm long. The cones are subglobose, brown, 1.5-2.5 cm in 

diameter. Ladinos use the trunk for chests, coffins, doors, 

boards, tables, and chairs. 

2. Nukul pat*, "leather bark" (-tik), is the cypress 

Cupressus benthamii var. lindleyi (5-6), a tall tree very 

commonly cultivated by ladinos as a street tree and in yards in 

the highlands. There are very few natural stands known from 

rocky ravines in dry highland situations. The leaves are 

aromatic and scale-like, imbricate and 4-ranked. The cones are 

globose, 12-15 mm in diameter, with 6-8 peltate cone scales 

terminated by an elongate pointed projection. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan cited cipres, pinabete 

(tzajal k'uk' toj), and "un cedro blanquesino" (ch'u te') as 

providing house planks (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

Formerly the belief that cypresses could not be planted by 

young people limited the cultivation of these trees, but now 

extensive government reforestation programs are under way in 

all the highland hamlets. To prevent the planter from dying, die 

tops were snipped off the young trees. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, rafters, doors, jail 

doors (formerly), lintels, balcony railings, courthouse posts 

(formerly), chests, coffers, coffins, chairs, tables, benches, 

metate platforms, shelves, lecterns, harp handles, and bell 

stocks. It is also used for gates, fence posts, com bin posts, 

sheep corral posts, graveyard crosses, crosses at the entrances 

to the churches, telephone and electricity posts (formerly), 

staves of the stewards-royal and the publicans. When used for 

firewood it may speed recovery from sickness. 

The branches are used to enclose the walls of the creche. 

They are sold in Tuxtla for decoration. Chamulans sell them in 

San Cristobal. Zinacantecs may resell them in Tuxtla. Cf. bum. 

3. Ok'il te'*, "coyote tree" (-tik) (sipres), refers to die 

junipers Juniperus comitana (1-1) and J. gamboana (1-1), a 

tree often occurring in dense, pure stands in flat areas with poor 

soil in the highlands. They are aromatic with small scale-like 

leaves in whorls of four and with a fleshy berry-like fruit with 

a strong resinous odor. 

A few Zinacantecs plant junipers in their yards and in 

fencerows in the rainy season but, as with cypress, measures 

were taken to prevent the planter from dying. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, rafters, roof rods, 

purlins, chairs, tables, gates, doors, warping bars, com bins, 

steambaths, and crosses. It is used for boards and is split to 

make fence posts. Some claim that juniper should not be used 

for house posts because it "bites" and the children will fall sick 

and die. Ladinos use the wood occasionally for incense. 

Chamulans sell the branches to ladinos in San Crist6bal who 

use them for altar and grave decorations. Zinacantecs may 

resell them in Tuxtla. Zinacantecs may also use them for grave 

decoration on All Souls' Day. The juniper is used for the creche 

framework in Atz'am, Chak Toj, San Mikulax, and Sek'emtik. 

For the shamans' three annual ceremonies it is used to decorate 

the cross and doors of the Chapel of Our Lord of Esquipulas. 

Cf. ixim. They are widely used to decorate hamlet creches. 

4. Toj* (-tik, -altik) is the generic for pines. 

The vain effort of the Zinacantecs to have a dancing pine tree 

divert an army of invading soldiers is described frequently. It 

was credited by one to have occurred in the Mexican 

Revolution (Laughlin, 1977, T17, T56). The native classification of the pines is very complicated, widi three separate 

systems, based on bark, needles, and fruit, superimposed on the 

specifics. Individual trees may be classified according to the 

following characteristics: 

bark color ik'al pat, "black bark," or tzajal pat, 

"red bark" 

bark thickness jayal pat, "thin-barked," or pimil pat, 

"thick-barked" 

foliage density jich'il anal, "narrow-leaved," or pimil 
NUMBER 35 183 

anal and yijil anal, "thick-leaved" 

cone size muk'ta ajan, "large ear of com," or 

kelem ajan, "boy ear of com" 

Red, thin bark and thin foliage is associated together, as is 

black, thick bark and dense foliage. The wood of the former is 

preferred for being denser, with fewer knots that are scattered 

randomly, not in tiers, and so stronger, permitting the use of 

more slender trunks. The latter is preferred for ceremonial 

decoration. Large-coned trees are restricted to Pinus michoacana and P. oaxacana and have specific ceremonial uses. They 

have long needles, five in a bunch. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, wall poles of wooden 

houses, rafters, A-frame bars, roof rods, lintels, doors, shelves, 

planks (for attics, com bins and beds), benches, chairs, log 

stools, tables, chests, coffers, coffins, lamp stands, hooks, 

metate platforms, warping bars, gates, crosses, almud measures, adobe molds, spoons, fence posts, and firewood. Pine tops 

are used in the flower changes of all chapels except in Chak 

Toj. The usual pattern is three for the cross in front of the 

church, two for the church doorway, three for the cross in front 

of the official's house, and two flanking his alter. In Na Chij, 

because of the proximity of the highway and a former 

governmental ban on the use of pine, the chuch and cross is 

decorated with tilil. In Sek'emtik 22 pines are provided to 

adom the church and six crosses. One "thin-leaved" pine tree is 

provided by the senior stewards and another by the junior 

stewards to flank the cross on the night of Maundy Thursday. 

In Sak Lum six trees are provided on the fifth Lenten Friday 

and in Naben Chauk two are used to flank the cross on Good 

Friday. One pine tree is provided by the grand Spanish lord and 

one by the petty Spanish lord on the Fiesta of St. Sebastian for 

the jousting frame. Eighteen poles are provided by each of the 

Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary on the eighth Posada to 

form the frame of the creche. These are selected by the 

Stewards of the Holy Cross. Four boughs are taken by the 

stewards to Atz'am on the Fiesta of Our Lady of the Rosary. 

They are also used to flank the creche in Apas, Atz'am, Na 

Chij, Paste", Sak Lum, and Sek'emtik. 

In ritual speech, candles are referred to as j-sil yo jtoj, j-sil 

yo jkantela, a splinter of my lowly torch, a shaving of my 

humble candle (the person marker may vary). 

The poverty of Zinacantan relative to San Cristobal today is 

traced to the departure of the Indian king when the ladinos 

strew pine needles at his feet, while the Zinacantecs scattered 

coins (Laughlin, 1977, Til). 

As an antidote for a black widow spider bite, 13 splinters are 

boiled, providing a "hot" tea. 

To mend a bone break, pine resin may be used together with 

castor bean leaves or a plaster. Three tips of "ear of com" or 

"thick-leaved" pine are a basic ingredient of "flower water." 

They are classed variously as "medium" and "hot." Twentyfour boughs are required for a curing ceremony, two to flank 

the entrance to the patient's bed. One tip may be used to beat a 

horse suffering "wind." Three tips of "thick-leaved" pine are 

needed for the wand used by a shaman to beat the earth when 

recalling a lost soul. Pine boughs are used to decorate all the 

crosses visited during a curing ceremony, on Holy Cross Day, 

and during the annual renewal ceremonies three tips are placed 

at the back of the enclosure for the sacrificial chicken. At each 

major fiesta the house cross is decorated with three pine tips. 

The grave cross is so decorated at the funeral and on All Souls' 

Day. When a new house is inaugurated, three tips decorated 

with geraniums are planted diagonally in each comer of the 

house before the soup offering. For each flower change the 

senior steward provides two boughs of "thin-leaved pine" to 

decorate the house altar and 19 boughs of "thick-leaved pine" 

to decorate the house altar and 19 boughs of "thick-leaved 

pine" to decorate the crosses. 

Pine needles have a wide variety of uses, both secular and 

sacred. To speed the ripening of fruits that are to be resold, such 

as avocadoes, mangoes, black sapotes, mamey sapotes, the 

fruits are buried in pine needles. Dry pine needles are mixed 

with the mud used for daub and adobe walls. They are spread 

over the wood that is to be made into charcoal. When pine 

needles are handy they may be scooped up from in front of the 

household altar and used to scrub the dirty dishes after a meal. 

They may be slipped between firewood and a person's back to 

prevent chafing. Children at play may braid the needles into 

long strings. A single needle is used to tie three candles 

together when they are offered at the shrines or the house cross. 

At a major curing ceremony, after the shaman bathes and 

bleeds the sacrificial chicken, he places it, still alive, on a plate 

or half gourd covered with pine needles. He may also cover the 

chicken with pine needles before wrapping it in a cloth to take 

to Kalvaryo. Fresh pine needles are strewn on the floors of 

patients' and religious officials' houses, formerly on the major 

church floors, on a fresh grave, and on all household altars and 

graves on All Souls' Day. The senior steward in charge of a 

flower change provides one net for his house. Each of the 

stewards in charge formerly provided one bagful for the church, 

whereas the others provided two small baskets. Both Stewards 

of the Holy Cross formerly provided a bag for Maundy 

Thursday, but now they share a small bag between them. They 

also furnish two bunches for Holy Cross Day to decorate each 

of 11 crosses. All stewards provide a bag for the creche on New 

Year's Day. Each of the Stewards of the Sacrament, the Holy 

Cross, and St. Dominic provide a bag of pine needles on the 

Fiesta of the Immaculate Conception. Each of the Stewards of 

Our Lady of the Rosary, formerly St. Anthony and St. 

Sebastian, provide a bagful for the Fiesta of Our Lady of 

Guadalupe. Pine needles are still used to decorate the Chapel of 

Our Lord of Esquipulas every other week. They are also used to 

carpet the churches in Apas, Atz'am, Chak Toj, Kelem Ton, 

Muk'ta Jok', Sek'emtik. Some say the Charcoal Cruncher 

feasted on pine seeds before landing on the deer's back 

(Laughlin, 1977, T60). 

For further uses of pine cf. ixim, muk'ta kachu toro te', 

kururin, mantzanilya, mes te', tilil, and batz'i turasnu. 
184 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Specifics: 6. 

a. Ajan toj, "ear of com pine," is Pinus michoacana 

(2-3), another large pine with very large cones, 25-30 

cm long, that occurs on knolls and rock outcrops in the 

mixed pine-oak forests of temperate and highland 

areas. It has five needles in a bunch, 30-35 cm long. 

The tips of this pine are preferred for "flower water." 

For use cf. antzil aj, ik'al toj. 

b. Batz'i toj, "genuine pine," is Pinus montezumae var. 

rudis (1-2), a 5-needled, yellow pine common in 

mixed pine-oak forests of temperate and highland 

hamlets. The needles are about 14-21 cm long. The 

cone is ovoid, about 8.5-15 cm long. 

c. Chak-toj, "red pine," is Pinus pseudostrobus (3-3), a 

common yellow pine in highland and upper temperate 

hamlets. It occurs in mixed forests with other pines, 

oaks, and madrones. 

d. Ik'al toj, "black pine," is Pinus oaxacana (6-5), a 

large pine with big cones and coarse needles, 30 cm 

long. It occurs in the mixed pine-oak forests with P. 

pseudostrobus. 

Our Lord made three bunches of "flowers": ajan toj, ik'al 

toj, laurel, krus ech', and tilil or k'os, saying, "These are your 

flowers for curing." 

Three tips are a basic ingredient of "flower water," though 

only one is used for bathing newborn babies. Three tips are also 

used in a curing ceremony to shield the candles at each of the 

three churches, at each of the mountain shrines, and before the 

house cross. 

e. K'uk' toj*, "feather pine," refers to firs and white 

pines. 

(1) Sakil k'uk' toj, "white feather pine" (cha'-lamal 

yanal toj, romero), is the fir Abies guatemalensis 

(2-3), at present a very rare tree occurring only in 

San Cristobal and in one steep-walled canyon in 

Zinacantan. It is a large tree with leaves appearing 

2-ranked, 1-4.5 cm long, dark, lustrous, green 

above, silvery beneath. The cones are 8.5-11.5 

cm long, 4.5-5 cm in diameter, erect with 

broadly rounded, closely imbricated cone scales, 

which fall from the axis at maturity. 

(2) Tzajal k'uk' toj, "red feather pine," is the white 

pine Pinus ayacahuite (3-4), a very tall pine of 

steep rocky slopes in the highlands. It has large, 

thin-scaled cones, 20-30 cm long, and five 

needles in a bunch, 8-15 cm long. 

In everyday speech the descriptive tzajal, "red, is dropped as 

k'uk' toj generally refers to this species. 

The wood is used for musical instruments, warping bars, 

crosses, and doors, and by ladinos for shingles. For the seventh 

Posada the Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary provide two 

trees to flank the creche. One tree is also provided by the other 

senior stewards, and the fourth by the other junior stewards. 

These trees are also used to decorate the creche in Apas and 

Naben Chauk, cf. nukul pat. 

f. Tzajal toj, "red pine," refers to Pinus oocarpa (4-3) 

and P. teocote (1-1). 

These are particularly resinous pines whose roots and trunk 

are made into torches. They have three or five needles in a 

bunch about 17-30 cm long, and cones 5.5-9 cm long. 

Chamulans sell fat pine slivers at market. Formerly, Zinacantecs bartered fat pine in the Chamula market for potatoes, 

cabbages, tomatoes, and com on the cob. An ensign-bearer 

entering office presents six slivers to the corresponding 

musician. The cantors and judge ordinary give three splinters to 

each of the musicians and to father spook. For a loose tooth a 

"hot" tea is brewed of 13 splinters of this pine and 13 splinters 

of tzajal tulan. Cf. also xchenek' tzajal om. 

"Ton Bek' Set" 

The "ton bek' set" is a grouping of two cultivated trees. Ton 

bek' and presa have similar pinnately divided leaves. 

1. Presa, "planted tree" (fresno, tz'unbalal te'), is die 

common street tree Fraxinus uhdei (3-4). It is a large tree to 30 

m tall with pinnate leaves. The leaflets are ovate or narrowly 

ovate, 5.5-15 cm long. The flowers and fruits are bome in 

axillary panicles. The fruit is a samara with a narrow linear 

wing 3-3.5 cm long. This was introduced into Zinacantan in 

the 1940s when the state government claimed that die people 

had started a forest fire, provided them with plants, and told 

them to plant these trees the whole lengtii of the Pan American 

highway that transverses the township. The reluctant Zinacantecs were assured that the trees would provide walnuts! A few 

persist in the upper temperate hamlets. 

2. Ton bek'*, "hard seed" or "rock seed" (nuez*), is die 

walnut Juglans regia (5-7), a large, hard-wood tree rarely 

cultivated in the highlands. The leaves are pinnate with 5-9 

leaflets that are ovate, glabrous, and have entire margins. The 

fruit is subglobose, 4-5 cm in diameter. There are a few very 

rare species of wild walnuts for which diis name might once 

have applied. The cultivated walnut is most common in 

Larrainzar. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan rated the walnut as die 

fourth most abundant tree planted in die yards. "The root of die 

walnut is used successfully for the black die in painting. 

Charcoal from its branches is used for drawing. Its fruit is one 

of the most marketable in the Indies. Except here they scarcely 

occur for many leagues. They pick them in season. And 

although they could be sold at the end of the dog-days or in 

September, they are not sold for a year, when they are better. 

There is a wild walnut that has a very small nut" (de Leon y 

Goicoechea, 1797). We made a concerted effort to locate 

Alfaroa and Oreomunea, the wild walnuts, in or near 

Zinacantan. At present the nearest populations are in the 

townships of Jitotol and Berriozabal. 

A very few Zinacantecs in Zinacantah Center plant walnut 
NUMBER 35 185 

slips in dieir yards in the rainy season. 

A "hot" tea of walnut leaves is taken for menstrual failure. 

The nuts are sold at a high price by ladinos at market in August. 

They are "cold." The meat of a walnut should not be shared lest 

lightning strike. 

"Top'ol Set" 

The "top'ol set" includes five generics, all shrubby 

composites with broad pubescent leaves and white or yellow 

flowers arranged in terminal clusters of heads. 

1. Jom akan, "hollow stem" (bak te', pom akan), is 

Piptothrix areolaris (3-4), a common shrub in the understory 

of the dry pine-oak forests of highland and temperate regions. 

It has soft, pubescent opposite, ovate leaves, 6-13 cm long, and 

white flowers about 7 mm long in conical, terminal clusters. 

It is associated with unproductive land. 

The trunk is used for firewood. It is eaten by sheep. 

Extended range: Euphorbia heterophylla. 

2. K'an-'ich, "yellow chili" (-tik), refers to sprawling, 

thin-branched shrubs with small, yellow flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i k'an-'ich, "genuine yellow chili," is Coreopsis 

mutka var. microcephala (7-13), a sprawling, softwooded shrub with bright yellow daisy flowers with 

rays about 1.5 cm long. They are arranged in terminal 

branched inflorescences. The leaves are opposite, 

petiolate, elliptic to narrowly ovate, glabrous, 5-13 cm 

long. It is a common element of second growth 

formations of the highland area. 

The presence of this shrub is said to signal fertile soil, good 

for planting com. The trunk is used for shuttles and firewood. 

Extended range: Bunchosia montana, Piptothrix areolaris, 

Salmea scandens, Senecio chenopodioides, Verbesina crocata, 

and V. neriifolia. 

b. K'ox k'an-'ich, "small yellow chili" (chak'ak' 

tz'i'lel, poxil chin), is Perymenium ghiesbreghtii 

(2-4), a small shrub with many small, yellow daisy 

flowers about 10-15 mm broad. The leaves are 

opposite narrowly elliptic to lanceolate, serrulate, 

strongly veined below, 3-12 cm long, rough to the 

touch above and below. It occurs in the understory of 

pine-oak forests and in second growth in highland and 

temperate hamlets. It is classed as a "plant." 

As a remedy for skin disease (chin), three or four stalks are 

ground, mixed with lime juice and soot, and the "hot" infusion 

applied to the affected part. 

3. Nam-te' mol, "elder's walking stick" (k'anal potzan te', 

sak-paran te' in part), refers to Verbesina hypsela (3-9), V. 

perymenioides (1-1), V. punctata (1-2), V. steyermarkii 

(1-4), and V. turbascensis (4-7). These are soft-stemmed 

shrubs with large, pinnately lobed leaves and terminal clusters 

of white or yellow flowers, common in second growth 

throughout the township. 

The trunk of V. hypsela is used for house walls and wattle. It 

is eaten by sheep, horses and cattle. 

Extended range: Verbesina crocata. 

4. Top'ol (-tik) refers to two yellow-flowered shrubs. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'anal top'ol, "yellow top'ol" (muk'ta top'ol, petet, 

petet te', te'el petet, tok'ol, top'ol te'), is Perymenium grande var. nelsonii (8-11), a large shrub or 

small tree with terminal groupings of large, yellow, 

daisy-like inflorescences. The ray flowers are 8-13 

mm long. The wood is hard. The leaves are toothed 

opposite, broadly ovate, rounded to subcordate at the 

base and coarsely pubescent, 6-14 cm long. The plant 

is very common in the shrubby second growth 

formations of temperate regions and along ravines in 

pine-oak and tropical deciduous forests. 

The heartwood is used for spindles. The weaver selects the 

particular tree, which is dressed by her husband. The trunk is 

used for house mainposts, wattle, com bin posts, fence and 

corral posts, and firewood. The branches are used for brash 

fences. 

b. K'ox top'ol, "small top'ol" (tan-mukan tz'i'lel), is 

Lasianthaea fruticosa (4-5), a shrub with terminal and 

axillary groups of yellow daisy flowers about 1-2 cm 

broad and coarsely pubescent opposite, lanceolate to 

ovate leaves, 3-20 cm long. It is a common plant in 

the shrubby second growth formations of highland and 

temperate areas. This shrub is classed variously as 

"plant" and "tree." 

It is associated with unproductive land. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. 

5. Xolom (-tik) is Vernonia leiocarpa (4-6), a soft-wooded 

shrub with alternate velvety, gray, pubescent ovate to lanceolate leaves, 7-14 cm long, and terminal clusters of leafy 

inflorescences. The flowers are small, 4-5 mm high, and 

lavender to white. When in fruit the seeds are topped with hairs 

covered in fuzz. This is a very common element in the shrubby 

second growth formations of the temperate regions. 

It is associated with unproductive land. 

The trunk is used for firewood. 

Extended range: Perymenium grande var. nelsonii. 

"Tulan Set" 

The "tulan set" is a diverse grouping of 12 generics 

including all of the oaks, four trees with catkin-like inflorescences, and three other trees having leaves similar to one or 

another of the oaks. 

1. Batz'i te', "genuine tree" (boch jay te'), is the black oak 

Quercus crassifolia (7-6), which has thick, large, ovate leaves 

with spine-tipped dentations, which are velvety rusty pubescent 

on the undersurface. It is a dominant in the highland pine-oak 

forests. 

The trunk is used for roof rods, tamale platforms, and scarlet 
186 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

runner bean poles. It may be used for warping bars, but tends to 

crack. The trunk may also be used for corral posts, but, because 

it has no heartwood, rots quickly. The ease with which the 

wood of this oak may be split makes it the most highly 

esteemed for firewood, though it does not provide so hot a coal 

as other oaks. The leaf may be used to scoop up water to drink. 

The branches are used for brash fences. Mules eat the leaves. 

An entering ensign-bearer presents two bundles of 40 logs 

apiece to the corresponding musician. The cantor and judge 

ordinary give one bundle apiece to each musician and to Sir 

Spook. 

2. Chikin-ib*, "armadillo ear" (-tik), refers to the small, 

narrow-leaved oak species. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i chikin-ib, "genuine armadillo ear" (ik'al chikin- ib, ik'al pat chikin-ib, pimil anal chikin-ib, 

pimil pat chikin- ib), refers to Quercus castanea 

(2-4), Q. crispipilis (6-9), and Q. oleoides (1-2). 

These have elliptic leaves 3-6 cm long, with dense 

pubescence on the undersurface. Quercus crispipilis is 

a common element of the dry pine-oak forests of the 

highland and temperate areas. Quercus oleoides occurs 

in lowland savannas. 

The trunk is split and used for barrel staves and corral posts. 

The trunk is used for ax and pick handles. The hamlet of Naben 

Chauk formerly had the responsibility of providing planks for 

the repair of bridges in Zinacantan Center. The trunk is used for 

firewood. The wood is reputed to make the best charcoal 

because it does not crumble. The branches are used in brash 

fences. 

b. Jayal pat chikin-ib, "thin-barked armadillo ear" 

(jich'il anal chikin-ib), is Quercus laurina (5-8). 

This tree has very small (2-4 cm) lanceolate-elliptic 

leaves that are entirely glabrous and irregularly 

toothed. The tree is common in the highland pine-oak 

forests and evergreen cloud forests. 

For use cf. batz'i chikin-ib. 

c. Sakil chikin-ib, "white armadillo ear" (ch'ulul anal 

chikin-ib, muk'ta chikin-ib), refers to the temperate 

Quercus elliptka (5-6) and Q. sapotifolia (2-4). 

These have leaves a little larger than the other types of 

chikin-ib (4-8 cm long). They may be densely 

pubescent (ellipticas) or totally glabrous (sapotifolias) 

on the undersurface of the leaves. They occur in pine 

savannas in the temperate regions. 

It is used for firewood. 

3. Kachu toro te', "bull hom tree," refers to two lowland 

trees with large, thin leaves prominently clustered on the ends 

of the branches. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Muk'ta kachu toro te', "large bull hom tree" (tulan 

te', tzajal kachu toro te'), is Bucida macrostachya 

(5-13), a large tree of the tropical deciduous forests. It 

has small flowers and fruits in catkin-like racemes 

bome on the tips of the branches amongst the clusters 

of leaves. The leaves are glabrous or pubescent, 

obovate or elliptic, 12-25 cm long. The inflorescence 

is pubescent as are the small ovoid, sessile fruits. It 

often occurs in almost pure stands along small streams. 

The red heartwood is used by ladinos for house mainposts 

and cattle corral posts. Ladinos and Zinacantecs use it for fence 

posts, but the wood is extremely difficult to cut. The bark was 

once sold in San Crist6bal for lashing. 

For a stomach ache remedy, chips of the wood are brewed 

together with the heartwood of batz'i tulan, the root of 

kururin or the trunk of vako' ak', and splinters of tzajal toj. 

A shot of strong cane liquor is added to the "hot" tea and a 

glassful is drunk before breakfast. No shaman is needed, but the 

patient should not drink cold water nor wash with cold water 

during the day. This remedy should only be taken if the 

symptoms are mild, otherwise it would be fatal. 

b. Yaxal kachu toro te', "green bull hom tree" (machita 

te', sakil kachu toro te', xulub vakax), is Godmania 

aesculifolia (4-7), a tree with palmately divided 

leaves, small, maroon, short tubular flowers, and long 

(20-30 cm), narrow, ribbed pendulous pods. It is a 

common element in the tropical deciduous forest. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. 

4. Kampor (-tik) refers to the gums Eucalyptus camaldulensis (1-2) and E. globulus (1-2), tall, straight, smooth, 

peely-barked, cultivated trees at scattered localities throughout 

the state. The leaves are alternate, narrow, lanceolate, sometimes curved, 7-21 cm long. The flowers are solitary and large 

or small and in clusters. They have no petals but numerous 

colorful stamens, exerted from a rigid cup-like base. It was 

planted extensively by ladinos, and now is common near 

ranchos and small towns throughout temperate and lowland 

areas (E. camaldulensis; E. globulus only is cultivated in 

highland areas near San Cristobal and Zinacantan.) The leaves 

and fruit are used by ladinos in sweat baths. They also brew a 

handful of leaves for "hot" tea when suffering from die 

common cold. During childbirth a woman may drink cane 

liquor seasoned with camphor. Her stomach may be rubbed 

with camphor ointment. 

As a remedy for "wind," a "very hot" tea of the leaves or fruit 

is taken. To relieve a tired and aching body, a eucalyptus bath 

may be taken at bedtime. The fruits may be strung on a 

necklace and worn as a preventative for whooping cough. For 

fright the leaves and fruit may be placed in a bag and hung 

around the neck at bedtime. For further medicinal uses cf. 

mantzanilya. 

5. Nok (-tik) (xnok) is the alder. Alders have ovate-elliptic 

leaves, and flowers in catkins. The female inflorescence 

produces a cone-like fruit. The bark is gray and smooth, the 

inner bark is bright red-orange. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil nok, "white alder," is Alnus acuminata ssp. 

arguta (2-2), a tree similar to tzajal nok but lacking 
NUMBER 35 187 

the red hairs on the undersurface of the leaves. It 

occurs on the moist, high ridges in evergreen cloud 

forest. It has the same uses as tzajal nok, though it 

grows too far from the Church of St. Sebastian to be 

selected for the jaguar tree, 

b. Tzajal nok, "red alder" (ik'al nok), is the common 

alder Alnus jorullensis (2-6), which occurs along 

streams and in wet places throughout the highland and 

upper temperate regions. It is characterized by redorange pubescence on the lower surface of the leaves. 

Zinacantecs remark on its rapid growth. 

The trunk is used for roof purlins, roof rods, rafters, wattle, 

and steambath rafters. Now that nails have largely replaced 

vines in house construction, the ease with which nails can be 

driven into the soft wood has made it more popular. Care must 

be taken, though, not to leave the dressed logs exposed to the 

elements before construction, lest they weaken and break (as 

occurred at one house inauguration ceremony). The trunk is 

also used for firewood. 

For the Fiesta of St. Sebastian the jaguar and spook 

entertainers must provide an alder for the jaguar tree. The 

abundance of branches, permitting easy climbing, is given as a 

reason for selecting the alder. Before the tree is felled, they beg 

its pardon so that it will not splinter when it falls. The ends of 

the branches are lopped off, leaving the basal parts for 

climbing. The heavy trunk is bome on poles by some 20 

assistants to the churchyard where they scrape off the outer 

bark so that the tree takes on a bright orange appearance. The 

jaguar players boil a handful of the bark to dye their costumes. 

Chamulans use the bark to dye hides yellow when making 

leather chin straps and sashes. The inner bark is pounded and 

placed above and below the hides, in a large pot, and covered 

with cold water. It is left to stand for 10 days. Then the tree is 

cut down and the stump left until the next year. 

A "cold" tea of three alder flowers or cones is taken once to 

induce an abortion. 

6. Paj-'ul, "sour com gruel," refers to sumac shrubs with 

large, pinnately decompound leaves. The wood is dark red 

when dry. The flowers are small and arranged in long panicles. 

They have single-seeded fruits with a thin pulp and a thick, 

sticky surface with a sour lemon flavor. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'ox paj-'ul, "small sour com gruel" (paj-'ul ak', 

poxil eal), is Rhus terebinthifolia (13-15), a laxly 

branched, sprawling shrub common in the understory 

of open pine-oak forests. The leaflets are small and 

thin, elliptic to lanceolate, 2-6 cm long. The flowers 

are small, white, in terminal panicles. The fruit is 

round, red, and about 6 mm in diameter, pubescent and 

glandular. It is classed variously as "vine" and "tree." 

The wood is used for dram collars. 

As a remedy for fever sores a few of the berries are chewed. 

For further medicinal use cf. matal ak'. 

b. Muk'ta paj-'ul, "large sour com gruel," is Rhus 

schiedeana (12-15), a dense shrub common in the 

shrubby second growth formations of dry highland and 

temperate slopes. The leaves are pinnate. The leaflets 

are thick and glossy above, elliptic to ovate, 3-8 cm 

long. The flowers are white, about 7 mm broad, in 

axillary panicles shorter than the leaves. The fruit is 

red, round, about 8 mm or less in diameter, and 

pubescent. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, gate posts, fence 

posts, pack rope cleats, digging sticks, hoe and billhook 

handles, and mortarmen's mallets. The wood is so durable that 

in one instance the same house posts were used by three 

generations. As a remedy for fever sores the "cold" leaves may 

be chewed. 

The "cold" fruit is eaten by birds and by people when they 

are feeling hot. The fruit may be mixed with water and sugar 

added to provide a refreshing drink. 

c. Tzajal paj-'ul, "red sour com gruel," is Pistacia 

mexicana (1-1), a shrub or small tree to 5 m tall with 

reddish pinnate leaves, with many elliptic leaflets, 1-2 

cm long. The flowers are very small, reddish, and in 

lateral panicles. The fruit is small, rounded, 3-4 mm 

long, and very pungent when crashed. It is a very 

common element of dry pine-oak and tropical deciduous forests of temperate and lowland hamlets. 

7. Sap yok, "sap its trunk" (-tik), is Quercus candkans 

(4-6), a totally unique oak with large, thin, obovate leaves that 

are strongly bicolored, dark green above, white tomentose 

beneath. It occurs in the highland pine-oak forest and in the 

evergreen cloud forest, but because of deforestation has 

become very scarce. 

The trunk is used for chayote and popapple arbors and for 

fence posts. It splits easily for firewood. 

The leaves are used to wrap tamales (pisil vaj). They are 

needed for this purpose every Saturday by the stewards royal 

and by the stewards for their office change. 

8. Tempix (tempich) refers to the temperate and lowland 

wet forest tree Dendropanax arboreus (1-4). The wood is soft 

and white. It has leathery, lustrous, glabrous leaves, 8-15 cm 

long, simple or compound. The flowers are in umbels. The fruit 

is a fleshy, round, purple berry. It occurs as an epiphytic tree or 

free standing on steep rocky slopes in dense montane rain forest 

and occasionally in seasonal evergreen forest. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse mainposts, fence posts, 

cattle corrals, and firewood. The ladinos of Chiapa de Corzo 

and Acala use the boughs for altar decorations. 

Extended range: Trichilia hirta. 

9. Tulan* (-tik) is a complicated generic that refers to all of 

the broad-leaved white oaks. 

It is said that jays planted all the oaks with acorns, but no one 

knows where they got the acoms. 

In recent years the state government has encouraged 

Zinacantecs to aid in reforestation by planting acoms widi a 

digging stick. 
188 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

The branches of all oak trees are used for brash fences. 

Branches are provided on the Fiesta of St. Sebastian by the 

stewards royal to make their hut, by the grand alcalde for the 

banquet arbor, and by the grand Spanish lord for the jousting 

runway. 

Children should not play with the acoms of any oak lest they 

become mute. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. K'an-tulan, "yellow tulan" (ik'al tulan, k'anal 

tulan, sakil k'evex tulan), refers to Quercus segoviensis (12-10). These oaks have thinner leaves with 

sparser pubescence on the undersurface than those 

delimited by sakil and tzajal tulan. The size and shape 

of the leaves are the same and the configuration of the 

trees are the same. This oak occurs in pine-oak 

associations in temperate and even some lowland 

situations. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan mentions cantulan as one of 

the trees that provided "very strong and incorruptible wood" 

(de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, fence posts, and for 

firewood. 

Extended range: Quercus peduncularis and Q. rugosa. 

b. K'evex tulan, "cherimoya tulan," refers to Q. polymorpha (4-4), oaks with large (10-15 cm long), 

ovate-elliptic, dull, pea green leaves. This oak occurs 

in dry, steep, canyons in the temperate areas. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, for fence posts, and 

for firewood. It is favored for mainposts as nearly the whole 

trunk is heartwood. 

Extended range: Quercus peduncularis and Q. segoviensis. 

c. Sakil tulan, "white tulan" (batz'i tulan of temperate 

hamlets), is the common temperate and highland oak 

Q. peduncularis (10-12), a spreading tree with thick 

trunks and flat, obovate, coarsely toothed leaves up to 

25 cm long, which are loosely white pubescent 

beneath. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts and for firewood. 

Extended range: Quercus rugosa, Q. segoviensis. 

d. Tzajal tulan, "red tulan" (batz'i tulan of highland 

hamlets, jayal pat tulan, muk'ta tulan), refers to Q. 

rugosa (14-6). These oaks have large (15-20 cm 

long), thick, cupped, ovate leaves with dense, glandular pubescence on the undersurface and impressed 

veins above. The trees are large with massive trunks 

and occur in mixed forests of pine and oak throughout 

the drier portions of the highlands. Highland Zinacantecs say that the color distinction, tzajal, "red," and 

sakil, "white," refer to the heartwood; others distinguish tzajal tulan by noting the red leaves at the 

growing tips of young trees, and the thick bark of old 

trees. Tzajal tulan is known to "get angry," "scold," 

and spark badly. 

The acoms are eaten by deer, goats, squirrels, jays, and 

bandtailed pigeons. 

The trunk is a favorite for house mainposts. It is also used for 

roof rods, purlins, corral posts, fence posts, telephone poles, 

vertical wattle poles, household altars, steambaths, com bin 

planks, bridge planks, stiles, gates, bedposts, tamale platforms, 

stirring rods, pot stands, hooks, axe handles, mortarmen's 

mallets, and firewood. The crooked grain of this wood, 

however, often makes it very difficult to split for firewood. A 

"hot" tea of the bark is taken as a remedy for loose teeth, 

swelling, and malaria. 

The tips are used for the "steam cure." Together with pine 

tips and marigolds they are used by shamans for beating out 

"wind." The shaman uses three tips when recalling a lost soul. 

For further medicinal uses cf. ixim, muk'ta kachu toro te', 

matal ak', tzajal toj. The leaf may be used to scoop up water 

to drink. 

Extended range: Quercus peduncularis. 

10. Tz'otz'op (-tik) is Quercus acutifolia (4-6), an oak with 

large, glabrous, elliptic leaves (10-15) cm long), widi 

spine-tipped dentate margins. It occurs in extensive stands widi 

pine in temperate and lowland poor soil areas. 

It is used for fence posts. It is easy to split for firewood. 

11. Tz'utuj te', "com tassel tree," refers to American 

hornbeam Carpinus caroliniana (2-3) and the hop hornbeam 

Ostrya virginiana var. guatemalensis (6-8), a small or 

medium-sized tree common in canyon and north slope 

situations of temperate and highland areas in association widi 

pine-oak forests and evergreen cloud forests. The flowers are in 

catkins and the fruit is pendulous, each seed covered with a 

papery bract. They resemble young com tassels. The leaves are 

elliptic and serrate. 

The trunk is used for crossbeams, rafters, roof purlins, roof 

rods, and mainposts. The trunk is also used for hoe handles, 

digging sticks, and firewood. 

Extended range: Cornus disciflora. 

12. Tz'utuj te' te', "com tassel tree tree," is die elm Ulmus 

mexicana (1-1). It is an immense, buttressed tree up to 50 m 

tall, with gray, somewhat scaly bark very similar to tiiose of 

Ostrya and Carpinus. The leaves are deciduous, oblong-ovate, 

serrate, 6-9 cm long. The flowers are small and yellow. The 

fruits are about 5 mm long with a fringe of long white hairs 

around the margin. 

This is a canopy tree of montane rain forests in steep canyons 

in the temperate regions, but it no longer occurs in Zinacantan. 

"Turasnu Set" 

The "turasnu set" includes diree generics referring to 

peaches, apricots and plums. 

1. Prixku' is the freestone peach Prunus persica, having soft 

flesh that separates freely from the stone. It is grown in Jok' 

Ch'enom, Petz Toj, Sak Lum, and all of the highland 

communities. It has the same medicinal uses as turasnu. 

Specifics: 2. 
NUMBER 35 189 

a. K'anal prixku', "yellow peach," is the yellow-fleshed 

form. The fruits are sold at market in late July and 

August. They are classed variously as "hot" and 

"cold." For use cf. batz'i turasnu. 

b. Sakil prixku', "white peach," is the white-fleshed 

form. The fruit ripens in late July and August. It is 

classed as "cold." For use cf. batz'i turasnu. 

2. Sirvela (-tik) is the plum Prunus domestica (4-4). It is 

grown in all of the highland communities. Plum pits are planted 

and seedlings are transplanted in the rainy season and 

occasionally in the dry season (if watered). Slips may be 

grafted on peach trees in December through March. If 

transplanted, plums fruit in four years, but if grafted, in two 

years. The "cold" fruit is sold at market in May and June. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Ik"ik'-lo'an sirvela, "purple plum," is a purple-fruited 

plum grown by a few Zinacantecs. 

b. K'anal sirvela, "yellow plum," is a yellow-fruited 

plum grown by a few Zinacantecs. 

c. Sakil sirvela, "white plum," is a greenish white plum 

grown by many Zinacantecs. 

d. Tzajal sirvela, "red plum," is a red-fruited plum grown 

by many Zinacantecs. A small, bik'it form and a large, 

muk'ta form are recognized. 

3. Turasnu (-tik, -altik) (durasnos*, turasno, turesno, 

turesnu, turisnu) refers to cling peaches and apricots. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan rated the peach tree as the 

second commonest yard tree. "There are large and small 

peaches, white and yellow. They are so abundant that at the 

very least they pick 2 million fruits annually in the town " (de 

Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Batz'i turasnu, "genuine turasnu" (batz'i sakil 

turasnu), is a small peach (Prunus persica) with firm 

(when ripe) white or greenish flesh. It is grown in a few 

temperate and all highland communities. This peach, 

formerly ubiquitous in highland hamlet yards, is being 

replaced through grafting by newer varieties. Although 

it also occurs in temperate hamlets it produces few 

' fruits in that environment. Pits are planted, one to a 

hole, and young plants are transplanted, primarily in 

the rainy season. St. Rose Day (August 29) is 

considered particularly auspicious. They may also be 

planted in the dry season, if watered for the first week. 

Their fruits are said to be sweeter. Sometimes seed 

beds are prepared for them. Zinacantecs who provide 

their seedlings with compost and/or sheep manure 

claim that they will fruit in one year rather than taking 

the usual three years. Trees that do not fruit well may 

be slashed or "fed" horse or cow bones. Peach trees 

that are planted outside one's yard are often stripped 

by marauding kids of all their peaches before they have 

ripened. This will cause the tree to produce inedible 

fruits that exude sap. Bats are known to feed on 

peaches. To cause an enemy's peach tree to die a stick 

of pine is buried at its foot. 

Living trees serve as supports for scarlet runner beans and 

pole beans. The trunk is used for bean poles, fence posts, and 

firewood. Peach switches are most commonly used to punish 

disobedient children and runaway sheep. The branches are used 

for brash fences. The sap may be eaten. As a remedy for worms, 

a handful of leaves and a few chips of bark are brewed with a 

handful of brown sugar. A cup of this "medium" or "hot" tea is 

drank before breakfast for one or two days. When a year- or 

year-and-a-half-old baby cries constantly and hits its mother 

frequently, it may be forced to down a cup of cold water in 

which a handful of tips have been crushed. The bitter brew 

causes the child to spit up its anger. This cure is classed 

variously as "hot" and "cold." Peach leaves may be applied to 

a bone break. As a remedy for suppurating fingernails (unen 

k'obol) or toenails (spojoval koktik) a leaf may be rubbed on 

the underside with a tallow candle and passed before the fire 

before being bound around the affected part. 

Young, unripe peaches may be roasted on the fire. Ripe 

peaches are eaten raw or are boiled with apples and refined 

sugar until forming the consistency of com gruel. Peaches may 

be soaked in cane liquor to give it a fruity flavor. They are 

generally classed as "cold." Peaches may be resold and are sold 

at market in August. They may be transported for sale to 

Tuxtla, Arriaga, Tonala, Villa Flores, and Juchitah. 

b. Karirat turasnu, "charity turasnu" (karera, karida, 

santoal turasnu), is a type of small peach with hard 

white flesh that turns red where it clings to the pit. The 

fruit ripens in September and October, but often rots 

before becoming fully ripe. It is grown by few 

Zinacantecs in Jok' Ch'enom and in all but one 

highland community. For use cf. batz'i turasnu. 

c. Kaxlan turasnu, "castilian turasnu," is the apricot 

Prunus armeniaca (1-2). It is grown by a very few 

Zinacantecs in some of the highland communities. 

Apricots are planted in the same way as peaches. They 

fruit three or four years after planting. They are sold at 

market in San Cristobal and Tuxtla in May and early 

lune. They are classed variously as "hot," "medium," 

and "cold. Cf. ixim. 

d. Luranko turasnu, "durango turasnu" (duranko, 

luranko, turanku), is a type of peach with soft, white, 

flesh turning red where it clings to the pit. Many 

consider it to be the sweetest and best variety. It is 

grown in all highland communities. It is classed 

variously as "hot," "medium," and "cold." It is 

harvested in August. For use cf. batz'i turasnu. 

e. Merokotom turasnu, "melocoton turasnu" (kotom), 

is a small, deep yellow-orange type of peach with soft 

flesh. Both small, bik'it, and large, muk'ta varieties 

are recognized, the latter most recently introduced by 

grafting. It is cultivated in Jok' Ch'enom, Petz Toj, and 

all highland communities. These are not grown by 
190 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

many Zinacantecs, but the fruits bring a better price 

than the other peaches. The harvest is in August and 

September. They are generally classed as "cold." For 

use cf. batz'i turasnu. 

Extended range: Chiococca alba. 

"Tzelo-pat Set" 

The "tzelo-pat set" is a grouping of three generics. These are 

highland and temperate shrubs and small trees with soft, gray, 

pubescent, opposite, ovate leaves. 

1. Sitit (tik) refers to the shrubby composites in the genera 

Vernonia and Pluchea. These have large, woolly leaves and 

terminal clusters of inflorescences with pink or lavender 

flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil sitit, "white sitit," refers to Vernonia deppeana 

(7-11) and V. oaxacana (1-5). These are brittlewooded shrubs often 4-6 m tall with pale lavender 

flowers in terminal, openly branched inflorescences. 

The leaves are alternate, elliptic, ovate, or oblong 

ovate, pubescent beneath, 4-15 cm long. They are 

common in the shrubby second growth formations of 

the temperate areas. 

They are used as shade trees in the coffee groves and as 

firewood. The tips are used to sweep away "wind." 

b. Tzajal sitit, "red sitit," is Pluchea odorata (3-5), a 

dense, soft-wooded shrub 4-6 feet tall with pink, 

cottony flowers 8-12 mm broad. The leaves are 

alternate, 7-15 cm long, elliptic to oblong-ovate. It is 

common in moist, disturbed ground, such as road 

banks and ditches throughout the munkipio. 

The trunk is used for firewood. 

2. Suil itaj, "suil greens" (tik) (suyul itaj), refers to 

Liabum, shrubby, yellow-flowered composites with strongly 

bicolored leaves. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i suil itaj, "genuine suil greens," is Liabum 

glabrum var. hypoleucum (5-9), a shrub or occasionally a tree to 6 m tall that flowers with a terminal 

panicle of golden yellow flowers, 10-13 mm broad, in 

the dry season when it is leafless. The leaves are 

broadly triangular ovate and strongly bicolored. It leafs 

during the wet season (June-September) and is a 

common element of the shrubby second growth 

formations of temperate and lowland areas. It often 

occurs in large expanses. When the Virgin Mary was 

hiding in the banana grove with her baby, she used 

these leaves to wipe the Christ Child's bottom. 

When the shrub is found in the cornfield, the tuber is dug up 

and planted in the yard in Carlos A. Vidal, Chikinibal Vo", 

Muk'ta Jok', and Ya'al Tz'i". It is an important green in the 

lower temperate communities. The tips and young leaves are 

boiled together with beans, though highland Zinacantecs claim 

they are leathery and do not cook properly. They are classed 

predominantly as "cold," but also as "hot." 

Extended range: Desmanthodium perfoliatum, Liabum discolor, Senecio schaffneri, and S. thomasii. 

b. K'ox suil itaj, "small suil greens," is Liabum 

andrieuxi (1-2), a shrub similar to L. glabrum, but 

with large, single orange-flowered heads, 5-6 cm 

broad, that appear while the plant is in leaf. It occurs in 

the same habitat as L. glabrum. It is not edible. 

3. Tzelo-pat, "plated bark" (-tik) (tzele-pat), refers to 

Buddleias, shrubs or trees with opposite, gray leaves and small 

terminal pale yellow flowers. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Bak tzelo-pat, "skinny plated bark" (jich'il anal 

tzelo-pat), is Buddleia nitida (7-10). These are 

densely branched shrubs or trees with bicolored leaves, 

alternate, elliptic to oblong lanceolate, 5-7 cm long, 

deep green above, brownish pubescent below. The 

flowers are yellow, about 5 mm broad, in small 

clusters erect on the branches of a terminal panicle. It 

occurs in second growth in wetter highland slopes. 

The trunk is used for roof rods, purlins, com bin, stile, and 

gate rails, com stubble rakes, digging sticks, hoe handles, and 

firewood. 

b. Batz'i tzelo-pat, "genuine plated bark" (ik'al tzelopat, j'ak'-tzeluel), is the tree Buddleia Buddleia 

skutchii (5-8), having alternate strongly bicolored, 

large, elliptic leaves, 8-15 cm long, and small flowers 

in small clusters on the branches of a large terminal 

panicle, 15-20 cm high. It is a small to medium-sized 

tree that is a common element of the pine-oak forests 

and in exposed situations in the evergreeen cloud 

forest of highland hamlets. 

The trunk is used for house mainposts, rafters, roof rods, 

purlins, posts of wooden-walled houses, and fence posts. It is 

also used for com bin, stile, and gate rails, for com stubble 

rakes, hoe handles, and digging sticks. Though some use diis 

wood for firewood it is widely believed that a person warming 

himself before such a fire will suffer cramps (tzeluel). The 

branches are used to wrap flowers for transport. 

Extended range: Vernonia leiocarpa. 

c. Chan-tzelav tzelo-pat, "four-ridged plated bark" 

(k'ox tzelo-pat, sakil tzelo-pat, tzan tzelo-pat), refers 

to the shrubby Buddleias Buddleia americana (4-7), 

B. crotonoides (12-10), and B. crotonoides ssp. 

amplexkaulis (1-1). These have leaves 5-20 cm long, 

with gray pubescence on both surfaces and pale yellow 

flowers in dense clusters along an interrupted spike, 

3-5 cm long. The stems are prominently 4-angled. 

They are common in second growth shrub formations 

of both highland and temperate situations. 

The tips may be used together with elderberry to sweep away 

"wind." They are also used in combination with a wide variety 
NUMBER 35 191 

of plants in the "steam cure," for "wind" (sikil kolo'al ik'), to 

reduce swelling (poslom), and after bloodletting. Recipe 1: (1) 

13 tips of ajval te', (2) 13 tips of ch'a-te', (3) six tips of yaxal 

pom tz'unun, (4) a large handful of sat pukuj, (5) a handful of 

ajal toj, and (6) a handful of chan-tzelav tzelo-pat. It is "hot." 

Recipe 2: (1) xutax chijil te', (2) chix te' mut, (3) nap'ap' on 

te', (4) tzajal pom tz'unun, (5) yaxal pom tz'unun, (6) satin, 

(7) chan-tzelav tzelo-pat, and (8) tz'utz'un tz'unun. Recipe 

3: (1) ajval te', (2) on te', (3) satin, (4) chan-tzelav tzelo-pat, 

and (5) xinal te'. Recipe 4: (1) batz'i chix te', (2) chix te' mut, 

(3) ik'al vinik, (4) mes te', (5) on te', (6) satin, (7) toj, (8) 

tulan, and (9) chan-tzelav tzelo-pat. In this final recipe, 13 

tips of each are brewed for a tea. The same plants are used for 

the steam cure, but not counted. 

"Tzotz-ni' Te' Set" 

The "tzotz-ni' te' set" includes eight generics, shrubs or 

trees with large, coarsely pubescent leaves. 

1. Ajo' te', "ajo' tree" (ajo', ajoj, ajoj te', jabnal te', te' la, 

tzajal tzotz-ni' te', tzotzin te'), refers to Saurauia oreophila 

(1-1) and S. scabrida (6-6). These are very soft-wooded, 

small trees with large, scabrous, pubescent, elliptic leaves. The 

flowers are white and in axillary inflorescences. The fruit is a 

clear, sweet, fleshy berry. These trees are a common element of 

second growth forests in the wet temperate regions. Saurauia 

oreophila differs in having smaller leaves, and shorter 

inflorescences with fewer flowers. 

The trunk is used for wall poles and fence rails. The fruit, 

occasionally eaten, is classed variously as "medium" and 

"cold." 

2. Atz'am te', "salt tree" (ch'ulul te'), is Viburnum 

hartwegii (3-3). These are shrubs 8-20 feet tall with opposite, 

ovate to elliptic, glabrous leaves, 6-15 cm long, and terminal 

cymes of small white, 5-lobed flowers. The fruits are ovoid, 

purplish black and about 8 mm long. It occurs as a common 

element of second growth in temperate regions. 

The trunk is used for roof rods, purlins, wattle, hoe handles, 

and digging sticks. Sheep eat the leaves. 

3. Chivo te', "goat tree," is Aloysia chiapensis (1-1). This is 

a yellow-flowered shrub from 3 to 8 feet tall. The leaves are 

opposite, the upper surface rough, the lower surface pubescent. 

They are narrowly ovate or lanceolate with crenulate or 

serrulate margins, 1.5-13 cm long, and prominent netted 

venation beneath. The very small flowers are bome in 

bracteate, short, axillary spikes, about 1-3 cm long. It occurs in 

second growth and on dry barren slopes in temperate and 

lowland areas. 

A "hot" tea of the leaves is taken for diarrhea and stomach 

ache. 

4. Kastanya (kastansya) is the lowland tree Sterculia 

apetala (2-4), a large, buttressed tree often cultivated around 

ladino houses and found occasionally in adjacent forests in the 

lowland areas. The leaves are large, palmately lobed and scurfy 

pubescent. The flowers are yellow and maroon, 5-lobed, 2.5-3 

cm wide, in open many flowered panicles equaling or shorter 

than the petioles. The fruit produces a pubescent pod about 10 

cm long with edible seeds that are oval, lustrous, and about 2 

cm long. 

Zinacantecs do not use the trunk, but have heard that it is 

very hard. Seeds, which are roasted, are classed variously as 

"hot" and "cold." 

5. K'ux-pevul, "painful pevul" (-tik), refers to Solanum 

chrysotrichum (10-16), S. lanceolatum (1-5), and S. torvum 

(1-5). These are spiny shrubs with soft, densely pubescent, 

elliptic leaves, blue or white rotate flowers, and green to black 

tomato-like fruits. The stems and ribs of the leaves have coarse 

spines. They are common in second growth and waste ground 

at all elevations. 

A tea of the leaves and stems is taken for lung and liver 

disorders. As a remedy for urinary pain (makel), three leaves 

are brewed. The "hot" tea is drunk before breakfast for three 

days. To strengthen the blood, the leaves are brewed at the end 

of the day and the "hot" tea drank the next morning. To cure 

wounds, boils, or pack sores, 12 leaves are brewed, dried, and 

ground into powder. The sores are bathed with the water, then 

the "hot" powder is applied several times. The leaves are eaten 

by horses. 

As a remedy for toothache, a bit of the "hot" fruit is crushed 

in one's hand and applied to the molar. The fruits may be boiled 

and the warm water used to bathe the sore nipples of nursing 

mothers. They may also be rubbed raw on the nipples to wean 

a baby. 

Extended range: Cirsium subcoriaceum, Lippia chiapasensis, and Solanum candidum. 

6. Moy te', "tobacco tree" (jik'ik' te', k'ux-pevul te', moy 

ka'), refers to Solanum erianthum (7-13). These are shrubs 

with large, ovate, scurfy gray, pubescent leaves. The flowers 

are rotate, white, and in terminal cymes. The fruit is green and 

tomato-like. They are common in the tropical deciduous forests 

and second growth forest of the lowlands. 

As a remedy for bloody dysentery, the leaves are crashed in 

cold water, providing a "cold" infusion. For "white" dysentery 

a tea of these leaves is taken. 

7. Sak-nich te', "white-flowered tree" (-tik), refers to 

Lippias, soft wooded shrubs with aromatic, opposite leaves and 

flowers bome in head-like clusters. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Muk'ta sak-nich te', "large white-flowered tree," 

refers to Lippia cardiostegia (1-3) and L. myriocephala (2-3). These are shrubs or small trees with 

opposite, soft pubescent, narrowly elliptic to ovate 

leaves, with crenate or serrate margins. The flowers are 

white and very small arranged in small globose or 

cylindrical, bracteate inflorescences. The peduncles 

are several in the axils of the leaves, longer than the 

inflorescences and usually shorter than the leaves. 
192 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

These trees occur in second growth in temperate and 

lowland regions. 

The trunk is used for ridge poles, roof rods, wattle, chayote 

and popapple arbors, hoe handles, and digging sticks. 

b. Sak-nich te', "white-flowered tree," refers to Lippia 

chiapasensis (5-5), and L. substrigosa (3-5). These 

are shrubs or small trees with very stiff pubescent, 

elliptic, rugose leaves and small, white and yellow 

flowers in bracteate, pendulous heads in the leaf axils. 

They are common elements in the understory of 

pine-oak forests and in the shrubby second growth 

formations of highland and temperate areas. 

The trunk is used for roof rods and wattle. 

Extended range: Lippia bracteosa, Solanum lanceolatum, 

and Viburnum hartwegii. 

8. Tzotz-ni' te', "downy-tipped tree" (-tik), is Viburnum 

jucundum (5-10), a shrub or small tree with large, ovate, 

opposite densely white, pubescent leaves, 6-19 cm long, and 

small white flowers in large, flat, terminal cymes up to 15 cm 

across. These are common in wet pine-oak forests and 

evergreen cloud forests of the highland areas. 

The trunk is used for stirring rods, wattle, fence posts, and 

firewood. 

Extended range: Viburnum hartwegii and V jucundum x V 

acutifolium ssp. lautum. 

"Xan Set" 

The xan set is a grouping of four generics, all large-tranked 

palms. 

1. Koko (kok) is the coconut Cocos nucifera (2-5), 

cultivated in Chiapa de Corzo and a few other lowland towns. 

The trees are large and unarmed with pinnately divided leaves. 

The flowers are sessile, valvate, 11-12 mm long. 

Few Zinacantecs eat coconut. It is classed predominately as 

"cold." 

2. Nap* (-tik) is the coyol Acrocomia mexicana (3-7), a 

large, crowned tree up to 10 m tall and as much across, with 

pinnately dissected leaves up to 4 m long. They have the rachis 

and bases of the leaf divisions bearing flat, black spines. The 

inflorescence, up to 1 m long, is bome suspended by a broad 

spathe. The flowers are spicate, about 6 mm long. The fruit is 

ovate, about 1.5 cm long. The trees are scattered in sandy places 

in temperate and lowland localities. Ladinos cultivate these 

palms in their yards, planting one nut to a hole in the rainy 

season. They adom their altars with the flowers. They boil the 

fruit with sugar for candy. 

When coyols occur in fields that are to be cleared for milpas, 

just the fronds may be lopped off, leaving the trunk to put forth 

new fronds after the field has been burned. 

The "cold" heart is preferred for its sweetness. During the 

famine it was ground and mixed with com dough for tortillas. 

The sap is collected by cutting a depression in the fallen trunk. 

The depression is a foot long and 4 inches wide and deep. 

Leaves are placed on the top with a rock to hold diem down. 

The sap is drank through a straw covered with a cloth to strain 

out the bugs. It is drunk in the morning and in the afternoon. 

The sides are scraped out clean each day and the bugs removed. 

The rhinoceras beetles (chanul nap) that are attracted to it are 

eaten raw. The trunk will produce sap for a montii. The sap may 

be allowed to stand for a week until it ferments and becomes a 

powerful liquor (taverna). Coyol sap may be mixed with onion, 

chili, and salt to produce a sauce that is drank with the meal in 

the fieldhouses at the time of clearing and burning. The spines 

are used to prick the bellies of ticks that have fastened on to 

one's skin. The fruit that ripens in May and June is sucked as a 

candy, and the nut is broken and eaten. It is "medium." To 

induce a fruit tree to bear, the chewings of coyol nuts should be 

spat on it. 

3. Palma (-tik) (muk'ta xan) is the sabal palm Sabal 

mexicana (1-1), a tall tree with elongate, flabellately multifid, 

fan-shaped leaves, 1-2 m long. The pendulous branched 

inflorescence is up to 1 m long. The flowers are about 5 mm 

long and spikate. The fruits are irregularly rounded and very 

numerous, 15-20 mm broad. These trees often form dense 

stands in sandy alluvial flats in the Grijalva valley. Ladinos use 

the trunks for fence posts and bridges and the fronds for thatch. 

The fronds may be used for thatch in temperate hamlets. 

Zinacantec men split and folded the ribs of the leaves as 

reinforcement for their hats. The leaves are still used for the hat 

of religious officials of other Tzotzil and Tzeltal towns. They 

were used for the high-peaked hats once worn by Chamulans. 

The "cold" heart, together with that of the coyol, are preferred 

for their sweetness. Children play with the nuts. 

4. Xan* refers to the fan palms Brahea. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i xan, "genuine fan palm" (ch'ix xan), is Brahea 

dulcis (1-2), a small tree, up to 8 m tall, of scattered 

localities in steep canyons and cliff faces in temperate 

and lowland areas. It has minute flowers imbedded in 

the dense tomentum of the branchlets of die inflorescences. The inflorescencs are pendent and up to 1.5 m 

long. The leaves are up to 1 m long, plicate and 

palmate, green on the undersurface. The margins of die 

petiole are spinose-dentate. 

The leaves are used by Zinacantecs to weave hats, by 

convicts to make brooms, and by the people of Soyal6 to weave 

mats. Though woven plastic hats have nearly replaced the 

traditional palm hats, the preparation of die latter is still 

common knowledge. The young leaves were boiled and spread 

in the sun to bleach. They were laid on the roof overnight for 

1-3 nights so that the action of the dew would give more 

permanence to the bleaching. 

When a man dies, the black palm band in his hat is removed 

and burnt lest it become a snake. 

Three hundred fronds each are provided by the Junior 

Steward of St. Dominic and by the Junior Steward of the 

Sacrament for distribution on Palm Sunday. Formerly 500, then 
NUMBER 35 193 

450, and now 250 fronds are provided by each of the Stewards 

of the Holy Cross and St. Anthony for distribution on St. Peter 

the Martyr's Day. In Na Chij fronds are distributed on the 

Fiesta of St. Anthony. They are distributed on St. Peter the 

Martyr's Day in Apas, Atz'am, Bik'it Joyijel, Elan Vo", Na 

Chij, Naben Chauk, and Paste". 

On St. Peter the Martyr's Day some palm fronds are attached 

on top of the church bells, replacing the previous years'. They 

serve as protection from lightning. From one of the leaves 

distributed on that day the men may weave a narrow strip, 

terminating in a cross. This is hung from the crown of their 

hats, with the ribbons. It, too, serves as protection from 

lightning. A similar strip may be tied to the com stalks nearest 

each of the four comers of the cornfield, as a protection against 

wind damage. Small palm crosses may be placed in a grave. 

The fronds were used formerly for rain capes that also served as 

blankets on trips. They are used in sweatbaths to fan the steam. 

The "cold" palm heart is eaten. 

b. Pik' xan, "toothless palm" (-tik) (xanil ixim), is 

Brahea nitida (2-4), a small tree of similar habit and 

habitats to B. dulcis. It differs in having leaves waxy 

glaucous below, and no spines along the margins of the 

petiole. 

The sheadi was used as a wad for guns. The fronds were once 

used for thatch by some people of Elan Vo", Naben Chauk, 

Paste', and the temperate hamlets. Poor people may cover their 

com bins with these fronds instead of with burlap or plastic 

bags. The fronds are used in sweatbaths to strike oneself. They 

may also be used to fan the fire to singe chickens. They are tied 

up to make whisk brooms to clean the griddle. Men from Elan 

Vo' appointed by the magistrate provide a load of fronds to 

decorate the kiosk on major fiestas when a band has been hired, 

to decorate the pine trees on the processional path on the fourth 

Lenten Friday, and also to decorate the school and the 

courthouse on Independence Day. Two fan palms are provided 

on the eighth Posada by the Junior Stewards of Saint Dominic 

and the Sacrament to flank the creche door. Formerly, two 

bundles were provided to decorate the Church of St. Lawrence 

on major fiestas. Fan palms are used for religious decoration in 

Na Chij on the Fiesta of Our Lord of Esquipulas and on Palm 

Sunday, in Chak Toj on St. Joseph's Day and the Fiesta of the 

Virgin of Guadalupe, in Elan Vo' on the Fiesta of St. Sebastian, 

in Paste' on St. Peter's Day and on the Fiesta of Our Lady of the 

Rosary, in Naben Chauk on the fourth Lenten Friday, in 

Atz'am on the Fiesta of Our Lady of the Rosary, and in Sak 

Lum on the fifth Lenten Friday. The "cold" heart is eaten raw, 

roasted or boiled in periods of famine. 

"Yuch' Max Set" 

The "yuch' max set" has three generics, all wiry-stemmed 

shrubs with dense, fuzzy leaves and bur-like fruits. 

1. Tz'oban refers to Abutilon, Malvaviscus, and Phymosia, 

all soft, pubescent-leaved shrubs with hibiscus-like flowers and 

leathery bark. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i tz'oban, "genuine tz'oban," is Phymosia rosea 

(2-5), a large (to 4 m), purple-flowered shrub with 

woolly, palmately lobed leaves, 5-20 cm long. The 

flowers are large, 5-7 cm long, white or red with a 

central column of fused stamens. They are arranged on 

woolly pedicels and peduncles in terminal groups 

usually of two or three flowers. It occurs in fencerows, 

along roads, and in yards. It is planted occasionally by 

Zinacantecs, but is also naturalized in highland areas. 

The flowers are sold in Tuxtla. As a remedy for whooping 

cough, three flowers are brewed with pit seeds. The "hot" tea is 

drank once or twice. One small basket of the flowers was 

formerly provided by the Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary 

to be strung on a necklace that is placed in a bowl and carried 

by the first prefect to the houses of the junior stewards on St. 

Rose Day. (Now the stewards use five bunches of red 

carnations and five bunches of white carnations as this shrub is 

no longer so common.) The woman who tends die incense 

wears it for a moment after it has been revered. 

b. K'anal tz'oban, "yellow tz'oban," is Abutilon purpusii (1-1), a large shrub with large, bright yellow 

flowers, 3-3.5 cm long, and big, round, or heartshaped, soft pubescent leaves, 10-20 cm long. The 

fruit is made up of 8-10 fused carpels, about 3 cm in 

diameter. It occurs in second growth in temperate and 

lowland areas. 

c. K'ox tz'oban, "small tz'oban" (tz'oban ak', tz'oban 

te'), is Malvaviscus arboreus var. arboreus (7-13), a 

many-branched shrub with densely woolly alternate 

broadly ovate leaves, sometimes, 3-lobed, and palmately veined. The flowers are solitary in the upper 

leaf axils, red, with petals 3-5.5 cm long and a 

stamen-tube exerted from the corolla. It is a very 

common element in second growth on exposed slopes 

in temperate and lowland areas. Ladinos use the 

flowers for altar decorations. It is classed variously as 

"vine," "plant," and "tree." 

As cough medicine, a flower is brewed with sugar. A cup of 

the "cold" tea is drank twice a day. As a remedy for whooping 

cough, 13 flowers are brewed and the "medium" tea is drunk 

before meals for three days. The flowers may be brewed 

together with Spanish moss. Cf. xanxanil ton. 

Extended range: Ayenia mexicana, Mirabilis jalapa. The 

latter may also be brewed to provide a "hot" tea for whooping 

cough. 

2. Yuch' max, "monkey's louse" (-tik), refers to members of 

the genus Triumfetta. These have ovate, coarsely toothed 

leaves, 4-10 cm long, yellow or orange flowers in terminal or 

axillary inflorescenses and small, hard, round fruits covered 

with stiff bristles. They are common in the understory of 

pine-oak and tropical forest and in second growth in temperate 

and lowland regions. 
194 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

When the survivors of the Flood misspoke and were 

transformed into monkeys, they were condemned to scratch 

their lice. This plant is associated with that primordial event. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i yuch' max, "genuine monkey's louse" (yak' 

ch'o), refers to Triumfetta grandiflora (2-4), T. 

semitriloba (6-9) and T speciosa (1-2), large shrubs 

with bright yellow or orange flowers, which are 

arranged in axillary, branched inflorescences. They 

have five distinct sepals and petals, though they appear 

tubular in bud. The stamens are many and exerted. The 

leaves are broadly ovate to narrowly ovate rounded 

and palmately veined from the base, softly pubescent 

or rough to the touch above and below. They have very 

leathery bark. They occur in second growth on sunny, 

exposed slopes in temperate areas. 

The bark is used for house and fence lashing, and by children 

to make traps. 

Extended range: Malvaviscus arboreus var. mexkanus, 

having the same uses as above. 

b. K'ox yuch' max, "small monkey's louse," is Triumfetta dumetorum (3-7), a wiry-branched shrub with a 

profusion of small axillary yellow flowers that develop 

in small spinose burs. The leaves are pubescent, ovate 

to elliptic, 2-9 cm long. It is very common in second 

growth, exposed slopes of highland and temperate 

areas. It is classed variously as "tree" and "plant." 

Extended range: Ayenia micrantha, A. mexicana, Bidens 

bicolor, and Kearnemalvastrum lacteum. 

c. Tzotzin yuch' max, "downy monkey's louse," is 

Triumfetta polyandra (1-2), a low shrub with large, 

short petiolate, palmately veined oval to oblong, 

woolly leaves, 7-15 cm long, and large yellow flowers 

in terminal inflorescences with yellow petals, 2.5-3.5 

cm long. The spinescent burs are 2-4 cm in diameter 

and densely pubescent. It occurs on grassy slopes in 

pine forest of temperate areas. 

3. Yuch' max pox, "monkey's louse medicine" (votzvotz 

pox), is Acaena elongata (4-6), a low, densely branched shrub 

with dissected leaves, 2-4 cm long, and racemes of small 

flowers developing into ellipsoid burs 6-8 mm long with stiff 

spines. It is a common, often dominant element in wind-swept, 

shrubby association on the tops of high ridges and peaks. It is 

classed as "plant." 

As a remedy for "wind," diarrhea, and bloody dysentery a 

small bunch is brewed. One cup of the "hot" tea is drank before 

breakfast and lunch for one day. 

Isolates 

1. Chil jabnal, "chil leaf (tik), refers to members of the 

genus Miconia. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i chil jabnal, "genuine chil leaf" (sakil chil 

jabnal), is Miconia oligotrkha (2-6), a densely 

branched, soft-wooded shrub with glabrous, 3-nerved, 

elliptic leaves. The flowers are small, white, and in 

terminal panicles. The fruit is a small, juicy berry. 

They are common in the evergreen cloud forest and in 

wet situations of pine-oak forests of highland areas. 

Chamulans gather the branches and sell them to Zinacantec 

women to dye wool. The leaves are boiled with dodder to 

produce a yellow dye. After the wool is dyed, it is taken to San 

Crist6bal where it is immersed in blue dye to provide green 

wool for sashes. 

b. Tzajal chil jabnal, "red chil leaf (chilkat te', 

jabnal), refers to Leandra subseriata (3-5), Miconia 

guatemalensis (7-11), and M. mexicana (1-4), small, 

soft-wooded shrubs with reddish, pubescent, ovate, 

three-nerved leaves. The flowers are small, white and 

pink, and in terminal panicles. These are common 

elements of the shrubby, second growth formations of 

the temperate regions. 

The leaves are boiled with fuchsia dye to produce the red dye 

for sashes. 

Extended range: Heterocentron subtriplinervium. 

2. Ch'ib (-tik) refers to small forest palms of the genus 

Chamaedorea. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i ch'ib, "genuine ch'ib," is the bamboo palm, 

Chamaedorea elatior (4-4), an extremely variable 

plant with a slender, dense, hard stem to 3 m tall and 

long leaves divided into narrow segments. The flowers 

are on an erect-branched inflorescence that develops 

round, black fruits along the rachis. It occurs in the 

dense, moist understory of evergreen cloud forest in 

the highlands and in montane rain forests of the 

temperate area ravines below Apas and near Masan. 

