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D O C U M E N T collection

M-THE JOB TRAINING AND WAGE-HOUR STANDARDS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES Bulletin No. 1610

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ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND WAGE-HOUR STANDARDS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

U.S. DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS • Ben Burdetsky, Acting Commissioner

Bulletin N o .1610 

1968

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P r e fa c e

This study was prepared in the Office of Foreign Labor and Trade

(OFLT), Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, under

contract with the Manpower Administration, Department of Labor. The

report was written by Harvey Hilaski under the direction of Kurt Braun

in OFLT’s Division of Foreign Labor Conditions.

The assistance of the labor attaches in the American Embassies

in the countries covered in the report, as well as of officers in various

units of the Department of Labor, especially the Manpower Administration

and the Bureau of International Labor Affairs, is acknowledged gratefully.

October 1967

i i i

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C ontents— Continued

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A ppendixes:

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v

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In t r o d u c t io n

O b je c tiv e s of the Study

This study was undertaken to investigate

how foreign countries have dealt with possible

problems affecting government-supported onthe-job training 1 / from the viewpoint of wage

and hour standards, _2/ and how difficulties,

if any, have been resolved. Experience in the

United States with training programs under the

Manpower Development and Training Act of

1962, as amended, indicates that governments

supported on-the-job training is economical

and effective in helping workers obtain requisite skills and in meeting employers’ manpower needs. Therefore, efforts to promote

this type of training should be economically

and personally rewarding, and serious consideration should be given to the removal of

any existing barriers. However, the question

has arisen whether the application to trainees

of minimum wage and overtime pay provisions,

required by statute or by the administrative

regulations of specific programs, discourages

some employers from providing workers with

on-the-job training. If so, the desirability of

on-the-job training with its ultimate benefits

must be weighed against the personal and/

1 / F o r p u rp o se s of th is re p o rt, o n -th e-jo b train in g p e rta in s to any fo rm of in d u strial train in g supported by the gove rn m e n t and provided by em p lo y ers according to a w ell-defined 

sy stem a tic plan. It m ay include a com bination of p ra c tic a l 

tra in in g and cla ssro o m in stru ctio n . In the m ajo rity of the 

c o u n trie s exam ined, m o st o n -th e-jo b train in g is re ce iv ed 

und er the ap p ren ticesh ip sy stem , which, unlike the situ atio n 

in the United S tates, re c e iv e s in v a rio u s d eg ree governm ent 

financial sup po rt. How ever, E uropean ap p ren ticesh ip d iffers 

co n sid erab ly fro m th at in the United S tates in te rm s of industr y and occupational coverag e and sk ills taught.

2 / Use of the p h rase “la b o r stan d ard s* in th e re p o rt 

r e f e r s to wage and hour stan d ard s only. H ow ever, a ra th e r 

b ro ad view w as taken re g a rd in g h ou rs le g islatio n , in th at som e 

d isc u ssio n is devoted to vacation p ra c tic e s , r e s t p e rio d s, e tc.

or economic costs involved in relaxing these

standards or in providing other incentives to

stimulate employer-sponsored training programs.

In view of these qualifications, the specific

objectives of this study were to establish:

1. How the application of wage and hour

legislation affected selected foreign on-thejob training programs.

2. Whether any problems have arisen

from the application of legislated standards to

on-the-job training and, if so, how they have

been handled.

3. Whether employers in the conduct of

training programs are exempted from compliance with legislated wage-hour standards

or whether, on the contrary, the need to comply

with them has caused employers to minimize onthe-job training or to refrain from providing it.

4. Whether other incentives are provided

to stimulate employer-based training and, if so,

what their bearing might be on wage-hour

standards and training.

Scope of the Study

This report is divided into four principal parts: Part I, Summary of Findings,

contains a discussion of the factors and problems

affecting the relationship between labor standards and on-the-job training, together with an

outline of possible policy implications that

foreign experience holds for the United States;

Part II, On-the-Job Training, A Field for

Labor Standards, outlines the primary types of

such training in 16 foreign countries, the

salient aspects of the legislation bearing on

the objectives of the study, the methods of

financing the training, and related topics; Part

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Ill, Labor Standards Applicable to On-the-Job

Training, puts primary emphasis on wages and

hours as governed by basic legislation; and

Part IV, Problems Encountered, gives a specific

account of the problems, where they have occurred, and of any actions, proposed or undertaken, for their removal.

The report is based primarily on information received in response to a 12-item

questionnaire sent to U.S. labor attaches and

em bassy staff in 16 foreign countries: Australia,

Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Colombia, Denmark,

France, the Federal Republic of Germany,

Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden,

Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Venezuela. _3/ Consequently, footnote references to

statements based on the questionnaire response

were considered unnecessary. Source materials

available in the files of the Bureau’s Division of

Foreign Labor Conditions, as well as in the

Department of Labor Library and the Library

of Congress, also were used. The presentation

of factual material in the report, therefore,

m irrors the substantial variation in what current

information was obtained. The generally limited

availability of statistics on the number of

workers trained by source of training precluded

a definitive discussion of the relative importance

of the various on-the-job training programs

within individual countries as affected by labor

standards. In certain cases, also, the inaccessibility of the text of legislation and applicable

decrees on training and on standards limited

the depth of the analysis but did not preclude

a general survey.

The study was not meant to be a comparative study in the strict sense that sim ilarities

and differences in the experience of the various

countries were explored and related fully.

Rather, it was intended to be an organized

presentation of available factual information on

the individual countries to aid policymakers

in the United States in organizing and improving

training programs in this country. Moreover,

the study did not attempt to render an evaluation

of the effectiveness of the training programs

in any of the countries covered in terms of

skills taught. Much more intensive research,

supplemented by on-site visits to foreign countries, would have been required to do so.

_3/ See appendix A, p.40, fo r the te x t of q u estio n n aire.

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P r in c ip a l F in d in g s

The apprenticeship system is the major

form of on-the-job training by employers in the

16 foreign countries covered by the survey. Apprenticeship training, whether provided in the

industrial establishment or in public or private

training institutions, plays a major role in the

development of required industrial skills. Among

the 16 countries, however, great variation exists

in the trades that are considered apprenticeable.

The accent in apprenticeship and vocational

training is on youth. Adult training programs

still are oriented predominantly toward the needs

of experienced unemployed workers or of workers threatened with unemployment. Training of

the employed in order to upgrade skills is

beginning to achieve a solid footing in a few

countries, including Belgium, West Germany,

and France.

Existing statutory and contractual provisions for the regulation of wages and hours

were found to harmonize with policies and

practices designed to encourage private industrial training. This compatibility between employer-provided training and prescribed trainee

wages and hours is attributable largely to the

factors discussed below.

1. The application of labor standards to

on-the-job training is facilitated by the close

integration of general education with vocational

training. By tradition, trade-skill training in

most of the countries studied, particularly those

of Western Europe, is highly regarded. As a

result, compliance with the legal framework

within which such training is acquired is taken

in stride by both the trainee and the employer.

Vocational courses are interwoven with subjects

of general education early in the student’s academic life. Full-time vocational and apprenticeship training often is chosen as a substitute for

continued education. In all probability, the mutual

relationship of the educational and vocational

system s found in these countries not only has

provided a mechanism for the relatively smooth

transition of young persons to the world of work

but also has been instrumental in creating an

image of trade-skill training as a suitable alternative to other career choices.

The trainees in most countries considered

this period in their lives an investment in their

future, just as any person pursuing higher academic studies might view his period of schooling.

The employers demonstrated an eagerness to

provide training opportunities, since the great

majority of youth already had been exposed to

skill training within the general education sy stem. In addition, the legal obligations imposed

on them, under various industrial training programs, led largely to favorable employer reponse.

2. The nature of the training legislation

and the way in which training programs are administered tend to minimize possible friction

between statutory labor standards and training

under both apprenticeship and adult vocational

schem es. In the three countries where compulsory apprenticeship and vocational training

system s have been established by law, wage

and hour standards tend to have little influence

on the intake of trainees because firms are

required to train a certain quota of employees

either on their own or through public or private

training institutions.

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Under the usual voluntary system s of

vocational and apprenticeship training, the

various m inisterial bodies s’erving in an overall

supervisory capacity are assisted by special

boards, councils, committees, and the like. Almost all the committees are composed of government, union, and business representatives

and established at the national, regional (State),

and local levels. This kind of representation

tends to promote full discussion of possible

problems and lessens the chances of incompatibility between labor standards or contractual

agreements and the various training programs.

At the same time, statutory legislation dealing

with wages, hours, and other matters is taken

into account when the training programs are

in preparation. Moreover, training legislation,

especially that pertaining to apprenticeship,

usually establishes only the broad framework

regarding wages, hours, and other conditions of

trainee employment. For the most part, actual

conditions are implemented through a decentralization of responsibility, in which collective

bargaining plays an important role.

Legislation pertaining to adult training

programs and the corresponding administrative machinery do not have, on balance, a substantial impact on adult training programs

provided by employers. Reasons are various:

The provision of this training by the private

sector has been negligible so far in comparison

with activities of the various governments;

when employers do provide adult training, they

usually receive some form of subsidy for their

participation; and hours of training usually

coincide with regular working hours.

(a) Subsidization of training and/or exemption

of employers from compliance with wage standards, whether established by law, collective

bargaining, or practice, have probably been a

stimulant to employer-provided training. Since

a large number of persons start apprentice

training upon completion of their primary school

requirement at age 14 or 15, the wages received

may be based on age alone (so-called youth

wages), which are a fraction of adult workers’

pay. The low wages are attractive to employers,

and the trainees usually are not hard pressed

financially because of their youth and lack of

family responsibility. For example, a writer on

apprenticeship in the building trades in the

United States and Western Australia_4/ noted

that, in the latter country, the entry age lim its

of 14 to 18 are followed strictly because employers must pay the adult minimum wage to

apprentices when they reach the age of 21. It has

been estimated that an apprentice indentured at

the age of 18 costs the employer 20 percent more

than a younger apprentice in the fourth and

fifth years of apprenticeship; accordingly, employers try to avoid these additional costs.

In addition to basing wages on age, minimum

wage laws and collective bargaining agreements

also provide for a substantial reduction in the

wage scale on the basis of the mere apprenticeship status of the young workers. Lower trainee

wages, however, are somewhat offset by the

payment of wages during the period of cla ssroom instruction; often special trainee allowances and family allowances for apprenticed

youth; and usually free tuition and instruction

m aterials.

In regard to adult training programs, the

employer often is subsidized for the lesser

productivity of the trainees and the work time

lost or receives partial reimbursement for

training expenses in general, even though he

is required to pay adult trainees their regular

wages for a given occupation.

When some form of subsidization of employer-provided training occurs, the financial

burden on employers providing training is

lessened, as is the risk involved in training those

who might leave the firm upon completion of

training.

(b) The use of compulsory tax or levy systems to finance training tends to blunt employer

reluctance to training. When training system s

are financed by the imposition of a tax or levy,

participating firm s are induced to provide training, since tax offsets or rebates are made

available only to those employers who conduct

training programs of an approved standard. To

the extent that this system of financed training

_4/ N orm an F. Dufty, B uilding A pprenticeships in the 

U.S.A. and W estern A u stralia (U rbana, 111., U niversity of 

Illin o is, In stitu te of L ab or and In d u strial R elation s, 1958, 

R ep rin t No. 65).

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was prevalent in most of the countries examined,

employer resistance to provide training was

lessened.,

(c) Basing the training week on normal workweek hours and the rather strict limitation on

the use of apprentices and employees in general

for overtime work provide little cause for em ­

ployer reaction regarding hours standards and

training. Of particular importance is the fact

that the labor legislation of most countries under

study is highly restrictive of overtime work by

employees in general. In those countries, only

exceptional circumstances warrant the use of

overtime work, and often notification of both the

employee and the proper public authority is

required. Thus, employer concern about the payment of overtime premiums is lessened by this

type of restriction.

3. The problems that have occurred in individual countries regarding wages and hours are

oriented in their impact primarily to the trainees

them selves. On the one hand, evidence suggests

that apprentices in some countries are critical

of the low wages received duringtheir course of

training. On the other hand, employers in some

instances have taken advantage of the legality of

lower wage-payment provisions and enthusiastically provided training with insufficient regard

to its quality. A forthright assessm ent of

these circumstances would have to include, however, consideration of the entire wage-payment

system of the countries in question, including

family allowance provisions, as well as the

efficient use by training authorities of certain

enforcement powers regarding the quality of

training.

Policy Implications for the United States

W a g e s

Foreign experience in the application of

wage norms to on-the-job training indicates

that employer-oriented problems have been

minimized by:

1. The granting of exceptions to established

legal provisions in certain cases.

2. The institution of specific youth wage

scales.

3. The inclusion of collective bargaining

as a means of determining trainee wages.

Trainee-oriented problems, arising mainly

from the fact that the trainees, to a considerable

extent, are subsidizing their own training by

accepting wages lower than those of regular

workers, have been mitigated also in large

measure by:

1. The provision of free tuition and, most

often, free instruction materials.

2. The receipt by the trainees of wages

for time spent in classroom instruction.

3. The receipt by the trainees, in some

circumstances, of wage supplements paid by

the government.

4. The continued receipt by parents of

family allowances for apprenticed children.

5. The high regard which trainees have for

the acquistion of a specific occupational skill.

In all probability, the following factors have

been instrumental in developing the favorable

attitude that the youth of many of the countries

have toward trade-skill training:

1. The social factor, consisting mainly of the

fact that higher education, particularly a university education, is still the privilege of a limited

number, compared with the United States.

2. The economic factor, inclusive primarily

of elements: (a) the industrial and occupational

structures of the economy are conducive to the

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image-building of acquired trade skills; and

(b) handicraft skills, which are learned in a

pupil-master relationship, are still much in

vogue in West European countries.

3. The educational factor, comprising the

early exposure of youth to vocational training

within the context of the general education

system and the use of appropriate vocational

guidance techniques.

At the same time, the lack of proper safeguards in the laws or contractual arrangements

allowing employers to pay young trainees lower

wages has encouraged, in some countries, the

excessive hiring of young, inexperienced labor

under the pretense of training. Therefore*

trainee-wage policies enacted to stimulate the

intake of trainees by employers should include

some prescription concerning the ratio between

trainees and regular workers and rigid enforcement of minimal training standards. In

some cases, the lack of adequate enforcement

of existing standards also have resulted in

employer use of trainees on jobs not related

to their training. A sound policy on manpower

development and utilization dictates that such

devious practices will not be tolerated under

any circumstances.

H o u r s

Regarding the regular hours of trainees,

the experience in foreign countries revealed

that substantial benefit is derived by trainees

from the legal or contractual requirement

that employers count the hours spent in cla ssroom instruction as working time. This requirement offset slightly the low trainee wages.

Regarding overtime, foreign experience offers two major lessons:

1. In regard to employees in general, the

legislation of most foreign countries under

study by and large discourages the use of

overtime work and thus largely by-passes

the problems of paying overtime premiums,

whether to trainees or to others. This is*

accomplished by (a) the requirement that employers report any overtime worked to proper

authorities—a factor acting as an administrative

restraint on the use of allowable overtime hours;

and (b) the imposition of a maximum number of

allowable overtime hours which persons may

work over a specific time period.

2. In regard to trainees in particular, often

the legislation of foreign countries sets a

specific lim it on the number of overtime hours

that trainees may work and thus diminishes

the dual problems of paying overtime premiums

and keeping trainees at work for an undue

number of hours.

The study brought to light a major difference in the overtime policies between the

foreign countries studied and the United States:

Control over the use of overtime in foreign

countries is mainly through the setting of

specific limitations upon allowable overtime

hours (for which, of course, premiums must

be paid), whereas in the United States, the

suppressive effects of overtime premiums

achieves primarily a sim ilar end.

F in a n c in g

Apart from the stimulus of low trainee

wages, many foreign governments have provided

employers with financial incentives to train

workers in an effort to exert a positive influence on the intake of on-the-job trainees.

Two major lessons have been provided by the

study in this regard:

1. Systems of indirect incentives, introduced in England, France, and the Latin American countries, have been achieved by the imposition of a tax or levy on employers with

the following effects:

(a) Most, ii not all, money taxable or

payable can be recovered if the employer

provides training of an approved standard;

(b) The cost and responsibility of training

are thereby more equitably shared by the

employers—the exact purpose for which the

British adopted a levy and grant system;

(c) These approaches tend to make less

urgent the need of some employers to attract

trained workers from other employers by offering higher, and often inflationary, wages.

(d) Industry itself can administer the

system and thus obviate the administrative

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complexities associated with more involved

government participation.

2. Systems of direct incentives, introduced

in countries such as Italy, the Netherlands,

Norway, and Sweden, have provided outright

subsidy of employers accepting trainees.

V o c a t io n a l E d u c a t io n S y s t e m

The relationship of the vocational education

system to the general education system in many

West European countries contains the following

unique features, all of which contain important

policy implications for the training needs of

youth:

1. Vocational guidance often begins in

elementary school;

2. Some vocational education also is given

in elementary school;

3. Numerous full- and part-time vocational

schools provide training in a wide variety of

skills to those completing primary school;

4. In many foreign countries, those leaving

primary school must attend vocational schools at

least on a part-time basis until age 17 or 18—

a practice of particular interest in relation to

the problem of unemployment among young

school leavers in this country.

Policy implications concerning the vocational

education system open up a series of most

promising areas for further study pointing

to possible reform of vocational education

and vocational guidance in the United States:

(a) Establishment of the precise manpower effects of the vocational education and

vocational guidance system s of selected foreign

countries in terms of entry-job placement,

adjustment to work, and geographical and occupational mobility; (b) determination of the

contribution which the strength of the vocational

education and guidance system s in selected

foreign countries has made toward lessening

youth unemployment problems; and (c) determination, if possible, of important attitudinal

differences between employers and trainees in

these countries and their counterparts in the

United States.

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Part /

II / ON-THE-JOB TRAINING,

/ A FIELD FOR LABOR STANDARDS

Apprenticeship ^

L e g isla tio n -§/

The formal apprenticeship system I j in the

countries surveyed is regulated at the national

level by laws, decrees, or labor codes which set

certain minimum standards and establish the

administrative framework and guidelines for

implementing the system. Details of the apprenticeship arrangement, including the reciprocal

duties of employers and apprentices, standards

of training and performance, wages, hours, and

other conditions of employment, are stipulated

in the contract which establishes the legal relationship between the apprentice and his employer.

According to usual contract term s, the employer

agrees to provide the apprentice with training of

approved quality and to pay him, during the

course of training, an amount determined by

mutual agreement, common practice, decree,

or collective bargaining. In return, the apprentice must be diligent in his performance, must

work and train the required number of hours, and

must follow the orders and instructions of his

employer. The first 3 months of the apprenticeship period usually are looked upon as a probationary period during which either party can

dissolve the contract. Otherwise, the contract

can be canceled only when certain specified

conditions exist and usually upon approval of

the agency with which the contract is registered.

Scope of Legislation. Wide variation exists

among the countries in the scope of legislation

dealing with apprenticeship. In many countries,

such as Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and

Norway, legislation pertaining strictly to apprenticeship was enacted. In other countries,

however, laws pertaining to apprenticeship and

general vocational training are not mutually exclusive. In Switzerland and the United Kingdom,

for example, apprenticeship is regulated, in

whole or in part, under legislation encompassing

the entire field of vocational training. Austria

has the oldest regulatory framework for apprentices, dating back to Trade Regulations of 1859.

The most recent laws applying to apprenticeship

were enacted in Switzerland (1963), the United

Kingdom (1964), the Netherlands (1966), and

France (1966), where apprenticeship is regulated

in far greater detail by pre-World War II legislation.

Compulsory Systems. Some countries have

established “compulsory apprenticeship” system s by law to guarantee that employers provide training in sufficient amount to meet the

skill needs of industry. Apprenticeship regulations in Brazil require that employers in any

industrial enterprise hire and train at least

5 percent of the workers in each establishment

“whose trades require professional training”

5 / An ex cellen t so u rce of inform ation on th e le g islativ e 

and ad m in istra tiv e asp ects of ap p ren ticesh ip tra in in g in W este rn E urope is E uropean A pprenticeship , p re p a re d by the In te rnational V ocational T rain in g Inform ation and R esea rch C enter 

(CIRF, G eneva, 1966) fo r the M anpower A dm inistratio n, U.S. 

D ep artm en t of L abor.

6 / See appendix B, p.41, fo r citatio n of p ertin en t le g islatio n .I j F o rm al appren ticesh ip (i.e ., a train in g arra n g em e n t 

in w hich the em p lo y er and the ap p ren tice, and h is p are n t o r 

guard ian , e n te r into a w ritten c o n tra ct of ap p renticeship) and 

ap p ren ticesh ip b ased on v erb al ag reem en t a re the m o st p ro m ­

inent types of em p lo y er-prov id ed vocational train in g in the 

co u n trie s under d iscu ssio n . Since the la tte r o rd in arily is not 

sub ject to leg islatio n , the focus of the d iscu ssio n is on the 

fo rm e r.

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and, also, a number of underage workers in an

amount not to exceed 3 percent of all workers.

The laws of Colombia and Venezuela compel

employers to hire 5 percent of their work force

as apprentices. In each of these Latin American

countries, employers must enroll their apprentices in schools operated by special government

agencies if they themselves do not provide the

training. The compulsory nature of their system s is augmented further by the imposition of

compulsory tax on employers for training.

Two countries in Europe—France and the

United Kingdom—have adopted what might be

considered quasi-compulsory system s of training, in that employers are compelled to pay a

training tax on a per capita or employee-wage

basis, which is recoverable, in whole or in part,

only when training of an approved standard is

provided. In France, the Government imposes a

uniform, flate-rate “apprenticeship tax* on all

employers. In the United Kingdom, the tax is

imposed by industrial training boards on employers of only those industries for which training boards have been established. Once the tax

has been levied, all firm s in the industry, with

few exceptions, must pay it.

