Army Support During 

the Hurricane Katrina 

Disaster

James A. Wombwell

The Long War Series

Occasional Paper 29

US Army Combined Arms Center

Combat Studies Institute Press

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

OP 29

Army Support During 

the Hurricane Katrina 

Disaster

James A. Wombwell

US Army Combined Arms Center

Combat Studies Institute Press

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

OP 29
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wombwell, James A., 1956-

 Army support during the Hurricane Katrina disaster / by James A. 

Wombwell.

 p. cm. -- (Occasional paper ; 29)

 Includes bibliographical references.

 1. Hurricane Katrina, 2005. 2. United States--Armed Forces--Civic action. 

3. United States--National Guard--Civic action. 4. Disaster relief--Gulf 

states. I. Combat Studies Institute (U.S.) II. Title. III. Series.

 HV636 2005 .U6 W66 2009

 363.34’9220976090511--dc22

 2009000944

 CSI Press publications cover a variety of military history 

topics. The views expressed in this CSI Press publication 

are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the 

Department of the Army or the Department of Defense. 

A full list of CSI Press publications, many of them 

available for downloading, can be found at http://usacac.

army.mil/CAC2/CSI/

The seal of the Combat Studies Institute authenticates this document as 

an official publication of the CSI. It is prohibited to use CSI’s official seal 

on any republication of this material without the written permission of the 

Director of CSI.
iii

Foreword

The Combat Studies Institute (CSI) is pleased to announce its latest 

publication in the Long War Series, Occasional Paper 29, Army Support 

During the Hurricane Katrina Disaster, by Mr. James A. Wombwell. In 

August 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall as a Category 3 storm and 

was the costliest hurricane as well as one of the five deadliest storms in 

the history of the United States. It caused extensive destruction along 

the Gulf coast from central Florida to Texas. The most severe loss of life 

and property damage occurred in New Orleans, Louisiana, where the 

levee system catastrophically failed, flooding the city and large tracts of 

neighboring parishes.

In preparation for and reaction to the hurricane, the United States 

Northern Command established Joint Task Force Katrina at Camp Shelby, 

Mississippi, to act as the Active component’s on-scene commander. Some 

22,000 Active-Duty personnel eventually assisted with relief-and-recovery 

operations in Mississippi and Louisiana. At the same time, all 50 states, the 

District of Columbia, and 3 territories sent approximately 50,000 National 

Guard personnel to deal with the storm’s aftermath. These men and women 

were instrumental in the rescue-and-relief mission, often using their own 

initiative and resources in the chaotic aftermath of the storm. 

Because the media coverage of this great national disaster tended 

toward the sensational more than the analytical, many important stories 

remain to be told in a dispassionate manner. One such story is the response 

by US Army personnel, both the Active and Reserve components, within 

the broader governmental effort to mitigate the horrific effects of the storm. 

James Wombwell’s study offers just such a dispassionate analysis of the 

Army’s response to the natural disaster by providing a detailed account 

of the operations in Louisiana and Mississippi. Much good work was 

done by the Army team, but Wombwell shows that there is still room for 

improvement.

Sadly, we have not seen the end of natural disasters in the United 

States, ensuring that the US Army once more will be called upon to 

provide assistance in their aftermath. The insights gained from the 

Army’s experience following Hurricane Katrina, as delineated in James 

Wombwell’s study, will make that future response even more focused and 

efficient. CSI—The Past Is Prologue!

Dr. William G. Robertson

Director, Combat Studies Institute



Preface

Like many Americans, I followed the events in Mississippi and 

Louisiana with great interest in the days after Hurricane Katrina struck 

the Gulf coast. The pictures of the destruction wrought by the storm 

were overwhelming. I was appalled by the predictions that the storm and 

subsequent flooding killed up to 10,000 people. The reports of looting, rape, 

and murder sickened me. As I listened to the media reports, I wondered 

how we could allow such things to happen in our country. Where were 

the vast resources of our Federal Government and, more to the point, the 

United States military? Consequently, as I approached this project, I had 

to overcome a number of preconceived notions. 

What I soon learned was that the United States Army’s response to 

Hurricane Katrina was both broad in that a wide range of units with a variety 

of skill sets assisted with the relief effort and deep in that large numbers 

of Army troops answered the call for help. An in-depth examination of 

the actions of all of the Army units involved in the relief effort was not, 

therefore, feasible. Instead, this occasional paper highlights the actions of 

some of the thousands of soldiers involved in the operation. I hope it will 

be useful to soldiers in the field when they are confronted with similar 

situations in the future.

As with any project of this size, a number of people were kind enough 

to provide me with support and assistance. Since this was my first foray 

into writing for the Combat Studies Institute, I would especially like to 

thank Mr. Kendall Gott for showing amazing patience and support and 

Colonel Timothy Reese and Dr. William G. Robertson for reviewing the 

draft and making it much better. The same goes for Marilyn Edwards, 

whose fine editing greatly improved my work.

Many other people also helped. Lieutenant Colonel Al Koenig of 

the Joint Task Force Katrina History Office was incredibly helpful. He 

provided me with many documents, including two impressive collections 

of oral history interviews conducted by Army Military History Teams. 

Those interviews were crucial to my understanding of the actions taken 

by Army personnel during this crisis and serve as one of the important 

foundations of this study. Similarly, the staff of the Center for Army 

Lessons Learned (CALL) gave me access to hundreds of documents that 

were collected during the relief operation. Dr. John Lonnquest sent me an 

advanced copy of the US Army Corps of Engineers impressive study of 

its Hurricane Katrina related operations. Similarly, Dr. John W. Brinsfield, 

the US Army Chaplain Corps Historian, gave me a history of the Chaplain 
vi

Corps, which covered the actions of the many chaplains who responded 

to the catastrophe. Among the people kind enough to grant interviews or 

provide pertinent documents were Lieutenant General William B. Caldwell 

IV, Lieutenant General Russel L. Honoré, Major General Tod Carmony, 

Brigadier General Lonnie Culver, Brigadier General Gary Jones, Colonel 

Bryan Owens, Colonel Tom Johnson, Colonel Barry Keeling, Lieutenant 

Colonel David Napier, Lieutenant Colonel Vince Mercadante, and 

Lieutenant Colonel Tami Zalewski. I would also like to thank my wife 

Paula and daughters Natalie, Katherine, and Heather for putting up with 

long hours at the office as I worked on this book. This Occasional Paper 

would not have been possible without the help of all of those listed above 

as well as many others not mentioned. As always, responsibility for any 

errors in fact or judgment resides solely with me.
vii

Contents

Page

Foreword..................................................................................................iii

Preface.......................................................................................................v

List of Tables......................................................................................... viii

List of Figures......................................................................................... ix

Chapter 1. Introduction.............................................................................1

Chapter 2. History and Doctrine...............................................................9

Historical Background........................................................................9

Total Force Response to Civil Assistance........................................17

Laws, Directives, Plans, and Doctrine Related to Civil Support.....19

Summary..........................................................................................27

Chapter 3. The Storm..............................................................................35

Chapter 4. Louisiana...............................................................................45

Prelandfall Preparations...................................................................45

Immediate Response Operations......................................................50

. . Airborne Search-and-Rescue Operations...................................51

. . Airborne Evacuations................................................................58

. . Ground Operations.....................................................................58

. . Superdome.................................................................................60

. . Ernest N. Morial Convention Center.........................................66

Recovery Operations........................................................................69

. . National Guard in Louisiana......................................................69

Summary..........................................................................................94

Chapter 5. Mississippi...........................................................................111

Prelandfall Preparations.................................................................112

Immediate Response Operations....................................................115

Recovery Operations......................................................................123

. . Task Force Quick.....................................................................128

. . Task Force Wright....................................................................129

. . Task Force Lee.........................................................................132

. . Task Force Kiefer.....................................................................135

. . Other Task Forces....................................................................136

Summary........................................................................................136
viii

Page

Chapter 6. Title 10 Operations..............................................................145

Prelandfall Preparations.................................................................145

Immediate Response.......................................................................152

Recovery Operations......................................................................164

. . Task Force All American..........................................................165

. . Aviation Support......................................................................173

. . Logistics Support.....................................................................173

. . Medical Support.......................................................................175

. . Veterinary Support...................................................................176

. . Mortuary Support.....................................................................177

. . Reserve Component Support...................................................177

. . US Army Corps of Engineers..................................................179

. . Title 10 Support in Mississippi................................................180

Summary........................................................................................182

Chapter 7. Conclusions.........................................................................195

Analysis Using FM 3-28, Civil Support Operations......................197

. . Chapter 1, Civil Support Operations Overview.......................197

. . Chapter 2, Integrating Army Operations With National

. . . Doctrine.............................................................................204

. . Chapter 3, Provide Support in Response to a Disaster............206

. . Chapter 4, Support to Law Enforcement.................................208

. . Chapter 6, Legal Considerations..............................................209

. . Chapter 7, Sustainment............................................................210

Summary........................................................................................213

Glossary................................................................................................217

Bibliography.........................................................................................221

Appendix A. Hurricane Katrina Chronology........................................245

Appendix B. Louisiana National Guard Task Organization.................253

Appendix C. Mississippi National Guard Task Organization...............261

About the Author...................................................................................267

Table

1. National Guard Troop Activations.....................................................5
ix

Page

Figures

1. Hurricane Katrina’s track.................................................................35

2. Comparison of Hurricanes Camille and Katrina..............................36

3. Storm surge in Mississippi...............................................................39

4. Flood damage in New Orleans.........................................................40

5. Louisiana National Guard task organization as of

. . 28 August 2005..........................................................................46

6. Airborne search and rescue in New Orleans....................................52

7. A Blackhawk helicopter lands on the freeway near the

. . Interstate 10 intersection for Baton Rouge and Slidell,

. . Louisiana, to pick up citizens awaiting evacuation...................55

8.	 An Army UH-60 helicopter flies near the Superdome.....................61

9. Army National Guard soldiers assist citizens during the

. . evacuation of the Superdone.....................................................64

10. National Guard response to Hurricane Katrina................................70

11. Louisiana National Guard task organization as of

. . 2 September 2005......................................................................71

12. Task Force Santa Fe task organization.............................................79

13. Ohio National Guard soldiers use a johnboat they found to

. . perform a search-and-rescue mission in downtown New

. . Orleans.......................................................................................84

14. A survivor sits among the rubble in his Gulfport, Mississippi,

. . neighborhood...........................................................................111

15. Damage to the Ocean Springs Bridge............................................114

16. Alabama National Guard aircrew delivers supplies in

. . Columbia, Mississippi.............................................................119

17. Soldiers from the 216th MP Company, Arkansas Army

. . National Guard, provide security in Gulfport, Mississippi......122

18. Mississippi National Guard task organization

. . as of 4 September 2005............................................................125

19. Mississippi task forces....................................................................127

20. Soldiers from B Battery, 134th Field Artillery Battalion,

. . Ohio National Guard, hand out diapers and personal

. . hygiene supplies at a point of distribution in Poplarville,

. . Mississippi...............................................................................133

21. Lieutenant General Russel Honoré meets with congressional

. . leaders on board the USS Iwo Jima.........................................150
x

Page

22. A US Army US-60 helicopter from the 4th Infantry Division

. . maneuvers for a rescue............................................................159

23. A CH-47 Chinook helicopter from the Army Reserve’s B

. . Company, 5th Battalion, 159th Aviation Regiment, lifts

. . three large sandbags.................................................................162

24. Orleans Parish operating areas.......................................................168

25. A soldier from the 307th Engineer Battalion, 82d Airborne

	 	 Division, navigates his Zodiac boat through a flooded

. . neighborhood...........................................................................169

26. Major General William B. Caldwell IV and Command

. . Sergeant Major Wolf Amacker greet Archbishop Phillip

. . Hannan, the former Archbishop of the Archdiocese of

. . New Orleans and an 82d Airborne paratrooper during

. . World War II............................................................................170

27. A soldier from the 307th Engineer Battalion, 82d Airborne

	 	 Division, marks a flooded home after searching the

. . premises...................................................................................171

28. Personnel from the 21st Chemical Company conduct

. . decontamination operations.....................................................172

29. Crewmembers load a FEMA urban search-and-rescue team

	 	 boat onto a CH-47 Chinook helicopter flown by the Army

. . Reserve’s B Company, 5th Battalion, 159th Aviation

. . Regiment..................................................................................178

30. Louisiana Task Force Pelican........................................................253

31. Task Force Santa Fe.......................................................................254

32. Task Force Cyclone (38th Infantry Division).................................261


Chapter 1

Introduction

Much to the chagrin of The Weather Channel, hurricanes do not strike 

the United States with great frequency. Since 1951, three hurricanes have, 

on average, hit the United States every 2 years. Normally, only one of 

those three is a major hurricane, graded a Category 3 or higher hurricane.1

Unfortunately, nothing about Hurricane Katrina was normal. Instead, 

Hurricane Katrina was one of the strongest, largest, and most devastating 

hurricanes to ever hit the continental United States. 

Hurricane Katrina began as Tropical Depression 12 on Tuesday, 23 

August 2005.2 Tropical Depression 12 was upgraded to Hurricane Katrina 

late Thursday afternoon, 25 August, and a few hours later, it slammed into 

Florida.3

 The hurricane passed over Florida and entered the Gulf of Mexico 

where the warm waters enabled it to continue to grow in strength. Over 

the next few days, as the hurricane made its approach on the Gulf coast, 

emergency managers throughout the region scrambled to prepare for the 

storm. By Friday, 26 August, Hurricane Katrina had grown into a Category 

3 storm and it was getting stronger by the hour.4

 National Hurricane Center 

officials warned that it could get even bigger and began comparing it to 

Hurricanes Camille and Andrew, two of the most devastating hurricanes to 

ever strike the United States. 

In the face of such dire warnings, both state and Federal officials began 

implementing their emergency plans. Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco 

declared a state of emergency on Friday, 26 August, and activated 2,000 

National Guard soldiers.5

 Governor Haley Barbour followed suit later that 

afternoon when he, too, declared a state of emergency in Mississippi and 

authorized the callup of the state National Guard.6

 The next day, Governor 

Blanco mobilized 2,000 more Louisiana National Guard troops, initiated 

the state’s evacuation plan, and asked President George W. Bush to declare 

a Federal state of emergency in Louisiana.7

 President Bush acceded to 

Governor Blanco’s request Saturday evening and issued a Federal state 

of emergency declaration for Louisiana. That was a significant action 

because it authorized the prelandfall deployment of Federal assistance to 

Louisiana, a measure rarely taken by Presidents.8

 The President signed 

similar declarations on Sunday, 28 August, and declared Florida a Federal 

disaster area.9

Based on past experience, emergency management officials in 

Louisiana and Mississippi expressed confidence that they were prepared. 

Bill Dorient, the Operations Officer for the Louisiana Office of Emergency
Planning, commented that, “We’re planning for a catastrophic event . . . 

thanks to the help of FEMA [Federal Emergency Management Agency] 

. . . we’re way ahead of the game.”10

 Although the coastal evacuations 

were not going as well as they expected, Mississippi emergency 

management officials expressed similar confidence. Search-and-rescue 

assets were in place; National Guard troops were on station in the three 

coastal counties; and there was enough food and water on hand, officials 

estimated, to last 24 to 36 hours.11 FEMA officials also thought they had 

the situation under control. Bill Lokey, the Federal coordinating official in 

Louisiana said, “We’re meeting all of the state objectives as last we heard, 

and planning is going well.”12

Although Hurricane Katrina was downgraded to a Category 3 storm 

before it made landfall near Buras, Louisiana, at 0610 central daylight 

time (CDT) on Monday, 29 August, it was still an incredibly large and 

powerful storm. Twenty-four hours before landfall, Hurricane Katrina’s 

winds extended out for 460 miles, making it twice as large as Hurricane 

Andrew.13

 Hurricane Katrina’s maximum sustained winds exceeded 

127 miles per hour when it struck Louisiana, which is the high end of a 

Category 3 hurricane, and the barometric pressure was the third lowest 

ever recorded at landfall.14

 The storm surge along the western Mississippi 

coast ranged from 24 to 28 feet. It was high enough to obliterate a number 

of towns along the coast. Although the storm surge was not as high in 

Louisiana, it still ranged from 10 to 19 feet, which was enough to raise the 

level of Lake Pontchartrain and cause the levees to fail in New Orleans.15

Hurricane Katrina left most survivors stunned and in shock. Jim 

Brinson, of the Mississippi Office of Homeland Security, described the 

apocalyptic scene in Mississippi, “Going down [Route] 49 and seeing all 

these people just dazed and confused—you know, I’ve been to bad areas 

all over the world in the military; I’ve seen, you know, entire cities that 

have been bombed out . . . and these folks are just dazed. . . . The further 

south we went, the worse and worse it got.”16

The emergency response system, as envisioned under the National 

Response Plan (NRP), almost collapsed due to the immensity of the 

destruction wrought by Hurricane Katrina. Many first responders fell 

victim to the storm’s wrath. Since the storm knocked out virtually all means 

of communications, most victims could not call for help, and Emergency 

Operations Centers could not dispatch surviving first responders to assist 

victims. Finally, even if first responders survived and were in contact with 

their dispatch centers, they were often unable to reach victims because of 

flooded or debris-strewn roads. Consequently, the NRP was under extreme 

pressure from the very beginning of the crisis.
Once the storm subsided and the shock wore off, those who lived 

through the hurricane wondered how they were going to survive the 

aftermath. Fire Chief Pat Sullivan reported that Gulfport, Mississippi, 

was completely destroyed. “We’re in that critical time that people can be 

rescued,” Sullivan said, but “if we don’t get out there and do it now, then 

they’re going to die.”17

 In Bond, Mississippi, which was devastated by the 

storm, Dorothy Maxwell said, “I ain’t got nothing to eat and I’m hungry. 

. . . They got to send us something. We got nothing. People back here are 

going to starve.”18

 Similar concerns echoed throughout Mississippi and 

Louisiana in the days following the storm.

Some places, such as New Orleans, seemingly descended into anarchy. 

There were reports that as many as 25 percent of the New Orleans police 

force walked off the job. “They indicated that they had lost everything and 

didn’t feel that it was worth them going back to take fire from looters and 

losing their lives,” said Colonel Henry Whitehorn of the Louisiana state 

police.19

 New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin claimed that the city was overrun 

by “drug-starving crazy addicts, drug addicts, that are wreaking havoc. 

And we don’t have the manpower to adequately deal with it. We can only 

target certain sections of the city and form a perimeter around them and 

hope to God that we’re not overrun.”20 With a death toll thought to be 

in the thousands, bodies were reportedly everywhere. Mayor Nagin told 

reporters that he was more worried about the living than the dead, saying, 

“We’re not even dealing with dead bodies. . . . They’re just pushing them on 

the side.”21

 There were also reports of horrific scenes of rape and murder at 

the Superdome and Convention Center, where tens of thousands of people 

took shelter.22 Even though looting was not as prevalent in Mississippi as 

it was in New Orleans, Governor Barbour still felt obliged to warn looters 

that they would be treated “ruthlessly.” “Looting will not be tolerated, 

period, and rules of engagement will be as aggressive as the law allows,” 

Barbour said. “Security goes hand-in-hand with search and rescue.”23

In the midst of such chaos, many local officials, victims, and media 

pundits began to question the adequacy of the Federal Government’s and, 

by extension, the Army’s response to the crisis. On 1 September, The 

Times-Picayune, New Orleans’ major newspaper, ran an editorial that 

asked: “Where Is the Cavalry?” The article recounted the anarchy gripping 

the city and then stated, “The lack of law enforcement presence is stunning 

. . . there seems to have been no strategy to get the hundreds of military and 

law enforcement officers on the ground who were needed to establish order 

immediately.”24 Two days later, in a strongly worded editorial, the Biloxi

Sun Herald pleaded for help and questioned why a massive National Guard 

presence wasn’t already visible. The newspaper asked why it had taken so 
long to deliver basic commodities such as food, water, ice, gasoline, and 

medicine. “We are not,” the paper wrote, “calling on the nation and the 

state to make life more comfortable in South Mississippi, we are calling 

on the nation and the state to make life here possible.”25 So, the question 

many began to ask was, where is the cavalry and why has it taken them so 

long to get there?

But the cavalry was on the way—in fact, it had been there from the 

beginning. The day that Hurricane Katrina struck, there were 5,982 National 

Guard soldiers and airmen on state active duty in Louisiana and 3,838 

on state active duty in Mississippi.26 They began conducting search-andrescue missions, providing security, and delivering needed commodities to 

victims as soon as the storm passed. In the days that followed, the number 

of soldiers, sailors, and airmen increased dramatically, to more than 72,000 

Active, Reserve, and Guard members at the peak. They brought with them 

346 helicopters, 68 fixed-wing aircraft, and numerous trucks and other 

vehicles.27

The United States Army’s response to Hurricane Katrina is a story of 

two different phases and three different operations. During the first phase—

the immediate response period—the Army, predominately National Guard 

forces, reacted to the situation much as it has on numerous other occasions. 

Both states executed their plans with the forces they had on hand, although 

they requested and received additional support from other states. It quickly 

became clear that the “normal” way of doing business would not work 

because Hurricane Katrina was not a run-of-the-mill hurricane and the 

damage it inflicted was anything but normal. On 31 August, the Chief of 

the National Guard Bureau, Lieutenant General H. Steven Blum, asked 

other states to send whatever aid they could to Louisiana; there were more 

than 15,000 National Guard soldiers and airmen in both states. The next 

day, 1 September, when The Times-Picayune asked where the cavalry 

was, there were almost 20,000 National Guardsmen on duty in both states, 

including more than 12,000 in Louisiana. By the time the Biloxi Sun Herald

released its editorial, there were more than 13,000 National Guardsmen 

in Mississippi. On 7 September, a week after Lieutenant General Blum 

made his appeal, there were almost 46,000 Guardsmen in both states, a 

fourfold increase in the number of National Guard troops in the region.28

Table 1 shows the activations of the National Guard. Similarly, there were 

about 2,000 Active-Duty personnel in the two states providing support on 

31 August. A week later, more than 18,000 Title 10 soldiers, sailors, and 

airmen were involved in the relief operation. Active component support 

peaked at 22,000 on 12 September.29 Those were unprecedented levels of 

support for an extraordinary event.
Table 1. National Guard Troop Activations*

Date

Louisiana Mississippi

LA NG

Other 

States Total MS NG

Other 

States Total

8/30/2005 5,804 178 5,982 3,822 16 3,838

8/31/2005 5,804 663 6,467 3,822 1,149 4,971

9/1/2005 5,804 2,555 8,359 3,823 2,861 6,684

9/2/2005 6,779 5,445 12,224 3,823 3,719 7,542

9/3/2005 6,779 10,635 17,414 3,823 6,314 10,137

9/4/2005 6,779 12,404 19,183 4,017 9,399 13,416

9/5/2005 6,779 16,162 22,941 4,017 10,999 15,016

9/6/2005 6,779 20,510 27,289 4,023 11,095 15,118

9/7/2005 6,779 22,589 29,368 4,023 11,388 15,411

9/8/2005 6,779 23,476 30,255 4,023 11,506 15,529

*From Steve Bowman, Lawrence Kapp, and Amy Belasco, CRS RL33095, Hurricane 

Katrina: DOD Disaster Response (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 19 

September 2005), 11.

Meanwhile, as the number of National Guard forces grew, the 

operation devolved into three separate operations. President Bush tried to 

achieve unity of command during the first week of the crisis by counseling 

Governor Blanco to request federalization of the National Guard. She chose 

not to do so, and President Bush never broached the subject with Governor 

Barbour. Consequently, three separate operations evolved. In Louisiana, all 

National Guard forces operated under the command of Task Force Pelican, 

which controlled all assets and dispersed them to subordinate task units 

upon request. The National Guard Bureau sent a divisional headquarters to 

Louisiana to help with command and control. The 35th Infantry Division 

(Task Force Santa Fe) did not have operational control over all of the forces 

operating in its area of operations, so it focused on providing logistics and 

other support to the parish task forces. Individual task forces coordinated 

their efforts with the civilian authorities, relief agencies, National Guard 

units, and Active component forces operating in their areas. Mississippi 

used the divisional headquarters sent to that state in a much different 

manner. The 38th Infantry Division, Task Force Cyclone, controlled all 

units in the state and reported directly to the state adjutant general. Each 

county task force had a good mix of forces, including engineers, medical 

personnel, and aviation units. Finally, the Active component—Joint Task 

Force Katrina—led by Lieutenant General Russel L. Honoré, provided 

support to both states. Most of the Active component’s support was, 

however, focused on Louisiana and, more specifically, New Orleans. Title 
10 troops began arriving in force about a week after Hurricane Katrina 

struck the city. Active component soldiers used their experiences from 

Iraq and other operations to bring order to an often confused situation in 

New Orleans. They managed to bring disparate relief groups together and 

forge effective interagency operations in the city. They worked closely 

with National Guard task forces, in some cases embedding National 

Guard soldiers in with Active units to counteract the impact the Posse 

Comitatus Act imposed on Active component operations, but there was 

limited contact with Task Force Pelican. Thus, in many ways, the Active 

component operation was superimposed on the situation. Although the 

relief effort was slow to get started, within 3 weeks of Hurricane Katrina 

striking Mississippi and Louisiana, relief missions gave way to recovery 

activities, and National Guard and Title 10 soldiers began phasing out of 

the operation.

Despite that enormous effort, months after the storm had passed, the 

question remained: Where were the military forces, and why did it take them 

so long to respond? That question, among others, spawned investigations 

by both the United States Senate and House of Representatives, a study by 

the Government Accountability Office,30 and an examination of the lessons 

learned by the President. This occasional paper examines the effectiveness 

of the United States Army’s response to Hurricane Katrina, focusing 

on what the Army did and how it responded in the face of a large-scale 

disaster unlike any other ever faced before. As President George W. Bush 

said several weeks after the hurricane struck the Gulf coast, “It [Katrina] 

was not a normal hurricane—and the normal disaster relief system was not 

equal to it.”31

 The cavalry was indeed there, in the form of the National 

Guard, and it did respond in a timely manner, but the magnitude of the 

disaster dwarfed its response initially. Instead of thousands of troops, it 

took tens of thousands of troops to save lives, bring relief, reestablish order, 

and restore the region to some semblance of normality. It also took the 

skills resident in America’s soldiers to overcome the chaos and destruction 

delivered by Hurricane Katrina to the Gulf coast.
Notes

1. Eric S. Blake, Edward N. Rappaport, and Christopher W. Landsea, 

National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Technical Memorandum 

NWS TPC-5, The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Tropical 

Cyclones From 1851 to 2006 (and Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts)

(Miami, FL: National Weather Service, National Hurricane Center, April 2007), 

11, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/NWS-TPC-5.pdf (accessed 1 April 2008).

2. US Congress, Senate, Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared, 

Senate Report 109-322, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 2006, 51, http://hsgac.senate.gov/_

files/Katrina/ FullReport.pdf (accessed 8 January 2008).

3. Axel Graumann et. al., Hurricane Katrina: A Climatic Perspective

(Asheville, NC: NOAA National Climatic Data Center, October 2005), 1, http://

www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/reports/tech-report-200501z.pdf (accessed 10 March 

2008).

4. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 51.

5. Major General Bennett C. Landreneau, “Hurricane Katrina: The Defense 

Department’s Role in the Response,” Senate Homeland Security and Governmental 

Affairs Committee, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 9 February 2006, 3–4, http://hsgac.

senate.gov/_files/020906Landreneau.pdf (accessed 27 December 2007).

6. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 67.

7. Landreneau, 3.

8. United States Executive Office of the President, The Federal Response 

to Hurricane Katrina (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2006), 

27, http://www.whitehouse.gov/reports/katrina-lessons-learned.pdf (accessed 19 

December 2007).

9. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 68.

10. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), “FEMA Region 

VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 28 August 2005,” 16–17, http://images.

chron.com/content/news/photos/06/03/02/katrinatranscript0828.pdf (accessed 15 

January 2008).

11. Ibid., 20–21.

12. Ibid., 27.

13. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 52.

14. Graumann et. al., 2.

15. Ibid., 4.

16. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 23.

17. CBS News/Associated Press, “Mississippi Hurting,” 31 August 2005, http://

www.cbsnews.com/ stories/2005/08/31/katrina/main808257.shtml?source=search_

story (accessed 10 March 2008).

18. CBS News/Associated Press, “Forgotten in the Far Reaches,” 2 September 2005, 

http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/ 2005/09/02/katrina/main813892.shtml?source=search_

story (accessed 10 March 2008).

19. CBS News/Associated Press, “Misery Amid Finger Pointing,” 2 September 2005, 

http://www.cbsnews.com/ stories/2005/09/02/katrina/main813001.shtml?source=search_

story (accessed 10 March 2008).
20. “Mayor to Feds: ‘Get Off Your Asses,’” CNN, 2 September 2005) http://

www.cnn.com/2005/US/09/02/nagin.transcript (accessed 18 March 2008).

21. CBS News/Associated Press, “Gulf Coast Death Toll Mounts,” 30 

August 2005, http://www.cbsnews.com/ stories/2005/08/30/national/main806628.

shtml?source=search_story (accessed 10 March 2008).

22. “Misery Amid Finger Pointing.” 

23. Fox News. “Katrina Hammers Gulf Coast,” 29 August 2005, http://www.

foxnews.com/story/0,2933,167289,00.html (accessed 29 January 2008).

24. “Where Is the Cavalry?” The Times-Picayune, 1 September 2005, http://

www.nola.com/katrina/pages/090105/a15.pdf (accessed 31 March 2008).

25. CBS News/Associated Press, “Mississippi Suffering Overshadowed,” 

3 September 2005, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/09/06/48hours/

main821560.shtml?source=search_story (accessed 10 March 2008).

26. Steve Bowman, Lawrence Kapp, and Amy Belasco, CRS RL33095, 

Hurricane Katrina: DOD Disaster Response (Washington, DC: Congressional 

Research Service, 19 September 2005), 11, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/

RL33095.pdf (accessed 3 December 2007).

27. American Forces Press Service, “Military Continues Hurricane Katrina Support,” 

13 September 2005, http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17316 (accessed 

9 January 2008).

28. Bowman, Kapp, and Belasco, 11.

29. US Congress, House, A Failure of Initiative: Final Report of the 

Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to 

Hurricane Katrina, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 15 February 2006, 202, http://www.

c-span.org/pdf/katrinareport.pdf (accessed 17 December 2007).

30. The GAO’s name was changed from the General Accounting Office to 

the General Accountability Office on 7 July 2004 with the enactment of the GAO 

Human Capital Reform Act of 2004.

31. John D. Banusiewicz, “Bush Calls for Broader Military Disaster 

Response Role,” American Forces Press Service, 16 September 2005, http://www.

defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17285 (accessed 9 January 2008).


Chapter 2

History and Doctrine

The United States Army has a long tradition of service during times of 

national disaster. Since the late 1800s, American soldiers, whether Active 

component or National Guard, have used their skills and capabilities to 

help their fellow Americans in the aftermath of a broad range of disasters, 

such as fires, floods, and hurricanes. Over time, the Army’s role in such 

situations has been codified in a number of laws, directives, and doctrines 

that govern how the Army will respond in the event of a disaster. It is, 

therefore, necessary to examine the response to past incidents as well as 

the evolution of the laws and doctrine to understand how and why the 

Army responded as it did to Hurricane Katrina.

Historical Background

During the early years of the Republic, the Army was not actively 

involved in disaster relief. This was due in part to the Founding Fathers’ 

aversion to large standing armies. Not only were there very few Federal 

troops available to provide such assistance but those few that were available 

were dispersed throughout the country and there was no means to rapidly 

transport them to the scene of a disaster. Even if Federal troops had been 

available, there was no constitutional justification for intervention. Again, 

following the Founding Fathers’ principles, most Presidents considered 

such intervention inappropriate.

After 4 years of increased Federal involvement in everyday life during 

the Civil War, attitudes toward Federal intervention began to change. 

The Army was responsible for administering several Federal assistance 

programs in the South at the end of the war, the most important of which 

was the Freedmen’s Bureau. Congress established the Freedmen’s Bureau 

in 1865 to facilitate the transition of former slaves into American society. 

During its existence, the bureau did more than provide assistance to the 

newly freed slaves. It helped citizens of all races during several periods of 

epidemic, flood, and famine.1

One of the most significant events occurred in 1867 when severe 

flooding, coupled with an extremely poor crop yield, resulted in a food 

shortage throughout the South. At the request of the Director of the 

Freedmen’s Bureau, General O. O. Howard, Congress authorized the bureau 

to spend $50,000 to provide emergency relief. The Army purchased corn 

and wheat in bulk and delivered those commodities to local county agents 

in seven Southern States. Local agents, rather than the Army, distributed 
10

the food to those in need.2 It is important to note, however, that the 

Federal effort supplemented rather than replaced the relief efforts of local 

governments and voluntary associations. Northern charity organizational 

contributions, for example, exceeded the Freedmen’s Bureau effort by a 

factor of 100.3

The Army’s actions during the post-Civil War period also led to 

restrictions on the use of the Army as an instrument of domestic law 

enforcement. Before Reconstruction, the Army helped suppress rebellion 

and enforce laws on several occasions. In October 1794, President George 

Washington federalized 10,000 militiamen and used them to suppress 

the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania.4

 Colonel Robert E. Lee 

used Federal troops to crush John Brown’s insurrection at the Harper’s 

Ferry arsenal in 1859.

5

 But the extensive use of the Army by President 

Ulysses Grant to enforce voting laws and suppress the Ku Klux Klan in the 

South during Reconstruction proved too much for some Congressmen.6

Soon after the election of 1876, which brought about a shift in power in 

Congress, Southern Congressmen enacted the Posse Comitatus Act (Title 

10 United States Code (USC) 1385) to prevent further Federal interference 

with the internal affairs of their states.7

 This act prohibited the Army from 

acting in a law enforcement capacity domestically, including searching 

for, pursuing, or arresting suspected criminals.8

 Southern Congressmen 

used this law to end the Federal military occupation of the South.

Congressional restrictions on domestic law enforcement activities 

did not inhibit in any way an expanded role for the Army in domestic 

relief missions. Since the Army established posts throughout the country, 

it was one of the few Federal departments with a national presence, plus 

the Army’s purchasing and transportation system enabled it to respond 

relatively quickly during times of crisis. Consequently, during the last 

three decades of the 19th century, soldiers provided assistance at least 17 

times when floods, fires, droughts, insect plagues, disease, and tornadoes 

struck the Nation.9

The great Chicago fire of October 1871 serves as an example of the 

type of assistance the Army provided during the late 19th century. The fire 

burned 31⁄2 square miles of the city, killed hundreds of people, destroyed 

hundreds of homes and buildings, and left more than 100,000 people 

homeless. Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan, Commander of the Division 

of the Missouri, lived in Chicago. Using the immediate response authority, 

Sheridan directed Army troops to create firebreaks to stop the fire from 

spreading. When the mayor declared martial law, he asked Sheridan to use 

his troops to restore order. Sheridan also provided assistance to the victims, 
11

who were fed using Army rations and given Army blankets and tents for 

shelter. Soldiers continued to provide security and support through the end 

of the year.10

Similarly, the Pennsylvania National Guard provided help when the 

South Fork Dam broke on 31 May, 1889, unleashing 20 million gallons 

of water on the citizens of Johnstown, Pennsylvania.11 A wall of water 

40 feet high killed more than 2,200 people, destroyed 1,600 homes, and 

caused $17 million in damages.12 Two days later, unable to cope with 

the consequences of the disaster, the local sheriff asked the governor of 

Pennsylvania for help. The governor responded by sending 550 soldiers 

from the 14th Regiment, Pennsylvania National Guard, to help. The 

Guardsmen provided security, sheltered and fed the victims, and assisted 

with debris removal and repairs until mid-July.13

By the turn of the century, Government activism was prevalent in many 

aspects of national life, including disaster relief. Congress endorsed the 

professionalization of disaster management by granting the American Red 

Cross a charter in June 1900 that tasked the organization with developing a 

national disaster relief capability. A few months later, in September 1900, 

the Red Cross was put to the test when a hurricane devastated Galveston, 

Texas, killing more than 6,000 people. The Army assisted the Red Cross 

by providing troops, food, and tents.14

Several years later, when an earthquake struck San Francisco on 18 

April 1906, Brigadier General Frederick Funston used the immediate 

response authority to respond to the disaster. Acting on his own authority, 

Funston deployed some 1,700 soldiers to guard the US Treasury and 

US Mint buildings, patrol the streets to prevent looting, and help with 

firefighting. As the fires spread, consuming more and more of the city, 

Funston directed his troops to demolish buildings to create firebreaks to 

contain the fire. Although martial law was never declared, over the next 

few months, US Army and California National Guard soldiers maintained a 

strong presence in the city, which effectively suppressed lawless behavior. 

They also provided medical assistance, distributed food and other supplies 

to the needy, and established a tent cantonment that was used as temporary 

lodging by the homeless. The Army turned over responsibility for security 

to the civil government on 1 July 1906.15

The Army was frequently involved in flood relief operations during 

the 20th century. In 1912, President William Howard Taft directed the 

Army to assist citizens subjected to massive flooding by the Mississippi 

River. Soldiers rescued people and livestock trapped by the floodwaters 

and provided food, clothing, and shelter to the victims. At this time, 
12

reimbursement for disaster relief operations had not been codified, and 

President Taft had to cajole Congress into reimbursing the Army for its 

costs, some $1.24 million.16

Reimbursement became a bigger issue during the 1927 Mississippi 

River floods—the worst flooding in national history. Tens of thousands of 

people were stranded by the floods. National Guardsmen from six states 

were called to state active duty to help their beleaguered fellow citizens. 

For the first time, the National Guard used aviation assets to assist with 

search-and-rescue missions.17 Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover 

managed the operation along with the American Red Cross. The Active 

Army provided logistics support and loaned more than $2.6-million worth 

of equipment. Most of the loaned equipment was not returned, so the Army 

had to request a supplemental appropriation from Congress to cover the 

costs of the operation.18 For the next decade, concerns about reimbursement 

drastically limited the Active component’s participation in disaster relief 

missions. In 1929, the War Department went so far as to advise corps 

commanders that supplies could not be dispensed without approval from 

the War Department and that such support would not be considered unless 

the supported agency agreed to reimburse the War Department.19

Since the War Department put limitations on Active-Duty support, 

the National Guard moved to the forefront during disasters. When a 

hurricane hit Rhode Island in 1938, the entire Rhode Island National 

Guard, 2,094 soldiers, was brought onto state active duty to conduct 

search-and-rescue missions, provide security, and help with cleanup.20

More than 8,000 National Guardsmen from eight states were activated 

in the wake of Hurricanes Connie and Diane, which hit the east coast in 

1955. National Guard helicopters were used for the first time during this 

relief operation.21

By the late 1930s, the Active Army resolved its reimbursement issues 

with the Red Cross and began supporting disaster relief missions again. 

Funding concerns also diminished when President Franklin Roosevelt 

quickly authorized reimbursement for several flooding relief missions in 

1936 and 1937.22 Although World War II curtailed Army participation in 

disaster relief operations, the Army resumed support for this mission at the 

end of the war. When the Grand Camp blew up in the port of Texas City, 

Texas, on 16 April 1947, the Army responded quickly. The blast killed 

almost 600 people and injured nearly 3,000 others. The Army reopened an 

inactive hospital and sent a large medical contingent to provide medical 

treatment to the injured. Over the next few days, Army medical personnel 

treated 121 civilian patients.23
13

In 1950, Congress passed the first of several laws that sought to establish 

a Federal disaster relief bureaucracy. The Federal Disaster Relief Act of 

1950 provided for an automatic Federal response and authorized a new 

agency to coordinate Federal relief efforts.24 But the new agency failed to 

find a permanent home and bounced around under the control of a number 

of Federal departments over the next 12 years until it became the Office of 

Emergency Planning in 1961. By this time, the Army acknowledged the 

primacy of civilian coordination of disaster relief operations in its doctrine 

and established liaisons with the Office of Emergency Planning.25

When Hurricane Camille struck the United States in August 1969, 

the Office of Emergency Planning coordinated the Federal response. 

Hurricane Camille was an incredibly powerful Category 5 hurricane when 

it hit the Mississippi coast near Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, on 17 August 

1969. The storm killed 143 people along the Gulf coast, most of whom did 

not evacuate because they discounted the danger the storm posed.26 Both 

National Guard and Active component troops responded to the disaster 

along the Gulf coast. Almost 3,900 Mississippi National Guardsmen were 

called up to assist with the relief operations.27 More than 16,000 ActiveDuty troops were brought in to help as well. Since the storm struck some 

military bases situated along the coast, many soldiers, sailors, and airmen 

responded initially under the immediate response authority. Once the 

magnitude of the devastation was recognized, many others were sent to 

the Gulf States to conduct search-and-rescue missions; clear debris; and 

distribute food, water, and medical supplies. Army helicopters flew more 

than 600 medical evacuation missions during the relief operation.28 When 

the storm dumped more than 20 inches of rain on rural southwest Virginia 

in a 5-hour period on the evening of 19 August, the resultant flooding 

killed 113 more people. About 700 Virginia National Guardsmen provided 

relief to those stricken counties.29

The Nation’s emergency response bureaucracy continued to evolve 

throughout the next few decades. By the late 1970s, more than 100 Federal 

agencies were involved in some aspect of disaster response. In an effort 

to bring order to that confusing situation, President Jimmy Carter created 

the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in 1979. Soon 

thereafter, Congress passed the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief Act. 

These two pieces of legislation were supposed to simplify and improve 

the Nation’s disaster response capabilities, but events in 1992 proved 

otherwise.30

Two major hurricanes hit the United States during the 1992 storm 

season. Hurricane Andrew ravaged the south coast of Florida on 24
14

August 1992. Until Hurricane Katrina, Andrew was considered the most 

destructive natural disaster to ever hit the United States. In south Dade 

County, 100 square miles were completely destroyed, and 200 more square 

miles were significantly damaged.31 In the United States and throughout 

the Caribbean, 60 people were killed. Hurricane Andrew caused $33 

billion in damages, leveled 80,000 homes, displaced 250,000 people, and 

produced 20 million cubic feet of debris that required removal.32 Then, 

on 11 September, Hurricane Iniki struck Kauai, the westernmost island 

in the Hawaiian Island chain. A Category 4 hurricane, Iniki was the most 

devastating hurricane to ever hit the Hawaiian Islands and, up to that time, 

one of the most destructive to ever hit the United States.33 Three people 

were killed, 14,340 homes were damaged or destroyed, 7,000 people were 

left homeless, and 8,000 more needed food and water. Almost 70 percent 

of the island sustained damage from the storm, which was later estimated 

at $1.6 billion.34

In both cases, Active component and National Guard troops responded 

to the disasters. The Hurricane Andrew relief mission was predominately 

an Active-Duty mission. The governor of Florida activated 600 National 

Guardsmen before the storm struck. Although they were in position to 

conduct search-and-rescue missions once the storm passed, they were 

quickly overwhelmed by the magnitude of the destruction. Consequently, 

President George H.W. Bush decided to use Active forces to relieve suffering 

in the state. Joint Task Force (JTF) Andrew was established on 28 August. 

More than 22,000 soldiers from the 82d Airborne Division, 10th Mountain 

Division, 1st Corps Support Command, and other services participated in 

this mission.35 Because they were not immediately pushed into the area 

devastated by the storm, the units involved had time to plan and tailor their 

forces to the expected tasks. Their initial focus was on tending to the needs 

of the survivors by providing food, water, shelter, medical support, and 

security. As the situation stabilized, these units shifted to the second phase 

of operations: recovery. During this phase, they restored public services, 

repaired schools, cleared roads, and removed debris.

Two units involved in the Hurricane Andrew relief operation were 

the 20th Engineer Brigade and the 1/22d Infantry of the 10th Mountain 

Division. The 20th Engineer Brigade received notification that it would 

deploy to support Hurricane Andrew relief efforts late in the day on 27 

August, 3 days after the storm struck. The brigade’s assault command 

post arrived in Florida at 0530 the next morning and headed toward its 

operating area. What the engineers found appalled them. Five days after the 

hurricane had struck, the situation on the ground was still bad. The relief 

mission was disorganized, little aid was getting to those in need, roads 
15

were blocked by debris, electricity was out everywhere, and telephone 

communications were mostly inoperable. Based on that assessment, the 

engineers decided to add extra bucket loaders to their equipment list.36 By 

2 September, four engineer battalions had deployed to the area.37 Once 

the initial relief missions, such as road clearance, were completed, the 

emphasis shifted to recovery missions. The engineers cleared debris so 

that disaster assistance centers, life support centers, and mobile kitchens 

could be set up to provide critical support to the victims. They also began 

restoring schools and removing the debris piled up at schools, parks, and 

other public places.38 Conditions continued to improve so that, by 20 

September, the engineers were able to redeploy.39

The 1/22d Infantry assumed duties as the division ready force (DRF) 

for the 10th Mountain Division on 28 August 1992. As a lead element in 

the Nation’s rapid deployment force concept, the DRF had to be ready to 

deploy on 18 hours’ notice.40 The battalion got word at 1800 on 29 August 

that it would be deploying as part of JTF Andrew to provide disaster relief 

to Florida citizens. The next morning, the battalion embarked and flew to 

Florida. When it arrived, it was assigned an operating area and told to get 

to work. Based on its mission assignment, the battalion prioritized its work 

as follows:

• Dispose of any item judged a hazard to the health of citizens or 

soldiers.

• Distribute food and water.

• Remove debris.

• Ask residents what help they needed to restore their lives.41

The battalion was also responsible for several mobile kitchens, 

which served almost 900,000 meals during the first 33 days of operation. 

Debris removal missions were conducted using organic equipment such 

as handsaws and chain saws and contracted bulldozers and dump trucks. 

One officer in the battalion recalled that contractors would work for the 

first military unit that contacted them, so units competed with one another 

to commandeer as many dump trucks as possible so that they could clear 

more territory.42 By the end of September, the situation on the ground 

began to improve and the battalion began planning its redeployment. It 

returned to Fort Drum, New York, on 7 October, after 40 days of relief 

operations.43

The importance of quickly withdrawing Active component troops 

from disaster relief missions is underscored by the experiences of 1/22d 

Infantry. Less than 2 months after it returned to Fort Drum, the battalion 
16

was notified that it was to deploy to Somalia in December 1992 as part 

of Operation RESTORE HOPE. Although the deployment was eventually 

delayed until April 1993, the battalion’s experience shows that national 

missions can emerge at any time and that early redeployment of Active 

component units is an important goal.44

Roles were reversed during Hurricane Iniki. In this instance, the 

National Guard provided the bulk of the relief-and-recovery support. 

Before the storm hit, Hawaii National Guard soldiers mobilized to their 

armories on the island. As in Florida, they were in position to respond 

after the storm passed. Once the winds died down, 800 additional National 

Guard soldiers were flown over to Kauai from the island of Hawaii to help. 

They set up security patrols; distributed food, water, and ice; provided 

medical assistance as required; and provided communications support, 

power generation, shelter, and election support. At the peak, more than 

3,100 National Guard soldiers performed those missions.45

As the relief mission shifted to recovery, one of the main tasks was to 

restore the island’s electrical power. The storm had uprooted more than 

5,000 electrical power poles, shutting down the island’s entire power 

grid.46 The National Guard brought in generators to provide electrical 

power to essential utilities such as sewage and water plants.47 Later, a 

National Guard colonel, who also happened to be the Vice President of 

Operations for the Hawaiian Electric Company, coordinated the repair 

of the island’s power grid.48 This example clearly reinforces the value of 

using the National Guard as the military’s first response organization.

Although a wide range of Active component resources were mobilized 

for the relief operation, the governor of Hawaii did not call on them for 

help during the relief operation. Later, 3,600 Active-Duty troops helped 

the National Guard and civilian contractors clean up the island during two 

recovery missions, GARDEN SWEEP and GARDEN SWEEP II. During 

these two missions, Active component and National Guard troops picked 

up and disposed of more than 35,000 tons of debris.49

The Army has a long and rich tradition of providing support to 

American citizens in time of need. Even when there was no clear doctrine 

applicable to this mission, soldiers used their core competencies and skills 

to perform a wide range of missions that brought relief to their fellow 

Americans. One by-product of the skill and compassion soldiers have 

displayed during these types of missions is that Americans have come to 

expect that, if the situation is dire, the Army will step in and help.
17

Total Force Response to Civil Assistance

The immense damage wrought by Hurricane Katrina so quickly and 

so completely overwhelmed local and state responders that immediate 

Federal support was required. Among the Federal resources available 

to the President was the US Army. The Strategy for Homeland Defense 

and Civil Support, which was published just 2 months before Hurricane 

Katrina struck, explains the necessity for using the Total Force—ActiveDuty forces, US Army Reserve, and National Guard—to carry out both the 

homeland defense and homeland security missions.50 Homeland defense is 

defined as “the protection of US sovereignty, territory, domestic population, 

and critical defense infrastructure against external threats or aggression.”51

Homeland security, which is defined as “a concerted national effort to 

prevent terrorist attacks within the United States,” includes recovery from 

attacks, whether manmade or natural disasters.52 The Department of Defense 

(DOD) is the lead agency for homeland defense and provides support to 

the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) for homeland security. As 

Paul McHale, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense, told 

Congress, using the Total Force to assist with civil support missions is 

important because it “preserves the historic Federal relationship between 

the various levels of government while, at the same time, recognizing the 

unique capabilities of the Total Force to respond immediately to American 

citizens who are desperately in need.”53

The capabilities and assets of all three components of the US Army 

were crucial to the Hurricane Katrina relief-and-recovery mission. 

Active component forces operate under Title 10 of the USC, and in 

most circumstances, they only provide support when state and local 

governments request assistance through FEMA. Despite that restriction, 

local commanders can plan and take action under their immediate response 

authority. In the days before Hurricane Katrina struck, many Army 

commanders directed their staffs to begin planning for the emergency and 

pre-positioning assets before the hurricane hit.54 First Army personnel, 

for example, began tracking the storm from its inception off the coast of 

Africa. As the storm developed, the staff began making plans to deploy 

defense coordinating officers and other personnel to the affected states. 

By the time the storm hit, many Army units were prepared to provide a 

broad range of support when authorized to do so by the President.55 Active 

component forces participated in the Hurricane Katrina relief effort under 

the command of Lieutenant General Russel L. Honoré, Commander of 

Joint Task Force Katrina.
18

Although there are limitations on the use of US Army Reserve personnel 

for civil support operations, they also contributed to the relief operation 

in several ways.56 Most significant, almost 200 Army Reserve emergency 

preparation liaison officers serve as a liaison between the Army, FEMA, 

and state emergency officials in the event of disaster.57 In addition to the 

emergency preparation liaison officers, several Army Reserve aviation 

and transportation units performed various missions in the affected states. 

Since those units were on Active Duty during the operation, they operated 

as part of JTF Katrina.

The third element in the Total Force is the National Guard. The National 

Guard is unique in that its forces operate under one of three different 

statuses. The Adjutant General of Washington, Major General Timothy J. 

Lowenberg, explained in testimony before the US House of Representatives 

in 2003 that there are two distinct National Guard organizations. First, 

there is the “National Guard of the several states,” which is a state military 

organization maintained under the Militia Clause of the US Constitution. 

National Guard forces perform under one of two statuses as part of the 

“National Guard of the several states”: state active duty or Title 32 status. 

When on state active duty, the National Guard conducts state missions 

under the command of the governor at state expense. National Guard 

troops are also under the command of the governor when in a Title 32 

status, but the Federal Government covers the cost because they are 

performing missions in support of the Federal Government. In both cases, 

since they are under the command of the governor, National Guard forces 

are not subject to the Posse Comitatus Act. Lowenberg described the other 

National Guard organization as the “National Guard of the United States.” 

National Guard forces in this status operate under Title 10 just like Active 

component forces. Consequently, the President, not the governor, serves 

as their commander, and they are subject to the Posse Comitatus Act.58

Unlike their Active-Duty and Reserve counterparts, National Guard 

units were among the many first responders in Mississippi and Louisiana. 

The governors of both Mississippi and Louisiana placed thousands of 

National Guard soldiers on state active duty before landfall. Consequently, 

they were in position to move into the disaster area before the storm had 

completely passed and to provide immediate relief to citizens affected by 

the storm. In the days after Katrina made landfall, tens of thousands of 

additional National Guard troops flowed into Mississippi and Louisiana 

from other states as well. These soldiers were also activated on state active 

duty orders. Although they remained under the command of their respective 

governors, operational control was shifted to the governor of the state to 

which they deployed. On 7 September 2005, Acting Deputy Secretary of 
19

Defense Gordon England approved the redesignation of those forces from 

state active duty to Title 32 status retroactive to 29 August.59

All three components of the Army made significant contributions 

to the Hurricane Katrina relief-and-recovery efforts. They saved lives, 

transported and distributed needed commodities, removed debris and 

repaired damage, and restored order where only chaos existed. At its 

height, more than 72,000 Active, Reserve, and National Guard soldiers, 

sailors, and airmen were involved in the relief mission, making it the 

largest such operation in US history.60

Laws, Directives, Plans, and Doctrine Related to Civil Support

The legal framework that governs the Army’s response to domestic 

disaster encompasses a number of laws, policies, directives, regulations, 

and doctrines. Among the pertinent laws are the Stafford Act, the Posse 

Comitatus Act, and the Economy Act. The Robert T. Stafford Disaster 

Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Title 42 USC 5121 et seq.) of 1979 

establishes the statutory framework for Federal emergency relief operations. 

Under the auspices of this act, the President, at the behest of the governor, 

can declare an emergency or major disaster in the affected state. Once 

made, the declaration opens the way for extensive Federal assistance to 

the state and local governments. More specifically, the President can direct 

the Department of Defense to assist with relief operations by providing 

food, water, ice, and shelter to victims; conducting search-and-rescue 

missions; and using engineering assets to remove debris and to open up 

vital roads and public buildings.61 Additionally, the President can direct 

DOD to perform “emergency work” for up to 10 days without making an 

emergency or disaster declaration.62

The Economy Act (Title 31 USC 1535) authorizes Federal agencies to 

purchase goods and services from another Federal agency if they cannot 

be obtained more cheaply through open purchase or contract. Congress 

passed this law in 1932 to eliminate duplication and waste within the 

Federal Government. It applies to disaster response situations because 

other Federal agencies can request this support from DOD even if the 

President has not declared an emergency under the Stafford Act.63

The Posse Comitatus Act (Title 10 USC 1385) of 1878 is an important 

limitation on the ability of Active-Duty Title 10 forces to act within the 

United States. This act specifically prohibits all Title 10 troops from 

assisting with domestic law enforcement activities. Since the law does not 

apply to National Guard soldiers on state active duty or in a Title 32 status, 

they can assist local law enforcement authorities.64 There are, however, 

exceptions to this law. Under the Insurrection Act of 1807 (Chapter 15 of 
20

Title 10), the President has the authority to use Federal troops to suppress 

insurrection and domestic violence. Thus, the President can use Title 10

forces to perform law enforcement missions if he chooses to invoke the 

Insurrection Act.65

Also, a number of relevant policies and directives relate to disaster 

relief operations. The President amended Executive Order 12656 in 

February 2003, placing FEMA under the newly established Department 

of Homeland Security.66 At the same time, he issued Homeland Security 

Presidential Directive 5 (HSPD 5), which was supposed “to enhance the 

ability of the United States to manage domestic incidents by establishing 

a single, comprehensive national incident management system.”67 The 

objective of HSPD 5 was to “ensure that all levels of government . . . 

have the capability to work efficiently and effectively together, using a 

national approach to domestic incident management.”68 HSPD 5 directs 

the Secretary of Defense to support domestic relief operations when 

instructed to do so by the President. But it also emphasizes that the 

Secretary of Defense retains command and control over the military, even 

when operating in support of the Department of Homeland Security during 

a disaster situation.69

One main aspect of HSPD 5 was the development of a National Response 

Plan (NRP) that integrated “Federal Government domestic prevention, 

preparedness, response, and recovery plans into one all discipline, all 

hazards plan.”70 The NRP, which replaced the Federal Response Plan, was 

designed to do that. When announcing the implementation of the NRP in 

January 2005, then Secretary of Homeland Defense Tom Ridge asserted 

that it was a “brand new way of doing business. It’s an all-hazards, multidisciplined, cross-jurisdictional way of standardized, predictable practices 

and procedures for federal governments to work with the state and the local 

and tribal governments in the private sector to protect the nation.”71 He 

also noted that the plan was a group effort among Federal, state, and local 

officials, professional emergency managers, police officers, firefighters, 

public health workers, and public engineers.

As designed, the NRP was supposed to enable the initial “response to 

be handled at the lowest possible organizational and jurisdictional level.”72

In the event of an incident of national significance, which is defined as 

“an actual or potential high-impact event that requires robust coordination 

of the Federal response in order to save lives and minimize damage,” 

the NRP would be implemented.73 The National Response Plan would, 

it was claimed, “provide the means to swiftly deliver federal support.”74

A coordinated Federal response was to be managed using emergency 
21

support functions (ESFs). The ESFs are modular in nature and delineate 

the responsibilities of both the lead and supporting agencies in detailed 

annexes in the NRP. Although the Department of Defense is the lead 

agency for only one ESF—Public Works and Engineering (ESF #3)—it 

has supporting responsibilities for all other ESFs. The 15 ESFs and lead 

agencies follow:

ESF #1, Transportation (Department of Transportation)

ESF #2, Communications (DHS/National Communications System)

ESF #3, Public Works and Engineering (DOD)

ESF #4, Firefighting (Department of Agriculture)

ESF #5, Emergency Management (DHS/FEMA)

ESF #6, Mass Care, Housing, and Human Services (DHS/FEMA)

ESF #7, Resource Support (Government Services Administration)

ESF #8, Public Health and Medical Services (Department of Health 

and Human Services)

ESF #9, Urban Search and Rescue (DHS/FEMA)

ESF #10, Oil and Hazardous Materials Response (Environmental 

Protection Agency)

ESF #11, Agriculture and Natural Resources (Department of 

Agriculture)

ESF #12, Energy (Department of Energy)

ESF #13, Public Safety and Security (Department of Justice)

ESF #14, Long-Term Community Recovery (DHS/FEMA)

ESF #15, External Affairs (DHS)75

Unfortunately, when Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf coast a mere 8 

months after the NRP was enacted, it was still in the initial implementation 

and testing phase. Consequently, the procedures laid out in the NRP were 

neither fully understood nor tested. Moreover, the vast scope of the damage 

wrought by Hurricane Katrina undermined the effectiveness of the NRP as 

well. As one writer notes:

. . . as the incident management requirements grow in 

complexity and scope, the management of it tends to 

become increasingly “ad hoc” even with the improved 

structures of organization called for in the NRP. That 

is because personal and professional relationships and 

processes built and relied upon at local and state levels 

are simply not resident when complex requirements exist 

and there are uncoordinated cross-jurisdictional issues 

and issues of competing or unclear authorities with higher 

echelons of government.76
22

So, even though there was a new emergency management structure in 

place, it did not function as effectively as the framers of the plan hoped 

during the Hurricane Katrina relief mission.

In addition to the Federal statutes and policies on disaster relief, there 

were also several Department of Defense directives on the subject. DOD 

Directive 3025.1, Military Support to Civil Authorities, provides the overall 

framework of the DOD disaster response program. Under this directive, 

the Secretary of the Army is the executive agent responsible for responding 

to all requests for military assistance.77 All DOD resources are potentially 

available for civil support operations as long as civilian resources are 

applied first, the request is for assistance beyond the capabilities of civilian 

responders, and DOD resources are used efficiently.78 It also acknowledges 

the primacy of the National Guard in civil support operations, stating 

“Army and Air National Guard forces, acting under State orders . . . have 

primary responsibility for providing military assistance to State and local 

government agencies in civil emergencies.”79 Finally, it authorizes military 

action in the event that “imminently serious conditions” require immediate 

response by military commanders to “save lives, prevent human suffering, 

or mitigate great property damage.”80 Among the immediate response 

actions authorized are—

•	 Rescue, evacuation, and medical treatment of victims.

•	 Public services emergency repairs.

•	 Debris removal to facilitate emergency responder movement.

•	 Mortuary support.

•	 Decontamination assistance/advice.

•	 Traffic management.

•	 Distribution of and security for food, water, and other essential 

commodities.

•	 Damage assessment.

•	 Emergency communications support.81

There is an associated manual, DOD 3025.1M, Manual for Civil 

Emergencies, that further amplifies the directions contained in DOD 

3025.1. It provides specific guidance for oil and other hazardous materials 

spills, radiological incidents, wild fires, health and medical services, 

mass immigration crises, animal disease control situations, and postal 

emergencies. The manual also explains the duties and responsibilities of 

the defense coordinating officer and the emergency preparedness liaison 

officer. 
23

The defense coordinating officer is described as “the focal point of 

any DOD response to a particular disaster.”82 Consequently, the defense 

coordinating officer must be familiar with military capabilities and 

understand how to access those resources. In 2005, defense coordinating 

officers were Title 10 colonels (O-6s) serving as brigade commanders 

in First or Fifth Army. Their defense coordinating officer duties were 

additional rather than primary duties. Since 2006, Active component 

colonels serve as permanent defense coordinating officers in each of the 

10 FEMA regions. Responsibilities of the defense coordinating officer 

include the following:

•	 Validating requests for assistance from the Federal coordinating 

official.