The assistants of the stewards in charge of replacing the 

floral adornment of the church entrances formerly gathered 600 

sprays for each of the two churches in Zinacantan Center, and 

60 sprays for the altar of the two steward's in charge. Five 

hundred and seventy are gathered for the creche by the Junior 

Steward of Our Lady of the Rosary (but the expenses shared by 

all stewards). These are provided on die eighth Posada. Four 

dozen more are provided on the ninth Posada by the Junior 

Stewards of the Sacrament and St. Sebastian (the costs also 

shared by all stewards). Bamboo palm is used to decorate the 

creche in Na Chij. The assistants of the elders gather 100 for the 

grand alcalde's altar, every two weeks; 330 sprays are provided 

by the publicans every two weeks for the decoration of the 

Chapel of Esquipulas. Thirty of these are given to the elders. 

The waterhole crosses are decorated with these stems on Holy 

Cross Day. The stems may be used to adom the graveyard 

crosses on All Saints' and All Souls' Days. Two hundred 

sprays are taken by the stewards to Atz'am on the Fiesta of Our 

Lady of the Rosary. Because of the increasing scarcity of this 
NUMBER 35 195 

plant, muk'ta ch'ib has largely replaced it for church and altar 

decoration. Bamboo palm is used in the flower changes in all 

chapels except those of Chak Toj and Kelem Ton. For further 

use cf. krus ech'. 

Now all stewards combine to provide 40 dozen sprays for 

each church and 3'/2 dozen for every steward's altar, making a 

total of 1440 sprays. 

b. Muk'ta ch'ib, "large ch'ib" (chayna nichim and 

palma ch'ib in part), refers to Chamaedorea ernestiaugustii (1-2) and C. nubium (1-2), plants with a 

delicate stem to 2 m tall and leaves divided into two or 

a few broad segments. The flowers are on a fewbranched inflorescence and produce marble-sized, 

black fruits. They occur in deep montane rain forest 

and moist slopes in seasonal evergreen forests in 

temperate to lowland areas. 

For use cf. batz'i ch'ib. Chamaedorea ernesti-augustii is 

gathered in the Malpaso area or bought at the market in Tuxtla. 

c. Palma ch'ib, "palm ch'ib" (jetav ch'ib), is Chamaedorea concolor (1-2), a plant with a thin, hard 

stem to 2 m tall and leaves divided into many broad 

segments. The flowers and fruits are similar to batz'i 

ch'ib. It occurs in the dense understory of montane 

rain forest in temperate and lowland areas. 

3. Ik'ux (higos*) is the fig Ficus carica (4-5), very 

commonly cultivated by ladinos in temperate and some 

highland areas. They are small trees about 30 feet tall or less 

with palmately 3-5 lobed leaves on long petioles. Figs are 

classed variously as "hot," and "cold." 

According to the priest of Zinacantan in 1797, figs were the 

third most common yard trees. "The figs grow much taller here 

man in all the other places of the kingdon, although usually 

they are not the best kind" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

Ladinos sell figs at market in August. They brandy the figs 

in cane liquor and make fig candy. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Ik'al ik'ux, "black fig," is a black-fruited variety. 

b. Yaxal ik'ux, "green fig," is a green-fruited variety. A 

very few Zinacantecs in Na Chij, Naben Chauk, Petz 

Toj, Sak Lum, X'ukun, and Zinacantan Center plant 

the slips in their yards in the rainy season. 

4. Jach'ub te', "comb tree" is Erythroxylon rotundifolium 

(1-1). These are shrubs or small trees with small, glabrous, 

broadly ovate leaves, 1-2.5 cm long, which are alternate on the 

short branches. The flowers are white, very small, 1-4 in the 

axils of the leaves. The fruit is oblong, red, 4-6 mm long. This 

is an understory tree in the tropical deciduous forest of the 

lowlands. 

5. Jasinto te', "jasinto tree," is Moringa oleifera (1-2), a 

tree cultivated by ladinos for fencerows in the lowlands. It has 

pinnately divided leaves, with obovate leaflets, 1-2 cm long, 

large inflorescences of pink flowers, 2.5 cm broad, and large 

pods with triangular seeds that yield an oil of commercial use 

in perfume and machinery oil. The people of Chiapa de Corzo 

decorate their graves on All Souls' Day with the flowers of this 

tree. 

6. Kakav te', "kakav tree," is Oecopetalum mexicanum 

(2-3), an unusual tree, often a dominant of the montane rain 

forests of the northern escarpment of the central highlands. It 

produces a large nut reminiscent of a walnut, but with a 

uniform meat. The leaves are large, coriaceous, elliptic to 

broadly oblong, 9-24 cm long. The flowers are white with five 

petals and arranged in axillary clusters. Occasionally it is 

cultivated by Chamulans, but most of the seeds sold come from 

wild trees. The bitter nuts are boiled and sold at market in San 

Cristobal in October and November, but are rarely eaten by 

Zinacantecs. 

7. Kamusa te', "hat strap tree" (poxil javal okol), refers to 

Bocconia arborea (2-4) and B. frutescens (1-1), soft-wooded 

shrubs with large, pinnately lobed leaves, which are pubescent 

below. The wood and inner bark are bright orange and the sap 

forms an orange latex. The flowers are small, in large pendent 

panicles. The fruits are ellipsoid, 7-10 mm long. The seeds are 

black with red arils. It is common in shrubby second growth 

formations of temperate areas. Chamulans soak hides in cold 

water together with the branches of this shrub to dye the hides 

yellow for use as hat straps and sashes. 

The "hot" sap of young shoots may be applied to cracked feet 

every two or three days. The tips of B. frutescens may be used 

with elderberry to "sweep away wind." 

8. Kilkil nichim, "pendent flower," is a non-Linnaean 

grouping of plants cultivated for their drooping habit. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Sakil kilkil nichim, "white pendent flower," is 

Asparagus setaceus (1-4), which is commonly grown 

by ladinos in hanging baskets in the highlands. It is a 

pendent woody, wiry stemmed plant with lacy fernlike leaves, dissected into numerous green, spine-luke 

leaflets. Slips or seedlings are planted in the rainy 

season. Ladinos decorate their altars with the stems on 

Pentecost. This is classed as a "vine." 

b. Tzajal kilkil nichim, "red pendent flower" (ne kotom 

nichim, sim tuluk' nichim), is Acalypha hispida 

(1-6), a cultivated shrub with long (to 5 cm), red, 

fuzzy, pendent, rat-tail inflorescences. The leaves are 

alternate, long, petiolate and broadly ovate, 11-18 cm 

long. It is grown by ladinos in lowland yards. They use 

the flowers for altar decoration. 

c. Yaxyax-'ulan kilkil nichim, "purple pendent flower," 

refers to Bougainvillea buttiana (1-2) and B. glabra 

(1-4), cultivated vines with long, sprawling, pendent 

sprays of white or purple-bracteate flowers. The leaves 

are alternate, ovate or elliptic, 3-7 cm long. Ladinos at 

all elevations plant the slips or seedlings in the rainy 

season. The flowers are used for altar decoration. They 

are classed variously as "vine" and "tree." 

9. Klavo, clove, Eugenia caryophyllus, is only seen by 

Zinacantecs in the market. It is used occasionally to season 
196 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

chicken and turkey. It is "hot." 

10. Kokov* is cacao, Theobroma bkolor. Cacao seed may 

be toasted, ground and added to pamal ul. 

There is scarcely a hint of the former importance of cacao, 

when, during pre-conquest and early colonial times, chocolate 

beans served as currency. Zinacantan paid heavy tributes in 

cacao to the Spanish Empire. During the 17th century, recipes 

abounded for the preparation of chocolate seasoned with 

cinnamon, almonds, hazel nuts, orange water, petals of the rose 

of Alexandria, musk, etc. With the aid of achiote it was 

transformed from muddy brown to brick red. "But the meaner 

sort of people, as Blackmores and Indians, commonly put 

nothing into it but Cacao, and Achiotte, Maiz, and a few Chiles, 

with a little Anniseed" (Gage, 1648:108). 

Indians celebrated their fiestas by drinking cold chocolate, 

whereas the ladies of San Crist6bal insisted on having their 

chocolate served hot at Mass! The bishop's protests went 

unheeded. In desperation he nailed letters of excommunication 

on the cathedral door. To this the ladies responded by attending 

mass elsewhere, and "sleighted his excommunication, drinking 

(chocolate) in iniquity in the Church, as the fish doth water" 

(ibid., p. 103). Shortly thereafter, a young lady tendered the 

bishop a cup of foaming chocolate whose particular recipe 

guaranteed his unlamented death. "And it became afterwards a 

Proverbe in that Country, Beware of the Chocolatte of Chiapa," 

(ibid.). 

As a burlesque reminder of the festive importance of 

chocolate, on Carnival Tuesday Sir Spook serves the elders and 

the ensign-bearers chukul'at. It consists of finely ground 

coffee, brown sugar, cane liquor, one onion, and two limes! 

When a young man asks for a girl's hand in marriage he 

places a bag of chocolate on the bottom of the basket presented 

to her parents. Chocolate is drank rarely now in Zinacantan, 

either alone, or mixed with coffee. It is "cold." 

11. Kranata lo'bol, "kranata fruit" (castillan makum*, 

granada*, granadiya), is the pomegranate Punka granatum 

(2-2), a dense, stiffly branched shrub, which produces bright 

orange flowers and large, round, red, sour, aggregate fruits, 

5-10 cm in diameter. The leaves are opposite, oblong, 2-6 cm 

long. The flowers are terminal, with petals 1.5-2.5 cm long. It 

is cultivated occasionally by ladinos in temperate and highland 

regions and is most often seen in markets, but is rarely eaten by 

Zinacantecs. 

12. K'ask'as te', "brittle tree," refers to Iresine angustifolia 

(1-2) and /. nigra (1-2), shrubs with swollen leaf nodes, which 

make the stems extremely brittle. The leaves are large, thin, and 

elliptic-ovate, about 12 cm long or less, with a reddish tinge. 

The flowers are small, white, and in terminal panicles, 10-25 

cm tall. The shrubs are common in the understory of tropical 

deciduous forests. 

They are cut and used as fodder for sheep and horses. 

13. K'evex (-tik) refers to the custard apples Annona. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Batz'i k'evex (te'tikal k'evex) is the common, 

cultivated and wild tree Annona cherimola (9-10), a 

small to medium-sized tree with large, velvety, elliptic 

leaves, 8-15 cm long, and large, round, sweet fruits 

with white pulp and black seeds. The flowers are 

opposite the leaves, solitary or two at a node. They are 

pubescent, about 1.5-2.5 cm long, and greenish 

inside. It is grown in all but two of the temperate 

communities, and in a few of the highland communities, where it seldom fruits. It also occurs as a wild 

element of tropical deciduous forest. 

The seeds are planted in the rainy season. 

The trunk is used for fence posts and firewood. The fruit, 

predominately classed as "cold," is sold at market in October 

and early November. Eating this fruit after taking an aspirin 

(mejoral) is said to have fatal effects. To rid horses and dogs of 

fleas or lice, the seed is ground and mixed in cold water, but 

when bathing the animal care must be taken not to let any water 

get in its eyes lest it be blinded. 

b. Chin-jol k'evex, "bumpy head k'evex" (chinkul 

k'evex, chinkuya), is the lowland tree Annona 

purpurea (3-8), common in second growtii dry forests. 

It is characterized by a globose fruit, 10-12 cm in 

diameter, covered with short, thick, spiny projections. 

The leaves are large, pubescent, broadly obovate, 

12-30 cm long. The fruit, classed variously as "hot" 

and "cold," is harvested by the people of San Lucas in 

September and October. It is sold at market. 

The pit, reputed to be poisonous, is occasionally used to kill 

head lice. It is ground and mixed with shampoo, but, if it has 

contact with the eyes, it will cause blindness. 

c. K'anal k'evex, "yellow k'evex" (sakil k'evex), is die 

wild lowland tree Annona reticulata (1-2), a tree very 

similar to A. cherimola, but die fruit has a harder skin 

and is somewhat insipid. 

The fruit is harvested by Zinacantecs in Kelem Ton. It is 

classed variously as "hot," and "cold." 

d. Papausa k'evex, (papausa, papayusa), is Annona 

diversifolia (1-2), a cultivated tree with very large, 

oblong fruits, 13-15 cm long, with fleshy projections 

on the surface. The leaves are glabrous, obovate, 8-14 

cm long. It is grown by lowland ladinos in dieir yards 

and along the river's edge. 

It is grown in Masan, Minax, and Santa Rosa. 

Slips or seeds are planted in Santa Rosa, one to a hole, in 

black earth, 3 mm apart, in the rainy season. The fruit is sold at 

market from mid-August to September. It is predominately 

classed as "cold." 

14. K'olo-max, "monkey rattle" (-tik) (k'olo-max te'), is 

Olmediella betschleriana (1-5), a large tree of the evergreen 

cloud forest. The leaves are alternate leathery, glossy, and often 

coarsely dentate and spine tipped, 8-23 cm long. The flowers 

are minute. The fruit is large, round, and gourd-like. The bark 

is smooth and white. 

15. K'unil te', "soft tree" (k'unil ok te'), is Lopezia 
NUMBER 35 197 

langmanniae (1-2), a soft-wooded shrub with velvety, pubescent, oblong-elliptic to oblanceolate leaves, 18 cm long or less, 

and bright red, tubular flowers, 15-17 mm long. The capsules 

are ovate, 6-8 mm long, on long pedicels, 3.5 cm long or less. 

It is common in second growth in temperate hamlets. 

16. Linkon te' is a non-Linnaean grouping of shrubs or 

small trees with long, stringy flowers in wet forests of 

temperate and upland areas. It includes Acalypha macrostachya 

(1-1), A. mollis (1-1), Myriocarpa heterostachya (1-1), M. 

longipes (1-1), and M. yzabalensis (1-1). 

The trunk is used for house posts, digging sticks, and hoe 

handles. 

17. Lo'bol, "fruit" (-tik, -altik), refers to plantains and 

bananas. They represent clones that are reproduced only by 

cuttings. Many of the nine varieties are cultivated elsewhere in 

lowland Mexico and known to Zinacantecs only through the 

market. All but k'ox lo'bol and mol lo'bol are hybrid clones of 

Musa acuminata x M. balbisiana. 

Because Christ planted banana palms they must not be cut 

down. Otiiers say that they sprung up and provided the Virgin 

Mary with shelter when she was fleeing the devils. 

When Our Holy Mother was chased by devils, she slipped 

into a banana grove. 

[The banana] became the Virgin's food since she hid under 

the banana palms. 

When she was being chased by devils and hid, sitting in the 

weeds, now they weren't weeds anymore. They turned 

into a banana grove, just cultivated bananas. 

When she escaped from the devils and wasn't caught she 

left a name [for the banana]. Its name was kinya. After 

she gave it a name, the Virgin ate it. 

Young plants are transplanted in the rainy season, or, if the 

ground is humid, at any time of year. Young plants should be 

weeded and hilled. Compost is sometimes provided. Gophers 

may become serious pests by eating the roots. The trees fruit in 

2-3 years. The local varieties are used as shade trees in the 

coffee groves. The leaves are used as umbrellas and to wrap 

food when going to work. They are sold to ladinos who wrap 

tamales, posol, and meat in banana leaves. In the lowlands 

tortillas are patted on banana leaves. During the famine of 1918 

young bananas were boiled and mixed with com dough to make 

tortillas. People of the temperate hamlets flavor vokol ich with 

bananas. Banana peels should not be eaten lest someone in 

one's family die. Chamulans joke about using banana peels 

when far from their women (cf. manko). 

Specifics: 10. 

a. Batz'i lo'bol, "genuine fruit" (ik'al lo'bol, tuxta 

kinya), is the lowland plantain. 

The fruit may be resold and is sold at market from August to 

mid-March. Plantains eaten raw, when very ripe, and blackskinned, or roasted are classed predominately as "hot," but also 

are "medium" and "cold." They are an essential ingredient of 

the net of fruit given by the fiance' to his fiancee and of the net 

presented by the elders to each of the scribes on the fiestas of St. 

Sebstian and St. Lawrence. They are also essential gifts to the 

dead on All Souls' Day. 

b. Chan-tzelav lo'bol, "four-ridged fruit" (chan-tzelav 

kinya, kinya lo'bol, lo'bol chitom, ve'el chitom), is a 

banana cultivated in Santa Rosa and Kelem Ton, and 

in most of the temperate communities. 

Two trees are provided by the Stewards of Our Lady of the 

Rosary on the eighth Posada to flank the entrance to the creche. 

They are also used for creche decoration in Apas, Atz'am, and 

Sek'emtik. They adom the church in Sak Lum on the fifth 

Lenten Friday. The fruit, generally classed as "cold," is 

available year round. It is also fed to pigs. 

c. Chimpo lo'bol, "chimpo fruit" (chimpo kinya, yaxal 

kinya), is a low-growing banana cultivated in most of 

temperate hamlets and Kelem Ton. The "cold" fruit is 

available year round. 

d. K'ox lo'bol, "small fruit," refers to Heliconia librata 

(1-2) and H. schiedeana (1-2), New World relatives 

of the banana with few, large banana leaves and bright 

orange or red, erect, terminal inflorescences. The 

flowers are subtended by large, boat-shaped, coriaceous, spreading bracts, 3.5-30 cm long. They are 

classed as "plant." They occur in wet situations of 

montane rain forest and seasonal evergreen forest of 

temperate Zinacantah. 

e. Mantzana lo'bol, "apple fruit" (mantzana kinya), is a 

highly prized miniature variety cultivated in Magdalenas, Santa Marta, Santa Rosa, and most of the 

temperate communities. The "cold" fruit is available 

year round. 

f. Mol lo'bol, "big fruit," is manila hemp Musa textilis 

(3-3), a large non-fruiting banana that is cultivated by 

a very few people in Ibestik, San Sigro, X'ukun, and 

some of the highland communities. 

The sheaths were once cut into strips and used for string to 

tie flowers in bunches. 

g. Natikil lo'bol, "long fruit" (natikil kinya), is a banana 

found only at market. The generally "cold" fruit is 

available year round. 

h. Sakil lo'bol, "white fruit" (sakil kinya), is a banana 

cultivated in most of the temperate communities. The 

"cold" fruit is sold at market in January, 

i. Sera lo'bol, "wax fruit" (sera kinya), is a banana found 

only at the market. The "cold" fruit is available in 

April and May. 

j . Tzajal lo'bol, "red fruit" (tzajal kinya), is a banana 

cultivated in Kelem Ton and in all but one of the 

temperate communities. The fruit, predominately 

classed as "hot," is available year round. 

18. Lo'bol vet, "fox fruit" (lo'bol sat vet, sekaro, 

sekarovel), is Coriaria ruscifolia (7-11), a sprawling shrub 

with finely divided, fern-like leaves up to 1.5 m long. The 

leaflets are ovate, 7-17 mm long. The flowers are small, in 
198 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

pendulous racemes, the fruit is a fleshy, purple berry. It is very 

common on exposed slopes in evergreen cloud forests and 

second growth situations that replace this formation. 

The trunk is used for firewood. To make their hair grow 

longer, women pound six young tips and rub them on their hair. 

The "cold" berries are eaten, but if 4-5 seeds are swallowed the 

results may be fatal. The berries are also eaten by gTay foxes, 

steller's jays, and rufous-collared robins. Young girls' dirty 

white skirts may be dumped in a pot of raw berries and dyed. 

The berries are also used to write political slogans on trails. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan reported, "I will add a dye 

that I just discovered in the fruit or wild grape of a plant named 

lobuluec that gives a fast, dark purple" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 

1797). 

19. Luchamaria is Rheedia edulis (1-1), a tree of the 

seasonal evergreen forests adjacent to the Rio Grijalva. These 

are large trees with thick, glabrous leaves, 8-10 cm long, and 

large, round, fleshy fruits, about 2 cm long. The flowers are 

small and white with four petals, 5-7 mm long, and lateral 

clusters at defoliated nodes. The trees are sometimes cultivated 

by ladinos. The fruit is edible. 

20. Mora (jol tuk' te', k'anal te', mora te') is Chlorophora 

tinctoria (4-12), a tree with large, scabrous leaves, 4.5-9 cm 

long, and small, catkin-like flowers. The fruit is an aggregate, 

like a mulberry, about 1 cm in diameter. The tree is scattered in 

canyon situations in the lowlands. Ladinos use the trunk for 

draw poles for their oxcarts. 

The trunk is used for fieldhouse mainposts, doors, lintels, 

rafters, shelves, chests, coffers, chairs, tables, benches, metate 

platforms, bobbins, ax and billhook handles, slingshots, 

gunstocks, crosses, gates, fence posts, and rails. The fruit is 

eaten. 

21. Mukumu (anima nichim, nichim chij, nichim ninyo, 

sakil nichim, santo nichim, snichim jsoktom), is Euphorbia 

leucocephala (8-12), a soft-wooded shrub with milky sap and 

thin, lanceolate to elliptic leaves, 2.5-5.5 cm long. The flowers 

are small, subtended by white oblanceolate bracts 10-12 mm 

long and in showy terminal clusters. It is very common in 

second growth shrubby formation of temperate and lowland 

areas. It is classed variously as "plant" and "tree." 

The flowers are sold in Tuxtla for the fourth Friday of Lent. 

They are also used by ladinos, especially in Chiapa de Corzo, 

for All Souls' Day wreaths. 

Extended range: Chamaesyce hirta, C. hyperkifolia, Euphorbia graminea, and E. macropus. 

22. Nankipu (nankeo, nankipo, nankipu te', nankipu', 

nankito, nanta') refers to Cordia dentata (4-9), C. dodecandra (2-6), and C. sebestena (1-2), small trees with hard wood, 

ovate, scabrous, pubescent leaves, and clusters of bright orange 

or white flowers. The fruit is a large drape enclosed in a fleshy 

calyx. These are common trees both cultivated and in natural 

situations in tropical deciduous forest in lowland areas. Ladinos 

plant the nut in fencerows in the rainy season and use the trunk 

for house mainposts. 

The trunk is used for benches, slingshots, hoe, pick, and 

billhook handles, digging sticks, gunstocks, fence rails, and 

posts. The fruit is eaten as cough medicine. The nut of C. 

dodecandra is "hot." 

23. Nuk' chij, "sheep neck" or "deer neck," is Rubus 

trilobus (7-10), a thin-stemmed shrub with palmate, lobed, 

soft, pubescent leaves, large, single, white flowers, and a 

few-seeded, aggregate, sweet, fleshy fruit. It is common in 

exposed situations of the evergreen cloud forest and wet second 

growth formations in the highlands. 

Women gather the trunks for loom bars and shuttles. For 

loom bars, the ends are cut even and the bark is stripped. For 

shuttles, the bark is stripped and the ends are flattened and 

forked. The trunk is also used for shepherds' switches. In Apas 

the trunk is used for the frame of the creche. The fruit is edible, 

but dyes the lips purple. It is generally classed as "cold," but 

also as "medium," and "hot." 

24. Papaya (-tik) refers to two members of Carica. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Papaya is Carica papaya (2-3), a thick-trunked, 

soft-wooded tree with the flowers and fruits bome on 

the trunk. The leaves are large, palmately lobed, 

mostly 30-60 cm wide. The creamy white flowers are 

of two kinds. The male flowers have an elongate 

slender tube lobed at the apex, 2.5-3 cm long. The 

female flowers have distinct petals and are slightly 

larger. All are bome on axillary inflorescences. It is 

cultivated by lowland ladinos in their yards. 

Although some say that Rabbit dirtied melons and watermelons, others say his target was papayas (Laughlin, 1977, T166). 

The resemblance of the seeds to rabbit pellets may not be 

coincidental! 

Zinacantecs plant the seeds with a digging stick in die rainy 

season, one to a hole, in black earth in Kelem Ton, Masan, 

Minax, and Santa Rosa. The tree fruits in a year. Papayas are 

eaten by people and birds. They are sold at market from January 

to mid-March. They are classed variously as "hot" and "cold." 

b. Papaya mut, "bird papaya" (k'ox papaya, te'tikil 

papaya), is Carica cauliflora (3-6), a tree about 

10-15 ft tall with large, palmately veined, ovate 

leaves. They are long petiolate and deeply lobed. The 

flowers are white, tubular, 2-3 cm long, and are 

arranged in short axillary racemes. The fruit is a large 

fleshy berry, up to 6 cm in diameter, with numerous 

seeds. It occurs along roadsides and in second growth 

in wet situations in the lowlands. 

The "cold" fruit is eaten occasionally. 

25. Paraiso te', "paradise tree," is the chinaberry or umbrella 

tree Melia azedarach (1-4), a cultivated tree at scattered 

locations mostly in the lowlands. It has large, finely divided, 

drooping leaves with serrate, ovate to lanceolate leaflets, 2-6 

cm long, and large, spreading clusters of lavender flowers with 

spreading petals about 1 cm long. The fruits are small, hard, 

yellow, and sculptured, about 13-15 mm in diameter. In other 
NUMBER 35 199 

areas they are often used medicinally and for beads. 

26. Patax refers to frangipanni and oleander, which are trees 

or shrubs with bright-colored rotate or salverform flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'ox patax, "small patax" (nichim te'), is Nerium 

oleander (2-3). These are shrubs to about 20 feet tall 

with oblong lanceolate or linear leaves about 25 cm 

long or less. The flowers are showy, yellow, white, 

pink, or magenta, about 2.5-4 cm across, in large 

terminal branched inflorescences. Lowland ladinos 

plant oleanders in their yards, using the flowers for 

altar decoration. 

b. Patax nichim, "patax flower" (pataxete nichim, xela 

nichim), refers to Plumeria alba (1-5) and P. rubra 

(6-7). The fragrant white flowers are bome in large 

terminal inflorescences. The narrow tube expands into 

five obovate petals about 2.5-6 cm long. The leaves 

are oblong-elliptic, 12-50 cm long, alternate on the 

thick branches of the large shrubs or small trees. 

Ladinos cultivate frangipanni in their yards. The 

people of Chiapa de Corzo and Chamula thread the 

flowers on strings for altar decorations during Holy 

Week and for grave decorations on All Souls' Day. 

Only the white form occurs as an element of mature 

vegetation in tropical deciduous forests. Slips are 

planted in the rainy season by a few people in Jok' 

Ch'enom and Muk'ta Jok', and the flowers are sold in 

Tuxtla. 

(1) K'anal patax nichim, "yellow patax flower," is the 

yellow-flowered variety of P. rubra. 

(2) Moraro patax nichim, "purple patax flower," is the 

purple-flowered variety of P. rubra. 

(3) Sakil patax nichim, "white patax flower," is P. 

alba. 

(4) Tzajal patax nichim, "red patax flower," is the 

red-flowered variety of P. rubra. 

27. Pimenta (castillan ich*, especies*, pimilta, piminta) 

refers to black pepper and allspice that are only seen in the 

market by Zinacantecs. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i pimenta, "genuine pimenta" (pimentail ul), is 

allspice, Pimenta dioica. It is used to season com gruel 

(sakil ul). It is "hot." 

b. Kaxlan pimenta, "castilian pimenta," is black pepper 

Piper nigrum. This "hot" spice is used to season 

chicken and com gruel (pamal ul). For medicinal use 

cf. sakramentual nichim. 

28. Piyon te', "piyon tree," is Pedilanthus tithymaloides 

(1-1). This is an erect branched shrub with alternate, almost 

sessile leaves, which are thick and fleshy, elliptic to broadly 

oblong, 3.5-13 cm long. The flowers are red, tubular, 11-13 

mm long. The capsule is about 7 mm long and 3-lobed. The sap 

is applied to cuts to stanch bleeding. Its leaves are reputed to be 

poisonous. It occurs in the understory of tropical deciduous 

forest in the lowlands. Piyon may be a variant form of pinyon, 

the name applied to Jatropha curcas, a close botanical relative 

of Pedilanthus. 

29. Pomos (-tik, -altik) refers to three shrubs with showy 

clusters of terminal flowers. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Ik'al pomos, "black pomos" (muk'ta pomos, yaxal 

pomos), is Ceanothus coeruleus (8-11). These are 

large blue-flowered shrubs with strongly bicolored, 

alternate, elliptic to oblong, ovate leaves, 3-8 cm long. 

They are prominantly veined and brown pubescent 

beneath, dark green and glabrous above. The blue 

flowers are small, 2.5 mm long, and are arranged in 

small, dense, terminal panicles. The fruit is subglobose, somewhat 3-lobed, about 5 mm across. It occurs 

in second growth in the highland hamlets. 

The trunk is used for wattle, hoe handles, digging sticks, 

loom bars, bean poles, and stirring rods. The trunk is also used 

for firewood, but the bark sends off many sparks. The branches 

are used for brash fences. They are also planted in a circle 

around flower plants to protect them from wind and rain. 

b. Sakil pomos, "white pomos," is Gymnopodium floribundum var. antigonoides (2-5). These are shrubs or 

small trees with crooked branches and small elliptic 

leaves, 2-3.5 cm long, which are subsessile and 

fasciculate. The flowers are white, about 7-8 mm 

across, in long lateral racemes. The fruit is enclosed in 

a dry, three-sided, perianth about 1 cm long. It occurs 

on dry slopes in second growth on lowland slopes. 

c. Tzajal pomos, "red pomos" (-tik) (k'ox pomos), is 

Holodiscus argenteus (5-7), a shrub or small tree with 

dense terminal panicles, 5-15 cm long, of small white 

flowers. The leaves are bicolored, dark green and 

glabrous above, white pubescent below. They are 

alternate on the red branches, narrowly ovate to 

lanceolate or oblanceolate, coarsely serrate, 3-7 cm 

long. It occurs as a prominent element in second 

growth in the highlands. 

Zinacantecs distinguish this shrub from sakil pomos by its 

reddish brown bark. The trunk is cut by women to make loom 

bars and stirring rods. Loom bars were formerly made 

exclusively of bamboo (Otatea fimbriata), but the near 

disappearance of this bamboo in the township has promoted the 

substitution of this wood. The trunk is also used for wattle, 

bean poles, fence posts, and firewood. This wood also sparks. 

Extended range: Spiraea cantoniensis, which grows in yards 

and whose flowers are used as altar decorations. 

30. Potov refers to guavas and related plants. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i potov, "genuine potov" (k'ox potov, pajal 

potov), is Psidium guineense (6-10). These are shrubs 

or trees with softly pubescent broadly elliptic leaves, 

about 6-10 cm long, with short petioles. The flowers 

are solitary or three in the leaf axils. The petals are 
200 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

white, 10-14 mm long, extending from the cup-like 

pubescent base of the calyx. The stamens are numerous and exerted from the flowers. The fruit is round, 

1-2 cm in diameter, yellowish green or yellow. It 

occurs in savannas in lower temperate hamlets. 

It is grown in Kelem Ton and in most temperate communities. 

Some claim that the leaves are poisonous, but others use 

them medicinally. As a remedy for dysentery, the "hot" leaves 

and bark may be brewed. One cup of the tea is drank before 

breakfast and, if necessary, before lunch and supper for two or 

three days. It is classed variously as "medium" and "cold." The 

tip is mashed and applied to fever sores. The fruit is sold at 

market in October. It is classed variously as "hot" and "cold." 

It was once bartered by the people of Atz'am for cabbages and 

tomatoes. 

Extended range: Eugenia yunckeri. 

b. Kaxlan potov, "castilian potov" (muk'ta potov, 

tz'unub potov), is guava, Psidium guajava (6-9). It is 

cultivated in Magdalenas and Santa Marta, and sold at 

market in October and November. It is very similar to 

P. guineense. Psidium guajava usually has one flower 

per inflorescence. Psidium guineense often has three. 

Buds are usually larger and more pointed and 

peduncles shorter in P guajava. The two species 

hybridize in nature and are sometimes difficult to 

distinguish. It occurs with batz'i potov. 

It is grown in some temperate communities. 

(1) Sakil kaxlan potov, "white castilian potov" 

(k'anal kaxlan potov), is a variety of guava with 

light-colored flesh. 

(2) Tzajal kaxlan potov, "red castilian potov," is a 

red-fleshed guava. This variety is cultivated more 

frequently, especially in Masan. 

The trunk is used for firewood. The raw fruit is "cold." It 

may be boiled with refined sugar until it forms the consistency 

of com gruel. Then it is classed as "hot." 

c. Tzajal potov, "red potov," is Syzygium jambos (1-1). 

This is a glabrous shrub or small tree with large 

alternate narrowly elliptic to lanceolate leaves, 12-20 

cm long. They are short petiolate and have entire 

margins. The flowers are white, large and showy, 7-8 

cm across, with numerous conspicuous long stamens. 

They are arranged in a terminal raceme. The fruit is 

depressed-globose, 6 cm or less in diameter, 3-4 cm 

long, pale yellow, enclosing 1 seed, which is about 2.5 

cm in diameter. It is a temperate and lowland 

cultivated tree. 

31. Satin (-tik) is wax myrtle Myrka cerifera (6-8). These 

are sparsely to densely branched shrubs with alternate, 

glabrous, oblanceolate, fragrant leaves, 5-10 cm long. They 

are characterized by the short, dense lateral racemes of globose, 

waxy, papillate fruits, which are about 4 mm in diameter. It is 

a highland shrub, common in second growth. 

A "hot" tea of the roots is taken as a remedy for menstrual 

failure. The trunk is used for bean poles. The branches are used 

to wrap flowers for transport. The branches, provided by 

constables until 1984 when the churchyard was paved, were 

tied to stakes on either side of the processional path in 

Zinacantan Center on the fourth Friday of Lent, Wednesday of 

Holy Week, and Good Friday. They are used in Chak Toj and 

Naben Chauk for the fourth Friday of Lent and in Naben Chauk 

on Good Friday as well. They are used similarly for visits from 

government officials and to decorate the school on Independence Day. Cf. batz'i k'oxox te'. 

It is also used to decorate the graves on All Souls' Day. In 

Atz'am it is used for the processional path on Christmas Eve. A 

horse suffering "wind" is beaten with the branches. The tips are 

used in the "steam cure." The branches are used to wrap flowers 

for transport. The use of the berries for making candles is not 

known. For further use cf. muk'ta pom tz'unun and tilil. 

32. Sik'ol te', "cigarette tree" (nok'ol sik'ol te'), is 

Hyperbaena mexicana (1-1). These are shrubs to trees, 50 feet 

[-15 m] tall, with short thick trunks. The leaves are large, 

coriaceous, glabrous, often glossy, oblong 10-22 cm long. The 

fruits are ovoid, 1-seeded and fleshy much like a plum, about 3 

cm long. This is an occasional element in die tropical deciduous 

forest of the lowlands. 

33. Soro te', "skunk tree" (soro pox), is Petiveria alliacea 

(3-9). These are stiff woody plants with alternate, elliptic to 

obovate, glabrous, rank leaves, 5-15 cm long. The flowers are 

small, white or pink with four spreading linear sepals, about 5 

mm long. They are arranged in very long narrow racemes, 

10-35 cm long. This plant occurs in waste ground and second 

growth in the temperate and lowland regions. 

The root is prized for its medicinal qualities and may be 

stored for later use. If the root is straight it is called "man," 

(vinik), and if it bifurcates it is "woman" (antz). The former is 

considered to be more powerful. The root may be brewed for 

toothache. As a remedy for "stomach wind" and for women's 

sickness (pumel), a 1" section of two or diree roots may be 

used. The roots are brewed or are mashed and steeped in cold 

water. A cup is drank before breakfast for 2-3 days. It is "hot." 

If the tea is taken the patient must be quarantined for six days. 

No shaman is required. Some consider tiiese foul-smelling 

roots more powerful than vako' ak'. The leaves are rubbed on 

aching legs to remove the "wind." For further medicinal use cf. 

kururin, vako' ak'. 

34. Tok'oy* (-tik, -altik) refers to willows. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan reported diat "there are two 

kinds of willow, one true, one false. They are mixed togetiier in 

the yards and fields. One has longer leaves diat are less green. 

The other has a bigger flower" (de Le6n y Goicoechea, 1797). 

This probably refers to kaxlan tok'oy (Yucca elephantipes) 

now conceptually related to agaves (met). The willow was used 

for quinsy (tonsilitis) and provided shade in the arroyos (de 

Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 
NUMBER 35 201 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i tok'oy, "genuine willow" (sakil tok'oy, 

va'ajtik tok'oy), is Salix bonplandiana (2-4), an erect 

tree common along streams in highland and temperate 

areas. The bark is brown and irregularly fissured. The 

branches are drooping. The leaves are narrowly 

lanceolate, 5-15 cm long, 1.5-2.5 cm wide. The male 

and female flowers are small and bome in separate 

erect spikes. It is often cultivated and used for living 

fences in the Atz'am valley and in many highland 

communities. 

Slips may be planted in the rainy season, but they grow better 

if planted in the dry season when their leaves have dropped. 

Both ends of the branch are cut off to form the slip. It may be 

planted in dry land for fencerows, but the ground should not be 

tamped tight. This tree is considered to be the origin of water 

(me' vo') and accordingly is planted by waterholes so they will 

not dry up. Some claim that it should not be planted by young 

people. A young person who has planted a willow should lop 

off the ends of the branches and the top of the tree in the dry 

season, so "killing" the tree. In the rainy season it will sprout 

again. 

The trunk is used to make gunpowder. It is burned in an 

outdoor fire. The firebrands are pulled out, wetted down and 

allowed to cool for two to three days. The charcoal is ground by 

women on a metate in the yard. During the grinding a half-pint 

of cane liquor is served. The charcoal powder is poured into a 

gourd and shaken to make it finer. Then it is poured on a plastic 

sheet and left in the sun for two days to dry. One almud of 

gunpowder is made by mixing three 5 liter measures of 

charcoal with 1 kilo of sulphur and 4 kilos of saltpeter. The 

gunpowder is used by mortarmen for the change of office of 

elders, stewards, stewards-royal, ensign-bearers, and for Holy 

Cross ceremonies. Four loads are needed. The shoots are 

gathered and fed to sheep. The leaves are used by girls as 

stoppers for their water jugs. 

To ease muscular pains in one's legs the patient bathes with 

water in which "hot" willow branches have been boiled. 

b. Kilajtik tok'oy, "pendulous willow," is the less 

common Salix babylonka (1-2) and S. humboldtiana 

(1-2). Both are very similar to 5. bonplandiana, but 

differ in having branches that droop often for several 

meters. The leaves are narrower, 3-10 cm wide. Salix 

babylonka is also cultivated in fencerows in the same 

highland communities as above. Salix humboldtiana 

occurs along streams at low elevations. It has the same 

non-medicinal uses as batz'i tok'oy. 

c. K'ox tok'oy, "small willow (tok'oy te'), is the 

lowland, shrubby Salix taxifolia (2-5). It is common 

along lowland streams. It is classed variously as 

"plant" and "tree." The leaves of this willow are linear 

and small, 1-1.5 cm long, almost sessile, and are 

silvery pubescent on both surfaces. The spikes are 

dense and oblong. The fruits are pubescent. 

Extended range: Baccharis salkifolia. 

35. Turasnu te', "peach tree," is Agonandra racemosa 

(1-1), a glabrous tree with slender branches and small 

lanceolate to ovate leaves, 4-8 cm long, very Idee those of 

peaches. The flowers are very small in axillary racemes, which 

may be longer or shorter than the leaves. The fruit is fleshy and 

1-seeded, globose, about 1 cm in diameter. It occurs as an 

element of tropical deciduous forests in the lowlands. 

The trunk is used for ax and hoe handles and digging sticks. 

36. Tzajal te', "red tree," is Acalypha unibracteata (6-11), 

a shrub with coppery foliage and small catkin flowers in the 

axils of the leaves. The leaves are thin, short-petiolate, ovate, 

2-5 cm long, with acuminate apices. It is a very common plant 

in second growth in temperate and lowland areas. 

The red heartwood may be used for loom bars. 

37. Vo'ox (-tik, -altik) is achiote, Bixa orellana (2-7). 

These are shrubs or trees to 30 feet [-9 m] tall. The leaves are 

large, broadly ovate, palmately veined, broadly rounded at the 

base, acute at the apex, 9-15 cm long. The flowers are white or 

pink with petals about 2.5 cm long, in small panicles. The fruits 

are ovoid capsules, 2.5-4-5 cm long, densely covered with 

flexible spines. The seeds are covered with a reddish orange 

pulp. It is planted by lowland ladinos and the people of Masan 

and X'ukun in the rainy season. The young plant must not be 

handled. The fruits, which are harvested in January, are spread 

out on a mat to dry in the sun. They are sold at market. Ladinos 

use the pulp to dye cooked turkey red. 

The "cold" pulp is used to color a chicken, but indigestion 

will result if cold water is drank after eating it. It is also used to 

color pork and beef. It is the dye for tzajal vokol ich that is 

served at the veneration of the coffers of the Stewards of the 

Holy Sacrament, St. Dominic, and Our Lady of the Rosary. To 

cause measles to erupt, it is soaked in warm water or lime 

water, providing a "medium" infusion. Cf. also ixim, mail. The 

pulp is also used to dye wool red for sashes. 

38. Vux te', "rubbing tree" (kokov te'), refers to Curatella 

americana (2-2) and Davilla nitida (2-6). These are shrubs or 

small trees with rough leaves that are alternate, broadly ovate, 

oblong to broadly elliptic with conspicuous parallel secondary 

veins. The flowers are bright yellow or white with 5-6 

imbricate petals that are arranged in lateral or axillary panicles. 

These trees are dominant in poor soil savannahs of the 

lowlands. 

The trunk is used for firewood. The leaves are used to rub 

hoe and ax handles smooth. 

39. X'ukun (-tik, -altik) refers to Erythrina chiapasana 

(4-7) and E. goldmanii (2-6). These are soft-wooded trees 

with pinnately trifoliate leaves. The leaflets are large and broad. 

The large pea flowers are showy and arranged in spikes. 

Flowers are pink, pale red, or red and about 5-8 cm long. The 

pods are constricted between the seeds, resembling a chain of 

beads. The seeds are bright red. They occur in second growth in 

temperate hamlets (E. chiapasana) and as an element of 

tropical deciduous forest (E. goldmanii). 
202 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

It is grown in all but one of the temperate and highland 

communities. 

Some maintain that slips can be planted for fencerows only 

in the dry season, others claim that they may be planted 

throughout the year. The branches are cut at both ends to 

provide slips. Some plant them immediately, others, claiming 

they will rot, pile them first on the ground for two weeks, 

allowing them to sprout. The slips are an armspan long, planted 

5-7 handspans apart. 

The trunk is used for stools, fence posts, for the dudes' 

masks, and for spoons. The flowers, which bloom in May, are 

sold at market. They may be boiled alone or together with 

beans. They are "cold." The "cold" buds may also be toasted. 

40. Yisim mut bolom, "jaguar bird whiskers," is Bumelia 

obtusifolia var. buxifolia. This is a large shrub armed with 

nodal spines. The leaves are opposite, oblong, obovate or 

broadly ovate, 2-8 cm long. The flowers are small, white or 

yellow, in small clusters in the axils of the leaves. The fruits are 

subglobose on short pedicels about 1 cm long. It occurs along 

streams in tropical deciduous forest in the lowlands. 
NUMBER 35 203 

'Plants": "Tz'i'lel Sets' 

"Alavanux Set" . . . 

alavanux 

ch'ix alavanux 

kaxlan alavanux 

muk'ta alavanux 

natikil alavanux 

sakil alavanux 

metabel 

mustisya 

k'ox mustisya 

muk'ta mustisya 

napux 

batz'i napux 

jolinom napux 

kaxlan napux 

sanorya 

214 

Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae) 

Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae) 

Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae) 

Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae) 

Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae) 

Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae) 

Brassica juncea (Brassicaceae) 

Brassica nigra (Brassicaceae) 

Brassica campestris (Brassicaceae) 

Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae) 

Brassica campestris (Brassicaceae) 

Daucus carota var. sativa (Apiaceae) 

Bertulaka Set" 

bero 

bertulaka 

batz'i bertulaka 

k'ox bertulaka 

muk'ta bertulaka 

yaxal bertulaka 

bilil itaj 

nex 

kilajtik nex 

va'ajtik nex 

216 

Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum 

(Brassicaceae) 

Rorippa x sterilis (Brassicaceae) 

Portulaca oleracea (Portucaceae) 

Bacopa monnieri (Scrophulariaceae) 

Boldoa purpurascens (Nyctaginaceae) 

Talinum paniculatum (Portulaceae) 

Talinum triangulare O^ortulaceae) 

Boerhaavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae) 

Boerhaavia erecta (Nyctaginaceae) 

"Boraja Set" . . 

boraja 

batz'i boraja 

k'ox boraja 

poxil obal 

216 

Borago offtcinalis (Boraginaceae) 

Cynoglossum amabile (Boraginaceae) 

Salvia lavanduloides (Lamiaceae) 

"Chichol Set" 

chichol 

putzul chichol 

batz'i putzul chichol 

muk'ta putzul chichol 

tzajal chichol 

k'ox tzajal chichol 

217 

Physalis philadelphica (Solanaceae) 

Physalis ixocarpa (Solanaceae) 

Lycoperskon esculentum var. 

cerasiforme (Solanaceae) 

muk'tik tzajal chichol 

telajtik tzajal chichol 

chichol ak' 

chichol ch'o 

chichol te' 

espinalca 

koko'on 

koko'on chij 

nh 

sakil ob 

Lycopersicon esculentum var. commune (Solanaceae) 

Lycopersicon esculentum var. commune (Solanaceae) 

Gaya minutiflora (Malvaveae) 

Herissantia crispa (Malvaveae) 

Jaltomata procumbens (Solanaceae) 

Lycianthes lenta (Solanaceae) 

Lycianthes quichensis (Solanaceae) 

Tetragonia expansa (Aizoaceae) 

Chenopodium ambrosioides (Chenopodiaceae) 

Iresine celosia (Amaranthaceae) 

sakil ob Phytolacca icosandra (Phytolactzajal ob 

pa' itaj 

pich' 

sikil ton 

tz'ul itaj 

batz'i tz'ul 

sakil tz'u 

itaj 

1 itaj 

Phytolacca icosandra (Phytolac -

caceae) 

Phytolacca rugosa (Phytolac -

caceae) 

Cleome magnifica (Capparaceae) 

Lepidium virginicum var. pubescens (Brassicaceae) 

Parietaria debilis (Urticaceae) 

Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthtzajal tz'ul itaj 

ch'ixal tz'ul itaj 

tan tz'ul itaj 

uskun-te' 

"Ch'aben Set" 

chenek' chij 

aceae) 

Amaranthus scariosus (Amaranthaceae) 

Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) 

Amaranthus scariosus (Amaranthaceae) 

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae) 

Chenopodium murale (Chenopodiaceae) 

Chenopodium nuttalliae (Chenopodiaceae) 

Galinsoga quadriradiata (Asteraceae) 

220 

ch'aben 

batz'i ch'aben 

tontikil ch'aben 

ch'aben ka' 

mesob jol bakal 

Lupinus elegans (Fabaceae) 

Lupinus sp. (Fabaceae) 

Crotalaria mucronata (Fabaceae) 

Crotalaria incana (Fabaceae) 

Crotalaria pumila (Fabaceae) 

Crotalaria quercetorum (Fabaceae) 

Crotalaria acapulcensis (Fabaceae) 

Marina scopa (Fabaceae) 
204 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

natz' amuch 

poxil mako' 

poxil vayichil 

tzukum tz'i'lel 

'Ch'il Vet Set" . 

ch'il vet 

ch'ix ch'il vet 

sakil ch'il vet 

ten-jol pox 

Ch'ix Set" ... . 

chikaryo 

batz'i chikaryo 

ch'ix chikaryo 

chikaryo tz'i'lel 

ch'ix 

lo'balal ch'ix 

tomal ch'ix 

Lisianthius nigrescens var. 

chiapensis (Gentianaceae) 

Haplophyton cinereum (Apocynceae) 

Crotalaria sagittalis (Fabaceae) 

Acalypha arvensis (Euphorbiaceae) 

Acalypha botteriana (Euphorbiaceae) 

Acalypha setosa (Euphorbiaceae) 

Acalypha sp. (Euphorbiaceae) 

Barleria micans (Acanthaceae) 

Dalea foliolosa (Fabaceae) 

Dalea leporina (Fabaceae) 

Dalea lutea var. gigantea (Fabaceae) 

Dalea tomentosa var. psoraleoides 

(Fabaceae) 

Dalea versicolor (Fabaceae) 

Hyptis suaveolens (Lamiaceae) 

221 

Lantana camera (Verbenaceae) 

Lantana hispida (Verbenaceae) 

Lantana achyranthifolia (Verbenaceae) 

221 

'Ch'oliv Set" 

ch'oliv 

batz'i ch'oliv 

k'ox ch'oliv 

tzajal ch'oliv 

dalya 

ik'-lo'an pino dalya 

ik'-lo'an pinto pino dalya 

ik'-lo'an potz pino dalya 

k'an-set'an pino dalya 

k'an-set'an potz pino dalya 

k'anal pino dalya 

k'anal potz pino dalya 

k'ox sakil pino dalya 

moraro dalya 

rosaro pino dalya 

sak-vayan pino dalya 

Sonchus oleraceus (Asteraceae) 

Sonchus asper (Asteraceae) 

Conyza chilensis (Asteraceae) 

Cirsium horridulum (Asteraceae) 

Cirsium mexicanum (Asteraceae) 

Cirsium nigriceps (Asteraceae) 

Cirsium subcoriaceum (Asteraceae) 

222 

Dahlia imperialis (Asteraceae) 

Dahlia australis var. chiapensis 

(Asteraceae) 

Dahlia coccinea (Asteraceae) 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

Dahlia pinnata 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

(Asteraceae) 

sakil pino dalya 

sakil potz pino dalya 

tzajal pino dalya 

kampray 

matas 

k'anal matas 

Dahlia pinnata (Asteraceae) 

Dahlia pinnata (Asteraceae) 

Dahlia pinnata (Asteraceae) 

Cosmos bipinnatus (Asteraceae) 

Bidens aurea (Asteraceae) 

Bidens bicolor (Asteraceae) 

Bidens humilis (Asteraceae) 

Bidens ostruthioides (Asteraceae) 

Bidens triplinervia (Asteraceae) 

sakil matas 

saju' 

batz'i saju' 

ch'ix saju' 

asasena 

batz'i asasena 

k'anal asasena 

sakil asasena 

tzajal asasena 

yaxal asasena 

asaseha tz'i'lel 

asasena vola 

ch'uch' 

k'ox chuch' 

tzajal ch'uch' 

kartucho 

liryo 

nichim ninyo 

snichim koyta 

vojton tz'i'lel 

Ch'ulelal Nichim Set" 

Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae) 

Simsia amplexicaulis (Asteraceae) 

Simsia grandiflora (Asteraceae) 

224 

Lilium candidum (Liliaceae) 

Hemerocallis fulva (Liliaceae) 

Hippeastrum solandriflorum (Liliaceae) 

Hippeastrum bifidum (Liliaceae) 

Hippeastrum vittatum (Liliaceae) 

Sprekelia formosissima (Liliaceae) 

Agapanthus africanus (Liliaceae) 

Hymenocallis riparia (Liliaceae) 

Kniphofia uvaria (Liliaceae) 

Calathea soconuscum (Marantaceae) 

Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae) 

Canna edulis (Cannaceae) 

Zantedeschia aethiopica (Araceae) 

Amaryllis belladonna (Liliaceae) 

Hippeastrum vittatum (Liliaceae) 

Crinum amabile (Liliaceae) 

Costus sanguineus (Zingiberaceae) 

226 

alajebal pox 

ch'ulelal nichim 

batz'i ch'ulelel nichim 

tzajal ch'ulelel nichim 

poxil sal-tz'i' 

poxil t'ajel 

Teh Set" 

bioleta 

Satureja mexicana (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia mexicana (Lamiaceae) 

Fuchsia microphylla ssp. quercetorum (Onagraceae) 

Erigeron karwinskianus (Asteraceae) 

Symphoricarpos microphyllus 

(Caprifoliaceae) 

226 

chuchu' 

ich 

bak ich 

jlok'ol-chak ich 

Vinca major (Apocynaceae) 

Viola nannei (Violaceae) 

Viola odorata (Violaceae) 

Solanum mammosum (Solanaceae) 

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae) 

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae) 
NUMBER 35 205 

k'anal ich 

m6rte ich 

natikil ich 

pujkan ich 

sakil ich 

tzo' mut ich 

volajtik ich 

yich kurik 

unen mu 

sakil unen mu 

tzajal unen mu 

unen mu tz'i'lel 

ye aja-chon 

yich joj 

Capsicum pubescens (Solanaceae) 

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae) 

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae) 

Capsicum pubescens (Solanaceae) 

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae) 

Capsicum annuum var. aviculare 

(Solanaceae) 

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae) 

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum americanum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum americanum (Solanaceae) 

Rivina humilis (Phytolaccaceae) 

Solanum angustifolium (Solanaceae) 

Lycianthes ciliolata (Solanaceae) 

Ts-ak' Set" ... . 

is-ak' 

batz'i is-ak' 

sakil batz'i istzajal baz'i istranjero is-ak' 

sakil tranjero 

tzajal tranjero 

tzajal is-ak' 

is-ak' tz'i'lel 

"Itaj Set" 

batz'i itaj 

jol itaj 

muk'ta jol itaj 

ak' 

•ak' 

is-ak' 

is-ak' 

229 

Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae) 

Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae) 

Ipomoea batata (Convolvulaceae) 

Solanum morelliforme (Solanaceae) 

230 

Brassica oleracea var. acephala 

(Brassicaceae) 

Brassica oleracea var. capitata 

(Brassicaceae) 

Brassica oleracea var. capitata 

(Brassicaceae) 

yo'on vakax itaj 

k'ox yo'on vakax itaj 

muk'ta yo'on vakax itaj 

koliflor 

kolinaho 

tzukum jol itaj 

sakil tzukum jol itaj 

tzajal tzukum jol itaj 

Brassica oleracea var. capitata 

(Brassicaceae) 

Brassica oleracea var. capitata 

(Brassicaceae) 

Brassica oleracea var. botrytis 

(Brassicaceae) 

Brassica oleracea var. gongyloides 

(Brassicaceae) 

Brassica oleracea var. acephala 

(Brassicaceae) 

Brassica oleracea var. acephala 

(Brassicaceae) 

"Ixim Set" 

aros 

av6na 

ixim 

bik'it sak 

230 

Oryza saliva (Poaceae) 

Avenafatua (Poaceae) 

Avena sativa (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

chix te' 

ik'al ixim 

k'anal chix te' 

muk'ta k'on 

muk'ta sak 

pinto ixim 

ik'al pinto ixim 

sakil pinto ixim 

sakramentual ixim 

ye tz'i' 

vitztikal bik'it k'on 

vitztikal bik'it sak 

vitztikal muk'ta k'on 

vitztikal muk'ta sak 

bik'it sak 

enaho 

ik'al ixim 

ivriro 

bik'it ivriro 

k'anal ivriro 

muk'ta ivriro 

krema 

kvarentino 

napalu 

k'anal napalu 

k'ox k'anal napalu 

sakil napalu 

tzajal napalu 

pacha 

pinto ixim 

rokame 

teral6nyo 

tuspehyo 

triko 

tukumj'ik'al 

vale' 

sakil vale' 

tzajal vale' 

vale' j'ik'al 

ximo' 

batz'i ximo' 

bik'it ximo' 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays fl>oaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

Zea mays 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

(Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Zea mays (Poaceae) 

Triticum aestivum (Poaceae) 

Sorghum bicolor (Poaceae) 

Saccharum officinarum (Poaceae) 

Saccharum officinarum (Poaceae) 

Saccharum officinarum (Poaceae) 

Tripsacum laxum (Poaceae) 

Tripsacum maizar (Poaceae) 

Tripsacum manisuroides (Poaceae) 

'K'ojom Set" 

akuxa tz'i'lel 

k'ox akuxa tz'i'lel 

muk'ta akuxa tz'i'lel 

sakil akuxa tz'i'lel 

239 

chintuli' jobel 

k'ojom 

poxil chuvaj 

Erodium cicutarium (Geraniaceae) 

Erodium moschatum (Geraniaceae) 

Geranium goldmanii (Geraniaceae) 

Geranium seemannii (Geraniaceae) 

Plantago linearis (Plantaginaceae) 

Ranunculus petiolaris (Ranunculaceae) 

Polygala chiapensis (Polygalaceae) 
206 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

poxil pat ka' 

poxil sep' 

poxil yerva 

yok' tz'i' 

'Moy Set" 

kampana nichim 

batz'i kanipana nichim 

bik'tal kampana nichim 

cha'-koj kanipana nichim 

sakil kampana nichim 

tzajal kampana nichim 

kampana tz'i'lel 

k'anal kanipana tz'i'lel 

tzajal kampana tz'i'lel 

yaxal kampana tz'i'lel 

Polygala costaricensis (Polygalaceae) 

Psychotria erythrocarpa (Rubiaceae) 

Pinaropappus spathulatus var. 

chiapensis (Asteraceae) 

Elytraria imbricata (Acanthaceae) 

Plantago australis ssp. hirtella 

(Plantaginaceae) 

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae) 

241 

malva 

moy 

poxil aja-chon 

Nok'ol Sik'ol Set" 

nok'ol sik'ol 

nok'ol sik'ol 

Datura Candida (Solanaceae) 

Escobedia guatemalensis (Scrophulariaceae) 

Datura Candida (Solanaceae) 

Bouvardia longiflora (Rubiaceae) 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Malvaceae) 

Ludwigia octovalvis (Onagraceae) 

Ludwigia peruviana (Onagraceae) 

Lonicera pilosa (Caprifoliaceae) 

Achimenes cettoana (Gesneriaaceae) 

Achimenes grandiflora (Gesneriaceae) 

Achimenes longiflora (Gesneriaceae) 

Ruellia hookeriana (Acanthaceae) 

Ruellia nudiflora (Acanthaceae) 

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae) 

Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae) 

Martynia annua (Martyniaceae) 

243 

nok'ol sik'ol j'ik'al 

yikatz toj 

Phoradendron annulatum (Viscaceae) 

Phoradendron falcatum (Viscaceae) 

Phoradendron nervosum (Viscaceae) 

Phoradendron quadrangulare 

(Viscaceae) 

Phoradendron robustissimum 

(Viscaceae) 

Struthanthus deppeanus (Loranthaceae) 

Struthanthus tacanensis (Loranthaceae) 

Psittacanthus calyculatus (Loranthaceae) 

Arceuthobium globosum (Viscaceae) 

Pak' Chak Set" . 

pak'chak 

k'ox pak' chak 

muk'ta pak' chak 

pem-k'ulub 

batz'i pem-k'ulub 

sakil pem-k'ulub 

poxil jolol 

sat mes 

k'anal sat mes 

sakil sat mes 

244 

xtalaj tz'i'lel 

Malva nicaeensis (Malvaceae) 

Malva parviflora (Malvaceae) 

Kearnemalvastrum lacteum (Malvaceae) 

Verbena Carolina (Verbenaceae) 

Verbena litoralis (Verbenaceae) 

Borreria laevis (Rubiaceae) 

Crusea calocephala (Rubiaceae) 

Crusea parviflora (Rubiaceae) 

Anoda cristata (Malvaceae) 

Sida barclayi (Malvaceae) 

Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae) 

Corchorus siliquosus (Tiliaceae) 

Melochia tomentosa (Tiliaceae) 

Sida acuta (Malvaceae) 

Turnera ulmifolia (lumeraceae) 

Waltheria americana (Sterculiaceae) 

Pavonia schiedeana (Malvaceae) 

'Petok Set" 

chikin ton 

batz'i chikin ton 

bik'it chikin ton 

muk'ta chikin ton 

chon'syo ch'ix 

ch'ixal amuch 

ne bolom 

petok 

batz'i petok 

ik'-lo'an petok 

te'tikil petok 

tzajal petok 

yoyal vinajel 

245 

Epiphyllum crenatum var. kimnachii (Cactaceae) 

Mammillaria eriacantha (Cactaceae) 

Hylocereus undatus (Cactaceae) 

Opuntia pubescens (Cactaceae) 

Acanthocereus horridus (Cactaceae) 

Selenicereus grandiflorus (Cactaceae) 

Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae) 

Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae) 

Opuntia sp. (Cactaceae) 

Nopalea cochenillifera (Cactaceae) 

Cephalocereus maxonii (Cactaceae) 

Stenocereus eichlamii (Cactaceae) 

'Pimil Anal Set" . . , 

pimil anal 

batz'i pimil anal 

k'ox pimil anal 

tontikil pimil anal 

poxil chin 

246 

Sedum praealtum (Crassulaceae) 

Sedum guatemalense (Crassulaceae) 

Pilea microphylla (Urticaceae) 

Echeveria acutifolia (Crassulaceae) 

Echeveria mucronata (Crassulaceae) 

Echeveria sessiliflora (Crassulaceae) 

Villadia albiflora (Crassulaceae) 
NUMBER 35 

poxil eal 

poxil yat chij 

sentavo tz'i'lel 

vixobtakil 

batz'i vixobtakil 

muk'ta vixobtakil 

setajtik vixobtakil 

vixobtakil chon 

"Pitzak' Set" 

alpajo 

chak'ak' 

chikin ch'o 

ch'aben tz'i'lel 

Pinguicula moranensis (Lentibulariaceae) 

Echeveria bella (Crassulaceae) 

Peperomia campylotropa (Piperaceae) 

Peperomia galioides (Piperaceae) 

Peperomia humilis (Piperaceae) 

Peperomia liebmannii (Piperaceae) 

Peperomia deppeana (Piperaceae) 

Peperomia quadrifolia (Piperaceae) 

Peperomia heterodoxa (Piperaceae) 

248 

Medicago sativa (Fabaceae) 

Spilanthes americana (Asteraceae) 

Dichondra argentea (Convolvulaceae) 

Indigofera miniata fFabaceae) 

207 

pojov tz'i'lel 

mail tz'i'lel 

pitzak' 

batz'i pitzak' 

muk'ta pitzak' 

tzajal pitzak' 

poxil chuvaj 

poxil me'-vinik 

tzotz-ni' tz'i'lel 

vala-pojov 

batz'i vala-pojov 

k'ox vala-pojov 

muk'ta vala-pojov 

Indigofera mucronata (Fabaceae) 

Melilotus alba (Fabaceae) 

Melilotus indica 0?abaceae) 

Houstonia serpyllacea (Rubiaceae) 

Trifolium amabile (Fabaceae) 

Trifolium repens (Fabaceae) 

Medicago polymorpha (Fabaceae) 

Melilotus indica O^abaceae) 

Anagallis arvensis (Primulaceae) 

Oxalis frutescens ssp. angustifolia 

(Oxalidaceae) 

Hieracium abscissum (Asteraceae) 

Hieracium stuposum (Asteraceae) 

Oxalis galeottii (Oxalidaceae) 

Oxalis latifolia (Oxalidaceae) 

Oxalis albicans (Oxalidaceae) 

Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae) 

Oxalis frutescens ssp. angustifolia 

(Oxalidaceae) 

Begonia biserrata (Begoniaceae) 

Begonia fischeri var. tovarensis 

(Begoniaceae) 

Begonia oaxacana (Begoniaceae) 

"Pojov Tz'i'lel Set" 

jol olol 

on te' pox 

bik'it on te' pox 

muk'ta on te' pox 

250 

Dalembertia triangularis (Euphorbiaceae) 

Asclepias contrayerba (Asclepiadaceae) 

Asclepias oenotherioides (Asclepiadaceae) 

Asclepias similis (Asclepiadaceae) 

batz'i pojov tz'i'lel 

tzajal pojov tz'i'lel 

poxil chin 

poxil chu'ul 

poxil ti'ben lukum 

Pok'ok' Set" 

pamal jabnal 

Pi 

sakil pi 

tzajal pi 

pok'ok' 

Pom Tz'unun Set" . . . . 

ba ikatzil 

j'ak'-'uch 

latzbil tonal pox 

nap'ap' tz'i'lel 

Chamaesyce densiflora (Asclepiadaceae) 

Chamaesyce hirta (Asclepiadaceae) 

Chamaesyce hypericifolia (Asclepiadaceae) 

Chamaesyce hyssopifolia (Asclepiadaceae) 

Euphorbia dentata (Asclepiadaceae) 

Euphorbia francoana (Asclepiadaceae) 

Euphorbia graminea (Asclepiadaceae) 

Euphorbia heterophylla (Asclepiadaceae) 

Euphorbia macropus (Euphorbiaceae) 

Asclepias curassavica (Asclepiadaceae) 

Phyllanthus mcvaughii (Euphorbiaceae) 

Euphorbia anychioides (Euphorbiaceae) 

Chamaesyce hyssopifolia (Euphorbiceae) 

251 

Anthurium schlechtendalii (Araceae) 

Xanthosoma violaceum (Araceae) 

Xanthosoma violaceum (Araceae) 

Xanthosoma robustum (Araceae) 

251 

Fuchsia splendens (Onagraceae) 

Castilleja arvensis (Scrophulariaceae) 

Salvia lasiantha (Lamiaceae) 

Ageratum houstonianum (Asteraceae) 

Bastardia viscosa (Malvaceae) 

Conyza chilensis (Asteraceae) 

Cuphea cyanea (Lythraceae) 

Cuphea leptopoda (Lythraceae) 

Desmodium amplifolium (Fabaceae) 

Galium sp. (Rubiaceae) 

Galium uncinulatum (Rubiaceae) 

Gnaphalium sp. (Rubiaceae) 

Mentzelia aspera (Rubiaceae) 

Priva lappulacea O^ubiaceae) 

Salvia misella (Rubiaceae) 

Siegesbeckia jorullensis (Asteraceae) 

Stevia polycephala (Asteraceae) 
208 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

batz'i nap'ap' tz'i'lel 

bik'it nap'ap' tz'i'lel 

k'anal nap'ap' tz'i'lel 

k'ox nap'ap' tz'i'lel 

yaxal nap'ap' tz'i'lel 

nochleb buluk' sat 

pom tz'unun 

k'anal pom tz'unun 

muk'ta pom tz'unun 

puj-'akan pom tz'unun 

sakil pom tz'unun 

tzajal pom tz'unun 

yax-'ulan pom tz'unun 

yaxal pom tz'unun 

poxil k'ok' 

poxil majbenal 

primon 

sten uch 

tentzun 

tzajal kampana 

yalem bek'et 

yich'ak ch'o 

'Poxil Apon Set" 

orisyon tz'i'lel 

Siegesbeckia jorullensis (Asteraceae) 

Galium orizabense (Rubiaceae) 

Galium uncinulatum (Rubiaceae) 

Mentzelia aspera (Loasaceae) 

Salvia misella (Lamiaceae) 

Priva lappulacea (Verbenaceae) 

Salvia tiliifolia (Lamiaceae) 

Cuphea cyanea (Lythraceae) 

Hemichaena rugosa (Scrophulariaceae) 

Priva aspera (Verbenaceae) 

Hyptis mutabilis (Lamiaceae) 

Hyptis tomentosa (Lamiaceae) 

Hyptis urticoides (Lamiaceae) 

Kohleria elegans (Gesneriaceae) 

Salvia chiapensis (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia cinnabarina (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia coccinea (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia excelsa (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia holwayi (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia karwinskii (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia urica (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia polystachya (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia purpurea (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia reptans (Lamiaceae) 

Salvia rubiginosa (Lamiaceae) 

Loeselia mexicana (Polemoniaceae) 

Cuphea pinetorum (Lythraceae) 

Centropogon grandidentatus 

(Campanulaceae) 

Lobelia laxiflora (Campanulaceae) 

Stachys coccinea (Lamiaceae) 

Ruellia inundata (Acanthaceae) 

Lamourouxia viscosa (Scrophulariaceae) 

Castilleja integrifolia (Scrophulariaceae) 

Hamelia patens (Rubiaceae) 

254 

poxil apon 

"Sakaton Set" 

ana-jobel 

ch'ix jobel 

Oenothera kunthiana (Onagraceae) 

Oenothera pubescens (Onagraceae) 

Oenothera rosea (Onagraceae) 

254 

Muhlenbergia macroura (Poaceae) 

Festuca amplissima (Poaceae) 

Muhlenbergia breviligula (Poaceae) 

Muhlenbergia cf. emersleyi 

(Poaceae) 

Muhlenbergia robusta (Poaceae) 

Muhlenbergia stricta (Poaceae) 

jobelal xalma 

limon jobel 

batz'i limon jobel 

k'ox limon jobel 

ne chuch 

sakaton 

batz'i sakaton 

tzajal sakaton 

Andropogon bicornis (Poaceae) 

Andropogon glomeratus 0?oaceae) 

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae) 

Scleria bourgeaui (Cyperaceae) 

Scleria hirtella (Cyperaceae) 

Scleria pterota (Cyperaceae) 

Piptochaetium virescens (Poaceae) 

Stipa ichu (Poaceae) 

Panicum bulbosum (Poaceae) 

Panicum maximum (Poaceae) 

Sorghum halepense (Poaceae) 

Tan Pox Set" . 