Entry Age. The entry age into apprenticeship in the countries studied is appreciably

lower than that in the United States, j j j

Apprenticeship in most countries can begin at

age 14 or 15, after completion of the compulsory primary-school requirement. One of the

reasons for this early entry is that apprenticeship in many countries is regarded as an extension of the general education system. A cited

advantage of early apprenticeship is that the

_8/ See appendix E , lis t 1, p.45, fo r usual en try age into 

ap p ren ticesh ip in the 16 co u n tries studied. Although ap p ren ­

tice sh ip can begin at 16 y e a rs of age in the United S tates, 

u nd er p ro g ram s approved by the B ureau of A pprenticeship 

and T raining , the age range in p ra c tic e is 17 to 24. In th is 

re g a rd , attention m ight be draw n to the ex istence of a special 

type of train in g p ro g ram in the United S tates, which, although 

not exclusiv ely o rien ted to young p e rso n s, m akes it p ossible 

fo r students in high school to p artic ip a te in a co o perativ e 

study-w ork train in g arran g em en t. The train in g p ro g ram is 

confined to d istrib u tiv e occupations, such as w arehousing, 

m arketin g , and sa le s, and hence is known as d istrib u tiv e 

education. 9 / “V ocational T raining in the EEC: B elgium ,” L ab or in 

the E uropean C om m unity, No. 10, Novem ber 1965, pp. 12-13.

relatively low wages received by apprentices,

in most cases, do not interfere with family

responsibilities. However, in view of the young

age of apprentices, legislation enacted for the

protection of youth is of major significance in

establishing mandatory rest periods, in curtailing their overtime work, and in liberalizing

certain benefits such as vacations.

An upward drift in the entry age into apprenticeship has been seen. This drift is due chiefly

to a gradual lengthening of the primary-school

requirement. For example, the school-leaving

age has been raised recently to 16 in France and

Sweden. Throughout Germany, 9 years of elementary education is required now. In Norway,

the Primary Schools Act of 1959 has empowered

municipalities to replace the compulsory 7-year

attendance at primary schools with a 9-year

attendance requirement. The transition to a system of 9-year compulsory general education

gained substantial footing in the early 1960,s;

theoretical and practical training were divided

during the last 2 years. The practical element

includes an orientation to various job possibilities and general vocational preparation.

Industry and Occupational Coverage. The extent of apprenticeship training is reflected, in

part, by legislative prescription concerning

industry and occupational coverage. In Belgium,

for example, formal, or “legal* apprenticeship

training exists only in the handicraft trades, in

small or medium commerical trades, and in

sm all-scale industries. Apprenticeship training

also is provided by some large Belgian firm s,

but this large-industry apprenticeship may not

be based on a formal contract and is regulated

by only a few articles of the Civil Code. Consequently, apprenticeship training plays a small

role in the total Belgian vocational training

scheme, and a lack of an adequate legal framework has been cited as a factor in its deemphasis by large-scale industry. 9 / Occupational training in Belgium, therefore, is received

mainly in technical or professional schools

rather than in industry. There has been recent

pressure for new legislation to modernize industrial apprenticeship and to subject it to stricter

regulation and standards.

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In Austria, West Germany, and France, the

legal bases of apprenticeship also focus, as in

Belgium, on the handicraft and commercial

trades in contrast to a broad range of industrial

apprenticeship training. In the United Kingdom,

however, compulsory apprenticeship training

can be found in virtually every industry. In

term s of occupational coverage, apprenticeship

in West Germany, France, and Italy is given in

about 500 occupations. In the United Kingdom,

it is limited to highly skilled occupations, such

as the building, electrical, and metal trades.

A d m in is tr a tio n

Primary responsibility for supervision and

control of the apprenticeship system at the

national level has been assigned to the Ministry

of Education in nine countries, to the Ministry

of Labor in four countries, and to other ministries in three countries. 10/ In the actual operation of apprenticeship programs, the labor and

education m inistries usually share responsibilities: The labor ministry is concerned with the

employment aspects of apprenticeship, and the

education ministry with the techniques and

standards of training.

In most cases, the m inistries are assisted

by special boards, councils, committees, or

secretariats, almost all composed of government, union, and business representatives and

established at the national, regional (State),

and local levels. Management’s role in administering the apprenticeship training system

predominates in West Germany. The 81 German

Chambers of Industry and Commerce, which

have primary responsibility for the administration of apprenticeship in industrial and comm ercial trades, restrict their membership to

employers. Membership in the 45 Artisan

Chambers, concerned with apprenticeship in

handicraft trades, includes both employers and

workers in a 2 -to -l ratio. The German unions are

not involved directly in the implementation of

regular apprenticeship programs but cooperate

in an advisory capacity in certain committees

of the Chambers.

Although a certain degree of autonomy is

always exercised by parties involved in apprenticeship and vocational training programs, particularly at the operational level, administrative

decentralization is particulary prominent in'

Australia, France, West Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United

Kingdom.

In Australia, formal apprenticeship is not

regulated by law at the national level. However,

the Tradesmen’s Rights and Regulation Act of

1946, as amended, provides for the establishment of a National Australian Apprenticeship

Advisory Committee, whose responsibility,

among others, is to make recommendations

concerning all aspects of apprenticeship other

than wages and industrial relations. Major

responsibility for apprenticeship training is

left to the individual States or Commonwealth

Territories. Each State has legislation establishing the control and administration of apprenticeship matters, as well as special advisory

bodies, such as apprenticeship councils, comm issions, boards, or committees, to assist in

the implementation of the legislation. The powers

of apprenticeship councils can be quite formidable. Industry apprenticeship councils in New

South Wales, for example, regulate wages,conditions of employment, and the training of

apprentices, who may not be employed without

the consent of the appropriate council.

In Franca, all vocational training is administered by the Ministry of Labor and by the

Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education in the Ministry of Education. As in most

European counties, a distinction is made between

training for the handicraft trades and training

for industry and commerce. Apprenticeship

training for the handicraft trades is supervised by the special chambers, each of which

is a public body composed of all journeymen

and m asters in an occupation. These chambers

register the indentures and employ a staff

of inspectors to ensure that the parties abide

by the term s of the apprenticeship contract.

In French industry and commerce, Qiere is

little formal administration of apprenticeship.,

A circular of the Ministry of Labor and Social

1 0/ See appendix E, lis t 2, p.45, fo r the specific assig n ­

m ent in each country.

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Security in 1958 made the e m p l o y e r s ’ associations or the Chambers of Industry and

Commerce responsibile for registeringapprenticeship agreements in industrial and commercial firm s.

Apprenticeship programs in Germany are

run by individual employers on the basis of

guidelines established by the Chambers of

Industry and Commerce and the Artisan Chambers and approved by the Federal Economics

Ministry and the Labor Ministry. The Chambers

of Industry and Commerce, although mandatory

employer organisations., are, in effect, government-controlled agencies to which certain fiihctions have been entrusted that otherwise would

have to be carried out by government agencies.

This process reflects the German approach

to “s e lf - a d m in is t r a t io n ” of the economy.

Because the chambers exercise great administrative control over a p p r e n t i c e s h i p programs, the practical training standards in the

plants are uniform throughout the country, but

theoretical training in schools is determined

by State (Land) law and is subject, therefore,

to the guidelines established by the Ministers

of Culture of the various States (Lander).

In Japan, apprenticeship training is regulated

by the Vocational Training Law of 1958 and

is conducted under the authorization of the

Minister of Labor; primary responsibility is

delegated to the prefectural governments. A

single firm or an organized group of firms

provides the training. The concept of apprenticeship iri Japan is somewhat different from

that in the West, because of the nature of the

employment relationship. Employment in any

particular firm in Japan often is regarded

as a lifetime relationship between the employee

and the employer. The employer is under a

social obligation always to provide a job for

his employee and, in turn, the employee is

expected to continue working for the same

employer in any capacity to which he is assigned

until retirement or death. Consequently, apprenticeship training is oriented not so much toward

a particular trade as toward the company in

which the employee may be trained for one of

many jobs under the expectation that his attachment to the company will be permanent.

In the Netherlands, the system of apprenticeship is administered by 30 joint national

employer-union technical training foundations,

one for each major industry, and about 14

regional foundations under the overall control

of the Ministry of Education and Sciences.

The foundations employ a team of “consultants,”

who visit each employer monthly to see that

the parties to the apprenticeship contracts are

fulfilling their respective duties.

Apprenticeship and other vocational training

programs in Sweden are based not on law

but on a 1944 agreement between the Swedish

Employers’ Federation (SAF) and the Swedish

Trade Union Confederation (LO). These organizations later established the Joint Industrial

Training Council, a permanent agency composed

of five SAF members and five LO members.

The main task of this Council is to encourage

employer associations, labor federations, and

individual firms and unions to broaden the scope

and improve the quality of vocational training

within industry and public vocational schools.

There are about 26 joint labor-management

vocational training councils in various branches

of industry. Within each industry, there is an

occupational advisory committee consisting of

three labor representatives and three management representatives. These c o m m i t t e e s

supervise and encourage the development of

apprenticeship and other vocational training

within the trades, develop training methods,

maintain contact with vocational schools, and

report annually to the Joint Industrial Training

Council. At each workplace where apprentices

are employed, there must be a vocational

training workers’ delegate (Ombudsman), a

skilled worker who acts as a liaison between

the apprentices and management representatives. Central direction of apprenticeship and

vocational training programs is provided by

the National Board of Vocational Education,

composed of representatives of the National

Labor Market Board and the Boards of Education,

Industry, and Commerce and responsible to the

Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs and Education.

In Switzerland, under the vocational training

law of 1963 and a subsequent 1965 order

implementing the law, each canton is required

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to build up vocational training programs, including apprenticeship programs, in accordance

with national regulations established by the

Federal Department of Public Economy and the

intradepartmental Federal Office of Industry,

Arts, Crafts and Labor (OFIAMT) under the

Ministry of Economic Affairs. The cantons,

accordingly, have adopted their own apprenticeship acts and have established the necessary

agencies to provide the various training services

for which federal contributions are paid.

Under the Industrial Training Act of 1964,

which covers apprenticeship and other aspects

of training in Britain, the British Labour

Minister is empowered to establish, for the

various industries, Industrial Training Boards

composed of an equal number of employers and

trade unionists, and a number of members

from the educational field. The boards set

standards of training throughout their respective

industries and attempt to provide for the skill

requirements of a te c h n o lo g ic a lly c h a n g in g

society. The Minister of Labour is advised ‘

by the Central Training Council, which is

composed of a chairman, six employer members, six trade union members, two members

from nationalized industries, six members from

the field of education, up to six chairmen of

Industrial Training Boards, and six other members who have a special interest in training. With

the creation of the Industrial Training Boards,

the main responsibility for industrial apprenticeship training, therefore, is relegated to the

industries concerned. To date, 21 boards have

been established, covering more than 11 million

workers in the country’s major industries. 11/

All industrial and commercial activities are

coverable under the act; within 2 or 3 years,

about ’30 boards, covering virtually the whole

of industry and commerce, are expected.

Relation to G en eral Education System

In some countries, it has become almost

axiomatic that young persons completing

primary school before 17 to 19 years of age

are required to take formal vocational training.

Thus, apprenticeship training and other vocational training are related closely to the general

education system , especially in Austria,

Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, and

Switzerland.

All Austrian school children now are required

to attend school for a period of 9 years. Legislation enacted in 1962 added an extra year of

schooling to be taken in the advanced elementary

school (Hauptschule), in the form of a “polytechnical year,” which places particular stress

on the student’s future vocational career. The

first 4 years are spent in an elementary school

(Volksschule). At this point, at age 10, the student

has three choices: (1) To continue for 5 more

years in an elementary school, an option found

to be taken primarily by less talented children

and children in rural areas where no other

type of school exists; (2) to enter a 5-year

advanced elementary school (Hauptschule), after

which the child will learn a trade, generally

through some combination of apprenticeship

training and vocational schooling; and (3) to

enter a 9-year secondary school (Mittelschule)

designed to prepare children for the university.

The student has access to vocational guidance

in making his decision.*

According to current estim ates, about 75

percent of the population of work-entry age

(15) undergo apprenticeship training as an

alternative to continued higher education or

direct entry into employment as an unskilled

worker. 12/ Theoretical instruction at a vocational school is compulsory for all apprentices

and includes some general education subjects,

such as civics and arithmetic. A few large

companies, however, provide supplementary

training in workshop centers which, in fact,

are acknowledged as vocational schools.

In Denmark, where about 45 percent of

the 14-year-old school leavers take apprenticeship or some kind of vocational training,

vocational training of youth even for work

below the skilled level is built into the general

educational system . Under an Executive Order

of 1958, eighth and ninth year vocational training

1 1 / See appendix E, lis t 3, p.45, fo r lis t of in d u strie s in 

which b o ard s have been estab lish ed .

1 2 / F o r data on ap p ren tices in sele cted fo reig n countr ie s , see table F - l , p.46.

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cla sses must be established in the primary

schools if enough pupils apply. This practice

is gaining wider acceptance, and special experimentation has been directed toward

supplementing this school training of youth

with specific on-the-job experience as guestworkers in enterprises.

The 1960 law concerning vocational training of unskilled workers contained specific

reference to the vocational training of youth

at the elementary school level as follows:

The training of young persons under 18

years of age shall be carried out in the

eighth and ninth classes of the elementary school and in accordance with the

provisions of the act respecting youth education, etc.: Provided that, where a branch

committee wishes to provide training in

special branch skills for young persons

under 18 years of age and it appears impossible to carry out such training in accordance

with the act respecting youth education, etc,,

the Training Council may approve the

carrying out of training schemes in accordance with this act. 13/

Moreover, an Executive Order of 1960 on youth

schools and evening schools prescribes rules

for the establishment of vocational youth schools

to provide vocational training of 1 year or

more after the compulsory school age but

before age 18.

In France, there are four general methods

by which vocational training may be acquired:

(1) 2 years of general education at a special

continuation school beyond primary school for

a high-level semiskilled job; (2) 3 years of

education in a State or private technical school

to prepare for a skilled position or for the

university; (3) an indentured apprenticeship

in a firm for practical training and attendance

at a school for theoretical training; and (4)

on-the-job and special workshop training in a

factory school. After World War II, appren1 3/ "D enm ark: Act R especting the Vocational T rain in g 

of U nskilled W o rk ers," L eg islativ e S eries 1960 (International 

L ab or Office, Geneva), No. 194, May 18, 1960, ch. 1, p a r. 3, 

se c . 2.

ticeship, as an option to full-tim e general

education, gained increasing acceptance. When

an indentured apprenticeship is undertaken, however, part-time related instruction and continued

general education courses, 4 to 8 hours a

week, are compulsory for all young schoolleavers under 17 years of age. This related

instruction usually is provided by public

vocational or private schools; many of the latter

are run by religious organizations. Neverthele ss, some large firm s, such as the Renault

Company, have their own full-tim e work schools

for theoretical as well as practical training.

When formal vocational training facilities are

not available in an area, theoretical training

can be acquired through correspondence

courses.

In Germany, the usual school leaving age is

15, based on 9 years of elementary education.

After fulfilling the compulsory school age requirement, about 80 percent of those not continuing secondary education take vocational

training or enter apprenticeship. The full-tim e

vocational school (Berufsfachschule) provides

a course of practical and theoretical training

in place of apprenticeship. The parttime vocational school (Berufsschule) is

designed primarily to supplement, with theoretical instruction, the practical, on-the-job

training of an apprentice. A minimum of 8

hours a week of classroom instruction is

compulsory for every apprentice in the 15

to 18 age range.

In Italy, the Ministry of Labor finances and

inspects trade schools administered by a wide

variety of lay, religious, and local or national

bodies. These schools provide 2 or 3 years

of full-tim e practical training (addestramento)

for about 10 percent of the total number of young

people leaving school each year at age 14.

Another 40 to 45 percent of the persons beyond

the compulsory school age (about 50,000

recently) continue their studies in official

institutions coming under the direction of the

Ministry of Education. These may be either

scientific secondary schools, technical institutes, or vocational training institutes. Another

40 percent receive on-the-job training in

industry.

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The Netherlands has a basic requirement

of 8 years of compulsory schooling, but pupils

wishing to begin technical or vocational trainingmay do so after the first 6 years of primary,

schooling. The training of these pupils usually

is given in lower technical schools for 3 years

in preparation for further vocational training,

such as apprenticeship in factories. Theoretical

instruction continues during the apprenticeship

period on the basis of 8 hours a week for day

cla sses or 9 hours a week for evening classes.

Also, there are advanced technical schools and

technical colleges. Full-time training in a

vocational school may substitute partially for

training in apprenticeship.

In Sweden, students completing the compulsory school requirement are divided into three

.major groups: (a) those desiring further academic studies in preparation for entrance into

the gymnasium; (b) those interested in general

studies; and (c) those wanting vocational training. There are three major sources of vocational training, as follows:

1. Over 600 municipal vocational schools

offer both practical and theoretical training of

3 years’ duration, usually in cooperation with

firms; 2 years of training are given in the

schools, and in the third year pupils go into

industry for practical experience before qualifying for the adult rate of pay.

2. Large-scale industry often provides its

own 3-year training, the first year of which is

spent entirely in a separate transitional, or

“vestibule” type, school.

3. Many industrial enterprises, taking the

initiative to provide training but unable to offer

theoretical courses them selves, arrange with

neighborhood municipal vocational schools to

provide related instruction. In Switzerland, the majority of primary

school leavers at age 15 enter apprenticeship

training. The apprentice must attend a vocational

school for theoretical instruction. Annual

schooling hours vary from 200 to 360 hours,

depending on the trade.

F in a n cin g

The methods of financing apprenticeship

system s and vocational training indicate the

source of the initiative for training:. Public

authority, private enterprise or organizations,

or some combination of the two. The methods

also tend to have an influence on the numbers

trained as well as the quality of training.

Systems of financing apprenticeship and general vocational training programs among the

countries studied can be classified in three

general ways: (1) Tax systems; (2) general system s of subsidy; and (3) other system s.

Tax System s. The three Latin American

countries surveyed for this study have resorted

to a tax on employers to finance vocational

training, including apprenticeship. The tax system in Brazil was designed to make effective

the compulsory system of apprenticeship

adopted in 1942, when the National Industrial

Apprenticeship Service (SENAI) was founded,

and extended in 1946, when the National Commerical Apprenticeship Service (SENAC) was

established. Both SENAI and SENAC are special

organizations set up by the National Confederation of Industry (CNI) and the National Confederation of Commerce (CNC), to establish

and operate schools for on-the-job training of

workers under the general supervision of the

Ministry of Education and Culture. A special

tax of 1 percent of total wages (or 1.2 percent

for enterprises employing 500 or more workers)

is imposed on all industrial and commerical

firm s to finance the operations of SENAI and

SENAC. Employers providing approved apprenticeship programs of their own or providing for

training in employer-run vocational schools are

entitled to a rebate of 80 percent of the total sum

paid in support of SENAI and SENAC activities.

About 36 large employers receive this rebate;

sm aller firm s find it more advantageous to use

the facilities of SENAI and SENAC.

To finance the system of compulsory vocational training in Colombia, a tax of 2 percent of

the total monthly payroll is levied on all private

business establishments and decentralized public institutions, if their capital assests amount to

50,000 pesos (US$8,000 approximately) or more,

or if they employ 10 permanent workers or more.

This levy is deductible in calculating corporate

income taxes. Some 46,000 enterprises cur14

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rently contribute to the National Apprenticeship

Service (SENA) fund, which, in 1965, amounted

to 152 million pesos. The training is provided by

SENA, established in 1957 as an autonomous

agency within the Government. Under an expanded 4-year program begun in 1966, SENA

anticipates the training or upgrading of 80,000

apprentices and adult workers annually in 350:

different occupations.

The purpose of the training tax system in

Venezuela is to implement the vocational training school set up under the National Institute

of Cooperative Education (INCE), an autonomous

triparite organization under the jurisdiction of

the Ministry of Education. Although INCE was

established in 1960, the National (Compulsory)

Apprenticeship Training Program did not begin

to function under its auspices until 1965. The

law provided that funds required to finance INCE

operations be derived from a tax on employers,

a tax on employers, a tax on workers, and a

Government subsidy. The employer’s contribution is 1 percent of total wages and salaries;

the worker’s contribution equals 0.5 percent of

his annual share of company profits; and the

Government subsidy amounts to 20 percent of

the aggregate amount paid by both employers

and workers. Employers or groups of employers

operating their own, INCE-approved, training

programs are allowed to deduct the cost of such

programs from the amounts assessed. In no

case, however, may a firm ’s deductions exceed

the total amount payable to INCE. Firms also

may deduct the cost of worker training taken in

other approved training institutions. If a firm

does not develop a formal apprenticeship training program, it may pay INCE an additional lump

sum of 7,000 bolivars (approximately US$1,500)

a year for each apprentice it was required to

hire.

In France, on-the-job training costs are met

by: (1) Subsidies from the Government, Department, or city; (2) contributions from the pertinent

Chamber of Commerce or trade organization;

and (3) tax offsets against the apprenticeship tax

1 4 /Act No. 66-892 of Dec. 3, 1966, on the o rien tatio n and 

p ro g ra m of vocational train in g . 15/ See appendix E, lis t 4, p.45, fo r the levy a s se ss e d 

by each board.

which is imposed on employers in industrial,

craft, and commercial enterprises and payable

to the Treasury. The apprenticeship tax originated under the Finance Law of 1925 and was

then set at 0.2 percent of total wages. It was

later raised to 0.4 percent, and under the training law of 1966 was increased to 0.6 percent of

total wage costs. Employers who conduct their

own organized training may claim exemption

from the tax for the following costs: Expenses of

technical courses; salaries of technical instructors at a rate of one instructor for each 10 apprentices; wages of apprentices while attending

courses related to their trade; and wages of

apprentices for the first 10 months of apprenticeship, if a systematic course of practical

and theoretical instruction is followed. Exemptions from the tax also are allowed if employers,

instead of providing training, make grants, either

directly or through approved collecting bodies,

to public or private institutions providing technical or vocational education and training. Under

the 1966 law the Government adopted a 3-year

equipment program (1967-69) amounting to 2,000

million francs (US$500 million), of which 385

million francs (US$73 million) are earmarked

for vocational training centers for adults. 14/

The Industrial Training Boards, under the

1964 Industrial Training Act in the United Kingdom, impose a levy on employers in their

respective industries and correspondingly make

grants to employers who provide training of an

approved standard. The powers of an Industrial

Training Board extend to all forms of training

and retraining and to all occupations in the

industry. They are not confined to craft apprenticeship. Each Board, subject to the Labour

M inister’s approval, determines its own rate of

levy based on the payroll or total number of employees of individual firm s. 15/ Variations in the

levy apparently are based on differences of

opinion among the various Boards over the best

time to introduce the redistribution of total training costs. The Engineering Board, for example,

believes that the levy should bear a close relationship to total training expenses and their full

recovery for the training of management personnel as well as workers. Other boards, such

as the Construction Board, have adopted a le ss

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comprehensive approach and set lower levy

rates, based mainly on the recovery by the

firm of only certain specified' costs, such as

overhead.

Although the levy paid is deductible from

income before taxes, the grants received for

training conducted by the firm s are subject to

tax just as are other income sources. Boards

have tended to make grants for easily identifiable item s such as attendance at “off-the-job”

training courses, but in the future, they expect

that more on-the-job training costs will be

covered. The levy and grant system of the United

Kingdom is considered a unique method of ensuring that employers equitably share the responsibility and cost of training.