•	 Establishing liaison among the various military components, state 

organizations, and Federal agencies.

•	 Ensuring that all mission assignments are carried out.

•	 Working with the Federal coordinating official and state 

coordinating official to coordinate National Guard (state active 

duty) and Active component missions to ensure maximum 

effectiveness and minimize duplication of effort.

•	 Maintaining an audit trail of mission assignments.

The Defense Coordinating Element serves as the headquarters staff for 

the defense coordinating officer. As with the defense coordinating officer, 

an Active component Defense Coordinating Element is assigned to each 

of the 10 FEMA regions. The Defense Coordinating Element staff can 

be augmented by emergency preparedness liaison officers.83 To facilitate 

coordination, the defense coordinating officer and Defense Coordinating 

Element will normally set up operations at or near the Federal coordinating 

official at the Joint Field Office. The Federal coordinating official will 

conduct a damage assessment, and the defense coordinating officer should 

participate in that assessment so that he or she can better identify potential 

DOD tasks. Although the defense coordinating officer can be activated 

before a disaster if it can be reasonably expected that military assistance 

will be required, he or she cannot commit military forces until the President 

declares an emergency. 

The Manual for Civil Emergencies also addresses the command 

relationship when a joint task force is formed. The relationship between 

the two is dictated by the “seniority, size of the task force, duration of 

the response effort, and the JTF mission.”84 The defense coordinating 

officer normally reports to the JTF commander if the commander is a 
24

general officer. The responsibility for clarifying the relationship lies with 

the supported commander, which was United States Northern Command 

during the Hurricane Katrina relief operation. The manual recommends 

that the two staffs remain separate since they have different missions and 

responsibilities. The defense coordinating officer’s focus is on mission 

validation and coordination with the Federal coordinating official and state 

coordinating official while the JTF commander is concerned with carrying 

out those missions using his assigned Active component forces.85

Emergency preparedness liaison officers are Army Reserve colonels 

(O-6s) who act as DOD liaison officers, coordinating “military assistance to 

other Federal Agencies and State governments under an ALL HAZARDS 

disaster environment.”86 In the event of an emergency or disaster 

situation, regardless of whether the President makes an emergency or 

disaster declaration, emergency preparedness liaison officers are activated 

to serve as a liaison between the parent service, Federal agencies, and 

state government organizations. Each service designates an emergency 

preparedness liaison officer for each state and each FEMA region and to 

specific government agencies such as FEMA. If the President declares 

an emergency or disaster, the supporting commander may assign an 

emergency preparedness liaison officer as a liaison officer for the defense 

coordinating officer.

DOD 3025.15, Military Assistance to Civil Authorities, is the 

governing document for all civil support operations, including terrorism 

response and disaster support. This directive delineates the methods for 

requesting assistance and establishes the criteria that will be used to test 

the validity of the request. These criteria are legality, lethality, risk, cost, 

appropriateness, and readiness. If the request for assistance meets these 

criteria, it is then forwarded to the Secretary of the Army for approval. If 

the mission is in response to a terrorist attack, it must be approved by the 

Secretary of Defense rather than the Secretary of the Army.87

Joint Publication (JP) 3-26, Homeland Security, discusses DOD’s 

role in the national strategy for homeland security. The Department of 

Defense supports this strategy through its missions of homeland defense 

and civil support. This publication explains both missions and delineates 

the command relationships and interagency responsibilities of each. With 

regard to civil support, JP 3-26 reinforces the guidance articulated in DOD 

3025.1 and DOD 3025.15, emphasizing that the department will provide 

support if all other authorities are overwhelmed and request support. JP 

3-26 also updates the civil support chain of command, which was revised 

in March 2003 when the role of DOD executive agent for military support 
25

to civil authorities was transferred from the Secretary of the Army to the 

Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense. All requests for 

assistance now flow through the Joint Director of Military Support where 

they are checked against the criteria listed in DOD 3025.15 and forwarded 

to the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense if valid.88

Field Manual (FM) 100-19, Domestic Support Operations, which was 

published on 1 July 1993, was the guiding Army doctrine at the time of 

Hurricane Katrina. Doctrine is the common language and understanding 

the Army uses to conduct operations. It should be “detailed enough to 

guide operations, yet flexible enough to allow commanders to exercise 

initiative when dealing with specific tactical and operational situations. To 

be useful, doctrine must be well known and commonly understood.”89

The Army’s domestic support doctrine is based on the concept of 

“unmet needs.” Local and state authorities are responsible for the safety 

and welfare of their citizens, but they can request assistance from the 

Department of Defense if, during an emergency situation, there are needs 

that they are unable to meet. The operative concepts are that local and 

state resources are inadequate for the mission in hand and that the affected 

authorities specifically request DOD assistance.90

 Army resources will be 

provided on a temporary basis; they are not a permanent replacement for 

local, state, or Federal organizations or resources that have been rendered 

temporarily inoperable due to the disaster.

FM 100-19 describes three stages of a domestic relief operation: 

response (relief), recovery, and restoration. During the response phase, 

the focus is on saving lives and restoring life-sustaining functions in the 

affected area. Once life-saving operations subside, the emphasis shifts 

toward recovery, which entails restoring community infrastructures to a 

level sufficient to allow day-to-day operations by government entities. 

The last phase is restoration, during which the community is restored 

to its predisaster norm. Since the military’s role in disaster response is 

temporary, most military forces will disengage during the early part of 

the restoration phase, if not before.91

 Moreover, since the support offered 

is temporary, military leaders should plan toward that end state, ensuring 

that civilian leaders are aware of the milestones leading up to mission 

completion and redeployment. 

“Most domestic support operations,” the manual explains, “are 

logistical in nature.”92

 According to the manual, logistics planners should 

get involved early in the planning process, and logistics command and 

control cells, including robust communications support, should deploy as 

soon as possible so they can assess the situation on the ground. Leaders 
26

must also ensure that supplies flow “smoothly and continuously” into the 

affected area and that “resource management is fully integrated into all 

phases of the operation.”93

Logistics support comes in many forms. Two of the most important 

forms are contracting support and military support. Since contracting 

often uses local sources, it is the preferred method of support. All classes 

of supply can be contracted out to support both the citizens affected by 

the disaster and the troops deployed in response to the disaster. Moreover, 

contracting provides flexibility. It can be used to bridge gaps until sufficient 

forces are built up, or it can augment military support, thus reducing the 

need for additional troops. Military support comes in a variety of forms 

as well. It could be accessing military installations; transporting food and 

supplies by trucks or helicopters; or providing life-sustaining support, such 

as distributing food and water, or engineering support, such as restoring 

utilities or clearing debris.94

FM 100-19 also emphasizes that using Army core competencies is 

fundamental during civil support operations. Basic soldier skills, such 

as command and control, logistics management, search and rescue, 

engineering, and first aid, are extremely valuable. Aviation units can help 

with logistics distribution, search and rescue, command and control, and 

damage assessment. Engineer units can clear debris, repair government 

facilities, and restore basic utilities. Intelligence personnel can assist 

with damage assessment, and military police can provide security. 

Communications units can help restore services and fill the gaps until 

those systems are restored. Medical teams can treat injured citizens and 

fill the medical gap until civilian medical resources are mobilized.95

The US Army’s civil support doctrine can be boiled down to four 

central tenets:

•	 Unless homeland defense considerations take precedent, the Army 

will provide civil support assistance during times of crisis. The 

Secretary of Defense will, however, retain control of Army and 

other service forces. FEMA mission assignments will be treated 

as requests that can be denied if they do not meet the criteria in 

DOD 3025.15.

• The Army will focus on satisfying “unmet needs.” Since disaster 

response starts at the local level, local and state resources should 

be used first. If they prove inadequate, then the military will help, 

if requested. But the first military responder is the National Guard, 

operating under the command of the governor. The National 
27

Guard is explicitly recognized as having primacy during relief 

operations. National Guard units are the best military units to use 

because they are local and they are often much more experienced in 

civil support operations than the Active and Reserve components. 

Nothing mentioned previously will, however, preclude the use of 

military forces in the event of an emergency. Local commanders 

can, under the “immediate response” clause, act to save lives and 

alleviate suffering in their local area if they deem their support 

necessary.

•	 Responders will use their core competencies to assist their fellow 

citizens. Although Army logistics will probably be the capability 

most desired, soldiers have a broad range of skills, honed in many 

settings, that may prove useful during civil support operations.

•	 Army assistance is temporary. Early in the relief operation, 

objectives should be set and end states identified so that the recovery 

mission can be turned over to civil authorities and military forces 

redeployed so they are available for national taskings.

Summary

By the time Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf coast in August 2005, 

the role of the US Army in civil support operations was clearly established 

both by historical precedent, national policy, and Army doctrine. For 

nearly 150 years, the Army provided assistance during times of civil 

distress, whether in response to flooding, fires, earthquakes, or hurricanes. 

Although primary responsibility for responding to such situations has, 

over time, shifted to the National Guard, there are many recent examples 

of Active Army involvement as well. 

Support for this mission is grounded in both national policy and Army 

doctrine. The Stafford Act authorizes the Department of Defense to provide 

disaster relief support such as food, water, ice, and shelter; to help with 

search-and-rescue operations; and to assist with debris removal and the 

cleanup and repair of public buildings and vital roadways. More recently, 

the National Response Plan assigns the US Army Corps of Engineers 

specific responsibility for ESF #3, Public Works and Engineering, and the 

Department of Defense as a supporting agency for all other emergency 

support functions. Those support functions include a wide range of 

missions such as transportation, communications, firefighting, medical 

care, logistics support, temporary shelter, search and rescue, hazardous 

materials cleanup, plant and animal safety, food sanitation, safety and 

security, and public information.
28

According to Lieutenant General Honoré, the purpose of doctrine is 

to “teach you to do the right thing.”96 Even using that general guidance, 

the doctrine presented in FM 100-19 appears to be inadequate. It does 

little more than give four tenets that provide general guidance: the Army 

will respond to requests for assistance, it will attempt to resolve “unmet 

needs” by providing assistance if local or state resources prove inadequate, 

soldiers will use their core competencies to assist fellow citizens, and 

such support is temporary. The manual is short on details and provides 

little guidance on how to satisfy unmet needs. There are no anticipated 

task lists or mission planning checklists that planners can use to train, 

equip, and sustain forces involved in disaster relief operations. There 

are few real-world examples or lessons learned from previous missions. 

There is little information about the organization and structure of local 

and state emergency organizations. Moreover, many of the doctrinal 

publications were out of date when Hurricane Katrina struck. Few of the 

military publications accurately reflected the current Federal emergency 

management structure. DOD Directive 3025.1, Military Support to 

Civil Authorities, for example, indicated that the Secretary of the Army 

rather than the Director of Military Support was the executive agent in 

charge of civil support operations. While FM 100-19 described the three 

phases of disaster response operations, it did not adequately explain how 

to accomplish each phase. Even though the manual asserted that most 

domestic support operations are logistical in nature, it provided few details 

on how logistics could be used to accomplish the mission. Thus, when the 

Army faced one of the biggest domestic crises in our Nation’s history, the 

doctrine in place at the time was not sufficient for the task.
29

Notes

1. Gaines M. Foster, The Demands of Humanity: Army Medical Disaster 

Relief (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1983), 13–14, http://history.

amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/misc/disaster/default.htm (accessed 11 January 

2008).

2. Ibid., 14.

3. Ibid., 15.

4. Matt Matthews, The Posse Comitatus Act and the United States Army: 

A Historical Perspective, Global War on Terrorism Occasional Paper 14 (Fort 

Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2006), 11. 

5. Ibid., 17. 

6. Ibid., 27–29. 

7. Ibid., 33. 

8. D-2007-002, Use of DOD Resources Supporting Hurricane Katrina 

Disaster (Arlington, VA: Department of Defense, Office of the Inspector General, 

16 October 2006), 19, http://www.dodig.mil/Audit/reports/FY07/07-002.pdf 

(accessed 28 November 2007).

9. Foster, 16.

10. Jerold E. Brown, “Humanitarian Operations in an Urban Environment: 

Hurricane Andrew, August–October 1992,” Block by Block: The Challenges 

of Urban Operations, eds. William G. Robertson and Lawrence A. Yates (Fort 

Leavenworth, KS: US Army Command and General Staff College Press, 2003), 

409–410, http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/download/csipubs/Block/chp12_

Block%20by%20Block.pdf (accessed 9 January 2008).

11. Ibid., 412.

12. “Facts About the Johnstown Flood,” Johnstown Flood Museum, http://

www.jaha.org/FloodMuseum/facts.html (accessed 24 February 2008).

13. Brown, 412.

14. Suburban Emergency Management Project (SEMP), Biot Report #269, 

“Why the 1900 Galveston Hurricane Was Not a Disaster,” 25 September 2005, 

http://www.semp.us/publications/biot_reader.php?BiotID=269 (accessed 31 October 

2007).

15. SEMP, Biot #268, “Use of Federal Troops for Law Enforcement During 

Crises: The ‘Immediate Response Authority,’” 25 September 2005, 2–6, http://

www.semp.us/publications/biot_reader.php?BiotID=268 (accessed 1 December 

2007).

16. Captain William A. Osborne, “The History of Military Assistance for 

Domestic Natural Disasters: The Return to a Primary Role for the Department 

of Defense in the Twenty-First Century?” The Army Lawyer (December 

2006): 4, https://www.jagcnet.army.mil/JAGCNETINTERNET/HOMEPAGES/

AC/ARMYLAWYER.NSF/c82df279f9445da185256e5b005244ee/

6a947ebd5aa63f818525729800506642/$FILE/Article%201%20-%20By%20CP

T%20William%20A.%20Osborne.pdf (accessed 4 December 2007).
30

17. Chief Warrant Officer Second Class John W. Listman Jr., Retired, 

“National Guard, Always Ready, Always There,” The On Guard 34, no. 7 (Special 

Ed., 2005): 7, http://www.ngb.army.mil/news/theonguard/2005/2005-KatrinaSpecial.pdf (accessed 9 January 2008).

18. Osborne, 7.

19. Ibid., 8.

20. Listman, 7.

21. Ibid.

22. Osborne, 8.

23. Foster, 128–130.

24. Ibid., 133.

25. Ibid., 134.

26. Listman, 7.

27. Ibid.

28. Osborne, 10.

29. Listman, 7.

30. Osborne, 11.

31. Brown, 408.

32. Lynn E. Davis et al., Hurricane Katrina: Lessons for Army Planning and 

Operations (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Arroyo Center, 2007), 6, http://www.rand.

org/pubs/monographs/2007/RAND_MG603.pdf (accessed 9 January 2008).

33. Hurricane Iniki After Action Report: Hawaii National Guard Disaster 

Relief Operations on Kauai, 6 September to 6 November 1992 (Honolulu, HI: 

State of Hawaii Department of Defense, 1993) 1, http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cgibin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/p4013coll11&CISOPTR=59&filename=60.pdf 

(accessed 1 December 2007).

34. Ibid., 3.

35. Brown, 424.

36. Major Robert M. Ralston and Lieutenant Colonel Douglas L. Horn, 

“Engineers Respond to Operations Other Than War,” Engineer 23, no 2 (April 

1993): 9, http://www.wood.army.mil/engrmag/Disaster%20Relief%20PDFs/

Ralston%20&%20Horn.pdf (accessed 1 December 2007).

37. Ibid., 10.

38. Ibid., 11–12.

39. Ibid., 13.

40. Major John R. Evans, “Task Force 1-22 Infantry From Homestead to 

Port-au-Prince” (Master of Military Arts and Science thesis, US Army Command 

and General Staff College, 2000), 13, http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?

AD=ADA384044&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf (accessed 1 December 

2007).

41. Ibid., 17.

42. Ibid., 19.

43. Ibid., 21.

44. Ibid., 27–33.
31

45. LTC Vern T. Miyagi, “The National Guard in Disaster Relief Operations, 

Hurricane Iniki (6 September–6 November 1992): A Case Study.” (Research 

Paper, US Army War College, 25 March 1996), 5, http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/

GetTRDoc?AD=A310669&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf (accessed 

24 February 2008).

46. Hurricane Iniki After Action Report, 3.

47. Ibid., 16–17.

48. Ibid., 19.

49. Miyagi, 7.

50. Strategy for Homeland Defense and Civil Support (Washington, DC: 

US Department of Defense, June 2005), 35, http://www.defenselink.mil/news/

Jun2005/d20050630homeland.pdf (accessed 11 January 2008).

51. Ibid., 5.

52. Ibid.

53. Paul McHale, “Testimony Before the Senate Committee on Armed 

Services,” US Senate Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities, 

109th Cong., 2d sess., 10 March 2006, 12, http://www.dod.mil/dodgc/olc/docs/

TestMcHale060310.pdf (accessed 11 January 2008).

54. US Congress, Senate, Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared, 

Senate Report 109-322, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 2006, 475, http://hsgac.senate.

gov/_files/Katrina/ FullReport.pdf (accessed 8 January 2008).

55. Lieutenant General Russel L. Honoré, interview by James Wombwell, 

Combat Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 28 April 2008.

56. Federal laws generally restrict the use of US Army Reserve forces for 

domestic missions. Those laws have been loosened somewhat in the last few years, 

but the result was that relatively few US Army Reserve troops were activated for 

Hurricane Katrina relief operations. See Davis, et al., 14, footnote 11.

57. How the Army Runs: A Senior Leader Reference Handbook, 2003–2004

(Carlisle, PA: US Army War College, 2004), 481.

58. Major General Timothy J. Lowenberg, “Testimony Before the 

Subcommittee on Terrorism, Unconventional Threats and Capabilities,” US 

House of Representatives, Armed Services Committee, 13 March 2003, http://

www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/congress/2003_h/03-03-13lowenberg.

htm (accessed 11 February 2008).

59. Steve Bowman, Lawrence Kapp, and Amy Belasco, CRS RL33095, 

Hurricane Katrina: DOD Disaster Response (Washington, DC: Congressional 

Research Service, 19 September 2005), 7–8, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/

RL33095.pdf (accessed 3 December 2007). 

60. Robert Burns, “Military Cites Shortfalls With Its Katrina Response,” 

Deseret News (Salt Lake City), 13 October 2005, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/

mi_qn4188/is_20051013/ai_n15714463 (accessed 29 January 2008).

61. Jennifer Elsea, CRS RS22266, The Use of Federal Troops for Disaster 

Assistance: Legal Issues (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 

24 April 2007), 5, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22266.pdf (accessed 8 

January 2008).
32

62. DOD 3025.1M, Manual for Civil Emergencies (Washington, DC: 

Department of Defense, June 1994), 109.

63. DOD 7000.14-R, DOD Financial Management Regulation (Washington, 

DC: Department of Defense, April 2000), 3-1, http://www.defenselink.mil/

comptroller/fmr/11a/11a_03.pdf (accessed 7 February 2008).

64. D-2007-002, Use of DOD Resources Supporting Hurricane Katrina 

Disaster, 19. 

65. The Posse Comitatus Act had a significant, although probably mistaken, 

impact during the Los Angeles riots in April–May 1992. The riots began during 

the afternoon on 29 April. As they raged out of control, the mayor of Los Angeles, 

Tom Bradley, asked Governor Pete Wilson to deploy the National Guard. Governor 

Wilson activated 2,000 soldiers from the 40th Infantry Division (Mechanized) 

and the 49th Military Police Brigade that evening. By 0400 the next morning, 30 

April, some 2,000 soldiers were assembled at their armories waiting for further 

orders. Although a series of problems with ammunition and equipment delayed 

their employment, by 2000 that evening, more than 1,000 soldiers were on the 

streets performing law enforcement and riot control missions in support of the Los 

Angeles Police and Sheriff’s Departments. As the delay in deployment dragged 

on throughout the day, Governor Wilson and Mayor Bradley began discussing the 

use of Federal troops with President George H.W. Bush. Early the next morning, 

at Governor Wilson’s request, President Bush ordered 4,000 Active-Duty soldiers 

and marines to respond under Chapter 10 of Title 15, which gives the President 

the authority to use Federal troops to suppress insurrection and domestic violence. 

At the same time, he federalized the California National Guard and placed them 

under the command of Joint Task Force Los Angeles. By this time, the National 

Guard was beginning to make an impact on the streets of Los Angeles. Because of 

concerns about violating the Posse Comitatus Act, JTF Los Angeles soon put a halt 

on law enforcement missions. The decision to restrict law enforcement missions 

was not, however, necessary since Federal troops had the authority to perform 

such missions under Chapter 15 of Title 10. (See Matthews, 47–55). Although 

there was much concern about the limitations the Posse Comitatus Act imposed 

on the actions of the Title 10 forces sent to Louisiana, President George W. Bush 

could have used his powers under the Insurrection Act to authorize those forces to 

assist with law enforcement if he had so chosen.

66. President George W. Bush, “Executive Order Amendment of Executive 

Orders, and Other Actions, in Connection with the Transfer of Certain Functions 

to the Secretary of Homeland Security” (Washington, DC: Office of the Press 

Secretary, The White House, 28 February 2003), http://www.whitehouse.gov/

news/releases/2003/02/print/20030228-8.html (accessed 11 February 2008).

67. United States Executive Office of the President, “Management of 

Domestic Incidents,” Homeland Security Presidential Directive 5 (HSPD 5)

(Washington, DC: Office of the Press Secretary, The White House, 28 

February 2003), 1, http://www.nimsonline.com/presidential_directives/

hspd_5.htm (accessed 27 December 2007).

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid., 3.
33

70. Ibid., 4.

71. “Remarks by Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge at a Press 

Conference Announcing the National Response Plan” (Washington, DC: 

Department of Homeland Security Press Office, 6 January 2005), http://www.dhs.

gov/xnews/releases/press_release_0583.shtm (accessed 11 February 2008).

72. “National Response Plan Fact Sheet” (Washington, DC: Department of 

Homeland Security Press Office, 6 January 2005), http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/

assets/NRP_FactSheet_2005.pdf (accessed 11 November 2008).

73. Quick Reference Guide for the National Response Plan, Version 4.0 

(Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, 22 May 2006), 2.

74. “National Response Plan Fact Sheet.”

75. Quick Reference Guide for the National Response Plan, 14–15.

76. Colonel Christopher M. Clayton, “National Emergency Preparedness 

and Response: Improving for Incidents of National Significance” (Master of 

Strategic Studies thesis, US Army War College, 15 March 2006), 3, http://www.

strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/ksil311.pdf (accessed 11 February 

2008).

77. DOD 3025.1, Military Support to Civil Authorities (MSCA) (Washington, 

DC: Department of Defense, 15 January 1993), 4, http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-o/gopr/nsarc/DOD302501pMSCA.pdf (accessed 19 February 2008).

78. Ibid., 5.

79. Ibid., 6.

80. Ibid., 7.

81. Ibid., 7–8.

82. DOD 3025.1M, Manual for Civil Emergencies, 87. 

83. Ibid., 87–88.

84. Ibid., 90.

85. Ibid., 90–91.

86. Ibid., 98.

87. DOD 3025.15, Military Assistance to Civil Authorities (Washington, 

DC: Department of Defense, 18 February 1997), 2–3, http://www.dtic.mil/whs/

directives/corres/pdf/302515p.pdf (accessed 27 December 2007).

88. JP 3-26, Homeland Security (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 

2 August 2005), IV-10, http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp3_26.pdf (accessed 

19 February 2008).

89. FM 3-0, Operations (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 14 June 

2001), 1-14.

90. FM 100-19, Domestic Support Operations (Washington, DC: Department 

of the Army, 1 July 1993), 1-4.

91. Ibid., 4-5.

92. Ibid., 4-1.

93. Ibid., 4-1.

94. Ibid., 4-1–4-2.

95. Ibid., 4-10–4-13.

96. Honoré interview.

35

Chapter 3

The Storm

Hurricane Katrina began as a tropical depression in the Caribbean on 

23 August 2005. The next morning, as it continued to grow in strength, 

Tropical Depression 12 was reclassified as a tropical storm.1

 Over the next 

2 days, Tropical Storm Katrina took a leisurely northwesterly track through 

the central Bahamas toward Florida (figure 1). By the late afternoon on 25 

August, it had built up enough force to be classified as a minimal Category 

1 hurricane. Less than 2 hours later, Hurricane Katrina hit the coast of 

Florida between Hallandale Beach and North Miami Beach. Even though 

Hurricane Katrina’s sustained winds did not exceed 80 miles per hour, 

the hurricane inflicted significant wind and flood damage in the state and, 

more ominously, killed 14 people.2

During a FEMA video teleconference held the day after Hurricane 

Katrina struck Florida, Max Mayfield, Director of the National Hurricane 

Center (NHC), warned that, while Hurricane Katrina was a “solid Category 

2” hurricane at the moment, it would soon strengthen into a Category 3 

hurricane and he expected that it would get even stronger before it made 

landfall.3

 Hurricane experts were not sure where it would strike the Gulf 

coast although they expected Hurricane Katrina to turn north and hit the 

C T

1600 CDT

Monday, 29 Aug

1000 CDT

Tuesday, 30 Aug

1800 CDT

Thursday, 25 Aug

0700 CDT

Wednesday, 24 Aug

1000 CDT

Sunday, 28 Aug

1000 CDT

Saturday, 27 Aug 1200 CDT

Friday, 26 Aug

M N

IA

M O

S D

N E

K S

O K

TX

A R

LA

W I

IL

M I N Y

O H P A

IN

K Y

TN

M S

A L G A

FL

S C

N C

W V

V A

M D

D E

N J

V T N H

M A

R I

BERMUDA

BAHAMAS

CUBA

YUCATAN

MEXICO

Figure 1. Hurricane Katrina’s track.
36

Florida Panhandle or Alabama late Sunday night, 28 August, or early 

Monday, 29 August. Mayfield also cautioned everyone to be prepared for 

“significant storm surge from wherever the system makes landfall.”4

Sure enough, Hurricane Katrina continued to grow and was upgraded 

to a Category 3 hurricane at 0500 CDT* on Saturday, 27 August.5

 By this 

time, the NHC had revised its track for Hurricane Katrina and was now 

warning everyone from the Florida Panhandle to Lake Charles, Louisiana, 

to be alert. Moreover, Hurricane Katrina was heading for an area of deep 

warm water in the central Gulf of Mexico that would feed the storm 

even more. Officials at the NHC worried that Hurricane Katrina would 

strengthen into a Category 4 or possibly even a Category 5 hurricane 

before it made landfall.6

 Searching for a comparative storm, another 

representative offered this advice, “You remember Camille and its 26 feet. 

I would advise all the folks that are in the potential path of this storm to 

be looking at their maximum off the surge models.”7

 Figure 2 shows a 

comparison of Hurricanes Camille and Katrina.

Hurricane Katrina continued building into a larger, more powerful 

storm. At 0200 on Sunday, 28 August, Hurricane Katrina reached Category 

4 strength. Five hours later, when its winds increased to more than 160 

mph, Hurricane Katrina was declared a Category 5 hurricane.8

 Hurricane 

Katrina reached its maximum sustained winds, 175 mph, around 1000 

that day.9

 Although it never matched their intensity, Hurricane Katrina 

was much larger than both Hurricanes Camille and Andrew. At its peak 

strength, Hurricane Katrina’s hurricane force winds extended out 105 

miles from the eye of the storm, and its tropical storm level winds extended 

*

All times are in central daylight time.

 NOAA/National Climatic Data Center

Figure 2. Comparison of Hurricanes Camille and Katrina.
37

out an additional 125 miles.10 By way of comparison, Hurricane Camille’s 

hurricane force winds extended out 75 miles.11 During the noon FEMA 

video teleconference on Sunday, 28 August, Max Mayfield desperately tried 

to make the other listeners understand the immense size and magnitude of 

the storm. He said, “This is a very large hurricane . . . this is a Category 5 

hurricane, very similar to Hurricane Andrew in the maximum intensity, but 

there is a big, big difference. This hurricane is much bigger than Andrew. . 

. .”12 Mayfield went on to say that “this hurricane is so large that no matter 

where it hits it’s going to have an impact over a very, very large area.”13

Those were prophetic words, for Hurricane Katrina’s extraordinary size 

complicated the relief effort by devastating the power, communications, 

and transportations systems many miles beyond the coast when it made 

landfall on 29 August.

Hurricane Katrina roared ashore near Buras, Louisiana, at 0610 on 

Monday, 29 August. At landfall, Hurricane Katrina’s winds blew in excess 

of 120 mph, and its pressure was the third lowest on record for a storm 

making landfall in the United States. Two hours later, with the eye of 

the storm 40 miles southeast of the city, New Orleans Lakefront Airport 

recorded wind gusts as high as 86 mph. At the same time, Gulfport, 

Mississippi, which was in the dangerous right-front quadrant of the storm, 

reported sustained winds of 94 mph and gusts up to 100 mph. By 1000, 

when Hurricane Katrina made its second landfall near the MississippiLouisiana border, it was still a very strong storm, with winds estimated at 

121 mph.14

By noon, everyone in the national response chain of command was 

well aware of the potential consequences of the storm. There did, however, 

seem to be some good news that morning. Max Mayfield noted that the 

eye of the storm passed to the east of New Orleans, sparing the city from 

the storm’s most destructive winds.15 While he expected the storm surge to 

be in the 10- to 15-foot range in Louisiana, Mayfield said he did not think 

the levees in New Orleans would be breached.16

Hurricane Katrina moved north-northeast the rest of the day. When 

it hit Laurel, Mississippi, 100 miles north of the coastline, its winds were 

still blowing at hurricane strength. The storm was not downgraded to a 

tropical storm until 1900, when it was 30 miles northwest of Meridian, 

Mississippi. It finally petered out into a tropical depression on Tuesday, 

when it reached Clarksville, Tennessee.17

As Hurricane Katrina passed through the region, it left behind a broad 

swath of death and destruction. Although initial assessments seemed to 

indicate that New Orleans had “dodged a bullet,” that optimistic evaluation 
38

was soon overturned when it was realized that three of the levees protecting 

the city had failed. Within hours, 80 percent of the city was flooded, 

precipitating the largest search-and-rescue mission in American history.18

Many of the parishes surrounding New Orleans, such as St. Bernard and 

Plaquemines, suffered equally as much damage as New Orleans. The 

Mississippi Gulf coast was also devastated. Haley Barbour, Governor of 

Mississippi, later commented that “the 80 miles across the Mississippi 

Gulf Coast is largely destroyed. A town like Waveland, Mississippi, has 

no inhabitable [sic] structures—none.”19 Cities such as Gulfport and 

Pascagoula were also heavily damaged.

The immense size and strength of Hurricane Katrina combined to turn 

a disaster into a catastrophe. Although larger and more powerful hurricanes 

have hit the United States, few had the combined attributes of Hurricane 

Katrina. Only four other hurricanes have struck the United States with 

greater wind force: the Labor Day hurricane that hit the Florida Keys in 

193520; Hurricane Camille, which struck the Gulf coast in 1969; and two 

more recent hurricanes that pummeled Florida, Hurricanes Andrew (1992) 

and Charley (2004).21 Only two of those hurricanes exceeded Hurricane 

Katrina’s intensity: the Florida Keys hurricane in 1935 and Hurricane 

Camille.22 Hurricane Katrina was also a huge storm: its hurricane force 

winds extended more than 100 miles from its eye.23 Consequently, 

Hurricane Katrina wreaked damage over an incredibly large area. More 

than 93,000 square miles, roughly the size of Great Britain, were affected 

by the storm.24 Few hurricanes have produced storm surge to match 

Hurricane Katrina. The maximum observed storm surge was 27.8 feet, 

which was recorded in Pass Christian, Mississippi. A 20-mile stretch along 

the western end of the Mississippi coast was hit with a storm surge ranging 

from 24 to 28 feet. The storm surge along the eastern end of the Mississippi 

coast averaged 17 to 22 feet. Not only did the storm surge decimate towns 

such as Waveland and Pass Christian along the coast, it reached inland as 

far as 12 miles and battered many towns that never expected to encounter 

storm surge. In New Orleans, the heavy surge raised the level of Lake 

Pontchartrain to the point where the levees failed in three places, flooding 

80 percent of the city up to a depth of 20 feet.25 The massive amounts of 

storm surge, rather than the hurricane’s high winds and rain, caused the 

majority of the destruction along the coast. 

In many ways, Hurricane Katrina was a much bigger and stronger 

storm than Hurricane Camille, which was the previous gold standard for 

storms along the Gulf coast. Although Hurricane Katrina was the thirdmost intense storm to strike the United States, Hurricane Camille was 

the second-most intense storm.26 While Hurricane Camille was a much 
39

stronger Category 5 hurricane with winds approaching 190 mph, those 

winds only extended out about 75 miles from the eye of the storm. Thus, 

Hurricane Camille affected a much smaller geographic area when it hit 

the Mississippi coastline in 1969.27 Similarly, Hurricane Katrina’s storm 

surge was almost unprecedented. It matched the heights reached during 

Hurricane Camille in the Saint Louis Bay area, but farther east, in Biloxi 

and Gulfport, it exceeded the previous highs by 5 to 10 feet.28

There were two important consequences of the strength and size of 

the storm:

•	 The immense storm almost completely destroyed the region’s 

communications infrastructure. More than 3 million telephone 

customers lost service, more than 2,000 cell phone towers were 

knocked out, and thirty-eight 911 call centers were lost.29 The loss of 

communications isolated many first responders, who are important 

elements in the National Response Plan. Without communications, 

those first responders who were not incapacitated by the storm 

were left both literally and figuratively in the dark. Since they had 

no power, they had neither lights nor the use of other electronic or 

electrical equipment. With their communications systems down, 

they were also blind to what was going on around them. The 

Figure 3. Storm surge in Mississippi. 

US Air Force Photo
40

destruction of the communications infrastructure dramatically 

affected the ability of first responders to assess the damage on 

the ground and report up the chain of command. It took hours, 

for example, for the news about the failure of the levees in New 

Orleans to filter back to officials in Baton Rouge. 

•	 The storm’s size and fury inhibited immediate response. Even if 

first responders survived and knew what was going on around 

them, it was not safe for them to respond to those in need until 

the winds subsided. Since Hurricane Katrina was a very large 

hurricane, it took a long time for the storm to pass through the 

region. Louisiana was subjected to hurricane force winds for 11 

hours. During those 11 hours, all that most emergency personnel 

could do was wait for the winds to diminish.30 Once the storm 

passed, emergency personnel stationed outside the immediate 

danger area had difficulty entering the affected areas because of 

downed trees, broken power lines, and flooded roads. 

Despite all of the preparations made by local, state, and Federal 

agencies, the magnitude of the storm almost completely overwhelmed 

everyone: victims, local first responders, state emergency officials, and 

FEMA. The Nation’s emergency response system, which was predicated 

on local emergency personnel providing immediate response to those in 

need, failed. As Governor Kathleen Blanco noted, “When your whole 

Figure 4. Flood damage in New Orleans. 

Technical Sergeant Kevin J. Gruenwald, USAF
41

system, your whole civilized system goes down, this is pretty much what 

you get left with. . . . We have no communications, no running water, no 

electricity, no real help.”31

The damage inflicted on the Gulf coast by Hurricane Katrina was 

devastating. It is estimated that more than 1,330 people were killed during 

the storm, making it the third most deadly hurricane and the fourth most 

deadly natural event in American history.32 Despite Hurricane Camille’s 

greater strength and intensity, only 256 people died along the Gulf coast 

and in rural southwest Virginia where the storm caused massive flooding.33

Hurricane Katrina was also the most costly hurricane in American history. 

Estimates of the cost exceed $100 billion. Even adjusting for inflation, 

Hurricane Katrina caused almost twice as much damage to the Gulf coast 

and inland areas as Hurricane Andrew inflicted on Florida in 1992.34 More 

than 300,000 homes were destroyed by Hurricane Katrina; Hurricane 

Andrew ruined some 80,000.35 Hurricane Katrina created more than 118 

million cubic yards of debris; Hurricane Andrew produced 20 million 

cubic yards of debris.36

Additionally, Hurricane Katrina was an environmental disaster. There 

were six major oil spills of more than 100,000 gallons and four of more 

than 10,000 gallons. All totaled, some 7.4 million gallons of oil poured 

into the Gulf waters. Only the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, which dumped 

some 11 million gallons of oil into Prince William Sound, Alaska, exceeds 

Hurricane Katrina in terms of oil released into American waters. In addition 

to oil, a wide range of other, often more toxic, materials were let loose into 

the environment. Three of the 16 Superfund toxic sites in the region were 

flooded, as well as 466 chemical sites and 31 hazardous waste sites. Also 

damaged or destroyed were 170 water and sewage treatment plants.37

Hurricane Katrina was an incredibly destructive hurricane. It was also 

a unique natural disaster in that the hurricane’s characteristics combined 

to make it more devastating than almost any previous hurricane. Its size 

and strength resulted in unprecedented damage throughout the Gulf coast, 

especially to the region’s road and communications systems, which further 

degraded both states’ ability to respond to the growing crisis. The extensive 

flooding in New Orleans and the surrounding parishes forced emergency 

personnel to focus on search and rescue instead of other relief missions. 

Roads were impassable because of debris or flooding, which prevented 

emergency personnel from reaching those in need and relief personnel 

from efficiently delivering needed aid. Hurricane Katrina was not a normal 

hurricane, and the resultant catastrophe required a response by the United 

States Army that went well beyond the normal as well.
42

Notes

1. Richard D. Knabb, Jamie R. Rhome, and Daniel P. Brown, Tropical 

Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina, 23–30 August 2005 (National Hurricane 

Center, 20 December 2005), 2, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/TCR-AL122005_

Katrina.pdf (accessed 10 March 2008).

2. Axel Graumann et al., Hurricane Katrina: A Climatic Perspective

(Asheville, NC: National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National 

Climatic Data Center, October 2005), 1, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/reports/

tech-report-200501z.pdf (accessed 10 March 2008).

3. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), “FEMA Region VI 

Video Teleconference Transcript, 26 August 2005,” 3–4, http://images.chron.com/

content/news/photos/06/03/02/katrinatranscript0826.pdf (accessed 15 January 

2008).

4. Ibid., 5.

5. Joint Task Force Katrina, “Joint Task Force Katrina Brief, Pre/Post 

Landfall Decision Points and Significant Events Timeline,” in JTF Katrina 

Commander’s Assessment, 5 SEP 05 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army 

Lessons Learned (CALL) Archives), http://webzoom.freewebs.com/swnmia/

JTF%20Katrina%5B1%5D.ppt (accessed 7 November 2007). 

6. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 27 

August 2005,” 5, http://images.chron.com/content/news/photos/06/03/02/

katrinatranscript0827.pdf (accessed 15 January 2008).

7. Ibid., 6.

8. Joint Task Force Katrina, “Joint Task Force Katrina Significant Events 

Timeline,” in JTF Katrina Commander’s Assessment, 6 SEP 05 [0700] (Fort 

Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

9. Graumann et al., 2.

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid., 21.

12. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 28 

August 2005,” 2–3, http://images.chron.com/content/news/photos/06/03/02/

katrinatranscript0828.pdf (accessed 15 January 2008).

13. Ibid., 4.

14. Graumann et al., 2.

15. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 29 

August 2005,” 3, http://images.chron.com/content/news/photos/06/03/02/

katrinatranscript0829.pdf (accessed 15 January 2008).

16. Ibid., 6.

17. Graumann et al., 2–3.

18. United States Executive Office of the President, The Federal Response 

to Hurricane Katrina (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2006), 6.

19. Ibid.

20. For several hundred years, hurricanes that hit the Caribbean islands were 

named for the saint’s day on which the hurricane struck. Consequently, Puerto 
43

Rico has endured two hurricanes San Felipe; one on 13 September 1876 and a 

second on 13 September 1928. Hurricanes that struck the United States were 

not named until 1950, thus the Galveston hurricane of 1900 or the Florida Keys 

Labor Day hurricane of 1935. Hurricane San Felipe, which hit Puerto Rico on 

13 September 1928, struck Florida 3 days later and is called the Okeechobee 

Hurricane in the United States. In 1950, the United States introduced a naming 

convention that used the phonetic alphabet (Alpha, Baker, Charlie, etc.) This 

system proved awkward so the Government adopted a system that used female 

names in 1953. That system remained in effect until 1979 when male names were 

added to the list. The list of names is repeated every 6 years, although some names 

are retired from the list. Almost 70 names have been retired, including Andrew, 

Camille, Charley, Frances, Hugo, Ivan, Katrina, Mitch, Rita, and Wilma. http://

www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames_history.shtml (accessed 8 May 2008).

21. National Climatic Data Center, “Climate of 2005: Summary of Hurricane 

Katrina,” NOAA, 29 December 2005, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/

research/2005/katrina.html#impacts (accessed 10 March 2008).

22. Eric S. Blake, Edward N. Rappaport, and Christopher W. Landsea, 

NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS TPC-5, The Deadliest, Costliest, and 

Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones From 1851 to 2006 (and Other 

Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts) (Miami, FL: National Weather Service, 

National Hurricane Center, April 2007), 5, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/NWSTPC-5.pdf (accessed 1 April 2008).

23. The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina, 152.

24. Ibid., 1.

25. Graumann et al., 4

26. Blake et al., 10.

27. Graumann et al., 22.

28. Ibid., 4–5.

29. US Congress, House, A Failure of Initiative: Final Report of the 

Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to 

Hurricane Katrina, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 15 February 2006, 163–164, http://

www.c-span.org/pdf/katrinareport.pdf (accessed 17 December 2007).

30. Colonel Jeff Smith, Retired, “Hurricane Katrina: Preparedness and 

Response by the State of Louisiana,” Testimony Before the House Select Bipartisan 

Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina, 109th 

Cong., 1st sess., 14 December 2005, http://www.columbia.edu/itc/journalism/cases/

katrina/Federal%20Government/Congress/U.S.%20House/House%20Hearings/

Select%20Bipartisan%20Committee/House%20Hearing%202005-12-14/

Smith%202005-12-14.doc (accessed 7 February 2008).

31. CBS News/Associated Press, “Misery Amid Finger Pointing,” 2 

September 2005, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/09/02/katrina/main813001.

shtml?source=search_story (accessed 10 March 2008).

32. The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina, 153.

33. Graumann et al., 22.

34. Blake et al., 9.
44

35. The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina, 7.

36. Ibid., 8.

37. Ibid.
45

Chapter 4

Louisiana

Hurricane Katrina was an extraordinary event that required an 

unprecedented response. In Louisiana, the response required, at its peak, 

almost 27,000 National Guard troops.1

 Those troops conducted airborne, 

waterborne, and ground search-and-rescue missions; delivered relief 

aid and medical assistance to those in need; repaired levees; cleared 

debris; and provided security for citizens and their property. Even though 

Louisiana had a hurricane response plan, it was inadequate in the face of 

an overwhelming disaster such as Hurricane Katrina. Consequently, the 

response in Louisiana was ad hoc; National Guard leaders responded to 

situations as they occurred and used whatever resources were available 

at the time to resolve the issue. Many parishes were in desperate need of 

assistance, so National Guard leaders organized task forces, often composed 

of out-of-state National Guard personnel, and sent them wherever they were 

needed. The story of the Army’s response to Hurricane Katrina is the story 

of disparate military units, whether National Guard, Active component, or 

Reserve component, overcoming unimaginable challenges to restore the 

conditions for normal life in numerous devastated communities.

Prelandfall Preparations

On Friday, 26 August, Governor Kathleen Blanco declared a state of 

emergency for Louisiana in anticipation of Hurricane Katrina striking the 

state. She authorized the State Adjutant General, Major General Bennett 

C. Landreneau, to call up 2,000 National Guard soldiers onto state active 

duty.2

 By the end of the day, almost 1,800 National Guardsmen were on 

duty.3

 On Saturday, as the predictions regarding the hurricane became 

more dismal, Governor Blanco ordered an additional 2,000 Guardsmen 

onto state active duty. By late that evening, more than 3,000 Louisiana 

National Guardsmen were on station in preassigned locations throughout 

the state.4

 

The next day, Sunday, 28 August, Landreneau established Task Force 

(TF) Pelican (figure 5). TF Pelican served as the command and control 

headquarters for all National Guard troops serving in the state throughout 

the crisis. Brigadier General Gary L. Jones assumed command of the task 

force later that evening. Initially, five functional task forces were organized 

under TF Pelican:

•	 Aviation (TF Eagle).
46

•	 Engineering (TF Castle).

•	 Security (TF Defender).

•	 Logistics.

•	 Search and rescue.5

TF Eagle controlled all National Guard aviation units. During the 

hurricane relief operation, this task force conducted aviation search-andrescue missions; delivered food, water, and other supplies; and helped 

the Corps of Engineers repair the levees by dropping sandbags into the 

breaches. All engineer units were assigned to TF Castle, which cleared 

roads, removed storm debris, restored public facilities, and assisted 

the Corps of Engineers with levee repairs. The engineers also helped 

with search and rescue and distribution of relief supplies. TF Defender

controlled most of the military police units deployed to the state. This task 

force supervised security operations throughout the state and assisted with 

the distribution of aid. Major General Landreneau established two other 

task forces to help with logistics and search-and-rescue operations.

Figure 5. Louisiana National Guard task organization as of 28 August 2005.

Adjutant General

MG Landreneau

Task Force

Pelican

BG Jones

*Search and Rescue

Task Force

Logistics

Task Force

Castle

Task Force

Defender

Task Force

Eagle

Task Force

SAR*
47

Throughout the weekend, Louisiana National Guard soldiers worked 

diligently to prepare the state for the coming storm. Colonel Barry 

Keeling, the state aviation officer, began repositioning air assets to protect 

them from the high winds Hurricane Katrina was expected to produce. 

He was unable to acquire enough hanger space at either the Baton Rouge 

or Hammond airports, so he negotiated space in Beaumont and Houston, 

Texas. He also set up ground support, including heavy expanded mobility 

tactical truck (HEMTT) fuel tankers, at the Hammond airport. 

Keeling took several actions to prepare for the expected postlandfall 

search-and-rescue mission. First, he organized a roving helicopter cell, 

consisting of four UH-60 Blackhawk and two UH-1 Huey helicopters. The 

helicopters were relocated to Houston at 1500 on Sunday. They planned 

to return to Louisiana and commence search-and-rescue operations as 

soon as Hurricane Katrina’s winds decreased to 45 knots (52 miles per 

hour), the level at which it was safe for the aircraft to fly. Keeling ordered 

the Blackhawks to return first, since they could operate in worse weather 

conditions.6

 Anticipating the need for a significant number of helicopters 

to support the potential search-and-rescue mission, Keeling also requested 

additional aviation assets through the Emergency Management Assistance 

Compact (EMAC) on 26 August. He asked for two UH-60 helicopters 

with hoists and four CH-47 helicopters along with aviation maintenance 

support.7

At the same time, Keeling established TF Eagle to control the state’s 

aviation assets. TF Eagle consisted of the State Aviation Office staff; 204th 

Air Traffic Services Group; 1/244th Aviation Regiment; 812th Medical 

Company (Air Ambulance); Detachment 2, 106th Aviation Intermediate 

Maintenance (AVIM); the Reconnaissance and Interdiction Detachment 

(RAID); and Operational Support Airlift (OSA) Detachment 38. Aviation 

personnel set up TF Eagle’s tactical operations center (TOC) at Jackson 

Barracks in New Orleans and manned a tactical command post in Pineville, 

Louisana.8

While Keeling organized the state’s aviation assets, other National 

Guard forces implemented the state’s emergency response plan. They 

positioned high-water vehicles, boats, engineering equipment, supplies, 

and other assets throughout the state. Aviation liaison officers deployed to 

13 parishes where they provided advice to local officials on how to best use 

National Guard aircraft for search-and-rescue missions.9

 Engineers from 

the 225th Engineer Group, along with OH-58 Kiowa helicopters, helped 

the Louisiana state police evacuate the southernmost parishes and the 

greater New Orleans area. The evacuation began at 1600 on Saturday, 27 
48

August.10 One of the main features of the evacuation plan was contraflow, 

which involved the use of all lanes of the highway system for outbound 

travel only. National Guard soldiers and airmen helped by erecting barriers 

and directing traffic. In accordance with the plan, the southern parishes 

were evacuated first. Once those parishes were evacuated, citizens from 

the metropolitan New Orleans area were allowed to leave. Over the next 25 

hours, approximately one million people, or 90 percent of the Louisianans 

living in Hurricane Katrina’s path, fled southeastern Louisiana, making it 

the most successful evacuation in American history.11 Despite the success 

of the evacuation operation, more than 100,000 people remained in New 

Orleans Sunday evening. Unfortunately, many of those remaining in the 

city were unable to self-evacuate, and since the city had no plan to evacuate 

them, they were still there when the storm struck.

The Superdome was the center of much prelandfall activity. Under 

the state’s emergency operations plan, the Superdome was a “special 

needs” shelter. Citizens who needed special assistance, such as oxygen 

or refrigeration for medicine, could get that medical support there. It 

was not, however, set up to provide care to those in need of constant 

medical attention.12 The Louisiana Special Response Team conducted 

a reconnaissance of the facility early Saturday morning, anticipating 

that it would be responsible for providing security there the next day. 

Army National Guard troops began flowing into the Superdome Sunday 

morning, 28 August. Forty-six members of the Special Response Team 

arrived at 0700.13 The Louisiana National Guard also sent a substantial 

medical contingent. Early Sunday morning, 71 medical personnel from the 

Louisiana Medical Command (MEDCOM), Company A/111th Medical 

Battalion, and the Air National Guard deployed to the Superdome. The 

MEDCOM, which is a component of the Army National Guard, included 

3 doctors, 5 nurses, and 30 other medical personnel. Company A/111th 

Medical Battalion sent 1 doctor, 1 nurse, 2 physician’s assistants, and 

14 medics. To assist with security, 220 soldiers from the 225th Engineer 

Group also deployed to the Superdome. The Air Guard sent 100 security 

personnel to the Superdome as well. Later in the day, TF Castle sent a sixperson forward operations element to the Superdome to provide command 

and control of the security forces.14

When the city of New Orleans opened the Superdome as a special 

needs shelter at 1000 Sunday morning, 28 August, there were more than 

450 Louisiana National Guard security and medical personnel in place. 

Critical care patients began arriving almost immediately. By the end of 

the day, National Guard medical personnel had more than 500 patients 

under their care. Thousands of people converged on the Superdome after 
49

city officials opened it to all citizens as a “shelter of last resort” at noon 

on Sunday. As people waited patiently in line, soldiers conducted security 

checks at the access points to weed out contraband and weapons. By 

1700, more than 2,500 citizens self-evacuated to the Superdome, many 

of whom brought their own food and water. Conditions at the Superdome 

were satisfactory at that point in time—there were lights, running water, 

working toilets, and air conditioning. National Guard soldiers delivered 

9,792 meals, ready to eat (MREs), and 13,440 one-liter bottles of water 

late Sunday afternoon.15 That brought the total number of MREs prestaged 

at the Superdome to 43,776 and the liters of water to 90,000, so leaders at 

the Superdome thought they had plenty of food and water.16

The 225th Engineer Group mobilized 1,485 soldiers as part of TF 

Castle. Among the 220 soldiers from the 527th Engineer Battalion at the 

Superdome was First Lieutenant Stewart Adams. He commanded a 30-

person quick reaction force (QRF) that performed security checks at the 

Superdome entrances. When his soldiers arrived there, they found long 

lines of people waiting to get inside. His troops were trained in riot and 

crowd control, so they immediately began to screen people as they entered 

the building.17 Other engineers spread out around the state. TF Castle

allocated 120 soldiers to the New Orleans Police Department and 64 more 

to the Jefferson Parish Sheriff’s Department to assist with evacuations and 

security missions. Three hundred engineers provided security at shelters 

around the state. Others helped the Louisiana state police with the ground 

evacuation mission. The rest of the 225th, some 800 soldiers, went to 

Camp Beauregard, near Pineville, Louisiana. Since Camp Beauregard was 

out of Hurricane Katrina’s expected path, they could safely wait out the 

storm there and then quickly move into the affected areas and provide 

humanitarian aid after the storm passed.18

Although 3,800 soldiers from the 256th Brigade Combat Team 

were overseas in Iraq, approximately 6,800 other Louisiana Guardsmen 

were available for mobilization when Hurricane Katrina struck. By late 

Sunday evening, more than half of them were on state active duty, ready 

to provide support to the citizens of Louisiana if needed.19 Some were at 

the Superdome providing security and medical support to people unable to 

evacuate from the city. Others were positioned around the state, providing 

assistance to local officials. A few others displaced to Texas where they also 

waited out the storm. The remainder was at Camp Beauregard, waiting out 

the storm. This was an unprecedented response by the state of Louisiana. 

Never before had so many troops been mobilized in reaction to a potential 

disaster.20
50

Immediate Response Operations

The many posthurricane investigations clearly indicate that few people 

in Louisiana understood the gravity of the situation throughout most of the 

day on Monday as the storm raged about them. During the noon FEMA 

video teleconference, Bill Lokey, the Federal coordinating official for 

FEMA in Louisiana gave this update:

. . . we got over 300,000 without power. We have got 

approximately 15,000 people in the Superdome, which is 

going to need relief soon with water and food . . . there 

is eight to ten feet of water in St. Bernard parish. In New 

Orleans parish, we have got water in the eastern part. And 

down in the ninth ward that borders St. Bernard parish, 

we’re going to have serious search-and-rescue efforts that 

are going to need to take place once we can get back 

in. . . . We are pretty much inundated right now, and 

our next priorities are going to be search and rescue and 

saving lives.21

When Governor Blanco was asked about the levees during the same 

conference call, she said: 

We keep getting reports in some places that maybe water 

is coming over the levees. We heard a report unconfirmed. 

I think we have not breached the levees. We have not 

breached the levee at this point in time. That could change, 

but in some places we have floodwaters coming in New 

Orleans East and . . . St. Bernard Parish where we have 

waters that are eight to ten feet deep, and we have people 

swimming in there, that’s got a considerable amount of 

water itself.22

While she was hopeful, Governor Blanco acknowledged that she did 

not know whether New Orleans had “dodged a bullet” or not when she 

said, “I can’t say that I feel that sense that we’ve escaped the worst. I think 

we don’t know what the worst is right now.”23

The lack of situational awareness caused by the dearth of damage 

reports led to rampant confusion and speculation. The idea that Hurricane 

Katrina was not as bad as it could have been quickly gained momentum. 

The Associated Press, for example, reported: 

The storm passed just to the east of New Orleans as it 

moved inland, sparing this vulnerable below-sea-level city 

its full fury and the apocalyptic damage that forecasters 
51

had feared. . . . An estimated 40,000 homes flooded in 

St. Bernard Parish just east of New Orleans . . . it was 

bad, but city officials had expected much worse. Only 

a last minute jog to the east saved New Orleans from 

catastrophe. A city that has become famous for near misses 

took a hard punch, but not the knock-down it could have 

been. . . .Officials said a levee broke on one canal, but did 

not appear to cause major problems.24

Similar assumptions were repeated by the Department of Homeland 

Security Operations Center in its 1700 situation report (SITREP) on 29 

August. Such reports no doubt put a damper on the sense of urgency that 

should have been resonating throughout the Federal Government at that 

time.25 Although reports of breaches in the levees had been coming in all 

day, it was not until 1800, when a FEMA public affairs officer observed 

the destruction firsthand from a Coast Guard helicopter, that the scope of 

the problem was truly understood.26

Louisiana and FEMA emergency managers spent much of Monday 

planning how they would conduct search-and-rescue missions and 

distribute humanitarian aid in a flooded operational environment. Although 

the Louisiana emergency management plan established preplanned 

collection points where people could gather or be dropped off for further 

evacuation, many of the designated sites were under water. Consequently, 

the Superdome became the default collection point, even as it became 

increasingly isolated by the rising flood waters.27 The flooding also 

disrupted the distribution of relief aid, such as food, water, and ice. Jeff 

Smith, Deputy Director for Emergency Preparedness with the Louisiana 

Office of Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness, indicated 

that the state had received commodities from FEMA, but it was unable to 

distribute them in significant quantities because of the flooding.28

Airborne Search-and-Rescue Operations

Although they had no idea how bad the situation really was, Louisiana 

emergency management officials did understand that search and rescue 

was their primary mission. The Coast Guard began flying search-andrescue missions around 1500 Monday afternoon. The high winds, 50 to 60 

miles per hour, made these operations particularly difficult.29 The roving 

helicopter cell established by Colonel Keeling returned to Baton Rouge 

Monday afternoon. The Blackhawks began flying missions about 1600, 

just a few hours after the storm passed through New Orleans. The Hueys 

followed suit soon thereafter.30 By the end of the day, the Army National 

Guard had 15 helicopters from the 1/244th Command Aviation Battalion, 
52

812th Air Ambulance Company, and the RAID in the air flying searchand-rescue missions.31 But search-and-rescue missions were fairly limited 

on Monday because of the wind and rain; most survivors had to wait until 

Tuesday, at the earliest, for rescue. 

By Tuesday, as the true extent of the destruction became apparent, 

Louisiana officials made a calculated decision to focus on saving lives. 

Jeff Smith later testified that “we made a conscious choice that life-saving 

was, by far, the most critical activity during the first days. Saving lives 

is more important than the evacuation of those who, while miserable, 

had food, water, medical care, and shelter.”32 With help from FEMA and 

EMAC resources, Smith reported that Louisiana would have 300 boats 

performing search and rescue by the end of the day on Tuesday.33

Army National Guard helicopters resumed search-and-rescue 

operations in New Orleans on Tuesday morning. One of the pilots involved 

in those early rescue missions recalled the difficulties they confronted. 

First Lieutenant Timothy Cleighton, a UH-60 pilot for the Louisiana Army 

National Guard, said that he did not fly a mission the first day; only the 

most experienced pilots were allowed to fly on Monday because of the 

high winds. When Cleighton flew into the city on Tuesday, he was left 

with a feeling of emptiness—New Orleans was full of water, almost totally 

destroyed. It was utter chaos. TF Eagle was supposed to control flight 

operations, but it was so busy that pilots conducted their own missions. 

Figure 6. Airborne search and rescue in New Orleans.

Master Sergeant Scott Reed, USAF
53

Military aircraft could communicate with one another, but they could not 

talk to civilian aircraft. It was, he said, amazing that no air mishaps occurred. 

They saw people everywhere—on roofs and congregating on plots of dry 

land. Without a set mission, they picked up people wherever they could. 

Since his aircraft did not have a hoist, he had to land and let people climb 

on board. Although he and his crew were unarmed, he said that they never 

felt threatened by those they rescued. Later, Border Patrol officers were 

embarked to provide security. During that day, Cleighton and his crew 

rescued about 75 people. Initially, they took folks to the Superdome. Later, 

as word about the conditions at the Superdome spread, citizens refused 

evacuation to the Superdome, so pilots resorted to generalities, telling them 

they were taking them to FEMA. Eventually, because of the overcrowded 

conditions at the Superdome, pilots were directed to drop people off at the 

“cloverleaf, which was an elevated section of Interstate 10 about a mile 

into Jefferson Parish that served as a makeshift collection point.”34

The number of helicopters involved in the search-and-rescue mission 

quickly increased over the next several days as additional forces flowed 

into the state. The first out-of-state helicopters to arrive were two UH60 Blackhawks from Oklahoma. They arrived on late Monday night, 29 

August, in response to an EMAC request for helicopter support submitted 

before Hurricane Katrina made landfall. The helicopters joined the searchand-rescue operation Tuesday morning.35 Army National Guard helicopters 

flew almost 4,000 sorties, rescuing more than 11,000 people and moving 

more than 12,000 other people from dropoff points to evacuation sites 

during the first 5 days of operations. They also delivered 600 tons of food 

and water and 631 tons of other cargo through Friday, 2 September.36

Texas also responded quickly, sending eight UH-60 Blackhawk 

helicopters, two CH-47 Chinook helicopters, and one C-23 airplane on 

Tuesday, 30 August.37 Texas helicopter crews evacuated 6,865 people, 

delivered almost 1,900 cases of MREs and 1,800 cases of water, and put 

almost 3 million pounds of sand and other materials into the levee breaches.38

The helicopter detachment brought a six-person communications team, 

which went to the Superdome and served as the primary communications 

conduit for the Louisiana Joint Operations Center.39

Two CH-47 helicopters from Company F, 131st Aviation Regiment, 

Georgia Army National Guard, arrived in New Orleans on Wednesday, 

31 August. Along with three UH-60s from the 171st Aviation Battalion, 

which arrived the next day, they assisted with levee repairs by dropping 

sandbags into the breaches. The CH-47s also helped with firefighting by 

using buckets to drop water on fires that plagued the city. Three UH-1 
54

Huey helicopters from the 148th Medical Company conducted a number 

of air rescues of people trapped on the roofs of houses and buildings.40

Wisconsin sent two UH-60 helicopters from the 1/147th Aviation 

Battalion, three UH-1s from the 832d Medical Company, and a C-26 

aircraft from the Operational Support Airlift Command, Detachment 52. 

