USACERL Special Report N-90 02 Octcoer 1989

US Army Corps of Engineers AD-A214 623

Construction Engineering

Reoarch Labor tory

GRASS/GIS Implementation Guide

by

Mary V. Martin

William D. Goran

Robert C. Lozar

Jean M. Messersmith

Marilyn S. Ruiz

James D. Westervelt

The GRASS/GIS Implementation Guide is a

manual for the implementation and use of

the Geographic Resources Analysis Support

System (GRASS).

GRASS is a microcomputer based image processing and geographic information system (GIS) used to develop, manipulate, analyze, and display geographic datasets.

This Implementation Guide identifies procedures and issues relevant to user sites

preparing to receive and implement GRASS

software. Special attention is given to

GRASS software capabilities, supported data

types, hardware selection and configuration,

and staff selection and training. Also in- D T IC

cluded is a list of support structures and current publications relating to GRASS. SN T F

Approved for public release: distrbution is unlimited.

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Tile findings of this report are not to be construed as an official Departmenit of tie Army position, unless so designated In other authorized

documents.

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0-8 06 Geographic Information System

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The GRASS/GiS Implementation Guide is a manual for the impl-ncwtntion ar'd 'Ic fif rhe

Ceographic Resources Analysis Support System.

GRASS is a microcomputer based image processing and geographic information system (Gi5

usCd to develop, manipulate, analyze, and display geographic datasets.

Tfhi, Implementation Guide identifies procedures and issues relevant to user sites

prt)Nlr jug to receive and implement GRASS software. Special attention is given to

GRASS software capabilities, supported data types, hardware selection and configuration,

and staff selection and training. Also included is a list of support structures and

current publications relating to GRASS.

* i I -I' A-A AR ' a ;0 AW k-TA T 21 AHISTRAC7 SECO P 'y CASS-.;A ' !CN

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William J. olf (217) 352-6511 (X388) CECER-IMT

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W e UNCLASSIFIED iii
LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1: Standard Map Layers for Military Databases 10

Table 3.2: Suggested Range of Resolutions for Common Map Scales 13

Table 3.3: Data Sonrves for Cartographic Information 14

Table 3.4: Soures of Digital Spatial Data for GISs 15

Table 3.5: Approximate Cell File Sizes for One 1:24,000 USGS Quadrangle 16

Table 3.6: Hours of Labor Required for One 1:24,000 USGS Quadrangle 17

(digitized in stream mode)

Table 4.1: Common Applications 24

Table 6.1: Evaluation Criteria for GRASS Workstation Options 46

Table 8.1: GRASS Training Periodic Training for General Ptbic 60

Table 8.2: GRASSNET and Electronic Mail 61

Table 8.3: GRASS Software and Information Centers 62

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Example Scenario GRASS Implementation Process 4

Figure 3.1(a): 20-metr Cell Resolution 11

Figure 3.1(b): 100-meter Cell Resolution 11

Figure 3.2(a): An Example of Low Density Linear Features 22

Figure 3.2(b): An Example of Medium Density Linear Features 22

Figure 3.2(c): An Example of High Density Linear Fetures 22 .s9l on It,

Figure 3.3(a): An Example of Low Density Areal Features 22 TAI

Figure 3.3(b): An Example of Medium Density Areal Features 22

:trloation

FI pe 3.(c'" An Example of High Density Areal Features 22

,trlution/

A .leI Ity Code's

,Aval, and/or

Distt Speoal

Vii
Citrdct1

The Geographic Resources Analyis Support System (GRASS) is a microcomputer

based image processing and gLe)graphic information system (GIS) used to develop,

manipulate, analyze, and display geographical datasets. Initially developed by

researchers at USACRL's Knvimnmnta Division for environmental planrirs at

military installations, GRASS is ICw Lsed by a vatiety of public and pri',ate agencies

and individuals to assess environmental inpacts, evaluate site suitability, detect

change, manae rese ine, and imdel the effects of environmenta phenomena across a

landscape.

The system is currently fielded at several militay installations and Corps of Engirners

districts, divisions, and lberatories, and has also been acquired by other federal and

rKnfederal organizations. As a result of several programs being implerrented

throughout the Corps, Army, and/or all sectors of the military, (e.g., Environmental

Management Analysis Program [EMAP]. Land Condition-Trend Analysis Program

[LCTA], Base Realignnent), many installations will snon acquire GRASS.

While GRASS has many useful applications, its implementation is complex, and

presents many sta ng, funding, "ard logistical problems. This guide attempts to

address these issues. It is one of several mechanisms being developed to support

GILA'- implenxentation others irlude logistical mechanisms, support structures, and

other documentation

1.2. Objccive

The objective of this work is to idenufy procedures and issues relating to GRASS

implementation at user sites. Conditions ma, vary at each site. It is envisioned that

sites will use this document as a guide on which to base site-specific GIS

implementation plans.

1.3. Approch

GRA S inuplenentitiot at other intallaions was examined, as were written naterials

describing the irrplen-xntation of geogr-aplhic information systems (GISs) and other

mil1r systunu,. §i 

*1 I ntroduktion
-2- -2-

1.4. Scope

Information in this report is cunen as of the last quarter in FY89.

1.5. Mode of Tedmdogy Trm&

The information in this report will aid te technical transfer of USACERL's GRASS

geographic information and image processing system. GRASS is being tansferred to

the field through the following mechanisnms: training programs, hards on experience, a

user support center, newsletters, extensive documentaion, institutional stnxtures at the

Amy and Interagency levels, communication networks, ax other forums.

§1 inurdwaon
-3- -3-

Chap1i" 2

Overview of the In4(iitaiitm Prow Getin Started with GRASSGIS

Geographic Information Systems (GISs) offer tenious potential to

improve planning, evaluation, and monitoring and mnagenent of Amw

lands. Army installations are nux implementing GIS technology. This gide

will assist installation staff to understard a idrss td-izd ibtes associated

with the implementation rmcess. Specifically, it examines the evaluation,

selection, and acquisition of r cessaiy hardwarr, as ll as netwvricing issues,

sfftwan- requtierbt, data baw- constniction, pplication. uss e~ur

training, staffing, and GIS sup m meuireme -is.

2.1. hrittion, of the hr~icnr -dLaion Pxxc f

The process of GIS implementeti on an insallatioih can occur for any of several

reasons:

1) The technology may bc part, of .-ore Annw-x;d or MACOM-wide program,

such as Integrated Tr-huning Area Management (ITAM) or Fnvironmental

Management Analysis Program (EMAP) diat is 6eing implemented on-post

2) A proponent on the isfajll'afi, ) n.T. learn about GIS techrology and through

meetings, literature, etc., become an advocate tor its use on-post.

3) A regulatory or supporthig organization nrrv use GIS techIrrlogy to support or

evaluate post activities (e.g., developmnt of data bases by the State Historic

Preservation Officer [SHIU)], and Ar, v Em1nirnental t-ygiene Agency [AE-A].

etc.).

4) A rrajor action rcquiring the conpletion of an environmental impact

assessment (EA) may be contemplaled on the installation; such actions might

include a change of mismsion site selecticn for a major new range complex,

selection o' new landfill sites, and other actions. A MACOM, Corps District,

ruiewing agency, or another, nmav suggest that GIS techrology be used to

prepare the FA.

However the process is iiitiawed, fhe inistallation should follow a series of logical steps

to ensrMe 5MM)oth and cost-efficiecnt implementation. A GIS can be applied to many

land-related issues, possibly ireulting in hulge cost savings to installations. However,

GIS iinpleinentation nxaLy pmrsent its own costs and issues related to stiffing, hardware,

construction and riaintetmnce of daLasts. interfacing the GIS with other software, and

long-termi data, hardware, software, ud system costs. Successful system

implementation therefore greatly depends upon proper planning, and upon the

existence of support structures, policy guidelines and documientation. The development

and use of staxiard (IS inplementation procedturs and support structures will result

in mre costeffecive and tin)ely ( IS iniplementation throughout the military.

Implementation documentation ad lovistical support will enable those who are

considering acquisition it correctly estinac Rutre costs and benefits associated with

system implermentatic-. Suppxort, sltrctnves will provide an ongoing nechaism

through which to addre.s usens' qu(,sijois hei'or aid after s,,teni acquisition. Above

§2 Overview of the ImpAcsnmtiom Prt o - GettiW Sarted with GRASS'GIS
-4- -4.

all, such mechanisms will allow sites to prepare themselves, before the system arrives,

for the implementation of a GIS. Inmpleent3fion steps am outlired below, and shown

graphically in Figure 2.1.

In FIgure 2.1, one scenario for GRASS GIS Implenentation is outlined. Tasks are

divided into (1) those performed by the project sponsor (e.g., a MACOM), (2) those

done by the GRASS implementation site (e.g., an installation or District), ard (3) tasks

performed by a contractor (e.g., USACERL, a Corps District, etc.). It is possible t-t

the GRASS implementafion site my itself perform some or all of the taks shown in

FIgure 2.1 as being done by a contractor. However, it is likely that at least some tasks

will be contracted out

Example Scenario

GRASS IMEMENrATION PROCESS

RESPOi NBIPrIHS OF

SPOASOR

xunding & Proposal Review

Selection of lrtalatiorE

Monit,ring Process

lualiirg Program

PFLAW, \&'B 9LU7TA N OF I0Wh A&ff"O~IJTMhS OF

IEMJ WFATON MnT CO'1PAM!OR/.AB

l-ijcct Seoping & Proposal

A -r-Le ri i o Ir-wilatic n -' i Lta on C

Creauon of GS irnplerenation Comrnittee Data ReuirenntsB

Cot/-erefit Evaluation of Applicatiorrs Personnel Needs

Data Reqfirments valuation Hadwau/Sofaare links

HardwareSoftware Conmetios Data Acquisition

PREPARATION Hiring & Training of GIS'ITAM Personcel Data Translation & Digitzirg

Coordination with DOI Hardware Evaluation & Selection

Site derification of & Preparation for Sys.tem Hard" are Ptxcurmert

System Manragcrmnt Training (by vendor) Hardware Delivery to CorutoIab

Installation of Data & Sflware

Configuration Training at Contractor/lab Site

Delivery of System to nrBtallation

INSrALL ATON On-sito Training from (ontractor/Iab

Enroll in Training Courses Ongoing Support

Running Applications Custom Applications lPt)totvping

ONGOING Ongoing Data Updates & Maiptenance New Software Releases

UOngoing System Support

Advarred Software Training

F1re 2.1 re 

§2 Omr~iew of thImp [nvintai~m Pkocam GetWW Sted~ wvith GRAWSGIS
2.2. GIS Comrinatr

'he firmt step towwTd IS1 implcienition at a potential u~ser site is the appointme nt of

a GIS Coordinator (the instllation R.XC in Migure 2.1). Usually, this person will be

someone in the installation Environmental DIvision or Natural Resources brnh This

individual should be familiar with envimnn-vntal analysis. The GIS Coordinator Will

(a) gather information, (b) educate potential users and coordinate plans for the GIS, (c)

develop an implementation plan specific to the instal-lation, (d) address impacts

attributable to im-plementation, and finallv (- ) sectue support for the plan

This position is critical to the evaluaticoi of GIS technology for an instalation and! to

the successful coordination arti maintenance of this techroloogy boui on and off the

installation The GIS Coniiatu- sho d lbe a pentuct installation employee, with

adequate status and autho~rity to accompTLishi thc"-e Usk&. Ideal-ly, this person willI be

famniliar with the organization and proceiimP23- if tle different elements on the

instalation thiat my~ , be potential (liS u- as the land rmnagers, master

plarmrs, range manes. en VIrTnnnk,,iAl planzn'rs. ond ti-airers. (Refer to chapter §7

{~afingandTrain]g TNCf !S ,, -r . for a ird)re detaled description of the GIS

Cooniator' s tAks;.)

2-3. Inforimidlon GA0ukiiwn

GIS Coordinators should first edurate themselves about, what GJS%- can do, and then

identify potential 018 applications oii dheir iris Uaulus. kCiupier §-; GRASS

Applications for Militairy Inst aiwions p.~of' this guiide examines several types of

applications commonly petfortned uSing (1[--.' Next, the Coordinator should identify

Army GIS and related policy an~d pitgurns. Such programs affect acquisition,

fundng, andx support. for ttyo w! t ffhe senzvice anud MACGM levels. Logistical

support. stnctun's htAvt been developed to addruss issuies related to G18 development

policy, andi to pnmni1Q tbe shvrii, )f' rvu,ircos amoxng agencies usi-ng GTIS. For

example, dhe Arni'v-C11S St, ring Committee addresses ove ral 15 poh-cyv and

implementation Issues for Amyv G-18 utsers,.

Uses of' (1S by ite~r~s, inoJiaii- w 1Lo Anny iinstallationis, and (b rxeighboring

organIzationis, such as tile locail 8(4. oft ict', ( tps disftrIcs, nearby Forest Service units,

Couanty planning oflcu-;, s1a1(. ofilre-. :tr., should tlxen be identified. Finally, the GIS

Coordinator should ide:nufv \, ati the ii-{laI~ns interested in GIS. This mnay

include staff in rngce control. t11 envimumntLd office, nnter planning, computer

a ~science, flisheries, wnd %%iidlif'V, archaeology, dc The ( oordinato~r should solicit input

fro)m these Individuals on what ivquumilint a G18 shoutld meet, and on what types of

GIS application-, each office might perforni

2.4. Fditratin aixi Coordfination

Thc GI18 Coordinalor should ulso oducaif, potential iuers and their supervisors about

(118 technology, andi cooc n-ite pkl 'lig f"ir ti-v ( is. Thel Coordiinator should formn an

Inten nli (TIS 11n1plo nc ntalior)i (1114 10 1,,-t~~'~(idc t, (Coordinator in developing an

§2 (Mv-%im (if the Irqnntafjui MPixx- GeWWingmtkrwd ith GILAWGIS
-6- -6-

Implementation Plan for the in- itfon, and to educate the committee memers on the

implementation process and its potential effects on how business is conducted. These

plat should be cooinated with implementation of CAD, IFS-M and other related

programs. Te GIS Coordinator should ensure that GIS data can be exchanged with

CAD, AM/FM and other users as needed to support itaUlation requirements, and to

ensure that isses involving data sarda's, and the sharirg, updaing, and ownership

of dai are addressed and coordinated among all users Tlk GIS Coordinator should

also provide input to Army GIS Steering aid/or Technical Advisory Groups, and

participate in local andlor regional GIS user and data shaing groups.

2.5. Deeop Sfte-SpeM Inl itation UI

Te GIS Coordinator' s next task is to develop a GIS implermentation plan which is

specific to tht site, based on the mdel implenentaion plan prepared by USACERL' s

Land Analysis Group.

The Coordinator should first determine who the actual GIS users will be and what

hardware, data and software are reTired to meet these users' reeds. Next, the

Coordinator should customize tl roded implementation plan based on users' projected

requirements. The GIS Coordinator shoud then examine tie installation' s life cycle

costs and projected benefits associated with this plarn Gost/benefit ratios can be

calculated to prioitize projects, and to assess the financial viabiliEt of different

nerfhods of implementationr A standard netludology for performing a cost/benefit

analysis for GIS implementafion is oulined in Methodology for Performing ReturnOn-Inzestnent (I )L' ,'udies for Irrq)lermntamion of GRASS on Militay Instalations 1

The staff' s plan should be sent through the installation GIS Implementation Committee

and Army GIS Steering Cormrnitt.e. The Coordinator should ensure that tie plan is

coordinated with other GIS and related activities, to nininize costs and naimize

benefits.

2.6, Address Impcts

Staffing and training needs should ten be addressed. GIS inlementation involves

several types of task, which can be grouped into a few "skill areas:"

* GIS Coordinaton

" GLS AnalysIs

• Data Management

" Cartography/Digitizing

" Systems Management

• Software Integration

Ben Siwinskd (Resanrh Associatps, Urbma' , IL), Methodology for Per forntg RetwrnOnkuvesn-int (ROL) %udes for Ifplerrrntation of GRASS on Mhlity JInstallatwns, Technical

Manuscript N-89/25 iU.S Anny Coasrirtion &ipgering Resarch IAborat)ry [T UACERLI.

May 1989).

§2 Overiew of the min-taon Procew CetW Started with GRAS/GIS
-7- -7-

The sidils required tfo perform tes rk-,essary tasks may be provided by severa, or as

few as two, persons on an installation.L How~ mrany iruividuas performn tfxe needed

tasks on any given instaation will depend upon how well the ar-eas of expertise held

by existing istalation personnel nivsh with G1IS-reiated tasks-, thev ease with which

new personnel can be acquired, wh~a specific (.'IS analyses the installation plans to

cornduct. "I other factors. Guidace, on (IIS staffig and training requiuuents can

come from the Army GIS steering (ommn-ittee. and other instalations and Districts that

have afreaF' implemented GIS. T'equestions are addressed in furthekr detail i

chapter §7 £swivn and TIhinin PqiutnA .7

Orre a plan has been iale. furnlir, to 0r at Ieas,, iMi6al find iniplenerntaton

costs shotild be secured. ndg Culr' rsV a(Thiti~m oif l<ASS GIs hand'.are is

discussed in chapter '6 Evuz,:ua1,) (>-It.K for (7ILSS' WVks~alon *v'lPchon 1p.411.

Once needed eipmeant arri stafi' hive been s;eie-:red, :xeeded Tpace allocations am

improvements, andi othe r enviroik.mrial ruquircmrrl rts (,,g. electrical power, equipment

temlxrature "-qUmrellk nLS) r1. be 1)(2ie h is; u'.efu at this point to develop a

timeline for performing tasks, as:uca i) imonnrilatoi- A contractor mayT, be

IL5& d to) esumale such requimnrnemts: i-rk c-edled clat.; evalimate. select. procure andi

deliver h:axdware; inr-aii; duta xrdc -otware on equipi-ient: "n provide initial and

onfgoing sys.,tem and user marn~ad software ,-uppxort to staff at the GRARS

2.7. Seurc Support- for the fin

support for the~ liplementation plani -hotld h(, re from the installation,. nd frmm

MA(X)M and Anm y-level ( IlS IX~mnte mnplementaion suipport should inclu' de

commitments of suif, tundiing, anid tP c -i .XI mtqwIlrvents. Databases, soft-wame

anduadwar will also reqJuire on11ngrn:intenre and updates. Implementation

imiF~ slpX ld i l ucl sr~ng !~ r v J A( OA1 leve) policy gmidance.

admimnitive supportI an mc d xi n: tll-uv ('IS
-8- -8-
-9- .9-

Chaptf 3

Guideines in Cnrictt a GRASS GIS Dtabase

After an instalation has decided to establish a GRASS workstation, one

crucial step in ensuring successful adaptation of the system is the

development of a useful and relevant geographic database. Ths chapter will

help distict1evel ani installation personnel nrke informed decisions about

the planning, building, and n-ointenance of such databaes.

3.1. Introduction

This chapter outlines GRASS database development, which involves the planning,

building, arfi ndaintenrace of geographic datasets. )evelopment can be broken down

into four stages: (1) planning, (2) data collection and map preparation, (3) installation

of map data into GRASS, ard (4) augmnenting and altering existing data. Primarily,

this text discusses the first of thLse stagus, planning. The problems and issues raised

here are discussed in detail in th- papers Cartographic Issues in Dakdxzse

Dewlopnrnt1 and Map Prex-ation, 2 avadable upon request from the GRASS

Infonmation Center at USACEIL,.

3.2. Initiating a Database

A database is a collection of map layen on various themes for the same geographic

location Several issues must be resolved wlxn inidaling development of a database.