To encourage the development of group training programs, the Ministry of Labour provides

grants toward the cost of their development. The

grants help only with the promotional costs before a program becomes viable and do not cover

normal operating expenses, capital equipment,

or time spent on training as distinct from developmental work. They are limited to 50 percent of approved developmental costs up to a

maximum of fc-1,250 and are paid to firm s within

a nonprofitmaking association or an existing

association, such as a Chamber of Commerce.

General Systems of Subsidy. Belgium, Italy,

Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and

Switzerland rely principally on general subsidization of apprenticeship and other vocational

training programs. The subsidy is usually of two

kinds: An indirect subsidy whereby an employer’s trainees may receive theoretical instruction free of charge in public or private training

facilities, and a direct subsidy whereby employers are reimbursed for certain operating

expenses incurred in the conduct of their own

training programs. The amount of the subsidy

and the procedural aspects governing its disbursement vary from country to country.

In Belgium, the Royal Decree of 1959 contains

specific details concerning the financing of apprenticeship and other training in handicrafts

and commercial occupations. Under articles 40

to 42 of that decree, the National Vocational

and Further Training Board, the Regional Boards

and Committees responsible for the organization

of apprenticeship training courses, and the Secretariats which provide theoretical training and

general education all are subsidized by the

Government in carrying out their responsibilities. Employers and the signatories to the apprenticeship contract receive subsidies from

the budget of the Ministry of the Middle Classes.

The amount and conditions of the subsidies are

determined by the Minister.

Italy has a very complex system for the

financing of training. It involves considerable

subsidization of all forms of training. Funds

pertaining solely to apprenticeship are authorized under Law No. 25 of 1955, as amended by

Law No. 706 of 1956. To encourage apprenticeship training, the Government provides an incentive to employers in the nature of a social

security tax offset. For employees in general,

the employer is liable for about 40 percent of

the total social insurance contribution. The

Government and employees them selves contribute the remainder. If an industrial firm trains

apprentices, the employer’s share is reduced to

about 6 percent of the total contribution per

apprentice, and the remaining 34 percent is paid

by the Government. In the handicraft trades, the

employer is relieved of his entire share of the

social security charge if he trains apprentices.

These indirect subsidies are considered important, since the employer’s social security

contributions form a substantial addition to the

total wage bill of Italian employers.

A major share of other forms of vocational

and industrial training is financed in Italy

through a Special Vocational Training Fund

authorized by Law No. 264 of 1949. This Fund

is financed, in part, by a transfer of moneys

from the unemployment fund, to which employers

contribute. The amount of money transferred is

determined annually by the Minister of Labor.

Grants from this Fund support the training activities provided by special training agencies and

bodies throughout Italy, including firm s. For the

period 1964-65, for example, the Ministry of

Labor allotted 772 million lire (approximately

US$1.2 million) to the training activities of firm s.

Subsidies by the Government of Japan are

weighted heavily toward the administrative and

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construction costs of apprenticeship and other

training programs. When an employers* association wishes to conduct a joint training program,

the Federal and Prefectural Governments will

pay up to one-half of the administrative costs.

In addition, the Federal Government will grant

subsidies in aid of vocational training facilities

established by Prefectural or municipal governments for employers in small and medium-sized

industries, who wish to sponsor the training of

workers. Intraenterprise training assistance

from the Government includes the provision of

instructors free of charge, free text books, and

other teaching aids.

Conditions governing the 'granting of State

aid for apprenticeship and other training in the

Netherlands are laid down in the Conditions for

Subsidization Order (Apprenticeship System) of

1937. Activities of the technical training foundations in the various industrial sectors are

financed by Government subsidies. Payment of

the subsidy is subject to the observance by the

foundations of certain legal requirements. These

include the submission to the Ministry of Education of annual accounts and a report on the

preceding year’s training activities and some

details concerning the next year’s activities.

For practical training provided by the firm,

employers are reimbursed for operating expenses at the rate of 60 guilders per apprentice.

The theoretical portion of training is paid for,

in part, by a tution fee of 8 guilders per apprentice, usually borne by the firm. If a firm, however, sets up its own school for theoretical

instruction, as may be the case when no other

appropriate schools are available, the Ministry

of Education pays the costs of the school in

accordance with standard regulations governing

other technical schools. Under a law enacted in

1966, an employer will receive from the national

body concerned a grant not exceeding 200

guilders (US$56 approximately) for the total

period each apprentice is indentured.

In Norway, the employer generally is responsible for all expenses incurred in the course of

apprentices’ practical training. In the case of

sm all firm s, however, the Government grants

1,000 krones (US$140) for each apprentice accepted and also may refund part of the mandatory sick pay for apprentices. To qualify for a

sick-pay refund, an employer must verify the

apprentice’s illness with a doctor’s certificate,

a receipt from the apprentice for full sick pay,

and a copy of the employer’s receipt to the

Sick Insurance Fund for having received the

sick-pay allowance under the program. The

Government then will refund that portion of

full sick pay not covered by the insurance plan.

The costs of theoretical instruction are borne

by the Government even to the extent of assuming the expenses of such instruction in integrated

training programs operated by private firm s.

In Sweden, State subsidies for apprenticeship

in firm s are based on a minimum of six apprentices and are increased for multiples of that

number. The amount of the subsidy is 13,000

kronur (about US$2,500) annually for every six

pupils if practical training in the firm is integrated with theoretical training in a municipal

school, and 14,000 kronur for every six pupils,

if employers give both practical and theoretical

training. If training is provided in the old crafts

that depend mainly on the use of handtools and

involve a master-pupil relationship, subsidies

are paid for each apprentice trained, provided,

of course, that the employer is willing to be open

to inspection by the Royal Vocational Training

Board (KOY). This subsidy is spread over 3

years, and if the employer is willing to release

the apprentice during working hours without loss

of pay to attend a vocational training school for

at least 100 hours a year, an extra subsidy is

granted covering the 3-year period. Employers’

organizations also help to finance industrial

training. The Swedish Metal Trades Employers’

Association, for example, imposes a tax of 0.14

percent of the total wages of production workers

plus a tax of 0.07 percent of the wage bill of

salaried employees on member firm s to help

finance training.

Subsidization of apprenticeship training in

Switzerland covers, among other things, the

theoretical portion of training and capital costs

for the construction of vocational training centers and apprentice hostels at a rate of 16 to 18

percent of such costs to a maximum of Sw Fr2

million (about US$462,000). Employers do not

have to pay a fee for sending trainees to special17

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ized schools for theoretical training. The cost of

theoretical training is shared by Federal, cantonal, and municipal governments. The Federal

contributions vary between 30 and 50 percent of

total costs.

Other System s. Australia, Austria, Denmark,

and the Federal Republic of Germany folfow predominantly employer-financed system s of

apprenticeship and general vocational training.

Practical training in the firm is considered an

ordinary operating expense of the employer,

whereas the cost of theoretical training in public

vocational schools is financed by State and/or

local government funds. In West Germany and

Austria the various industry chambers bear the

administrative and organizational costs of training from contributions of employers. In West

Germany, for example, the Chambers of Industry

and Commerce and the Artisan Chambers impose

a levy on employers, based on the payroll. Membership in the Chambers is compulsory.

Although Danish employers pay certain fees

for the classroom training of apprentices, these

constitute an insignificant portion of the total

costs of formal training; most costs are borne

by the Government. The Government operates

most of the formal establishments to which

employers send their trainees for theoretical

instruction. The State may grant interest-free

loans up to five-sixths of the cost for the purchase, construction, or maintenance of technical and commercial schools, including

boarding schools.

In Brazil, the Metalworkers Union built a new

training facility, the Porto Alegre Metalworkers

Union Industrial High School, principally through

voluntary checkoff contributions from union

members under a collective bargaining agreement. Assistance also was received from aU.S.

Agency for International Development grant of

funds and machine tools. Eventually, the school

will be able to accommodate 1,500 full-tim e and

700 night students in combined general studies

and vocational courses. This project, the major

trade union training effort in Brazil, has stimulated considerable interest among trade

unionists and government educational officials as

an example of successful direct trade union

participation in industrial training through collective bargaining.

In Australia, the Federal Government will

grant an incentive payment to employers in rural

areas in order to encourage them to increase the

number of apprentices.

Trends Toward National Control of Train ing

The enactment of new legislation, and

proposed legislation in Austria and West Germany, was prompted by a concern for adapting

training to modern economic conditions and

technological developments. Proposed reform of

vocational training in Germany reflects a preference, especially on the part of trade unions,

for legislation leading to national, rather than

the State and local control of apprenticeship

and vocational training and to the introduction

of a training tax earmarked for a special training fund. A bill submitted to the Bundestag

in August of 1966 to modernize the framework of training indicated, in other ways as

well, a tendency toward marked departure from

the traditional approach to vocational training

in Germany. First, it would replace the present

apprenticeship system , based on Trade

Regulations dating back to 1869, with a graduated

system of 3 years* duration in order to give

even greater occupational flexibility to the

trainee. The first year of basic and general onthe-job training would be followed by another

year of “occupational upgrading,** and the third

year would be devoted to the learning of a

specific skill. Second, the bill provides for

extra vacation time and financial assistance

from the Government to persons in occupational

training in special supplementary courses of

a technical nature. Although passage of this

bill is doubtful, it reflects a changing philosophy

toward apprenticeship and vocational training in

Germany which has been incorporated, to a

certain degree, in other proposed bills, also

concurrently under consideration.

The legislation recently passed in France and

the Netherlands also exhibits the trend toward

greater national control over apprenticeship

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and other training. Under the new Frencji law,

vocational training, in general, was specifically

made a national responsibility to be shared

by public authorities and private individuals,

organizations, and enterprises. To this end, the

law provides for the establishment, under the

Prime Minister, of an interministerial committee presided over by the secretary-general

of the Ministry of Education. The committee

will be assisted by a National Council for

Vocational Training, Further Education and

Employment (Counseil National de la Formation

Professionelle, de la Promotion Sociale et de

l’Emploi) consisting of representatives of the

public authorities, unions, employers* organizations, and trade associations. The functions

of the Council and assisting regional committees

will be determined by subsequent decrees. In

the Netherlands, tighter Federal control over

the apprenticeship system will very likely result

from the legal status granted under the new

law to the national and regional organs (or

foundations) responsible for the supervision

and promotion of the apprenticeship system.

R e t r a i n i n g a n d O t h e r T r a i n i n g P r o g r a m s

f o r A d u l t s ^

Legislation-^

The requirement that one be unskilled and unemployed to be eligible for. retraining is becoming less important. Moreover, the focus

of adult training in the last few years has

centered on the alleviation of general labor

adjustment problems which are found in fastgrowing and fast-changing economies. In a

few countries, there is a positive inducement

for general skill upgrading.

Vocational training of adults in Belgium is

the outgrowth of numerous legislative actions

of unique interest. As early as 1936, vocational

training of the unemployed came into being

within the framework of the National Labor

Exchange and Unemployment Office (ONPC).

1 6 / A g re a t deal of inform ation on adult re tra in in g 

in E urope within the context of g en eral econom ic and labor 

conditions in the co u n tries exam ined is contained in M a rg are t

S. G ordon’s R etraining and L abor M arket A djustm ent in 

W estern E urope (U.S. D epartm ent of L ab or, 1965, Manpower 

A utom ation R esea rch M onograph No. 4).

1 7 / See appendix C, p.43, fo r citatio n of p ertin en t 

le g islatio n .

1 8 / B elgian c e n te rs a re quite d ifferent fro m those 

in F ra n c e and the United Kingdom. They offer specific 

c o u rs e s to trainees and u su ally a re te m p o ra ry ; th at 

is , they te rm in ate when the m anpow er needs of an a re a 

a re satisfied .

The Government at that time took positive steps

to promote the training of the unemployed

through generous subsidy of workers* retraining,

which was optional. Nevertheless, in spite of

the Government’s efforts, the program did not

attract the hoped-for increase in the number of

workers who wished to be retrained, and the

“failure** was ascribed to the fact that retraining

was optional. Amendments in 1939, therefore,

made retraining compulsory, and failure to take

retraining entailed penalties. According to the

amendments, a distinction was made between

two categories of unemployed; (a) Those who

could be retrained in factories and (b) those

who required theoretical courses in industrial

schools set up or sponsored by the State.

The managing committee of the ONPC selected

the trainees. Enforcement of compulsory

retraining was limited to those who were thought

likely to benefit from retraining. Vocational training developed rapidly as a

result of this change, although the introduction

of even broader financial assistance to unemployed trainees and the shifting of emphasis by

a 1948 decree to Government-run training

centers as the principal training source were

contributing factors. 18/ Today’s accelerated

vocational training and retraining of adults

have as their legal basis the Regent’s Decree

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of 1945 on the organization of the National

Employment Service and the Royal Decree of

1961 on accelerated vocational training for adults

and the rehabilitation of unemployed persons,

as amended by a Ministerial Decree of 1963.

As of March 1966, workers did not need to

be unemployed to qualify for retraining.

The origin of government training centers for

adults in France stem s from decrees dating

back to 1945 and 1946. Under a 1949 amendment,

a tripartite semigovernmental body, known as

the National Interoccupational Association for

the Rational Training of Manpower (ANIFRMO)

was set up by several m inistries to administer

community centers. 19/ Under a program know

as Vocational Training for Adults (FPA), accelerated vocational training courses are offered adults in ANIFRMO-operated centers.

Training under FPA is intended to correct

regional skilled-trades imbalances and to aid

workers seeking higher skills. Its emphasis is

on current needs. It is not intended as a general

training system for dislocated workers or anticipated skill shortages.

In the United Kingdom, the Employment and

Training Act of 1948 made adult training

theoretically available to any unskilled person,

employed or unemployed, who had completed

compulsory schooling.

The original legislative base in Denmark

which authorized the Minister of Labor to grant

subsidies for the training and retraining of the

unemployed and unskilled was Act No. 169

of 1946. An Act Respecting the Vocational

Training of Unskilled Workers was enacted in

1960. Under the provisions of the latter act,

a central governing body, the Training Council

for Unskilled Workers, composed of seven

Danish Employers’ Federation (DAF) and seven

Danish Federation of Labor (LO) members and

a chairman, was established to coordinate

adult training subsidized by the Government.

The act also provides for the establishment

of branch committees, composed of four labor

and four management representatives, in various

industries to determine specific training needs.

German legislation on adult training dates

back to 1927, when the Employment and Unemployment Insurance Law was passed. Primary

responsibility for this kind, of training today

rests with the Federal Institution for Placement and Unemployment Insurance (BAVAV)

under the supervision of the Labor Ministry.

Government aid to employed persons seeking to

advance their occupational skills through

additional training was first introduced in 1962

and was considerably expanded by the Occupational Promotion Act of 1965.

Law No. 264 of 1949 provides the legal

framework for the training of adult workers

in Italy under the Ministry of Labor and Social

Security. It established a Central Commission

for the placement of workers and the provision of assistance to unemployed workers. The

Commission is composed of eight union representatives, four management representatives,

the Directors General of the Ministry of Labor

and the Social Security Institute, and one representative each from the M inistries of Treasury,

Agriculture, and Industry. Its main task is to

supervise the vocational retraining activity

and make recommendations for the implementation of the programs. In 1951, amendments

to the law of 1949 made training available to

employed as well as unemployed persons.

The system of Government training centers

for adults in the Netherlands appears to be

an outgrowth of the Dutch educational system

and the Dutch philosophy on vocational training.

The Vocational Education Act of 1921, the

original legal basis for vocational training and

apprenticeship, emphasized the importance of

education and training for skilled occupations

in full-tim e establishments, as distinct from

apprenticeship training, and also indicated how

well-established training schem es could be

integrated with the vocational education

program. Legislative provisions of a Royal

Decree of 1944, issued by the Government-inexile, subsequently set the stage for adult training programs in vocational training centers.

The decree provided for (a) the Government

Employment Office under the Ministry of Social

Affairs and Public Health and (b) a Bureau

19/ Special c e n te rs o rien ted to the filling of needs 

of specific in d u strie s also ex ist and m ay be estab lish ed 

by a d ecision of the M in ister of L ab or and Social S ecurity .

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of Vocational Training under the Government

Employment Office.

In Norway, the law establishing the national

unemployment insurance system specifically

authorized the use of its funds for adult training programs. Vocational training and retraining

began in earnest in Norway in 1958 and since

then have expanded rapidly.

Adult training activity in Sweden is based

not directly on any specific legislation but

on regulations dating back to 1945. A bill

to improve retraining and further training

activity was passed by the Riksdag in May 1966.

The Government has begun to implement it

provisionally, pending a general reform of the

adult training program slated for 1967. Adult

training is still somewhat biased toward the

unemployed, but the emphasis is gradually

changing to include those who are also employed.

In Switzerland, a 1963 law on vocational

training, replacing the Federal Vocational

Training Act of 1930, provides for vocational

training and further training that includes adults,

but in practice the emphasis is on youth who

have not benefited from apprenticeship training

for one reason or other.

In Australia, adult vocational training is not

promulgated by any legislation or decrees. A

proposed “Industrial Training Plan" for adults

was shelved, because technological unemployment was not considered to be a serious

problem.

Administration

Most countries offer adult retraining in

government-owned an d govern m en t-op erated

training centers or in institutions established

under government auspices but administered

by public bodies. The Netherlands and the

United Kingdom are the only countries whose

centers are run directly by the Government.

Government involvement in adult retraining

in Belgium, France, and recently the United

Kingdom can be traced to the limited success

achieved through private efforts.

Government Participation. The legislation

on adult retraining places primary responsibility

for the administration of adult training programs

on the labor m inistries, or m inistries concerned with labor matters, and, in many cases, on

the network of their employment service

agencies. The Ministry of Education frequently

is involved in determining the content of training.

Organizational structures stem from the very

nature of such training programs, which were

designed originally to help the unemployed.

Therefore, the agencies oriented to labor

supply and demand problems were assigned

major responsibilities for adult retraining. At

the operational level, however, public corporations and other organizations may be

involved.

In Belgium, training is given for the most

part in workshop centers established and operated, or approved, by the National Employment

Office (ONEM), a semiautonomous institution

which is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry

of Employment and Labor and is managed by

representatives of the Government, trade unions,

and employers’ organizations. The ONEM prepares the training programs for various occupations and sends them for approval to the appropriate National Commission, which supervises

the training for the particular industry, and

to the Pedogogical Commission, which has

the final word on how training programs are

to be implemented. Once approved, the program

in any given occupation is the same in all

ONEM workshops.

In France, community training centers are

managed jointly by the Government, unions,

and employers. France has approximately 100

regional centers involved in teaching accelerated

vocational training courses in more than 100

trades. Capacity of the centers is expected to

increase from 51,500 in 1966 to 74,500 in 1970.

Mobile training units also are utilized.

In practice, the Government training centers

in the United Kingdom, catered to the training

needs of specific classes of people—the handicapped, exservice personnel, and unemployed

older workers, all normally bypassed under

employer-run training programs. In 1963, the

emphasis in recruitment for training centers

was changed to meet the general problem

of shortages in skilled occupations essential to

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the national economy. Since 1963, the continuing

expansion of Government training centers has

doubled the number of training places, and by

the end of 1967 there will be 8,000 places

at 38 centers. Ten additional training centers—

four scheduled for operation by the end of

1968 and six by early 1970—will bring the total

number of training places to about 12,250.

In addition, a Government grant of -L2 million

(US$5.6 million) to aid private industrial training was announced in November 1966. The

money is intended to help meet the cost of

installing new machinery and auxiliary equipment in the training shops or training centers

of individual employers and is to be used for

retraining adults “off the job” for semiskilled

occupations. The Government also is exploring

the possibilities of making room for more

adults at the Government training centers by

(a) providing courses for adults in the Defense

Ministry’s training establishments and (b) using

technical colleges in the vicinity of Government training centers for first-year apprentice

cla sses.

Most of the adult training in Denmark is given

in sem iskilled workers’ schools, which are

voluntary institutions set up on the initiative of

regional labor-management organizations and

local authorities. A number of State schools

which had existed prior to the passage of Act

No. 169 also provide this kind of training.

The adult training program in Germany is

administered by the Ministry of Labor and Social

Order, the Federal Institution for Placement and

Unemployment Insurance (BAVAV), and local

government employment offices. Courses maybe

taken at government-operated or local community centers, in the firm, or in trade union or

other private institutions. Adult training in

industry is well developed in Germany, whereas

such training by public authorities is little

emphasized.

In Italy, administration of vocational training

under Law No. 264 of 1949 was assigned to three

Government Vocational Training Agencies (Enti

Gestori)—one for industrial workers (INAPLI),

one for commercial workers (ENALC), and one

for the artisan trades (INIASA). They represent

the Ministry of Labor in the field of vocational

training. The various Enti Gestori set up their

respective occupational training courses in Vocational Training Centers (CAP). The direction and supervision of adult vocational training in the Netherlands are lodged with

the Directorate of Supplementary Employment

Policy and Vocational Training under the General

Directorate for Manpower within the Ministry of

Social Affairs and Public Health. A singular

feature of adult training courses in the Netherlands is that the duration of the course depends

on the occupation and progress of the trainee.

Training is geared to the individual’s capacity

to absorb instruction and, therefore, tends to

increase the holding power on trainees. About

30 vocational training centers are now open to

unskilled adults who are either out of work or

threatened with loss of work, owing to a lack of

technical training. Accelerated vocational training courses have gained widespread acceptance

in the Netherlands.

Training programs in Norway are prepared

by the Ministry of E cclesiastical and Educational

Affairs in cooperation with the Ministry of Labor

and Community Affairs and are for the most

part carried out in vocational schools or centers.

At the end of 1965, there were 21 permanent

training centers with 42 workshops for adult

training.

In Sweden, the National Labor Market Board

(AMS), its regional agencies, County Labor

Boards, and sim ilar local bodies, and the local

Employment Offices and agents are responsible

for implementing retraining and further training as an instrument of the Government’s labor

policy. About 80 percent of the courses are

conducted in centers operated by the National

Board of Education and in ordinary vocational

schools.

Employer Participation. Employers participate in the retraining of adult workers in

almost every country under study. In general,

however, the employer’s role in this type of

training is by far secondary to that of the Government. 20/

2 0 / F o r s ta tis tic s on adult tra in e e s in sele cted foreign 

co u n trie s, see table F -2 , p.46.

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In Austria, it has been estimated that in only

5 percent of over 600 industrial firm s covered

in a survey conducted for the Organization

for Economic Cooperation and Development

was there organized retraining within the

firm . 21/ Only 10 percent of the firm s contributed toward the cost of courses or.granted

separation allowances or other benefits to

persons in the program. The training of adults

and the payment of their wages during the courses

were found only when such training and payment

were in the direct interest of the firm.