The helicopters arrived in Louisiana on 2 September and immediately 

began search-and-rescue operations. While deployed, UH-1 crews rescued 

132 people, including 59 by hoist, picked up 13 pets, and delivered 8 tons 

of cargo while the UH-60 crews transported 315 passengers and delivered 

3 tons of supplies.41

During one particularly challenging mission, the crew of an UH-1 

from the 832d Medical Company went to great lengths to rescue a citizen. 

The crew spotted a man in a boat who indicated that he wanted to be 

rescued. He proceeded to a telephone pole where he tied up his boat. Since 

the helicopter crew could not safely approach that spot because of the 

telephone and power lines, the crew used hand signals to get him to move 

to another location. This time, he tied to a light pole, which was again 

inaccessible to the helicopter. The crew finally lowered the medic onto 

a partially submerged automobile to give the man an idea of where he 

needed to go. By this time, he was showing signs of exhaustion, so the 

helicopter pilot maneuvered behind the man and used the rotor wash to 

push him toward the submerged vehicle. Once in position, he was hoisted 

into the aircraft and taken to safety.42

Since the flooding rendered most of the preplanned collection sites 

unusable, the Superdome became the focal point of the Louisiana National 

Guard’s search-and-rescue operation. Jeff Smith spoke to the issue during 

the FEMA video teleconference saying, “We are having some issues 

with our collection points. A lot of the points that were pre-identified for 

collection points are inundated, they are under water. . . . We’re basically 

having to use the Superdome as a collection point at this time.”43 But the 

Superdome, with only one landing pad, was not configured for largescale flight operations. Something had to be done so, at first light Tuesday 

morning, 30 August, Lieutenant Colonel Garrett Jensen, Commander of 

TF Eagle, took action. After coordinating with the Superdome heliport 

manager, Jensen took control of flight operations at the Superdome and 

established landing patterns and control points. Jenson commandeered 

some National Guard soldiers and constructed 12 improvised landing pads 

by removing light poles from 2 elevated parking lots and pushing parked 

cars over the railings to clear enough space for helicopters to land. With 

the arrival of two Navy air controllers, there were enough personnel to 

support 24-hour flight operations at the Superdome.44
55

Rescue workers also used a number of informal rescue sites, which 

were nothing more than isolated spots with dry ground, usually located on 

highway overpasses. The most important of these were the “cloverleaf,” 

the I-10/I-610 split, the St. Bernard exit, and the Elysian Fields exit.45 Many 

people just gravitated toward these places, which were soon dubbed “lily 

pads,” looking for some place dry to rest and wait to be rescued. Others 

were brought there after they were plucked from their homes by boat or 

helicopter. TF Eagle worked hard to keep these people supplied with food, 

water, and medical supplies. A routine soon developed: helicopters dropped 

off the people they rescued at the Superdome, uploaded food and water, 

delivered those commodities to the lily pads, and then went back out to 

look for more people.46 That routine remained in effect until 1 September 

when the Superdome was shut down as an evacuation point. After that 

decision, rescue teams dropped evacuees off at one of the lily pads for 

Figure 7. A Blackhawk 

helicopter lands on 

the freeway near the 

Interstate 10 intersection 

for Baton Rouge and 

Slidell, Louisiana, to 

pick up citizens awaiting 

evacuation.Master Sergeant Scott Reed, USAF
56

further evacuation by other means.47 Some 65,000 people escaped the city 

via the lily pads by Saturday, 3 September. More than 26,000 of them 

eventually flew away on aircraft; the rest left New Orleans in buses.48

Flooding further complicated the search-and-rescue mission because 

several facilities in the city, including the New Orleans Parish jail and many 

hospitals, required evacuation. The hospitals were even more problematic 

since many were designated as collection points. Once again, the fallback 

position was the Superdome. The hospital evacuations involved a twostep process: patients were picked up at the hospital and dropped off at 

the Superdome where a second helicopter flew them to the airport for 

further transfer to hospitals around the state and Nation. On Tuesday, the 

day after Hurricane Katrina hit, TF Eagle coordinated the rescue of 11 

neonatal patients in incubators from Baptist Hospital and the evacuation 

of 11 patients on ventilators from the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) 

Hospital.49 The next day, some patients were rescued from the Chalmette 

Hospital, and a pregnant woman, who was hemorrhaging and expected 

to die unless she got immediate medical attention, was transported to the 

Louisiana State University (LSU) Medical Center in Baton Rouge.50 Sixty 

more patients were evacuated from Baptist Hospital, and 20 patients, many 

in critical condition, were removed from the St. Bernard Parish jail on 

Thursday.51 Although there was a constant flow of civilian air ambulances 

departing with patients, they could not keep up with the influx.52

One of the biggest challenges confronting the search-and-rescue 

missions during the first few days of operations was coordinating all 

of the disparate aviation assets after Title 10, National Guard, Coast 

Guard, civilian, and other agency aircraft converged on the region. When 

Hurricane Katrina struck, the National Search-and-Rescue Plan was out 

of date and did not incorporate the National Response Plan (NRP). The 

National Search-and-Rescue Plan assigned the Coast Guard responsibility 

for managing maritime rescue operations and the Air Force responsibility 

for land-based rescues. Conversely, the National Response Plan focused 

on ground-based search and rescue (Emergency Support Function (ESF) 

#9, National Urban Search and Rescue) and did not address how the Coast 

Guard and Air Force fit into the plan.53 Moreover, neither plan addressed 

large-scale disasters such as Hurricane Katrina. With conflicting statutory 

guidance, no one was officially in charge of helicopter search-and-rescue 

operations for the first few days. Air Force Brigadier General Harold 

Moulton, the general charged with controlling all Title 10 air assets, arrived 

on Saturday, 3 September. He explained the conduct of air operations before 

he arrived: “If you had a helicopter you flew it in, you found somebody on 
57

top of the roof, you grabbed them, and you took them to safety.”54 Despite 

the large number of helicopters operating in New Orleans, miraculously, 

there were no aviation incidents. 

Although it had a limited number of personnel and assets, TF Eagle

successfully controlled all search-and-rescue operations in the vicinity 

of the Superdome. On Tuesday, National Guard helicopters flew 512 

missions. They conducted 366 initial rescues and 303 secondary rescues 

and delivered 167 tons of cargo.55 The number of National Guard aircraft 

operating in Louisiana increased to 35 helicopters and 2 fixed-wing aircraft 

on Wednesday, 31 August, with the arrival of 16 more aircraft from Texas, 

Georgia, and Florida. With the influx of additional aircraft, the number of 

missions conducted increased significantly. The next day, 1 September, 

National Guard aircraft picked up 6,444 people in both primary and 

secondary rescues, transported 1,197 patients and 5,341 other passengers, 

delivered 217 tons of food and water, and hauled 248 tons of cargo and 

sandbags.56 Rescue operations peaked on 3 September, when National 

Guard aircraft rescued 4,734 people in primary and 4,258 in secondary 

missions.57

Despite the doctrinal limitations, TF Eagle made the air rescue 

operation work by closely coordinating operations with the Coast Guard 

and Active component air controllers. Two days into the relief operation, it 

set up search sectors, based on major roads and waterways, to improve the 

search routine and reduce duplication of effort.58 After Brigadier General 

Moulton arrived, he worked to establish a common search strategy and 

communications interoperability among the various agencies conducting 

search-and-rescue missions. On Thursday, 1 September, FEMA established 

a supply and refueling base at Zephyr Field, which improved on-station 

time since aircraft did not have to go to Louis Armstrong International 

Airport or Belle Chasse Naval Air Station. By collocating the supply 

depot with the refueling point, helicopters could refuel and load supplies 

simultaneously, thus eliminating the need to transport massive amounts of 

supplies to the Superdome.59

Another important air mission began on Tuesday, 30 August, when 

the Corps of Engineers began using helicopters to drop sandbags into 

the breach in the 17th Street Levee. TF Eagle dispatched two UH-60 

helicopters to help on Tuesday. They picked up 3,000-pound sandbags and 

watched them disappear into the water when dropped on their target. The 

UH-60 helicopters were augmented by CH-47 Chinooks and additional 

UH-60 Blackhawks the next day, and they eventually succeeded in closing 

the breaches.60
58

Airborne Evacuations

The situation at the Louis Armstrong International Airport was 

chaotic at best. Because of the storm, only a skeleton crew remained at 

the airport. Since there was never any intention or plan on the part of the 

state or city to use the airport for mass evacuations, airport personnel were 

totally unprepared for the massive influx of people that occurred several 

days after Hurricane Katrina struck. They had no food or water supplies; 

medical support was nonexistent; and with only a few Federal air marshals 

onsite, security was limited. Flight operations were further complicated 

because ground personnel at the gates could not communicate with the 

tower and all flights were visual flight rules (VFR) only.61 Order was not 

restored at the airport until the 82d Airborne Division arrived on Saturday, 

3 September.62

There were problems at the airport from the beginning. When the 

storm struck New Orleans, some 800 people with valid airline tickets were 

stranded at the airport because their flights were canceled. They sat there 

for 2 days, waiting for the airlines to pick them up. When the airlines finally 

sent in planes on Wednesday, 31 August, airport officials talked them into 

filling all the empty seats with evacuees.63 On Thursday, 1 September, the 

situation at the airport got worse when thousands of unexpected evacuees 

began arriving. FEMA urban search-and-rescue teams started dropping 

off people at the airport when officials closed the Superdome to further 

evacuees. On top of that, hundreds of well-meaning rescuers brought folks 

in using their personal vehicles and buses.64

On Friday, 2 September, officials decided to begin mass air evacuations. 

Department of Defense and civilian aircraft began flying out people 

around the clock. The evacuation was temporarily suspended later that 

day because the surge of people into the airport overwhelmed the staff, but 

operations quickly resumed. Air evacuations continued at a frantic pace 

through Monday, but the pace slowed considerably after that, and the last 

evacuation flight departed on Friday, 9 September. The airport opened for 

commercial flights on Tuesday, 13 September, a little more than 2 weeks 

after Hurricane Katrina struck.65

Ground Operations

The situation quickly deteriorated for the National Guard ground 

forces in New Orleans. The National Guard’s Joint Operations Center was 

located at Jackson Barracks, which is the headquarters for the Louisiana 

National Guard. National Guard leaders considered Jackson Barracks a safe 

location since it had withstood many storms over the years. Consequently, 

they pre-positioned a large number of troops, high-water vehicles, and 
59

boats there as well. Unfortunately, it is also one of the lowest points in the 

city, and by 0730, the compound was inundated with 10 feet of water.66

Brigadier General Gary Jones assumed command of Task Force 

Pelican Sunday evening at about 1830. He arrived at his command center 

in the Jackson Barracks complex around midnight. After a quick brief from 

the staff, Jones went to sleep, confident that the Joint Operations Center, a 

three-story hardened building, would withstand Hurricane Katrina’s wind 

and rain. Even though the Joint Operations Center lost electrical power 

around 0400, all systems continued to operate effectively on the gaspowered backup generator.67

As the day passed, the situation in the command center got 

progressively worse. The Joint Operations Center lost all power when 

the lines that supplied natural gas to the emergency generators were cut.68

Water began to rise rapidly, increasing from perhaps 1-foot deep to more 

than 10 feet deep in 30 minutes.69 Jones recalled seeing roofs and vehicles 

float by.70 Captain Kenneth Baillie, an intelligence officer working in the 

Joint Operations Center, watched cars and other large objects float past his 

building. At first, they were caught by the concertina wire on the top of the 

fence at Jackson Barracks, but it was not long before they were flowing 

freely over the fence.71 As the flood waters continued to rise, Jones got 

word that 20 soldiers were trapped in another building. The water had 

already reached the second floor of their building and they had to get out. 

Jones sent out a rescue party by boat, which brought the soldiers back to 

the Joint Operations Center. Although the first floor of the Joint Operations 

Center was situated 6 feet off the ground, by this time it was inundated 

with 4 feet of water. On top of that, the toilets were beginning to back 

up.72 After the storm knocked down the 800-megahertz radio tower, thus 

severing the Joint Operations Center’s primary means of communications, 

Major General Landreneau decided to redeploy the Joint Operations 

Center’s primary staff to the Superdome.73 It moved to the Superdome 

before dark that evening. The command group set up its operations center 

between the Superdome and the New Orleans Arena but had to move to an 

elevated parking lot a short while later as water began to rise outside the 

Superdome.74

Minutes after the wind and rain began to subside, National Guard 

soldiers began to organize for search-and-rescue missions. The National 

Guard staged 18 flat-bottom boats at Jackson Barracks, and the Department 

of Wildlife and Fisheries, which was responsible for search and rescue in 

Louisiana, pre-positioned many more boats there as well. But the Wildlife 

and Fisheries boats were left attached to their trailers, so as the floodwaters 

rose, the boats dangled by the chains connecting them to their submerged 
60

trailers. Brigadier General Brod Veillon, the Assistant Adjutant General of 

Louisiana, directed the National Guard’s search-and-rescue effort. He sent 

out soldiers in boats with bolt cutters to “liberate” the Wildlife and Fisheries 

boats. As Veillon motored through the flooded streets of New Orleans, he 

expected to find a few people in need of rescue. Instead, he and his troops 

found hundreds. Although it was difficult maneuvering the boats because 

of the wind and rain, Veillon said that soldiers drove their boats right up to 

the roofs of houses to bring people on board. On several occasions, they 

chopped holes in the roofs of houses to free people trapped in their attics.75

The soldiers rescued dozens of people in St. Bernard and Orleans Parishes 

and took them to the Joint Operations Center.76 Waterborne search-andrescue operations continued until it was too dark to safely operate, at 

which point they shut down and waited for daylight. 

The next morning, it quickly became clear that their position at 

Jackson Barracks was untenable, so Jones evacuated the rest of the TF 

Pelican staff. The first people to leave were several dozen citizens who 

were picked up and brought back to Jackson Barracks the previous night. 

Soldiers took them by boat to a levee where UH-60 helicopters transported 

them to the Superdome. The rest of the TF Pelican staff soon followed, 

leaving only a small security detachment behind at Jackson Barracks.77

Superdome

Even as additional National Guard troops converged on the Superdome, 

the conditions there began to deteriorate. When the storm hit early Monday 

morning, approximately 12,000 people were in the Superdome. The 

Superdome lost power before Hurricane Katrina made landfall. Although 

a generator provided limited lighting, there was no longer air conditioning 

in the stifling hot building. The storm punched holes in the Superdome 

roof, letting in rain. Concerned that the roof might collapse, National 

Guardsmen moved everyone off the field and up into the stadium seats 

or the plaza-level walkway.78 With thousands of people jammed into the 

concourses, conditions became even more uncomfortable. On Tuesday, 

the situation got worse when the sewage system failed, precipitating a 

sanitation crisis.79 Toilets backed up and the stench was almost unbearable. 

The number of people seeking refuge at the Superdome more than doubled 

to 25,000 to 30,000 by Wednesday.80

Amid this growing crisis, National Guard soldiers managed to provide 

adequate food, water, and medical support to those in need. They distributed 

food and water to people at the Superdome twice a day, from 0900 to 

1100 and 1900 to 2100, which was not always easy.81 In the aftermath 

of the storm, FEMA had difficulty getting food and other supplies to the 
61

Superdome. As food stocks dwindled, the food situation at the Superdome 

became a concern. Luckily, on Wednesday, 31 August, National Guard 

helicopters discovered several trailers full of MREs in Harahan, Louisiana. 

FEMA lost track of a shipment of MREs when the FEMA-contracted truck 

drivers abandoned their trailers in Harahan because the flooding blocked 

their path to the Superdome. At that point, Blackhawk helicopters were 

dispatched to the scene. The crews broke into the trailers and delivered the 

food to the Superdome.82 Later, as supplies increased, Guardsmen passed 

out food and water continuously.83

The troops assigned to the Superdome also performed rescue missions. 

When the National Guard received word that the flooding endangered the 

remaining patients at the Tulane Medical Center, a group of soldiers from 

the 527th Engineer Battalion went to the rescue. Driving through 3 feet of 

water, the engineers dodged floating cars, freezers, and other debris during 

their trip to the hospital. They evacuated 21 people, including a number of 

patients on ventilators.84

The work of the medical team at the Superdome underscores the 

exceptional efforts made by soldiers to sustain life and provide relief 

to the citizens of the city. The National Guard medical team worked 

with the FEMA National Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT). 

Colonel Patricia Prechter, Deputy Commander of the Louisiana Medical 

Command, noted its mission was to provide medical support to people 

Figure 8. An Army UH-60 helicopter flies near the Superdome.

Technical Sergeant Kevin J. Gruenwald, USAF
62

who did not need much direct care. Many of the people who congregated 

at the Superdome needed continual care. Some had been homebound, 

others were on dialysis, and at least six of the patients rescued from the 

Tulane Medical Center were on ventilators. The National Guard medical 

team provided medical assistance as best it could, but it lacked the 

equipment and medicines to effectively care for many of the patients.85

The medical team’s task was made even more difficult when the FEMA 

National DMAT withdrew from the Superdome because team members 

were concerned about their personal safety and security.86 As conditions 

in the Superdome continued to deteriorate, National Guard leaders on 

the scene decided to move the special needs patients. Tuesday evening, 

National Guard troops began moving approximately 150 patients, many 

of whom were in wheelchairs or on stretchers, to the New Orleans Arena, 

which was located across a walkway from the Superdome.87 Conditions 

there, Colonel Prechter recalled, were not much better since the building 

had no electricity, water, or toilets.88

Another challenge that complicated the mission at the Superdome 

was the prevalence of wild rumors. Major Ed Bush, a National Guard 

public affairs officer, described it: “the Superdome itself was its own 

little microcosm. . . . A lot of them [evacuees] had AM radios, and they 

would listen to news reports that talked about the ‘dead bodies at the 

Superdome’ and the ‘murders in the bathrooms of the Superdome,’ and 

the ‘babies being raped at the Superdome,’ and it would create terrible 

panic.”89 Although Bush was originally assigned to the Superdome to deal 

with the media, his job soon morphed into disseminating information to 

the evacuees and squashing rumors that were causing unrest and undue 

concern. Bush recalled that he and two other soldiers walked around the 

Superdome constantly making announcements to keep everyone informed 

of the situation as best they could. When people approached him with wild 

stories, he asked them questions until they realized that they were reacting 

to unfounded rumors.90

The soldiers at the Superdome confronted another significant challenge 

when the rising flood waters threatened to knock out the facility’s backup 

generator. Although the generator provided only limited emergency 

lighting, National Guard leaders on the scene considered the generator 

vital to security inside the Superdome. Without those lights, they worried 

that the Superdome might descend into anarchy. Acting quickly, Task 

Force Eagle airlifted in sandbags and pumps, and engineers from the 

527th Engineer Battalion installed them. When they realized that the pump 

hose was not long enough to reach the outer wall, the engineers quickly 

improvised a solution. After obtaining additional fire hoses from around 
63

the Superdome, one engineer, Corporal Howland, worked in chest-deep 

water to rig the fire hoses to the pump, thus saving the generator. Because 

of Howland’s initiative and skill, the Superdome never lost power.91

The evacuation of the Superdome touches on the issues of unified 

command and unity of purpose. The absence of a unified command 

negatively affected the Superdome evacuation mission. Although all 

agencies involved no doubt sought to carry out the evacuation as soon as 

possible, the mission did not go smoothly, suggesting a lack of unity of 

purpose as well. Governor Blanco took the first step toward evacuating 

the Superdome on Monday when she asked FEMA to obtain buses for 

evacuating the citizens of New Orleans. When she visited the Superdome 

the next day, she quickly recognized that conditions were so bad that those 

seeking refuge there required immediate evacuation. When the requested 

buses did not arrive later Tuesday, Governor Blanco again asked FEMA 

for help. FEMA finally sent a request for buses to the Department of 

Transportation early Wednesday morning, and the first Department of 

Transportation contracted buses arrived at mile marker 209 (La Place, 

Louisiana) at 0630 Wednesday morning, 31 August.92 While Governor 

Blanco prodded FEMA to provide buses, similar assets sat unused. 

Although all of the city’s school buses were left on a flood plain where 

they were damaged by the rising waters, 200 Regional Transit Authority 

buses, which were parked on higher ground near the Poland Street Wharf, 

were available for use.93 Unfortunately, Regional Transit Authority officials 

failed to inform the city of their availability until 3 days after the storm 

made landfall.94

While the state and FEMA tried to acquire buses, National Guard 

forces under Brigadier General Jones began planning the evacuation. Jones 

spoke with Major General Landreneau early Wednesday morning and 

expressed concern about the capacity of his staff to execute the evacuation 

mission while also providing security, performing engineer missions, and 

conducting other operations. He recalled that it “was probably beyond the 

capability, not of my troops, but of my planning staff to execute . . . I asked 

for support.”95 Landreneau agreed and informed him that they would ask 

for additional assistance. But he warned, “Until you get relieved of that 

mission, that is your mission.”96 So Jones and his staff began figuring out 

the best route to use to get the people at the Superdome out.

The evacuation mission was, of course, complicated by the flood 

water surrounding the Superdome. The water was as deep as 6 feet in 

some places. After reconnoitering the area, National Guard leaders 

determined that they could evacuate everyone through the Hyatt Hotel via 

a raised walkway, where buses could pick up the evacuees in relatively 
64

shallow water. National Guard officers met with the Hyatt’s managers to 

discuss the plan, and they readily agreed to the use of their property as the 

embarkation point.97

Although Jones now had a viable plan, the lack of buses stymied his 

effort to evacuate the Superdome. A few buses trickled in during the day 

on Wednesday and six busloads of special needs patients evacuated around 

2100 that night, but most people remained stuck in the squalor, filth, and 

heat of the Superdome.98 The fitful progress of the evacuation mission 

caused frustration among those remaining in the Superdome and concern 

among the National Guard soldiers providing security, who worried that 

those irritated by the delay might turn to anger or violence.

The lack of progress also annoyed Governor Blanco. Around 1700 

on Wednesday afternoon, she asked Lieutenant General Russel Honoré 

to coordinate the evacuation of New Orleans. Honoré, in turn, directed 

Brigadier General Mark Graham to carry out the mission.99 Graham, 

Deputy Commanding General of the US Fifth Army, and a small staff 

had just arrived in New Orleans from Fifth Army headquarters to provide 

additional support for the defense coordinating officer, Colonel Daskevich. 

Graham spent the rest of the evening planning the evacuation mission in 

coordination with FEMA and the National Guard. They executed the plan 

devised by the National Guard, with the addition of Graham’s staff as 

command and control nodes at both the Superdome and mile marker 209. 

Photographers Mate First Class Brien Aho, USN

Figure 9. Army National Guard soldiers assist citizens during the evacuation of the Superdome.
65

The relief operation was set to begin at 1000 Thursday morning. The 

initial rescue mission was delayed at Governor Blanco’s request so that 

some of the buses could be used to rescue some 5,000 people stranded at 

the cloverleaf.100 Responding to Governor Blanco’s directive, Brigadier 

General Graham sent a command and control element to the cloverleaf as 

well and ran both operations simultaneously. The evacuation plan went as 

follows: 10 buses departed mile marker 209, escorted by two state troopers. 

The buses exited I-10 and proceeded to the Loyola Street entrance to the 

Hyatt Regency Hotel. The Louisiana National Guard selected this road 

because it only had 11⁄2 feet of water on it. Checkpoints were established 

along the route to ensure that the buses were safe. Meanwhile, Guardsmen 

began moving the evacuees from the Superdome to the buses via the 

outdoor concourse to the mall, which connected to the Hyatt. National 

Guard troops lined the path to ensure that only those who had been staying 

at the Superdome got onto the buses. As soon as a fleet of buses arrived at 

the Hyatt, the next group was directed to begin its approach.101 Operations 

continued around the clock until the Superdome was emptied Saturday 

morning. During this operation, 822 buses were used to evacuate New 

Orleans residents.102

The operation might be best described as organized chaos. It proved 

difficult to maintain order once the word was passed that relief buses were 

en route. People surged toward the causeway exit where they stood for 

hours in the hot sun, unwilling to lose their place in line. National Guard 

security personnel were stationed every few feet, trying to keep order. 

Concerned that the elderly and children would be injured in the crush to 

get out, they worked diligently to keep the evacuees calm. Despite their 

best efforts, many people fainted or descended into hysteria, which made 

maintaining order even more difficult.103 Communications limitations 

increased the complexity of the mission as well. The FEMA liaison team 

at the Superdome was unable to communicate with the state Emergency 

Operations Center, so they coordinated their piece of the operation with 

the Regional Response Coordination Center (RRCC) and the National 

Response Coordination Center (NRCC) instead. Consequently, Louisiana 

emergency operations leaders had only limited situational awareness 

throughout the entire operation.104 Since National Guard leaders wanted 

to evacuate the Superdome inhabitants as quickly as possible, they made 

no effort to manifest evacuees at the embarkation point. Consequently, no 

one knows for sure how many people were actually evacuated from the 

Superdome.

With the crowds gone, all that was left in the Superdome were mounds 

of trash and the echoes of what had transpired there. The numerous media 
66

reports of murder and rape at the Superdome were, in retrospect, way 

overblown. None of the six people who died at the Superdome were 

victims of crime.105 Colonel Pat Santos, a Louisiana Army National Guard 

officer present at the Superdome, offered this explanation of why there was 

so little violence at the Superdome, despite the massive influx of people 

into the building. He said, “The only reason things did not get totally out 

of hand was that the National Guard represented a force in being, since 

the New Orleans Police Department was under-represented.”106 National 

Guard soldiers continued to operate out of the Superdome for several 

more days before they, too, moved on to other missions. On 6 September, 

the Joint Operations Center moved to the Giles Long Center in Carville, 

Louisiana.107

Ernest N. Morial Convention Center

In the lore of Hurricane Katrina, the Convention Center supersedes 

even the Superdome with its tales of horror and neglect. But unlike the 

Superdome, there was no city-designed plan to make the Ernest N. Morial 

Convention Center a “shelter of last resort.” Consequently, when Mayor 

Ray Nagin opened the center to citizens on Tuesday as an alternative to 

the Superdome, no stockpiles of food or water were in place, no National 

Guard troops were onsite to provide security, and no medical personnel 

were there to provide medical support to the hundreds in need of assistance. 

Further complicating the issue, Mayor Nagin inexplicably failed to inform 

FEMA, the state Emergency Operations Center, or the National Guard that

he had opened the Convention Center to the public. Although it served as 

a dry place of refuge, the people who congregated there were left on their 

own for a number of days.108

The situation at the Convention Center clearly illustrates the lack of 

situational awareness leaders had to deal with. Brigadier General Jones 

recalled that he knew nothing about the situation at the Convention Center 

until Wednesday, 31 August, when a reconnaissance patrol reported that 

15,000 or more people were congregating there.109 He quickly passed that 

information on to Major General Landreneau. With his personnel assets 

stretched to the limit, and no request from the city or state for assistance, 

Landreneau told Jones to stick to his mission at the Superdome.110 This 

was an important decision since it doomed those people seeking refuge at 

the Convention Center to several more days of hardship.

With no food, water, or security, the situation at the Convention Center 

was grim. It turned into “a living hell that became the symbol of all that 

went wrong in Katrina’s aftermath.”111 There were media reports of gunfire, 

sexual assaults, and robberies. There were reports of 30 to 40 bodies stored 
67

in a freezer at the Convention Center, including a 7-year-old girl whose 

throat had been cut.112 Although there was a small police presence at the 

Convention Center, the police officers were quickly overwhelmed and 

retreated from the building.113

There was, however, a substantial contingent of National Guard 

troops at the Convention Center. More than 200 engineers from the 528th 

Engineer Battalion arrived there on Sunday. They intended to use the 

Convention Center as a staging area for engineering missions after the 

hurricane passed. The obvious need of the thousands of people stranded 

there put the engineers in a predicament. Although they were physically 

in a position to help, the engineers were not trained in crowd control and 

the limited amount of food, water, and other supplies they had on hand 

was not sufficient to provide for the thousands of people congregating at 

the Convention Center. With no orders to the contrary, the engineers stuck 

to their assigned mission instead of attempting to assuage their fellow 

citizens’ suffering. Over the next few days, they conducted search-andrescue missions, removed debris, cleared roads, and repaired a breach 

on the west side of the 17th Street Levee.114 The battalion also sent out 

assessment teams to outlying parishes to determine what assistance, if any, 

those parishes needed.115

The situation at the Convention Center grew worse and worse over the 

next 4 days as rescuers dropped off more and more people there, which was 

one of the highest points in the city. Little in the way of food or water came 

along with the influx of people plucked from the flooded city. The police 

brought in some water and there were several other deliveries by air, but 

overall, the amount of supplies delivered there was wholly inadequate. The 

only food the evacuees received in the 3 days following the storm came 

from looters who broke into stores in the neighborhood. By Friday, nearly 

20,000 people were stuck at the Convention Center awaiting rescue.116

The situation finally turned for the better when the New Orleans 

Director of Homeland Security and Public Safety finally asked Major 

General Landreneau for assistance early Friday morning. Landreneau 

passed the mission to Brigadier General Jones around 0700 Friday 

morning. He was directed to secure the building and provide relief to the 

desperate citizens milling about near the Convention Center.117 Around 

noon on Friday, Lieutenant Colonel Jacques Thibodeaux, Commander of 

the Louisiana Special Response Team, led a contingent of more than 1,000 

National Guard troops from Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, Nevada, and 

Arkansas to the Convention Center. Because of the wild rumors regarding 

the conditions at the Convention Center, they went in armed and ready 
68

to deal with violence, but they secured the center without incident in 15 

minutes. One reporter described the scene: 

Just how many had died was not clear, though the breadth 

of the horror was in plain sight. On the sidewalk, a woman 

with short gray hair lay dead on her side, legs drawn up 

toward her belly. The elderly woman whose corpse had 

become a recurring image Thursday on the television news 

still lay slumped, a day later, in her wheelchair. Young and 

old swooned in the hot, fetid air . . . many repeated stories 

they had heard of rapes and killings. . . .118

Despite all that they had been through, most people were genuinely 

glad to see the National Guard. The comments of one woman, who said 

“I feel great to see the military here. I know I’m saved,” summed up the 

attitude of many survivors of the Convention Center debacle. With order 

restored, food and water was quickly distributed to everyone there. The 

next day, Thibodeaux coordinated the evacuation of some 19,000 people 

from the Convention Center. The operation began about 1000, and by 

1830, 14,000 people had left by bus, 2,000 departed by ferry, and 3,000 

critical care patients were flown out by helicopter.119

The relief process clearly failed those ensconced at the Convention 

Center. The lack of awareness about the situation there represents the worstcase scenario for the relief operation. Although the mayor opened the center 

as a place of refuge, he neglected to inform anyone at the state Emergency 

Operations Center that he had done so. The rescue workers dropping 

people off there either did not inform their chain of command that they 

were doing so or that information got lost in confusion and chaos of those 

first few days after the storm hit. The New Orleans Police Department was 

obviously aware of the situation since it dispatched police officers there 

on Wednesday and dropped off water on several other occasions. But once 

again, it is not clear that they passed that information along to either the 

city or state Emergency Operations Center. Even though the engineers from 

the 528th Engineer Battalion were aware of the situation, they apparently 

did not inform their chain of command either, since Brigadier General 

Jones did not find out about the people congregating at the Convention 

Center until Wednesday. Even then, Jones did not send assistance because 

his troops were stretched thin by their current missions. The only people 

who seemed aware of the situation were the media. When FEMA Director 

Michael Brown told Ted Koppel on Nightline Thursday night that he just 

learned about the situation at the Convention Center that day, Koppel 

pointedly asked if FEMA officials watched television because, he said, 
69

the media reported the situation days earlier.120 Despite those failures, the 

people at the Convention Center were finally rescued. Once the National 

Guard acted, soldiers brought in food, water, and medical assistance in 

overwhelming quantities. In a little more than 24 hours, everyone was 

evacuated from the center. Moreover, the situation there was not as dire 

as reported in the media. Certainly, people were tired, hungry, thirsty, and 

hot, but murderers, rapists, and other criminals did not run rampant at 

the Convention Center. Subsequent investigations uncovered few serious 

crimes, and as it turned out, officials only recovered the bodies of four 

deceased persons from the center.121

Recovery Operations

By the end of the first week, the tide began to turn in Louisiana. 

Although rescue operations continued, everyone who sought refuge at the 

Superdome and Convention Center had been evacuated, and thousands 

of National Guard and Active-Duty troops were beginning to pour into 

the state in what became the largest domestic deployment of forces since 

the American Civil War. At the peak, more than 72,000 Active, Reserve, 

and National Guard personnel participated in the Hurricane Katrina relief 

effort.122 The military response was truly a joint effort—not only was 

every service involved, but every state sent forces as well. The US military 

rescued people in need, provided critically needed humanitarian aid, and 

set the conditions for restoration of life in the region.

National Guard in Louisiana

When Hurricane Katrina hit, almost 6,000 National Guardsmen 

were on state active duty in Louisiana. Three days later, the number of 

Guardsmen in Louisiana doubled to more than 12,000 (figure 10).123 The 

focus of the Louisiana soldiers over the first few days was rescuing people 

in New Orleans and the surrounding parishes, clearing primary roads of 

debris, and delivering relief supplies to those in need. As the number of 

troops in the state increased, the National Guard took on additional tasks. 

National Guard soldiers conducted house-by-house searches in New 

Orleans and, later on, in outlying parishes by both boat and on foot; helped 

the New Orleans Police Department restore order in the city; established 

relief distribution points; and cleared debris from public buildings and 

roadways. 

Initially, the Louisiana National Guard organized its forces into five 

primary task forces, but as the number of personnel in the state grew, the 

task organization changed (figure 11). Several task forces were added to 

Task Force Pelican, including Task Force Belle Chasse and Task Force 
70

Santa Fe. Reception, staging, onward movement, and integration (RSOI) 

was managed by TF Belle Chasse. There were two RSOI sites. The 

headquarters for TF Belle Chasse was at Belle Chasse Naval Air Station 

in suburban New Orleans. Those National Guardsmen who flew into New 

Orleans in-processed at that site while those who arrived by ground convoy 

in-processed at England Air Force Base near Alexandria. When it became 

clear that the magnitude of the support arriving from other states was too 

much for the Louisiana National Guard to control, the National Guard 

Bureau dispatched the headquarters for the 35th Infantry Division to help. 

When the Kansas National Guard unit arrived, it was designated as Task 

Force Santa Fe and given command and control responsibility for most 

out-of-state units operating in Louisiana. As out-of-state forces arrived, 

they were organized into task forces and dispatched to one of the parishes 

affected by the storm. The largest subtask force in TF Santa Fe was TF 

Orleans, which encompassed the city of New Orleans. In most cases, TF 

Santa Fe did not control aviation assets or engineers. Consequently, if any of 

its subunits needed such assistance, they had to request the support through 

TF Santa Fe and TF Pelican. The logistics task force was redesignated as 

TF Griffin. This task force, which also operated out of Belle Chasse Naval 

Air Station, assisted with the transportation and distribution of military 

and civilian supplies. TF Pelican continued to support search-and-rescue 

operations, conduct civilian evacuations, help with debris removal and 

levee repairs, distribute humanitarian aid (food, water, and shelter), and 

provide medical and security support throughout the state.124

Figure 10. National Guard response to Hurricane Katrina.

26 Aug

27 Aug

28 Aug

29 Aug30 Aug31 Aug

1 Sep

2 Sep

3 Sep

4 Sep

5 Sep

6 Sep

7 Sep

8 Sep

10 Sep

11 Sep

12 Sep

9 Sep

13 Sep

14 Sep15 Sep16 Sep

55,000

50,000

45,000

40,000

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0

* Forty-eight states, three territories, and the District of Columbia chose Title 32 status. Two states (Delaware and Iowa) remained

on state active duty.

Immediate Response National Guard Relief Effort* Prestorm

Preparations
71

Task Force Eagle

By Saturday, 3 September, airborne rescue operations began to slow 

down. Most people who wanted to be rescued had been. Ground search 

missions increased in frequency and duration as the water level in the city 

receded. The focus of air operations shifted from rescues to distribution of 

supplies. Helicopters also helped by dropping sandbags to fill the levees, 

putting out fires, and conducting other support missions.

Pennsylvania Army National Guard aviators performed one of the 

more unusual support missions. The 2/104th Aviation Regiment used its 

CH-47 helicopters to transport food and water into areas where cattle were 

stranded. The floodwaters contaminated the cattle’s drinking water and 

isolated them from their food. The helicopters embarked a Department of 

Agriculture veterinarian who advised the aviators the best place to drop 

hay and water for the cattle. They used 2,000-gallon Bambi Buckets to 

dump fresh water into refrigerators, freezers, or any other object that could 

hold water.125

Adjutant General

MG Landreneau

Task Force

Pelican

BG Jones

Task Force

Castle

Task Force

Eagle

Task Force

Santa Fe

Task Force

Griffin

Task Force

Belle Chasse

Task Force

Defender

Figure 11. Louisiana National Guard task organization as of 2 September 2005.
72

Command and control of aviation units continued to improve as more 

air control assets flowed into the state. When the Nevada Army National 

Guard RAID unit, the 3/140th Aviation Security and Support Detachment, 

arrived in Louisiana, it took over command and control responsibilities for 

the OH-58 Kiowa units. The 3/140th Aviation managed flight operations 

for 16 reconnaissance aircraft from eight different states.126 Two of those 

aircraft came from Alabama, which sent Kiowa helicopters to Louisiana.127

Others came from Kentucky, which sent three UH-1 helicopters from the 

RAID of the 63d Aviation Group. That detachment arrived on 6 September 

and returned to Kentucky on 23 October. Their most dramatic mission 

involved assistance to US Treasury security personnel and Special Forces 

soldiers as they moved $50 million to $100 million from the flooded 

Federal Reserve Bank to a safer location.128

By 9 September, 84 National Guard aircraft were operating under Task 

Force Eagle. They included 39 UH-60, 16 UH-1, 6 CH-47, and 14 OH-58 

helicopters, as well as 5 C-12 and 2 C-23 fixed-wing aircraft.129 From 29 

August through 8 September, they flew almost 6,500 sorties, rescued more 

than 9,600 people, transported almost 35,000 citizens, and delivered more 

than 2,100 tons of cargo.130

Task Force Defender

Task Force Defender controlled most of the military police (MP) units 

and parceled them out to various locations. The experiences of the 229th 

MP Company from the Virginia Army National Guard serve as examples of 

the types of missions performed by TF Defender. On arrival on Saturday, 3 

September, the company was assigned to the task force and dispatched to 

Lake Charles. It assisted the local police there by assuming responsibility 

for security at two evacuation centers, the Lake Charles Civic Center and 

the Burton Coliseum on the campus of McNeese State University. In the 

aftermath of the storm, the need to provide security at the evacuation 

centers severely taxed the manpower resources of the Lake Charles Police 

Department. Consequently, the police officers welcomed the arrival of the 

MP company since it allowed them to resume their normal operations.131

Within a week of their arrival, the Virginia soldiers stabilized the security 

situation in Lake Charles and expanded their base of operations to include 

a number of outlying towns. They began delivering humanitarian aid, such 

as food, water, air mattresses, and other needed supplies, to those towns.132

Similarly, 45 Nebraska soldiers from the 192d MP Company deployed 

to Baton Rouge on 2 September. They provided security at nine Red 

Cross distribution centers and a shelter that accommodated some 4,500 

evacuees.133
73

Task Force Castle

The 225th Engineer Group served as the command group for Task 

Force Castle. Initially, the task force controlled its four organic engineer 

battalions, the 205th, 527th, 528th, and 769th Engineers. Later, the 1140th 

Engineer Battalion from Missouri and the 856th Engineer Battalion from 

Pennsylvania also joined the task force. Before Hurricane Katrina’s 

landfall, Louisiana engineer battalions deployed throughout the state at key 

points so they could provide immediate assistance after the storm passed. 

On 4 September, TF Castle consolidated the disparate engineer units in 

the vicinity of the Alario Center in Jefferson Parish. Since they could not 

enter the city of New Orleans because of the flooding, they spent the next 

3 weeks clearing roads, removing debris, assisting with levee repairs, and 

providing humanitarian support to the citizens of Jefferson Parish.134

The 528th Engineer Battalion went to the Morial Convention Center 

in New Orleans before the storm struck. Once the storm passed, the 

battalion cleared major roads in the city, conducted search-and-rescue 

missions, distributed humanitarian aid, and carried out other engineer 

support missions from its base at the Morial Convention Center. On 

31 August, the battalion moved to the Alario Center near Westwego in 

Jefferson Parish. One of its first missions in Jefferson Parish was repairing 

a 500-foot gap in the levee on the west side of the 17th Street Canal.135

Other engineers cleared roads and provided humanitarian assistance. Road 

clearance was an especially important mission in the parish because some 

of the highways, such as US Highway 90, were now important east-west 

supply routes since all roads and highways passing through the city of New 

Orleans were impassable. Once they cleared major routes in the area, they 

moved to the suburb of Terrytown, which is just north of Belle Chasse near 

the Crescent City Connection going into New Orleans. They continued 

road clearance operations in the vicinity of Terrytown and also cleaned up 

schools and distributed humanitarian aid.136

The 1140th Engineer Battalion from Missouri was alerted for 

deployment on Wednesday, 31 August. The 500-strong battalion arrived 

at Belle Chasse Naval Air Station on 6 September. After spending 2 days 

there waiting for orders, the battalion moved to the Alario Center and joined 

TF Engineer. Once there, it coordinated with Jefferson Parish officials 

to establish work zones on the south side of Lake Pontchartrain along 

Interstate 10 and US Highway 90. Using chain saws, front-end loaders, 

and Bobcats, 10 teams from the battalion cleared debris from roads, public 

buildings, hospitals, schools, parking lots, and other community areas.137

One of the most vexing problems the battalion faced was determining 
74

where to put the debris. The dirt was used as fill at the levee breach points, 

while the rest of the debris was properly disposed of under the guidance of 

the Corps of Engineers.138

Task Force Belle Chasse

Task Force Belle Chasse was responsible for the RSOI of incoming 

troops. Arriving National Guard troops were assigned to either one of the 

task forces under TF Pelican or to one of the parish task forces. As time 

went by, units from other states arrived and assumed some of the logistics 

duties assigned to TF Belle Chasse.

Although already having more than 1,000 Wisconsin National Guard 

soldiers on Active Duty preparing to deploy overseas when Hurricane 

Katrina hit, Wisconsin sent about 450 soldiers to Louisiana to provide 

hurricane assistance. The 32d MP Company, 1157th Transportation 

Company, and a company from the 132d Support Battalion joined TF Belle 

Chasse. The 32d MP Company provided security at Belle Chasse Naval 

Air Station and escorts for personnel, including VIPs, traveling throughout 

the city of New Orleans.139 During one mission, the military police escorted 

40 New York City buses from Belle Chasse into downtown New Orleans. 

Once there, the security team helped the soldiers in the convoy perform 

search-and-rescue missions and put sandbags on the levees.140

Other states also supported task force RSOI operations. Nebraska 

dispatched the 41st Rear Area Operations Center on 16 September. It 

coordinated the arrival of personnel, equipment, and supplies at Belle 

Chasse Naval Air Station.141 New Jersey sent a follow-on force to Louisiana 

on 28 September. Three hundred Army National Guard soldiers from the 

1/114th Infantry Regiment, 2/102d Armor Regiment, a transportation 

platoon from the 250th Forward Support Battalion, 50th Main Support 

Battalion, 253d Transportation Company, 3/112th Field Artillery Brigade, 

110th Engineer Detachment, 50th Personnel Support Battalion, and the 

Joint Forces Headquarters relieved forces that were scheduled to return 

home. Part of this contingent relieved Louisiana National Guard soldiers 

who had been working at Belle Chasse Naval Air Station since Hurricane 

Katrina struck. They served as the movement control cell at the airfield, 

responsible for coordinating both military and civilian relief flights into 

and out of Belle Chasse Naval Air Station.142

Task Force Griffin

Task Force Griffin managed the logistics distribution system emanating 

from Belle Chasse Naval Air Station. Food, water, ice, medical supplies, 

and other commodities flowed into the airfield and were delivered to 
75

points of distribution throughout Louisiana by TF Griffin personnel. As 

more and more National Guard units poured into the state, one of those 

newly arrived units, the 56th Stryker Brigade from Pennsylvania, took 

over this task.

Pennsylvania sent more than 2,500 soldiers, including the 56th Stryker 

Brigade, to Louisiana. This was the largest mobilization of Pennsylvania 

National Guard troops since Hurricane Agnes in 1972.143 Some 120 soldiers 

deployed by Saturday, 3 September, including six water purification units. 

One thousand more left by ground convoy on Sunday, 4 September, in 

almost 450 vehicles. The remainder of the force, approximately 1,200 

more soldiers, departed on 5 September by bus.144 

The Pennsylvania deployment illustrates some of the challenges 

encountered by National Guard forces deploying to the region. The main 

body arrived in Alexandria, Louisiana, on Wednesday, 7 September. At 

the time of their arrival, there was, apparently, some confusion regarding 

which command, TF Santa Fe (35th Infantry Division headquarters) or 

TF Pelican (Louisiana National Guard), had tactical control over units 

reporting for duty. The 56th Brigade Combat Team later commented in its 

after-action report:

After early coordination with what the Brigade thought 

was their higher HQ (35th ID), a move was planned 

and executed from Alexandria to St. Tammany airport 

to establish a FOB [forward operating base] and begin 

relief operations in an assigned AO [area of operations]. 

Shortly after buses carrying the Brigade’s Soldiers arrived 

at the airport, the mission and assignment were cancelled, 

and the Brigade was ordered to return to Alexandria, a 

distance of 180 miles.145

The brigade eventually took responsibility for managing the supply 

distribution system from FEMA and the Texas Bureau of Forestry. This 

mission required the brigade to operate over a vast geographic area, 

spanning several hundred miles. The brigade established two operations 

centers to better control the operation. The main tactical operations center 

was located on Belle Chasse Naval Air Station. A second command and 

control element took over the FEMA/Texas Bureau of Forestry incident 

command post and managed supply distribution operations in eastern 

Louisiana.146

The brigade also operated 18 points of distribution (PODs) throughout 

the state.147 The 1/111th Infantry Battalion operated in St. Tammany 

Parish. The battalion managed six points of distribution in the parish. 
76

Since many people were unable to get to the distribution sites, either 

because of infirmity or lack of transportation, the battalion worked with 

local officials to identify drop points, such as fire and police stations, 

churches, and schools, where they could push supplies to ensure that 

everyone got the support they needed.148 The 1/112th Infantry Battalion 

manned PODs in both St. Tammany and Washington Parishes. Later, when 

Hurricane Rita hit Louisiana on 24 September, the battalion moved west 

to Lake Charles, Louisiana. Within 48 hours, it established three points 

of distribution as well as a regional distribution site, which served as the 

receiving and distribution hub for the entire stricken area.149 Another unit, 

the 1/108th Field Artillery, manned points of distribution and managed a 

regional supply area that provided support to citizens of New Orleans and 

Lafayette, Louisiana.150

The actions of the Reconnaissance Platoon, Headquarters and 

Headquarters Company, 2/112th Infantry Battalion, are representative 

of a typical distribution mission. On Sunday, 11 September, 4 days after 

arriving in Louisiana, the battalion moved to a forward operations base 

at the Riverside Middle School in Jefferson Parish. The school, which 

is situated at the foot of the Huey P. Long Bridge on the south bank of 

the Mississippi River, sustained relatively minor wind damage and was 

not affected by the flooding. With the permission of school officials, 

the battalion moved into the school building and began cleaning up the 

campus. The soldiers removed debris, cleared fallen trees, and cleaned up 

water damage. Unlike many locations within Orleans Parish, conditions 

were relatively good at the school. A contractor set up operations on the 

campus and provided the soldiers with meals and showers. They used the 

school’s air conditioning and computer systems once electrical power was 

restored. But they still did not have a mission to execute.151

The 2/112th’s Reconnaissance Platoon finally received a mission 

assignment on Wednesday, 14 September. The platoon took over a point 

of distribution at the Bingo Palace in Gretna. Points of distribution were 

driveup resupply points for civilians affected by the storm.152 Since there 

was no guidance on how to run points of distribution operations, every site 

operated a little differently. The platoon commander, First Lieutenant Paolo 

Sica, commented that “the lack of established TTPs [tactics, techniques, 

and procedures] for this type of noncombatant operation was much less 

confounding than it was stimulating. . . . All that we needed to bring to this 

‘fight’ was our Army Values [sic] and the ability to adapt.”153

The platoon ran one or two lanes of traffic with four or five stations. 

Four soldiers manned each station, offering food, water, ice, and tarps to 

citizens patronizing the site. Other soldiers unloaded trucks, greeted people 
77

and explained the process before they reached the stations, or served as road 

guards to maintain an orderly traffic pattern. Since there were no rules, the 

noncommissioned officers took an active role in managing the distribution 

of supplies. They politely limited those obviously not in need or those 

they recognized as repeat visitors. A number of civilian organizations 

attached themselves to the site as well and were situated near the exit 

so people could easily access their services. The platoon worked hard to 

increase throughput so that they could serve more people. First Lieutenant 

Sica noted that the lines never backed up beyond a certain distance, and 

he surmised that the truly needy were willing to wait in line as long as 

necessary to get what they needed but the more well off skipped long lines 

and continued searching for sites with shorter lines.154 During its mission, 

the platoon provided service to 14,323 vehicles and to 522 people who 

walked into the site.155

Assisting the 56th Stryker Brigade was a contingent of Guardsmen 

from Virginia. Virginia sent some 170 soldiers, including the 229th MP 

Company, the 222d Quartermaster Detachment, a water purification 

unit, the 3647th Maintenance Company, and the 1710th Transportation 

Company, to New Orleans by ground convoy on Saturday, 3 September.156

When the Virginia task force arrived on Tuesday, 6 September, TF Griffin

assumed command of the quartermaster, maintenance, and transportation 

companies and sent them to New Orleans where they linked up with the 

219th Quartermaster Company from Puerto Rico. Working together, these 

units produced and distributed potable water to the troops operating in the 

greater New Orleans area.157

Other states, including Illinois, Nebraska, and Michigan, provided 

troops for TF Griffn. Illinois sent 210 soldiers from the 3637th Maintenance 

Company to Belle Chasse, where they provided transportation support 

to TF Griffin. Using the 50 high-water vehicles they brought with them, 

the Illinois Guardsmen delivered supplies and removed debris. They also 

maintained their vehicles and provided recovery and repair of other vehicles 

as needed.158 The 1057th Transportation Company, which deployed from 

Nebraska on 19 September, transported food, water, and medical supplies 

to Red Cross assistance centers.159 The 1460th Transportation Company 

from Michigan transported cargo containers, water, clothing, and bedding 

throughout southeastern Louisiana.160

Task Force Santa Fe

Forces from other states began flowing into Louisiana almost 

immediately. When they arrived, engineer, military police, and aviation 

units usually joined the existing Louisiana task forces. The RSOI staff 
78

assigned other types of units to ad hoc task forces that provided support to 

outlying parishes or sectors of New Orleans. Larger state forces remained 

under the control of their task force commander and were assigned 

responsibility for an entire parish. Smaller state forces combined with 

units from other states to form a parish task force.

As the numbers of troops continued to increase, it became clear that 

the Louisiana National Guard’s command and control capabilities were 

not robust enough to handle the influx of personnel. Lieutenant General H. 

Steven Blum decided to send the headquarters unit for the 35th Infantry 

Division, Kansas Army National Guard, to Louisiana to help. The division 

Commanding General, Major General James R. Mason, had served as 

the Stabilization Force (SFOR) 13 multinational brigade commander in 

Bosnia in 2003, so he had significant experience in commanding disparate 

units.161

Mason received notice on Tuesday, 30 August, that the National Guard 

Bureau planned to send two divisional headquarters to the Gulf coast, but 

he was skeptical that they would actually be dispatched to the region. To 

his surprise, he got a call from the adjutant general of Kansas on Friday, 

2 September, telling him he needed to go to Louisiana right away. The 

adjutant general sent a plane to pick him up that afternoon, and he flew 

to the former England Air Force Base near Alexandria, Louisiana, that 

evening.162

When Mason arrived, only a small advanced force from the division 

was present. The rest of the headquarters group was coming by ground 

convoy from Kansas. He immediately drove to Baton Rouge where he met 

with the governor and Major General Landreneau and received his orders. 

As Commander of Task Force Santa Fe, Major General Mason reported 

to Brigadier General Gary Jones, Commander of Task Force Pelican. 

Once his staff was operational, he assumed control of all out-of-state units 

reporting for duty in Louisiana, with the exception of those forces already 

assigned to the existing task forces (figure 12). His missions were to save 

lives and restore order and security throughout the region.163

Meanwhile, a convoy of about 40 vehicles left Kansas on Sunday, 

4 September, with the rest of the divisional staff. The staff did not yet 

know where it was going or what support was available when it got there. 

Consequently, staff members took everything they could think of to make 

themselves self-sustaining: food, tents, medical support, and maintenance 

equipment.164 Once they arrived in Alexandria on Tuesday, 6 September, 

they received further orders directing them to proceed to Belle Chasse 

Naval Air Station where they set up the task force headquarters.165
79

Figure 12. Task Force Santa Fe task organization.

Task Force

St. Charles

Task Force

Terrebonne

Task Force

St. Tammany

Task Force

Lafourche

Task Force

Santa Fe

MG Mason

35th Infantry

Division

Task Force

Orleans

Task Force

St. Bernard

Task Force

St. John

Task Force

Tangipahoa

Task Force

Plaquemines

Task Force

Washington

Task Force

Jefferson
80

TF Santa Fe faced several challenges. Some were environmental 

while others were organizational. The environmental challenges were the 

same ones that everyone in the region faced: lack of communications; no 

power; limited logistics support; and difficult working conditions because 

of flooding, debris, and heat. Colonel Tom Johnson, the task force chief of 

staff, recalled that one of the main responsibilities was providing support 

to the assigned units. Because of the austere conditions in Louisiana, he 

recalled that subordinate units “needed a lot of everything at once.”166 If 

units in the field could not acquire what they needed through their own 

state sources, it was up to the task force to get them what they needed. 

Some units were proactive and took care of their needs; others required a 

great deal of assistance.167

The task force logistics staff worked diligently to alleviate as 

many of the environmental challenges as possible. The rapid and often 

uncoordinated movement of National Guard forces into the region greatly 

complicated the logistics support mission. Many units passed quickly 

through the reception process and proceeded to their operating area before 

the task force staff collected data on their capabilities, strength, and needs. 

This arrangement forced TF Santa Fe to retroactively figure what resources 

each unit had and to determine what each unit needed. Among the support 

services provided by the TF Santa Fe logistics team were showers, toilets, 

fresh water, hot food, and laundry services.168

There were other, equally difficult, organizational issues for the 

task force to overcome. Major General Mason recalled that some of the 

most important assets, such as aircraft and engineers, remained under 

the operational control of TF Pelican instead of TF Santa Fe. This 

arrangement inhibited his task force’s ability to rapidly apply forces where 

they were most needed. If a subordinate unit needed engineer or helicopter 

support, TF Santa Fe had to request assistance from TF Pelican. All too 

often during the early stages of the operation, by the time a response was 

received back through the chain of command, the resource requested had 

moved on or the need for it had passed.169 Although the TF Santa Fe staff 

understood it was there to support TF Pelican and the state of Louisiana, 

this arrangement caused friction between the two staffs.170

Major General Mason later recollected that he eventually worked 

through those issues with Brigadier General Jones, but just about the time 

operations began to run smoothly, Brigadier General John P. Basilica Jr., 

Commanding General of the 256th Brigade Combat Team, which returned 

from Iraq in September, replaced Brigadier General Jones. He came in 

and immediately ruffled feathers, intimating to the TF Santa Fe staff that 
81

he was “going to get this situation straightened out.”171 Mason noted that 

Basilica’s arrival returned relations between the two staffs back to square 

one.172 Another officer on the TF Santa Fe staff summed up his frustration 

by saying, “The good part of all of this is we are in his way so we need to 

prepare battle handoff procedures.”173

TF Santa Fe organized its forces into task forces based in the 13 

parishes most affected by the storm. Orleans Parish, which encompasses 

the city of New Orleans, absorbed the brunt of the damage in the aftermath 

of the storm, and Mason allocated the majority of his troops there. The core 

of TF Orleans came from two brigades, the 45th Infantry Brigade from 

Oklahoma and the 41st Infantry Brigade from Oregon. Smaller state units 

combined into task forces to provide support to other parishes. The task 

force commander served as the primary liaison with the parish president 

and other local leaders. By establishing a personal, one-on-one relationship, 

military commanders sought to clearly demonstrate the Government’s 

concern for the local citizenry. Close liaison also enabled the task force 

commander to better understand the parish’s needs. The objective was to 

quickly and effectively meet each parish’s needs by conducting searchand-rescue missions, providing security support, distributing humanitarian 

aid, or removing debris and assisting with other cleanup operations. 

The fluid nature of each National Guard unit’s deployment to the state 

complicated this mission. Since units in Title 32 status or on state activeduty orders remained under the command of their respective governors, on 

occasion they refused to acknowledge that they fell under the command of 

Task Force Santa Fe. Major General Mason noted wryly that discussions 

between the unit and task force staff continued until the unit needed food, 

water, or some other kind of support. At that point, the unit usually came 

around and accepted the command structure.174 Gubernatorial control of 

deployed forces posed additional problems for TF Santa Fe. As noted 

earlier, when units flowed into the state, they did not always report in 

through Belle Chasse, making it difficult for the task force to track all of 

the units in theater. Even more vexing, since units served at the discretion 

of their governor, TF Santa Fe had little control over its force makeup. 

Several times, units with critical capabilities announced their impending 

departure with little or no warning. At that point, there was little Major 

General Mason could do other than call the unit’s adjutant general and 

personally appeal for an extension of the deployment. Sometimes his 

appeal worked, other times it did not.175

Since voice and e-mail communications remained problematic, 

TF Santa Fe attached liaison officers to Task Force Pelican and many 
82

of its subordinate task force staffs. The liaison officers tried to improve 

communications and coordination between the various staffs. Mason also 

hoped that those liaison officers could reduce friction between his staff 

and TF Pelican. TF Santa Fe dispensed so many liaison officers that it ran 

out of suitable candidates. The Kansas adjutant general sent TF Santa Fe

additional officers from his personal staff to fill the gaps.176 Despite this 

effort, relations between the two staffs remained difficult. 

Other units, lower down the chain of command, did not experience 

the same kind of problems confronted by TF Santa Fe and TF Pelican. 

Time and time again, both Active component and National Guard 

officers commented that their troops had no problems working with one 

another. Out-of-state National Guardsmen worked closely with Louisiana 

Guardsmen to bring relief to the citizens of the state during thousands of 

missions. On numerous other occasions, Active component and National 

Guard soldiers joined forces to accomplish important missions. Brigadier 

General Myles Deering, Commanding General of the 45th Brigade Combat 

Team from Oklahoma, described his relationship with the 82d Airborne 

and other Active component forces as “seamless.” His forces worked side 

by side with the paratroopers in New Orleans, and they had no problems 

supporting each others’ operations.177

But there are examples where cooperation and support broke down. 

For example, one adjutant general ruled out embedding his state’s soldiers 

with the 82d Airborne because that arrangement implied their subordination 

to an Active component unit.178 Although many good people made this 

difficult command and control situation work, structural impediments 

inherent in the in-state–out-of-state relationship as well as the Active 

component-National Guard relationship sometimes inhibited operations.

Task Force Orleans

Task Force Orleans directed the National Guard’s main effort in 

New Orleans. Thousands of National Guard soldiers served in this task 

force during the recovery operation. They conducted both waterborne 

and ground searches, provided medical assistance, rescued and evacuated 

stranded citizens, distributed aid to those who chose not to evacuate, and 

assisted with the cleanup and restoration of the city. Troops from all over 

the Nation joined in the effort to provide relief and assistance to the victims 

of Hurricane Katrina. 

The first Oklahoma unit to respond to the crisis in New Orleans was 

a 27-person quick reaction force. Soldiers from the 1345th Transportation 

Company arrived in New Orleans on Wednesday, 31 August. They 

immediately proceeded to the Superdome where they helped with 
83

security. Thirty-three more soldiers flew into New Orleans on Thursday, 

1 September, and helped restore order at the Convention Center the 

next day.179 Brigadier General Deering arrived Friday, 2 September, and 

assumed duties as Commander of Task Force Orleans.

180 By 4 September, 

more than 2,300 Oklahoma National Guard soldiers were in Louisiana 

providing support to the stricken citizens of the state.181 That same day, 

Deering established his headquarters in the parking lot of a looted WalMart store on Tchoupitoulas Street near the Garden District. One of his 

first actions was to establish relations with a wide range of civil officials. 

Deering sent liaison officers to meet with the acting mayor, the director 

of the Office of Emergency Preparedness, the New Orleans police chief, 

and the director of Public Utilities.182 TF Orleans soldiers began searchand-rescue operations in their sectors as soon as they arrived. Because 

of the flooding, they conducted both waterborne and ground searches. 

Over the next few weeks, the task force conducted numerous search-andrescue missions, distributed tons of relief supplies to those in need, and 

reestablished law and order in the city.183 By 15 September, both the hasty 

and primary searches were complete in the brigade’s area of operation. 