bot'-jol tz'i'lel 

mix to 

oregano 

tan pox 

tomyo 

tz'i' nichim 

255 

Gomphrena decumbens (Amaranthaceae) 

Salvia microphylla (Lamiaceae) 

Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae) 

Helianthemum glomeratum (Cistaceae) 

Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae) 

Matthiola incana (Brassicaceae) 

"Tuix Set" . . . 

axux 

batz'i axux 

yaxux ka' 

ch'upak' 

ch'upak' joj 

256 

pech'e-'ok jobel 

batz'i pech'e-'ok 

k'anal pech'e-'ok jobel 

sakil pech'e-'ok jobel 

Allium sativum (Liliaceae) 

Allium scorodoprasum (Liliaceae) 

Agave brachystachys (Liliaceae) 

Anthericum eleutherandrum (Liliaceae) 

Anthericum vestitum (Liliaceae) 

Echeandia macrocarpa (Liliaceae) 

Echeandia macrophylla var. 

longifolia (Liliaceae) 

Echeandia parviflora (Liliaceae) 

Orthosanthus chimboracensis var. 

centro-americanus (Iridaceae) 

Sisyrinchium angustissimum (Iridaceae) 

Sisyrinchium convolutum (Iridaceae) 

Sisyrinchium scabrum (Iridaceae) 

Sisyrinchium tinctorium (Iridaceae) 

Schoenocaulon officinale (Liliaceae) 

tub chil 

batz'i tuix 

j'alnom tuix 

sakil tuix 

te'tikil tuix 

tuix jobel 

tuix tz'i'lel 

ve'el k'ovix 

Agave brachystachys (Agavaceae) 

Allium cepa (Liliaceae) 

Allium ascalonicum (Liliaceae) 

Allium cepa (Liliaceae) 

Allium kunthii (Liliaceae) 

Nothoscordum bivalve (Liliaceae) 

Calochortus ghiesbreghtii (Liliaceae) 

Hypoxis decumbens (Liliaceae) 
NUMBER 35 209 

"Tzajal Nichim Set" . 

altamixa 

espayder 

k'anal espayder 

moraro espayder 

sakil espiyder 

jjaral-me'tik 

kartolina 

k'anal kartolina 

moraro kartolina 

sakil kartolina 

klavel 

ik"ik-lo'an klavel 

korona klavel 

rosaro klavel 

sak-vayan klavel 

sakil klavel 

tzajal klavel 

klavel ina 

kopita 

krisantema 

k'anal krisantema 

rosaro krisantema 

sakil krisantema 

krisantdma nichim 

k'ok' sat nichim 

mantzanilya 

markarita 

cha'-lom markarita 

ch'ulul markarita 

k'ox markarita 

markarita reyeho 

tzotziron markarita 

markarita tz'i'lel 

258 

Ambrosia cumanensis (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Tanacetum parthenium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophyllaceae) 

Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophyllaceae) 

Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophyllaceae) 

Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophyllaceae) 

Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophyllaceae) 

Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophyllaceae) 

Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophyllaceae) 

Iberis simplex (Brassicaceae) 

Chrysanthemum coronarium 

(Asteraceae) 

Chrysanthemum coronarium 

(Asteraceae) 

Chrysanthemem coronarium 

(Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dianthus barbatus (Caryophyllaceae) 

Chamomilla recutita (Asteraceae) 

Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae) 

Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae) 

Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae) 

Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae) 

Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae) 

Aster bullatus (Asteraceae) 

markariton 

batz'i markariton 

tzotzin markariton 

nube 

pilix 

k'ox pilix 

sakil pilix 

pompom 

batz'i pompom 

k'anal pompom 

moraro pompom 

sakil pompom 

muk'ta pompom 

k'anal muk'ta pompom 

moraro muk'ta pompom 

sakil muk'ta pompom 

sakramentual nichim 

snichim san-lukax 

tontikil putzul 

tzajal nichim 

batz'i tzajal nichim 

ik"ik'-lo'an tzajal nichim 

sak-vayan tzajal nichim 

sakil tzajal nichim 

volita 

"Tzib Set" . . 

tzib 

batz'i tzib 

Sabazia sarmentosa (Asteraceae) 

Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae) 

Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae) 

Gypsophila elegans (Caryophyllaceae) 

Gypsophila paniculata (Caryophyllaceae) 

Melampodium divaricatum (Asteraceae) 

Simsia sanguinea (Asteraceae) 

Aldama dentata (Asteraceae) 

Viguiera dentata (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Dendranthema morifolium (Asteraceae) 

Helenium scorzoneraefolia (Asteraceae) 

Zinnia elegans (Asteraceae) 

Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae) 

Pelargonium hortorum (Geraniaceae) 

Pelargonium hortorum (Geraniaceae) 

Pelargonium hortorum (Geraniaceae) 

Pelargonium hortorum (Geraniaceae) 

Tanacetum parthenium (Asteraceae) 

262 

ik'al ok tzib 

Pteridium aquilinum (Pteridophyta) 

Adiantum andicola (Pteridophyta) 

Adiantum concinnum (Pteridophyta) 

Adiantum poirettii (Pteridophyta) 

Anemia adiantifolia (Pteridophyta) 

Anemia phyllitidis (Pteridophyta) 

Anogramma leptophylla (Pterido-
210 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

jamal anal tzib 

kilajtik tzib 

k'ox tzib 

muk'ta tzib 

muruch' tzib 

tzajal tzib 

tzatzal ok tzib 

tzib ak' 

"Tzukum Jobel Set" 

akan jobel 

phyta) 

Cheilanthes hirsuta (Pteridophyta) 

Cystopteris fragilis (Pteridophyta) 

Elaphoglossum latifolium (Pteridophyta) 

Elaphoglossum paleaceum (Pteridophyta) 

Asplenium monanthes (Pteridophyta) 

Campyloneurum angustifolium 

(Pteridophyta) 

Campyloneurum xalapense (Pteridophyta) 

Phlebodium aureum (Pteridophyta) 

Pleopeltis munchii (Pteridophyta) 

Polypodium adelphum (Pteridophyta) 

Polypodium alfredii (Pteridophyta) 

Cystopteris fragilis (Pteridophyta) 

Dryopteris nubigena (Pteridophyta) 

Thelypteris deflexa (Pteridophyta) 

Thelypteris oligocarpa (Pteridophyta) 

Thelypteris resinifera (Pteridophyta) 

Thelypteris rudis (Pteridophyta) 

Acrostichum danaeifolium (Pteridophyta) 

Ctenitis equestris (Pteridophyta) 

Dryopteris nubigena (Pteridophyta) 

Maratlia weinmanniifolia (Pteridophyta) 

Phanerophlebia remotispora 

(Pteridophyta) 

Polystichum distans (Pteridophyta) 

Woodwardia spinulosa (Pteridophyta) 

Cheilanthes farinosa (Pteridophyta) 

Cheilanthes lendigera (Pteridophyta) 

Cheiloplecton rigidum (Pteridophyta) 

Llavea cordifolia (Pteridophyta) 

Notholaena Candida (Pteridophyta) 

Notholaena sinuata (Pteridophyta) 

Polystichum distans (Pteridophyta) 

Lophosoria quadripinnata (Pteridophyta) 

Lygodium venustum (Pteridophyta) 

263 

ik'al jobel 

Panicum hirticaule (Poaceae) 

Paspalum botterii (Poaceae) 

Paspalum plicatulum (Poaceae) 

Polypogon elongatus (Poaceae) 

kakaxon jobel 

konejo jobel 

krus jobel 

k'otox jobel 

k'un-jobel 

mosote 

puj-'akan jobel 

tzajal jobel 

tzukum jobel 

tzuntzun jobel 

yisim be 

Uch'ul Vo' Set" . 

bukaro 

bukaro 

chijal bukaro 

sakil bukaro 

tzajal bukaro 

k'ox bukaro 

Polypogon viridis (Poaceae) 

Juncus dichotomus (Juncaceae) 

Juncus ebracteatus (Juncaceae) 

Juncus effusus (Juncaceae) 

Juncus marginatus var. setosus 

(Juncaceae) 

Juncus microcephalus (Juncaceae) 

Chloris virgata (Poaceae) 

Cynodon dactylon O'oaceae) 

Dactyloctenium aegyptium 

(Poaceae) 

Eleusine indica 0?oaceae) 

Zeugites munroana (Poaceae) 

Carex polystachya (Cyperaceae) 

Cyperus canus (Cyperaceae) 

Cyperus hermaphroditus (Cyperaceae) 

Cyperus manimae (Cyperaceae) 

Cyperus niger (Cyperaceae) 

Cyperus pallens (Cyperaceae) 

Cyperus virens (Cyperaceae) 

Rhynchospora ciliata (Cyperaceae) 

Zeugites americana var. mexicana 

O'oaceae) 

Aegopogon centroides (Poaceae) 

Arthraxon quartinianus 0?oaceae) 

Muhlenbergia tenella fPoaceae) 

Cenchrus brownii (Poaceae) 

Cenchrus pilosus (Poaceae) 

Arundinella deppeana (Poaceae) 

Aristida schiedeana OPoaceae) 

Bouteloua media (Poaceae) 

Elionurus tripsacoides (Poaceae) 

Muhlenbergia spiciformis (Poaceae) 

Rhynchelytrum repens fPoaceae) 

Oplismenus burmanni (Poaceae) 

Setaria gracilis (Poaceae) 

Setariopsis auriculata (Poaceae) 

Brachiaria reptans OPoaceae) 

Dichanthelium laxiflorum (Poaceae) 

Cyperus hermaphroditus (Cyperaceae) 

Cyperus virens (Cyperaceae) 

Oplismenus burmanni (Poaceae) 

Setaria gracilis (Poaceae) 

Sporobolus indicus (Poaceae) 

264 

Gladiolus hortulanus (Iridaceae) 

Gladiolus hortulanus (Iridaceae) 

Gladiolus hortulanus (Iridaceae) 

Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora (Iridaceae) 
UMBER 35 

jol koy 

batz'i jol koy 

sakil jol koy 

te'tikal jol koy 

jutuju 

kola 

kola tz'i'lel 

me' putzul 

putzul 

radidla 

k'anal radiola 

moraro radiOla 

sak-vilan radi61a 

sakil radi61a 

tz'emeni' 

batz'i tz'emeni' 

Tigridia pavonia (Iridaceae) 

Tigridia chiapensis (Iridaceae) 

Tigridia hallbergii (Iridaceae) 

Malaxis fastigiata (Orchidaceae) 

Govenia liliacea (Orchidaceae) 

Govenia superba (Orchidaceae) 

Sobralia decora (Orchidaceae) 

Cypripedium irapeanum (Orchidaceae) 

Gladiolus hortulanus (Iridaceae) 

Gladiolus hortulanus (Iridaceae) 

Gladiolus hortulanus (Iridaceae) 

Gladiolus hortulanus (Iridaceae) 

Tinantia erecta (Commelinaceae) 

setajtik uch'ul vo' 

uch'ul vo'al ba ton 

yuch'ul vo' bolom 

yuch'ul vo' j'ik'al 

yat kotom 

yok' vakax 

k'ox tz'emeni' 

muk'ta tz'emeni' 

o'lol tz'emeni' 

tzajal tz'emeni' 

yaxal tz'emeni' 

uch'ul vo' 

kilajtik uch'ul vo' 

k'ox uch'ul vo' 

muk'ta uch'ul vo' 

sakil uch'ul vo' 

Tripogandra disgrega (Commelinaceae) 

Tripogandra grandiflora (Commelinaceae) 

Tripogandra montana (Commelinaceae) 

Aploleia multifiora (Commelinaceae) 

Tripogandra angustifolia (Commelinaceae) 

Campelia zanonia (Commelinaceae) 

Cranichis trilobata (Orchidaceae) 

Erythrodes secunda (Orchidaceae) 

Habenaria clypeata (Orchidaceae) 

Habenaria quinqueseta (Orchidaceae) 

Epidendrum radicans (Orchidaceae) 

Commelina alpestris (Commelinaceae) 

Commelina coelestis (Commelinaceae) 

Commelina diffusa (Commelinaceae) 

Commelina erecta (Commelinaceae) 

Cymbispatha commelinoides 

(Commelinaceae) 

Tradescantia crassifolia (Commelinaceae) 

Tradescantia guatemalensis (Commelinaceae) 

Epidendrum parkinsonianum 

(Orchidaceae) 

Encyclia ochracea (Orchidaceae) 

Epidendrum arbuscula (Orchidaceae) 

Encyclia sp. (Orchidaceae) 

Encyclia varicosa (Orchidaceae) 

"Vo'tusSet". . . 

nochleb vonon 

tzitz 

tzitz pox 

tzitz tz'i'lel 

tzutzub 

vo'tus 

antzil vo'tus 

kaxlan vo'tus 

kelem vo'tus 

k'ox vo'tus 

vo'tus tz'i'lel 

"Yama Chauk Set" 

chichik'uy 

211 

Meiracyllium trinasutum (Orchidaceae) 

Odontoglossum bictoniense (Orchidaceae) 

Encyclia spp. (Orchidaceae) 

Gongora spp. (Orchidaceae) 

Lycaste cruenta (Orchidaceae) 

Stanhopea spp. (Orchidaceae) 

Encyclia cochleatum (Orchidaceae) 

Epidendrum ciliare (Orchidaceae) 

Cyrtopodium punctatum (Orchidaceae) 

Spiranthes aurantiaca (Orchidaceae) 

Spiranthes cinnabarina (Orchidaceae) 

267 

Cuphea aequipetala (Lythraceae) 

Tagetes lucida (Asteraceae) 

Hypericum uliginosum (Clusiaceae) 

Crusea diversifolia (Rubiaceae) 

Linum nelsonii (Linaceae) 

Linum schiedeanum (Linaceae) 

Pectis prostrata (Asteraceae) 

Tagetes filifolia (Asteraceae) 

Brickellia scoparia (Asteraceae) 

Linum mexicanum (Linaceae) 

Lythrum lanceolatum (Lythraceae) 

Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae) 

Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae) 

Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae) 

Tagetes elongata (Asteraceae) 

Tagetes tenuifolia (Asteraceae) 

Schkuhria pinnata (Asteraceae) 

.269 

enkaje 

inojo 

jok'leb tzo'op tz'unun 

keb chij 

krem pox 

kulantu 

kulantu ch'o 

Piqueria pilosa (Asteraceae) 

Piqueria trinervia (Asteraceae) 

Ammi majus (Apiaceae) 

Conium maculatum (Apiaceae) 

Daucus carota (Apiaceae) 

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae) 

Digiticalia chiapensis (Asteraceae) 

Eryngium carlinae (Apiaceae) 

Eryngium ghiesbreghtii (Apiaceae) 

Eryngium longirameum (Apiaceae) 

Micropleura renifolia (Apiaceae) 

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae) 

Apium leptophyllum (Apiaceae) 

Berula erecta (Apiaceae) 

Daucus carota (Apiaceae) 
212 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

perejil 

sakil nichim te' 

tuturu 

tzis chauk 

yama chauk 

"Yax-chel Set" . . 

alavena 

batz'i alavena 

ch'ulul alavena 

alavena tz'i'lel 

Daucus montanus (Apiaceae) 

Donnellsmithia juncea (Apiaceae) 

Parthenium hysterophorus (Asteraceae) 

Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae) 

Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae) 

Jasminum mesnyi (Oleaceae) 

Jasminum sambac (Oleaceae) 

Thalictrum guatemalense (Ranunculaceae) 

Tagetes nelsonii (Asteraceae) 

Aralia humilis (Araliaceae) 

Arracacia bracteata (Apiaceae) 

Arracacia nelsonii (Apiaceae) 

Bocconia arborea (Papaveraceae) 

Bocconia frutescens (Papaveraceae) 

Coaxana purpurea (Apiaceae) 

Dahlia coccinea (Asteraceae) 

Digiticalia chiapensis (Asteraceae) 

Equisetum myriochaetum 0?teriodphyta) 

Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Euphorbiaceae) 

Prionosciadium nelsonii (Apiaceae) 

Thalictrum guatemalense (Ranunculaceae) 

Valeriana sorbifolia (Valerianaceae) 

271 

arvajaka 

batz'i arvajaka 

k'ox arvajaka 

arvajika tz'i'lel 

chilchil tz'i'lel 

tzotzil jabnal 

yarvajdka me'on 

Mentha pulegium (Lamiaceae) 

Mentha citrata (Lamiaceae) 

Borreria laevis (Rubiaceae) 

Heliotropium angiospermum 

(Boraginaceae) 

Hyptis verticillata (Lamiaceae) 

Lantana achyranthifolia (Verbenaceae) 

Lippia nodiflora (Verbenaceae) 

Lippia stoechadifolia (Verbenaceae) 

Mimulus glabratus (Scrophurlariaceae) 

Salvia misella (Lamiaceae) 

Scutellaria dumelorum (Lamiaceae) 

Verbena Carolina (Verbenaceae) 

Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae) 

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae) 

Ocimum micranthum (Lamiaceae) 

Prunella vulgaris (Lamiaceae) 

Lepechinia schiedeana (Lamiaceae) 

Stachys radicans (Lamiaceae) 

Stachytarpheta cayennensis 

yax-chel 

k'ox yax-chel 

muk'ta yax-chel 

yaxal nich tz'i'lel 

(Verbenaceae) 

Stachytarpheta frantzii (Verbenaceae) 

Satureja brownei (Lamiaceae) 

Catoferia chiapensis (Lamiaceae) 

Ageratum corymbosum (Asteraceae) 

Ageratum echioides (Asteraceae) 

Ageratum houstonianum (Asteraceae) 

Ageratum paleaceum (Asteraceae) 

amap61a 

aselka 

k'anal aselka 

yaxal aselka 

ba nab tz'i'lel 

chan-tzelav tz'i'lel 

chenek' tz'i'lel 

273 

Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae) 

Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Chenopodiaceae) 

Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Chenopodiaceae) 

Eichhornea crassipes (Pontederiaceae) 

Alonsoa meridionalis (Scrophulariaceae) 

Leucocarpus perfoliatus (Scrophulariaceae) 

Desmodium palmeri O^abaceae) 

Phaseolus vulgaris Q^abaceae) 

Senna uniflora (Fabaceae) 

Rhynchosia minima (Fabaceae) 

ech' 

antzil ech' 

ch'ix ech' 

kilon ech' 

sakil kilon ech' 

tzajal kilon ech' 

krus ech' 

uma' ech' 

Pitcairnea breedlovei (Bromeliaceae) 

Vriesea werckleana (Bromeliaceae) 

Pitcairnia breedlovei (Bromeliaceae) 

Pitcairnia calderonii (Bromeliaceae) 

Pitcairnia heterophylla (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia rodrigueziana (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia violacea (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia violacea (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia guatemalensis (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia butzii (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia capitata (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia caput-medusae (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia dasyliriifolia (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia fasciculata (Bromeli-
NUMBER 35 213 

kilon uma' ech' 

krus uma' ech' 

tzajal uma' ech' 

vojton uma' ech' 

vojton ech' 

xulub chivo ech' 

yech' joj 

jol koy 

jonjolin 

kontiyerva 

krus tz'i'lel 

k'anal nich 

k'ask'as tz'i'lel 

aceae) 

Tillandsia flabellata (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia plumosa (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia vicentina (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia butzii (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia caput-medusae (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia dasyliriifolia (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia fasciculata (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia plumosa (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia vicentina (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia capitata (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia ponderosa (Bromeliaceae) 

Billbergia pallidiflora (Bromeliaceae) 

Tillandsia seleriana (Bromeliaceae) 

Calyptocarpus wendlandii (Asteraceae) 

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae) 

Dorstenia contrajerva (Moraceae) 

Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) 

Alloispermum scabrum (Asteraceae) 

Bidens bicolor (Asteraceae) 

Bidens ostruthioides (Asteraceae) 

Melampodium montanum (Asteraceae) 

Melampodium perfoliatum (Asteraceae) 

Potentilla staminea (Rosaceae) 

Sanvitalia procumbens (Asteraceae) 

Sclerocarpus uniserialis (Asteraceae) 

Alternanthera laguroides (Amaranthaceae) 

Blechum brownei (Acanthaceae) 

Cordia spinescens (Boraginaceae) 

Euphorbia graminea (Euphorbiaceae) 

Geranium seemannii (Geraniaceae) 

Iresine celosia (Amarahthaceae) 

Lopezia langmanniae (Onagraceae) 

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae) 

Rondeletia sp. (Rubiaceae) 

Ruellia parva (Acanthaceae) 

lechuka 

jich'il anal lechuka 

votzvotz lechuka 

lula 

marivana 

mexa tz'i'lel 

nap'-'us tz'i'lel 

nekeb pox 

krem nekeb pox 

tzeb nekeb pox 

nich nab 

bero nich nab 

ch'ix nich nab 

koko'on nich nab 

kuchara nich nab 

pech'e-'ok nich nab 

nichim joj 

pinsel 

pochok' 

poxil chon 

poxil chu'ul 

poxil lukum 

poxil me'-vinik 

poxil satil 

poxil sim-nak'al 

poxil yayijemal 

Russellia sarmentosa (Scrophulariaceae) 

Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae) 

Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae) 

Ruta graveolens (Rutaceae) 

Cannabis sativa (Moraceae) 

Kallstroemia rosei (Zygophyllaceae) 

Croton ciliatoglandulifer (Euphorbiaceae) 

Acourtia nudicaulis (Asteraceae) 

Iostephane trilobata (Asteraceae) 

Aster exilis (Asteraceae) 

Berula erecta (Apiaceae) 

Cardamine flaccida (Brassicaceae) 

Eryngium carlinae (Apiaceae) 

Eryngium ghiesbreghtii (Apiaceae) 

Hydrolea spinosa (Hydrophylliaceae) 

Ludwigia peploides (Onagraceae) 

Mimulus glabratus (Scrophulariaceae) 

Polygonum punctatum (Polygonaceae) 

Rumex crispus (Polygonaceae) 

Sisyrinchium scabrum (Iridaceae) 

Cardamine flaccida (Brassicaceae) 

Eryngium guatemalense (Apiaceae) 

Aster bullatus (Asteraceae) 

Mimulus glabratus (Scrophulariaceae) 

Polygonum punctatum (Polygonaceae) 

Berula erecta (Apiaceae) 

Sisyrinchium scabrum (Iridaceae) 

Zephyranthes brevipes (Liliaceae) 

Zephyranthes carinata (Liliaceae) 

Centaurea cyanus (Asteraceae) 

Juanulloa mexicana (Solanaceae) 

Hybanthus verbenaceus (Violaceae) 

Spigelia nicotianaeflora (Loganiaceae) 

Turnera diffusa (Tumeraceae) 

Chamaecrista desvauxii (Fabaceae) 

Diastatea micrantha (Campanulaceae) 

Crossopetalum parvifolium (Celastraceae) 

Gnaphalium attenuatum (Asteraceae) 

Gnaphalium brachypterum (Asteraceae) 
214 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Gnaphalium roseum (Asteraceae) 

Gnaphalium viscosum (Asteraceae) 

voy mula 

puj 

antzil puj 

vinik puj 

sakil nichim 

sat pukuj tz'i'lel 

sat vet 

tan ka' 

tenten pox 

tut 

tut nab 

tux-nuk' 

k'an-chik tux-nuk' 

sakil tux-nuk' 

tzon-te' 

pop tzon-te' 

tzon-te'al balamil 

tzon-te'al krus 

tzon-te'al te' 

tzon-te'al ton 

tzun-jol tz'i'lel 

ventex chij 

Typha domingensis (Typhaceae) 

Typha latifolia (Typhaceae) 

Scirpus californicus (Cyperaceae) 

Scirpus validus (Cyperaceae) 

Fleishmanniopsis leucocephalum 

(Asteraceae) 

Spigelia humboldtiana (Loganiaceae) 

Chimaphila umbellata (Pyrolaceae) 

Desmodium amplifolium (Fabaceae) 

Desmodium aparines (Fabaceae) 

Desmodium chiapense (Fabaceae) 

Desmodium maxoni (Fabaceae) 

Desmodium nicaraguense (Fabaceae) 

Desmodium orbiculare (Fabaceae) 

Desmodium skinned (Fabaceae) 

Desmodium strobilaceum (Fabraceae) 

Osberlia stoloniferus (Asteraceae) 

Equisetum hymale var. affine (Fem 

ally) 

Equisetum myriochaetum (Fern 

ally) 

Sesbania emerus (Fabaceae) 

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae) 

Gosspyium hirsutum (Malvaceae) 

Thuidium delicatulum (Bryophyta) 

Tillandsia usneoides (Bromeliaceae) 

Nama jamaicense (Hydrophyllaceae) 

Lophospermum turned (Scrophulariaceae) 

xanxan 

xanxanil balamil 

xanxanil te' 

xanxanil ton 

xenxerva 

xinal pox 

xinal tz'i'lel 

yail tz'i'lel 

yajan chuch 

batz'i yajan chuch 

tzajal yajan chuch 

yak'ubal us 

yat nab 

yat tz'i' tz'i'lel 

Valeriana densiflora (Valerianaceae) 

Valeriana sorbifolia (Valerianaceae) 

Valeriana urticaefolia (Valerianaceae) 

Lycopodium clavatum (Fem ally) 

Lycopodium taxifolium (Fem ally) 

Lycopodium thyoides (Fem ally) 

Lycopodium tuerkheimii (Fern 

ally) 

Selaginella pallescens (Fem ally) 

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae) 

Melampodium montanum (Asteraceae) 

Porophyllum ruderale ssp. macrocephalum (Asteraceae) 

Rumex crispus (Polygonaceae) 

Rumex obtusifolius (Polygonaceae) 

Conopholis americana (Orobanchaceae) 

Helosis mexicana (Balanophoraceae) 

Ageratina bustamenta (Asteraceae) 

Ageratina petiolads (Asteraceae) 

Ageratina pringlei (Asteraceae) 

Fleischmannia pycnocephala (Asteraceae) 

Peteravenia phoenicolepis (Asteraceae) 

Stevia caracasana (Asteraceae) 

Stevia connata (Asteraceae) 

Stevia ovata (Asteraceae) 

Stevia serrata (Asteraceae) 

Polygonum portoricense (Polygonaceae) 

Polygonum punctatum fPolygonaceae) 

Lactuca graminifolia (Asteraceae) 

"Alavanux Set" 

The "Alavanux set" is comprised of five generics, cultivated 

and protected herbs, many with swollen, edible roots or with 

leaves suitable for greens. 

1. Alavanux (tik, -altik) (rabano, rabanos*, ravano) 

refers to all of the cultivated forms of Raphanus sativus (7-7), 

the radish. They are widely cultivated by Chamulans and, to a 

lesser degree, by Zinacantecs in both temperate and highland 

communities. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Ch'ix alavanux, "prickly radish" (tik, -altik) (alavanux), refers to small plants with rough, prickly leaves 

and tough, round, red tap roots. This variety has been 

replaced in great part by kaxlan alavanux. 

The seeds are sown at the beginning of the rainy season. The 

radishes are harvested in August and sold in San Cristobal and 

Tuxtla. The "cold" roots are eaten raw. They are served as hors 

d'oeuvres at ladino bars. 

b. Kaxlan alavanux, "castilian radish" (k'ox kaxlan 

alavanux, ravanito), refers to plants similar to ch'ix 

alavanux except that the leaves are not very prickly 
NUMBER 35 215 

and the swollen tap roots are soft and mild in flavor. 

The term, ravanito, is now most commonly in use. 

Formerly, radishes were grown only in the rainy season, but 

with the development of irrigation systems in the hamlets the 

growing season has been extended. Good drainage is required 

in the rainy season lest the plants yellow and the roots split. 

Furrows are scratched with a hoe in land that has been enriched 

with sheep manure or fertilizer. Leaf compost is said to cause 

yellowing. The rows are spaced from 20 to 40 cm apart. If the 

seedlings are too close they should be thinned and transplanted. 

The seeds are planted from May to September, producing a 

crop in one-and-a-half to two months. In the dry season they are 

planted starting in lanuary, and are watered every three days. 

They are sold and resold at market. 

The "cold" roots are eaten raw. Radishes are often served in 

cantinas as hors d'oeuvres. Cf. elamonix. Occasionally both 

the "cold" leaves and roots are boiled, seasoned with salt and 

chili. 

c. Muk'ta alavanux, "large radish" (muk'ta kaxlan 

alavanux), refers to the giant forms of the radish, with 

very large, round, swollen, rather tasteless tap roots. 

The gigantism is expressed in the above-ground parts 

of the plants also, with these plants becoming vigorous 

herbs up to 1 m tall. 

This variety is seldom cultivated by Zinacantecs. The seeds 

are sown in June and the roots harvested in October. 

The "cold" greens and roots are boiled, seasoned with chili 

and salt. 

d. Natikil alavanux, "long radish" (muk'ta rabano), 

refers to red radishes with long (up to 20 cm), fusiform 

tap roots. 

A few Zinacantecs plant the seeds from June through 

September. The plants are hilled. The radishes produce in three 

months. They are sold at market. 

The "cold" greens and roots are boiled, seasoned with salt 

and chili. 

e. Sakil alavanux, "white radish," is the oriental radish or 

daikon, which has a white, fusiform, mild-flavored tap 

root. 

It is planted by a few Zinacantecs, the same as the natikil 

alavanux. 

The "cold" root is boiled and eaten, seasoned with salt and 

chili. 

2. Metabel is the cultivated beet Beta vulgaris (1-2). It is 

grown by many Chamulans and by a few Zinacantecs in Sak 

Lum and in some of the highland communities. 

The seed is sown in May and lune. The harvest is in 

September and October. 

The "cold" roots are rarely, if ever, eaten by Zinacantecs. 

3. Mustisya (mostasa, mostaza*, mustesya), refers to black 

mustard. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'ox mustisya, "small mustisya" (ch'ulul mustisya, 

sakil mustisya), is the mustard Brassica juncea (3-7), 

an annual herb with terminal racemes of yellow 

flowers. The four petals are opposite each other in the 

form of a cross. The fruit is a narrow silique about 

2-3.5 mm thick and 3-4 cm long, diverging from the 

stem at about a 45 degree angle. The main stem leaves 

are divided with 2 to 3 pairs of leaflets. 

The seeds are sown in cornfields and corrals in some of the 

temperate and nearly all of the highland communities in May, 

and they produce flowers in November. They are sold at 

market. 

The "hot" greens are boiled, seasoned with salt and chili, 

b. Muk'ta mustisya, "large mustisya" (ik'al mustisya), 

is the black mustard Brassica nigra (1-2). The leaves 

and flowers are much like B. juncea. The fruits do not 

diverge from the main stem but are appressed to it and 

are 1-2 cm long. 

It is grown in some of the temperate and all of the highland 

communities. The cultivation and use are the same as for k'ox 

mustisya. 

4. Napux (-tik, -altik) (nabo*) refers to field mustard and 

turnip. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i napux, "genuine napux" (ch'ix napux), is field 

mustard Brassica campestris (9-13). Field mustard is 

very similar to B. juncea. The fruits are not as thick, 

1-2 mm, and the leaves are not divided. 

Although this mustard used to grow wild, it now is sown by 

many people in cornfields and corrals in most of the temperate 

and all of the highland communities. The seeds are scattered in 

May and the plants picked from June to August. When the 

cornfield is weeded care is taken not to disturb the plants. A 

second planting may made in November. 

The "hot" greens are boiled, seasoned with salt and chili. 

Highland people occasionally barter field mustard for coffee in 

the temperate hamlets. 

b. Jolinom napux, "tuberous napux" (Juljul nabo*, 

kaxlan napux, muk'ta kaxlan napux, volvol nabo*), 

is the turnip Brassica rapa (2-3). 

A few people in some of the temperate and most of the 

highland communities plant the seeds in seed beds, transplanting the seedlings to a corral, spaced 20 cm apart. Turnip plants 

are hilled. Turnips are known to grow only for certain people. 

They produce in three months. "Cold" boiled turnips, seasoned 

with salt and chili are eaten, especially at the Fiesta of St. 

Sebastian. 

c. Kaxlan napux, "castilian napux" (ch'ulul napux), is 

a glabrous form of field mustard Brassica campestris. 

It is planted in most of the temperate and highland 

communities the same as batz'i napux. 

The "cold" greens are boiled, seasoned with salt and chili. 

5. Sanorya (sanaorya) is the carrot Daucus carota var. 

sativa (1-2). It is grown by Chamulans and by a few 

Zinacantecs in Sak Lum and in some of the highland 

communities. 

The seeds are planted in May and June. Sheep manure is 
216 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

provided. Young plants are thinned and replanted, producing 

bifurcating roots. The harvest is in September and October. 

Carrots are sold at market. 

The "cold" roots are rarely, if ever, eaten by Zinacantecs. 

"Bertulaka Set" 

The "bertulaka set" is a grouping of four generics that are 

herbaceous plants with soft, succulent stems and edible leaves. 

1. Bero (tik, -altik) (bero, berol, vok vo') refers to 

watercress Rorippa nasturtium-aquatkum (5-11), and R. x 

sterilis (1-1), which occur in still water in temperate and 

highland areas. They are perennial herbs with leaves pinnately 

divided into ovate leaflets. The flowers are white, racemose, 

and 2-3 mm across. 

The plant is cultivated in Atz'am, Sak Lum, and in many 

highland communities by placing cuttings in sections of the 

streams where the water is slow moving. 

The greens are eaten raw or boiled, seasoned with chili and 

salt. They are classed variously as "hot" and "cold." Women 

sell watercress in the market in San Cristobal in the rainy 

season. 

2. Bertulaka (tik, -iltik) (beltoraka, belturaka, berturaka) refers to low, fleshy-leaved plants that occur in open 

places in temperate and lowland areas. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Batz'i bertulaka, "genuine bertulaka" (beltura 

tz'i'lel, tzajal belturaka, veltura itaj), is Portulaca 

oleracea (4-7), an abundant plant of disturbed and 

second growth areas. It is a prostrate herb with small, 

yellow flowers and succulent leaves and stems. Leaves 

are alternate, broad and rounded at the apex, narrowing 

to a wedge-shaped base, and are 1-2.5 cm long. The 

flowers have five yellow petals but only two sepals. 

The fruit is a small capsule, 5-9 mm high, which splits 

open along the circumference of the capsule. It is 

found throughout the township. 

The "cold" tips are boiled and eaten as greens. 

Extended range: Bacopa repens and Mimulus glabratus. 

b. K'ox bertulaka, "small bertulaka," is Bacopa monnieri (1- 3), succulent perennials with prostrate stems 

that root at the nodes and often form dense mats. The 

leaves are sessile and opposite, broadly rounded at the 

apex, attenuate at the base, 6-20 mm long. The 

flowers are axillary, purple or pink, and about 8 mm 

long. This occurs in wet ground in the temperate and 

lowland regions. 

c. Muk'ta bertulaka, "large bertulaka" (yitaj jsoktom), 

is Boldoa purpurascens (1-2). This is a tall coarse 

lowland herb with sticky alternate, thin, triangularshaped leaves, 2-15 cm long. The flowers are very 

small, white or purple, bome in small clusters at the 

ends of the branched inflorescence. It is common in 

disturbed areas in the lowlands. 

The "cold" tips are boiled with chili and salt and eaten as 

greens. 

Extended range: Boerhaavia diffusa. 

d. Yaxal bertulaka, "green bertulaka," is Talinum 

pankulatum (1-2), a large, erect herb with alternate, 

elliptic, thick, succulent leaves and stems and openly 

branched terminal inflorescences of small, yellow 

flowers. The fruit is a small round capsule enclosing 

many lustrous black seeds. It is common in shady, 

disturbed areas, coffee groves, and along trails in lower 

temperate and lowland regions. 

3. Bilil itaj, "slippery greens," is Talinum triangulare (2-5), 

a thick-stemmed herb very similar to T. pankulatum but with 

pink or white flowers and larger capsules. It is common on 

rocky slopes and disturbed areas in the lowlands. 

The "cold" greens are boiled. 

4. Nex refers to Boerhaavia, herbs with small, purple flowers 

and sticky, pubescent, round leaves. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Kilajtik nex, "sprawling nex" (sakil nap'ap'), is 

Boerhaavia diffusa (3-6), a sprawling, viscid herb, 

common in disturbed areas and sandy flats along 

streams in the lowlands. It is a perennial plant growing 

from a thick woody root. The leaves are oval, 2-5 cm 

long, broadly rounded at the apex and base. The tiny 

purple-red flowers are in small clusters at the ends of 

slender peduncles. 

The "cold" young leaves are boiled, seasoned with salt and 

chili. 

b. Va'ajtik nex, "erect nex" (nap'-'us tz'i'lel, putzul 

nichim), is Boerhaavia erecta (3-4), a tall, thinstemmed annual herb with many erect branches from 

the base. The leaves are oval, 2-6 cm long, much like 

those of B. diffusa. The flowers are tiny and white and 

occur in an openly branched inflorescence. It is a 

common plant in disturbed areas in the lowlands. 

"Boraja Set" 

The "boraja set" is comprised of two blue-flowered, 

gray-leaved, herbaceous groups. 

1. Boraja (boreja) refers to two blue-flowered borages, 

which are pubescent-leaved herbs up to 1 m tall. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i boraja, "genuine borage" (ch'ixal itaj*), is the 

garden borage Borago officinalis (1-2), known only in 

cultivation in yards in temperate and highland areas. It 

is an erect herb with showy blue flowers. The stems, 

leaves, and inflorescence are abundantly covered with 

stiff hairs. The leaves are alternate, elliptic to ovate, 

4-10 cm long, with winged petioles broadly expanded 

at their base. The inflorescence is branched and open 

with large 5-petaled flowers to 3 cm across. It once 

grew in Zinacantan Center and is still grown by a few 
NUMBER 35 217 

Chamulans. The seeds are planted in the rainy season. 

Borage is sold at market in San Cristobal. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan reported that borage "was a 

good catharctic for them" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

As a cough remedy, three tips are brewed for a "hot" tea. The 

tips may be brewed together with elderberry flowers. 

Extended range: Salvia urica. 

b. K'ox boraja, "small borage" (tzotzin tz'i'lel), is the 

weedy bugloss Cynoglossum amabile (2-4), a native 

of the Himalayan region. It is morphologically very 

similar to Borago offkinalis, but much smaller, and 

appressed pubescent, the leaves are narrowly elliptic or 

oblong, without expanded petioles. The flowers are 

1-1.5 cm across. The fruit is made up of four 

spinescent nutlets. This is a roadside weed throughout 

the highlands. 

The flowers are sold at market. 

2. Poxil obal, "cough medicine" (bakal tz'i'lel, ch'ail pox, 

ch'ail tz'i'lel, poxil jik'ik'ul obal), is Salvia lavanduloides 

(6-11), a suffrutescent plant with terminal clusters of blue 

flowers. It is characterized by square stems, opposite, elliptic, 

gray leaves, 3.5-8 cm long. The flowers are small, about 1 cm 

long, irregular in outline, and densely crowded in terminal 

spikes. It is a very common element in the understory of the 

pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. 

The "hot" leaves may be chewed raw to reduce the tickling 

sensation caused by a cough or whooping cough. Three entire 

plants may be brewed for a bitter-tasting "hot" tea, taken before 

breakfast for three days to reduce coughing. A handful may 

also be brewed together with mantzanilya, and the tea drank 

before meals for one or two days. 

Extended range: Hyptis suaveolens, Lepechinia schiedeana, 

Salvia leucantha, S. tiliifolia var. albiflora, and S. urica. 

"Chichol Set" 

The "chichol set" is comprised of 13 generics, erect, 

herbaceous plants generally with leaves that can be used as 

potherbs or with edible fruits. 

1. Chichol (-tik, -altik) refers to ground cherries, Physalis, 

and tomatoes, Lycopersicon. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Putzul chichol refers to husk tomatoes. 

(1) Batz'i putzul chichol, "genuine inflated chichol" 

(batz'i chichol, pajal chichol), is the ground 

cherry Physalis philadelphka (8-10), erect herbs 

with thin, alternate leaves, yellow axillary flowers, and fruits that are green berries enclosed in a 

papery, inflated calyx. They occur as plants of 

disturbed areas and rubbish heaps as well as in 

milpas in temperate and highland areas. 

When the moon is full, the seeds may be scattered in the 

rainy season in the cornfield or between rows of kale, though 

usually ground cherry is allowed to reseed by itself. The fruits 

are sold at market. 

"Cold" ground cherries are husked, boiled, and seasoned 

with salt, chili, and coriander. They are used to flavor greens 

and jerked meat. They may be kept four to five months. They 

are eaten by the stewards, stewards-royal, and elders at Ch'ivit 

Krus, on the way to Atz'am on the Fiesta of Our Lady of the 

Rosary. As a remedy for mumps, a raw "cold" ground cherry is 

rubbed on the neck, and the cold blade of a machete may be 

applied also to reduce the swelling. 

Extended range: Lycianthes lenta, Physalis nicandroides, 

and P. pubescens. 

(2) Muk'ta putzul chichol, "large inflated chichol," is 

the common cultivated jamberry Physalis ixocarpa (1-4) known mainly from ladino markets. 

It is an erect herb with yellow flowers, 1-1.5 cm 

across. The leaves are alternate, 2-5 cm long, and 

coarsely toothed along the margin. The fruit is a 

berry enclosed in a papery 10-ribbed calyx. 

Jamberries are sold at market in October, but are 

rarely bought by Zinacantecs. It occurs in waste 

ground in temperate hamlets, 

b. Tzajal chichol refers to tomatoes. 

(1) K'ox tzajal chichol, "small red chichol" (k'ox 

chichol), is the cherry tomato Lycopersicon 

esculentum var. cerasiforme (2-6), a common 

weedy and occasionally cultivated plant of temperate and lowland areas. 

Cherry tomatoes are planted in many of the lower temperate 

communities in May and June. They may be planted in rows 60 

cm apart in a seed bed or just scattered. In the lowlands they 

may be planted between the rows of com or scattered nearby. 

The fruits may be prey to leafcutter ants. Although cherry 

tomatoes are available at market from November to April (All 

Souls' Day to Holy Week), they are primarily associated with 

the com harvest (December and January). To remove the seeds 

for storage the tomatoes may be squashed between the fingers 

over a piece of paper or they may be rubbed on a corncob so the 

seeds will stick to it. Then the corncob is placed in the sun for 

a day and the seeds rubbed off. Formerly, cherry tomatoes were 

sold in the San Cristobal market by Zinacantecs and the people 

of Acala. 

"Cold" cherry tomatoes are boiled, seasoned with salt, chili, 

and onions. They are used to flavor jerked meat, iguana, snails, 

pumpkin squash, and cushaws. They are the standard fare of 

Zinacantecs in the dry season when they are working in the 

lowland cornfields. As a remedy for mumps, a "cold" cherry 

tomato is rubbed on the neck. For further medicinal use cf. 

elamonix. 

(2) Muk'tik tzajal chichol, "large red chichol" 

(muk'tik chichol), is the common tomato Lycopersicon esculentum var. commune (2-5), a plant 

mainly cultivated by ladinos in lowland areas and 

sold in all the major markets. 

It is grown in a few of the highland communities and in many 
218 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

of the temperate communities where the seeds are sown in a 

seed bed at the full of the moon (lest the fruits fall) in May. In 

30-40 days the seedlings are transplanted 1 m apart to fertile 

soil or are provided sheep manure. Some farmers stake the 

plants. When the plants are in flower they are hilled so that two 

pickings will be possible, the first in September, and the second 

in November. Lowland ladinos and Zinacantecs who have 

access to sandy irrigated plots along the Grijalva River also 

plant tomatoes in November, harvesting them in March. 

(3) Telajtik tzajal chichol, "long red chichol," is the 

Italian or pulp tomato, a recent hybrid of 

Lycoperskum esculentum var. commune with 

pulpy, oblong fruits. These are now common in 

the San Cristobal market. 

For use cf. k'ox tzajal chichol. 

2. Chichol ak', "chichol vine" (putzul chichol ak', tzotzin 

sat mes, tzotzin tz'i'lel), is Gaya minutiflora (1-1) and 

Herissantia crispa (4-6). The former is an erect herb with 

alternate, lanceolate leaves, 2-6 cm long, cordate at the base. 

The flowers are white and axillary. The fruit is similar to that of 

Herissantia crispa. The latter is a sprawling, downy-leaved 

herb with inflated, puffball-like fruits. The flowers are white 

and about 1.5 cm across. The leaves are heart-shaped. It occurs 

in disturbed places in the lowlands. It is classed variously as 

"vine" and "plant." These plants occurs in waste ground and 

second growth in the temperate and lowland regions. 

Extended range: Neobrittonia acerifolia. 

3. Chichol ch'o, "mouse chichol" (tik) (chichol moletik, 

chichol tz'i'lel), is Jaltomata procumbens (6-11), an erect 

soft-stemmed herb with clusters of pendent flowers and fruits. 

The leaves are alternate, broadly elliptic to ovate, 4-13 cm or 

more long. The flowers are yellow, 1-2 cm across. The fruit is 

a juicy berry, purple or black, subtended by a widely spreading 

5-lobed, purple and green calyx. The plant is common in moist, 

shady, disturbed places in yards and fencerows, in temperate 

and highland hamlets. 

The tender shoots are boiled and the fruits are eaten raw. 

Both shoots and fruits are "cold." 

Extended range: Lycianthes arrazolensis, Physalis nicandroides, P. pubescens, Solanum candidum, and 5. morelliforme. 

4. Chichol te', "tomato tree" (unen mu tz'i'lel, tuil te'), 

refers to Lycianthes lenta (3-8) and L. quichensis (1-2), 

sparsely branched, thin-leaved shrubs with rotate, blue flowers 

and red, tomato-like fruits. The leaves are alternate and broadly 

ovate. They occur in the understory of the tropical deciduous 

forest of the lowland areas and in highland pine-oak forest. 

They are classed variously as "plant" and "tree." 

The fruits are eaten raw. 

Extended range: Physalis sp. 

5. Espinaka is New Zealand spinach Tetragonia expansa 

(2-2), a recently introduced plant that is cultivated by 

Chamulans and a few Zinacantecs. This is a decumbent, 

branching herb with alternate, fleshy, triangular-shaped leaves 

and very small sessile, yellowish flowers, about 2 mm across. 

A pesticide is scattered on the ground before hoeing to control 

June bug grabs. The leafy stems are sold in the market in San 

Cristdbal. 

6. Koko'on (-tik) is Mexican tea Chenopodium ambrosioides (7-11), a tall, rank, ill-scented herb often protected in 

cornfields and common in disturbed situations throughout the 

township. The leaves are alternate, narrowly oblong or 

lanceolate with irregularly dentate margins. The minute flowers 

are clustered in glomerules on interrupted spikes. 

It is grown in nearly every temperate and highland 

community. 

The seeds may be sown in hoed ground. When dry, the plant 

may be hung up on the corral so that the seeds will scatter on 

their own. In hamlets like Sek'emtik, where it is scarce, it is 

fenced in. Mexican tea should not be pulled up indiscriminately, lest it rebel and not grow the following year. The plant 

may be kept dried for two months. It is taken to the lowlands for 

seasoning food. 

The "hot" young tips are used as seasoning for chicken, 

iguana, snails, young pumpkin squash, young summer squash, 

vokol ich ta chichol, broad beans, scarlet runner beans, and 

ibes. Together with chili it is used to season a wide variety of 

mushrooms and wild birds, also gophers, rats, opossums, 

armadillos, and skunks. Together with mint and chili it is used 

to season land crabs. It may be sold in market. For use as a 

snakebite cure cf. poxil yerva. An infusion made of mashed 

roots that are soaked and then strained is drank to stop a 

drinking habit. The use of Mexican tea as a vermifuge is not 

known. A thin, weak person may eat 13 land snails seasoned 

with salt, pepper, Mexican tea, and plenty of chili to restore 

strength. It is "hot." 

Extended range: Conyza canadensis and Iresine celosia. 

1. Koko'on chij, "deer koko'on" or "sheep koko'on" 

(nichim jch'ul-me'tik valalupa, nichim valalupa, nichimal 

k'in valalupa, poxil chakal, poxil poslom, poxil vo'an, tzajal 

koko'on tz'i'lel), is the very common, herbaceous perennial 

Iresine celosia (8-11). It is erect, soft-wooded, and has large, 

thin leaves often with a reddish tinge along the veins. The 

flowers are in a large, white turning reddish, feathery, terminal 

inflorescence. This plant occurs in second growth and exposed 

situations throughout the township. 

Ladinos occasionally use the flowers for altar decoration on 

the Fiesta of Our Lady of Guadalupe. 

As a remedy for poslom, the "cold" leaves are crashed and 

wrapped around the swelling. They may be combined with the 

leaves of chikin ton and tzukum pox (?). 

The plant is eaten by sheep. 

8. Ob (-tik) (maruch itaj, sat ob, tz'ob) refers to the 

pokeberries, Phytolacca. These are coarse, herbaceous plants 

up to 2 m tall that often occur in great expanses in moist, 

disturbed forest situations in temperate and highland areas. 

The term maruch itaj, "Mary's greens," should be substituted for ob when picking the tips lest the greens taste bitter. 
NUMBER 35 219 

Because the greens give the tongue an unpleasant sensation 

they are not widely eaten. They are available for picking 

throughout the year. They were once sold at market. The berries 

were used formerly for laundry soap. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil ob, "white pokeberry," is Phytolacca icosandra 

(7-12), a coarse, somewhat succulent herb, 1-2 m tall, 

with thin, alternate, narrowly elliptic leaves to about 10 

cm long. The flowers are small, white, and in terminal 

and axillary racemes. The fruit is round, ribbed, and 

depressed in the center, green and red turning black. 

The greens, classed generally as "cold," but also as 

"medium" and "hot," are seasoned with lime juice, salt, and 

chili. They are less bitter than tzajal ob greens. 

b. Tzajal ob, "red pokeberry," is Phytolacca rugosa 

(8-14), with generally reddish tinged flowers, stems, 

and leaves. In most other aspects, it is similar to P. 

icosandra. 

9. Pa' itaj, "pa' greens," is Cleome magnifica (1-3), a 

coarse, perennial herb up to 3 m tall with strongly scented 

herbage and large, terminal racemes of pale yellow flowers. 

The leaves are palmately divided and the flowers are large with 

very long exerted stamens. The petals are about 2 cm long and 

stamens about 7 cm long. The fruits are long and slender 

resembling bean pods, 8-10 cm long. They are narrowed at the 

base into a long stalk, 8-10 cm long. It occurs in scattered 

locations in temperate pine-oak and montane rain forests. It is 

also cultivated in temperate and highland hamlets. This is one 

of the most frequently mentioned famine foods. 

Slips or young plants are transplanted in the rainy season by 

a few people in some of the temperate and highland 

communities. Chamulans also plant it on the slopes of 

Huitepec. Many scom these greens, claiming they must be 

boiled all day. Others say that two hours is sufficient, but that 

the water should be changed half way through the cooking 

process. The tips are classed generally as "cold," but also as 

"medium." The juice may be squeezed out and the greens 

placed in tortillas. They are sold, already boiled, by Chamulans 

in the Chamula market. 

10. Pich'* (pich' itaj, pich' tuluk', pich' tz'i'lel) is pepper 

grass Lepidium virginkum var. pubescens (6-9), an erect, 

stiffly branched annual that occurs in disturbed situations such 

as cornfields and pastures in the highland area. It is 

characterized by terminal racemes of minute white flowers, 

small, narrow, irregularly toothed leaves and flat rounded dry 

fruits. 

Some people boil the "cold" leaves and eat them as greens, 

but they cause stomach aches if eaten in quantities. 

Extended range: Aster exilis, Capsella bursapastoris, Conyza canadensis, C. sophiifolia, and Descurainia streptocarpa. 

11. Sikil ton, "cold rock" (-tik), is the sprawling herb 

Parietaria debilis (3-6). It has succulent stems and numerous, 

small, dark leaves. The flowers are minute and in clusters along 

the stem. It occurs in rock crevices and disturbed rocky slopes, 

usually in moist locations in temperate and highland hamlets. It 

is sometimes found in the crevices of church buttresses. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan reported that parietaria was 

used to "refresh the head" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

To reduce fever and the "heat" of majbenal, a large handful 

is bruised in cold water. Salt is added and a bowl of the infusion 

is drunk from one to three times. It is classed variously as 

"medium" and "cold." This same remedy, less the salt, is 

administered to sick chickens. 

12. Tz'ul itaj*, "tz'ul greens" (-tik) (tz'uil itaj), refers to the 

amaranths. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i tz'ul itaj, "genuine tz'ul greens," refers to 

Amaranthus hybridus (17-17) and A. scariosus (1-4). 

The former is a common plant of disturbed areas such 

as cornfields, waste ground, rubbish heaps, roadsides, 

etc., of the temperate and highland areas. The latter 

occurs in similar habitats in the lowlands. Both are 

stout, erect herbs, 1-2 meters tall. The leaves are 

alternate and ovate, 5-15 cm long. The inflorescence 

is branched and made up of spikes of densely crowded, 

spinescent flowers. Care is taken to leave the plants 

undisturbed at weeding. They are sold by Chamulans 

at market in San Cristobal. 

They are grown in a few highland and many of the temperate 

communities. When weeding the cornfield care is taken not to 

disturb the plants. The tips are gathered by women and children 

from June to August, before the plants flower. 

The "cold" greens are seasoned with salt and chili, but the 

bitter juice of the highland form is squeezed out and discarded. 

(1) Sakil tz'ul itaj, "white tz'ul greens," refers to 

white-stemmed plants. 

(2) Tzajal tz'ul itaj, "red tz'ul greens," refers to 

red-stemmed plants. These are bitterer especially 

in the lowland populations, but this difference has 

very little genetic basis. Some women are said to 

have a knack with cooking this green so that it 

will not be bitter. 

b. Ch'ixal tz'ul itaj, "spiny tz'ul greens," is Amaranthus 

spinosus (3-5), a weedy plant of lowland areas 

characterized by long, yellowish nodal spines. The tiny 

flowers are crowded into nodal spinescent clusters and 

terminal spikes. The leaves are alternate, narrowly 

elliptic, 1.5-8 cm long, on long and short petioles. 

This plant occurs in disturbed ground such as 

roadsides and fallow fields in the temperate and 

lowland areas. 

c. Tan tz'ul itaj, "gray tz'ul greens" (tan tz'i'lel), refers 

to the nettle-leaved goosefoot Chenopodium murale 

(3-8), and C. nuttalliae (1-1). The former is a 

scurfy-leaved herb of scattered occurence in disturbed 

areas in die highlands especially waste ground and 

alley ways in and around towns. It is characterized by 

having alternate ovate or triangular-shaped leaves with 
220 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

a coarsely toothed margin, 2-6 cm long. The flowers 

are minute and are crowded into rounded clusters on 

the branched terminal and lateral inflorescences. The 

latter is very similar but the leaves are less scurfy, 

more uniform in size and the inflorescences occur at 

the tips of the branches. It has a similar distribution. 

The "cold" greens are boiled, seasoned with salt and chili. 

They are sold occasionally at market. 

11. Uskun-te' (tik) (kuskun-te', uskun tz'i'lel) is Galinsoga quadriradiata (6-10), a pubescent, annual erect herb 

commonly protected in cornfields, but also common in grassy 

situations in pine-oak forests and disturbed areas in temperate 

and highland hamlets. The leaves are opposite, ovate with a 

toothed margin, 2-6 cm long. The flowers are on long 

peduncles in an openly branched inflorescence, with central 

yellow disk flowers surrounded by white ray flowers. 

The young tips classed generally as "cold," but also as "hot," 

are boiled as greens, seasoned with salt and chili. They are 

eaten raw by Chamulans. 

Extended range: Ageratina aschenborniana. 

"Ch'aben Set" 

The "ch'aben set" includes eight generics, all erect, 

herbaceous plants, most of which have terminal clusters of 

yellow flowers, divided leaves and leguminous fruits. 

1. Chenek' chij, "sheep bean" or "deer bean" (chenek' ch'o, 

ch'aben antivo, ch'aben chij, ch'aben ka', ch'aben tz'i'lel), 

refers to an annual Lupinus elegans (4-8) and L. sp. (1-1), the 

former an herbaceous, perennial plant with terminal racemes of 

blue pea flowers, 1-1.5 cm long. The leaves are alternate, small 

and palmately 6-7 foliate. The leaflets are oblanceolate, about 

1.5-3.5 cm long. It is common in the pine-oak forests of 

temperate and highland areas. 

2. Ch'aben (-tik, -altik) refers to Crotalaria. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i ch'aben, "genuine ch'aben" (tz'unbalal 

ch'aben), is Crotalaria mucronata (1-5). These are 

tall herbs with yellow pea flowers in terminal racemes. 

The leaves are alternate and trifoliate with elliptic to 

obovate leaflets, 2.5-4 cm long. The fruits dry as an 

inflated pod in which the seeds rattle. The ladinos of 

Chiapa de Corzo cultivate them in their yards and they 

occur in disturbed locations in temperate and lowland 

areas. 

It is grown in the lowlands, in many of the temperate 

communities, in Jech Toch' and Pat Osil. 

In the temperate hamlets the seeds are sown in the cornfield 

or in nearby hoed ground, and sometimes fertilized with 

chicken droppings. The planting coincides with the com 

planting. The harvest is in three months. If planted in 

November, the harvest is in February. When weeding the 

cornfield, care is taken not to disturb the plants. In lowland 

irrigated land the planting is in Lent. The harvest occurs when 

the com is in tassel (balalik). 

The leafy stems, predominately classed as "hot," are broken 

off and boiled as greens, seasoned with salt and chili. They are 

sold at market. Some claim that if this plant is eaten in quantity, 

one's chayote flowers will drop off. Others maintain that if a 

person eats this plant and then goes out and looks at his crops, 

they will die. After eating ch'aben, care should be taken not to 

urinate near a chayote vine in flower. Care should also be taken 

not to toss the inedible stalks near flowering bean plants, chili 

plants, chayote vines, nor any squash vine. Deliberately placing 

them on the above plants will cause them to die. The stalks may 

be burnt in the fire so that the smoke will kill cockroaches. 

Extended range: Senna unifiora and Crotalaria cajanifolia. 

b. Tontikil ch'aben, "rock-growing ch'aben" (bik'it 

ch'aben, ch'aben antivo, ch'aben ch'o), refers to the 

small, wild-occurring crotalarias Crotalaria incana 

(1-4), C. pumila (2-9), and C. quercetorum (1-2). 

These are all sprawling plants of the forest floor in 

pine-oak and tropical deciduous forests of lowland and 

temperate areas. They all have yellow flowers with 

irregular corollas and legumes, which are oblong and 

somewhat inflated. Crotalaria incana and C. pumila 

are both trifoliate. Crotalaria incana has broadly 

obovate leaflets to 6 cm long. Crotalaria pumila has 

much smaller and narrower leaflets to 3 cm long. 

Crotalaria quercetorum is unifoliate with linear 

leaves. 

When the Virgin Mary was hiding in the banana grove with 

the Christ Child she lay him on a bed of this plant to change his 

diapers. 

In Masan the seeds of these plants may be sown together 

with those of batz'i ch'aben. When they occur wild in the 

cornfields, care is taken not to disturb them during the weeding. 

They are ready to eat during the bean planting season (late 

August and September). The stalks, less the root, are boiled as 

greens, seasoned with salt, chili, and lime juice. They are 

predominately classed as "hot." On Epiphany when the 

musician, acting as a bonesetter, strikes the dude in the groin to 

test if the bone is properly set he exclaims, "yaxbil te', yaxbil 

ton, tontikil putzul, tontikil ch'aben!" "Green wood, green 

stone, rock-growing putzul, rock-growing ch'aben." 

3. Ch'aben ka', "horse ch'aben" (ch'aben chij, ch'aben 

tz'i'lel), is Crotalaria acapukensis (3-4), a completely 

wild-occurring plant superficially very similar to batz'i 

ch'aben. The leaflets are narrower, seldom more than 1.5 cm 

wide, whereas those of C. mucronata are commonly 2 cm wide 

and rounded rather than acute at the apex. It occurs in second 

growth and dry slopes in temperate and lowland areas. 

It is considered to be lethal, but can be distinguished from the 

edible form as it wilts rapidly after being picked. 

4. Mesob jol bakal, "corncob broom," is Marina scopa 

(2-5), a tall, wiry-stemmed shrub with terminal, loosely 

branched racemes of deep purple flowers, 6-7 mm long, and 

finely divided leaves. The many leaflets are 3-10 mm long 

with minute black dots along the margins and lower leaf 

surface. It is common in second growth fallow fields and com 
NUMBER 35 221 

stubble in temperate hamlets. 

Five plants are tied together to make a broom to sweep the 

corncobs off the threshing platform. 

Extended range: Brkkellia diffusa, Dalea foliolosa, D. 

leporina, and D. lutea var. gigantea. 

5. Natz' amuch, "frog necklace" (joj tz'i'lel), is Lisianthus 

nigrescens var. chiapensis (2-3), a tall, glabrous herb with 

long, tubular, glossy black flowers, 4-5 cm long. The leaves 

are opposite, sessile, perfoliate, broadly ovate to lanceolate, 

with acute to attenuate apices, 3-12 cm long. The fruit is a 

fusiform capsule containing many tiny angular seeds. It occurs 

on rock outcrops and second growth in temperate and lowland 

areas. 

The "cold" plant is brewed and the water used to bathe the 

leg of a horse bitten by a tarantula. 

6. Poxil mako', "cockroach poison" (poxil mako' chon), is 

Haplophyton cinereum (3-9), an erect herb with opposite, 

narrowly ovate leaves, 2-5 cm long. The flowers are yellow, 

solitary in the upper leaf axils, and composed of a tube flaring 

into five ovate lobes, 10-15 mm long. The fruit is a long and 

very narrow follicle, 6-8 cm long, about 2 mm wide, 

containing many tufted-haired seeds. It is a common element in 

the understory of tropical deciduous forests of lowland and 

lower temperate areas. 

To rid the house of cockroaches, a bunch of leaves is ground 

with com dough. The "hot" dough is placed under the eaves for 

the roaches. 

7. Poxil vayichil, "dream medicine," is Crotalaria sagittalis 

(1-2), an erect herb with sessile or short petiolate, lanceolate 

and linear, or elliptic leaves that are pubescent above and 

below, 2-8 cm long. The flowers are yellow in terminal and 

axillary racemes, maturing into hollow oblong-ovate, glabrous 

pods, 2-3.5 cm long. It is a very common element in the grassy 

understory and adjacent, disturbed slopes in pine-oak forests in 

temperate and highland areas. 

To relieve nightmares, a bunch is brewed and the patient's 

body is bathed with the water twice a day. 

8. Tzukum tz'i'lel, "caterpillar plant" (ch'ixal toj tz'i'lel, 

mes te', muk'tik sat mes, poxil sim-nak'al, tontikil ch'aben, 

tzukum nich tz'i'lel, tzukum te', tzuntzun tz'i'lel, and yixtol 

ch'o, all in part), is a non-Linnaean grouping of plants having 

terminal clusters of flowers in the shape of a woolly caterpillar, 

Acalypha arvensis (2-6), A. botteriana (2-2), A. setosa (1-1), 

A. sp. (1-1), Barleria micans (1-1), Dalea foliolosa, D. 

leporina (1-1), D. lutea var. gigantea (3-5), D. sericea (2-2), 

D. tomentosa var. psoraleoides (1-2), D. verskolor (1-1), and 

Hyptis suaveolens (1-2). The more robust plants may be 

classed as "tree." 

As a remedy for "white" dysentery, a small bunch of D. 

verskolor is brewed. The "cold" tea is drunk before breakfast 

for two days. 

Extended range: Lisianthus nigrescens var. chiapensis. 

"Ch'il Vet Set" 

The ch'il vet set is composed of two generics, both referring 

to members of the genus of Lantana with terminal, round 

clusters of flowers, scabrous leaves, and fleshy hard-seeded 

fruits. 

1. Ch'il vet, "fox rib" (ch'elop vet, ch'il-te' vet, ch'ili vet, 

ch'ilim vet), refers to white- and orange-flowered, slightly 

aromatic Lantana. They are classed variously as "tree," and 

"plant." 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Ch'ix ch'il vet, "spiny fox rib" (muk'ta ch'il vet, 

tzajal ch'ili vet), refers to the orange-flowered species 

Lantana camara (8-19), a small and creeping to large 

and sprawling shrub with hispid, square stems and 

orange flowers in terminal heads. The leaves are 

opposite, with crenate margins, 4-12 cm long. The 

fruit is a black, fleshy drape. It is a very common plant 

in second growth disturbed ground throughout the 

township. 

As a remedy for diarrhea, a handful is brewed and several 

bowls of the "hot" tea are drank. The fruit is eaten by people, 

sheep, horses, and cattle. 

Extended range: Hemkhaena rugosa, Lippia bracteosa, L. 

chiapasensis, and Verbesina crocata. 

b. Sakil ch'il vet, "white fox rib" (ik'al sat tz'i'lel, k'ox 

ch'ilim vet, pimyenta tz'i'lel, poxil k'ak'al sik, poxil 

tza'nel), refers to Lantana hispida (15-20), a densely 

branched subshrab with white, flowers in terminal 

heads, opposite, ovate leaves, 2-7 cm long, with 

crenate margins and purple-black, fleshy drapes. It is 

very common in second growth in temperate and 

highland areas. 

As a remedy for diarrhea, bloody dysentery, stomach ache, 

"wind," and malaria chills a handful of tips or the entire plant 

is brewed in a covered pot. One cup of the "hot" tea is drank 

before breakfast for three days. For malaria, the plant may be 

bruised in cold water. The infusion is "medium." 

Extended range: Lippia cardiostegia. 

2. Ten-jol pox, "matted hair medicine" (bot'-jol tz'i'lel), is 

Lantana achyranthifolia (3-9), a tall, aromatic shrub with soft, 

pubescent leaves, 4-11 cm long, with dentate margins, and an 

ellipsoid, terminal head of white and pink flowers presented on 

long peduncles up to 16 cm long. The fruit is a fleshy, 

lavender-pink drupe. It is very common in disturbed, wet 

ground such as roadside ditches and the margins of springs and 

seeps in temperate and lowland areas. 

As a remedy for diarrhea, a bunch is brewed. One cup of the 

"medium" tea is drank. 

"Ch'ix Set" 

The "ch'ix set" is comprised of three generics referring to 

thistles, sow thistles, and Conyza, pubescent herbs of grassy 

expanses in meadows and pine-oak forests. 
222 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

1. Chikaryo (tik, -altik) (chikaro, chikeryo, chikorya, 

chikoryo) is the sow thistle Sonchus, a hollow-stemmed herb 

with yellow, dandelion-like flowers and milky sap. Both 

species are introduced weeds from Europe. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i chikaryo, "genuine chikaryo," is Sonchus 

oleraceus (7-12), most common as a street weed in 

towns, but also found in disturbed areas throughout the 

highlands. It is an erect annual, with pinnately lobed 

leaves, the terminal lobe triangular in shape, the 

margins spinose-dentate. The upper leaves clasp the 

stem and the lower leaves are petiolate. The yellow 

flowers are bome in an open branched inflorescence. 

The heads are mostly 1-2 cm across. The achenes are 

light brown, flat, and with a white tuft of hairs. 

The tender leaves and stalks are eaten raw or boiled by some 

people. They are classed variously as "hot," "medium," and 

"cold." They are eaten by sheep and horses. The owner of a 

lamb may cut the stalks and feed them to it. 

b. Ch'ix chikaryo, "spiny chikaryo," is Sonchus asper 

(1-3). This plant is coarser and more spinose than 5. 

oleraceus but otherwise very similar to it. It occurs in 

moist, disturbed areas in the highlands. 

It is eaten by sheep and horses. 

2. Chikaryo tz'i'lel, "chikaryo plant," is Conyza chilensis 

(1-1), a slender erect herb with a simple stem below and a few 

branches above. The basal leaves are oblanceolate, 5-16 cm 

long, narrow, with the margins entire or wavy. The upper 

leaves are linear, 1-6 cm long. Flowering heads are clustered at 

the ends of the branches and are white-flowered, 1-2 cm 

across. The seeds are brown with a dirty white tuft of hairs. It 

occurs on grassy slopes in temperate and highland pine-oak 

forests. 

3. Ch'ix* applies to thistles Cirsium. These are spinescent 

herbs to 2 m tall. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Lo'balal ch'ix, "edible spine" (tik) (ch'ixal itaj*, 

lo'bol ch'ix, sakil ch'ix, tzajal ch'ix), is Cirsium 

horridulum (5-9), an acaulescent thistle that occurs in 

wet meadows in the highlands. It has long, narrow, 

dentate leaves with stout yellow spines. The flowers 

are purple or red purple in terminal heads surrounded 

by erect, lanceolate spinescent leaves, equaling or 

exceeding the heads. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan noted: "The thistle is a 

purgative and the wild one has a very active and efficacious 

root. It has a purple flower and otherwise is like the cultivated 

one" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

The "cold" underground section of the stalk is eaten in 

famines. The roots may be boiled and eaten to reduce stomach 

pain, but should be taken sparingly. 