The local labor office may enter into an

agreement to train adults whereby a firm

receives a payment (2,000-3,000 schillings,

or about US$80-120, per trainee for a 13-week

period) for training expenses. The firm providing training usually hires the trainees at

a basic wage and continues to employ them

upon completion of training. The need of a

modern vocational training law is acknowledged.

The more common type of adult vocational

education is conducted through school-like programs by two institutes, the union-sponsored

Berufsforderungsinstitut (BFI) and the employer-sponsored Wirtschaftsforderungsinstitut

(WFI).

Adult retraining has had a long history in

Belgium and is provided extensively through

full-tim e training centers, b u t direct participationof employers is small. Only in exceptional cases are adult training centers erected

on a firm’s prem ises. Employer participation in France is most

pronounced under the Accelerated Vocational

Training (AVT) program which, in comparison

with accelerated vocational training in other

European countries, is highly developed.

Courses under this program last from 6 to 8

months and sire given in centers established

by firm s or in municipal centers set up under

the auspices of the Ministry of Labor. Employed

persons are allowed to participate. Under a

1966 law, adult training probably will receive

2 1 / O rganization fo r Econom ic C ooperation and Developm ent, M anpower and Social A ffairs C om m ittee, Manpow er P ro b lem s and P o lic ie s in A u stria: Survey of P riv a te 

M anpower P o lic ie s at E n te rp rise and P lant L evel (P a ris , 

OECD, 1965, MO (65) 24), p. 11.

a greater boost, since a matching fund, equal

to the amount collected by the Treasury through

the apprenticeship tax, will be established

under the Prime Minister for “social advancement training. *

Because of the prosperous employment situation in Germany in recent years, adult retraining under Government auspices has been deemphasized and, instead, more actively stressed

by employers, unions, and private organizations. In general, however, the adult training

effort is negligible in comparison with training

in vocational schools and under the apprenticeship program in the firm. Employers maintain that this situation promotes occupational

mobility, as the need for retraining is minimal.

Subsidies sometimes are granted by the Government to cover part of the wages of those being

retrained.

In Italy, special on-the-job training courses

are given by officials in individual plants in

areas where (a) changes in work patterns

require a significant shift in employment skills;

(b) training of this type is not otherwise available; and (c) at least two-thirds of the workers

concerned have indicated a desire to attend. The

courses last from 2 to 8 months and are held

in the plant away from the production line.

Plants employing fewer than 100 workers may

join together to hold joint “requalification*

courses for their workers. Moreover, the Fund

for the South (Cassa per il Mezzogiorno) in

cooperation with private industry has created

six interfirm vocational training centers (ClAPI)

in the more industrialized areas of the South.

The cost of the construction and equipment is

borne by the Fund for the South, and the operating

costs are shared by the Fund for the South, the

Vocational Training Fund, the firm s involved,

and other interested parties. Finally, Italian

employers cooperate with the various Enti

Gestori by allowing them to set up courses

on the firm s’ prem ises.

The situation regarding adult retraining in

the Netherlands is somewhat similar to that in

Italy. In the early 1960’s there was a substantial decline from the 1950 level of adult

retraining under Government auspices. The

adult retraining program still remains largely

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the responsibility of industry itself. To promote

adult retraining by employers under the on-thejob training system operated by the National

Employment Service, the employer receives

allowances for the sm aller productivity of the

trainee. The amount (related to the initial

unproductivity of the trainee, the duration of

training, and the trainee’s wages) usually may

not exceed fl. 1,500 (US$417) per trainee.

In Sweden and the United Kingdom, employers

often are involved directly in adult retraining,

when the training is intended primarily to foster

regional development. Special powers are given,

by the training authorities to promote this training by granting subsidies to firm s to man new

and/or expanded facilities. In recent years, an

increasing portion of publicly supported adult

retraining occurred in Swedish industry.

Financing

Funds for the financing of adult training

programs come from two principal sources:

Unemployment insurance contributions and an-,

nual budget appropriations.

About 80 percent of the funds for adult

retraining provided under the auspices of the

Austrian Labor Ministry, including funds for the

system of Accelerated Vocational Training

(AVT), come from the Unemployment Assurance

Loan and consist of public funds allotted for

“reintegration” m easures. Unemployed persons

do not have to pay any fees for training of

this kind. Courses organized by the Trade

Chambers, however, are financed from participants’ fees and contributions of the Trade

Chambers. Expenses of classes run by Austrian

Labor Chambers and trade unions are covered

by trainees’ fees and contributions from

em ployers’ associations in equal proportion.

The allocation of funds and control over the

proper use thereof are the responsibility of the

Federal Ministry of Social Administration.

In Belgium, the system of vocational retraining is financed in part by the National Social

Security Office, which collects the em ployers’

and workers’ social security contributions, and

in part by the State, which makes an annual

grant from the budget of the Ministry of Labor

and Social Welfare to cover the deficit. When

adult retraining is conducted by a firm, a special

agreement between the firm and the State lays

down the respective shares of the operating

expenses to be borne by them. Adult retraining

provided by the centers of National Employment

Office (ONEM) is covered by annual budget

allocations through the Ministry of Employment

and Labor. In 1966, the budget amounted to

$9.3 million.

The expenses of State courses for unskilled

workers in Denmark are financed one-third

from State funds and two-thirds from the

Unemployment Insurance Fund. State loans, up

to 85 percent of the total financing required,

are granted to labor and management organizations for the construction and maintenance

of schools for sem iskilled workers. The remaining 15 percent comes from local authorities,

the Danish Employers’ Federation (DAF), and

the Danish Federation of Labor (LO).

In France, subsidies are granted on a

quarterly basis to firm s operating their own

adult training programs, to cover the instructors’ salaries and supplementary benefits,

as well as a percentage of the wages and welfare charges of the trainees. Community centers

operated by the National Interoccupational Association for the Rational Training of Manpower

(ANIFRMO) that provide adult retraining are

financed wholly out of public funds allocated by

the Ministry of Labor and Social Security. Special

centers for adult training draw their funds

from the firm to cover the cost bf equipment

and administration and the Ministry of Labor

and Social Security to cover partial costs

of instructors’ fees and trainees’ wages.

The Federal Institution (BAVAV) finances

special training or retraining programs for

unemployed and dislocated persons in Germany.

Funds for the implementation of occupational

development measures usually are determined

and appropriated within the budget of the Federal

Employment and Unemployment Insurance

Agency and are made up of unemployment

insurance moneys.

In Italy, adult retraining is financed through

the Special Vocational Training Fund set up

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with employer/employee contributions to the

unemployment compensation fund, an annual,

contribution from the Government, contributions ‘

of private and public agencies, tuitions, and

other receipts. Through this Fund, the Ministry

of Labor makes grants in support of adult

training courses. For on-the-job training of

adults, the individual firm is required to bear

all administrative expenses for the courses,

including the cost of equipment and facilities,

and to provide for accident insurance. Wages

of trainees come out of the Wage Integrating

Fund, made up of compulsory employer contributions under the social security system

for the relief of the temporarily unemployed and ,

underemployed.

In Norway, adult retraining is financed from

the national budget and from unemployment

insurance funds. For example, the national

budget provided 14.7 million crowns (US$2 mil-,

lion) for the vocational training of adults in the'

course of the year 1964-65, of which 13.2

million crowns were used for operational expenses and 1.5 million for plant and equipment.

During the same period, 13 million crowns

came from unemployment insurance funds.

The Swedish National Labor Market Board

through its budget allocations subsidizes a wide

range of manpower programs, including the

retraining of adults. Two types of training in

jfirms are subsidized: (1) Industrial location

graining, where the enterprise is set up in a

development area, and (2) training necessitated

in firm s because of their inability to recruit

qualified labor through the employment exchange. Under the first type of training, the

Labor Market Board pays the enterprise a

training grant per trainee and hour. The specific

amount is determined on the m erits of each

.case, including the contribution which the trainee

makes to production. For the second type of

training provided by the firm, the Labor Market

Board may pay the enterprise a grant not

exceeding SKr 3 (US$0.58) per trainee and hour.

In each case the trainees must be recruited

through the employment exchange.

In the Netherlands and the United Kingdom,

funds for the financing of adult training programs

come almost exclusively from annual national

budget allocations.

Adult retraining in the three Latin American

countries covered in this study, when it is

provided, usually is conducted in the schools

of the special agencies primarily responsible

for vocational training. The main source of

their funds is the tax on employers.

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Part /

III / LABOR STANDARDS APPLICABLE

/ TO ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

B a s ic R e g u l a t i o n s

W ages

Collective bargaining is the major method

used to establish employer wages in the countries

studied. Legislation to fix wages, where enacted,

usually supplements wage determination through

collective bargaining and is intended for

employees not covered by collective agreements,

for select worker-groups, or for minimum wage

protection. The general minimum wage laws or

decrees of Austria, Brazil, Colombia, France,

West Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, the

United Kingdom, and Venezuela are mentioned

briefly below. 22/ Although these laws apply

to many categories of workers, including trainee

workers in some cases, they relate only indirectly to labor standards and on-the-job training.

More important have been youth wage differentials, described in the next section, and wage

provisions particularly applicable to apprentices

and to adult trainees covered in the next two

chapters.

In Austria, under legislation such as the

Minimum Wages Awards Act of 1951, the Home

Work Act of 1954, and the Tenant Houses Workers

Act of 1957, various Government agencies may

set minimum wage rates comparable to prevailing wages for sim ilar work in the same

area for those employees not covered by collective agreements—constituting, in relative

importance, less than 10 percent of the total

work force.

In Brazil, a decree-law of 1938 implemented

a minimum wage system , which was incorporated into the Consolidated Labor Code of

1943. Minimum wage rates, first decreed in

1940, are established on a regional basis

by Minimum Wage Commissions, which are

appointed by the Minister of Labor and Social

Welfare. The Commissions, appointed for the

22 regions and the Federal District, Brasilia,

include representatives of labor and management. The major regions are divided into over

.50 subregions for which different wage minima

are determined according to variations in the

cost of living. The minimum daily wages,

embodied in an Executive Order, apply to every

wage and salary worker, except public employees, workers in g o v ern m en t-co n tro lled

industries, apprentices, and dom estics. Minimum wages may, by law, be revised every 2

years and, under special circum stances, as

often as once a year. The wage patterns in

an area for particular skills are usually geared

to the minimum wage. For example, skilled

workers may be paid twice the minimum and

sem iskilled labor 50 percent over the established minimum wage. Overall employment matters in Colombia

are regulated by the Substantive Labor Code

of 1960, as amended. A 1955 decree, however,

empowers the Government to establish minimum

daily wage scales for the entire economy or

particular economic sectors and geographic

areas upon recommendation of a six-member

2 2 / The concept of m inim um w ages in m o st of th ese 

co u n trie s d iffers sub stan tially fro m th at in the United S tates. 

M inim um w ages in th ese fo reign co u n trie s a re clo sely 

re la te d to w ages d eterm in ed by co llectiv e b arg aining o r 

to p rev ailin g w ages, and u su ally co n sid e r d ifferen ces in 

geographical a re a s , including co st of living, in d u strie s, 

and occupations. T his d istin ction explains why allowing 

exem ptions o r having youth wage d iffere n tia ls is m ore 

feasib le fo r them than fo r the United S tates, w here m inim um 

w ages a re g eared to a m inim al stan d ard of living.

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joint board of employers and workers. In fixing minimum wages, consideration is given to

the nature of the work, the economic condition

of the area and industrial sector, and the cost

of living. Once the minimum wage has been

established, the Minister of Labor may for 1

year exempt individual enterprises and employers from paying it. The employer must

prove that payment of the minimum wage would

“upset the financial equilibrium of the undertaking.w Labor inspectors enforce compliance

with the regulations, and violations are punishable by fines.

A statutory guaranteed minimum wage

(Salaire Minimum Interprofessional GarantiSMIG) exists in France and applies to all

c la sses of workers. The minimum wage varies

by worker skill and by six geographic zones.

A 259-item consumer price index serves as

a basis for determining the statutory minimum

wage for each zone. The highest minimum

wage zone is Paris; the current SMIG rate

is 2.10 francs (approximately US$0.47) an hour.

A law to establish minimum working conditions in West Germany authorizes the Federal

Labor Minister under certain conditions, such as

the absence of unions and employers* associations in a particular branch of industry, to fix

minimum wage standards for that particular

jbranch of industry. In actual practice, this law

has little significance and does not apply to

apprentices.

Japanese law provides that minimum wages

may be set by industry or occupation on a

regional or national basis and specifies two

methods for establishing them. The first method,

in practice the only one utilized up to now,

provides that the Chief of a Prefectural Labor

Standards Office, if the region to be covered is

confined to one prefecture, or the Minister of

Labor may establish a minimum wage covering

all enterprises, regardless of size, in a given

industry when asked to do so by: (1) A group

of employers or employer associations in a given

region who have agreed on a minimum wage

applicable to all members, and whose interenterprise agreement covers a majority of the

workers in the industry within a region; or

(2) all parties to a collective agreement containing a minimum wage provision and covering

a majority of workers in the industry within

the region. The second method provides that

either the Minister of Labor or the Prefectural

Labor Standards Office Chief, again depending

on the size of the region, may initiate action to

establish the minimum wage if he finds that

the wages paid in a given industry or an

occupation are too low. Under both system s,

proposals to institute, revise, or abolish statutory minimum wages must be submitted to a

tripartite (employer, employee, and public

members) Minimum Wage Deliberation Council

for its recommendation. The governmental authorities are expected to respect the Council’s

decision when actually fixing the minimum

wage. At the present time, there are only

two nationwide statutory minimum wages in

Japan—in the textile industry and in the coal

and metal mining industries for underground

workers.

In 1966, the Government of the Netherlands

passed a temporary minimum wage law and

authorized a weekly minimum wage of 120 florins

(US$33) for both men and women. In January

1967, the wage rate was raised to 126 florins

(US$34.80) and on July 1, 1967, it was raised to

128 florins (US$35.36). A permanent minimum

wage act is expected.

In the United Kingdom, legislative action,

beginning with the Trade Boards Act of 1909,

indirectly regulated wages in certain industries

(usually low-paying and le ss organized) through

specific Trade Boards which could set minimum

rates of pay in their respective industries.

Under the Wages Councils Act of 1959, which

consolidated the previous Wages Councils Acts,

Wages Councils—composed of equal numbers

of workers, employers, and not more than three

“independent members” —may propose to the

Minister of Labour minimum remuneration for

workers in their respective fields of activity.

The Minister of Labour appoints Wage Inspectors

to assure that the legal requirements of the

Wages Councils Act are satisfied. An employer

may be fined for violation of any wage order

posted in the industry.

In Venezuela, labor relations are regulated

by a comprehensive Labor Law. Wages are

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settled primarily by collective bargaining, but

for particular industries or trades, a Minimum

Wage Commission may establish legal minimum

rates.

Youth W a g e Differentials

In several countries—Belgium, France, the

Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom—

the wages of young workers, or apprentices,

or both are established by statutory or contractual provisions allowing, lower wages based on

age, so-called youth wages. Scope of coverage,

however, is sometimes limited to particular

industries or occupations. Wage differentials

for youth, where established, appear to be well

accepted by employers, unions, and parents.

Most collective agreements in Belgium

provide for lower wages to persons under 21.

Only in exceptional cases do some agreements

provide for equal pay for equal work, regardless

of age. For example, in the metalworking

industry in 1959, the percentage hourly pay

reduction, based on the adult workers* rate

in the same skill catergory, ranged from

60 percent for those under age 16 to 5 percent for those 6 months before their 21st

birthday. A particular individual could receive

a fixed increase if he had a diploma from a

vocational school.

The French legal minimun wage provides

for reductions applicable to workers under

18 years of age, according to the following

scale:

Age group Percent reductions from

guranteed minimum

______wage, 1964_______

14- 15 years .............. ............... 50

15- 16 years . .......................... 40

16- 17 years ................. 30

17- 18 years .............................. 20

In the Netherlands, collective agreements in

individual industries set lower rates for young

people. Different job rates apply for each year

of age from 14 to the specified adult level,

which varies according to the industry. For

example, the wage for a Job Class I adult,

worker aged 23 in the metal industry in 1964

was 1.79 florins (US$0.50) an hour. The rates

for young workers between 14 and 22 years

in the same job ranged from 0.48 florins

(US$0.15) to 1.65 florins (US$0.46) an hour. At

age 18 the rate was 0.90 florins (US$0.25) an

hour.

In Sweden, special wages for youth in the

16 to 23 age range are established through

collective bargaining. They vary according to

age, sex, skill, industry, and the cost of living.

In the United Kingdom, the minimum wages

set by the various Wages Councils provide

for lower pay rates applicable to young workers,

usually from ages 15 to 21 for males and from

15 to 18 for fem ales. The rates increase yearly

and. in some cases, biannually up to adult age.

Hours

The legislation of the various countries on

hours of work covers many categories of workers and in some cases applies especially to

young workers. These provisions are summarized briefly below. Further details appear

in the “Hours* sections of the next two chapters,

on apprenticeship as affected by labor standards

and on vocational training for adults as affected;

by labor standards.

Basic hours legislation in Austria dates back

to the Law on Hours of Work of 1939 which established a normal workday of 8 hours; there was

no prescribed lim it on the length of the workweek. A national collective agreement between

the Federal Chamber of Industry and the Austrian

Trade Union Federation in 1959, however, made

effective a 45-hour workwee^ in industrial and

commercial firm s subject to collective agreements. Overtime work is perm issible only in

exceptional circum stances, for which premium

rates must be paid. 23/ A higher premium (50

percent) must be paid for young workers, bakers,

and agricultural workers.

Paid or regular employment of children under

14 or of compulsory school age is prohibited.

Hours of work for youth up to their 18th birthday are restricted to 44 a week. Overtime at night

2 3 / F o r s c a le s of p rem iu m ra te s p aid in fo reign 

c o u n trie s, see table F -3 , p.47.

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between 8 p.m. and 6 a.m. as well as work on

Sundays and holidays are prohibited almost without exception. Youths are entitled to 43 hours of

uninterrupted timeoff a week.

In Belgium, the act respecting hours of work

in the public and private sectors of the national

economy of 1964 established an 8-hour day and a

45-hour week for most cla sses of workers.

Section 21 states that any work performed beyond

the legal time lim its will be treated as overtime

and compensated for at premium rates, unless

not subject to the law. The 45-hour week, however, had been in effect since the middle 1950’s,

when a national agreement was signed by the

workers’ and employers’ intertrade organizations. The agreement was extended to cover

virtually all wage earners by decisions of the

joint committees and by royal orders. Eleven

consecutive hours of rest at night are mandatory for women and youth under 18.

The 1946 Brazilian Constitution as well as

the Consolidated Labor Code of 1943 provided

for an 8-hour day and a 48-hour week in industry and commerce. A maximum of2hoursa day

of overtime work is permitted if the employee

agrees in writing or if the collective contract

so stipulates. Only in an emergency may the

legal overtime lim it be exceeded, in which case

the Minister of Labor must be notified within 10

days. Overtime in certain harmful occupations

requires advance approval from the Minister of

Labor and Social Welfare. To work overtime a

woman must obtain documented authorization

on her work card from a Government physician.

Children under age 18 may work overtime only

in special em ergencies. A premium of at least

20 percent of base pay must be paid for overtime worked. Double compensation is paid for

Sunday and holiday work if no alternate day off

is provided.

Work from 10 p.m. to 5 a.m. is considered

nightwork. A pay differential of at least 20 percent, computed on the sum of the base pay plus

any other premium earned, is mandatory. In enterprises which normally operate at night, the

night premium is applicable only to employed

persons who earn less than the minimum wage

plus 20 percent. Persons under 18 years of age

may not work at night under any circumstances.

In the absence of contractual regulation, the

Colombian Labor Code provides for a regular

working day of 8 hours and a maximum of 48

hours a week in industry. In farming, forestry,

and cattle raising, a 9-hour day and a 50-hour

week were established. A twofold gradation in the amount of overtime compensation exists.

If the overtime work is performed during the

daylight hours from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m ., a 25

percent premium is paid; during nighttime hours,

6 p.m. to 6 a.m ., a 75 percent premium rate

applies. Those working on Sundays and holidays

are entitled to compensation equal to twice the

normal pay. Minors under 16 may not work

longer than 6 hours a day, 36 hours a week, or

at night, unless they are employed in domestic

work. Workers between 16 and 18 years old have

a 7-hour day and a 42-hour week. In Denmark, the working hours of most

workers are not established by law, but are a

matter of bargaining and agreement. At present,

an 8-hour day and a 44-hour week are common.

Various laws regulate the hours of workers under

18 years of age, but the restrictions apply mainly

to night and Sunday work; exceptions are made

for training.

A law, passed in 1936, made the 40-hour week

mandatory in the nonagricultural sector of the

French economy. The agricultural sector is

covered by a 1948 law which provided for an

annual limitation of 2,400 working hours for wage

earners in agriculture and forestry. This figure

is based on a working year of 300 days. In February 1946, a law on overtime reinforced the

legal workweek of 40 hours; it authorized overtime up to a limit of 20 hours a week, for which

a premium must be paid. Young workers, 14 to

16 years old, may not work over 40 hours a week.

From age 16 to 18, up to 4 hours a week of overtime are permitted. Nightwork is prohibited up to

age 18. Two recent ordinances of the Council of Ministers in Germany reduced the workweek to 5

days and 45 hours. Workers employed on threeshifts work 44 hours. Overtime is permitted, but

at premium rates. Youth protective legislation prohibits young workers under 16 from

working more than 40 hours a week, and for

those 16 to 18 a 44-hour maximum workweek is

the rule.

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In Italy, an 8-hour day and a 48-hour week

apply to industrial and commercial business,

technical education institutions, philanthropic

institutions, offices, public works, and hospitals.

Hours limitations do not apply, however, to seasonal work. Most collective labor agreements

provide for a workweek averaging 42 to 43 hours.

Sunday work generally is prohibited. Overtime

may not exceed 2 hours a day or 12 hours a week,

or the same average over a longer period.

Premium rates paid for overtime are settled

mostly through collective bargaining. Youths 15

and over may not work over 10 hours a day.

Also, they must receive an adequate rest period

after working for 6 hours.

The Labor Standards Law of 1947 establishes

the basic labor legislation in Japan. In principle,

hours of work are limited to 8 a day and 48 a

week. Overtime, at premium rates, is permitted

in cases of emergency or as agreed upon

between labor and m a n a g e m e n t. For work

injurious to health, overtime in limited to a

maximum of 2 hours a day, as is overtime work

of women.

In the Netherlands, the legal workweek in

most industries and shops is 48 hours; there

is a daily maximum of 9 hours. The norm since

1960-61 has been a 5-day 45-hour workweek.