During those searches, the task force helped more than 3,650 citizens 

evacuate their homes.184

By flooding the streets with hundreds, if not thousands, of soldiers, 

the National Guard quickly restored order in New Orleans. In most 

cases, their mere presence was enough to deter criminals. That was not, 

however, always the case. During one such incident, an OH-58 Kiowa 

helicopter spotted a suspect in an SUV. Once the pilot ascertained that the 

man was up to no good, the crew vectored in soldiers from the 1/179th 

Infantry Regiment to apprehend the offender. As it turned out, the man had 

encountered a TF Orleans patrol earlier that evening and passed himself 

off as an official from the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty 

to Animals (ASPCA). At that time, his vehicle was empty so the patrol 

let him pass. With the back of his SUV now filled with stolen goods, the 

second patrol detained him for the New Orleans police.185

TF Orleans had organic engineer assets, which greatly increased its 

ability to restore its various sectors to operability. Through 23 September, 

TF Orleans engineers cleared more than 210 miles of roads and removed 

more than 2,000 cubic meters of debris. They also cleaned up one school, 

five hospitals and medical clinics, and four public facilities, including the 

Audubon Zoo.186

In what was the largest mobilization of Oregon National Guard forces 

since World War II, almost 2,000 soldiers went to Louisiana to assist 

with Hurricane Katrina relief and recovery operations.187 The 1186th MP 
84

Battalion, the first unit to deploy, arrived on 2 September and immediately 

began security operations to support New Orleans police. The 41st Brigade 

Combat Team, which was the core of the Oregon contribution, trickled in 

over the next 7 days, with the last unit arriving on Thursday, 8 September. 

The 41st Brigade established Joint Task Force (JTF) Pontchartrain

and took tactical control of a number of smaller state contingents. JTF 

Pontchartrain was responsible for operations over a large portion of 

Orleans Parish, including the Bywater, Lakeview, Gentilly, and 9th Ward 

Districts. The joint task force rescued some 2,300 people during the relief 

operation. When Hurricane Rita threatened the city in late September, 

JTF Pontchartrain was redesignated as JTF Rita and dispatched to 

western Louisiana where it coordinated relief operations in the affected 

parishes.188

The conditions in which soldiers had to operate were some of the most 

challenging aspects of the relief operation. Sergeant Major Brunk Conley 

of the Oregon National Guard considered the conditions in New Orleans 

worse than what his unit encountered in Kuwait, Iraq, or Afghanistan, where 

he and many of his soldiers previously served. One soldier commented 

that the only difference was that no one shot at them in New Orleans.189

Conley went on to say that, after the overseas assignments, many of the 

Oregon National Guard soldiers were “used to hard living. . . . But this 

is much more challenging. We have no creature comforts whatsoever.” 

Figure 13. Ohio National Guard soldiers use a johnboat they found to perform a search-and-rescue 

mission in downtown New Orleans.

Specialist Sherree Casper, 153d Mobile Public Affairs Detachment
85

When the Guardsmen first got to their area of operations, they did not have 

portable showers or toilets, they slept in makeshift barracks without air 

conditioning, and their meals consisted almost exclusively of MREs.190

With no showers or toilets, sanitation and disease prevention were 

significant concerns. They could not dig latrines since the water table in the 

city is only a few inches below the surface. JTF Pontchartrain eventually 

acquired three portable toilets 4 days into the operation. In the meantime, 

soldiers throughout the city had to be creative, using trash bags as toilets. 

There was also much concern about soldiers getting infections or worse 

while slogging through the muddy, slimy flood water. Since they did not 

have access to showers at first, soldiers used spray bleach and liquid hand 

cleansers to decontaminate themselves as best they could. Although JTF 

Pontchartrain soldiers received protective clothing and gloves, many 

considered those precautions inadequate.191

The 1/186th Infantry Regiment arrived in New Orleans on Tuesday, 

6 September. After in-processing at Belle Chasse Naval Air Station, 

it moved into the city and occupied an abandoned zinc warehouse near 

the brigade headquarters for several days. Those accommodations were 

less than desirable because the zinc residue stained the soldiers’ skin and 

clothes. From there, the battalion moved into the northwest quadrant of 

Orleans Parish, the Lakeview District, and set up the headquarters on the 

campus of Delgado Community College on 9 September. The community 

college building, which was used as a shelter by local residents for several 

days after the storm, was a mess. Trash filled the halls and classrooms, 

overflowing toilets reeked, and decaying laboratory animals made the 

second floor uninhabitable. The Oregon soldiers spent Saturday, 10 

September, cleaning the building and removing debris from the lawn to 

make it habitable.192

With the headquarters established, the soldiers began search-andrescue patrols throughout their area of responsibility. Since 80 percent of 

their search area was under water, they conducted waterborne patrols at 

first.193 A group of volunteers from Florida helped them by transporting 

search teams through the murky water in 18 boats. The waterborne 

mission posed a number of unique challenges. For example, the task force 

commander issued an order forbidding soldiers from wading through 

the flood waters, which were contaminated by oil, gas, chemicals, and 

decaying matter. Although the order was necessary due to safety concerns, 

it limited their access to some areas until the water receded. Additionally, 

reaching their search areas was often problematic since the routes used 

on previous days were often blocked by exposed obstacles as the water 

receded.194 By 14 September, with some 40 percent of the assigned area of 
86

responsibility accessible by land, the battalion expanded its ground patrols 

to more thoroughly check the houses in the district.195

On Monday, 12 September, the battalion discovered its first deceased 

person. A search team spotted a hole in the roof of a house. Hoping to 

rescue someone, the soldiers peeled away a portion of the roof to gain 

access. Instead, they found the body of an elderly man who died sometime 

after the storm struck.196 Since they were not authorized to recover bodies, 

they marked the location and notified the FEMA mortuary support team 

of his location.197

Two days later, the battalion rescued its first victim, a 71-year-old man 

who rode out the storm and subsequent flooding in his home. Although 

surrounded, his home was not inundated by the flood waters and, he had 

plenty of food and drinking water so he stayed put. Once his supplies gave 

out, he asked some neighbors to get him help, and the National Guard 

came to the rescue.198 Several days after that, the battalion rescued an 83-

year-old nun who was down to her last reserves of food and water when a 

rescue team located her.199

The 2/218th Field Artillery also operated in a flooded out area of the 

city, the Gentilly District. The 2/218th established its headquarters in 

the University Center on the campus of the University of New Orleans 

Lakefront. Soldiers conducted primary searches, which required them to 

knock on the door of every house in the area to determine if anyone required 

assistance. As the waters receded, they shifted to secondary searches, 

which were more intensive because they involved entering homes with 

open doors or other egress points.200

The battalion established a boat team to maintain the engines of their 

boats. Based at the St. Vincent DePaul Church in the Bywater District, the 

boat team expertly maintained the various boats and their engines. In their 

spare time, team members cleaned up the church and grounds, which the 

storm damaged extensively. They removed debris from the grounds, cleaned 

flood-marred structures, mended fences, and reset toppled trees.201

The 1/162d Infantry Battalion set up operations in the Frederick A. 

Douglass High School in the Bywater District of New Orleans. Like the 

other 41st Brigade sectors, this area suffered heavy flood damage. As the 

troops carried out the search operation, a routine soon developed. Persons 

rescued were given food and water and examined by the battalion’s 

medics. The medics treated any conditions requiring immediate medical 

care. The rescue team then transported the evacuees from their homes 

to the Convention Center for further processing, medical treatment, and 
87

evacuation. During this mission, the battalion rescued many people, 

including a man trapped in his house and an elderly woman who refused 

to leave her home.202

A search team rescued the man trapped in his house on Sunday, 4 

September. He told his rescuers that he slept through the storm. When he 

woke up the next morning, the rapidly rising flood waters prevented him 

from escaping by car. Consequently, he decided to cut a hole in his ceiling 

and relocate to his attic. He took raw carrots, green beans, and water with 

him. When the flood waters inundated his home, both the refrigerator and 

freezer floated free and settled in front of the back door, blocking that 

exit. With the deadbolt on his front door rusted shut and security bars on 

each window, the man was effectively trapped inside his own home. On 

top of that, he feared calling out for help because of the noises he heard 

outside his home. He remained inside until he heard soldiers approach his 

house and call out “Oregon National Guard.” Happy for the assistance, 

he eagerly accepted evacuation when told he would get food and medical 

care.203

Medics from the 1/162d Infantry saved an elderly woman who almost 

died of dehydration and starvation. The woman’s next door neighbors 

noticed that she was still in her home weeks after the storm. Concerned 

about her well-being, they reported her location to a traffic control point 

team. The medics approached her house, knocked on the door a number 

of times, and announced their presence as National Guardsmen. On the 

third attempt, she reluctantly opened the door and, after several minutes 

of discussion, let the medics enter. The woman was terribly dehydrated 

and disoriented. After talking with her, she indicated that she rode out 

the storm in her home, which suffered significant flood damage. At one 

point, she said, she floated around her living room on a mattress. The 

soldiers saw little evidence of cans, boxes, prepackaged food, or water 

bottles in the home, which concerned them. After further questioning, they 

learned that she survived for 3 weeks by sipping on wine and liquor. After 

examining her, the medics estimated that she had lost 10 to 20 percent of 

her bodyweight over the 3-week period and was close to starvation. When 

she refused to evacuate, the soldiers left her food, water, a cooler of ice, 

and a promise to check on her daily.204

By 20 September, the frequency of such incidents tapered off as the 

battalion completed both primary and secondary searches in its area. When 

Mayor Nagin authorized the return of citizens to the city, the battalion 

shifted its focus from search-and-rescue to security missions. Since the 

Bywater District still lacked electricity, water, and sewage services, it was 
88

not opened to returning citizens. Consequently, the battalion set up traffic 

control points (TCPs) throughout the operating area to ensure that no 

unauthorized persons, including residents, returned to the district.205

The 141st Sustainment Battalion was also based in the Bywater 

District. When battalion personnel carried out their mission of supplying 

the various units of the 41st Brigade, they also served as scouts, surveying 

conditions in the city. As they moved from one operating area to another, 

they recorded water levels, scouted alternate routes as the water receded, 

and evaluated potential helicopter landing zones.206

In addition to their logistics duties, soldiers from the 141st Sustainment 

Battalion restored the Bywater Hospital to operational condition. The 

hospital sustained flood damage on the first floor, and garbage and other 

waste littered the rest of the hospital, which served as a refuge for people 

driven from their homes after the levees broke.207 Working in near darkness, 

the Oregon soldiers began cleaning up the hospital on 10 September. When 

the battalion’s 30-kilowatt generator arrived several days later, lights were 

restored, and the pace of the cleanup operation quickened. Using bleach, 

germicide, and hard labor, the soldiers removed flood damage, cleared 

rubbish, and disinfected the third and fourth floors.208 The hospital was 

operational on the 15th, ready for the battalion’s medical staff to use its 

facilities to treat soldiers and civilians.209

Looking back on the actions of the 41st Brigade Combat Team, clearly 

the brigade performed a number of humanitarian relief missions that went 

well beyond the expectations of normal domestic relief operations. The 

soldiers did more than just distribute commodities and patrol streets. They 

cleaned up a number of public buildings, such as the University Center at 

the University of New Orleans Lakefront, the Frederick A. Douglass High 

School, and the Delgado Community College building. They also cleaned 

up a church and rehabilitated a hospital. Although these actions exceeded 

the bounds of typical humanitarian assistance, they exemplify the actions 

of tens of thousands of National Guard as well as Active component troops 

during the Hurricane Katrina relief operation.

Texas also provided a large contingent of ground troops to the relief 

effort in Louisiana. By Saturday, 3 September, more than 1,300 Guardsmen 

were in Louisiana helping that state’s citizens recover from the storm.210

Four days later, that number swelled to 2,100. The first task force from 

Texas left on Wednesday, 31 August, and arrived in New Orleans the next 

day. That task force brought with it a broad range of capabilities, including 

some 300 military police; a medical unit with 5 doctors, 10 nurses, 30 

physician’s assistants; and 30 medics, 120 engineers, a water purification 
89

detachment, fuel tankers, and more than 50 high-water vehicles.211 Initially, 

they went to the Louis Armstrong International Airport where they helped 

with the evacuation process by providing security, medical attention, and 

other support to those passing through the airport. Some of the Texas 

military police helped with crowd control and the evacuation of both the 

Superdome and Convention Center. The medical team proceeded to the 

Convention Center as well, where medics provided on-the-spot medical 

evaluations and treatment for citizens stranded there for days after flood 

waters swamped the city.212 Following the main evacuation effort, the 

medical team remained at the Convention Center where it continued to 

provide medical support to citizens who trickled in. Other Texas soldiers 

provided humanitarian support throughout the city and assisted with 

cleanup operations at city schools, hospitals, and other locations.213 On 

19 September, when it appeared that Hurricane Rita posed a significant 

threat to his state, Governor Rick Perry recalled all Texas personnel from 

Louisiana to prepare his state for that hurricane.214

Seventy-five Special Forces soldiers from the 20th Special Forces 

Group, equipped with 20 inflatable boats, arrived in New Orleans on 

Friday, 2 September, after completing search-and-rescue missions in their 

home state.215 The Alabama soldiers quickly identified a neighborhood in 

need of assistance, contacted the local police captain and established a joint 

operating agreement, and then began searching for people stranded by the 

flood waters. On their first day of operations, they rescued 300 people by 

boat. Waterborne rescues peaked at 800 on 4 September and tapered off 

to 100 by Tuesday, 6 September. They also coordinated their efforts with 

a UH-60 helicopter battalion from Georgia, and together, the two units 

rescued another 1,350 people. All totaled, the 20th Special Forces Group 

saved more than 3,100 people during 5 days of operations in the city.216

The experiences of the 1/148th Infantry, Ohio Army National Guard, 

are representative of the ad hoc way that many missions developed. 

The battalion arrived by ground convoy on 4 September. Assigned to 

a sector in the Gentilly District of New Orleans, a New Orleans police 

lieutenant approached the battalion commander soon after it arrived in the 

neighborhood. He asked if the Ohio soldiers could assist his police officers 

with patrols in the area. The colonel agreed, and the Ohio National Guard 

began joint patrols with the New Orleans police on Sunday, 11 September. 

The 1/148th Infantry assigned four-person teams to each police patrol. 

According to the New Orleans police, this team effort had an immediate 

and visible impact in the area because looting and arson declined 

dramatically.217 In addition to providing support to the local police, the 

1/148th Infantry conducted a number of search-and-rescue missions in the 
90

neighborhood. The soldiers conducted waterborne searches at first using 

flat-bottomed boats, but as the flood waters receded, they spread out on 

foot and performed more detailed searches of the area.218

A number of states sent their civil support teams (CSTs) to Louisiana. 

National Guard CSTs provide assistance to state and local responders in 

the event of a chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or high-yield 

explosives (CBRNE) incident. The 22-person teams have significant 

onsite testing capabilities and are trained to provide expert advice in case 

of an emergency. But their robust communications capabilities made 

them very useful after Hurricane Katrina devastated the communications 

infrastructure along the Gulf coast.219 Several teams, including the 42d 

CST from North Carolina and the 54th CST from Wisconsin, deployed 

to Louisiana where they provided communications support to Task Force 

Orleans.

220

Other CSTs helped with the decontamination process by examining the 

contents of thousands of potentially hazardous containers.221 Working with 

the New Orleans Hazardous Materials Team, they conducted a thorough 

search of the city. The teams searched flooded areas first because the surge 

from the flooding moved hazardous materials from work sites to other 

areas. They checked every 5-gallon or larger container they found. They 

also looked for chemicals or other hazardous waste that might have been 

washed up by the storm. When they found a container with hazardous 

materials, they marked it to indicate its contents, the amount of material 

it contained, the date it was found, and the unit that found it. Then, they 

reported its location to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which 

dispatched its personnel to dispose of the container.222 Among the teams 

involved in this operation were the 62d CST from Louisiana, the 64th 

CST from New Mexico, the 72d CST from Nebraska, the 92d CST from 

Nevada, and the 103d CST from Alaska.

Units from many other states deployed to Orleans Parish to help with 

the relief operation. Puerto Rico sent the 1165th Area Support Medical 

Company. The Puerto Rican doctors and medical technicians provided 

support, including minor surgery, to both soldiers and civilians.223 Rhode 

Island dispatched the 1207th Transportation and the 119th MP Companies 

to New Orleans. The MP company helped secure the Convention Center on 

2 September. During the search-and-rescue phase of the operation, it saved 

15 people and evacuated hundreds more. It also rescued four stray dogs 

during their searches.224 South Carolina deployed two water purification 

detachments, engineers, helicopters, logistics support troops, military 

police, infantry, as well as a significant number of high-water vehicles 

to assist with search operations in the flooded city.225 Montana supplied 
91

a follow-on force on 29 September. Some 250 Army National Guard 

soldiers flew to New Orleans where they manned security checkpoints, 

performed roving patrols, and enforced curfew.226 Soldiers from the 1618th 

Transportation Company mobilized in Nebraska on 19 September. They 

assisted the New Orleans Police Department by patrolling a 20-block area 

around the Superdome and providing a quick response force to augment 

police operations.227

On Saturday, 3 September, 24 soldiers from the 440th Signal Company 

deployed to New Orleans. Like many other units that went to Louisiana 

during the week after Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf coast, they had 

no idea where they were going or what their mission would be when they 

arrived. Although they were a communications unit, they did not take their 

communications gear because they expected to provide security, conduct 

search-and-rescue missions, or distribute humanitarian aid.228 They 

ended up providing security missions at the New Orleans International 

Airport for 2 weeks. The Nevada National Guard soldiers helped Federal 

air marshals screen evacuees for weapons and other contraband as they 

arrived at the airport for further transfer to other locations. They also 

helped FEMA coordinate the movement of evacuees from New Orleans 

to other cities.229

When Hurricane Katrina struck, the 1121st Transportation Company 

was in the process of converting from an engineer company to a 

transportation company. The Missouri soldiers deployed to Louisiana on 

Thursday, 8 September, and brought along their engineer equipment. Based 

at Belle Chasse Naval Air Station, over the next month, they cleaned up 19 

schools, 2 hospitals, and 4 public facilities and removed 3,000 cubic yards 

of debris from Orleans Parish. The company also transported food, water, 

and a wide range of military cargo.230

Task Force Jefferson

Jefferson Parish suffered plenty of wind damage but not much flooding. 

Still, people in the parish needed help. Task Force Pelican allocated a 

number of units to the parish, where they distributed humanitarian aid, 

assisted the local police with law enforcement, and helped clean up the 

debris left by the storm.

Arkansas sent more than 400 soldiers from the 3/153d Infantry and 

1/142d Field Artillery to Louisiana. Soldiers from the 3/153d Infantry 

arrived early enough to help evacuate the Superdome and Convention 

Center. With that mission completed, the 3/153d Infantry moved to Kenner, 

Louisiana, where it joined the rest of the Arkansas task force. The Arkansas 

task force conducted search-and-rescue operations and distributed aid to 
92

the stricken residents of Jefferson Parish. A four-person CST provided 

communications support.231

Some 500 New Hampshire Army National Guard soldiers from 

the 2/197th Field Artillery deployed to Louisiana over the Labor Day 

weekend. This task force helped the Jefferson Parish police conduct 

security patrols and man checkpoints to ensure the safety and security of 

those remaining in the area. The New Hampshire soldiers went to great 

lengths to help individual citizens in their sector. They escorted residents 

back to their homes, helped people salvage whatever they could from their 

water-damaged houses, distributed Red Cross supplies to those in need, 

and served as a source of information about the relief services available 

through FEMA and other organizations.232 These types of activities, which 

were typical of the support provided by both National Guard and Active 

component troops throughout the relief operation, were critical to restoring 

the faith of local citizens in their Government.

The checkpoint security mission became even more important on 

Monday, 5 September, when parish authorities allowed residents to return 

to their homes. With a population of more than 450,000 people, there was 

concern that the influx of people back into the parish would overwhelm 

the local police. Once again, the National Guard was there to help. 

Soldiers checked identification and patrolled neighborhoods, ensuring that 

nonresidents did not enter the devastated area to loot unoccupied homes or 

conduct other illegal activities.233

Several Missouri Army National Guard units deployed to Jefferson 

Parish as well. The 1/129th Field Artillery learned they were going to 

Louisiana on 31 August. The battalion’s soldiers mustered at their armories 

the next day and left on Friday, 2 September. Understanding the gravity 

of the situation in Louisiana, they took enough supplies and equipment to 

be self-sufficient for 7 days. The battalion arrived at Belle Chasse Naval 

Air Station on 4 September and assumed responsibility for four towns 

along the west bank of the Mississippi River in Jefferson Parish: Gretna, 

Harvey, Marrero, and Westwego. Each battery set up a command post in 

a local school. After making contact with the local police and sheriff’s 

departments, soldiers established static checkpoints and began conducting 

presence patrols in their assigned areas. They provided security at a 

number of locations, including Red Cross distribution centers and the 

parish Emergency Operations Center.234

The 1138th Military Police Company, another Missouri Army National 

Guard unit, operated in Kenner, near the Louis Armstrong International 

Airport. Working closely with the local police, it performed building 
93

security checks, manned traffic checkpoints, conducted well-being checks 

of citizens who had not evacuated the city, and provided medical assistance 

when needed.235

Later in September, Virginia sent a second task force to Louisiana, 

which included 320 troops from the 1/246th Field Artillery Battalion, a 

medical company from the 429th Forward Support Battalion, and two 

transportation companies, that arrived in late September and stayed 

through the end of October.236 During October, this task force helped 

hundreds of families in Jefferson Parish recover from the destruction 

wrought by Hurricane Katrina. It worked through the parish, surveying 

the damage and identifying people, usually the elderly, disabled, or 

otherwise disadvantaged, who needed help cleaning up their property. The 

soldiers carted off debris, cut down uprooted trees, and removed damaged 

appliances and furniture from homes.237

Task Force St. Bernard

On Sunday, 4 September, the search-and-rescue effort shifted from 

New Orleans to St. Bernard Parish, where many people were still trapped 

in their homes. Because of the scope of the crisis in Orleans Parish, 

Louisiana, emergency officials were unable to organize a rescue operation 

in this parish for almost a week. In the meantime, they provided the stricken 

citizens with food, water, and other supplies while they waited to be pulled 

out of the flooded parish.238

As more and more National Guard soldiers arrived, resources became 

available, and officials expanded the search-and-rescue missions beyond 

the city of New Orleans. When some 700 National Guard soldiers arrived 

from Colorado, they were sent to St. Bernard Parish. Soldiers from the 169th 

Field Artillery Brigade and the 220th MP Company conducted search-andrescue missions and distributed humanitarian aid in the parish. During the 

deliberate search operation, soldiers from the 220th MP Company rescued 

a disabled man who had been stranded in his house for 2 weeks.239

Another example of the challenges soldiers faced is illustrated by the 

actions of the Colorado Guardsmen as the plight of stray animals caught 

the Nation’s attention. Neither Task Force Pelican nor Task Force Santa 

Fe issued guidance on the handling of stray animals, so their treatment 

varied from unit to unit. Some units, such as the Colorado MP company, 

picked up stray animals and took them back to their camp. Through 12 

September, they rescued 17 dogs, 2 cats, and 1 ferret. The soldiers worked 

with the American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals to transfer 

the animals to temporary shelters. The ASPCA agreed to return whenever 

the unit collected 10 or more animals. Conversely, another Colorado 
94

National Guard unit, the 169th Field Artillery Brigade, was ordered not 

to pick up stray animals. The artillerymen fed the animals whenever they 

encountered them, but they were not allowed to rescue the abandoned 

animals.240

A number of other units provided support to St. Bernard Parish. The 

178th and 190th MP Companies from Georgia operated out of Jackson 

Barracks, but they manned checkpoints and conducted search missions 

in St. Bernard Parish once the flood waters receded.241 Two Michigan 

Army National Guard units, the 210th MP Battalion and the 46th MP 

Company, performed security missions in the parish after they arrived on 

1 September.242

The storm damaged a number of industrial plants in the parish, 

causing concern about the possible release of toxins into the air. The 7th 

Civil Support Team deployed to Louisiana on 6 September. On arrival, this 

team worked with the EPA to test the air quality in the devastated parish. 

Through its efforts, parish officials were able to determine that the air was 

indeed safe enough for citizens to return to their homes.243

Other Parish Task Forces

Thousands of other National Guard soldiers provided security; 

distributed humanitarian aid; cleared debris from streets and homes; and 

helped hundreds of citizens in the smaller, less-populated parishes. In St. 

Tammany Parish, the local police deputized Missouri National Guard 

soldiers. They patrolled the parish in vehicles and boats, acting with the 

authority of a parish sheriff.244 In Washington Parish, soldiers from the 

72d MP Company, Nevada National Guard, assumed responsibility for 

security at the local shelter so that the small police force could resume its 

normal duties.245

Summary

The hurricane response mission in Louisiana was a qualified success 

despite the many hardships and errors that the response teams had to 

overcome. The hardships were numerous. Hurricane Katrina almost 

completely destroyed the communications, power, transportation, and 

water systems in the state. Most emergency response personnel and local 

leaders were themselves victims of the hurricane, making it difficult for 

them to respond effectively to the crisis. With almost 80 percent of the city 

flooded, rescue-and-relief operations in New Orleans and the surrounding 

parishes were slow and difficult to execute. 

There were also many errors in planning and judgment. Some of the 

planning errors include failing to evacuate the people most in need of 
95

help, stationing personnel and equipment in low elevation locations like 

Jackson Barracks, and not moving buses to higher ground. It is difficult 

to forgive the engineers at the Convention Center for not intervening once 

they realized that no one was helping the folks congregating there. Nor can 

Major General Landreneau and Brigadier General Jones escape censure 

for failing to come to those citizens’ aid once they found out about the 

situation on Wednesday.

The cumulative effect of those hardships and errors was that much of 

the manpower and many of the resources that were initially available to 

emergency response leaders in Louisiana had to be allocated to search-andrescue missions during the first few days after the storm struck. Siphoning 

off those assets negatively affected the overall relief effort. Despite that, in 

most instances, the National Guard was on station where needed as soon 

as the storm passed. Certainly, conditions at the Superdome were bad, 

but National Guard soldiers provided food, water, and security for those 

taking refuge there. They also conducted airborne and waterborne searchand-rescue missions in the immediate aftermath of the storm and assisted 

with levee repairs and road clearance so that other responders could get to 

those in need. 

Although it took several days to build up forces in the state, within a 

week, there were tens of thousands of troops in Louisiana. Soon, anyone 

who wanted to be rescued was picked up and moved to an evacuation 

shelter, and order was restored in the city of New Orleans. By the end of 

September, major roads and many public buildings were cleared of debris, 

and the conditions were set to return the state to working conditions. 

Many of those tasks were accomplished by National Guardsmen pulled in 

from all over the Nation. They responded quickly to the call for help and 

worked unceasingly to bring relief to the beleaguered citizens of the state. 

The mission to provide relief to the state of Louisiana was truly a national 

effort.

An examination of National Guard operations in Louisiana reveals a 

number of techniques and procedures that worked well during the relief 

operation. Points of distribution were an effective means of distributing 

aid. Although there was no guidance on how to operate these sites, 

soldiers took the initiative and ran their sites according to the needs of 

the local citizenry. Task forces also proved an effective way to organize 

the relief forces. Forces ebbed and flowed, but the task forces remained 

in place until the mission was complete. Task force commanders sought 

out civilian leaders and established close personal working relationships. 

Search techniques evolved over time as operations shifted from airborne to 
96

waterborne to ground search missions. Each phase required different assets 

and skills, and the National Guard was able to adapt to each change. 

That is not to say that all aspects of the relief mission went smoothly. 

Task Force Pelican sometimes failed to provide sufficient resources to its 

subordinate task forces in a timely manner because of the decision to retain 

close control of air assets and engineer units. This inhibited the speed and 

effectiveness of the relief operation in many locations. One of the inherent 

problems with using out-of-state National Guard units is that the units 

remain under the control of their governors. This led to units sometimes 

acting independently or departing without proper notification or relief. 

Despite those and other problems, National Guard relief operations in the 

state of Louisiana saved tens of thousands of citizens. 
97

Notes

1. Major General Bennett C. Landreneau, “Hurricane Katrina: The Defense 

Department’s Role in the Response,” National Guard Timeline of Significant 

Events Hurricane Katrina, Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs 

Committee, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 9 February 2006, 11, http://www.columbia.edu/

itc/journalism/cases/katrina/Federal%20Government/Congress/U.S.%20Senate/

Senate%20Hearings/Senate%20Hearing%202006-02-09/Landreneau%20Timeli

ne%202006-02-09.pdf (accessed 3 December 2007).

2. US Congress, House, A Failure of Initiative: Final Report of the 

Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to 

Hurricane Katrina, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 15 February 2006, 67, http://www.cspan.org/pdf/katrinareport.pdf (accessed 17 December 2007).

3. Major General Richard J. Rowe Jr., “NORTHCOM Title 10 Timeline 

for Hurricane Katrina,” United States Northern Command, 291702Z September 

2005. 

4. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 3.

5. US Congress, Senate, Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared, 

Senate Report 109-322, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 2006, 151, http://hsgac.senate.

gov/_files/Katrina/ FullReport.pdf (accessed 8 January 2008).

6. Colonel Barry Keeling, interview by First Lieutenant David Steuver, 

102d Military History Detachment, 8 October 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan 

R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem: GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 126.

7. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 2–4.

8. Ibid., 3.

9. Keeling interview, 126.

10. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 3.

11. Colonel Jeff Smith, Retired, “Hurricane Katrina: Preparedness 

and Response by the State of Louisiana,” Testimony Before the House Select 

Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response 

to Hurricane Katrina, 109th Cong., 1st sess., 14 December 2005, http://

www.columbia.edu/itc/journalism/cases/katrina/Federal%20Government/

Congress/U.S.%20House/House%20Hearings/Select%20Bipartisan%20Commi

ttee/House%20Hearing%202005-12-14/Smith%202005-12-14.doc (accessed 7 

February 2008); Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 5.

12. United States Executive Office of the President, The Federal Response 

to Hurricane Katrina (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2006), 

26, http://www.whitehouse.gov/reports/katrina-lessons-learned.pdf (accessed 19 

December 2007).

13. Ibid., 30. 

14. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 4.

15. Ibid. 

16. Executive Office, The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina, 31.

17. First Lieutenant Stewart Adams, interview by Sergeant Douglas 
98

Plummer, 102d Military History Detachment, 5 October 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort 

Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 41.

18. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 4.

19. Exact numbers are hard to come by. Lynn E. Davis et al., Hurricane 

Katrina: Lessons for Army Planning and Operations (Santa Monica, CA: Rand 

Arroyo Center, 2007), 20, http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2007/RAND_

MG603.pdf (accessed 9 January 2008), says that 6,400 Louisiana Guardsmen 

were available and that 4,700 of them were on state active duty when Hurricane 

Katrina hit. They indicate that 5,700 of them were eventually activated. Steve 

Bowman, Lawrence Kapp, and Amy Belasco, CRS RL33095, Hurricane Katrina: 

DOD Disaster Response (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 19 

September 2005), 11, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL33095.pdf (accessed 

3 December 2007) claim that 5,804 Louisiana National Guardsmen were on duty 

the day after Hurricane Katrina struck, 30 August. They report that Louisiana 

eventually activated 6,779 personnel. In his Louisiana National Guard timeline, 

Major General Bennett Landreneau, the Louisiana Adjutant General, reports that 

3,396 National Guardsmen were on duty the evening of 28 August. According 

to Landreneau, that number increased to 4,459 on 29 August (see Landreneau, 

National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 4–5). There are similar problems 

with the numbers for Mississippi.

20. The Louisiana National Guard activated some 2,500 troops in response 

to Hurricane Andrew in 1992. See Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 151.

21. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), “FEMA Region 

VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 29 August 2005,” 17–18, http://images.

chron.com/content/news/photos/06/03/02/katrinatranscript0829.pdf (accessed 15 

January 2008).

22. Ibid., 21.

23. CBS News/Associated Press, “At Least 55 Dead in Mississippi,” 29 

August 2005, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/08/30/national/main802478.

shtml?source=search_story (accessed 10 March 2008).

24. Ibid.

25. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 303.

26. Executive Office, The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina, 36.

27. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 30 

August 2005,” 7, http://images.chron.com/content/news/photos/06/03/02/

katrinatranscript0830.pdf (accessed 15 January 2008).

28. Ibid., 8. 

29. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 333.

30. Keeling interview, 126.

31. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 343.

32. Smith.

33. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 30 August 

2005,” 6.

34. First Lieutenant Timothy Cleighton, interview by Major Anthony 
99

Randall, 102d Military History Detachment, 8 October 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort 

Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 122.

35. Governor Brad Henry, “Our Oklahoma: Thanks to Our National 

Guard,” 16 September 2005, http://www.gov.ok.gov/display_article.php?article_

id=581&article_type=0 (accessed 2 April 2008).

36. Colonel Barry Keeling, “National Guard Aviation Rollup for Louisiana—

Katrina,” no date, provided to the author by Colonel Keeling.

37. “Texas Assistance to Louisiana Continues to Grow” (Austin: Texas 

National Guard Public Affairs Office, 1 September 2005), http://www.agd.state.

tx.us/pao/katrinaNews/kat050903%20hurr%20resp%202/050903_hurr_resp_

2.htm (accessed 15 January 2008).

38. Command Sergeant Major Gonda Moncada, “Texas Guard Deployment 

Begun Aug. 28 Grows to 2,100 in LA” (Austin: Texas National Guard Public Affairs, 7 

September 2005), http://www.agd.state.tx.us/pao/katrinaNews/kat050907%20timeline/

kat050907timeline.htm (accessed 15 January 2008).

39. “Texas Assistance to Louisiana Continues to Grow.”

40. Georgia Department of Defense, “Georgia Guard Continues Katrina 

Aid,” First Friday, October 2005, http://www.dod.state.ga.us/firstfridayonline/

Oct05/pages/katrinaoverviewfirstfriday.html (accessed 28 February 2008).

41. Lieutenant Colonel Tim Donovan, “Most Hurricane Relief Missions 

for Task Force Wisconsin Complete,” Wisconsin Army and Air National Guard 

News Release (Madison, WI: Public Affairs Office, 14 September 2005), http://

emergencymanagement.wi.gov/docview.asp?docid=4602 (accessed 27 February 

2008).

42. Larry Sommers, “A Determined Rescue,” At Ease 28, no. 2 (December 

2005), http://dma.wi.gov/MediaPublicAffairs/docview.asp?docid=2965 (accessed 

14 February 2008).

43. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 30 August 

2005,” 7.

44. Lieutenant Colonel Garrett P Jensen, “Hurricane Katrina: Four Days 

at the Dome, D+0 Thru D+3 (29 Aug–1 Sep 05),” 20 September 2005, http://

securingamerica.com/ccn/node/915 (accessed 4 December 2007).

45. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 363.

46. Jensen.

47. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 8.

48. FEMA, DHS/FEMA Initial Response Hotwash: Hurricane Katrina 

in Louisiana, DR-1603-LA. Royal Sonesta Hotel, New Orleans, LA, 13–14 

December 2005, 13 February 2006, 43, http://www.disasterthebook.com/docs/

Katrina_initial_response_ hotwash.pdf (accessed 29 January 2008).

49. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 6.

50. Ibid.

51. Ibid., 7.

52. Jensen. 

53. GAO-06-643, Hurricane Katrina: Better Plans and Exercises Needed 
100

to Guide the Military’s Response to Catastrophic Natural Disasters (Washington, 

DC: Government Accountability Office, May 2006), http://www.gao.gov/new.

items/d06643.pdf (accessed 11 December 2007).

54. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 347.

55. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 6.

56. Ibid., 8.

57. Ibid., 9.

58. Ibid., 7.

59. Jensen. 

60. Ibid.

61. FEMA, DHS/FEMA Initial Response Hotwash, 47–49.

62. Ibid., 49.

63. Ibid., 47.

64. Ibid., 44.

65. Ibid., 47.

66. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 54.

67. Brigadier General Gary Jones, interview by Major Anthony Randall, 

102d Military History Detachment, 20 September 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel 

Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: 

Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 21.

68. Ibid., 22.

69. Brigadier General Brod Veillon, “Hurricane Katrina: Urban Search and 

Rescue in a Catastrophe,” Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs 

Committee, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 30 January 2006, 52, http://bulk.resource.org/

gpo.gov/hearings/109s/26751.pdf (accessed 15 January 2008).

70. Jones interview, 22.

71. Captain Kenneth Baillie, interview by Major Anthony Randall, 102d 

Military History Detachment, 2 October 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. 

Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 27.

72. Jones interview, 22.

73. Baillie interview, 27.

74. Jones interview, 22.

75. Veillon.

76. Baillie interview, 27.

77. Jones interview, 22.

78. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 5.

79. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 364.

80. Ibid.

81. First Lieutenant Stewart Adams, interview by Sergeant Douglas 

Plummer, 102d Military History Detachment, 5 October 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort 

Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 42.

82. Jensen.

83. House, A Failure of Initiative, 117.
101

84. Sergeant Timothy Porter, interview by Sergeant Douglas Plummer, 

102d Military History Detachment, 2 October 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan 

R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 53.

85. Colonel Patricia Prechter, interview by Major Anthony Randall, 102d 

Military History Detachment, 24 September 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. 

Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 32.

86. Jones interview, 22.

87. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 7.

88. Prechter interview, 32.

89. Matt Welch, “Echo Chamber in the Superdome,” Reason Magazine, 

4 October 2005, http://www.reason.com/news/show/34103.html (accessed 11 

March 2008).

90. Ibid.

91. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 6.

92. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 362–363.

93. Ibid., 362.

94. Ibid., 32.

95. Ibid., 510.

96. Ibid.

97. Jones interview, 22.

98. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 7.

99. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 364.

100. Ibid., 365.

101. Ibid.

102. Major General Bennett C. Landreneau, “Hurricane Katrina: The 

Defense Department’s Role in the Response,” Senate Homeland Security and 

Governmental Affairs Committee, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 9 February 2006, 6, 

http://hsgac.senate.gov/_files/ 020906Landreneau.pdf (accessed 27 December 

2007).

103. Command Sergeant Major Gonda Moncada, “Texas Guard Provides 

Security for New Orleans Citizens Who Sought Safety in Superdome” (Austin: 

Texas National Guard Public Affairs, 6 September 2005), http://www.agd.

state.tx.us/pao/katrinaNews/kat050906%20texas%20guard%20at%20dome/

kat050906dome.htm (accessed 15 January 2008).

104. FEMA, DHS/FEMA Initial Response Hotwash, 25.

105. House, A Failure of Initiative, 248.

106. Colonel Earl P. Santos, interview by Lieutenant David Stuever, 102d 

Military History Detachment, 25 September 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. 

Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 30.

107. Ibid.

108. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 364.

109. Ibid., 313–314.
102

110. Ibid., 364.

111. James Varney, “They Came Seeking Refuge, Then Suffered Days in 

Anguish,” The Times-Picayune, 29 August 2006, http://www.nola.com/news/tp/frontpage/index2.ssf?/base/news-6/11568293918830.xml&coll=1 (accessed 4 

April 2008).

112. CBS News/Associated Press, “Some New Orleans Chaos Fact or 

Fiction?” 28 September 2005, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/09/28/

katrina/main887375.shtml?source=search_story (accessed 10 March 2008).

113. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 364.

114. Staff Sergeant Toby Green, interview by Sergeant Donald Plummer, 

102d Military History Detachment, 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, 

ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force 

Katrina History Group, January 2008), 63.

115. First Lieutenant James Campbell, interview by Major Bruce Kish, 305th 

Military History Detachment, 27 September 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. 

Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 34–35.

116. Robert Tanner, “Troops Bring Food, Medicine to New Orleans,” 

Associated Press, 3 September 2005, http://www.wwltv.com/sharedcontent/

nationworld/katrina/stories/090305cckatrinajrkatrina.1e3c56bf.html (accessed 11 

March 2008).

117. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 365.

118. Joseph B. Treaster, “First Steps to Alleviate Squalor and Suffering 

at Convention Center,” The New York Times, 3 September 2005, http://www.

nytimes.com/2005/09/03/national/nationalspecial/03orleans.html?_r=1&pagewa

nted=print&oref=slogin (accessed 2 April 2008).

119. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 8.

120. Treaster. 

121. House, A Failure of Initiative, 248.

122. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 476.

123. Bowman et al, 11.

124. Suburban Emergency Management Project (SEMP), Biot Report #266, 

“Task Force Pelican: The Rebel Yells,” 19 September 2005, http://www.semp.

us/publications/biot_reader.php?BiotID=266 (accessed 6 November 2007).

125. Specialist S. Patrick McCollum, “Pennsylvania Guard Flies Water, Feed 

to Stranded Cattle,” The On Guard 34, no. 9 (November 2005), 4, http://www.

ngb.army.mil/news/theonguard/2005/2005-11.pdf (accessed 29 January 2008).

126. Nevada National Guard Biennial Report, Fiscal Years 2005–2006

(Carson City, NV: Military Public Affairs Office, 2006), 26, http://www.nv.ngb.

army.mil/newsReleases/Biennial2006.pdf (accessed 28 March 2008).

127. Senior Army Adviser, Army National Guard (SRAAG), Alabama, 

SRAAG-AL Katrina Update, 031930 September 2005 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: 

Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL) Archives).

128. Office of the Adjutant General, Annual Report, Fiscal Year 2004–2005

(Frankfort, KY: Department of Military Affairs, 2005), http://www.kynghistory.
103

ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/4833A423-C414-47DD-A58D-0745D9727957/0/dma_

anl_rpt_05.pdf (accessed 24 February 2008).

129. National Guard Bureau, “Katrina Recovery Operation Strength, 

090200R SEP 05,” Katrina Recovery Operation Strength, 06-Sep-05 Through 18-

Sep-05 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

130. Ibid.

131. Sergeant Brad Staggs and Specialist Nicki Fellenzer, “Virginia Guard 

Military Police Units on Patrol in Lake Charles,” 29th Infantry Division Public 

Affairs Office, 10 September 2005, http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil/virginiaguard/

news/sep2005/enroutetola.html (accessed 24 January 2008).

132. Sergeant Brad Staggs, “Virginia Guardsmen Participate in Humanitarian 

Mission,” Task Force Cardinal Public Affairs, 13 September 2005, http://vko.

va.ngb.army.mil/virginiaguard/news/sep2005/humanitarianmission.html 

(accessed 24 January 2008).

133. Captain Kevin Hynes, “Nebraskans Answer Call When Hurricane 

Devastates Gulf Coast,” Prairie Soldier 55, no. 5 (October 2005): 9, http://www.

neguard.com/PRAIRIESOLDIER/2005_10_PS.pdf (accessed 30 April 2008).

134. Landreneau, National Guard Timeline of Significant Events, 9.

135. Lieutenant Colonel Owen Monoconduit, interview by Sergeant Douglas 

Plummer, 102d Military History Detachment, 28 September 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort 

Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008) 38–39.

136. Captain Alan West, interview by Sergeant Douglas Plummer, 102d 

Military History Detachment, 25 September 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. 

Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 61.

137. Major Edward Gargas, interview by Sergeant Douglas Plummer, 102d 

Military History Detachment, 1 October 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. 

Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 67–68.

138. Lieutenant Colonel Robert Jones, interview by Sergeant Douglas 

Plummer, 102d Military History Detachment, 1 October 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort 

Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 69.

139. Donovan.

140. Technical Sergeant Daniel Knettle, interview by Technical Sergeant 

Craig Mackey, US Air Force Historical Research Agency (USAFHRA), Maxwell 

Air Force Base, 6 March 2006, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National 

Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina

History Group, January 2008), 176.

141. Hynes.

142. Warrant Officer Roman M. Martyniuk, “It’s the New Jersey Cavalry to 

the Rescue,” Guardlife 31, no. 5 (November 2005): 4–5, http://www.state.nj.us/

military/publications/guardlife/volume31no5/nj_cav.html (accessed 28 March 

2008).
104

143. “Governor Rendell Announces Mobilization of 2,500 Pennsylvania 

National Guard Members in Response to Hurricane Katrina Relief Efforts,” 

Harrisburg, PA, September 2005, http://www.state.pa.us/papower/cwp/view.

asp?A=11&Q=445357 (accessed 1 April 2008).

144. Adrian R. King Jr., “Situation Report #4, as of 4:00 pm September 4, 

2005,” Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency, 4 September 2005, http://

www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/lib/pema/PA_KATRINA_SITREP_4.pdf (accessed 

4 December 2007).

145. Headquarters, 56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team, “Operation 

Independence Relief After-Action Review,” Philadelphia, PA, 31 October 2005 

(Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives), 4.

146. Ibid., 1–4.

147. First Lieutenant Paolo Sica, “Guard Platoon Assists With Hurricane 

Relief Efforts,” Infantry (July–August 2006): 37, https://www.benning.army.mil/

magazine/2006/2006_4/11_fa02.pdf (accessed 19 February 2008).

148. Sandy Bauers, “Chance To Help Remote Areas Cheers Guardsmen 

From Pa,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 12 September 2005.

149. 1/112th Infantry Battalion, 56th Stryker Brigade, “History,” 9 January 2008, 

http://www.dmva.state.pa.us/paarng/cwp/view.asp?a=3&Q=441311&PM=1 

(accessed 19 March 2008).

150. 1/108th Field Artillery, 56th Stryker Brigade, “History,” 7 April 2006, 

http://www.dmva.state.pa.us/paarng/cwp/view.asp?A=3&Q=441199 (accessed 19 

March 2008).

151. Sica, 36.

152. Ibid., 37.

153. Ibid., 38.

154. Ibid., 38–39.

155. Ibid., 41.

156. “Virginia Soldiers and Airmen Leave for Louisiana” (Blackstone: 

Virginia National Guard Public Affairs Office, 2 September 2005), http://vko.

va.ngb.army.mil/virginiaguard/news/sep2005/229thdepartsforla.html (accessed 24 

January 2008).

157. Lieutenant Colonel Gary Khalil, “Virginia Guard Soldiers and Airmen 

Provide Relief to New Orleans,” Task Force Cardinal Public Affairs, 15 September 

2005, http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil/virginiaguard/news/sep2005/wateropsinla.html 

(accessed 24 January 2008).

158. Governor Rod R. Blagojevich, “Governor Blagojevich Sends Illinois 

National Guard to Louisiana To Help With Hurricane Katrina Recovery and 

Cleanup” (Springfield, IL: Office of the Governor, 31 August 2005), http://www.

il.gov/pressreleases/ShowPressRelease.cfm?SubjectID=3&RecNum=4265 

(accessed 11 March 2008).

159. Second Lieutenant Russell Wilbanks, “Nebraska Army Guard Soldiers 

Provide Important Services During Mission to Devastated New Orleans,” 

Prairie Soldier 55, no. 6 (December 2005), 5, http://www.neguard.com/

PRAIRIESOLDIER/2005_12_PS.pdf (accessed 30 April 2008).
105

160. Major General Thomas G. Cutler, 2005 Annual Report of the Adjutant 

General to the Governor (Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Military and 

Veteran Affairs, 2005), 21, http://www.michigan.gov/documents/dmva/Annual_

Rpt_Gov_book_179990_7.pdf (accessed 30 April 2008).

161. Major General James R. Mason, interview by Major Anthony Randle, 

102d Military History Detachment, 5 October 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan 

R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 91.

162. Ibid., 79.

163. Ibid., 79–80.

164. Colonel Thomas E. Johnson, interview by James A. Wombwell, Combat 

Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 4 April 2008.

165. Sergeant Major Rosemary Johnson, interview in Lieutenant Colonel 

Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, 

GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 178.

166. Johnson interview by Wombwell.

167. Ibid.

168. Lieutenant Colonel Larry Hannan, “Task Force Santa Fe,” in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort 

Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 101–103.

169. Mason interview, 80–82.

170. Johnson interview by Wombwell.

171. Hannan, 112.

172. Mason interview, 81.

173. Hannan, 112.

174. Mason interview, 82.

175. Hannan, 112.

176. Johnson interview by Wombwell.

177. Brigadier General Myles Deering, interview by Major Anthony Randle, 

102d Military History Detachment, 21 September 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel 

Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: 

Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 25.

178. Lieutenant General William B. Caldwell IV, Colonel Bryan R. Owens, 

and Command Sergeant Major Wolf Amacker, interview by James A. Wombwell, 

Combat Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 29 April 2008.

179. Henry.

180. Deering interview, 25.

181. Henry.

182. Joint Task Force Orleans, Battle Update Brief (BUB), 08 SEP 05 [0800]

(Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

183. Ben Fenwick, “The Kindness of Strangers,” Oklahoma Gazette, 21 September 

2005, http://www.altweeklies.com/alternative/AltWeeklies/Story?oid=oid%3A150759 

(accessed 8 April 2008).

184. Joint Task Force Orleans, Domestic Support Operations Brief (DSOB), 

23 SEP 05 [0900] (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).
106

185. Fenwick.

186. Joint Task Force Orleans, Domestic Support Operations Brief (DSOB), 

23 SEP 05 [0900].

187. Harry Esteve, “National Guard Troops in New Orleans Face Tough 

Conditions in Relief Effort,” The Oregonian, 9 September 2005, http://

economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2005/09/national_guard_.html 

(accessed 19 February 2008).

188. Captain Michael Braibish, “Oregon Guard Assists With Hurricane 

Cleanup Efforts,” Oregon Sentinel 3, no. 6 (September 2005): 1, 6, http://www.

oregon.gov/OMD/AGPA/docs/Sentinel/2005/Sep05-Sentinel-WEB.pdf (accessed 

14 January 2008). 

189. Major Arnold Strong, “Another Week Starts in the Big Uneasy,” 

JTFPontchartrain.org, 12 September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/

people/arnold/another-week-starts-in-the-big-un-easy (accessed 19 February 

2008).

190. Esteve.

191. Ibid.; Major Arnold Strong, “9/11 in New Orleans,” JTFPontchartrain.

org, 11 September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/people/arnold/911-innew-orleans (accessed 19 February 2008).

192. Paris Achen, “Inside a World of Hurt,” The Mail Tribune, 11 September 

2005, http://archive.mailtribune.com/archive/2005/0911/local/stories/01local.

htm (accessed 19 February 2008).

193. Ibid.

194. Paris Achen, “Searching for Survivors,” The Mail Tribune, 13 September 

2005, http://archive.mailtribune.com/archive/2005/0913/local/stories/01local.

htm (accessed 19 February 2008).

195. Paris Achen, “Guard Digs in for Duty,” The Mail Tribune, 14 September 

2005, http://archive.mailtribune.com/archive/2005/0914/local/stories/01local.

htm (accessed 19 February 2008).

196. Achen, “Searching for Survivors.”

197. Strong, “9/11 in New Orleans.”

198. Paris Achen, “Rescued Man Boosts Morale of Rescuers,” The Mail 

Tribune, 14 September 2005, http://archive.mailtribune.com/archive/2005/0914/

local/stories/02local.htm (accessed 19 February 2008).

199. 1/186th Infantry Battalion Public Affairs Officer, “Delta Co. Saves 

Nun,” JTFPontchartrain.org, 19 September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.

org/people/sfchanson/delta-co-saves-nun (accessed 19 February 2008).

200. First Lieutenant Jason M. Marshall, “Redleg Update,” JTFPontchartrain.

org, 18 September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/people/teamboat/redlegupdate (accessed 19 February 2008).

201. 2/218th Field Artillery Maintenance Section, “2/218 FA Maintenance 

Story: Katrina and the Church,” JTFPontchartrain.org, 15 September 2005, http://

www.jtfpontchartrain.org/people/ejor (accessed 19 February 2008).

202. 141st Support Battalion, “141 Support Battalion Arrives in New 

Orleans,” JTFPontchartrain.org, 15 September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.
107

org/people/dlindzee/141-support-battalion-arrives-in-new-orleans (accessed 19 

February 2008).

203. Lieutenant Fry, “Pancakes for Breakfast,” JTFPontchartrain.org, 18 

September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/people/billfry/pancakesfor-breakfast (accessed 19 February 2008).

204. Lieutenant Fry, “1-162 Medics Save Another Life,” JTFPontchartrain.

org, 17 September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/people/billfry/1-162-

medics-save-another-life (accessed 19 February 2008).

205. Specialist Smith, “19 SEP 2005,” JTFPontchartrain.org, 20 September 

2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/people/gerberguy/19-sep-2005 (accessed 

19 February 2008).

206. Staff Sergeant Mike Gholston, “SFC Jeffers—Charlie Med,” 

JTFPontchartrain.org, 15 September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/

people/mikegholston/sfc-jeffers--charlie-med (accessed 19 February 2008).

207. “Welcome to Company C 141 SPT BN, 41st BDE,” JTFPontchartrain.

org, 15 September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/people/cmed141/

welcome-to-company-c-141-spt-bn-41st-bde (accessed 19 February 2008).

208. 141st Support Battalion, “141 Hard at Work,” JTFPontchartrain.org, 15 

September 2005, http://www.jtfpontchartrain.org/people/dlindzee/141-hard-atwork (accessed 19 February 2008).

209. “Welcome to Company C 141 SPT BN, 41st BDE.”

210. “Texas Adding 800 Guardsmen to 1,300 Already in Louisiana” (Austin: 

Texas National Guard Public Affairs, 3 September 2005), http://www.agd.state.

tx.us/pao/katrinaNews/kat050903%20hurr%20resp%203/kat050903_hurr_resp_

3.htm (accessed 15 January 2008).

211. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 30 August 

2005,” 29–30; Moncada, “Texas Guard Deployment Begun Aug. 28 Grows to 

2,100 in LA.”

212. “Texas Guardsmen Continue Assistance Through Weekend” (Austin: 

Texas National Guard Public Affairs Office, 4 September 2005), http://www.agd.

state.tx.us/pao/katrinaNews/kat050904%20hurr%20resp%204/ kat050904_hrr_

resp_4.htm (accessed 15 January 2008).

213. Moncada, “Texas Guard Deployment Begun Aug. 28 Grows to 2,100 in 

LA.”

214. “Gov. Perry Recalls Texas Forces from Louisiana; Begins Preparations 

for Rita,” Office of the Governor, 19 September 2005, http://www.governor.state.

tx.us/divisions/press/pressreleases/PressRelease.2005-09-19.4004 (accessed 14 

January 2008).

215. Captain Steve Alvarez, “Alabama Guard Provides Critical Disaster 

Response,” American Forces Press Service, 3 September 2005, http://www.

defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17410 (accessed 9 January 2008).

216. Dennis Steele, “Few People, Small Boats, Big Effort,” Army, 55, 

no. 11 (November 2005), 23–28, http://www.ausa.org/pdfdocs/ArmyMag/

FewPeopleNov05.pdf (accessed 20 November 2007).

217. Specialist Benjamin Cossel, “148th Scouts Help New Orleans Police 
108

Maintain Law and Order,” 196th Mobile Public Affairs Detachment, 17 September 

2005, http://www.ohionationalguard.com/pao/news/katrina/20050917a.htm 

(accessed 8 April 2008).

218. Sergeant Wes Nowitzki, “Local Area Civilians Pay It Forward,” 21 

September 2005, http://www.ohionationalguard.com/pao/news/katrina/

20050921b.htm (accessed 8 April 2008).

219. National Guard Bureau, “Civil Support Team Fact Sheet,” 21 May 

2007, http://www.ngb.army.mil/features/HomelandDefense/cst/factsheet.html 

(accessed 18 April 2008).

220. Donovan. See also North Carolina Joint Forces Headquarters Joint 

Operations Center, “Daily Situation Report #10, 100800R SEP 05.”

221. Specialist Sarah B. Smith, “Hazardous Materials Found Throughout the 

Greater New Orleans Area,” Wyoming Army National Guard, 19 October 2005, 

http://www.ak-prepared.com/dmva/press-releases/19Oct05.pdf (accessed 14 

January 2008).

222. Sarah Elizabeth Hopton, “Army, Local Hazmat Teams Clean Up New 

Orleans for Residents’ Return,” Army New Service, 21 October 2005, http://www.

military.com/features/0,15240,79122,00.html (accessed 10 March 2008).

223. Private First Class Edward Robles, “Puerto Rico National Guard 

Doctors Treat Hurricane Victims,” The On Guard 34, no. 9 (November 2005): 

4, http://www.ngb.army.mil/news/theonguard/2005/2005-11.pdf (accessed 29 

January 2008).

224. Sergeant John Cervone, “A Small State With a Big Heart,” 2 November 

2005, http://www.riguard.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=29 

(accessed 24 January 2008).

225. South Carolina Army National Guard, “SCNG SITREP for 041100 SEP 

05,” Emergency State Active Duty Report, 021100R September 2005. 

226. Sergeant First Class Ronald Ewart, interview by Elizabeth Schexnyder, 

Curator, National Hansen’s Disease Museum, 6 October 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort 

Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 149–150.

227. Wilbanks, 5.

228. Henry Brean, “Nevadans Respond to Disaster,” Las Vegas ReviewJournal, 3 September 2005, http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2005/Sep03-Sat-2005/news/27148370.html (accessed 28 March 2008).

229. Captain Bobby Lawson, Nevada Army National Guard, e-mail to author, 

28 April 2008. 

230. Detachment 1, 1121st Transportation Company, “Hurricane Relief 

Efforts,” no date, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard 

Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History 

Group, January 2008), 137–138.

231. Arkansas National Guard, “Information as of 0600 7 September 2005,” 

SITREP 070600 SEP 05 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

232. “Guardsmen Get First Hand Look at Overpowering Loss Caused by 

Katrina,” Fosters.com, 4 October 2005, http://www.citizen.com/apps/
109

pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051004/NEWS01/110040042/0/NEWS02 

(accessed 16 December 2007).

233. Associated Press, “500 Katrina Evacuees May Come to Pease,” 

Portsmouth Herald, 6 September 2005, http://seacoastauction.com/

2005news/09062005/news/61361.htm (accessed 8 April 2008).

234. 1/129th Field Artillery, Headquarters, “Hurricane Relief Efforts,” no 

date, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts 

in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 

2008), 139–142.

235. 1138th Military Police Company, “Katrina Deployment Information,” 

no date, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts 

in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 

2008), 137.

236. “Additional Virginia Guard Units to Deploy to Louisiana” (Blackstone: 

Virginia National Guard Public Affairs Office, 26 September 2005), http://

vko.va.ngb.army.mil/virginiaguard/news/katrinasupport/index.html (accessed 

24 January 2008).

237. Sergeant First Class Michael Hampton, “Task Force Commonwealth 

Hits the Streets of the Big Easy,” Task Force Commonwealth Public Affairs, 

10 October 2005, http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil/virginiaguard/news/oct2005/

tfcommhitsstreets.html (accessed 24 January 2008).

238. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript,” 4 

September 2005, 11, http://disasterthefilm.com/docs/080806/Sept_4_2005_VTC.

pdf (accessed 15 January 2008).

239. Elizabeth Aguilera, “Soldiers Still Look for Living: Nearly 700 Troops 

from Colorado Are in the Storm Area, Helping With Searches, Cleanup and Pet 

Rescues,” Denver Post, 12 September 2005, http://www.denverpost.com/search/

ci_3021198 (accessed 5 March 2008).

240. Ibid.

241. “Georgia Guard Continues Katrina Aid.” 

242. Heidi Hansen, “Governor Announces Troop Deployments” (Lansing: 

Michigan Department of Military Affairs, 1 September 2005), http://www.

michigan.gov/dmva/0,1607,7-126-34250_34253-125741--,00.html (accessed 24 

January 2008).

243. Sergeant First Class Mark Kelly, interview by Elizabeth Schexnyder, 

Curator, National Hansen’s Disease Museum, 20 September 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort 

Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 143–144.

244. Lieutenant Colonel James Branson, interview by Chris W. Harris, 

Missouri National Guard, no date, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed. 

National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force 

Katrina History Group, January 2008), 134.

245. Major General Cynthia N. Kirkland, “Office of the Military,” 2006, 

http://budget.state.nv.us/BR06/PDFs/Military.pdf (accessed 28 March 2008).

111

Chapter 5

Mississippi

In many ways, the damage Hurricane Katrina inflicted on Mississippi 

was much worse than what it did to Louisiana. The storm devastated 

Mississippi’s three coastal counties. Hurricane Katrina’s storm surge, 

wind, and rain destroyed more than 65,000 homes in the three coastal 

counties, killed more than 200 people and injured thousands more, wiped 

out entire communities, washed away roads, knocked out the power and 

communications grids, and rendered most local emergency management 

centers inoperable. Almost one million people were left without power in 

the aftermath of the storm. It also left behind some 44 million cubic yards 

of debris.1

 Despite that, Mississippi bounced back much more quickly than 

Louisiana.