It is finst necessary to decide which layers are needed in the database, ad then to

decide what spatial msolution is rxccssiy to nmake the data useful. A determination is

tiv4n nIL, i.b to whicl (& te (iCsi~d nap layers are available in digital or nondigital

e ioi..ds.lexel (,f etii. if Iie information is currently unavailable (or

a. ,rsnI,.:,, ' ...,-it~i 4;f ~(ii', ,. of' r dii)ing the desire-d np layer

. .- ;,(,%. k\ L. '(wr "itch ;wuc. the 1K, number of catego.- types to be

-,:I ,. \ a, .:,-i , 1Uti1 Wifl : . W 1I-ax..W,(edi is decidec upon. All of these

(IP it-; tS \%ii k (i(")i d l.J ) , a [ " \()i; ; al fil ) Ilye"r is to be tLsed.

1 i"'k u-',li ) II I 11 ilI! i t lK x (I >1 IG i it sjl il ' n Ia ;11 (T (% bI e tlttC COs41Y. The ,T(fis

*,i' ani U.ZI;sliinijoif ,4lid b,( )4 , c-s(ss(l ('-;iwilIv before deVelopinkn o a datlabase is

*' in . spuci fflicAiy. ise m. p ]lav'e- ssair .c trfiiire ( JUA': app] icn,.li, should

IW li.-u(d I pfl) I lt liw>(d L li n. (kIwii Is ico ill'd1. ( li lter §4 (Jtk, N .A' licatiol.s fi)/r

."d ,' n .';, t }5 c/L, ,: ,: '.,"' ',: ,/,' i'',' h' 1/:,vu ,'11 T ,chnicJd .N],rluvript N -

,-,I) , ~~~ ,','I~q fg \l ~ AMI kttp 22: 

:- ( ;lidi ..N in ('On-tiiig a (- RiAS'4 (GIS i itt1t
-10- -10-

Military Installations p. 231 describes some GRASS applications andi t1Lir utility.

Some map layers, like those of the installation bourxary, training ar-eas, lhydmography,

andi soils, awe fairly stardard Often, several additional map layers can be derived from

one or nmore original layer(s). For examnple, in GRAS slope ard aspect layers can

both be (automnatically) dcrivati fn)m an elevation map; simiarly, map layers of soil

pH andi soil enxlibility can be (manually) reclassed fmm a soils type map layer. A

listing of stardlard map layers is shown in Table 3.1. Tae~ acuial selection of map

layer topics slxnild be installation-specific. E\-en with a good set of basic map data,

rnost new applications will also requfiru develorrnnt of one or nure new, special

layer~s) (which may be based on recent field work or other data). However, planning

can. decrease unnrcfsary data developmexnt Posts.

Agnciiuju Oute&-es Mapping ofagricultmui ou.ce bruz, and ntnerrr Lnf)(- rt~ofl__

Air Qwlity _____ Air Qt t %lo R-,on (AWNI{ njtitr ____ __-_

( Trp Pmdwtion Vab.e -- C(rnp omdtxt v~nfdiL foriigrculti:.i a y rTdcu.i

Ciln'7-(omuTr Mameurubilitv Siuuibidt of bur-6 tbr coii IttinK j!1otwv rrwv2Luvt-r.,__

(i-,tumi Resource Sitesi'i~oi of' air o "I '.rn historical situi;

('1uiural Riwr---LC SLUrVCVi LicauL r of am sun eved f r-- aFxuo ii to rical sittiiXuct.h to fkdn,ck

IUlvado ri jia pi- f.~ ll 'humo anc rub p andu: ixi ject can be denxvd)

I irv i)xrxge ________ Ird\ of x-gctatic ar dajmtge fum fin

orl~st Miwierbo Unt ap~o il~j i pr.'dion fur otflknize vzilu, etc.

Habitat \a] kJxA'__ I Habitat tye ardther dues lr varp a___ ________

Ho ig tok Data M iii ofa~igem ~ r c(ditin of iiuing sto k__ _______

lidrgto - pictioti of St~anis, AW i vu, etc.

Jri'tada on Houndane-s Deline1ion of inst~itior botrdarit ___ _________ _____

Mrvter ilanig It texe-s LMIj if ara coe Jbyj indi es aird 1.44X) rmap;

Nie ('or~ulrp Mpping of uxose crtuuri ibr inituliaion a-isunaurtdingaruas Iilt 4 x iurdwie Lkla anaip 'htal o-' -.iCuon

Auxira k-., (USGS and DMA) (-Airthoing of sta-LiU~xSC' S!240(X), or DMA 1 550,M, rrn uurinl

I " r.U Sit,>, ___ Mappir- of goLf cournies Lcla oa rc __ _ _W___

ju'trii tiy An:L itDI\ljtieanon o;fwv:evor i iii !"tx,,ttl -, o n itAkuon

S u-\ i01 lutictartt I ulio oriot of t,;ru- - ~ %kawO(o Lr, .2uirit.: , so ag <tc

Nu-j,~('nit~l I~utii ~ appr~ if stjh data w Y- j ti n dutt-iu'v ,--. rutios, birdith s inrnu, crtrr ratu-,.ec

M pi j ol - A Lv- s au) oi mrtalauor,

O1d Erosion -uct, is - pjof T aua, bi -.ul "Iuio oz____ __ ___

ri,i up/tuiuu (o-uI- d I zi a, oi ) oarih i t. t2P I riu dLuiarTr~ j Ar'a*I N1i Pp1K of ir-6alhtio triionmar-ma bLirdanlm~p~aonI~t of biprtation tpc: anrd liicatiomniu

ljijteiI i..ationf 4 k c-al utilitv lioi- rbraa',M!" aid inu -

--- - ~ Mpjfwetathtr o dr m ic~d, infiiril imknUton and ,ped,tLC.

Wctjirds___ ~ luprngJweday lc aidoivwdtypes arroa;sitittallaiion - ______ \kild~if Inrvurtomes Inverton- ai lccanon, (1i unwtnt, wild[life iutns_________

L\ id iteM rv,, .O iut -Units I )elmirx-itio i o f wild Ii fe i riobk ra ant ____ -n ____

Table-3.1: Stardard Map lay wts firMilitary Dtiabs

§3 Gtiddixls in CGxltr.AiMy a IA GIS Databage
-11l- -11I3.4. Map Scale and Map Layer Resution

In addition to choosing map layer topics, the installation umust consider the selection of

the appropriate scale for the map from which infornration will be taken when the map

layer is input to the GRASS database. This is closely tied to the question of map

resolution. In GRASS, raster map layer data are stored in a grid, made up of tiny

rectangles (cells). 3 Each cell in the grid a-presents an area on the Earth The size of

these cells, and conespordirgly, te actual area on the Earth which they represent, is

deteraned by the resolution4 chosen for a map layer. A map which has north-south

and east, west cell resolutiom of 50 mketers, for example, is a rmap layer in which each

cell contins a value which represents a X 50 eter square on the Earth. Sie a

larger scale map contains more inforation for a given place on the Earth than does a

smaller scale map, it is appropniate tot choose a corresponding cell size which

represents a saller piece of the Earth (in greater det=dl for a larger scale map, andt

vice versa

Figures 3.1(a) and 3.1b' illustrate W s ,e of data at two different resolutions, for

the same geographic are In Figur 3.1(a), t h rectar uir cell Yprsents a 20-meter

X 20-meter area on the F artl. In igtn 3.10b), each cell represents a 100-meter X

100-meter area on the Earth Becawue, for a given map layer, each rectangular cell can

contain only one data value (i.e., only one cell "category"), more cells means mre

data (ari henre more detail} over ix saax datase Figure 3.1(a) contains 25 tires

the minter of cells (ar tierefore 25 times thi nunter of cell category data values) as

appear in Figure 3.1(b). gure 3.1(a) therefore contains 25 tires more detlil than

Fgure 3.1(b).

i-t-

, T j

-,1-

-4

t _[ d . . . .. . .

Figure -1 1 (a): 20- mewi miII maulution Fgure 3.1(b) : 100- meter crel r solution

(100 v-JLs %iUi, a 40.OW0 0{piav uvxs mnuA- -.u) (4 within a 40,000 sqj-mj meter arma)

3 Aldhugh traps ate inpui t GASS in : :'., 'air-ird. format. nxst am then internally

converted to raster (grid celli frmait for storage anl analysis. Map layers (in raster forrnat

are corimnly referred to as cell fies or g'id cell liles. Sep chapter §5 An Introdition to

GRASS G!S .offlvare Lp y for a discusioun of raser and vectr data fonmts.

Realution is expre,!ax in a ,nterntllitixv way !igh irsoigon denotes greater detail,

but is exp.,rd by nrall nurnber. Converni'lv. lpou reshution demtes low levels of detail,

but is expre'd by high niznix& Fbr example, 10-mreter rielution data is of higher

resoluton iand will show rin deti,, than 100-nvter resolution data (which will showless

detail). Ten-nrter resolution data is capable of ;Iwing 100 times as nih detail as is shown

by 100-mneter resolution dam.

P (iiddirv in (4n"nitirg a (IIAs G S DIabage
-12- -12-

35. Variables in Chxogm Laywrs Scale, and Resolution

1he decision that installation peAsonrel must make is thus twofil& First, they nmust

choose map laym topics Second, they must select a nmp scale and a cel reqMaiw

appropriate for that map layer. Some of the variables to consider when making these

decisions are examined below.

Three important issues arise when choosing the resolution of a cell map. Ore involves

the technical capatbiliies of the computer on which GRASS will be run GRASS cell

files can be quite large, ad the higher the cell resolution, the larger the cell file will

be. This means that the physical size of the dataset, and the distribution of data across

the dataset, will also affect tlhe choice of cell resolution A dataset requiring the limits

of the machine's capabilities may be very cunbersom, and tediously slow to work

with

Resolution will also depend on the use to wich the data uWdbe put. If the user is

interested in examining only gross lardcover changes over time across a large dataset,

for example, low cell resolution may be desrable. If, however, the user intends to

manage very small, sensitive islands of habitat, and to chart correlations in species

change with minor alterations of variables, it may be necesry to map data at a

relatively high resolution When data will be used in a numnber of applications

requiring different resolutions, data shauld be obtaired at the highest reeded

resolution, and resampled to any uecessary lower (more gross) resolutions. Another

alternative is to store data at a low resolution for a large area (e.g., the entire

installabion), but to develop and store "wirdows" of high resolution data (e.g.,

endangered species' habitat areas) for specific regions.

A third issue centers on the question of the source of digi, geographic data. The

relevance of this issue can be examirxd using the example of satellite imagery. With

imagery data, the resolution of the cell map should be the same as the spatial

res olution of the original data This resolution is what is possible given the satellites'

technical capabilities; outside of resampling to limit the size of the final cell map, little

would be gained by choosing something other than the original resolution when

malung the GIS cell map. Note that in this case data are recorded directly from the

Earth Although there is virtually no limitation to the detail that is present in features

on the Earth, each satellite sensor is limited to a set resolution (e.g., 10 and 20 meters

for SF-OT, 30 meters for LANDSAT and TM). The GIS user must accept the limit

imposed by the original imagery pixel size, or use alternative data sources (e.g., low

altitude aircraft inges).

This can be contr -cted with creation of a cell map from a digital version of an existing

paper map. The first tendency might be to use a very high resolution in order to have

as much "detail" as possible. Them is theoretically x limitation in the resolution

choice, since GRASS can create grid cells of virtually any size.

But at this point, the level of detail represented by the original map rmrst be

considered. A map is only a nodel of the Earth. Since a map's scale is related to its

level of detail, maps which are at a relatively large scale may be mfely represented by

relatively high resolution cell maps; maps drawn at relatively small scales are safely

represented by relatively low resolution cell maps.

§3 Gtidefinaq in Coinrtting a GRASS GIS Datbase
-13- - 13-

The question of cell resolution in this case might be naaged by using Table 3.2. The

suggested resolutions below are based on the assumption that a paper map may be

safely "resolved" to a level of between .75 nmm and 1.5 mm on the map, for maps of

moderate scale. 1That is, as measured on the original paper map, an area of about one

square millimeter would be included as a single cell in a cell map. These ranges of

resolution are not a requirement They iave been duitmU'&,L- for the most part,

through experience. In addition, some studies have shown thet standard American map

production techniques can be expected to result in maps that are accurate to about one

millimeter.

The values in Table 3.2 were arrived at in tlhe fbllowing way. Given a map with a

scale of 1:24,000, a distance of .75 nim uhe lower lever given above) on the mp

would represent 18 meters on th. Ekarh (.75 X 24,000 - 18,000 mm). The value of 18

meters is rounded up to 20 for the table below. T[k cell renolution might thus be set

at 20 meters.

Note that the resultant resolutions (in metes will vary dependi g on the nmp scale.

This is unlike the suggested !evel ci 75 mm to 1.5 mm, which is constant for all

maps.

1.15,840 10-2 5 i atrs

1:20,(00 - 15-30 netrs

1-2,000 2-3-iav ens

1:6t,360 5505 ueters

1:75,000) i 55-110 rrters J

1:10(000 7,5-150 nters

Table 3.2: Ststed Range of Reiolutioms for Coamn Map Scales

The owalibility of the onind dftd is another variable to consider. Whenever

possible, data should be obtaird in digital formaL Paper maps come from many

sources, although only a few agencies provide standardized maps of large areas. The

Soil (:onservation Service (SCS) ad the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are

two sources of' large scale nraps.; of good quality. Sources of digital and nondigital

data conmm)nly tsed in GlSs are listed in Tables 3.3 and 3.4. The cost of gathering

origiral data and producing a map is so groat that, in most cases, the installation is

advised to use available mas. 'INo exceptions arise where: (1) a stariard map in a

series has not yet been produced for all or part of an installation, or, (2) an installation

already has access t, some data of special interest In the first case, anangements can

often be nle to shar -p production costs with the agency responsible for the

series. In the second, the installation may have been systematically collecting data on

some topic and this data might become a useftul map layer in the GIS.

§3 Guiddims in Consurting a GRASS GIS Databaise
-14- -14-

Data Sources for Cartographic Information

Map Data Source

Type DMA EOSAT EPA NCDC NGDC NGIC NODC NTIS ORNL SCS STOT UEMC USGS

Agricultural X x x x x x x X x O.,tlca~es

Air Quality X

Crop Production X X X X X X X X

Crosa-Country x x X X X X X X

Maneuverability

Cultural Ram x xc Surveys, Sites

Depth to x

Bedrock

Easements X

Elevation

Energy Usage X

Fire Damage X X X X X X X x

Forestry Mgmt X X X X X X x

Geologf x __

Value/Type

Habitat x x x x x x

Housing Data X X

Hydrography X X X X X x

Installation x

Boundaries

Master Plan

Indexes

Noise Contours X

Ownership X X

Pblitical

Boundaries _ X

Quadrangles X

Recreation x x x x x x

Sites

Restricted Areas X

Service Boundaries

Socioeco no mic X X

Data

,Soils Types X X

SoA Erosion X

Factors

Twp/Range Grid _ X X X

Training Areas X _ STranspo rtti n X X X x X X X X

S Utilities

__ eftton X x x x x x x

Weather Data X

Welands X X X X X X X X

Wildlife

Inventories X X X X X X X X X

Wildlife Mgmt X X X X X X X X X

Table 3.3: Data Sounma fur Cartorapic Information

§3 Gtid.imi in Cxn'triing a GRAISS GIS Databse
- 15- -15-

s)Surces of )igital Spotial l)ata for (;lS

)ata )ata Data F Scale/ Data Media Acquistin n

"I:!......." . S)u rce l'o'mat Res, lution ( overage _ '-sts

Elevation DMA Pjter 1:250,00) IEntire U.S. .- track tape $75/1 deg x 1 deg block

& muc es (1600 1pl1 1 + V2,5 fee

Multispectral: EOSAT M&S (1fl1 & ]I*Q) MSS: 80 m Worldwide 9-track tape MSS: $660

Satellite TM (lii, & l1 ) TM: 30 rn (1600/6250) TM full seene: M3300

Mt lV(S r * ) SS: 80 _ __ RITV 4 subscenes: $1320

Multi;pectral: EA Mlk; (1111,) Customer-omer- Custom flights 5-m: $75.84sq.mi avg.

Airborne variable variable 10-m: $14.15/sq.rni. avg"

Weather StatisticsNatl Climatic Digital: Tabular Vary's I Mostly U.S. 9-truck tape $99 minimum/order

& Imagery Data Center Sitelite: Raster _ _ me Global/Reg) (1600/6250) for tape data

Terrestrial National Varies Varies Mostly wldwide, "-track tape, Varies

& Marine Geophysical Some U.S. coa.tal computer p/o,

Geophysl Data Data ('enter I watvrs data or plots

Geodetic National Tabular n/a Entire U S. Computi-r p/o, $avg. 15(-$2t1/state on

('ontn)l (Geodetic 'Tapc. 9-track tLixv, (computer

Information Info. Centerj or lirect aces print-outs less)

Marine: National MostlY Tabular Mostly Reglional, 1)9-track tape ])$K5-$100 minimum

Ph sical, Oceano- S(ec NODC Index) n/a & MucN h Global 2)(omputer p/o )$.05/sheet + camp fee

l1iological, graphic i Data 3)Computer plots 3)$20/hr ../roll -

& ('hemic.'d Data ('enter, (or $1/plot)

l)ata _+ 3-40- fee

Small-S'ale National Vector 1:12. 00).(N)t Worldwide 9-track Free from ('IA to

Wo rid Technical 1:3,(X).111 " ti) bpi Fedenil Ageoncio.

ItoundarieR. Information and larger odd prity 'l'lS charge_ s others

Major Rivers Serii e EI*[I)IC tape

County-Level Oak Ridge Tabular-- County-Level Coterminous .- track tape Unknown

Data National SAS Format U.S. in SAS format, or

Lab { EIICIDIC tape file.

Soil Raster encoded Vector:1:24,000 Scattered U.S. 9-track tape Varies

S)ils Ponsrvation W ascii iaster:4-hn cell (800 bpi)

_ , rvi(,e I

Multi'pctra]: Sl'(lY' Raster 10-m panchro. Worldwide 9-trck tape Unref. $1475-$10x)

Satellite Image Corp. 20-m mulisp ___ 160(/6250 bpi Georef: $242.5-$2550

Water Quality EPA Tabular n/a I 200,000 l)irect terminal Fre one-time use. or

(S'ORII) collection poinLs access, lieporte . Avg Use Cost: $4.3-$6

across U.S. or Magnetic tape

Political/Census U.S. Bureau 1)(;BF/I)IME: Mostly 278 SMSAs 1)1600/6250 bpi 1)Varies

Itoundaries, of the Vector-lat/lo n, 1:24,000 tapes

Stret.s, Names Census & State Ilane-refd 2)6250 bpi, & ('I) 2) Not yet set.

2)'1'IG ER: packs proposed

Vecl r-UNNI ref'd_

lopological: USQxGS Vector: (in Vector: ]Sce NCIC Index 9-track tapes. & landcover: $1 00

Iand Use/ GIRAS format) 1:100M)0, Paper maps CTs: $50. CTG: $250

Iand ('over. Raster: (in binary 1:250j))tM Po l.lndrv, Hvdro Unit..