Extended range: Argemone mexicana, Odontotrichum cirsiifolium, and Eryngium carlinae. 

b. Tomal ch'ix, "conical spine" (sakil ch'ix), refers to 

Cirsium mexicanum (1-1), C. nigrkeps (1-1), and C. 

subcoriaceum (3-4), tall (up to 2 m) herbs of the 

pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. The 

three have pinnately lobed, spiny leaves, and flowers 

in terminal heads. Cirsium mexicanum and C. nigriceps have leaves that are deeply pinnatifid, purple, or 

white flowers, and several terminal heads, about 2-5 

cm across. Cirsium subcoriaceum has shallowly 

pinnatifid leaves, red-orange or red-yellow flowers, 

and larger solitary heads, 6-10 cm across. 

The young stalk is peeled, boiled and eaten. 

"Ch'oliv Set" 

The "ch'oliv set" is a grouping of five generics, all members 

of the sunflower family. 

1. Ch'oliv (tik, -altik) is the generic for the wild species of 

dahlia occurring in Zinacantan. These are all perennial herbs 

with tuberous roots and pinnately divided leaves. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i ch'oliv, "genuine ch'oliv," is the tree dahlia 

Dahlia imperialis (4-6); although technically an herb, 

it often obtains a height of 4 m. It has thick, hollow, 

water-filled stems to 10 cm in diameter. The flowers 

are large and showy lavender-purple, with a yellow 

center, 8-10 cm across, and are produced in the fall in 

great profusion at the tops of the stem. The leaves are 

bipinnate. The leaflets are ovate with a long acuminate 

apex, 4.5-12 cm long. They occur in large masses on 

moist slopes in pine-oak forests of the highlands. 

The stems may be used as candlesticks at household altars on 

All Souls' Day. Thirsty people drink the water contained in the 

stems. This water is also taken to cure excessive urination. The 

flowers are gathered to decorate the graveyard crosses on All 

Souls' Day. 

Extended range: Cosmos crithmifolius. 

b. K'ox ch'oliv, "small ch'oliv" (ch'oliv tz'i'lel), is 

Dahlia australis var. chiapensis (3-6), a species mat 

attains a height of 0.5 m from tuberous roots. It has 

lavender flowers, 4-8 cm across, with yellow centers 

and bipinnatifid leaves and occurs on steep slopes in 

pine-oak forests in the highland hamlets. 

c. Tzajal ch'oliv, "red ch'oliv" (ch'oliv chij, k'anal 

ch'oliv, te'tikal ch'oliv), is Dahlia coccinea (7-11), a 

brilliant, red-flowered plant that grows to 2 m tall from 

a tuberous root. The red or occasionally yellow ray 

flowers are 2-4 cm long and the yellow central disk of 

flowers is about 2 cm in diameter. The leaves may be 

simple or pinnate. The stems are hollow, but usually 

contain no water. It occurs on hot, dry, often rocky or 

gravelly slopes in temperate and highland hamlets. 

The flowers are used occasionally to decorate cemetery 

crosses on All Souls' Day. They are sold at market. The plant 

is eaten by sheep, horses and cattle. 
NUMBER 35 223 

2. Dalya (-tik) (lalya) is the cultivated dahlia Dahlia 

pinnata (16-5). These are extremely variable plants of garden 

origin with a wide range of color and double forms. During the 

1960s they were widely cultivated by ladinos, but now are 

rarely seen. 

In a dramatic tale of Thunderbolt's daughter, she appears 

first as a beautiful dahlia before transforming herself into a 

serpent (Laughlin 1977, T72). 

The tubers are planted in May by a few people in many of the 

highland communities. The flowers were used by stewards and 

ladinos to decorate altars. They were sold at market. 

Specifics: 14. 

a. Ik'-lo'an pino dalya, "purple fine dahlia": purple 

form. 

b. Ik'-lo'an pinto pino dalya, "purple spotted fine 

dahlia": spotted, purple form. 

c. Ik'-lo'an potz pino dalya, "purple thick fine dahlia: 

double, purple form. 

d. K'an-set'an pino dalya, "orange fine dahlia": orange 

form. 

e. K'an-set'an potz pino dalya, "orange thick fine 

dahlia": double, orange form. 

f. K'anal pino dalya, "yellow fine dahlia": yellow form. 

g. K'anal potz pino dalya, "yellow thick fine dahlia": 

double, yellow form. 

h. K'ox sakil pino dalya, "small white fine dahlia": 

small, white form, 

i. Moraro dalya, "purple dahlia": purple form, 

j. Rosaro pino dalya, "reddish fine dahlia": reddish 

form, 

k. Sak-vayan pino dalya, "pink fine dahlia": pink form. 

1. Sakil pino dalya, "white fine dahlia": white form, 

m. Sakil potz pino dalya, "white thick fine dahlia": 

double, white form, 

n. Tzajal pino dalya, "red fine dahlia": red form. 

3. Kampray (-tik) is Cosmos bipinnatus (2-3), a slender, 

tall annual with profuse, lavender-pink flowers with yellow 

centers, 4-7 cm across, and delicate, finely divided leaves. It 

occurs in disturbed areas such as yards and cornfields in the 

temperate and highland hamlets. 

The flowers are put in altar vases or set in handfuls at the feet 

of die saints, when going to church. The flowers are sold at 

market in Tuxtla. 

4. Matas (-tik) refers to the beggar's ticks Bidens, annual or 

perennial herbs with pinnately divided leaves and white or 

yellow daisy flowers with spine-tipped, elongate leaves. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'anal matas, "yellow matas" (ch'oliv nichim, 

jjaral- me'tik, k'ak'al yuch' max, saju', tzitz saju', 

tzotzin matas, all in part), refers to the yellowflowered Bidens aurea (3-4), B. bicolor (2-2), B. 

humilis (1-1), B. ostruthioides (4-5), and B. triplinervia (3-6). These have a variety of habits, from 

sprawling to large perennial subshrubs, but all have 

bright yellow flowers. They occur in forest habitats 

and on grassy slopes in temperate and highland 

hamlets. 

Children sell the flowers of 6. ostruthioides. The full range 

of k'anal matas is eaten by sheep, pigs, horses, and cattle. 

Extended range: Dyssodia papposa, Melampodium linearilobum, Tagetes nelsonii, and Viguiera longifolia. 

b. Sakil matas, "white matas" (k'ak'al mach'ul, k'ox 

matas, mach'ul, matas sajo', matas tz'i'lel), is the 

highly variable Bidens pilosa (13-14), a small, erect 

herb with white-rayed flowers and yellow centers. The 

leaves are pinnately divided into ovate or lanceolate 

leaflets with dentate margins. The achenes are narrow, 

black-ribbed, and about 1 cm long with three yellow or 

yellow-brown awns. It is an almost ubiquitous weed 

occurring at all elevations and in a variety of habitats 

from disturbed areas to evergreen cloud forest. 

Chamulans and Tenejapans are known to boil and eat the 

tender leaves. The plant is used as horse fodder and pig food. 

Extended range: Cosmos caudatus and Sabazia sarmentosa. 

5. Saju' (-tik, -altik) (sajo') refers to Simsia, which are 

coarse, rank, weedy herbs with small, dusty, yellow 

daisy flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i saju', "genuine saju'" (muk'ta saju', sakil 

saju'), is Simsia amplexkaulis (7-11), an annual erect 

herb, usually much-branched. The leaves are rough, 

pubescent and have irregular crenate or dentate 

margins. The leaves may be petiolate, sessile, and 

clasping or may have a narrowly winged petiole 

expanding into an clasping base. The flowers are 

yellow with a pubescent involucre and are bome in 

lateral-branched inflorescences. The achenes are black, 

3-5 mm long, with 2 awns. It occurs in disturbed areas 

and waste ground, often forming stands of a hectare or 

more in abandoned cornfields in temperate and 

highland areas. 

It is given to horses and pigs for fodder. 

Extended range: Anoda cristata, Aspilia purpurea, Bidens 

aurea, B. ostruthioides, B. pilosa, Eupatoriastrum nelsonii, 

Galinsoga quadriradiata, Melampodium montanum, Melanthera nivea, Milleria quinquefolia, Sanvitalia procumbens, 

Sclerocarpus uniserialis, Spilanthes americana, and Wedelia 

fertilis. 

b. Ch'ix saju', "spiny saju'" (k'anal saju', tzajal saju'), 

is Simsia grandiflora (2-5), a plant with viscid, smelly 

herbage and pustulate, irritating hairs. It is a coarse 

herb with branched stems. The upper leaves are 

alternate elliptic, small, sessile, and clasping. The 

lower leaves are opposite, larger, triangular, and 

petiolate. The flowers are yellow with a pubescent 

involucre and bome in a branched inflorescence. It 

occurs in similar situations as S. amplexkaulis, but at 

lower elevations. 
224 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Ch'uch' Set" 

The "ch'uch' set" is comprised of nine generics, thickrooted, large, showy-flowered monocots. Most are cultivated 

for their cut flowers. 

1. Asasena (-tik, -altik) (asusena, pech'e-ok castillan 

nichim*, pech'e-ok nichim*) refers to cultivated, bulbous, 

showy-flowered lily relatives. All are planted one bulb to a 

hole, a yard's distance apart. In ritual speech, asasena is paired 

initially with lavalena, pink, referring to a child. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Batz'i asasena, "genuine lily," is Lilium candidum 

(1-5), the common, white, verticillate-leaved lily with 

flowers 4.5-6 cm long. 

A few are planted in some of the highland communities 

during the rainy season. The soil is enriched with horse and 

sheep manure. Four pickings are possible. 

Seven or eight dozen flowers are bought by the steward's 

assistants to decorate the litter on which the Christ Children are 

carried on Christmas Eve. Each steward provides three flowers 

for the above purpose on the eighth Posada. The flowers are 

used by the stewards as a substitute for calla lilies for altar 

decoration. Both flowers and bulbs may be resold and are sold 

at market. 

Extended range: Escobedia laevis. The stewards' assistants 

gather these flowers for altar decoration. 

b. K'anal asasena, "yellow asasena," is the tall, grassleaved, yellow lily Hemerocallis fulva (2-5). The day 

lily is a tall plant with basal strap-shaped leaves, 8-21 

mm wide, and long naked scapes bearing 6-15 yellow 

or orange flowers, 10-12 cm long. The flowers open 

for one day only. 

This lily is planted by a few people in many of the highland 

communities in the rainy season. 

The flowers are cut or purchased by stewards to decorate the 

church or home altar on Sundays and fiestas. They are used 

infrequently in hamlet chapel flower changes, as in Paste. 

c. Sakil asasena, "white lily" (liryo), is the largeclumped, white lily Hippeastrum solandriflorum (3-

6), which is cultivated and also has escaped along 

streams. The leaves are strap-shaped, 35-50 cm long. 

Flowers are 2-4 in an umbel, funnelform, and 20-40 

cm long. 

A few people in some of the temperate and all of the 

highland communities plant this lily in the rainy season. 

The flowers are used for altar decoration and are almost 

ubiquitous in hamlet chapel flower changes. Both flowers and 

bulbs are sold at market. 

d. Tzajal asasena, "red lily" (amarin), refers to Hippeastrum bifidum (1-1), H. vittatum (1-1), and Spreckelia 

formosissima (1-1). The latter is a single, large, 

irregular, red-flowered lily arising from a long globose 

bulb, with a smooth, brown, papery bulb coat. The 

leaves are narrow and strap-shaped. The corolla is 

about 12 cm long. Hippeastrum bifidum and H. 

villatum are similar but the flowers are umbellate, 

bright red, and about 5 cm long in H. bifidum and red 

striped and about 15 cm long in H. vittatum. 

The former is grown by a few people in many of the highland 

communities and the flowers sold at market, but they can not be 

transported any distance. The latter is used to decorate the 

Church of St. Lawrence during Holy Week. 

e. Yaxal asasena, "blue lily" (yaxal nich asasena), 

refers to the blue lily of the Nile, Agapanthus afrkanus 

(1-1), a large robust plant, with long, linear, somewhat 

succulent leaves about 60 cm long. The showy blue 

flowers are umbellate on a long scape. The perianth is 

3.5-5 cm long. 

They are grown in many of the highland communities where 

they are prized for their ability to flourish on unproductive land. 

They are used to decorate the altar, but only infrequently in 

hamlet chapel flower changes. They are offered in Na Chij on 

the Fiesta of the Most Pure Virgin. Both flowers and bulbs are 

sold at market. 

2. Asasena tz'i'lel, "lily plant," is Hymenocallis riparia 

(1-1), a plant with strap-shaped leaves, bulbs, and umbellate 

large white flowers. The flowers are about 15-18 cm long, 

consisting of a long narrow tube that flares into a broad cup, 

bearing long linear petal-like extensions. The andiers are long 

and exerted from the cup. This lily occurs along streams in 

temperate and lowland areas. 

3. Asasena vola, "round lily" (bantera espanyol, bantera 

nichim, bot' jol nichim, bugambitya, karolina nichim, 

sak tanan pox, sat toj, vola nichim), is the cespitose 

Kniphofia uvaria (3-3), the orange-flowered plant known as 

the red hot poker. The leaves are linear and recurved, 1-1.5 cm 

wide, all basal. The inflorescense is a spike-like raceme of 

densely crowded orange-red, tubular flowers, about 2-3.5 cm 

long. The upper flowers are spreading, the lower flowers are 

reflexed. 

A few people in Chaynatik, Joyijel, and many of die 

highland communities plant the bulbs in the rainy season. It is 

also cultivated by Chamulans. 

It is used infrequently in hamlet chapel flower changes, 

especially in Chak Toj. 

The leaves are brewed for a "hot" tea for diarrhea and 

whooping cough. 

The flowers may be resold and are sold at market. 

4. Ch'uch' (-tik) refers to Calathea, Canna, and Maranta. 

These have starchy, edible rhizomes and broad, thin, glabrous 

leaves. Zinacantecs are not aware of the edibility of the 

rhizomes. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'ox chuch', "small ch'uch' " (ch'uch' tz'i'lel, sakil 

ch'uch'), refers to Calathea soconuscum (1-1) and 

arrow root Maranta arundinacea (3-3). Calathea 

soconuscum is a leafy herb with terminal inflorescences of pale yellow flowers. The leaves are 
NUMBER 35 225 

parallel-veined, large, 22-36 cm or more long, 13-17 

cm or more broad. The inflorescence is a spike of 

spirally arranged bracts that subtend three or more 

flowers. The bracts are broadly ovate and rounded at 

the apex. It occurs in wet places in the understory of 

seasonal evergreen forests of the lowlands. Maranta 

arundinacea is a thin-stemmed, broad-leaved plant 

with white terminal flowers. The leaves are parallelveined and alternate on the stems, ovate-lanceolate or 

lanceolate to 20 cm long, 8 cm wide or less. The 

inflorescence is branched and open. The flowers are 

white, the tube about 13 mm long, the petal lobes 8-10 

mm long. The fruit is ellipsoid, 7 mm long, with pale, 

red, rough seeds. It occurs on dry, rocky slopes, often 

in disturbed situations in temperate and lowland areas. 

b. Tzajal ch'uch', "red ch'uch'," is Canna edulis (5-6), 

a tall, very broad, glossy-leaved plant with large, red 

flowers and papillate, fleshy capsules with round, hard, 

black seeds. It is cultivated, but requires a rich, damp 

soil. It is also found in wild situations with similar 

conditions. 

A few people in nearly all the temperate and all but one of the 

highland communities plant the tubers in the rainy season. 

The leaves were sold formerly to butchers in San Cristobal 

(before the advent of plastic bags). Two or three leaves were 

required to wrap a kilo of meat. Half a leaf was needed for 

cracklings. The leaves are sold to tamale merchants in San 

Crist6bal to wrap fresh bean tamales. Zinacantecs use them for 

the same purpose on Holy Cross Day, but not for weddings. 

Five or six leaves may be gathered by the wife of a ritual 

assistant to wrap the chicken meat that is presented to a shaman 

after a curing ceremony. When a man goes to the lowlands, his 

wife may wrap a lump of pozol dough for him in four large 

leaves or six small leaves, tying them with a strip of palm. The 

leaves are also used to wrap cheese. 

The flowers are children's playthings. Fifteen to twenty 

seeds are placed in a religious official's rattle before a handle is 

affixed. 

Extended range: Hedychium coronarium. 

5. Kartucho (tik, -altik) (kartucho nichim) is the calla lily 

Zantedeschia aethiopica (4-9), a plant arising from a fleshy 

rhizome with large, cordate leaves and white flowers. It is 

cultivated and occasionally persisting in most of the temperate 

and all but one of the highland communities. Children are 

warned not to chew the leaves as they are poisonous. 

Calla lilies are generally planted from April to June, after the 

flowers have fallen. Usually one tuber is planted to a hole, but 

some plant more if they are small. The distance varies from 

0.5-1 m. Many planters enrich the soil with compost or sheep 

manure. Humid ground is required and, if in the highland 

hamlets, a shady location is preferred for frost protection. 

Wooden frame shelters with com stubble roofs may be 

provided if there are only a few plants. The clumps are divided 

every 2-3 years. The first year the plant flowers for All Souls' 

Day, the second, it begins flowering in June. If the ground is 

not humid, one cutting is provided until November, otherwise 

the season is extended to March. 

An enemy may bury ground tobacco at the foot of one's calla 

lilies so that the tubers will rot. 

Calla lilies are offered almost ubiquitously in the township 

for flower changes. For the Fiesta of Our Lady of the Rosary 

two vases filled with calla lilies, daisies or more recently, 

pompom chrysanthemums, and macaw feathers adom the 

banquet table also on January 20th and 22nd, during the Fiesta 

of St. Sebastian. They also adom the table in the Chapel of 

Esquipulas on Carnival Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday. They 

are taken temporarily to the cantor's house for the banquet table 

on Carnival Monday and Tuesday. The stewards carry these 

vases to Atz'am to decorate the banquet tables of the Stewards 

of Our Lady of the Rosary and the tithing man on the Fiesta of 

the Virgin. Two dozen lilies are provided by the senior 

stewards and two dozen by the junior stewards. Stewards buy 

or gather three dozen calla lilies for their household altars and 

six dozen for the church at each flower change. The flowers 

may be resold and are sold in Tuxtla, often in bunches of six 

flowers and one leaf. For New Year's Day each steward gives 

four dozen lilies for the Church of St. Lawrence. On Epiphany 

each steward provides four dozen lilies and each ensign-bearer 

provides two dozen lilies for both churches. On the fourth 

Lenten Friday each steward provides four dozen lilies, on Palm 

Sunday six bunches, on Sacred Heart Day three dozen lilies, on 

St. Peter's Day and St. Dominic's Day six dozen, on the Fiesta 

of Our Lady of the Rosary four dozen for Zinacantan Center 

and the same for Atz'am, on Nativity Day four dozen and on 

All Souls' Day six dozen. The ensign-bearers provide two 

dozen lilies apiece for Zinacantan Center on the Fiesta of Our 

Lady of the Rosary and on Nativity Day. On the Fiesta of the 

Immaculate Conception each of the Stewards of the Sacrament, 

the Holy Cross, and St. Dominic provide four dozen lilies. The 

outgoing publicans offer thirty dozen lilies for the decoration of 

the Chapel of Our Lord of Esquipulas at the year's end 

(December 28). Calla lilies are standard decorations in all 

chapel floral changes except in Chak Toj. They are used in 

Kelem Ton for the Holy Cross Day and St. Lawrence fiestas. 

6. Liryo is Amaryllis belladonna (karmenita) (2-2), a 

naked-stemmed, pink-flowered plant. Flowers are funnelform, 

about 8-10 cm long. It produces strap-shaped leaves when 

there are no flowers. 

It is cultivated in many of the highland communities. It is 

used infrequently in hamlet chapel flower changes. The flowers 

may be resold and are sold at market. 

7. Nichim ninyo, "Christ Child's flower" (xela nichim), is 

Hippeastrum vittatum (1-5), a low, red-flowered, lily-like 

plant. The leaves are strap-shaped, 30-45 cm or more long, 

3-4 cm wide. The flowers are funnelform, large, 15-20 cm 

long. 

It is cultivated by a very few people in some of the highland 

communities. It is too fragile to market. 
226 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

8. Snichim koyta, "Ocozocuautla flower," is Crinum 

amabile (1-1), a very large, purple-flowered lily. The leaves of 

this tall robust lily are 12 cm or more wide, with smooth 

margins. The flowering scape is 2-3 feet long with an umbel of 

many purple and white flowers. The flower tube is 16-18 cm 

long and the lobes are 14-15 cm long. 

It is cultivated only in the lower temperate hamlet of Masan. 

9. Vojton tz'i'lel, "com ear plant," is the wild ginger Costus 

sanguineus (1-2), a tall (to 2 m), thick-stemmed herb with 

alternating broad leaves and a terminal, ellipsoid, dense head of 

red flowers. The leaves are elliptic to oblanceolate, about 20 cm 

long, 6-10 cm wide. The spike is made up of densely 

imbricated redish or green bracts, broadly rounded at the apex 

and subtending the red flowers, which are 5-6 cm long. The 

plants occur in rocky outcrops in wet forest situations in the 

lowlands. 

"Ch'ulelal Nichim Set" 

The "ch'ulelal nichim set" includes four generics, herbs and 

subshrubs with small, glossy, leathery leaves and small, bright 

flowers. 

1. Alajebal pox, "birth medicine," is Satureja mexicana 

(1-1). This is a branched, square-stemmed herb with opposite, 

ovate leaves, 1-3.5 cm long. The flowers are axillary, tubular, 

2-4 cm long, bright red with exerted stamens. It occurs on rock 

outcrops in highland pine forests. 

Young plants are occasionally transplanted in the rainy 

season. It is sold at market by Chamulans and Huistecans. 

When a woman feels the onset of labor pains, she takes a 

"hot" tea to give her extra strength. 

2. Ch'ulelal nichim, "ghost flower," refers to two subshrubs 

with large, brittle stems and tubular, red flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i ch'ulelal nichim, "genuine ghost flower" 

(ch'ulelal, ch'ulelal pox), is Salvia mexicana (2-5), a 

perennial herb with opposite, small, dentate leaves, 

1-3.5 cm long. The flowers are bilabiate, red, with a 

tube 2-3.5 cm long, stamens exerted solitary in the 

leaf axils. The plant has fragrant herbage and occurs in 

limestone outcrops in dry pine-oak forest in highland 

hamlets. 

It is sold by Chamulans, the people of Chenalh6, and 

occasionally by Zinacantec women at market in San Crist6bal. 

The plant may be stored dry for a year. The young tips are 

brewed as a "hot" substitute for coffee. This herb is preferred 

for scenting the "flower water" for a newborn baby. It is usually 

gathered in anticipation of the birth. As a "hot" remedy, the tea 

is drank for deafness caused by "cold." It is also drank by a 

woman in labor pains. As a remedy for majbenal, a small cup 

is drunk each day for three days. A "medium" tea is drank for 

stomach ache (k'ux o'onil). As a "medium" remedy for 

diarrhea (sikil tza'nel) and nausea and diarrhea (xenel ch'utul) 

burnt pieces of tortilla are soaked in the tea, and the tea drank 

2-3 times. For further medicinal use cf. kontiyerva, k'ox 

yax-chel, lula. 

Extended range: Cuphea intermedia. 

b. Tzajal ch'ulelal nichim, "red ghost flower" (ch'ix 

tzib, kampana pox, natz'il te', tzajal pom tz'unun 

te', ventex chij), is Fuchsia microphylla ssp. quercetorum (5-7), a glossy-leaved shrub with bright red 

flowers. The leaves are small, elliptic, opposite or 

verticillate, 1-3 cm long. The flowers are small, red, 

7-15 mm long, and occur in the axils of the leaves. 

The fruit is a black berry about 5-6 mm in diameter. It 

is a common plant in the understory of pine-oak and 

evergreen cloud forests in temperate and highland 

hamlets. It is classed variously as "plant" and "tree." 

The plants are sold in Tuxtla at Christmas time. 

3. Poxil sal tz'i', "mange medicine" (-tik), is Erigeron 

karwinskianus (9-13), perennial herbs with many slender 

branching stems. The leaves are small, 1-5 cm long, variable in 

shape. They may be linear with entire margins, or obovate with 

lobed margins. Flowers are small daisies, white and pink, 

terminal. It occurs on limestone outcrops in dry pine-oak 

forests and is weedy, occurring in crevices in old stone 

buildings in temperate and highland areas. 

To remove facial blemishes, a few "medium" or "cold" 

flowers or leaves are rubbed on the affected part. 

Extended range: Aster bullatus and A. exilis. 

4. Poxil t'ajel, "abrasion medicine," is Symphorkarpus 

microphyllus (1-4), a small-leaved subshrab with small, 6-10 

cm long, tubular, white flowers in the axils of the leaves. The 

leaves are small, short petiolate or subsessile, broadly elliptic, 

8-20 mm long, and opposite. The fruit is globose, white, and 

juicy containing two seeds. It occurs on limestone outcrops in 

dry pine-oak forests of the highland hamlets. 

Women whose legs are chafed by their skirts when they walk 

to Chamula or San Crist6bal rub the "hot" berries on the 

affected part two or three times for three days. 

Extended range: Fuchsia encliandra ssp. tetradactyla, F. 

microphylla ssp. aprica, and Ludwigia octovalvis. 

"Ich Set" 

The "ich set" includes seven generics, five of which refer to 

herbaceous members of the Solanaceae. The other two are 

superficially similar to individual members of this set. 

1. Bioleta (-tik, -iltik) refers to violets, the cultivated 

ornamental ground covers Vinca major (1-3) and Viola nannei 

(1-4) along with V. odorata (1-1). These plants are 

superficially similar to yich joj. The ornamental plants 

reproduce asexually and often persist near abandoned habitations and along trails. They all have bright blue flowers. Vinca 

major has long trailing stems with opposite ovate leaves, 2-6 

cm long. Flowers are 3-3.5 cm long with a central tube 

expanded into five blue petals. In Viola nannei and V. odorata 

the flowers and leaves arise from the ground on long pedicels. 
NUMBER 35 227 

The leaves are rounded and cordate at the base. The flowers are 

1-1.5 cm across in V. nannei and somewhat larger in V 

odorata. 

In 1748 the priest of Zinacantan listed the violeta among the 

local medicinal plants (Monrroy y Calcadilla, 1748). 

2. Chuchu', "breast" (chu' ninyo, chu' ryox, xchu' 

jch'ul-me'tik), is Solanum mammosum (2-5), a weedy or 

marginally cultivated plant of the lower temperate hamlets 

(Masan) and lowland areas. It is an herbaceous or shrubby plant 

characterized by bright yellow, leathery, breast-shaped fruits, 

4-8 cm long. The stems and leaves are densely pubescent and 

armed with stout yellow prickles. The leaves are shallowly 

lobed and 10-25 cm long. The flowers are lateral and in groups 

of 1-4. The petals are purple and parted to near the base. 

As the Virgin had no breasts, Our Lord gave her these fruits. 

They are the Christ Children's toys. 

It is grown in the lowlands and in many of the temperate 

communities. 

In Masan the seeds are sown in hoed ground and the patch 

surrounded by rocks to keep the chickens out. A few people 

plant the seeds in their lowland cornfields. 

Thirty-six stemmed fruits (one dozen apiece) are provided by 

die Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary and the Junior Steward 

of St. Dominic on the eighth Posada to decorate the trees that 

flank the creche. They are also used for creche decoration in 

Apas, Atz'am, Muk'ta Jok', Na Chij, Naben Chauk, Paste', and 

Sek'emtik. 

Extended range: Martynia annua, Solanum acerifolium, S. 

angustifolium, and S. torvum. 

3. Ich* (-tik) refers to chilies. General commentary is 

presented under sakil ich, for until recently that was the variety 

most frequently cultivated and eaten by Zinacantecs. 

Specifics: 10. 

a. Bak ich, "thin chili" (-tik), is a cultivated Capsicum 

annuum with long, very thin, green fruits. It can be a 

shrub to 6 feet tall or an herb. The leaves are ovate, 

lanceolate or elliptic, often in pairs, 1.5-9 cm long. 

The flowers are small and white. The berry is red, with 

cream to yellow seeds within. It is grown in most of the 

lower temperate communities and in the lowlands. 

Planting schedules and techniques are identical to those of 

sakil ich. 

As an antidote for a black widow spider bite in the highlands, 

13 of these chilies are ground into powder and mixed with 

water, providing a "hot" infusion. Should the bite occur in the 

lowlands the chili powder is boiled together with three brown 

pebbles. 

Formerly, postpartum mothers avoided eating this variety of 

chili as it was said to be "colder" than sakil ich, but now, after 

the latter failed to produce well for a number of years, it has 

almost entirely supplanted sakil ich. Although it produces 

more fruit, the bite is so hot that it is not eaten raw with 

pleasure—a fact lamented by all. 

b. Jlok'ol-chak ich, "sagging bottom chili" (o'lol tzo' 

mut ich), is a cultivated Capsicum annuum with small, 

ovoid, papery, dry fruits, 1-2 cm long. It is cultivated 

exclusively in and around Simojovel. 

Once, it seems, a man from Apas was traveling through 

Simojovel and cut down a patch of chilies. When the owner 

discovered the theft he asked the plants what had happened. 

They told him to take to the road to pursue the thief. He 

followed their advice and when he reached Apas he saw the 

chilies in the thief's house. He returned home without saying a 

word. The next day the thief died. 

Although this chili is available in the market in San Cristobal 

it is rarely bought by Zinacantecs. 

c. K'anal ich, "yellow chili" (naranja ich, po'on ich), is 

the cultivated, shrubby Capsicum pubescens. These 

superficially resemble bell peppers, but the seeds are 

very hot in flavor. They differ from C. annuum in their 

purple flowers, black seeds, and rough (rugose) leaves. 

They are cultivated primarily by Chamulans and the 

people of Larrainzar. 

This chili is planted by a few people in most of the highland 

and a few of the temperate communities. The seeds are usually 

planted in May in an old pot and the seedlings transplanted a 

month later. They are provided with compost and manure. The 

seedlings are transplanted to a fencerow, under a tree, or staked. 

They fruit in August through November, but sparsely the first 

year. To guard against frost a wooden frame may be built, 

roofed with com stubble and elderberry branches, or the chilies 

may be planted in an old pot or box and kept under the roof 

overhang. 

The "hot" flesh of these chilies is usually eaten raw. It may 

be eaten dried, but is very hot. 

d. Morte ich (sak-morte ich) is a cultivated Capsicum 

annuum with the thick, fleshy skin of the serrano type. 

This chili is planted by a few people in Zinacantan Center, in 

the lower temperate hamlets, and the lowland flood plain. 

e. Natikil ich, "long chili," is a cultivated Capsicum 

annuum with thin skins of the jalapeno type. It is 

grown in Santa Rosa and Totolapa. 

f. Pujkan ich, "hollow chili" (-tik) (puj-'ut ich, pujan 

tzajal ich, pujkin ich), is the small bell pepper 

Capsicum pubescens. 

It is grown by a few people in Minax, Potovtik, and Santa 

Rosa. The seeds are sown in May and transplanted a month 

later. They fruit from October through December. This variety 

often becomes unproductive after the first year. 

g. Sakil ich, "white chili" (-tik), is a cultivated Capsicum 

annuum with thick, white or greenish white skin. 

According to one tradition, when Our Lord was hiding in the 

banana grove with his mother he bumped his nose and got a 

nosebleed. He blew his nose and when the drops of blood 

landed on the ground up sprouted these chilies. Others say that 

they were created by the blood shed by Our Lord as he hung on 

the cross when he was stabbed by the blind man. 

Chili and com share the same soul, for if chili is mistreated 
228 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

the com harvest will be poor. When seated around a fire, and 

chili is burnt, some people will begin coughing, and others will 

not be affected by the acrid smoke. It is customary to remark 

that the companion animal spirits of the coughers are near at 

hand, right behind the house. Chili, when eaten in large 

quantities, is believed to cause sexual excitation. A green chili 

should not be shared lest lightning strike. To cause the flowers 

of an enemy's chayote or watermelon squash vines to drop off, 

the young stems are cut off and eaten with a lot of green chilies. 

Even the owner of chayotes and watermelon squash should not 

eat chilies, lest the flowers of the former fall off, and the young 

fruits of the latter rot. 

This chili is planted in most of the lower temperate 

communities and in the lowlands. The seeds are sown in seed 

beds or scattered in the cornfield in May or June. They should 

be planted in the full of the moon, lest the fruits drop. And they 

should be watered immediately so they will take root before the 

first heavy rain. To produce chilies with thinner skins, better for 

cooking and not too hot, the planter should be barefoot. To 

produce hot chilies he should "cure" the plants by spitting 

tobacco in the middle of the field and then pissing. Or he should 

piss around them when planting and when they are flowering. 

A "green thumb" (sk'abal) is required for a productive crop. 

Some say that chilies should be planted in the shade and 

well-hidden from ladinos. They are partial to sandy soil. 

The seedlings are transplanted in a month in rows V2-I m 

apart. When the plants are in flower they should have coyol 

fruits spat upon them to increase productivity. If the owner's 

wife is pregnant he should light a cigarette or piss in a line 

around the plants, lest the fruits fall off. The harvest is from late 

August (few) through December of the first year. If all the fruits 

ripen the plant will die, so chilies are picked while some fruits 

are still green. In the temperate areas chilies do not fruit until 

the second year, and even in the lowlands the first year's crop 

is small. The second year there are three pickings, in June, 

August, and December, but if irrigated they may fruit 

throughout the dry season. The plants produce for three years. 

They are subject to attacks by leaf-cutter ants, iguanas, green 

jays, orioles, boat-tailed grackles, and deer. Only old plants are 

affected by excessive moisture (uch). The chilies are sold at 

market. 

Chili leaves may be boiled and eaten as "hot" greens. Raw 

chilies should not be eaten by postpartum mothers as they are 

"cold." Dried chilies are "hot." 

When the grandparents of those now in their forties used to 

trot long distances with towering loads, they would take along 

with them tortillas, salt, and a handful of ground dried chilis for 

their sustenance. The chilies served as a substitute for beans. 

Chilies are used to season the "blood" of the petate bull 

provided on Epiphany by the Stewards of Our Lady of the 

Rosary. If a newborn baby fails to cry, chilies are burnt next to 

it causing it to cough and cry. 

A tale is told of a woman who refused her husband's 

advances. When he discovered her beeswax dildo, he rubbed it 

with chili, supplying a painfully effective remedy (Laughlin, 

1977, T134). 

A person who has been bitten by a snake should grab the 

snake and bite it three times. Not only will this serve as an 

antidote for the venom, but the chili in the victim's saliva will 

kill the snake. 

For further medicinal use cf. moy, sakramentual nichim. 

h. Tzo' mut ich, "bird shit chili" (tempich, tempich ich, 

tempran ich, tenpich ich, tinpich ich, yich mut), is 

the wild Capsicum annuum var. avkulare with small, 

round fruits that occurs commonly in the lowland areas 

often in disturbed situations, but also in tropical 

deciduous forests. Two varieties are recognized: 

Jipajtik ssat: with "downward hanging fruit." 

Va'ajtik ssat: with "upright fruit." 

The "hot" fruits are eaten raw or added raw to a dish. They 

are sold at market. 

i. Volajtik ich, "round chili" (k'ux pevul ich, volvol 

ich), is the cultivated cherry chili Capsicum annuum. 

The fruit resembles the fruit of Solanum chrysotrichum. These are grown in Chiapa de Corzo and 

Ocozocuautla. 

j. Yich kurik, "Tenejapans' chili" (yich kulajtik, yich 

k'ank'uk', yich ulo'), is a cultivated Capsicum 

annuum with a thin skin. The fruits are elongate and 

4-6 cm long. It is cultivated by Chamulans, Tenejapans, and the people of Cancuc. 

These chilies are available in the market of San Crist6bal. 

4. Unen mu, "little delicious" (-tik, -altik), is the wild 

nightshade Solanum americanum (13-19). It is a slender, erect, 

thin-leaved annual, up to 2 m tall. Leaves are alternate, elliptic, 

3-6 cm long. The flowers are in lateral umbellate clusters, 

white, and very small, about 5 mm across. The fruits are round 

and black, 4-8 mm in diameter. 

It is grown in Santa Rosa and occurs wild in nearly all of the 

temperate and highland communities in second growth and 

disturbed areas as well as moist locations in pine-oak and 

evergreen cloud forests. 

The seeds may be stored and sown in die corral or hoed 

ground in the rainy season. Young wild plants may also be 

transplanted. They are available for picking from May dirough 

December. They are sold at market in Tuxtla and San Crist6bal. 

This plant should be handled with care. It should not be 

pulled up indiscriminately as it has caterpillars (xchanul) that 

sting. Their stings can only be cured if die offender eats the 

leaves raw. Some claim that if the plant is sold its soul will be 

lost and the crop will disappear. 

The greens are boiled with salt and chili and are eaten by all 

Zinacantecs. It takes a good hand (sk'abal), however, to 

prepare the greens. For some cooks they always turn out bitter. 

They are generally classed as "hot." They should be eaten in 

moderation lest they cause diarrhea and hiccups. 

As a remedy for dysentery, a tea is made by brewing the 

greens without salt. The berries are chewed raw for fever sores. 
NUMBER 35 229 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil unen mu, "white little delicious," refers to light 

green-stemmed plants. 

b. Tzajal unen mu, "red little delicious," refers to plants 

with darker green leaves and maroon to blackish 

stems. When cooked, these are often bitter. 

5. Unen mu tz'i'lel, "little delicious plant," is Rivina humilis 

(1-1), perennial herbs or subshrubs with narrow ovate leaves, 

3-11 cm long, rounded at the base, long and acute at the tip, 

with long, narrow racemes of tiny, white or pink flowers. The 

fruit is round, bright red, about 4 mm in diameter. It occurs on 

moist shady banks in temperate and lowland hamlets in both 

second growth and forest situations. The thin edible leaves are 

very reminiscent of unen mu. 

The "hot" greens are eaten, boiled. 

6. Ye aja-chon, "rattlesnake's mouth" or "rattlesnake's 

teeth" (k'anal ch'ix), is Solanum angustifolium (2-3), a very 

spiny herb common in disturbed situations in lowland areas. 

The flowers are large, yellow, and showy. The leaves are 

deeply divided into many rounded lobes. Both leaves and stems 

bear many stout yellow spines. The arrangement of spines 

about die fruits is reminiscent of a rattlesnake's mouth. 

To relieve mules suffering from a tarantula bite, the fruit is 

bruised in cold water and the "hot" infusion administered to the 

affected area. The fruits should not be stored at home lest they 

attract snakes. 

7. Yich joj, "raven's chili" (lo'bol joj), is Lycianthes 

ciliolata (2-3), a slender herb to 1 m tall with black, 

tomato-like fruits. The stems are branched. The leaves are 

usually in pairs similar in shape but unequal in size. They are 

3-10 cm long and ovate. Flowers are solitary, white and 

purple, with fused petals, 2.5-4 cm across. It occurs as 

scattered individuals in disturbed areas in temperate and 

lowland areas. 

The "cold" fruits are eaten. 

Extended range: Ruellia lactea. 

"Is-ak' Set" 

The "Is-ak' set" is comprised of two generics belonging to a 

group of tuberous rooted plants mainly made up of potatoes and 

sweet potatoes. 

1. Is-ak'* (-tik, -iltik) refers to potatoes and sweet potatoes. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i is-ak', "genuine potato," is Solanum tuberosum 

(3-4), a small, tubered, probably locally derived form 

of the potato that has become very scarce. It is a 

perennial herb with straggling branches and erect 

stems about 1 m tall. The leaves are alternate ovate to 

elliptic, 2-5.5 cm long, acute at the apex, minutely 

pubescent below. The flowers are racemose with 

pedicels, 1.5-2 cm long. The corolla is rotate, 5-lobed, 

purple with five conspicuous yellow anthers, 5-6 mm 

long. In the past it occurred wild near the tops of the 

high peaks near San Crist6bal in evergreen cloud 

forest. 

Some claim that potatoes were created when Christ squeezed 

milk from his mother's breast. Otiiers maintain mat Our Lord 

instructed Adam and Eve, before they had anything to eat, to 

boil three river pebbles. These, then, were transformed into 

potatoes. One should avoid digging potatoes at noon because at 

this time their souls are bathing. 

Many people once grew these potatoes in dieir yards. The 

young potatoes were scattered when the ground was hoed 

before the onset of the rainy season. Or they were planted 

between the clumps of com. New potatoes were harvested at 

the time or allowed to mature and harvested in August. They 

were so plentiful in Atz'am that during the hoeing season 

fieldhands would be given an almud of potatoes in addition to 

their pay. Formerly potatoes and cane liquor were a standard 

gift to the lowland landholders whose land was to be rented. 

They were sold at market. 

These small potatoes are considered to be the most 

flavorsome. They are washed, boiled, and mashed into small 

pieces. "Cold" potatoes are seasoned with chili and salt, or also 

widi coriander and onion. They may be eaten alone or mixed 

widi a variety of foods (beans, cabbage, tomatoes, eggs, 

shrimp, fish, and beef). "Cold" potato greens may also be eaten, 

boiled. 

These potatoes may be subdivided further: 

(1) Sakil batz'i is-ak', "white genuine potato," refers to 

white-skinned potatoes. 

(2) Tzajal batz'i is-ak', "red genuine potato," refers to 

red-skinned potatoes. 

b. Tranjero is-ak', "foreign potato" (tanjero is-ak'), is 

Solanum tuberosum (2-4), a recently derived brownskinned, large-tubered strain of the potato. 

These potatoes are now grown by many people in a few of 

the temperate and all of the highland communities. They are 

planted from mid-April through June, and, if irrigation is 

available, from November through February. They should not 

be planted when the moon is young, lest the flowers drop. 

Small, whole potatoes or potatoes cut into 2-4 sections are 

planted in rows 40 cm apart. Whole potatoes produce tubers 

more readily. They are planted in corrals or hoed ground and 

provided with compost, sheep or horse manure, or fertilizer. 

Some hill the plants when they are 20 cm tall and again before 

they flower. Others wait until die plants are in flower. Failure to 

hill will prevent the plants from forming tubers. They may be 

dug when the plant is in fruit. This may vary from 3 to 5 

months. They are sold and resold at market. 

For culinary use cf. batz'i is-ak'. 

These large potatoes may also be further subdivided: 

(1) Sakil tranjero is-ak', "white foreign potato," is the 

white-skinned potato. 

(2) Tzajal tranjero is-ak', "red foreign potato," is die 

red-skinned variety. 

c. Tzajal is-ak', "red potato," is die sweet potato 
230 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Ipomoea batata (1-2), which is grown primarily by 

the people of Larraihzar. It is a perennial vine with 

heart-shaped leaves, about 4-10 cm long, 3.5-8 cm 

wide. The flowers are axillary, clustered at the ends of 

long peduncles. The corollas are lavender about 3-4 

cm long. The fruit is a two-celled capsule. 

The cultivation of sweet potatoes has been introduced 

recently in Santa Rosa and most of the temperate communities. 

A few people plant the tuber or cuttings in hills in May. The 

tubers are harvested in January. 

Sweet potatoes are sold throughout the year in the San 

Cristobal market. Most commonly they are sold in chunks after 

having been boiled with raw sugar. These "cold" sweet 

potatoes are considered to be a fruit (lo'bol) and are eaten as 

between-meal snacks. 

2. Is-ak' tz'i'lel, "potato plant," is Solanum morelliforme 

(1-2). This is a slender epiphytic and saxicolous herb with 

terminal clusters of white flowers maturing into black, round 

berries, 1 cm in diameter. It occurs in pine-oak forests in the 

highlands. 

"Itaj Set" 

The "itaj set" is a group of cultivated plants that are all 

variations of Brassica oleracea. There are five generic terms. 

The colonial term coles appears to have referred both to kale 

and cabbage. 

1. Batz'i itaj (-tik), "real greens" (sakil itaj), refers to 

Brassica oleracea var. acephala, non-curly kale. Kales usually 

have a simple erect stem, bearing larger broad leaves. Flowers 

are yellow bome in terminal racemes. It is grown in a few of the 

temperate and all but one of the highland communities. 

Non-curly kale and curly kale are grown together in vegetable 

patches. The slips are planted in the rainy season. If planted 

when the moon is young the leaves will be more tender. The 

slips are planted 40 cm apart. Replanting may occur. The leaves 

and tip are cut off so the plant will branch out. The plants are 

hilled so they will produce many leaves. It will live 2-4 years. 

The harvest is in September. The greens are sold at market in 

San Cristobal. Both flowers and leaves are gathered by women. 

They are brewed with chili, salt, lime juice, and sometimes 

mint. The leaves may be eaten raw. They are "cold." 

If one dreams of selling kale, one's sheep or mules will die. 

2. Jol itaj (tik), "head greens" (coles*, jolinom itaj), refers 

to Brassica oleracea var. capitata, cabbage. The seeds are 

sown in the rainy season and transplanted after a month. They 

should be sown when the moon is full so the heads will be big. 

The plants are hilled so they will head. Recently the pesticide 

BHC3 is being used with perilous frequency. It is scattered on 

the ground before hoeing to control June bug grubs. Cabbage 

plants may also be sprayed after the first week. The harvest is 

in three months. It is "cold," seasoned as above. It is sold and 

resold at market. Cf. elamonix. 

To dream of eating cabbage or seeing a cabbage head is a 

presentiment that one will be murdered on the trail. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Muk'ta jol itaj, "large head greens," refers to the 

round-headed form of cabbage. It is grown in Santa 

Rosa, many of the temperate and most of the highland 

communities. 

b. Yo'on vakax itaj, "cow heart greens," refers to an 

oblong-headed variety that is sweeter than the roundheaded form. It is "cold." 

(1) K'ox yo'on vakax itaj, "small cow heart greens," 

refers to a small-headed variety that is bitterer 

than the larger form. 

(2) Muk'ta yo'on vakax itaj, "large cow heart 

greens," refers to a big-headed variety. 

3. Koliflor is Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, cauliflower. 

This is a recent introduction into the highlands. It is grown in a 

few temperate and highland communities. 

4. Kolinabo is Brassica oleracea var. gongyloides, kohlrabi. 

The swollen base of the kohlrabi stem looks something like a 

turnip and can grow as large as an orange. It can be green or 

purple. Ladinos plant the seeds in the rainy season. 

Kohlrabi cultivation is just beginning in Chaynatik, Joyijel, 

and a few of the highland communities. 

The "cold" greens are seasoned the same as cabbage and 

kale. 

5. Tzukum jol itaj, "caterpillar head greens" (kuruch' itaj, 

muruch' itaj), refers to Brassica oleracea var. acephala, curly 

kale. It is grown in a few of the temperate and many of die 

highland communities. It is planted the same as batz'i itaj. The 

leaves may be seasoned with mint and coriander. The greens 

are classed variously as "cold" and "hot." 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil tzukum jol itaj, "white caterpillar head greens," 

is curly kale. 

b. Tzajal tzukum jol itaj, "red caterpillar head greens" 

(kulix itaj), is a hybrid of the curly and non-curly 

forms. 

"Ixim Set" 

The "Ixim set" with seven generics, comprises all the major 

grains, plus sugarcane, which is also a cultivated grass. 

1. Aros is rice Oryza sativa. Until recently it was known to 

Zinacantecs only in the market, but is grown by ladinos in the 

region of Nueva Concordia and is occasionally adventive in 

distant lowland areas. Rice is an annual grass with erect culms 

to 1 meter high. The leaves are narrow, 1-1.5 cm wide. 

Panicles are oblong and somewhat flattened with ridges on the 

hard outer coat. 

Rice is seldom eaten by Zinacantecs in their homes, but fried 

rice and rice gruel (uncooked rice, ground and mixed widi 

water) are standard fare in market restaurants. "Hot" rice gruel 

may be drank by women to induce lactation, followed by a 

sweat bath. 

2. Avena (trigo jobel) refers to wild oats Avenafatua (2-2) 
NUMBER 35 231 

and cultivated oats A. sativa (1-2), slender or coarse grasses 

with culms from 30 cm to more than 1 meter high. The leaves 

are narrow, 4-15 mm wide. The panicles are loose and the 

spikelets are nodding. Spikelets are enclosed in long-awned 

glumes, about 2.5 cm long. The awns are either bent as in A. 

fatua or straight in A. sativa. The seeds are sown by ladinos in 

the highlands in the rainy season. "Cold" oats are eaten by 

ladinos. 

3. Ixim* (-altik) refers to maize Zea mays. Because of the 

long history of cultivation of this plant in this region and 

because it is the staple and single most important food crop to 

these people, it is quite understandable that the classification 

and variation of types (races) of the plant would be very 

complex. This is further complicated by the very dissected, 

sub-dialectal, dispersed hamlet nature of the human population, 

which is reflected in the terms they apply to maize. Yet another 

feature is that within the last two generations modem 

technology in the form of hybrid stock of maize and increased 

mobility of the populations due to roads and motorized vehicles 

has led to a mixing of once distinct restricted types of maize. In 

the course of this study many of these races have gone out of 

existence in Zinacantan. The determination of race was very 

kindly provided by Prof. PC. Mangelsdorf, who examined the 

samples in 1967. 

In the oral tradition of Zinacantah, com was present from the 

earliest times when Our Lord was just a baby fleeing with his 

mother from the Jews. According to some it was Our Lord, and 

according to others, his mother, who caused the com to mature 

overnight to confuse their pursuers (cf. Laughlin, 1977, T52). 

In ritual speech com is referred to as "Our Lord's sunbeams and 

shadows" (xxojobal snak'obal kajvaltik). After the Flood, it 

was the raven that brought man each kind of com, stealing it 

from one of the Earth Lord's caves (cf. Laughlin, 1977, T70). 

When Our Lord's older brothers climbed a tree to eat honey and 

only threw down the beeswax for him to eat, he fashioned a 

gopher from the chewings. After he had molded it well he stuck 

splinters of com stubble in its mouth so that it would have 

strong teeth to gnaw the tree roots. 

When a boy baby is bom he is called "woman's luck," yorail 

antz, and when it is a girl baby she is "man's luck," yorail 

vinik. Both ensure a good crop of com. 

To dream of com has a variety of conflicting interpretations 

(cf. Laughlin, 1976:7-9): 

1. To drink com gruel become sick (common cold) 

2. To drink sweet com gruel become sick (cold "wind" in 

stomach, diarrhea) 

3. To give com become poor (loss of corn's 

soul) 

4. To sell com one's child will die (soul-loss) 

5. To receive com become prosperous (receive 

soul of com) 

6. To receive bowl of com, have poor harvest 

stack of tortillas 

7. To receive woman visitor become prosperous (receive 

8. To see cornfield flourishing, com in heaps 

9. To see com in heaps 

10. To see barren cornfield 

11. To see horses in the cornfield 

soul of com) 

com crop will fail 

harvest will be good 

cornfield will flourish, harvest 

will be good 

wind will flatten com 

Unless people eat tortillas they are not fully socialized and 

can not leam to speak Tzotzil (Vogt, 1976:50). 

Highland com, having smaller ears and round kernels, is 

preferred by ladinas, who pay one more peso per kvarto for it 

than for lowland com. It is preferred by ladinas and some 

Zinacantecs for com gruel, but Zinacantecs maintain that it is 

inferior to the flat-kernelled lowland com for tortillas as 

tortillas made of highland com do not puff up, they are crumbly 

or rubbery, and stick to one's hands when hot. Highland com is 

said to be "women's com," as it grows by the house and is often 

harvested by them. It is also said to be for com on the cot)—a 

snack rather than a staple. It is heavier to carry than lowland 

com as the kernels are larger. Even lowland seed com is flailed, 

but highland com is often stored on the cob. It suffers less from 

weevils than lowland com. When the cobs of highland seed 

com are shelled, the kernels at the tips are ground and eaten. 

The cobs are tossed in a ravine or far off place so they will not 

be used for toiletry. If they have been stored in the husk, the 

cobs are placed back in the husk and hung from a tree tip down 

or placed in a tree crotch to rest as they are exhausted from 

having bome the com. They should not be burnt or the 

cornfield will turn yellow. If the butt of a corncob stands on end 

a visitor will arrive. 

Com on the cob, whether roasted or boiled, is always eaten 

as a snack. Boiled com on the cob together with tortillas are 

ingredients of the net of fruit presented by the elders to each of 

the scribes on the fiestas of St. Sebstian and St. Lawrence. It is 

an essential grave offering on All Souls' Day. 

If a person is too choosy buying com (smelling it and picking 

out the rotten kernels), or discards com or sour com gruel, steps 

on or bums com, the corn's soul will complain to the Earth 

Lord and to Our Lord. The offender soon will become destitute 

or will be punished in the afterworld. A stingy person will 

suffer the same fate. If the corn's soul departs, then one's 

supply will be exhausted quickly, but if its soul remains, the 

com will last a long time. The corn's soul is male. The swishing 

of com in the com bin indicates that its soul is going to divert 

itself on a Sunday or is leaving permanently because of the 

infidelity of the house owner or his wife. 

In former times, when oxcarts used to pass through Atz'am 

on their way to the highlands, if an ox broke a leg or became 

exhausted it would be sold for 50-60 pesos or exchanged for 

400-800 stalks of com stubble. Com stubble is used to make 

dove traps. Com stubble is used in the highland hamlets for 

fencing and for roofing the shelters built to provide protection 
232 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

from frost. On the Fiesta of St. Sebastian com stubble is piled 

on top of the Jaguar Rock and set afire. The junior Jaguar, when 

impersonating a shaman, carries a com stubble staff. Judas' 

cigarette is made of com stubble. Children place young stalks 

on the fire and then take them out and strike them with a rock 

to produce a loud bang. 

Com leaves are used to wrap tamales (pisil vaj), and to cover 

pumpkin squash, steamed cushaw, and watermelon squash. 

Com husks are used to stopper water gourds, soul-calling 

gourds, and bottles, especially of cane liquor. To test the 

strength of cane liquor a com husk is dipped into it and placed 

over the fire to check the size and duration of the blue flame. 

Com husks are also used to wrap pozol dough and dough for 

tamales. Chamulans occasionally tie up chicken eggs in com 

husk leaves when they bring them to market. 

During the famine of 1915, com tassels were eaten and com 

silk was mixed with com dough to make tortillas. Today it is 

only eaten when it is still moist, in a ball, attached to a young 

ear of com that is roasted. Com silk may be stored in the house. 

It is brewed together with brown sugar for "cold" sicknesses. 

For further medicinal use cf. inojo, mantzanilya. 

Com kernels are used for certain monetary calculations, as 

when the stewards count the value of their chaplets. For the 

communal payment of the San Lucas band at the Fiesta of Our 

Lady of the Rosary in Atz'am the amount owed by each man is 

figured with com kernels: one kernel per individual. If the 

individual is just a boy, who pays a half share, the kernel is cut 

in half. This method was in use in Zinacantan Center about 10 

years ago for all communal payments. The bag of com would 

be delivered to the man in charge, together with the money. 

Should one of the tax-payers die, a kernel was removed from 

the bag. 

If women eat while they are making tortillas it is said that 

their tortilla gourds will never fill up. If there is a lot of com 

smut in the com, this indicates that the women have left the 

griddle on the fire while they are eating. 

A sick person eats only white com, lest he be struck by 

majbenal. Some maintain that all com is "cold," others that 

yellow is "hot." Yellow and white com may be planted in 

adjacent fields. They produce equally well (with the same 

percentage of rotten kernels). Some prefer yellow com for com 

gruel as it requires less sugar. If white com must be used, then, 

brown sugar may be added to provide the proper yellow shade. 

Three ears of yellow com may be used in the "flower water" for 

bathing newborn babies. Cf. antzil aj, yich'ak mut. Black com 

is only used at ceremonial meals when necessary and never at 

an important meal. When Christ was crucified he wiped his 

wounds with white com and it turned red. According to another 

tradition Thunderbolt offered his daughter to a man, Kusum, 

but when they were in the cornfield harvesting their com he 

quarreled with her and struck her. She wiped her bloody nose 

with an ear of com and so there is red com to this day. Red com, 

xch'ich'el jch'ul-tottik, "Our holy Father's blood," is the soul 

of a cornfield. It acts as guardian of the soul of the cornfield. 

Though some say it is tastier, it is never used in ceremonial 

meals. It is considered to be good for pozol. Chickens will not 

touch red kernels, as they know it is Christ's blood. To reduce 

fever, a shaman may grind 13 kernels, mixing the powder with 

water for an infusion. A little white salt may be added. This 

same infusion may be taken for majbenal, measles, nausea, 

and diarrhea (xenel ch'utul). Red com is never sold. 

When a soul has been lost, the shaman buries 13 kernels of 

each of the four colors, together with 13 black beans at the 

place of soul loss. 

Com should not be planted on Sunday or the dogs will have 

a holiday and eat it, nor should it be planted during Holy Week 

or it will be infested with com smut (the smoke from Judas' 

cigarette). Com should not be harvested on Sunday either for 

that is when the corn's soul is off bathing and diverting itself. 

If the com is harvested and brought inside its soul will remain 

outside and the supply of com will ran out fast. 

To ensure a good crop, four chickens are killed and eaten 

before the com is planted. Their feet are dipped in the seed com 

of each worker. It is recommended to eat birds, iguanas, and 

armadillos, all of which have long toenails. Eggs, snails, or fish 

should not be eaten, lest the roots take their form and be unable 

to withstand the force of a strong wind. However if after eating 

snails you plant three shells in the first three holes the com will 

take root firmly—unless you whistle while planting, calling 

down the wind. 

Com that has been boiled without lime and ground once is 

used to starch and strengthen thread, and to break in new pots. 

Roasted dry com on the cob is used as a starter for chicha. 

Com stalks are split and used as a cover for the bowls of 

pumpkin squash and watermelon squash that are presented by 

the stewards to the sacristans during the Posadas. 

To ensure that com gruel will not be spoiled by a pregnant 

cook all the cooks must bite a piece of brown sugar. 

To rid the cornfield of June bug grabs two burnt fishbones 

are buried together here and there. Another method is to take 

two grubs and place them head to head or one across the other 

and bury them in that position in their tunnel. A third means is 

to take the greasy, old skirt of an old woman and, holding it 

aloft like a flag, walk around the field three times. To rid the 

cornfield of yellowing (uch), three pine tips are planted in the 

field: one in the center and one on each side. 

There is a great variety of methods to prevent raccoons from 

entering the cornfield. A naked boy and a naked girl may walk 

around the edge of the field three times. An adult may scatter 

garlic and tobacco around the edge. The farmer may prepare a 

bed of straw six inches long on each side of the field for 

raccoons, or he may construct a platform in the trees at the edge 

of the field, lie down on it, and call out to the raccoons, "Let's 

sleep together!" 

The ring-necked coffee snake, ik'al jchabajom chon, black 

com farmer snake, and the banded coffee snake, k'anal 

jchabajom chon, yellow com farmer snake, are believed to 

care for the fields of com sharing their color. To kill one of 
NUMBER 35 233 

these snakes is to risk having your field destroyed by wind. 

To prevent wind damage, a strip of the palm fronds 

distributed on St. Peter Martyr Day is tied to the com plants at 

the four comers of the field. To drive away the wind, the farmer 

may spit tobacco, cigarette tobacco, and/or cane liquor at it in 

a high wind, the owner may call out, "Tzotzan me kunen chob 

mu me xalomik un!" "Be strong my little com plants, please 

don't fall down." 

When com is stolen from a field, the owner may make a 

cross of the com stalks that have been stripped of ears and stand 

it in the center or in a comer of the field so that Our Lord will 

punish the thief with poverty and death. The same effect may be 

produced by drawing a cross on the thief's footprints. However, 

everyone is given an allowance of three ears of com that may be 

snitched. 

To prevent com from being eaten by weevils, three small 

shot glasses of cane liquor should be poured in the shape of a 

cross on the top of the com bin. 

To prevent tamales (chenek'ul vaj, pisil vaj) from being 

spoiled by a pregnant cook, she must put three tamales in the 

pot first before anyone else puts them in. If a pregnant woman 

has not done so and the tamales do not cook properly, then she 

must stick her tortilla cloth or table cloth in the pot. 

When a young man plants prickly pears, pears, avocadoes, 

apples, apricots, quinces, white sapotes, cypress, juniper, pine 

or oak trees, he should plant 13 kernels of white com next to the 

roots as an offering to the Earth, lest the planter die. When a 

fiance' pays a visit to his fiancee on or around the fiesta of St. 

Lawrence, his father carries a small net of food to present to her 

father. On the bottom are placed 10 boiled ears of com in pairs, 

alternately pointing left and right. On top of these are placed 20 

oranges, and on the very top 10 plantains. 

For com divination (k'el-'ixim) 13 kernels are removed 

from one big ear of each color. They are put in a bowl of water. 

Each kernel that rises represents a part of the soul that has been 

lost (except for those that float right side up, -nujul). If the base 

of the kernel is on top—javal—then the patient fell in a 

stream—tz'ajem ta vo'. If the kernel is lying on its 

side—tz'e'el—then he fell on the path, was scared by a snake 

or by the tutelary gods. After the divination the kernels are 

placed in the gourd for calling the soul. After the soul has been 

called, the kernels are ground, toasted, and eaten by the patient. 

The four ears of com are placed at the head of the bed and 

remain for three days till the flowers are removed and put in the 

crotch of a tree at the nearest shrine. 

Mothers chew tortillas and give the chewings to babies that 

are just beginning to eat solid food. 

Three tortillas a day are fed to one's dog. Cats are fed com 

that has been ground once. Chickens, turkeys, and pigs are 

given com daily. Horses that race at the Fiesta of St. Sebastian 

and the Fiesta of St. Lawrence are given a fi liter of com early 

in the morning. Pack horses are fed a quart at dusk, and at 

midnight or at dawn. The gods and the dead are fed tortillas in 

the form of wax candles. 

To trap mice and field rats for eating, a toasted com kernel is 

tied to a string beneath a deadfall. To attract his prey, the hunter 

chews several toasted kernels and spits them out around the 

trap. 

On All Saints' Day Eve, the Stewards of St. Anthony 

distribute com gruel and one ear of com to each person present. 

If a person eats com on the cob that has had com smut rubbed 

off or if the ear has sour undeveloped kernels, then he will be 

unable to take a trip, postponing it at the last moment again and 

again for three days. Should a person eat com on the cob with 

the husk still attached he is liable to be the target of someone's 

angry words. 

A tortilla sticking to the griddle indicates that the cook will 

be falsely accused. 

If com gruel is touched with the finger when cooking, it will 

curdle. 

Com will provide a good yield if dirt is rubbed on one's 

hands right after a gopher has left its burrow. But eating a jesus 

christ lizard will prevent one's cornfield from growing. 

When harvesting the com, ears that are stunted, half-grown, 

with very thin kernels are selected out, boiled, and eaten on the 

cob or fed to the chickens. 

Three kinds of ears of com are considered to be of good luck 

and are stood up next to the com bin cross. Mayol, "its father," 

or tot ixim, "father com," or chib lotol, "paired," has two or 

three separate husks growing from the same node. Sme', "its 

mother," or me' ixim, "mother com," has two or three tips on 

one ear. It is eaten on St. Lawrence's Day. 

Another form, chikin t'ul, "rabbit ear," a very large ear in 

the ajan stage with its upper leaf sheath spreading to suggest 

rabbit ears, is considered by some to be good luck. Others say 

it frightens and chases people. 

Bad luck is assigned to a variety of malformed ears whose 

names often overlap: jov-ch'ut, "split belly," referring to an ear 

with several rows lacking kernels, pik'-ch'ut, "toothless 

belly," lacking kernels in the center of the row, xcha'al, "its 

metate," lacking kernels in one row, jjuch'nom, "grinder," 

lacking kernels at far end or with split cob, joj, "raven," split 

cob. When found at the harvest after the kernels are removed 

they are all broken. The "grinder" is thought to grind up all its 

companions and so is "killed." The "raven" is said by some to 

be a sign that one's com will be stolen, others split the cob in 

two so that its "beak" will not be able to eat the com. 

Young com plants are scratched up by raccoons, pacas, black 

robins, common bobwhites, yellow-throated brashfinches, and 

especially by red-eyed towhees and great-tailed grackles. Ripe, 

but not dry, ears of com are eaten by dogs, coatis, raccoons, 

deppe's squirrels, unicolored jays, steller's jays, green jays, 

red-shafted flickers, orange-fronted parakeets, and great-tailed 

grackles. Dry ears of com are eaten by coatis, collared 

peccaries, white-lipped peccaries, common ravens, red-shafted 

flickers, and great-tailed grackles. Magpie jays are renowned 

for entering fieldhouses to steal tortillas and com dough that 

have been hung from the rafters. 
234 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Cutworms and webworms are believed to fall from the sky 

on hazy, sunny days in the lowlands, like drizzle. Some say that 

they are more prevalent where grass rather than broad-leaved 

plants grow. Com earworms appear in the cobs of both lowland 

and highland com, "like the worms in our teeth" (cavities). 

They are roasted in the coals and eaten. 

To cure a dog of a severe cough, a collar of burnt corncobs 

cut into pieces is hung around its neck. 

To cause measles to erupt, the patient drinks the "medium" 

water from com that has been boiled without lime (bul jux) and 

dyed red with the fruit of vo'ox. As a remedy for athlete's foot 

(xk'a' sk'al koktik), com dough is pushed between the toes 

with a stirring rod. Com dough and white salt is given to sheep 

to reduce swell head. The scraps of dough that have fallen onto 

the metate platform may be rubbed on a bum to reduce the pain. 

Com on the cob is covered with com husks when boiled to 

keep in the steam. 

A person suffering muscular pain (a knot in the thigh after 

cutting one's leg) sprays salt water on his thigh and ties one leaf 

of com husk around each toe. 

Two corncobs may be placed on a woman's belly after 

childbirth. 

Corncobs are used for bottle stoppers and for toiletry, as well 

as for rubbing the bristles off a slaughtered pig's hide. They are 

used for fuel when roasting watermelon squashes and pumpkin 

squashes in a pit, but if a corncob bums on the hearth one's 

child will become a snuffler. They are also used to fertilize 

unproductive cornfields. During major fiestas boys snatch up 

the discarded corncobs for missiles. Corncobs are ground and 

burnt and the powder used for gunpowder. The smoke of 

burning corncobs is an effective means for removing wasps 

nests from one's house. The powder of dried com smut is used 

to stanch a cut. 

When forests were still abundant, Zinacantecs preferred to 

fell the trees to make their milpas, for not only was the soil 

more fertile, but no weeding was required for two years. The 

large trees would be felled in December, leaving the smaller 

ones until after the Fiesta of St. Sebastian (January 18-23). 

Heavy second growth will bum properly, but will produce a 

good com crop for only one year. The next year the underbrush 

is too thin to bum well, and even with weed-killer will not 

produce. It takes four years for the undergrowth to become 

heavy again. 

Flat land is also preferred for cornfields because the compost 

is not washed away and the field may be planted for eight years, 

but it is risky, for if the rains are heavy the com roots will rot. 

The best compromise is a gentle slope, not too steep or flat and 

not stony. If the slope is steep the compost may be leached in 

two years. For this reason a steep slope is better for farming if 

it is rocky, as the rocks keep the compost in place. Typically 

rocky and steep, most temperate fields must be cleared with a 

billhook rather than a machete. 

In the highlands a strip two arm lengths wide is cleared 

around the field to keep animals out. Highland fields and 

temperate fields not littered with rocks are hoed prior to 

planting. 

When selecting seed com, all healthy kernels of the highland 

com, except those at the tip, are used. Because lowland com is 

flailed no such distinction is made. Seed com may be taken to 

the Church of St. Lawrence on Easter to be blessed. 

Highland fields can be planted for 5-6 years, then left fallow 

for 2-3. However, if the farmer moves his sheep corral around 

on the highland slopes he may plant his land for 15-16 years, 

leaving it fallow for 1-2. When the field is "resting," batz'i 

saju', chichik'uy, and poxil yayijemal grow on it. Temperate 

fields produce well for two years, then are allowed to rest one 

year before producing well for another two years, but some 

allow their fields to rest for as long as eight years. Lowland 

fields produce well for three years. 

A very few Zinacantecs have access to lowland riverside 

plots, where they plant in mid-November. No beans are planted 

with the com, but sand-loving plants such as melons, 

water-melons, tomatoes, and chilies may be associated. The 

ground is watered after the weeding, once a week. The 

irrigation is done communally, sometimes by ladinos and 

Zinacantecs together. The field must be watched or the com 

will be stolen by parakeets and grackles. The harvest is in 

March. The land may be used every year. 

When planting, 4-6 kernels are placed in each hole, 4-5 

sandal lengths apart. Planting begins first in Selva on die slopes 

of Muk'ta Vitz on 1 March, next in Naben Chauk on March 10, 

in San Mikulax on 19 March, and in P'ij on 1 April. If rain has 

fallen, planting may begin in early April in the highland 

communities, but usually is delayed until 25 April or the first 

two weeks of May. Temperate communities also begin on 25 

April. In Atz'am, where the soil is drier, planting may continue 

from late May as late as 20 June, depending on the arrival of 

rain, but if planted later, it will be scratched up by grackles, 

towhees, and racoons that have been attracted to the fields that 

were planted earlier. Com is planted in the lowlands from 25 

May to 1 July, except near Concordia, where it may begin in 

April. Seed com may be bought or exchanged often from 

lowland ladinos. 

People are cautioned not to plant com if there is no moon, or 

if the moon is waning, lest the seeds fail to sprout properly or 

the plants become spindly. Nor should one plant from Holy 

Wednesday to Easter, for the pain suffered by the planter will 

be bome by Christ. 

The seed com may be soaked for one night so it will sprout 

in three days rather than five. 