The pertinent legislation includes the Labor Act

of 1919, the Hours of Work (Factories and

Workshops) D ecrees of 1923, and the Hours of

Work in Offices Decrees of 1937—all of which

have been amended. Hours for women and

children are covered by the Employment of

Women and Young Persons Decree of 1920,

as amended. As in other countries, limitations

are placed on the number of hours which

young persons and women can work and on

daily and weekly rest periods.

In Norway, the Labor Protection Act of 1956,

as amended in 1958, provides for a 9-hour

day and a 45-hour workweek. Overtime is

permitted only under exceptional circumstances

and may not exceed 10 hours a week. Normal

hours for children under 15 in approved occupations and for young persons 15 to 18 are the same

as for adults, but overtime for workers under 18

is not permitted. The normal age of entry into

employment in industry and trade is 15. In industrial establishments, transport operations, civil

engineering, and building operations, young persons under 16 must have at least 12 consecutive

hours off between any two periods of work,

including the hours between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m.

Persons between 16 and 18 must receive at

least 7 consecutive hours off between 10 p.m.

and 7 a.m.

Hours legislation, based on the General

Act on Working Hours of 1930 and amended

in 1957, prescribes a 9-hour day and a 45-hour

week for Swedish employees not covered by

collective agreements. This regulation covers

about one-third of the labor force. Contractual

hours tend to follow the established maximum,

even though collective agreements may establish

longer hours than those set by law. Swedish

law also omits any general regulation of overtime

pay on the principle that this detail should

be settled by collective bargaining. The General

Act distinguishes between emergency and

ordinary overtime. In em ergencies, such as an

accident or national crisis, workers are obligated to work as demanded by employers. In

ordinary overtime situations, employees 18

years of age and over may work beyond regular

hours, but at most, 48 hours in a 4-week period

and for no more than 200 work hours in a

calendar year. Most collective agreements

covering production and related workers distinguish between normal overtime (2 hours beyond

the normal workday) and special overtime

(Sunday, holidays, and nightwork), for which

premium wages are paid.

The Workers Protection Act of 1949, amended

in 1963, made 10 hours the maximum workday

for women and young workers under 18. Their

maximum weekly hours of work are limited to

54. A minimum of 11 continuous off-duty hours

for night rest of young workers, as well as

for women in industry and the handicrafts,

is required.

A Federal Labor Law, which became effective

in 1966 in Switzerland, prescribed a workweek

of 46 hours for most cla sses of workers.

Standard work contracts or collective bargaining

agreements may set different work conditions,

provided they meet at least the minimum

standards. Special work regulations apply to

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hospitals, hotels, and restaurants, and other

industries. Overtime at premium rates or

compensatory timeoff may not exceed 2 hours

a day for any worker. Sunday employment

generally is prohibited, but cantonal authorities

may allow certain exceptions. Young persons

under age 19 may not work at night or on Sundays,

but under special circum stances, such as vocational training, exceptions may be granted. Although the statutory workweek in the

United Kingdom is 48 hours, standard workweeks established through collective bargaining range from 40 to 44 hours. The hours of youth under 18 are fixed by law. Although children 13 to 15 are allowed to work a maximum of

2 hours on school days and on Sundays, they

may not be employed during school hours or at

night. The Shops Act of 1950 restricts shop

employees under 16 to 44 hours per week

and those aged 16 to 18, to 48. Similar provisions apply to factory workers under the

Factories Act.

In Venezuela, the Labor Law set a maximum

of 48 hours a week for men and a lower

maximum for women and youth. Minors 14 to

16 years old are allowed to work a maximum

of 6 hours a day. Overtime of 2 hours a day or

100 hours a year is permitted if approved by the

Labor Inspector.

Apprenticeship

W a g e s

Hourly wages of indentured apprentices in

most of the 16 countries 24/ are established

by collective or individual agreement and may

vary according to industry, area, age, and sex.

In some cases they are decreed, as in the

absence of collective agreements or for particular trades. Except in Japan, bargained or

decreed apprentices1 wages are substantially

lower than those of regular workers in the same

occupations. They may start at 10 to 12 percent

of the journeyman’s rate of pay and seldom

reach the 90 percent level in the final year of training. However, unlike under the apprenticeship program in the United States, employers

customarily pay apprentices for time spent in

related instruction in virtually all the countries

covered.

Apprentices’ wages in Australia are determined by governing bodies, such as apprenticeship councils and the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, or by regulations,

arbitration awards, and agreements. In the

2 4 / A ustria, B elgium , D enm ark, F ran ce, W est G erm any, Italy, the N etherlands, Norway, Sweden, S w itzerland, and the United Kingdom.

Northern Territory, the Apprentices’ Board sets

the apprentices’ percentage of wages payable

under the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act; in addition, where no Federal award

operates, the Board fixes the minimum wages

payable to apprentices.

Under provisions of the Federal Metal Trades

Award, apprentices’ wages expressed as a

percentage of the journeyman’s wage for each

year of apprenticeship, are as follows:

Year of Percent of

apprenticeship journeyman’s rate

1st y e a r ...................................31.5

2d y e a r ...................................40.5

3d y e a r....................................47.25

4th y e a r ...................................71.0

5th y e a r ...................................85.5

In Brazil and Colombia, apprentices are paid

half the legal or contractual minimum wage.

The major difference between the two system s

lies in the absence in Brazil of a progressive

scale of apprentices’ pay. In Colombia, apprentices’ wages increase every 6 months until the full legal minimum or contractual minimum wage

is reached at the end of the apprenticeship period.

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In France, the apprentice is not legally

entitled to any compensation. According to

custom or negotiated agreements, however,

apprentices receive a kind of “pocket money.*

Most collective bargaining agreements, however,

provide for the payment of wages on a progressively increasing scale which usually starts at

50 percent of the legal minimum wage.

In West Germany, apprentices* wages are

either regulated under industrywide collective

agreements or simply decreed, as in the handicraft shops by the competent handicraft

chamber. The amount, which is estimated to be

about one-fourth of the wage received by a youth

in an unskilled job in a comparable industry

or trade, usually increases for each year

of training. To emphasize the position of

apprentices as pupils, their wages are intended

to represent a kind of “educational grant.**

Practice reveals that monthly cash payments to

apprentices vary considerably from one economic activity to another. For example, auto

mechanic apprentices received, in 1964, about

DM50 (US$12.50), and building trade apprentices

DM 170 (US$42.50), monthly in the first year of

training. In the final year of training, the fourth

and third year in the respective trades, the

monthly payments were DM80 (US$20) and DM

300 (US$75), respectively.

In Japan, apprentices are paid according to the

pay scale of the organization giving the training.

In most companies, according to a recent

report, 25/ no differential exists between the

wages of apprentices and those of other workers

of the same age and seniority. Some companies,

however, pay apprentices slightly le ss during

the training period. It is also customary to grant

apprentices bonuses on the same basis as other

workers.

In Italy and the United Kingdom, collective

bargaining plays the most prominent role in

setting the wages of apprentices. In the absence

of collective agreements, the Minister of Labor

decrees the wages of Italian apprentices . The

wages of English apprentices in some industries

may be fixed by the appropriate Wages Councils.

In Venezuela, apprentices starting their

compulsory apprenticeship training programs

are paid a wage equal to about one-half that

of regular qualified workers in a comparable

skill. Their pay scale increases over the

duration of the apprenticeship. If training occurs

outside the firm, the company provides time off

and pays the cost. When apprentices are sent

to regular centers of the National Institute of

Cooperative Education (INCE), the company

must pay the apprentice per diem subsistence

plus regular wages.

In several countries, apprentices, even after

completing the training program, may not qualify

immediately for the full journeyman’s wage. In

Germany, the apprentice may have to work a year

or two to acquire sufficient experience to qualify

for the journeyman’s rate of pay. In the Netherlands, apprentices are paid an “improver’s*

wage rate for several years before qualifying

for full wages and skilled status. The age at

which this status is reached varies according

to the trade or occupation. For example, in

metallurgy and automobile trades, the age is

26; in patternmaking, 28; and in the building

trades, 23. In the United Kingdom, apprentices

who have completed their training may be

required to work 1 or 2 additional years in

some industries at le ss than the full journeyman

rate for adult workers.

O ther B e n e fits

Compared with the wages of apprentices in

the United States, which range from 50 to 90

percent of the journeyman’s straigh t-tim e

earnings, bargained or decreed wages of foreign

apprentices are considerably lower. Foreign

apprentice earnings in some cases, however,

are supplemented by additional allowances.

In Denmark, for example, the Danish Federation of Employers estim ates that the pay of

apprentices varies from 12 to 13 percent of

the journeyman’s wage in the first year of

training to about 20 percent during the final

year of apprenticeship. Danish apprentices, however, may receive supplementary support from the Young People’s Training Fund for expenses

such as travel or board at the technical school.

2 5 / International Labor O ffice, R eport on the A sian

Study Tour on Vocational T raining in Japan (G eneva, ILO,

1966, IL O /T A P /A F E /R .14). *

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For example, apprentices, who must travel more

than 7 kilometers (4-1/2 miles) to attend such a

school are eligible for reimbursement of travel

expenses. The Government may pay 20 percent

of the costs of board and lodging. Apprentices

also may receive scholarships and loans from the

Young Peopled Training Fund or private

scholarships from individual trade unions.

In other countries, such as Belgium, France,

and the Netherlands, family allowances may

supplement the pay of apprentices. In Belgium,

the apprentice’s parents are entitled to a family

allowance if the apprentice is le ss than 21

years of age, earns le ss than 450 Belgian

francs (US$9) a week, and is not a member

of his employer’s family. In France, it is

considered more worthwhile to continue to r e -

oeive a family allowance, paid until age 17 for

apprentices, than to raise their wages, since

the wages, if in excess of 50 percent of the

legal minimum wage rate, would disqualify

the parents from receiving an allowance for

their apprenticed children. In the Netherlands,

the family allowance is paid according to

the provisions of the Family Allowance Act

for Wages Earners, the General Family Allowance Act, and the Family Allowance Act for

Self-Employed Person.

By and large, apprentices are covered by

all the social benefits customarily available

to regular workers. These include old-age

insurance, paid vacations, unemployment insurance, accident insurance, hospitalization, and

paid sick leave.

The length of the paid vacation sometimes

varies according to age. In Belgium, for example,

apprentices under 18 years of age normally

receive 18 days off a year with pay; those

over 18, 12 days. Belgian employers are

required to pay 8 percent of the wages paid

apprentices into a special Annual Vacation

Fund, a practice not encountered in the other

countries. Since January 1967, all Belgian

workers are entitled to 3 weeks of paid vacation. French and German employers must give ap-

_26/ See appendix D, p .4 4 t for exam p les of le g is ­

la tiv e r e str ic tio n s on ov ertim e.

2 7 / “Denmark: An Act R especting Workers* P ro tec ­

tion Generally,** L eg isla tiv e S e r ie s 1954 (International Labor

O ffice, G eneva), No. 226, June 11, 1954.

prentices under 18 years of age 23 days of

paid vacation a year. In Switzerland, the law

requires that each employee be granted at

least 2 weeks of paid vacation annually. Apprentices, however, up to age 20, and workers

up to age 19, have a right to 3 weeks. These

federally established minima may be liberalized

by the cantons. The Norwegian Holidays Act

provides explicitly for longer vacations for

apprentices than the 4 weeks given to regular

employees but does not compel employers to

grant them. Consequently, apprentices seldom

receive longer vacations.

H ours

The hours which apprentices are required

to work are usually the same as those of

regular workers, except for overtime; lim itations on overtime are imposed mostly because

of the young age of apprentices. 26/ For example,

in Belgium, apprentices may not contract to work

more than 45 hours a week; in Italy, the

maximum number of weekly hours is 44; and

in Japan, 42. Overtime work of apprentices is

usually permitted only under exceptional circumstances and must normally be compensated

for at the established premium rates. In France,

apprentices are usually granted a bonus for overtim e, although no specific legal provision exists

for such compensation.

In Denmark, apprentices may not be required

to work more than 10 hours a day. Perm ission

is usually granted to employ trainees 16 years

old and over at night, however, for training purposes. For example, the Factories and Workshops Act of 1954 states:

Where it is considered necessary for the

young person’s training, the Minister of

Social Affairs may also, on receipt of an

application therefor and with the advice of

the Director of Labour Inspection and the

Labour Council, permit male workers who

have attained the age of 16 years to participate . . .in operations that are necessarily

continuous in character between 6 p.m.

and 6 a.m. in the following undertakings:

iron and steel factories, glassworks, paper

m ills and sugar factories. 27/

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In France, unless otherwise provided for ih

collective bargaining agreements, the time that

employers must allow apprentices to attend

related instruction are not counted toward the

apprentices’ working hours. In other countries,

including West Germany, Italy, Norway, Sweden,

and Venezuela, related instruction time is

normally part of the apprentice’s working day.

Vocational T raining Programs for Adults

W a g e s

Full-Time Training Centers. Adults taking

full-tim e instruction in government training

centers or in other approved full-tim e training

institutions are paid either the unemployment

compensation benefit or a training allowance.

The basic wage, except for a few cases, is

further supplemented by special allowances, such as dependents’ or family allowances, lodging allowances, or per diem subsistence, and

som etim es special rent allowances, to cushion

the expenses of home upkeep when the head of

household must be away from home for the duration of training. Allowances are sometimes

granted for meals; in other cases, meals are

provided at centers at a modest price. Meals

seldom are free. To qualify for some of these

various allowances, a means test is often required. Limitations on the total payments received

are usually imposed. For example, in Belgium,

under regulations governing training allowances,

the trainee payments, including wages or their

substitute and all other supplementary benefits,

may not exceed either the normal wages paid

to adult skilled workers in the same trade or

the regular wages paid to young, unskilled

workers. At present, Belgian trainees under

courses sponsored by the National Employment

Office (ONEM) are paid a maximum of 33

francs 41 centimes an hour (US$0.67). In West

Germany, the training allowance is related to

previous earnings.

In-Plant Training. When adult training occurs

within the firm, the trainees may be paid their

regular wages, as in Austria; the employer, in

turn, is subsidized from public funds to cover

expenses such as loss of worktime, lower productivity, and use of materials and equipments.

In the Netherlands, the trainee begins by receiving the wage rate paid to an unskilled worker in the particular industry. During the training course, the value and progress of the

trainee’s performance are calculated, and the

length of training time required is determined.

For the formal part of the training the state pays

about 40 percent of an unskilled worker’s

wage; the difference, or 60 percent, is paid

by the employer. Wages paid by the employer

during the practical training depend on the

value of the worker’s performance until the

end of the agreed training tim e, when the full

wage is paid.

In Italy, participants in on-the-job training

courses under Law No. 264 receive a wage equal

to two-thirds of their normal pay up to a

maximum of 40 hours weekly. This salary is

charged to the Wage Integrating Fund. Participants are also paid an additional allowance

of 100 lire (US$0.16) a day and a family allowance.

Combination In-Plant and Full-Tim e Training in Centers. When workers are sent by their

employers to retrain at the centers for related

instruction, as in France, employers may pay

their regular wages and, in turn, may receive

a government subsidy. In the Netherlands, if

an employer wishes to have a center train a

person already employed, he must pay the

trainee’s wage or allowance and, in addition,

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pay a fee to cover the cost of the training.

The number of such cases is reportedly small.

Incentive Pay. The Netherlands has introduced an incentive pay system for trainees.

Those in vocational training at the centers are

paid a basic compensation for the loss of earnings

each week. For married men of age 23 and over,

this allowance is about 90 percent of the basic

wage of unskilled workers. Single men of age

23 and over receive 12-1/2 to 25 percent less,

depending on whether or not they live with their

parents. Trainees under age 23 are paid 10

percent less for every year below that age.

Over and above the basic compensatory

pay, the trainee is paid a performance premium

if his average performance rating for practical

work is above a specified minimum. The amount

of the incentive premium is based on a threefold

scale, depending on whether the individual’s

performance rating score i$ low, medium, or

high. The premium is paid only if the particular

qualifying score has been maintained for an

entire week and if, during the same week, a

minimum average performance mark for theoretical training has also been achieved. The

premium reportedly encourages the concentration and perseverance of the trainees.

Minimum Wages. Under adult vocational

training programs in France, the state pays

workers in training at the centers the legal

minimum wage rate for the duration of their

training. In Japan, employers conducting government-approved on-the-job vocational training

programs may be exempted from paying the

minimum wage to the trainees who are in fulltime training and are not producing anything

of value. In practice, however, such permission

is rarely requested by employers.

Lump-Sum Payments After Training. In

addition to the basic wage or allowance, some

countries have adopted a system of additional

lump-sum payments paid to trainees su ccessfully completing their courses.

Belgian trainees upon completion of training

receive 900 to 1,800 francs (US$18 to US$36)

in a lump sum—the amount varying according

to the duration of the training period. Moreover,

if the trainee remains employed in the occupation for which he was trained for 6 months

during the 12-month period immediately following his training, he is paid an additional

500 francs. Those who have successfully completed training taken on Saturdays receive a

lump sum of 900 francs, in addition to 80 francs

for each Saturday in attendance.

In Italy, under accelerated vocational training programs, participants successfully completing their courses are paid a lump-sum

payment of 3,000 lire (US$4.80). Those who have

completed on-the-job training courses and cannot be absorbed in the firm ’s work force must

be paid dism issal benefits and bonuses under

the term s of the existing labor contracts.

Other countries follow slightly different

practices. Swedish trainees completing the

course may be granted “financial assistance”

in the form of a loan equivalent to 1 month’s

training allowance to assist in their transition

from school to work. In the United Kingdom,

payment in kind may be provided to trainees

successfully completing a training program. In

trades where craftsmen normally have their

own tools, a free tool kit is given to the trainee

who has successfully completed a training

program.

Young Persons. Young persons in training

under adult-type programs may or may not

receive an allowance. In Italy, for example,

young people up to age 16 or 17 receive no

pay. However, they do receive two free meals

a day and other benefits. Dutch trainees under

18, living with their parents, do not receive

an allowance. In Japan, young trainees undertaking basic training to enter employment for

the first time are denied allowances; they may

even be required to pay certain fees to cover

expenses such as books and working clothes.

Trainees from low-income fam ilies, however,

may receive an interest-free loan up to 4,000

yen (US$11) a month. If the training course

lasts at least 1 year, they may use public

transport facilities at a reduced rate. In Sweden.

on the other hand, young persons attending 2-

year training courses of vocational training

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centers receive a small allowance of about onefourth or one-third of what a youth of sim ilar

age could earn.

O t h e r B e n e f its

Allowances received by unemployed adult

trainees usually are not subject to income

tax. In addition, trainees are covered by sickness, accident, and disability insurance even

though they do not usually contribute to the

social security system and often are reimbursed

for travel expenses. Tuition is usually free.

In the Netherlands, trainees living 3 or more

m iles from the vocational training center may

receive either an allowance for travel or an

allowance for the use of their bicycles. Since

many of the courses for adults are short, paid

vacations are seldom granted. Trainees seldom

receive working clothes or an allowance for

their purchase.

Hours

Hours of training for adults follow closely

the normal workweek pattern in the respective

countries. Practical training instruction consumes from 75 to 90 percent of the total training time. Adults trained in the firm are treated

as regular workers for purposes of computing

overtime pay.

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T r a i n e e W a g e s

Although the application of wage-hour standards to the training programs of the countries

discussed in this bulletin does not appear to have

caused employers to minimize or refrain from

providing training, particular problems have

occurred that tend to suggest a rather serious

imbalance between the quantity and quality of

training.

The current trainee-wage practice of some

countries has resulted in dissatisfaction among

apprentices or abuses among employers. For

example, Danish apprentices staged demonstrations in 1966 against the “starvation* wages

received and the allegedly inordinate length

of their apprenticeship. The demonstrations,

often held in conjunction with trade union

conventions, were directed not only toward

employers but also skilled workers. The apprentices felt that (1) management tended to regard

apprentices as a source of “cheap labor,* and

(2) skilled workers tended to believe that the

present generation of apprentices should be

exposed to the same “ordeal* in their training

that the past generation had experienced. At

the triennial convention in Copenhagen in August

1966, the Danish machinists’ union, whose

membership included many skilled workers,

responded with expressed determination to press

for improved apprentices’ wages.

In Brazil, minors may be hired at half

the minimum wage if they are enrolled part

time in a training course in an approved

institution. However, if no training institution

exists in a particular area or if enrollment

2 8 / Rem o P iro n ti, “L a F orm azione P ro fe ssio n a le e 

l ’a ttiv ita del M inistero del L avora,* R assegna del L av o ro . 

Q uaderno No. 27, 1963, p.40.

for a particular course at such institution

is closed, the employer is relieved of the

obligation for institutional training. As a result,

a large number of minors hired as apprentices

are reportedly performing full-tim e work at

half pay without receiving adequate training.

Observers also feel that the lack of a graduated

scale in the apprentice wage during training and

a strong demand for sem iskilled workers in

industry contributes substantially to the large

number of youths who fail to complete the apprenticeship.

An Italian journal article 28/ indicated that

the low wage of Italian apprentices coupled

with virtually lim itless freedom in hiring them

had resulted, in some cases, in the unscrupulous

use of young workers at the expense of their

proper educational and vocational development..

Strong appeals have been made to transform*

Italian apprenticeship from a quantity- to a

quality-based system by stricter regard for

the spirit and letter of the law. Also, legislation has been proposed to reform apprenticeship training by having rigorous training inspection, expanded control of the numbers

trained, and improvement of apprentices’ wages.

There are indications that the German apprenticeship system , especially in small establishments, is open to sim ilar abuse. A basic

criticism is that young persons are recruited as

cheap labor and are often employed on work not

directly related to their training. Wages amount

to only 20 to 25 percent of the journeyman’s rate,

and apprenticeship is provided in as many as 600

basic trades for eventual work in 20,000 occupations. About 1.3 million persons on the average,

or 6 to 7 percent of the total wage and salary

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work force, undergo apprenticeship at onetime.

Under these conditions, there still has been in

recent years an average of 250,000 apprenticeship vacancies.

When adjusted to a family allowance system,

apprentices’ wages may not improve significantly. In France, for example, if apprentices’

wages exceed 50 percent of the legal minimum

wage, parents are not entitled to a family

allowance for them. Allegedly, parents have

found it more advantageous to receive the

family allowance than to encourage increases

in wages for their apprenticed children. Consequently, apprentices’ wage have not been critical

in contract negotiations.