One reason why Mississippi recovered faster than Louisiana was 

that the damage to the state differed from that incurred in Louisiana. In 

Louisiana, the failure of the levee system, which resulted in extensive 

flooding in New Orleans and the surrounding parishes, caused much 

more damage than Hurricane Katrina’s storm surge, winds, or rain. The 

flooding was a disaster within a disaster. When the levees failed, much of 

New Orleans flooded to a depth of 8 to 12 feet since most of the city is 

situated below sea level. The flooding precipitated the largest search-andFigure 14. A survivor sits among the rubble in his Gulfport, Mississippi, neighborhood. Specialist Joshua M. Risner, 40th Public Affairs Detachment
112

rescue operation in our Nation’s history. For almost a week, emergency 

management officials in Louisiana focused on search-and-rescue and 

evacuation operations to the detriment of other relief missions. Conversely, 

even though Mississippi bore the brunt of the hurricane’s fury, once the 

storm surge subsided, rescue workers only had to deal with washed-out 

or debris-strewn roads, not flooding. As more and more National Guard 

and FEMA assets flowed into the state, they were able to clear the roads 

and restore power and water in fairly short order. Moreover, since the 

population of the Mississippi coast is less dense than urban New Orleans 

and fewer people were stranded by flooding in Mississippi, search-andrescue operations ended much sooner in Mississippi than in Louisiana, 

thus making aviation assets available for other missions.

Another reason why Mississippi recovered more quickly was good 

planning and organization. The Mississippi National Guard had a hurricane 

response plan in place before Hurricane Katrina struck and executed it 

as conditions allowed. Troops were on the ground providing security, 

conducting search and rescues, and distributing aid within hours of 

Hurricane Katrina passing through the state. Although Mississippi needed 

massive amounts of Federal aid, state leaders did not request Title 10 

military support. They were, for the most part, able to facilitate recovery 

in the affected counties with the support provided by other states through 

the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) process. The 

Mississippi National Guard effectively managed both its own forces 

and those from outside states. As forces flowed into the state, they were 

attached to county-based task forces (TFs). State forces operated side by 

side with out-of-state troops in each TF. The TFs operated independently 

within their areas of operation using the commander’s intentions as their 

guidance. Each TF established close ties with local officials, making it 

easier for them to respond quickly and efficiently to the needs of local 

communities. Within a few weeks, Mississippi was able to transition from 

relief to the recovery phase of operations. 

Prelandfall Preparations

The state of Mississippi began taking action on Friday, 26 August 

2005, 3 days before Hurricane Katrina struck. Governor Haley Barbour 

declared a state of emergency and authorized the adjutant general to call 

up Mississippi National Guardsmen onto state active duty.2

 The next day, 

the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) stood up its 

Emergency Operations Center (EOC) and activated the State Emergency 

Response Team (SERT). The SERT deployed to Camp Shelby on Sunday, 

28 August, and was operational by 1500.3
113

Just before the 2005 hurricane season, the Mississippi National Guard 

revised and updated its hurricane response plan. Guard planners completed 

the plan in June and successfully implemented it the next month when 

Hurricane Dennis struck Florida on 10 July.4

 The plan allocated five primary 

missions to the Mississippi National Guard: search and rescue, security, 

commodity distribution, casualty evacuation, and debris removal.5

 Units 

had specific missions and deployed to preidentified locations to carry out 

those tasks.

With more than 4,200 Mississippi National Guard soldiers and airmen 

deployed to Iraq, including 3,300 troops assigned to the 155th Brigade 

Combat Team, Mississippi Guard leaders planned to mobilize all available 

troops to cope with the threat Hurricane Katrina posed. On Saturday, 28 

August, they activated 10 percent of the personnel from every unit in the 

state. In accordance with the hurricane response plan, hurricane strike teams 

deployed to the EOCs of the three coastal counties—Jackson, Harrison, 

and Hancock—on 27 August. Each strike team had 10 military police 

(MP), 15 engineers, and 5 trucks.6

 All totaled, 175 soldiers deployed into 

the three counties. Their mission included search and rescue, humanitarian 

aid distribution, and security operations. The plan required them to wait 

out the storm in shelters and then to move out and execute their missions 

as soon as the storm passed. 

The Adjutant General of Mississippi, Major General Harold A. Cross, 

also activated the 223d Engineer Battalion, 890th Engineer Battalion, and 

the 112th MP Battalion.7

 He commented during a conference call with 

First Army that engineers and military police were important skill sets 

during disaster relief operations, and he wanted to have plenty of them on 

hand to help. He moved those units to Camp Shelby, Mississippi, where 

they were close enough to respond quickly yet out of harm’s way.8

The Mississippi and Alabama adjutant generals had a close personal 

relationship, and in the days leading up to the storm, they worked together to 

formulate a plan for Alabama to provide additional support to Mississippi. 

Since it appeared that Hurricane Katrina would not strike Alabama directly, 

the Alabama adjutant general was primarily concerned about the impact of 

the storm’s surge and subsequent flooding. Consequently, he stationed his 

forces back from the coast where they could wait out the storm in safety 

and then move forward to help. Since Major General Cross wanted as 

many engineers as he could get, the Alabama adjutant general agreed to 

station the 877th Engineer Battalion just inside the Alabama-Mississippi 

border so it would be able to respond quickly if Mississippi needed help.9
114

As he listened to the warnings issued by the National Hurricane Center 

and watched the storm move across the Gulf of Mexico, Cross concluded 

that he did not have enough troops available to deal with the effects of the 

storm. He took three additional actions to rectify that situation: 

• He ordered additional units to state active duty. Among the units 

activated were the 114th Area Support Group, 298th Maintenance 

Battalion, 367th Maintenance Company, 1387th Quartermaster 

Company, and 1687th Transportation Company.10 On Sunday, 

more than 1,800 soldiers and airmen were on state active duty in 

Mississippi.11 By the time Hurricane Katrina struck on Monday, 

more than 3,800 National Guardsmen were on state active duty, 

and the rest of the state’s available forces were on alert.12

• With almost 40 percent of the state’s troops unavailable when 

Hurricane Katrina struck, Cross turned to other states for help.13

He initiated a number of requests for forces via EMAC, which is a 

national “interstate mutual aid compact that facilitates the sharing 

of resources, personnel, and equipment across state lines during 

times of disaster and emergency.”14 Cross’s initial requests for 

assistance included an MP battalion, two engineer battalions, and 

three CH-47 helicopters.15

Figure 15. Damage to the Ocean Springs Bridge.

Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas, USAF
115

• He stood up Joint Task Force Magnolia, which served as his 

operational headquarters during the crisis. Later, when the 38th 

Infantry Division’s headquarters unit arrived, he turned over 

command and control for all National Guard forces operating in 

the state to the division, but JTF Magnolia remained in overall 

command of the operation.

When Hurricane Katrina struck Mississippi, state leaders felt 

themselves well prepared. State emergency officials had, they thought, a 

sufficient amount of relief commodities on hand. Almost all the state’s 

available National Guard troops were either on state active duty or had 

been alerted to the possibility of activation. In accordance with the state’s 

hurricane response plan, several hundred soldiers were in place along the 

coast, ready to provide immediate support to county emergency officials. 

The rest of the National Guardsmen deployed to locations that were out of 

harm’s way but close enough to the coast so they could get there quickly 

after the storm passed. Finally, they had a backup plan—the adjutant 

general coordinated support with the state of Alabama and submitted a 

request for forces to other states via EMAC before the storm hit.

Immediate Response Operations

During the early morning hours of 29 August, Hurricane Katrina 

changed track slightly and passed New Orleans to the east. Although that 

was good news for New Orleans, it was bad for Mississippi since the storm’s 

track put the Mississippi coastline squarely in the northeast quadrant of the 

hurricane, where the winds and storm surge would be the worst.16 Max 

Mayfield of the National Hurricane Center warned Mississippi officials 

that the storm surge would be “very, very devastating” throughout the 

Biloxi basin.17

Mayfield was correct in his estimation. When Hurricane Katrina made 

its second landfall near the Mississippi-Louisiana border at 1000, it was a 

very strong storm, with winds estimated at 121 miles per hour.18 A 27-foot 

storm surge and winds gusting up to 130 mph decimated the Mississippi 

coast.19 About 95 percent of the homes and buildings in Waveland, situated 

on the coast near where Hurricane Katrina’s eye touched down, were 

destroyed. Although the town’s emergency vehicles were staged 10 miles 

north of the town, all of them were destroyed by the storm. Hurricane 

Katrina ravaged Biloxi and left downtown Gulfport with 10 feet of standing 

water. The storm surge roared up the region’s rivers and bays for almost 12 

miles, destroying many inland towns.20

Even though Hurricane Katrina weakened throughout the day as it 

moved northward through the state, it was still classified as a hurricane 
116

when it passed over Laurel, Mississippi, some 100 miles inland.21 Because 

of its size and strength, as in Louisiana, Hurricane Katrina neutralized 

most of the state’s well-thought-out plans to get emergency response 

assets into the affected areas quickly. The storm decimated Mississippi’s 

communications infrastructure, leaving local responders isolated and 

unable to request help and state officials blind to the situation on the 

ground.

Mississippi emergency officials assumed that the damage was bad 

along the coast, but they did not know how severe it was at first. One 

Mississippi official commented, “It certainly looks like it is a catastrophic 

event that we all expected. . . .”22 He went on to report that they thought that 

“the Hancock County emergency operations center collapsed. . . . We know 

that Jackson County EOC is flooded. They evacuated to the secondary on 

the EOC side. Harrison County, we have sporadic communication with 

them.”23 They knew people were in trouble, but because of the weather, 

they were unable to get to them. Rescue operations would have to wait 

until the storm passed, but Mississippi officials were hopeful that “the 

resources are in place everywhere to get in as quick as possible.”24

The road system in the Gulf coast counties was as badly damaged as 

the communications infrastructure. US Highway 90, which is Mississippi’s 

coastal highway, was completely impassable, and only one lane of Interstate 

10, which runs east-west several miles inland, was open to emergency 

response vehicles.25 Hancock County was almost completely cut off, except 

for a road running from the Stennis Space Center. Emergency officials 

were not even sure, however, if they could get to the Stennis Space Center 

from the north using I-59. Although Jackson County was accessible as 

far west as Pascagoula, officials did not know if they could reach Biloxi 

from the east. The only road into Harrison County was US-49, which was 

congested but passable.26 Therefore, even if first responders had a way 

to communicate their needs, there was almost no way to quickly get to 

survivors.

The situation remained confused on Tuesday, 30 August, the day 

after the hurricane struck the state. A FEMA official reported that 

communications with the EOCs in the affected counties were limited 

because only one FEMA satellite radio survived Hurricane Katrina’s 

wrath. FEMA dispatched a mobile operations center to Gulfport, but 

until it arrived and became operational, officials were “blind to exactly 

what the current situation is down there.”27 Later, during the same video 

teleconference, Mississippi officials were surprised to learn that Florida 

had pushed a 245-person urban search-and-rescue team into Mississippi 
117

earlier that morning. The Florida team made it to Biloxi before obstructed 

roads prevented further westward travel. The destruction in Biloxi was so 

extensive, Florida officials reported, that the team had difficulty finding a 

clear spot on which to set up equipment. The situation on the ground made 

flying in additional equipment or supplies even more problematic. But 

more aid was needed, Florida officials said, because the survivors in the 

area desperately needed food and water.28

Major General Harold Cross conducted an aerial reconnaissance 

Tuesday morning to survey the damage Hurricane Katrina inflicted on his 

state. Although there were 2,736 Army National Guard soldiers and 1,003 

Air National Guard airmen on state active duty at that moment, he realized 

that, with a brigade overseas, he did not have enough troops available to 

deal with the damage.29 When he returned to his headquarters in Jackson, 

he asked the governor to mobilize all remaining Mississippi Guardsmen 

and requested additional forces through EMAC. 

Requests for additional forces through EMAC are coordinated through 

the National Guard Bureau, which serves as an adviser to the Departments 

of the Army and Air Force on National Guard issues and as a liaison between 

the governors and adjutant generals of each state and the Department of 

Defense.30 Both Louisiana and Mississippi asked for EMAC assistance 

before Hurricane Katrina made landfall. As mentioned earlier, Louisiana 

asked for two CH-47 Chinook and four UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters. 

Mississippi asked for an MP battalion, two engineer battalions, and three 

CH-47 Chinook helicopters.31 Alabama responded immediately. The 

Alabama adjutant general dispatched 483 soldiers to Mississippi on 30 

August and 359 more soldiers the next day. The Alabama force consisted 

of engineers, military police, security personnel, and communications 

units.32 Arkansas also acted quickly, sending a 310-person MP company 

to Mississippi.33

As the damage reports grew grimmer, the requests for assistance 

from the affected states increased. Although surrounding states responded 

generously, Mississippi and Louisiana needed more help. On Wednesday, 

31 August, Lieutenant General H. Steven Blum, Director of the National 

Guard Bureau, held a video teleconference with National Guard leaders 

from 54 states and territories and asked the state commanders to provide 

Mississippi and Louisiana with as much support as they could possibly 

give.34 The response by the other states was tremendous. Although the 

number of Mississippi Guardsmen involved in the relief operation never 

exceeded 4,500 soldiers and airmen, thousands of Guardsmen from other 

states joined with them to help survivors in the coastal counties of the 
118

state.35 On the day Blum implored the other states to provide help, a few 

more than 1,100 out-of-state Guardsmen were in Mississippi. Two days 

later, that number swelled to more than 3,700. On Sunday, 4 September, 

about 9,400 out-of-state Guardsmen were in Mississippi. Some 1,600 

more arrived the next day, bringing the number of out-of-state soldiers and 

airmen on duty in Mississippi to almost 11,000. In 6 days, the number of 

out-of-state troops deployed to Mississippi increased tenfold. Out-of-state 

personnel finally peaked on 8 September, with more than 11,500 National 

Guardsmen supporting relief operations in the state.36

Although greatly appreciated, the influx of soldiers, aircraft, and other 

assets into both Mississippi and Louisiana brought about corresponding 

command and control challenges. With both states’ brigade combat teams 

deployed to Iraq, both Mississippi and Louisiana lacked substantial 

higher level command and control capabilities. Once again, the National 

Guard Bureau stepped in and helped by activating the headquarters of 

two National Guard divisions. The 35th Infantry Division from Kansas 

deployed to Louisiana, and the 38th Infantry Division from Indiana 

provided assistance in Mississippi. Both divisions served tours in the 

Balkans, and according to Lieutenant General Blum, the staffs knew 

how to execute “Ph.D. level command and control.”37 They helped the 

respective state adjutant generals by providing command and control over 

the thousands of National Guard soldiers flowing into both states. Blum 

later commented that, once the divisional headquarters arrived, command 

and control improved 100 percent.38

The National Guard Bureau made another important contribution 

that greatly enhanced the ability of other states to respond to the disaster. 

Acting at the request of many states, the National Guard Bureau submitted 

a request to Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld on Monday, 5 

September, asking him to approve the conversion of all of the National 

Guard forces responding to the disaster from state active duty to Title 

32 status. The National Guard Bureau maintained that state funding was 

not sustainable and that Federal funding was a more appropriate way to 

maintain a force approaching 50,000 personnel. Two days later, Secretary 

Rumsfeld approved the request, making it retroactive to 29 August.39

In addition to mobilizing additional forces, Major General Cross made 

another significant decision after his reconnaissance flight on 30 August. 

He concluded that the preplanned distribution system in Mississippi was 

unworkable because flood water or debris covered many of the distribution 

sites. Even those distribution sites that escaped damaged were, Cross 

realized, most likely inaccessible because few survivors had functioning 
119

vehicles that they could use to drive to the sites or flooding and debris 

blocked the approaches to the sites. After assessing the situation, he 

decided to use all available air assets to deliver food, water, and ice to those 

in need. If a helicopter could not land safely in the vicinity of survivors, 

it dropped supplies down to them. The Alabama Defense Coordinating 

Officer, Colonel Laverm Young Jr., who eventually moved forward into 

Mississippi, later declared that Cross’s decision “saved the day and reduced 

the suffering of the beleaguered citizens of the Gulf Coast.”40 Cross also 

directed that every vehicle carry a load of food and water whenever it left 

a base camp so that those commodities could be distributed to people in 

need wherever and whenever they were encountered. 

Because of the widespread destruction wrought by Hurricane Katrina, 

the primary mission of first response units in Mississippi was search and 

rescue. The state’s first response team included several hundred National 

Guard engineering and security troops who were pre-positioned in the 

at-risk counties before the storm struck. Unfortunately, the devastation 

Hurricane Katrina inflicted on the coastal communities made that a difficult 

mission to carry out. Even though forward-deployed forces sped up the 

National Guard’s response to the disaster, they still had to clear roads of 

downed trees, telephone poles, electrical lines, and other debris to get to 

the places most affected by the storm. Then, once they got there, they 

faced piles of debris that were, in places, “two or three stories high and as 

Figure 16. Alabama National Guard aircrew delivers supplies in Columbia, Mississippi.

Technical Sergeant Jerry Morrison, NORTHCOM
120

many as four blocks wide.”41 These debris fields were also dangerous. In 

addition to broken glass, jagged metal, and other such hazards, there were 

also chemical spills and gas leaks that had to be stopped and cleaned up. 

In Gulfport, rescue workers faced an even more unappealing biological 

hazard: the hurricane’s high winds had ripped apart numerous containers 

stacked up at the port, including several that held chicken carcasses and pork 

bellies. So, first responders in Gulfport had to overcome rotting chickens 

and pork guts as well as flood waters and other debris to accomplish their 

relief mission.42

The shattered road system made it necessary to deliver supplies to 

the many isolated communities by air. As helicopter crews flew missions, 

they visually searched for distress signals. When they spotted someone 

in need, they landed and distributed whatever they had on board. If they 

could not land or were out of supplies, they reported the location to 

their flight controller, who directed another helicopter to the scene. In a 

scenario repeated throughout the state on many occasions, a woman in 

White Cypress Lake, Mississippi, wrote “HELP” on her roof. A National 

Guard helicopter spotted her message and delivered food and water to 

the stricken residents of the town. She informed the crew of their other 

needs, and in the following days, National Guard helicopters returned, 

bringing more food and water as well as ice and baby products.43 By 

Thursday, 8 September, 62 Army National Guard helicopters performed 

similar missions in Mississippi. The fleet of helicopters averaged about 

300 missions per day. Depending on the distance to the drop zone, crews 

flew as many as 15 missions per day.44

According to the state hurricane response plan, forward-deployed 

detachments tried to coordinate their efforts with local EOCs. But when 

Hurricane Katrina turned most of the first responders into victims, the 

plan changed. Lieutenant Colonel Larry Harrington, Commander of the 

168th Engineer Group and Task Force Engineer, recalled that many local 

officials were in shock. He said, “The EOCs were in no position to make 

decisions. . . . In Hancock County, five of the seven council members 

had lost everything. The EOCs couldn’t get organized, couldn’t get into 

a decision-making cycle.”45 Major General Cross told his commanders, 

“I need you to be bold and vigorous. Do what you can immediately,”46

and the Mississippi engineers took that directive to heart. Over the next 

few weeks, the engineers along with other Guard units conducted searchand-rescue missions; distributed food, water, ice, and other commodities 

to citizens in need; cleared roads, canals, and drainage ditches; repaired 

roads and bridges that had been washed away by the storm; provided 

generators to EOCs and shelters; and built the infrastructure for temporary 
121

housing sites and relief centers.47 Cross later remarked that the Mississippi 

engineers did an outstanding job coordinating their efforts with the local 

utility companies. Their work to clear roads, restore electrical power, 

and reestablish the communications grid contributed greatly to the early 

restoration of power to those affected by the storm.48

As soon as Hurricane Katrina’s winds subsided somewhat, the 

Mississippi National Guard troops at Camp Shelby began to move forward 

to the affected areas. One soldier of the 114th MP Company recalled that 

Hurricane Katrina struck Camp Shelby about 1500. Two hours later, 

with the tail of the storm still raging about them, they left the camp and 

headed for the coast. The trip to Gulfport, which usually takes about an 

hour to complete, took 5 hours that day because the soldiers had to clear 

the roads as they traveled south. Although it was dark and much of the 

city of Gulfport was covered with water when the 114th arrived, they 

reconnoitered the area, determined where they would be best positioned, 

and began conducting security patrols. Within hours of Hurricane Katrina 

passing through the state, many Mississippi National Guard units were in 

position, providing relief and support to victims of the storm.49

Significant numbers of ground forces started to arrive by the end of the 

first week. They performed a wide range of missions, including search and 

rescue, distribution of commodities, security, debris removal, and medical 

support. By Monday, 4 September, conditions in Mississippi were much 

better. The commodity crisis dissipated as the flow of food, water, and 

fuel into the state improved.50 More and more roads were reopened as 

National Guard engineers cleared debris throughout the affected area. The 

MEMA began the shift from relief to recovery operations in Jackson and 

Harrison Counties as the situation in those counties improved.51 An agency 

official acknowledged there were still pockets of need, but the number of 

citizens still requiring relief had greatly diminished—hundreds rather than 

thousands. As the road system improved, relief parties were able to reach 

the more isolated areas by ground transportation, thus reducing the need 

for air evacuations.52 As more and more National Guard forces arrived in 

the state, emergency officials expanded relief operations northward into 

the three adjoining counties that were also affected by the storm.53

Providing security was one of the most important National Guard 

missions, especially in the first few days after the storm. Military police 

were a particularly important asset because of widespread concern about 

looting. Governor Haley Barbour felt compelled to warn that looters would 

be treated ruthlessly. He said, “Looting will not be tolerated, period, and 

rules of engagement will be as aggressive as the law allows. . . . Security 

goes hand-in-hand with search and rescue.”54 Those concerns were, 
122

however, overblown. In most instances, when National Guard soldiers 

arrived at the scene, they found nothing had occurred. There were several 

reports of truck hijackings, but once again, when military police responded 

to the situation, they found the report without basis. Typically, they found 

truck drivers, frightened by the destruction and afraid of getting hijacked, 

refusing to go any farther without a National Guard escort.55 The security 

missions were, however, important because they demonstrated to the 

survivors that their Government was looking out for their interests. 

Military police from the 168th MP Battalion in Tennessee arrived 

in Mississippi on Friday, 2 September. One company, the 268th, went 

to Gulfport where it helped police restore order and security.56 Another 

company, the 267th, deployed to Long Branch. It also assisted the local 

police by manning checkpoints to control vehicular traffic and discourage 

sightseers and looters. One of the soldiers’ greatest contributions was 

their mere presence; that alone served to restore order in the area. Not 

only were checkpoints manned around the clock, at some spots along US 

Highway 90, guards were posted on almost every corner. In addition to 

their security mission, the military police also handed out food and water 

to the survivors.57

Acting in accordance with Army doctrine, which designates the 

National Guard as the military’s first response organization during natural 

Figure 17. Soldiers from the 216th MP Company, Arkansas Army National Guard, provide security 

in Gulfport, Mississippi.

Sergeant Chris A. Durn, USA
123

disasters, the Mississippi National Guard responded quickly to provide 

relief and support to victims of the storm. In the first few days after the 

storm hit, National Guard units throughout the state followed a similar 

pattern: they struggled through debris-strewn or flooded roads to reach 

their assigned locations. Once they got into position, they went to work 

providing relief and support to the stricken citizens of the region. Since 

communications with higher headquarters were almost nonexistent, local 

commanders acted with initiative, carrying out prelandfall assignments 

and solving problems as they encountered them. Their soldier skills served 

them well as they reacted to the situation on the ground by clearing roads 

and debris, providing security, distributing needed supplies, and repairing 

the damaged infrastructure.58

Recovery Operations

The days immediately following Hurricane Katrina’s landfall were 

grim. Many casualties and countless numbers of people needed food, water, 

and medical treatment. Unfortunately, many of those items were in short 

supply in those first few days. Before the storm struck, Mississippi officials 

estimated that they had enough commodities on hand to cover the first 24 

to 36 hours, but their stocks were expended much more quickly than they 

anticipated.59 Even if more supplies had been readily available, the storm 

so thoroughly disrupted the road system that it was almost impossible to 

get supplies to those in need by vehicles. The day after Hurricane Katrina 

struck, officials concluded that goods would have to be delivered by air 

because the roads in the affected counties were virtually impassable.60

Ground transportation was also problematic because of a storm-induced 

fuel crisis in the state. Mississippi officials grumbled that, even when 

they could get relief workers into an area, the lack of fuel quickly brought 

all operations to a halt.61 Identifying who needed help was also an issue 

since many local officials and first responders were victims of the storm 

as well. Even if they were capable of responding, the almost total collapse 

of the communications infrastructure made it next to impossible for local 

authorities to communicate their needs to state emergency officials. Yet 

the citizens of southern Mississippi needed food, water, medical support, 

fuel, and people to distribute those goods. Within days, the National Guard 

responded with the personnel, aircraft, and vehicles needed to carry out 

that mission.

More than 3,800 National Guardsmen were on state active duty when 

the storm struck Mississippi on 29 August. By Thursday, 1 September, as 

surrounding states responded to Mississippi’s requests for assistance, the 

number of Guardsmen in the state more than doubled to 7,500. Three days 
124

later, it doubled again to more than 15,000. Total National Guard forces in 

Mississippi peaked at 15,500 on 7 September.62

With only eight staff officers assigned to run the forward operations 

center in Gulfport, it quickly became apparent that the Mississippi 

National Guard did not have the resources needed to effectively control 

such a large force.63 Consequently, the National Guard Bureau activated 

the headquarters of the 38th Infantry Division from Indiana to assist the 

Mississippi adjutant general with command and control of those incoming 

forces. An advance party, led by Major General Gregory Vadnais, the 

Commanding General, departed Indiana on Wednesday, 31 August.64 Over 

the next few weeks, the 38th Infantry Division, which was designated 

Task Force Cyclone, provided support to the state by serving as the land 

component commander. The rest of the division headquarters activated early 

on the morning of Thursday, 1 September. After organizing equipment and 

vehicles, some 300 soldiers departed Indiana on Saturday, 3 September, 

and arrived at Camp Shelby, Mississippi at 2300 on Sunday.65

One of the first Indiana National Guard general officers to arrive in 

Mississippi was Brigadier General Lonnie Culver, the Assistant Division 

Commander (Maneuver). He arrived at Camp Shelby on Friday, 2 

September, and met with Major General Vadnais to discuss how to best 

integrate the incoming National Guard forces into the operations currently 

underway in Mississippi. After meeting with Vadnais, Culver moved 

forward to Gulfport, where he met with the Mississippi Adjutant General, 

Major General Harold Cross. Cross explained the three missions he 

envisioned for TF Cyclone. He wanted those forces to focus on providing 

security, clearing roads to improve mobility, and providing humanitarian 

assistance to those in need.66 These three missions became the overriding 

goals for TF Cyclone and its subordinate task forces. Figure 18 shows the 

task organization as of 4 September 2005.

Since the Mississippi National Guard was already heavily engaged in 

the relief process, Vadnais wanted to avoid disrupting any of the processes 

already in place. He assigned Culver as his liaison to the Mississippi 

National Guard forward headquarters in Gulfport and tasked him with 

figuring out how to best integrate the growing forces under TF Cyclone into 

the existing operations.67 After assessing the situation in Gulfport, Culver 

realized that the Mississippi National Guard staff needed immediate help. 

By the time Culver arrived on Friday, 2 September, the staff had been 

working nonstop for almost a week. Since communications connectivity 

was intermittent and travel by vehicle slow because roads were blocked 

or damaged, controlling the relief operation from Camp Shelby was 
125

impractical. Therefore, Vadnais decided to move the division headquarters 

forward from Camp Shelby to Gulfport. 

Brigadier General Culver established the division headquarters in 

an auditorium at the Gulfport Combat Readiness Training Center, which 

was large enough to accommodate the entire staff. The headquarters was 

operational, including voice and Internet connectivity, the morning after the 

main body arrived. He was soon joined by Brigadier General Tod Carmony, 

Figure 18. Mississippi National Guard task organization as of 4 September 2005.

Task Force

KeiferWest

Task Force

Keifer East

Adjutant General

MG Cross

Task Force

Cyclone

MG Vadnais

Task Force

Aviation

Task Force

Wright

BG Wright

Harrison

County

Task Force

Keifer

BG Keifer

Task Force

Quick

BG Quick

Jackson

County

Task Force

Lee

BG Lee

Hancock

County

Task Force

Engineer

COL

Harrington

Task Force

Defender
126

and together they ran Task Force Cyclone. Since he knew many of the 

Mississippi National Guard officers, Culver continued to serve as a liaison 

between TF Cyclone and the Mississippi National Guard. As the task force 

liaison to the state, one of Culver’s most important jobs was resolving 

emergency missions. He recalled getting as many as 60 emergency requests 

the first few days after he arrived. TF Cyclone eventually set up a quick 

reaction force, which was stationed in Gulfport, to respond to such requests. 

Over time, as the situation stabilized, emergency requests dwindled, but 

in the early days, TF Cyclone’s quick response to such missions was an 

important reminder to citizens in need that their Government was concerned 

with their plight. Meanwhile, Brigadier General Carmony focused on the 

day-to-day operations of the headquarters.68

Even though the headquarters had a broad range of communications 

capabilities, communicating with the disparate units under TF Cyclone

remained difficult. Many National Guard units arrived with only a few 

radios either because most of their communications equipment was in 

Iraq with forward-deployed forces or they left them at home because they 

did not realize that communications equipment would be needed.69 With 

most of the civilian communications systems out of service and limited 

military communications capabilities, subordinate task forces executed 

their missions based on the commander’s intent rather than direct orders 

from higher headquarters.70

The primary focus of the relief effort in Mississippi centered on the 

three coastal counties—Jackson, Harrison, and Hancock—and the three 

counties immediately inland—Pearl River, Stone, and George (figure 19). 

TF Cyclone established four primary task forces to carry out the relief-andrecovery missions: TF Lee, TF Wright, TF Quick, and TF Kiefer. TF Lee

provided support to Hancock and Pearl River Counties, which included 

Waveland, a town almost completely destroyed by Hurricane Katrina. The 

central counties, Harrison and Stone, received assistance from TF Wright. 

TF Quick helped the easternmost counties of Jackson and George. TF 

Kiefer provided logistics support to the three primary task forces; managed 

reception, staging, onward movement, and integration (RSOI) of inbound 

and outbound troops; and conducted relief operations in the northern 

portion of the state. This task force had two subunits: TF Kiefer East, 

which covered 15 counties east of US Highway 49, and TF Kiefer West, 

which covered 15 counties west of US Highway 49.71 Three other task 

forces, TF Engineer, TF Military Police, and TF Aviation, were already 

operational before TF Cyclone arrived in Mississippi. Unlike Louisiana, 

Major General Cross placed these task forces under the command of 

Major General Vadnais and TF Cyclone as well. Vadnais decided to leave 
127

those task forces intact since they provided mission-specific support 

throughout the entire operating area in accordance with the adjutant 

general’s three objectives. Another difference between the Mississippi 

and Louisiana operations was that TF Cyclone assumed command of all 

Mississippi National Guard forces as well as out-of-state troops.72 Thus, 

the operational commander in Mississippi controlled all National Guard 

forces in the state.

The Mississippi adjutant general also assigned a Mississippi National 

Guard general officer to each sector to serve as a liaison between the local 

governments and the task forces. Brigadier General Roger L. Shields 

served as one of those liaison officers. He explained that he worked with 

mayors and other local officials to develop mission assignments and with 

TF Cyclone to ensure that those missions were carried out. Since he was 

a Mississippi National Guard officer, he was there for the long haul and 

could provide continuity throughout the mission. Shields explained the 

mission to local authorities in simple terms: the National Guard was 

there to deliver food, water, ice, and other needed supplies and to act in 

such a way so that the survivors understood that the military was there to 

help them. The key to his mission, Shields said, was communication and 

coordination. He worked closely with city and county leaders as well as 

local law enforcement officials so that they understood the capabilities 

of the units assigned to their county and what those units could do for 

Figure 19. Mississippi task forces.

Pearl River County

Hancock

County

George County

Stone County

Harrison County

Jackson County

AL

MS

LA

US 98

MS 63

US 90

US 11

US 49

TF

X

TF

X TF

X

TF

X

TF

XX

Camp

Shelby

Shelby

Hattiesburg

Gulfport Pascagoula

Waveland

TF

X

Cyclone

Wright

Engineer

Defender

Lee

Aviation

TF Quick

X

TF Keifer

X

Biloxi I-10

I-59
128

them. It was difficult at first because there were so many agencies working 

in the county, but over time, coordination and communication improved 

and the National Guard troops executed their missions effectively. 

Communicating the exit strategy was an important part of his mission 

as well. Each task force developed measures of effectiveness, such as 

restoring power and reopening gas stations, hospitals, and restaurants, 

which were communicated to the local authorities so that they understood 

when they might expect the military to move on to another mission.73

Such communication made it easier to transition from military to civilian 

assistance as the situation on the ground improved.

Developing and executing missions was a fairly straightforward 

process. Task Force Cyclone assigned a liaison officer to each county EOC. 

The liaison officer evaluated and discussed each request with local officials 

before it was submitted to the task force headquarters. Once the mission 

request was received at the task force headquarters, mission planners 

evaluated the importance of the mission and, based on the aforementioned 

priorities, determined the composition of the force necessary to complete 

the mission. The task force operations cell then assigned troops to the 

mission.74

Although Mississippi used a task force structure similar to Louisiana’s, 

the task forces operated in a much different manner. As noted earlier, TF 

Cyclone allowed the six task forces to operate autonomously. Each task 

force focused on the adjutant general’s three primary missions within its 

area of operations: security, mobility, and humanitarian assistance. Unlike 

in Louisiana, these task forces had better access to a wide range of assets, 

including military police, aircraft, and engineers, which greatly enhanced 

their ability to respond to emerging situations.

Task Force Quick

Brigadier General Gary A. Quick of the Alabama Army National 

Guard commanded Task Force Quick, the eastern task force that provided 

relief and assistance to Jackson County. Alabama was one of the first 

states to send forces to both Mississippi and Louisiana. By Saturday, 3 

September, the Alabama contingent in both states exceeded 3,000 Army 

National Guard soldiers. The 131st Aviation Brigade, which arrived on 

30 August, contributed four helicopters. Two UH-60 Blackhawks flew 

general support missions out of Mobile, and two CH-57 Chinooks were 

staged in Gulfport where they assisted with aerial supply distribution. 

Two Alabama battalions, the 877th Engineer and 231st MP, also operated 

out of Gulfport. The 500-person engineer battalion assisted with cleanup 
129

operations along the coast, while the 300-person MP unit performed traffic 

control and law enforcement duties in the Gulfport-Biloxi area.75

When the 877th Engineer Battalion reached the Mississippi coast, 

the soldiers were struck by the damage wrought by the storm. To many 

of them, the area looked like a war zone. Initially, they concentrated on 

saving lives and distributing food, water, and ice. Their large trucks made 

that mission easier in the midst of so much destruction. The battalion 

brought 400 vehicles as well as 120 pieces of heavy equipment to facilitate 

its work. As soldiers made their rounds, rescuing people and delivering 

commodities, they mapped out the routes they needed to clear. By Monday, 

5 September, a week after Hurricane Katrina struck, improving conditions 

in the battalion’s sector allowed it to shift gears and begin clearing roads, 

public buildings, and schools.76

The rest of the Alabama force, including medical, signal, engineer, 

maintenance, and communications units, deployed to Ocean Springs on 

Wednesday, 31 August.77 The communications teams worked to restore 

first responder communications in the area. Other soldiers helped with fuel 

distribution, which was a critical issue in the first few days after Hurricane 

Katrina devastated the region.78 Soldiers from the 161st Area Support 

Medical Battalion set up operations throughout southern Mississippi to 

help survivors get medical assistance. The battalion dispersed a number of 

small medical assessment teams to various locations in the county where 

they connected people needing medical care to those who could provide 

it. For example, they located oxygen tanks for one person, issued walkers 

and wheelchairs to those who lost theirs in the storm, and advised victims 

of an optometrist providing free glasses to those who lost theirs during the 

storm. After only 5 days in operation, a team in Gautier arranged medical 

assistance for 75 people in the town.79 Other Alabama units operated three 

points of distribution (PODs), where they distributed food, water, ice, and 

other goods donated by the American public.80 Alabama Guardsmen also 

escorted fuel tankers and provided security at crowded gas stations. Their 

presence led to an almost immediate improvement in security in the area. 

Local police reported that security incidents dropped from seven or eight 

per day to less than one per day.81

Task Force Wright

Brigadier General Timothy Wright, Indiana Army National Guard, 

Commander of Task Force Wright, arrived in Mississippi on Friday, 

2 September. When he left for Mississippi, Brigadier General Wright 

thought he would command the division’s rear operations, which involved 
130

sustaining the troops working in the lower six counties of Mississippi. His 

mission changed soon after he arrived in the state. Instead, Major General 

Vadnais directed him to take charge of operations in Harrison County. 

The core of his task force included troops from Virginia, Georgia, and 

Mississippi. Soldiers from Virginia and Georgia manned the task force 

operations center, which he established in the Harrison County Central 

High School in Gulfport.

Georgia supplied more than 1,500 soldiers to Mississippi, including 

engineers, communications specialists, medical personnel, and logistics 

distribution personnel.82 One of the most important, and useful, Georgia 

units attached to TF Wright was the 265th Engineer Group. The 265th 

provided command and control over 850 Georgia National Guardsmen, 

including the 201st Supply and Service Battalion.83 The 265th took a 

circuitous path to Harrison County. It first reported in at Fort Gillem, 

Georgia. From there, the unit transited to Camp Shelby, where it inprocessed on Friday, 2 September. The engineers eventually assumed 

responsibility for engineering operations in Harrison County. Operating 

out of Lyman, they provided assistance to more than 125,000 civilians, a 

number equivalent to the entire population of the county.84

Other Georgia Army National Guard units deployed to Harrison 

County as well. The 165th Quartermaster Company provided logistics 

support to the Georgia engineers and Company B, 161st Area Support 

Medical Battalion, provided medical services to soldiers and civilians 

needing medical attention. One CH-47 and two UH-1 helicopters flew to 

Mississippi on Wednesday, 31 August, where they assisted with searchand-rescue operations.85

Virginia also sent task forces to both states. The Mississippi task 

force, dubbed Task Force Stonewall, mobilized late Sunday afternoon and 

departed for Mississippi on Tuesday, 6 September. The main body of TF 

Stonewall was the 2/116th Infantry Battalion.86 It also included soldiers from 

the 1/116th Battalion, mechanics from the 3647th Maintenance Company, 

fuel handlers, a two-person ministry team, and staff augmentation from 

the state’s Joint Forces Headquarters.87 

After processing through Camp Shelby, soldiers from the task force 

moved forward to Gulfport on Thursday, 8 September, where they relieved 

the 168th MP Battalion from Tennessee.88 Before it left Camp Shelby, the 

task force was further augmented by an infantry company and an MP 

platoon from Indiana, bringing TF Stonewall up to 410 personnel.89 Its 

operating area stretched from Pass Christian to Biloxi, a distance of 22 

miles, and was 10 miles deep. This area suffered some of the heaviest 
131

damage in the region. Roads were washed out, bridges were damaged, 

most buildings were destroyed, and streets were covered with rubble and 

other debris.90

TF Stonewall carried out three main missions: security, humanitarian 

assistance, and recovery support.91 When the task force arrived in its area 

of operations, it conducted a relief in place with the Tennesseans, taking 

over their checkpoints and PODs. It also established a quick reaction force, 

which was available to respond to no-notice missions in support of the 

local police.92 The task force controlled 54 checkpoints, which it manned 

around the clock, and it operated random foot and vehicular patrols. By the 

time the task force arrived, most of the looting and other civil disorder had 

diminished, but National Guard soldiers continued the checkpoints and 

patrols because they created a sense of security for the surviving residents. 

In addition to the security mission, the task force contributed to the relief 

operations in other ways. First, soldiers provided security at civilian-run 

distribution sites. Second, task force personnel distributed supplies at 

several PODs. Third, it performed “search-and-assist” missions. During 

these missions, two-person patrols spread out in the operating area looking 

for citizens needing help. By this time, since there was little need for 

rescue operations, the search process focused on providing humanitarian 

assistance to those unable to get to the PODs. Finally, the task force helped 

with recovery by providing security for utility crews, clearing debris, and 

identifying human and animal remains for proper disposal.93

Those missions were complicated by communications challenges. 

Since the task force was geographically dispersed, it established an ad 

hoc communications network to keep all of the disparate elements in 

touch. They quickly learned that it was critically important that patrols 

and checkpoint sentinels have up-to-date information because many 

citizens went to them directly for information about assistance and the 

status of recovery. But that meant that all task force personnel needed 

to know what the local, county, state, and Federal government agencies 

and the charity organizations were doing. This was a difficult task made 

even more challenging by the transitory nature of the charity organizations 

operating in the region. Some had significant resources and established 

operations for the long term. Others were in and out in a few days as soon 

as they exhausted their resources. Initially, the task force resorted to liaison 

officers and face-to-face meetings to obtain the necessary situational 

awareness. As the communications network recovered, the task force 

supplemented face-to-face contact with cell phones and e-mail. By the 

end of the operation, the task force’s communications network included 
132

more than 25 nonmilitary organizations. Through its effort to link all of 

the various organizations in the area, TF Stonewall greatly improved the 

conditions of those citizens remaining in the area, since it provided them 

with information as well as food, water, and security.94

Since communications were such a problem, a number of 

communications units deployed to Mississippi to help alleviate the 

communications shortfall. A Colorado communications unit provided 

communications support for the TF Cyclone operations staff at the Combat 

Readiness Training Center in Gulfport. The eight-person team established 

a wireless Internet network that encompassed an area 11⁄2 miles wide. This 

team also facilitated voice communications with aircraft in the area and set 

up video teleconference connectivity.95 A West Virginia communications 

unit, the 35th Civil Support Team, deployed to Pass Christian, Mississippi, 

where it served as the communications link for units operating in that 

area.96

Another example of the security missions conducted in Mississippi 

occurred along a 17-mile stretch of the coast between Pass Christian 

and Biloxi. This coastal area was one of the most heavily populated 

and developed parts of the Mississippi Gulf coast at the time. Hurricane 

Katrina devastated the homes and businesses in this area, and local 

officials, worried that looters would finish what the storm began, asked TF 

Cyclone for help. Although the security area was quite large, TF Cyclone

effectively executed the mission by working closely with mayors and law 

enforcement officials in the area to establish entrance and egress points. 

That arrangement allowed residents easy access to their property while 

also providing them with the level of security desired by local leaders and 

citizens alike.97

Task Force Lee

Task Force Lee provided relief and assistance to the citizens of 

Hancock and Pearl River Counties. Brigadier General Jack E. Lee, 

Commander of the Ohio National Guard troops deployed to Mississippi, 

commanded this task force. The Ohio task force, Task Force Buckeye, 

included the Ohio Joint Forces Headquarters, 73d Troop Command, 

371st Corps Support Group, 1/134th Field Artillery, as well as military 

police, transportation, maintenance, personnel, public affairs, and medical 

units. TF Lee incorporated units from Ohio, Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, 

Georgia, Indiana, as well as Mississippi.98

Ohio responded quickly to the call for assistance. More than 360 Ohio 

National Guardsmen were on the ground within 36 hours, and 1,000 more 

soldiers departed the state within 48 hours of notification. Soldiers from 
133

the 73d Troop Command Headquarters, 1/148th Infantry Regiment, and 

the 371st Corps Support Group flew to the Gulf region on Thursday, 1 

September. The next day, some 600 soldiers from the 1/148th Infantry and 

437th MP Battalion left by ground convoy. Five UH-60 helicopters flew 

to Mississippi on Saturday, 3 September. The ground convoy arrived on 

Sunday, 4 September. That same day, 300 more soldiers from the 1/134th 

Field Artillery Regiment and a CH-47 Chinook arrived by air.99

As the out-of-state forces moved into their areas of responsibility, 

one of the main objectives was to seamlessly integrate the arriving units 

into the existing relief operations. When soldiers from the 73d Troop 

Command arrived in Picayune on Monday, 5 September, they found a small 

contingent of soldiers from the 1/204th Air Defense Artillery Battalion 

working there. The Mississippi Army National Guard soldiers had already 

coordinated with local government leaders, police, and business people to 

determine where best to set up the POD. The Ohio soldiers met with the 

Mississippi soldiers, determined what they could do to help, and assumed 

responsibility for the distribution mission.100

The 1/134th Field Artillery, Ohio Army National Guard, arrived in 

Poplarville soon after Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf coast. Almost 

immediately, the battalion worked diligently to provide aid to the stricken 

citizens of Pearl River County. B Battery set up PODs in three towns: 

Figure 20. Soldiers from B Battery, 134th Field Artillery Battalion, Ohio Army National Guard, hand 

out diapers and personal hygiene supplies at a point of distribution in Poplarville, Mississippi.

Sergeant Kimberly Snow, 196th Mobile Public Affairs Detachment
134

Poplarville, Lumberton, and McNeill. During the first week of operations 

in Poplarville, B Battery distributed food, water, and ice to more than 

3,000 vehicles each day. By the end of the month, as conditions improved 

throughout the region, the volume in Poplarville slowed to less than 1,000 

vehicles per day.101 In addition to manning distribution points, the battalion 

also provided security at local banks, pharmacies, and gas stations. As the 

food and water crisis abated, the battalion redirected some of its effort 

toward other missions. One of those missions was checking on every 

family and examining every structure in the county to ensure that everyone 

was accounted for in Pearl River County.102

Arkansas also reacted quickly to Mississippi’s request for assistance. 

Two UH-60 medical evacuation helicopters flew to Mississippi the day 

after Hurricane Katrina struck to help with search-and-rescue operations. 

Task Force Razorback, a 350-person force made up of engineers; military 

police; and medical, support, and transportation personnel, left for Camp 

Shelby, Mississippi, on Tuesday, 30 August.103 TF Razorback operated in 

Waveland, a town heavily damaged by Hurricane Katrina.104 Engineers 

from the 875th Engineer Company worked nonstop to clear the debris in 

Waveland that was piled more than 6 feet high in some places.105

Florida provided significant support to Mississippi as well. As late as 

Wednesday, 21 September, even after Hurricane Rita struck Florida, 472 

Florida National Guardsmen remained in Mississippi providing a range 

of support, including engineering, logistics, security, and humanitarian 

aid support. Florida units provided humanitarian aid and security in 

Bay St. Louis and throughout Hancock County. A logistics task force 

provided support to more than 8,000 military and civilian personnel in 

the area.106 Engineers worked to restore schools by demolishing buildings 

too damaged to use and cleaning up those that were usable. In Bay St. 

Louis, the 269th Engineer Company removed damaged school buildings 

and erected 60 portable classrooms on school properties. It also operated 

sewage lift stations, repaired and maintained air conditioning systems in 

public buildings, and cleared debris throughout the city.107

Soldiers in every task force performed a wide range of support 

missions. In Waveland, soldiers protected a mobile hospital from flooding. 

The North Carolina State Medical Assistance Team erected its hospital 

in an area that was prone to flooding. Rather than relocate the hospital 

and thus shutting down medical service in the devastated town for several 

days, the North Carolina doctors asked TF Lee for assistance. Soldiers from 

Ohio, Florida, and Georgia filled and stacked more than 1,000 sandbags to 

protect the hospital.108
135

Task Force Kiefer

Brigadier General Michael Kiefer, Indiana Army National Guard, 

commanded Task Force Kiefer. Based at Camp Shelby, his task force 

provided logistics support to all of the other task forces and humanitarian 

relief to the inland counties of Mississippi. The task force also managed 

the RSOI mission for all troops reporting into the state. Given the mission 

of this task force, most of the units assigned to the task force were logistics 

units. 

Michigan, Iowa, Kentucky, and Maryland contributed forces to TF 

Kiefer. Michigan deployed MP units and a water purification detachment 

to Mississippi. Military police from the 144th, 1775th, and 1776th MP 

Companies arrived in Mississippi on Wednesday, 31 August. The 1434th 

Quartermaster Water Purification Detachment departed for Mississippi 

the next day.109 The Iowa National Guard sent 140 soldiers and airmen 

to Mississippi on Thursday, 8 September. They were to provide medical, 

logistics, and water purification support.110

Kentucky also dispatched troops to Mississippi. Forces from the 149th 

Armor Brigade, including a 110-person logistics distribution unit and a 

154-person security team, arrived on Saturday, 3 September. Other forces 

from Kentucky included 151 soldiers from the 2123d Composite Truck 

Company, the 217th Quartermaster Detachment, which brought its water 

purification capabilities, a communications team from the Kentucky Joint 

Forces Headquarters, and a 33-person fuel distribution detachment from 

the 138th Field Artillery Brigade.111 The 2123d Composite Truck Company 

arrived on Saturday, 3 September, and was assigned to TF Kiefer as well. It 

helped distribute supplies throughout the operations area. 

Maryland deployed both ground troops and aviation assets to 

Mississippi. On 31 August, 100 soldiers from the 115th MP Battalion 

departed the state.112 A week later, Maryland sent the 1/158th Cavalry 

with its UH-1 helicopters and 100 soldiers from the 1229th Transportation 

Company. The transportation and MP units operated out of Camp Shelby 

where they provided logistics support and conducted security missions.113

TF Kiefer was also responsible for RSOI. This difficult task was 

somewhat easier in Mississippi than in Louisiana. In Louisiana, there 

were two RSOI sites, while in Mississippi, virtually all incoming troops 

in-processed through Camp Shelby, which simplified the mission for 

TF Kiefer. That is not to say, however, that problems did not occur. As 

in Louisiana, units sometimes arrived or left with little or no notice. TF 

Cyclone tried to manage the problem by directing all subordinate units to 
136

report their anticipated departure dates to the task force. Still, problems 

occurred. One notable incident involved a 200-person MP unit from 

Michigan. It was slated for duty in TF Wright, but when the unit ended 

up in TF Lee’s area of operations, Brigadier General Lee quickly assumed 

control over the unit. If it had been almost any other unit, Lee’s actions 

might have passed unnoticed. Unfortunately for him, since Major General 

Vadnais is from Michigan, he began to ask questions about the unit when 

it failed to show up in the order of battle. TF Cyclone finally tracked the 

unit down after the task force received a spot report from the Michigan 

soldiers. The MPs were extricated from TF Lee and sent to Brigadier 

General Wright in Harrison County.114

Other Task Forces

The other three task forces, Aviation, Military Police, and Engineer, 

also operated independently throughout the state. Since all three task 

forces were already operational when TF Cyclone arrived, Major General 

Vadnais chose to let them continue executing their missions in accordance 

with the state hurricane response plan. Brigadier General Culver recalled 

telling one task force commander to continue what he was doing and only 

contact him if his help was needed.115 Task Force Engineer’s mission was 

to clear one lane of traffic on every road in the affected areas. TF Aviation

coordinated airborne search-and-rescue operations in the immediate 

aftermath of the storm but quickly shifted to logistics transportation and 

humanitarian aid distribution once search-and-rescue operations ceased. 

The MP task force provided security at various locations around the state.

Summary

Conditions in Mississippi varied greatly from those in Louisiana, and 

correspondingly, the response to the crisis was different. On the one hand, 

the storm inflicted more damage along the Mississippi coastline than it did 

in Louisiana, where the subsequent flooding caused most of the damage. 

The high storm surge destroyed several towns, wiped out the road system, 

and left mounds of debris, which isolated victims and prevented them from 

traveling to relief distribution points. Missions in Mississippi focused on 

delivering food, water, and other supplies to survivors; clearing debris 

from roads so that rescue workers could reach the victims; and restoring 

power and other utilities. On the other hand, since the Mississippi coastal 

counties were more sparsely populated when compared to the urban areas 

of Louisiana that Hurricane Katrina struck, there was less need for searchand-rescue operations. Consequently, Mississippi National Guard forces 

shifted from rescue to relief operations relatively quickly. That shift freed 

up helicopters to deliver needed supplies to isolated rural communities.
137

Although the Mississippi National Guard used county-based task 

forces, they were organized and managed differently from those in 

Louisiana. All forces in Mississippi came under the control of Task Force 

Cyclone, which in turn reported directly to the state adjutant general. Each 

task force was assigned a mix of forces, including engineers, medical 

personnel, and helicopters, which made the task forces more flexible and 

better able to meet the frequently changing needs of each county. 

The relief operation in Mississippi depended primarily on National 

Guard forces rather than on Title 10 forces. Mississippi never asked for 

Title 10 support, and very few Active-Duty Army forces deployed to the 

state to help with relief operations. 

The Mississippi National Guard also assigned a Mississippi National 

Guard general officer to each county, which facilitated cooperation and 

understanding in each county. The general officer was there for the 

long haul—he remained in the post, even when the out-of-state forces 

redeployed. By working closely with leaders in the county, the general 

ensured that county and local authorities understood what the National 

Guard could provide and what end state they were working toward. 

By 16 September, the situation in Mississippi improved to the point 

where supporting states began to draw down their forces in Mississippi. 

Roads were cleared, electricity was restored to most of the state, water 

systems were operational, and gas stations had sufficient amounts of fuel. 

In a few short weeks, the National Guard helped set the condition for 

restoring civil life in Mississippi.
138

Notes

1. US Congress, Senate, Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared, 

Senate Report 109-322, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 2006, 59–60, http://hsgac.senate.

gov/_files/Katrina/ FullReport.pdf (accessed 8 January 2008). 

2. Major General Harold A. Cross, “Hurricane Katrina: Preparedness and 

Response by the Department of Defense, the Coast Guard, and the National 

Guard of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama,” Testimony Before the House 

Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to 

Hurricane Katrina, 109th Cong., 1st sess., 27 October 2005, http://katrina.house.

gov/hearings/10_27_05/cross_state102705.pdf (accessed 7 February 2008).

3. US Congress, House, A Failure of Initiative: Final Report of the 

Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to 

Hurricane Katrina, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 15 February 2006, 60, http://www.cspan.org/pdf/katrinareport.pdf (accessed 17 December 2007). 

4. Ibid., 61.

5. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 503.

6. House, A Failure of Initiative, 61.

7. Cross.

8. Colonel Christian de Graff, “Hurricane Katrina Teleconference, 28 

August 2005,” “Notes From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, Joint Forces 

Command (JFCOM), 21 September 2005, e-mail provided by Lieutenant Colonel 

Alan R. Koenig, US Army Reserve (USAR), Joint Task Force (JTF) Katrina

History Group.

9. Ibid.

10. Cross.

11. Second Lieutenant Andy Thaggard, “Responding to Katrina,” unpublished 

article, no date, provided to author by Second Lieutenant Thaggard, Mississippi 

National Guard.

12. Cross; Steve Bowman, Lawrence Kapp, and Amy Belasco, CRS 

RL33095, Hurricane Katrina: DOD Disaster Response (Washington, DC: 

Congressional Research Service, 19 September 2005), 11, http://www.fas.org/

sgp/crs/natsec/RL33095.pdf (accessed 3 December 2007).

13. House, A Failure of Initiative, 228.

14. Angela Copple, “EMAC Overview,” National Emergency Management 

Association, 14 June 2007, http://www.emacweb.org/?323 (accessed 28 December 

2007).

15. House, A Failure of Initiative, 61.

16. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), “FEMA Region VI 

Video Teleconference Transcript, 29 August 2005,” 4, http://images.chron.com/

content/news/photos/06/03/02/katrinatranscript0829.pdf (accessed 15 January 

2008). 

17. Ibid., 5.

18. Axel Graumann et al., Hurricane Katrina: A Climatic Perspective

(Asheville, NC: National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National 
139

Climatic Data Center, October 2005), 2–3, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/reports/

tech-report-200501z.pdf (accessed 10 March 2008).

19. United States Executive Office of the President, The Federal Response 

to Hurricane Katrina (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2006), 

33, http://www.whitehouse.gov/reports/katrina-lessons-learned.pdf (accessed 19 

December 2007).

20. Ibid.

21. Graumann et al., 2–3.

22. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 29 August 

2005,” 22.

23. Ibid., 23.

24. Ibid.

25. Executive Office, The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina, 34.

26. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 30 August 2005,” 

16, http://images.chron.com/content/news/photos/06/03/02/katrinatranscript0830.pdf 

(accessed 15 January 2008).

27. Ibid., 20

28. Ibid., 28.

29. House, A Failure of Initiative, 210.

30. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 508.

31. House, A Failure of Initiative, 61.

32. Ibid., 211.

33. Ibid., 251.

34. Ibid., 212.

35. Ibid., 211.

36. Ibid; Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 511.

37. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 511.

38. Ibid., 512.

39. Ibid., 508.

40. Colonel Laverm Young Jr., interview by Sergeant First Class Marc 

Mantini, 305th Military History Detachment, 6 October 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig and Master Sergeant Craig A. Mackey, eds., The National 

Guard vs. Hurricane Katrina: Relief Efforts in Mississippi (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, 18 September 2007), 58.

41. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 342.

42. Ibid.

43. Command Sergeant Major Daniel M. Sebby, California Military History 

Publication 20-116, Joint Task Force California: Press Accounts of the California 

State Military Forces’ Response to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, 31 August–11 

November 2005 (Sacramento: California Center for Military History, 1 December 

2005), 84–85, http://www.militarymuseum.org/CMHP20-116.pdf (accessed 15 

February 2008).

44. Ibid.

45. Second Lieutenant Murray B. Shugars, “From Pearlington to Pascagoula: 

Combat Engineers Helped Transform Katrina Into a “Manageable Disaster,” 
140

Guard Detail 13, no. 2 (May–September 2005): 13, http://www.ngms.state.ms.us/

publicaffairs/guarddetailmagazine/export%20printer%20copyguarddetailsept200

5ebook.pdf (accessed 4 January 2008).

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid.

48. House, A Failure of Initiative, 213.

49. Jim Garamone, “Mississippi Guardsmen Counter ‘Too Slow’ Criticism,” 

Armed Forces Press Service, 12 September 2005, http://www.defenselink.mil/

news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17324 (accessed 9 January 2008).

50. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript,” 4 

September 2005, 18, http://disasterthefilm.com/docs/080806/Sept_4_2005_VTC.

pdf (accessed 15 January 2008).

51. Ibid., 17.

52. Ibid., 19–20.

53. Ibid., 17

54. Fox News, “Katrina Hammers Gulf Coast,” 29 August 2005, http://www.

foxnews.com/story/0,2933,167289,00.html (accessed 29 January 2008).

55. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 504.

56. Master Sergeant Bob Haskell, “Guard Troops Put Lives on Hold to 

Respond to Katrina,” Armed Forces Press Service, 4 September 2005, http://www.

defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17406 (accessed 9 January 2008).

57. Captain Steve Alvarez, “National Guard Military Police, Infantrymen 

Keep Street Order,” American Forces Press Service, 10 September 2005, http://

www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17346 (accessed 9 January 2008).

58. House, A Failure of Initiative, 168.

59. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 27 

August 2005,” 12, http://images.chron.com/content/news/photos/06/03/02/

katrinatranscript0827.pdf (accessed 15 January 2008).

60. FEMA, “FEMA Region VI Video Teleconference Transcript, 30 August 

2005,” 38.

61. Ibid., 17.

62. Bowman, Kapp, and Belasco, 11.

63. Brigadier General Joseph Culver, interview by Major Bruce Kish, 305th 

Military History Detachment, 5 November 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan 

R. Koenig and Master Sergeant Craig A. Mackey, eds., The National Guard vs. 

Hurricane Katrina: Relief Efforts in Mississippi (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task 

Force Katrina History Group, 18 September 2007), 26.

64. “Cyclone Division Leads Guard’s Hurricane Relief,” Camp Atterbury 

Online, 3 September 2005, http://www.campatterbury.in.ng.mil/camp_atterbury_

in_the_news1.htm (accessed 19 February 2008).

65. Joint Task Force Cyclone, “Operation VIGILANT RELIEF After Action 

Review for SGS HQ 38th Infantry Division,” Gulfport, MS, 19 December 2005, 15 

(Fort Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL) Archives). 

66. Culver interview, 24.

67. Ibid.
141

68. Brigadier General Joseph L. Culver and Brigadier General Tod J. 

Carmony, interview with James A. Wombwell, Combat Studies Institute, Fort 

Leavenworth, KS, 23 July 2008.

69. When Hurricane Katrina hit, National Guard units not mobilized to 

go overseas had less than 35 percent of their required equipment on hand. This 

included radios, medical gear, trucks, helicopters, and other equipment. Many 

units were not issued Single-Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System 

(SINCGARS) radios, making it difficult to communicate with Active component 

forces. See Major Les Melnyk, “Katrina Lessons Learned,” Soldiers 61, no. 6 

(June 2006): 29–30.

70. Culver interview, 24.

71. Ibid., 27.

72. Culver and Carmony interview.

73. Brigadier General Roger L. Shields, interview in Lieutenant Colonel 

Alan R. Koenig and Master Sergeant Craig A. Mackey, eds., The National Guard 

vs. Hurricane Katrina: Relief Efforts in Mississippi (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task 

Force Katrina History Group, 18 September 2007), 10–11.

74. Culver interview, 25.

75. Senior Army Adviser, Army National Guard (SRAAG), Alabama, 

SRAAG-AL Katrina Update, 031930 September 2005 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: 

CALL Archives). 

76. Captain Steve Alvarez, “Engineers Clear Way in Gulf,” American Forces 

Press Service, 5 September 2005, http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.

aspx?id=17404 (accessed 9 January 2008).