If only 1-2 plants emerge in a clump, 2-4 kernels are added. 

Formerly, when weeding was done by hoe, the fields were 

weeded first in mid-June and again in mid-July. Now 

herbicides have replaced that technique almost everywhere and 

are applied just once. If grass is thicker than broadleaf weeds, 

grass-killer is applied first. The weeding is done working from 

east to west. 

Chemical fertilizer is applied when the com is knee-high and 
NUMBER 35 235 

at weeding time. There are those who claim that after its use the 

land wears out and must lie fallow for four years. Others 

maintain that hybrid com wears out after 3-4 years of use, but 

that the native com loves it, lek xa'i, and grows well, "just like 

a well-fed, well-dressed person." 

When the com is head high the Chamulans hill their com, a 

practice once shared by many Zinacantecs. Now a very few 

continue to hill their com after the weeding so the roots will 

hold firm. 

Much more frequent than hilling is "doubling," but this is 

practiced only by industrious, baxbol, people who care for, 

xk'uxubin, their com. In the lowlands in September, at bean 

planting time, and in the highlands in late November, the stalk 

is bent over at the halfway point to reduce moisture damage. If 

the stalk breaks it is hung back up. Care is taken to insert the tip 

under the leaves that are brushed together so that each clump is 

separated from the next. Some assert that doubling should be 

done at full moon lest the bugs hiding under the leaves come 

out to sting workers during the day. 

Highland com is harvested in December and early January, 

except in the northern end of Pat Osil where, as with temperate 

com, the harvest comes in late January, February, and early 

March. Lowland com is harvested from mid-November to late 

February, except near Concordia where it may begin in early 

November. 

Some harvest from west to east so weeds will die and com 

increase. 

In the lowlands the com-threshing floor should be in a wide, 

flat place where a track can reach it. Here the whole group of 

farmers sets up their camp. The com to be eaten or sold is 

flailed before the seed com. Highlanders who raise com on the 

temperate slopes also flail their com for transport home by 

mule. 

Many believe that the com should be flailed when the moon 

is full, lest it be weevil-eaten. If the moon is waning, the com 

is set aside for eating or quick sale. Smoke drives weevils away 

from seed com. Ashes may be added to the bags of com or a 

poison pill wrapped in cloth may be attached to each comer of 

the bag for four days. 

Although the specific names for com may include the 

generic, ixim, they generally do not. 

Specifics: 26. 

In describing the varieties of com, several elements are taken 

into account, some of which are employed as names to 

distinguish those varieties: 

1. cultivated by the ancestors: ba'yi tz'unubil, "first seed." 

2. hybrid: ivriro. 

3. plant size: enano, "dwarf." 

4. time of planting: sakramentual, "Corpus Christi." 

5. place of planting: olon osilal, "lowland," vitztikal, 

"mountain" or "temperate." 

6. speed of growth: kvarentano, "forty days," ba'yi, 

"first," tz'akal, "later." 

7. size of ear: muk'ta, "large," bik'it, k'ox, or chimpo, 

"little." 

8. thickness of cob: jich'il bakal, "thin cob," yijil bakal, 

"thick cob." 

9. shape of kernel: ton, "stone" or "round," or pimil sat, 

"thick kernel," latz or pacha, "flat," ye tz'i', "dog's tooth," 

ch'ix, "spiny." 

10. color of kernel: ik', "black," k'on, "yellow," sak, 

"white," tzoj, "red," k'ob tz'i', "dog's paw," or "spotted," 

pinto, "spotted," xch'ich'el jch'ul-tottik, "Our Lord's blood," 

for any red ear or for white com with streaks of red. 

The major distinction between varieties of com derives from 

a combination of habitat and kernel shape. Highland com has 

round kernels, whereas lowland com has flat kernels. Anyone 

can distinguish highland ears from lowland ears, but temperate 

com, which is a mix of the two, is difficult to identify ex locus 

with ear in hand. 

HIGHLAND 

Highland com plants, except for sakramentual ixim and ye 

tz'i', have downy stalks and round-kemelled ears. 

Specifics: 25. 

a. Bik'it sak, "small white" refers to a variety of races: 

Imbricado mix, Nal-Tel Blanco, Nal-Tel Blanco mixed 

with Oloton, and Tierra Alta Quicheno. The ear has 14 

rows of kernels. 

b. Chix te', "cherry" (chak tojal ixim, tzajal ixim), 

refers to Imbricado mix, Quicheno Rojo, and Nal-Tel 

Rojo. It is grown by a few people in highland and 

temperate communities, away from the house. It is 

very slow-growing, with small ears, providing com on 

the cob for the Fiesta of St. Sebastian (January 18-20). 

There is a danger that it will be damaged by frost. The 

red kernels are produced on 10-14 irregular rows, on 

a thick, hard cob that is especially suited for making 

into gunpowder. 

c. Ik'al ixim, "black com," refers to com of the Negro de 

Chimaltenango race. In highland and temperate communities it is grown by few people and even then will 

produce for a smaller chosen few. It grows to the same 

height as white com (l'/2 m) except in the corral where 

it grows taller. The ear has 10-12 rows of kernels. 

d. K'anal chix te', "yellow cherry" (bik'it k'on, chix te' 

k'on, k'anal chak toj, tz'akal k'on), refers to 

Imbricado mix, Quicheno, Quicheno mixed with 

Nal-Tel. Cultivated in highland and temperate communities, this yellow com has the same properties and 

uses as chix te'. 

e. Muk'ta k'on, "big yellow" (ba'yi k'on, yut mokal 

ixim), refers to Quicheno, Oloton, Quicheno mix, and 

Oloton mix. This com, producing ears with 10-12 

rows of kernels, is ready for harvest in November. 

f. Muk'ta sak, "big white," refers to Oloton, Serrano, and 

Nal-Tel mixed with Oloton. The ear has 12-14 rows of 
236 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

kernels, 

g. Pinto ixim, "spotted com" (k'ob tz'i'), refers to 

Nal-Tel Blanco or Serrano mixed with Negro de 

Chimaltenango. This tall-growing com is planted in 

highland and temperate communities. It is recognized 

to be a crossing of black and white com. The kernels 

are not lined up in straight rows on the thick cob. The 

term k'ob tz'i' is used only in the highlands. 

(1) Ik'al pinto ixim, "black spotted com," refers to 

cobs with just a few red and white kernels. 

(2) Sakil pinto ixim, "white spotted com," has a larger 

proportion of red and white kernels. 

h. Sakramentual ixim, "Corpus Christi com" (ch'ix 

ixim), refers to Imbricado and Imbricado mix. This 

com, with smooth stalks, a very thin cob, and 

irregularly placed long, pointed white kernels, occurs 

now only in Zinacantan Center, where it appears 

sporadically. Formerly it was planted on Corpus 

Christi. It is a fast-growing plant that grows only head 

high. This com is not sold. 

i. Ye tz'i', "dog's tooth" (ch'ix ixim), refers to Imbricado, very similar to Palomero Toluquefio. This com, 

similar to sakramentual ixim, has pinkish cream 

kernels. Its distribution and use are identical to 

sakramentual ixim. 

TEMPERATE 

Temperate com plants have stalks with sparse down, 

j . Vitztikal bik'it k'on, "temperate small yellow," refers 

to Olotillo and San Marceno mixed, 

k. Vitztikal bik'it sak, "temperate small white," refers to 

Nal-Tel Blanco mixed with Dzit-Bakal, Olotillo, 

Quicheno, and Quicheno modified by Teocinte. 

1. Vitztikal muk'ta k'on, "temperate big yellow," refers 

to Comiteco, Quicheno mixed with Teocinte, and San 

Marceno mixed, 

m. Vitztikal muk'ta sak, "temperate big white," refers to 

Nal-Tel Blanco mixed with Dzit-Bakal, Olotillo, and 

Olotillo mixed with Sal-Por. The ears may be very 

large. 

LOWLAND 

Lowland com plants have smooth stalks and flat-kernelled 

ears. 

n. Bik'it sak, "small white," refers to Olotillo mixed with 

Nal-Tel. 

o. Enano, "dwarf," is a dwarf hybrid com bought from 

the government. It grows waist to head high, producing com in 60-70 days. The white kernels are arranged 

in 18-20 rows on a thick cob. Three lonas of ears 

provide 12 almudes of grain. 

p. Ik'al ixim, "black ixim," refers to Negro de Tierra 

Caliente. The com silk is very black; the kernels 

appear in 8-10 rows, 

q. Ivriro, "hybrid," refers to com of the Vandefio race 

that grows 10 feet tall. It is preferred because it gets 

few rotten spots, but it is hard to harvest as the stem 

does not break easily and the husk is hard to pull off. 

(1) Bik'it ivriro, "small hybrid" (ivriro 250), has 12 or 

more rows of white com on a thick cob. 

(2) K'anal ivriro, "yellow hybrid," produces com in 

60 days. 

(3) Muk'ta ivriro, "big hybrid" (ivriro 580), has 

16-17 rows on a thick cob with kernels to the 

very tip. It requires fertilizer. Three lona bags of 

ears provide 12 almudes of grain. 

r. Krema refers to Vandefio mix. The plant grows about 

10 feet tall, the com is bome breast high. The kernels, 

which are yellow with a white end, are placed on 12 

rows on a fairly thick cob. This is a popular variety 

now. 

s. Kvarentano (chimpo, chimpu, kvarentanyo) refers 

to Zapalote Grande. The plant grows head high. The 

ears are bome low on the plant. The white kernels are 

placed in 12-16 rows on a fairly thick cob. The small 

ears are produced in 40 days, but because it ripens 

early no one is in the cornfields to protect it from 

predators and robbers. It has nearly disappeared, even 

though it brings a high price. 

t. Napalu (ba'yi tz'unubil, napalu') refers to DzitBakal, Olotillo, and Olotillo mixed with Nal-Tel. This 

plant, though cultivated from early times, is still 

planted by many people. The plant grows so tall, on a 

thick stalk, and the ears are bome so high mat doubling 

or harvesting must be done by whacking the stalk widi 

a stick and breaking it. Its height and slow growth 

make it susceptible to wind damage. The kernels are 

arranged in 8-16 rows on a fairly tiiick cob having a 

reddish tinge. Three lonas of ears provide 12 almudes 

of grain. 

(1) K'anal napalu, "yellow napalu," has yellow 

kernels. 

(2) K'ox k'anal napalu, "small yellow napalu," has 

small ears of yellow com. 

(3) Sakil napalu, "white napalu," has white kernels. 

(4) Tzajal napalu, "red napalu," has red kernels. 

u. Pacha, "flat" (ba'yi tz'unubil, latz, olotiyo), refers to 

Olotillo. It grows about 10 feet tall. It has a very tiiin 

red cob. This variety, associated with lowland ladinos, 

has nearly disapeared. Three lonas of ears provide 13 

almudes of grain. 

v. Pinto ixim, "spotted ixim," refers to Dzit-Bakal mixed 

with Negro de Tierra Caliente. 
NUMBER 35 237 

w. Rokame (brokame) refers to Olotillo. Because the 

plant does not grow tall it is less susceptible to wind 

damage. The yellow kernels, white at the end, are 

arranged in 10-14 rows on a thick reddish cob. Three 

lonas of ears provide 14 almudes of grain. 

x. Teralenyo refers to Vandefio mix. The kernels, which 

have a white top and a pink cast, are placed on 12 rows. 

This variety is planted by very few people. 

y. Tuspenyo (suspenyo) refers to Vandefio. This com 

grows head high, bearing the com fairly low so that it 

is subject to predation by animals. However, because it 

produces in 90 days, it is preferred for planting with 

bush beans. The white kernels are placed in 14-16 

rows, covered with a tough husk that makes harvesting 

especially difficult. Three lonas of ears provide 12 

almudes of seed. The kernels are heavier than those of 

ivriro and napalu. The seeds, when purchased, are 

painted with poison. The plants require fertilizer. This 

variety, unknown twenty years ago, is planted now by 

many people. 

Three additional varieties, jarocho, povlano, and vajolepena, have not been identified. 

4. Triko (-tik, -altik) (castillan ixim*) is wheat, Tritkum 

aestivum (1-4). Wheat was the major crop in Zinacantan 

during the colonial period, but has not been cultivated here 

within living memory. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan reported: "They sow several 

bushels of wheat, which, if well-cared for will produce over a 

hundred, using 3 or 4 laborers /Chamulans/ who are neighbors 

of the town. They have a competent irrigation system. And one 

small plot that the priest sowed provided 16 bushels from

 3A of 

a bushel—what more can one say!" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 

1797). 

It is grown now by Chamulans, Huixtecs, and Amatenangeros. The seeds may be sown at any time of year. Plants are 

robust annual grasses with terminal spikes. The spikelets are 

about 8 mm long, sessile, and crowded on the rachis, making 

the inflorescence appear cylindrical. The outer glumes of the 

spikelet are very long awned. 

Eaten only in the form of bread, it is not classed as "hot" or 

"cold." 

5. Tukum j'ik'al, "spook's tukum," is sorghum, Sorghum 

bicolor (3-4), a robust annual grass. The inflorescence is a 

compact panicle made up of purplish, ovate spikelets about 5 

mm long. Leaves may be as much as 5 cm wide. This plant was 

introduced probably very early into the New World. Now 

mostly grown for fodder, it was once a major food crop. It is 

cultivated by ladinos in lowland areas. The seeds are planted in 

June with the aid of a digging stick, two to a hole. 

The "cold" grain is rarely eaten, toasted on the griddle. It is 

sold at market. It is also sold by ladinos in a candy confection. 

Extended range: Lasiacis ruscifolia. 

6. Vale'* (-tik, -altik) is sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum 

(3-5), a plant introduced into the New World in the 16th 

Century. It is a tall perennial grass to about 4 meters high with 

a large, silver or pinkish, plume-like inflorescence. The 

nodding branches of the inflorescence are made up of 

individual spikelets, which are 4-5 mm long and have a ring of 

long silky hairs at the base. It is propagated asexually from 

buds at the base of the plant, thus preserving types with 

desirable characteristics. 

Sugarcane is planted by a few people in Santa Rosa and 

many of the temperate communities in May and June, and, if 

irrigation is available, in February and March. A slip 1 m or 

3-4 nodes long is scraped at both ends and planted 30 cm deep 

at an angle, 30-40 cm apart in rows an armspan apart. When 

newly planted, it takes 1 '/2-2 years to produce, and after that, 

yearly. The harvest is from September through December. 

Two sugarcane stalks adom the chapel of Sak Lum on the 

fifth Lenten Friday. Two sugarcane stalks are also provided on 

the eighth Posada by the Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary 

to flank the creche door. They are used similarly in Apas, 

Atz'am, and Sak Lum. Thirty sections are placed in the bottom 

of the net of fruit given by the fiance" to his fiancee. A smaller 

number are included in the net of fruit presented by the elders 

to the scribes on the fiestas of St. Sebastian and St. Lawrence. 

The "hot" stems of sugarcane are eaten raw and roasted. 

They are also used for brown sugar, chicha, and cane liquor. Cf. 

ixim, sakramentual nichim. A charred piece of sugarcane is 

used as a starter for chicha. "Hot" brown sugar and now 

increasingly "cold" refined sugar are used to sweeten coffee, 

pinole, com gruel, and mature squashes. 

Sugarcane is sold at market, particularly before All Souls' 

Day. 

On the Fiesta of St. Sebastian, the entertainers, and at 

Carnival the cantors, serve barrels of chicha to all participating 

officials. During Carnival kids and sometimes older men go 

from house to house at night with pitchers, begging for chicha. 

This chicha is made with pineapples, sugarcane, and brown 

sugar. To drink chicha in one's dream portends a common cold, 

cold "wind" in one's stomach, swollen stomach, or diarrhea. 

Some people credit the birth of cane liquor to the elders who 

decided that chicha was for the hot sun, not for our Lord's 

fiestas. When they invented cane liquor fiestas, at last, they 

were fun (Laughlin, 1977, T98). Others credit the Devil, who 

gave the liquor its strength by pissing around the pot three 

times while Our Lord's back was turned. Then the Devil got 

Him drank on it so His children, unwatched, could learn to 

reproduce. Here is a third version: 

"Drink water!" said (Our Lord). He left water, that's 

what was left long ago. There were no fiestas, no fiesta of 

any kind, none. The musicians drank water, but they didn't 

sing, no, no. There wasn't anything. They just drank water, 

because there was nothing. There wasn't anything, no. 

But it wasn't really Our Lord who came, who knows? 

"What are you doing?" he said. "How come you don't hold 

fiestas?" he said. 
238 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"No, we never hold fiestas, no," they said. 

"How come you don't make a sound, you don't sing?" 

he said. 

"No," they said. 

"Ah!" he said. "But why?" he said. "But how come?" he 

said. 

"But we don't know how to," they said. 

"Ah," he said. "I've come," he said. "I've come to see 

you. I hear the fiesta never makes a sound. I hear there's no 

fiesta at all. How come?" said (Our Lord). "Well," he said. 

"Ah," he said. "Doesn't anyone have any sugar, doesn't 

anyone have any sugarcane?" he said. 

"Of course they do," they said. 

"Ah, well, that's fine," he said. "Calm down then, I'm 

coming, I'll give the orders, I came to see you, too. I came 

to see you. But there's sugarcane somewhere. Have them 

boil it!" he said. "Have them boil it, grind it well, have them 

boil it!" he said. 

"All right," they said. 

Sonofabitch, but you see they followed the orders about 

how to make cane liquor. They obeyed, they boiled it. 

"Is it good?" asked (Our Lord). 

"It's just the same, it's as sweet as it always is, it's as 

sweet as sugar as we say. It's just the same, it's just the 

same." 

"How could that be?" said Our Lord who had come. 

"But why? But what can we do?" he said. 

The devil came, too. That's why if you drink a lot of it 

we say, "The devil is interfering." He came. 

"Well, compadre," they said to each other. 

"How is it, compadre?" said (the devil). "What are you 

doing?" he asked. 

"I'm boiling sugar because I want cane liquor," said 

(Our Lord). 

"How come you all don't know what to do?" said (the 

devil). 

"We don't," they said. 

"Ah," said (the devil). "But wait and see!" he said. "Turn 

your backs for a long time!" they were told. Turn your 

backs!" he said, indeed. 

But he went right away and pissed three times around the 

place where (the sugar) was boiled. When they turned 

around, "Taste it, I guess, to see how it is!" It was cane 

liquor now. It was cane liquor now. "Well, you all drink it, 

I guess," said (the devil). They drank it. Lord! "Drink a 

whole shot, we'll see what it does!" he said. 

Well, they drank. Eh, it warmed up their veins. They 

were happy now. 

Well, give it to your musicians. I guess we'll see what 

happens," he said. They gave it to their musicians. Eh, the 

musicians began to feel no pain now. "That's it, that's what 

I told you!" said (the devil). "I did it by myself," he said. 

Don't you see, god has one word, the devil has the other. 

The devil blessed it. That's the way it was left up to now. 

That's how cane liquor was left. That's why if you drink too 

much, you feel the devil interfering, whether it's because 

we get into trouble from it or beat up someone because of 

it or die from it. But Our Lord and (the devil) talked to each 

other the same way, because they made the good stuff. See 

here, as for cane liquor, wherever you go, where you hear 

there's a fiesta, there's cane liquor, there's a little bit of 

something for us to chat over. 

The perils of cane liquor are dramatically and humorously 

exposed in many tales (Laughlin, 1977, Tl, T87, T127, T141). 

Cane liquor is served at nearly every secular and religious 

celebration, at curing ceremonies, requests for loans, and 

indeed for any request. Its use as a social lubricant in 

Zinacantan has been documented in too many contexts to list 

here. 

When an ensign-bearer enters and leaves office, the 

musicians ask his ritual tutor to spray their instruments with 

cane liquor so that the instruments will not break and will have 

a good tone throughout the fiesta. This is also done at a 

wedding. 

At Holy Cross Day ceremonies the mortar is used as a shot 

glass for one round of drinks so that no accidents will occur. 

It is said jokingly that one can make a nor'easter lift by 

drinking cane liquor. 

Undiluted cane liquor serves as an antidote for black widow 

spider bites. A person who has been bitten may drink as much 

as a quart of cane liquor without feeling the effects of the 

liquor. Cf. kampor. 

Cane liquor, distilled from brown sugar by bootleggers in a 

few hamlets, is sold year round, but it is not considered to 

match the quality of Chamulan cane liquor. A bonesetter sprays 

cane liquor on the leaves used in bone setting. 

When com gruel is made for the stewards royal, publicans, 

ensign-bearers, and elders, a bottle of cane liquor is taken to the 

mill and drank by those men and women who have taken the 

com. When the ground com is mixed with water, three rounds 

of cane liquor are served (at the beginning, middle, and end) in 

a large shot glass to the cooks, and again when the com gruel 

is being boiled. If a cook does not not want to drink the cane 

liquor she may pour it in the com gruel. A pregnant cook 

should drink a shot of cane liquor and take three bites of every 

chunk of sugar she puts in the pot. When the prefects (j'ilvanej) 

arrive they are served a round of cane liquor in a small shot 

glass. 

Three rounds of liquor are also drank by the cooks preparing 

tamales (pisil vaj and chenek'ul vaj) for ritual meal. 

Formerly, cane liquor was a standard gift to the lowland 

landholder whose land was to be rented. 

To dream of drinking cane liquor portends a common cold, 

cold "wind" in one's stomach, or that one's children will get 

sick. Alternatively, it means the dreamer will become wealthy. 

Cf. kokov. 

The leaves are used for horse fodder. 

Specifics: 3: 
NUMBER 35 

a. Sakil vale', "white sugarcane," is a form of sugarcane 

with greenish white stems having only a few reddish 

purple stripes. The stem is generally coarser, tougher 

and the taste harsher than the red type. It has a hollow 

center. This type is grown by ladinos in Pujiltik where 

it is available year round and processed into refined 

sugar and cane liquor. Zinacantecs once worked in 

Pujiltik, but claiming the sugar caused them sickness, 

abandoned their jobs. Another form of white-stemmed 

sugarcane is grown in the temperate hamlets and by 

ladinos in Acala, San Lucas, and Ixtapa. The temperate 

sugarcane has more ribbing. The stem of this form is 

chewed as well as being used for brown sugar, chicha, 

and cane liquor. Sugarcane is sold and resold at 

market, particularly before All Souls' Day. The leaves 

are used for horse fodder. 

b. Tzajal vale', "red sugarcane," is a variety of sugarcane 

with red-purple stems. It is grown in the temperate 

hamlets and by ladinos in Acala, San Lucas, and 

Ixtapa. 

This form, preferred for chewing, is also used for brown 

sugar, chicha, and cane liquor. Sugarcane and sugar is sold and 

resold at market as above. Mothers chew the stems and give 

them to dieir babies when they are just beginning to eat solid 

food. 

c. Vale' j'ik'al, "spook's sugarcane," is a variety of 

sugarcane that grows only a little over 1 m tall. Its stem 

is soft and very sweet. The stem and leaves are tinged 

dark maroon. 

It is planted in the yard in Chikinibal Vo", Jok' Ch'enom, 

Masan, Muk'ta Jok', and Potovtik. The stems are especially 

sweet for chewing, but are not sold at market. 

7. Ximo' (ximo) refers to members of Tripsacum, a 

perennial, tall, clumped grass with an inflorescence similar to 

maize. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i ximo', "genuine ximo'" (xchob antivo), is 

Tripsacum laxum (4-8) and T. maizar (1-3), coarse, 

tall plants to 2 m high. The male portion of the 

inflorescence hangs like a tassel over the dense, hard 

clusters of female flowers. This is an occasional plant 

in grassy, open pine-oak and tropical deciduous forests 

in temperate locations. According to tradition this was 

the ancestor's com, but it was very fussy. Some say 

that it demanded to be weeded three times, others, that 

it complained to Our Lord three times because the 

people stepped on it and did not weed it. Our Lord, 

exasperated, said that there was pardon for the people 

and banished it to the wilds. According to another 

tradition com was turned into ximo' during the Flood. 

The stem can be chewed just as that of com. 

b. Bik'it ximo', "small ximo'" (chak'ak', jobelal 

avarto), refers to the smaller-leaved, more clumped 

plants of Tripsacum: Tripsacum manisuroides (3-5). 

239 

They are usually about 1 m tall. They are sparingly 

branched and have leaf blades 1-1.8 cm wide. The 

inflorescence is a somewhat stiff spike with florets 

sessile or embedded in the rachis. The florets are 

narrowly oblong with acute apices. They occur in 

similar habitats with T. laxum. The people of the 

temperate hamlets cut the stalks with an ax or billhook 

and pound them to make packsaddles. 

"K'ojom Set" 

The "k'ojom set" is a grouping of eight generics, herbs and 

subshrubs with elliptic leaves, mostly pink flowers, and small, 

dark, round fruits. 

1. Akuxa tz'i'lel, "needle plant," refers to Erodium and 

Geranium, closely related plants with divided leaves, pink 

flowers, and 5-parted fruits with an elongate, stylar column. 

It is likely that one of the following plants corresponds to 

alfilerillo, cited by the priest of Zinacantan in 1797 as a remedy 

for quinsy or tonsilitis "which is epidemic from time to time 

among the children here" (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'ox akuxa tz'i'lel, "small needle plant" (akux 

tz'i'lel, akuxa jabnal, akuxa tz'i'lel, jich'il akuxa 

tz'i'lel), refers to Erodium ckutarium (4-6) and E. 

moschatum (1-3), herbs with pinnately divided 

opposite leaves and the style column 2-3 cm long. The 

flowers are small, pink, with five petals about 7 mm 

long. They are scattered weeds of disturbed ground in 

the highland hamlets. 

To dry out a boil (chakal), the plant is brewed and the "hot" 

water used to bathe the boil. The leaves and fruits are put over 

a fire and the smoke used in the cure for k'asel. 

Extended range: Akhemilla pectinata, A. sibbaldiaefolia, 

and Lamium amplexkaule. 

b. Muk'ta akuxa tz'i'lel, "large needle plant" (akuxa, 

tzajal pox), is Geranium goldmanii (4-6), a sprawling 

herb with magenta flowers, with five petals, 10-15 

mm long, and a stylar column less than 1 cm long. The 

leaves are orbicular or triangular in outline, palmately 

divided to the base. The leaves, petioles, and stems are 

softly pubescent. It occurs on rocky slopes in pine-oak 

forests of temperate and highland hamlets. 

As a remedy for barrenness, women take a "hot" tea of the 

root. For other uses cf. k'ox and sakil akuxa tz'i'lel. 

c. Sakil akuxa tz'i'lel, "white needle plant" (kajtzanob 

bek'et, poxil yayijel, tzajal tz'i'lel), is Geranium 

seemannii (10-11), a thinly branched herb with 

palmately divided leaves, the stylar column less than 1 

cm long. The flowers are white or pale lavender with 

five petals, 7-10 mm long. This herb is very common 

in disturbed areas and second growth in temperate and 

highland hamlets. When termed tzajal tz'i'lel it is 

classed as sme', "female," to distinguish it from the 
240 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"male" form, otherwise known as yich'ak ch'o. 

To stanch wounds, the root is dried on the fire, pulverized, 

and the powder applied. As a remedy for swelling, the root is 

boiled and the patient bathed with the "hot" water. For other 

uses cf. k'ox and muk'ta akuxa tz'i'lel. 

2. Chintuli' jobel, "bobwhite grass," is Plantago linearis 

(1-2), a caespitose herb of rock outcrops in highland areas. The 

inflorescence and flowers are much like P. australis ssp. 

hirtella and P major (see yak' tz'i). The leaves are numerous 

and linear, 5-15 cm long, 1-2 mm wide. 

The leaves are brewed and the "hot" tea drunk to soothe 

stomach pains (k'ux ko'ontik). 

3. K'ojom (tik) (ch'upak' tz'i'lel, k'ojom jobel, poxil 

chuvaj, poxil sep') is Ranunculus petiolaris (5-7), a perennial 

herb with palmate, basal, divided leaves and a loosely branched 

inflorescence with bright yellow flowers, 17-25 cm across. 

The fruit is an aggregate of black achenes about 2 mm long, 

each with a slender curved beak. It is common in meadows and 

in the grassy understory of pine-oak forests in highland 

hamlets. 

As a remedy for mange, the "hot" leaves are crashed and 

applied to the affected part, or the leaves are first toasted and 

ground into powder. The mange is bathed with k'ox pak' chak 

tea and the powder rubbed on. As a remedy for tarantula bite, 

the plant is boiled together with ch'upak' joj and the bite 

bathed with the liquid. For further medicinal use cf. arvajaka 

tz'i'lel. 

Extended range: Bletia reflexa and Micropleura renifolia. 

4. Poxil chuvaj, "madness medicine" (yaxal nich tz'i'lel in 

part), refers to Poly gala chiapensis (1-4) and P. costaricensis 

(2-5), perennial herbs with alternate elliptic leaves from 2.5-6 

cm long and terminal racemes of blue or lavender flowers. The 

flowers are irregular in shape, resembling pea flowers, 5-11 

mm long. The fruit is a flattened, oval pod. They occur in 

brushy second growth, thom woodland, and tropical deciduous 

forest in lowland and temperate areas. 

To cure madness, the plant is burned over the fire while the 

patient is forced to inhale the smoke. If this is not effective, the 

patient is held down and warm water, in which the plant has 

been crashed, is poured in his nostrils. It is a "hot" cure. 

Extended range: Monnina chiapensis. 

5. Poxil pat ka', "mule's back medicine" (ch'ail pox, 

pimenta tz'i'lel, pox ka', poxil sim-nak'al), refers to 

Psychotria erythrocarpa (6-7), soft-wooded shrubs to 2 m tall 

with opposite glossy, elliptic leaves pubescent beneath, 3-8 cm 

long, and terminal cymes of small, white flowers and small, 

fleshy, red or black fruits. Each fruit contains two ribbed seeds, 

6-8 mm long. They are common elements in second growth 

and in the understory of tropical deciduous forests of lowland 

and temperate areas. 

To cure pack sores, the leaves are burned on the griddle and 

pulverized. The "hot" powder is applied to the sore. Alternatively, the leaves may be brewed and the water applied to the 

sore. As a remedy for stomach ache, "white" dysentery, 

swollen stomach, and nightmares, the plant is brewed and the 

"hot" tea drunk. 

Extended range: Psychotria pubescens. 

6. Poxil sep', "mange medicine" (ch'ail jobel, k'ox klavel, 

poxil chakal, tzuk' ch'en), is Pinaropappus spathulatus var. 

chiapensis (3-5), a caespitose herb with long, linear leaves and 

scapose, pink flowers in a head, similar to a dandelion flower. 

It occurs on rock outcrops in pine-oak forests of the highland 

and temperate hamlets. 

To cure mange, the "cold" leaves are smashed to a paste and 

rubbed on the affected area. The leaves may also be brewed and 

the water used to bathe the affected area. The leaves may be 

either boiled or crashed in cold water as a "cold" remedy for 

both mange and fingernail distress (unen k'obol). 

7. Poxil yerva, "tarantula medicine," is Elytraria imbrkata 

(3-5), a wiry-stemmed herb with basal, elliptic pubescent 

leaves, 3.5-15 cm long, and compact, terminal spikes of small, 

ephemeral blue flowers, 3-6 mm long. The peduncles are 

covered with small lanceolate, imbricate bracts, which continue 

into the inflorescence. It is a common plant in disturbed and 

second growth situations and in the open understory of tropical 

deciduous forest in the lowland and lower temperate areas. 

To cure horses that have been bitten by a tarantula, the entire 

plant is brewed together with sakil sal-te'. The "hot" tea is 

given to the animal to drink once. As a remedy for snakebite, it 

is brewed with the roots of koko'on and of kururin and drank 

once. To ease pain in the legs (k'ux koktik), the patient's 

family cuts a small bunch and boils it and, when it is warm, 

bathes the affected part. 

8. Yok' tz'i', "dog tongue" (-tik) (chikin chij, Ian te' 

tz'i'lel, poxil k'ok', poxil majbenal, poxil sep' in part, yok' 

tz'i' tz'i'lel), refers to Plantago australis ssp. hirtella (8-11), 

and P. major (1-2), caespitose herbs with parallel-veined 

leaves and small flowers in a dense spike. The flowers are 

4-merous with brownish membranous petals about 1-2 mm 

long, densely crowded on the elongated spike. The leaves are 

basal, elliptic, 1.5-3.5 cm wide in P. australis ssp. hirtella and 

broadly ovate, 4-8 cm wide in P. major. These are very 

common plants in grassy, disturbed areas in the highland 

hamlets. 

To reduce the heat of majbenal, six leaves are crushed and 

mixed with cold water. A half cup of the "cold" infusion is 

drunk once in the morning or afternoon. A "cold" tea serves the 

same purpose and is also a remedy for measles. To relieve 

heartburn (me'-vinik), the plant is crashed in cold water and 

the "cold" infusion drank. As a remedy for mange, a small 

bunch is crushed and bound to the affected part once daily for 

three days. As a remedy for mumps, three leaves are bound to 

the neck. To lessen muscular reflex pain (nelub), a leaf is 

bound to the affected part: neck, arm, hand, or thigh. It is also 

used to remove boils (chakal). The leaves are pulverized and 

administered to stanch cuts. 

Extended range: Ruellia nudiflora. 
NUMBER 35 241 

"Moy Set" 

The "moy set" is a group of five generics, soft-wooded 

shrubs and coarse herbs mostly with trumpet and bell-shaped 

flowers and elliptic, softly pubescent leaves. 

1. Kampana nichim, "bell flower," refers to plants with 

trumpet- or bell-shaped, white or red flowers. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Batz'i kampana nichim, "genuine bell flower" (kampana), is the single-flowered Datura Candida (6-8), 

large, soft-wooded shrubs with pendent, elongate, 

white, trumpet-shaped flowers, 15-20 cm long. The 

leaves are alternate, ovate, with an acute or acuminate 

apex, 15-30 cm long. It is classed as "tree." Ladinos 

use the flowers for altar decoration. It is grown in 

many of the temperate and all but one of the highland 

communities. In the highland hamlets a few people 

plant slips in their yards in the rainy season. In the 

temperate hamlets slips are planted in fencerows in the 

dry season. 

The "hot" leaves are applied to a bone break. Children play 

with the flowers. 

b. Bik'tal kampana nichim, "small bell flower" (kampana ch'ulelal, kampana tz'i'lel), is Escobedia 

guatemalensis (5-7), a coarse, brittle-stemmed herb 

with large, axillary, spreading, white flowers, 14-15 

cm long. The calyx is tubular, 5-7 cm long, enclosing 

the lower half of the flower tube. The leaves are 

opposite, distichous linear-lanceolate, 5-15 cm long, 

6-15 mm wide. The roots are thick and bright orange. 

The plant occurs in moist places such as grassy 

seepages and meadows in temperate and highland 

hamlets. 

c. Cha'-koj kampana nichim, "two-tiered bell flower," 

refers to the double-flowered forms of Datura Candida 

(1-1) (see above). Ladinos use the flowers for altar 

decorations. 

d. Sakil kampana nichim, "white bell flower" (k'ox 

kampana nichim), is Bouvardia longiflora (3-8), a 

brittle-stemmed shrub to 1 m tall, with long, erect, 

tubular, white flowers in terminal clusters. The flower 

tube is narrow, 1.5-2 mm wide, 5-7.5 cm long, 

expanding into four elliptic petal lobes about 12-18 

mm long. The leaves are opposite, narrowly ovate, 

2-5 cm long. It occurs in second growth in temperate 

and highland hamlets. 

Children sell the flowers on the roadside. 

e. Tzajal kampana nichim, "red bell flower" (kola 

venaro, tzajal kampana), is the garden hibiscus 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (3-7), a red-flowered shrub 

cultivated in lowland and temperate ladino house 

gardens. The flowers are large and showy with petals 

7-9 cm long and a characteristic column of fused 

stamens exerted from the corolla. The leaves are 

alternate, broadly ovate, coarsely dentate along the 

upper two-thirds of the margins, rounded at the base, 

about 5-10 cm long. It is classed as a "tree." Ladinos 

use the flowers for altar decorations. 

2. Kampana tz'i'lel, "bell plant," refers to coarse herbs 

with large flowers in terminal inflorescences. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'anal kampana tz'i'lel, "yellow bell plant" (kachimpa tz'i'lel), is Ludwigia octovalvis (2-1) and L. 

peruviana (2-2), coarse herbs of wet places with large, 

open, yellow flowers with four spreading petals about 

15-30 mm long. The corolla and calyx are above the 

obpyramidal inferior ovary, which develops into stout, 

many-seeded fruits, which split longitudinally along 

the many small ribs. The leaves are opposite, narrowly 

elliptic to ovate-elliptic, 2-11 cm long. It occurs in 

temperate and lowland areas. 

b. Tzajal kampana tz'i'lel, "red bell plant," is Lonkera 

pilosa (1-2), a thin, brittle-stemmed, sprawling plant 

with capitate clusters of long, orange, tubular flowers, 

4-5 cm long. The leaves are alternate, short petiolate, 

oblong-oval, 3-7 cm long. Those directly below the 

inflorescence are fused into a disc. The fruit is a red 

berry about 7 mm in diameter. It occurs in pine-oak 

and evergreen cloud forests in temperate and highland 

hamlets. 

Extended range: Oenothera kunthiana. 

c. Yaxal kampana tz'i'lel, "blue bell plant" (tz'ubal 

nich), refers to Achimenes cettoana (2-2), A. grandiflora (1-2), A. longiflora (1-2), Ruellia hookeriana 

(1-2), and R. nudiflora (1-2), plants with large, 

terminal inflorescences of trumpet-shaped, bilabiate, 

purple to magenta flowers. They occur on shaded 

banks and along streams in temperate and lowland 

areas. 

3. Malva (kampana nichim, malvarisko, natz' alperes, 

poxil k'ak'et) is Mirabilis jalapa (6-12), the four o'clock, a 

large, soft-wooded shrub grown by ladinos in temperate, 

highland, and lowland gardens and occasionally occuring wild 

in fencerows and on waste ground throughout the townships. 

The tubular magenta, purple, or white flowers occur in terminal 

clusters. The perianth is 3-5.5 cm long. The leaves are 

opposite, broadly ovate or triangular-ovate, 3-12 cm long. The 

capsule is ovoid, about 1 cm long, somewhat wrinkled or 

roughened between the five sutures. 

To heal bums, a bunch of the entire plant is brewed. The 

bums are bathed with the water three times daily until healed. 

The remedy is classed variously as "medium" and "hot." A 

person suffering from a black eye brews three or four tips and 

bathes the braise with the decoction or rubs the flowers on the 

braise. For swelling or when the blood rashes to the heart after 

a person has fallen from a track or been struck by a car, the 

"hot" tea is taken. 

Extended range: Anoda cristata, Bouvardia leiantha, Heli-
242 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

otropium indkum, and Justicia sp. A small bunch of Justkia is 

crashed and applied to bums once daily for three days. It is 

"cold." 

4. Moy (-tik) (bankilal, moy pox, yanal moy) is tobacco 

Nicotiana tabacum (4-6), a rank, viscid, tall, annual plant to 2 

m tall with tubular-salverform pink or white flowers, 3.5-4.5 

cm long and about 2 cm across, arranged in a panicle. The 

leaves are alternate and variable. They may be ovate, obovate, 

or elliptic, sessile and decurrent or amplexicaul. The larger 

leaves are at least 5 cm long. The fruit is a capsule 1.5-2 cm 

long partially enclosed by the accrescent calyx. Zinacantecs 

recognize that seed from the same plant will produce both 

forms. They attribute greater strength to the pink form. 

Tobacco is cultivated in most of the temperate and all but one 

of the highland communities and occurs as an occasional weed 

in rubbish heaps and waste ground. In Zinacantan Center a few 

households keep a plant sheltered under the roof so that tobacco 

leaves will still be available after winter frosts. 

The epic tale of the Zinacantec merchants who used to travel 

to Tabasco to buy tobacco to sell in Guatemala—and their 

fateful reception across the border—is known to all (Laughlin, 

1977, T150). In a lighter vein is the story of the young man 

who, while buying a load of cigars in San Juan el Bosque, won 

a bride for just a liter of cane liquor (Laughlin, 1977, T92). 

Tobacco is considered to be a wild plant, but because of its 

power as a guardian against evil spirits, young plants are 

frequently transplanted to the yard. It is dangerous, however, to 

have tobacco growing too abundantly in one's yard. Its 

excessive heat will cause the household to starve or it will bring 

sickness to the house (spay jchameltik). However, tobacco 

must not be cut down, or its invisible caterpillars (sbuluk' 

satil) will bite the offender when he is walking in thick 

underbrush. The wound will not heal until he eats a mashed, 

green tobacco leaf. 

Tobacco must not be denied to a person who asks for it, nor 

should it be sold, lest it die. It should not be scolded, nor should 

one give thanks for it, lest the person become stupid or die. A 

woman once went to get tobacco for her husband. She said, 

"Thank you," to the first person who sold it to her. Then she 

went to a second person, who gave her some more. She said, 

"Thank you." Now she was scolded for saying that. She was 

told that one must not do that. It was true. She arrived home and 

her stomach swelled up until she died. But if you eat a bit of the 

leaf, that will save you. 

No other plant in the flora of Zinacantan is accorded the 

magical power, both for good and evil, as that assigned to 

tobacco. Although this power is focused on chewing tobacco, it 

is also present in the mere leaf. Tobacco is referred to as 

bankilal, elder brother, as it is the elder brother of Thunderbolt. 

The elder brother scolded Thunderbolt for striking us so much 

and if we rub tobacco on our body we will be safe from 

Thunderbolt. Chewing tobacco may be termed muk'ta mol, 

"great old man," and when specially prepared in a mixture for 

curing poslom it is termed ojov, "lord." 

In preparing chewing tobacco, the leaves are placed in a 

wooden trough or the underside of a log stool set by the front 

door and pounded with a billhook handle. The leaves are 

squeezed by hand to remove the juice, then pounded again 

together with lime and sometimes camphor and orange rind. 

(Camphor is only added if the tobacco is to be used as a 

medicine). The "hot" tobacco is stored in special gourds. It is 

chewed now primarily by old men, but is an essential ingredient 

of many cures, though not used by all shamans. According to 

tradition the value of tobacco was not known by ladinos. Long 

ago when the men went to work in the coffee fincas they took 

their tobacco along with them. They slept together in a big 

room. They left the door open. Those who had tobacco gourds 

put them next to their heads. One night the owner of the coffee 

finca peered in with evil thoughts. He saw flames dancing on 

the ground next to the gourds. He came in and woke the men 

up. "What have you hidden?" he asked. 

"Nothing." 

"What's in the gourds?" 

"Elder brother." 

"Sell me some!" he says. 

"No!" 

Finally they agreed and he bought some, so now ladinos 

know the value of elder brother. 

Long ago a man went to the coffee fincas. He took his 

net along with him to work. He set it down and took out his 

tobacco. He put some in his mouth. 

The owner of the finca saw him. "Why do you eat horse 

shit?" he asked. 

"No, this is medicine." 

The owner said, "No, it's just horse shit." They worked 

until two in the afternoon. The owner went home. He fell 

sick. He felt worse and worse. Then he sent for them and 

begged them to cure him. At last they agreed, on condition 

that he give them two days of rest, because in those days die 

workers weren't paid. They gave him the tobacco to take, 

but in a bowl of urine. After they urged him and urged him 

to drink it, he swallowed it down. He let a big fart and got 

well. He bought their tobacco and respected it from men on. 

Should a ladino foreman on the coffee plantations not let his 

workers rest, they may sprinkle tobacco on his back when he is 

asleep. This will cause him nausea and diarrhea, laying him up 

for a least a day. 

Long ago the Tenejapans were taught by the people of 

Simojovel to protect themselves from the long-haired Lacandon highwayman with tobacco medicine (Laughlin, 1977: 

297-301). Zinacantecs learned that it was protection from the 

ravages of Spooks (Laughlin, 1977:183-186). In these tales 

and in everyday discourse tobacco is shown to have the power 

to stupefy, paralyze, or blind an adversary. To drive a strong 

wind away from the cornfield the farmer may spit tobacco and 

cane liquor at it or sprinkle tobacco on the ground. Shamans 

bury chewing tobacco at the spot where a person has suffered 

soul-loss, to incapacitate the Earth Lord. They also spit tobacco 
NUMBER 35 243 

juice on the ground to scare the witch off, and rub the patient's 

body with tobacco at bedtime. This last may be done by anyone 

who has been frightened during the day. A person who is being 

pursued by a rainbow may protect himself by scattering 

tobacco on the ground. If he meets a snake on the trail he should 

spit tobacco juice at it. To protect his cornfield from the 

depredations of raccoons he should scatter tobacco and garlic 

around it. Cf. chenek'. 

As a remedy for the aching of one's leg or foot that is caused 

by an evil spirit (poslom), blood-letting is followed by 

massaging the limb with a mixture of garlic, tobacco, and 

woman's urine and binding it with the piece of an old skirt. 

More simply, the limb may be bandaged with tobacco leaves 

that have been wilted on the fire or rubbed with a mixture of 

tobacco and camphor. Wilted leaves are also used for 

bonebreaks. Tobacco and camphor may be used for gangrene 

(mos), and applied to mange (sep'.) The "hot" tobacco-garlicurine potion may be taken for constipation or urinary stoppage 

(make!). For painful urination, tobacco may be mixed with 

cane liquor and drunk. 

The remedies are legion: Chewing tobacco is rubbed on a 

snakebite to draw off the poison. To rid oneself of intestinal 

worms, leaves are placed on one's stomach in the shape of a 

cross to turn the worms around (chjoyp'ij o sni'). As a remedy 

for a swollen stomach (pumel), a person may chew the tobacco 

and swallow the juice or rub the juice on his stomach. He may 

also soak the tobacco in water and drink the infusion. To cure 

"wind," chewing tobacco is eaten or mixed with warm water 

and drank. The same warm infusion may be drank to vomit up 

tuberculosis (sak-'obal). As an abortive, tobacco may be drank 

with cold water. The "worm" that causes toothache is killed by 

eating chewing tobacco. Juice from a tobacco leaf is applied to 

the eye if a yellow spot appears on the white of the eye. 

For a stomach ache, tobacco and dried chili may be ground 

and mixed in water. The "hot" infusion is drank. 

For animal ailments the following remedies have been 

reported. A sheep suffering "wind" in its belly has its belly 

rubbed with a tobacco leaf. Alternatively, the leaf is pounded 

and mixed with ashes from the hearth and rubbed on its belly. 

A mule suffering from "wind" in its legs is forced to drink hot 

water or cane liquor in which tobacco has been sprinkled. For 

further medicinal and magical use cf. axux, ixim, k'ox 

yax-chel, lula. 

Extended range: Cerastrium nutans, Martynia annua, and 

Rechsteineria warscewkzii. 

5. Poxil aja-chon, lit. "lordly snake medicine," i.e., "rattlesnake medicine" (chenek' aja-chon, chenek' chon), is 

Martynia annua (3-4), a rank, viscid weed with profuse, white 

and maroon, pendent, tubular-campanulate flowers, 4-5.5 cm 

long, and woody, beaked capsules, 2 cm long. The leaves are 

broadly triangular or broadly angular ovate, cordate at the base, 

palmately veined, 5-23 cm long, 5-22 cm wide. It occurs in 

disturbed areas and waste ground in the lowlands. 

As a remedy for snakebite, the bean is boiled and the tea is 

drunk. 

"Nok'ol Sik'ol Set" 

The "nok'ol sik'ol set" is comprised of two generics. Both 

are parasites and members of the mistletoe family Loranthaceae. They have brittle leaves and/or stems and attach to trees 

by means of a holdfast. 

1. Nok'ol sik'ol, "nok'ol cigarette" (nap'ux te', nop'ol 

sik'ol). 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Nok'ol sik'ol, "nok'ol cigarette," refers to Phoradendron annulatum (3-6), P. fakatum (2-3), P. nervosum (4-10), P. quadrangulare (1-2), P. robustissimum (1-2), Struthanthus deppeanus (3-5), and S. 

tacanensis (2-6). These are coarse parasites, often 

forming vine-like mats over the host trees. In 

Tenejapa, S. intermedius Kuijt ined. is a pest, often 

killing or seriously affecting the production of oranges 

and other citrus trees. In Zinacantan it is noted on 

peach trees and chikin-ib. The plants have leathery, 

lance ovate leaves and small flowers in axillary spikes 

or clusters. The fruit is a muscilaginous berry. These 

plants are common in forests and on cultivated trees 

throughout the township. Struthanthus is classed as a 

"vine." 

The name of these plants is derived from the way they stick 

to a tree as a cigarette does to one's mouth. At the time of the 

Flood the monkeys were transformed into mistletoe. 

For a bone break three leaves are bound to the break for three 

days. For this purpose, Struthanthus is classed as stot, "male," 

and Phoradendron, sme', "female." The former is considered 

to be more potent. As a remedy for whooping cough, the leaves 

are brewed with tzon-te'al krus, for a "hot" tea. The leaves are 

also used in the "steam cure." 

Extended range: Aristolochia maxima and Psittacanthus 

calyculatus. 

b. Nok'ol sik'ol j'ik'al, "spook's nok'ol cigarette," is the 

common lowland parasite of tree legumes and other 

plants Psittacanthus calyculatus (4-10). It is a coarse 

plant often as large as the trees that it parasitizes. The 

flowers are red-orange and 6-10 cm long, and make 

large displays on the host. The petals are linear, long 

and narrow, fused into a tube at the base but spreading 

above. The stamens are long and exerted from the 

corolla. The leaves are opposite, coriacious, lanceolate 

to oblong, 6-15 cm long. It is classed variously as 

"plant" and "vine." 

2. Yikatz toj, "pine's burden" (k'anal nok'ol sik'ol, 

nap'ux te', tzon-te'al toj), is Arceuthobium globosum (4-8), 

a leafless parasite on pines. They are small, much-branched and 

have jointed stems and connate scales instead of leaves. It 

occurs in the higher elevation pine forests. 

As a remedy for whooping cough, a "hot" tea may be 

prepared. The plant is also used in the "steam cure." 
244 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Pak' Chak Set" 

The "pak' chak set" is comprised of five generics, 

small-flowered, leathery-barked, wiry-stemmed, weedy herbs. 

1. Pak' chak, (pak' chak abnal*) refers to Malva and 

Kearnemalvastrum, herbs with soft, pubescent, large, ovate 

leaves. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'ox pak' chak, "small bottom patch" (tz'oban 

tz'i'lel), refers to Malva nicaeensis (4-6) and M. 

parviflora (6-8), common weeds of waste ground, 

roadsides, and yards in the highlands. The leaves are 

round-reniform, shallowly lobed, palmately veined, 

long petiolate, 1.5-2.5 cm long in M. nicaeensis, 2-7 

cm long in M. parviflora. The flowers are pink, 

lavender, or white, 8-10 mm broad, and are arranged 

in axillary clusters. The fruit is disk-shaped, made up 

of many joined carpels, and resembles a wheel of 

cheese. 

To relieve constipation, a small handful of tips is brewed. 

One cup of the "hot" tea is drank before breakfast and in the 

afternoon. The same tea is taken for diarrhea caused by worms, 

provoking the patient to vomit them up. The liquid is used to 

bathe the patient afterwards. The "hot" leaves are brewed and 

the decoction used to bathe festering cuts. The leaves may be 

applied to bone breaks or ground into powder to stanch 

bleeding. For further medical use cf. k'ojom, poxil yayijemal. 

Extended range: Anoda cristata, Modiola caroliniana, and 

Sida rhombifolia. 

b. Muk'ta pak' chak, "large bottom patch" (mol pak' 

chak), is Kearnemalvastrum lacteum (4-8), a tall, 

tough-stemmed, branched herb to 2 m high with 

clusters of small white flowers. The leaves are 

palmately 3- to 5-lobed, 3-5 cm long, 3-13 cm wide, 

and softly pubescent above and below. It is a common 

plant in disturbed situations, roadsides, and waste 

ground in the highlands. 

The leathery bark is used to secure the rock in a deadfall for 

rats. 

2. Pem-k'ulub, "pern grasshopper," refers to Verbena, 

Crusea, and Borreria. These have thick, opposite leaves with 

impressed nerves, square stems, and terminal, white or pale 

blue flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i pem-k'ulub, "genuine pern grasshopper" 

(bik'it pern- k'ulub, sakil pak' chak), refers to 

Verbena Carolina (6-7) and V. litoralis (4-5), 

branched herbs with small flowers in terminal spikes. 

The leaves are opposite, elliptic to narrowly obovate 

with serrate margins and prominently veined beneath, 

1.5-8 cm long. Verbena Carolina generally has 

smaller leaves than V. litoralis. The inflorescence and 

flowers of both are similar. They may be blue, 

lavender, or white, 1.5-3 mm long, and are crowded 

into terminal spikes. These are common in disturbed 

areas and waste ground as well as the understory of 

pine-oak forest in temperate and highland hamlets. 

As a remedy for madness (chuvaj), a small bunch is brewed. 

A spoonful of the "hot" tea is forced down the patient's nose 

once a day for three days. The parents of a child that throws 

tantrums crash a handful of the plant in cold water, or brew it. 

The child is forced to drink a cupful of the "cold" liquid so that 

he will vomit his evil. As a remedy for anger (k'ak'al o'onil) 

the plant is crashed and then mixed with cane liquor. It is 

"cold." As a remedy for malaria, the plant is brewed to provide 

a "hot" tea. The same tea may be taken for diarrhea. If it is for 

worms it is sweetened with brown sugar. The leaves may be 

ground and the powder applied to a wound to stanch bleeding. 

The "hot" leaf is also applied to a bone break. 

Extended range: Buchnera pusilla, Salvia misella, S. 

rep tans. 

b. Sakil pem-k'ulub, "white pern grasshopper" (k'ox 

jabnal, poxil k'ux k'abil, poxil makel, poxil tza'nel, 

xanxan, xanxanil be), refers to Borreria laevis (3-5), 

Crusea calocephala (1-2), and C. parviflora (1-3), 

small-branched herbs with white or lavender flowers in 

head-like clusters, which may be terminal or axillary 

and always closely subtended by two or four leaf-like 

bracts. The leaves are opposite, narrowly elliptic to 

narrowly obovate, widely spaced on the stems, 11 cm 

long or less. The flowers are funnelform, very small, 

about 2-15 mm long. The heads and flowers are much 

larger in C. calocephala than C. parviflora and B. 

laevis. The heads are 1.5-2.5 cm broad in C. 

calocephala and 7-13 mm broad in C. parviflora and 

B. laevis. They occur in disturbed situations, such as 

cornfields and roadsides in the temperate and highland 

hamlets. 

As a remedy for constipation and urinary stoppage a "hot" 

tea of B. laevis is taken. To cure diarrhea, a bunch is brewed 

together with the roots of krus jobel. A half cup of the "hot" tea 

is taken twice a day. Borreria laevis is brewed and the "hot" 

liquid used to bathe a tarantula or a snake bite. The leaf of 

Crusea sp. is brewed and the "hot" tea taken to relieve painful 

urination. As an antidote for jimson weed poisoning, the leaf of 

B. laevis is ground on a stone and mixed with water, which is 

administered to the poisoned dog. 

3. Poxil jolol, "hair medicine" (sat mes poxil ka', tz'itesob 

jolol), is Anoda cristata (6-5), a lavender-flowered herb 

common in disturbed ground such as cornfields and places 

around habitations at all elevations. The flowers are terminal or 

axillary, with five lavender petals, 2-2.5 cm long, and a 

column of fused stamens in the center. The leaves are alternate 

and triangular with two or four triangular lobes at the base. The 

fruit is a pubescent star-shaped disk, about 1.5 cm across, made 

up of fused carpels. It is subtended by the accrescent 5-lobed 

calyx. 

To induce their hair to grow longer, women grind the tips of 
NUMBER 35 245 

the plants on a rock and mix them in cold water, bathing their 

hair with the "cold" infusion. 

4. Sat mes, "sat broom" (-tik), refers to Sida, Waltheria, 

Melochia, and Turnera. These are superficially similar, stiff, 

erect plants, all occurring in disturbed situations as in yards, 

along roadsides, waste ground, or fallow fields. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'anal sat mes, "yellow sat broom" (k'anal pak' 

chak, k'ox sat mes), refers to Sida barclayi (12-14) 

and S. rhombifolia (5-7), which together are almost 

ubiquitous weedy herbs, with S. barclayi being 

common in lowland areas and 5. rhombifolia widespread in temperate and highland situations. These 

have small ovate or oblong-ovate leaves on stiff, 

leathery-barked stems, a characteristic that makes 

them very suitable for brooms. They have small, pale 

yellow flowers, 12-18 mm broad, solitary in the axils 

or in groups of two or more. 

As a remedy for falling hair, the plant is mashed and soaked 

for a day, placed outside overnight, and the infusion used as a 

rinse the following day. To burst boils (chakal, vo'an) and kill 

their "animals," the leaves are crashed and rubbed on, 

sometimes with crashed matasano pit and tallow, or the leaves 

may be boiled together with marigold (vo'tus) of any kind and 

die steam applied. This is a "hot" remedy. The plants are cut, 

tied with a vine, and used to sweep the yard, the threshing floor, 

or wherever com is spread out to dry. 

Extended range: Chamaecrista nktitans ssp. disadena var. 

pilosa, C. rufa, Hybanthus verbenaceus, and Marina spiciformis. 

b. Sakil sat mes, "white sat broom" (muk'ta sat mes, 

putzul chij tz'i'lel), refers to Corchorus siliquosus 

(1-1), Melochia tomentosa (1-1), Sida acuta (2-5), 

Turnera ulmifolia (3-7), and Waltheria americana 

(5-10), plants with gray, soft, pubescent leaves and 

pale yellow or white flowers that are much more bushy 

than those of k'anal sat mes. They occur in second 

growth of temperate and lowland regions. 

As a remedy for horses suffering diarrhea, the plant is 

brewed and the "hot" tea administered. 

5. Xtalaj tz'i'lel, "antlion plant," is Pavonia schiedeana 

(1-1), a stiff herb with pubescent branches, alternate elliptic or 

narrowly obovate leaves, 5-17 cm long, with crenate-dentate 

margins. The flowers are clustered at the end of a long 

peduncle. They are pink or lavender, with five petals, 10-13 

mm long. Its spiny seed, which sticks to clothing, is likened to 

an antlion. This plant occurs in the disturbed understory of 

seasonal evergreen forest of temperate and lowland areas. 

"Petok Set" 

The "petok set" is a grouping of six generics, all cacti. 

1. Chikin ton, "rock ear," refers to three cacti that inhabit 

crevices in rock surfaces. All have young stems covered with 

stiff white spines; however, batz'i chikin ton and muk'ta 

chikin ton mature into flattened, elongate, sometimes spineless 

stems, whereas bik'it chikin ton remains round and covered 

with spines. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i chikin ton, "genuine rock ear" (poxil k'ak'et), 

is Epiphyllum crenatum var. kimnachii (7-6), a 

clustered, pendent orchid cactus with large, white and 

pink trumpet-shaped flowers, 14-20 cm long, and 

flattened, succulent stems with wavy margins. It 

occurs in crevices on sheer limestone cliffs in 

temperate and highland areas. Ladinos use the flowers 

for altar decoration. 

To relieve the pain of a bum, the outer surface of the leaf is 

scraped off and the leaf is rubbed on the bum. This "cold" 

remedy may also be applied for poslom. The "cold" fruit is 

eaten by people and birds. 

b. Bik'it chikin ton, "small rock ear," is Mammillaria 

eriacantha (1-1). These cacti are small, globose or 

short-cylindrical, with watery sap. The surface is 

densely covered with white spines. The spines are 

arranged in clusters with one central stout spine and 

many finer spines radiating at its base. The flowers are 

magenta, about 8-10 mm long. It occurs in crevices in 

limestone outcrops in the highland and temperate 

regions. 

c. Muk'ta chikin ton, "large rock ear" (kola lakarto), is 

Hylocereus undatus (6-8), a terrestrial or epiphytic 

cactus with arching, triangular stems. Each rib of the 

triangle is flattened into a thin, broad, green surface. 

The margins of the stem are wavy with spiny nodes 

2-4 cm apart. The flowers are very large, as much as 

30 cm long, and white. The fruits are 6-12 cm long, 

red, and contain numerous black seeds. It is cultivated 

by lowland ladinos and by Zinacantecs in Kelem Ton, 

Masan, Sak Lum, and Santa Rosa. It is planted in 

Masan in May and June. The "cold" fruit is eaten raw. 

2. Chorisyo ch'ix, "sausage spine" (koryon ch'ix, tzukum 

ch'ix), is Opuntia pubescens, (1-2) a spiny leafless shrub with 

sausage-shaped segments, bearing spines with sheaths that 

make them extremely difficult to remove from the skin. The 

flowers are yellow and occur on the ends of the segments. The 

juvenile segments are reminiscent of a woolly caterpillar. This 

cactus occurs on rocky slopes in thorn woodland in the 

temperate and lowland regions. 

Extended range: Stenocereus eichlamii. 

To relieve the pain of caterpillar stings, the plant is smashed 

and the juice applied. 

3. Ch'ixal amuch, "frog spine" (kola lakarto), is Acanthocereus horridus (2-2), a sprawling, three-sided, succulent 

vine with large clusters of spines to 6 cm long and long, white, 

tubular flowers, 18-25 cm long, and a sweet, succulent, 

spinescent fruit. It is common in lowland second growth and 

primary tropical deciduous forest. It is also planted by ladinos 
246 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

in fencerows. 

4. Ne bolom, "jaguar tail" (kola lakarto, sne bolom, sne 

lakarto), is Selenkereus grandiflorus (3-6), a sprawling 

vine-cactus with ribbed stems, 2-4 cm in diameter, and 

covered with stout, star-shaped spines. The flowers are white 

and very large. The fruit is red or pink, juicy, and covered with 

long, ferruginous hairs. Lowland ladinos plant the stems at an 

angle or lying down in fences. The plants are often epiphytic or 

saxicolous. The fruit that ripens in September is rarely eaten by 

Zinacantecs, who claim it causes malaria. 

5. Petok (-tik, -altik) refers to the erect, shrubby, flatstemmed cacti Nopalea and Opuntia. 

The name petok is explained in this way: 

Clouds (tok) gathered and formed inside a fence long 

ago, leaving behind the prickly pear, but when the people 

tried to transplant it, it would not fruit until they planted 13 

com kernels with it. It was the opossum's and the coyote's 

fruit long ago. They went to get some. Opossum wanted to 

climb up to eat the fruit, but he couldn't because of the 

spines. He's too short, too, to pick them. Then Coyote 

came. They spoke to each other, as we say, "Please pick me 

one of the fruits to eat," said Opossum. 

"Okay," said Coyote. Quickly he stood up to pick it. 

"Open your mouth wide!" Opossum was told. He didn't 

open his mouth. He just caught it in his paws. "And now eat 

it," he was told. They ate and ate them. (Opossum) felt his 

paws itching now, with the spines you understand. 

Opossum's paws certainly itched. Quickly he threw it 

away. He felt bad. 

And then, "Well, why did you throw it away?" asked 

Coyote. 

"As for me, I'll eat it. See, it's good to eat!" said Coyote, 

too. 

He ate again. 

Well, it was that Coyote who finished eating it, because 

it was his fruit long ago. When they finished Opossum said, 

"You trick us." He was squatting there looking at his paw. 

He left. He was distracted by it, he didn't eat the fruit, he 

threw it away. It was Coyote who finished eating it. That's 

the end. Each one went off by himself. That's the story 

about the prickly pear. 

Extended range: Mammalaria sp. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Batz'i petok, "genuine petok" (lo'balal petok), refers 

to Opuntia ficus-indica (3-6), large plants, to 2 m tall, 

with elongate, elliptic, thick , prickly pads, 3-6 dm 

long, and orange or yellow campanulate flowers, 4-8 

cm long, with many white anthers. 

The leaves are planted by a few Zinacantecs in yards and 

fencerows in many temperate and all highland communities. 

Some claim that it is dangerous for young people to plant it. If 

it causes sickness it should be "killed" with a machete. Many 

say that it may be planted throughout the year, though others 

maintain that it will rot if planted in the rainy season. To fruit 

well it should be planted in compost with 13 kernels of 

highland white com or 13 com kernels and 13 highland black 

beans. Cf. ixim. 

As a fixative for whitewash, the leaves are chopped up finely 

and soaked for a day before adding the lime to the water. For 

medicinal use cf. elamonix. The fruits are harvested from late 

August through October. Before eating these "cold" fruits, the 

spines are rubbed off with weeds. 

b. Ik'-lo'an petok, "purple petok," is Opuntia ficusindica (1-3), a large plant, to 3 m tall, with rounded, 

very long, spiny, thick pads and purple campanulate 

flowers. It is cultivated by ladinos in highland areas, 

fruiting at the same time as batz'i petok. 

c. Te'tikil petok, "wild petok," refers to the lowbranched highland Opuntia sp. 640 (1-2), and the 

lowland Opuntia sp., both occurring on exposed, dry, 

rocky slopes. The fruits are eaten by birds. 

d. Tzajal petok, "red petok" (ch'ieb ch'uj*, te'tikal 

petok), is Nopalea cochenillifera (3-5), a tall plant, to 

4 m, with large, flat, pointed pads with small spines. 

The flowers are red and tubular. It is widely common 

in the understory of tropical deciduous forest. Formerly this cactus was grown as it served as a host for 

cochineal bugs, which produced red dye. Lowland 

ladinos and Zinacantecs in many temperate communities commonly plant it in fencerows. The fruits are 

"cold." 

6. Yoyal vinajel, "sky post" (-tik) (orkana), refers to 

Cephalocereus maxonii (3-6) and Stenocereus eichlamii 

(4-7). Both are large tree-like cacti with columnar stems, 

which are 6-10 ribbed. In Cephalocereus the areoles are 

soft-hairy and the ends of the stems are covered with long 

hair-like bristles. Flowers are pink, about 4 cm long. The fruit 

is about 3.5 cm broad and naked except for a few scales. 

Stenocereus is characterized by its brown felty areoles and 

stout spines. The flowers are white fading to red and 6-7 cm 

long. They occur in tropical deciduous forest in the lowlands. 

Ladinos plant them in lowland fencerows. 

It is classed as a "tree." 

"Pimil Anal Set" 

The "pimil anal set" is comprised of seven generics, thick, 

succulent-leaved herbs that are saxicolous or epiphytic. 

1. Pimil anal, "thick leaf," refers to Sedum and Pilea 

mkrophyla. All are leafy-stemmed succulents. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i pimil anal, "genuine thick leaf," is Sedum 

praealtum (1-4), a plant that occurs mostly in 

cultivation or on the roofs of buildings. It is a succulent 

herb with small, sessile, fleshy obovate leaves, 1-2 cm 

long. The flowers are bright yellow with 4-5 petals, 

5-8 mm long, and are numerous in a short-branched 

terminal inflorescence. It occurs in a few locations on 
NUMBER 35 247 

limestone cliffs, where it appears to be in the wild 

state. It is grown in Chaynatik, Joyijel, Petz Toj, and 

Sak Lum, and in all the highland communities. 

A few Zinacantecs grow sedum in their yards. Although slips 

may be planted, it is more common to transplant young plants 

in the rainy season. Compost may be supplied. 

Each steward provides half a large basket of sedum on the 

first Posada to adom the litters of Joseph and Mary and to 

decorate the churches of St. Lawrence and St. Sebastian. A 

small basket is gathered to decorate each steward's altar. For 

the eighth Posada, half a large basket is provided by each 

steward to decorate the creche. The plants are tied in vertical 

strips on the roof, alternating with geraniums and mountain 

palm or holly fem. The elders provide a small basket for their 

Christmas altar. The publicans provide two small baskets to 

adom the Chapel of Our Lord of Esquipulas. They are offered 

in Elan Vo' for the New Year, in Naben Chauk for Epiphany, 

in Atz'am for Monday of Holy Week, in Elan Vo' and Naben 

Chauk for the first Posada. They are widely used to decorate 

hamlet creches. 

To cure fever sores, a handful of the "cold" leaves is chewed 

before breakfast for one to two days, or for nine days. The 

"cold" leaves may be rubbed on the neck as a remedy for 

mumps. A person with a headache may rinse his hair and rub 

the leaves on his head. As a remedy for deafness caused by 

"heat," the leaves are bruised in water and the infusion applied 

to the ear. 

Extended range: Echeveria be I la. 

b. K'ox pimil anal, "small thick leaf," is Sedum 

guatemalense (1-2), a saxicolous and occasionally 

epiphytic herb with very small, succulent, linear 

leaves, 5-14 mm long, arranged along thin stems. The 

flowers are pink or white with petals 5-6 mm long and 

are arranged in a terminal panicle. It occurs in pine-oak 

forest and evergreen cloud forests of the highlands. 

c. Tontikil pimil anal, "rock-growing thick leaf (k'untz'i'lel), is Pilea microphylla (2-4), a very densematting, succulent herb that is common on rocks in 

temperate and highland areas both in forest and 

disturbed situations. The leaves are very small, broadly 

elliptic to broadly obovate, 2-8 mm long, and 

numerous on the slender-branched stems. The flowers 

are minute in tiny clusters in the axils of the leaves. 

Zinacantecs note its appearance after the burning of the 

fields. 

It may be used as a substitute for sedum at Christmas time. 