Watersheds & charic. format) Itat(er: 20 m _ _ & Federal Lands: $315

Topological: USGS Vector files in I) 1:24.00.1&2) Partiii U.S. 9-track tar.), 1&2): $20-$50/section

iloundaries & )IX; format 2) 1:lttNN0)0, I(sce NC'I Indt-x) Paper maps

Transportation 3) 1:2000,0(X)00 3) Entire U.S. 3):. $100/section

4 $2.9/tape fee

Elevation USGS Raster 1:24,000 Scauered U.S. 9q-track tap,. $1001quad

Iap'r maps 4 $25/tape fee

Names of. USGS Tabular n/a Entire U.S 9track tape. $50/state

A reg & M n___ 1600 bpi

Table 3.4: Sourccmi of Digital Spatial Data for GISs

§3 Gt.,i-r in Cor4rrting a GRAMS GIS D aqtaba'e
-16- -16-

Potential applications of the data is also a necessary considerationl How will

installation personnel nke use of the system once it is operaing? Although the ideal

system might contain all possible infonmtion at as large a scale (and as high a

resolution) as possible in order to be later used for any desired application, it is better,

in a practical sense, to start with only those overlays necessary to complete one or two

applications. Other layers can be aided as the installation moves ahead in its use of

the system. When considering possible applications of the GIS, the inallation might

usefully assess current pratices to examine how these might be done more efficiently

using a geographic infonmtion system. The kird of training dore, the local vegetation

and climate, and any special problems at the installation make the needs of each

installation unique. Consultation with GRASS GIS support personnel will be helpful

in assessing these needs. Refer to chiapter §4 GRASS Applications for Mlitary

Installations [p.23] for a more thomugh discussion of potential GRASS applications.

The level of detail to include on the map is another element to consider if locations

of vegetation are sought, but the nature of the vegetation is immaterial to the

application, a map layer might be developed which clas4fied all data into one of two

categories - vegetation, and nonuegetation. If, however, the application will be used to

evaluate which areas on the installation can be outleased for timber cutting, a map

layer distinguishing different vegetation types would be developed.

The size of the installation can also have a bearing on the choice of map scale.

Hardurre limitations may not allow easy storage and display of very detailed data for

a very large area Table 3.5 lists file sizes for 1:24,000 USGS quad sheets, for various

resolutions. Perhaps only one or two areas of special interest require data at the larger

scale.

Kefjitn Approximate Cell Hile -Sizes for One 1/24,000 USGj Qua*moe

Resolution Rows IColumns (ows) * (cols) 1 (rows) * - s) * (Cols) (tws) * (cos)

m__ __ _ *( a bcp,) 1 (2 bp ) (3 bpc) *(4bp)

10 m 1386 1164 1613304 3226608 4839912 6453216

20 m 693 F 582 403326 806652 1209978 1613304

30 m 462 388 179256 358512 537768 717024

40m 346 291 100832 201663 302494 403326

50 m 277 2,33 64532 1129064 193596 258129

S60m 4 231 i 194 44814 ] 89628 1.34442 179256

70im 198 166 32925 655849 98774 131698

80 m 173 146 25208 50416 75624 100832

90 n i 154 2 9 1 19917 39835 59752 79669

L 100 n 139 116 16133 1 32266 48399 64532

Table 3.5: Approximate Cell File Szes for One h24,000 USGS Quadrangle

&cff time and cost are other factors that influence construction of a database. Table

3.6 shows estimated labor reqiimments associated with the development of common

map layers. It slates appromxL ate hours of labor required (for one 1:24,000 USGS

quadrangle): to prepare, draft, and label a map previous to digitizing or scanning it; t

§3 Guidedines in Co rnin a GRA GIS Database
- 17- -17-

Hours of Tabor Re uired for One 1:24,000 USGS Quadrangle _

DratV Label*'* Digit/ LabelI

Map Type Feature art-Up* Low Md Hih Low Md Hig suort* Total

Agricultural Area 3 2 6 15 2 15 1 3

Outleases Line _ _ _

Po int _

Linet 3 2 15 2 6 '15 3

Air Quality Line 3 3_2 i 6 15 2 I 6 15 3 _ I

rPotnt 3 _3 63 1 5 

Crop Production A o I 6 15 2 6 15 3

Values Lie _ _ _ _ _ I _ _ Po int ,.

Crss-Counti- Area 3 2 6 15 3

Maneuverability Line

Point _ [ _ _

, rCultural Rs. Area 3 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 1 3 1 1

,Sites ~ Line

__ Point 3 _- - _3 5 3

.cY ,i. ri s , A 3 2l 2 I __21_

Surveys Line

Depth to Area :3 _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 

Bedrock Li.e ine

R,_ in t

tArea 3 2I 6 15 2 6 K15_ 3

Easements Line 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 3

Point _ _ _ , _ _

nrea 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 3 Ara ~ 2~6 i L <15 3

Fire Damage [Line , .. _ _ _i

Po int _ ~ j __

Forestry Area 3 2 6l5:2 6 15 3

Management Line 1T , ]

_Point 4 1

e Area :3 2 6 15 1: t 3 Ge o Line __, ____ _______ ' __ _ __- ____ _____ ___ "

_ Point - i , _ _ _'-_

Va'ue/Type I 2153ine _ 

_ Point _ i I _ _ _

H,,using 'koek Area 3 2 t 15 2 6 15 3 3

PoLsrap ine ___ ________

[-Housing Area it--k 1 3 !

Reca.sses Line i i

Point

Table 3.6: Hours of Labor Required for One 1:24,0) USGS Quadrangle

(digitzed in stream mode)

§3 Gtddines in Cmigawtin a GRASS GIS Dae
- 18- - 18-

Hours of Labor Reuired for One 1:24,000 U9GS Quadrangle _

DraiVLabel** DigitlLabel F

Map Type Feature StartUp* Low Med High Low Med High Support* Total

Area 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 3

Hydrography Line 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 3

Point 3 1 3 5

Installation Area- 3 1 1 1 3 4

Boundaries Line __i

______________ Point t __ _ _ _ ____ _ _ ____ __ ____ ___ __ __ _ __ _ _ _ 1_ _ _ ____ __

Master Planning Area 2 6 __ 2 6 _ 3 __

Indexes Line _' " _

Point _ , 1 _

Noise Contours Line 1 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 3 __________ t I_____ ___ i___ I j ____________

s dArea 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 3

Ownership Lie ______[L___ ____t_____ ___

___________________ Point

'Peticide Area 3 1 2 6_ 11 2_._6_5 6 15 3

Application Values Line ___________ ____ ____I____ _____ __________

Point 6 15 1 1

PoArtical A-ea 3 6 5 2 3

iBoundaries 'Line _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Point

Point __ _

Recreation Area 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 3

Areas Line 3 2 6 152 6 15 3

.Point 1

Area 3 2 6 6 3

Restricted Areas Line_ _ I

__________ Point -____ ____ _______________ I 

_ _ _ I _ _ 6 " _ _

: Point ! !" t"

i Aoieoorea 2 -

rviabe R l m a rie s !,, 

Area c in c 3 -2 6 15 1 5 2 2 6 6 1515 3 Variabce kounda I Line' ~

Socioeconomic A rea 3__ _ _ _ 3 _

Variable eapes Line I _ ___

Point I _ _ _

["atos Tyes Lme [" ii I

I)ciloonmi Area ' 3L 4- -- J____ ____

IVacrleasse Line_______ _____4___I ____. lI ___ ___ ! __ _ _ 

Table 3.6: Houre of Labor Required for One 1:_24,_000 US Quadrangle

(igitized in sArem mode)

§3 Guidic in torsng a GRASS GIS Linwe

lammm(digitize inistream mode)
-19- -19-

Hours of Labor Required ibr One 1:24,000 USGS Quadrangle

MTwnsipI Feature QA ar-Up Low Ndj~k Low DIgitMel Support*IToa

RangeGrid I Line

A rea 3 2 6 1 2 3

Training Areas Line _ _; ,_ _ _ _

Point _ ___ ___ __ ___ __-__ __

A -ea __ _ _4_ _

Transportaton Line 3 2 6 15 2:6 i ,5 1

f4)int ____

Area --

Utilities ILtne , 2 6 5 i

'Area 3 2 6__5__ 1 5 :3

Vegetation Line I

Line ' 3

Weathe Arva 3 ___ . __

Reclasses rLine __ _______I ___ ____

j Point I . I ____!

Area Line 3 2 6 15 3

,1,I') _{Il P l]__ _ 4--------_ -_ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _

Wetands Line ____ ,_____,___. _ _ 1 , e__I_ Point I

Wildl'fe Area _

I Inventories Line I_ I_ ____ ,_

P__ int 3 _ r 5__ 1 t 3 i 5 _

Wildlife 'Arta 3 2 6 15 2 6 15 3

Mgrt, Units 1 lne_

1--)I __ _ __ _ _

Table 3.6: Hours of Labor Required for One 1:24,000 USGS Qudrangle

(digitized in strrn mode)

In general, the hours alloted above tbr maplayer Start-Up and Support activities

will often be sufficient to cover all quMrangles in the database. For example,

although an individual might spend 3 hours on start-up and 3 hours running map

support for one 124.000 quad depicting geology, that individual would spend only a

total of 3 hours for start-up and 3 hours running map support when doing five

1.24,000 quads depicting geolo~y.

" flours Aloted for drafting and labeling soils maps reflect time used to align soil

survey map sheets and to georeference photographs.

§3 Guideines in GCmtrtng a GRAkW GIS Database
-20- -20-

digitize, and attach data category labels; and to run GRASS support programns to

convert data into GRASS grid cell (raster) fonnat Labor reqiments will vary with

the level of detail or density of the data, and with mp feature type.

GRASS recognizes three types of map features: areas (also termed polygons), liear

features (also termed lines), ard points (aka. sites). 5 Typically, maps containing areas

or limear features will be much more detailed (and thus mom tine consurn-ng to

digitize) than those containing only point data. Because it is unnecessary to redraft

points, drafting time has been omitted from labor requirements for map layers of site

features. Most frequently, a given map type will relate to only a single type of map

feature (areal, linear, or point). However, some maps night logically be digitized as a

series of polygons, or as a series of linear features, or sornetines as a series of points.

For example, although locations of archaeological sites (shown in Table 3.6 under Map

Type "Cultural Resource Sites") might be digitized as sites/points, they -might also be

digitized as areas.

Variations in hours required to draft ard label, and to digitize and attch category

labels, are given for maps with "iow," "iedlurn." and. "high' denmities of data in Table

3.6. For example, it is estinated that a h]ghly dense geology map would require 36

hours of labor. (1t 3 hours for map preparation, (2) 15 hours to be redrafted and

ibeled (onto mylar). (3) 15 hours for digitizing area edges, ar for attachment of

GRASS category labels, and (4) 3 hours for rurning GRASS support rou&ies

(converting vector data resulting from digitizing or scanrirg into a labeled GRASS

grid cell map layer). Maps illustrating the gereral levels cf detail associated with

"low," "nedium," and "high" densities of data are shown in Figures 3.2 and 3.3 (pp 13

and 14).

When estirating labor requirements for data development, only rcessary tasks should

be included (e.g., if it is unnecessary to redraft a map prier to digitizing or scanning,

do not include hours for drafting a l beling). Similarly, if a given map type lists

labor requirements for more than once map feature type, but only one layer showing

one of these fezture types is reded, only hours necessary to prepare the map' layer

with the relevant feature type should be included (e.g., if a map of cultural resource

sites as point features is reqidred, but one of culural resource sites as area features is

not, only the time necessay to prepare, digitize, label, anid run support programs listed

in the "Point" should be included).

Refer to the GRASS 3.0 Progrnrner's Jkvulz ard to the paper GRASS 3.0 MxieL'

Vector Forrrrt for an e-xpbl-,rion of thes terms. Th- latter doctument is available upon

request from the GRASS Infonrotion Center at the address shown in §8.7 Points of Contact for

GRASS Infornton wui £pport [p c i. Michwrl Shapiro, James Westervelt, Dave Gerdes,

Micha el H *ns, arxl MiOaorie Li ,1 G -S 3.0 Pxgrawmrr's Iutax], ADP Report N89/14 9USACER, Septerrner 1989). _Michel Higgins and David Gerdes, GRASS 3.0 Vector

Forrrt, in GRASS User's Reference a'knal, by Jaies Westervelt, Michael Shapiro, William

D. Goran, et al. ADP Report N-87/22 (USACERL, Septerier 1988).

§3 G(idiniu in Consruzing a GRAW GIS Datate
-21- -21-

3.6. Canusion

Planning for data needs is a crucial part of the GIS inplemntation process. Initial

decisions niade about the types of data to order, the formats, resolution, " scales

these data will assune for use ard later storage, and what map layers are to be created,

will detenine the types of applications users can perform with GRASS. These

decisions will ultimtely determine how useful the system is, and how cost effective it

will prove.

USACERL personnel wiorking with t, GRASS GIS have experience in weighing

these variables and are available for extensive consultation as tt-ese decisions are

made.

§3 Gtiddire in Cng a GRA GIS I la-w
.22. -22-

V, ,

04

Figure 3.2(a): An example of low density irear featinm F'Ige 3.3(a): An example of low deity aeal feahm.

Fl~o3.2(b): An example of nrxdium der~l, lirea fe~inue F r 33(): An example of m~diumn densip eal feaz

~!

Figwv 3.2 3.3 Wlutrat vwima o is map diall (low, mediurn, ard hIh ll e dides)

for an sma rtly equal m to the sim of om b2"000 LEGS quad

t3 Giddine In Cavrmsthrtg a CGAMI CTS DI -nb'so
-23- -23-

Chaptcr 4

GRASS Aplications for Mltvy hIntafla"N

tdiough GIS applications can only be performred after the system has been

set up and all nessary data have been input. the choice of data, staff, ad of

tie system itself nmst be bam*d on intendeti uspQ. Ile previous chapter

discu-wsd considerations reievant to the constriction of a GIS database. This

chapter discusses the applications to which such data can be put.

4.1. Data and Applications for the GIS

Data arguably represent the single largest invcstment in a GIS. It is themfore

important that the relevance of these data to GiS applications be considered before

data are obtairnd. GRASS was originally designed for environnental planners at

military installations. It is noN used by both military -and other uisers to assess

emimnmental inpacts, evaluate site suitability, detect change, manage resources, and

model the effects of envirnniintal changes across a lanciscape. The range of possible

applications is virtually unlimited.

GRAS'VGIS appicatiotn can be di-ded into two broad classes:

1) Those which attempt to locate Sites(s) neting specified (user-defined

characteristics,

2) T-xse which attempt to characterize the nature of certain kmwn tuser-defuied

sites or phemrmena

The first category iirludes such applications as facility siting, site allocation, routing

analyses, arx site prediction. The second category encompasses such applications as

site evaluation and chwnge detection

Applications can aLo be classified by the elenment likely to conduct the analysis. On a

military installation. te following eleinents might corrm nly perform GRASS

applications:

* Pir)rnn -nfl Office

* Master Mlanning Office

* Natnul satl Meaivurces/ anagenent Office

* Rzge I\ianageinent group

O Training Man agrm,-f -nup

One rwspomsibilitv of the GIS Coordinator is to list potential uses at the site for the

('IS, and to involve others on the installation who might make use of the GIS in the

implenentalion process.

Table 4.1 contziins a brief list of sonme possible G' applications. These am classified

b3 the instllation element hkely to perfonn the analysis, and described briefly in §4.4

Aptlication Conijndiumn ip.261. Many other applications am, of course, possible.

Users at eah site nmust determine which applications are relevant.

.-4 (RAS Applic xtion for Militai, 1rmallationm
POTENTIAL GRASS APPLICATIONS

GRASS can be used to displf,, manipulate, analyze, and predictively model data which can be

spatially represented. Broadly, this has involved the areas of facility siting, locational prediction

of phenomena (archaeological sites, crimes done according to pattern, etc.), and the monitoring

of change over time and space (as in the monitoring of erosion, live deer weight, and timber

production over time across an installation). GRASS searches a data base for the presence of

user-specified variables (or combinations of variables), and displeys and manipulates the data as

requested. Below is a very brief list of soe of the possible analyses to which GRASS might be

applied on an installation.

Energy Office Natural Resources/ Land Managment:

Monitoring energy use Allocation of Field Transects

Change detection

Environmental Office Cross-country movement (monitoring)

Cultural resources management Endangered species management

Cultural site prediction Erosion (monitoring and modeling)

Environmental impact assessment Facility siting

Facility siting Flooding analysis

Groundwater data management Forestry (timber management)

Habitat assessment Fire damage (monitoring)

Hazardous waste site management Grazing impact assessment

Land condition/trend analysis Habitat assessment

Landfill site selection Hunting permit management

Noise impact analysis Integrated Training Area Management (ITAM)

Permit management Land condition/trend analysis

Pesticide program management Land management plans

Rehabilitation prioritization Landfill site selection

Smokes dispersion modeling Maintenance scheduling

Management of outleases

Master Planning Park trail usage

Boundary mapping Pesticide program management

Cultural resource management Scheduling the harvesting of resources

Facility mapping Snokes dispersion

Facility siting Watershed analysis and modeling

Flooding analyses Wetlands management

Land use analyses Wildlife sitings (wildlife management)

Master planning Wildlife habitat mapping (modeling and analysis)

Fesouice assessment

Transportation corridor analyses Trainers:

Visual impact assessment Change detection

Zonal maps Training area scheduling

Training land design

Range Managent: Training simulation

Change detection Training site selection

Range placement

Training area maintenance

Training area scheduling

Training impact assessment

Table 4.1: Commmn Applications

'A (;IlA,-N Aplplia.i6on, for Military In-nllations
4.2. Data Layers

What data must be generated to support the desired applications? Since the data layers

in the system are often difficult and expensive to translate from paper (or digital) form

into the fomrt used by GRASS, this is an important consideration There are several

ways of deter ng a configuration of complementary data layers. Often this has

been based on professional judgment and previous experience with data versatility.

For example, elevation data is regularly used to create three separate map layers,

showing elevation, aspect, and slope. Eah of these layers has unique uses. Similarly,

a map layer of area soil types is frequently reclassed into several imp layers showing

soil pH, soil penmeability, K values, etc. These types of considerations are important

in setting priorities for dat, layer developmenL Refer to §3 Guidelines in Constructirg

a GRASS GIS Da~taxse I'.91 for a nmre detailed examination of standard database

data layers and data sources.

4.3. Aplication Types

How should the GIS Coordi!iator decide what applications tf perform with the GIS,

the order in whicb they should be conducted, and whun they should be scheduled?

Table 3.1 (p 10) contains a partial listing of rmap layers used in support of comimn

applications. An analysis can be petformnd to Indicate the relative costs and beDefits

associated with the performance of applications (see Methodology for Performing

Return-On-Investtrent (ROI) 'i,,xhes for Irrplenntation of GRASS on Military

Instediations1 based in part on thu estimated labor costs associated with the nmp layers

used in their production (see Table 3.6 Fpp 17-19> Some common applications are

described in further detail below, in §4.4 Application Con'rndium p. 261.

Data Marna xt. By modifyin-g existing datzsets, GRASS can be used for ongoing

management of spatial and t buar data. Spatial data updates might include: the

addition of a newly reisternld historical district to an existing narp of such areas,

revision of the installation bouxnar, line, deletion of a recently closed trail from the

'roads" data laver, or ie additinn of a new ho pital to the "building" sites file.

GRA-_S can also be tised in conjurrinon with a &ata base anagement system to cross

reference spatial and tabular data for -Lsch applic atons as foresty management,

issuance of hting perrnits, arthcxiloh'al sites, pest control, permit compliance

trxking, and wildlife niatgcnit.