T r a in e e

Problems regarding the hours of training

were found to be of a general character. A

paradoxical situation has resulted from the

fact that there is le ss time for training, on

the one hand, because of the shortened workweek, whereas, on the other hand, there is a

rise in the skill standards demanded due to

technological advances. Consequently, officials

of an increasing number of countries have begun

to place greater emphasis on the theoretical

aspects of training. There has also been considerable experimentation with “block release,”

that is, classroom instruction of several weeks’

duration or longer in each year, rather than “day

relea se,” which calls for classroom instruction

of at least 1 full day a week, although the latter

is still more common. The United Kingdom has made an effort

In only one case have wage regulations

had an adverse influence on employers’ willingness to hire apprentices. Shortly after the

Apprenticeship Act of 1951 in Norway was enacted, many employers, especially in small

firm s, hesitated to accept apprentices on grounds

that the act involved them in large expenses and

extra work in providing systematic training.

They particularly opposed the requirement to

pay apprentices’ wages during school attendance

and sickness. As a result, in 1958, state grants

were made available to sm aller firm s accepting

apprentices, and refund of part of the wages

paid during the apprentices’ illness also was

provided for.

H o u r s

to cope with the problem by devoting the first

full year of apprenticeship to “off-the-job” training. The adoption of a sim ilar technique has

received support in other countries, such as

West Germany and France.

The fact that many employed persons today

can be expected to change jobs more frequently

in their working lives than in the past constitutes a sim ilar problem. To facilitate the

transition of workers to other occupations,

training which combines general education and

technical training basic to two trades or more

is receiving greater attention. Upgrading the

training of employed persons is also becoming

more prominent. In adult training, short and

intensive courses under accelerated vocational

training schem es are already widespread

throughout Western Europe.

O t h e r P r o b le m s

General concern resulted over insufficient

funds to expand or modernize training facilities

and equipment, particularly for adult training.

Another general problem, especially important

to the countries having tax system s for financing

training, is the apparent inability of the small

employer to take advantage of the system to

provide training. In France, for example, ap38

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prenticeship tax exemptions have been criticized

for insufficient inducement for plants to initiate

or continue in-plant vocational training. 29/

Moreover, the report of the Committee of

Enquiry into measures to improve further

education and upgrading (the M asselin Committee) disclosed that a third of the tax proceeds

went into the national budget unused and concluded that the tax is a failure particularly

2 9 / C h a r t i e r , “La Taxe d’ap p ren tissag e* L* en - 

seig n em en t Technique (P a ris ), A p ril-Ju n e 1964, pp. 37- 

46, in CIRF A b strac ts (International V ocational T raining 

Inform ation and R esea rch C en ter, Geneva), vol. 3. 1964, 

No. 2/08789.

3 0 / J . C hoffel, “ D ifficules de la form atio n p ro fe ssionnelle,* L ’U sine nouvelle (P a ris ), Special is su e , O ctober 

1964, pp. 85, 87, and 89, in CIRF A b strac ts (International 

V ocational T raining Inform ation and R esea rch C en ter, 

(Geneva), vol. 3., 1964, No. 2/09847.

for small enterprises. 30/ In Brazil, only

the largest firm s were able to train and to

qualify for a tax rebate. In the United Kingdom,

the Industrial Training Boards are encouraged

to give special consideration to the training

difficulties and needs of small employers. In contrast to the dynamic changes that

have occurred in industry and technology during

recent years, vocational training in many

countries have been described as static. In some

countries the need for modern vocational training

laws has been acknowledged. Regarding the

inflexibility of the apprenticeship system in

particular, considerable debate is taking place

on the appropriate length of training, the necessity to adapt course content to changing occupational requirements, and the need to devise a

means to systematically update skills.

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AppendixA Text of Q u e s tio n n a ire

[ D is t r ib u t e d to U0S 0 Labor A tta c h e s in Bern , B o g o ta , Bonn,

B r u s s e ls , C anb erra, C openhagen, C a ra ca s, London, O s lo ,

P a r is , Rio de J a n e ir o , Rome, S tock h olm , The H ague, T okyo,

and V ien n a]

1« What ty p e s o f program s e x i s t : Program s e s t a b lis h e d by la w , c o l l e c t i v e

b a r g a in in g , em p loyers u n i l a t e r a l l y , o th e r s ? I s th e t r a in in g programed on th e

p la n t , l o c a l , S t a t e ( P r o v in c i a l) , o r n a tio n a l le v e l?

2 ® Are th e program s o p e r a te d by th e govern m en t, e m p lo y e r s, u n io n s , o th e r

o r g a n iz a t io n s , o r by any com b in ation o f th e s e group s? Who h as th e r e s p o n s ib i l i t y f o r t r a in in g req u irem en ts and job req u irem en ts?

3 . What p a r t d o es o n -t h e -jo b t r a in in g p la y , in g e n e r a l, in th e t r a in in g

o f a p p r e n t ic e s , o th e r y o u th s , and a d u lts ? To what e x t e n t i s o n -t h e -jo b

t r a in in g o f each o f th e above ty p e s p r a c tic e d ?

4 . Who i s e l i g i b l e f o r p a r t ic ip a t io n in (a ) g o v e rn m en ta lly and (b ) p r i ­

v a t e ly o p e r a te d program s?

5 . What m ethods o f in s t r u c t io n a r e used ? What i s th e d u r a tio n o f th e

v a r io u s ty p e s o f tr a in in g ?

6 . How and by whom a re th e v a r io u s program s fin a n c e d ? I f t r a in in g i s

s u b s id iz e d by th e governm ent w ith th e h e lp o f a ta x on th e in d u s tr y o r i n d i ­

v id u a l em ployer p a y r o ll, a r e r e b a te s o r g r a n ts g iv e n to fir m s w ith approved

program s?

7 . How a r e t r a in e e s com pensated (w a g es, a llo w a n c e s ) , what a re t h e ir h o u r s,

and what o th e r term s and c o n d itio n s ap p ly to p a r t ic ip a t io n in th e v a r io u s p r o ­

grams? How a re p a y , h o u r s , and o th e r term s and c o n d itio n s o f p a r t ic ip a t io n

fix e d ?

8 . What i s th e le g a l r e la t io n s h ip betw een th e t r a in e e and th e fir m o r

o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n p r o v id in g th e tr a in in g ?

9 . What h ave been th e p r a c t ic a l e f f e c t s o f th e v a r io u s ty p e s o f o n -t h e -jo b

t r a in in g o v er th e p e r io d o f a d ecad e or more? (F u r n ish b e n e f i t - c o s t a n a ly s e s ,

i f a v a ila b le * )

1 0 . C ite and d e s c r ib e th e p r o v is io n s o f c o n t r a c ts and o f la b o r , i n d u s t r ia l

s a f e t y , s o c ia l s e c u r it y , and o th e r n a t io n a l, S t a t e , o r lo c a l law s a p p ly in g

to th e v a r io u s ty p e s o f o n -t h e -jo b t r a in in g .

1 1 . Does l e g i s l a t i o n r e g u la t in g la b o r s ta n d a r d s , such a s minimum w ages

a n d /o r maximum h o u r s, e x i s t ? I f s o , d o es i t ap p ly to o n -t h e -jo b t r a in in g ?

What a re th e p e r t in e n t p r o v is io n s and how have th ey a f f e c t e d tr a in in g ?

1 2 . O th e r w ise , what p r o v is io n s o f th e la b o r sta n d a r d s l e g i s l a t i o n a r e n o t

a p p lic a b le to o n -t h e -jo b t r a in in g and what r u le s ap p ly in t h e ir p la c e ?

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
A ppendix B. Major National Legislation C o n ce rn in g

A p p r e n t ic e s h ip and V o ca tio n a l T rainin g

A u s tr a lia

T rad esm en's R ig h ts R e g u la tio n A c t, 1 946-58

A u s tr ia

Trade R e g u la tio n s , 18 59 , a s amended

A ct R e sp e c tin g Chambers o f Trade and Commerce, 1946

A g r ic u ltu r a l Labor A ct o f 1 9 48 , a s amended in 1965

A ct R e sp e c tin g Chambers o f L ab or, 1954

B elgium

L e g i s l a t iv e D ecree R e sp e c tin g th e E sta b lish m e n t o f J o in t C om m ittees in I n ­

d u s tr y , Commerce, and A g r ic u lt u r e , 1945

R oyal D ecree R e sp e c tin g V o c a tio n a l and F u rth er T r a in in g in H a n d ic r a fts and

Commerce, 1959

D ecree o f th e M in istr y o f th e M iddle C la s s e s , 1 9 60 , a s amended in 1963

B r a z il

D ecree R e sp e c tin g th e E sta b lish m e n t o f SENAI, 1942

L e g is la t iv e D ecree R e sp e c tin g th e C o n s o lid a tio n o f Labor Laws, 1943

D ecree R e sp e c tin g th e C oncept o f A p p ren tic e E m p loyee, 1952

C olom bia

D ecree 118 R e sp e c tin g th e E sta b lish m e n t o f SENA, 1 957, a s amended in 1963

Law No* 188 o f 1959 R e sp e c tin g C o n tr a c ts o f A p p r e n tic e s h ip , a s amended in

1960

D ecree No® 2838 R e sp e c tin g th e Im p lem en tation o f Law 1 8 8 , 1960

Denmark

A p p r e n tic e sh ip A c t, 1956

A ct No® 195 R e sp e c tin g th e Employment and T r a in in g o f Young P e r s o n s , I960

F rance

Law R e sp e c tin g A tten d a n ce a t V o c a tio n a l C o u r se s, 1919

F in a n ce Law R e sp e c tin g th e A p p r e n tic e sh ip T ax, 1925

Law R e sp e c tin g th e N atu re and Form o f A p p r e n tic e sh ip C o n tr a c ts, 1928

Law R e sp e c tin g th e O r g a n iz a tio n o f A p p r e n tic e sh ip in th e A r tis a n T r a d e s, 1937

Law R e sp e c tin g T e c h n ic a l and V o c a tio n a l .T ra in in g in A g r ic u lt u r e , 1 960, as

im plem ented by a d e c r e e o f 1961

Law No© 6 6 -8 9 2 R e sp e c tin g th e O r ie n ta tio n and Program o f V o c a tio n a l T r a in ­

in g , 1966

Germany (F e d e r a l R ep u b lic)

I n d u s t r ia l R e g u la tio n s C ode, 1 869, a s amended

Commercial C ode, 1 8 97 , a s amended

H a n d ic r a fts R e g u la tio n A c t, 1953

A ct R e sp e c tin g th e P r o t e c t io n o f Young P erso n s in Em ployment, I960

I t a ly

D ecree No® 936 R e sp e c tin g th e E sta b lish m e n t o f th e N a tio n a l A d m in istr a tio n

f o r T r a in in g o f W orkers in Trade and Commerce (ENALC), 19 38 , a s r e ­

o r g a n iz e d in 1945

D ecree No* 1380 R e sp e c tin g th e E sta b lish m e n t o f th e N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e

fo r I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g (IN A PLI), 1 9 38 , as amended by D ecree 393 o f

1949

D ecree No® 1380 under a u th o r ity o f w hich th e N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r T each ­

in g and T r a in in g H a n d ic r a ft Workers (INIASA) was e s t a b l i s h e d , 1938

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
I t a l y --C o n tin u ed

Law N o. 25 o f 1 955, a s amended by Law N o. 706 o f 1956 R e sp e c tin g A p p r e n tic e ­

sh ip C ourses

Japan

Labor S tan dard s Law, 1 9 47 , a s amended

V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g Law, 1958

N e th e r la n d s

V o c a tio n a l E d u catio n A c t, 1 9 19 , su p ersed ed by th e C ontinu ed E d u catio n A c t,

1963

A ct R e sp e c tin g S u b s id ie s to th e A p p r e n tic e sh ip S ystem , 1937

A ct f o r an A p p r e n tic e sh ip S ystem , 1966

Norway

A p p r e n tic e sh ip A c t, 1950

Sweden

No l e g i s l a t i o n . I n s t e a d , th e b a s ic agreem ent betw een th e Sw edish E m p loyers1

F e d e r a tio n (SAF) and th e Sw ed ish Trade Union C o n fe d e r a tio n (L0) p r o ­

v id e d f o r v o c a t io n a l t r a in in g in 1 9 44 , r e v is e d in 1957

S w itz e r la n d

Law R e sp e c tin g V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g in A g r ic u lt u r e , 1951

Law R e sp e c tin g V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g , 1 9 63 , made e f f e c t i v e by a 1965 o r d in a n c e

U n ite d Kingdom

Employment and T r a in in g A c t, 1948

I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g A c t, 1964

V en ezu e la

Law E s t a b lis h in g th e N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f C o o p e r a tiv e E d u catio n (IN C E),

1 9 5 9 , a s im plem ented in 1960

42

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
A p p e n d i x C. M ajor N a tio n a l L e g is la t io n C o n c e r n i n g A d u lt T r a in in g

A u s tr a lia

I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g P la n (p rop osed in 1964 b u t n o t y e t e n a c te d )

A u s tr ia

Unemployment In su r a n ce Law, 1927 (AVAVG)

B elgium

R egen t*s D ecree R e sp e c tin g th e O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e N a tio n a l Employment

S e r v ic e , 1945

R oyal D ecree R e sp e c tin g A c c e le r a te d V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g f o r A d u lts and th e

R e h a b ilit a t io n o f Unemployed P e r s o n s , 1 9 61 , a s amended

Denmark

A ct No® 194 R e sp e c tin g th e V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g o f U n s k ille d W orkers, I960

F rance

D ecree R e sp e c tin g th e E sta b lish m e n t o f T r a in in g C e n te r s , 1 9 45 , amended in

1946 and 1949

A ct R e sp e c tin g th e Is su a n c e o f V a riou s P r o v is io n s f o r th e P rom otion o f I n ­

d u s t r ia l P r o f ic ie n c y , 1959

D ecree No® 5 9 -1 4 2 4 R e sp e c tin g th e P rom otion o f I n d u s t r ia l P r o f ic ie n c y

W ith in th e Scope o f V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g o f A d u lts , 1959

A ct No® 63 -1 24 0 R e sp e c tin g th e N a tio n a l Employment Fund, 1963

Law No® 6 6 -8 92 R e sp e c tin g th e O r ie n ta tio n and Program o f V o c a tio n a l

T r a in in g , 1966

Germany (F e d e r a l R ep u b lic)

Employment and Unemployment In su r a n ce Law, 1 927, a s amended

O c cu p a tio n a l P rom otion A c t, 1965

I t a ly

Law No. 264 R e sp e c tin g th e E sta b lish m e n t o f a C e n tr a l Com m ission f o r th e

P lacem en t o f Workers and A s s is t a n c e to Unemployed W orkers, 1 9 49 , a s

amended by S t a t u t e No® 4 5 6 , 1951

D ecree No® 17 Im plem enting S ta tu to r y P r o v is io n s in th e A d m in istr a tio n o f

th e V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g Fund, 1950

Law E s t a b lis h in g T r a in in g A c t i v i t i e s o f th e C assa p er i l M ezzogiom o (Fund

f o r Sou th ern I t a l y ) , 1957

Japan

Employment S e c u r ity Law No® 1 4 1 , 1947

V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g Law, 1958

N eth erla n d s

R oyal D ecree P r o v id in g f o r a Bureau o f V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g Under th e Governm ent Employment O f f ic e , 1944

Norway

Law E s t a b lis h in g th e N a tio n a l Unemployment In su r a n ce S ystem , 1938 a s amended

Sweden

O rdinance R e sp e c tin g V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g C ou rses f o r Unemployed P e r s o n s , 1945

Labor Market O rd in a n ce, 1966

S w itz e r la n d

V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g Law, 1963

U n ited Kingdom

I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g A c t, 1964

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
A p p e n d ix D. R e str ic tio n s on O v e r tim e W o r k

B r a z il

See* 59 o f B r a z il* s L e g i s l a t iv e D ecree No* 5 4 5 2 , May 1 9 43 , a p p lic a b le to

a l l e m p lo y ees, s t a t e s : "The norm al h ou rs o f work [ 8 a d ayj may be in c r e a s e d

by n o t more than 2 hou rs a day by an agreem ent in w r it in g betw een th e em p loyer

and th e em ployee or by a c o l l e c t i v e c o n t r a c t o f em ploym ent."

SeCo 6 1 , p a r . (2 ) a d d it io n a lly s t a t e s : "In c a s e s o f o v e r tim e worked f o r

re a so n s o f fo r c e m ajeure . « • th e h ou rs o f work s h a ll n o t ex cee d 12 h ou rs a

day u n le s s a n o th er l im i t i s e x p r e s s ly f ix e d by la w 0"

Norway

Art® I , seCo 38 o f a 1958 a c t am ending Norway*s 1956 A ct R e sp e c tin g th e

P r o t e c t io n o f Workers s t a t e s : "When th e norm al h ou rs o f work a r e changed

o o . , th e norm al h ou rs o f work o f young p e rso n s s h a ll n o t ex ceed 9 a day o r

48 d u rin g any one week w ith o u t th e p e r m issio n o f th e M in is tr y , w hich s h a ll be

r e q u ir e d in ev ery in d iv id u a l c a s e . . . . C h ild re n and young p e r so n s s h a ll

n o t be em ployed on o v e r tim e o'*

Under a r t . I I o f th e same a c t , th e fo llo w in g te r m s, e f f e c t i v e u n t i l Decemb er 3 1 , I 9 6 0 , w ere s t ip u la t e d : "The o v e r tim e worked by an em p loyee s h a ll in

no c a s e ex ceed 30 h ou rs in any fo u r c o n s e c u tiv e w e e k s .11

In th e A ct R e sp e c tin g A p p r e n tic e s in H a n d ic r a fts , I n d u s tr y , Commerce and

O f f ic e Work, J u ly 1 9 50 , th e f o llo w in g p r o h ib it io n was made in c h . I l l , s e c . 8 ,

p a r . 5: "An a p p r e n tic e under th e age o f 18 s h a ll n o t be em ployed o v e r tim e ."

U n ited Kingdom

A ccord in g to th e f a c t o r i e s l e g i s l a t i o n o f th e U n ited Kingdom, women and young

p e rso n s age 16 and o v er may be em ployed on o v e r tim e w ith in th e fo llo w in g l im i t s :

C overage

O vertim e l im i t s f o r f a c to r y w orkin g a - -

6 -day week 5 -day week

For th e w hole f a c t o r y :

Maximum amount o f o v ertim e 6 h o u r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . 6 h o u r s.

in any w eek .

Maximum amount o f o v e r tim e 1 0 0 h ou rs d u rin g n o t 1 0 0 h ou rs d u rin g n o t

in any c a le n d a r y e a r . more th an 25 w eek s. more th an 25 w eek s.

For in d iv id u a l women and

young p e r s o n s :

Maximum sp read o f em ploym ent, i . e . , norm al p e r i ­

Weekday o th e r than

S atu rd ay: 12 h o u r s.

1 2 h o u r s.

od o f employment . . . as

ex ten d ed by p e r m is s ib le

o v e r tim e .

S a tu r d a y : 6 h o u r s . . . . . 6 h o u r s , p rov id ed no

o v ertim e i s worked

in th a t w eek .

Maximum d a ily w orking Weekday o th e r than 1 0% h o u r s, p rov id ed

hou rs (e x c lu d in g i n ­

t e r v a l s ) .

S atu rd ay: 10 h o u r s.

S a tu r d a y : 5% h o u r s . . . .

no Satu rd ay o v e r ­

tim e i s w orked.

4% h o u r s , p rovid ed

no o th e r o v e r tim e

i s worked in th a t

w eek .

E a r lie s t s t a r t in g t i m e . . . . . . . 7 a . m o e o . o . e o o e e o e o e o e " " o

L a te s t f i n i s h i n g t i m e .. . . . . . . Weekday o th e r than S atu rd ay: 9 p.m . f o r

women; 8 p.m . f o r young p e r s o n s .

S atu rd ay: 1 p.m . j

S o u r c e : Hours o f Employment o f Women and Young P e r s o n s , M in is te r o f L abour S a f e t y , H ealth and W e lfa r e , New S e r ie s No. 2 3 , London, Her M a jesty * s

S t a t io n e r y O f f ic e , 1 9 65 , pp. 1 1 -1 2 .

Digitized for FRASER 

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
A p p e n d i x E. U s e f u l L i s t s

L is t 1 . U su al E ntry Age L i s t 2 ® M in is t r ie s A ssig n e d Major In to A p p ren tic e s h ip , S u p e rv iso ry R e s p o n s ib ilit y f o r 16 C o u n tries A p p r e n tic e s h ip , 16 C o u n tr ie s

A u s t r a lia ........... 15 y e a r s A u s tr a lia ® . ®

A u stria ® ............. 15 y e a r s N a tio n a l S e r v ic e

B elg iu m ............. ® 14 y e a r s A ustria® ®. ® ®« . ® .F ed eral M in istr y o f Commerce

B r a z i l . • « • • • • • 14 y e a r s and R e c o n str u c tio n

Colom bia®. . . . . 14 y e a r s Belgium ® . ®. ®....M i n i s t r y o f E d u cation and

Denmark. . • • • • . 14 y e a r s C u ltu re

F r a n c e .. . . . . . . 14 y e a r s B r a z il . . . . . ® Germany (F .R .) 15 y e a r s C u ltu re I t a ly .................... 15 y e a r s Colombia® ® ® ®® .o .M in istr y o f E d u cation Jap an . . . « ........... 15 y e a r s Denmark®. . . . . . . . M i n i s t r y o f E d u cation N e th e r la n d s . . . 15 y e a r s F rance ® ®® ® ®oo .® .M in istr y o f N a tio n a l E d u cation

Norway.................. 15 y e a r s Germany (F.R ,o) . .F e d e r a l M in istr y o f Economic

Sweden 15 y e a r s A f f a ir s

S w itz e r la n d . . . 1 5 /1 6 y e a r s I t a l y . ® ® ® ® ®.

U n ited Kingdom 1 5 /1 6 y e a r s S o c ia l S e c u r ity V e n e z u e la .. . . . 14 y e a r s Jap an . ®. ® ®. ®

N eth erla n d s ®

and S c ie n c e s

Norway. . . . . . . . . .M in istr y o f Church and

E d u c a tio n a l A f f a ir s

Sweden®®®®®®®®®®Ministry o f E c c l e s i a s t i c a l

A f f a ir s and E d u cation

Switzerland®®®®®Federal D epartm ent o f P u b lic

Economy

U n ited K ingdom ® .M inistry o f Labour

Venezuela®®®®®®oMinistry o f E d u cation

L is t 3® I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g

B o a rd s, U n ited Kingdom

A g r ic u ltu r e , h o r t ic u lt u r e ,

and f o r e s t r y

C arpets

C eram ics, g l a s s , and

m in era l p ro d u cts

C hem ical and a l l i e d

p ro d u cts

C iv il a i r tr a n sp o r t

C o n str u c tio n

C otton and a l l i e d t e x t i l e s

E l e c t r i c i t y sup ply

F u r n itu r e and tim b er

Gas

H o tel and c a te r in g

Iro n and s t e e l

K n it t in g , l a c e , and n e t

Man-made f ib r e s

M etalw orking

P etroleu m

Road tr a n sp o r t

Rubber and p l a s t i c s

p r o c e s s in g

S h ip b u ild in g

W ater sup ply

W ool, j u t e , and f l a x

L is t 4 ® Levy A sse ssm en ts o f S e le c te d

I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g B o a rd s,

U n ited Kingdom

I n d u s t r ia l

T r a in in g Board

Levy as p e r c e n t

o f p a y r o ll

C a rp etSo e® o ® eo o® o o o

C o n s t r u c t io n .. . « ® ®.