77. Captain Steve Alvarez, “Task Force Alabama Provides Command, 

Control for Relief Operations,” American Forces Press Service, 6 September 

2005, http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17398 (accessed 9 

January 2008).

78. Captain Steve Alvarez, “Alabama Guard Provides Critical Disaster 

Response,” American Forces Press Service, 3 September 2005, http://www.

defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17410 (accessed 9 January 2008).

79. Captain Steve Alvarez, “Alabama Guard Medical Team Helps Populace 

Locate Medical Resources,” American Forces Press Service, 11 September 2005, 

http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17331 (accessed 9 January 

2008).

80. Captain Steve Alvarez, “Distribution Sites Sprout From Devastation,” 

American Forces Press Service, 5 September 2005, http://www.defenselink.mil/

news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17403 (accessed 16 November 2007).

81. Alvarez, “Task Force Alabama Provides Command, Control for Relief 

Operations.”

82. State of Georgia, “Situation Reports—Hurricane Katrina, Situation Report 

#10, Operational Period 2:00 pm September 3, 2005 to 10:00 pm September 4, 

2005,” http://www.disastercenter.com/Karina%20Georgia.html (accessed 1 April 

2008).

83. Georgia Department of Defense, “Georgia Guard Continues Katrina 
142

Aid,” First Friday, October 2005, http://www.dod.state.ga.us/firstfridayonline/

Oct05/pages/katrinaoverviewfirstfriday.html (accessed 28 February 2008).

84. Headquarters, 265th Engineer Group, “After Action Report, MSJTF 

Wright, 2–23 SEP 05,” no date (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

85. State of Georgia, “Situation Reports—Hurricane Katrina, Situation 

Report #3, Operational Period 8:00 am September 1, 2005 to 2:00 pm September 

1, 2005,” http://www.disastercenter.com/Karina%20Georgia.html (accessed 1 

April 2008).

86. John M. Epperly, Transformation for Disaster Relief: Developing a 

Hastily Formed Network During Operation Vigilant Relief, Case Studies in Defense 

Transformation, Case Studies in Defense Transformation Number 2 (Washington, 

DC: National Defense University, Center for Technology and National Security 

Policy, 2007), 2–3, http://www.ndu.edu/CTNSP/Case%202%20Transformation

%20for%20Disaster%20Relief.pdf (accessed 19 February 2008).

87. Staff Sergeant A. J. Coyne, “Virginia Army Guard Soldiers Provide 

Security to Mississippi Neighborhoods,” Task Force Stonewall Public Affairs, 

15 September 2005, http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil/virginiaguard/news/sep2005/

tfstonewallarrives.html (accessed 24 January 2008).

88. Ibid.

89. Epperly, 3.

90. Ibid., 4.

91. Ibid., 5.

92. Coyne. 

93. Epperly, 6.

94. Ibid., 7–13.

95. Second Lieutenant Darin Overstreet, “Communications: Critical to 

Relief” (Centennial: Colorado National Guard, State Public Affairs Office, 

1 November 2005), http://www.coloradoguard.army.mil/highground/news/

Articles/2005/NGCEDeployForKatrina.asp (accessed 5 March 2008).

96. Scott MacFarlane, “W.Va. National Guard Unit Trains for Weapons of 

Mass Destruction,” Wheeling West Virginia, WTOV Channel 9, 5 March 2008, 

http://www.wtov9.com/news/15506820/detail.html (accessed 19 April 2008).

97. Culver interview, 25.

98. National Guard Bureau, “National Guard—Mississippi Task Org, 

170730R SEP 05,” National Guard Title 32 Response to Katrina Brief, 060200R 

SEP 05 Through 182400R SEP 05 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

99. Major Nicole Gabriel, “Modern-Day Minutemen Answer the Call,” 

Public Affairs Office, 12 September 2005, http://www.ohionationalguard.com/

pao/news/katrina/20050912a.htm (accessed 8 April 2008).

100. Sergeant Kimberly Snow, “Buckeye State Guard Members Distribute 

Essential Supplies to Katrina Victims,” 196th Mobile Public Affairs Detachment, 8 

September 2005, http://www.ohionationalguard.com/pao/news/katrina/20050908a.

htm (accessed 8 April 2008).
143

101. Sergeant Kimberly Snow, “Field Artillery Battalion Come to the Aid of 

Mississippi Citizens,” 196th Mobile Public Affairs Detachment, 26 September 

2005, http://www.ohionationalguard.com/pao/news/katrina/20050926b.htm (accessed 

8 April 2008).

102. “Pearl River County, Mississippi,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_

River_County,_Mississippi (accessed 2 April 2008).

103. Sara Greene, “Guard Ready for Evacuees,” The Leader (Arkansas), 

31 August 2005, http://www.arkansasleader.com/2005/08/top-story-guard-ready-forevacuees.html (accessed 29 January 2008).

104. Arkansas National Guard, “Information as of 0600 7 September 2005,” 

SITREP 070600 SEP 05 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

105. Specialist Chris Jones, “Army Engineers Clear Streets After Katrina,” 

The Arkansas Minuteman 27, no. 3 (Fall 2005): 26–27, http://www.arguard.org/

PublicAffairs/news/docs/gm/fall_05_web.pdf (accessed 29 January 2008).

106. Florida State Emergency Response Team, “Hurricane Rita,” 21 September 2005, 

http://www.floridadisaster.org/eoc/eoc_activations/Rita05/Reports/0921%20ESF%201830.

ppt (accessed 22 March 2008).

107. “Guard Helping Gulf Coast in Slow March Back,” Army Medical 

Department Enlisted Training News: The Medical Soldiers Outlook 23, no. 1 

(Spring 2006): 6, https://secure-ll.amedd.army.mil/Reports/HumanitarianAARs/

Hurricanes/Katrina/TF185MedAAR-Katrina.htm (accessed 27 November 2007). 

108. Staff Sergeant Bob Barko Jr., “Operation Sandbag,” 196th Mobile 

Public Affairs Detachment, 21 September 2005, http://www.ohionationalguard.

com/pao/news/katrina/20050921a.htm (accessed 8 April 2008).

109. Heidi Hansen, “Governor Announces Troop Deployments” (Lansing: 

Michigan Department of Military Affairs, 1 September 2005), http://www.

michigan.gov/dmva/0,1607,7-126-34250_34253-125741--,00.html (accessed 24 

January 2008); “Michigan National Guard Soldiers Return Home After Hurricane 

Katrina/Rita Support,” Department of Military and Veteran Affairs, 1 October 

2005, http://www.michigan.gov/dmva/0,1607,7-126-34250_34253-129959--,00.

html (accessed 24 January 2008).

110. Lieutenant Colonel Gregory O. Hapgood Jr., “Joint Task Force Iowa Scheduled 

to Depart Iowa for Hurricane Katrina Relief Efforts,” Iowa National Guard Public 

Affairs Office, 7 September 2005, http://www.iowanationalguard.com/PublicAffairs/

news/20050907_JFHQ_KatrinaRelief.html (accessed 24 February 2008).

111. Office of the Adjutant General, Annual Report, Fiscal Year 2004–2005

(Frankfort, KY: Department of Military Affairs, 2005), 25, http://www.kynghistory.

ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/4833A423-C414-47DD-A58D-0745D9727957/0/dma_

anl_rpt_05.pdf (accessed 24 February 2008).

112. “Maryland Military Department Mobilizes for Hurricanes Katrina and 

Rita,” Maryland Military Digest (Winter 2005): 3, https://www.md.ngb.army.

mil/PAO/Maryland%20Military%20Department%20Digest %20Folder/DigestWinter05.pdf (accessed 5 March 2008).
144

113. Governor Robert L. Ehrlich Jr., “Maryland National Guard Continues 

Deployment of Troops and Equipment to Gulf Coast” (Annapolis, MD: Office 

of the Governor, 6 September 2005), https://www.md.ngb.army.mil/PAO/

Press%20Releases/2005%20Press%20Releases/September%206,%202005%20

Maryland%20National%20Guard%20Continues%20Deployment%20of%20Tro

ops.pdf (accessed 28 February 2008).

114. Culver and Carmony interview.

115. Ibid.
145

Chapter 6

Title 10 Operations

As Federal, state, and local emergency managers prepared for the 

storm, military leaders and planners also began to consider what they 

could do if that military support was required. Since a series of hurricanes 

ravaged Florida the previous year, Army commanders, such as Lieutenant 

General Russel Honoré at First Army, and their staffs were well versed 

in the emergency response process. Major Army commands inventoried 

assets; activated operations centers; and pre-positioned troops, equipment, 

and supplies as the storm approached the Gulf coast. After Hurricane 

Katrina struck, some Title 10 units began providing support under the 

immediate response authority. As the scope of the damage in the two states 

became clearer, the United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM) 

was given a “blank check” to do whatever was necessary to improve 

the situation in Mississippi and Louisiana. Soon thereafter, the President 

announced that he was sending ground troops to Louisiana. With the 

support floodgates open, thousands of Active component soldiers flowed 

into the region. Although the number of Title 10 soldiers was less than half 

that of the National Guard forces, the Active-Duty soldiers brought with 

them experiences forged in war in Iraq and Afghanistan. They used their 

expertise to clear bottlenecks and restore order where chaos reigned. In a 

few short weeks, the situation in Louisiana, in particular, improved to the 

point where Active component troops could leave. But the contribution 

Title 10 troops made to the relief effort in Louisiana and, to a lesser extent, 

in Mississippi was immeasurable.

Prelandfall Preparations

Although, as Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense 

Paul McHale noted during testimony before Congress, the Department of 

Defense’s “responsibility under Title 10 and the National Response Plan 

is to provide assistance only when requested by FEMA or directed by the 

President,” the department took a number of actions before Katrina made 

landfall and even deployed some forces before a formal FEMA request 

had been made.1

 Many of those actions were made possible by a decision 

taken by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld. In light of the previous 

year’s hurricanes, he decided to delegate to NORTHCOM the authority 

to take some actions before a request for support. NORTHCOM is the 

unified command responsible for conducting military operations, including 

military support to civilian authorities, within North America, Cuba, and 

some of the Caribbean islands.2

 On Friday, 19 August 2005, the Chairman 
146

of the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued a Severe Weather Execute Order, which 

authorized NORTHCOM to “provide support to FEMA for planning and 

conducting disaster response operations in affected areas.”3

 Among the 

actions this Execute Order allowed was the early deployment of the defense 

coordinating officer (DCO) and Defense Coordinating Element and the 

designation of military installations as FEMA staging areas before landfall. 

This was, according to one member of the Joint Staff, an “unprecedented” 

decision that allowed the Department of Defense to respond more quickly 

to Hurricane Katrina than would have been the case if this authority had 

not been delegated.4

 On Tuesday, 23 August, the Department of Defense 

inventoried assets such as meals ready-to-eat (MREs), deployable medical 

capabilities, and potential staging bases in anticipation of requests for 

assistance from civil authorities. The day before Hurricane Katrina hit, the 

Joint Directorate of Military Support (JDOMS) set up a crisis action team 

to process FEMA requests for assistance and began tracking Hurricane 

Katrina more closely.5

President Bush declared a state of emergency for Louisiana on 

Saturday, 27 August, in response to Governor Kathleen Blanco’s request. 

He followed that up the next day by declaring states of emergency for 

Mississippi and Alabama and declaring Florida a major disaster area.6

 Those 

declarations allowed the Department of Defense to take other even more 

proactive actions. Soon after the President signed the disaster declaration, 

FEMA requested the use of Meridian Naval Air Station, Mississippi, as a 

Federal operational staging area (FOSA). NORTHCOM quickly approved 

the request. Anticipating future needs, NORTHCOM tasked the services 

with identifying forces and installations available for disaster support on 

Sunday, 28 August. FEMA made another request for facility support later 

on Sunday, asking for the use of Barksdale Air Force Base as an FOSA. 

Once again, NORTHCOM quickly approved the request.7

NORTHCOM took other proactive steps in the days leading up 

to Hurricane Katrina striking the Gulf coast. The NORTHCOM Joint 

Operations Center began tracking the storm on Tuesday, 23 August. 

NORTHCOM began participating in daily teleconferences with FEMA, 

JDOMS, the Joint Forces Command, the United States Transportation 

Command (TRANSCOM), the National Guard Bureau, and NORTHCOM 

components the next day. The discussions focused on base evacuations, 

protection of military assets, and deployment of the DCOs.8

 At the 

same time, NORTHCOM issued warning orders to the DCOs and their 

respective Defense Coordinating Elements assigned to the endangered 

states and activated the Louisiana emergency preparedness liaison 

officer.9

 On Friday, 26 August, 3 days before Hurricane Katrina struck, 
147

NORTHCOM issued its Hurricane Katrina Execute Order, and the DCOs 

for Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, and Georgia were directed to deploy. 

Other NORTHCOM liaison officers were dispatched to FEMA and the US 

Army Corps of Engineers headquarters.10

The DCOs for Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi fell under the 

command of the US First Army, which commanded all troops east of the 

Mississippi River. The DCO for Florida was the first DCO to be activated. 

He set up shop at the Joint Field Office in Orlando around noon on 

Thursday, 25 August, more than 6 hours before Hurricane Katrina made 

landfall around 1830. Colonel Damon C. Penn, the DCO for Mississippi, 

arrived in Jackson, Mississippi, and began attending meetings with 

FEMA and the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) on 

Sunday, 28 August, the day before Hurricane Katrina struck. The Alabama 

DCO, Colonel Laverm Young, reported to the state Emergency Operations 

Center (EOC) in Clanton, Alabama, on Sunday as well.11

The US Fifth Army, which controlled all troops west of the Mississippi 

River, activated the Louisiana DCO and Defense Coordinating Element 

on Friday, 26 August. The DCO for Louisiana was Colonel Anthony F. 

Daskevich, and one planner, Mr. Scott Miller, left Fort Sill the next day 

and arrived at the state EOC in Baton Rouge around 1830 on Saturday 

evening.12 He attended his first meeting with William Lokey, the Louisiana 

Federal coordinating official (FCO) at 2000 that night.13 The discussion 

was limited to generalities about capabilities the military could provide 

and an assessment of the potential impact of Hurricane Katrina; they did 

not discuss any specific mission assignments.14

Members of the Louisiana Defense Coordinating Element spent 

Saturday, 27 August, preparing equipment. The next morning, they drove 

to Houston, Texas. On arrival, they began 24-hour operations, tracking 

the storm. They planned on moving forward to Baton Rouge after the 

hurricane passed through Louisiana and it was safe for them to travel. They 

eventually arrived at the EOC in Baton Rouge on Tuesday, 30 August, the 

day after the hurricane struck Louisiana.15

During a conference call on 28 August, Army liaison officers reported 

on the status of preparations in their states. A Florida liaison officer stated 

that National Guard soldiers had already been released from state active 

duty and were standing by to provide assistance requested through the 

Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC). He also noted 

that Florida National Guard troops were experienced in disaster response. 

The Florida DCO indicated that his priorities were sustainment, logistics 

support, and repair of the power grids. Florida, he said, could surge six 
148

30-person strike teams into affected areas if needed. The Alabama DCO 

advised that Alabama was primarily concerned about flooding. The state 

had been hit hard by storm surge in the wake of several recent hurricanes. 

Colonel Penn reported that the Mississippi EOC was fully operational 

and that responders were preparing throughout the state. By this time, 

more than 800 Army National Guard soldiers were on state active duty in 

Mississippi. Colonel Daskevich indicated that FEMA officials had arrived 

and were reviewing contingency plans with Louisiana officials. Their 

focus, he said, was on the distribution of supplies.16 So, the Army’s liaison 

organization was fully functional, ready to provide whatever assistance 

was requested, well before Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf coast on 29 

August.

Lieutenant General Russel L. Honoré commanded the US First Army. 

Honoré was an experienced general officer who had held a number of 

senior posts before taking command of First Army in July 2004. As 

the commanding general of the 2d Infantry Division in Korea, he had 

experienced flood disasters, and he was well versed in domestic disaster 

response procedures after a tour as commander of the Standing Joint 

Forces Headquarters, Homeland Security at NORTHCOM. Moreover, 

as the commanding general of First Army, he had firsthand experience 

with hurricane relief operations after four hurricanes hit Florida over a 3-

month period in 2004.17 So, when First Army began tracking the weather 

formation that eventually became Hurricane Katrina, he started thinking 

about how he would respond to the developing situation. Because of his 

extensive disaster-related experience, he knew that saving lives would be 

the critical focus after the storm made landfall and that boats, helicopters, 

and communications gear would be in great demand to support the lifesaving mission.18

Although First Army began contingency planning well before 

Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf coast, preparations accelerated after 

President Bush declared states of emergency for all of the Gulf States 

on Saturday, 27 August. During a teleconference on Sunday, 28 August, 

Lieutenant General Honoré directed his staff to submit a capabilities request 

to NORTHCOM.19 He wanted to know what assets were available to him 

if his command was called on to help. Unfortunately, the Joint Staff had 

not yet received any requests for assistance from FEMA when it received 

Lieutenant General Honoré capability request. Consequently, acting 

in accordance with doctrine, the Joint Staff did not act on the request.20 

Although it acted properly, the Pentagon’s failure to act proactively in the 

face of the impending crisis was a mistake.
149

During that same teleconference, Lieutenant General Honoré asked 

NORTHCOM to establish a joint operating area (JOA) for the potential 

relief effort. He believed a JOA was necessary because it appeared that 

Hurricane Katrina would strike the Gulf coast near the border of Mississippi 

and Louisiana. Since the expected landfall point was also the boundary 

between First and Fifth Armies and FEMA Regions IV and VI, he was 

concerned that command and control would quickly become an issue if a 

JOA was not established.21 NORTHCOM recognized the potential problem 

as well and included Louisiana in Joint Task Force (JTF) Katrina’s area of 

operations when the joint task force was established the day after Hurricane 

Katrina struck.

Among the assets readily available to Lieutenant General Honoré 

were the National Guard troops stationed at Camp Shelby, Mississippi. 

Thousands of soldiers were at Camp Shelby training for overseas 

deployment. Since they were on Title 10 duty, they came under Honoré’s 

direct command. Among them were more than 1,000 Wisconsin Army 

National Guard soldiers. They had been activated and sent to Camp 

Shelby on 13 August for training in preparation for overseas deployment. 

The soldiers weathered the storm without incident, but they were not 

used for hurricane relief missions because they needed to maintain their 

training schedule so they could deploy on time.22 During a conversation 

with Colonel Earnie Shows, Commander of the Mobilization Center at 

Camp Shelby, Honoré directed him to be prepared to render assistance as 

needed. He told Colonel Shows to assemble his trucks, fill anything he 

could with water, and stand by for further orders. Although he realized 

that he might have to send those troops into dangerous situations, Honoré 

also told Shows that his troops were only allowed to carry pistols. As with 

the soldiers operating in New Orleans a week later, Honoré did not want 

heavily armed American soldiers marching through American cities. Title 

10 status did, however, bring up other concerns. Shows was also reminded 

that these soldiers were subject to the Posse Comitatus Act, something 

National Guard troops were not normally concerned with.23

Later in the day, during a battle update brief by his staff, Lieutenant 

General Honoré expressed concern about the risk Hurricane Katrina posed 

to the troops stationed in the region. He reminded everyone that keeping 

the troops safe was his first priority. He wanted all of his soldiers inside, 

protected from the storm, as it passed through the region. Honoré did 

not want people out in the teeth of the storm attempting rescue missions. 

Saving lives and protecting property, he said, would have to wait until 

after the storm had passed.24
150

Lieutenant General Honoré made another important decision on 

Sunday. Under the guise of conducting a training exercise, he decided to 

go to Camp Shelby, Mississippi, as soon as the hurricane passed through 

the region. Honoré believed that command and control was a function not a 

place. He wanted to go to Mississippi so that he could personally evaluate 

the situation and ensure that the state got the help it needed. Throughout 

the crisis, he followed this dictum. He was always forward, in contact with 

Federal, state, and local leaders, so that he personally understood what 

they needed from him.25

The move forward to Camp Shelby was challenging. Honoré tried to 

drive to Mississippi Monday night, but Interstate 20 was closed. Then, 

he tried to get the Air Force to fly him, but the pilots did not want to fly 

because the hurricane was heading toward Georgia. So, he had to drive 

to Camp Shelby Tuesday morning. Most communications were down, so 

he listened to the news on an XM radio given to him by his daughter 

and used the International Maritime Satellite System (INMARSAT) in his 

command vehicle to talk to others.26 As he headed toward Camp Shelby, a 

small support staff, First Army (Forward), moved forward as well. Honoré 

wanted the staff in place by noon on Tuesday, 30 August.27

The US Army Corps of Engineers was also concerned with making 

preparations for Hurricane Katrina’s arrival since it is the lead agency for 

Figure 21. Lieutenant General Russel Honoré meets with congressional 

leaders on board the USS Iwo Jima.

Specialist Tanya Van Buskirk, USARCENT Public Affairs
151

Emergency Support Function (ESF) #3, Public Works and Engineering. 

The Corps of Engineers established a number of procedures to meet that 

responsibility, among which were preawarding contracts for services and 

commodities required under ESF #3 and pre-positioning equipment and 

supplies along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Among the responsibilities 

assigned to the Corps of Engineers by ESF #3 are damage assessments; 

structural stabilization and emergency repairs of public facilities; 

emergency contracting of life-sustaining services such as water, ice, and 

emergency power; restoration of critical navigation, flood control, and 

water infrastructure; and debris removal. 

The Mississippi Valley Division of the Corps of Engineers was 

responsible for Corps operations in Mississippi and Louisiana. The 

division’s disaster plan shifted the disaster response mission to a district 

unaffected by the event. That enabled the affected district, in turn, to 

concentrate on recovery instead of having to respond to the incident.28 In 

this case, the Memphis District supported Louisiana while the Vicksburg 

District covered Mississippi. As Hurricane Katrina advanced toward the 

Gulf coast, commanders activated the EOCs in both districts and began 

tracking the storm.

In accordance with the division plan, most of the staff in New Orleans 

evacuated up river to Vicksburg, Mississippi, on Saturday, 27 August. By 

Sunday, 28 August, only Colonel Richard Wagenaar, the newly arrived 

commander of the New Orleans District, and eight other employees 

remained in the city.29 This was the first time that the Corps had ever kept 

personnel in a storm impact area. Composed of experts in boat operations, 

emergency management, facilities, and information management, they took 

shelter in a bunker designed to withstand Category 5 winds. They stayed 

behind so they would be able to conduct immediate damage assessments 

and get the relief-and-repair mission going quickly.30

By 29 August, the day Hurricane Katrina made landfall, Active-Duty 

forces were much more prepared to meet the situation than during past 

emergencies. Forward staging areas were allocated to FEMA, DCOs and 

their staffs were in place, assets were inventoried, and operations centers 

were manned and ready to respond. In First Army’s area of operations, 

Lieutenant General Honoré went even further by making plans to move a 

portion of his staff forward to Camp Shelby, Mississippi, where it could 

better assist the state. The US Army Corps of Engineers also went beyond 

the norm by leaving personnel in New Orleans so they could conduct 

damage assessments and coordinate Corps relief-and-repair missions.
152

Immediate Response

NORTHCOM activated its battle staff on Monday, 29 August, after 

Hurricane Katrina made landfall.31 The next day, as the scope of the damage 

inflicted by the storm became more apparent, NORTHCOM established a 

joint task force to control all Active component forces sent to the region. 

Lieutenant General Honoré was selected as the Commander of Joint 

Task Force Katrina, and US Fifth Army was designated as a supporting 

command. The order establishing JTF Katrina also delineated a JOA that 

encompassed both Mississippi and Louisiana. Clearly delineating the 

inter-Army command relationship was important since Louisiana was 

within the Fifth Army area of control.

JTF Katrina was responsible for a wide range of Active component 

assets, including Army, Navy, Marine, and Air Force units. Acting under 

the immediate response authority, Active-Duty forces joined the searchand-rescue effort on Tuesday, 30 August. The amphibious warfare 

helicopter carrier USS Bataan, which was in port in Ingleside, Texas, 

when Hurricane Katrina entered the Gulf of Mexico, was the first to 

arrive. Bataan, with three MH-60 Seahawk and two MH-53E Sea Dragon 

helicopters on board, got underway and closed on the coast of Louisiana 

late Tuesday afternoon. Her helicopters quickly joined the relief effort.32

The first Air Force helicopters, five HH-60 helicopters from Patrick and 

Moody Air Force Bases, arrived on Wednesday.33 Army helicopters began 

arriving on Tuesday, the day after Hurricane Katrina struck. Two UH-60 

Blackhawk helicopters arrived on Tuesday; 14 helicopters reported in the 

next day; and 16 more helicopters arrived on Friday.34 Large numbers of 

helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft continued to flow into the JOA over the 

next 10 days, peaking at 143 on 8 September.35

Although JTF Katrina was officially established on 30 August, 

Lieutenant General Honoré started planning his response well before 

Hurricane Katrina struck. First Army focused initially on Mississippi and 

Alabama since those states were in First Army’s area of responsibility. 

Throughout the day on Monday, 29 August, the First Army staff tracked 

the damage wrought by the storm and evaluated the Army capabilities that 

might be needed to bring relief to the victims. Honoré repeatedly stressed 

the need to communicate and coordinate with both the National Guard 

Bureau and the states so that First Army had a clear understanding of the 

situation and that the states understood what support First Army could 

provide.36

The First Army command element reached Camp Shelby, Mississippi, 

around noon on Tuesday, 30 August. As it closed on Camp Shelby, it 

got word that NORTHCOM stood up JTF Katrina with First Army in 
153

command. On arrival at Camp Shelby, the staff immediately began setting 

up the forward command post, which became JTF Katrina (Forward). 

Honoré established the initial work priorities for the staff, which were:

•	 Account for people.

•	 Set up communications.

•	 Develop situational awareness.

•	 Develop a contact roster.

•	 Identify future requirements.

•	 Build a situation map.

•	 Prepare to take control of all Title 10 forces in the JOA.37

Soon thereafter, the 67th Signal Battalion arrived from Fort Gordon, 

Georgia, and began setting up communications for the forward command 

post. With commercial communications in the region almost completely 

destroyed, reliable military communications were critical for effective 

command and control of the units deployed to the region. The battalion 

received a warning order from First Army before Hurricane Katrina made 

landfall early Monday morning. The battalion used the day to prepare and 

was ready to depart early Tuesday morning. Once it arrived at Camp Shelby, 

it surveyed the site and set up equipment. The battalion’s communications 

suite, including voice communications, e-mail, and video teleconference 

capabilities, was fully operational Wednesday morning.38

Meanwhile, as JTF Katrina (Forward) was getting set up at Camp 

Shelby, Lieutenant General Honoré drove to Gulfport where he met with 

Governor Haley Barbour and Major General Harold Cross.39 This was a 

pattern that the general followed time and time again as he moved forward 

to meet with key leaders. Although some staff members complained that 

he was hard to keep track of, he insisted that it was his job to go forward 

so that he knew what, exactly, was going on. The situation in Mississippi 

was dire. When he arrived around 1300 on Tuesday, engineers were still 

working to clear the airport’s runway.40 Honoré learned that there were as 

many as 100,000 survivors in the coastal counties, all of whom needed 

food, water, and ice. Getting those commodities to them was difficult 

because of the damage Hurricane Katrina had inflicted on the roads. Fuel 

shortages further complicated the situation. Electricity was out throughout 

the southern part of the state, and state officials told Honoré that it would 

take 10 to 15 days to restore power in the affected area. In the meantime, 

a few generators were available to provide power to essential services, but 

the fuel shortages made that assistance problematic as well.41

Lieutenant General Honoré decided to travel to Louisiana once he 

received the order to establish JTF Katrina Tuesday evening. There, he met 

with Governor Blanco, Major General Bennett C. Landreneau, and others 
154

at the Superdome. Once again, Honoré gained a better understanding of 

the crisis in Louisiana by meeting with and talking to the key leaders in 

the state. He maintained close contact with those leaders throughout the 

crisis. 

One of the primary topics of discussion at the meeting was the evacuation 

of the Superdome. Later, when Admiral Timothy J. Keating, Commander 

of NORTHCOM, asked Honoré if the situation at the Superdome was a 

crisis or if the people there were merely tired of being there, he responded 

“all of the above.” Honoré went on to explain that it was like being on 

“a crowded island, as people’s attitudes ranged from very irritated to 

hostile.” They needed to get the people out as soon as possible or they 

could anticipate some “significant issues.”42 When Governor Blanco asked 

Lieutenant General Honoré to take over the evacuation mission during 

another meeting Wednesday afternoon, he readily agreed. He, in turn, 

directed Brigadier General Mark Graham to carry out the mission. The 

JTF Katrina staff worked with FEMA, the Louisiana National Guard, and 

other organizations to develop the evacuation plan.43

Meanwhile, since he and his staff had focused only on his area of 

responsibility in the days leading up to Hurricane Katrina striking 

the United States, Honoré directed his staff to conduct a “bottom-up” 

assessment so he could better understand the situation in Louisiana. 

With all the various agencies involved in the relief operation struggling 

to work with one another, Honoré instructed his staff to look into ways 

interagency coordination could be enhanced. Improving communications 

was an obvious answer, so he directed the staff to determine what FEMA 

needed to boost its communications capabilities and then pushed to get 

those resources into the city immediately. He also wanted to know what 

resources the state needed to sustain the relief effort and tasked the staff 

with finding ways to increase the flow of needed commodities into the 

state.44

With communications in New Orleans highly uncertain, a second 

communications battalion soon deployed to the city. The 56th Signal 

Battalion from Fort Gordon, Georgia, provided communications support to 

the Fifth Army command and control cell, as well as the 13th Corps Support 

Command and the 14th Combat Support Hospital in New Orleans.45 They 

set up both secure and nonsecure voice and data communications systems 

as well as video teleconference capabilities. The soldiers also contributed 

to the relief mission by connecting the civilian communications network 

with the military network so that soldiers could talk to the police, fire 

departments, and other local emergency response officials.46
155

Key elements in the Department of Defense response to Hurricane 

Katrina were the DCOs and their supporting Defense Coordinating 

Elements. They were deployed to Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 

Initially, there was conflict between the Louisiana Defense Coordinating 

Element and the JTF Katrina staff over who the DCO reported to.47 By 

doctrine, the DCO reports to the joint task force if established unless higher 

headquarters decides differently.48 NORTHCOM quickly resolved the 

chain of command issue by directing the DCOs to report to NORTHCOM 

rather than the joint task force.49 While Lieutenant General Honoré worked 

with state leaders, FEMA officials, and his subordinate Active component 

commanders to identify and solve problems, the DCOs and their staffs 

worked with NORTHCOM to validate and fulfill the resultant mission 

assignments. 

The DCO for Alabama was Colonel Laverm Young Jr. He reported to 

the state EOC in Clanton, Alabama, on Sunday, 28 August. After Hurricane 

Katrina struck Alabama, he performed an aerial damage assessment. The 

two westernmost coastal counties, Mobile and Baldwin, suffered the most 

damage. Over the next 24 hours, Colonel Young coordinated the dispatch 

of 94 truckloads of supplies to points of distribution (PODs) operated by 

the Alabama National Guard. The situation in Alabama stabilized quickly, 

so JTF Katrina issued a warning order to Colonel Young on 30 August, 

notifying him of Lieutenant General Honoré’s intention to send him and his 

staff to Gulfport, Mississippi, as an advance element for JTF Katrina.

50

The DCO in Louisiana, Colonel Anthony F. Daskevich, and his staff 

also performed yeoman’s work. Daskevich was Commander of the 4th 

Brigade, 75th Division (Training Support), at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, at the 

time. Like the DCOs for Alabama and Mississippi, Fifth Army dispatched 

Colonel Daskevich and a civilian planner to Louisiana well before the storm 

hit. They arrived at the state EOC on Saturday evening, 27 August.51

The rest of his team went to Houston to wait out the storm. The Defense 

Coordinating Element arrived in Houston late Sunday night and set up its 

command post and was fully operational by 0015 Monday morning, hours 

before the storm hit.52 Initially, the pace of operations was light. Command 

post personnel spent much of the day on Monday trying to maintain 

situational awareness.53 They tracked the reported damage to New Orleans 

and the surrounding parishes as well as Louisiana’s EMAC requests. 

Louisiana officials submitted several requests for assistance through 

EMAC on Monday. They asked for five CH-47 helicopters, two from 

Georgia, two from Texas, and one from Florida; three UH-60 helicopters, 

two from Florida and one from Oklahoma; and three heavy expanded 
156

mobility tactical truck (HEMTT) fuel tankers.54 The team worked one 

mission assignment that day—a request for Active component helicopters 

to conduct damage assessments after the storm passed. It coordinated the 

deployment of two UH-60 helicopters from the 1st Cavalry Division at 

Fort Hood to fulfill the mission request. The mission was finally approved 

around 0300 Tuesday morning, and the aircraft arrived in Louisiana later 

that day.55 The team remained in Houston until Tuesday morning. Once 

it was safe to travel, the team drove to Baton Rouge and linked up with 

Colonel Daskevich.56

The Louisiana team is representative of a typical Defense Coordinating 

Element. The team, which was drawn from Colonel Daskevich’s brigade, 

included the brigade’s S2 and intelligence noncommissioned officer 

(NCO), S6, assistant S3, training chief, current operations officer, training 

officer, training NCO, current operations NCO, a finance NCO, and a 

civilian defense support of civil authorities (DSCA) planner. The assistant 

S3, Lieutenant Colonel David Napier, served as the team chief. The training 

chief and current operations officer served as the day and night operations 

officers, and the training NCO and current operations NCO served as the 

day and night operations NCOs. The training officer was later sent to JTF

Katrina as a liaison officer.57

Once they arrived in Baton Rouge, the pace of operations for the 

Defense Coordinating Element picked up considerably. Napier established 

two shifts to support 24-hour operations. His team tracked the status of 

requests, reviewed parish reports to identify their top needs, and coordinated 

with the National Guard forces to maintain situational awareness of their 

missions and force deployments. The team also established close liaison 

with JTF Katrina to ensure that it was aware of all missions emanating 

from Lieutenant General Honoré and the joint task force.58

Conditions at the state EOC were difficult during the first few days 

after the storm hit. The influx of hundreds of relief personnel meant that 

space was extremely limited. The Defense Coordinating Element operated 

out of a single cubicle. Although element personnel discussed moving into 

their tents, they decided to remain in the EOC, close to their civilian and 

National Guard counterparts and thus better able to coordinate support 

missions.59

In addition to space constraints, the Defense Coordinating Element 

had to overcome other operational challenges. The Louisiana EOC was, in 

the words of one team member, a “scene of mass chaos.”60 As additional 

forces surged into the operating area, it was difficult for the team to 
157

maintain situational awareness, which led to some duplication of effort.61

FEMA appeared disorganized and no one seemed to know what to do. 

Lieutenant Colonel Napier recalled that one of his biggest contributions 

may have been using his Army skills and training to gently introduce 

structure into one of the FEMA meetings he attended. He coached them by 

suggesting such basics as publishing an agenda and establishing a seating 

chart so everyone knew who was talking to whom during meetings. After 

the meetings, he submitted feedback so that the FEMA operations staff 

understood what he thought had happened during the meeting. FEMA 

later hired a contractor to provide similar assistance.62

During their deployment, the Louisiana Defense Coordinating 

Element processed more than 115 requests for assistance and 98 military 

support requests, which had a total value of more than $840 million. The 

types of missions supported by the team included helping evacuate the city 

of New Orleans and the surrounding parishes; delivering more than one 

million MREs, coordinating aviation support for search and rescue, aerial 

damage assessment, medical evacuation, and the delivery of commodities; 

and removing debris throughout the state.63 The Defense Coordinating 

Element screened all the military support requests before sending them 

up the chain of command to NORTHCOM. This was a crucial step, for 

it was important to know what type of support the requester wanted. For 

example, the US Customs and Border Patrol requested a C-130 aircraft to 

deliver three sport utility vehicles (SUVs). Since a C-130 can only carry 

two such vehicles, this request was not supportable as written. Instead 

of denying the request, the team contacted the requester and determined 

that Border Patrol officials did not care what type of aircraft was used 

to transport the SUVs, they just wanted to get them to New Orleans as 

soon as possible. The Defense Coordinating Element revised the mission 

request to more accurately convey the needed assistance and submitted it 

to NORTHCOM.66

One of drawbacks of Lieutenant General Honoré’s aggressive, forwardleaning attitude was that he sometimes agreed to support missions that the 

DCO could not approve. For example, Honoré offered to provide several 

Navy LCACs (landing craft air-cushion) to rescue cattle stranded in rural 

areas. Once his staff completed the cost analysis, the DCO determined 

that it was more cost-effective to pay farmers for the loss of their cattle 

than to send in landing craft to rescue them.65 On another occasion, after 

Hurricane Rita hit Louisiana, Honoré promised officials in Lake Charles 

a 250-person tent by nightfall to provide shelter for those in need. When 

Defense Coordinating Element personnel received the mission request, 
158

they investigated and discovered that the city only needed shelter for 12 

people, so they went back to JTF Katrina and convinced them to retract 

the request.66

The Defense Coordinating Elements experienced other challenges 

while trying to validate Title 10 missions. Initially, since damage to the 

communications infrastructure inhibited the flow of information among 

the various organizations involved in the relief operation, the Defense 

Coordinating Element staff was not fully aware of ongoing National Guard 

operations.67 Consequently, there was duplication of effort in the immediate 

aftermath of the storm, especially during search-and-rescue operations. 

Moreover, Lieutenant Colonel Napier recalled that most civilians had 

difficulty differentiating between Title 10 and state active duty/Title 32 

forces. To them, everyone in uniform was in the Army, so the Defense 

Coordinating Element fielded many phone calls meant for the National 

Guard. Rather than shunt the caller aside, Defense Coordinating Element 

personnel constructed a comprehensive contact list so they could refer 

those callers to the right person. Later, as National Guard soldiers flooded 

the state and liaison officers became more plentiful, they transferred callers 

directly to the appropriate National Guard liaison officer.68

Despite those challenges, the Department of Defense carried out its 

obligations as delineated in the National Response Plan. Ed Buikema, 

the Acting Director of Response for FEMA, testified that the Department 

of Defense fulfilled every mission assignment it took on.69 The Deputy 

Federal Coordinator for Louisiana, Scott Wells, reinforced that assertion 

when he commented that the Department of Defense completed every 

mission assignment in a timely manner.70

The first Active component helicopters arrived the day after Hurricane 

Katrina struck. Before landfall, FEMA asked the Defense Coordinating 

Element for two helicopters. FEMA wanted to use them to transport the 

rapid needs assessment (RNA) team around the state to survey and assess 

the damage. The Defense Coordinating Element arranged for two UH60 Blackhawks from the 1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood, Texas, and 

coordinated their arrival on 30 August.71

The next day, six Active Army UH-60 helicopters and their support 

crews from the 498th Medical Company (Air Ambulance) at Fort Benning, 

Georgia, arrived. They left for Louisiana within 5 hours of receiving the 

execute order and landed in Baton Rouge late in the afternoon on 31 

August. After a quick briefing by a Louisiana Army National Guard pilot, 

they took off for the city and began search-and-rescue operations. During 

the first 7 days of their deployment, they conducted around-the-clock 
159

operations. Aircraft were launched at first light and continued flying until 

they reached their maximum allowed flight hours or duty day (8 hours of 

flight time or 12-hour duty day respectively). When helicopters returned 

to base, the day crews were replaced by crews equipped with night-vision 

goggles so they could continue searching throughout the night.72

The flight crews performed many dramatic rescues. In one case, while 

operating at night, a crew member spotted a faint light shining from a 

hole in the roof of a house. The helicopter hovered over the house and 

dropped a medic down by hoist. He cut through the roof of the house 

with an axe and pull out several survivors. During a similar mission, a 

medic chopped through the sky light of a submerged building to rescue 

several trapped people. And, during yet another rescue, the pilot expertly 

maneuvered the helicopter so that the crew could rescue civilians trapped 

on the balcony of a submerged building. Since the victims had no means 

of reaching the roof, the pilot had to approach the balcony from the side 

to rescue those stranded there. Through 16 September, the 498th Medical 

Company conducted more than 200 rescue missions and performed 65 

resupply missions. During those missions, it rescued 917 people, including 

93 people who required transportation by litter.73

In the week after Hurricane Katrina struck, more and more Active 

component helicopters flowed into Louisiana. Four UH-60 and four CH47 helicopters from the 1st Cavalry Division arrived on Wednesday, 31 

August. Two more UH-60 and two UH-1 medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) 

Figure 22. A US Army UH-60 helicopter from the 4th Infantry Division maneuvers for a rescue.

Technical Sergeant Kevin J. Gruenwald, USAF
160

helicopters arrived that same day from Fort Polk, Louisiana. The next day, 

Colonel Dan Shanahan, Commander of the 1st Cavalry Brigade, and his 

brigade headquarters arrived to provide command and control over the 

expanding Title 10 Army helicopter fleet. Sixteen helicopters, including 

12 UH-60 Blackhawks, 3 CH-47 Chinooks, and 1 MEDEVAC helicopter, 

reported in from the 4th Infantry Division. By 2 September, 42 Active 

component helicopters operated in and around New Orleans.74 The 5/159th 

Aviation Regiment, an Army Reserve unit, sent five CH-47 helicopters 

on 5 September. The Title 10 helicopters participated in the search-andrescue operation and assisted the humanitarian relief mission by airlifting 

survivors to evacuation points; transporting food, water, and other supplies 

to the Superdome and other locations; and moving soldiers throughout the 

area.75

One other area of the US Army, the Army Corps of Engineers, provided 

immediate response assistance from the beginning of the crisis. With 

respect to natural disasters, the Corps of Engineers has three important 

mission areas: 

• It is responsible to FEMA under the National Response Plan. 

The National Response Plan assigns the Corps of Engineers 

responsibility for ESF #3, Public Works and Engineering. This 

responsibility encompasses delivering ice and water, providing 

temporary roofing, removing debris, repairing or temporarily 

replacing public facilities, and providing flood abatement.76

• The Corps of Engineers has its own responsibilities for the repair 

of civil works and maintenance of navigation on the Nation’s 

waterways.

• The Corps of Engineers is responsible for providing engineer 

support to the US Army. 

During the response to Hurricane Katrina, the Corps of Engineers 

supported all three mission areas.

During the immediate response phase, the Corps of Engineers provided 

support to FEMA by delivering water and ice to the affected states. From 

landfall through 2 September, the Corps of Engineers delivered 1.9 

million MREs, 6.7 million liters of water, and 1.7 million pounds of ice 

to Mississippi and Louisiana. Although those numbers are impressive, the 

Corps encountered many obstacles during the early stages of this mission. 

Requests for water and ice were so large that they overwhelmed the capacity 

of some of the precontracted suppliers, leading to temporary shortages. 

Since FEMA lacked the ability to track shipments, the commodities ended 

up at the wrong locations on several occasions, which was a considerable 
161

problem during the early stages of the relief operation. There were also 

instances of the wrong Federal or state agency appropriating items 

intended for other agencies.77 But Corps personnel quickly overcame those 

problems, and they delivered considerable quantities of water and ice to 

both Mississippi and Louisiana.

The most dramatic mission was, of course, the closing and repair of the 

breaches in the levees surrounding the city of New Orleans. This mission 

fell under the Corps of Engineers’ civil works responsibilities. Normally, 

all Corps of Engineer personnel evacuate when threatened by a hurricane. 

Most of the New Orleans District staff did so, going to Vicksburg, 

Mississippi, as Hurricane Katrina approached the Gulf coast. But in a break 

with precedent, a small contingent, led by Colonel Richard Wagenaar, 

the District Commander, remained behind in New Orleans to conduct 

damage assessments and respond to emergent situations. Wagenaar’s team 

received a report of the storm surge overtopping levees about 0500 Monday 

morning. Soon, reports arrived indicating levee breaches at several points, 

including the Inner Harbor Navigation Canal, the 17th Street Canal, and 

the London Avenue Canal. Despite its concern, the team did not venture 

out into the city until 1400, when the storm finally began to subside. 

Although flooding prevented Corps personnel from getting close enough 

to any of the suspected breaches to confirm their existence, the depth and 

extent of the flooding convinced Colonel Wagenaar that the reports were 

accurate. By helicopter on Tuesday morning, he confirmed the damage 

along the Inner Harbor Navigation Canal and the 17th Street Canal. Later 

that afternoon, other members of the team confirmed the damage to the 

London Avenue Canal.78

As in other areas of the response effort, initially there was confusion 

over who was responsible for the levee repair operation. The Corps of 

Engineers, the local levee boards, the Orleans Sewage and Water Board, 

and the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development all 

clashed over who was in charge and how the repairs should be effected. 

All parties eventually agreed that the Corps of Engineers was responsible 

for the repair mission under its civil works authority, but the lack of unity 

of command initially hampered the repair mission.79

The Corps of Engineers’ dewatering plan incorporated a three-pronged 

approach. First, the Corps used gravity to drain as much of the floodwaters 

as possible. To facilitate drainage, the Corps deliberately made a number 

of breaches in the levees. Second, the Corps mobilized military and 

contracting resources to close the existing breaches. Third, as soon as the 

breaches were repaired, the pumps began pumping the floodwater out of 
162

the city. To accomplish the third task, the Corps had to repair as many of 

the existing pumps as possible and bring in portable pumps to augment the 

dewatering effort.80

The Corps of Engineers engaged all three prongs of the plan 

simultaneously. It attempted to close the 17th Street Canal breach first. 

On 30 August, helicopters dropped 300-pound sandbags, concrete road 

Figure 23. A CH-47 Chinook helicopter from the Army Reserve’s B Company, 5th Battalion, 159th 

Aviation Regiment, lifts three large sandbags.

Chuck Prichard, US Army Reserve Command
163

barriers, and other such items into the breach. Unfortunately, this effort 

failed because the items used were either too small or too light. Finally, 

a contractor for the Corps of Engineers offered giant environmental 

disposal bags that could hold up to 12 tons of dirt. These bags worked 

well although the going was slow at first. On the first day, the helicopters 

dropped only 10 bags into the breach, but by the end of the operation, they 

were dropping up to 600 bags per day.81 The lack of dedicated aviation 

assets slowed the breach repair mission. Again, during the first few days, 

the Corps of Engineers could only get helicopter support on an ad hoc 

basis. Helicopters were assigned but then snatched away to conduct searchand-rescue operations. Finally, on Wednesday, 31 August, the Corps of 

Engineers received six UH-60 and two CH-47 helicopters to help with 

the mission.82 The Corps finally closed the 17th Street Canal breach on 

Sunday, 4 September, although it took more than 2,000 sandbags to do 

so.83 The next day, the sandbag operation shifted to the London Avenue 

breach.84

As the buildup of both National Guard and Active component forces 

gained momentum, President Bush and Governor Blanco engaged in a 

series of discussions regarding how the Federal Government could best 

assist the state of Louisiana. They met in Louisiana on Friday morning, 

2 September, and discussed ways to achieve unity of command in the 

state. The President discussed several options, including federalizing the 

National Guard, giving Lieutenant General Honoré a commission in the 

Louisiana National Guard so that he could command National Guard as 

well as Active component forces, and invoking the Insurrection Act, as his 

father, President George H.W. Bush, had done during the Los Angeles riots 

in 1992. President Bush tried to convince Governor Blanco to accept either 

the federalization or the dual-hat options, but early Saturday morning, 

3 September, the governor rejected both proposals, and the President 

decided against invoking the Insurrection Act. With political negotiations 

at a standstill, President Bush decided to act unilaterally and deploy Title 

10 ground forces to the Gulf States. He announced later Saturday morning, 

3 September, that Active component forces, including the 82d Airborne 

Division, would be deploying to the Gulf region to help with the relief 

effort.

As more and better information regarding the situation in Louisiana 

and Mississippi trickled back to the Pentagon, leaders in the Department of 

Defense soon realized that the pull system was failing American citizens 

along the Gulf coast. Convinced that merely waiting for requests for help 

was not sufficient, on Tuesday, 30 August, Acting Deputy Secretary of 
164

Defense Gordon England told NORTHCOM that it had a “blank check” 

to call on any department for resources needed to provide relief for the 

affected citizens. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff followed by 

telling the services to deploy whatever forces they thought were needed.85

With the green light to push troops into the affected states, Title 10 aviation 

assets began flowing into the region. By Thursday, 2 September, 84 Active 

component aircraft were flying support missions.86

Recovery Operations

When President Bush announced he was sending 7,200 ground troops 

into the region on Saturday, 3 September, he unleashed the full resources of 

the US Army’s Active component. By this time, the situation on the ground 

was starting to improve. The evacuation of the Superdome was almost 

complete. Order was restored at the Convention Center and the evacuation 

was about to begin. National Guard forces were flowing into the affected 

states: the last of three 1,400-person MP contingents had arrived in New 

Orleans on Saturday, two National Guard division headquarters were en 

route to assist with command and control, and the flow of critically needed 

commodities was increasing. There was, however, much work to do. The 

relief effort was disorganized and disjointed, confusion reigned in many 

places, and a lot of people still needed help. 

Up to that point, the Active Army’s contribution centered on aviation 

and staff support through First Army and the DCOs and their staffs. Over 

the next few days, thousands of soldiers from the 82d Airborne Division, 

1st Cavalry Division, 10th Mountain Division, and other units moved 

into the region. The massive injection of Active as well as National 

Guard forces proved decisive. Within days, the campaign to counter the 

destruction wrought by Hurricane Katrina turned toward the better as aid 

finally reached those in need.

The conditions in Louisiana and Mississippi were so extreme that the 

Nation’s emergency response plan, as articulated in the National Response 

Plan, was not adequate to meet the conditions on the ground. As Lieutenant 

General Honoré so succinctly put it, “We’ve got a plan, but don’t confuse 

the plan with execution. We’re doing something that is very different. 

Nobody goes around with 50 tons of water.”87 Consequently, Active 

component soldiers used their skills, honed in Iraq and other places, to 

overcome the problems they confronted. Flexibility and compassion were 

two of the main attributes consistently displayed by Army leaders and 

soldiers alike. Honoré was fond of using a football analogy to describe the 

crisis. He conceded that the “home team” lost the first quarter to Hurricane 
165

Katrina, but he was adamant that the home team would win the subsequent 

quarters. Under his leadership, the home team did just that. 

Task Force All American

When President Bush decided to commit ground troops early Saturday 

morning, 3 September, the 82d Airborne Division was ready to respond. 

The division put forces on the ground at Louis Armstrong International 

Airport a little more than 7 hours after getting the order to deploy. Soon 

after Major General William B. Caldwell IV, Commanding General of the 

82d Airborne Division, arrived that afternoon, he was met by Lieutenant 

General Honoré who told him, “Your job is to fix the airport and fix New 

Orleans.”88 More specifically, Honoré gave his ground force commander 

four tasks: save lives, restore the airport to operational status, provide 

humanitarian assistance, and determine where the greatest needs were 

so that those problems could be resolved. Over the next several days, as 

Active component forces poured into Louisiana, Task Force All American

took control of those units and effectively executed Honoré’s orders.

The 82d Airborne Division staff watched the events unfolding in the 

region closely in the days after Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf coast. 

On Wednesday evening, 24 August, the US Army Forces Command 

(FORSCOM) directed the Army to be prepared to provide a brigade 

to conduct disaster relief operations in New Orleans.89 The next day, 

Thursday, 1 September, the division staff put together a mission analysis 

that tried to predict what the missions would be and what resources 

the division would need to accomplish those missions. Because of the 

media reports emanating from New Orleans, one of the most important 

missions the planners expected to perform was crowd control and security. 

Although that mission later proved unnecessary, the staff correctly 

guessed that the division would assist with debris removal; search and 

rescue; mortuary affairs; distribution of food, water, and other items; 

and medical assistance.90 The next day, Major General Caldwell decided 

to conduct a training and readiness exercise in anticipation of possible 

deployment to the area. He alerted the entire division, moved the ready 

brigade to Pope Air Force Base, and tasked his staff with updating the 

division’s emergency deployment plan to take into account the conditions 

in Louisiana and Mississippi. When the order to deploy did not arrive that 

evening, Caldwell stood down the division for the night.91 Fortunately, all 

of the equipment remained on the tarmac at Polk Air Force Base. 

Major General Caldwell received a call at home the next morning, 

telling him that the President just announced that he was sending the 82d 
166

Airborne Division to New Orleans. He heard the President’s announcement 

before he got official notification, which arrived later that morning.92

Regardless of the method of notification, the division was ready to go 

and deployed almost immediately. The 3d Brigade, including the 2/505th 

Parachute Infantry Regiment, 3/505th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 

307th Engineer Battalion, 82d Forward Support Battalion, and the 3d MP 

Company, flew to New Orleans and began conducting search-and-rescue 

operations soon after arriving.93 Most of the 319th Airborne Field Artillery 

Regiment remained at the New Orleans international airport where the 

soldiers helped organize evacuation operations. A second contingent 

conducted search-and-rescue operations in Metairie.94

The division established its command post at the airport and began 

pushing liaison officers forward to all identifiable command centers 

involved in the relief operation. These included JTF Katrina (Foward), 

FEMA, the Louisiana EOC, city hall, and the police headquarters.95

Division personnel quickly realized that, while many agencies were 

doing good work, most of them were overwhelmed by the scope of the 

disaster or they were less effective than they could have been because 

of a lack of situational awareness. Personnel from the 82d Airborne 

Division sought to improve communications and information sharing by 

gathering information, processing what they collected, and disseminating 

that information to all the command centers. As one officer later noted, 

“As information flow improved, the scope of the crisis became clearer 

to leaders at all levels. Assets were applied against confirmed problems 

rather than rumors.”96

One of the first places where the 82d Airborne made a difference was 

at the Louis Armstrong International Airport. In the days before the 82d 

Airborne arrived, the airport descended into almost total anarchy. Military 

and civilian aircraft flew in and out of the airport every few minutes. With 

no running water and little electricity, conditions were awful for the more 

than 5,000 National Guardsmen who took up temporarily residence in 

the terminal while awaiting further orders.97 Since there were no plans to 

use the airport for evacuations, most of the airport staff evacuated before 

Hurricane Katrina struck. In the aftermath of the storm, the airport manager 

tried to sustain operations at the airport with a staff of three and, by the time 

the 82d Airborne arrived, they were exhausted and overwhelmed almost 

to the point of paralysis.98 Recognizing the situation, leaders of the 319th 

Airborne Field Artillery went to work, restoring order where only chaos 

existed. They augmented rather than coopted the existing departure process, 

bringing to it a sense of order and direction by taking responsibility for 
167

passenger manifests and security screening. Over the next 12 hours, they 

expedited the evacuation of almost 9,000 people through the airport.99

At the same time, recognizing that the conditions at the airport 

made it difficult for the airport’s management team to oversee the entire 

evacuation effort, 82d Airborne soldiers helped establish a joint interagency 

operations center to manage airport operations. They contacted and 

assembled representatives from more than 25 different agencies operating 

at the airport to discuss what could be done to improve the process. From 

that beginning, a joint interagency operations cell emerged at the airport. 

Representatives met daily to discuss their requirements and to formulate 

a joint response to meet those needs. The director of flight operations at 

the airport later told Major General Caldwell that, without the leadership 

and assistance provided by the 82d Airborne, it would have been at least 

2 more weeks before the airport could have accommodated commercial 

flights. As it was, more than 25,500 citizens evacuated through the airport 

during the first 10 days after the division arrived.100

While the 82d Airborne Division’s artillery regiment brought order 

to the airport, the 3d Brigade, Task Force Panther, began restoring order 

in downtown New Orleans. During his initial meeting with Lieutenant 

General Honoré, Major General Caldwell was told to “fix” New Orleans. 

Honoré wanted Caldwell to restore order and services in the city.101 Initially, 

the brigade operated as an isolated entity, much like the other search-andrescue operations in the city. The soldiers patrolled the Convention Center, 

directed citizens to evacuation points, and conducted medical screenings.102

Other soldiers combed the city in high-water trucks or boats looking for 

survivors. Within days, they began coordinating their operations with Task 

Force Orleans (see figure 24). 

Search operations in the city were difficult at first because much of 

the city was flooded. When the brigade arrived in New Orleans, it had 

only four boats. That quickly changed as, just like at the airport, the 

brigade’s operations in the city became a joint and interagency effort. By 

coordinating its efforts with other agencies operating in the city, TF All 

American soon had almost 80 boats under its operational control.103

Within 4 days of arriving, the brigade established an important 

connection with the FEMA urban search-and-rescue team. During a 

meeting in which the FEMA team described what it was doing and what 

sort of help it needed, the brigade officers realized that working more 

closely with FEMA would greatly improve operations. The FEMA urban 
168

search-and-rescue teams were experienced, well organized, and systematic 

in their approach to search-and-rescue operations, but they lacked the 

manpower and other resources to effectively search a large city like New 

Orleans. The 3d Brigade, which lacked expertise in the area of search and 

rescue, had sufficient manpower and resources, so it made sense for the 

two organizations to work together.104 The effort soon grew to include a 

broad range of other agencies, including the Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, 

National Guard, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Drug Enforcement 

Agency, state emergency response agencies, and local first responders. 

As at the airport, the leadership of the 3d Brigade quickly recognized 

that “there were many organizations willing to assist with a multitude of 

diverse capabilities, but lacked direction and a way to insert as a solution 

to the challenges that faced New Orleans.”105

Task Force Panther swiftly adopted the FEMA teams’ search 

methodology. Paratroopers divided the city into zones and began doorto-door searches. At the same time, the brigade enhanced the exchange 

of search information between the various entities by converting the 

FEMA teams’ hand-drawn search maps into electronic versions that were 

updated daily. By standardizing the maps, TF All American generated a 

common operational picture, which facilitated better coordination among 

the diverse groups involved in the search operations and improved the 

situational awareness of senior leaders.106

The brigade also improved and simplified reporting on improvements 

in the city’s infrastructure by implementing a technique used in Iraq. 

Lieutenant General Honoré recalled that units used the acronym SWEAT 

Figure 24. Orleans Parish operating areas.

US61

Lake Pontchartrain

City

Park

Audubon

Park

New Orleans

International Airport

Universityof

New Orleans

French

Quarter

Convention

Center

New Orleans

Lakefront Airport

Superdome

Kenner

Metairie

Bridge City

Westwego

Marrero

Harvey

Gretna

Algiers

Point Chalmette

Arabi

St. Bernard Parish

Huey P. Long

Bridge

TF Pontchartrain

TF Orleans

82d Abn Div

82d Abn Div

Algiers

Crescent City

Connection

Orleans Parish

West Bank Expressway T o Belle C h as s e

N av al Air Statio n

Belle Chasse

Highway

Jefferson

Barracks

Naval Support Activity

New Orleans

I-610

I-10

I-10

I-10

US90

US90

US90

US90
169

to report the status of the infrastructure in Iraq.107 Drawing on their Iraq 

experiences, Active-Duty leaders tracked the restoration of services in 

New Orleans using similar criteria, although they added some additional 

reporting criteria. Thus, they reported the status of SWEAT-MCS, which 

stood for sewer, water, energy, academics, trash, medical, cultural, and 

security.108 These reports soon became the standard used by Active and 

National Guard units alike, which greatly improved the visibility of 

infrastructure restoration among senior leaders.

The 82d Airborne Division paratroopers also greatly assisted relief 

operations in the city. During the 219 search-and-rescue patrols conducted 

by TF Panther, they rescued 853 people, evacuated 4,906 others, and 

rounded up 350 stray animals. The brigade also conducted more than 

100 missions to rehabilitate and restore key public buildings in the city. 

The paratroopers cleaned up and repaired a number of schools, hospitals, 

police stations, fire stations, and two public housing developments. Among 

the sites they helped refurbish were the Superdome, US Mint, Louis 

Armstrong Auditorium, the Aquarium of the Americas, Charity Hospital, 

Touro Hospital, and the St. Louis Cathedral.109

Elements from the 2d Brigade Combat Team, 1st Cavalry Division, 

arrived from Fort Hood, Texas, on Monday, 5 September. By the next 

day, more than 1,600 brigade soldiers were in the city conducting 

Figure 25. A soldier from the 307th Engineer Battalion, 82d Airborne Division, 

navigates his Zodiac boat through a flooded neighborhood.

Staff Sergeant Alex Licea, 82d Abn Div Public Affairs
170

humanitarian relief operations in the Algiers District under the control 

of the 82d Airborne.110 Residents of the Algiers District were not subject 

to the mandatory evacuation order because the district was not damaged 

by the flooding. Consequently, soldiers went door to door to check on 

people, provide food and water as needed, and offer assistance with 

evacuation if desired. During those searches, they evacuated 74 citizens. 

Perhaps even more important, their presence greatly improved security 

in the crime-plagued district. While the brigade operated in Algiers, local 

residents reported 18 criminal acts, only 3 of which were violent crimes.111

The 4/133d Field Artillery Regiment, Texas Army National Guard, was 

embedded with the 2d Brigade to provide law enforcement capability if 

required.112 This was an important move since Title 10 forces are, by law, 

prevented from conducting law enforcement activities or forcibly entering 

houses to search for survivors. Since the National Guard soldiers were 

under Title 32 status, they were not subject to the Posse Comitatus Act 

and, therefore, were able to act more aggressively if confronted with a 

potential law enforcement situation. By 12 September, having completed 

a 100-percent search of the area, the brigade turned over responsibility for 

the Algiers District to the 1/319th Airborne Field Artillery.113

Figure 26. Major General William B. Caldwell IV and Command Sergeant 

Major Wolf Amacker greet Archbishop Phillip Hannan, the former 

Archbishop of the Archdiocese of New Orleans and an 82d Airborne 

paratrooper during World War II.

Corporal Sam Kilpatrick, 55th Signal Company
171

Since the 319th Airborne Field Artillery Regiment did not need all of 

its personnel at the airport, the 2/319th Airborne Field Artillery moved 

into Metairie where the paratroopers assisted with search-and-rescue 

operations and humanitarian assistance missions. Using boats and highwater vehicles, they conducted 55 search missions in the city.114 Later, 

as the situation at the airport stabilized, the 1/319th also shifted over to 

search-and-rescue and humanitarian relief operations. Initially, the 1/319th 

conducted patrols in the center of New Orleans alongside soldiers from 

the 3d Brigade, but on Monday, 12 September, the 1/319th Field Artillery 

relieved the 2d Brigade Combat Team, 1st Cavalry Division, in the Algiers 

District. 

Once again, the paratroopers assessed the situation and applied 

resources where they thought they would make the most impact. The 

1/319th Field Artillery conducted patrols and provided support to civilianrun relief sites. The Reverend James N. Brown ran a relief site from the St. 

Mary’s Place Mission. Reverend Brown did not evacuate when the storm 

hit, and once the storm passed, he set up a kitchen at the mission to feed 

survivors and to distribute aid to those in need. The battalion helped by 

providing two cooks to help prepare meals. During the mission, Task Force 

All American paratroopers fed more than 8,000 citizens of the district.115

Figure 27. A soldier from the 307th Engineer Battalion, 82d Airborne Division, 

marks a flooded home after searching the premises.

Staff Sergeant Alex Licea, 82d Abn Div Public Affairs
172

They also set up a clinic in the parking lot of the Algiers Medical Center, 

which was put out of service by the storm. The 319th Field Artillery 

Regiment’s medical staff treated more than 1,200 people over a 4-day 

period.116 The staff filled more than 700 prescriptions, immunized almost 

400 people, and treated a number of people with minor illnesses.117 On 19 

September, the 1/319th Airborne Field Artillery turned over this area to 

California National Guard soldiers from the 185th Armor Regiment.118

The 82d Airborne’s 21st Chemical Company performed a real-world 

decontamination mission while deployed to New Orleans. Both personnel 

and vehicles frequently made contact with the potentially toxic floodwaters 

while on patrol. The 21st Chemical Company cleaned vehicles with 

hot soapy water and provided the means for soldiers to decontaminate 

themselves as well.119 Through 17 September, the 21st Chemical Company 

decontaminated almost 400 personnel, 780 vehicles, and 73 boats. It 

also helped decontaminate both Charity and Touro Hospitals. Given the 

concern about the toxicity of the waters soldiers operated in, this was a 

crucial health and safety mission. This was also an interagency mission; 

the 21st performed 65 percent of its decontamination work on other 

agency vehicles and personnel, including Coast Guard, Border Patrol, US 

Figure 28. Personnel from the 21st Chemical Company conduct 

decontamination operations.

US Army Photo
173

marshals, New York Police Department, New Orleans Police Department, 

and chartered buses.120

Aviation Support

Title 10 aviation assets worked various missions during the relief 

operation. Fifty Active component helicopters converged on New Orleans 

by 12 September. Eleven CH-47 helicopters from the 2/227th and 5/159th 

Aviation Regiments operated out of Belle Chasse Naval Air Station. They 

flew heavy-lift missions, such as dropping sandbags in the levee breaches, 

and transported the FEMA urban search-and-rescue teams. The six UH-60 

MEDEVAC helicopters from the 498th Medical Company established their 

base in Baton Rouge. Two UH-1 MEDEVAC helicopters and two more 

UH-60 helicopters set up operations in Hammond, where they served as 

the standby MEDEVAC platforms. Six OH-58D Kiowa helicopters based 

out of the St. John’s Parish airport flew reconnaissance and surveillance 

missions for TF All American. Twenty-five UH-60 helicopters provided a 

broad range of services, including aviation support to the FEMA assessment 

teams, transport for Lieutenant General Honoré and other senior officials, 

assistance to local firefighters when equipped with Bambi Buckets, and 

other humanitarian relief missions.121

Logistics Support

Although FEMA delivered more commodities to the Gulf coast in the 

first few days after Hurricane Katrina struck than it did during the summer 

of 2004 when four hurricanes hit Florida, FEMA officials soon began to 

question whether they had the ability to continue delivering enough supplies 

to the affected areas. FEMA Director Michael Brown discussed turning over 

the logistics mission to the Department of Defense with William Lokey, 

the Federal Coordinating Officer in Louisiana, early Wednesday morning. 

On Thursday, 1 September, the Acting Director of Operations for FEMA 

contacted the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland 

Defense and asked for help. FEMA made an extraordinary request that the 

Department of Defense “take over logistics operations in Louisiana and 

Mississippi.”122 While the Department of Defense is a supporting agency 

for all emergency support functions, it only has responsibility for one, ESF 

#3, Public Works and Engineering, so assuming responsibility for logistics 

management was a significant request that went well beyond the scope of 

a normal emergency response situation.

On Friday, 2 September, FEMA sent a mission assignment request to 

the Department of Defense formally asking for assistance. The request 

asked that “DOD provide planning and execution for the procurement, 

transportation and distribution of ice, water, food, fuel, and medical supplies 
174

in support of the Katrina [disaster] in Louisiana and Mississippi.”123 FEMA 

authorized expenditures up to $1 billion to accomplish the mission.124 As it 

turned out, the Department of Defense never took over the entire operation, 

but Active component forces assisted by managing the distribution system. 

Both Active and National Guard troops distributed those supplies at various 

points of distribution.

Elements from the 13th Corps Support Command deployed from 

Fort Hood, Texas, to Louisiana to assist FEMA with the logistics support 

mission. The 49th Movement Control Battalion left Fort Hood on Saturday, 

3 September, and joined the FEMA logistics staff in Baton Rouge. These 

soldiers helped FEMA manage the movement and distribution of relief 

supplies. Distribution management teams traveled to the FEMA regional 

support areas (RSAs) to assess their operations and provide advice on how 

to better manage the flow of commodities. They also tracked the distribution 

of goods for FEMA using the Army’s Battle Command Sustainment 

Supply System (BCS3) and visual tracking by battalion personnel. The 

distribution management teams reported tracking information back to 

the battalion headquarters in Baton Rouge where the information was 

further disseminated to FEMA and state emergency officials. Through 

better management and tracking, the 49th Movement Control Battalion 

greatly improved the efficiency of the FEMA operation. After 6 days of 

operations, the battalion reduced truck download time from 10 to 14 days 

down to 3 to 5 days, saving about $140,000 per day and decreased the 

number of trucks in use from 285 to 120, saving as much as $1 million 

more. During the operation, the 49th Movement Control Battalion helped 

distribute some 1.7 million gallons of water, 3.6 million meals, and 11.5 

million pounds of ice.125

The 13th Corps Support Command performed a number of other 

missions to support JTF Katrina. The command sent a headquarters unit to 

the New Orleans International Airport, which served as the joint logistics 

command for all Title 10 forces operating in the region. The logistics cell 

managed the delivery of 815,000 cases of MREs, 215,000 pounds of ice, 

837,000 bottles of water, and 1.3 million gallons of fuel to the Active 

component forces involved in the Katrina relief operations.126 The 13th 

Corps Support Command also deployed six reverse osmosis purification 

units to the New Orleans area, which could produce 600 gallons of potable 

water per hour.127 During the deployment, the command’s water purification 

units produced 142,000 gallons of water for the troops involved in the 

relief operation.128

Other units attached to the 13th Corps Support Command provided 

logistics, communications, preventive medicine, medical logistics, and 
175

engineer support. The 565th Quartermaster Company helped the New 

Orleans Police Department organize truckloads of donated items that poured 

into the police warehouse in the days following the flooding. Although the 

police department received a lot of useful gear, police officers could not 

easily access what they had because it was piled up in a large warehouse. 

Soldiers from the 565th Quartermaster Company stepped in and quickly 

brought organization to the chaos.129 The command’s communications 

group worked with the 56th Signal Battalion to quickly establish 50 

data lines and 30 phone lines for the joint logistics command at the New 

Orleans airport.130 The 224th Medical Detachment checked the soldiers’ 

food and water daily to prevent the spread of sickness and disease among 

the deployed troops.131

Medical Support

The Army provided significant medical support to Louisiana citizens 

as well. The 14th Combat Support Hospital, based at Fort Benning, 

Georgia, received notification to deploy to Louisiana on 5 September, and 

2 days later, it was en route to New Orleans. It arrived on Thursday, 8 

September. After an interim stop at a middle school, it set up operations at 

the New Orleans airport.132 Within days of arrival, the hospital was fully 

operational, with two operating rooms and a dental clinic. Unfortunately, 

by the time it was operational, most of the people in need of medical 

attention at the airport had been evacuated from the city. With few civilian 

patients, the 14th Combat Support Hospital focused its medical support 

on the 82d Airborne and other Army units. The infirmary treated about 20 

soldiers per day with problems such as cuts, bruises, and ankle injuries. 

When Hurricane Rita threatened the city, the 14th Combat Support 

Hospital moved once again, this time to the Convention Center.133 Hospital 

personnel broke down the hospital and reassembled it inside halls I and J 

at the Convention Center in 2 days. This time, the hospital included 84 

beds, CT and X-Ray scanners, an emergency room, an operating room, 

several specialty clinics, and a dental clinic.134 The move into downtown 

New Orleans was important because it put the hospital, which was the 

only functional trauma center in the city at the time, closer to that portion 

of the remaining civilian population who most needed assistance.135 The 

medical presence was sustained by the 21st Combat Support Hospital, 

which relieved the 14th Combat Support Hospital on 10 October. The 21st 

Combat Support Hospital continued to provide medical support to both 

military and civilian personnel through 14 November. Then, staff from the 

Charity Hospital in New Orleans took over the operation so that medical 

support to those in need would continue to be available.136
176

Veterinary Support

Some of the most dramatic images that came from the media coverage 

of Hurricane Katrina were of the lost and abandoned animals left in the 

wake of the storm. Soldiers and relief workers rescued thousands of 

animals during the relief operation. In Louisiana, the animals were taken 

to one of seven shelters located throughout the affected area. As of 28 

September, the main shelter, the Lamar Dixon Expo Center, held 1,145 

small animals and 232 larger ones.137 By that date, with the Expo Center, 

a 4-H exposition center located in Gonzales about 60 miles northwest of 

New Orleans, filled to its capacity, animal relief workers decided that the 

animals housed there needed to be moved to more permanent facilities. A 

senior official with the Humane Society described the animal evacuation 

mission as a “logistical nightmare.” The animals had to be put in airline 

crates and shipped to different facilities or airports for further transfer in 

refrigerated trucks because of concerns about the impact the Louisiana 

heat could have on the animals. Animals required individual registrations 

so their original owners could claim them in the future.138 With local and 

national veterinary resources overburdened by the scope of the disaster in 

Louisiana, the Army Veterinary Corps answered the call for help. 

On 27 September, 20 members of the 248th Medical Detachment 

(Veterinary Services) deployed to Louisiana to provide veterinary support. 

Half the team went to Belle Chasse Naval Air Station to inspect the dining 

facilities and class I storage locations. During that mission, the team 

inspected more than 700,000 pounds of rations, 275,000 pounds of water, 

and almost 165,000 pounds of catered meals.139

The other half of the team went to Gonzales where personnel 

coordinated the evacuation all the animals housed there to other locations. 

They registered and prepared more than 1,500 animals for shipment. As 

they did so, they examined and treated 835 dogs, 281 cats, and 4 other 

animals. Because of their hard work and determination, the veterinary team 

completed the evacuation on 10 October, 5 days earlier than expected.140

The veterinary mission was another successful interagency mission. 

The food inspection specialists worked with the US Public Health 

Service, the US Department of Agriculture, the Louisiana Department of 

Agriculture and Forestry, and civilian contractors. The animal veterinary 

team worked with the Humane Society, the American Society for the 

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and other small volunteer groups who 

came from all over the country. The Army provided a great service to 

the animals and people involved in the animal rescue mission, which 

resulted in a “successful public relations opportunity for the military.”141
177

Lieutenant General Honoré recalled that he got hundreds of positive emails and telephone calls from animal rights activists who appreciated the 

Army’s contribution to this mission.142

Mortuary Support

A serious problem emerged in the aftermath of the storm when FEMA 

experienced problems trying to hire a contractor to collect and handled 

the remains of deceased persons. With media reports of thousands of dead 

littering the streets of New Orleans and operational paralysis seemingly 

setting in at FEMA, the Department of Defense offered its assistance. Nine 

mortuary affairs teams from the 54th Quartermaster Company deployed to 

New Orleans on 13 September. Four more teams arrived the next day.143

Mortuary support was a serious issue. JTF Katrina issued strict 

guidance regarding the handling of the remains of deceased persons. 

When a deceased person was located, the soldiers marked the position 

and reported the information up the chain of command. Soldiers were 

not allowed to touch the body at that point. Once the mortuary affairs 

contractors prepared the deceased person for transport, soldiers could help 

move the body. Command Sergeant Major Wolf Amacker recalled that 

many of the Kenyon International personnel hired to perform remains 

removal were elderly or out of shape. Consequently, he and several other 

82d Airborne soldiers helped move a number of bodies because the Kenyon 

International personnel were physically unable to do so.144

Another important piece in the mortuary affairs mission was the 

need for chaplains. Army leaders recognized this need in such a stressful 

environment, so a number of religious support teams were deployed to 

Louisiana. One of those chaplains was Major Ira Houck. Chaplain Houck 

provided support to the mortuary affairs teams working at the St. Gabriel 

mortuary. He or one of his team members accompanied every Army 

mortuary team. He later reflected that their presence greatly reassured the 

soldiers involved in that grisly operation.145

Reserve Component Support

Although US Army Reserves are not typically called up to provide 

support in response to natural disasters, a number of Reserve units did 

participate in the Hurricane Katrina relief effort. The need for truck drivers 

was so great that three transportation companies from Mississippi, the 

647th, 287th, and 1184th, and the 206th Transportation Company from 

Alabama mobilized and deployed to New Orleans. Since these units are 

medium truck companies, their trucks were not suitable for the high waters 

in New Orleans. Consequently, they borrowed high-water vehicles from 

other Reserve units, which enabled them to conduct missions in the flooded 
178

areas of New Orleans. They hauled food, water, and personnel around the 

city.146

Company B, 5/159th Aviation Regiment, was the first Army Reserve 

unit to arrive on scene. On 5 September, 46 soldiers, including 12 pilots, 

deployed to New Orleans in 5 CH-47 helicopters. They began flying 

missions early the next morning, and during the day, they rescued 93 

people. Their most dramatic rescue occurred that day when one of the crews 

received an urgent request for help in a neighborhood that was inundated 

by flood waters. The crew near that location responded and managed to 

avoid several obstacles and land on a highway overpass. It picked up 26 

people and transported them to the New Orleans International Airport.147

Over the next 2 days, Company B rescued 35 more people. 

The company’s CH-47 helicopters were versatile and useful air assets. 

During one sequence, a crew completed a rescue mission and diverted to 

another location to pick up sandbags, which it dropped into one of the levee 

breaches. Upon completion of that evolution, it recovered a FEMA urban 

search-and-rescue team. The CH-47 was the only helicopter large enough 

to accommodate the team’s rubber boats, so CH-47 crews frequently 

worked with the FEMA teams.148 During their assignment in New Orleans, 

Company B helicopters dropped 1.7 million pounds of sandbags into the 

Figure 29. Crewmembers load a FEMA urban search-and-rescue team boat onto a CH-47 Chinook 

helicopter flown by the Army Reserve’s B Company, 5th Battalion, 159th Aviation Regiment.

Chuck Prichard, US Army Reserve Command
179

levee breaches, transported more than 1,700 passengers, and delivered 

more than 150,000 pounds of internal cargo.149

US Army Corps of Engineers

As Title 10 forces started to draw down in both states, the Army 

Corps of Engineers geared up its operations. Dewatering operations in 

New Orleans continued to make headway, and the Corps of Engineers’ 

responsibilities under ESF #3, Public Works and Engineering, came into 

prominence. As operations shifted from recovery to restoration, the Corps 

of Engineers helped with installing temporary roofs, removing debris, 

and repairing public facilities. At the same time, other missions began to 

wind down as the need for water and ice declined and power was restored 

throughout the region. 

Corps of Engineer officials initially estimated that it would take up 

6 months to dewater New Orleans. But repairs to the levees proceeded 

faster than originally anticipated because the Corps was assigned more 

aircraft to drop sandbags than initially forecast and because the engineers 

were able to access the canal breaches more easily as the water level in 

the city declined. By 15 September, the Corps of Engineers reported that 

dewatering operations in New Orleans were 60 percent complete.150 Less 

than a month later, on 11 October, the Corps of Engineers pronounced the 

city dry and ceased dewatering operations.151

The water and ice delivery mission ended even more quickly. Although 

there were shortages of commodities at first, the supply pipeline was in 

full swing a little more than a week after Hurricane Katrina struck. On 

7 September, the Corps-contracted companies delivered 500 truckloads 

of ice and 700 truckloads of water to Louisiana. On that same day, 

Mississippi received 600 truckloads of ice and 300 truckloads of water. 

A couple of days later, Louisiana terminated the water delivery mission 

and Mississippi did likewise on 11 September.152 The Corps of Engineers 

delivered 170 million pounds of ice, 88 million liters of water, and 8.1 

million MREs by the time this phase of the operation ended.153

Even as the water and ice operations drew to a close, other missions rose 

to prominence as areas devastated by the storm became more accessible. 

One such program was Operation BLUE ROOF, which involved installing 

blue tarps over roofs of houses Corps of Engineer inspectors deemed still 

habitable. The program began on 3 September, and by 14 September, 

1,372 temporary roofs were in place in Mississippi and 759 more in 

Louisiana. By the end of the month, those numbers increased to 12,000 in 

Mississippi and 17,600 in Louisiana.154 Once roads were clear enough for 

debris removal crews to enter, the Corps of Engineers began that mission 
180

as well. Initial estimates projected it would take up to 5 years to remove all 

of the debris from both Mississippi and Louisiana. The Corps of Engineers 

anticipated removing some 20 million cubic yards of debris in Mississippi 

and 45 to 55 million cubic yards of debris in Louisiana.155 Contractors 

started removing debris on 7 September, and by the end of the month, they 

had removed 1.1 million cubic yards in Louisiana and 3.2 million cubic 

yards in Mississippi.156 In addition to that, the Corps of Engineers assisted 

the states with many other projects. Engineers carted off more than 120 

million pounds of trash,157 disposed of 36 million pounds of rotting meat,158

installed 307 generators in the affected area,159 and repaired 310 structures 

in Louisiana and 726 in Mississippi.160

Title 10 Support in Mississippi

JTF Katrina was a joint effort by the US military that differed by state. 

The Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force contributed aircraft, engineers, 

medical support, and ground troops to the relief effort in Mississippi. The 

contribution of US Army Title 10 forces to Mississippi, which came in the 

form of staff and specialty support, was much more limited than that of 

the other services. National Guard forces carried out most of the primary 

relief-and-recovery missions, such as search and rescue, aid distribution, 

security, and debris removal. 

The DCO in Mississippi, Colonel Damon Penn, was experienced in 

disaster relief operations, having served in the same position in Florida the 

year before when four hurricanes struck the state. He kept his staff focused 

on working mission requests from the state and providing reports to JTF 

Katrina so that Lieutenant General Honoré had situational awareness.161 In 

the first week after the storm struck, Colonel Penn’s team dealt with issues 

ranging from where to put the 38th Infantry Division headquarters staff 

when it arrived at Camp Shelby to how to get water to the beleaguered 

citizens in the coastal communities.162

Among the most significant missions Colonel Penn and his team 

worked were the requests for food and fuel. Both commodities were in 

short supply in Mississippi in the immediate aftermath of the storm because 

the FEMA supply distribution system almost collapsed after Hurricane 

Katrina made landfall. Major General Cross asked for help, and within 8 

hours of the request, NORTHCOM had food on the way. NORTHCOM 

delivered 10,000 cases of MREs to Gulfport on Saturday, 3 September, 

and 40,000 more the next day.163 The fast response by Penn’s team and 

NORTHCOM quickly deflated a potential crisis situation in the state and 

alleviated concerns that people without food would perish, allowing FEMA 

time to get its distribution system in order.164 The Defense Coordinating 
181

Element coordinated the delivery of 7.6 million liters of water, 31 million 

pounds of ice, and 4.4 million MREs through 6 September.165 Fuel was 

an equally important commodity. The JTF Katrina staff considered fuel 

to be an enabler—if citizens had fuel for their vehicles, they could go 

to distribution sites. Otherwise, relief organizations had to deliver food 

and water to people in their homes. The Mississippi Defense Coordinating 

Element and the JTF Katrina staff worked together to build up stocks of 

fuel in the state and coordinate security at the gas pumps.166

The Alabama DCO, Colonel Young, and his Defense Coordinating 

Element moved from Alabama to Gulfport on Friday, 2 September. Since 

the storm severely damaged the state’s communications infrastructure, the 

Mississippi DCO, Colonel Damon Penn, and his staff, found it difficult to 

perform their duties from the EOC in Jackson because they lacked sufficient 

situational awareness. Lieutenant General Honoré decided to send Colonel 

Young to Gulfport to serve as a forward DCO. Young coordinated Title 10 

support in the affected counties and kept both Honoré and Penn apprised 

of the situation there.167

Over the next few weeks, Colonel Young worked closely with 

the Mississippi National Guard soldiers to get them the resources they 

needed to sustain the lives of the survivors scratching out an existence in 

the heavily damaged Mississippi coastal counties. According to Young, 

communications and sharing information were keys to the success of 

the mission. A National Guard civil support team (CST) from Kentucky 

assisted Young and his team with communications. The CST provided 

voice communications, e-mail, and video teleconference hookups. These 

were important, Young noted, since they allowed better communications 

between those involved in the relief process so everyone understood what 

each service’s capabilities were and what they could contribute to the relief 

mission. Information was shared with National Guard leaders as well as 

local civilian authorities. Young later recalled that his selection for the 

mission was fortuitous since he had gone to school with several of the senior 

National Guard officers and was thus able to quickly establish a strong 

working relationship with the Mississippi National Guard. He explained 

that when responders entered an area, whether they were National Guard 

soldiers or civilians, they assessed the situation and requested what they 

thought they needed to bring relief to the locality. Colonel Young’s team 

made sure that local authorities knew what the Active component could 

provide and then facilitated appropriate mission requests.168

Colonel Young coordinated his efforts with Colonel Penn and his staff, 

who remained near the state EOC in Jackson. Although most of the military 

presence in Mississippi came from the National Guard, some Marine units, 
182

Navy Seabees, and several Active component helicopters operated in the 

state. Colonel Penn validated mission assignments for those assets and 

worked to fulfill other state requests. 

Although relatively few Title 10 Army units deployed to Mississippi, 

those that did provided vital services. The Army’s Expeditionary Unit Water 

Purifier (EUWP) deployed to Biloxi, Mississippi, on 16 September. The 

EUWP is the largest mobile desalinization system in the world, capable of 

producing 100,000 gallons of potable water per day. It deployed to Biloxi 

where it was used to produce water for the Biloxi Regional Medical Center 

and citizens in the area.169 Two other water purification systems deployed 

to Waveland, which was almost completely destroyed by the hurricane. 

These systems, a Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit (ROWPU) and 

a Tactical Water Purification System (TWPS) produced 600 and 1,500 

gallons of water per hour respectively for citizens in the area.170

Hurricane Katrina destroyed many television and radio transmission 

towers, making it difficult for authorities to keep ordinary citizens informed 

of the situation in their towns. JTF Katrina implemented several plans to 

rectify that situation. JTF Katrina purchased and distributed 4,500 AM/

FM radios to people in Mississippi so they would have better access to 

information about relief-and-recovery services.171 In addition to that, 120 

soldiers from the 4th Psychological Operations Group deployed to Camp 

Shelby on 5 September. They traversed the affected counties, disseminating 

valuable information to citizens using man-portable and vehicle-mounted 

loudspeakers.172

By 9 September, the relief mission began to shift over to recovery 

operations in Mississippi.173 Power was restored to 84 percent of the 

electrical customers, and power company officials expected that 100 

percent of their customers would have electrical power by 11 September.174

All state-maintained roads in the affected area, with the exception of US 

Highway 90, were clear of debris.175 The emergency rooms at hospitals in 

Ocean Springs and Singing River, Mississippi, were back in operation.176

Although there was still much work to do, Active component forces began 

to draw down in the state. 

Summary

In the days leading up to Hurricane Katrina striking the United States 

and for weeks afterward, the Active component of the Army provided 

unprecedented civil support to Louisiana and, to a lesser degree, Mississippi. 

Defense coordinating officers and their staffs deployed before Hurricane 

Katrina made landfall. First Army, under the guise of training, conducted 

extensive hurricane contingency planning. On Lieutenant General Russel 
183

Honoré’s order, the staff organized a headquarters detachment that moved 

forward into Mississippi the day after the hurricane struck. NORTHCOM 

also approved two mission assignments allowing FEMA to use military 

bases as forward staging areas before landfall. All of these actions went 

well beyond previous prelandfall activities.

Once the scope of the disaster was fully understood, the Department of 

Defense granted commanders a “blank check” to do whatever was necessary 

to help the people of Mississippi and Louisiana. Many Active Army units 

responded under the immediate response authority and sent helicopters 

and other assets to both states. Title 10 helicopters conducted search-andrescue missions, delivered critical supplies to victims, and helped plug the 

breaches in New Orleans levees. Communications units deployed to Camp 

Shelby and New Orleans, where they provided communications support 

for civilian relief organizations as well as the Active-Duty forces.

Once President Bush authorized the use of Title 10 ground troops, 

thousands of other soldiers from the 82d Airborne, 1st Cavalry, and 10th 

Mountain Divisions deployed to Louisiana to help with the relief effort. 

The Active component also sent medical personnel, logistics specialists, 

and additional communications experts. They did more than just distribute 

humanitarian aid; these soldiers used their technical skills and knowledge 

forged during operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, and the Balkans to facilitate 

recovery in New Orleans and the surrounding parishes. For example, 

shortly after arriving at the New Orleans International Airport, soldiers 

from the 82d Airborne organized an interagency working group that 

helped restore order at the airport. Similarly, another 82d Airborne brigade 

began working with FEMA urban search-and-rescue teams soon after 

they moved into New Orleans. Their relationship led to improvements in 

search techniques and increased situational awareness as their reporting 

techniques were adopted by other units. 

Often, the response of the Active component went well beyond 

the measures anticipated in the National Response Plan. The Army 

helped FEMA manage its supply distribution system. Army veterinarian 

personnel worked with civilian animal protection organizations to provide 

medical treatment for abandoned animals and prepared the animals for 

transport to new locations. Because units had to operate in potentially 

toxic floodwaters, Army decontamination units conducted extensive 

operations. Other soldiers manifested passengers and performed other 

administrative tasks at the New Orleans International Airport. But all of 

these support measures, and more, were necessary because of the scope 

of the damage inflicted by Hurricane Katrina along the Gulf coast. The 

destruction was so extensive that it overwhelmed first responders and 
184

other emergency relief personnel in both states, as well as FEMA, state, 

and local emergency response managers in both states. With the region’s 

response infrastructure nonfunctional, soldiers stepped in and assumed a 

variety of duties, ensuring that victims received the relief aid and support 

they so desperately needed. 

Although there was not unity of command among the three military 

response chains of command, Lieutenant General Honoré’s proactive 

leadership style facilitated unity of purpose. His insistence that he move 

forward and meet frequently with decisionmakers in the affected states 

paid dividends because he worked out many coordination issues at his 

level. He knew what the states needed and pushed his staff to provide it.

Although the Active component has been criticized for responding 

slowly to the crisis, many soldiers were on station in the affected states long 

before they were authorized to do so by the President. Once the President 

made the decision to deploy troops, they arrived in New Orleans within 

hours of receiving their orders and immediately began solving problems 

wherever they found them. Although soldiers are not explicitly trained in 

civil support operations, they used their soldier skills and the experience 

gleaned in Iraq and other places to effectively bring relief to victims in 

both states.
185

Notes

1. Paul McHale, “Statement on the Department of Defense’s Response to 

Hurricane Katrina,” US House of Representatives, Committee on Appropriations, 

Subcommittee on Defense, 109th Cong., 1st sess., 28 September 2005, http://www.

dod.mil/dodgc/olc/docs/TestMcHale050928.doc (accessed 11 January 2008).

2. US Congress, Senate, Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared, 

Senate Report 109-322, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 2006, 473, http://hsgac.senate.

gov/_files/Katrina/ FullReport.pdf (accessed 8 January 2008).

3. Ibid., 476.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid., 477.

6. “Hurricane Katrina Timeline—2005,” 6 December 2005, https://securell.amedd.army.mil/Reports/HumanitarianAARs/Hurricanes/Katrina/Timeline_

files/frame.htm (accessed 27 November 2007).

7. Major General Richard J. Rowe Jr., “NORTHCOM Title 10 Timeline 

for Hurricane Katrina,” United States Northern Command, 291702Z September 

2005, 2–4.

8. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 478.

9. Rowe, 1–2.

10. Ibid., 2–4.

11. Ibid., 3–4.

12. Jack W. Owens and Tanya L. Schilling, “4th Brigade, 75th Division 

as the Defense Coordinating Element for Hurricanes Katrina and Rita,” Field 

Artillery Journal (1 March 2006), http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/

summary_0286-16108762_ITM (accessed 13 November 2007).

13. Colonel Christian de Graff, “Hurricane Katrina Teleconference, 28 

August 2005,” in “Notes From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, Joint Forces 

Command (JFCOM), 21 September 2005, e-mail provided by Lieutenant Colonel 

Alan R. Koenig, US Army Reserve (USAR), Joint Task Force (JTF) Katrina

History Group.

14. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 479.

15. Owens and Schilling.

16. De Graff, “Hurricane Katrina Teleconference, 28 August 2005.”

17. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 478.

18. Ibid.

19. De Graff, “Hurricane Katrina Teleconference, 28 August 2005.”

20. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 478–479.

21. De Graff, “Hurricane Katrina Teleconference, 28 August 2005.”

22. Lieutenant Colonel Tim Donovan, “Wisconsin Guard Troops Safely 

Weathering Hurricane Katrina,” Wisconsin Army and Air National Guard News 

Release (Madison, WI: Public Affairs Office, 29 August 2005), http://dma.wi.gov/

MediaPublicAffairs/news_detail.asp?onid=238&linkid=49&locid=13 (accessed 

14 January 2005).

23. De Graff, “Hurricane Katrina Teleconference, 28 August 2005.
186

24. Colonel Christian de Graff, “BUB in 1A JOC, 28 August 2005,” in “Notes 

From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, e-mail 

provided by Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina History 

Group.

25. Lieutenant General Russel L. Honoré, interview by James Wombwell, 

Combat Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 28 April 2008.

26. Ibid.

27. Colonel Christian de Graff, “29 August BUB,” in “Notes From Early 

On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, e-mail provided by 

Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina History Group. 

28. Damon Manders, David Tajkowski, and Michael Dace, Rebuilding 

Hope: Task Force Hope and the US Army Corps of Engineers, Mississippi Valley 

Division’s Response to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita (Draft) (St. Louis, MO: US 

Army Corps of Engineers, St. Louis District, February 2008), 84.

29. Colonel Wagenaar took command of the New Orleans District on 12 July 

2005. See Suburban Emergency Management Project, Biot Report #308, “How 

the US Army Corps of Engineers Experienced Hurricane Katrina,” 18 December 

2005, 4, http://www.semp.us/publications/biot_reader.php?BiotID=308 (accessed 

27 November 2007).

30. Manders, Tajkowski, and Dace, 80.

31. Rowe.

32. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 343.

33. Ibid., 344.

34. Task Force Warrior, “Hurricane Katrina: Task Force Warrior AAR,” 5 

October 2005 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL) 

Archives).

35. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 343.

36. Colonel Christian de Graff, “Conference Call, 1300 29 August 2005,” in 

“Notes From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, 

e-mail provided by Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina

History Group.

37. Colonel Christian de Graff, “Conference Call, 1500 30 August 2005,” in 

“Notes From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, 

e-mail provided by Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina

History Group.

38. 93d Signal Brigade, “HQDA CIO/G6 C4 Conference for Hurricanes 

Katrina and Rita,” 25 January 2006 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

39. Colonel Christian de Graff, “1A as JTF-Katrina,” in “Notes From Early 

On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, e-mail provided by 

Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina History Group.

40. Honoré interview.

41. De Graff, “Conference Call at 1500 on 30 August 2005.” 

42. Colonel Christian de Graff, “USNC Conference Call, 30 August 2005,” 

in “Notes From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, 
187

e-mail provided by Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina

History Group.

43. Colonel Christian de Graff, “Conference Call, 31 August 2005,” in 

“Notes From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, 

e-mail provided by Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina

History Group.

44. Ibid.

45. 93d Signal Brigade, “HQDA CIO/G6 C4 Conference for Hurricanes 

Katrina and Rita.”

46. Dawn S. Onley, “Dispatches From the Gulf Coast: How the Army 

Supported Hurricane Katrina Relief Efforts by Establishing and Restoring 

Communications System,” Government Computer News, 19 September 2005, 

http://www.gcn.com/cgi-bin/udt/im.display.printable?client.id=gcn&story.

id=37028 (accessed 12 February 2008).

47. Lieutenant Colonel David Napier, interview by James A. Wombwell, 

Combat Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 19 December 2007.

48. DOD 3025.1M, Manual for Civil Emergencies (Washington, DC: 

Department of Defense, June 1994), 90.

49. Napier interview.

50. Colonel Laverm Young Jr., interview by Sergeant First Class Marc 

Mantini, 305th Military History Detachment, 6 October 2005, in Lieutenant 

Colonel Alan R. Koenig and Master Sergeant Craig A. Mackey, eds., The National 

Guard vs. Hurricane Katrina: Relief Efforts in Mississippi (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, 18 September 2007), 56–57.

51. Rowe.

52. Navy Emergency Preparedness Liaison Officer (NEPLO), CNRFC 

Hurricane Katrina After Action Report, Commander, Naval Reserve Forces 

Command, 16 September 2005, 20 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

53. Major Jack W. Owens, interview by James A. Wombwell, Combat 

Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 18 December 2007.

54. NEPLO, CNRFC Hurricane Katrina After Action Report, 20.

55. Ibid., 21.

56. Owens and Schilling.

57. Ibid. 

58. Napier interview.

59. Owens interview.

60. Ibid.

61. Napier interview.

62. Ibid.

63. Owens and Schilling.

64. Napier interview.

65. Owens interview.

66. Napier interview.

67. Peter A. Topp, “What Should be the Relationship Between the National 
188

Guard and United States Northern Command in Civil Support Operations 

Following Catastrophic Events,” Master of Arts in Security Studies thesis, Naval 

Postgraduate School, September 2006, 16, https://www.hsdl.org/homesec/docs/

theses/06Sep_Topp.pdf&code=d64e201ab9238e1ab17b7b3a2d93249e (accessed 

20 December 2007).

68. Napier interview.

69. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 540.

70. Ibid., 503.

71. Task Force Warrior, “Hurricane Katrina: Task Force Warrior AAR.”

72. Major John B. McNally, “Hurricane Katrina Relief Operations—498th 

Medical Company (AA) After Action Review,” 23 September 2005, https://

secure-ll.amedd.army.mil/Reports/HumanitarianAARs/Hurricanes/Katrina/

498thKatrinaAAR.htm (accessed 27 November 2007).

73. Ibid.

74. “AC Aviation Support as of 021730 SEP 05,” JTF-Katrina Commander’s 

Assessment, 2 September 2005.

75. Task Force Warrior, “Hurricane Katrina: Task Force Warrior AAR.”

76. Manders, Tajkowski, and Dace, 103–104.

77. Ibid., 149.

78. Ibid., 81–82.

79. Ibid., 179.

80. Ibid., 182.

81. Ibid., 87–88.

82. Ibid., 89.

83. Ibid., 91 and 184.

84. Ibid., 15.

85. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 475.

86. “AC Aviation Support as of 021730 SEP 05.” 

87. BrainyQuote, http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/r/russel_honore.html 

(accessed 18 March 2008).

88. Lieutenant General William B. Caldwell IV, Colonel Bryan R. Owens, 

and Command Sergeant Major Wolf Amacker, interview by James A. Wombwell, 

Combat Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 29 April 2008.

89. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 491.

90. 82d Airborne Division, “Mission Analysis as of 01 SEP 05 (Draft),” 

brief dated 010530 September 2005, provided to the author by Major Praxitelis 

N. Vamvakias, 3d Brigade Combat Team (BCT), 82d Airborne.

91. Caldwell, Owens, and Amaker interview.

92. Ibid.

93. Colonel Bryan R. Owens and Captain Robert B. Hamilton, “Task Force 

Panther: 82d Airborne Units Deploy to New Orleans,” Infantry (November–

December 2005): 16, https://www.benning.army.mil/magazine/2005/2005_6/08_

pf3.pdf (accessed 19 February 2008).
189

94. Major General William B. Caldwell IV, “High Praise for 82d Div Arty’s 

Support of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita Relief,” Field Artillery (November–

December 2005): 5–6, http://sill-www.army.mil/famag/2005/NOV_DEC_2005/ 

NOV_DEC_05_PAGES_5_7.pdf (accessed 19 November 2007).

95. Major Craig J. Alia, “A Joint and Interagency Effort: Task Force All 

American’s Response to Hurricane Katrina” (Arlington, VA: Association of the 

United States Army, February 2006), http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3723/

is_200602/ai_n17187126 (accessed 14 November 2007).

96. Ibid.

97. Captain Patrick Chard, “Hurricane Katrina—Lessons Learned,” West 

Virginia National Guard, no date, http://www.wvs.state.wv.us/dmaps/inter/Hur

ricane%20Katrina%20%E2%80%93%20Lessons%20Learned.pdf (accessed 3 

December 2007).

98. Gerry J. Gilmore, “82d Airborne Division Becomes ‘Waterborne’ in 

New Orleans,” American Forces Press Service, 21 September 2005, http://www.

defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17253 (accessed 9 January 2008).

99. Caldwell, “High Praise for 82d Div Arty’s Support of Hurricanes Katrina 

and Rita Relief.”

100. Caldwell, Owens, and Amaker interview.

101. Ibid.

102. Private First Class Jacqueline M. Hawe, “Soldiers, Airmen Help 

Evacuees at New Orleans Convention Center,” American Forces Press Service, 12 

September 2005, http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17330 

(accessed 9 January 2008).

103. Gilmore.

104. Alia.

105. Owens and Hamilton, 16.

106. Caldwell, Owens, and Amaker interview.

107. Honoré interview.

108. 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 82d Airborne Division, “Battle 

Update Brief, 26 SEP 05,” document provided to the author by Major Praxitelis 

N. Vamvakias, 3d BCT, 82d Airborne.

109. Caldwell, Owens, and Amaker interview.

110. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 493.

111. Major Michael C. Donahue, “Title 10 Domestic Humanitarian 

Assistance: New Orleans,” Military Review 88, no. 3 (May–June 2008): 51.

112. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 493.

113. Joint Task Force Katrina, “Task Force All American,” JTF Katrina 

Commander’s Assessment, 12 SEP 05 [1900] (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL 

Archives).

114. Caldwell, “High Praise for 82d Div Arty’s Support of Hurricanes Katrina 

and Rita Relief.”

115. Ibid.
190

116. Gerry J. Gilmore, “Soldiers Give New Orleans Citizens Medical 

Attention,” American Forces Press Service, 20 September 2005, http://www.

defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17259 (accessed 9 January 2008).

117. Caldwell, “High Praise for 82d Div Arty’s Support of Hurricanes Katrina 

and Rita Relief.”

118. Gerry J. Gilmore, “Guardsmen to Assume Mission in New Orleans 

Neighborhood,” American Forces Press Service, 20 September 2005, http://www.

defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=17262 (accessed 9 January 2008).

119. Caldwell, Owens, and Amaker interview.

120. Task Force Panther, “Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, Summary 

Brief,” September 2005, document provided to the author by Major Praxitelis N. 

Vamvakias, 3d BCT, 82d Airborne.

121. Task Force Warrior, “Hurricane Katrina: Task Force Warrior AAR.”

122. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 498.

123. Ibid., 499.

124. Ibid.

125. Captain Ryan T. Tierney, “13th COSCOM Support of Task Force Katrina,” 

Army Logistician 38, no. 5 (September–October 2006): 22–24, http://findarticles.

com/p/articles/mi_m0PAI/is_5_38/ ai_n16753014 (accessed 16 November 2007).

126. Brigadier General Michael J. Terry, “JTF Katrina, Joint Logistics 

Command, 3 SEP–14 NOV 05,” 15 May 2006 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL 

Archives).

127. Private Crystal D. Eldridge, “Soldiers of the 13th COSCOM Deploy 

to New Orleans,” 13th COSCOM Public Affairs Office, September 2005, http://

www.hood.army.mil/13SCE/media/Archive/newsarchive/05sept.htm (accessed 19 

November 2007).

128. Terry.

129. Major Jay R. Adams, “565th Quartermaster Company Help Local 

Police,” 13th Corps Support Command (COSCOM) Public Affairs Office, 

September 2005, http://www.hood.army.mil/13SCE/media/Archive/newsarchive/

05sept.htm (accessed 19 November 2007).

130. Robert K. Ackerman, “Hurricane Response Draws on Iraq Lessons, 

Provides New Insights,” Signal 60, no. 4 (December 2005), http://www.afcea.org/

signal/articles/templates/SIGNAL_Article_ Template.asp?articleid= 1065&zoneid=169 

(accessed 19 November 2007).

131. Sergeant Joel F. Gibson, “Soldiers Combating a New Enemy—New 

Orleans,” 13th COSCOM Public Affairs Office, September 2005, http://www.hood.

army.mil/13SCE/media/Archive/newsarchive/05sept.htm (accessed 19 November 

2007).

132. Captain Aldo Mendoza, Captain Krystal Morris, and Staff Sergeant 

Lisa Brantley, “14th Combat Support Hospital: JTF KATRINA, 05 SEP–15 OCT 

2005,” no date (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

133. Kafia Hosh, “DeWitt Soldiers Provide Support in New Orleans,” Fort 

Belvoir News, no date, http://www.belvoir.army.mil/news.asp?id=dewittneworleans 

(accessed 19 February 2008).
191

134. Mendoza, Morris, and Brantley.

135. Hosh. 

136. Sergeant Joel F. Gibson, “21st CSH Deploys to New Orleans,” 13th 

COSCOM Public Affairs Office, November 2005, http://www.hood.army.mil/

13SCE/media/Archive/newsarchive/05nov.htm (accessed 19 November 2007).

137. American Veterinary Medical Association, “Hurricane Katrina Disaster 

Situation Report #7,” 29 September 2005, http://www.avma.org/disaster/situation_

reports/050929_hurricane_rita.pdf (accessed 14 March 2008).

138. Ari Rabinovitch, “For Animals Whose Lives Were Wrecked by Katrina, 

the Army Veterinary Corps Is Sometimes Their Only Hope,” Columbia News Service, 

1 November 2005, http://jscms.jrn.columbia.edu/cns/2005-11-01/rabinovitch-vetcorps 

(accessed 14 March 2008).

139. Lieutenant Colonel Tami Zalewski, “Hurricane Katrina: 248th Medical 

Detachment (Veterinary Services) Response,” 25 September 2006, document 

provided to the author by Lieutenant Colonel Zalewski.

140. Ibid.

141. Lieutenant Colonel Tami Zalewski, “JTF Katrina After Action Review,” 

248th Medical Detachment (Veterinary Services), 18 November 2005, document 

provided to the author by Lieutenant Colonel Zalewski.

142. Honoré interview.

143. Michael B. Perini, “Supplemental (6) Public Affairs Guidance (PAG)—

Mortuary Affairs (U),” Public Affairs Office, US Northern Command, 15 

September 2005 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

144. Caldwell, Owens, and Amaker interview.

145. Dr. John W. Brinsfield Jr. and Chaplain (Lieutenant Colonel) Kenneth 

E. Lawson, A History of the United States Army Chaplaincy: The Hicks Years

(Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Chaplains, 2007), manuscript provided 

to the author by Dr. Brinsfield.

146. Gwendolyn D. Coley, “Army Reserve Soldiers Providing Hurricane 

Katrina Relief Make History,” Army Reserve Magazine (Spring 2006), http://

findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0KAB/is_4_51/ai_n16689680 (accessed 3 January 

2008).

147. Master Sergeant Richard Lambert, Sergeant First Class Gwendolyn D. 

Coley, and Chuck Prichard, “After the Hurricane: Army Reserve Units Played a Vital 

Role in the Rescue and Recovery Effort That Followed Hurricane Katrina,” Soldiers

61, no. 8 (August 2006): 34, http://www.army.mil/publications/soldiersmagazine/

pdfs/aug06all.pdf (accessed 28 January 2008).

148. Lieutenant Colonel Vince Mercadante, “From the Field,” Chinook 

News 07: A New Era Begins (Ridley Park, PA: The Boeing Company, 2007), 13, 

http://www.boeing.com/rotorcraft/military/ch47d/chinooknews/news_2007.pdf 

(accessed 28 January 2008).

149. Lieutenant Colonel Vince Mercadante, “Task Force 5-159 Hurricane 

JTF Support,” no date, document provided to the author by Lieutenant Colonel 

Mercadante.
192

150. Manders, Tajkowski, and Dace, 199.

151. Ibid., 322.

152. Ibid., 149.

153. Ibid., 150.

154. Ibid., 152.

155. Executive Summary: Hurricane Katrina Response and Recovery

(Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, 11 September 2005), 2 

(Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

156. Manders, Tajkowski, and Dace, 159.

157. Ibid., 164.

158. Ibid., 166.

159. Ibid., 151.

160. Ibid., 157.

161. Colonel Damon Penn, interview by Sergeant First Class Marc Mantini, 

305th Military History Detachment, 18 November 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel 

Alan R. Koenig and Master Sergeant Craig A. Mackey, eds., The National Guard 

vs. Hurricane Katrina: Relief Efforts in Mississippi (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task 

Force Katrina History Group, 18 September 2007), 53–54.

162. Colonel Christian de Graff, “Conference Call, 3 September 2005,” in 

“Notes From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, 

e-mail provided by Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina

History Group [incorrectly indicated as Wednesday instead of Saturday].

163. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 500.

164. Rowe, 19.

165. Rowe, 21.

166. Colonel Christian de Graff, “Notes: 0830 5 September 2005,” in “Notes Colonel Christian de Graff, “Notes: 0830 5 September 2005,” in “Notes “Notes: 0830 5 September 2005,” in “Notes 

From Early On,” e-mail to William Dolan, JFCOM, 21 September 2005, e-mail 

provided by Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, USAR, JTF Katrina History 

Group.

167. Young interview, 57.

168. Ibid., 57–59.

169. Army News Service, “Army Using World’s Largest Water Purifier in Biloxi,” 

16 September 2005, http://www.military.com/NewsContent/0,13319,77221,00.

html (accessed 10 March 2008).

170. Ibid.

171. Joint Task Force Katrina, JTF-Katrina Commander’s Assessment, 07 

SEP 05 [0700] (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

172. Joint Task Force Katrina, JTF-Katrina Commander’s Assessment, 06 

SEP 05 [1830] (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

173. Captain Davis R. Christy, “Notes from the FEMA Teleconference 091600Z 

SEP 05,” e-mail from Captain Davis, US Northern Command (NORTHCOM) J3 

Information Management Group, to NORTHCOM Joint Operations Center (JOC) 

Deputy Chief Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 091241 September 

2005 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).
193

174. Executive Summary: Hurricane Katrina Response and Recovery

(Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, 9 September 2005), 2 (Fort 

Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

175. Joint Task Force Katrina, JTF-Katrina Commander’s Assessment, 06 

SEP 05 [0700].

176. Ibid.

195

Chapter 7

Conclusions

As President George Bush said several weeks after Hurricane Katrina 

devastated Mississippi and Louisiana, Hurricane Katrina was not a normal 

hurricane. Ordinarily, the National Guard forces mustered by Mississippi 

and Louisiana over the weekend before the storm made landfall would 

have been sufficient. But Hurricane Katrina was not normal, and its 

immense size and powerful winds overwhelmed local first responders, 

state emergency management personnel, and the National Guard forces 

mobilized in both states, sparking what became the largest domestic relief 

operation in our Nation’s history. Consequently, the Army’s Hurricane 

Katrina relief effort represents an extraordinary response to an extreme 

circumstance. 

Active-Duty and National Guard soldiers executed the relief operation 

within the framework of the Army doctrine that existed at the time of the 

crisis, FM 100-19, Domestic Support Operations. FM 100-19 articulated 

four main principles for civil support operations:

• The Army will provide support if it does not interfere with national 

requirements.

• Army units will seek to satisfy the unmet needs of victims and 

governments, whether local, state, or Federal. 

• Soldiers will use their core competencies to accomplish the 

mission.

• The aid rendered is temporary in nature. 

The Army forces involved in the relief-and-recovery missions adhered 

to all four tenets delineated in FM 100-19: 

• The Army provided support to the affected states. More than 72,000 

Active-Duty and National Guard troops responded to the crisis. 

Even though thousands of National Guard soldiers were deployed 

overseas at the time, more than 50,000 National Guardsmen from 

all 50 states responded to the call for help from Mississippi and 

Louisiana.

• Since most of the first responders in the region were also victims 

of the storm, the needs of the local citizenry and governments were 

largely unmet until National Guard soldiers, and later Active-Duty 

soldiers, arrived to assist them. Soldiers provided a broad range of 

support, including command and control, communications, supply 
196

distribution management, security, distribution of aid, search and 

rescue, medical assistance, veterinary services, transportation, and 

mortuary assistance.

• The success Army forces achieved depended almost wholly on 

troops using their soldier skills, often times honed overseas in Iraq, 

Afghanistan, or the Balkans, to successfully perform tasks that they 

were almost completely unfamiliar with. Their professionalism, 

competence, and compassion went a long way toward restoring 

the faith of the survivors in their Government.

• The mission was clearly temporary. Troops went to the region to 

help with the relief effort and, once conditions returned to some 

semblance of normality, they redeployed and left the final stage of 

restoration to the local and state governments. 

While the Army’s response to the crisis was outstanding, its doctrine was 

not. Much of FM 100-19 was out of date, reflecting a national emergency 

response command structure that no longer existed in 2005. In addition, the 

doctrine provided little planning guidance or other information for those 

involved in such operations. So, as many units prepared to deploy to the 

affected region, they had to scramble to figure out what they might have to 

do and what they would need to accomplish their missions. One of the most 

useful documents, many units later reported in their after-action reports, 

was the Hurricane Andrew lessons learned report, which gave planners 

concrete advice regarding equipment and personnel requirements. 

But outdated and limited doctrine did not lead to poor results on the 

ground. It was just one more challenge for soldiers to overcome. When 

asked to assess the adequacy of the Army’s doctrine at the time of the 

crisis, Lieutenant General Russel Honoré explained that Army doctrine 

teaches you to do things the right way. But “in warfare,” he went on to say, 

“you are not just focused on doing things the right way, the way doctrine 

describes, but you have to do the right thing, what has to be done right 

now. Sometimes you have to adjust what you do to get the effect that we 

expect. . . .”1

 Clearly soldiers, whether Active Duty or National Guard, 

adjusted on the ground to accomplish their assigned tasks. 

Furthermore, Army leaders recognized FM 100-19’s deficiencies and 

took steps to rectify the situation. Within 6 months of the disaster, the 

Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 

issued a lessons learned manual.2

 Then, a few months later, CALL 

published a staff officer’s handbook.3

 This handbook explains the current 

emergency response structure; delineates the Department of Defense’s 

responsibilities during a variety of emergency response scenarios; provides 
197

specific planning guidance; and describes some of the tactics, techniques, 

and procedures that those involved in civil support operations could use. 

Finally, the Army revised and updated the doctrine during the summer of 

2008, incorporating the current national response command structure and 

many of the lessons learned from the Hurricane Katrina relief operation. 

The revised field manual focuses on the linkages and relationships between 

local, state, Federal, and nongovernmental agencies that the Army might 

interface with during future civil support operations.4

 This revised field 

manual will serve as a guide to organize concluding thoughts regarding the 

Hurricane Katrina relief operation. 

Analysis Using FM 3-28, Civil Support Operations

Chapter 1, Civil Support Operations Overview

The first chapter of FM 3-28 provides an overview of civil support 

operations. Success during a disaster response mission depends on all those 

involved adhering to a “unified approach,” which the manual explains is 

similar to the military concept of unity of effort.5

 The National Incident 

Management System acknowledges that all the agencies and organizations 

involved in disaster response operations report to different command 

authorities, thus requiring a unified approach based on consensus rather 

than on directive. It goes on to describe the various duty statuses—state 

active duty, Title 32, and Title 10. Finally, this chapter articulates several 

principles for civil support operations:

1. Develop measurable objectives.

2. Coordinate with other organizations.

3. Plan to hand over tasks to civil organizations as soon as feasible.

4. Provide essential support to the largest possible number of 

people.

5. Know all legal restrictions and rules for the use of force.

6. Treat all civilians encountered as US citizens.

7. Establish funding.6

Unity of Effort

According to FM 3-0, Operations, one of the nine principles of war 

and operations is unity of command. Unity of command means that “a 

single commander directs and coordinates the actions of all forces toward 

a common objective.”7

 It goes on to say that, in a joint, interagency, 

intergovernmental, or multinational environment, commanders must 

“cooperate, negotiate, and build consensus to achieve unity of effort” since 

their command authority may not extend over all forces involved in the 
198

operation.8 The failure to achieve unity of command negatively affected 

the Army’s response to Hurricane Katrina.

As more and more Federal and National Guard troops flowed into 

Louisiana, officials in both Washington and Baton Rouge worried about 

the chain of command and wanted to ensure that there was unity of effort. 

Governor Kathleen Blanco wanted massive Federal support, including 

Federal troops, but she did not want to give up control of the National 

Guard. President Bush was willing to send Federal troops if necessary, but 

he wanted Federal control over a situation that was seemingly slipping into 

anarchy. After days of negotiation, early Saturday morning, 3 September, 

Governor Blanco rejected President Bush’s proposal that she either request 

federalization of the National Guard or grant Lieutenant General Honoré 

a commission in the Louisiana National Guard so that he could take 

command of both Active component and National Guard forces. At that 

point, President Bush decided to unilaterally send troops to Louisiana to 

meet the growing public demand for more decisive action by the Federal 

Government. 

That decision led to what were essentially three separate relief 

operations in the Gulf area: the National Guard operation in Mississippi 

(Task Force Magnolia), the National Guard operation in Louisiana (Task 

Force Pelican), and the Federal effort (Task Force Katrina), which focused 

almost exclusively on Louisiana. Under this arrangement, there was 

virtually no chance of attaining unity of command, and various conflicts 

inhibited unity of effort. Senator Susan Collins commented during the 

Senate hearings that “the active duty military and the National Guard at 

times seemed to be, to paraphrase Churchill’s famous quip about England 

and America, two forces separated by a common mission.”9

There was a significant difference between the levels of unity of 

effort in Mississippi and in Louisiana. The situation in Mississippi was 

far less complicated because of the limited Active-Duty involvement 

in relief operations in that state. Moreover, the Mississippi adjutant 

general established a command structure for the National Guard forces 

that facilitated unity of effort since Task Force Cyclone commanded all 

National Guard units in the state whether they were Mississippi or out-ofstate National Guard units. 

The situation was much more complicated in Louisiana. First, a large 

Active-Duty contingent operated in the state independently from the 

National Guard effort. Second, Task Force Santa Fe, the National Guard 

division headquarters dispatched to Louisiana, lacked the same level of 

command authority exercised by its counterpart in Mississippi. Even now, 
199

3 years after the event, many of those involved view their relationship in 

starkly contrasting ways. Brigadier General Gary L. Jones, Commander 

of TF Pelican, recalled that Lieutenant General Honoré “made several 

attempts to bring TF Pelican under his control and when those were rejected, 

he basically did his thing and we did ours.”10 Honoré categorically denied 

that he tried to usurp control of National Guard forces, saying that he was 

“totally unconfused by the situation because the National Guard had a 

mission doing the same thing that we were doing.”11 Jones believes that 

the TF Pelican task organization worked very well, while Major General 

James R. Mason, Commander of Task Force Santa Fe, maintains that it 

hindered his ability to apply resources where needed.12

Although unity of command was not achieved, there are numerous 

examples of unity of effort between Title 10 and National Guard forces. 

Despite conflicts, whether real or imagined, between Lieutenant General 

Honoré and senior National Guard leaders in Louisiana, Honoré clearly 

facilitated unity of effort. By constantly operating from forward positions 

in the area of operations, he personally coordinated requests for support 

from senior political and military leaders at both the state and Federal 

levels. Moreover, since Honoré was the senior rater for both Major General 

Mason and Major General Vadnais, he had a preexisting relationship with 

both task force commanders that made coordination and cooperation 

between them and their staffs much easier.13 Mason believed that his task 

force worked well with Task Force All American. He recalled that he and 

Major General Caldwell used face-to-face meetings to allocate mission 

assignments that took advantage of the National Guard troops’ ability to 

carry out law enforcement missions. Task Force All American, in turn, 

focused on search-and-rescue and other relief operations.14 Likewise, 

Caldwell remembered having a good working relationship with the two 

brigade commanders in New Orleans, Brigadier General Deering and 

Brigadier General Douglas A. Pritt.15 Even though unity of effort was 

difficult to develop and maintain, because of the lack of unity of command, 

it did occur in many places. But it was personality driven, and when 

personalities did not mesh, unity of effort faltered.

The Army’s experience during the Hurricane Katrina relief effort 

demonstrates that doctrine alone will not overcome command structure 

deficiencies. Although doctrine emphasizes unity of effort when unity 

of command is unattainable, it was lacking in many areas of the relief 

operation. When commanders worked out smooth relationships among 

themselves, unity of effort was readily apparent; when they did not, the 

opposite was also evident. Moreover, since the military sometimes failed 

to achieve unity of effort, it is not surprising that a complex interagency 
200

operation such as the Hurricane Katrina relief effort likewise often failed 

to achieve unity of effort.

Command and Control 

Hurricane Katrina put stress on all command and control systems, 

whether military or civilian, from the moment it made landfall. The 

hurricane’s unusual combination of size and strength almost completely 

destroyed the region’s communications net. Flooding wiped out a large 

number of roads and left many others impassable because of standing 

water or debris. With limited communications and vehicular movement 

slowed by conditions on the ground, units in the field often operated based 

solely on the commander’s written intentions. 

Communications were particularly problematic throughout the relief 

operation. One of the most important lessons from Hurricane Katrina is that 

the local communications infrastructure cannot be counted on after a natural 

disaster. Unfortunately, that was also a lesson not learned after Hurricane 

Andrew. All of the Hurricane Andrew after-action reports emphasized the 

need for robust communications support in the aftermath of a hurricane, 

but such support was slow to arrive after Hurricane Katrina struck. 

With land-based and wireless communications inoperative, emergency 

managers often resorted to messengers, since there was no other form of 

communications available. Lack of communications inhibited the relief 

process and negatively affected the situational awareness of leaders. 

Still, the United States military, especially the Army, used its resources 

to bridge the communications gap until commercial providers restored 

services. Several communications units provided valuable assistance 

to the relief operation. National Guard civil support teams were used 

extensively to provide communications support. The Active component 

sent communications units to both Camp Shelby and New Orleans, where 

they quickly set up networks that were used by both military and civilian 

personnel.

There were, however, numerous communications problems at the 

tactical level. Many National Guard units either did not bring or did 

not have tactical radios because of equipment shortages exacerbated by 

National Guard deployments overseas.16 To meet the mandate that units 

deploy with at least 90 percent of their required equipment, the National 

Guard instituted a policy of transferring needed equipment such as radios 

and generators from stateside units to deploying units. The consequence 

of that policy was, according to Lieutenant General Clyde Vaughn, the 

Vice Chief of the National Guard Bureau and Director of the Army 
201

National Guard, that overall unit readiness decreased by 41 percent 

from July 2002 through September 2005.17 Even when they had radios, 

units found that their line-of-sight radios did not work well in an urban 

environment. In addition, Army radios were not compatible with civilian 

land mobile radios. Consequently, many units used personal cell phones to 

communicate. Using personal cell phones to conduct official operations, 

while novel, underscores the failure of the military to adequately prepare 

for the loss of communications capabilities during a significant disaster, 

whether manmade or natural.

With communications extremely limited, units used liaison officers 

to fill in the gaps. Liaison officers helped identify missions and facilitated 

cooperation among disparate Federal, state, and local agencies and 

nongovernmental organizations. Units that had the most success during 

the relief operation, such as the 82d Airborne and the Mississippi task 

forces, emphasized the use of liaison officers. But liaison officers were not 

a panacea. Despite the extensive use of liaison officers, Task Force Santa 

Fe was not able to eliminate friction between its staff and Task Force 

Pelican.

During the early stages of the crisis, the military, as well as all other 

government departments and agencies, lacked situational awareness. 

Because of their physical presence at the scenes of destruction, soldiers 

were in touch with both victims and local officials and thus able to provide 

the chain of command with timely and accurate information regarding 

the situation on the ground. Once Title 10 forces arrived in New Orleans, 

they initiated standardized reporting based on the SWEAT criteria they 

used in Iraq. The use of SWEAT-MCS (sewer, water, energy, academics, 

trash, medical, cultural, and security) greatly enhanced the exchange 

of information regarding the situation in the city. Once Army leaders 

understood the needs of survivors and local officials, they took action to 

satisfy those requirements. Sometimes, that was food and water; other 

times, it was providing generators to run fuel pumps, cleaning up schools, 

or clearing debris from streets. Thus, improved reporting increased the 

ability of commanders to assert effective command and control over the 

relief operation. 

Duty Status

The wide variety of military personnel responding to the Hurricane 

Katrina crisis added to the complexity of the relief operation. There were 

Active-Duty forces (Title 10), Reserve forces on Active Duty (Title 10), 

National Guard in a Title 32 status (the Federal Government picks up the 

tab but the state governors retain operational control of their Guardsmen), 
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and National Guard on state active duty (the state pays for all costs and 

retains operational control of the National Guard). Once the negotiations 

between President Bush and Governor Blanco to either establish a dualhat command structure or federalize the National Guard in Louisiana 

failed, there was no chance of attaining unity of command in Louisiana. 

Consequently, three separate military operations evolved in the region: 

National Guard in Mississippi, National Guard in Louisiana, and Joint 

Task Force Katrina.

The wide range of different forces also caused confusion among 

civilian agencies. Few civilians understood the difference between Active 

component and National Guard forces; to them, all soldiers in uniform 

were in the Army. Moreover, since those military forces were not organized 

under a unified command, civilians were unsure where to submit requests 

for assistance. Consequently, many requests for assistance were submitted 

to the state defense coordinating officer who, in turn, routed those requests 

to National Guard authorities. Therefore, confusion about which units 

belonged to which military command structure slowed down the response 

since requests for assistance often went to the wrong place.

Many people consider the decision to transition the National Guard 

from state active duty to Title 32 status one of the most important decisions 

made during the crisis.18 Since individual states pay the costs of using 

its forces while on state active duty, it is likely many states would have 

curtailed their support for the operation because of financial concerns. 

But once Secretary Donald Rumsfeld made the decision to place National 

Guard troops on Title 32 status, thus assuming the costs of the operation, 

more than 50,000 National Guard troops responded to the call to help the 

two states affected by the storm.

Seven Principles of Civil Support Operations 

Examination of the operations in both states shows that the Army 

adhered to the seven principles of civil support operations delineated in FM 

3-28. The 82d Airborne Division developed measurable objectives based 

on SWEAT-MCS and reported the status of those categories daily. Those 

criteria were soon adopted by National Guard forces operating in Orleans 

Parish as well. Similarly, TF Cyclone developed measurable criteria and 

used them to track accomplishments. 

The 82d Airborne also effectively coordinated its efforts with other 

organizations and agencies. For example, the division artillery (DIVARTY) 

established an interagency operations cell at the Louis Armstrong 

International Airport that eventually involved more than 25 entities. TF 

Panther coordinated with FEMA urban search-and-rescue teams and other 
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entities, such as ambulances and civilian boat teams, operating in the city. 

These efforts greatly improved the search-and-rescue process in the city. 

The Mississippi National Guard used Mississippi general officers as 

liaison officers in the affected counties. They served as a buffer between 

the National Guard task forces and county and local politicians, translating 

the political needs of the local politicians into executable missions for the 

National Guard forces. They also helped develop end states, based on 

accomplishment of reportable objectives, so that the out-of-state National 

Guard units could turn over their operations to local or nongovernmental 

organizations as quickly as possible. 

National Guard and Active component task forces in both states 

worked diligently to provide essential support, such as food, water, shelter, 

and electricity to survivors. The primary means of supply distribution were 

points of distribution (PODs) that were strategically located to maximize 

the number of people who could access the sites. During the early days of 

the crisis, since many survivors were unable to travel to PODs, soldiers 

distributed supplies to those in need. Again, the focus of their effort was 

getting supplies to everyone in need quickly. 

Contrary to media reports of violence and mayhem, few soldiers 

confronted hostile situations. Both National Guard and Title 10 leaders 

clearly understood the legal constraints under which they were operating. 

In Orleans Parish, Major General Caldwell negotiated an agreement with 

his National Guard counterparts to embed National Guard soldiers with 

his troops to shield them from the constraints placed on their actions by the 

Posse Comitatus Act. Caldwell also decided early on that his troops would 

wear their red berets instead of helmets to emphasize the nonthreatening 

nature of their mission. These were important symbolic gestures, especially 

in New Orleans where many local citizens feared the local police almost 

as much as criminals. 

Soldiers treated their fellow citizens with compassion and care. 

During the mission to secure the Morial Convention Center and provide 

humanitarian aid to those stranded there, Lieutenant General Honoré 

annoyed some National Guard leaders by directing the National Guard 

soldiers involved in the operation to lower their weapons. There were 

widespread reports that the situation at the Convention Center was totally 

out of control, so the National Guardsmen who carried out the mission 

purposely put on a show of force to ensure that security was quickly 

established in the center.19 But Honoré believed such a show of force 

unnecessary because, as he later recounted, “we were in America. There 

was no threat. Those were primarily women, elderly ladies, and young 
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women with babies so it was the wrong tactic to be pointing weapons 

at Americans.”20 Throughout the relief operation, time and time again, 

citizens commented positively about the treatment they received from 

Army troops.

The final principle, establish funding, is vitally important since that 

is how the Army is reimbursed for the expenses incurred during a civil 

support operation. The Defense Coordinating Element tracked funding, 

but many units, not understanding the importance of this principle, did a 

poor job of managing their expenditures. Consequently, more than 2 years 

after the hurricane hit the Gulf coast, financial personnel at NORTHCOM 

were still trying to sort out the costs of the operation.21

Chapter 2, Integrating Army Operations with National 

Doctrine

This chapter of FM 3-28 examines the National Incident Management 

System. It discusses the roles and responsibilities of both civil authorities 

and military commands and describes how the Army fits into that system. 

Civil support operations are by their very nature interagency. Therefore, 

Army units must also ensure that they fit into the unified command as 

defined by the National Incident Management System. Under this system, 

unified command refers to teamwork and coordination among the various 

organizations and agencies, which facilitates the accomplishment of 

common goals and objectives. Although each emergency support function 

has a lead agency, all other organizations supporting that emergency support 

function must work together to meet the emergency support objectives.22

Since the Department of Defense supports all of the emergency support 

functions, Army units must be prepared to provide support and work with 

a broad range of civilian agencies and nongovernmental organizations. 

The US Army responded to Hurricane Katrina in accordance with 

existing laws and plans. The National Response Plan assigns first response 

duties to local government entities. The military is only brought in if 

local or state agencies are unable to cope with the situation. The National 

Guard, which is the military’s disaster response component, has more 

leeway to act in response to potential emergencies. Typically, the Active 

component only acts if FEMA asks for its help. There is little opportunity 

under existing laws for the Active component to take a more proactive role 

in preparing for potential emergencies. That is appropriate since Active 

component forces are tasked with defending the Nation, and preparing for 

potential natural disasters could interfere with that mission. 

During the Hurricane Katrina crisis, the National Guard served as the 

military’s first line of response to the threat posed by Hurricane Katrina. 
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The Army National Guard in both Mississippi and Louisiana mobilized 

virtually every available soldier before the storm hit. Hundreds of 

National Guard soldiers were in place at critical locations by late Sunday 

evening. In Louisiana, they manned the Superdome, Jackson Barracks, 

and parish Emergency Operations Centers. Other Louisiana Guardsmen in 

HMMWVs (high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicles) were parceled 

out to various police precincts to provide the police with a high-water 

transportation capability. In Mississippi, special strike teams provided 

support to the Emergency Operations Centers in the three coastal counties. 

Once the hurricane passed, thousands of other soldiers moved forward 

from bases out of the hurricane’s path to provide assistance to the victims 

of the storm. Both states activated all of their aviation assets and moved 

them out of the storm’s path. Recognizing the potential impact of the 

storm, they also requested additional helicopters from surrounding states 

through the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) before 

Hurricane Katrina struck. As soon as it was safe to fly, National Guard 

helicopters began search-and-rescue operations. Hundreds of people were 

rescued on 29 August, the day Hurricane Katrina made landfall. National 

Guard helicopters rescued many thousands more over the next few days. 

When it became clear that more forces were needed, the National Guard 

Bureau brokered agreements that quickly brought in tens of thousands 

of soldiers and nearly 200 helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft from other 

states. Despite criticism by both politicians and pundits, the US Army, in 

the form of the National Guard, was on duty in numbers and positioned 

where needed before the storm struck. The magnitude of the destruction 

wrought by Hurricane Katrina made the initial response look inadequate, 

but soldiers were in place before the storm struck.

Although Active component units are supposed to act only as a last 

resort, many major commands, such as First Army and the 82d Airborne, 

conducted premission planning well before they received orders directing 

them to provide hurricane relief support. Such planning facilitated their 

quick response when they were finally authorized to act. The First Army 

assumed command of the Active component relief effort on 30 August. 

The first Title 10 helicopters arrived on 30 August as well. They deployed 

under the immediate response clause before they were requested by FEMA. 

In the days that followed, more than 250 Active component helicopters 

and fixed-wing aircraft flew missions in both states. Once they were 

authorized to act by the President, Army ground forces also quickly moved 

into Louisiana. The 82d Airborne Division had troops on the ground a 

little more than 6 hours after receiving the deployment order. 

The Army responded to the crisis in a timely although ultimately 

inadequate manner. The response was timely because National Guard 
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troops were in place in numbers before the storm hit. If Hurricane Katrina 

had been a normal storm, the response more than likely would have been 

sufficient. But this was not a normal storm, so the initial response fell short 

of what was needed, and many citizens suffered accordingly. Once Army 

leaders understood that both states needed more help, they inundated both 

states with relief personnel, aircraft, and equipment. 

Chapter 3, Provide Support in Response to a Disaster

Chapter 3 of FM 3-28 examines the various emergency support 

functions and the ways in which Army forces could be organized to 

support those functions. Among the command models discussed are a 

parallel command structure, which was used during the Hurricane Katrina 

response operation, and the dual status model, which President Bush tried 

to initiate. The Department of Defense has primary responsibility for only 

one emergency support function: Emergency Support Function #3, Public 

Works and Engineering. But it provides support to all other emergency 

support functions. This chapter also includes planning considerations and 

damage assessment checklists.

All Title 10 forces were organized under a single task force—Joint 

Task Force Katrina. JTF Katrina made extensive use of liaison officers, 

sending them to state and local Emergency Operations Centers, National 

Guard headquarters, and FEMA operations centers. The Active component 

response to the disaster greatly benefited from having a unified command 

structure. The Army Corps of Engineers did not fall under JTF Katrina, 

but Active-Duty and civilian Corps personnel worked diligently to close 

the breaches in the levees and temporarily repair roofs damaged by the 

storm.

Although both Mississippi and Louisiana established task forces 

to control the relief operations in their states, each task force operated 

differently. In Mississippi, Task Force Cyclone commanded all National 

Guard forces in the state and reported on those operations directly to the 

state adjutant general. Since there was unity of command in Mississippi, 

relief operations ran fairly smoothly. In Louisiana, the adjutant general 

maintained control of three task forces—Aviation, Engineers, and Military 

Police. The rest of the National Guard troops operated under Task Force 

Santa Fe. Relations between the staffs of TF Santa Fe and TF Pelican

were strained, and communications were somewhat limited. Consequently, 

there was less cooperation and more duplication of effort in Louisiana.

One reason why both states’ response to the crisis was timely was 

their precrisis planning. The Mississippi National Guard had an up-to-date 
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emergency response plan, which it executed the previous month when 

another hurricane threatened the state. Similarly, Louisiana’s response 

plan ensured that soldiers were in place where they were needed before the 

storm hit. Thus, contrary to media reports, there were sufficient numbers 

of National Guard troops present at the Superdome to provide order and 

security for those who sought refuge there. But no plan survives contact 

with the enemy, and the hurricane response plans were no exception to that 

rule. The plans of both states were quickly overwhelmed by the magnitude 

of the disaster. Troops were in position, but there were not enough of them 

to make a real difference during the first few days of the crisis. There were 

also mistakes. Pre-positioning boats and vehicles at Jackson Barracks, one 

of the lowest spots in New Orleans, was clearly a mistake. Much valuable 

equipment was lost when the levees broke and flooded the compound. 

Still, state planning was useful because the framework was in place so 

that, when out-of-state reinforcements arrived, they were used effectively 

to bring relief to the survivors. 

Since Title 10 forces are not first responders, there were no plans in 

place. But many Active component units began planning for the relief 

mission early in the crisis. The First Army staff began planning days before 

the storm struck and was in the midst of moving a forward headquarters 

to Camp Shelby when the storm hit. Prior planning enabled First Army to 

act quickly and decisively when directed to take command of all Active 

component forces in the area of operations. The 82d Airborne Division 

staff also began planning several days before it deployed. On Friday, 2 

September, the division conducted a full-scale mobilization exercise. When 

it did not receive orders to deploy late Friday afternoon, Major General 

Caldwell stood down his troops but left the equipment on the tarmac. That 

decision served the division well the next day when deployment orders 

were received. With the equipment in place, all the division had to do 

was get the soldiers on the planes. As a result, the division was able to 

put soldiers on the ground in New Orleans a little more than 6 hours after 

receiving the order to deploy. 

Although damage assessment is the responsibility of FEMA and local 

emergency response organizations, this is one area in which the military 

could have made a positive contribution during the first few hours of the 

crisis. The failure to thoroughly evaluate the damage wrought by Hurricane 

Katrina severely hampered the initial response to the crisis. No one really 

understood the magnitude of destruction Hurricane Katrina inflicted on 

both Mississippi and Louisiana for more than a day after the hurricane 

made landfall. The Department of Defense could have quickly brought in 
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resources and assisted more fully with the damage assessment, but there 

was a reluctance to do more until Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon 

England issued the “blank check.” Assistant Secretary of Defense for 

Homeland Defense Paul McHale acknowledged during testimony before 

the Senate that the Department of Defense should have and must do better 

in this area.23

Chapter 4, Support to Law Enforcement

This chapter examines Army support to civil law enforcement 

operations. Although the Posse Comitatus Act greatly limits the degree 

of support Active component forces can provide during civil support 

operations, National Guard troops on state active duty or Title 32 status 

are able to participate in law enforcement activities. This chapter describes 

both the pertinent laws and the exceptions to those laws. It also provides 

the types of law enforcement missions soldiers might support.

Both National Guard and Active component forces provided valuable 

support to law enforcement officials. National Guard soldiers conducted a 

variety of law enforcement missions, ranging from manning security posts 

to patrolling the streets along with police officers. In one parish, National 

Guard soldiers were actually deputized, and in another parish, they took 

over security duties at the local shelter. No matter what the situation, the 

arrival of National Guard soldiers on the scene greatly helped local law 

enforcement officials, who were tired and overworked after days on the 

job. By taking over law enforcement and security missions, the National 

Guard enabled local police officers to resume their normal duties and work 

routines. Although the Posse Comitatus Act prevents Active component 

soldiers from conducting law enforcement missions, their mere presence 

helped quell disorder wherever they operated. Citizens in one district in 

New Orleans told soldiers that they were able to open their windows at 

night for the first time in years. 

Active component soldiers, however, could have provided even 

more support if the President had decided to invoke the Insurrection Act. 

Under this statute, the President can unilaterally deploy forces if domestic 

violence impedes the execution of Federal laws. Although his father used 

the Insurrection Act to send in Federal troops to quell the Los Angeles riots 

in 1992, President Bush chose not to do so. Instead, he sent troops into 

the region, but they had to abide by the limitations placed on them by the 

Posse Comitatus Act.
209

Even though many people later called for the modification or repeal 

of the Posse Comitatus Act, the act did not hinder Active component 

operations. Title 10 soldiers understood the limits the act placed on their 

actions, and their commanders were careful not to put them in potentially 

compromising situations. While Posse Comitatus restrictions caused some 

frustration among the Active component soldiers, who wanted to search 

for survivors more aggressively, their leaders came up with innovative 

ways, such as embedding National Guard troops with Active component 

patrols, to get the job done and still remain in compliance with the law. 

As long as Active component and National Guard commanders focused 

on unity of effort, such arrangements worked effectively. There were, 

unfortunately, instances of National Guard officers refusing to allow their 

soldiers to work with Title 10 forces because of the implied subordination 

of the Guardsmen to the Active-Duty soldiers. Still, in most cases, they 

were able to work through the issues soldier to soldier. 

Chapter 6, Legal Considerations

Chapter 6 looks at the underlying legal authorities that relate to civil 

support operations. Typically, Federal military forces only assist with 

civil support missions if directed to do so by the President. But Federal 

forces can act under their immediate response authority to provide support 

to areas affected by Hurricane Katrina. Active component helicopters 

began arriving a few days after the hurricane struck. Most of the aircraft 

deployed based on perceived need and the authorization Deputy Secretary 

England’s blank check provided. They conducted search-and-rescue 

missions, dropped sandbags in the levee breaches, and transported supplies 

throughout the operating area. Other units deployed under this authority 

and provided communications, medical, and logistics support.

Intelligence Support and Information Sharing

Another important legal concern was discerning the limits of military 

intelligence support. Even though there are statutory restrictions on the use 

of military intelligence during domestic support operations, intelligence 

units contributed greatly to the overall success of the mission. To preclude 

any mistaken notions regarding the purpose of the information-gathering 

effort, intelligence support was renamed information support. Despite 

statutory limitations, intelligence personnel used their analytical skills to 

provide effective information support using open source materials. Better 

and more timely access to military intelligence sources would, however, 

have greatly improved situational awareness for commanders.
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Chapter 7, Sustainment

Like FM 100-19, Domestic Support Operations, FM 3-28 asserts that 

sustainment is one of the most important facets of civil support operations. 

It is the warfighting function that provides “support and services to ensure 

freedom of action, extend operational reach, and prolong endurance.”24 Most 

relief operations involve areas heavily damaged by a natural or manmade 

event. With the public infrastructure inoperable and private enterprises 

unavailable, the military is often asked to step in and provide the support 

necessary to sustain life in the affected area. That was certainly the case 

during the Hurricane Katrina relief operation. Military forces provided 

food, water, ice, fuel, and medical care to those in need. Later, other units 

arrived to provide a range of support services to units in the field, such 

as command and control; communications; aviation; engineer; reception, 

staging, onward movement, and integration (RSOI); transportation; 

decontamination; military police; religious support; and mortuary support. 

Although contracting is the preferred method for sustaining logistics 

support, during a severe crisis, such as Hurricane Katrina, which wiped 

out much of the infrastructure and many businesses in the region, military 

forces may need to provide direct sustainment support. 

Logistics

FM 100-19 asserts that all disaster response missions are essentially 

logistical in nature. That was certainly the case during the response to 

Hurricane Katrina. Logistics operated on a number of levels. First, there 

was logistics support—humanitarian aid—distributed to victims of the 

storm. The Army also provided logistics support to FEMA, helping the 

agency track its commodities. Finally, there was also logistics support for 

the military units involved in the relief operation. 

Humanitarian aid was typically distributed to those in need at points 

of distribution. These were driveup locations where citizens could pick up 

food, water, ice, tarps, and other goods. Active-Duty and National Guard 

personnel manned PODs throughout the operating area. At times, especially 

during the early stages of the relief operation, military personnel delivered 

relief aid to people who could not get to a nearby POD. Both of these 

distribution techniques proved highly effective in getting relief supplies 

to those in need. Of course, following the dictum of providing support to 

the largest number of people possible, PODs are much more effective than 

individual deliveries, but conditions in both states sometimes required 

such individual support.

At FEMA’s request, the Army provided logistics management support 

because the magnitude of the disaster had overwhelmed FEMA’s ability 
211

to manage its logistics system. The Army never took over full control 

of FEMA’s logistics operation, but it did help FEMA track supplies and 

manage supply distribution centers.

The almost constant ebb and flow of forces also made the task 

of sustaining the troops in the field challenging. Most arriving units 

understood that they had to bring enough food and supplies to sustain 

their operations for a week or more without support. The two National 

Guard divisional headquarters, Task Forces Santa Fe and Cyclone, worked 

diligently to provide their assigned forces what they needed, but they had 

a hard time tracking units and ascertaining their needs. Better coordination 

and planning for the deployment and redeployment of National Guard 

forces would have improved support significantly for forces operating in 

both states. Even so, both logistics staffs greatly improved conditions on 

the ground during the relief operation.

Aviation Support

Even before Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf coast, National Guard 

leaders began marshaling additional aviation support. Out-of-state air 

support began to arrive on the day Hurricane Katrina made landfall. By 

Tuesday, 30 August, 64 National Guard aircraft were on station in both 

states.25 Active component helicopters arrived on Tuesday, 30 August. As the 

full scope of the devastation in Mississippi and Louisiana became apparent, 

the number of aircraft deploying to both states increased exponentially. By 

6 September, 8 days after Hurricane Katrina made landfall, more than 350 

Title 10 and National Guard aircraft were operating in both Mississippi 

and Louisiana.26 Although the number of aircraft on hand proved woefully 

inadequate at first, the situation changed quickly, and within days, sufficient 

helicopters were available to conduct a wide range of support missions, 

such as search and rescue, personnel and logistics transportation, levee 

repairs, and firefighting. The speed and responsiveness of the Army’s 

aviation forces were a clear success. Although there were problems, such 

as the initial difficulties with air traffic control, there were no aviation 

mishaps, and Army helicopters rescued almost 3,000 people.27

Engineer Support

Engineering units are always valuable assets during disaster relief 

operations. These assets were handled differently in Mississippi and in 

Louisiana. In Mississippi, Task Force Engineer operated under Task Force 

Cyclone, but it was allowed to operate independently to carry out its road 

clearance mission. Out-of-state engineer units were parceled out to task 

force commanders who made the decision where to deploy their forces. 

That was not the case in Louisiana, where Task Force Pelican maintained 
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close control over almost all engineer units. Although the engineers 

effectively performed their missions in both states, pushing control of 

the engineers down to subordinate task forces improved response time in 

Mississippi.

RSOI Support

The receipt and subsequent redeployment of National Guard forces 

proved challenging in both states. As early as Tuesday, 30 August, Louisiana 

officials expressed concern about the uncontrolled influx of forces into their 

state. Several times, National Guard units dispatched to the affected states 

by their governors arrived without notice and deployed to an operating 

area without direction from TF Pelican. Even more critical, units returned 

on orders from the governor, making it difficult for the various task forces 

to manage resources. Two organizational decisions complicated the RSOI 

process in Louisiana. First, there were two RSOI sites in Louisiana, a 

ground reception center near Alexandria and an air reception center at 

Belle Chasse, which meant that two separate RSOI structures were in 

operation simultaneously in Louisiana. Second, the chain of command in 

Louisiana was not clear to units reporting in to the state. Unit after-action 

reports point out the confusion. One unit deployed at the direction of TF 

Santa Fe, but once it arrived at its designated location, TF Pelican directed 

it to another site. Mississippi suffered similar problems, but TF Cyclone

managed the problem more effectively. The clear chain of command in 

Mississippi and the single RSOI site in the state no doubt helped. 

Other Sustainment Support Operations

Active component and National Guard forces provided a wide range 

of other sustainment support missions. Active-Duty, Reserve, and National 

Guard transportation units delivered supplies and transported personnel 

throughout both states. High-water vehicles were in particular demand, as 

they could better negotiate the flooded streets of New Orleans or debrisstrewn roads in Mississippi. The 21st Chemical Company performed a 

real-world decontamination mission, providing assistance to both military 

units and civilian organizations. Military police units were also in high 

demand. In the days after Hurricane Katrina struck, it appeared as if New 

Orleans was descending into total anarchy. The National Guard responded 

to the crisis by deploying more than 4,000 military police to the city over a 

3-day period. Military police also relieved local law enforcement agencies 

of many of their extra security obligations brought on by Hurricane 

Katrina, allowing them to resume their normal work schedule. Religious 

support was another important sustainment mission. Army leaders realized 

that working in the horrible conditions in Louisiana and Mississippi and 
213

constantly looking at and smelling the death and destruction meted out by 

Hurricane Katrina might negatively affect morale. Many units ensured that 

their chaplains were among the first personnel deployed so that they were 

available to minister to the needs of the troops. Finally, the Army provided 

mortuary support. Although civilian organizations were initially tasked to 

perform this mission, as delays in starting the mission continued, Army 

mortuary units deployed to help. Troops from the 82d Airborne Division 

later assisted the civilian contractor with remains removal. Once again, 

chaplains played an important role in this mission because a chaplain 

accompanied every team to minister to the team members and to ensure 

that all deceased persons were handled with dignity and respect.

Summary

The adage “expect the unexpected” clearly applies to civil support 

operations. Many units deployed without knowing where they were going. 

The 82d Airborne Division did not even know which state it was deploying 

to until division elements were in the air. Then, once units arrived, they 

frequently performed missions that went well beyond the expected scope 

of operations. Soldiers did much more than conduct search and rescue, 

provide security, and distribute supplies. They cleared debris, cleaned up 

damaged buildings, cooked meals, acted as sources of information for 

survivors, provided medical care, and, perhaps most important, represented 

the Nation’s concern for the well being of its fellow citizens.

In the weeks and months after Hurricane Katrina devastated the Gulf 

coast, there was much criticism of the Federal Government’s handling 

of the subsequent relief effort. Politicians, pundits, and ordinary citizens 

focused much of that criticism on FEMA and the Department of Homeland 

Security, although some of it was directed toward the military as well. 

There were complaints that the Department of Defense’s response had 

been bureaucratic, slow, and inadequate. But a closer examination reveals 

that the United States Army, media reports to the contrary, responded to 

the crisis in a timely manner. Although Hurricane Katrina was a worstcase situation, the Army responded effectively, using techniques and 

methods honed in Iraq and during humanitarian relief operations in Central 

America and Southeast Asia. There were thousands of soldiers on duty 

when the hurricane struck. Within days, once the scope of the disaster 

was fully realized, both the National Guard and Active component flooded 

the region with troops, helicopters, equipment, and supplies. The massive 

response by the military was necessary, given the incredible destruction 

caused by the hurricane.

The Army’s success in providing assistance to the stricken citizens 

of the Gulf coast changed the expectations of the American people. Even 
214

though the Army is more fully engaged throughout the world than ever 

before, American citizens expect that, in time of need, the Army will step 

in and take care of them. The efficiency and compassion of American 

soldiers, especially when compared to the response by FEMA and other 

agencies, brought forth many calls to pass the mission over the military 

entirely. While that is unlikely, expectations of military assistance have 

been raised higher than ever before. Thus, it behooves the Army to prepare 

for and train for such contingencies. 
215

Notes

1. Lieutenant General Russel L. Honoré, interview by James Wombwell, 

Combat Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 28 April 2008.

2. Initial Impressions Report No. 06-11, Disaster Response: Hurricanes 

Katrina and Rita (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army Lessons Learned 

(CALL), February 2006).

3. Handbook No. 06-8, Catastrophic Disaster Response Staff Officer’s 

Handbook (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL, May 2006).

4. FM 3-28, Civil Support Operations, Final Draft (Washington, DC: 

Department of the Army, 14 April 2008), viii.

5. Ibid., 1-5.

6. Ibid., 1-8–1-10.

7. FM 3-0, Operations (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 27 

February 2008), A-3.

8. Ibid.

9. US Congress. Senate, Hurricane Katrina: The Defense Department’s 

Role in the Response, Senate Hearing 109-813, Committee on Homeland Security 

and Governmental Affairs, 9 February 2006, http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109_senate_hearings&docid=f:27028.pdf (accessed 30 

April 2008).

10. Brigadier General Gary L. Jones, Retired, e-mail to author, 21 July 

2008.

11. Honoré interview.

12. Jones e-mail to author; Major General James R. Mason, interview by 

Major Anthony Randle, 102d Military History Detachment, 5 October 2005, 

in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. Koenig, ed., National Guard Relief Efforts in 

Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint Task Force Katrina History Group, January 

2008), 80.

13. Honoré interview.

14. Major General James R. Mason, interview by Major Bruce Kish, 305th 

Military History Detachment, 3 December 2005, in Lieutenant Colonel Alan R. 

Koenig, ed., National Guard Relief Efforts in Louisiana (Fort Gillem, GA: Joint 

Task Force Katrina History Group, January 2008), 91.

15. Lieutenant General William B. Caldwell IV, Colonel Bryan R. Owens, 

and Command Sergeant Major Wolf Amacker, interview by James A. Wombwell, 

Combat Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 29 April 2008.

16. Steve Bowman, Lawrence Kapp, and Amy Belasco, CRS RL33095, 

Hurricane Katrina: DOD Disaster Response (Washington, DC: Congressional 

Research Service, 19 September 2005), 15, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/

RL33095.pdf (accessed 3 December 2007). 

17. Mackenzie Eaglen, “Equipping the Army National Guard for the 21st 

Century,” Heritage Foundation Backgrounder, 13 November 2006, http://www.

heritage.org/Research/NationalSecurity/bg1983.cfm (accessed 30 April 2008).
216

18. Brigadier General Joseph L. Culver and Brigadier General Tod J. 

Carmony, interview with James A. Wombwell, Combat Studies Institute, Fort 

Leavenworth, KS, 23 July 2008.

19. Jones e-mail to author.

20. Honoré interview.

21. Major Jack W. Owens, interview by James A. Wombwell, Combat 

Studies Institute, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 18 December 2007.

22. FM 3-28, 2-8.

23. US Congress. Senate, Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared,

Senate Report 109-322, 109th Cong., 2d sess., 2006, 483, http://hsgac.senate.

gov/_files/Katrina/ FullReport.pdf (accessed 8 January 2008).

24. FM 3-0, 4-5.

25. US Congress. House, A Failure of Initiative: Final Report of the 

Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to 

Hurricane Katrina, 109th Cong. 2d sess., 15 February 2006, 206, http://www.cspan.org/pdf/katrinareport.pdf (accessed 17 December 2007). 

26. Joint Task Force Katrina, JTF-Katrina Commander’s Assessment, 06 

SEP 05 [0700] (Fort Leavenworth, KS: CALL Archives).

27. Senate, A Nation Still Unprepared, 200.
217

Glossary

abn	 airborne

AO	 area of operations

ASPCA	 American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 	 	

Animals

AVIM	 aviation intermediate maintenance

BCT	 brigade combat team

BCS3	 Battle Command Sustainment Supply System

BG	 brigadier general

CALL	 Center for Army Lessons Learned

CBRNE	 chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or high-	 	

yield explosives

CDT	 central daylight time

COL	 colonel

COSCOM	 corps support command

CST	 civil support team

DCE	 Defense Coordinating Element

DCO	 defense coordinating officer

DHS	 Department of Homeland Security

div	 division

DIVARTY	 division artillery

DMAT	 Disaster Medical Assistance Team

DOD	 Department of Defense

DRF	 division ready force

DSCA	 defense support of civil authorities

EMAC	 Emergency Management Assistance Compact

EOC	 Emergency Operations Center

EPA	 Environmental Protection Agency

ESF	 emergency support function

EUWP	 Expeditionary Unit Water Purifier

FCO	 Federal coordinating official

FEMA	 Federal Emergency Management Agency

FM	 field manual

FOB	 forward operating base

FORSCOM	 US Army Forces Command

FOSA	 Federal operational staging area

HEMTT	 heavy expanded mobility tactical truck

HMMWV	 high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle

HSPD 5	 Homeland Security Presidential Directive 5

ID	 infantry division

INMARSAT	 International Maritime Satellite System

JDOMS	 Joint Directorate of Military Support

JFCOM	 Joint Forces Command

JOA	 joint operating area
218

JOC	 Joint Operations Center

JP	 joint publication

JTF	 joint task force

LCAC	 landing craft air cushion

LMR	 land mobile radio

LSU	 Louisiana State University

LTC	 lieutenant colonel

LTG	 lieutenant general

MEDCOM	 Medical Command

MEDEVAC	 medical evacuation

MEMA	 Mississippi Emergency Management Agency

MG	 major general

MP	 military police

mph	 miles per hour

MRE	 meal, ready to eat

NCO	 noncommissioned officer

NEPLO	 Navy emergency preparedness liaison officer

NG	 National Guard

NHC	 National Hurricane Center

NOAA	 National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration

NORTHCOM	 United States Northern Command

NRCC	 National Response Coordination Center

NRP	 National Response Plan

OMB	 Office of Management and Budget

OSA	 operational support airlift

POD	 point of distribution

QRF	 quick reaction force

RAID	 reconnaissance and interdiction detachment

RNA rapid needs assessment

ROWPU	 Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit

RRCC	 Regional Response Coordination Center

RSA	 regional support area

RSOI	 reception, staging, onward movement, and integration

SAR	 search and rescue

SEMP	 Suburban Emergency Management Project

SERT	 State Emergency Response Team

SFOR	 Stabilization Force

SINCGARS	 Single-Channel Ground and Airborne Radar System

SITREP	 situation report

SRAAG	 Senior Army Adviser, Army National Guard

SUV	 sport utility vehicle

SWEAT	 sewer, water, energy, academics, trash

SWEAT-MCS	 sewer, water, energy, academics, trash, medical, 	 	

cultural, and security

TCP	 traffic control point
219

TF	 task force

TOC	 tactical operations center

TRANSCOM	 United States Transportation Command

TTP	 tactics, techniques, and procedures

TWPS	 Tactical Water Purification System

USAFHRA	 US Air Force Historical Research Agency

USAR	 US Army Reserve

USARCENT	 US Army Forces, Central Command

USC	 United States Code

USCG	 US Coast Guard

VA	 Department of Veterans Affairs

VADM	 vice admiral

VFR	 visual flight rules

VIP	 very important person

221

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245

Appendix A

Hurricane Katrina Chronology

Tuesday, 23 August 2005

•	 Tropical Depression 12 develops about 200 miles southeast of the 

Bahamas.

Thursday, 25 August 2005

•	 Tropical Storm Katrina is upgraded to Hurricane Katrina.

•	 Hurricane Katrina, a Category 1 hurricane, hits FL.

Friday, 26 August 2005

•	 Governor Blanco declares a state of emergency for LA.

•	 Governor Barbour declares a state of emergency for MS.

•	 Hurricane Katrina is upgraded to a Category 2 hurricane.

Saturday, 27 August 2005

•	 People in LA begin coastal evacuations at 0900. The state implements 

the contraflow plan at 1600.

•	 Governor Blanco asks President Bush to declare a Federal state of 

emergency in LA. Several hours later, he does so.

•	 Hurricane Katrina is upgraded to a Category 3 hurricane.

Sunday, 28 August 2005

•	 The Superdome opens as a “special needs” shelter.

•	 Mayor Nagin announces the mandatory evacuation of New Orleans.

•	 The Superdome opens as a “shelter of last resort” for the general 

public.

•	 Contraflow evacuation operations end at 1700.

•	 Hurricane Katrina is upgraded to a Category 4 and then Category 5 

hurricane with maximum sustained winds of almost 160 mph.

•	 The LA DCO, COL Daskevich, arrives in Baton Rouge along with a 

DSCA planner.

•	 The LA DCE (12 members) drives to Houston at 0115.

Monday, 29 August 2005

•	 Hurricane Katrina makes landfall near Buras, LA, at 0610 CDT as a 

Category 3 hurricane.

•	 Hurricane Katrina makes landfall in MS about 1000.

•	 Three levees fail in New Orleans: Industrial Canal, 17th Street Canal, 

and London Avenue Canal. Other levees are overtopped but do not 

fail.

•	 NORTHCOM activates its battle staff.
246

•	 The Army National Guard positions 65 helicopters—42 UH-60s, 8 

UH-1s, and 15 CH-47s—in MS, LA, FL, TX, and AL to support relief 

operations.

•	 First out-of-state forces arrive in LA (2 Blackhawks from OK) and MS 

(2 Blackhawks from AR).

Tuesday, 30 August 2005

•	 Mayor Nagin reportedly opens the Convention Center as a “refuge of 

last resort” for the general public.

•	 Neighboring states, acting on existing EMAC agreements, begin 

supplying troops and equipment to LA, MS, and AL.

•	 Acting Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon England gives 

NORTHCOM blanket authority (“blank check”) to provide whatever 

military assistance is needed to the affected states.

•	 LTG Russel L. Honoré drives to Camp Shelby, MS. Later that 

afternoon, he drives to Gulfport and meets with the governor and 

adjutant general.

•	 NORTHCOM establishes JTF Katrina and assigns LTG Honoré as the 

commander.

•	 Conditions deteriorate in the Superdome when the plumbing fails.

•	 Secretary Michael Chertoff, Department of Homeland Security, 

declares Hurricane Katrina an incident of national significance.

•	 Secretary Chertoff designates Michael Brown, Director of FEMA, as 

the principal Federal official. 

•	 MS officials report that one of their biggest commodity shortfalls is 

fuel.

•	 MS officials voice concern that they are not receiving the same level 

of support as Louisiana.

•	 Airport officials report that the Louis Armstrong International Airport 

in New Orleans has limited VFR only capabilities.

Wednesday, 31 August 2005

•	 President Bush flies over the region to survey the damage.

•	 FEMA sends a mission assignment requesting buses to the Department 

of Transportation. The first buses arrive in the evening and are used to 

evacuate special needs patients to Houston.

•	 Governor Blanco and President Bush discuss military assistance and 

the need for a unified command structure.

•	 TX officials prepare the Astrodome to accept up to 23,000 evacuees.

•	 The Corps of Engineers attempts to close the 17th Street Canal 

breach.

•	 The chief of the National Guard Bureau exhorts all state adjutant 
247

generals to send as many troops and as much equipment to LA and 

MS as they can.

•	 Governor Blanco asks LTG Honoré to coordinate the evacuation of the 

Superdome. LTG Honoré hands the assignment to BG Mark Graham, 

Deputy Commander of the US Fifth Army, who had just arrived in 

New Orleans.

•	 LTG Honoré directs the AL DCO, COL Young, to move forward to 

Gulfport.

Thursday, 1 September 2005

•	 Superdome evacuation begins at 1000.

•	 FEMA requests that DOD take responsibility for providing “full 

logistics support” across the entire area affected by Hurricane Katrina. 

The cost estimate for this support was set at $1 billion.

•	 The National Guard begins deploying MPs to New Orleans. The first 

of three 1,400 MP contingents arrive.

•	 Three CH-47s and 12 UH-60s from the 4th Infantry Division begin 

operations in LA.

Friday, 2 September 2005

•	 President Bush and Governor Blanco meet in LA and discuss command 

and control issues.

•	 MS officials warn that the commodity situation in the state is critical.

•	 National Guard troops restore order at the Convention Center.

•	 The White House faxes a dual-hat proposal to Governor Blanco.

•	 Air evacuations begin from the New Orleans International Airport.

•	 St. Bernard and 9th Ward Levee breaches are closed.

•	 FEMA requests DOD assistance with logistics distribution in MS.

•	 Another 1,400 Army National Guard MPs arrive in New Orleans.

Saturday, 3 September 2005

•	 Governor Blanco rejects the dual-hat proposal.

•	 President Bush announces the deployment of 7,200 Title 10 troops to 

the Gulf region.

•	 The 3d Brigade and 319th Field Artillery Regiment from the 82d 

Airborne Division deploy to New Orleans.

•	 The 2d Brigade/1st Cavalry Division deploys to Hammond, LA.

•	 Evacuation operations begin at the Convention Center and are 

completed by early evening.

•	 The Superdome evacuation is complete.

•	 All hospitals in New Orleans have been evacuated.

•	 The last of the 1,400 Army National Guard MPs arrive in New 

Orleans.
248

Sunday, 4 September 2005

•	 The last group of evacuees depart the Louis Armstrong International 

Airport at 0800.

•	 The Corps of Engineers closes the mouth of the 17th Street Canal 

using sheet pilings.

•	 The 82d Airborne continues to flow into New Orleans. 

Monday, 5 September 2005

•	 The 82d Airborne assumes control of the Convention Center.

•	 The chief of the National Guard Bureau asks the Secretary of Defense 

to convert all National Guard troops to Title 32 status.

•	 The 4th Brigade/4th Mountain Division sends 65 trucks and drivers to 

New Orleans.

•	 DOD delivers 320 tons of MREs to Gulfport, MS.

•	 About 120 soldiers from the 4th Psychological Operations Group 

arrive at Camp Shelby to provide public information support using 

man-portable and vehicle-mounted loudspeakers.

Tuesday, 6 September 2005

•	 The general search-and-rescue mission in New Orleans is complete. 

Officials are now implementing a more deliberate and detailed searchand-rescue mission. 

•	 The Corps of Engineers closes the 17th Street Canal breach.

•	 The Corps of Engineers makes three deliberate breaches in levees in 

St. Bernard Parish to facilitate natural drainage.

•	 Approximately 1,700 paratroopers from the 82d Airborne Division 

arrive in New Orleans.

•	 Approximately 1,700 soldiers from the 1st Cavalry Division arrive in 

New Orleans.

•	 DOD delivers 1,500 LMRs to New Orleans.

Wednesday, 7 September 2005

•	 Secondary searches begin. 

•	 Mayor Nagin announces that he will forcibly evacuate residents who 

refuse to leave the city. 

•	 DOD agrees to assist with commodity distribution in LA.

•	 The 13th COSCOM is en route to New Orleans.

Thursday, 8 September 205

•	 Approximately 60 percent of New Orleans (Orleans Parish) remains 

under water.

•	 Twelve UH-60s are redeployed from the 2/4th Cavalry and 4th Infantry 

Division.
249

•	 The 14th Combat Support Hospital arrives.

•	 Mortuary affairs operations begin.

Friday, 9 September 2005

•	 Search-and-rescue teams begin a deliberate search in New Orleans.

•	 St. Charles and Jefferson (East Bank) Parishes are reported dry. Depths 

of flood waters remaining in New Orleans range as high as 15 feet. St. 

Bernard Parish has 7 feet of water throughout the developed areas of 

the parish. 

•	 The MS Gulf coast is now accessible from the north and east and from 

eastern LA.

•	 The London Avenue and Inner Harbor Navigational Canal breaches 

are closed. 

•	 Evacuation flights out of Louis Armstrong International Airport end. 

Some 26,000 people were evacuated through the airport.

•	 The 4th Infantry Division returns to TX to resume preparations to 

deploy to Iraq.

Saturday, 10 September 2005

•	 Mississippi Power and Light Company reports that power has been 

restored to 90% of the customers able to receive power.

•	 The Department of Homeland Security designates VADM Thad Allen, 

USCG, as the principal Federal official in the affected states.

Sunday, 11 September 2005

•	 Oil production in the Gulf of Mexico is at 41% of its pre-Hurricane 

Katrina level and gas production is at 62%.

Monday, 12 September 2005

•	 Tropical Storm Ophelia threatens the east coast.

•	 Primary searches are complete in New Orleans

•	 Search-and-rescue operations expand into outlying parishes.

•	 Air rescue missions end.

•	 The Secretary of Defense directs the deployment of nine mortuary 

affairs teams to LA.

Tuesday, 13 September 2005

•	 Ophelia is designated a Category 1 hurricane.

•	 The 54th Quartermaster Company (Mortuary Affairs) arrives in New 

Orleans.

•	 Louis Armstrong International Airport opens for limited commercial 

flights.

•	 DOD forces complete the “hasty search-and-rescue” mission.
250

Thursday, 15 September 2005

•	 Mayor Nagin announces that businesses and residents will be allowed 

to return to the city beginning Monday, 19 September. 

•	 Primary searches are complete in Orleans, Jefferson, and St. Bernard 

Parishes.

Friday, 16 September 2005

•	 MS begins the 38th Infantry Division “force adjustment.” 

•	 AL redeploys 1,500 personnel. 

•	 Plans are under development to transfer all Active component missions 

in LA to the National Guard no later than 29 September. All aviation 

missions will transition between 19 and 22 September.

Saturday, 17 September 2005

•	 GA National Guard units, 1,065 soldiers and airmen, plan to withdraw 

from MS on 20 September. 

•	 The 82d Airborne Division turns over all responsibilities for ESF #8 

and ESF #13 at the Convention Center and Touro Hospital. The 82d 

Airborne also relinquishes responsibility for logistics to FEMA.

Sunday, 18 September 2005

•	 Tropical Depression 18 is redesignated as Tropical Storm Rita.

•	 Personnel begin secondary searches in New Orleans. The object is to 

reexamine all homes and buildings in areas subjected to at least 5.5 

feet of flood water. 

•	 The 2d Brigade Combat Team/1st Cavalry Division returns to Fort 

Hood.

Monday, 19 September 2005

•	 All TX National Guard and other responders are directed to return to 

TX to prepare for Hurricane Rita.

•	 An Army veterinary team deploys to LA to assist with veterinary 

care.

Tuesday, 20 September 2005

•	 Hurricane Rita makes landfall in FL. Damage is minimal.

Wednesday, 21 September 2005

•	 VADM Thad Allen, USCG, is designated as the Federal coordinating 

officer.

•	 The President issues a Federal emergency declaration in anticipation 

of the damage by Hurricane Rita.

Thursday, 22 September 2005

•	 DOD establishes JTF Rita ahead of the storm under the command of 

LTG Robert Clark, Commanding General of US Fifth Army.
251

Saturday, 24 September 2005

•	 The US Army Corps of Engineers installs 60-foot sheets of steel piling 

to block Lake Pontchartrain’s tidal surge from the 17th Street and 

London Avenue Canals.

•	 With Hurricane Rita threatening New Orleans, OK National Guard 

troops reposition their logistics operations troops, including food, 

supply, and maintenance troops, to the Morial Convention Center.

Monday, 26 September 2005

•	 Secondary searches are about 75% complete in New Orleans. 

Authorities expect these searches to continue for another week.

253

Appendix B

Louisiana National Guard Task Organization

(From National Guard Title 32 Response to Katrina,

16 0730 CDT September 2005)

Task Force Pelican

Location: Carville, LA

Units:

Headquarters, Camp Beauregard (LA)

Headquarters, New Orleans (LA)

Headquarters Detachment, Baton Rouge (LA)

261st Signal Brigade (DE)

Medical Command (LA)

Joint Forces Headquarters-Medical (WV)

231st Combat Communications Squadron (DC)

Figure 30. Louisiana Task Force Pelican

Task Force

Belle Chasse

Task Force

Griffin

Task Force

Defender

Task Force

Santa Fe

Task Force

Pelican

BG Jones

Task Force

Castle

Task Force

Eagle
254

Task Force Santa Fe (35th Infantry Division)

Location: New Orleans, LA

Units:

Headquarters, 35th Infantry Division (KS)

56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team (PA)

2/75th Division (Training Support) (TX)

104th Maintenance Company (DC)

Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit (PA)

109th Air Wing (NY ANG)

222d Combat Communications Squadron (CA ANG)

Figure 31. Task Force Santa Fe.

Task Force

St. Charles

Task Force

Terrebonne

Task Force

St. Tammany

Task Force

Lafourche

Task Force

Santa Fe

MG Mason

Task Force

Orleans

Task Force

St. Bernard

Task Force

St. John

Task Force

Tangipahoa

Task Force

Plaquemines

Task Force

Washington

Task Force

Jefferson
255

Subtask Forces: (reporting to Task Force Santa Fe)

Task Force Orleans

Location: Orleans Parish, LA

Units:

41st Infantry Brigade (OR)

45th Infantry Brigade (OK)

Joint Force Headquarters Cell Joint Task Force 71 (TX)

Joint Force Headquarters Cell Joint Task Force CA (CA)

1/148th Infantry (OH)

1/179th Infantry (OK)

1/180th Infantry (OK)

1/181st Infantry (MA)

1/186th Infantry (OR)

1/279th Infantry (OK)

1/160th Field Artillery (OK)

1/171st Field Artillery (OK)

2/185th Armor (CA)

240th Signal Battalion (CA)

345th Quartermaster Battalion (OK)

536th Forward Support Battalion (TX)

700th Support Battalion (OK)

119th Military Police Company (RI)

125th Military Police Company (PR)

870th Military Police Company (CA)

1186th Military Police Company (CO)

245thEngineer Company (OK)

1207th Transportation Company (RI)

219th Quartermaster Company Detachment (PR)

Task Force Engineer (TX)

42d Civil Support Team (NC)

54th Civil Support Team (WI)

Counter-Drug Detachment (CA)

147th Fighter Wing (TX ANG)

163d Air Refuel Wing (CA ANG)

136thMedical Group (TX ANG)

147th Medical Group (TX ANG)

149th Medical Group (TX ANG)

136th Security Force (TX ANG)

204th Security Force (TX ANG)

221st Combat Communications Squadron (TX ANG)
256

Task Force St. Bernard

Location: St. Bernard Parish, LA

Units:

Task Force 169 (169th Field Artillery Brigade) (CO)

Joint Force Headquarters Communications Cell (UT)

29th Military Police Company (MD)

178th Military Police Company (GA)

190th Military Police Company (GA)

165th Air Wing (GA ANG)

Task Force St. John

Location: St. Johns Parish, LA

Units:

108th Security Force (NJ ANG)

Task Force Tangipahoa

Location: Tangipahoa Parish, LA

Units:

Headquarters, 113th Field Artillery Brigade (NC)

Task Force Plaquemines

Location: Plaquemines Parish, LA

Units:

2/217th Infantry (NM)

Task Force Washington

Location: Washington Parish, LA

Units:

B Company, 1/111th Infantry (PA)

72d Military Police Company (NV)

157th Air Refueling Wing (NH ANG)

111th Security Force (PA ANG)

152d Security Force (NV ANG)

171st Security Force (PA ANG)

175th Security Force (MD ANG)

193d Security Force (PA ANG)

Task Force Jefferson

Location: Jefferson Parish, LA

Units:

1/129th Field Artillery (MO)

1/86th Field Artillery (VT)

1/142d Field Artillery (AR)
257

2/197th Field Artillery (NH)

3/153d Infantry (AR)

1776th Military Police Battalion (MI)

39th Support Battalion (AR)

1/114th Aviation (AR)

131st Air Wing (MI ANG)

ANG Composite Communications/Support/Civil Engineer (AR 

ANG)

158th Security Force (VT ANG)

39th Medical Team (AR ANG)

Task Force St. Charles

Location: St. Charles Parish, LA

Units:

163d Support Battalion (SC)

Task Force Terrebonne

Location: Terrebonne Parish, LA

Units:

211th Military Police Battalion (MA)

2/197th Field Artillery (NH)

Task Force St. Tammany

Location: Tammany Parish, LA

Units:

711th Signal Battalion (AL)

Task Force Lafourche

Location: Lafourche Parish, LA

Units:

Joint Forces Headquarters Cell (TN)

TN Medical Command (TN)

Task Force Castle

Location: Camp Villerelle, LA

Units: 

225th Engineer Group (LA)

205th Engineer Battalion (LA)

527th Engineer Battalion (LA)

769th Engineer Battalion (LA)

1140th Engineer Battalion (MO)

856th Engineer Company (PA)

2225th Panel Bridge Company (LA)
258

Task Force Griffin

Location: Belle Chasse, LA

Units: 

Joint Forces Headquarters Cell (VA)

56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team (PA)

547th Transportation Company (DC)

1710th Transportation Company (VA)

3647th Maintenance Company (VA)

3673d Maintenance Company (LA)

222d Quartermaster Company (VA)

152d Medical Squadron (NV ANG)

203d Red Horse Squadron (VA)

Task Force Defender

Location: Baton Rouge, LA

Units:

61st Troop Command (LA)

256th Brigade Combat Team Rear (-) (LA)

773dMilitary Police Battalion (LA)

273d Military Police Company (DC)

661st Military Police Company (VI)

210th Military Police Company (CO)

229th Military Police Company (-) (VA)

855th Military Police Company (AZ)

3673d Maintenance Company (LA)

Subtask Forces:

Task Force Baton Rouge

Location: Baton Rouge, LA

Units: 

123d Military Police Company (-) (KY)

133d Military Police Company (-) (SC)

134th Military Police Company (-) (CT)

153d Military Police Company (-) (DE)

192d Military Police Company (-) (NE)

438th Military Police Company (-) (KY)

661st Military Police Company (-) (VI)

46th Military Police Company (-) (MI)

Detachment 1, 146th Medical Aviation Company (WV)

Task Force Lafayette

273d Military Police Company (DC)
259

Task Force Tiger (Rear)

Task Force Monroe Civic Center

Task Force Lake Charles

Task Force Eagle

Location: Belle Chasse, LA

Units:

Aviation Command (DC)

204th Air Traffic Services Group (LA)

Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 66th Aviation Brigade

(DC)

244th Aviation Battalion (LA)

812th Medical Company (Air Ambulance) (LA)

Task Force Belle Chasse

Location: Belle Chasse, LA

Units:

Joint Forces Headquarters Cell (DC)

Joint Forces Headquarters Cell (UT)

Joint Forces Headquarters Cell (WV)

Joint Forces Headquarters Medical Detachment (WV)

1/147th Aviation (WI)

33d Area Support Group (IL)

213th Area Support Group (PA)

64th Rear Operations Center (WI)

132d Support Battalion (WI)

232d Corps Support Battalion (IL)

634th Forward Support Battalion (IL)

118th Maintenance Company (CA)

547th Transportation Company (TN)

1157th Transportation Company (WI)

1174th Transportation Company (TN)

1221st Transportation Company (MO)

832d Air Ambulance Company (WI)

1/19 Special Forces Detachment (UT)

131st Fighter Wing (MO ANG)

147th Fighter Wing (TX ANG)

129th Air Refueling Wing (CA ANG)

151st Air Refueling Wing (UT ANG)

185th Air Refueling Wing (IA ANG)

123d Medical Group (KY ANG)

188th Medical Group (AR ANG)

189th Medical Group (AR ANG)
260

133d Aerial Port Squadron (MI ANG)

Northeast Air Defense Sector Security Force (NY ANG)

Air National Guard Public Affairs Office Element (PA)

Detachment 3, Medical Command (DC)
261

Appendix C

Mississippi National Guard Task Organization

(From National Guard Title 32 Response to Katrina,

16 0730 CDT September 2005)

38th Infantry Division Main 

Location: Combat Readiness Training Center, Gulfport, MS

Units:

Headquarters, 38th Infantry Division (IN)

Joint Forces Headquarters Cell (IN)

Figure 32. Task Force Cyclone (38th Infantry Division).

Task Force

Quick

Jackson

County

Task Force

KeiferWest

Task Force

Keifer East

Task Force

Lee

Hancock

County

Task Force

Aviation

Task Force

Military

Police

Task Force

Engineer

Task Force

Wright

Harrison

County

Task Force

Keifer

BG Keifer

Task Force

Cyclone CRTC

BG Culver/

BG Carmony

Task Force

Cyclone

MG Vadnais
262

Subtask Forces:

Task Force Quick

Location: Jackson County, MS

Units: 

621st Troop Support Command (AL)

167th Theater Support Command Group (AL)

1/131st Armor (AL)

1/117th Field Artillery (AL)

3/117th Field Artillery (AL)

31st Forward Support Battalion (AL)

1203d Engineer Battalion (AL)

279th Signal Battalion (AL)

161st Area Support Medical Battalion (AL)

Troop E/31st Cavalry (AL)

1670th Transportation Company (AL)

158th Maintenance Company (AL)

226th Combat Communications Group (AL ANG)

280th Combat Communications Squadron (AL ANG)

187th Medical Group (AL ANG)

Task Force Wright

Location: Harrison County, MS

Units:

Rear Detachment, 265thEngineer Group (GA)

1/293d Infantry (IN)

2/116th Infantry (VA)

2/158th Cavalry (MD)

Company D, 1/239th Infantry (IN)

165th Quartermaster Company (Petroleum, Oils, and Lublicants) 

(GA)

Company B, 161st Area Support Medical Battalion (GA)

175thWing (MD ANG)

Task Force Lee

Location: Hancock County, MS

Units:

73d Troop Command Headquarters (OH)

66th Troop Command Headquarters (MS)

Joint Forces Headquarters Cell (OH)

Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 1/107th Armored 

Cavalry Regiment (OH)

631st Field Artillery Brigade (MS)
263

371st Corps Support Group (OH)

3/124th Infantry (FL)

1/149th Infantry (KY)

1/134th Field Artillery (OH)

1/214th Field Artillery (GA)

437th Military Police Battalion (OH)

135th Military Police Company (OH)

165th Military Police Company (GA)

324th Military Police Company (OH)

838th Military Police Company (OH)

110th Corps Support Battalion (GA)

237th Personnel Services Battalion (OH)

Company H, 1/121st Infantry (GA)

Company C, 1/148th Infantry (OH)

1230th Transportation Company (GA)

1483d Transportation Company (OH)

82d Maintenance Company (GA)

372d Maintenance Company (OH)

Company C, 118th Area Support Medical Battalion (OH)

Company B, 161st Area Support Medical Battalion (GA)

53d Civil Support Team (IN)

122d Fighter Wing (-) (IN)

122d Medical Group (OH ANG)

224th Joint Communications Support Squadron (GA ANG)

Task Force Kiefer

Location: Camp Shelby, MS

Units:

Joint Force Headquarters Cell (IN)

Headquarters and Headquarters Company/Materiel Management 

Center 38th Division Support Command (IN)

Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 38th Infantry Division 

Aviation Brigade (IN)

Task Force Iowa (IA)

38th Division Artillery (IN)

38th Division Support Command (IN)

2/152d Infantry (Mech) (IN)

2/150th Field Artillery (IN)

3/139th Field Artillery (IN)

1/204th Air Defense Artillery (MS)

219th Area Support Group (IN)

38th Main Support Battalion (IN)
264

113th Support Battalion (IN)

38th Military Police Company (IN)

190th Military Police Company (GA)

438th Chemical Company (IN)

1229th Transportation Company (MD)

1538th Transportation Company (IN)

1638th Transportation Company (IN)

2123d Transportation Company (KY)

Religious Support Team (AR)

126th Air Refueling Wing (IL)

Subunits:

Task Force Kiefer East

Task Force Kiefer West

Task Force Aviation

Location: Camp Shelby, MS

Units: 

Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 185th Aviation Group 

(MS)

Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 1/185th Aviation 

Battalion (MS)

1/104th Cavalry (MS)

1/137th Aviation (OH)

628th Division Aviation Support Battalion (MS)

2/238th General Support Aviation Battalion (IN)

Company G, 185th Aviation Group (MS)

Company K, 185th Aviation Group (MS)

Company A, 1/185th Aviation (MS)

Company B, 1/185th Aviation (MS)

Company D, 1/185th Aviation (MS)

Company G, 2/238th General Support Aviation Battalion (IN)

2/151st Reconnaissance and Interdiction Detachment (TN)

Company C, 1/114th Reconnaissance and Interdiction 

Detachment (TN)

Air Traffic Control Company (TN)

Task Force Engineer

Location: Southern MS

Units: 

168th Engineer Group (MS)

121st Engineer Battalion (MD)

223d Engineer Battalion (MS)
265

890th Engineer Battalion (MS)

877th Engineer Battalion (AL)

186th Engineer Company (AL)

Task Force Military Police

Location: Southern MS

Units: 

Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment, 112th Military 

Police Battalion (MS)

Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment, 168thMilitary 

Police Battalion (TN)

231st Military Police Battalion (AL)

113th Military Police Company (MS)

114th Military Police Company (MS)

130th Military Police Company (TN)

153d Military Police Company (DE)

267th Military Police Company (TN)

268th Military Police Company (TN)

269th Military Police Company (TN)

1776th Military Police Company (MI)

Note: A number of other National Guard units were in the area of operations 

on 16 September but were in-processing and not yet assigned to task forces 

under Task Force Cyclone.

267

About the Author

Mr. James Wombwell joined the Combat Studies Institute in October 

2007. A retired captain in the Naval Reserve, his last assignment was at 

the Naval Historical Center in Washington, DC, where he served as a 

Navy historian documenting current naval operations. While at the Naval 

Historical Center, he deployed to the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers 

Europe, Mons, Belgium; US Naval Forces Central Command, Bahrain; and 

the Naval Special Warfare Command, San Diego, California. A Surface 

Warfare Officer, he served on the USS Fiske (DD-842) and USS Texas

(CGN-39) and taught at the Surface Warfare Officers’ School in Newport, 

Rhode Island, while on Active Duty. Mr. Wombwell earned a B.A. from 

Vanderbilt University and an M.A. from the University of Memphis. He has 

taught history at the University of Memphis and University of Kansas.

Military History / US History

US Army Combined Arms Center

Combat Studies Institute Press

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

The Long War Series

Occasional Paper 29