2. Poxil chin, "exema medicine" (poxil balamil, and poxil 

nuk'ui in part), refers to Echeveria acutifolia (1-2), E. 

mucronata (1-3), E. sessiliflora (1-2), and Villadia albiflora 

(2-3), rosette-leaved succulents of rock outcrops and limestone 

cliffs of the temperate and highland hamlets. The flowers are 

orange in scapose racemes. 

As remedy for exema, a bunch of the "cold" Echeveria 

leaves is crashed and applied to the affected part once each 

morning for three days. Alternatively, the leaves may be 

crashed in water and the infusion used to bathe the skin. To 

cure mumps, the "cold" leaves are crushed and bound to the 

neck. As a remedy for soul-loss (balamil), V. albiflora is 

placed over the fire and the patient's clothing smoked. It is 

crashed in cold water and the patient bathed. 

3. Poxil eal, lit. "mouth medicine," i.e., "fever sore 

medicine" (pimil anal, pimil anal tz'i'lel), is Pingukula 

moranensis (4-5), an insectivorous, acaulescent plant with a 

basal rosette of leaves occuring in crevices of rock outcrops and 

sheer cliffs. The leaves are thick and covered with a sticky 

substance. They are obovate, rounded at the apex, 2-10 cm 

long, 1-6 cm wide. The flower is scapose, solitary, and bright 

magenta with a long slender spur at its base. It occurs in 

temperate and highland hamlets. 

The plants may be used as a substitute for sedum at 

Christmas time. As a remedy for fever sores, a few "cold" 

leaves are chewed once a day for two days. 

Extended range: Echeveria bella. 

4. Poxil yat chij, "sheep penis medicine" or "deer penis 

medicine," is Echeveria bella (1-2), a small saxicolous plant 

with a basal rosette of succulent, oblong obovate, acute leaves, 

1.5-3 cm long. The flowers are yellow and orange with five 

acute petals, about 7-10 mm long, bome on a terminal raceme. 

It occurs on rock outcrops in pine-oak forest on the high ridges 

surrounding San Cristobal. 

As a remedy for chin skin disease, the leaves are crushed and 

the "cold" juice applied. 

5. Sentavo tz'i'lel, "penny plant" (meryo tz'i'lel, piminta 

tz'i'lel), is Peperomia campylotropa (3-6), a bulbous acaulescent herb with round, coin-shaped leaves, 8-28 mm in 

diameter, which appear each rainy season. The petioles are long 

and slender, 3-8 cm long, and attach to the center of the blade, 

forming an umbrella-like leaf. The spikes are long and slender, 

much exceeding the leaves. The plants are locally abundant in 

the grassy understory of pine-oak forests in highland areas. 

Extended range: Alchemilla pectinata. 

6. Vixobtakil (-tik) refers to Peperomias with narrow, 

thick, succulent leaves. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i vixobtakil, "genuine vixobtakil," is Peperomia 

galioides (5-11), an epiphyte with sessile-linearoblanceolate or narrowly oblong leaves in whorls of 

four to six leaves at a node. They are mostly 1-2 cm 

long and 1-nerved below. The inflorescence is a 

narrow spike 1-1.5 mm wide with microscopic 

flowers and poppy-seed-like seeds. It is common in 

pine-oak and evergreen cloud forests of temperate and 

highland hamlets. It is grown by a few people in four 

temperate and most of the highland communities. 

It is a basic ingredient of "flower water." A large handful of 

the "cold" plant is used. The plant is also used to adom the 

patient's bed. It is rarely used to decorate crosses. To relieve 

headaches and overheating or to calm fever, the plant is crushed 
248 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

in cold water. The patient's head is bathed with the infusion 

once or twice a day. To calm fever, a small bunch may also be 

brewed and a half cup of the "cold" tea drunk before meals 

twice a day, for one day. The "cold" leaf is chewed for fever 

sores. For further medicinal use cf. antzil aj, k'ox aja-te'es. 

Extended range: Villadia albiflora. 

b. Muk'ta vixobtakil, "large vixobtakil" (tzajal vixobtakil in part), refers to Peperomia humilis (2-4) and P. 

liebmannii (2-5), saxicolous and epiphytic plants with 

broad, thick, three-veined, opposite, pubescent leaves, 

3-4 cm long. They are very common plants on 

limestone outcrops and occasionally as epiphytes in 

pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. 

c. Setajtik vixobtakil, "round vixobtakil" (tzajal vixobtakil in part), refers to Peperomia deppeana (3-6) and 

P. quadrifolia (2-6), similar elliptic-ovate, whorled 

quadrifoliate epiphytes common in pine-oak forests of 

temperate and highland areas. The inflorescence is a 

slender terminal spike of minute flowers. 

To relieve the "heat" of majbenal, a small bunch of the 

"cold" plants is crashed in water and the patient's head is 

bathed with the infusion. For fever sores, the leaves are crashed 

and rubbed on the sore. 

7. Vixobtakil chon, "snake vixobtakil," is Peperomia 

heterodoxa (1-1), an erect, stout herb, branched above, with 

four leaves whorled at the nodes. The basal leaves are very 

short petiolate, thick and succulent oval, elliptic or obovate, 

8-20 mm long, pubescent or gray-granular, rounded at the 

apex. The upper leaves are usually larger (8)12-50 mm long, 

thin, on slender petioles about 4 mm long, elliptic to obovate, 

acute at the apex. The spikes are terminal, solitary or clustered. 

It occurs on rocky ledges in oak forests of the temperate zone. 

"Pitzak' Set" 

The pitz'ak set consists of 10 generics, low herbaceous 

plants, many of which are mat-forming. 

1. Alpajo (tik, -altik) (alfajo, ve'el vakax) is alfalfa 

Medicago sativa, a plant occasionally cultivated for forage by 

ladinos in highland pasture valleys. It is an erect perennial herb 

with very deep roots. Leaves are 3-foliate, with obovate 

leaflets, 1-2 cm long. The flowers are 5-6 mm long, blue or 

violet, and in short clusters. The legume is twisted into a 

spring-edged spiral. At the present time it is very rare. The 

seeds are mixed with sand and sown in rows in February. 

As a remedy for liver damage caused by excessive drinking, 

a handful is brewed and the tea is drunk before breakfast for 

three or nine days. 

Extended range: Melilotus alba and M. indica. 

2. Chak'ak' (tik, -ultik) (chak'ak' tz'i'lel, ch'upak' mut, 

k'anal nich, k'anal nich poxil k'ok', k'ox chak'ak', muk'ta 

poxil k'ok', poxil sal-tz'i') is the common herb Spilanthes 

americana (14-9), which occurs in grassy places of forests and 

disturbed areas of temperate and highland hamlets. It is usually 

prostrate, rarely erect, with opposite ovate or elliptic leaves 

from 2-6 cm long, the apex acute, the base broad and rounded 

or wedge-shaped. Flowering heads are on long naked peduncles, one or sometimes more at a node. The central disk is 

yellow and either conical or globose, surrounded by 8-14 

bright yellow petal-like ray flowers. 

For sal-tz'i' blemishes, a small bunch is crushed and applied 

to the affected part once daily for two days. To cut fever, a 

bunch is brewed with refined sugar or crashed and mixed with 

cold water. Both the tea and the infusion are "cold." Sheep eat 

the plant. 

Extended range: Anagallis arvensis, Perymenium ghiesbreghtii, Scutellaria dumetorum, and Tridax procumbens. 

3. Chikin ch'o, "mouse ear" (chikin ch'o pox, meryo pox, 

poxil k'ok'), is Dkhondra argentea (7-9), a sprawling herb 

that occurs as mats in exposed, grassy fields and on rocky 

slopes of temperate and highland regions. The leaves are small, 

round, and covered with a gray velvet pubescence, 1-2 cm 

wide. Flowers are solitary at a node white, deflexed, and 

inconspicuous, about 3 mm across. 

To cut fever and the heat of majbenal skventa kajvaltik, a 

bunch is crashed and mixed in (1) cold water, (2) cold water 

sweetened with refined sugar, or (3) warm salt water. The 

infusion is "cold." For a mild case of chills and fever (sik 

k'ok'), a tea is taken. For a severe case it is brewed together 

with tzotzil jabnal. 

4. Ch'aben tz'i'lel, "ch'aben plant" (xaxib ch'o in part), 

refers to Indigofera miniata (2-4), /. mucronata (2-4), 

Melilotus alba (7-9), and M. indica (1-4). These highland 

herbs are very similar in general appearance to alfalfa. They 

differ in having elongate inflorescences of yellow, salmon, or 

white flowers, smaller leaflets, and an elongate or rounded 

legume, rather than a twisted one. They grow in yards and in 

disturbed areas. 

They are eaten by sheep, cattle, and horses. 

5. Mail tz'i'lel, "watermelon squash plant" (tz'omol 

tz'i'lel), is the diminutive sprawling herb Houstonia serpyllacea (5-8). The stems are greatly elongate, often forming 

dense mats, or sometimes hanging pendent from banks. The 

leaves are very small, 4-6 mm long, and are crowded along the 

stems. Flowers are solitary in the leaf axils, tubular, white, and 

less than 1 cm long. The capsule is oblong, 4 mm long. It 

occurs in dense, grassy pastureland of temperate and highland 

regions. 

The plant is chewed to relieve toothache. Children play with 

the berries. 

Extended range: Oxalis albkans. 

6. Pitzak' (tik, -altik) (pitzak, trebol*) refers to clover 

and burclover. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i pitzak', "genuine clover" k'ox pitzak', pitzak' 

chitom), is the common, wild-occurring clover Trifolium amabile (10-15), a sprawling herb of grassy 
NUMBER 35 249 

fields and second growth in temperate and highland 

hamlets. The flowers are white or pink in small clusters 

about 1-1.5 cm across. The leaflets are small, obovate, 

and 6-13 mm long. 

Children mash the roots and roll them into pellets. Two are 

dropped into an elderberry stem. The stem is pounded on the 

ground, "exploding" one of the pellets to the height of a 

rooftop. To find a four-leaved clover reputedly brings good 

luck. Sheep eat the leaves. 

b. Muk'ta pitzak', "large clover" (ch'aben vet), is the 

coarse, herbaceous clover Trifolium repens (5-7), a 

creeping perennial herb with white flowers in large 

clusters, 1.5-3 cm tall. The leaflets are large, broadly 

obovate to almost round, 1.3-4 cm long. It is often 

cultivated by ladinos for pasture and occurs in wet 

pastures and along streams of the highlands as a 

naturalized plant. For use cf. batz'i pitzak'. 

c. Tzajal pitzak', "red clover" (ch'ix tz'i'lel, k'anal 

pitzak', trejo), refers to burclover and yellow sweet 

clover Medicago polymorpha (4-7) and Melilotus 

indica (1-1), common weeds of yards and cornfields 

in temperate and highland areas. Both are low-growing 

clover-like plants with small leaflets and very small 

yellow pea flowers bome on either elongate or 

head-like inflorescences. 

It is eaten by sheep. 

7. Poxil chuvaj, "madness medicine," is Anagallis arvensis 

(1-1), a slender sprawling herb with small opposite, ovate 

leaves, 8-13 mm long. The flowers are salmon-colored, 

axillary, 6-10 mm broad, and on long pedicels. The fruit is a 

round capsule about 5 mm in diameter. This is a weedy plant of 

the temperate and highland regions. 

The "hot" leaves are crashed and inserted in the nose and 

ears of a crazy person. 

8. Poxil me'-vinik, "mother man medicine," is Oxalis 

frutescens ssp. angustifolia (1-1), a somewhat shrubby herb 

with pinnately divided leaves crowded on the stems. The 

leaflets are elliptic and usually three, 1-2.5 cm long. The 

yellow flowers are bome on axillary peduncles in groups of 

three to about six. The corolla is 6-12 mm long. This plant 

occurs in exposed situations in the temperate and lowland 

areas. 

To relieve heartburn, the plant is crashed in cold water. The 

sour-tasting infusion is "cold." 

9. Tzotz-ni' tz'i'lel, "downy-tipped plant" (nekebal pox, 

poxil yayijemal, tzotzin tz'i'lel), refers to Hieracium abscissum (1-1) and H. stuposum (5-6), woolly-leafed perennials 

occurring in temperate and highland pine-oak forests. The 

oblong leaves of H. stuposum are in a basal rosette until 

flowering when one or more stems appear bearing many small 

yellow composite flowers in an openly branched inflorescence. 

The stems may be 60 cm tall. Seeds are like dandelion seeds 

with white hairs at the apex which aid in dispersal. Hieracium 

abscissum is very similar but has a tuft of tan hairs at the apex 

of the seed. 

To stimulate lactation, four or five roots are crushed and 

brewed with white pepper to provide a "hot" tea. As a remedy 

for "wind" and for barrenness, the plant is brewed with brown 

sugar, pepper, and chili. This tea is also "hot." The leaves may 

be applied to cuts to stanch the bleeding. 

10. Vala-pojov, "bent milky sap" (-tik), refers to fleshy 

stemmed begonias and tuberous-rooted Oxalis. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i vala-pojov, "genuine bent milky sap" (vanal 

pojov), refers to the purple-flowered, tuberous-rooted, 

herbaceous plants Oxalis galeottii (4-4) and O. 

latifolia (6-9). In both, the leaves and flowering 

peduncles arise without stems directly from the 

underground tuber. The leaves are on long petioles, up 

to 30 cm long, and are palmately divided into three or 

four heart-shaped leaflets. The base of the leaflet is 

acute, the tip is lobed. Flowers are pink or purple, 

funnel-shaped, and range from 8-20 mm long. They 

are bome in an umbellate inflorescence at the end of a 

long peduncle usually equaling or exceeding the 

leaves. They occur on exposed grassy slopes and 

cultivated fields throughout the township. 

The "sweet" roots may be eaten raw. The stem may be 

chewed to quench thirst. As a remedy for fever sores, the "cold" 

stem is crashed and rubbed on the lips. A tea is taken to cure 

hiccups. 

b. K'ox vala-pojov, "small bent milky sap," refers to the 

yellow-flowered, fibrous-rooted herbs Oxalis albkans 

(1-1), O. cornkulata (1-1), and O. frutescens ssp. 

angustifolia (1-1). All have elongate stems, with 

many small 3-foliate leaves. Flowers occur in pairs at 

the end of a rather long peduncle. They are funnelform 

and about 12 mm long or smaller. The fruit is a 

cylindric capsule to about 20 mm long. They are 

weedy plants of roadsides and cornfields and exposed 

rocky slopes of temperate and highland areas. 

The plant is crushed in cold water for a "cold" infusion to 

reduce fever. 

c. Muk'ta vala-pojov, "large bent milky sap" (poxil eal), 

refers to the fleshy-stemmed, tuberous-rooted plants 

Begonia biserrata (1-2), B. fischeri var. tovarensis 

(1-1), and B. oaxacana (1-2). These occur in 

protected shady ravines of montane rain forest and 

pine-oak forest in cold, temperate, and some lowland 

areas. All have alternate, palmately veined leaves, and 

male and female flowers, which may be white, pink, or 

red. Begonia biserrata has leaves that are large, about 

6-13 cm long, and coarsely lobed. The leaves of B. 

fisheri var. tovarensis and B. oaxacana are not lobed, 

but rather rounded, cordate in the former and asymmetric and broadly ovate in the later. 

The "cold" stems are rubbed on the lips for fever sores. 
250 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

"Pojov Tz'i'lel Set" 

The "pojov tz'i'lel set" includes six generics, herbs with 

thick leaves and white, sticky sap. 

1. Jol olol, "child's head" (bankilal jol olol), is Dalembertia triangularis (4-8), a tuberous-rooted herb common on 

rocky second growth slopes in temperate and lowland areas. 

The leaves are alternate, triangular, rounded at the base, 

subcordate, 3.5-7 cm long. The minute flowers are arranged in 

a dense, ovoid terminal spike. The capsule is 3-lobate, about 12 

mm broad. 

Some Zinacantecs skin the "cold" root and eat it raw for 

quenching thirst. Though it is available year round, similar to 

chayote root, it is best in December and January, becoming 

tough and fibrous in February. 

Extended range: Acalypha botteriana, A. langiana, A. 

vagans, Anoda cristata, and Euphorbia graminea. 

2. On te' pox, "madrone medicine," refers to whiteflowered, erect milkweeds with opposite leaves and terminal 

umbels of white and maroon flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Bik'it on te' pox, "small madrone medicine" (poxil 

nuk'ul), refers to Asclepias contrayerba (1-1) and A. 

oenotheroides (1-4), erect herbs with small, terminal, 

or axillary umbellate white flowers with recurved 

petals and an exerted group of modified stamens that 

occur in disturbed ground. The leaves are opposite, 

pubescent, ovate or oblong, 4-12 cm long. The many 

flowered umbels are usually shorter than the leaves. 

The fruit is a follicle, 6-11 cm long, usually pubescent 

enclosing the long, silky-haired seeds. These plants 

occur in the grassy understory of the pine-oak forests 

in the temperate and highland regions. 

As a remedy for mumps, the "cold" leaves of A. oenotheroides are crashed and bound to the neck. To speed the mending 

of a wound, the leaves of A. contrayerba are boiled and the 

"hot" decoction used to bathe the wound. 

b. Muk'ta on te' pox, "large madrone medicine" (ik'al 

pojov tz'i'lel, muk'ta primon, yat tz'i' te'), is 

Asclepias similis (2-3), an erect, single-stemmed, 

perennial herb with terminal umbels of creamy white 

and maroon flowers. The leaves are opposite, elliptic 

to narrowly obovate, darker above than below, 7-15 

cm long, 2-8 cm wide. The fruit is a follicle about 13 

cm long enclosing seeds with white, silky hairs. It 

occurs in the open understory of pine-oak forests of 

temperate and highland hamlets. It is classed variously 

as "plant" and "tree." 

As a remedy for "wind," the plant is boiled and the patient 

bathed with the "hot" decoction. 

3. Pojov tz'i'lel, "milky sap plant," refers to milkweeds and 

spurges. They are both erect herbs with opposite leaves and 

milky sap. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i pojov tz'i'lel, "genuine milky sap plant" 

(cholchol nich and poxil lukum in part), refers to 

Chamaesyce densiflora (1-2), C. hirta (1-2), C. 

hyperkifolia (1-2), C. hyssopifolia (1-2), Euphorbia 

dentata (1-5), E. francoana (2-5), E. graminea 

(5-7), E. heterophylla (5-8), and E. macropus (2-3). 

These are thin-stemmed herbs with minute flowers, 

opposite leaves, and 3-parted fruits, which occur 

mostly in disturbed and second growth situations, but 

also in open places in dry pine-oak and tropical 

deciduous forests of highland, temperate and lowland 

areas. 

The "cold" root of E. macropus is toasted and applied to 

bums. 

Extended range: Begonia plebeja. 

b. Tzajal pojov tz'i'lel, "red milky sap plant" (nichim 

ch'ulelal, tz'ibom tz'i'lel), is Asclepias curassavica 

(4-6), an erect herb often with many stems from the 

base with terminal umbels of red-orange flowers, with 

recurved petals about 5-8 mm long and an everted 

group of modified stamens. The leaves are opposite, 

narrowly elliptic, 4-11 cm long. The fruit is a follicle, 

fusiform, 6-10 cm long. The seeds are brown, 6 mm 

long, with a tuft of long, silky white hairs. It occurs in 

wet, disturbed areas and marshes in temperate and 

lowland areas. 

4. Poxil chin, "exema medicine" (tzajal te', ve'el sak-ch'ut 

mut), is Phyllanthus mcvaughii (3-5), a thin-stemmed subshrub much-branched, with small alternate broadly ovate to 

orbicular leaves, 0.8-4 cm long. The flowers are axillary and 

very small, 1-2 mm broad. The fruit is a capsule, about 6 mm 

in diameter, which splits into three parts each containing one 

seed. This grows in the second growth of the temperate regions. 

It is classed as "tree." 

5. Poxil chu'ul, "breast medicine," is Euphorbia anychioides, a small, erect perennial herb with numerous branches and 

small opposite, serrate, oval leaves, 3-8 mm long. The minute 

flowers are terminal. The capsule is about 1.5 mm broad. It 

occurs in the grassy understory of pine-oak forests in the 

temperate and highland regions. 

The sap is applied to the nipples of a nursing mother whose 

baby has bitten her. 

6. Poxil ti'ben lukum, "worm bite medicine" (tzun te' jol), 

is Chamaesyce hyssopifolia (2-5), a slender herb with a dense 

cluster of tiny flowers that occurs in second growth and 

disturbed situations in temperate and highland hamlets. The 

leaves are opposite, sessile or very short petiolate, elliptic, 

ovate or obovate, 1-3 cm long, on stems that are often dark red 

or purple. The small dense inflorescences are terminal or 

axillary. The 3-parted capsule is about 1.5 mm broad. 

To cure sores on the bottom of one's toes, a handful of "hot" 

tips are crushed and bound to the affected part. They are 

changed every three days until the sores are healed. For a head 

cold (simal obal), a "hot" tea is taken. 
NUMBER 35 

Extended range: Chamaesyce hyperkifolia. The "cold" sap 

is applied to minor cuts. 

"Pok'ok' Set" 

The "pok'ok' set" is comprised of three generics, all 

terrestrial aroids with thick stems, rhizomatous roots and large, 

glossy leaves. 

1. Pamal jabnal, "incense leaf (tik) (japob kantela 

me'eletik, japob kantela tz'i'lel, snichim me'eletik), refers to 

Anthurium schlechtendalii (7-10), a plant of rock outcrops in 

deep forest conditions. It has thick caudices and large, leathery, 

glossy, lance-elliptic leaves up to 1 m long. It occurs in moist 

pine-oak, montane rain, and tropical deciduous forests of 

temperate and lowland areas. 

The assistants of the elders and the ensign-bearers of St. 

Dominic and of the Holy Cross gather eight leaves apiece on 

Thursday before the first Lenten Friday and on Monday before 

the fourth Lenten Friday. Two leaves, tied at the base with a 

string, encase each candle that is bome to the Church of St. 

Lawrence by the old women who serve as candlebearers every 

Lenten Friday and during Holy Week. The first set of leaves is 

placed in water so that it will last for three Fridays, and the 

second set so that it will last for Holy Week. 

Extended range: Anthurium huixtlense, A. seleri, Elaphoglossum latifolium, and Spathiphyllum phryniifolium. 

2. Pi (-tik), Xanthosoma violaceum (2-2), is similar to X. 

robustum. Its heart-shaped leaves are from 20-50 cm long and 

are on long petioles. The flowers are densely crowded on a 

central cylindric spike about 2 cm thick, surrounded by a showy 

spatii. The spath is about 25-30 cm long, yellowish white, and 

tinged with purple. It is known mostly from cultivation in 

temperate and lowland areas. 

Zinacantecs from the highland hamlets are totally unaware of 

the existence of this plant, never having heard of its name. The 

tubers are transplanted in most of the temperate communities in 

the dry season, one to a hole, a meter apart. It produces in one 

year. People from the temperate hamlets maintain that it neither 

flowers nor fruits. The leaves are known to be poisonous to eat. 

Four or five tubers are produced around the main tuber and it is 

these that are dug up in February and March for eating. 

The "cold" tubers are prepared in a variety of ways. They 

may be boiled and eaten alone as a snack, similar to a chayote, 

or they may be boiled with sugar and eaten also as a snack, as 

if they were sweet potatoes. They may be ground, boiled, and 

seasoned with salt and coriander or salt and mint, or they may 

be eaten in vokol ich. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Sakil pi, "white pi," is a variety with green leaves. 

b. Tzajal pi, "red pi," is a variety with reddish leaves. 

3. Pok'ok' (-tik) (kekex, pokok, xpoko', xpokok, 

xpok'ok') is Xanthosoma robustum (5-9), the giant, elephantear-like plants arising from a thick starchy stem. The leaves are 

up to 1 m long. The flowers are in spathes up to 20 cm long, 

251 

with a thick, fleshy fruit enclosed. It occurs along slow-moving 

streams and wet, adjacent flats in temperate and lowland areas. 

In case of necessity the "cold" root may be boiled, seasoned 

with salt and chili. 

Extended range: Anthurium chamulense and Monstera 

delkiosa. 

"Pom Tz'unun Set" 

The "pom tz'unun set" is a diverse grouping of 14 generics, 

herbs and subshrubs with large, showy, tubular flowers. 

1. Ba ikatzil, "top load," is Fuchsia splendens (1-1). It is a 

suffrutescent, epiphytic, or saxicolous shrub with opposite, 

ovate, sometimes subcordate leaves, 5-15 cm long, with 

serrate margins and petioles 2-6 cm long. The flowers are red, 

tipped with green, tubular, axillary, solitary, 3-5 cm long, 

drooping, on pedicels about equaling the petals. The fruit is a 

purple, fleshy, oblong, edible berry 3-6 cm long. Its Tzotzil 

name is derived from its clambering habit. It occurs in the 

evergreen cloud forest of the highlands. 

It is eaten by sheep. 

2. J'ak'-'uch, "cause of yellowing" (bot'-jol nichim, 

bot'-jol tz'i'lel, poxil balamil, soltaro pox, yak' uch), is 

Castilleja arvensis (8-9), a hemi-parasite of Zea mays and 

many other plants. It is a scapose herb up to 3 dm tall with a 

terminal, ellipsoid cluster of tubular, red flowers and lanceolate 

leaves 8 cm long or less. It is common, but scattered in 

cornfields and fallow ground in temperate and highland 

hamlets. 

The yellowing of com plants is attributed in part to the 

influence of this plant when it grows in the cornfield. Children 

pull up the plants and pretend that they are the flowers of a 

curing ceremony. As a remedy for soul-loss, two or three stalks 

are brewed. A half cup of the "hot" tea is drank before 

breakfast. If a child is looked at by a pregnant woman, suffers 

"embarrassment" and subsequently gets nausea and diarrhea 

(apon), a tea is made of a bunch of this plant together with tan 

pox and half a chopped up seed of itzompi. 

Extended range: Castilleja integrifolia and Gomphrena 

decumbens. 

3. Latzbil tonal pox, "stacked rock medicine" (k'ox 

sak-nich te', suk mok), is Salvia lasiantha (1-2), a large shrub 

with pale orange flowers that is common in second growth in 

temperate hamlets. The stems, leaves, and inflorescences are 

pubescent. The leaves are ovate, acute at the apex, rounded at 

the base, with serrulate margins, 2-9 cm long. The flowers are 

2-2.5 cm long and are arranged in an interrupted spike. 

The name, "stacked rock medicine," is restricted to Atz'am, 

where it is known to grow along a stone wall that a ladino built 

many years ago. When a person is suffering from headache, 

nausea, and swelling as a result of being sold to the Earth, this 

plant is brewed and the "hot" tea is drunk before each meal. A 

large bowlful of this very bitter tea should be drunk in one gulp. 

Its odor is so foul that the Earth Lord is reputed to order the soul 
252 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

of the affected person out of his domain, telling him, "Yan 

avik'!" "You stink!" The branches are used in brush fences. 

4. Nap'ap' tz'i'lel, "sticky plant" (-tik), is a non-Linnaean 

grouping of herbs with very sticky foliage, either as a result of 

curved or barbed hairs or of viscid, oily hairs. These include: 

Ageratum houstonianum (1-4), Bastardia viscosa (1-2), 

Conyza chilensis, Cuphea cyanea (4-5), C. leptopoda (1-2), 

Desmodium amplifolium (1-1), Galium uncinulatum, Galium 

sp., Gnaphalium sp. (2-2), Mentzelia aspera, Priva lappulacea, Salvia misella, Siegesbeckia jorullensis, and Stevia 

polycephala. Some speakers subdivide these further. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Batz'i nap'ap' tz'i'lel, "genuine sticky plant," is 

Siegesbeckia jorullensis (4-6), a viscid herb of moist, 

disturbed areas in wet pine-oak and evergreen cloud 

forest in the highland hamlets. It has small, yellow 

daisy flowers, subtended by five linear glandular 

phyllaries, 6-14 mm long. The leaves are triangular 

ovate to lanceolate, 3-12 cm long. The upper leaves 

are sessile, the lower with winged petioles. It sticks to 

one's clothes. 

b. Bik'it nap'ap' tz'i'lel, "small sticky plant" (kilkil 

tz'i'lel), refers to Galium orizabense (1-1) and G. 

uncinulatum (1-3), small, sprawling, herbaceous 

perennials with bur-like seeds about 1.5-2 mm in 

diameter. The flowers are minute in open, panicles. 

The leaves are small, obovate to narrowly elliptic 

7-25 mm long, in whorls of four at a node. They occur 

on rocks in pine-oak forests of temperate and highland 

hamlets. 

As a remedy for chin skin disease, a "cold" bunch is mashed 

and applied once to the affected part. 

c. K'anal nap'ap' tz'i'lel, "yellow sticky plant" (muk'ta 

nap'ap' tz'i'lel, noch'och' tz'i'lel, tzeb tz'i'lel), is 

Mentzelia aspera (5-12), a sprawling herb with leaves 

and fruits covered with barbed hairs that catch on 

almost any surface. The flowers are orange with petals 

about 12 mm long. The fruit is a cylindrical capsule 

covered with barbed hairs, enclosing grayish yellow 

rough seeds. The leaves are alternate, ovate, and often 

3-lobed, with serrate or dentate margins, 3-10 cm 

long. It is a very common plant in second growth and 

disturbed situations in temperate and lowland areas. 

If a boy sticks some of this herb on the back of a girl's blouse 

she will fall in love with him and not be able to get him out of 

her mind. 

d. K'ox nap'ap' tz'i'lel, "small sticky plant" (poxil 

k'ok'), is Salvia misella (3-6), a blue-flowered, viscid, 

low herb of disturbed ground in temperate and lowland 

areas. It has square stems and opposite ovate leaves. 

The tubular blue flowers are verticillate on the spikes 

and are about 4-6 mm long. The calyces stick to one's 

clothing. 

To relieve fever, a "cold" tea of the leaves may be taken. 

e. Yaxal nap'ap' tz'i'lel, "blue sticky plant" (ik'al 

nap'ap' tz'i'lel, ik'al tz'i'lel, k'ox nap'ap' tz'i'lel), is 

Priva lappulacea (4-11), a small, blue-flowered herb 

with round, inflated, bur-like fruits, 5-6 mm in 

diameter, which easily attach themselves to one's 

clothing. The leaves are opposite, ovate with crenate -

dentate margins, 3.5-14 cm long. The flowers and 

fruits are arranged in long, thin, terminal spikes. It is a 

common plant in disturbed areas and second growth in 

temperate hamlets. 

5. Nochleb buluk' sat, "hornworm perch" (buluk' sat 

tz'i'lel, ik'al pom tz'unun, ik'al tz'i'lel, k'ox yaxal pom 

tz'unun), is Salvia tiliifolia (9-9), a tall herb with numerous, 

pale blue flowers verticellate in a terminal spike and round, 

strongly veined opposite leaves, 2.5-9 cm long. It is a common 

plant in disturbed ground and second growth situations of 

temperate and highland hamlets. 

As an antidote for snakebite, the "hot" leaves are applied 

directly to the wound, or are boiled before application. 

Extended range: Hyptis suaveolens. 

6. Pom tz'unun, "hummingbird nectar" (-tik, -altik), refers 

to a variety of plants with opposite, densely pubescent leaves 

and tubular flowers. 

Many are associated with unproductive land. 

Specifics: 7. 

a. K'anal pom tz'unun, "yellow hummingbird nectar" 

(nap'ap' nich, nap'ap' tz'i'lel, nuk' xchil ulo', poxil 

antz tz'i'lel, poxil ch'ich', poxil ch'ich' tza'nel, 

poxil ch'ulelal, poxil sim- nak'al, poxil tza'nel, 

tzajal pom tz'unun), is Cuphea cyanea (11-11), a 

spreading subshrab with sticky pubescence and ovate 

leaves, 2-5 cm long, with an acute apex and rounded 

base. The flowers are yellow and orange, 2-2.5 cm 

long, in terminal racemes. It is very common on rock 

outcrops in second growth and pine-oak forest situations in temperate and highland hamlets. 

As a remedy for majbenal, diarrhea, and bloody dysentery, 

a small bunch is brewed. One cup of the "hot" tea is drunk in 

the afternoon for two days. The same tea is also classed as 

"cold" and, for diarrhea, should be drunk before breakfast for 

two days. 

Extended range: Cuphea leptopoda and C. pinetorum. 

b. Muk'ta pom tz'unun, "large hummingbird nectar," is 

Hemkhaena rugosa (2-2) a woody shrub, 2-3 m tall, 

with showy, axillary, orange flowers, 3.5-4.5 cm long, 

with long exerted stamens. The leaves are bullate, 

sticky pubescent, ovate with serrate or dentate margins, about 2-5 cm long or longer. This plant occurs 

on limestone cliffs in the highlands. 

As a remedy for poslom, the plant is brewed together with 

wax myrtle and nap'ap' tz'i'lel (specific not designated) to 

provide a "hot" tea. 

c. Puj-'akan pom tz'unun, "hollow-stemmed hummingbird nectar" (ik'al pom tz'unun, jom akan, muk'ta 
NUMBER 35 

253 

pom tz'unun, tzajal pom tz'unun, ve'el k'ovix), is 

Priva aspera (5-8), a tall herb with square stems, stiff, 

prickly pubescence, and lavender flowers in long 

terminal racemes. The flowers are funnelform, 8-10 

mm long. The fruit is a globose capsule, about 5-6 

mm in diameter. The leaves are broadly ovate with 

acuminate apices, about 3-15 cm long. It is a common 

plant in moist second growth situations in temperate 

hamlets. 

d. Sakil pom tz'unun, "white hummingbird nectar" 

(chivo te', ik'al pom tz'unun, poxil tz'akob-bail and 

yaxal pom tz'unun in part), refers to Hyptis mutabilis 

(1-2), H. tomentosa (2-2), and H. urtkoides (3-6). 

Hyptis tomentosa is classed as te', "tree." These are 

erect branched suffrutescent plants with square stems, 

ovate leaves and clusters of blue, lavender, or white 

flowers 10-13 mm or 4-5 mm long in terminal or 

axillary inflorescences. Hyptis tomentosa is densely 

pubescent on the leaves, stems, and inflorescence and 

has larger flowers than H. mutabilis and H. urtkoides. 

These plants occur in waste ground and second growth 

throughout the township. 

As a remedy for diarrhea and stomachache a "hot" tea of H. 

tomentosa is taken. 

e. Tzajal pom tz'unun, "red hummingbird nectar" (ik'al 

pom tz'unun, muil pom tz'unun, muk'ta pom 

tz'unun, muk'ta poxil k'ok', sakil pom tz'unun, 

xinal tz'i'lel, all in part), refers to Kohleria elegans 

(2-4), Salvia chiapensis (2-5), S. cinnabarina (1-1), 

S. coccinea (1-1), S. excelsa (7-11), 5. holwayi (4-8), 

and S. karwinskii. All have red or orange tubular 

flowers and are subshrubs in second growth and in the 

understory of pine-oak and evergreen cloud forests of 

temperate and highland areas. 

Some members of this group are used in the "steam cure." 

Extended range: Centropogon grandidentatus, Lamourouxia 

viscosa, and Stachys coccinea. 

f. Yax-'ulan pom tz'unun, "purple hummingbird nectar" (bik'tal pom tz'unun, ik'al tz'i'lel, moraro 

nichim, nochleb tz'unun, tz'utz'un tz'unun), is 

Salvia urica (5-7), a coarse, hairy herb of disturbed 

ground in temperate hamlets. The stems are 4-sided 

and pubescent. The leaves are ovate, 5-15 cm long, 

pubescent. The flowers are blue, and arranged in 

verticellate clusters on the spike. 

Extended range: Salvia cacaliaefolia. This is planted 

occasionally and the flowers sold. Bunches are used in the 

"steam cure." The leaves are crashed in cold water and the 

infusion taken to end barrenness. 

g. Yaxal pom tz'unun, "blue hummingbird nectar" 

(ch'ix pom tz'unun, ik'al pom tz'unun, lixton verte, 

tzajal pom tz'unun, tzitz jobel, all in part), refers to 

Salvia polystachya (4-7), 5. purpurea (2-8), S. 

reptans (2-3), and S. rubiginosa (3-5), perennial 

herbs or shrubs with blue flowers in densely crowded 

or verticillate spikes, opposite leaves, and 4-sided 

stems. These occur in second growth and open 

understory in the pine-oak forests of temperate and 

highland regions. 

Salvia rubiginosa may be used in the "steam cure." 

7. Poxil k'ok', "fever medicine," is Loeselia mexicana 

(5-8), a tall subshrub with tubular red flowers, about 2 cm 

long, with exerted stamens. The leaves are alternate, elliptic to 

ovate, 1.5-6 cm long, acutely serrate. The flowers are clustered 

in the axils of the leaves. It is a common element in second 

growth on dry slopes in temperate hamlets. 

To allay a fever, a handful is crashed in cold water. One cup 

of the "medium" infusion is taken before breakfast. Alternatively, a handful of tips may be brewed and a cup of the 

"medium" tea drank before breakfast. 

Extended range: Capraria biflora var. pilosa, Hedeoma 

costatum, Loeselia glandulosa, and Russelia sarmentosa. 

8. Poxil majbenal, "beating medicine," is Cuphea pinetorum (1-1), branched herbs with deep purple or maroon, 

tubular flowers, 15-20 mm long, arranged in a terminal 

raceme. The leaves are lanceolate, opposite, sessile or very 

short petiolate, 1.5-6 cm long. It occurs in the second growth 

and open understory of pine-oak forests in the highland and 

temperate regions. 

A tea of this "hot" plant is brewed as a remedy for majbenal 

and for bloody dysentery. 

9. Primon (-tik, -altik) (kampana ch'o tz'i'lel) refers to 

Centropogon grandidentatus (1-1) and Lobelia laxiflora 

(6-9), large herbs with tubular, axillary orange flowers, 2-4 

cm long, and alternate, lanceolate or narrowly elliptic leaves 

from 3-20 cm long. The fruit is fleshy and round in 

Centropogon and capsular in Lobelia, common in pine-oak and 

evergreen cloud forests of temperate and highland areas. 

The sap is applied to an embedded thom or wounds to cure 

infection. The plant is eaten by sheep. 

Extended range: Fuchsia splendens and Lobelia cardinalis 

ssp. graminea. 

10. Sten uch, "opossum's granary" (ik'al pom tz'unun), is 

Stachys coccinea (2-5), a hispid herb with tubular, red flowers, 

2-2.5 cm long, verticillate in a long, terminal spike. The stems 

are angular and pubescent with erect hairs. The leaves are 

opposite, cordate-ovate, with crenate margins. They are 2.5-7 

cm long. It occurs in wet, open areas in pine-oak and evergreen 

cloud forests in temperate and highland hamlets. 

A large handful is used as one of the ingredients of the 

"steam cure." 

11. Tentzun, "goat" (tentzun pox, tentzun tz'i'lel, tzunjol tz'i'lel), is Ruellia inundata (4-10), a brittle-stemmed 

subshrub common in gravelly deposits along lowland streams 

and rivers. It has terminal clusters of lavender tubular flowers, 

4-4.5 cm long. The inflorescence is axillary, dichotomously 

branched, and leafy with many lanceolate bracts, 3-8 mm long. 

The leaves are opposite, long petiolate, and ovate, 3-15 cm 
254 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

long. The fruit is a club-shaped capsule, 7-11 mm long, 

containing 2-6 flat, ovate, seeds, which are mucilaginous when 

wet. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan cited yerba del toro, which 

is most likely this plant, as a remedy for "flux" (de Leon y 

Goicoechea, 1797). 

This plant is of sufficient medicinal importance now that 

shamans may store it at home. As a remedy for "wind," three 

stems are brewed or braised in cold water. The "hot" tea or 

infusion is taken 2-4 times. For further medicinal use cf. 

kururin, vako' ak'. 

Extended range: Bonplandia geminiflora, Bouchea prismatica, Carlowrightia sp., Cuphea leptopoda, Justkia clinopodium, Loeselia glandulosa, Marsypianthes chamaedrys, and 

Ruellia nudiflora. 

12. Tzajal kampana, "red bell" (luchleb tz'unun, primon, 

rosaryo roxa, snich pok' ulo'), is Lamourouxia viscosa (5-8), 

a tall, brittle-stemmed, long, tubular, red-flowered herb of 

second growth situations in temperate hamlets. The leaves are 

sessile, dentate, oblong, acute at the apex, rounded at the base, 

3-7 cm long. The flowers are 3.5-5 cm long and in a dense 

raceme. The capsules are black, ovate, and 8-10 mm long. 

Children sell the flowers on the roadside. 

13. Yalem bek'et, "fallen flesh" (cholchol nich, k'anal 

nich primon, tzalub kelem), is Castilleja integrifolia (5-7), a 

brittle-stemmed herb with tubular red-orange and yellow 

flowers, about 3 cm, long in a terminal raceme and narrow 

linear, viscid leaves, 4 cm long or less. It is common on 

exposed rock outcrops in pine-oak forests of temperate and 

highland hamlets. 

14. Yich'ak ch'o, "rat claw" (natz'il tz'i'lel, poxil simnik'al, tzajal tz'i'lel), is Hamelia patens (6-10), a large, 

soft-wooded shrub with terminal clusters of red-orange tubular 

flowers, 1.5-2 cm long. The leaves are elliptic or ovate, 6-20 

cm long, softly pubescent below. The fruits are erect, fleshy, 

ellipsoid, 6-10 mm long, 4-6 mm thick, red turning to black. 

It is a very common element in second growth in temperate and 

lowland areas. When termed tzajal tz'i'lel it is classed as stot, 

"male," to distinguish it from the "female" form also known as 

sakil akuxa tz'i'lel. 

To cure "white" dysentery, a handful of tips is brewed. The 

"medium" tea is drank before breakfast and in the evening. To 

cure bloody dysentery, the tips are crashed in cold water and 

the "medium" infusion taken as above. As a remedy for 

heartburn (me'-vinik), a "cold" tea or infusion may be taken. 

"Poxil Apon Set" 

The "poxil apon set" is comprised of two generics, both 

evening primroses. 

1. Orisyon tz'i'lel, "dusk plant" (putzul pepen, putzul 

unetik), refers to the evening primroses Oenothera kunthiana 

(1-1) and O. pubescens (3-5), slender herbs with white or 

yellow flowers and alternate, oblong-lanceolate leaves with 

sinuate, dentate margins. The flowers are solitary in the upper 

leaf axils. The capsules are cylindric or clavate. These are 

common plants in disturbed areas and cornfields of the 

highlands. The flowers open at dusk. 

2. Poxil apon, "embarrassment medicine" (-tik) (poxil 

k'ok'), is Oenothera rosea (15-20), low, slender, wiry herbs 

with oblanceolate or obovate, alternate leaves that are 

sinuate-dentate and sometimes pinnately lobed at the base, 

1.5-3 cm long. The flowers are delicate and pink widi broadly 

obovate petals, 5-10 mm long, axillary, forming slender 

racemes. The capsules are obovoid, 8-10 mm long, 4-angled, 

and narrowed at the base into a pedicel. It is a common plant in 

disturbed areas and roadsides in the highlands. It is sometimes 

classed as stot, "male," whereas O. kunthiana is sme', 

"female." 

As a remedy for "embarrassment," a handful is braised in 

cold or warm salt water. The infant is given the "cold" infusion 

and its body is massaged with the plants. To counter the effects 

of "evil eye," a small bunch is brewed and half a cupful of the 

"cold" tea drank before breakfast for three days. Both infants 

and adults suffering from "evil eye" may take the salt infusion 

twice a day. The shaman also sprays it on the elderberry 

branches he uses to "sweep" the child. The mother drinks the 

infusion so that her milk will help cure her baby. The "cold" tea 

also relieves fever. For further medicinal use cf. batz'i chijil te' 

and j'ak'-'uch. 

Extended range: Gaura tripetala, O. kunthiana. 

"Sakaton Set" 

The "sakaton set" is comprised of six generics, large, 

clump-forming, perennial grasses. 

1. Ana-jobel, "ana grass" (-tik, -altik), is the rat-tail muhly 

Muhlenbergia macroura (4-8), a large, clumped grass growing 

up to 2 m across with long, narrow, dense inflorescences up to 

1 m tall. It is common and often dominant in bunch grassland 

communities of highland areas. 

This grass is cut with an ax and used for thatching in the 

highland hamlets. Although some claim that this is the best 

grass for thatching, others maintain that there is too much stalk 

and too few leaves, that the wide leaves fall off quickly. It is 

woven and twined to make slings. It is eaten by horses. 

2. Ch'ix jobel, "spiny grass" (-tik) (jobelal na), refers to 

Festuca amplissima (1-2), Muhlenbergia breviligula (1-5), 

M. cf. emersleyi (1-3), M. robusta (3-5), and M. stricta (1-4). 

These attain clumps to 2 m across and have feathery 

inflorescences. They occur in bunch grassland in the highlands 

and in pine-oak forests in highland and temperate hamlets. 

The clumps are cut with a billhook for thatch in the 

temperate hamlets and for thatching fieldhouses. Though this 

grass cuts the hands, it is the kind most widely used in the 

temperate hamlets. The flower stalks are used for pack saddles. 

For further use cf. lo'balal met. It is eaten by horses. 

Extended range: Erianthus trinii, Muhlenbergia macroura, 
NUMBER 35 

and Rhynchelytrum repens. 

3. Jobelal xalma, "pack saddle grass," refers to the beard 

grasses Andropogon bkornis (1-4) and A. glomeratus (1-2). 

These are few-stemmed, clumped, perennial grasses up to 1-5 

m tall with dense, plume-like inflorescences. They are common 

in temperate hamlets, especially on dry slopes with pines. 

Ladinos use the grass for pack saddles. 

It is used occasionally for thatch. 

4. Limon jobel, "lime grass," applies to grass-like plants 

with lemon-scented leaves and rhizomes. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i limon jobel, "genuine lime grass" (te' limon), is 

the cultivated lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus 

(3-5). It is a native of southern India and Ceylon and 

is a clumped perennial similar in appearance to jobelal 

xalma. 

Young plants are transplanted by a few people in the rainy 

season in the lowlands, in all of the temperate and all but one of 

the highland communities. 

As a "cold" substitute for coffee, the leaves are brewed with 

refined sugar. As a "hot" cough remedy and for sore throat, the 

tea is drank sweetened with honey. The leaves are sold at 

market. 

b. K'ox limon jobel, "small lime grass," refers to Scleria 

bourgeaui (1-2), 5. hirtella (1-2), and S. pterota 

(1-2), perennial plants with strongly lemon-scented, 

slender, creeping rhizomes, strap-shaped leaves, and 

terminal spikes of small apetalous flowers. The fruit is 

a round, smooth, white or brown nutlet. The plant is 

grass-like in appearance. They are common in moist 

meadows in highland and temperate hamlets. 

5. Ne chuch, "squirrel tail" (-tik) (ne chuch jobel), refers to 

Piptochaetium virescens (1-2) and Stipa ichu (4-6), large, 

clumped, perennial grasses with feathery inflorescences rising 

up to 1 m above the clumps. The former is common and often 

dominant in bunch grassland in highland areas. 

When one of the survivors of the Flood was transformed into 

a squirrel, he was given a plume of this grass for his tail. 

The clumps are cut with an ax or, if in a rocky area, with a 

sickle. Those who prefer the rat-tail muhly for thatching claim 

that this grass is too soft, that weeds grow on it, and that it rots 

too fast. The stems are twined to make house lashing, and 

woven and twined to make slings. The inflorescences were 

once used for bodkins. They are sold for altar decoration at 

Christmastime. The plant is eaten by horses. 

6. Sakaton (-tik) refers to Panicum bulbosum, P. maximum, 

and Sorghum halepense. These are rhizomatous, erect, fewstemmed, tall grasses to 1.5 m high. They have diffuse, 

terminal inflorescences and small, dense, round, millet-like 

seeds. Both specific classes were introduced for forage from the 

Mediterranean region. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i sakaton, "genuine sakaton" (bik'it sakaton, 

k'ojom jobel, muk'ta sakaton, o'lol sakaton, sakil 

255 

sakaton), refers to Panicum bulbosum (2-3) and P. 

maximum (2-7). These are variable, commonly 

cultivated and somewhat naturalized, tall, thick, 

rhizomatous grasses of lowland and temperate areas. 

Ladinos broadcast the seeds in the cornfields in the 

rainy season. The roots are sold to those who have no 

seeds. The grass is used as fodder for donkeys, horses, 

and cattle even while in pasture. 

This grass, together with cane leaves, may be used for 

thatching fieldhouses. 

b. Tzajal sakaton, "red sakaton" is Sorghum halepense 

(1-2), a tall coarse grass of disturbed ground and 

occasionally cultivated by ladinos in lowland areas. 

"Tan Pox Set" 

The tan pox set includes six generics, plants with small, 

scurfy, gray leaves. Many have aromatic herbage. 

1. Bot'-jol tz'i'lel, "swollen-headed plant" (poxil simnak'al), is Gomphrena decumbens (2-5), a sprawling or 

prostrate herb with gray elliptic or obovate leaves, 1.5-5 cm 

long, and a dense, white, elliptic, terminal inflorescence, made 

up of numerous acute, membranous bracts. The head is about 1 

cm wide. It is cultivated by ladinos in their yards and is 

common in disturbed situations in temperate and lowland areas. 

Ladinos use the flower for altar decoration. 

A handful of the plant may be bought when suffering from 

dysentery. A large bowlful of the "hot" tea is drank before 

breakfast. 

2. Mixto (mixtu', nixto) is Salvia microphylla (1-2), a 

soft-wooded shrub with small, gray, aromatic, opposite, 

oblong-ovate leaves, 12-20 mm long, and red tubular flowers, 

about 2 cm long, verticillate along a terminal raceme. It is 

commonly cultivated in ladino yards in temperate and highland 

areas. 

Zinacantecs occasionally plant slips near their houses. 

For a woman in difficult labor, a handful is brewed. She 

should drink one or two gourdfuls of the "hot" tea. The flower 

is used for altar decoration. 

3. Oregano is oregano Origanum vulgare (1-3), a grayleaved, aromatic herb occasionally cultivated in temperate and 

highland areas. The leaves are ovate, 1-3 cm long, whorled at 

the nodes. The flowers are white or lavender, tubular, about 6 

mm long, in a terminal raceme. Ladinos and Chamulans sow 

the seeds in their yards in the rainy season. Ladinos use the 

leaves for seasoning chicken and turkey. The plant is classed 

variously as "medium" and "hot." 

4. Tan pox, "gray medicine" is Helianthemum glomeratum 

(5-8), a wiry-stemmed subshrub with clusters of inconspicuous, yellow flowers. The leaves are small, 1-2.5 mm long, gray 

pubescent, and numerous along the stems, giving the plant a 

totally gray appearance. It occurs on grassy, often overgrazed 

slopes in pine-oak forests of temperate and highland hamlets. 

As a remedy for diarrhea, a handful is brewed together with 
256 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

tzitz pox to provide a "hot" tea. As a remedy for "white" 

dysentery, the plant is brewed alone for a "medium" tea. For 

bloody dysentery the plant is braised in cold water and a small 

cup of the "medium" infusion taken. Alternatively, the plant 

may be brewed together with half of the pit of itzompi. The tea 

is taken before a meal two or three times. For further medicinal 

use cf. j'ak'-'uch. 

Extended range: Alchemilla sibbaldiaefolia, Krameria revoluta, and Lithospermum distkhum. The root of L. distkhum is 

brewed for a "hot" tea for headache. 

5. Tomyo (spoxil kaxlan) is garden thyme Thymus vulgaris 

(1-2), a low-growing, gray-leaved, aromatic herb occasionally 

cultivated in temperate and highland areas. The leaves are small 

and verticillate at the nodes. The flowers are small, pinkish, and 

tubular, bome in rounded or ovoid terminal clusters. 

A few people sow the seeds in their yards in the rainy season. 

The "cold" shoots are sold at market in San Crist6bal and are 

used by ladinos to season chicken, turkey, and pork. Some 

believe, however, that if the plant is sold it will lose its soul and 

disappear. 

6. Tz'i' nichim, "dog flower" (aleli), is stock Matthiola 

incana (1-4), a gray-leaved herb cultivated by highland ladinos 

for its colorful, fragrant flowers. The leaves are oblanceolate, 

obtuse at the apex, 2-10 cm long. The flowers are in terminal 

racemes, purple or pink, with four petals about 2.5 cm long, and 

occur in single and double formations. The long narrow pods 

are 6-7.5 mm long and 4 mm thick. The seeds are planted in 

pots and transplanted in the rainy season. 

Stock was present as a medicinal plant in the gardens of 

Zinacantan in 1748, as reported by the priest (Monrroy y 

Calcadilla, 1748:2); however, only recently have Zinacantecs 

begun planting stock seed in temperate fields, 60 cm apart in 

rows. The flowers, sold at market in San Cristobal, are used by 

ladinos for altar decorations. 

"Tuix Set" 

The "tuix set" is comprised of eight generics including a 

tuberous-rooted agave, bulbous, grass-leaved plants in the lily 

family, and small rosetted lilies. 

1. Axux* refers to garlic. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i axux, "genuine garlic," is the common white 

garlic Allium sativum (1-2), cultivated by Chamulans, 

but not by Zinacantecs. This is a stout plant with leaves 

2.5-3.5 cm wide and a flowering stalk, 8-10 mm in 

diameter. The pink flowers have six acute petals about 

6 mm long and are bome in a large, globose, head-like 

inflorescence, 7-9 cm in diameter. 

"Hot" garlic is rubbed on the limbs of a child suffering 

soul-loss. It is also buried at the spot where the child is believed 

to have lost its soul. As a remedy for poslom, garlic is mixed 

with tobacco and woman's urine and rubbed on the patient's 

legs. Formerly, garlic was ground, seasoned with salt and chili 

and eaten. Now it is only eaten by Chamulans and ladinos. For 

further uses cf. ixim, lula, moy. 

b. Yaxux ka', "horse's garlic" (axux ka', tuix ka'), is a 

giant variety of garlic Allium scorodoprasum (2-4), 

often called giant garlic or sand leek. 

The bulbs are planted by Chamulans and by Zinacantecs in 

many of the highland communities. 

In Zinacantan its use is only medicinal. As a remedy for 

"wind" and swollen stomach, a clove may be rubbed on the 

affected part, or if the whole body is affected, 3-4 cloves. 

Garlic flowers and leaves may be used for the same purposes. 

Or a clove may be crashed on a rock, brewed, and the very 

"hot" (k'ok') tea drank. Alternatively, the clove may be 

crashed with dry chili and mixed in hot water to which a little 

salt is added. This infusion is both drank and rubbed on the 

body. For madness, a clove is rubbed on the patient's head. 

There are many garlic prescriptions for poslom. Two cloves 

may be crushed and rubbed on the affected part. The garlic may 

be crashed and mixed with cane liquor. A cloth is immersed in 

the solution and bound around the leg for four days to bum 

away the illness. This is also a cure for gangrene (mos). Or, 

crashed garlic and tobacco may be brewed, then cane liquor 

and a man's urine mixed in before the bandage is immersed in 

the liquid. This is also effective for a horse suffering "wind." 

Finally, crushed garlic may be mixed with cane liquor or a 

woman's urine and the bandage immersed in the solution. 

A horse suffering "wind" may have its stomach rubbed with 

garlic flowers and leaves so that it will break wind. 

Alternatively, the horse's belly may be rubbed with crashed 

garlic cloves and then slapped three times with a woman's sash. 

All of the above remedies are classed as very "hot" (k'ok'). 

Extended range: Schoenocaulon officinale. 

2. Ch'upak'* is the cultivated form of the tuberous-rooted 

agave Agave brachystachys (2-6). It is acaulescent with soft, 

thin, lance linear leaves, 2-4 cm wide, 25-35 cm long. 

Zinacantecs maintain that this agave, unlike its wild form, tub 

chil, never flowers. It is cultivated by a few Zinacantecs in most 

highland hamlets, in the hamlets of the Atz'am valley, and in 

one other temperate community. 

As the foam produced by the root is neither bitter nor smelly 

(xin), it is used to launder the clothing of saints and patients. It 

is also used for shampoo. The roots may be dug up, saved, and 

sold to those in need of them. 

Extended range: Anthericum vestitum, Calochortus ghiesbreghtii, Echeandia macrocarpa, Nothoscordum bivalve, Schoenocaulon officinale, and Spiranthes aurantiaca, all tuberousrooted, lily-like plants of grassland situation. 

3. Ch'upak' joj, "raven ch'upak'" (k'anal tub chil, k'ox 

tub chil), refers to the small rosetted lilies Anthericum 

eleutherandrum (1-4), A. vestitum (2-3), Echeandia macrocarpa (5-7), E. macrophylla var. longifolia (1-2), and E. 

parviflora (1-2). These plants have many elongated tubers and 

are acaulescent with a rosette of long, narrow, thin, linear 

leaves. The flowers are yellow or white, bome in a simple 
NUMBER 35 257 

raceme or branched inflorescence up to 1 m long. The fruit is an 

oblong or ovoid capsule that is 3-sided or 3-lobed. They are 

common in second growth, rocky slopes, and cornfields of 

temperate and lowland areas. 

As a remedy for tarantula bite, the root may be brewed and 

the tea administered. Or the root may be crushed and mixed 

with cold water together with k'anal nich (Potentilla sp.) for 

an infusion. For further medicinal use cf. arvajaka tz'i'lel. 

Extended range: Hypoxis decumbens. 

4. Pech'e-'ok jobel, "flat-stemmed grass" (pech'-'ok), 

refers to Orthosanthus, Sisyrinchium, and Schoenocaulon, 

grass-like lilies and irids that occur in savanna and grassland 

situations. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i pech'e-'ok jobel, "genuine flat-stemmed grass" 

(k'ox palma, nichim uch, pech'ajtik jobel, pech'e-

'ok, pech'e- 'ok tz'i'lel, xanxan jobel), is Orthosanthus chimboracensis var. centro-amerkanus (5-7), a 

tufted rhizomatous plant with equitant leaves, 1 cm 

wide or less, and a branched inflorescence with 

terminal clusters of bright blue flowers with perianth 

segments, 1-1.5 cm long. The capsule is 3-sided, 

oblong, 9-16 mm long. It is common in exposed areas 

in the moist highland forests. 

Extended range: Carex donnell-smithii. 

b. K'anal pech'e-'ok jobel, "yellow flat-stemmed grass" 

(pech'e-'ok chon, xik' kukay), refers to Sisyrinchium 

angustissimum (3-7), S. convolutum (7-10), S. scabrum (2-4), and S. tinctorium (1-4), grass-like plants 

with bright yellow flowers or blue with yellow 

stamens in S. scrabrum. The flowers are terminal and 

fasciculate with spreading petals, 6-12 mm long. The 

leaves are mostly 8 mm wide or less. The capsules are 

subglobose and contain numerous seeds. They are 

common in second growth and disturbed situations 

(including cornfields) and grassy slopes in temperate 

and highland hamlets. 

As an antidote for snakebite, S. convolutum is boiled and the 

"hot" liquid used to bathe the bite. The plant is also used for 

altar decoration. 

c. Sakil pech'e-'ok jobel, "white flat-stemmed grass" 

(k'axib jobel, nichim joj, sakil nich pech'-'ok, tuix 

jobel), is Schoenocaulon officinale (3-4), a bulbous 

plant with a tall dense spike of white flowers that is 

common in savannas and disturbed, grassy slopes in 

temperate and lowland areas. The bulb is covered with 

an outer coat of long black interwoven fibers. The 

scape is up to a meter long. The flowers are white, with 

perianth parts about 5 mm long and long exerted 

stamens. 

5. Tub chil, "cricket spit," is the wild-occurring form of 

ch'upak', Agave brachystachys (2-2). The flowers are 

greenish yellow, fading brownish pink, 3.5-4 cm long, 

arranged in a long spike, 1-2 meters tall. It occurs in grassy 

savannas and second growth in temperate and lowland areas. 

Their tubers produce a very itchy lather that is a remedy for 

dandruff. 

6. Tuix* (-tik, -altik) (sevulya, tuvix) refers to onions and 

shallots. The term, sevulya, until recently was restricted to the 

common garden onion, but now has been extended to include 

all onions and shallots. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Batz'i tuix, "genuine onion" (tzajal sevulya, tzajal 

tuix), is a cultivated local onion Allium cepa (1-2) 

with a small, red head and long flower stalk. 

This onion is widely planted by Chamulans and by a very 

few Zinacantecs in many of the temperate and highland 

communities. Although seeds are occasionally sown in a seed 

bed and the seedlings transplanted, it is more common to plant 

the bulbs. These may be bought from Chamulans. The onions 

are planted 20-30 cm apart in rows 40-50 cm distance in hoed 

ground or in a corral. Sheep manure is provided. Planting 

occurs in the rainy season and, if water is available for 

irrigation, in the beginning of the dry season (November). 

The entire "cold" plant may be eaten raw or roasted. It is 

used to flavor beef, pork, chicken, beans, cushaw and pumpkin 

squash seeds, potatoes, chayote root, tomatoes, and chili sauce. 

It is also used to flavor bull's blood and the "blood" of the 

petate bull on Epiphany (provided by the Stewards of Our Lady 

of the Rosary). It is sold at market. 

b. J'alnom tuix, "postpartum mother onion" (j'alnom 

sevulya), is the cultivated shallot Allium ascalonkum 

(1-2). This group differs from the common onion in 

that its bulbs multiply and produce lateral bulbs. It has 

a long flowering stalk with a globose head of white, 

6-petaled flowers. 

Shallots are planted by Chamulans and by a very few 

Zinacantecs in the highland hamlets. Planting schedules and 

techniques are the same as those for batz'i tuix. 

The entire shallot plant is eaten and used for culinary 

purposes as above. 

c. Sakil tuix, "white onion" (muk'tik tuix, sakil sevulya, soktomal sevulya), is the common white 

garden onion Allium cepa (1-4), formerly cultivated 

by the people of Chiapa de Corzo, but now widely 

cultivated by Chamulans. 

A very few people in the temperate and highland hamlets 

plant the bulbs in the rainy season. They are cultivated in the 

same way as batz'i tuix. They are sold at market. 

The "cold" bulbs are used to flavor fried beans and yo'on 

tuluk' mushrooms. Cf. kokov. 

d. Te'tikil tuix, "wild onion" (k'ox tuix, te'tikil sevulya, 

xulub tuix), is the wild-occuring native onion Allium 

kunthii (1-2). It occurs in temperate and highland 

areas often in pine forest and near milpas. This onion 

is a slender plant with many bulblets forming a mass of 

stalks. Its inflorescence is small and laxly umbellate. 

The flowers are pink, lavender, or white, with 
258 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

acuminate petals, 6-7 mm long. The bulbs are white. 

In Tenejapa, unlike Zinacantan, this onion may be 

cultivated. Wild onions are sold by Chamulans at 

market. They are eaten in the same ways as batz'i tuix. 

7. Tuix jobel, "onion grass," is Nothoscordum bivalve 

(1-1), a slender lily with an open umbel of white flowers with 

acute, oblong perianth segments, 9-11 mm long. The pedicels 

are long, 2-5 cm. The bulb is white. This plant closely 

resembles Allium but has no onion odor. It occurs in wet places 

in the pine-oak forests of the highlands. 

As a remedy for mange (sep'), the "hot" plant may be 

crashed, boiled, or dried on the fire and applied to the affected 

part to kill "its animals." 

8. Tuix tz'i'lel, "onion plant," is Calochortus ghiesbreghtii 

(1-2), a white and reddish brown-flowered lily scattered in the 

grassy understory of pine-oak forests in temperate and highland 

areas. The flowers are terminal on long naked peduncles, 6-16 

cm long, with obovate petals, 11-18 mm long, hairy near the 

base. The bulb is ovoid with a thick netted outer coat. The fruits 

are linear-oblong and 3-angled, 3-4.5 cm long. 

9. Ve'el k'ovix, "towhee food," is Hypoxis decumbens 

(1-1), a slender plant arising from a globose or subcylindric 

corm. The leaves are 10-40 cm long, 2-12 mm wide. The 

flowers are yellow with lanceolate perianth segments, 4-10 

mm, on a slender, few-flowered scape. It is a very common 

plant in the grassy understory of pine-oak forests of the 

temperate and highland hamlets. 

"Tzajal Nichim Set" 

The "tzajal nichim set" is comprised of 20 generics, which 

are mostly plants cultivated for their cut flowers and are 

primarily members of the daisy family. 

1. Altamixa (jjalal-me'tik, jjaral-me'tik) is Ambrosia 

cumanensis (6-11), a rank-smelling herb with dissected leaves, 

3-10 cm long, that is common in disturbed ground and fallow 

fields in highland hamlets. The flowers are either male or 

female and are greenish yellow. The male flowers are sessile or 

on short pedicels, 3-4 mm broad, in a long dense spike or 

raceme. The female flowers are similar in size but fasciculate in 

the upper leaf axils. The fruit is obovate, with 4-7 short spines. 

This herb may be stored dry. To induce abortion, a small 

bunch is brewed and a cup of the "hot" tea is drunk twice for 

one day. To prevent postpartum hemorrhaging, a cup of this tea 

may be drank before the mother's first meal. Chamomile may 

be added to it. The same tea may be taken by people suffering 

from "wind," swollen stomachs, or poslom. The affected part is 

bathed also with a liquid. Postpartum mothers may bathe 

themselves with this liquid rather than taking a sweat bath. The 

leaves are applied to a sprain or broken bone. 

2. Espayder (xelajtik krisantema) is the "spider" type of 

florists' chrysanthemum, "Spiders and Spoons" (2-3), Dendranthema morifolium. 

It is grown only in cold frames in Pat Osil and Zinacantan 

Center. It takes four months to flower and flowers for one 

month. 

It is sold in market. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'anal espayder, the yellow variety. 

b. Moraro espayder (payliyo), a magenta variety. 

c. Sakil espayder, the white variety. 

3. Jjaral-me'tik, "our holy lady" (nichim jjaral-me'tik, 

snichim jch'ul-me'tik), is the feverfew Tanecetum parthenium 

(5-10), which is cultivated and adventive around habitations in 

highland and temperate areas. This chrysanthemum relative has 

small heads, about 1.5 cm broad, with white rays and a yellow 

central disk. The leaves are bipinnate, 2.5-4.5 cm long. 

A few people in many of the temperate and highland 

communities sow the seeds or transplant the young plants in 

May. The flowers are sold occasionally at market. This herb 

may be stored dry. 

As a remedy for "wind" and stomach ache, three or six tips 

are brewed and a cup of the "hot" tea is drank before breakfast 

and supper. Postpartum mothers suffering pain or hemorrhage 

take this same tea or may combine feverfew with chamomile. 

The flowers are used for altar decoration. 

Extended range: Bidens triplinervia, Hofmeisteria urenifolia, and Parthenium hysterophorus. 

4. Kartolina is a small double hybrid chrysanthemum, 

"Jewel Box" (2-3), Dendranthema morifolium. It has flowers 

3 cm across on stems 60 cm tall. It is grown by slip, outside, in 

Pat Osil. It is sold in market. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'anal kartolina, the yellow variety. 

b. Moraro kartolina, a lavender variety. 

c. Sakil kartolina, the white variety. 

5. Klavel (-tik) is the cultivated carnation Dianthus caryophyllus (8-3), another extremely variable plant of garden 

origin. It was among the flowering plants sent by Fray Jordan 

de Piamonte in Oaxaca to the first Dominican friars in 

Zinacantan in 1545 (Ximenes, 1929, 1:423). 

It is grown in a few temperate and all of the highland 

communities. 

Carnations were planted formerly by seed, but now are 

planted almost exclusively by slip in the highland hamlets and 

in Atz'am. They are planted when the moon is new, so that they 

will grow tall and not mature too fast. The slips are planted very 

close together in seed beds in February and watered every three 

days. The slips are transplanted in June to flat land where they 

are planted 40 cm apart in rows 50-60 cm apart. Two handfuls 

of sheep manure are provided to each plant. Replanting may 

occur. Some prefer to plant the slips in the rainy season without 

the use of a seed bed. Irrigation is common. The flowers raised 

commercially are grown principally in Naben Chauk. The 

plants take six months to flower. The flowers are picked every 

three days. The plants are replaced after 2-3 years. If there are 

just a few plants they may be protected from frost by a wooden 

frame roofed with com stubble or they may be planted in an old 
NUMBER 35 

259 

pot or box and kept under the roof overhang. Carnations, unlike 

daisies, are prey to rabbits. When a foot high they are hilled so 

the roots will take firm hold and the stalks remain erect not 

pushing against adjacent plants. 

They are almost ubiquitous in hamlet chapel flower changes. 

Carnations are used to decorate the graveyard crosses on All 

Souls' Day. They adom the creche in Sak Lum. They may be 

resold and are sold in San Cristobal and Tuxtla. One small 

basket of carnations is taken to church when begging pardon. 

Cf. batz'i tz'oban. 

Specifics: 6. 

a. Ik"ik'-lo'an klavel, "purple carnation," a dark red 

form. 

b. Korona klavel, "crown carnation," a red-centered, 

white-edged form. 

c. Rosaro klavel, "pink carnation," a deep pink form. 

d. Sak-vayan klavel, "pink carnation" (saksak-vilan 

klavel), a pale pink form. 

e. Sakil klavel, "white carnation," a white form. 

f. Tzajal klavel, "red carnation," a red form. As a remedy 

for dysentery, the flower may be brewed for a "hot" tea 

or bruised for a "cold" infusion. Stewards, stewardsroyal, and elders may substitute red carnations for 

geraniums for altar decoration. This substitution is 

always made in Bik'it Joyijel and Kelem Ton. 

Extended range: Dianthus chinensis and Pinaropappus 

spathulatus var. chiapensis. 

6. Klavelina (-tik) (klavelito) is the garden pink Dianthus 

caryophyllus (1-3). 

It is cultivated in all but one of the highland communities, as 

above. It is offered occasionally in hamlet chapels, especially in 

Chak Toj for flower changes. In ritual speech, it is called 

lavalena or lavalina. Paired in final position with nichim, 

flower, or asasena, lily, it refers to a child. 

7. Kopita is candytuft Iberis simplex (1-1). It is a 

much-branched, linear-leaved herb with terminal head-like 

clusters of 4-petaled, pink flowers, 10-15 mm long. The fruits 

are flattened, ovoid, 8-10 mm long. 

A very few people in the highland hamlets raise this flower 

to sell. 

8. Krisantema (florejvana, krisante) is the crown daisy 

Chrysanthemum coronarium (2-3), an occasionally cultivated 

plant in highland areas. The flowering heads are about 2-4 cm 

broad, and yellow. The leaves are numerous and bipinnately 

lobed. 

A few people in many of the highland communities plant the 

seeds or transplant the young plants in the rainy season. The 

flowers may be resold and are sold at market and used for altar 

decoration, especially on All Souls' Day. Because of their cost 

their use is infrequent in hamlet chapel flower changes. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. K'anal krisantema, the yellow form. 

b. Rosaro krisantema, the pink form. 

c. Sakil krisantema, the white form. 

9. Krisantema nichim, "krisantema flower" (rais, rais ta 

komitan), is the florists' chrysanthemum Dendranthema 

morifolium (3-5). The flowering heads are large, 4-9 cm 

broad. The leaves are pinnately lobed, 2.5-7 cm long. It is 

raised by ladinos in Comitan and sold in the San Cristobal 

market for All Souls' Day decorations. Very recently, 

Zinacantec flower merchants have been purchasing this 

chrysanthemum in Oaxaca for resale. 

10. K'ok' sat nichim, "hot-faced flower" (Jvanita, pirik' 

nichim), sweet william, is Dianthus barbatus (1-1), a relative 

of the florist's carnation. The opposite, lance-oblong leaves, 

6-11 cm long, are crowded at the base of the plant, becoming 

shorter and more widely spaced near the top. The flowers are 

pink, showy, 2-2.5 cm long, and crowded into terminal 

headlike clusters, 4.5-6 cm broad. 

A very few people in the highland hamlets, transplanting the 

seedlings, raise this flower to sell. 

11. Mantzanilya (mantzaninya, mantzaniya) is chamomile, Chamomilla recutita (2-2), an aromatic, finely branched 

herb, which is cultivated and often adventive around houses in 

the highland areas. The leaves are 3-6 cm long, bipinnate with 

filiform segments. The ray flowers are white, the central disk 

yellow, solitary at the ends of the branches, 6-8 mm broad. 

A few people in many of the temperate and most of the 

highland communities scatter the seeds in October (Fiesta of 

Our Lady of the Rosary) so that the plants will flower for Holy 

Week. Planting may continue into November. The flowers are 

sold at market in Chamula and San Cristobal. 

This herb may be stored dry. It has a wide variety of 

medicinal uses. The "hot" tea may be taken for deafness caused 

by cold and for heartburn (me'-vinik). The tea mixed with cane 

liquor may be used for a hangover or for fever. Alternate 

remedies for heartburn include a tea to which basil is added, or 

an infusion of the seeds braised in warm water, either alone or 

with fennel leaves. As a remedy for cough and laryngitis, two 

stalks are brewed together with basil, brown sugar, and tallow, 

or brewed in cane liquor, or brewed with basil in which a shot 

of cane liquor is added. To ease heart pain (k'ux o'onil), a tea 

of this herb brewed with com silk and three red pine splinters 

is taken. As a remedy for "wind" and diarrhea, two stalks are 

brewed and cane liquor, in which camphor has been soaked, is 

added to it. One cup of the "hot" tea is drank before breakfast 

for three days. For diarrhea (k'ak'al tza'nel), salt may be 

added to the tea. For further medicinal use cf. altamixa and 

jjaral- me'tik. 

On Good Friday the elders hand out bunches of blessed 

chamomile. For the Lenten Fridays, except the fourth Friday, 

each steward provides four bunches of chamomile to decorate 

the saints' litters. Six bunches are provided on the fourth 

Friday. Each ensign-bearer provides five bunches for the first, 

second, and third Lenten Fridays and seven bunches for the 

fourth, fifth, and sixth Fridays. Half a small basket is provided 

by each steward on Tuesday of Holy Week and Good Friday. 

The publicans provide two small baskets to decorate the Chapel 
260 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

of Our Lord of Esquipulas on Lenten Fridays. Chamomile is 

widely used for Lenten decoration in the hamlets: San Mikulax 

on the fourth Lenten Friday and Maundy Thursday, Elan Vo' 

the fourth Lenten Friday and Palm Sunday, Paste' for Holy 

Week, Naben Chauk for Lenten Fridays, and Sek'emtik for the 

sixth Lenten Friday. The flowers are used to decorate the creche 

in Apas. 

For ritual use cf. tzajal nichim. 

Extended range: Chamomilla suaveolens. 

12. Markarita (-tik, -iltik) (margarita) is the ox eye daisy 

Leucanthemum vulgare (8-5). This is a variable garden plant. 

It is grown in a few temperate and all of the highland 

communities. 

Formerly daisies were planted by seed, but now young plants 

or slips are planted in the upper temperate and highland hamlets 

in May and again in November. They are set 40 cm apart in 

rows 40-60 cm apart. They require full sun. Sheep manure is 

sometimes provided. The flowers may be resold and are sold in 

San Cristobal, Tuxtla, and Arriaga throughout the year. 

Daisies are used for altar decoration by people begging 

pardon in church. They may also be used to decorate the well 

crosses on Holy Cross Day. They are used with some frequency 

for flower changes in hamlet chapels. For ritual use cf. 

kartucho. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Cha'-lom markarita, "two level daisy," is the most 

preferred form, as it is semidouble and has two levels 

of ray florets presented continually. Its thick stem 

permits the grower to cut a bunch more quickly. They 

are sold in bunches of 15 or 20 flowers. 

b. Ch'ulul markarita, "smooth daisy" (o'lol markarita), is a smooth-stemmed, medium-sized daisy that 

was introduced in 1975. It propagates by seed. The 

number of flowers to a bunch are not counted. 

c. K'ox markarita, "small daisy," is the variety first 

cultivated in Zinacantan, but has been supplanted by 

the larger varieties. The number of flowers to a bunch 

were not counted. 

d. Markarita reyeno, "full daisy," is a fully double form 

very recently introduced and grown only in Pat Osil. 

There are 12 flowers to a bunch. This is the most 

expensive variety. 

e. Tzotziron markarita, "downy daisy" (o'lol markarita), is a downy-stemmed, medium-sized daisy. The 

number of flowers to a bunch are not counted. 

Extended range: Astranthium purpurascens, Cosmos diversifolius, and Gaillardia pulchella. 

13. Markarita tz'i'lel, "markarita plant," refers to Aster 

bullatus (1-1) and Sabazia sarmentosa (1-1), perennial herbs 

with white daisy flowers. The stems are branched and the 

leaves are either linear in Aster or ovate in Sabazia. The 

flowering heads are about 1.5-2 cm broad. The plants occur 

along streams (Aster) and on moist slopes (Sabazia) in 

pine-oak and evergreen cloud forest in the highlands. 

14. Markariton (-tik) (muk'ta markarita) refers to the 

large varieties of ox eye daisy Leucanthemum vulgare (4-4). 

It is cultivated as above. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i markariton, "genuine markariton," is a 

smooth-stemmed form that was cultivated at the same 

time as k'ox markarita, but in much smaller numbers. 

It is cultivated by few people today. A bunch contains 

12 flowers. 

b. Tzotzin markariton, "downy markariton," is a 

downy-stemmed form that is seldom cultivated, as the 

flowers wilt very quickly. A bunch contains 12 

flowers. 

15. Nube, "cloud" (sakil boton), is baby's breath, 

Gypsophila elegans (1-1) and G. pankulata (1-1), herbs with 

delicate white or pink flowers in large-branched inflorescences. 

It is cultivated in many of the temperate and in highland 

communities, planted in the dry season. It is sold at market. 

It is used to decorate the creche in Sak Lum, and is used in 

hamlet chapel flower changes in Atz'am and Sak Lum. 

16. Pilix (-tik) (p'ilix, yok ne sibak) refers to herbaceous or 

subshrubby sunflowers with yellow, terminal flowers. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'ox pilix, "small pilix," refers to Melampodium 

divaricatum (1-4) and Simsia sanguinea (1-1), two 

delicately branched, small, purple or yellow-flowered 

sunflower herbs occurring in disturbed areas in 

temperate and lowland regions. Both have opposite 

leaves that are rough to the touch. Leaves of the 

purple-flowered Simsia are trilobate, narrowly linear 

or triangular ovate. The leaves of Melampodium are 

broadly ovate to oblong-lanceolate and entire. The 

heads are 1-1.5 cm broad in Melampodium and 

1.5-2.0 cm broad in Simsia. 

b. Sakil pilix, "white pilix" (bik'it sun), refers to Aldama 

dentata (2-6) and Viguiera dentata (3-9), two tall 

subshrubs with stiff, straight stems. Both have yellow 

flowers in open branched inflorescences with ray 

flowers, 7-15 mm long. The leaves are ovate to 

lanceolate acute at the apex, 3-12 cm long. They are 

common in disturbed areas and fallow ground in 

temperate and lowland areas. Because of the stiffness 

of the stems, the plants are classed variously as "tree" 

and "plant." The stems are sold in bundles by the 

people of Laguna Grande and Totolapa to the 

fireworks makers in San Crist6bal. 

A handful of the stems may be tied together in the middle 

and used as a torch. 

17. Pompom is the term for all double chrysanthemums. 

Two major segregations are made with several color forms in 

each. 

a. Batz'i pompom, refers to large and giant double 

chrysanthemum, "Super Jet" (2-3) Dendranthema 

morifolium, only cultivated originally in cold frames 
NUMBER 35 

in Pat Osil and Zinacantan Center, but now grown 

outside in Atz'am, Pat Osil, Sak Lum, and Zinacatan 

Center. 

It is sold in market, and despite its expense it is used 

occasionally in flower changes, especially for banquet vases. 

(1) K'anal pompom, the yellow variety. 

(2) Moraro pompom, a rosy lavender variety. 

(3) Sakil pompom, the white variety. 

b. Muk'ta pompom, "large pompom" (espuma delmar), is a hybrid giant football chrysanthemum, 

"Royal Highness" (2-3) Dendranthema morifolium, 

grown only in cold frames in Zinacantah Center. To 

start, cultivation plants with roots are bought. Planting 

is begun in February to produce plants 80 cm to 1 m 

tall, flowering in May for three weeks to one month. A 

second planting occurs at the end of July and 

beginning of August to produce flowers for All Souls' 

Day. The sprouting tips are cut off and the stumps 

pulled up. The tips are planted very close in flats, to 

which are added chemical fertilizer (enraysone plus). 

After 2-3 weeks these seedlings are transplanted to 

rows 15 cm square. In mid-November a third planting 

is sometimes practiced, but it risks frost damage. An 

alternative method is to plant slips directly. If this is 

done, the plants vary in height, reaching l'/2 meters. 

They take an extra month to flower, produce fewer 

flowers, but continue flowering for 5 to 6 months. 

They are sold at market. 

(1) K'anal muk'ta pompom, the yellow variety. 

(2) Moraro muk'ta pompom, a rosy lavender variety. 

(3) Sakil muk'ta pompom, the white variety. 

18. Sakramentual nichim, "sacrament flower" (-tik), is 

Helenium scorzoneraefolia (3-7), a perennial herb with 

creeping rhizomes and scapose, yellow daisy flowers. The 

basal leaves are oblanceolate, 20-30 cm long, decurrent on the 

petiole. The cauline leaves are shorter and not decurrent. The 

flowers have a disk about 2.5 cm broad and rays about 2-3.5 

cm long. It is common in moist, grassy places in pine-oak 

woodland of highland areas. 

As a remedy for "wind," six roots are brewed, and a small 

cup of the "hot" tea is drunk before breakfast. The tea is also 

drunk to induce an abortion and to stop postpartum hemorrhaging. 

To warm the belly of a postpartum mother, a man (who is not 

"cold") grinds the root on a metate. The juice is mixed with 

black pepper, dried chili, and brown sugar. The mother drinks 

the "hot" infusion. 

One small basket, half geraniums and half sakramentual 

nichim, is provided by each steward to decorate the churches on 

Corpus Christi. The publicans decorate the Chapel of Our Lord 

of Esquipulas similarly. The elders decorate their altars in the 

same way. On Corpus Christi these flowers are also used in 

Elan Vo", Paste", and San Mikulax. 

19. Snichim san-lukax, "St. Luke's flower" (snichim 

261 

san-tukax, snichim xan-lukax, tzajal ch'ix nichim, tzajal 

nichim ta olon osil, tzajal olonal nichim), is the garden zinnia 

Zinnia elegans (4-5), which is commonly cultivated by 

ladinos in temperate and lowland yards and occasionally grown 

in highland ladino communities. The ladinos of San Lucas (El 

Zapotal) plant zinnia seeds in May. Ladinos and stewards use 

the flowers for altar decoration. They are sold at market. 

Extended range: Zinnia peruviana. 

20. Tontikil putzul, "rock-growing putzul" (sputz'taob 

xavon k'oxetik, stubtaob xavon k'oxetik, tut tz'i'lel), is the 

dandelion Taraxacum officinale (5-6), which is common in 

disturbed ground and near habitations in the highland areas. It 

is a rosetted herb arising from a thick tuberous root. The 

flowers are yellow and in a head at the end of a hollow stalk. 

The leaves are pinnately lobed and 10-15 cm long. 

Children braise the stem and flowers in water, producing a 

foam that they blow at each other. 

21. Tzajal nichim, "red flower" (-tik, -altik) (batz'i 

nichim, potzalal nichim), is the garden geranium Pelargonium 

hortorum (7-7), grown very commonly around houses in 

temperate and highland hamlets. This is an extremely variable 

plant known only in cultivation and derived from several South 

African species of Pelargonium. As this hybrid could not have 

been introduced to Zinacantan prior to 1850, its central 

importance is probably the result of the replacement of a wild 

flower, possibly konkon. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Batz'i tzajal nichim, "genuine red flower," has a 

blossom uniformly bright red with the flowers in tight 

clusters. 

The geranium is the quintessential flower of Zinacantan. 

Rarely, if ever, is it used in the neighboring Indian towns. 

Retaining its bright red color for weeks, it is the principal 

flower for religious decoration. This color, it seems, dates back 

to when Christ was suffering from a bloody nose and used the 

flower to stem the flow. A shaman was heard to refer to it as 

batz'i nichim, the genuine flower. 

It is grown in a few of the temperate and all of the highland 

communities. In the highland hamlets geranium slips are 

planted generally, but not exclusively, in the rainy season. In 

the temperate hamlets they are planted in the dry season, lest 

they rot. Some plant the slips very close together in rows an 

armspan apart. Others plant the slips 20 cm apart or

 xli m apart 

or one meter's distance. Manure is seldom provided. 

As a remedy for fever sores, three "medium" leaves or three 

flowers are chewed and rubbed on the lips. For a headache, six 

flowers are crashed in warm water and the patient's head 

bathed with the "hot" infusion. To relieve a fever, the flower 

may be crashed in warm water together with fennel leaves. The 

head is bathed with the "cold" infusion. Three "hot" flowers are 

a basic ingredient of "flower water." During a major curing 

ceremony, when blood is drawn from the neck of the sacrificial 

chicken, the shaman dips a geranium into the bowl and daubs 

the blood on the patient's forehead and forearms in the form of 
262 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

crosses. In order to recover a person's soul, the shaman beats 

the ground where the soul allegedly has been lost with oak, 

yellow pine, and geranium tips. For a major curing ceremony, 

a large basket of geraniums is required to decorate the crosses. 

For a minor ceremony a small basket is required. For further 

medicinal use cf. antzil aj, tilil, tzis uch, and yich'ak mut. 

Sour orange leaves and geranium blossoms are gathered by 

the wedding petitioner, tied in bouquets, and distributed to the 

wedding guests at the dance. When a coffin is carried to the 

cemetery, the procession makes stops to rest during which a 

geranium blossom is dipped in water and the water sprinkled on 

the corpse's lips. 

For the biweekly flower changes, each steward provides one 

large basket of geraniums. The geraniums provided by the 

senior stewards are used to decorate the Church of St. 

Lawrence, and the geraniums provided by the junior stewards 

are taken to the Church of St. Sebastian. One small basket is 

needed to decorate the steward's altar. One large basket is 

provided by the stewards royal every other Saturday to decorate 

the Chapel of Esquipulas. One medium-sized basket is required 

by the elders on alternate Saturdays to decorate the altar of the 

grand alcalde. Geraniums are offered for flower changes in all 

chapels except in Bik'it Joyijel and Kelem Ton. On Lenten 

Fridays, Tuesday and Wednesday in Holy Week, and on Good 

Friday each steward provides a small basket of geraniums and 

chamomile flowers, which are tied to the saints' litters. Each 

ensign-bearer offers a bunch of geraniums on the fourth, fifth, 

and sixth Fridays of Lent. On Good Friday, the elders, holy 

elders, and any stewards, ensign-bearers, or former elders who 

so desire offer a small basket with candles, geraniums, and 

chamomiles at the base of the cross in the Church of St. 

Lawrence. On Corpus Christi each steward provides a small 

basket of geraniums and sakramentual nichim. On Holy 

Cross Day each of the stewards of the Holy Cross provide a 

large basket of geraniums. On the Fiesta of Our Lady of the 

Rosary and on All Souls' Day, one large basket of geraniums 

and marigolds is provided by each steward. For the first Posada 

each steward brings a large basket of geraniums and pimil anal 

to decorate the litters of Joseph and Mary. A small basket of the 

same is used to adom their household altars. On the eighth 

Posada a large basket of geraniums and sedum is provided by 

each steward for the roof of the creche, which is embellished 

with vertical rows of geraniums separating the rows of 

greenery. When a new house is inaugurated geraniums are tied 

to each of the three pine tips planted in the comers of the house. 

Geraniums are used to adom the creche in Apas, Atz'am, Chak 

Toj, and Naben Chauk. Geraniums are used to decorate the well 

crosses on Holy Cross Day and to decorate house entrance 

crosses on all major fiestas. Three geraniums are tied to the 

cross on the roof of a newly constructed house and to the com 

bin cross. Geraniums are used to decorate the graveyard crosses 

on All Souls' Day. Though not sold at market, geraniums are 

bought locally by religious officials for altar decoration. 

b. Ik"ik'-lo'an tzajal nichim, "maroon red flower," has 

a dark red bloom. It is cultivated by ladinos and by a 

very few Zinacantecs. 

c. Sak-vayan tzajal nichim, "pink red flower," has a 

pink blossom. It is cultivated by ladinos and by a very 

few Zinacantecs. 

d. Sakil tzajal nichim, "white red flower," has a white 

blossom. It is cultivated by a few ladinos. 

Extended range: Begonia oaxacana and Spigelia splendens. 

22. Volita (bolita, jjaral-me'tik saju', volita nichim) is 

the fully double form of the feverfew Tanecetum parthenium 

(3-3). 

It is grown in all but two of the highland hamlets. 

A recent introduction, this plant was cultivated originally by 

seed, but now by slip. There may be three plantings: (1) 

May-June, (2) late August-September, (3) November. The 

slips are set 20-60 cm apart in rows 40-60 cm distance. Sheep 

manure is provided by some. Replanting may occur. The plants 

are hilled. Pesticide may be applied monthly. Two pickings are 

possible. 

A handful of this plant may be brewed for a "hot" tea for 

chest pain (k'ux o'onil). 

The flowers are used for altar decoration. These flowers are 

used very frequently in hamlet chapel flower changes. They 

may be resold and are sold at market. 

"Tzib Set" 

The "Tzib set" is a grouping of two generics and together 

refer to the fems. It is clear from the collecting effort that any 

fem (there are about 600 species that are known to occur in 

Chiapas) presented to the Tzotzil would be placed in this group. 

1. Tzib (-tik) refers to virtually all of the fems. 

Specifics: 9. 

a. Batz'i tzib, "genuine tzib" (tzajal tzib), is bracken, 

Pteridium aquilinum (1-2), a terrestrial fem with long, 

hairy, creeping rhizomes. The blade is 2-4 pinnate, 

and the margins of the segments are reflexed to cover 

the sori. The frond can attain a length of 2 m. It occurs 

in many habitats throughout the township. 

It is associated with unproductive land. 

b. Ik'al ok tzib, "black-stemmed tzib" (poxil sarampyo), refers to maidenhair fems and other small, 

delicate, terrestrial fems with black stems. Included are 

Adiantum andkola (1-4), A. concinnum (1-2), A. 

poirettii (2-3), Anemia adiantifolia (1-2), A. phyllitidis (1-4), Anogramma leptophylla (1-1), Cheilanthes hirsuta (3-5), and Cystopteris fragilis (1-1). 

These occur on moist, shaded banks in pine-oak and 

evergreen cloud forests of temperate and highland 

areas. 

c. Jamal anal tzib, "wide-leaved fem," refers to 

Elaphoglossum latifolium (2-3), E. paleaceum (1-4), 

and several species determined only Elaphoglossum 

spp. These have simple fronds with various types of 
NUMBER 35 263 

pubescence. They are epiphytic or terrestrial and have 

short-creeping rhizomes. They occur on shaded, steep 

slopes as epiphytes and on rock faces in highland 

areas. 

d. Kilajtik tzib, "pendulous fem" (tzibal k'a'-te'), refers 

to Asplenium monanthes (1-4), Campyloneurum angustifolium (2-2), C. xalapense (1-2), Phlebodium 

aureum (1-1), Pleopeltis munchii (1-2), Polypodium 

adelphum (1-1), P. alfredii (1-2), and probably 

several other species. These are epiphytic fems in 

pine-oak and evergreen cloud forest in temperate and 

highland areas. The blades are either entire and linear 

as in Campyloneurum or once pinnate. All have 

rounded sori and arise from rhizomes and hang down 

from the branches on which they are perched. 

The rhizome of Polypodium adelphum is crashed in cold 

water with white salt and administered to sheep suffering 

"wind." 

e. K'ox tzib, "small fem," refers to Cystopteris fragilis 

(1-1), Dryopteris nubigena (1-1), Thelypterus deflexa (1-1), T. oligocarpa (1-1), T. resinifera (1-1), 

and T. rudis (1-1). These are terrestrial fems with 

twice pinnate fronds. They occur on wet banks in 

montane rain forest, pine-oak-arbutus forest, and 

evergreen cloud forest. 

Thelypterus sp. is sold in Tuxtla at Christmas time. 

f. Muk'ta tzib, "large fem" (ch'ib tzib in part, mol tzib, 

palma tzib and yaxal tzib in part), refers to the large, 

terrestrial, clumped fems Acrostkum danaeifolium 

(1-1), Ctenitis equestris (1-1), Dryopteris nubigena 

(1-2), Marattia weinmanniifolia (1-1), Phanerophlebia remotispora (1-2), Polystichum distans (1-

2), and Woodwardia spinulosa (2-5). They occur in 

the understory of moist pine-oak and evergreen cloud 

forests of temperate and highland areas. 

They are sometimes used as a replacement for pine 

decorations on the crosses, and adom the creche in Chak Toj. 

The swollen, starchy rhizome of M. weinmanniifolia was eaten 

during the famine. 

g. Muruch' tzib, "kinky fem" (tzibal ton), refers to 

highland and temperate rock-growing fems with finely 

dissected, pubescent fronds, Cheilanthes farinosa 

(1-2), C. lendigera (1-2), Cheiloplecton rigidum 

(1-2), Llavea cordifolia (1-5), Notholaena Candida 

(1-1), and N. sinuata (3-6). 

h. Tzajal tzib, "red fem" (tzotzil tzib), is Polystichum 

distans (2-5), a clumped, terrestrial fem that is very 

abundant in the understory of evergreen cloud forest in 

highland areas. It arises from a stout scaly rhizome and 

has large bipinnate fronds, 40-100 cm, long with 

round sori on the undersurface. 

Holly fems were used formerly to decorate the roof of the 

creche and the Church of St. Sebastian on Christmas Eve. The 

Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary provided 150 plants on the 

eighth Posada. They adom the creche in Atz'am, Sak Lum, and 

San Mikulax. 

i. Tzatzal ok tzib, "strong-stemmed fem" (mol tzib, 

sakil ok tzib, sakil tzib), is Lophosoria quadripinnata 

(2-6), an immense fem arising from red scaley 

rhizomes with fronds to 3 m long, which are usually 

tripinnate with small, lanceolate, pinnatifid segments. 

It occurs on shaded, moist banks in wet pine-oak and 

evergreen cloud forests of highland areas. 

2. Tzib ak', "fem vine" (ak'il tzib), is Lygodium venustum 

(3-4), a viny fem occurring in second growth of lowland areas. 

The fronds are divided into many basally lobed leaflets with 

finger-like projections along their margins. It is classed as a 

"vine." 

As a remedy for fever, it is brewed with refined sugar and the 

"cold" tea allowed to cool before drinking. 

"Tzukum Jobel Set" 

The "tzukum jobel set" is a diverse grouping of 13 generics, 

grasses and grass-like herbs. 

1. Akan jobel, "stem grass" (-tik) (ak' jobel and ve'el t'ul 

in part), refers to Panicum hirtkaule (1-2), Paspalum botterii 

(1-1), P. plicatulum (1-2), Polypogon elongatus (1-1), and P. 

viridis (1-2). These are branching, sprawling, and often rooting 

at the node grasses with tall inflorescences that occur very 

commonly in disturbed and second growth throughout the 

township and are especially common in cornfields. Because of 

their persistent root system they are very difficult to remove 

from cultivated land. 

They are used for horse fodder. 

Extended range: Andropogon glomeratus, Arundinella deppeana, Digitaria leucites, Muhlenbergia tenella, Oplismenus 

burmanni, and Sporobolus indicus. 

2. Ik'al jobel, "black grass" (nichim jobel), refers to the 

rashes Juncus dkhotomus, J. ebracteatus, J. effusus, J. 

marginatus var. setosus, and /. microcephalus. These are 

rhizomatous perennials with green, stiff, round stems and 

clustered, terminal inflorescences that become dark red-brown 

to black in fruit. They are common in moist ground in 

temperate and highland areas. 

3. Kakaxon jobel, "palm grass" (potz-nich jobel, sakil 

jobel, salya jobel, ti' ba vakax, all in part), refers to Chloris 

virgata (2-5), Cynodon dactylon (1-1), Dactyloctenium 

aegyptium (3-6), and Eleusine indica (1-3), sprawling, 

mat-forming grasses with digitally compound inflorescences. 

They are common plants in disturbed areas throughout the 

township. 

They are used for thatch when roofing grass is scarce. 

4. Konejo jobel, "rabbit grass" (vale' tz'i'lel), is Zeugites 

munroana (1-2). It is a miniature bamboo-like grass with broad 

round leaves and delicate terminal inflorescences that occurs on 

moist slopes of pine-oak and evergreen cloud forest of the 

highlands. 
264 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

It is eaten by sheep. 

5. Krus jobel, "cross grass" (chikin t'ul jobel, k'otox, 

poxil sim-nak'al, tuil yisim jobel, tzisan kotz, ve'el ka' jobel, 

xanxan tz'i'lel, xojob xoto-chak, all in part), refers to the 

sedges Carex polystachya (1-1), Cyperus canus (1-4), C. 

hermaphroditus (7-11), C. manimae (1-1), C. niger (1-1), C. 

pallens (1-3), C. virens (1-1), and Rhynchospora ciliata 

(1-3). These are erect, coarse, grass-like plants with angled 

stems and terminal, branched inflorescences of apetalous 

flowers. They are common in moist, disturbed areas throughout 

the township. 

As a remedy for dysentery, 5-6 "hot" roots of C. 

hermaphroditus are brewed or braised in cold water. (This 

remedy proved to be extraordinarily effective for one of the 

authors of this book). Pregnant women who feel "cold" pains 

brew it together with black pepper. For further medicinal use cf. 

sakil pern k'ulub. 

Extended range: Carex jamesonii. 

6. K'otox jobel is Zeugites americana var. mexkanus 

(1-1), a slender grass with alternate, ovate, petioled leaves, 

1.5-2.5 cm long, and an open panicle with florets at the ends of 

its branches. This grass grows on moist slopes of pine-oak and 

evergreen cloud forest of the highlands. 

7. K'un-jobel, "soft grass" (-tik), refers to Aegopogon 

cenchroides (1-1), Arthraxon quartinianus (1-1), and 

Muhlenbergia tenella (2-6). All are delicate, low-growing, 

feathery-flowered grasses that often occur in dense colonies in 

open areas in temperate and highland hamlets. 

They are eaten by sheep, horses and cattle. 

8. Mosote (-tik, -altik) (mosote jobel) is the sand bur 

Cenchrus brownii (4-6) and C. pilosus (1-4), a tall grass with 

a dense, terminal inflorescence with seeds that have stiff spines 

that can make walking in sandals very painful. It is common in 

savannas, open slopes, and cornfields in temperate and lowland 

areas. 

It is eaten by horses and cattle. 

9. Puj-'akan jobel, "hollow-stemmed grass" (puj-'ut 

jobel), is Arundinella deppeana (2-3), a tall, few-stemmed 

grass with a large, feathery inflorescence that is common on 

open slopes and disturbed ground or second growth in 

temperate hamlets. 

It is eaten by horses. 

10. Tzajal jobel, "red grass" (tik) (tzajal nich jobel), 

refers to Aristida schiedeana (1-2), Bouteloua media (1-3), 

Elionurus tripsacoides (1-4), Muhlenbergia spkiformis (1-2), 

and Rhynchelytrum repens (4-7), all delicately branched 

grasses with feathery inflorescences and a reddish tinge to the 

foliage and flowers. They are common in savannas and 

disturbed, grassy slopes in temperate and lowland areas. 

Aristida schiedeana, B. media, and M. spkiformis are used 

for thatching fieldhouses. They are eaten by sheep, horses, and 

cattle. 

11. Tzukum jobel, "caterpillar grass" (koryo tzukum 

jobel, pech'ajtik tzajal jobel, yisim be jobel), refers to 

Oplismenus burmanni (2-2), Setaria gracilis (3-4), and 

Setariopsis aurkualta (1-1). These are slender, weedy grasses 

with short, dense, terminal inflorescences that resemble woolly 

caterpillars and stick to one's clothing. They are common in 

disturbed and second growth situations throughout the township. 

Extended range: Sporobolus indicus. 

12. Tzuntzun jobel, "messy-haired grass" (k'ik'i jobel, 

tzatzal t'ul jobel), refers to Brachiaria reptans (1-6) and 

Dkhanthelium laxifiorum (1-4), small, tufted grasses with a 

delicate inflorescence of small, round florets. They are very 

common in the grassy understory of pine-oak forest of 

temperate and highland areas. 

Extended range: Arthraxon quartinianus. 

13. Yisim be, "path whiskers" (tik) (yisim be jobel), is a 

non-Linnaean alliance that includes Cyperus hermaphroditus 

(1-3), C. virens (1-2), Oplismenus burmanni (1-1), Setaria 

gracilis (1-3), and Sporobolus indicus (1-1). These grasses or 

grass-like plants with terminal clusters of spikes, or a long 

dense terminal spike of grass florets, occur throughout the 

township. 

"Uch'ul Vo' Set" 

The "uch'ul vo' set" is comprised of 11 generics. These 

plants are mostly characterized by tuberous roots, terminal 

inflorescences, and parallel-veined leaves. 

1. Bukaro (-tik, -altik) (bukero, radiola) refers to the 

gladiolus and its relative Crocosmia. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Bukaro is the common gladiolus Gladiolus hortulanus 

(3-5). This name refers to the unimproved form with 

small flowers and short flower stems (105 cm). 

For planting techniques and use see radiola, which has 

largely replaced bukaro. 

(1) Chijal bukaro, "striped gladiolus," with intense 

red flowers streaked and speckled with yellow. 

(2) Sakil bukaro, with white flowers. 

(3) Tzajal bukaro, (batz'i bukaro) with red flowers. 

b. K'ox bukaro, "small gladiolus" (chak-lakan te' 

nichim, nichim chak-lakan te', santa lusi'ya, vach' 

nichim), is Crocosmia x crocosmiifiora (2-4), an 

orange-flowered, equitant-leaved plant that is cultivated occasionally and is commonly escaped and 

established in wild situations in moist, temperate, and 

highland locations. 

It is usually large and erect with numerous strap-shaped 

leaves, 1-2 cm wide. The inflorescence is a spike of orange-red 

flowers, 3-4 cm long, with a slender curved tube and spreading 

lobes. 

The bulbs are planted in the rainy season in all but one of the 

highland communities. 

The flowers are used for altar decoration and infrequently in 

hamlet chapel flower changes, especially in Paste". They are 
NUMBER 35 265 

sold at market in San Crist6bal and Tuxtla. 

2. Jol koy, "koy tuber" (koykoy, koyoy), refers to Tigridia. 

These all have long, plicate leaves and spherical corms. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Batz'i jol koy, "genuine koy tuber," is the Mexican 

shell flower Tigridia pavonia (9-12), conspicuous 

with its large, mottled, bright-orange flowers. The 

leaves are linear, plicate, and about 13-25 mm wide. 

The flowers are long pedicellate and 6-7 cm across. 

The fruit is a capsule about 3-5 cm long, 1 cm broad. 

Ladinos cultivate it ornamentally. It does not occur in 

the wild but is often adventive around dwellings in 

temperate and highland localities. 

A few people transplant the roots along streams. 

Men and women gather the "cold" bulbs, but they should be 

careful to refer to the plant as is-ak', "potato," rather than its 

real name, lest the bulbs become bitter. These are boiled with 

salt and chili or are roasted. They may also be mixed with 

potatoes for vokol ich. Occasionally the "cold" tender leaves 

are boiled as greens, seasoned with salt and chili. 

Children play with the flowers, carrying them around in 

bunches and tearing them to shreds. The flower stem makes a 

good whistle. The tepal is called xchikin, "its ear," and in 

Chamula children are warned not to play with the flowers, lest 

their ears get infected. 

Extended range: Rigidella orthantha. 

b. Sakil jol koy, "white koy tuber," is Tigridia chiapensis 

(1-2), a plant with white flowers that is locally 

abundant in meadows in the highlands. The flowers are 

several in each spathe with perianth segments about 2 

cm long, white, spotted with yellow and purple. The 

capsules are 2.5 cm long. The leaves are narrow, 0.6 

cm wide. 

c. Te'tikal jol koy, "wild koy tuber" (jok'leb vonon, jol 

koy ch'o), is Tigridia hallbergii (2-2), a plant with a 

pendulous, purple flowers occuring in the temperate 

and highland pine-oak forests. The leaves are narrow, 

about 6-18 mm wide, perianth segments are 15-20 

mm long. 

3. Jutuju (orkiya) is Malaxis fastigata (1-1), a bulbous, 

terrestrial orchid with a terminal cluster of small, green flowers. 

This small orchid has one or two broadly ovate or broadly 

elliptic leaves, which sheath the stem below and expand near 

the middle. The flowers are in an umbrella-shaped raceme on 

pedicels, 13-15 mm long. It occurs in the grassy understory of 

pine-oak forests in temperate and highland areas. 

As a remedy for boils (chakal, vo'an), the leaves are 

smashed and ground, burnt in a bowl, and applied hot. 

4. Kola, "glue" (kola tz'i'lel, kolail vob, palma nichim, 

sera tz'i'lel), is Govenia liliacea (5-9), a terrestrial orchid with 

a thick, fleshy tuber and white flowers. Several brown papery 

sheaths surround the base of the stem from which the two large 

leaves arise. The leaves are elliptic or oblanceolate, acute at the 

tip, plicate, 21-45 cm or more long. The peduncle also arises 

from the basal sheaths and is as long or longer than the leaves. 

The flowers are white, 1.5-3 cm long, in a terminal cylindrical 

raceme. It occurs on shady slopes in pine-oak and evergreen 

cloud forests. 

As a glue used in making fiddles and guitars, 2-3 roots are 

boiled in water laced with a bit of cane liquor. Or to glue 

musical instruments and paper, the root is peeled and the juice 

smeared on where needed. 

Extended range: Bletia sp. and Crankhis trilobata. 

5. Kola tz'i'lel, "glue plant" (p'uk, skolail svob antivo), is 

the large terrestrial orchid Govenia superba (4-6). It has a 

thick, fleshy tuber, plicate leaves, and dirty-yellow flowers in a 

terminal raceme. It differs from G. liliacea in flower color in 

having a more elongated raceme with many more flowers. It is 

similar in all other aspects. It occurs on wet slopes in pine-oak 

and evergreen cloud forests in temperate and highland areas. 

It was once used for glue, as above. 

6. Me' putzul, "mother inflated" (orkiya nichim), is 

Sobralia decora (2-6), a long, woody-stemmed orchid with 

large, terminal, sessile purple flowers, 5-6 cm long. The leaves 

are alternate, ovate and plicate, clasping at the base, 15-25 cm 

long. It occurs around rock outcrops in steep ravines in 

temperate hamlets. It is sold by children along the highway. 

Extended range: Bletia reflexa. 

1. Putzul, "inflated," is Cypripedium irapeanum (2-5), the 

ladies' slipper orchid. It is a tall plant arising from a dense 

tuber. The leaves are ovate and plicate, alternate on the stem, 

5-15 cm long; the flowers are large, 8-11 cm long, yellow, and 

inflated, bome in the axils of the leaves. It occurs in the grassy 

understory of pine-oak forests of temperate hamlets. 

The flowers are gathered and sold. Children turn the flower 

inside out and inflate it. 

Extended range: Calceolaria tripartita. 

8. Radiola (-tik) is the improved form of the common 

gladiolus Gladiolus hortulanus (1-1). When first introduced it 

was termed "pino bukaro," "fine gladiolus," but that name has 

been superseded by radiola. 

Gladiolas are extensively cultivated in most of the temperate 

and all but one of the highland communities between the rows 

of com and in separate hoed ground. The tubers are dug up in 

January and left to dry in the sun for 1-2 weeks. The skins are 

removed so the tuber will not rot. The tuber is allowed to sprout 

before planting. Some say the bulb should be planted at the full 

of the moon so it will continue to be strong and not rot after 

flowering. 

There is great variation in planting schedules and techniques. 

Gladiolas planted in late April or May provide two pickings: 

(1) July, (2) August. Gladiolas planted in midsummer provide 

flowers for All Souls' Day. People with access to irrigation also 

plant in the dry season (November-February). Most gardeners 

do not provide fertilizer, though some enrich the soil with 

compost, sheep manure, and ashes to prevent the june bug 

grubs from eating the tubers. The tubers are planted anywhere 

from 15-40 cm apart in rows 20-40 cm distant. A few 
266 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

gardeners hill the plants. Two pickings are possible. 

These flowers are used by ordinary people and religious 

officials to decorate the altar. Each steward gives the sacristans 

funds to buy gladiolas for Sacred Heart Day decorations. They 

are almost ubiquitous in hamlet chapel flower changes. The 

flowers are sold at market in San Cristobal and Tuxtla. "Fine" 

gladiolas are the principal flower bought by Zinacantecs in 

Mexico City for sale in Tuxtla. 

Specifics: 5 

a. K'anal radiola, the yellow form, grown locally and 

seldom bought in Mexico City. 

b. Moraro radiola, the magenta form. 

c. Sak-vilan radiola (rosaro radiola), the pink form. 

d. Sakil radiola, the red form. 

9. Tz'emeni' (-tik) (tz'emeni) refers to sprawling herbs 

with bright flowers and clasping, parallel-veined leaves. They 

are all spiderworts (Commelinaceae) and orchids. 

Specifics: 6. 

a. Batz'i tz'emeni', "genuine tz'emeni' (sakil 

tz'emeni'), refers to Tinantia erecta (2-3), Tripogandra disgrega (3-6), T. grandiflora (1-2), and T 

montana (2-3). These are thick-stemmed herbs with 

purple or white flowers, often rooting at the nodes and 

spreading to cover large areas of disturbed ground in 

temperate and highland areas. The leaves are alternate, 

parallel-veined, sheathing the succulent stem, ovate, 

elliptic to oblong-lanceolate. The inflorescences are 

terminal and umbellate or subumbellate, with 3-

petaled flowers, 10-30 mm broad. 

To stop hair from falling out, Tinantia erecta is braised in 

cold water and the "cold" water used to bathe the hair. 

b. K'ox tz'emeni', "small tz'emeni'," refers to Aploleia 

multifiora (1-4) and Tripogandra angustifolia (1-5). 

These are very delicate herbs with white or purple 

flowers that occur on rocky slopes in exposed areas of 

temperate hamlets. The trimerous flowers are in 

terminal inflorescences. The leaves are parallel-veined, 

sheathing, and either linear as in T. angustifolia or 

oblong-lanceolate or oblong ovate in A. multifiora. 

c. Muk'ta tz'emeni', "large tz'emeni'," is Campelia 

zanonia (1-5), a tall, erect herb with strap-like leaves 

clasping the stem, 10-35 cm long, and large, purple, 

fleshy berries. The flowers are fasciculate, subtended 

by two bracts. They are trimerous, white, lilac or pink, 

with petals 9-10 mm long. It occurs in the understory 

of tropical deciduous forest in lowland and temperate 

areas. 

d. O'lol tz'emeni', "medium tz'emeni'" (tz'emeni'al ba 

ton in part), refers to Cranichis trilobata (1-5), 

Erythrodes secunda (1 -1), Habenaria clypeata (1 -1), 

and H. quinqueseta (1-3), tuberous-rooted, whiteflowered, terrestrial orchids of the grassy understory of 

pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. The 

leaves are alternate, sheathing, distributed along the 

stem or basal as in Erythrodes. The small flowers are 

bome in terminal spikes. 

e. Tzajal tz'emeni', "red tz'emeni'" (kilajtik uch'ul 

vo', tz'emeni'al ch'en), is Epidendrum radkans 

(2-3), a succulent-leaved, spreading (with stems to 2 

m long) orchid with terminal clusters of red-orange 

flowers. It occurs in second growth and on cliffs in 

temperate hamlets. 

The stalk is used as a toy whistle by shepherds. 

f. Yaxal tz'emeni', "blue tz'emeni'" (ik'al tz'emeni', 

uch'ul vo' tz'i'lel, bik'tal tz'emeni', mis tz'i'), refers 

to Commelina alpestris (2-2), C. coelestis (4-8), C. 

diffusa (4-5), C. erecta (3-5), Cymbispatha commelinoides (4-7), Tradescantia crassifolia (1-2), and T 

guatemalensis (1-2), spreading or erect herbs with 

terminal trimerous blue or lavender flowers and 

alternate thin, elliptic, parallel-veined clasping leaves. 

They occur in second growth, disturbed ground, and in 

the understory of pine-oak and evergreen cloud forests 

in temperate and highland areas. 

In 1748 the priest of Zinacantan noted that mataliste (C. 

erecta) was used as a medicinal herb (Monrroy y Calcadilla, 

1748). 

To induce a sick child to nurse, a small bunch of Commelina 

diffusa is brewed and the child is bathed with the "cold" water 

twice a day for two days. 

10. Uch'ul vo', "water receptacle" (-tik, -altik) (uch'ob 

vo'), refers to the fleshy pseudo-bulbed orchids. It appears that 

any of 100+ species of these plants would receive this 

designation. The pseudo-bulb, a fleshy storage organ that is 

really a swollen stem contrasts with the true-bulbed, terrestrial 

orchids. These are always treated differently, i.e., jutuju, kola, 

kola tz'i'lel, yok' vakax. The pseudo-bulb species are 

epiphytic or saxicolous. 

Specifics: 8. 

a. Kilajtik uch'ul vo', "pendent water receptacle" (chi 

uch'ul vo', volajtik uch'ul vo'), is Epidendrum 

parkinsonianum (2-3), a large pendent epiphytic 

orchid. The pseudobulbs are one-leaved and enclosed 

in a translucent sheath. The leaves are fleshy, linear 

lanceolate, up to 5 dm long, 1-3.5 cm wide. The 

flowers are large, showy and fragrant. The spreading 

petals are white and yellow, linear lanceolate, and 5-8 

cm long. The flowers are in groups of 1-3 on a small 

peduncle enclosed within the leaf sheaths. It occurs in 

the pine-oak forests of the temperate and highland 

regions. 

b. K'ox uch'ul vo', "small water receptacle" (volajtik 

uch'ul vo'), is Encyclia ochracea (5-6). This is a 

slender, ascending epiphytic orchid, 7-35 cm tall, with 

narrow leaves, 6-15 mm wide. The flowers are 

yellow, about 10-15 mm long, in a many-flowered 

raceme. The capsule is ellipsoid with three narrow 

wings, 12-20 mm long. It occurs in the pine-oak 

forests of the temperate and highland regions. 

Thirsty shepherds chew the "cold" bulb. 
NUMBER 35 267 

Extended range: Leochilus pygmaeus and Pitcairnia breedlovei. 

c. Muk'ta uch'ul vo', "large water receptacle," is 

Epidendrum arbuscula (4-3). This is a loosely 

branched epiphytic orchid with purple or reddish 

brown flowers. The leaves are clustered at the ends of 

the branches and are spreading, elliptic in shape, up to 

16 cm long, 2-5 cm wide. The flowers are 2.5-3 cm 

long, in a terminal raceme. The capsules are ovoid, 

6-ribbed, about 5 cm long. It occurs in the pine-oak 

forest and evergreen cloud forest of the temperate and 

highland regions. 

Children play with the flowers. 

Extended range: Encyclia chondylobulbon and Smilacina 

scilloides. 

d. Sakil uch'ul vo', "white water receptacle" (tzajal 

uch'ul vo'), refers to Encyclia spp. (1-1) and E. 

varkosa (1-3). The latter is a perennial epiphytic or 

terrestrial orchid with narrow, acute, distichous leaves, 

4-12 cm long, 4-12 mm wide. The leaf sheaths are 

black-dotted and completely cover the stem. The 

delicate white and brown-maroon flowers are in 

panicles and 1.5-2.5 cm long. They occur in the 

pine-oak and evergreen cloud forests of the temperate 

and highland regions. 

The bulb is boiled by school children and used for glue. 

Extended range: Stelis sp. 

e. Setajtik uch'ul vo', "disk-shaped water receptacle," is 

Meiracyllium trinasutum (1-4). This small magentaflowered orchid is prostrate and creeping on large 

branches of trees. The small broadly elliptic to 

orbicular leaves are sessile, 2-4 cm long, 2-2.5 cm 

wide, and very fleshy. The several terminal flowers are 

on a short peduncle about 1 cm long. The petals are 

elliptic, acute, and about 10 mm long, 3 mm wide. The 

capsule is narrowly ellipsoid, about 1.5 cm long. It 

occurs in the pine-oak forests of the highlands. 

f. Uch'ul vo'al ba ton, "rock top water receptacle" 

(yuch'ul vo' bolom), is Odontoglossum bktoniense 

(1-3). This is a slender, white, lavender- or pinklipped orchid with long linear leaves, 1.5-5.5 cm 

wide. The flowers are showy and numerous, about 

3-3.5 cm long, produced on a long, uncrowded 

raceme. It occurs on rock outcrops and as an epiphyte 

in pine-oak forsts and evergreen cloud forest in the 

highlands. 

Extended range: Bletia sp. 

g. Yuch'ul vo' bolom, "jaguar's water receptacle" 

(k'anal uch'ul vo' in part), refers to large-bulbed 

Encyclia, Gongora, Lycaste, including L. cruenta 

(1-4), and Stanhopea that occur in montane rain forest 

and pine-oak forests, mostly in the temperate regions. 

The bulbs are not considered to be good for quenching 

thirst. 

h. Yuch'ul vo' j'ik'al, "spook's water receptacle" 

(yuch'ul vo' antivo, yuch'ul vo' chuch), refers to 

Encyclia cochleatum (1-2) and Epidendrum ciliare 

(1-1). The former is a stout orchid with 1-3 oblong 

lanceolate leaves, 15-30 cm long or more, 1.5-9.5 cm 

wide. The flowers are racemose and showy. The sepals 

and petals are linear lanceolate and yellow and brown, 

about 2.5-7 cm long. The broad entire lip is deep. The 

capsule is ellipsoid, 2-4 cm long, with three wings, 

and is usually recurved or pendent. Epidendrum ciliare 

is a white and yellow-flowered orchid with narrow 

linear-lanceolate petals and conspicuous oblong bracts 

subtending the flowers, which are arranged alternately 

in the raceme. These orchids occur in the rock outcrops 

of montane rain forest and pine-oak forest of the 

temperate zone. 

Extended range: Maxillaria variabilis. 

11. Yat kotom, "coati's penis" (-tik, -altik) (stz'itesob at, 

vale' tz'i'lel), is Cyrtopodium punctatum (4-5), a terrestrial or 

rock-growing orchid with a long, fleshy pseudobulb up to 1 m 

long and an elongate inflorescence of large, yellow and purple 

or red blossoms with petals, 10-15 cm long. The leaves are 

linear, plicate, distichous. The capsule is oblong oval up to 8 

cm long, 3-5 cm in diameter. It occurs in tropical deciduous 

forest of lowland and temperate areas. 

During weeding and clearing, care should be taken not to 

disturb these orchids, because if they die, so will the com 

farmer. The "hot" pseudobulbs are chewed once a day for three 

days by boys who want to lengthen their penises. The 

pseudobulbs may also be rubbed on one's coccyx for the same 

purpose. To increase one's virility, 13 shavings may be cut off 

the bulbs and soaked in cold water. The amount of water in the 

bowl should just cover the first knuckle of one's finger. If more 

than this amount is drank, the potion will cause sex madness. 

They are considered to be more effective than wild yams. 

Extended range: Lasiacis sorghoidea. 

12. Yok' vakax, "cow tongue" (uch'ul vo'al ton, k'anal 

pech'e-'ok, nichim joj), refers to Spiranthes aurantiaca (1-2) 

and S. cinnabarina (5-5), orange-flowered, fleshy, gray-greenleaved orchids of grassy slopes in temperate hamlets. Spikes of 

large, pubescent, tubular flowers, 2-2.5 cm long, and subtended by a foliaceous bract, are characteristic of S. aurantiaca. 

The leaves are clasping and sheathing the stem, elliptic oblong, 

2.5-5 cm wide. Spiranthes cinnabarina is smaller in stature, 

has smaller flowers, 1.2-2.0 cm long, shorter spikes, and 

shorter narrower leaves. 

They are eaten by cattle and horses. 

"Vo'tus Set" 

The "vo'tus set" is comprised of seven generics, narrow or 

finely divided-leaved herbs, often very rank smelling. 

1. Nochleb vonon, "bumblebee perch" (-tik) (Jipleb vonon, 

luchleb vonon, nakleb vonon, nochleb tz'unun tz'i'lel), is 

Cuphea aequipetala (14-17), a wiry-branched herb frequently 
268 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

prostrate or decumbent with tubular, purple flowers characteristically visited by bumblebees. The tubular calyx is about 11-15 

mm long and pubescent with rather stiff black hairs. The leaves 

are sessile, opposite or verticillate, narrowly ovate, 8-28 mm 

long. This plant is common on grassy slopes and disturbed 

ground in temperate and highland areas. 

It has a variety of medicinal uses: As a remedy for 

nightmares, the shaman brews a small bunch. A cup of the 

"hot" tea is drank before breakfast for three days. A half cup of 

this same tea is taken before breakfast by a child, for stomach 

ache. For diarrhea, too, a cup is drank before breakfast and 

lunch, or before each meal. A tea of the plant, brewed together 

with its roots, and sometimes with poxil tza'nel, relieves 

"white" dysentery. A cup is drank before breakfast for three 

days. For bloody dysentery, the plant is braised in cold water 

and the infusion drunk. To remove a dark scar or the black 

patches that appear on some women's faces after childbirth, a 

handful of flowers is rubbed seven or eight times on the 

blemish. 

Extended range: Buchnera pusilla, Castilleja integrifolia, 

Cuphea wrightii, Gaura tripetala, Justkia clinopodium, and 

Lopezia racemosa. As a remedy for diarrhea and nausea, a 

small bunch of /. clinopodium is brewed. A half cup of the 

"hot" tea is drank before breakfast for three days. 

2. Tzitz (-tik) (tzitzal ul, tzitzil ul) refers to Tagetes lucida 

(13-19), perennial herbs with thin, wiry stems, strongly 

scented, narrow leaves, 5-10 cm long, and flat-topped, 

terminal clusters of orange-yellow daisy flowers about 1 cm 

broad. These are common in the grassy understory of pine-oak 

forests in temperate and highland areas. 

In the colonial dictionary the friar gives batz'i tzitz and tzitz 

as terms for "wild fennel," which perhaps denoted this plant. 

Well, there was a bird that lived in the woods. Maybe the 

bird was like a person. 

Well, it traveled in the woods carrying its flower. "What 

kind of flower are you carrying?" it was asked. 

"I'm not. It isn't a flower," it said. 

"What is it, what is it?" 

"It isn't a flower. This is just a plant," it said. 

"But it has to have a name," said (the person). 

"It does indeed!" 

"But what kind of plant is it?" 

"This can be eaten." 

"Ah," he said, "How is it eaten?" 

"It is soaked in water," it said. 

"Ah, tell me what it's called." 

"Listen, I'll tell you," it said. "Tzijtzij ul, tzijtzij ul," it 

said as it went off. 

"Ah, tzijtzij ul is its name." 

"Tzijtzij ul, indeed!" 

"Is it eaten in com gruel?" 

"Ah, it's eaten in com gruel, soaked in water," it said. 

"Well, do you know how to eat it?" 

"I do." 

"What do you eat, do you drink that tzijtzij gruel?" 

"As for me, I just take this along. Everybody hears what 

I say as I go." 

"What do you eat, then?" he asked. 

"I don't eat anything much. I eat bugs." It said that it 

flicked up leaves, that that was where it found bugs. It just 

swallowed one after another. 

"Well, then you don't eat what you are carrying then?" 

it was asked. 

"I don't eat it, I just show it around," it said. 

"Isn't it edible?" 

"Why shouldn't it be edible?" 

"But what's it like, I can't see it." 

"Well, I'll give you one to see. I'll give you a sign," it 

said. 

"What kind of a sign?" 

"I'll give you its flower," it said. 

"Well, what's its flower like?" 

"I'll give it to you," it said. Quickly it drew one. (The 

junco) drew it. It turned out red and yellow just like a marsh 

marigold. 

"Ah," he said. "Well, all right, then, I'll take it," said the 

person who had received it. 

"Take it, try it out, soak it in water," it said. 

"Ah, fine!" he said. He soaked it in water. Eh, don't you 

see the wonderful fragrance of the marsh marigold 

remained 

Tagetes lucida is occasionally transplanted to the yard in the 

rainy season. 

A handful or three plants are ground on the metate, soaked 

in water, and added to com gruel, but if the cook is too liberal 

with this "hot" seasoning one may fall ill. The flavor is similar 

to cinnamon. It may also be brewed and sweetened with sugar 

as a coffee substitute. It may be kept dried for 4 to 5 weeks for 

convenience as it grows in few places. It is sold at market. 

3. Tzitz pox, "tzitz medicine" (chikin ba, poxil tza'nel, 

spoxil yul j'alnom, vach' t'ul), is Hyperkum uliginosum 

(6-8), a thin-stemmed herb with small opposite, linear 

appressed leaves, 1-2 cm long, and terminal clusters of bright 

yellow flowers. The capsule is ovoid, acute at the apex, 5-6 

mm long. These are common on overgrazed, grassy slopes in 

highland areas. 

As a remedy for malaria, a "hot" tea of this plant is brewed. 

The same tea may be taken for swelling. A small cup is drank 

from one to three times a day. It may be taken over a period of 

a month. As a remedy for "cold wind," a handful of stems is 

brewed together with brown sugar, rue, and tan pox. A bowlful 

of the "hot" tea is drank before meals for three days. A 

postpartum mother may be given com gruel, unsweetened, but 

seasoned with this herb and chili. For further medicinal uses cf. 

tan pox. 

Extended range: Centaurium brachycalyx, Gymnolaena 

chiapasana, and Linum schiedeanum. 

4. Tzitz tz'i'lel, "tzitz plant" (tzitz tzoj tob in part), refers to 
NUMBER 35 269 

Crusea diversifolia (1-2), L. nelsonii (1-2), L. schiedeanum 

(1-2), Pectis prostrata (1-1), and Tagetes filifolia (1-2), very 

delicate, low-growing herbs of the grassy understory of 

pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. They have 

terminal, yellow and white flowers. 

As a remedy for stomach ache (k'ux o'onil, k'ux ch'util), a 

small bunch of C. diversifolia is brewed with brown sugar. One 

or two spoonfuls of this "hot" tea are taken before meals for one 

day. 

Extended range: Cuphea utrkulosa. 

5. Tzutzub (lok'esob jolobil, poxil majbenal, skventa 

jtaleltik, tzitz te', and tz'itz'op nich, all in part) refers to 

Brickellia scoparia (1-1), Linum mexicanum (3-6), and 

Lythrum lanceolatum (6-7), three superficially similar plants 

with tall (to 1 m), thin, tough stems, linear leaves and perennial, 

underground rootstocks. They all occur in open areas in 

pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. 

Women cut the stems and scrape off the bark for use as 

bodkins. Lythrum lanceolatum may be brewed and the "cold" 

tea taken to relieve majbenal. 

6. Vo'tus (-tik, -altik) refers to marigolds, Tagetes. 

Nearly every temperate and highland household cultivates 

marigolds on a small scale. The dry plant may be hung on a 

corral post or on a peach tree in the com field so that the seeds 

will scatter. Marigold seeds are scattered in the corral, in burnt 

or hoed fallow ground and between the rows of com in the 

cornfield in the rainy season (primarily in June). When the 

cornfield is weeded care is taken not to disturb the marigolds. 

Specifics: 4. 

a. Antzil vo'tus, "female marigold" (potzan, tzeb vo'tus, 

tzebal vo'tus), refers to the double-flowered forms of 

Tagetes erecta (3-2). The two predominant color 

forms are recognized as k'anal, "yellow" and tzajal, 

"red." 

To relieve a child's night sweats, a tea made from the yellow 

flowers is drank or the child is bathed. A "hot" tea of the leaves 

may be taken for constipation (makel). No shaman is required. 

For decoration, these double-flowered forms are much preferred. On All Souls' Day three bunches of yellow marigolds 

are tied to the household cross and one bunch to the grave cross. 

These marigolds are used by the elders, stewards, and 

stewards-royal for the flower change on All Souls' Day. Each 

steward provides a large basket, half "red" marigolds and half 

geraniums, for the Fiesta of Our Lady of the Rosary. Two small 

baskets of "red" marigolds are provided by the publicans to 

decorate the chapel of Our Lord of Esquipulas. The elders 

adom their altar with one small basket. "Red" marigolds are 

also used for the Fiesta of Our Lady of the Rosary in Atz'am, 

Elan Vo', Na Chij, Paste', and Sek'emtik. In Atz'am one bunch 

is provided by each of the elders and stewards to adom the 

censers that are lowered into the salt well. 

Yellow marigolds replace the "red" marigolds in Zinacantan 

Center for All Souls' Day. They are used in Apas, Atz'am, 

Bik'it Joyijel, Chak Toj, Elan Vo", Na Chij, Naben Chauk, 

Paste", and Sak Lum. 

The flowers may be resold and are sold at market. 

For further use cf. k'anal sat mes. 

b. Kaxlan vo'tus, "castilian marigold" (muruch' potzil 

nichim), refers to the modem yellow pompom types of 

Tagetes erecta (2-3) that are cultivated especially by 

ladinos in their yards. 

They are grown by a few people in Atz'am and are used to 

adom the altar, especially on the Fiesta of Our Lady of the 

Rosary, but also on All Souls' Day. They are sold at market. 

c. Kelem vo'tus, "boy marigold" (krem vo'tus), refers to 

the single-flowered forms of Tagetes erecta (3-2). 

These are cultivated and also occur naturally in 

cornfields and disturbed ground. K'anal, "yellow," 

and tzajal, "red" varieties are recognized. 

To relieve a cough, the leaves are brewed with orange rind. 

The flowers have the same use as those of antzil vo'tus, though 

they are considered to be decidedly second-rate. A smart 

merchant will mix them together with the double variety. 

d. K'ox vo'tus, "small marigold" (vo'tus ulo', vo'tus 

ch'o), is Tagetes elongata (5-8) and T. tenuifolia 

(2-4), wild-occurring species of open areas in pineoak and evergreen cloud forests. This marigold is 

branched above, with pinnate leaves, 6-12 cm long. 

The leaflets are elliptic, about 1-4 cm long, serrate. 

The flowers are bright yellow, terminal, with rays 

8-10 mm long and the involucre 1.5-2 cm long. 

Extended range: Dyssodia papposa and T foetidissima. 

7. Vo'tus tz'i'lel, "marigold plant," is Schkuhria pinnata 

(1-3), a delicately branched herb with yellow flowers similar 

to Tagetes. The leaves are alternate, filiform, 8-25 mm long. 

The flowers are terminal at the ends of an openly branched 

inflorescence. The heads are 6-8 mm long, 6-8 mm broad. It 

is common in disturbed areas in the highlands. 

"Yama Chauk Set" 

The "yama chauk set" is a grouping of 13 generics, herbs 

and large subshrubs, most of which have umbellate inflorescences, large, bipinnately dissected leaves, and hollow stems. 

1. Chichik'uy (-tik, -altik) (chichik'u', chichik'ul, chichilk'un) refers to Piqueria pilosa (2-7) and P. trinervia 

(7-12), erect herbs with thin branches and terminal, flat-topped 

clusters of small, white flowers, about 2-3 mm broad. The 

leaves are opposite, short petiolate ovate with serrate margins, 

2.5-7 cm long. It is very common in second growth and 

disturbed ground, especially in yards and cornfields in 

temperate and highland areas. 

As a remedy for rabies, the tips are brewed. A cup of the 

"cold" tea is drank once a day for three days. As a remedy for 

athlete's foot (chi okol), a small bunch of the "cold" plant is 

placed between the toes. To cure a rabid dog, a small bunch is 

braised in salt water, and the "cold" infusion administered three 

or four times a day for two days. A poisoned dog may be given 
270 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

the same infusion to which lime juice has been added, after 

which the dog is bathed in the remaining water. As a remedy for 

"wind" in sheep, the plant is crashed in cold water and 

administered. The leaves are used for bone break. Flower 

growers wrap their bundles of flowers in this plant for 

protection during transport. 

Extended range: Sabazia sarmentosa. 

2. Enkaje refers to Ammi majus (1-2), Conium maculatum 

(1-2), and Daucus carota (1-1), tall, hollow-stemmed herbs 

with finely divided leaves and terminal, flat-topped umbellate 

inflorescences with small white flowers. They occur as weeds 

in disturbed ground in highland areas. No recognition of the 

poisonous properties of C. maculatum was recorded or that D. 

carota were feral plants of garden carrot (sanorya). 

A few Zinacantecs in Apas, Na Chij, and Naben Chauk 

occasionally sow the seeds of A. majus in their yards. The 

flowers of each species are used for altar decoration. 

3. Inojo (castillan tzitz*, inajo, inejo) is fennel Foeniculum vulgare (5-7), a tall, aromatic herb with hollow stems, 

very finely divided leaves with an expanded, clasping petiole. 

The inflorescence is a terminal umbel with rays from 2.5 to 7 

cm long. The flowers are very small and yellow. It occurs as a 

weed along roadsides and disturbed ground in temperate and 

highland areas. 

Fennel was one of the plants introduced into Zinacantan 

1545, sent by Fray Jordan de Piamonte from Oaxaca (Ximenes, 

1929, 1:423). 

A few people in Santa Rosa, most of the temperate, and all of 

the highland communities transplant young fennel plants to 

their yards or corrals in the rainy season. They may protect 

them from chickens with a stake encirclement. Young plants 

should not be cut, lest they die. 

Possibly when the priest of Zinacantan noted the use of 

eneldo, or dill, as a remedy for "wind" in 1797, he was 

referring to the closely similar fennel, as dill is unknown here 

now (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

Fennel has a variety of medicinal uses. As a remedy for 

majbenal, caused by anger, the tips are brewed with white salt. 

One cup of the "medium" tea is drunk. A half cupful of this 

same tea may be taken for heartburn (me'-vinik), before 

breakfast for three days. For majbenal, one cup of "cold" tea, 

without salt, may also be taken at bedtime and again before 

breakfast. Alternatively, for anger (sk'ak'al ko'ontik), fennel 

may be brewed together with com silk and sweet lemon leaves. 

It may also be brewed in cane liquor for a "medium" tea or 

bruised in cane liquor for a "cold" infusion. As additional 

remedies for heartburn, cane liquor may be added to fennel tea 

or the fennel tips may be brewed with refined sugar and burnt 

tortillas. For further medicinal uses cf. batz'i chijil te', tzajal 

nichim. Occasionally fennel may be bought at the market. 

4. Jok'leb tzo'op tz'unun, "hummingbird nest perch" 

(korneta, tan ok tz'i'lel), is Digiticalia chiapensis (3-3), a 

tall, hollow-stemmed, glabrous herb common in second growth 

in temperate hamlets. The leaves are large, 6-12 cm long, 

lobed into triangular or oblong lobes. The inflorescence is a 

large terminal panicle of white flowers, 6-7 mm broad. 

To reduce fever, a small bunch is brewed and a half cup of 

the "cold" tea is drank before breakfast and lunch for one day. 

5. Keb chij, "deer burp" or "sheep burp" (ch'ix tz'i'lel, 

ch'ix vo tz'i'lel, poxil chakal, sakil ch'ix), refers to Eryngium 

carlinae (3-3), E. ghiesbreghtii (3-6), and E. longirameum 

(1-1). These are perennial herbs with cordate-based triangularovate leaves, 10 cm long or less, on long petioles. The minute 

flowers are crowded into a subglobose head subtended by rigid, 

acute, bluish silver lanceolate bracts; E. carlinae is very similar 

but the leaves are oblanceolate or obovate, 3-10 cm long, 

attenuate at the base, and sharply serrate. The flowering heads 

are conic or subglobose subtended by white or bluish 

spine-tipped bracts. They are common in the grassy understory 

of pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. 

As a remedy for boils (chakal), a small bunch of E. 

ghiesbreghtii is brewed. The "hot" liquid is used to bathe the 

affected part three times daily for two or three days. As a 

remedy for mange (sep') the leaves are dried on the fire and 

applied to the affected part to kill "its animals." It is considered 

dangerous to handle these leaves without washing one's hands 

before eating. This plant and, to a lesser degree, the two other 

species, may be fatal to sheep if eaten. 

Extended range: Adenocaulon lyratum. The leaves may be 

ground and the powder used to stanch bleeding. As a remedy 

for gangrene (mos), the leaves are dried on the fire together 

with those of k'axib jobel and k'ox klavel. These, together 

with the dried bodies of a false chameleon, a marsh alligator 

lizard, and a blue-bellied lizard, are applied to the affected part. 

6. Krem pox, "boy medicine" (loj-'at pox, memela 

tz'i'lel), is Micropleura renifolia (3-7), a small, perennial herb 

with kidney-shaped leaves, 2-7 cm wide, and terminal, 

umbellate, minute greenish flowers. The fruit is somewhat 

kidney-shaped, 2 mm long, 3-4 mm wide. It has one to five 

fusiform tuberous roots. It is common on grassy slopes in 

pine-oak forests of highland areas. 

A "hot" tea may be taken for swelling, but the main focus of 

this plant is for women, lacking sons, who do not want to be 

beaten by their husbands. To induce the birth of sons by 

warming his wife's uterus, a man may gather a bowlful of 

tubers. These are ground on the metate and brewed with six 

chilies and two pieces of brown sugar. A cup of the "hot" tea is 

drunk by his wife before breakfast for three days. Or he may 

gather nine tubers that are ground, and brewed with brown 

sugar, black pepper, and 13 chilies. One bowl of the "hot" tea 

will cause the woman to give birth to nine sons. The leaves are 

ground into a powder to stanch bleeding. 

7. Kulantu (-tik) is coriander Coriandrum sativum (2-5). It 

is a branched herb with dissected leaves, the segments linear. 

The small white flowers are arranged in umbels, 2.5-5 cm 

broad. The fruits are ovoid or globose, about 4 mm long, 

ribbed. It is a cultivated herb in yards and gardens in Santa 

Rosa, in all but one of the temperate, and all of the highland 
NUMBER 35 271 

communities. The seeds may be sown in the dry season in 

corrals, fallow land far from chickens, and in the cornfields. 

Although some scatter the seeds, most claim that they grow 

better if planted in rows like radishes, with compost or sheep 

manure. If planted in the yard they must be fenced in as 

protection against the chickens. They should not be pulled up 

by the roots, lest they disappear, and they should not be allowed 

to go to flower. The plant is available for picking from May to 

October, but its season may be extended by watering. It is sold 

and resold at market. 

Some used to call this plant antun, "anthony." The "cold" 

leaves are used together with chili to season beef, and a wide 

variety of wild animals including rats, mice, squirrels, skunks, 

raccoons, coatis, opossums, rabbits, peccaries, deer, and snails. 

They are also used, together with chili, to season young 

watermelon squash, young pumpkin squash, young summer 

squash and their flowers and tips, young chayotes, potatoes, 

chayote root, tomatoes, kale, cabbage, beans, and fresh cow 

peas. The leaves may also be eaten raw. The plants may be kept 

dried for one month. The seeds are ground and used in the dry 

season to season com gruel. Cf. alavena. 

8. Kulantu ch'o, "mouse coriander" (kulantu tz'i'lel), is a 

non-Linnaean alliance of plants resembling coriander. It 

includes Apium leptophyllum (6-8), Berula erecta (3-6), 

Daucus carota (wild form) (2-2), D. montanus (2-4), 

Donnellsmithia juncea (1-1), Parthenium hysterophorus (1-

1), and Petroselinum crispum (1-1). These are weedy plants 

occurring throughout the township. 

9. Perejil* is parsley Petroselinum crispum (2-2), an 

annual or biennial from a fusiform root. The leaves are 

pinnately divided into pinately lobed ovate leaflets. The 

flowers are yellow or white and umbellate. It is cultivated in the 

highlands. 

The seeds are sown in November and December, but parsley 

is a new addition to the market. 

10. Sakil nichim te', "white-flowered tree," refers to 

Jasminum mesnyi (1-3) and J. sambac (1-2). The former is a 

sprawling, soft-wooded shrub with opposite pinnately compound leaves with three elliptic to lanceolate leaflets, 2-4 cm 

long. The flowers are large, about 4-4.5 cm broad, yellow, with 

broad rounded petals. The latter is an erect shrub with opposite 

entire leaves that are broadly oblong-obovate to broadly 

elliptic, 3-6 cm long, rounded at the apex. The white, fragrant 

flowers are densely clustered at the ends of the branches, about 

2 cm long and broad. Highland and lowland ladinos cultivate 

these shrubs in their yards and in fencerows. The slips are 

planted in the rainy season. They use the flowers for altar 

decoration. The flowers are sold at market. This shrub is 

classed as a "tree." 

11. Tuturu (tzis chauk) is Thalictrum guatemalense (3-4), 

a large, perennial herb with leaves to 1 m across that are finely 

dissected like the frond of a fem. The leaflets are broadly 

obovate to orbicular, lobed at the apex, rounded to subcordate 

at the base, about 1-3 cm long. The flowers are small, green or 

yellowish, the stamens long-exerted, the anthers 5-9 mm long. 

The fruit is an achene, 4-5 mm long. These occur in moist, 

open plains in pine-oak and evergreen cloud forests of highland 

areas. 

As a remedy for fever (k'ok') a bunch is brewed and left to 

cool. A half cup of the "cold" tea is taken. To cure sick 

chickens, the leaves are bruised in cold water for a "cold" 

infusion. Children play with the tips. 

12. Tzis chauk, "thunderbolt fart" (-tik, -iltik) (tzis 

chitom), is Tagetes nelsonii (7-14), a highland, soft-wooded 

shrub with very strongly scented herbage, divided leaves with 

5 to 15 narrowly elliptic leaflets and flat-topped, terminal 

clusters of yellow flowers with rays to 15 mm long. It is 

common along roadsides and in disturbed areas. 

As a remedy for "cold" in the limbs, the "hot" plant is 

braised in water that may be warmed before bathing the patient 

with it. As a remedy for soul-loss (balamil), the patient may be 

bathed with a cold infusion of water in which the "hot" plant 

has been brewed. Its foul odor also serves to drive away the 

Earth Lord. 

Extended range: Bidens laevis, B. squarrosa, and Dyssodia 

appendkulata. 

13. Yama chauk, "thunderbolt's flute" (-tik, -altik), is a 

non-Linnaean alliance including Aralia humilis (1-2), Arracacia bracteata (3-7), A. nelsonii (1-1), Bocconia arborea 

(2-5), B. frutescens (3-5), Coaxana purpurea (2-4), Dahlia 

coccinea (6-4), Digitkalia chiapensis (1-2), Equisetum 

myriochaetum 91-2), Pedilanthus tithymaloides (1-4), Prionosciadium nelsonii (4-5), Thalictrum guatemalense (6-10), 

and Valeriana sorbifolia (1-1). These are tall (to 2 m) herbs or 

subshrubs with large, hollow or pith-filled stems and pinnately 

divided, lobed or dissected leaves. They occur in second 

growth throughout the township. 

A man suffering venereal disease gathers 12 plants of 

Arracacia bracteata. They are brewed and the "medium" tea 

drank before breakfast for as many days as necessary. The tips 

may be used in the "steam cure." 

"Yax-chel Set" 

The "yax-chel set" is comprised of nine generics. All are 

mints or mint-like with opposite, aromatic leaves. 

1. Alavena (-tik, -altik) (castillan tuil nichim*) refers to 

the true mints Mentha. These are early Spanish introductions 

from Europe. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i alavena, "genuine mint" (-tik) (ch'ix alavena), 

is penny royal Mentha pulegium (2-3), a coarsely 

pubescent-leaved herb once common in adventive 

situations. It is decumbent with ovate to orbicular, 

opposite leaves, about 2 cm long, with serrate margins. 

Zinacantecs note that it neither flowers nor fruits. 

In 1797 the priest of Zinacantan noted that poleo was used to 
272 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

stanch bleeding (de Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). 

It is grown in the lowlands in all but one of the temperate and 

all of the highland communities. Young plants are transplanted 

any time of the year, but if in the dry season they should be 

watered in the late afternoon. If watered they may continue into 

the rainy season. They may be given sheep manure and ashes 

when they are planted either in the corral or the yard. They may 

be planted in an old pot or box and kept under the roof 

overhang. Penny royal is known to grow for only certain 

people. 

Penny royal must not be refused to a person who asks for it, 

nor must it be sold, lest its soul depart and the plant die. It was 

once bartered for mangoes in San Lucas. The disappearance for 

many years of wild-growing penny royal was caused, according to some, by the sale of the plant to people of San Lucas. 

Others claim that visitors from San Lucas, Acala, and Chiapa 

de Corzo stole its soul. Still others maintain that its soul went 

to the afterworld. It is beginning to reappear now. The "hot" 

tips are used to flavor beef, pork, vokol ich chitom, snails, 

cabbage, kale, and the mushrooms bililux and chakat'ob. 

Together with chili it is used to season snails, peccary, raccoon, 

squirrel, coati, opossum, armadillo, young watermelon squash, 

young pumpkin squash, and young summer squash. Together 

with chili and coriander it is used to season venison, snails, 

beef, kale, and cabbage. It is also used to flavor bull's blood and 

the "blood" of the petate bull on Epiphany (provided by the 

Stewards of Our Lady of the Rosary). Farmers traveling to the 

lowlands may take it along for seasoning. It may be kept dried 

for 1 to 2 months. The flavor of penny royal is preferred to that 

of bergamont mint and is said to last longer when dried. 

b. Ch'ulul alavena, "smooth mint" (-tik), is bergamont 

mint Mentha citrata (1-2), a smooth, glabrous-leaved 

herb. The leaves are opposite, ovate, about 1.5-3.5 cm 

long, short petioled, and serrate margins. The stems are 

4-sided and reddish or purple. 

Bergamont mint is planted in Santa Rosa and in all but one 

of the temperate and highland communities. Its cultivation and 

use is identical to that of penny royal except that there is no 

restriction on its sale. 

2. Alavena tz'i'lel, "mint plant," is a non-Linnaean grouping of wild-occuring plants that are similar to mints. Included 

are Borreria laevis (1-1), Heliotropium angiospermum (1-4), 

Hyptis vertkillata (1-2), Lantana achyranthifolia (1-2), 

Lippia nodifiora (1-1), L. stoechadifolia (1-2), Mimulus 

glabratus (1-1), Salvia misella (1-2), Scutellaria dumetorum 

(1-2), and Verbena Carolina (1-2). These plants occur 

throughout the township usually in second growth or disturbed 

situations. 

Zinacantecs note that L. stoechadifolia is very resistant to 

herbicides. 

3. Arvajaka (-tik) (avrajaka) refers to the basils Ocimum. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i arvajaka, "genuine basil," is the introduced and 

totally cultivated European basil Ocimum basilkum 

(2-3). It is an annual herb, densely branched with 

aromatic, opposite elliptic to ovate leaves, 2-4 cm 

long. The flowers are white or purple-tinged, about 

4-5 mm long, bome in whorls in simple terminal 

racemes. Ladinos sow the seeds in the temperate and 

lowland areas in the rainy season. They use the plants 

for altar decoration. 

It is grown in a few of the temperate communities. 

When the saints from Ixtapa and San Lucas visit Zinacantan 

Center, basil plants are brought along and placed at the feet of 

the saints in the Church of St. Lawrence. Likewise, when 

Zinacantec saints return the visit, basil plants are bought and 

offered in the churches there. Also, a shaman who attends a 

fiesta in Ixtapa or San Lucas may buy a bunch of basil to bring 

back and store at home. Basil is offered in Bik'it Joyijel at the 

Fiesta of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, and for 

every flower change. Basil may be bought at market in San 

Cristobal and Tuxtla. 

As a remedy for "wind," a bunch may be brewed. A cup of 

the "hot" tea is drank before breakfast. As a remedy for 

earache, the tips are brewed. A wad of cotton is soaked in the 

decoction and put in the ear. For further medicinal uses cf. 

kontiyerva, mantzanilya, and k'ox yax-chel. 

b. K'ox arvajaka, "small basil" (sve'el tuch'ich'), refers 

to the wild-occurring Ocimum americanum (4-6) and 

O. micranthum (1-6), common weeds in temperate 

and lowland areas that are very similar in fragrancy 

and habit to the European basil. Both have opposite 

ovate leaves and terminal racemes of verticillate blue 

or lavender tubular flowers. Ocimum micranthum has 

larger leaves and flowers than O. americanum. 

As a remedy for malaria (pasmo), two or three plants are 

bruised in cold water or brewed. A "hot" cupful is drank before 

breakfast for one or two days. For other medicinal uses cf. 

batz'i arvajaka and ch'ail pox. 

Extended range: Gongylocarpus rubrkaulis. 

4. Arvajaka tz'i'lel, "mint plant" (alavena tz'i'lel, bot'-jol 

nichim, bot'-jol tz'i'lel), is self-heal Prunella vulgaris (5-7), 

a plant of moist, grassy slopes and meadows in the highland 

areas. It is a procumbent or erect herb with opposite ovate to 

oblong leaves, 3-8 cm long, and terminal bracted spikes of 

blue or purple bilabiate flowers. The flowers are crowded and 

verticillate forming an oblong head-like spike, 2-10 cm long. 

As a remedy for malaria, a "hot" tea is taken. To reduce 

fever, the tips are braised in water. The "cold" infusion is used 

to bathe the head. As a remedy for embarrassment suffered by 

young children who have accompanied their mothers to market 

in San Crist6bal, young tips are smeared on their face and head 

two times each morning for three days. For sheep suffering 

swellhead, the plant is brewed together with ch'upak' joj and 

k'ojom and the head bathed. 

5. Chilchil tz'i'lel, "rattling plant" (tik) (ch'akil tz'i'lel, 

na p'ilix, nochleb p'ilix, poxil k'uxben chon, tub pilix, yisim 

uch), is Lepechinia schiedeana (7-10), a coarse, spreading 
NUMBER 35 273 

herb with terminal interrupted spikes of verticillate, pale blue, 

tubular flowers. The calyx is tubular with spinose-tipped acute 

lobes, the stems and leaves are pubescent. The leaves are 

opposite, oblong or oblong-ovate with crenate margins, 4-6 

cm long. When in fruit, the seeds rattle in the dry, tubular 

calices. It is very common on overgrazed, grassy slopes in 

highland pine forests. 

To cure toothache, the plant is brewed and the tea taken to 

rinse the mouth, or the leaf is chewed raw. Children eat the 

"cold" fruit. 

6. Tzotzil jabnal, "woolly leaf (-tik), is Stachys radkans 

(1-4), a woolly-leaved, purple flowered herb common in wet 

ground along streams and in wet, disturbed areas and in 

meadows in the highland areas. The leaves are opposite, sessile 

or short petiolate, oblong-ovate to ovate, 12-30 mm long. The 

flowers are purple or pink, bilabiate, 10-15 mm long, and 

verticillate in an interrupted spike. 

To relieve a person suffering from majbenal skventa 

kajvaltik, a variety of remedies classed as both "medium" and 

"cold" are available: (1) the tender tips are braised in cold water 

together with sikil ton, and a small cup of the infusion is taken, 

(2) the tips are brewed in salt water and the warm tea drank, (3) 

the tips are braised and cold salt water and the infusion drank. 

For chills and fever, a tea may be taken. 

Extended range: Drymaria gracilis, Lamium amplexkaule, 

Stachys agraria, S. coccinea, and S. rotundifolia. 

7. Yarvajaka me'on, "pauper's basil" (muk'ta jol choy 

tz'i'lel, ne ch'o tz'i'lel), is Stachytarpheta cayennensis (1-1) 

and S. frantzii (3-3). These are common roadside and second 

growth plants of the temperate and lowland regions with long, 

terminal rat-tail inflorescence, 2-3 mm in diameter, of 

deep-blue tubular flowers, 10-16 mm long. The leaves are 

opposite, elliptic or oblong ovate, decurrent on the petioles, 

serrate, 3-10 cm long. 

As a remedy for earache, the plant is brewed and the "hot" 

tea drunk. 

Extended range: Achimenes grandiflora. 

8. Yax-chel, "green chel" (-tik), refers to Satureja and 

Catoferia, two similarly aromatic plants. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'ox yax-chel, "small green chel" (k'ox jabnal, poxil 

jabnal, poxil k'ok'), is Satureja brownei (10-15), a 

tiny, spreading herb with bilabiate, lavender flowers, 

6-10 mm long. The leaves are opposite, short 

petiolate, broadly obovate, with cordate or subcordate 

bases, 5-12 mm long. It is very abundant on grassy 

slopes and in meadows in the temperate and highland 

areas. 

This plant is a "hot" remedy for a great number of ailments: 

Women whose eyesight dims following childbirth (yax-chel), 

take a cup of the tea before breakfast for as many days as 

necessary, or the leaves may be braised in cold water that is 

used to bathe the patient's head. As a remedy for swelling 

(pumel) a small bunch is brewed together with basil and ch'ail 

pox. The tea is drank as above. As a remedy for "cold wind," 

a small bunch is brewed with ch'ulelal and a pinch of tobacco. 

This tea is also drunk as above. To relieve headaches, cure 

majbenal, and to cause measles to erupt, a handful is braised in 

warm water. One cup of the infusion is drank. To relieve 

headaches, a handful may also be heated and smeared on the 

head two or three times a day for two days. To relieve earaches, 

a few stems are pushed into the ear. As a "cold" remedy for 

madness, the plant may be braised in cold water and the 

infusion poured into the ears and nose or used to bathe the 

patient's head. 

Extended range: Anagallis arvensis, Bouchea prismatka, 

and Salvia longispkata. 

b. Muk'ta yax-chel, "large green chel" (yax-chelul), is 

Catoferia chiapensis (4-10), a soft-wooded shrub 

with large, terminal dense spikes of white and lavender 

tubular flowers, 1.5-2 cm long, with very long exerted 

stamens, three times as long as the corolla. The leaves 

are opposite, ovate, acuminate at the apex, decurrent at 

the base, 10-18 cm long, softly pubescent below. It 

occurs on rocky second growth slopes in temperate 

hamlets. It is classed as a "tree." 

This plant has many of the medicinal uses described to k'ox 

yax-chel. The "hot" remedies are: A tea is taken for dimmed 

eyesight following childbirth. For pregnant or postpartum 

mothers suffering "stomach" pains, a midwife directs smoke 

from the leaves towards her patient. To relieve headaches, a 

handful is brewed and the water used to bathe the head twice a 

day. As a remedy for insomnia, four leaves are braised and 

mixed with cold water. A drop is placed in the nostrils. Or, the 

"medium" leaves are ground and placed in the nostrils at 

bedtime for three nights. 

Extended range: Aphelandra deppeana, Barleria micans, 

Croton draco, Justkia fulvkoma, and Miconia oligotrkha. 

9. Yaxal nich tz'i'lel, "blue-flowered plant" (chivo pox, 

muk'ta yalem bek'et and nap'ap' tz'i'lel in part), refers to 

Ageratum corymbosum (3-3), A. echioides (1-2), A. houstonianum (2-4), and A. paleaceum (1-1). These are opposite, 

pubescent-leaved herbs with fuzzy, terminal clusters of blue 

flowers. They are common in the grassy understory of pine-oak 

forest, in grassy savannas, and also weedy in fallow fields and 

cornfields. 

Extended range: Bartletina hylobia, Bonplandia geminiflora, Commelina alpestris, C. diffusa, Fleischmannia imitans, 

F. pycnocephala, Hyptis suaveolens, H. vertkillata, Prunella 

vulgaris, and Salvia urica. 

Isolates 

1. Amapola is the opium poppy Papaver somniferum, a 

stout herb often up to a meter tall. The flowers are large and 

showy with bluish white, pink, or red petals darkened at the 

center, 4-5 cm long. The leaves are alternate, glaucous, 

clasping the stem with irregularly incised margins. The fruit is 
274 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

a capsule, glabrous and globose, 2-3 cm in diameter, with a 

disk at its apex. This is a common weed of the stock yards of 

the highlands, widely distributed in highland gardens by means 

of the manure. 

On 26 August 1983 El Periodico of Tuxtla Gutierrez 

headlined "Enorme Plantio de Amapola Destruyeron," reporting that 5760 poppy plants in San Mikulax were burnt by the 

Mexican army. It seems that a nameless foreigner had donated 

the "turnip and lettuce seeds" whose crop he advised could be 

sold for a good price in Tapachula. In 1985 a second planting 

was reported in Sek'emtik. Despite the heavy penalties 

announced regularly on the radio, Zinacantecs are fascinated 

with the high price paid for the gum. A Paste' track driver, 

working in the Lacandon jungle, was tempted by a million peso 

sale of gum, which he was told would be speedily bought up by 

gringos for astronomical figures. 

2. Aselka (-tik) is Beta vulgaris var. cicla (2-2), Swiss 

chard, a green very recently introduced into Bik'it Joyijel and 

in many of the highland communities. It is a biennial plant from 

a large branched root with large leaves with a thick midriff. 

A few people sow the seeds in seed beds in May, 

transplanting them after a month within a corral. Where 

irrigation is possible they are planted in December. This is 

preferred as they do not suffer mildew. They are provided with 

sheep manure. They are ready to pick in a month-and-a-half. 

They are sold at market. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'anal aselka, "yellow aselka," is the variety with 

reddish leaves. 

b. Yaxal aselka, "green aselka," has white stalks and 

green leaves. 

2. Ba nab tz'i'lel, "lake-top plant," is Eichhornea crassipes 

(1-1), the water hyacinth that grows in the Presa de Angostura. 

This is a floating herb with short stems, numerous roots, and 

showy lilac flowers, with a flower tube 1.5-2 cm long and 

lobes about 3 cm long. The leaves are round-reniform with 

broad petioles, 2-30 cm long, which are often inflated. The 

fruit is a capsule about 1.5 cm long containing seeds that are 

narrowly 10-winged. It also occurs in roadside ditches and slow 

moving water in the lowlands. 

3. Chan-tzelav tz'i'lel, "four-ridged plant," refers to Alonsoa meridionalis (1-1) and Leucocarpus perfoliatus (1-1), 

two figworts with prominent, 4-angled stems and yellow or 

orange tubular flowers, 12-20 mm long, in terminal racemes. 

The leaves are opposite, narrowly ovate, with serrate margins, 

3-7 cm long and petiolate in Alonsoa and narrowly oblongobovate or narrowly elliptic, with serrulate margins, 7-18 cm 

long and perfoliate in Leucocarpus. The fruit is a conical or 

globose capsule, 10-15 mm long. They occur in wet, exposed 

places in evergreen cloud forest of highland areas. 

4. Chenek' tz'i'lel, "bean plant" (chenek' ch'o, xinal 

tz'i'lel, and yol lum in part), refers to Desmodium palmeri 

(1-1), Phaseolus vulgaris (2-2), Rhynchosia minima (1-1), 

and Senna uniflora (4-5). The last is an erect herb with pendent 

segmented legumes, 2-4 cm long, and yellow flowers. The 

leaves are pinnate into pubescent, elliptic leaflets, 2-5 cm long. 

Desmodium palmeri, P. vulgare, and R. minima are all trifoliate 

with leaflets ranging from broadly ovate to narrowly ovate, 

with rounded to attenuate apices, 1.5-6 cm long. The flowers 

may be orange, yellow, white, or purple, small and in terminal 

or axillary racemes. These are very abundant in the understory 

of tropical deciduous forest and in disturbed ground in lowland 

areas. 

5. Ech' (-tik) refers to bromeliads. These are clumped 

plants with fibrous leaves in a tight rosette forming a bowl that 

can hold water. The flowers are racemes on thick stems arching 

from the center of the rosette. 

Specifics: 8. 

a. Antzil ech', "female bromeliad" (mol ech', sakil ech', 

tontikil ech', yech' j'ik'al), refers to Pitcairnea 

breedlovei (3-5) and Vriesea werckleana (2-3), 

rosetted plants that occur on limestone cliff faces. The 

leaves are broad sheathing, triangular-linear, to 10 dm 

long, and the inflorescence is very tall (to 1 m), a 

simple raceme or branched. The flowers are green or 

yellow, secund, 2.5-5 cm long. They occur in 

temperate and highland areas. 

The leaves were once used to wrap pozol when traveling to 

the lowlands. In major curing ceremonies the "cold" plants are 

used to decorate a patient's bed. In Jok' Ch'enom the plant is an 

ingredient of "flower water." 

Extended range: Catopsis nutans and Pitcairnia calderonii. 

b. Ch'ix ech', "spiny bromeliad," refers to Pitcairnia 

breedlovei (2-2), P. calderonii (1-3), P. heterophylla 

(2-2), and Tillandsia rodrigueziana (1-2). These are 

epiphytic and saxicolous, rosetted plants with very 

narrow leaves, often with spines at the leaf bases or 

along the margin of the leaves. They occur in 

temperate and highland areas. 

As a remedy for stomach ache Pitcairnia sp. is boiled and the 

stomach bathed with the "hot" liquid. 

c. Kilon ech' (-tik), "pendulous bromeliad" (kiletel ech', 

kilkil ech'), is Tillandsia violacea (5-8), a giant (to 1 

m across), rosetted epiphyte with an immense, pendulous inflorescence to 3 m long consisting of alternate 

subsessile spikes, 9-15 cm long, 4-6 cm wide. The 

spikes are flattened, blue-flowered with conspicuous, 

densely imbricated, coriacious bracts subtending the 

flowers. It occurs in pine-oak forests of temperate and 

highland areas. 

They are used to adom the creche in Apas and Atz'am. 

Formerly on Monday of Holy Week, each of the stewards 

provided four inflorescences. This number was reduced to three 

and now to two. The inflorescences are hung on the two pine 

trees that flank the cross on Good Friday. The same use is made 

in Naben Chauk. These bromeliads are also used for decoration 

in Sak Lum on the fifth Lenten Friday and in Chak Toj and Elan 

Vo' on Good Friday. 
NUMBER 35 275 

This plant may be subdivided further: 

(1) Sakil kilon ech', "white pendulous bromeliad," 

refers to plants with young flower stalks. 

(2) Tzajal kilon ech', "red pendulous bromeliad," 

refers to plants whose flower stalks have reddened with aging. They are preferred to the young 

flowers, which become gray after they are cut. 

d. Krus ech', "cross bromeliad" (-tik) (batz'i ech', k'ox 

ech'), is Tillandsia guatemalensis (4-7), an epiphyte 

with numerous leaves, about 4 dm long, forming an 

um-shaped bowl. The flowers are blue in an openly 

branched red bracteate inflorescence. The floral bracts 

are about 13-15 mm long. It is a common element in 

evergreen cloud forest and moist pine-oak forest in the 

highland areas. Some people in the highland hamlets 

now transplant these bromeliads to the forks of trees in 

their yards. 

This "cold" plant is a basic ingredient of "flower water" in 

the highland hamlets. A single plant is used. Three plants are 

used to decorate the house cross and each shrine at a curing 

ceremony. For each flower change the stewards gather 900 

plants. Eight hundred plants are provided by the senior steward 

in charge; 500 hundred of these to decorate the Church of St. 

Lawrence. Forty plants are provided by each of the other senior 

stewards. Sixty plants are provided by the senior steward to 

decorate his coffer. This bromeliad is gathered also by the 

stewards-royal every Saturday to decorate the Chapel of 

Espuipulas and their coffers. The elders decorate the altar of the 

grand alcalde every two weeks. Forty plants are provided by 

each steward on the eighth Posada to decorate the creche. On 

Christmas Eve the Christ Children are placed under an arch of 

this bromeliad and bamboo palm in the Church of St. Sebastian 

These bromeliads are used to decorate the creche in Apas, Na 

Chij, Naben Chauk, Paste', and San Mikulax. They are used in 

the hamlet chapel flower changes in about half the hamlets. The 

plants are sold by the people of San Felipe at Christmas time in 

San Cristobal, Chiapa de Corzo, and Tuxtla. For further uses cf. 

antzil aj, ch'ib, ik'al toj, tzis uch, yich'ak mut. 

Extended range: Tillandsia flabellata. 

e. Uma' ech', "mute bromeliad" (-tik) (sonso ech', yech' 

antivo in part), refers to Tillandsia butzii (1-2), T. 

capitata (2-4), T. caput-medusae (1-2), T. dasyliriifolia (1-2), T.fasckulata (3-8), T. flabellata (1-1), T. 

plumosa (2-4), and T. vicentina (1-4). These are 

common, often abundant epiphytes of pine-oak forests 

in temperate and highland areas. 

Children should avoid putting this plant in their mouths lest 

they become mute or begin to stutter. The plants are sold in 

Tuxtla at Christmas time. 

They may be further subdivided: 

(1) Kilon uma' ech', "pendulous mute bromeliad"— 

T. butzii, T. caput-medusae. Both plants have 

long sheathing leaves with inrolled margins with 

bases that are suborbicular or broadly elliptical. 

The scapes are erect with imbricated foliaceous 

bracts. The inflorescence is either simple or 

branched, consisting of linear, flattened, bracted 

spikes of lavender or blue flowers. 

2. Krus uma' ech', "cross mute bromeliad"—T. 

dasyliriifolia, a very large stemless epiphyte with 

strap-shaped leaves, 7-9 cm long and to 6 cm 

wide at the base. The scape is erect, elongate, 

paniculate. The floral bracts are broadly ovate, 

coriaceous, and shorter than the flowers. The 

flowers are white or greenish with petals 3-4 cm 

long. 

(3) Tzajal uma' ech', "red mute bromeliad"—T. 

fasckulata, T. plumosa, T. vicentina. Tillandsia 

fasckulata and T vicentina are epiphytes with 

long rosulate leaves with sheaths 2-3 cm wide 

and stout scapes, which are simple or branched. 

The spikes are composed of deeply imbricated 

bracts subtending the flowers. The bracts are 2-4 

cm long in T. fasckulatum, subtending flowers 

about 6 cm long. The bracts are 2-2.5 cm long, 

subtending flowers 4-5 cm long in T. vicentina. 

Tillandsia plumosa is much smaller with many 

rosulate, linear leaves with sheaths 1-2 cm wide. 

The scapes are several and slender. The floral 

bracts are red, about 5 cm long; the flowers are 

blue about 7 cm long. 

(4) Vojton uma' ech', "ear of com mute bromeliad"— 

T. capitata, a stemless epiphyte with leaves about 

equaling the inflorescence, narrowly triangular 

with large sheaths about 4-5 cm wide. The scape 

is curved with large foliaceous scape bracts 

exceeding the ellipsoid inflorescence. The floral 

bracts are ovoid, orange subtending the blue 

flowers, with petals 35-55 mm long. 

Extended range: Pitcairnia breedlovei and P. karwinskyana. 

f. Vojton ech', "ear of com bromeliad" (-tik) (sot' ech', 

tzajal ech'), is Tillandsia ponderosa (2-6), an 

epiphytic, um-shaped plant with an enormous, thick, 

brilliant red inflorescence up to 50 cm tall. The floral 

bracts are densely imbricate, about 5.6 cm long. The 

flowers are purple with petals 4-5 cm long. It is a 

common plant in pine-oak forests of highland areas. 

Some people in the highland hamlets now transplant 

these bromeliads to me forks of trees in their yards. 

For major curing ceremonies, 15 plants are gathered: Three 

"cold" plants are for the "flower water." One is placed at the 

altar of each of the three churches in Zinacantan Center, one at 

each of the six mountain shrines, one on the house entrance 

cross, and two at the top of the arch at the entrance to the 

patient's bed. The number used may, however, vary. 

Two hundred plants are taken by the stewards to Atz'am on 

the Fiesta of Our Lady of the Rosary. To make the roof cross of 

the creche, three plants are gathered by the stewards on the 
276 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

sixth Posada and stored in the church for two days. The red 

leaves and flowers are alternated with white com husk leaves. 

They are bound to a small, wooden cross. One plant was placed 

formerly at each comer of the roof of the creche. They are used 

to adom the creche in Chak Toj and Naben Chauk. The plants 

are sold by Chamulans and the people of San Felipe in San 

Cristobal during the Christmas season. At this time, too, a large 

group of people from Chiapa de Corzo march in procession 

with the image of a Christ Child, El Nino Florero. Until 

recently they intoned prayers in the otherwise forgotten 

Chiapanec language. Proceeding through Muk'ta Jok' and 

Sek'emtik, they visit the church of Naben Chauk before 

gathering these bromeliads on the steep slopes of Naben 

Chauk, Yaleb Taiv, and San Felipe. Heavily laden, they return 

home to decorate their altars in Chiapa de Corzo. For further 

uses cf. tzis uch. 

Extended range: Tillandsia seleriana. 

g. Xulub chivo ech', "goat hom bromeliad," is Billbergia 

pallidiflora (1-2), an epiphyte with few leaves in a 

tight rosette forming a hom-shaped bowl and a long, 

narrow, pendent inflorescence. The inflorescence is 

many-flowered and densely cylindric. The flowers are 

green with petals up to 52 mm long. It occurs in 

tropical deciduous forest of lowland areas, 

h. Yech' joj, "raven's bromeliad," is Tillandsia seleriana 

(1-2), a clustered epiphyte with the leaves closed over 

the top of the bowls. The enclosed hollow is often a 

favorite nesting site for a species of stinging ants. The 

inflorescence is branched into 3 to 7 spikes. The floral 

bracts are 20-28 mm long. The flowers are blue or 

violet with petals about 3.5 cm long. It is common in 

dry pine-oak forests of temperate areas. 

The plants are used as flowers in a baby's curing ceremony. 

6. Jol choy, "fish head" (jol choy tz'i'lel), is Calyptocarpus 

wendlandii (5-11), a common, sprawling herb with small, 

yellow, terminal daisy flowers and spine-tipped fruits about 1 

cm broad, which are very painful when they get lodged in one's 

sandals. The leaves are opposite, broadly elliptic, serrate, 2-7.5 

cm long. It occurs in the wet understory of tropical deciduous 

forest along streams. 

It is eaten by horses. 

7. Jonjolin is sesame Sesamum indicum, an erect herb to 1 

m tall with finely pubescent stems, leaves, and fruits. The lower 

leaves are opposite, and the upper, alternate. They are ovate to 

oblong, 5-15 cm long, 2-6 cm wide. The flowers are solitary, 

white, and 2-3 cm long. The corolla is two-lipped. The capsule 

is oblong, 2-3 cm long, with four longitudinal grooves. The 

seeds are ovate and cream-colored or tan, 2 mm long. It is 

commonly cultivated by ladinos in the Central Depression and 

is a fragrant roadside weed. This plant has been introduced 

recently to six lower temperate communities. 

8. Kontiyerva (konchiyerva) is Dorstenia contrajerva 

(3-6), a perennial acaulescent herb with basal palmately lobed 

or triangular cordate scabrous leaves and a hand-shaped, 

disk-like inflorescence of minute flowers. The leaves are long 

petiolate, 10-15 cm long, the disk-like inflorescence is 2-5 cm 

broad. It occurs in the understory of tropical deciduous forest 

and seasonal evergreen forest of lowland areas. 

This plant has a variety of medicinal uses. Com farmers 

suffering from "wind," diarrhea, or loss of energy gather three 

or four roots. They are crushed and soaked in cold water. One 

bowlful of the infusion is drank. If taken this way the patient 

may continue to drink cold water and does not need to remain 

in quarantine. The roots may also be brewed for a "hot" tea. For 

"wind" and swelling, the roots are brewed with basil. For 

diarrhea, they are brewed with batz'i ch'ulelal nichim, but this 

treatment proscribes the drinking of cold water and demands a 

two day (or some say) a one month quarantine, lest a slow death 

ensue. A bowl of the "hot" tea is drank, in any case, before 

breakfast for one or three days. For "cold" in the stomach there 

are two additional prescriptions. Three roots are ground raw 

and brewed with brown sugar, or to make a "hotter" potion, the 

roots are first dried. The "tea" is very thick. For postpartum 

women who feel "cold" in the stomach one month after 

delivery, the tea may be taken. To relieve the pain of wasp 

stings, a bath of this herb is effective. 

Extended range: lostephane trilobata. 

9. Krus tz'i'lel, "cross plant," is Chromolaena odorata 

(1-1), a coarse shrub, with drooping or recurved branches. The 

leaves are opposite, ovate, variable in size and shape, 3-nerved 

from the base, acute or attenuate at the apex. The inflorescence 

is large and broad, made up of cylindric dandelion-like heads of 

lavender or white flowers. The branches that bear the flowers 

diverge at right angles from the main stem. This plant occurs in 

second growth of the temperate and lowland regions. 

10. K'anal nich, "yellow flower," is a non-Linnaean term 

referring to a number of yellow-flowered weedy plants 

including Alloispermum scabrum (1-1), Bidens bkolor (1-1), 

B. ostruthioides (1-1), Melampodium montanum (2-2), M. 

perfoliatum (1-1), Potentilla staminea (1-1), Sanvitalia 

procumbens (1-1), and Sclerocarpus uniserialis (1-1), which 

occur throughout the township usually in second growth or 

weedy situations. 

11. K'ask'as tz'i'lel, "brittle plant" (k'ask'as nichim and 

tut nichim in part), is a non-Linnaean grouping of many 

unrelated shrubs with brittle stems: Alternanthera laguroides 

(1-2), Blechum brownei (1-1), Cordia spinescens (1-3), 

Euphorbia graminea (1-1), Geranium seemannii (1-1), 

Iresine celosia (3-2), Lopezia langmenniae (1-2), Mirabilis 

jalapa (1-1), Rondeletia sp. (1-4), Ruellia parva (1-3), and 

Russelia sarmentosa (2-4). 

12. Lechuka (lechuga*) is lettuce Lactuca sativa (2-2), a 

plant recently introduced to Zinacatan. 

Lettuce is cultivated in Bik'it Joyijel, Sak Lum, and all the 

highland communities. The seeds are sown in the rainy season 

in a corral. Lettuce is rarely, if ever, eaten by Zinacantecs. It is 

sold at market. 

Specifics: 2. 
NUMBER 35 277 

a. Jich'il anal lechuka, "narrow-leaved lettuce," refers to 

the loosely heading lettuce varieties. 

b. Votzvotz lechuka, "clumped lettuce," is head lettuce 

such as "iceberg." 

13. Lula (ruda*) is rue Ruta graveolens (4-7), a very 

strongly scented subshrub often cultivated by ladinos in 

highland, temperate, and lowland yards. The leaves are 

alternate, divided into narrowly elliptic leaflets, 6-30 mm long. 

The inflorescence is a terminal raceme of yellow flowers with 

fringed petals about 6-7 mm long. The fruit is a capsule about 

7-8 mm long with four acute lobes at the apex. 

In Santa Rosa, a few people plant rue in their yards. It is 

planted in many temperate and all highland communities, but it 

is known to grow for only certain people. Seeds, slips, or 

seedlings are planted in the rainy season. The plants need no 

fencing, as chickens will not touch them. 

Rue has a very wide variety of medicinal uses. For laryngitis 

(makal jnuk'tik ta sik), a "hot" rue tea, brewed with cane 

liquor, is taken. Rue tea is taken by nursing mothers to 

stimulate lactation. To cause measles to erupt, three shoots are 

brewed. The shaman bathes the child in the "hot" water. As a 

remedy for stomach ache, a handful is brewed. The patient 

drinks two spoonfuls mixed with cane liquor. As a remedy for 

majben utz kolo', a bunch of rue is braised and mixed with 

white salt and cane liquor. One shot glassful is drank and the 

whole body bathed with the infusion. Alternatively, three or six 

tips may be brewed with batz'i ch'ulelal nichim and a pinch of 

tobacco. One cup is drank, and the remainder used to bathe the 

patient's arms, legs, chest, forehead, back, and sides. Or, a 

handful may be mixed with garlic and tobacco and rubbed on 

the knees, calves, and thighs. Or if the pain is at the base of the 

spine, it may be massaged with the same potion. A person who 

has been tormented by the Earth Lord in his dreams brews three 

shoots. He is bathed with the "hot" water for three days to a 

week. As a remedy for soul-loss (balamil), rue is crashed and 

rubbed on the body at bedtime for three days. Just the wrists 

and ankles may be rubbed or the whole body. In addition 

12-13 tips may be buried erect, surrounded by three cloves of 

garlic in the place where soul-loss was suffered. These are 

considered to serve as the substitute for the startled person. 

Also as a remedy for soul-loss, rue tea may be drank. If the 

leaves are rubbed on the body, garlic may be added to the rue 

to prevent the Earth Lord from approaching. An additional use 

was noted by the priest of Zinacantan in 1797: "for the ears" (de 

Leon y Goicoechea, 1797). For further use cf. kururin, tzitz 

pox. 

14. Marivana (marivano tz'i'lel) is marijuana Cannabis 

sativa (1-3), a large plant from 6-12 feet tall. The leaves are 

alternate and palmately divided into 3-7 narrowly lanceolate 

segments, about 4-15 cm long, with serrate margins. The male 

flowers are bome in very long panicles. The female flowers are 

in short leafy spikes about 2 cm long. In the 1950s and early 

1960s, it occurred as a weed in the lowlands. 

Marijuana was cultivated by a few people in the 1970s, but 

this was ended abruptly by their jailing. In 1985 there was 

renewed talk of its clandestine cultivation. In 1987 two 

Zinacantecs were jailed for planting what they call "weeds." 

It is widely believed, as they have been told by ladinos, that 

marijuana will drive a person mad. 

Extended range: Leonurus siberkus. As a remedy for 

paralysis, a handful is brewed together with basil for a "hot" 

tea. 

15. Mexa tz'i'lel, "table plant" (manya chenek' tz'i'lel), is 

Kallstroemia rosei (2-5), a prostrate herb with axillary 

yellow-orange flowers, about 2 cm broad, and opposite 

pinnately divided leaves with ovate or broadly elliptic leaflets, 

5-20 mm long, which occurs in waste ground, roadsides, and 

disturbed fields in lowland areas. The fruit is conical and 

ribbed, about 6 mm long, with an attenuate beak about 6 mm 

long. 

As a remedy for stomach ache, (k'ux o'onil), a bunch is 

brewed. One cup of the "medium" tea is drank before breakfast 

for three days. It is also used for pig fodder. 

16. Nap'-'us tz'i'lel, "gnat sticking plant" (poxil sep', 

tzotzin te', tzuntzun tz'i'lel), is Croton ciliatoglandulifer 

(3-7), a gray-leaved subshrub with long, gland-tipped hairs on 

the stems and margins of the leaves. The leaves are alternate, 

ovate or broadly ovate with an attenuate apex and rounded 

base, 1.5-6 cm long. The flowers are small, white, and in 

terminal clusters. It is common in second growth and fallow 

fields in lowland areas. It is used as a cure for "mange." 

17. Nekeb pox, "shoulder medicine," refers to Acourtia and 

lostephane, two acaulescent perennial herbs with flowers 

produced from the rosette on long naked peduncles. They both 

occur in the understory of pine-oak forest in the highland and 

temperate regions. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Krem nekeb pox, "boy shoulder medicine," is 

Acourtia nudkaulis (1-2). These are perennial, 

acaulescent herbs with toothed ovate or oblong ovate 

leaves on long petioles. They are acute at the apex, 

rounded and then decurrent on the petiole or cordate at 

the base. The flowers are white and dandelion-like in 

an open panicle at the end of a long scape. It occurs in 

the understory of pine-oak forests in the temperate 

hamlets. 

The root is brewed and the tea drank by women who want to 

have boy babies. 

b. Tzeb nekeb pox, "girl shoulder medicine," is lostephane trilobata (1-2). These are erect scapose herbs 

with basal triangular ovate or trilobate leaves, 5-10 

cm long. The lobes are broadly rounded and the blade 

is decurrent on the petiole and scabrous above and 

below. The flowers are solitary at the ends of the long 

peduncles and are daisy-like with yellow rays, 9-15 

mm long. It is a common plant in the grassy understory 

of pine-oak forests of highland and temperate areas. 

The root is brewed and the tea drunk by women who want to 
278 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

have girl babies. 

18. Nich nab, "lake flower" (-tik), is a non-Linnaean 

grouping of many unrelated herbs that occur in or near water. 

These include Aster exilis, Berula erecta, Cardamine flaccida, 

Eryngium carlinae, E. ghiesbreghtii, Hydrolea spinosa (1-1), 

Ludwigia peploides (1-2), Mimulus glabratus, Polygonum 

punctatum, Rumex crispus (1-1), and Sisyrinchum scabrum. 

Because of genuine or suspected toxic properties responsible 

for killing sheep, many speakers segregate the following. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Bero nich nab, "watercress lake flower" (sakil nich 

nab), is Cardamine flaccida (3-6), a slender, perennial, branched herb with abundant leaves. The alternate 

leaves are pinnately divided into small ovate or 

orbicular, crenate leaflets, 0.4-1.5 cm long. The small 

white flowers are racemose. The fruit is a narrow 

silique about 22 mm long and 1 mm wide. This plant 

grows on the edges of standing water in the highlands. 

It is considered to be particularly toxic. 

b. Ch'ix nich nab, "spiny lake flower," is Eryngium 

guatemalense (1-1), a coarse, stout perennial, with 

long linear leaves, 10-30 cm long, with spine-like 

lobes on the margins. The inflorescence is umbellate 

with conical or globose heads of purple flowers, 1.5-2 

cm broad, subtended by an involucre of narrowly 

triangular, spine-tipped bracts. This plant grows on 

exposed grassy slopes on the highest ridges. It is fatal 

to sheep. This and the other "lake flowers" toxic to 

sheep are believed to grow in their livers after being 

ingested. 

c. Koko'on nich nab, "mexican tea lake flower" (tzajal 

nich nab), refers to Aster bullatus (1-1), Mimulus 

glabratus (2-2), and Polygonum punctatum (4-6), 

which all grow along streams or in very wet soil in the 

highlands. They are glabrous-leaved and have succulent, turgid stems. 

d. Kuchara nich nab, "spoon lake flower" (kulantu 

tz'i'lel, tzib nab), is Berula erecta (5-8), a slender 

herb with long pinnate leaves, growing in moist 

pasture land or along creeks in the highlands. The 

leaflets are oblong ovate, serrate, 1-4 cm long. The 

tiny white flowers are bome in terminal umbellate 

inflorescences. It is not considered as lethal as the 

other members of this complex. 

e. Pech'e-'ok nich nab, "flat-stemmed lake flower," is 

Sisyrinchium scabrum (4-3), a blue-flowered member 

of the iris family with narrow, grass-like leaves and a 

terminal cluster of blue flowers, 8-12 mm long. The 

fruit is a globose capsule about 5-8 mm long. It is 

common on moist grassy slopes in the highlands. See 

also pech'e-'ok jobel. 

19. Nichim joj, "raven flower" (nich joj), refers to 

Zephyranthes hrevipes (2-5) and Z. carinata (1-4), bulbous 

lilies with large, funnel-shaped, pink flowers, 4-6 cm long in 

Z. carinata and 5-12 cm long in Z. brevipes. The leaves are 

narrow, 5-7 mm wide. They are common in grassy fields and 

meadows of highland areas. 

Children play with the flowers. 

20. Pinsel (-tik), Centaurea cyanus, which is known 

commonly as bachelor's button, is a slender annual with wiry 

stems. The leaves are alternate, entire, 5-10 cm long, and 5 mm 

wide. The lower leaf surface and young stems are cottony. The 

flowers are usually blue but can be purple or pink and are 3.5 

cm across. The involucre is made up of spinescent bracts, 

which are 4-9 mm long. 

This commercial flower has been grown by a few Zinacantecs in Atz'am, Naben Chauk, and Zinacantan Center since 

about 1980. The seeds are planted in flats in August. After three 

weeks, the seedlings are transplanted 35 cm apart in rows 40 cm 

apart. The plants flower in three months and are pinched back 

so they will flower abundantly in six months. The flowers are 

picked once a week, but the tough stems must be cut with 

clippers. Though the plant flowers for a year and a half, 

Zinacantecs prefer to collect the seeds to begin a new crop after 

a year of flowering. 

It is sold at market in San Cristobal and Tuxtla. 

21. Pochok' is Juanulloa mexicana (1-1), an epiphytic 

herb arising from a tuberous root with sprawling stems and 

large, ovate, woolly pubescent leaves. The flowers are orange 

with an angled tube up to 8 cm long and clustered at the end of 

the leafless branches. It occurs in oak forest of the temperate 

hamlets. 

22. Poxil chon, "snake medicine," is Hybanthus verbenaceus (1-2), perennial, erect or decumbent, branched plants with 

alternate, elliptic to obovate leaves, 2-5 cm long. The flowers 

are blue, purple, or white, axillary, about 4-6 mm long, on 

pedicels 10-12 mm long. The fruit is an ovoid capsule, about 

1 cm long, with an acuminate tip. The seeds are round, brown, 

and smooth, about 2 mm in diameter. It grows in second growtii 

in the temperate and lowland regions. 

As an antidote for snakebite, the leaves are brewed and the 

tea drank. 

23. Poxil chu'ul, "breast medicine," is Spigelia nkotianaeflora (1-2), a perennial herb with few large opposite broadly 

ovate leaves and a scorpioid inflorescence of red tubular 

flowers, 4-8 cm long, with yellow tips. It is locally common in 

cornfields in the temperate hamlets. 

To induce lactation, the root is crushed and boiled with black 

pepper. The "hot" tea is drank. 

24. Poxil lukum, "worm medicine," is Turnera diffusa 

(1-1), a small, densely branched shrub with alternate, dentate, 

oblong or obovate leaves, 1-2 cm long, pubescent below. The 

flowers are yellow, almost sessile, with petals 4-8 mm long. 

The fruit is a subglobose capsule, 1.5-2 mm in diameter. It 

grows in second growth and on roadsides in temperate lowland 

areas. 

As a remedy for worms, a "cold" tea is taken. 
NUMBER 35 279 

25. Poxil me'-vinik, lit. "mother man medicine," i.e., 

"heartburn medicine," is Chamaecrista desvauxii (1-3), a 

many-branched perennial with large, yellow flowers with 

obovate petals, 12-20 mm long, at the leaf axils along the stem. 

The leaves are pinnate into four broadly elliptic to rotund 

leaflets, 10-21 mm long. The stems, pedicils, petioles, and 

sepals are glandular pubescent. The legume is pubescent with 

long, somewhat stiff straw-colored hairs. It is common in 

second growth and savannas in temperate and lowland areas. 

To ease heartburn, men in the lowlands braise a handful in 

water. A cup of the "cold" infusion is drunk once or twice. 

26. Poxil satil, lit. "eye medicine," i.e., "pink eye medicine," is Diastatea mkrantha (1-2), an erect, delicate herb 

with a terminal raceme of pale blue flowers, 8-10 mm long, on 

upward arching pedicels, 1.5-3.5 cm long. The leaves are 

alternate, ovate to lanceolate, serrate, 1-6 cm long. It occurs in 

the grassy understory of pine-oak forests in the temperate and 

highland areas. 

To cure pink eye, a tip is cut and three drops of the "cold" sap 

are placed in the eye once daily for three days. 

Extended range: Drymaria gracilis. 

27. Poxil sim-nak'al, lit. "hidden mucous medicine," i.e., 

"dysentery medicine," is Crossopetalum parvifolium (1-1), an 

erect, branched plant, 2-3 feet tall, with ovate, oblong-ovate or 

lanceolate leaves, 1-5 cm long. The flowers are minute, red in 

finely branched axillary panicles. The fruit is subglobose, about 

7 mm in diameter, bright red. This plant grows in second 

growth and tropical deciduous forests in the lowlands. 

A "hot" tea is taken as a remedy for dysentery. 

28. Poxil yayijemal, "wound medicine" (nichim ninyo in 

part, poxil yayijel, talesob chu'ul tz'i'lel, tux-nuk' tz'i'lel), 

refers to the cud weeds Gnaphalium attenuatum (2-4), G. 

brachypterum (3-5), G. roseum (1-4), and G. viscosum (3-3), 

erect, woolly-leaved herbs with terminal head-like clusters of 

small composite flowers. The leaves are sessile or clasping 

linear or narrowly lanceolate and abundant on the stems. They 

are very common in the understory of pine-oak forests and in 

second growth of the temperate and highland hamlets. 

To speed the healing of cuts, the "hot" woolly down at the 

ends of the tips is applied to the cut for two or three days. Then 

the cut is bathed with hot water and new down applied. 

Alternatively, one to four leaves may be applied to the cut once 

a day for three days. They may also be brewed and the liquid 

used for bathing the cut. Or, the cut may be bathed with k'ox 

pak' chak tea and the powder from the burnt leaves applied. 

The flowers are sold in Tuxtla at Christmas time. 

Extended range: Conyza chilensis and Gnaphalium purpureum 

29. Puj*, "hollow" (-tik), refers to cattails and bullrashes. 

Extended range: Cyperus niger, Eleocharis dombeyana, 

Equisetum hymale var. affine, Fuirena simplex, and Juncus 

effusus var. solutus. (These are without reference to specific.) 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Antzil puj, "female hollow" (bik'it puj), refers to the 

cattails Typha domingensis (2-4) and T. latifolia 

(1-1), plants that occur in standing water at all 

elevations. They have robust simple, erect stems, 

linear or strap-shaped leaves with parallel veins, 5-25 

mm wide, and terminal long, cylindrical, brown spikes 

of densely crowded unisexual flowers. 

Some women who wish to make their hair grow longer or 

whose hair is falling out pound the rhizomes of this plant on a 

rock and mix it with the water for washing their hair. They 

wash their hair with this "cold" water once daily for five days, 

b. Vinik puj, "male hollow" (puj yoyal balamil, tutal 

vo'), refers to Scirpus californkus (4-6) and S. validus 

(1-2), tall rashes of standing water at high elevations. 

The stems are round, about 12 mm in diameter. The 

inflorescence is terminal and has a branched arrangement of brown spikelets about 6-8 mm long. 

30. Sakil nichim, "white flower," is Fleischmanniopsis 

leucocephalum (2-2), a slender shrub, sparsely branched with 

opposite, lanceolate, leaves 6-10 cm long with coarsely serrate 

margins, 3-nerved at the base. The white composite flowers are 

bome in a large ovoid panicle. This plant grows in the second 

growth of the temperate and lowland areas. 

The flowers are sold in Tuxtla for the fourth Friday of Lent 

decorations. 

31. Sat pukuj tz'i'lel, "devil face plant" or "devil eye 

plant," is Spigelia humboldtiana (1-1). This is an erect or 

decumbent perennial usually glabrous with opposite sessile or 

short-petiolate, oblong to ovate leaves, 2.5-8 cm long. The 

flowers are tubular, white, 15-18 mm long, in a terminal, 

few-flowered spike. The capsule is bilobate, 4-6 mm wide, 

glabrous. This plant occurs often as a weed in cornfields and in 

second growth in the temperate and lowland regions. 

32. Sat vet, "fox face" or "fox eye" (poxil poslom), is 

Chimaphila umbellata (2-2), a mottled-leaved herb in the 

understory of moist pine-oak forests in the highlands. These 

small suffratescent plants have whorls of 3 to 7 oblanceolate 

leaves, 3.5-8 cm long, serrate along the margins. The flowers 

are terminal at the end of a long peduncle about 10 cm long. 

The petals are white and pink, about 7 mm long. The capsule is 

globose, 6-10 mm in diameter. 

33. Tan ka', "gray horse" (ve'el ka'), refers to the tick 

clovers Desmodium amplifolium (3-6), D. aparines (1-5), D. 

chiapense (3-8), D. maxonii (2-5), D. nkaraguense (4-9), D. 

orbkulare (2-6), D. skinneri (2-3), and D. strobilaceum 

(1-3). These are shrubs or herbs with small purple pea flowers 

and alternate trifoliate leaves. The leaflets are generally ovate 

with acute apices. The pods are constricted between the seeds 

and flattened into one plane. The pods, stems, and foliage often 

are covered with retrorse hairs causing them to stick to rough 

surfaces. These plants occur in drier habitats throughout the 

township. The shrubbier species are sometimes classed as 

"tree." 

The trunk of D. skinneri is used for firewood. The "medium" 

bark is applied to cuts. All varieties are eaten by sheep and 
280 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

horses. 

Extended range: Nissolia fruticosa. 

34. Tenten pox, "matted medicine," is Osbertia stoloniferus (1-2), an herbaceous perennial with yellow daisy-like 

flowers about 3 cm across. The flowers are single on a long 

peduncle, which arises from a basal cluster of narrowly 

obovate, pubescent leaves, which range from 3 to 8 cm long 

and 1.5 to 2 cm wide. It grows in the grassy understory of 

pine-oak forests in the highlands. 

The plant is burnt and rubbed on athlete's foot (chin ta 

koktik). 

35. Tut (akan aj, juxob ek'en) refers to the horsetails 

Equisetum hymale var. affine (3-4) and E. myriochaetum 

(1-2). These occur in moist places and along streams in 

temperate and highland areas. These are rush-like plants, with 

hollow, erect, jointed stems with longitudinal ridges. They may 

be either unbranched as in E. hymale or have many jointed 

branches whorled at the nodes. The fertile stems are terminated 

by a cylindric cone-like structure containing the spores. 

To relieve constipation or bloody dysentery, a small bunch is 

brewed. One cup of the "cold" tea is taken. This plant is sold in 

Tuxtla as a remedy for venereal disease. The "cold" tea is drank 

two to three times. A handful of "cold" plants may be crashed 

in cold water and the water used to bathe the head of a person 

whose hair is falling out. 

The plant is used to sandpaper metate platforms, hoe and ax 

handles, and digging sticks. Children use the stems for 

whistles. 

36. Tut nab, "lake tut" (inejo te', punyal tz'i'lel), is 

Sesbania emerus (3-3), a tall (to 3 m) herb with yellow pea 

flowers, 14-16 mm long, and elongate, pinnately divided 

leaves with many oblong leaflets, about 13 mm long, crowded 

on the rachis. The legumes are linear, to 26 cm long. It occurs 

in large masses in standing water like outside ditches, low 

ground, etc., in the lowlands. It is classed variously as "tree" 

and "plant." 

37. Tux-nuk'* (tik) (tux-nok', tux-nok'*) is cotton 

Gossypium hirsutum (1-4), a plant cultivated by ladinos in 

lowland areas and occasionally escaped along roadsides. It is a 

coarse shrub with leaves about 5-15 cm long, cordate, and with 

three ovoid or triangular lobes. The flowers are large, white or 

yellow fading to pink, with petals 3-5 cm long and a central 

column of fused stamens. Each flower is subtended by two 

ovate bracts, which are deeply cut into 9 to 13 lacerations. The 

capsule is ovate-elliptic with an acuminate tip, 4-5.5 cm long. 

The seeds are covered with short fuzz and long white cotton 

fibers. Ladinos plant cotton in their yards in the rainy season. 

They pull off the bolls and flail them. The cotton is spun into 

thread. 

Extended range: Anoda cristata and Croton argenteus. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. K'an-chik tux-nuk', "yellow chik cotton," refers to 

brown cotton that appears together with the white 

cotton and was formerly cultivated by the people of 

Cancuc. 

b. Sakil tux-nuk', "white cotton," was the substance with 

which clouds were made. 

Cotton thread is now bought commercially. Cotton is used 

by the stewards to wipe off the saints when they are bathed, and 

by the holy elders when Christ is bathed. Cotton is also used to 

swab the arm with alcohol before giving an injection. 

Zinacantecs grew cotton about thirty-five years ago. It was 

planted at a full moon on St. Peter's Day (29 June). The seeds 

were first mixed in mud to germinate and then planted with a 

digging stick, 3-4 seeds to a hole, 30 cm apart. When 15 cm 

tall, the field was weeded. The cotton was picked in December 

and January. 

38. Tzon-te'*, "tree beard" (-tik), refers to mosses, lichens, 

and moss-like higher plants. 

Specifics: 5. 

a. Pop tzon-te', "mat tree beard," refers to leafy lichens. 

b. Tzon-te'al balamil, "terrestrial tree beard" (puchleb 

ninyo, snichim ninyo), refers to mosses and lichens 

that occur on the forest floor in dense evergreen cloud 

forests of the highland areas. Thuidium delkatulum 

(1-3), an especially dense moss, is used at Christmas. 

It has elongate stems with delicate, feathery branches. 

Two bagfuls of T delkatulum are provided by the Stewards 

of Our Lady of the Rosary on the eighth Posada to serve as the 

bed for the Christ Children. More is provided by the 12 

godfathers on the ninth Posada. It is used widely to decorate 

hamlet creches. 

c. Tzon-te'al krus, "cross tree beard" (tzon te'), is 

Spanish moss Tillandsia usneoides (1-4), a long, 

pendent, small, green-flowered epiphyte with narrow 

gray-pubescent, tangled stems and branches often 

occurring in great masses on trees on the crests of 

ridges in temperate and highland areas. 

As a remedy for whooping cough, a "hot" tea is taken. The 

publicans of the previous year gather enough Spanish moss to 

be sewn on their hats for their performance as tzon-te' during 

the Fiesta of St. Sebastian. The publicans' assistants gather two 

bagsful at midyear's to adom the Chapel of Our Lord of 

Esquipulas. Men designated by the magistrate gather Spanish 

moss to decorate the courthouse on Independence Day and to 

decorate the three arches that are erected for a visit by the 

governor or the bishop. It is used to decorate the chapel in Sak 

Lum on the fifth Lenten Friday and is widely used to decorate 

hamlet creches. 

For further medicinal use cf. nok'ol sik'ol. 

d. Tzon-te'al te', "arboreal tree beard," refers to mosses, 

leafy liverworts, and lichens that cover stems and 

branches of trees in evergreen cloud forest and wet 

pine-oak forests of temperate and highland areas. 

e. Tzon-te'al ton, "rock-growing tree beard," refers to 

mosses and lichens that cover rocks and north-facing 

cliffs in temperate and highland areas. 

39. Tzun-jol tz'i'lel, "messy-haired plant," is Nama ja-
NUMBER 35 281 

makense (1-2), an erect, delicate herb with lavender and 

yellow flowers. The leaves are alternate, broadly obovatespatulate, 1-8 cm long. The blades are decurrent on the petioles 

and the petioles, narrowly decurrent on the stems. The flowers 

are solitary or in groups, sessile in the leaf axils. The capsule is 

elongate, about 1 cm long, pubescent. It is common in 

disturbed ground in the temperate hamlets. 

The leaves are bound to pack sores. 

40. Ventex chij, "deer chaplet" or "sheep chaplet," is 

Lophospermum turneri (1-2), a pendent herb with alternate, 

triangular-cordate succulent leaves, 2-5 cm long, and tubular, 

purple flowers, 3.5-4.5 cm long. The capsule is globose, 1.5 

cm long. It occurs on rock outcrops and faces of limestone cliffs 

in the temperate hamlets. 

41. Voy mula, "mule hoof," refers to Valeriana densifiora 

(5-9), V. sorbifolia (3-3), and V urtkaefolia (1-5), ranksmelling, delicately branched herbs with terminal, small, white 

flowers. The leaves are mostly basal, petiolate, broadly ovate or 

rotund with dentate margins or pinnate with dentate leaflets. 

The inflorescence is dichotomously branched, much exceeding 

the leaves. They are common in the grassy understory of 

pine-oak forests and in second growth in temperate and 

highland areas. 

Women who do not wish to bear children or who desire an 

abortion have a variety of prescriptions to choose from. Three 

tubers with about 5 cm of stalk attached are brewed. One cup of 

the "hot" tea is drank before breakfast and supper for three 

days. This cure is said to shrivel up the uterus for 12 years. Or 

the tuber may be ground and mixed with cold water to provide 

a "cold" infusion that is taken once. Or, one cup of a "hot" tea, 

provided by brewing 12 stalks, is taken before meals for three 

days. Or, the tuber is ground and mixed with cold water, brown 

sugar, and cinnamon to provide a "hot" infusion. During the 

dry season all signs of the plant disappear; accordingly, during 

this time, women who have taken the cure are said to grow very 

thin. 

Extended range: Ageratina muelleri, Diastatea micrantha, 

and Eryngium longirameum. 

42. Xanxan (-tik, -iltik) refers to the club mosses and 

reurrection mosses. 

Specifics: 3. 

a. Xanxanil balamil, "terrestrial xanxan" (muk'ta xanxan), refers to Lycopodium clavatum (1-4) and L. 

thyoides (5-7), creeping dichotomously branched 

plants with scale-like leaves or dense whorls of linear 

leaves, 4-8 mm long, and terminal, club-shaped, 

fruiting bodies. They are common in dense understory 

of wet pine-oak and evergreen cloud forest of 

temperate and highland areas. 

The entire plants of L. thyoides are provided by the Stewards 

of Our Lady of the Rosary on the eighth Posada to decorate the 

litter of the Virgin Mary and the Christ Children's bed. They 

are tied to the Christ Children's bed just before they are bom. 

They are sold in San Cristobal and Tuxtla by Chamulans and by 

the people of San Felipe during the Christmas season. A plant 

may be tied around a baby's leg so that it will learn to walk 

faster (the verb xanav means "to walk"). 

b. Xanxanil te', "arboreal xanxan" (balajtik xanxanil 

te' and ne tz'i' tz'i'lel in part), refers to Lycopodium 

taxifolium (1-5) and L. tuerkheimii (1-5), pendent 

epiphytes in evergreen cloud forest of highland areas. 

They are dichotomously branched with scale-like 

leaves or dense whorls of linear leaves and terminal, 

club-shaped fruiting bodies. Stems of L. taxifolium are 

up to 3 cm thick with whorls of linear leaves to 2 cm 

long. Stems of L. tuerkheimii are more delicate, up to 

1 mm wide, with scale-like leaves. 

The plant is used occasionally for thatch and as a fixer for 

daub. 

c. Xanxanil ton, "rock-growing xanxan" (muk'ta xanxan, poxil jik'ik'ul obal), is Selaginella pallescens 

(4-6), a tufted plant that is common on exposed, rocky 

slopes in temperate and highland areas. The leafy 

stems are branched and appear flattened due to the 

small leaves arising in one plane. They are ovate and 

about 1.5-3 mm long. 

As a remedy for whooping cough, it is brewed together with 

several genera of crastose lichens. Yikatz toj and the flowers of 

k'ox tz'oban may be added. 

43. Xenxerva is ginger Zingiber officinale (1-1). It is 

available in the markets. It is a perennial herb arising from an 

aromatic rhizome. The stems are a meter high or more with 

numerous, parallel-veined, sheathing, lanceolate or linearlanceolate leaves. The flowers are yellowish green, tubular, 

about 2 cm long, and are bome in a long pedunculate, 

ellipsoidal dense spike, about 5 cm long. The flowers are 

subtended by ovate bracts, about 2.5 cm long. 

Ginger may be chewed as a remedy for laryngitis, "opening 

the throat." It is used to flavor com gruel. It is "hot." 

44. Xinal pox, "stinky medicine" (k'anal nich), is Melampodium montanum (4-6), a common, sprawling herb with 

numerous, pale-yellow daisy flowers about 8-17 mm broad. 

The leaves are opposite, sessile, oblong-ovate or elliptic, 1-3.5 

cm long. The flowers are terminal or slender naked peduncles, 

exceeding the leaves. It occurs on grassy slopes in the 

understory of pine-oak forest and in disturbed ground such as 

cornfields in temperate and highland areas. 

As a remedy for "wind" and diarrhea or bloody dysentery, a 

small bunch is brewed. A cup of the "hot" tea is drunk before 

breakfast. Krus jobel (Cyperus hermaphroditus) may be added 

to the tea. 

45. Xinal tz'i'lel, "stinky plant," is Porophyllum ruderale 

ssp. macrocephalum (1-1), a lowland plant common along 

roadsides and in second growth. It is an erect, strong-scented 

annual, sparsely branched with alternate, broadly ovate leaves, 
282 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

1-3 cm long. The flowering heads are purple and yellow, about 

25-28 mm long, on peduncles that are conspicuously 

thickened above. 

As a remedy for stomach "wind," a small bunch is brewed 

for a "hot" tea. 

46. Yail tz'i'lel, "hot plant" (pochajtik anal tz'i'lel, yat 

nab), refers to the docks Rumex crispus (2-3), and R. 

obtusifolius (3-4), roadside and disturbed field weeds in the 

highland areas, especially along side streets in towns. They are 

erect, coarse, perennials with stout stems and mostly basal 

leaves, oblong or oblong lanceolate, 15-40 cm long, rounded 

at the base. The flowers are white, very small, and arranged in 

clusters on the branches of the raceme or panicle. The fruit is an 

achene enclosed in three wing-like, dry, lacerate or entire, 

inflated perianth segments. 

The "hot" leaf may be bound to a bone break. It may also be 

crushed and applied to the neck for poslom. Formerly, the 

leaves were gathered occasionally and sold to butchers in San 

Cristobal to wrap meat. 

47. Yajan chuch, "squirrel's ear of com" (-tik), refers to the 

chlorophyll-less root parasites. 

Specifics: 2. 

a. Batz'i yajan chuch, "genuine squirrel's ear of com" 

(ajan tz'i'lel, yajan joj), is Conopholis americana 

(2-4), a pale yellow plant about the size and shape of 

an ear of com. It arises from a perennial swollen base 

and is erect and unbranched. The stem is covered with 

imbricate sessile scales, which continue upward into 

the spikate inflorescence. The flowers are tubular 

about 22 mm long. It occurs in the understory of wet 

pine-oak and evergreen cloud forests in the highland 

areas. 

b. Tzajal yajan chuch, "red squirrel's ear of com," is 

Helosis mexicana (2-5), a red, parasitic, mushroomshaped plant up to 20 cm tall that occurs in the humus 

of the understory of dense tropical deciduous and 

seasonal evergreen forests of lowland areas. 

48. Yak'ubal us, "gnat's night" (ak'ubal us, ch'a-te' ka' 

and mesjob tz'i'lel in part, nak'ubal us, nochleb buluk' sat), 

refers to small, densely branched composite shrubs that have a 

large profusion of white or pink, strongly scented flowers, 

which are abundantly visited by flies, especially members of 

the family Tachinidae. Zinacantecs recognize that there are 

white, sak, and pink, tzoj, varieties. Included are Ageratina 

bustamenta (1-2), A. petiolaris (1-2), A. pringlei (2-3), 

Fleischmannia pycnocephalum (1-2), Peteravenia phoenkolepis (1-2), Stevia caracasana (1-2), S. connata (1-2), S. ovata 

(4-7), and S. serrata (1-2). These occur in second growtii and 

in the open understory of pine-oak forests of die highland and 

temperate regions. 

The "hot" leaves of P. phoenkolepis are boiled and applied 

to the toes when the flesh around the toenails rots in the rainy 

season. The flowers of the same plant and of S. ovata are used 

for altar decoration on All Souls' Day. They are sold in the 

market in Tuxtla. 

49. Yat nab, "lake penis" (akan tz'i'lel, koko'on nich nab, 

yail tz'i'lel, yitaj pale), refers to Polygonum portoricense 

(1-2) and P. punctatum (4-5), tall herbs with erect, dense 

racemes of white or pink flowers up to 10 cm long and 3-angled 

fruits. The leaves are alternate, sheathing or petiolate, linearlanceolate, to 25 cm long. They occur in large colonies in 

standing water throughout the township. 

They are believed to be lethal when consumed by sheep. 

50. Yat tz'i' tz'i'lel, "dog's penis plant," is Lactuca 

graminifolia (1-1). It is an erect, perennial, with simple, stout 

stems, naked or with a few basal leaves. These are linearlanceolate and pinnatifid, up to 20 cm long. The flowers are 

pink or white in heads, terminal on an openly branched 

inflorescence. It occurs in the grassy understory of pine-oak 

forests in the temperate areas. 
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