C otton and a l l i e d

t e x t ile s e e o e e o o o o

F u r n itu r e and

tim b er eceooeoeooe

Iron and steel®®®.®

Man-made fib r e s® ..®

M etalw ork in g............. ®

S h ip b u ild in g® ®. ®. ® ®

W ool, j u t e , and f l a x

0 .5

®1 (p lu s 1 .0 o f paym ents

made by em p loyers to

la b o r h ir e d under a

la b o r o n ly c o n t r a c t)

®4

®9

(£ 1 8 ® 0 0 .0 . p er em p loyee)

. 2

2 .5

1 .5 5

1 .5 (0.5 to 2 .0 f o r c e r ­

t a in e s ta b lis h m e n ts )

45

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
T a b le F - l . O v ertim e Premiums as P e r c e n t o f B a s ic Wage

Country

A u s t r a l i a ..........................................

A u s t r ia . ..................................

B elg iu m .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B r a z i l ..................... ...........................

Colom bia.

Danmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F ran ce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Germany (F ederal R e p u b lic)

I t a l y ...............................

J a p a n ......................... ....................

N eth erlan ds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Norway ..........................

Sweden...............................

S w itzerla n d .............................. ..

United Kingdom .............

V e n e z u e la .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1st

hour

2d

hour

3d

hour

4th

hour

A d dition a l

hours

50 50 50 50 100

25 25 25 50 50

25 25 50 50 50

20 ( f o r some workers 25)

20 20 20 20 | 20

25 3 3 -1 /3 50 50 I 100

25 (up to 8 h o u r s , then 50)

25 25 50 50 50

20 20 30 30 30

25 25 25 25 25

10 25 25 50 50

25 25 50 50 50

25 to 50 (up to 70 a f t e r 1st hour)

25 25 25 25 25

25 25 50 50 50

25 25 25 25 25

S o u r c e : A d ap ted fr o m o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s .

Table F -2 . S t a t is t ic s on A ppren ticesh ip T ra in in g , S elected C ountries 1/

Country 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

Labor 

f o r c e , 

1966 2/ 

(thousands)

A u stra lia 3 / . . . . . . . . . . 44,939 47,278 50,732 87,623 94,744 _ _ 4,210

A u stria 4 / . . . . . . . . . . . . 140,900 143,700 148,200 153,600 - - 3,357

Belgium 5 / . . . . . . . o . . . . - - 9,143 8,350 8,683 8,460 8,323 3,767

France 6 / ............. 50,786 58,190 60,117 58,780 72,955 300,000 20,294

Germany 7 / . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,156,899 1,130,780 1,173,825 1,194,337 - - 27,243

I t a ly 8 / .................................. 305,041. 392,567 471,353 468,853 417,950 760,000 19,873

United Kingdom £ / . . . . . 122,951 135,276 142,760 117,069 131,355 154,675 131,197 26,236

l_/ Data on tra in in g are n ot com parable. For d e ­

t a i l s , see fo o tn o te s 3 -9 .

2/ Labor Force S t a t i s t i c s , 1956-66 (P a ris, O rganization f o r Economic C ooperation and Development, 

1 9 6 8 ). Data r e l a t e to person s 14 o r 15 y e a rs o f age 

and over and are not s t r i c t l y com parable. For d i f ­

feren ces in con cepts and the variou s c o l l e c t i o n 

m ethods, co n su lt the source p u b lic a tio n .

3/ The s t a t i s t i c s on the number o f a p p ren tices in 

tra in in g are from the A u stra lia n A ppren ticesh ip Adv is o r y Committee, E ssen tia l Features o f A u stralian 

A p p r e n t i c e s h ip S y s te m s , s e c . 5 , t a b l e 2 . F ig u r e s 

shown are f o r June 30 o f each y e a r and rep resen t the 

t o ta l number o f a p p ren tices in tr a in in g . Other q u a lif i c a t i o n s a r e a l s o a p p l i c a b l e . F i g u r e s f o r New S outh 

Wales are excluded from the 1961-63 data and included 

in the 1964-65 d a ta . The la bor fo r c e data are fo r 

1961, exclude persons under 16, and are from the 

Commonwealth Bureau o f Census and S t a t i s t i c s , Yearbook 

o f the Commonwealth o f A u s tr a lia , 1964.

4 / From Manpower P r o b le m s and P o l i c i e s i n A u s t r i a : 

Report by Examiners (P a ris, O rganization f o r Economic 

C ooperation and Development, 1965). Figures show the 

trend o f the number o f a p p ren tices in recen t y e a rs . 

Labor fo r c e data are f o r 1965.

5 / From Comite N ation al de Form ation, Rapport 

(B ru sse ls, 1966). Figures show the number o f co n tr a c ts 

concluded or agreed upon.

6 / From Revue f r a n c a i s e du t r a v a i l , J u ly -S ep tem b er 

1966, ta b le 1, p. 163. Figures show number o f apprent ic e s h ip c o n tr a c ts sign ed in 12 months ending in June 

o f each y e a r. Data f o r yea r ending June 1966 were 

obtained from o f f i c i a l correspon den ce, and in clu d e the 

t o t a l number o f workers in tra in in g in firm s under 

c o n tr a c t; another 600,000 were appren ticed in p u b lic 

t e c h n ic a l s c h o o l s ; and an a d d it io n a l 200,000 in p r iv a t e 

te ch n ic a l s c h o o ls .

7 / From t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c ’ s S t a t i s t i c a l Y e a r b o o k , 

1966. Figures in clu d e a p p ren tices and lea rn ers in in ­

dustry and commerce and in the h a n d icra ft tra d e s.

8 / From La F orm azion e P r o f e s s i o n a l e in I t a l i a , 

Quademo 27, 1963. Data through 1965 show a p p ren tices 

in atten d a n ce a t complementary co u rse s on ly in 12 

months ending in June o f each y e a r. The 1966 data 

were obtained from o f f i c i a l corresp on den ce; they in ­

clu de a l l a p p ren tices on record as o f March 31, 1966.

9 / From the M in istry o f Labour. F igu res r e la t e to 

young p e rs o n s o f b o th s e x e s un der 18 y e a r s o f age who 

e n te r a p p re n tice s h ip when f i r s t em ployed.

46

Digitized for FRASER 

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Table F -3 . S t a t i s t i c s on Adult T ra in in g , S elected Countries 1/

Country 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

B e lg iu m 2 / « . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,907 1,696 2,411 4,270 5,272 6,717

France 3/„ „ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,249 32,678 35,177

I t a ly 4 7 . ............................... 29,279 29,299 13,314 13,234 5,896 8,909

Japan 5 / « . . . . „ „ « . « . . . . . . . . 78,660 75,450 73,970

Nethe.r l a n d s 6 / . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,818 2,357 2,755

Norway 7 / „ . . „ « rr. . . . . . . . 5,100 5,550 5,961

Sweden 8/..«.««»...«..«««« 14,226 15,079 17,045 20,184

U nited Kingdom 9 / . . . ............. - - - - - - 6,708

1J Data are not com parable. For d e t a i l s , see the 

fo llo w in g fo o t n o t e s .

2 ! From N a t i o n a l Employment O f f i c e CONEM), R a p p o r t 

an n u el, 1 96 2 -6 5 . Number o f persons com p letin g v o c a ­

t io n a l tr a in in g and r e t r a in in g . F igu res in c lu d e th ose 

t r a i n e d u n d e r t h e ONEM p rogra m and by e m p l o y e r s .

3/ Data obtained from o f f i c i a l corresp on den ce. 

F ig u re s in c lu d e p erson s who com pleted t r a in in g under 

the program V oca tion a l T raining f o r A dults (FPA).

4 / Data show number o f a d u lts tra in e d in 12 months 

ending in June o f each y e a r . 1960-61 data are from 

La Form azion e P r o f e s s i o n a l e in I t a l i a , Quadem o 27, 

1963; 1962-65 data are from o f f i c i a l so u rce s, and i n ­

clu d e persons in a cce le ra te d and o n -t h e -jo b tra in in g 

c o u r s e s .

5 / From O rganization f o r Economic C ooperation and 

Development, Manpower P o lic y Developments 1965-66 

( P a r i s , 1 9 6 7 , MO ( 6 6 ) 2 4 / 2 1 ) . F i g u r e s show p e r s o n s i n 

v o c a tio n a l tra in in g f o r changing jo b s and re tra in in g o r 

follow u p tra in in g in 370 v o c a tio n a l tra in in g c e n te r s .

6/ From o f f i c i a l co rresp on d en ce.

7 / From Labor D ir e c to r a t e , Annual R ep ort, 1965.

8 / From Hakan E. Hhkanson, R e tr a in in g and F u rth er 

T ra in in g , 1966. F igu res a re f o r February each y ea r 

and in clu d e persons in re tra in in g and fu r th e r tra in in g 

under the au spices o f the N ational Labor Market Board; 

about 18 p ercen t o f th ese workers a re in in d u s tr y .

9 / From M i n i s t r y o f Labour G a z e t t e , F ebru ary 1 967. 

Figures in clu d e workers in tra in in g under Government 

v o c a tio n a l tra in in g schemes.

47

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Bibiography

GENERAL

Abraham, K a r l. La fo rm a tio n p r o f e s s io n n e lle d es jeu n es dans l e s e n t e r p r is e s

i n d u s t r i a l l e s , a r t i s a n a l e s e t com m erciales d es pays de la C.E.E® B r u s s e ls ,

1963o

B e e v e r , C o lin 0 “A p p r e n tic e s R e c e iv e D iv e r se T r a in in g Among th e S ix ," European

Community (W a sh in g to n ), N o0 8 0 , A p r il 1965®

B lackw ood, James E0 , and others® “Hours o f Work in th e U n ited S t a t e s and

A broad," M onthly Labor Review (W a sh in g to n ), A ugust 1963®

Canada, D epartm ent o f Labour® D evelopm en ts in th e Enactm ent and A d m in istr a ­

t io n o f Labour Laws in Canada® A ugust 1965-S ep tem ber 1 9 6 6 ® Ottawa®

F it z g e r a ld , Mark J® The Common M ark et's Labor P rogram s® chap® 3 , “V o c a tio n a l

T r a in in g and R etraining® " N o tre Dame, Ind®, U n iv e r s ity - o f N o tre Dame

P r e s s , 1966®

Gordon, M argaret S® R e tr a in in g and Labor M arket A djustm ent in W estern

E u rope® W ash in gton, Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 1963® U®S® Departm ent

o f L ab or, Manpower A utom ation R esearch Monograph No. 4 .

G reen, A lfr e d L® Manpower and th e P u b lic Employment S e r v ic e in Europe: A

Study o f Program s and O p e r a tio n s ® New Y ork, New York S t a t e D epartm ent o f

L ab or, 1966®

------® A Study o f A p p r a isa l o f Manpower Programs as R e la te d to a P o lic y o f

F u ll Employment in France® G reat B r it a i n , th e N e th e r la n d s , and Sw eden.

New Y ork, New York S t a t e D epartm ent o f L ab or, 1963®

I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour O f f ic e . European A p p r e n tic e s h ip ® G eneva, 1966® CIRF

M onographs, vol® 1 , No® 2®

------® “Manpower A djustm ent Programmes: I® F r a n c e , F e d e r a l R ep u b lic o f G ermany, U n ited Kingdom," Labour and A u tom ation ® B u lle t in 4® G eneva, 1967.

I n t e r n a t io n a l V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g In fo rm a tio n and R esearch C en tre (C IR F).

T r a in in g f o r P r o g r e ss in Europe and in th e W orld® vol® 4 , No® 2® G eneva,

I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour O f f ic e , 1965®

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Economic C o o p era tio n and Development® A c c e le r a te d V ocat i o n a l T r a in in g f o r A d u lts ® By V ic to r Martin® P a r is , 1965®

------. A c c e le r a te d V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g f o r U n s k ille d and S e m is k ille d Manpower.

P a r is , 1960®

------• A d a p ta tio n and T r a in in g o f Rural W orkers f o r I n d u s t r ia l Work« By Guy

Barbichon® P a r is , 1962® Labor M o b ility S e r ie s .

------® N a tio n a l Rural Manpower® By G® B eijer® P a r is , 1 9 65 .

------« S o c ia l O b je c tiv e s in E d u c a tio n a l P la n n in g ® P a r is , 1967.

------• T r a in in g M ethods® By R.M® B e lb in . Paris% 1 965. Employment o f O ld er

Worker S eries®

-----, Manpower and S o c ia l A f f a ir s Committee® Im p lem en tation o f th e Recomm en dation on A c tiv e Manpower P o l i c y ® P a r is , 1965.

O r g a n iz a tio n o f European Economic C o o p e r a tio n , European P r o d u c t iv it y A gency.

A c c e le r a te d V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g f o r U n s k ille d and S e m is k ille d Manpower. P a r is , 1960. OEEC P r o j e c t AEP 6/08®

R ib a s, Jacq u es Jean® “O b se r v a tio n s on th e F in a n cin g o f S o c ia l S e c u r ity in

th e Common Market C o u n tr ie s ," I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour R eview (G en ev a ), J u ly -

A ugust 1961®

Seidm an, Bert® “New B a rg a in in g P a tte r n s in E urope," The F e d e r a t io n is t

(W a sh in g to n ), A ugust 1966®

S t ie b e r , Jack® Manpower A d ju stm en ts to A utom ation and T e c h n o lo g ic a l Change

in W estern E u rope, e x t r a c t from A d ju stin g to C hange, a p p en d ix , vol® I I I ,

T ech n ology and th e Am erican Economy: The R eport o f th e C om m ission®

L a n sin g , M ichigan S t a t e U n iv e r s it y , S ch ool o f Labor and I n d u s t r ia l R e la ­

t i o n s , 1966.

U.S® Departm ent o f L abor, Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s . Labor D ig e s ts on Count r i e s in E urope® W ash in gton, Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 1 9 66 . BLS B u lle ­

t i n 1497.

Digitized for FRASER 

http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 

Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
------, Manpower A d m in istr a tio n * Manpower P o lic y and Program s in F iv e W estern

European C o u n tr ie s: F ra n ce , G reat B r it a in , th e N e th e r la n d s , Sweden, and

West Germanyo W ash in gton, Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 1 9 66 0 Manpower

R esearch B u lle t in N o, 11*

U*S* S e n a te , Subcom m ittee on Employment and Manpower o f th e Com m ittee on L abor and P u b lic W elfare,, L e sso n s From F o reig n Labor Market P o l i c i e s , v o l*

4 o f S e le c te d R eadin gs in Employment and Manpower, 88th Congo, 2d s e s s 0

W ash in gton, Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 1964*

------, -------* The R ole o f A p p r e n tic e sh ip in Manpower D evelopm ent: U n ited S t a t e s

and W estern E u rop e, v o l c 3 o f S e le c t e d R eadin gs in Employment and Manpower,

8 8 th Cong®, 2d s e s s , W ash in gton, Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 1964«

W illia m s , G e rtru d ec A p p r e n tic e sh ip in Europe: The L esso n fo r B r it a i n 0 Lond on , Chapman and H a ll, 1963c

AUSTRALIA

A u s tr a lia * Tradesm en’ s R ig h ts R e g u la tio n A c t, 1 9 4 6 -1 9 5 8 * C anb erra, Commonw e a lth Government P r in t e r , 1958*

------, Departm ent o f Labour and N a tio n a l S e r v ic e * A N ote o f th e Commonwealth

T r a in in g Schem e* M elbourne, 1964*

------ 9 ------- 9 A p p r e n tic e sh ip A d visory Committee* E s s e n t ia l F e a tu r e s o f A u str a ­

lia n A p p r e n tic e sh ip S y ste m s* M elbourne, 1966*

"Country A p p r e n t ic e s h ip s - - E le c t r ic a l and E n g in e e r in g ," The E m p loyers1 Review

(S y d n e y ), A ugust 19 63 , p , 49* CIRF A b str a c t No* 7 /0 4 6 0 4 , November 1963*

D u fty , Norman F* B u ild in g In d u str y A p p r e n tic e sh ip s in th e U*S*A* and W estern

A u s t r a lia * U rbana, 1 1 1 * , U n iv e r s ity o f I l l i n o i s , I n s t i t u t e o f Labor and

I n d u s t r ia l R e la t io n s , 1958* R ep rin t S e r ie s No* 65*

Mews, C* G* " I n d u s tr ia l A r b itr a tio n ," The E m p loyers1 R eview (Sydney) , February

1 962, pp* 27-32* CIRF A b str a c t No* 2 /0 0 7 2 5 , May 1962*

W illia m s , H« S* " T ech n ica l E d u cation in A u s tr a lia ," T e c h n ic a l P u b lic a t io n s

T ru st * By W* A* P erth * Canberra ( ? ) , 1964* CIRF A b str a c t No* 2 /0 7 2 7 2 ,

Septem ber 1964*

AUSTRIA

A u str ia n F e d e r a tio n o f Trade U nions* S h o rt Review o f S o c ia l and Working Cond i t i o n s o f Employed P erso n s in A u s t r ia * V ien n a , A u str ia n In fo rm a tio n

S e r v ic e , 1963*

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Economic C o o p era tio n and D evelopm en t, Manpower and S o c ia l

A f f a ir s Committee* Manpower Problem s and P o l i c i e s in A u s tr ia : Survey o f

P r iv a t e Manpower P o l i c i e s a t E n te r p r ise , and P la n t L e v e l* P a r is , 1965*

M0(6 5)24*

------, -------* Manpower P roblem s and P o l i c i e s in A u s tr ia : R eport by E xam in ers*

P a r is , 1965* M 0(65)24*

O r g a n iz a tio n o f European Econom ic C oop eration * Manpower Com m ittee T h ird Ann u al R eview o f C e r ta in A sp e c ts o f V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g * P a r is , 1961* R eply

to Q u e stio n n a ir e M O(6l)7«

U*S* Departm ent o f Commerce* E s t a b lis h in g a B u sin e ss in A u s t r ia * W ashingto n , Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 1966* O verseas B u sin e ss R e p o r ts, 0BR

66-25*

U*S* Departm ent o f L ab or, Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s * Labor Law and P r a c t ic e

in A u s t r ia * W ash in gton, Government P r in tin g O f f ic e , 1963* BLS R eport

241*

BELGIUM

B elgiu m , Comitd' N a tio n a l de Form ation e t de P e r fe c tio n n e m e n t P r o f e s s io n n e ls .

Guide de L 1A p p r e n tis s a g e * B r u s s e ls (no d a te )*

------ 9 -------# Rapport * P r e s e n t ^ a l ’A ssem blee G en erate O rd in a ire* B r u s s e ls ,

1966

49

Digitized for FRASER 

http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 

Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
------, M in is te r e d e s A f f a ir e s E conom iquesc E n te r p r is e s i n d u s t r i e l l e s e t

com m erciales en B e lg iq u e , ch ap . IV . B r u s s e ls , 1 958.

------ 9 O f f ic e N a tio n a l de 1 'E m p lo i. C o o r d in a tio n o f f i c i e u s e d e s t e x t e s le g a u x .

B r u s s e ls , 1 9 66 .

------ 9 -------. Rapport a n n u e l, 1962 th rou gh 1 9 65 . B r u s s e ls , M in is te r e de 1 ' Emploi

e t du T r a v a il.

I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour O f f ic e . V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g o f A d u lts in B elg iu m .

G eneva, 1 949.

K la u d in g e r , E m il. "D evelopm ents in th e F ie ld o f A p p r e n tic e s h ip ," I n t e r ­

n a t io n a l F e d e r a tio n o f B u ild in g and Woodworkers B u l le t in (C op en h agen ),

November 1964.

"Labour O v e r se a s--B e lg iu m : A p p r e n tic e s h ip , V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g and V ocat io n a l G uidance S y stem s," M in istr y o f Labour G a z e tte (L on d on ), A p r il 1 963.

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Econom ic C o o p era tio n and D evelop m en t, Manpower and S o c ia l

A f f a ir s C om m ittee. Annual R ep orts: B e lg iu m . P a r is , 1 9 64 .

" V o ca tio n a l T r a in in g in th e EEC: B elgiu m ," Labor in th e European Community

(W a sh in g to n ), No. 1 0 , November 1 9 65 .

BRAZIL

Dannemann, R obert N. "Problem s o f Human R eso u rces in B r a z il," I n t e r n a t io n a l

Labour R eview (G en ev a ), December 1 966.

F is c h lo w it z , E s t a n is la u . "Manpower Problem s in B r a z i l ," I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour

R eview (G en ev a ), A p r il 1959.

U .S . Departm ent o f L ab or, Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s . Labor Law and P r a c t ic e

in B r a z il . W ash in gton , Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1 9 67 . BLS R eport 30 9.

" V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g in L a tin A m erica," Labor D evelopm en ts Abroad (W ashingt o n ) , January 1 967.

COLOMBIA

C olom b ia, S e r v ic io N a c io n a l de A p r en d iza je (SENA). L e g is la c id n S ob re e l

"SENA" y e l S u b sid io F a m ilia r (3d e d . ) . M e d e llin , 1966 ( ? ) .

" C olom b ia's V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g Program Taps R e s e r v o ir o f Unused Manpower,"

C olom bia Today (New Y ork, n e w s l e t t e r ) , v o l . 1 , No. 10, December 1966.

U .S . Departm ent o f L ab or, Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s . Labor Law and P r a c t ic e

in C olom b ia. W ash in gton, Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 1 962. BLS R eport

2 1 7 .

DENMARK

D rey er, E r ik . "U ddannelsen a f ik k e - f a g la e r t e : U d d a n n e lse slo v e n s f o r s t e to

ar" (T r a in in g o f U n s k ille d and S e m is k ille d W orkers: The F ir s t 2 Y ears o f

th e T r a in in g L aw ), S o c ia lt T i d s s k r if t (C op en h agen ), J u n e -J u ly 1 962,

pp . 1 6 1 -1 7 1 . CIRF A b str a c t No. 1 /0 1 1 6 3 , November 1 962.