Site Aloeation, Facilitis Siting, an i Rotie Sdectiom UFASS can be used to locate

sites eeting or nximizing u- r-qxpc'ificwd frumuats, tor such uses as landfills or

new trining areas. CRASS,- cai a)o be L-oed to Zaocat sites within an area, using a

specified sample design (e.g., stdatified , omdrn saimplirg). Map layers necessary

depend on the criteria pertinent to a particular analysis. Similarly, GRASS can be

used to site a cornidor neeting use'r -cxirernents throtgh a least-cost path analysis.

This Is useful for sUch appliKcati),IS L- piWline pacIemCnt, t ,ansportanion route

IBen Sliwini-d (IRemawh A&wciattes, ( 71i)1aw. 1I.., WtWoi,'nt P or ,oxrnrig Petw7l-QuI1L.strZt! (ROT) !qu4ps fir InrP~er7u*Ii0h of (IIA S07 Ofl ,N itr's I IhMb1Ifions, Techlical

M sncwript N-89/25 USACERL, Miay I9.

,*l (;IAS'. Apjgie tioj fi Military Irri-dIatiorn
-26- -26-

selection, planning of cross-country nvements, etc.

e Pre i dm. Site prediction involves the statistical manipulation of data to

conelate the presence of certain factors with the occurrence of specified objects (e.g.,

the correlation of certain proximities to streams, slopes, and vegetation types, with the

location of archaeological sites).

Ste Evaluaft , and La-i M aagermne Site evaluation involves evaluation of the

suitability of a site for some user-defined purpose (including land mar~ement). Data

layers necessary to any given site evaluation will depend on criteria relevant to the

analysis.

Change [etecxti GRASS can be used for applications involving detection of

changes over time and/or space. For example, satellite imagery can be used to assess

changes in landcover over time. Once damage is evaluated, contributing factors can be

sought; a predictive model can then be generated to estimate future damage.

4.4. Application Condivirn

It is also useful to categorize analyses by the elerents likely to perform them To

plan for user demand for GRASS, the GIS Coordinator should contact various groups

at the implerrntation site to learn &A' the analyses that might be conducted- On a

military installation, the following elements might comnonly perform GRASS

applications:

" .vimronnental Office

" Master Planning Office

" Natural Resources/Land Management Office

* Range Manaement group

" Trainig Manageruent group

Below, sone comron analyses are listed beneath the installation elements likely to

request them.

4.4.1. Envronnwrtal Office

Cultural Reoure Managcerrt The status of archaeological/historical site

surveys, usage restrictions associated with each site/area, condition of site, and

site imnportane can be managed using GRASS.

Cultural Ste Predidtiu: GRASS can be u sed to search for correlations of

envinrnmental attributes (e.g., proximity to surface waters, slope, etc.) indicative

of the presence of archaeological or historical sites. Such information can be

used to develop installation surveys, issue digging permits, and plan construction

sites.

Environnxntal Inpact Ase xmit: GRASS can be used to model the

enviromnnental impacts associated with various actions.

Grouldwatr Modeing (e.g., water table height, water quality, hazardous

material plune dispersal, contamination source): Drill log data can be input to a

§4 GRASS Application for Military Installalbon
-27- -27-

GRASS sites file, converted to raster format, and run through GRASS surface

modeling routines. The surface generated by these routnes theoretically might be

used to model plune dispersal in GRASS.

Haza Waste Sirt Locations of hazardous waste sites can be displayed in

relation to access mutes, population centers, and sensitive environmental

attributes, and used in the development of installation emergency mmngement

plans

Lamifffl Site Selectiort GRASS can be used to lor-;de sites suitable for Ian"

development, using such criteria as soil type, pH and permeability, slope, depth to

groundwater, and other factors.

Noise Dynmcis Modeling of the dynamics of sound movement from blast

sources can be performd whcn the sound pmperties of the blast source am

known The Bnoise prgram (accessible through GRASS) can be used to to

g:Denrae instaftation uompatibie Use Loiies (i,_UZ,. ., &.anbe ovcjiaid vth

a map layer indicating densities of on- and off-post populations, to determine how

noise levels associated with current or proposed activities may impact local

populations.

PIrnit Cormplime 1-acldng Fhr each permit issued to an instalation, data can

be stored on its current status, renewal date, lead time needed for renewal, and

regulating agency point of contact

Pesticide ProWan M.LwnagixHit A comparison of pest infestations over time

can inicate the direction and location of spread, potential problem sources, and

the relative effectiveness of different treatments. Where pests attack crops, this

can also be used to predict crop losses. Information can be stored in a database

to record dates infestations were identified, types and quantities of chemicals used

to combat pests, and other relevant information.

R arg Zoes Field survey and/or soils and other data can be used to define

primary, secondary, etc., groundwater recharge zones. This data can be used to

search for correlations of land use with groundwater quality anl to identify areas

sensitive to development

Receation Site Selectiort GPASS can be used to site recreation areas by finding

locations within the dataset having desired slopes, vegetation types, access to

transportation mutes, proximity to population centers, etc.

Re1mbilitation Priorities: GRASS can be used to evaluate data on land damage,

their correlation with different activities and the success of various rehabilitation

strategies, and to determine land rehabilitation priorities.

Sensitive Species Avoidanm Using known and predicted locations of sensitive

species aid their habitats, a miap can be made indicating such areas and buffer

zones around them, to regulate their use.

Smokes/Air Pollution Modelhn GRASS czm be used to locate sites likely to be

impacted by snokes or air pollution Buffer zones can be drawn around point

sources, and examined in relation to terrain, al to) population densities, sensitive

species and habitats.

StrevaiCrong Site Sensitivity. Map layers of soils, slopes, streamsz, vegetation

and others, can be combined to define sensitive (because highly-erodible, or

containing useful habitat) areas at. which strcim crossings should be limited.

Training Cambility. GRASS can be used to determine correlations betwppn land

characteristics, land use, weather, and other factors, with the capability of such

lands to withstad stress. This information can be used to site new training areas,

and evaluate the assignments of new missions to installations. Relevant data

includes that on soils, -lopes, restrictions imposed by existng land uses, location

§4 GRA&" Appli-idom for Military Imllatios
-28- -8

of UXO areas, rise inpacts distribution, location of sensitive wetlands,

archaeological sites, historical districts, easements, iergovernmental reements,

avilability of a single interconnected area of the minimum size, the effects of

topography on the required safety fans, and other factors. Land capability

indexes can also be used to schedule range use.

Wildlife Habitat ChmW Examination of changes in wildlife habitat over time

can be made to evaluate changes in habitat value, and suggest the expansion,

contraction, or direction of habitat change. Installation land rnargers can use

such information to monitor, protect, and manage the movenent of desirable,

undesirable, or protected species.

4.42. Master Planning

'o, ,ndafii , change due to sale. acquisition, land swnr . etc.

Knowledge of current boundaries allows faster and easier preparation of outlease

contracts, and resolution of liability issues.

Cultural Resore Ma enxt The status of archaeological/historical site

surveys, usage restrictions associated with each site/area, condition of site, and

site importance can be managed using GRASS.

Off-Linits Area (e.g., Impact Areas): Often, the simpie display of infomntion

is useful to lard niamgers. For example, the need for additional t-aining lards

can be made aparent by tlx display of lards to which access is restricted or

difficult (including impact zones, firing fans, and sensitive environmntal amas).

Eaenixt Maignnt Identification of easement locations, responsible

agencies and points of contact restrictions associated with the easement, extent of

easement buffers, and date of renewal of easement agreements, can all be tracked

using GRASS.

Ehviroxmxxitally Sen'itive Arvaw Relevant criteria can be used to locate

enirnmentally sensitive sites.

Flooding PotenfiAL Lard charateristics and ARMSED output can be used to

predict locations of areas sensitive to flooding.

Liii Ste Selectiw GRASS can be used to locate sites suitable for lardfill

development, using such criteria as soil type, pH and pemieability, slope, depth to

groundwater, and other factors.

Non-Owner-rip Area Usage of land is more difficult when th f .ly cls are rot

contiguous or when different agencies or individuals hold title. Often these imply

restrictions on kind use. The update and display of this infonmation is critical and

often legally simificant,

Off-POst Axea Installaion activities can impact adjacent off-post features and

uses. Maps of off-p)st areas (slwirng population densities, transportation routes,

political boundaries, land uses, and zoning) can be used during the planning

stages of potentially controversial Army activities to avoid needless impacts.

Quadrangle Boundees U.S. Geological Survey quadrangle bourriaries are

standard and often used. It is therefore useful to designate locations of these

boundaries, to facilitate overlays of data

llxreatior Site Sdectiomx GRASS can be used to site recreation areas by finding

areas within the dataet having desired slopes, vegetation types, trunsportation

route access, distance from populato.i centers, etc.

Boa& Transportation existence, type, interconrections and quality are all

iprtorant planning conSiderations in themselves.

§4 GRASS Applications for Military InstaIatins
-29. -29-

Streams Stream locations are an important envimnrnrtal consideration. They

influence habitats, erosion and sedimntation, dispersion of pollutants, vehicle

stream-cmssing restrictions, archaeological site occurrence, utility placement (e.g.,

water treatment plants), and nmrous other factors.

14.3. NatuMral ResmwmlLa Managit Office

Alkcatim of Fieid Trants GRASS can be used to randomly allocate field

transects on an installation (for example) in all areas containing unique

combinations of soils and land cover which also meet necessary size

requirements.

ChiAy Infrmoatio Mangeme The identification, locations, and

conditions of installation cemetery areas can be recorded using GRASS. Using sach infonmation, map.-, showing mecific cemetery sites and their relation to

access roads can be produced.

Cr(*-Country Mobility Geographic characteristics (including soil type,

landcover, slope, and accessibility) can be examined to predict cross-country

mobilitv.

Off-In-its Areas e.g., Impact Areas): Often, the simple display of information

is useful to land managers. For example, the need for additional training lands

can be made apparent by the display of nonavailable lands (including impact

zones, firing fans, sensitive emronmental areas, and noncontiguous areas).

Dise Infestatios and Migration Prediim Given known sites of current

infestation, GRASS can be used to detennine characteristics comrnn to such

sites, and to search for other locations with these characteristics (in order to

predict likely future sites of infestation). Similarly, the GRASS tool distance can

be used to estimate the migration and spread of future infestation

Erodibility and Ersion Prediction This application involves the examination

of soil and vegetation losses on an installation, and the attempt to correlate such

losses with installation activities (e.g., intensity of training range use) aid other

factors in order to predict the nragnitude and location of future losses. Results

can be used to develop land management plans to insure the continued viability

of the land. Calculation of the Universal Soil Loss Equation is possible with

information derived from map layers of sofls and land cover. LANDSAT or

other spectral unage and ground-tnth transects are used to determine land cover

categories.

Erosion Lxi Site soil and vegetation losses can be examined, and potentially

conelated with installation activities (e.g., intensity of training range use) and

other factors.

Flooding PoteniA Land characteristics and ARMSED output can be used to

predict locations of areas sensitive to flooding.

Forest Fire (Bumi) -dictions: The user can define factors affecting forest fire

potential (e.g., vegetation type, soil, slope, aspect, presence of fire breaks or open

areas, etc.), then filter the data based on wind direction to examine fire spread.

Results can be input to surface modeling programs, and refined by repetitive

filtering.

Forestry Managemn Cruise completion, date of last timber sale, scheduled

year of next timber sale by forestry compartment, characteristics of stands

(probably in conjunction with a forestry DBMS package), and other forestry

management applications can be performed using GRASS.

§4 GRA Applicatiom for Military InstaHlations
-30- -30-

Grazing InVacts: GRASS can be used to estimate the effects of grazing on land

corditiorL

Habitat Assemi t Species sitings (e.g., threatened or erIargered species

sitings) can be correlated with data layers which imply critical habitat qualities

(cover, food source), to develop a coincidence tabulation The relative habitat

values associated with different sites can then be compared. Correlations

indicative of habitat value can also be developed and used to search for probable

sites of relevant species.

Hazarckw Waste Site& Location of hazardous waste sites can be displayed in

relation to access mutes, population centers, ard sensitive environmental

attributes, ard used in the development of installation enrgency managenent

plans.

Hunting Prnit Maiamgmxnt: Hunting permits can be issued on the basis of

historical kill data, types of g-arv- re-ported, killed animal weight, age, sex, etc.

Lardouvar Chargt Dwecio IANDSAT, S[f.I, or othcr spectral image and

ground-truth transects can be used to monitor lardscape charges over time.

SAMi Ste Siectio GRASS can be used to locate sites suitable for landfill

development, using such criteria as soil type, pH and permeability, slope, depth to

groundwater, and other factors.

Management of Outlease: The government often leases out lands for fanning,

grazing or other special uses. This limits lard utilization, which rrmy vary

seasonally. Data on locations a-z uses of leased properties, lease incorm

armunts and lease renewal dates can be used to mani ge leased properties, and to

estimate future lease requirement-.

Off-Linit Areas GRASS can be used to determine sites to remain off-limits for

trbaiing, by (for example) combining all thse areas which cannot be used (e.g.,

urban areas, drop zones, impact areas, thrwed species' habitats, significant

cultural resource sites, etc.).

Pest ControlF For each site at which an irect or mdent infestation has been

identified, ifoiation can be stored as to the date it was first identified, the

degree of infestation, types and quantifies of ch-micals used to combat the pest.

and reconmeided date for next chemical application

LA Infreaion: A comparison of pest infestations over time can indicate the

direction and location of sprea, potential problem sources, and the relative

effectiveness of different trratizients. Where pests attack crops, this can also be

used to predict crop losses.

Recaion Ste Seleetion: GRASS can be used to site recreation areas by firlirg

aeas within the dataset having desired slopes, vegetation types, transportation

mute access, distance fromni population centers, etc.

Rehabilitation Ptiorities GRASS can be used to evaluate data on land damage,

its correlation with different activities. and the success of various rehabilitation

strategies, and to determine land relabiliiation priorities.

Se(dimntation Snsitivity. E ironmental attributes like soil type, landcover,

slope, and larduse, whch ae corrleAed with soil erosion can be defied. Such

infomration can be used with data output by the ARMSFD sedimentation and

nrff model linked to GRASS to identify sites highly susceptible to ruoff and

eroso n

Senstive Species Avoidanee Using krnwn -ad predicted locations of sensitive

species and their habitats, a map can be made indicating such areas and buffer

zones arund them, to regtlate their use.

§4 (ItAlY Applicators for Military Irittallatios
-31- - 31-

Sink&Ar Plution Modelh GRASS can be used to locate sites likely to be

impacted by smokes or air pollution Buffer zones can be drawn around point

sources, and examined in relation to terrain and to population densities, sensitive

species and habitats.

Strimns Stream locations are an important envimonnentat consideration. They

influence habitats, erosion and sedimentation rates, dispersion of pollutants,

vehicle stream-crossing restrictions, archaeological site occurrence, utility

placement (e.g., water treatnent plants), and umrous other factors.

Subsurface Modding (e.g., water table height, water quality, hazardous nrerial

plune dispersal, contamination source): Drill log data can be input to a GRASS

sites file, converted to raster format, and run through GRASS surface xrndelirg

routines. The surface generated by these routines can be used to mdel plumne

dispersal in GRASS.

Timber Stand Density Detecticn of changes in timber stand densities can be

used to estimate outlease value.

Trainng Capability. GRASS can be used to determine correlaiions between lani

characteristics, lard use, weather, and other factors, with the capalility of such

land to withstand stress. This information can be used to site new training areas,

and when assigning new missions to installations. Relevant data includes that on

soils, slopes, restrictions imposed by existing land uses, location of UXO areas,

noise impacts distiibuticn, existence of off-limit wetlands, archaeological sites,

historical disnicts, easements. intergoverrmuentA agreenents, availability of a

single interconrcted area of the ninimum size, de effects of topography on the

required safety fans, and other factors. Land capability indexes can also be used

to schedule range use.

Wateshed Management: Watershed basins can be derived using GRASS, and

information on their areas and percentage of vegetation coverage then used to

estimate prescribed seeding anmunts and dates, predicted sediment yield (from

GRASS s ARMSED model), etc.

Wetlanixs Management GRASS can be used to create and store data for

wetlands managennt (e.g., wetlands locations, sizes, and distribution). Models

can be produced to correate wetlands damage with certain unit activities.

Sensitive and at-risk wetlards aras can be identified, for protection from

encroachment or overuse.

Wildlife Managenvt: Exaination of changes in wildlife habitat over time can

be made to evaluate ch.nes in habitat value, and suggest the expa-sion,

contraction, or direction of habitat chwge. Irstallation land managers can ise

such infomijon to mnimtor, protect, a-d manage the movement of desirable,

undesirable, or protected species.

4.4.4. Ru, Mwragk2ixnt and Training Man-agemit

Off-Limit Areas GRASS can be tsed to determine sites to remain off-limits for

training or other uses. The need for additional training lands can be nde

apparent, for exanple, by lhe display of nrn-available lands (including impact

zones, finng fans, and sensitive envirnmental areas).

Training Arxa Mainte-mze Ct '1racking As land degnidation is identified,

required maintenance and recovery costs and actions can be organized and

trcked using the syste i. The scheduling and statts of activities, and locations

where the prescribed actions am/aw rut neeting objectives, can be identified.

.4 (MItA,- Applicaions fi- Military Insallations
-32- -32-

TrainiM Area SiiW Traini areas and ranges can be sited using GRASS

based on the types of activities to be performed on them, and the ability of the

lard to sustain thei Fquenty, installations organize perfom-ance of activities

by training area Such activities may include not only training, but seeding,

forestry, erosion mnagement, some budgeting arrangements, etc. GRASS can be

used for the display, organization, manipulation, and con-elation of such data

Traning Land Capacity GRASS can be used to determine correlations between

lard characteristics, land use, weather, and other factors, with the capability of

such land to wittxl stress. This information can be used to site new training

areas, aid to assign new missions to installations. Relevant data includes that on

soils, slopes, restrictions imposed by existing land uses, location of UXO areas,

mise impacts distribution, existence of off-limit wetlards, archaeological sites,

historical districts, easenents, intergovernnntal agreements, availability of a

single intercormected area of the mininmum size, the effects of topography on the

required safety fans, and other factors. Laid capability jidexes can also be used

to schedule range use.

Training Usg The frequency, functions, and intensity of training area use can

be managed using GRASS. Such data can be used in corurtion with soils and

climatic data to project desired usage locations and intensities.

Trjectry Anabls Use of elevation data to determine the possible lengths of

trajectories at specified heights. Such analyses can be used, for example, to

develop a Aiable line-of-sight for a weapon

4.5. Sumry

This chapter has examind some potential GRASS applications, and considerations

relevant to their selection and execution Which applications can reaily be performed

at a given user site will be highly dependent on the types of data, supporting software,

hardware configuration, funding, and the availability and skills of system staff present

there. Applications have the potential to alter the use and managennt of resources at

sites, and are the only visible output from GRASS. It is therefore important that the

tuses to which GRASS will be put be considered before the system is acquired, ard

that applications be as fully integrated as possible with other aspects of GRASS

implementaion, prior to their selection

§4 GRAS Applications for Military Istafations
-33- -33-

Chwa~r 5

An I odon to GRASS GIS Sitwam

This chapter describes the design and develop Tent scope of GRASS through

its capabilities, operating envimnnxent and design concept

5.1. Lnroiubm

GIS implementation is a complex procedure, involving several components. One key

component is software selection. Software is selected for the intended uses of the

system, data requirements, the hardware available, the level of training required, the

ease with which the software can be modified, and many other factors.

Software evaluation criteria are not examned here, as it is assun-ed that the selection

of GRASS software has already been made. Instead, this chapter describes the design

and development of GRASS GIS software through its functions, operating system, and

design concept. GRASS is first defined. Then GRASS data formats andi the types of

functions able to be performed on the system are examined. Hardware requirements

are then outlined, and finally, the GRASS design concept is examined in detail.

5.2. What GRASS Is

Different geographic information systems have different objectives, abilities, operating

environments and scope. No single system does everything. GRASS can be briefly

defined as:

A geographic information system (GIS) - It is not a word processor, a stafistical system, a databasp management system, or

an automated mapping-facilities management (AM/FM) system. It is possible to

interface GRASS to such systems, however.

A program that accommdates raster and vector data forrmts - Both raster and vector data formats are accomodated (to different extents) in

GRASS. Vector data are used in GRASS for digitizing and the graphic overlay

of data. All data analysis is done on raster data, and GRASS is therefore

commonly referred to as a raster-based system. GRASS contains conversion

programs to translate vector data to a raster format, and vice-versa

A set of tools -

When arrayed with other systems GRASS can be employed to successfully

manage land resotrces.

A data input-output system -

GRASS is capable of data digitizing, data read-in and read-out conversions, image

processing, data analysis, and data presentation GRASS continues to grow, and

to provide mre sophisticated utilities. Cooperative efforts continue to be needed

to coordinate the use of GRASS with systems, technologies, personnel, and

regulWations already involved in the planning process.

§5 An lh odxion to GlIASS GIS Softw-e
-34- -34-

System capabilities are described in further detail in section §5.3 Data and Cqpbliis p. 34].

5.& Data and Capabilities

The way in which computer data is organized defines the potential for its use.

Geographic data can be stored in two basic formats: raster (aka grid cell), ar

vector (aka arc-node). Image analysis systems typically use raster data, while

computer-aided design (CAD) packages typically use vector data GRASS uses both

data formats.

Maps which contain distirct linear features (like roads, and strearm) or distinct areal

featires (like county boundaries, trining areas, soils polygons, etc.), are input to

GRASS in vector format These features are defined and stored as a series of twodimensional coordinate pairs (points). This vector data is then converted into raster

formit, since analysis programs in GRASS work on raster data

GRASS uses the raster format for the processing of imae and geographic data. In a

raster format the landscape is divided like a checkerboard into regular rectangular

parcels of land. Attached to each panel are identifing attributes specifying (for

example) the partictlar parel's soil type, land cover, land use, vegetation, geology,

slope, elevation, etc.

GRASS, at the release of version 3.0, consisted of nearly 200 different computer

programs which the user can nm directly through keyboard commands, or indirectly

through menus and other programs. (Refer to the USACERL publication GRASS 3.0

Prograni,1 or the GRASS User's Reference Aanual,2 for current, verbose listings

GRASS commarns.) These capabilities can be placed into ti following categories:

" Geographic Analysis

" Image Processing

" Map Display

" Data Input

Each category is discLssed briefly below.

&3.1. Geogratic Anabs

GRASS provides several capabilities for map analysis and overlay. These include

proximity analyses, logical (arndor/rmt) reasoning, weighted overlays, and

neighbrhood processing. It is this capability of bringing data derived from satellite

imagery, paper maps, and other computers (e.g., elevation data) together as input to

1 kies Westervelt, GRASS 3.0 Prograns, in GRASS User's Relrence Manrual, by James

Westervelt Michel Shapim, William D. Goan et al., ADP Report N-87/22 (USACERL,

September 1988).

James Westervelt, Miciviel Shapir, William D. Goran, et al., GRASS User's Refere;we

Mamud, APP Report N-87/22 (USACERL, Septvmber 1988).

§5 An Irtodueflon to GRA, GIS Software
_35- -35 -

some land use question that peiaps best deffu-s a GEb. Maps origirknlly at different

scales ar" resolutions can all provide data whch can be considered in some analysis.

.12 InW Prmssft

Aefial imnages are imiportant d=t sources for a GIS. They corne in the fomi of

satellite in-oges3 and high altitudle photogmphy.

Raw inyages contain a tiremuendous anmI-t of info rmation. GRASS image processing

tools provide two prmy functions iiv-cessar, to preparu data for inclusion in a

geographic info rrmtion systeim.

(1) Geogaphiic rtfrr An im-age ohtained by the- above nimtheds- is

plaimetric; i.e., a fxed-"icmgth llixnc dravn a-virvre on the image coves exactly

the &-ne grond dist:Inct. L- ecaise the earth j,, curved, tie Liage must be

resampled so that tfx "georcfercneed" image rvflects the earth' s curvratunm_ at tha

location, and so that the Unai:,ge lines up witn ether existing inaps in that loc ation' s

dataseL

(2) Ch*imin Tivu'gfh 'dki i- ez.-e LaVe- Alffi-ient data to pwvide the eye

with a picture tha-t looks realistic, this information content can be interpreted in

order to develop lard cover classificatis which group areas that have similair

spectral properties into lard cover ty-pes.

FMnall, thek- resultig georeferenced andi cl.-Msfied imaige becomes Dart of a location' s

dalnbase. to be later combined -with elevationL slope, ownershp, geology, and othe-r

niaps by the uiser.

5.3.3. MNap Di~jAy

Geographic LWlY] ilivige prr)ce.-,srg gencinifv rtequime that the operator have a significant

(ummut of training to ensure useful output. Hence, these tools are n~ofe o~ interest

to thie GRASS novie. -11-k n-xst atic Lind iuseuil tools for iimmadiaic use are the

imaige display (ap~h~lUhjes. ChRS pmxl d,< two separate sets of image generation

capabilities. On -set i the di ad !) tools) zllows the uiser- to m-anipulate the display of

data on thie comipuat niiilor whilu the odher (die P and P tools) enables, users iD

print out paper '.-anicopic . i ch .-v enabics u.sers to generate landscape images and

maps. Currently, USA(TEli. suppxrts at, use of Epson. Genicorn, .3irinl, and

Tekarorix prinlens wihGAS Uwrsi- can zilso) write their own device diivers to

(:flk~le die~ mse( of' other prlinter- . Specific informatiion is available in the, GTRASS

Lkzdrlimw ('onfA~igw't Gwfde, 0) aid from the- GILVASS ifonnation Center.

'111, rixUA- C7(f1IX~m s&qt(litcz; 'TT 91f Unlied Sta1ti.' IANI)S.AT. NIWJ t11V FIT'X-1 SR{Yr jxfar

(MSS' (lat h&,; alamay beeti dknvedI fin Natiozui I-Egh AhikC korpvNiJ

G(Wrotlgvtns (;wde.% ADP Rqxmt \-SO;1 (USA( 'R!, Mawhl9.

5 An Introductioni ti) (AWAN GIS 4-oftwame
-36- -36-

5.3.1 Data input

Perhaps the most important computer progms in a GIS are those that are used to

capture data GRASS data is derived from paper maps, satellites, and other computers.

A powerful army of programs for reading magnetic tapes, rrnipulating raw data int a

form usable within GRASS, and extracting information, allows for the production of

quality data The GRASS end user will likely become very familiar with the digitizing

utilities. The processes of entering mapped dam into the computer must be understood

at every GRASS installation It provides the user who depends on the data with a

neans of keeping the data current

GRASS also provides an aray of prcgrams which allow the user to mad data in from

other sources. Comnxn sources include the digital lir graph (DLG) and digital

elevation rmdels tDEM) pmvidod by the United States Geological Survey (USGS),

and the digitl terrain elevation data (DUPD) provided by the Defense Mapping

Agency (DMA). Because data development is tie nost expensive component of

establishing any geographic infomiatior system, new prog-ams are continuously under

developirient if) read and trnslate data originally created for other systenis Lnto a form

usable by GRASS.

5.4 Cotiitnrs

GRASS development has been arconjplished on a variety of UNIX n-rhines. Written

primarily in the C language, it also makes strong use of UNIX system commands.

UNTX is available on PCs, workstaions, minis, mninfrare, and super computers,

malg GRASS relatively portable.

The computers on which GPA.SS runs can be divided intO two categories: detelopmeCnt

machines, and ported ,machines. Developnent rnachin-., am those on which new

programmig code is developed. Porwd nwchins are those to which new code is

merely ported. At UTSACI t], G4RASS programning is developed on several

matchir~. Iteraive porting of n.w code between fiese nmchines ensures that the same

code compiles and runs on the different development nachines. It also helps make the

code irre portable overall.

Differences in the implementation of IT NIX on the vatious machires makes

png-rmnminig effot necesun-y in a poi, however. Indeed, even a release of a new and

"imprved" conpiler often requires that significant programming be done on GRASS

development mrachirrs. Machines otlher than those used for priniry development have

(ASS ported prin arily in one dIrfion, i.e., when n'udificaions are made to the

code on these nixhines, they are not necessanily brought back to the development

rnachines. Each GRAfNS release must be re-ported to target (ported) machines. While

there are no formal mechafisn to fCd such nmxdiiicatios back into the development

code, porters are encoumnged to conmmunicate changes bak t, tl USACERL GRASS

deveioprent group (so that suich clhnges can be incorporated into the development

codc).

Currently, (IASW development work ia UTSACAERL is bing done on a SUN'i 3/110

,5 An Jntrodiuron to (;IA S GI S !)ftlIrv

________nn__
-37- -37.

and a MASSCOMP 7 5500. While nking GRASS run on otler SUN or MASSCOM1I

nachines is relatively staightforward, some programming and debugging aru always

expected. Some public agencies have ported GRASS to other workstations te.g., the

AT&T 3B2 and PC 6,300 configurations of the Soil Conservation Service, and the

Tektronix workstations used by the National Park Service). Private firms and

universities have also dor (or are planning to do) other ports. As a growing systern.

the status of workstiion option, fbr GRASS frequently changes. Current infoimtion

on the availability of GRASS on different computer platforms., and on distribution and

support policy for such ports, is available from the GRASS Infonration Center. The

GPASS Itrdloun, Corfiguta' in Guide8 is also regularly updated to provide

information on configuration options d Kd costs amd on the status of new ports.

5.5. Deign Conmpt

GRASS prograni, have becon-e iHvreasingIv nvmdularized and specialized over tfk.

years. For example, GRASS pngrina can mw be readly intermixed with UNIX

progranL inside s;hell sripts (batch fi!es or nacms). While GRASS developers will

anit.n the goal of system portability, GRASS users should fid it inreasdigly easy

to mix GRASS capabilities with local proprieuaTi and mnpmprietary software to

address the spo.:ific i-eds of their sites. 1is creation of new programs by users wv)

inten-nix appropriate computer resources has been dubbed the "GARDE" concept

This secion looks first at the different levels of interaction available to the GRASS

user. ft then explores the GARDEN concept.

5.5.1. GRIAL.S I-veks

(f (-Lin T17k,- b, i iithjii' ,iccd nt -,evenzd levels. Each of these level:, is defined by

thy functiori. provided. The several distinct design and mivlementafion levels are

de., cribed bel )w.

GRAS Meni Lv'vd. Past GRAS rleases provided a custom made menu interface

thmugh which t he avice and (,ccasional user could access all GRASS tools. GRASS

users well recognz, this as the "gK" or "grass" program. A series of mentis led the

usr to paruc'.lar ipn-cti' c pom . -;' 117 all releases through version ,.0, menus tave

been text anid kevboamd n'eniue. he GtLASS 4.0 release will likely replace this with

a portable g rapnics .. , a, 9

N1:X,'S4'; *( NI P ' k m zj ia'r (-QI xa'ti,; L

Dougla4 A. BJimok,, Micta.l K Htig,,ns, al Mark 0. Johmton, GRSS Hw'(ham'

(b/L~7act'm. (1;dcd' \I)IP Report N-8, 21 I IS,\EIL, MaNth 1989).

Ilv(,stig~~a soCikd Iltkd fitinrg 1,8- evdiritted the useftflsnezs of the X Window graphic

iritvfl"-e p;ackago,. It ,s piIiic domain w'xi IK)ztA)le ixl .Nill allow u-,rs to olpemte GRASS

usina n iixo1-, or jx)intr t) guide nu4 ')f' uti j, tuce s[I liuwgh grphic switchs, biutons,

riinwnt. ll1i Si(les. X Witow, [-z has (ell developd dr uugh Pioject Athena at th*.

Mak I'11~L< hln~J1tte of Techologv. "ilw X \Nindow Systm is a tnatenirk of dh

Maa&tW'iulnit; Iisititf off 'l'ecluxlot v.

5 An Intrxhi'lion to (;iA' GIS Softw-re
-38- -

Interactive Level The user who finds the "Menu Level" too cut-bersome and

restrictive can access interactive GRASS programs rmre directly by running the

connwrls "GIS" or "GRASS". A starxd UNIX shell then prompts the user for the

GRASS (or UNIX) corrnamrl that will be run These tools defined the heart of the

system in the GRASS 1.0 release. Each tool (program) prompted the user for

infonmfion, and then operated on the data based on the user-provided commands. By

GRASS version 3.0, the user prompting and data analy;is functions were split

(invisibly to the user) into two separate utilities. Ili- data analysis progrars fonmed

the next (comnard) level.

Camml Levl Commard level programs were introduced in GRASS 2.0. For the

most part, these progranms are not interactive. hced they take all inputs either from

an input stream or (more comnrnly) from the comman line. These programs provide

a new high-level GRASS programming environment. Used in corjunction with other

capabilities, this level permits the development of very powerful land analysis models.

Such nodels will make GRASS more imnediately useful to new users. Well designed

nmdels and analysis instructions will allow users to address land use planning

decisions that. require expertise in unfariliar fields.

Developnent of commarl level GRASS programs is encouraged, and must be done in

corjunction with the USACERL GRASS development staff. If the code is portable,

general, and withstands user abuse, USACERL may include it in future GRASS

releases.

Li-raries Leel Users interested in nore analysis flexibility are provided with a set

of libraries with a C binding that provide interfaces to GRASS data, users, and

graphics. Using these libraries, programmers can develop and m dify interactive and

comnnd level utilities. USACERL programners continue to assune responsibility

for these libraries and the data foniats they access.

Data Lev-el. GRASS data fonrats currently accoma)date both raster and vector (arcmde) geographic information Again, USACERE assumes responsibility for these

fomiats. As mrnre appropriate data compression chemes are developed, the data will

continue to undergo fundamental rmdification. It is highly recormended that the user

community not access data directly.

5.5.2. GARDEN COxpt

The new level in ihe CRA S hierrihv has been dubbed the "GARDEN" concept

,kust as one can put together nyw3 sala using items in a vegetable garden, it is

possible to pick and choose from a huge assortmnent of computer programs in the

analysis of data- GRA&S provides only sonie of the items to choose from; the others

are the standard programs provided with the operating system which may also include

other proprietary and nonproprietary software to help the user. The computer garden

provides liritless opportunities to combine various programs. While one might mix

GRASS with a database nanagement system (DBMS) and a report writer to assist the

environrental manager to keep track of oil spill sites, another would mix GRASS with

a statistics package, a voice recognition sywstem, a natual language interface, and a

§5 An lrvr on tGRA*3 GIS Software
-39- .39-

DBMS to allow voice query of a forest management system.

At the GARDEN level, GRASS can remain a solid package of geographic informion

system pmgrarnms which provide the horsepower to drive a changing series of user

interfaces and a growing array of other computer prograns.

At the time of this writing, work was underway through USACERL to create an

applications generator that would allow a systems arlyst to combire GRASS, UNIX,

ard other computer programs into a task-specific product It is projected that many

different applications will be created over the coming years.

Such models can be very specific to a given set of softwore. While one database

managerent system (DBMS) is used on one mahire, a different DBMS may be used

on another machine. The GARDEN utilities developed on these machires will use

software familiar to the user coitunity.

§5 An Introdmxiion to G(flA GIS Software
-40- -40-
-41- -41-

ChqAr 6

Evaluation Criteia for GRASS Work ion Siectkm

GRASS software has been ported to several different computers, amd is being

ported to myriad others. This chapter offers those acquiring GRASS a set of

criteria for evaluating the many hardware options available, and describes

sources of existing infornmtion

6.1. Badogr~nd

GRASS was designed to be widely portable anxng computers; it. is written in C, and

runs on the UNIX operating system. Usually, GRASS code can be compiled on a new

computer with only one or two days' effort However, it takes a much longer tine to

write and test a driver For a rew graphics display device. Often, the entire process of

mving GRASS software to a new computer requires six to ten months and includes

the entire process of (1) hardware selection and acquisition, (2) compiling GRASS

code, (3) writing new graphic drivers, (4) testing a i refining these drivers, (5) testing

peripheral devices and connections, (6) providing initial configuration guidance for

potential beta test sites and users, (7) testing all peripherals (8) writing new GRASS

installation instructions specific to the new device, (9) arranging for and coordinating

beta testing, (10) completing changes mquired after the beta test, and (11) further

testing and describing configuration optior. It takes many nrnths and a significant

dollar investnent to turn potential host candidates for GRASS into computers which

fully support GRASS.

To define current and candidate kxvsts and peripherals for GRASS, USACERL

maintaies tI GRASS Hardczare Corqigwlw ns Guide.1 This docunent

(1) describes essential and optional hardware components for

GRASS.

(2) identifies workstations that have completed alpha testing2 but await

completion of beta testing, 3 and

(3) identifies workstations and peripherals that have successfully completed beta

testing, fully support GRASS, and for which one or more distribution and support

ageneies are available.

At any point in time, there are usually several new computers, digitizers, ad/or

printers being evaluated or tested as possible new hardware options for GRASS. Thus,

I Douglas A. Brooks, Michael K tIggins, and Mark 0. Johnson, GRASS Hca'care

Con'igurations Guide, ADP Report N-89/21 (USACER1, March 1989). 2 Alpha-testipg is initial in-houae testing, comironly done by the developeis of a port, drver,

etc.

: Beta-tcstiiV, is secondary, irniependent testing perforrnd out-of-house. Before hardware is

added to the GGBASS /-hzrocre Cor W-tiotns Gud (Douglas A. Brooks, Michael K Higgins,

and Mark 0. Johnson, ADP Report N-89'21 [uSACERL, Mhrch 19891), it ust either be

tdergoing, or have satisfied, beta-testing r inrernnts stated in the docurnent Testinrg

(,nidelines for GRASS Ports and Dizrrs tWilliam D. Goran, ADP Report N-89/22

[USACERL, January 1989)).

§6 Evaatic Critcria for GIWIA Workstation Sdection
-42- -42-

this configuration guide is a very dynamic document To ensure tha users have the

latest version of this guide, each revision is dated. Ile GRASS Infomation Center

(217) 373-7220 or (800) USACERL, extension 220 can provide information on tie

date of the most recent version of the GRASS Harduare Cor#qgwions Guide. This

guide is a logical starting point for evaluating the options for selecting GRASS

workstations.

62. Evahuaive Crhia

From a use s point of view, it is a great advantage to have so many hardware choices.

On the otter hard, it is difficult to make an informed decision from the large nunber

of choices available, and it is very difficult for oe agency or organization to support

users on every possible GRASS workstation configuration. As the hardware choices

expand, both selection and support become increaingly difficult

To address this issue, USACFJRL has developed a set of evaluative criteria All of

these criteria are important, but some more than others. Because tte importance of

one evaluative element over another will vary among users, criteria are not weigbte

When considering these criteria, we suggest using a matrix, with evaluative elemants

along one axis, and hardware options along the other axis (see Table 6.1 [p 46]).

Hardware options are constantly changing, and many of the evaluative elements (such

as cost and availability) also frequently change. Before a final selection is made,

hardware veriors should be contacted to confirm price and configuration information,

and GIS support organizations should be contacted to confirm elements in the selection

process. Suggested hardware evaluation criteria are as follows:

" Cost

" Annual Maintenance Cost

" Performance

* Upgrade Ibtential

" Acquisition Option-

" X Windows Implementation

* Hardware Support Requireennts

" Status of GRASS on this Computer

* Availability

" Configuration Options

" Operating System Options and Limits

* Networking Options

* GRASS Software Support Options

" Peripheral Limits

" User Agency or Ste "Standards"

" GRASS linked Software Availability

" Other 3rd Rut y Software

§6 f F-unfion Criteia for GRASS Wcrkatbmon Seecton
-43- - A3-

6.2.1. Cost

Cost is always an important consideration, but is not always easy to compare between

systens. Vendors configure systems differently, and this can make it difficult to

directly compare different workstation alternatives. Gererally, higher costs reflect

higher perfomance, greater growth capacity, or some other important value. But costs

are skewed by the marketplace, and vendors with high sales volunes may be able to

offer equal value at a lower price. Thus, 300 iegabytes of disk on a 386

microcomputer may cost less than the same 300 megabytes of disk on a super-mini

computer.

Hardware costs are often the most important evaluative criteria for users. While budget

often linits hardware choices, because of their laige, initial expense, any system will

likely need replacement in only a few years. Factors other than cost may prove to be

mre important during the life of the system

6.22. Prefornmec

Here, performane refers to how well GRASS software runs on specific hardware.

This is now mensurd by ntining a suite of benchmarks, published periodically in the

newsletter GRAl 1pings. Another document, entitled Guidelines for Running

GRASS Benclwarks, describes the procedures used to conduct these tests. BecaLe

these benchmarks are generally derived using a single machine, however, readers are

waned that results may vary among users.

Despite potential variations, benchmark results provide a valuable and easily

comparable criterion for di-tinguishing machine perform=ce. Essentially, these values

identify how long it takes the computer to perform specific GRASS tasks. Users are

invited to submit their own benchmark te.st results to USACERL, in order to refine

published values and ensure greater accury.

6.2.3. Upgrad Potential

Some computers have significant limits regardi the new peripherals, boards, and

power requirements that can be added in thc future. For example, the Sun 3/110 has

only a few open slots on its bus. A standard GRASS system with peripherals may fill

all of these slots. If all the slots on the bus are filled, the workstation essentially has

no upgrade potential. However, alrost al workstations can be networked to other

computers; thus, some upgndes to a GRASS worlstAion may be achieved thrugh

networking and slaring resources along a network

Some specific areas of concern with upgrade potential include: (1) number of slots on

the bus, (2) power supply, (3) serial and other connecting ports, (4) nine-track tape

drives, and (5) networking configuration options. Ecrh of these should be considered

for specific workstations.

I M'-k -bhnson, Guiddelines for Pa ing GRAM Benchnrrks, Technical Mmintipt N-89/23

(USACERL, Febrnay 1989).

§6 Evalatiron Criteria for GRASS, Workstation Sdwtion
-44- -44-

6.214. Acpfisitkx Consrhts

In some cases, configuration choices are limited to hardware tla can be acquired

through some special contract, or which meets some other agency or organization

criteria. These types of constrints often limit government agencies, and can become

the primay criterion in hardware selection.

From the government perspective, there am three primary mechanisris for hardware

acquisition: open-ended contracts (such as the Corps of Engineers award for

Intergraph CADD equipment, or the Soil Conservation Service award to EDS for

office automation), GSA schedules, and open competitive bidding. Each method has

advantages and disadvantages. Sometimes, an open-ended contract limits an agerr3 s

ability to acquire any other type of computer equipment, if the function of the desired

equipment could be fulfilled by equipment off the contract This can cause problems

for agency offices that would rather use less expensive equipment or have some

specialized software reed that canrot be easily addressed through the open-ended

contract On the other ha4, since these contracts have already been competitively bid

and Marded, acquisition of contrct equipment is usually a much easier process than

acquisition of similar nrcontract equipment

At this point, r special contract has been established for the purchase of GIS

equipment in the Army or the Corps of Ergineers, but some workstations that will

support GRASS can be acquired from the intergraph CADD contract

The Government Services Administration (GSA) negotiates contracts with vendors for

equipment at some specific discount, Once a contract is negotiated, the vendor will

publish a schedule, identifying all available items, prices, discounts, and terms. Since

this negotiated price is presumed to be competitive with marketplace prices, hardware

items listed on a vendor s GSA schedule can be acquired through these GSA contracts

without competitive bidding from numerous vendors. However, if the total dollar

value of a GSA purchase exceeds certain limits, then a purchase must be announced in

Commerre Business Daily and other vendors are allowed to submit competing

proposals to mieet tie purchase reqfirements.

Almnost all of the workstons that support GRASS are available through GSA

contracts. However, the number of configurations available may be more limited than

on the open marketplace, and the prices are "fixed" by the schedule, for the duration of

the conract, even if marketplace prices are lower.

Open competitive purchases have several advantages. However, specifications for such

purchases rd to be well written Small omissions from specifications, or lack of

clarity, can result in severe problems. This process is often very time consuming; if

the value of the equipment is high and many vendors submit bids, bid evaluation can

become a lengthy process.

6.2.& X Windows Im mrtati~m

X Windows is a user and graphics intertfre language that runs on n)st of the same

computers that support GRASS. Post3. I releases of GRASS will take advantage of

§6 Vluation riteria for GRAS Woic-toantidction
-45- -45-

the features offered by the X language. Because so many software packages will be

using X, almost all vendors with UNIX computers plan to support it However,

considerable effort is required by vendors to implement X, and some vendors' plans to

support X may be delayed or cancelled. Furtlr, some implementations of X may

prove troublesome for GRASS. Thus, sore information about the status of X on each

potential workstation is relevant when selecting a computer on which to run GRASS.

6.2.6. Hardwre Support Rmpirmimts

For many GRASS workstations (e.g., those made by Sun, MASSCOMP [aka.

Concurrent Computer Corporation], etc.), one vendor can provide nearly all of the

elements a user wiIl require, and will offer support contracts to maintain and update

these computers.

6.3. Curret Choices

The following list includes only those computers and workstations that fully support

GRASS or are currently uxiergoing beta testing. Where machine series are listed, all

machines in the series are capable of supporting GRASS (e.g., the MASSCOMP 5000

series actually ircludes seven or eight different mdels of machines, all of which can

support GRASS). Although this was done to simplify the evaluation process, it may

be desirable in further iterations of this evaluation process to split out different

workstations within a series.

The choices at present (May/1989) include:

" Masscomp (Coneurrent) 5000 Series

* Masscornp (Concurrent) 6000 Series

" Sim 3 Series

" Sun 4 Series

* Sun 386i Series

" Silicon Graphics IRIS 4D20

" Intergraph Interpro Series

" Apple Macintosh II Series

" PC Compaq 386 (Microport UNIX)

" P, 386 (Interactive UNIX)

" AT&T 386

* AT&T 3B2 Series

" Hewlett Packard 9000

" IBM RT

Two otlhr machines, the Tektronix workstation series and the Dell 386, may be added

to this list -slrtly, but are not yet ready to undergo beta testing.

6 Ev-ahition Criteria for GIASS Wodotation Selecion
-46- .46-

Evhadm Citama fr GRASS Wmild nm Opdms

Evaluaon Machine Type

Criteria MASS MASS Sun 3's Sun 4's Su MIS InteWgph Apple I Con*mq 1C ATf AT] HP

5000's 6000's 38i 420 Ite Mac II 3 8 386 3b2 9000

Cost

Annual Cost

for Mairtenance

Peformance

PoMentia __ _i___ _ _ _

Acqtisition

X Windows

Implementalion _ _

Hmdwren

Staus of GRASS

on this Cot pue r

Availability

Configuation

Operati Svstem

Options & limit ,s_

GRASS Software

Support Options

Piperal

User Agency or ' Site "StE,-iard" .

GRASS-Unked

Sorfhvare

i Availability Other 3 rd

IArY S~ftwaiv __I__ _ _ __ _ _______ __ _ _ _

Table 6.1: Evaluatio Criteria for GRASS Worikstatim Options

§6 Evaluation Criteria for GRASS Workstation Sdecwon
-47. -47-

Clxtr 7

Stflg and Trai*g Requre s

A major concern in implementing a GIS is staffing. Several of the tasks

required to initiate, use and rnairnain a GIS involve an extensive conmmitment

of personeml. This conmitnent is critical for the successful initiation arx

ongoing use of GIS techrlogy.

7.1. Inhodulim

Often on military installations, there are already more work requirements than

personnel to fulfill these requirements. Thus, a new technology that brings additional

work requiments just stretches imited staff. To reduce staffing requirements, certain

tasks can be contracted, such as preparing complicated map layers for the database or

maintaining the hardware. No matter how many tasks are fulfilled by contractors,

however, the implementation of a GIS on an installation requires a consderable staff

time commitrent, if only for planning and coordnation efforts.

The advantages of having a GIS workstation on-site must be weighed against this

comitment of on-site staff resources. If adequate staff time cannot be allocated for

key tasks, such as learning and using the software, verifying the timeliness and

accuracy of critical data elements, and maintaining the computer and peripherals, then

it would be wiser not to implement an on-site GIS. There are other ways to use GIS

technology (such as having GIS applications perfomed by a Corps district, Corps

laboratory, or contractor), and these alternatives avoid many of the staffing

requirements for an on-site GIS wokstation.

Staffing requirements can be examined to determine both the need for new personnel

and the specific tasks they will peform. Below, staffing is divided into the specific

task wras associated with GIS impleirentation TIe skills needed to perform each of

these tasks may be provided by several individuals, or as few as two individuals on an

installation. The number of individuals needed to perform the described tasks on any

given installation will deperd upon h vw well th-, areas of expertise held by edsting

installation personnel nesh with GIS-related tasks, how easily new personnel can be

acquired, what specific GIS analyses the installation plans to conduct, and other

factors.

7.2. Scfi Task Areas

TIe types of tasks associated with GIS implementation can be grouped into these "skill

areas:"

" GIS coordination

" GIS analysis

" Data management

" Cartography/digitizing

§7 SWng ani Training Requirenits
-48- -48-

0 Systems management

9 Software integration

With a large GIS (multiple workstations, many different users ard frequent

applications), these various task groupings night each be performed by a different

person or persons. But for smaller systems, many of tihese tasks will likely be

corbir. ' into a single job. If you start with a smaller system, and the nunter of

workstaions ad applications increases, then it might be appropriate to assign one

person to each functional area; however, some overlap in funetions is always likely to

occur, given the unique capabilities, interests, ard requirements of the GIS users at

each site.

In terms of personnel, implementing a GIS on a military installation minimally

requires a GIS Coordinator to plan for anid coordirat the use of the GIS aid a

software expert performing applications and assisting others to perform applications.

At least two persons knowledgeable about the technology should be on-site and be

capable of performing applications.

Once established, the critical eenrnt to sustain an on-site system is often the hardware

system management Someone nueds to know how to contect cables, create logins,

perforn backups, andi diagnose problems. On most installations, support elements

(e.g., the Directorate of Information Management [DOIM]) provide some mainteriame

support for the computer and peripherals (provided DOIM was involved in the

acqtisition of these items), but certain hardware mainLtenance tasks are best performd

on a regular basis by somreone at the same location as the equipment GIS System

Management tasks may therefore demand that a third person be obtained from existing

staff or elsewhere.

The hybrid position of GRASS systems manager/GIS analyst might be filled using

either of several different, hiring mechanisms. For example, this position might be

contracted for through the Intergovermental Procedures Act (IPA). Alternately, it

might be filled as a U.S. civil service post Each of these hiring metihds implies

different obligations by employees and employers, and has various advantages ard

disadvantages. IPA employees are permanent, full-tine staff of other governmental

agencies (such as state universities), who are temporarily loaned to the federal

governient for a linited period of time, extendable to up to four years. Personnel

hired through IPA agreements maintain the employee benefits granted by the lending

institution (e.g., by the university). In contrast, civil service employees obtain all of

the benefits associated with federal civil serice.

It is assumed that the position of GIS Coordinator will be filled by a permanent

government employee already working at the site. Although, for example, an

individual able to perform many of the tasks required of the GIS analyst, data

manager, a r systems manager (and some of those required of the

cartographer/digitizer and software integrator), might be sought this is only an

example, suited to a scenario in which only one position (in addition to that of GIS

Coordinator) will be filled at an implementation site. The nature of the positions filled

will be specific to the needs of the implementation site.

§7 sRaffing and Tranng Iequirenxxts
.49- .49-

Specific areas of expertise needed to implenent an installation GIS are described

below, and slould be viewed in the context of the entire GIS Implementation process,

as depicted in Figure 2.1 [p 4].

7.21. GIS Comrdnation

When a GIS is fimbt cons dered, one person, already on staff, slould be appointed GIS

Coordinator. This position is critical t tlo- evaluation of GIS technology for an

installation and to the successful coordination and nicinetone of this technoogy both

on and off the installation Specific tasks for the GIS Coordinator include:

" Developing the installation GIS needs (potential retarns on investnnt

evaluation

" Developing/adapting the GS implementation Plan for the installation

* Coordinating GIS plans between various organizations on post

" Insuriig that DOLM (or counterart) teviewsapprmves the hardware selection

and acquisition

" Insuring that DOII (or counterpat) will support hardware

" Pr-oviding input to Amiy GIS Steeriiig an /or Technical Advisory Groups

" Insuring that physical spae, electrical power, and emimnmental requirements

for computer haitiwam are inet

* Participating in local and/or regional GIS user and data sharing groups

* Insurii~g that issues involving data stand rds, and. the safing, updating, and

ownership of data are addressed and coordinated aimng all users

• Insuing that G18 hardware will be linked to appropriate networks to support

user requirenents

" Insuring tt, GiS data can be exchuged with CAI), AM/FM'[ and other users

as needed to support installation mquiremenbs

The 01S Coordinator slx)uld be a pernanent instailation employee, with adequate status and atd'rity to accomplish thes tasks. Ideally, this person will be familiar

with the organization 'and procedures of td- different iniiallation elements that may be

GIS tsers--such as the land mnagers, master planners. range managers, environmental

planners, and uiners. This coordinor should alreayl be familiar with GIS

teclnology and potential applications at th, instalation. If not, the coordinator should

be provided oppx)rtunities to learn about. GIS, aind to examine the ways in which other

nilitary insllations use this technology.

Then the GI Coordinator should develop a (IS implementation plan for the

installation that considers each potential installation GTIS user. This plan should

initially identify the potential costs and benefits of the GIS, whether the system should

be implemented on-site, and whether specific applictions should be planned.

"7 Sftarig and Tdning Reqtuirmxmt
-50- -50-

7.2.2. GIS Anaysis

GIS Analysis must be provided on the installation Necessary GIS Analysis skills

include knowledge of the use of GIS and UNIX software needed to perform GIS

analyses, and optirnlly, expertise in one or more of the GIS application areas relevant

to the irstallation's intended analyses (e.g., narnal or cultaral resource rmnaement,

environnental plannig or engineering, master Ilanrdng, forestzy, range scheduliig).

However, since the potential applications of a G1S extend to mny areas, these will

likely exceed the expertise of any single applications/software expert

Whether current staff menber or new hire, whoever provides thse skills should have

adequate taining. While ibrmal software training courses are useful and

recomntnded, nost persons require sevcral montis to becore pn-ficient in the use of

GIS software. If GIS Analysis -lls are to be pro;ded by someore rwly hired for

the purpose, the position desciption sfxjuld ruqiire at least orn year's experence witt,

some GIS. Although it is rut rncesa th.a a potentiai candidate be familiar with

GRASS, persons familiar with other GtJ s should be provided an opportunity to

receive formal GRASS training.

Wh)ever provides these skills will perform analyses u-ing the GIS. They must

structure the preparaion of dati (or instrct others to do so) to be compatible with

ubsequent GIS a aysis. Ar"lysts with sufficient experlis can also prepare "mrcros"

or "interfaces" that support specific, repeated applications for different users. How the

analyst serves instaiation (IS users will depend on the size and diversity of the user

comnmnity, ard the skills. interests and time availability of other users. Ideally, the

GIS Analyst should help others perform analyses so that nny users acquire GIS

software expertise. The analyst will also write niecessary contracts to enhance existing

software.

Tasks associated with this sldll area inclUde:

* Learning the capabilities anTd potential applications of the software

* Instiling rcw v e ions of thP twqar-, Pri learning the new capabilities of

thkese updated ven-ions

" -Ielpiing otdwrs to undersiwtd the capabilities of the software, so that they can

conceptalize applications ehrvant to ihtir rLteds

" Particilxfin in ,(IS fio;ni, such as regional agency data exchange and

application nkerigsi

* Identifying addiltionl software requireients neded for specific applications

" Assisting GLS use.-, in pn paripg for and nnning applications

" Iinuing that tlh computer system is funrcdonirg properly and reporting, any

problems to System Manager (or fixing the problen)

SCrmaing applications, interfaces using the GRASS application genrmtor) for

users with specific. repeated applications

* Recording ar r documentir, -4ftwa. Lsage, and the types and frequency of

applications, as an aid u) futurc tsons ud for u.rs at other insllations

7 IAfling and Tr'A.in Iknimrni
-51- -51-

7.2.3 Data Mmomna t

Geographic data is often needed and used in different offices by different software for

different purposes. To gather, develop, distribute, and "globally" update such data

would be convenient and ecornicaliy wise.

Data Management skills include helping to establiS and maintain sards for data

quality, maximizing data sharing between users, identifying and resolving data

exchange issues, "and integrating GIS technology into the installatiorY s data gathering

ard handling procedures. Like the GIS Coordinator. whoever provides Data

Managemnt skills will red adequate status md ,mdrity to accomplish these task.

Further, the individual ating as Data Marrager should be familiar with the way that

data is gatlered, verified, used, shared and repoited by potential GIS users on the

installation

The Data Manager can yield truinerdou-s cost s.vings. by effectivcly coodirkiting data

sharing between users, and by a-smjctmng daita gathering opemtion uo maximize the

use of digitl techn;logies. Fo" example, when phoigraphy is flown for the

installation, tht Data Manager sinuir instre tat direct digital products are derived

from this prrtogp.y, aril d-_t ae mqui nirms fov these products are reviewed by tM

potential users.

The development of (,LS d a lavers c:an be a vev tirme consuming and demarding

task. Often, much ' this work is done off-site by a Corps district, lab, or contracor.

However, even when the actual digjitizng ardior scanning is done by contract, staff at

the intllation must first identify data nexe. , monitor the data acquisition and

interpretaton efforts. veify data accuracy and sources, and evaluate the data layers

when they "je completed. In addition, some da elements are dynamic, and it may be

more efficient m .,,te some of tihese data elements on-site. The Data Manger

should kow the available sources of daxa ad insure that data is developed to best fit

tl kti. ed(A I iof lkrldud . T Tpp'icaeto)Y tasks associated wit'h Dat Ma agement

include:

* AV'tA.:Jhirg is-lalation standards for venifying data accuracy and

dontlmirig data 5,3tJr'tes

* Establishing voJrkrig procedures for "owtesn-hip" of specific data laers, arad

sha'ing of ll.s( Lver bst ween users

* Determining reqtuirerents tfor :karing data between the histallation aid

surroundiiig agenies (e.g., local Conservario Service office)

* Identifying procedlun- bor updating data elerr~nts, and testing and reviewing

these procedus (S-kcific to each data type)

* Learning about the various available data sourcs, and helping to detemaine

which somres will neet irnstallation needs

" Identilying ways in which po-difgital data fomv on the installation might be

converted to digfital frms, ard identifying potential cost savings resulting

from this conversion

" Helping coordinate (CAD, AMiKV1 and GIS data requireen1nts to m1-ximize

value of" irallation dat, invesiment

d v T li rig I1'jLii mnkylH
-52- -52-

7.2.4. Cart traphy/Wfizing

Cartography and digitizing skills will be needed if any digital map layers are to be

created or updated on-site. A person who has data input responsibilities may share

tine between GIS and CAD and/or AMIBI systems, and provide these skills.

The preparation of maps for digitizing, and digitizing itself, are tine consuming

procedures that require careful attention to detail. Persons selected for these tasks

should have training in cartography ard/or drafting. Otherwise, inaccurate imps may

be generated, which have r real usefulness. The persons providing these skills should

also have extensive handls-on computer experience, and be able to read data tapes,

georeference satellite inages, and exchange data between systems. Contracts can often

be let for these purposes. Sirxee several of these functions involve use of the GIS

software, some GIS training, at least on the job, will alo be required.

Cartography/Digitizing tasks include:

" Digitizing new or updated map information

" Reading updated data forn tapes e.g.. new satellite images)

" Drfting raps for digitizinrg ind/or scanning

" Moving data between forrrau, (e.g., GLS to CAD)

* FAchanging data with other agencies and/or installations

" Arhiving "ari retrieving data

" Documenting the procedures used to create/revise data layers

" Maintaining icords of data updates

* Maintaining inventories of data in various formats

* Monitoring digitizing by ot-zide contractors

Working, closely with x)tential users of the data to insure that data is

developed to best fit the intended application

7.2.5. Systern Managxrmtt

Necessary Systems Mai,;c-ieumt skills include niainterince of the computer, the

peripherals (e.g., input and. outpUt devices,, aid the connections between GIS

workstations; and other computers. Oftev, tlesc tasks will be done by either a

contractor or a support agery on the irtLallation. If system managenent tasks are

perfonr.<d by an on-site staff mebn)er, that person often performs these responsibilities

in an "other duties as assigned" inode. That is, they are formally trained and hired in

some other capacity, bt have aqIuired system nagement skills on the side.

However, with G(RAS-( GIS workstationis, significant system management effort is

reufired - much more extensive than with ordinary personal computers.

Thereare several rausons why s,,stem aarrugement is especially demanding with

GRAS S-( IS workstafions. 'irst, (,A&S' operates in a multi-user, multi-tasking

environn-mit, so sonx-orin must have responsibility for creating login's mronitoring

usage, and bancing resources between users. -- cond, GIS operation involves use of

nuimemus peripheral devices (th(- mininal item,- for a GRASS workstation include

digitizer, graphic printer, line printer. terminal, disk, backup device, and graphic

display monitr)r). Manai.ng these itemrs wnd insuring tlat they are all conrected

,7 8iafling "nd 'I'raining tlLtirernent
-53- -53-

properiy requires considerable effort Tlird, GRASS is based on the UNIX operating

system, which is both powerful and complex; it takes extensive exposure to UNIX to

beconm proficient in systems management on UNIX machines. Finally, GRASS and

other GISs involve large datasets, which require large storage and backup devices. A

multiple-user system reeds a regular and frequent schedule for backup and disk

mainteamnce. Specific tasks under the System Mamgement skill area include:

9 Creating user logins

* Performing system backups

9 Maintaining the system retwork

e Testing rw equipment

* Conncting and supporting peripherals

* Maintaining supplies of replaceable items (paper, ribbons, mylar)

* Maintaining equipmet support contacts

* Writing contracts to acquire new haniware

" Diagnosing system problems

" MNnainting and upddting flhe rpwrnding system (as per vendor updates)

" Balarring user requirements with system resoures (e.g., "policing" the disk

" Traing electronic mail and network communications problems

" Informing asers of sc+-dulxd dwntime, upgnmdes, system changes, etc.

* Crea xxt maintaihing electmnhc cOinnctIons to the outside world

" Providing other user support

7.2.6. Soft'wc htegration

The Software Integratr role is not esential for the implementation of GIS techrlogy,

but a person with the skills to extend, link ard customize software to nxet installation

needs will prove extrermely useful. The: Sdf~vwarc Ite ator could be a programmer, a

systens analyst, or someonc with atnther technical background who has acquired

skills in learning, using, and, extecarirg sol'are capabilities. If that person also has

some training in land/reKItsoumn mnagement, the link between software objectives and

programming may be made much tighter.

Since GRASS nuis under th UNIX opcri!t;g system. Software integrator skills must

first include an extensive undu ncrwling of UNIX. They would include an

understanding of the creation of (tRASS macros, the functions within GRASS that join

conmirns into an inegniled application. The (pplictiO,, generator is another feature

within GRASS that allow expeienc ed users to crelate user interfaces (customized

menus) that not on], function as GPU -; nacros but also can link GRASS to other

softwam capabilities. .M kms aind s-pecialized user interfaces can greatly extend the

usefulnes,, of ('IS technolov to instllation personnel by creating simple,

staightfora ,wr paths h) tocomplish specific tasks. such a updating a training range

()fldihol [ff)or Falludig the nwiei ct lS )f a new firing range.

\Vhile s an;iis do na, i-ssaily include pmg-anmning skills, any

pr,)grunlninllr, inwoIlvin- ( iiJASS shud K ,)re in (C. H)wever, much of the work of

siwaox, iflI(L(TIi,)f ,':n ,( doneu' sii; I.NI\ f'uIntions and GRASS utilities. Links

,7 Si ing aUd T'ainin Hc"urtncrtts
.54- .54-

can also be created to send or retrieve files between GRASS and relational database

rmneg n packages, statistical paclkges, sprd ets, word processors, ani other

software systems. Many of these links will be available from other installations and

GRASS users, but an on-site software integator can test, improve, customize and

install the links on the installation, an insure dt they meet installafion user

requiremn.

One otiex potential function of Software Integration is to provide, test, improve and

manage links between GRASS and other instllation-specific systems, such as IFS-M,

Intergrah, forest inventory systems, building-wide or postwide LAN's, Novell's

UNISYS, other machires for UNIX-LAN and etherret connections, etc.

Specific tasks under the Software Integr or skill area include:

" Creation and testing of user interfaces and application nrcms

" Im-estigating rw adx existing software links to GRASS

" Creating and testing links of GRASS with other software (including RDBMS,

statistical packages, spreadsheets, word processors, etc.)

* Testing, improving, customizing, installing, and manging these links on the

installation

" Ensuring tha links meet users' requirements

" Providing other necessary support for users

§7 S'Ig9tV and TrahYr Ra uirrIN
-55- -55-

Chapter 8

GRASS and GIS Support Stn mues

To facilitate the development and use of GRASS, several support structures

have been developed. These include distribution and support centers, policynmking groups, user group treetings, publications, and written and electronic

comrnmicatin forums. This chapter descibes tl GRASS support

mechanisms curently available.

M. I to do

Successful GRASS implementation depends upon proper planning and upon the

existence of support, snictures, policy guidelines an documentation. User sites

require different types of support as system implementation progresses. Siieh qtipport

includes.

" Points of contact and sources for information during planning phases

" Guidance while establishing hardware configurations arid networks

" Support during installation of software and hardware

" Training services

* Communication mechanisms to facilitate discuassions with other users

" Data and applications support

" Ongoing support during system use

This chapter examines available support stmctures and mechanisms for GRASS

8.2. Support StUcurs, Medmanisn and Docum ontatio

Support strctures. logistical nechanisms, and documents are being developed and

improved to support GRASS implementation

Support structures and communication forums have been developed to address issues

related to GRASS development policy, to prorote the shar-g of resources armng

agencies using GRASS, and to facilitate communication between users and other

interested sites. The GRASS Inter Agency Steering Committee coordinates GRASS

activities among federal organizations using the system (including the military).

The GRASSNEi and GISTALK electronic networks facilitate communication and

development between user sites. Other communication forums include the Annual

GRASS-GIS User Group Meeting, and the quarterly newsletter GRASSIippings.'

These support stnictures and communication forums are discussed below, in §8.3

GRASS Comnvuniation Forms [p. 561.

GRASSJiippings. [SSN 0899-7853, publisfd quaredy by the GRASS Inter-Agency

Steering Conmttee.

§8 GILASS and GIS Support Srtre
-56- -56-

The amount of support given to implementation sites can be mnidml or

comprehensive. Levels and types of support available are described in §8.4 %9pport

Typxs Available [p. 57.

Documents specific to GRASS implementation are also being developed, in addition to

others which describe the specific use of GRASS tools and other issues. Types of

available docuents are described in §8.5 GRASS Publications (p.58]. A list of such

documents can be obtained fron the GRASS Information Center at the address shown

in §8.8 GRASS %ftware Distribution and Informnrton (p. 621.

GRASS trinng courses, and distribution a"d support centers have already been

established. These strutures are being reviewed and strengthened to ensre adequate

support for installations implementing GRASS. GRASS and GIS Training Courses

and Cunicula are offered thmugh a mrnuber of institutions across the country. GRASS

Distribution ard Support Center functions are provided by USACERL and private

organizations with whom mnnrandunis of agreement are held. Several of these

support nchanisms are discussed below, in §8.6 ltining 1p. wl, §8.7 Points of

Contact for GR4SS Infornmtion and £ipport p.611, and §8.8 GRASS Software

Distribution and Infornvtion [p. 62].

8.3. GRASS Comnnication Forum

Several foniris have been establi hed to facilitate the sharing of infonnation among

GRASS policy-makers, developers, users, and support sites. These include:

" Tk GRASS information Center

" The GRASS Inter-Agency Steering Committee

* The Army Corps GIS Technical Advisory Committee

* An annual GRASS/GIS User Group Meeting

" GRAS.ihppings, a quarterly newsletter

" GRASSNET, an electronic mail and software retrieval forum

The GRASS Information Center maintains: (1) a set of publications on GRASS and

GRASS-reiawu- iers, (2) updated infornaton on locations that distribute and support

GRASS software and on training courses for GRASS, (3) the mailing list for the

newsletter GR-1ippirws, ax 4) urpdated information on the status of GRASS user

group meetings and software releases.

The GRASS hitrAgecy Stceting Conmnittee is an informal organization wth

mnernrem from govemevnt agencies and other organizations that use, support, and

enharre GRASS. This organization sponsors the annual User Group Meeting and the

quarterly newsletter. It holds at leat two meetings annually to share and coordinate

GRASS plans among the participating agencies.

The annual GRASS/GIS User Group Meeing is hosted each year by one of the

n)ener agencies of the Steering Committee. Papers, demonstrations, and discussion

panels present GILASS applications and softwame development issues. The meeting

provides opportmities for current a"d potential users to share and deixrnstrate new

§8 GR&AS and GIS %pport %vctir
-57- 57-

GRASS software.

The GRASSClipping newsletter is publisbd approximately four times/year, to

provide information to those interested in GRASS software. The newsletter includes

articles on software development, hardware options and applications of GRASS.

GPASW is an electronic mail forum that provides a mechanism through which

GRASS user and development sites can exchange messaes. It can be reached via

Arpanet, Internet, and other networks. GRASSNKP also includes a library of

conlributed software available for users to retrieve and review. Thus, new software is

available before it is integrated into a formal release of GRASS code.

&4. Spt Types Available

In addition to the commuRication forunms noted above, GRASS distribution ad support

services am available from the organizations listed in §8.8 GRASS Sftitre

Distribution and Infoimrtion ip.621. However, USACERL staff continue to provide

distribudon, software support, and daLi assistance services to U.S. Army installations,

Corps of Engineers Districts anI Divisions, and other U.S. Department of Defense

organizations. These services include:

" Introductory information on GRASS and GRASS applications

" Distribution of software and documentation

• Hardware configuration awl/or acquisition information

• On-site installation of software ad hardware

• On-site software training

" Telephone support for software

* Information on GI CADD ir-erface issues

• Data scoping and acquisition assistance

• Data conversions between various formats and media

• Data digitizing, scanning, and interpretation

• Applications and data analysis assistance and services

0 New drivers for hardcopy devices, digitizers, and display devices

* Hardware system management support and assistance

* Netwoding constltntion and guidance

A lis of specific USACERL points of contact fbr these services is given in §8.7 Points

of Contact for GRASS Infornxiion and _pport Ip. 611.

There are nunfl)us possible scenarios for GRASS implementation One possible

scenario, in which impleirentation responsibilities are divided between the project

.sponsor (e.g., a MACOM), the implementation site (e.g., an installation or District),

and a contzactor (e.g., USACERL, or a Corps District), is illustrated in Figure 2.1 (p

4).

Any or all of the GRASS support scrvices from USACERL a-m available to any DOD

organization. There is no minimum support package tait an organization is required to

maintain, and DOD organizations are not required to obtain these services through

§8 GRAW and GIS Suport striu
USACERL. Several other GRASS support centers provide similar support services.

Also, services provided through USACERL may involve the staff and facilities of

other GRASS support centers.

Support can be mirimal or comprehnsive. Minimally, DOD organizations can elect

to request only the GRASS User's Reference Manual2 and a magnetic tape containing

GRASS software. These sites would install GRASS on their own systems. At the

other end of the support spectrum, sites may elect to have USACERL (andi/or

contractors or other support organizations) provide everything from software and

hardware installation and acquisition, to data development and analysis.

For most Army installations, USACERL has provided complete GRASS turnkey

services. These services have included hardware configuration and acquisition,

installation of software and hardware, and data development and analysis for

installations, districts, etc. However, it is anticipated that Corps Districts and

Divisions, and others, will provide nre of these services to new GRASS

implenentation sites in the future.

8.5 GRASS Pubficatics

Several publications e-xist or are under development to support GRASS

Implementation Docunnts being developed spechic to GRASS implenentation

include the:

" GRASS Impleenntation Guide,

" GRASS Pro blem-luirg Mawd, (John Q. Ressler, William Swain,

Sandra Anderson. and Jeny Thompson, ADP Report N-89/15

[USACERL, July 19891),

* GRASS3 U,-,r s Guide,

" Mehodology for Perfoirrang rturn-On-Invstment StUdies for

Ingple*rntation of (RASS o MilitkUy InstOlltions,

(Ben liwirski, Technical Manuscript N-89/25 [USACERL, May 1989]), and

" Proceedings of the 1988 Geographical Pesources Analysis

Sipport System (GRA S, User Group Meetit

(Robert Lozar, Fditor, Technical Manuscript N-89/18 [USACERL,

September 1989]).

'T'he DEl Au/ornited (rlptu.s (iwute. tecivit, .icquisition. Iny)iemenition, and

Managenment (Cer Mc)emn)tt Michael McCulley, Mary- Czysczewski, et al.,

Technical Report P-88/19 [USACERL, June 19881) also examines GIS implementation

issues, but is not specific to GRASS. The following documents describe the specific

use of GRAJSS tools, and other issues.

An Introduction to G RA3S (Warnes Westervelt, in the GRASS User's Reference Manual,

by ,arnes Westervelt, Michael Shapiro. William D. Goran, et al., ADP Report N-87t22

2 Jarns Vetrvelt, Michael Shapio, William D. Gomn. et al., GRASS User's Reference

Mad, ADP Rxport N-87/22 IJEIACERL, Septerrtber 1988).

§8 GRA and GIS Stqixort Sb~xte
-59- -59-

[USACERL, September 1988]) and the GRASS Fact 9zeet (William D. Goran, Fact

Sheet EN-48 [USACERL, Jnuay 19891) provide readers with an Overview of

GRASS capabilities.

Hardware Configuaions and Specifications are included in the frequently updated

GRASS Harduwie Conf7gurations Guide, (Douglas A. Brooks, Michael K Higgins, and

Mark 0. Johnsol ADP Report N-89/21 [USACERL, March 1989]), and Testing

Guidelines for GRASS Ports and Drivers (William D. Goran, ADP Report N-89/22

(USACERL, Jmuary 1989]). The first of these describes computers and peripherals

which are urdergoing, or have completed, beta testing, while rie latter paper describes

how these beta tests should be conducted.

GRASS Design and Softwarre Capabilities are descibed in such docurnrnts as

Differences between GRASS 2.0 and GRASS 3.0 Michael Shapino, in GRASS User's

Reference Manual, by James Wusterveit, Michaei Shapiro, William D. Goran, et al.,

ADP Report N-87/22 [USACERL,September 1988]) (which exanines recent, changes

to the software), and GRASS 3.0 Programs (which describes all programs released

(,ames Westervelt, in GRASS User's Re/ereme Manual, by ames Westervelt, Michael

Shapiro, William D. Goran, et al., ADP Report N-87/22 [USACFRL, September

19881) with GRASS version 3.0).

Data Development issues are treated in Cartographic Issues in Database Developrnent

(Marilyn Ruiz, Technical Manuscript N-89/24 [USACERL, September 1988]), Map

Prexration Gide (,kan Messersznith, in GRASS User's Reference Manual, by James

Westrvelt,' Mc'-el Shapiro, William D. Gora, et al., ADP Report N-87/22

[USACERL, September 1988]), and Sources of DOital ixtial Data (Mark 0. Johnson

aid William D. Goran, Technical Report N-88/01/ADA189788 (USACERL, December

1987]), and other documents.

GRASS Applications aire examined in such papers as An Eosion-Based Lal

Cla.sificeion System /br Militwy installatons, (S. D. Warren, V. E. Diersing, and P.

J Thompson, [paper presenced at the 41st Annual Meeting of the Society for Range

Marageent, 21-26 Februar; 1988, Corpus Christi, Tan), and Linking the ARMUWISD

Watershed tP"ocess Model uith the G/I4SS' GIS (Winifred Hodge, Marjorie Larson, and

William D. Coma. [paper preseited at t-e 1988 nitemaiional Symposium "Modeling

Agiculur-al, Forest and Raneland Hvdrlogy," 12-13 December 1988, Chicago, IL]).

NetwoHrtdng is discussed in (Gf&l4SA " Ani; Implelrfntation of HAYX Communication

Uli//.es iKathryn (Pecknold) Norman, in (;]R4,S8 U7,ser's Fe/rence Manual, by James

Westervelt, Michael Shapiro, William 1). Goran. et al., ADP Report N-87/22

I USACRL. AC "ptember 1988]).

A variety of Reference Manuals (including the (HAASS -ser's Reference Manual

[,hms Westervelt Michal Shapiro, William D. Goran, et al., ADP Report N-87t22

(USACKER, S-ptenber 1988)], and the (RAS 3.0 Progranne's Manual [Michael

Shapiro. kines Westervtel, Dave Gexxkcs, Michael Higgins, and Marjorie Larson, ADP

Report N-b8!14 (USA(EIL. September 19S9)]), Audio-Visual Materials (such as; the

GRASS Ved'o. and severAl slide scts). and intbrmaion on Support, Training, and

Vendorn, artidso a-ailable for distribution or loan

§8 (;HA and G IS SuVport Striztures
-60- -0.

A list of these and related documents can be obtained fiom the GRASS Information

Center at the address shown in §8.8 GR4SS Sftuare Dtstribution and Informntion LD. 621.

&.6. Thainin

USACERL offers special courses and sessior for Army and Corps District ar

Division personnel upon request Other GRASS support organizations offer courses

that are open to DOD participants and the general public (Table 8.1). The GRASS

Information Center and the newsletter GRASSlippings provide specific information on

upcoming courses.

lTD Space Rermote Sensing Center Soil Conservation Service Central Wahington University

Building 1103, Suite 118 National Cartographic Center Cortinuing EdUration/GIS

Stermis Space Center, MS 39529 501 Felix Sweet [Etenburg, WA 98926

FO(: Mehiqsa FBcher PO. Box 6567 MOC: Martha Dukin-Snith

601688-2509 Fort Worth 'IX 76115 509%363-1504

817334-5212, -5,559

(Workshops for SCS Staff)

Cook College Rernote Sensing Center

DeIpaernt of Erviionnintal Rsoureari

Colege Farm Road, P.O. Box 231

New Bminswick, NJ 08903

OC: Brie Bill

201 32-9.31

Table &1. GRAS Training Peiodic Training for Geneal P lic

§8 GRASS and GIS Support Straitres
8&7. Pdints of Catd for GRASS Irtwntk and Supjxrt

General points of contact at USACERL (Table 8.2) will respondi to questions,

comnients, and other input related to GRASS distribution, Inter-Agency issuies, data

development~ hardware configuations and benchmafldrg procedures, submnission of

contiibuted software, data applications work, GRASS newsletter distribution, andi

GRASS documentation arnd trainirg. Table 8.1 (p 60) andl Table 8.3 (p 62) list groups

outside USACERL which also provide GRASS distribution, tralining, adsupport

services.

GRASS

Net gr&asCeri uxcer ~'rmy nil

GRASSNET. cer'2grass

GRASS hIformmio Cenier IndaAgexy St~erg Curmmitt

Kathy 1L Nonmn Facilitator. Wiliam Goran

800/USA-CERL ext. 220 800ISA-CER. ext. 7n5

217M373-7220 2171373-6i73.5

Neit kathy &cericeceranny. roil Net: goran(_-erl.cecerannv.mil

G;RlASSNET: cerilkathy G~iASSNET: ceil~goran

GRASSiC40pngp GRASS Smlvmmi Contixuiim

Mary Marldn Jim Westervelt

K()/USA-('ERL ext. 46~2 800/USA-CERL ext. 449

217M32-6511 ext. 4#52 217M524id511 ext. 449

Net: irmflin~Caericeceranny.m-i Net. wstrve@~eH~ceeer.amrv.mil

GRARSNyr: cerlrnartin GPOASNET: ceri~weterve

GRASS Harda Manager Data Rotpfxirvtts ad Ino

Dou Dynols Ju~an Mm-wxrith

84)IUA-2EJext. 752 N(EUSA-('ERL1 ett 474

217t/373-67,52 2174t52-6511 ext. 474

Net; bruo)ks(,ceri.ceceramI.mil Net. obrient@terixccer arrm -il

(;RASLSNET: ceHi2brnoksq G'RA-NNET: ced~obnen

GRASS Saft~nre Dixzihtion GRASS Apptkinab

Mark .Johrvn Robert Iomar

~AEUS-('FI.ext. 411 tNKI/1USA-CHiU, ext 73

217M5.2-r651 e xt. 414 217M373-6739

iNut jhitonadtcri.ccer.arrm.rTiI Net, 1ozarq)cr.cecr.arm vnril

GR\SSN[: cri\~jhrc-o~ (31ASSN I eroizar

'fable K2.- GRAfr,4F17 & Electronic Mail

§8 GRASS andi GIS Support Sbtuire
-62- -62-

&& GRASS Softwalne Distributim "il Infornuion

Sites offering GRASS software distribution services ar" information are listed below:

GRASS INTORMATION CENJER

U.S. Army Cors-tlnon Eng nering Research Laboratory

P.O. Box 4006, 2902 Newmank Drive

ChE g IL 6124-4005

FOC: Kathy Nornan

8W0/USA-CERI. ext. 220 or 217)373-7220

GRASS SOFPWABE DISTRML ON

COMMEtI4AJ. D)IgIHBU7I'IIN ,/77"IS

MASSCOMP, MACENTOS & AT&T SUN, TEITRONIX & PC 386 SIICON GRAPHICS

riD Space Renote Sersing Center I)BA Svsterms V'. Hanrmway & Asociates

Building 1 103, Suite 118 Redwood One Building &39 Pearl Street Stennis Spae Center, MS 39529 10560 Arrwhcatl Drive Boulder, CO 80302

PDC: Mei,;La Fischer Fairfax, VA 22033 ICX': Wyndham Hanmwa%

601Ai88-2509 MC: Duve dohron 3031/440-9631

703/591-0&00

ACPI'Y DI.ST;R7I3U77 )N 1T'

Soil ('onervation Service Nasmrl RPrk service U.S. Army ('ERL

National (Cirtographic ('enter (PS'U-VASO t.O. IRex 40M5

501 Felix Street RO. Box 25287 2902 NewrrAi Drive

P.O. Box tIF67 Denrver, CO 80225 Champaign. IL 61824-4()5

Fort Worth, TX 76115 P )C: Harvev FMeet TOC: Mark JohDon

8174334-5212 .303)/6-2590 PO/UiA-('ERL

U.S. G.,ingica Survey

Mail Stop 915

National (enter

12201 Sunrise Valle. i)rivc

1"ston, VA 22092

-X': FdwJad l"ko ity.

Table 8.3: GRA Softwre and Infirmation Centers

8.9. GIS in the? Army and the Corps

While the first Army irstallations ar Corps Districts were implementing GIJS, both

the Army Engineers and the Corps Districts developed tenporary structures to oversee

or recommend procedures for GIS implementation The Amy established the "Army

GIS Steering Committee" with the Chief of the Army Envimnmerrtal Office (AIX)) as

Chair. This committee furtioned intermittently from 1986-89, and has become a

"propornt" organization for this documnt. Other member elements of the committee

have included the:

0 U.S. Army Engineering & Housing Support Center (EFSC), Natural &

Cultural Resources Division

§8 GRAW and GIS Sqpprt Srtw
-63- -63-

" EHSC, Manning Division

" Office of the Assistant Secretary of te Army (INL)

" Directorate of Research and Developnnt, HQ USACE

" Directorate of Civil Works, Office of Envinrnmntal Overview,

HQ USACE

" Office of the Chief of Engineers, Installation Planning Division (ZCI)

" U.S. Army Construction Engirering Research Laboratory

This committee has considered such issues as hardware and software standards, data

sharing between Computer-Aided Software Design and Development (CADD) and GIS

users, and specific applications that mquire or could berfit from GIS

In 1987, the Corps of Enginers established an Ad Hoc Comnittee on GIS, as a result

of a recomn-renation of the Environental Advisory Board after their meting in New

Orleans in March/1987. This com-ittee, which was healed by Dr. William Klesch,

met several times during 1987 and 1988 and presented final recornedtions to the

Environmental Advisory Board in October/1988 and shortly after to the Chief of

Enginers.

The Ad Hoc Committee included 32 xmembers, representing various Districts,

Divisions, Laboratories, and headquaners. Members were divided into eight

"subcommittees" to address the following eight technical areas:

" Sensitivity to user needs

" Scoping data requirements and applications

* Intenmdal hardware consisterry

* Software compatibility

" Quality control

" Technology tran'fer

* Cost considerations

" Inter- and intragercy coordination

imited nuners of copies of the committee's final report are available through tx

GlASS Inonnation Center (see §8.8 GRIS "fluoirc Di.stributioand InformidioM

. 6 ).

8.10. CoGcutiion

(iooed documenation and loglstical support will help those considening acquisition to

estinate cosLs and benefits associated with system implementafot Support structures

will provide an ongoing neclhnsni to adress users' questions before and after syste: n

acquisition. Such nxchnisms will allow sites to prepare thenmszelves--before the

sysVm arives--for tle implementtion of (RASS.

§8 GRASS mi GIS Suppt Sbrtre,
-64-

-64-
ERENCES

Bradshaw, Stuart, and Pam Thompson, Ojpioris for Aqring* tNeiation Data, Technical

Manuscript N-89/20 (U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory [USACERLI, January 1988).

Brooks, Douglas, Michael 1Hi,-irs, and Mafrk Johnson, G1LMFa.Hc,,huar Co.' gwrions Guide,

ADP Report N-89/21 (USACERL, March 1989).

Diersing, Victor, Steven Warren, and David Tazik, Land Corudikn-Thend Analvyss, Fact Sheet

EN-41 (USACERL, January 1989).

Goran, Williamn D., and R. E. Riggins, CGEogaphicai Information S ystems for Training Land

Evaluation," in Army Rese'arch, Den' loprrt and Acqu~sitior, N-,ptOct 1983, pp 26i-8.

Goran, Wiliam D., and Ri. E. Riggins, Gmuplir MateritAls to &iprt IBio tit sical Qua ntitai E avwonrwntat In-qyct Anzalysis - &nnares of Exstmg Materials, Technical Report N-68 (USACERL, March! 1979).

Crorn, William D., GPAS? act Ywct, Fort '3oe KN-48 (US.ACERL, January 1989).

Goran, William D., Testig Guidclihics for GRASS Ports and Dritrrs, ADP Report N-89/22

(USANCERL, January 1989).

Hottinan, Steven D., John J. Fithiadi, Richard G. Gfiithier, and Mark h' Cole, MirrmBNOISEA Usvr's Mfanual, Technical Report N-86/i2/ADA173iO5 (USINCERL, June 1986).

Johnson, Mark, Gtide lins for Runniing GRA85 B-enichrnarks, Technical Manuscript N-89/23

(USAGC'ERL, February -989).

Lozar, Robert C., Editor. hc'dnsof ti,,, 119S8 (egj'f'IRe.smne Annlysr is &qort Sy~stem

(GRAWT User Ornup Nfcetz4g, Technicail Manuscript N-89./18 (USACERL, September

I 9F9).

,To hnl-n, Mark, and Williamn 1). Grcran, &Sewrs of l)4, =& .4uial Data, ,Technical Report N88/ 01/ADA 189788 (USA CEML, December 1937).

Ressler, John Q., Williamn Sw-ain, S'mdra Androrson, anda Jerry Thompson, The GRAS5

Proien-&'ig MnulADP Report N-8.9/15 (USACEEL, August 1989).

Riggins, R. E., Steven Apfelbaurn, William D. Gorai, Anthony J. Krzysik, and Timothy J.

Wanil, Derelqornt of Ewimnrntal Gidlirw, for Mufti-Ptrjn.r Ranigr Conrrxs,

Voliaws I anid-", Technical Report N-87'/02/ADA176256 (USAC1HRL, January 1987).

Ruiz, Marilyn, Carto)qrzpiic I.,srles in2 Da, aba.s Deueiorimznt, Technical Manuscript N-89/24

(USAkCKRL, Septrrmber 0988).

cSeveringhaus, William, and RobeA. NLu'w, nng~tr rining Arra Mfanagcnmr, Fact Sheet

KN-13 (USACERL. No'oeabcr 19')~.

Shapiro, M ichael, James Wostiervelt, 0& ,an, C. RASSZ 3.0 Prng-annvrcr's Mfanual, ADP Report NS 9/ 14, f USACEVR1l Sce;Aernfr- r !1 39).

sivnrski, 13En, Mc}'xn'/Or P~rforrir e ,'7g -: Ir0>nt-stmentt (R.01) .S'idies forInn'ttion of GRASS on A'ih, nry 2ristfaa/wns Technical Manuscript N-89/ ('5 (USACERL, May

1989).

Wa-mr., S.D., V.E. Diersing, and P.J. rinrnp ;n, An Fronsiorz-5vwsd Land (NasFfction SNIstem

ror AU'arn. l[tnr np ,r rr,4,nfid n, the 41.ct Annual Meeting of the Society for

IHange Mlanag-mit, 21-26 Fe.') iriv% 19_8, (7rpu)!s (luisti, TX).

Wesnr;etJames, Nfichaoll Wmi Vi 11; r D. GYoran, et al., GRASS Uscr's Reference Manual,

ADP Report N-87/22 (11TSACETL, 'Stptemher 1988)
- 66 

- -66-
-67- -67-

Deinition of Trms:

Glossary of GIS Terms Canmoy Used in Relation to Digitizing'

Anm A line cornecting a set of point- that form one ide of a polvgon.

Area A fundamental unit of geographic information. Portions of the map bounded by lines.

See Polygon.

Attribute Nongraphic information associated with a point, line, or area element in a GIS.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): An electronic screen for displaying information or graphics. Also

called a visual display device.

Cel: The basic element of spatial inf-ornation in the raster grid) description of spatial entities.

Cursor A visible symbol guided by the mouse or digitizer, usually in the form of a cross or a

blinking symbol, that indicates a position on a CRT.

Data Base A collection of interrelated information, usually stored on some form of massstorage system such as magnetic tape or disk. A GIS data base includes data about the position

and the attributes of geographic features that have been coded as points, lines, areas, or grid

cells.

Digital: The ability to represent data in discrete, quanified units or digits.

Digitize: To encode map coordinates in digital form.

Digitizer A device for entering the spatial coordinates of mapped features from a map or document to the computer.

Edit: To remove errorz, from, or to modify, a digitized map or a file containing attribute data.

Ement: A fundament, geographic unit of infbrmation, such as a point, line, area, or pixel.

May a:iso be known a an entity.

Vile A collection of relatkd information in a computer that cam be accessed by a unique name.

Files may be stored on tapes or disks.

Graphis Monitor- A CRT capable of displaying maps and results in color.

Grid Map: A map in which the information is carried in the form of grid cells.

Hartkxp A copy on paper of map inforrnation or a graphics image originally displayed on a

CPT.

lntkactive A UIS s 'wterr in which thi oi-rator cam initiate or modify program execution via

an input device and can receive inforrnation from the computer about the progress of the job.

Adapted by Stu rt Braishaw (U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory ISACERLI based on definitions by P, A. Burrough, Pincipls of Geographi-

('a l, forntion 5vstems for Land Resowres Assessment Oxford University Press, Oxford,

1987.
Island: A polygon lying within a parent polygon that contains no connections to the parent

polygon. It may consist of one or more arcs.

Join: To connect two or more separately digitized lines or maps.

Keybo rd: A device for typing alphanumeric characters into the computer. The arrangement of

the keys resembles that of a typewriter, but often h& .iore capabilities.

Lay A logical separation of mapped information according to theme. Many geographic information systems allow the user to choose and work on a single layer or any combination of

layers at the same time.

Legmd: The part of the dravn map explaining the meariing of the symbols used to code the

depicted geographic elements.

Line: One of the basic geographic elements, defined by an ordered set of points that describes

the position and shape of a linear feature on the map. 1£ach line starts at a node and ends at a

node. Lines connect at nodes, and no line crosses itself or any other lines.

Max Cartography: a hand drawn -r printed document describing the spatial distribution of geographic feataures in terns of a recognizable and agreed sunbolism. Digital: the collection of

digital information about a part of the earth's surface.

Map Generalization: The process of reducing detpil on a map as a consequence of reducing the

map scale. The process can be 6miatonmated for certain kinds of data, such as topographic

features, but requires more insight for thematic maps.

Map iPn~ectiom The basic sy'v.tem of coordinates used to describe the spatial distribution of

elements in a GIS. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is generally used in GRASS.

Menu: A list of available options displayed on the screen that the user can choose from by

using the keyboard or a device such as a mouse.

Mowe A hand-steered device for entering data from a digiUzing tablet. See Puck, Cursor.

Nocke The point at which any lin-,- in a polygon or linear network are joined. Nodes define the

location of the endpoints of every line, and a single node may mark the start and/or end of one

or more lines. Nodes carry information about the topology of map features.

Ov-lay Mapping: the process of stacking digital representations of various spatial data on top

of each other so that each position in the area covered can be analyzed in terms of these data.

Map preparadon. refers to a s(eparate layer of map information which contains information on

the atir'bute coding for the prepared map.

Point- O)ne of the bsc geographic elements. Points are referred to as degenerate lines. A

degenerat( line starts and ends at the s.ne node and has zero length.

Polygn: A multisided figure representing an area on a nmap.

IPmiLk A hand-heid device for entering dat from a digitizer (see Mouse, Cursor). Usually has

a window with accurately engraved croshairs, and several buttons for entering associated data

Residziml: In map mistration, the amount of error a registered point contributes to the overall

map registration error.
| |

Resolution: The smallest spacing between two display elements; the smallest size of feature

that can be mapped or sampled.

Scale The relation between the size of an object on a map and its size in the real world.

SnaF To connect two or more separately digitized lines.

Tablet- A small digitizer used for interactive work on a graphics workstation. See Mouse.

Threshold: The level, point, or value above which something will take place and below which

something will not.

Topographic Map A map showing the topography (contours, roads, rivers, houses, etc.) in

great accuracy and detail relative to the map scale used.

Topologically Strucured Refers to a digital file of geographic data that maintains the spatial

relationships between features inherent in the map.

Topology. The way in which geographic elements are linked together.

Transform: The process of changing the scale, projection, or orientation of a mapped image.

UNIX: A modem, general purpose operating system.

UTM: The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system of Eastings and Northings.

Vectr. A quantity having both magnitude and dim, ion. Refers to any digitized lines.

Window. A usually rectangular area that is used to view or to transform the original map.

Workstation: The desk, keyboard, digitizing tablet, and CRTs connected together as a unit for

wvorking with maps or graphics in interactive GIS.

Zoom= A capability for proportionately enlarging or reducing the scale of a figure or maps

displayed on a CRT.
USACERL DISTRIBUTION

Chief of Engineers TRADOC

ATTN: CEIM-SL (2) HQ, TRADOC, ATTN: ATEN-DEH 23651 ATTN: CECC-P ATTN: DEH (18)

ATTN: CECW

ATTN: CECW-O Fort Belvoir, VA 22060

ATTN: CECW-P ATN: Engr Studies Center ATTN: CECW-RR ATTN: Engr Topographic Lab

ATTN: CEMP ATTN: ATZA-TE-SW

ATTN: CEMP-C ATI'N: STRBE-BLURE

ATTN: CEMP-E

ATTN: CERD CECRL, ATTN: Library 03755

ATTN: CERD-L

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ATTN: CERD-M

ATTN: CERM HQ, XVIII Airborne Corps and

ATTN: DAEN-ZCE Ft. Bragg 28307

ATTN: DAEN-ZCI ATTN: AFZA-DEH-EE

ATTN: DAEN-ZCM

ATTN: DAEN-ZCZ Chanute AFB, IL 61868

3345 CES/DE, Stop 27

CEHSC ATTN: CEHSC-ZC 22060

ATTN: DET III 79906 NAVFAC

ATTN: Water Resources Center 22060 ATTN: Facilities Engr Cmd (9)

ATTN: Naval Civil Engr Lab (3) Allied Command Europe (ACE) ATTN: ACSGEB 09011 Engineering Societies Library ATTN: SHIHB/Engineer 09055 New York, NY 10017

ATTN: AFUES 09081

National Guard Bureau 20310

US Military Academy 10966 Installation Division

ArN: Facilities Engineer ATTN: Dept of Geography & US Government Printing Office 22304

Computer Science Receiving/Depository Section (2) ATTN: MAEN-A

US Army Env. Hygiene Agency FORSCOM ATTN: HSHB-ME 21010

FORSCONI Engineer, ATTN: Spt Det.

ATTN: Facilities Engineer (27) Defense Technical Info. Center 22314

ATTN: DDA (2) HS C

Ft. Sam Houston AMC 78234 108

ATTN: ISLO.-F 10/89

Fitzsimons AMC 80045

ATTN: HSHG-i -H

Walter Reed ANIC 20307

ATTN: Facilities Engineer

INSCOM - (h, Instil. Div.

Arlington lall Station (4) 22212

ATTN: Facilities Engineer Vint [Hill Farms Station 22186

ATTN: IAV-DEII