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Economic C o o p era tio n and D evelop m en t. A c tiv e Manpower

P o lic y in Denmark. By P . K ir s t e in . P a r is , 19 65 . R eg io n a l Sem inars S e r ie s .

------. Manpower C om m ittee, T h ird Annual R eview o f C e r ta in A sp ects o f V ocat io n a l T r a in in g . P a r is , 19 61 . M 0 (6 1 )7 /0 4 .

FRANCE

Campa, A. "The O r g a n iz a tio n o f G eneral and V o c a tio n a l E d u cation in F ra n ce,"

I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour R eview (G en ev a ), December 1 960.

C h a r tie r . "La ta x e d ' a p p r e n tissa g e " (The A p p r e n tic e sh ip T a x ), L 1en seig n em en t

te c h n iq u e ( P a r i s ) , A p r il-J u n e 1 9 64 , pp . 3 7 -4 6 . CIRF A b str a c t No. 2 /0 8 7 8 9 ,

December 1964.

C h o f f e l, J . " D i f f i c u l t e s de la fo rm a tio n p r o f e s s io n n e lle " (V o c a tio n a l T r a in ­

in g D i f f i c u l t i e s ) , L y s i n e n o u v e lle ( P a r i s ) , s p e c ia l i s s u e , O ctob er 1964,

p p . 8 5 , 8 7 , and 8 9 . CIRF A b str a c t No. 2 /0 9 8 4 7 , December 1 9 64 .

Digitized for FRASER 

http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 

Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
C h olvy, Jo "Pour une rdform e de la ta x e d 1a p p r e n tissa g e " (The A p p r e n tic e sh ip

Levy N eeds To Be R eform ed ), Le P eu p le ( P a r i s ) , May 1 6 -3 1 , 1 9 65 , pp. 9 -1 0 .

CIRF A b str a c t N o, 4 /B 4 5 4 3 , Septem ber 1965«

"D ecrees N o s, 6 4 -1 6 4 , 6 4 -1 6 5 , 6 4 -1 6 6 o f 24 February 1964 in A p p lic a tio n o f

th e Law o f 18 December 1963 C oncerning th e N a tio n a l Employment F o u n d a tion ,"

J o u rn a l o f f i c i e l de la R ^publique fr a n g a is e ( P a r i s ) , February 2 4 -2 5 , 1 9 64 ,

p p 0 1 8 9 2 -1 8 9 4 . CIRF A b s tr a c t Noe 2 /0 6 9 9 7 , May 1 964.

"La fo rm a tio n p r o f e s s io n n e lle d e s a d u lte s " (V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g fo r A d u lt s ) ,

L !U sin e n o u v e lle ( P a r i s ) , sup plem en tary i s s u e , January 1 9 65 , pp . 2 0 3 -2 0 5 .

CIRF A b str a c t N o. 6 /B 9 7 7 , A p r il 1965.

L a u ren t, P ie r r e . "D evelopm ents in A d u lt T r a in in g ," T r a in in g f o r P r o g r e ss

in Europe and in th e W orld, v o l . 1 , N o. 1 . G eneva, I n te r n a tio n a l Labour

O f f ic e , 1961. CIRF p u b lic a t io n .

"Loi N o. 6 6 -892 du 3 decem bre 1966 d * o r ie n t a t io n e t de programme su r la

fo rm a tio n p r o f e s s io n n e lle " (A ct N o. 6 6 -8 92 o f 3 December 1966 on th e

O r ie n ta tio n and Program o f V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g ) , J o u rn a l o f f i c i e l de

la R ep ubliqu e f r a n c a is e ( P a r i s ) , December 4 , 1 966, p p . 1 0 ,6 1 1 -1 0 ,6 1 3 .

CIRF A b str a c t No. 1 / L l l , January 1 967.

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Econom ic C o o p era tio n and D evelopm en t. Annual R eview 1 9 66 -6 7 :

Memorandum F r a n c e . P a r is , O ctob er 2 5 , 1966.

------. R e tr a in in g o f Manual Workers in French In d u stry and in Government Voc a t io n a l T r a in in g C e n te r s . P a r is , 1 9 64 . N a tio n a l M issio n s R eport No. 2 .

------. V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g in th e French M eta ls and E n g in eerin g I n d u s tr y .

P a r is , 1964. N a tio n a l M issio n s R eport No. 1 2 .

Q u ef, P ie r r e . H is t o ir e de 1 1a p p r e n t is s a g e : a s p e c t s de la fo rm a tio n t e c h ­

n iq u e e t co m m ercia le. P a r is , L ib r a r ie G ^nerale de D r o it e t de J u r is p r u ­

d e n c e , 1964.

" R e tr a in in g o f Workers in F ran ce: A ct R e sp e c tin g th e N a tio n a l Employment

Fund," I n te r n a tio n a l Labour Review (G en ev a ), June 1 964.

R o s s ig n o l, E. "The V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g o f A d u lts," I n te r n a tio n a l Labour R ev iew (G en ev a ), O ctob er 1957.

" V o ca tio n a l T r a in in g in th e EEC: F ra n ce," Labor in th e European Community

(W a sh in g to n ), No. 8 , A p r il 1 965.

GERMANY, FEDERAL REPUBLIC

A s s o c ia tio n o f German Chambers o f Commerce. S a fe g u a rd in g Our O rder o f L i f e ,

ch ap , on " V o ca tio n a l T r a in in g and Manpower P ro b lem s." B e r lin , 19 61 .

D ie t z e , G. "Neuordnung s c h lo s s e r is c h e r und v erw a n d ter A u sb ild u n g sb e ru fe "

(R e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e F it te r -A s s e m b le r S p e c ia liz a t io n s and R e la te d App r e n t ic e a b le T r a d e s ), W ir tsc h a ft und B e r u fs-E r z ie h u n g (B on n ), A p r il 1 9 64 ,

pp . 7 1 -7 2 . CIRF A b str a c t No. 4 /0 7 3 2 5 , May 1964.

D itlm an n , K la u s. "D ie E r g e b n isse d er B e r u f s a u s b ild u n g s s t a t is t ik d er In d u st r i e - und Handelskammem 1960" (The R e s u lts o f V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g S t a ­

t i s t i c s o f th e Chambers o f In d u stry and Commerce, I 9 6 0 ) , B u n d e s a r b e its b la tt

( S t u t t g a r t and K o ln ), O ctob er 25 , 1 9 61 , pp . 7 2 1 -7 2 2 . CIRF A b str a c t No.

2 /0 0 2 9 8 , January 1962.

D o r s c h e l, A. " L eh r lin g slo h n " (A p p r e n tic e W age), D ie D eu tsch e B e r u fs- und

F a ch sch u le (W iesb a d en ), March 1 9 64 , pp . 1 7 1 -1 7 9 . CIRF A b str a c t No.

2 /0 7 6 0 3 , May 1964.

H e r b st, H.W ., and F .H . H im m elreich . "The I n d u s t r ia l E m ployers: The A pprent i c e s h i p System I s E s s e n t ia lly Sound," T r a in in g f o r P r o g r e s s in Europe

and in th e W orld, v o l . l , N o . 1 0 G eneva, I n te r n a tio n a l Labour O f f i c e , 1961.

CIRF p u b lic a t io n .

H offm an. "Brauchen w ir e in B e r u fs a u s b ild u n g s g e s e tz ? " (Do We Need a V ocat io n a l T r a in in g L aw ?), W ir tsc h a ft und B e r u fs-E r z ie h u n g (B on n ), May 1 962,

p p . 8 3 -9 0 . CIRF A b s tr a c t N o. 1 /0 0 8 4 2 , J u ly 1 9 62 .

K r a tz sc h , Konrad. "Aus d e r A r b e it d e r B e r u fsa u sb ild u n g sa u ssc h tisse b e i den

I n d u s t r ie - und Handelskammem" (On th e A c t i v i t i e s o f th e V o c a tio n a l

T r a in in g C om m ittees o f th e Chambers o f In d u stry and Com m erce), DGB I n f o r -

51

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
m ation en lib er d as b e r u f lic h e B ild u n g sw esen (D u s s e ld o r f) , May 2 5 , 1 962,

p p . 7 - 1 3 . CIRF A b s tr a c t No. 1 /0 0 8 0 0 , J u ly 1 9 62 .

K rau se, Ec "Im proving I n -P la n t T r a in in g in th e F e d e r a l R e p u b lic ," I n t e r ­

n a tio n a l Labour R eview (G en ev a ), June 1 9 61 .

------c " V o ca tio n a l T r a in in g in th e F e d e r a l R ep u b lic o f Germany," I n t e r n a t io n a l

Labour R eview (G en ev a ), March 1 9 5 8 0

S c h ra d er, H e in r ic h 0 "Brauchen w ir e in B e r u fs a u s b ild u n g s g e s e tz ? " (Do We Need

a V o c a tio n a l E d u cation L aw ?), W ir tsc h a ft und E rzieh u n g (W o lfe n b u tte l) ,

January 1 9 62 , pp . 2 - 8 c CIRF A b s tr a c t No. 1 /0 0 4 7 0 , March 1 9 62 .

ITALY

A s s o c ia t io n f o r th e D evelopm ent o f In d u str y in th e M ezzog io m o (SVIMEZ).

T rain ed Manpower R eq uirem en ts f o r th e Economic D evelopm ent o f I t a l y : T arg e t s fo r 1 9 7 5 . Rome, 1 961.

I t a l y , M in is te r io d e l Lavoro a d e l l a P r e v id e n z a S o c i a l e 0 La F orm azione P r o ­

f e s s i o n a l in I t a l i a (R om e), Quaderno No. 2 7 , 1 963.

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Econom ic C o o p era tio n and D evelop m en t. E xam ination o f I t a l y .

E x a m in e e s R ep ort to th e Manpower and S o c ia l A f f a ir s C om m ittee. P a r is , 1966.

------. E xam ination o f I t a l y . R eport by th e I t a l i a n A u t h o r it ie s to th e Manpower and S o c ia l A f f a ir s C om m ittee. P a r is , 1 966.

"Una in t e r e s s a n t e p r o p o sta d i le g g e p e r la rifo rm a d e l l a d i s c i p l i n a d e l l

■ a p p r e n d ista to " (An I n t e r e s t in g B i l l f o r th e Reform o f A p p r e n tic e sh ip

R e g u la t io n s ) , N o tiz a r io INIASA (Rom e), A p r il 1 9 6 4 , pp . 1 0 -1 1 . CIRF Abs t r a c t No. 1 /0 8 3 3 4 , O ctob er 19 64 .

JAPAN

I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour O f f ic e . R eport on th e A sia n Study Tour on V o c a tio n a l

T r a in in g in J a p a n . G eneva, 19 66 . IL 0/T A P/A FE /R .14.

Jap an , M in istr y o f L ab or. C om prehensive Labor C o n sp e c tu s. T okyo, 19 66 .

------, -------„ Japan Labor L e g i s l a t i o n . Tokyo , The I n s t i t u t e o f Labor P o lic y , 1 959.

------ 9 ------- 9 V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g B u reau . P r e s e n t S it u a t io n o f V o c a tio n a l

T r a in in g in J a p a n , 1 9 61 , 1 9 63 , and 1 9 66 . T okyo.

------ 9 ------- 9 -------c V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g in Ja p a n . T okyo, 1 9 65 .

N a d le r , L eon ard. Em ployee T r a in in g in Jap an . Los A n g e le s , E d u cation and

T r a in in g C o n s u lta n ts , 19 65 .

O k ita , Sab uro. "Manpower P o lic y in Japan," I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour R eview

(G e n e v a ), J u ly 19 64 .

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Economic C o o p era tio n and D evelopm en t, Manpower and S o c ia l

A f f a ir s C om m ittee. Manpower P o lic y D evelopm ents 1 9 6 5 -1 9 6 6 . P a r is , 19 67 .

R eply to Q u e stio n n a ir e MO( 6 6 ) 2 4 - -J a p a n , M O(66)2 4 /2 1 .

NETHERLANDS

De R eep er, J .J .M . "A S to r y o f Growth," T r a in in g f o r P r o g r e ss in Europe and

in th e W orld, v o l . 3 , N o s. 2 - 4 . G eneva, I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour O f f ic e , 1 9 63 . CIRF p u b lic a t io n .

"Labor O v e r se a s--T h e N e th e r la n d s: A p p r e n tic e s h ip , V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g and

V o c a tio n a l G u idance," M in istr y o f Labour G a z e tte (London) , March 1962.

L even b ach , M ariu s. "Terms o f Employment R eg u la ted by L e g is la t io n in C o n tin e n ta l E u ro p e-- ( I I ) ," Labour Law in Europe W ith S p e c ia l R e fe r e n c e to th e

Common M arket. London, S tev en s and S o n s, L t d ., 1 9 62 . Supplem entary Publ i c a t i o n N o. 5 .

N e th e r la n d s , Government In fo rm a tio n S e r v ic e . D ig e s t o f th e Kingdom o f th e

N e th e r la n d s , E d u c a tio n , A rts and S c ie n c e s . The H ague, 1963.

N e th e r la n d s , M in istr y o f S o c ia l A f f a ir s and P u b lic H e a lth , S t a t e Labor O ffic e *

V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g f o r A d u lts in th e N e th e r la n d s . The H ague, 1 964.

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Econom ic C o o p era tio n and D evelopm en t. E xam ination o f th e

Manpower and S o c ia l P o lic y o f th e N e th e r la n d s . R eport by th e N e th e r la n d s

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
A u t h o r it ie s to th e Manpower and S o c ia l A f f a ir s C om m ittee, P a r is , 1966.

R eport by th e E xam in ers. P a r is , 1966*

" V o ca tio n a l T r a in in g in th e EEC: The N e th e r la n d s," Labor in th e European

Community (W a sh in g to n ), No« 1 1 , January 1966.

"Wet van 12 mei 1966 t o t r e g e lin g van h e t le e r lin g w e z e n (Wet op h e t l e e r l i n g -

w ezen)" (A ct o f 12 May 1966 to R e g u la te A p p r e n tic e sh ip (A p p r e n tic e sh ip

A c t ) ) , S ta a ts b la d van h e t K o n in k r ijk d er N ed erlan d en ( 1s-G r a v e n h a g e ),

N o. 2 5 1 , 19 66 , p p 0 5 8 1 -5 8 8 . CIRF A b str a c t No. 1 /L 6 , November 1 9 6 6 0

NORWAY

M orten sen , Gunnar, and Sven P e r s s o n . V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g in Norway: A Su rvey . T r a n sla te d by T revor Chadwicko O s lo , N orw egian J o in t Com m ittee on

I n te r n a tio n a l S o c ia l P o li c y , 1 964.

Norway, Labor D ir e c t o r a t e . " V o ca tio n a l T r a in in g o f A d u lts in Norway," Annual

R ep o r t, 1 9 6 5 . O s lo .

O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Economic C o o p era tio n and D evelop m en t. A c tiv e Manpower

P o lic y in Norway. By L e iv T o rg en sen . P a r is , 19 65 . R eg io n a l S em in a rs.

------, Manpower and S o c ia l A f f a ir s C om m ittee. Annual R ep o r t. P a r is , 1 963.

MO(63)1 7 /1 4 .

SWEDEN

H akanson, H&kan E. R e tr a in in g and F u rth er T r a in in g . S tock h olm , N a tio n a l Labor Market B oard , 1966.

"Kungl M a j'ts K u n g o relse om u tb ild n in g s b id r a g lit a r b e t s lb s a m. f l . " (H is

R oyal M a je s ty 's D ecree on A llo w a n ces f o r th e T r a in in g o f th e Unemployed

e t a l ) , Svensk F o r fa ttn in g s s a m lin g (S to c k h o lm ), J u ly 1 8 , 19 63 , pp . 1003-

1 006. CIRF A b str a c t No. 2 /0 4 5 6 2 , November 1 963.

L a r sso n , M atts B . "An E m p loyer's Approach to V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g ," T r a in in g

fo r P r o g r e ss in Europe and in th e W orld, v o l . 3 , N o. 1 . G eneva, I n t e r ­

n a t io n a l Labour O f f ic e , 1963.

Sweden, N a tio n a l Labor Market B oard. Modem Sw edish Labor Market P o l i c y .

S tock h olm , 1966.

------, -------. Sw edish Employment P o l i c y . R ep rin t from th e B o a rd 's Annual Rep o r t f o r 1 9 65 . S tock h olm , 19 66 .

U .S . Departm ent o f L ab or, Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s . Labor Law and P r a c t ic e

in Sweden. W ash in gton , Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 19 64 . BLS R eport 285.

" Y rk essk olan s ju r s p la n e r och g ru n d sk o lere fo rm en . Y r k e ssk o la n s a n p a ssn in g

t i l l grun dsk olan" (The S y lla b i o f V o c a tio n a l S c h o o ls and th e Reform o f th e

Common B a s ic S c h o o l. The A d a p ta tio n o f th e V o c a tio n a l Sch ool to th e Common

B a sic S c h o o l) , F a ck la ra ren (S to c k h o lm ), A ugust 15, 1 964, pp. 1 - 2 , and

Septem ber 1 2 , 1 9 64 , pp . 1 2 -1 5 . CIRF A b str a c t N o. 4 /0 9 3 6 1 , November 1964.

SWITZERLAND

J e a n g r o s, E rw in. "Reform o f V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g in S w itz e r la n d ," I n t e r ­

n a tio n a l Labour R eview (G en ev a ), November 1959.

"Loi f £ d £ r a le su r la fo rm a tio n p r o f e s s io n n e lle (Du 20 Septem bre 1963)" (F ed ­

e r a l Law on V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g (Septem ber 2 0 , 1 9 6 3 ) ) , F e u i l l e f e d e r a le

(B e r n ), v o l . I I , No. 4 0 , O ctob er 1 0 , 1 963, p p . 7 5 3 -7 7 7 . CIRF A b str a c t

No. 1 /0 5 0 7 3 , December 1963.

"Ordonnance d 'e x e c u tio n de la l o i f e d e r a le su r la fo rm a tio n p r o f e s s io n n e lle "

(O rder Im plem enting th e F e d e r a l Law on V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g ) , R e c u e il d es

l o i s f e d e r a le s (B e r n ), A p r il 1 5 , 1 965, pp . 3 5 0 -3 6 8 . CIRF A b str a c t No.

1 /B 4 5 49 , A ugust 1 965.

S w itz e r la n d , F ed e ra l I n d u s tr y , Trade and Labor O f f ic e . V o c a tio n a l T r a in in g .

B ern , I9 6 0 .

" S w itz e r la n d : F ed e ra l Labour A c t , 1964," I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour Review (G en ev a ),

A p r il 1965.

53

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
UNITED KINGDOM

B e v e r id g e , Andrew0 A p p r e n tic e sh ip Now: N o tes on th e T r a in in g o f Young Ent r a n t s to I n d u s tr y o London, Chapman and H a ll, 1963o 

D u n n ett, S ir Jam es0 “The I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g A ct in B r it a in ," P e r so n n e l

P r a c t ic e B u lle t in (C an b erra, A u s t r a l i a ) , Septem ber 1 9 6 6 e 

E n g in e e r in g In d u str y T r a in in g B oard 0 Group T r a in in g Sch em es0 London, T i l -

lo t s o n s L t d o , 1966o B o o k le t N o0 2* F arn sw orth , C lyd e Hc "Teen-Age M arket S p u rts in B r it a in ," New York T im es,

May 2 9 , 1966*

" F ir s t-Y e a r A p p r e n tic e T r a in in g in Government T r a in in g C e n tr e s," M in istr y o f

Labour G a z e tte (L on d on ), November 1963o

H aw trey, E* "The E n forcem en t o f S ta tu to r y Minimum Wages in G reat B r it a in ,"

I n t e r n a t io n a l Labour Review (G en ev a ), A p r il 1959*

" I n d u s tr ia l T r a in in g B oard s: F i r s t P r o g r e ss R e p o r ts," M in istr y o f Labour

G a z e tte (L on d on ), A ugust 1965o

Larkcom, J . "No Change W ithout S k i ll * R e t r a in in g - - t h e S t a t e o f th e N a tio n ,"

P e r so n n e l Management and M ethods (L on d on ), O ctob er 1 9 6 3 , pp* 2 6 -2 7 , 3 5 ,

and 4 1 , and November 1 9 63 , p p . 26-28* CIRF A b str a c t No* 7 /0 7 4 5 7 , May 1964*

Liepm ann, Kate* A p p r e n tic e sh ip : An E nquiry In to I t s Adequacy Under Modem

C o n d itio n s * London, R o u tled g e and Kegan P a u l, 1960.

"More Aid f o r A d u lt T r a in in g ," M in istr y o f Labour G a z e tte (L on d on ), December

1966* " P ro g ress in I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g ," M in istr y o f Labour G a z e tte (L on d on ), June

1966.

" T ra in in g G rants f o r Sandwich C o u rses," M in istr y o f Labour G a z e tte (L on d on ),

A ugust 1965*

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R e la tio n s and C o n d itio n s o f Work in B r i t a i n . London, 1964*

------, C en tra l O f f ic e o f In fo rm a tio n * Government Employment and T r a in in g

S e r v ic e s in B r i t a i n * London, 1966*

.------, C en tra l T r a in in g C o u n cil* R eport to th e M in is t e r * London, 1 9 65 .

------ 9 -------0 Second R eport to th e M in is t e r * London, 1967*

------, Departm ent o f E d u catio n and S c ien ce* R ep orts on E d u c a tio n , N o. 3 5 .

London, 1967*

------, M in istr y o f Labour* Approach to I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g : C e n tr a l T r a in in g

C o u n cil A d vice on Main T ask s o f B o a rd s. London, A p r il 6 , 1966* (P r e s s

n o t ic e )

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L*A. P ap er No* 18 (R e v * ).

------, -------* I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g A ct: G eneral G uide: Scope and O b j e c t iv e s *

(R e v .) London, 1 9 65 .

------, -------* I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g in G reat B r it a i n * February 1 9 65 . L* A* P aper

No* 21 (R ev*)*

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1 9 66 . (P r e ss n o t ic e )

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A c tio n * London, A ugust 2 4 , 19 66 . (P r e s s n o t ic e )

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1964* (P r e s s n o t ic e )

------ 9 ------- 9 D epartm ent o f S a f e t y , H e a lth , and W elfare* T r a in in g R equirem ents

in th e F a c to r ie s A ct and R e g u la tio n s * London (no d a t e ) .

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1964* NJC No* 364*

------, M in istr y o f Labour and D epartm ent o f E d u catio n and S c ie n c e * T r a in in g

o f I n d u s t r ia l T r a in in g O f f ic e r s : New Scheme o f F in a n c ia l A s s is t a n c e *

London, O ctob er 1 0 , 1964*

54 ☆ U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1969 O - 329-927

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis