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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENTOF LABOR

W. Wil lard Wirtz, Secr et ar y

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BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

A rth u rM . Ross, Commissioner

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Bulletin No 1539

1 9 6 6

LABOR DIGESTS

ON COUNTRIES

IN AFRICA

UNITED STATES D E P A R TM E N T OF LABOR

W. Willard Wirtz, Secretary

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

Arthur M. Ross, Commi ssioner

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PREFACE

The digests on labor conditions in 51 African countries which

make up this bulletin were prepared in the spring of 1966 by the

Office of Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics

for inclusion in the Directory of Labor Organizations--Africa. The

labor organizations section of each digest was contributed by the

Division of International Trade Union Organizations of the Bureau

of International Labor Affairs.

Source material used in preparing the digests included reports

of U.S. Embassies and official publications of the individual

countries.

The digests herein appear in the following order:

Algeria

Angola

Basutoland [Lesotho]

Bechuanaland [Botswana]

Burundi

Cameroon

Central African

Republic

Chad

Congo (Brazzaville)

Congo (Kinshasa)

Dahomey

Empire of Ethiopia

Equatorial Guinea

French Somaliland

Gabon

Gambia

Ghana

Guinea

Ivory Coast

Kenya

Liberia

Libya

Malagasy Republic

Malawi

Mali

Mauritania

Mauritius

Morocco

Mozambique

Niger

Nigeria

Portuguese Guinea

Reunion

Rwanda

Senegal

Seychelles

Sierra Leone

Somali Republic

South Africa

South West Africa

Southern Rhodesia

Spanish Sahara

Sudan

Swazi land

Tanzania

Togo

Tunisia

Uganda

United Arab Republic

Upper Volta

Zambia

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 93

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics *

LABOR CONDITIONS IN ALGERIA

Algeria, located in northwestern Africa along the Mediterranean Sea, has an area

of about 920,000 square miles and, in 1966, had a population between 11 and 12

million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Algeria achieved its independence from France in July 1962.

Following a coup against the government of Ahmed Ben Bella in June 1965, a 26-

member Council of the Revolution became the highest authority, holding both

executive and legislative powers. The National Liberation Front (Front de

Liberation Nationale--FLN) is the only legally recognized political party. The

principal executive organ is the Council of Ministers, whose members serve at

the pleasure of the Council of the Revolution. Colonel Houari Boumedienne is

president of both the Council of the Revolution and the Council of Ministers.

Economic. The Algerian economy is divided into two sectors. One, a

highly developed modern sector of agriculture and industry, is still seriously

dislocated as a result of the precipitous departure, immediately prior toAlgerian independence, of the French resident population, which had been a substantial number. The other, a traditional sector, has its base largely in subsistence

farming; about two-thirds of the population are in this sector. Despite the

predominance of agriculture, it accounted in 1964 for only about 23 percent of

the gross national product (GNP). Industry and public works contributed 13 percent; petroleum, 24 percent; administration, 22 percent; and services, 17 percent. The former French-owned farms in the modern agricultural sector are now

managed largely by the farmers themselves (’’worker managed”), under Government

supervision.

Industry and commerce (except for Government-controlled trade in some

mass-consumption items) are still privately operated to a large extent. The

principal agricultural products are wine, grain, vegetables, and citrus fruits;

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the most important industries are food processing, construction, and metalworking. The country has abundant mineral resources, ranking 10th in the world in

1964 in the production of petroleum, but it must import certain mass-consumption

agricultural products. About 40 percent of the best arable land is devoted to

the production of grapes for wine, which accounts for about 33 percent of the

value of agricultural production and is the second largest export after petroleum. In 1963, the per capita GNP was estimated by experts to be US$185.

Social. The population was 88.7 percent Moslem and 11.3 percent nonMoslem prior to independence, but the European population has declined to about

100.000 since 1962. Islam, the official religion, is practiced almost universally. Although the official language is Arabic, French is spoken widely, and

many Government publications are available only in French. The illiteracy rate

among people above 15 is estimated at 80 percent. In the 1965-66 school year,

about 1,418,000 students were in elementary schools and 100,000 in secondary

schools. About 60 percent of the children between 6 and 14 years of age were

in school, which is double the rate that existed among Moslem children at the

time of independence.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. In early 1966, there were an estimated

900.000 employed wage and salary earners, including the Armed Forces (80,000).

Of these, some 350,000 worked in the agricultural sector, including the selfmanaged farms. In addition, approximately 300,000 Algerians held jobs in

France. Estimates of the total labor force vary considerably (a current census

was begun in early 1966), but the Government's estimate was approximately 2.2

million in 1963, which was also the population figure for all males between 15

and 55. Government estimates on unemployment range from 370,000 to 2 million--

the latter figure including many persons employed part time. In 1963, there

were an estimated 550,000 underemployed males in agriculture alone.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Productivity suffers in both agriculture and industry because of low educational attainment, the shortage of

skilled workers and technicians, poor health conditions, lack of managerial

skills, and the breakdown in credit and marketing channels following the departure of Europeans. Industrial production in 1964 was estimated to be 50 percent

below capacity, primarily because of the loss of skills and capital held by the

Europeans. In agriculture, the highest level of productivity is on the large

farms, which produce mainly grapes for wine.

The Government is expanding vocational training facilities and providing

other industrial short-term courses, night classes , and apprenticeship programs.

In 1963, there were about 7,000 students in vocational and technical schools, and

enrollment is reported to have increased substantially since then. The French

Government and various international agencies are helping to make up for a shortage of Algerian teachers and administrators in vocational training programs.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Algerian labor legislation, most of which was inherited from France, is in the process of being redrafted. Work on a new labor

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code has been slowed by the difficulty of having it cover so many different types

of enterprises: State operated, private, mixed, and worker managed. In the

meantime, the French Labor Code, modified in minor ways by decrees, still applies. It provides for compensation for accidents and diseases arising from

work, social insurance benefits, family allowances, payment of a minimum wage,

1 day of rest per week, pay for all legal holidays, paid vacations based on

length of service, maternity benefits, and protection of women and children under 18 years of age against arduous and night work. The Constitution recognizes

the right of workers to organize into unions, to strike, and to participate in

the management of enterprises. Separate social security programs provide benefits for agricultural, nonagricultural, and Government workers.

Administration and Practice. Labor legislation is administered and enforced by the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, assisted by its eight regional offices. The inspection office of the Ministry of Transport has similar

functions for the transportation industry, as does the Ministry of Agriculture

for the agricultural sector.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

In 1966, the minimum wage was US$1.53 a day for agricultural workers and

US$0.23 to US$0.28 an hour for nonagricultural workers. Minimum wages, theoretically tied to the cost-of-living index, have not gone up since April 1963.

In the worker-managed sector, workers theoretically are not in the role of wage

earners but receive advances on "profits.” In practice, they have been paid

salaries, supplemented by payments in kind in the form of housing, clothing, and

produce, especially in the agricultural sector. A large part of their medical

and most of their hospital costs are covered by social security and programs for

indigent persons.

The workweek in industry is officially 40 hours but can be extended for

various reasons, including makeup time for hours lost by strikes. The maximum

hours of overtime legally permitted are 20 a week, with time-and-a-quarter paid

for 41 to 48 hours, and time-and-a-half for more than 48 hours. Overtime is now

discouraged by labor organizations and the Government in order to spread employment among the unemployed. In the agricultural sector, maximum working

hours permitted by law are 2,400 a year; many exceptions are allowed. There are

10 paid legal holidays.

The cost-of-living index increased 7.5 percent between 1961 and 1963,

while wages and salaries in the industrial sector rose 10 percent. Many people

in the larger cities are well dressed, well fed, and well housed, but millions

of others, particularly those in the countryside, live at the subsistence level

with inadequate housing and sanitary facilities.

Employer Organizations

The Algerian General Economic Confederation (Confederation Generate £conomique Algerienne--CGEA) is the principal employer organization. There are

also chambers of commerce in the principal cities, and most principal professions and trades have their own employer groups. The number of organizations

which engage in formalized labor-management relations is small, however.

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The General Union of Algerian Workers tUnion Generate des Travailleurs

Algeriens--UGTA), the nation's only trade union center, claims a total membership of 320,000, or about 35 percent of all wage and salary earners. The UGTA,

which was formed in 1956, has a close relationship to the nation's only legally

recognized political party, the FL N , dating from the preindependence period.

The UGTA is affiliated with both the All-African Trade Union Federation

and the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions. In 1963, it disaffiliated from the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, with which

it had been affiliated since 1956.

The UGTA is organized into both geographic centers and industrial federations. In 1966, there were 18 regional centers and 12 national industrial federations. Most of the latter have been formed since 1964.

Labor-Management Relations

Only two national collective bargaining agreements have been negotiated

since independence--one for the construction trades and the other for constructi o n material manufacturers. Remnants of preindependence contracts apply in a

few other industries. Some individual plants have concluded written contracts.

However, labor practices are not generally formalized in union contracts at

present, although the UGTA is pushing for this goal. The law requires that collective disputes be handled through regional conciliation boards composed of

employer, employee, and Government representatives; in practice, the Labor Ministry takes over this role. Works councils, made up of elected employee representatives but chaired by a management representative, are obligatory in all

enterprises, industrial and nonindustrial, of more than 50 employees. These

councils are in the process of expanding their jurisdiction to encompass direction of plant-level vocational training, including the choice of candidates for

training. Many private owners argue that this enlargement of function in effect

assigns to labor the responsibility for actions affecting promotions.

Labor Organizations

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 94

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN ANGOLA

Angola is a Portuguese territory located in southwest Africa. It has an area of

481,351 square miles and had a population of about 5.2 million in 1965.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Angola, an overseas province of Portugal, is controlled by

the Portuguese Ministry of Overseas Provinces and administered by a Governor

General who is appointed by the Portuguese Council of Ministers. It is represented in the Portuguese National Assembly. The Governor General is assisted by

a Legislative Council, of which a majority of the members are elected on the

basis of limited suffrage, and advised by an Economic and Social Council. The

Portuguese National Union is the only legal political group. In 1961, the Indigenous Statute was repealed, removing*restrictions on the freedom of movement,

employment, and wages of the native Angolan and making him a citizen with equal

rights under law.

Economic. Most of the population engage in subsistence agriculture*

Coffee and cotton are grown on large European-owned plantations. The principal

activities in the limited industrial sector are the processing of primary products (fish, vegetable oils, sugar, cotton, and meat), production of cement and

paper, and refining of oil. Coffee, the leading export, accounted for 49 percent

of the total in 1964; diamonds, about 12 percent; and fish, about 12 percent.

Iron ore, manganese, sisal, corn, and petroleum were also important. The estimated average per capita annual income is US$100 to US$150.

Social. An estimated 95 percent of the population in 1965 were African;

the remainder were European and other. Portugal has promoted immigration to Angola; in 1960, about 200,000 Europeans lived there. The principal African tribes

are the Mbundu/Ovimbundu and the Kimbundu , which constitute about one-third and

one-fourth of the total population, respectively. According to estimates, about

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60 percent of the population in 1965 were animists and most of the remainder

were Christians. Portuguese is the official language. An estimated 5 percent of the population were literate in 1965, in which year approximately 15

percent of the children of school age (ages 5-14) were enrolled in educational

institutions.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The total labor force in 1961 was estimated

at about 2,056,400, of whom 1,670,000, or81percent, were engaged in subsistence

agriculture. Europeans, who comprised about 15 percent of the total (excluding

persons engaged in subsistence farming), constituted the managerial, supervisory, and most of the technical and skilled labor force; they accounted for 49

percent of the total in industry, business, trade, and the professions, 36 percent in the public sector (Government service and Government corporations),

and 3 percent in each of the other categories. About 180,000 Africans in agriculture and mining were contract laborers under a law (since repealed) which

required all African males over age 18 to work at least 6 months a year.

According to official estimates, the total number of wage and salary earners in 1965 was 408,369 (excluding household servants and seasonal farm laborers) , of whom 367,351, or 90 percent, were in private enterprise and 4l,01E

in Government. The largest number (41 percent) were engaged in agriculture,

cattle ranching, and fishing, followed by civil construction, services, and

Government, which each employed 10 percent of the total; 8 percent were engaged

in communications and transportation, 7 percent each in mining and manufacturing, 6 percent in commerce, and the remainder in other activities.

Unemployment is extensive in urban areas, and underemployment characterizes especially the subsistence sector of agriculture.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Low levels of education, inadequate

training facilities, the lack of skilled labor, and poor health and nutrition

of workers contribute to low productivity in all sectors of the economy. In

agriculture, traditional and wasteful production methods and the migratory life

of Africans result in low productivity. The Government's efforts to expand and

improve the level of production, such as by means of stabilization projects to

encourage Africans to remain in one place, technical assistance, and the distribution of higher quality seeds, are hampered by shortages of funds and an

inadequate number of technicians. The Government has taken steps to improve

livestock raising, which also follows traditional patterns, and to modernize the

fishing industry.

In 1965, of the wage and salary earners not employed by the Government,

241,351 (mainly in agriculture) were unskilled, 65,500 were listed as semiskilled and 65*000 as skilled.

A decree of 1963 provided for the establishment of a number of vocational

schools at the elementary and secondary levels. An artisan training school is

planned for 1966. For the most part, training for white and mulatto workers is

provided on the job and by the syndicates, some social service organizations,

and the Stabilization of African Labor Program.

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Labor Standards

Labor Legislation, The Portuguese Rural Labor Code for Overseas Provinces (1962) contains regulation's covering recruitment, the employment of immigrants, labor contracts , prof essional and vocational training, working conditions ,

wages, hours of work, holidays, women workers and child labor, social security

benefits, professional organizations (syndicates), and enforcement machinery.

It provides certain irrevocable rights, such as the right to refuse to perform

work not called for in a contract and the right to receive wages at specified

intervals. A number of the regulations have been amplified in implementing

decrees. The Minimum Wages and Salaries Law (1959) , as amended, applies mainly

to members of labor syndicates. Almost all Europeans, but relatively few Africans, were covered by its provisions.

Administration and Practice. The Portuguese Government established the

Labor, Social Security, and Welfare Institute in 1963 to implement labor legislation and social welfare programs. It replaced the Office of Native Affairs.

The Institute formulates standards relating to labor and promotes revision of

labor legislation. The broadening of the laws to make them applicable to the

entire population has taxed the capacity of the small Institute, and enforcement

is uneven.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The average monthly wage for unskilled labor in 1965 was US$15 to US$20,

of which about half was generally paid in subsistence benefits. Semiskilled and

skilled workers, concentrated in the urban areas of Luanda, Lobito, Benguela,

and Nova Lisboa, received an average monthly wage of US$60 toUS$120, depending

on the kind and level of skill. In the fishing industry, wages are determined

by a Government-sponsored form of collective bargaining between employer guilds

and labor syndicates.

The 1962 labor code provides for introduction of an 8-hour day, 48-hour

workweek. In practice, hours worked per week vary from 44 to 48.

The level of living for most of the European population is equivalent to

that of metropolitan Portugal. Large segments of the African population live

in the traditional manner, outside the money economy; Africans who are wage and

salary earners generally have a higher standard of living. The cost-of-living

index (1938=100) rose from 310 in 1957 to 350 in 1959 and 385 in 1964.

Employer Organizations

Business firms are represented by several quasi-official agencies within

the principal segments of the economy. The Commercial Association has branches

in most urban centers which represent member firms engaged in wholesale and retail trade; manufacturers and industrial concerns are represented by the Industrial Association; the Institute of Fishing Industries of Angola regulates the

fishing industry and represents its members in local fishing centers through

fish guilds; the Agricultural Association represents agricultural interests,

especially those of large enterprises. The functions of these agencies, which

are similar to those of protective agencies and chambers of commerce, include

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assisting their members with regard to legislation and serving as additional

bodies of control in implementing regulations.

Labor Organizations

No trade union organizations exist in Portugal or its overseas territory of Angola. Labor is organized in syndicates which function essentially as

beneficent societies. The syndicates are defined in the Rural Labor Code as an

integral part of the corporative organization of the nation. However, the syndicates in Angola are autonomous from those in Portugal and, unlike in Portugal,

membership is not compulsory. There are presently four syndicates in Angola

with a total membership of about 55,000, or approximately 13 percent of the

wage and salary earners.

Two national trade union centers have been established outside Angola for

Angolan workers: The General League of Angolan Workers in Exile (Ligue Generale

des Travailleurs de 1 1Angola--LGTA) and the Committee for Union of Action and

Angolan Trade Union Coordination (Comite d'Unite d*Action et de Co-ordination

Syndicale de 1'Angola--CUACSA). Both have their headquarters in Kinshasa (formerly Leopoldville), Republic of the Congo. The LGTA, which has an estimated

1,500 members, has been affiliated with the International Confederation of Free

Trade Unions (ICFTU) and its African Regional Organization (AFRO) since 1961.

It is also a member of the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC). The CUACSA,

a competing organization with an estimated 200 members, was formed in 1964 by

amalgamation of the National Union of Angolan Workers in Exile (Union Nationale

des Travailleurs Angolais--UNTA) and the Confederation of Free Angolan Unions

(Confederation des Syndicats Libres Angolais--CSLA)0

Labor-Management Relations

Collective bargaining was begun in 1963, with labor and employer representatives meeting under the chairmanship of the Labor Institute. Since strikes

and lockouts are illegal, the procedure resembles arbitration. Agreements exist

in the fishing, petroleum, and insurance sectors. Grievances and disputes are

settled by labor courts. Municipal labor tribunals were set up in 1962 to adjudicate minor grievances. A 1965 decree provided for regular labor courts in

three districts in order to expedite the handling of the growing number of disputes stemming from the abolition of the Indigenous Statute in 1961 and the

Portuguese Rural Labor Code for Overseas Provinces in 1962; their abolition

caused thousands of native litigants to come before the courts.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

Ho. 95

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN BASUTOLAND

Basutoland, a colony, is a British-protected enclave within the Republic of

South Africa. It has an area of 11,716 square miles and, in 1964, had a population estimated at 900,000.

Basutoland was expected to become independent on October 4, 1966. The

1964 Constitution provides for a 60-member National Assembly, elected on the

basis of universal suffrage, and a Senate, consisting of 22 principal chiefs and

100 others nominated by the Paramount Chief. The Prime Minister is appointed

from the Assembly by the Paramount Chief. The three major political parties are

the majority Basutoland National Party, the Basutoland Congress Party, and the

Marematlou Freedom Party.

The economy is based primarily on agriculture and livestock. Most farming is done at the subsistence level on small, individual holdings. The main

crops are corn, wheat, and sorghum. Wool and mohair are the main exports. The

estimated annual average per capita earnings are US$50 for the domestic population and US$109 for workers living abroad.

The latest census (1956) revealed that 99.5 percent of the population of

641,674 were Africans, and the remainder were of European, Asian, and other extractions. The nation is known as Lesotho, and the people are the Basuto or the

Mosotho. The official languages are Sesotho and English; the latter is spoken

by the educated. Of the total population in 1956, 71 percent were Christian and

29 percent were of other faiths. About 60 percent of persons 15 years of age

and over are reported to be literate to some degree. Primary education is free

but not compulsory. In 1960, 136,111 students, or about 50 percent of the schoolage population, were enrolled in 1,110 schools; most were in primary schools.

The majority of the domestic population is engaged in growing crops and

raising livestock. Manufacturing is in its incipient stages. The public sector,

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particularly the Government, is the largest employer. Some 43 percent of the

adult male population are employed in South Africa, mainly in mining.

Among other factors, the small size of holdings and traditional farming

methods, which have reduced the fertility of the soil and have caused serious

erosion, are responsible for low productivity. Further, the workers* skills

are limited. There are 23 secondary schools, several vocational training institutions for craftsmen, 2 technical schools, a small commercial school, and 7

training schools for postprimary teachers. In addition, international organizations are sponsoring a number of rural training programs. Advanced studies

are available at the University of Basutoland, the Bechuanaland Protectorate,

and Swaziland.

The principal labor laws are the Master and Servants Act (1856), the

Wages Proclamation (1936), the Employment of Women and Children Proclamation

(1937), the African Labour Proclamation (1942), the Trade Unions and Trade Disputes Proclamation (1942, revised in the Trade Unions and Trade Disputes Act,

1964), and the Workmen's Compensation Proclamation (1948). A National Advisory

Committee on Labour, composed of employee and employer representatives, advises on labor legislation. There is no social security legislation. A Department of Labour was established in 1963 under the Department of Home and External

Affairs.

The minimum daily wage for unskilled laborers employed by the Government

was US$0.50 in 1962 and 1963. Prices for basic commodities were stable in the

period 1961-63.

Employees in Government departments work a 5-day week.

The principal employer organization is the Union of Employers of Basutoland .

There is no information available on present trade union membership in

Basutoland. The Basutoland Congress of Trade Unions, formed in 1961, is no

longer in existence, and it is not known if any national trade union centers

presently exist. Only five trade unions have registered under the Trade Unions

and Trade Disputes Act, 1964, which went into effect in April 1965.

There isno wage-fixing machinery; however, Wages Proclamation No. 37 of

1936 provides for the establishment of a Board of Enquiry to examine wages and

conditions of employment. Trade unions and employers have made efforts to engage in joint consultation and bargaining. District labor committees review

changes in wages of Government daily paid workers and employees and hear individual grievances. A number of works committees have been established. Major

industrial disputes are few.

On October 4, 1966, the United Kingdom Colony of Basutoland

received its independence and changed its name to the Kingdom

of Lesotho.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 96

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics,

LABOR CONDITIONS IN BECHUANALAND

Bechuanaland, located north of the Republic of South Africa, has an estimated

area of about 275,000 square miles and had a population of about 550,000 in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Bechuanaland, a protectorate of the United Kingdom, is scheduled to become independent on September 30, 1966, and will be known thereafter

as Botswana. Under the new Constitution of 1965, the British Commissioner is

the chief administrative officer with the status of Governor. He presides over

and is advised by the Cabinet, composed of the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime

Minister, and five other Ministers from the Legislative Assembly. The Commissioner is assisted by an advisory, nonpolitical Public Service Commission in

performing his duties connected with the public service. There is also a House

of Chiefs, composed of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes and four other

members elected by and from among the subchiefs of four districts. The principal

political party is the Bechuanaland Democratic Party; others are the Bechuanaland People1s Party (BPP) and the Botswana Independence Party (BIP).

Economic. The economy is based primarily on livestock raising, in which

about 98 percent of the population are engaged. Only 5 percent of the arable

land is cultivated. Sorghum is the major crop. The country's small industrial

sector consists of the production of asbestos, manganese, gold, and silver. The

gross national product per capita is estimated to be under US$100 per year.

Social. Ninety-nine percent of the total population are African; the

remainder are European, Asian, and Colored (people of mixed race). The Bechuana,

a Bantu people, comprise eight main tribal groupings, each of which lives in

and, to a great extent, administers its own tribal territory. Major tribes are

the Bamangwato, Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Batawana, Bakgatla, Bamalete, Barolong,

and Batlokwa. About 85 percent of the population are animists and 15 percent are

Christians. English is the official language; Sechuana is the main native language.

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Literacy is minimal; however, the education program is being rapidly expanded.

At the end of 1964, there were 241 primary schools and 8 secondary schools.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. An estimated 240,000 persons are engaged

in agriculture, generally at the subsistence level; the majority are self-employed

farmers. The number of wage and salary earners outside agriculture in 1964 was

13,850, of whom 6,000 were employed in central and local government service,

2,500 in construction, 2,000 in commerce, 1,000 in manufacturing, 1,000 in transport, storage, and communications, 850 in mining and quarrying, and 500 in

utilities. An estimated 35,000 persons from Bechuanaland were employed in the

Republic of South Africa, including 24,418 in mining, on contracts of up to 9

months; 8,000 in industry, commerce, and domestic service; and about 2,000 in

seasonal agricultural work.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Training facilities include St.

Joseph’s College, the Dutch Reformed Church Homecrafts Centre, the Bechuanaland

Training Centre, the Commerce and Adult Education School, agricultural and

veterinary schools, and two teacher-training institutes.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Legislation includes the Employment Law (1963), as

amended, which covers labor contracts, wages, employment of women and children,

recruitment of labor for work inside and outside the territory, health, and forced

labor; the Trade Unions and Trade Disputes Proclamation (1949) and the Trade

Unions Registration Rules (1964); the Workmen's Compensation Proclamation; the

Wages Boards Proclamation; the Mining Health Proclamation; the Works and Machinery Proclamation; and the Shop Hours Proclamation.

Administration and Practice. Legislation is enforced by the Labour Branch

(established in 1963), headed by the Commissioner of Labour. The Branch makes

proposals for labor policy to ensure the enforcement and administration of labor

legislation, is responsible for compiling labor statistics, and conciliates

major labor disputes. It has 25 part-time district officers.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The minimum hourly wage for Government manual workers in 1964 was US$0.08

for unskilled workers, US$0.14 for semiskilled workers, and US$0.25 for skilled

workers. Prevailing minimum monthly wage rates in private establishments were

US$4.20 in commerce, US$8.40 in services, US$14.00 in manufacturing, and US$25.20

in transportation.

Employer Organizations

No information is available on employer organizations.

Labor Organizations

No information is available on total trade union membership in Bechuanaland. Although no national trade union centers are known to exist, recent efforts

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have been made to establish the Bechuanaland Federation of Labour. There are six

registered trade unions in the territory.

Labor-Management Relations

At the present time, there is no legislation which deals with industrial

disputes. The Wages Boards Proclamation and the Trade Unions and Trade Disputes Proclamation provide for setting up Wages Councils and Industrial Councils. In practice, disputes have been dealt with by negotiation between the

parties, with conciliation by the Commissioner of Labour.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 97

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bujre^u of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE KINGDOM OF BURUNDI

Burundi, located in east-central Africa, has an area of 10,747 square miles and,

in mid-1965, had an estimated population of 2.8 million.

Burundi was part of the former Belgian United Nations Trusteeship Territory of Ruanda-Urundi until it achieved independence on July 1, 1962, and became

a constitutional monarchy patterned on the Belgian system. The Mwami, or King,

is the head of state and appoints the Prime Minister, who selects his Cabinet,

which must be approved by the National Assembly. The Constitution provides for

an elected bicameral Legislature, an assembly consisting of 33 members, and a

Senate of 16. Elections are held every 6 years. The only political party at

present is the National Party of Unity and Progress (UPRONA).

Approximately 95 percent of the population live in rural areas. A large

majority are engaged in subsistence agriculture and are outside the money economy. The principal export product is coffee, followed by cotton and hides.

Industry is limited and small scale. In 1964, the gross national product per

capita was about US$40, one of the lowest in the world.

The Hutu, or Bahutu, comprise the largest ethnic group, accounting for

about 86 percent of the indigenous population; the Tutsi, or Batutsi, comprise

13 percent, and the Twa, 1 percent. In 1960, there were 7,000 Europeans and

Asians in the country. The official languages are French and Kirundi, the

principal native language. Approximately 50 percent of the population are

Christians; the remainder are animists or practice Islam. Although children

aged 7-16 are entitled to free education, the percentage of children of primary

school age enrolled in primary schools is small, and only about 1 percent go on

to secondary or technical schools. The official University of Bujumbura provides

higher education.

The labor force is predominantly unskilled. Unemployment has not been

measured. Underemployment is probably extensive in the large subsistence sector.

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No data are available to indicate the size of the labor force in Burundi. In

Ruanda-Urundi, the approximate distribution of the 97,000 wage and salary earners

in 1960 was 23,000 in agriculture, 19,000 in service trades, 12,000 in transport, 11,000 in construction, 10,000 in mining, 10,000 in retail trade, 6,000

in manufacturing, and the remainder in other activities.

A decree issued in December 1963, modifying a 1964 decree establishing

a National Labour Council, provides that the chairman of the Council be the

Minister of Social Affairs or his representative.

A decree of the Minister of Social Affairs, effective January 1, 1963,

established minimum daily wage rates for unskilled workers. The wage rates for

8 hours of work per day are composed of (a) wages, (b) a food ration or its

countervalue, and (c) lodging or its countervalue; these vary by locale and

according to the classification of the work as heavy, ordinary, or light. Under

the decree, workers in Bujumbura engaged in heavy work receive 52 percent more

pay per day than workers in the interior; those engaged in ordinary work, 54

percent more; and those engaged in light work, 60 percent more. The daily rate

established in Bujumbura for heavy work was US$0.30; for ordinary work, US$0.27;

and for light work, US$0.25. The countervalue of food rations was US$0.30,

US$0.25, and US$0.17, respectively, and of lodging for all types of work, US$0.10.

For work outside Bujumbura, the daily rates of pay, including all items, were

US$0.46 for heavy work, US$0.40 for ordinary work, and US$0.32 for light work.

The cost-of-living index in Bujumbura (April 1963=100) was 132 in April

1965 and 142 in February 1966.

Available data indicate that there is a Chamber of Commerce and a small

association of manufacturers, most of whose members are also members of the

Chamber of Commerce.

No information is available on the present trade union membership in

Burundi. Of the four existing trade union organizations, only two are known to

be active at present: The Union of Free Workers of Burundi (Synidcat Libre des

Travailleurs du Burundi--SLTB) and the Union of Administrative Agents of Burundi

(Syndicat des Agents de 1 Administration du Burundi--SAAB). The SAAB, which

was formed in 1964, is composed of all civil servants.

Two centers which are presently inactive are the Christian Union of

Burundi (Syndicat Chretien du Burundi--SCB) , which claimed 1,000 members in 1963,

and the Federation of Workers of Burundi (Federation des Travailleurs du Burundi

--FTB), which claimed 3,000 members in 1963. The SCB, an affiliate of the

International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation Internationale

des Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) and its African regional organization, the PanAfrican Union of Believing Workers (Union Panafricaine des Travailleurs Croyants

--UPTC), has been inactive since an attempted coup d'etat in October 1965. The

FTB, an affiliate of the All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF), was banned

from activity by the Minister of Justice in 1965 following the assassination of

the Prime Minister.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 98

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

Cameroon, situated on the Gulf of Guinea along the west coast of Africa, has

an area of 183,381 square miles (166,800 in East Cameroon and 16,581 in West

Cameroon) and had an estimated population of over 5 million in 1965.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Cameroon, which became independent in 1960, is a federal

republic consisting of East Cameroon, formerly administered by the French, and

West Cameroon, formerly administered by the British. The Constitution of 1961

provides for a President andaVice President (one from each of the States), who

are elected by universal adult suffrage for 5-year terms, and a Cabinet. While

the two States have considerable autonomy in local matters, the President appoints the Prime Minister of each State, as well as the Federal Ministers and

Parliamentary Secretaries (whom he may also dismiss). The National Assembly,

composed of 40 representatives from East Cameroon and 10 from West Cameroon,

exercises legislative power. Representatives are elected for 5-year terms by

universal adult suffrage. The major political party in East Cameroon has been

the Union Camerounaise (UC), the party of President Ahmadou Ahidjo; the Kamerun

National Democratic Party (KNDP) of West Cameroon was the party of Vice President John Foncha. However, on June 13, 1966, theUC andtheKNDP, along with two

other West Cameroon-based parties, agreed to merge into a single party known as

the Union Nationale Camerounaise (UNC).

Economic. Cameroon’s economy is predominantly agricultural. Coffee and

cocoa, the principal exports, are produced by thousands of Cameroonians farming

small family holdings. In 1964, coffee accounted for about 27 percent of foreign exchange earnings; cocoa, 24 percent; cotton, 7 percent; fruits, mainly

bananas, for 6 percent; palm products and rubber, 7 percent; and forest products,

only 8 percent. Animal husbandry, a major economic activity, provides little

for export. The principal food crops in the south are yams , manioc, plantains , and

palm oil and, inthenorth, millet, sorghum, manioc, and peanuts. The industrial

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sector is small but has been expanding steadily. Most industrial enterprises

are based on the transformation of locally produced raw materials, but a few

assemble imported parts into finished products. The per capita gross national

product in 1964-65 was approximately US$101.

Social. About 99.6 percent of the population are Africans, who belong

to about 80 different tribes; most of the remainder are Europeans. The Fang,

Beti, Bassas, and Doualas are the principal ethnic groups in the south, the

Bamileke and Bamoun in the west, the Fulani, Hausa, and Kirdi (pagan) peoples

in the north, and small groups of Pygmies in the southeast. The two official

languages are French and English; there are about 24 major African language

groups. Approximately 53 percent of the population are pagan, 18 percent practice Islam, and 29 percent are Christian. Literacy was estimated at 40 percent

in the south and 10 percent in the north in 1965. Almost 97 percent of all students in 1963 were in elementary schools. Less than half of the school-age

population were in school in 1965.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The estimated number of wage and salary

earners at the end of 1964 was 86,470, or about 2 percent of the total population. Of the 62,032 persons employed in the private sector, 31 percent were in

agriculture, 11 percent in forestry, 3 percent in fishing, 21 percent in industry and commerce, 14 percent in transportation and communications, 10 percent

in building and construction, and 10 percent in domestic service. A majority of

the population are outside the money economy and live at a subsistence level.

Although no statistics are available on the extent of unemployment, it reportedly

is high, especially among migrants from rural to urban areas and among primary

and secondary school graduates. Underemployment is widespread, especially in

the traditional, subsistence sector of the economy.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. A large majority of the country's

manpower are untrained and relatively unproductive. Malnutrition, the lack of

adequate health facilities, debilitating diseases, and an inadequate educational

system are factors which contribute to low productivity. There is an acute shortage of professional, administrative, and technical personnel and all categories

of skilled and semiskilled workers. Expatriates fill the essential positions

in these fields.

In 1962, about 5,800 persons were receiving vocational-technical training

and about 2,800, teacher training. The Government Trade Center at Ombe in West

Cameroon graduates apprentice craftsmen in a number of trades. The College of

Arts, Science, and Technology at Kumba provides middle-level agricultural and

other technical training. In 1964-65, a center for English language instruction

was opened; a new inter-African center for training labor administrators was

inaugurated at the School of Administration in Yaounde;a private church organization from the Netherlands has agreed to construct and equip a technical school

at Diang; and project and technical assistance from various sources was concerned

with crop pest control, agricultural diversification, schools, public health,

commercial and agricultural training, and the provision of scholarships and other

training abroad. Cameroon has a university at Yaounde. In 1965, over 100 Peace

Corps volunteers, many of whom were working as teachers and in community development, were in the country.

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Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labor Codes applied to Cameroon before independence and, still in force, provide for maximum hours of work, paid overtime, and

paid vacations. The codes also establish minimum wages for all occupations in

the six salary zones (geographic regions into which the country is divided) and

regulate the employment of women and young persons. Other labor regulations

deal with indemnities for occupational diseases and accidents at work, and various

plans provide for family allowances and prenatal and maternity benefits for wage

and salary earners.

Administration and Practice. The Federal Ministry of Labor and Social

Legislation is responsible for the administration and enforcement of labor legislation. In 1962, one employment exchange was in operation.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Wages and prices have been as much as 30 to 40 percent higher in East

Cameroon than in West Cameroon. In 1964, there was an average increase of 10

percent in minimum wages in public works, construction, and industry. Hourly

wages of unskilled labor in 1965 ranged from US$0.07 to US$0.13. No other wage

data are available. A fringe benefit commonly provided to workers is medical

care. The statutory workweek is 40 hours in industry, business, and the professions and 48 hours (or 200 hours per month) in farming and forestry, with

provisions for overtime. Weekly hours worked, including overtime, in the early

part of 1965, were about 48 in industry and 40 to 45 in business.

Steadily increasing prices led to the establishment in 1964 of a Federal

Office of Price Control. However, despite controls, some consumer prices continued to rise. The retail price index for European families at Douala was

110.4 in June 1965 (February 1963=100) and 124.1 at Yaounde (March 1961=100).

As previously stated, a majority of the population live at the subsistence

level.

Employer Organizations

The first Cameroonian Federal Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Mines

was established in 1963. Other organizations are the regional Chambers of Commerce and Industry; the Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture, Pasturage, and

Forests; the Union des Syndicats Professionels du Cameroun, which coordinates

the activities of the approximately 20 associations of merchants and producers;

the Association Professionnelle des Banques; and the Confederation des Petites

et Moyennes Entreprises.

Labor Organizations

The total claimed trade union membership in Cameroon in 1965 was more

than 88,500. This claim is believed to be inflated since the number of wage and

salary earners in 1964 was estimated at about 86,500. The two national centers

representing workers in East Cameroon claimed about 68,500 of the total trade

union membership. By far the larger of the two is the Federation of Trade Unions

of the Cameroon (Federation des Syndicats du Cameroun--FSC), which had an estimated membership of 60,000.

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The FSC was formed in 1963 by merger of the Confederation of Free Unions

of Cameroon (Union des Syndicats Libres du Cameroun--USLC), the General Union

of Workers of Cameroon (Union Generale des Travailleurs du Cameroun--UGTC), the

Cameroonian General Confederation of Workers (Confederation Generale Camerounaise

du Travail--CGCT), the Confederation of Autonomous Cameroonian Unions (Union des

Syndicats Autonomes du Cameroun--USAC), and some independent unions. The USLC

was an affiliate of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)

and the UGTC was affiliated with the Communist World Federation of Trade Unions

(WFTU). The FSC enjoys the support of the UC, the dominant political party.

The other national center in East Cameroon is the Union of Trade Unions

of Believing Workers of the Cameroon (Union des Syndicats Croyants du Cameroun--

USCC), which claimed about 8,500 members in 1965. The USCC, which was formed

in 1962 by the merger of two confessional unions, is affiliated with the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation Internationale des

Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) and its African regional organization, the Pan-African

Union of Believing Workers (Union Panafricaine des Travailleurs Croyants--UPTC).

It is also affiliated with the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC).

The single national center representing workers in West Cameroon is the

West Cameroon Trade Union Congress (WCTUC), which claimed 20,000 members in

1965. The WCTUC, which was formed in 1962, assumed the affiliation with the

International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and its African Regional

Organization (AFRO), which two of its affiliates had maintained previously. By

far the largest WCTUC affiliate is the Cameroon Development Corporation Workers*

Union, which claims 10,000 members.

Five International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have affiliates in Cameroon:

The International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, and Technical Employees;

International Federation of Plantation, Agricultural and Allied Workers; Postal,

Telegraph, and Telephone International; Public Services International; and International Federation of Free Teachers' Unions.

Labor-Management Relations

The Government establishes minimum wage scales for all occupations in six

salary zones and labor legislation regulates hours of work and other conditions

of employment. Although employer organizations are well organized and there is

a large supply of unemployed, unskilled labor, organized workers engage successfully in collective bargaining. Shop stewards, who by law are elected annually

for 1-year terms in all private and public establishments, process workers'

grievances with employers. Labor tribunals are responsible for resolving conflicts between management and labor, and there is the right of appeal to higher

courts. Workers have the right to strike. No information is available, however, on the number of labor disputes.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 99

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

The Central African Republic is located in the center of Africa. It has an area

of approximately 238,000 square miles and a population of 2,088,000, according

to the 1965 census.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The country achieved independence on August 13, 1960; a new

government, headed by Colonel Jean Bedel Bokassa, assumed power on January 1,

1966. It retained the existing constitution which provides for a single-chamber

National Assembly, to which the members are elected for 5-year terms by universal suffrage (over age 21).

Economic. The economy is primarily agricultural. The main cash crops

are cotton, coffee, and peanuts and the principal food crops are small grains,

peanuts, and cassava. The leading exports are diamonds, cotton, and coffee.

Manufacturing includes a small number of plants engaged primarily in processing

agricultural products, such as cotton, coffee, and tobacco; others manufacture

beverages, textiles, and footwear. Per capita income was estimated to be US$90

in 1963.

Social. The principal ethnic groups are the Banda, 318,000; Mandjia,

85,000; and Baya, 294,000. French is the official language and is taught

in the schools; Sangho, a vernacular language, is spoken in all parts of

the country. Sixty-nine percent of the population are animist, 27 percent

are Christian, 3 percent profess Islam, and 1 percent are adherents of local religions. The literacy rate has been estimated by the Government at

18 percent. In 1965-66, 129,000 pupils attended primary schools and 4,500

students were in secondary schools. In 1961, the latest year for which

data are available, about 42 percent of the children of school age attended

school.

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Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment, In 1965, the labor force was estimated at

approximately 500,000, or roughly 25 percent of the population. According to

these estimates, 90 percent of the labor force, or about 450,000 persons, were

engaged in agriculture. There were 285,000 small-scale (about 1 acre) cotton

farmers in 1964. The number of wage and salary earners in 1965 was officially

estimated to be 49,000, of whom 35 to 40 percent were in the capital area; 38,750

were in the private sector, and 10,300 in the public sector, including 5,000

"decisionnaires" (noncareer employees of the lower ranks who are not in the civil

service system).

Although there is unemployment among those seeking work in the public sector, there has been an actual shortage of available manual and unskilled workers

in urban areas. Underemployment, however, is widespread in rural areas.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Most of the population work on small

plots of land, producing for local consumption and using traditional methods;

as a result, the level of productivity is low. There is a significant shortage of

modern skills. A vocational training center has been established in Bangui.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The 1961 Labor Code covers general labor conditions.

Other legislation establishes minimum wages and fixes the wages and working conditions of domestic workers. A pension program covers all salaried workers;

fund contributions are made from compulsory payroll deductions based on a percentage of salary received, up to a maximum of US$200 per month. A social security program provides for family allowances, prenatal allowances, and lump-sum

birth grants for each of the first three births in a family.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor is the main agency

in the labor field. It supervises the Central African Social Security Office,

which administers family allowances, maternity benefits, and work injury benefits. Enforcement is carried out through a small staff of inspectors.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

A 40-hour workweek has been established for most nonagricultural workers

and a 48-hour workweek for agricultural and related occupations. A 260-hour-permonth work program has been established for domestic servants, and there are

exceptions to the preceding general rule for certain categories of unskilled

workers. There are 12 legal holidays.

The consumer price index for Africans was 110.7 in December 1962 (1960=100)

and 116.4 at the end of 1963. Increases in minimum wage rates have been promulgated from time to time.

Employer Organizations

There are two employer organizations in the Central African Republic, the

Groupement Interprofessional pour l f6tude et le Ddveloppement de l'Economie

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Centraf ricaine (GIRCA) and the Union Nationale Interprof essionel le Centraf ricaine

(UNICA). The former, located in Bangui, is composed of the more prominent

planters, tradesmen, transporters, and businessmen, and has about 60 members.

The latter (also located in Bangui) is composed of businessmen operating on a

smaller scale and appears to be less well established than the GIRCA. Both

organizations were, however, represented at the International Labor Organization

conference in Geneva in 1966. There are also Chambers of Commerce, Agriculture, and Industries and Handicraft actively functioning in the Central African

Republic.

Labor Organizations

The General Union of Central African Workers (Union Generale des Travailleurs Centrafricaine--UGTC), the nation's only trade union center, claims

a membership of about 39,000, or 80 percent of the nation's estimated full-time

wage and salary earners. The UGTC was formed in 1964 as a result of a merger of

the African Confederation of Free Trade Unions-Workers Force-Central African

Republic (Confederation Africaine des Syndicats Libres-Force Ouvriere-Republique

Centrafricaine--CASL-F0-RC), African Confederation of Believing Workers-Central African Republic (Confederation Africaine des Travailleurs CroyantsRepublique Centrafricaine--CATC-RC), African General Confederation of LaborCentral African Republic (Confederation Generale Africaine du Travail--CGAT-RC),

Confederation of Workers of the Central African Republic (Confederation des

Travailleurs de la Republique Centrafricaine--CTC), and the FECETEC. The

CASL-F0-RC was a former affiliate of the International Confederation of Free

Trade Unions (ICFTU); the CATC was affiliated with the International Federation

of Christian Trade Unions (IFCTU); and the CGAT was an affiliate of the Communist

World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU). The UGTC is organized into two coordinating federations, one for unions of public servants and one for unions in

the private sector. However, these local affiliates have only limited contact

with the national center. The UGTC is affiliated with the All-African Trade

Union Federation (AATUF).

Labor-Management Relations

Bipartite tribunals settle individual grievances, and advisory labor

commissions deal with collective disputes. The number of man-days lost as a

result of work stoppages was 39,205 in 1957, 7,336 in 1960, and 1,100 in 1961.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 100

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF CHAD

Chad, a landlocked country in north-central Africa, has an area of 496,000

square miles and had a population of about 3.3 million in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Chad became a republic in August 1960. Under the Constitution of 1962, executive power is vested in the President who appoints the Council

of Ministers. Legislative power is vested in the unicameral National Assembly,

which is elected for a 5-year term. The Parti Progressiste Tchadien (PPT) is

the only authorized political party. Francois Tombalbaye has been President

since 1960.

Economic. The economy is based on agriculture; cotton and livestock raising are the chief pursuits. Cotton accounted in 1964 for 79 percent of exports;

livestock, about 20 percent. Other crops of significance are grain (millet,

sorghum, and rice) and peanuts. Food processing is the main manufacturing industry. The gross national product per capita in 1964 was estimated to be US$50.

Social. The ethnic composition of the population is mainly Arabic stock,

largely nomadic or seminomadic, in the north and Bantu in the south. Among the

latter, the Sara is the largest and most important tribe. Islam is the religion

of approximately half the population; among the remainder are a few Christians,

but most are animists. The official language is French, but a form of Arabic is

spoken widely. The various tribal groups speak a variety of languages, such as

Sara and Massa. Twenty percent of the school-age children attended school in

1963. The country literacy rate was estimated at 5 percent in that same year.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. Over half of the population lead a nomadic

or seminomadic existence. In 1962, out of the total labor force of 1.4 million

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persons (45 percent of the population), 91 percent were in agriculture, 4 percent were self-employed, and about 65,000 (5 percent) were wage and salary

earners. Of the latter group, 31.9 percent were in government and commerce,

23.9 percent in transportation, 9.6 percent in construction, 2.7 percent in industry, and the remainder in other sectors.

An estimated 30 percent of the total number of wage and salary earners

were reported to be unemployed in 1962. Unemployment has been attributed to the

withdrawal of French troops, migration of the agricultural population to urban

centers, seasonal unemployment due to climatic conditions, and other factors.

Underemployment is extensive in the agricultural sector.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Primitive techniques and the lack

of skilled manpower have kept the level of productivity low in all sectors,

particularly in the small industrial sector. A small number of technical

schools are in operation, including a vocational school at Fort Lamy. Recently,

some enterprises have provided on-the-job training for students during vacation periods. The Ministry of Labor, Youth, and Sports also operates a vocational training center, which offers a 9-month training program for skilled

workers.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. On December 28, 1965, the National Assembly enacted

a Labor Code for the first time. The new code is a revision of the 1952 French

Labor Code for Overseas Territories, which previously formed the basis for

Chadian labor law. Provisions cover fringe benefits, hours of work, rest periods, minimum wages, holidays, conditions of work, health and sanitation, work

injury benefits, and other topics.

Administration and Practice. The Minister of Labor, Youth, and Sports

supervises and administers labor legislation through labor inspectors and the

labor courts.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The minimum hourly wage in 1964 for nonagricultural workers, governmental or private, in principal towns and the north was US$0.09. In other parts

of Chad, nonagricultural workers received US$0,082 and agricultural workers,

US$0,075. These wages reflect a 46- to 68-percent increase in the minimum wage

decreed in 1964--the first increase since 1959. The Labor Code provides for a

40-hour workweek.

In Fort Lamy, the capital of the Republic, the retail price index for

average European or wealthy Chadian families was 142.3 in 1964 (1958=100), a

5-percent increase over 1963. However, most of the population lives at the subsistence level; in 1964, the average annual per capita income was estimated

at US$55.

Employer Organizations

Employers* organizations include the Chamber of Commerce for Agriculture

and Industry and the Intertrade Union of the Chad (Unitchad).

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Total trade union membership in Chad is estimated at 6,750, or approximately 10 percent of the 65,000 wage and salary earners. An estimated 5,500

members belong to the National Union of Chadian Workers (Union Nationale des

Travailleurs du Tchad--UNTT), which was formed in March 1964 as a result of a

merger of the African Confederation of Free Trade Unions-Workers1 Force--Chad

(CASL-FO), the African General Confederation of Labor (CGAT), and the Union of

Chadian Workers (UTT). The CASL-FO was a former affiliate of the International

Confederation of Free Trade Unions, while the CGAT was affiliated to the Communist World Federation of Trade Unions. The UNTT, which was formed with the

encouragement of the Government, has a close relationship with the single political party, the PPT.

The only other national trade union center in Chad is the Chadian Confederation of Labor (Confederation Tchadienne de Travail--CTT), formerly known

as the African Confederation of Believing Workers (CATC). The CTT disaffiliated

from the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (CISC) in 1965. It

remains affiliated with the African Trade Union Confederation.

Labor-Management Relations

A collective dispute is first handled by a labor inspector of the Ministry of Labor, Youth, and Sports. If settlement is not reached, the case is

referred for conciliation to a labor advisory board. The board may itself act

or appoint a special tripartite conciliation board. If conciliation fails,

"nonconciliation" procedures are carried on by a neutral expert. Finally, the

case may be referred to an arbitration board.

Strikes and lockouts are prohibited until conciliation and recommendation proceedings have been exhausted. Strikes against the Government are forbidden. Information on the number of strikes which have occurred is unavailable.

Labor Organizations

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 101

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics*

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF CONGO (BRAZZAVILLE)

The Republic of Congo (Brazzaville) is located in west-central Africa, It has an

area of 133,500 square miles and had a population estimated at 900,000 in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The country became independent of France in November 1960.

Under the Constitution of 1963, the Government consists of the President, who

is elected for a 5-year term, a Prime Minister and a Cabinet appointed by the

President, and a 55-member National Assembly, elected for a 5-year term. The

President (currently Alphonse Massamba-Debat) has extensive powers, both in his

governmental capacity and as secretary general of the single political party, the

National Revolutionary Movement (MNR), and as head of its Political Bureau.

Economic. In 1963, agriculture, livestock, forestry, and fishing accounted for 23 percent of the gross national product (GNP); manufacturing, electricity, mining, and construction, 17 percent; transportation, commerce, and

other services, 34 percent; and Government services, 26 percent. The GNP per

capita in 1963 was estimated at US$150. A majority of the population are engaged

in subsistence farming and produce such foodstuffs as bananas, manioc, corn , peanuts, rice, taros, and tropical fruits, almost all of which are for local consumption. Primarily European enterprises grow tropical products , such as peanuts ,

tobacco, sugarcane, palm nuts, bananas, cocoa beans, and coffee. The most important economic activity is lumbering, and the leading industry is wood processing. Tropical wood, mainly limba (of which the Congo is the world's largest

producer) and okoume, is the most important Congolese export, accounting in 1964

for 44 percent of the total. Next in importance are diamonds (not mined in the

Congo but coming from neighboring countries) , which accounted for over 42 percent

of total exports in 1964. Tropical agricultural products, such as palm kernels,

palm oil, and coffee, contributed 7 percent of the total. The industrial sector

is not highly developed. Among the more important industrial enterprises are a

sugar refinery, a cigarette factory, 2 fish processing plants, a veneer plant,

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about 15 sawmills, and 4 or 5 palm oil plants. Europeans living in the Congo own

some of the smaller firms, but French companies headquartered in France generally

control most of the larger enterprises. The most promising new economic activity

in the Congo's future is the development of large and rich potash deposits near

the port of Point Noire. Production is scheduled to commence in 1968. The

Congo's 5-Year Development Plan (1964-69) emphasizes industrial development.

Social. The population is composed of about 15 ethnic groups, comprising

over 70 tribes. The Bacongo, the largest of the groups, accounted for almost

50 percent of the population in 1965; the Bat£k£, the next in importance, comprise about 20 percent of the total, and the M'Bochi, about 15 percent. The

remaining 15 percent are Europeans, of whom a majority are French. About 49 percent of the population are Christians, 50 percent are animists, and the remainder

profess Islam. French is the official language and is taught in schools, but

numerous African languages, mostly of the Bantu group, are spoken. The rate of

literacy is estimated at about 25 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The estimated labor force in 1965 was about

40 percent of the population. About 60 percent were engaged in agriculture; 14

percent were self-employed, engaged in commerce and handicrafts; 18 percent were

wage and salary earners; and 8 percent were unemployed. The total number of

wage and salary earners in 1963 in both the public and private sectors, estimated

at 67,500, included about 2,000 European salaried workers; about 5,500 of the

remaining 65,500 Congolese, were employed as domestic servants and 15,500 by the

Government and other public entities. The only information available on the

distribution of wage and salary earners by industry is for 1960 when, out of a

total of 48,700, 20 percent were engaged in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and

hunting, 20 percent in public and private services, 16 percent in commerce and

finance, 12 percent in manufacturing and electricity, 10 percent in transportation, 9 percent in construction, 7 percent in domestic service, and the remaining 6 percent in other activities.

As a consequence of the migration of unskilled workers to the cities,

unemployment is a serious problem in urban areas. Underemployment is substantial, particularly in rural areas. In 1965, the Government created a new movement called the "Action for Rural Renovation" and at the same time dissolved the

paramilitary Service Civique. The new program is designed to move the unemployed

youth out of the cities into useful work in the country. The Ministry of Agriculture, the Secretary for Youth and Sports, and the Secretary of State for National Defense are responsible for administering various aspects of the program.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Productivity is low, particularly

in the nonwage sector. The expanding economy requires skills which are not currently available, due to the workers' lack of education and training. In 1963,

the Congo had 32 vocational and secondary technical schools, 3 teacher-training

institutes, and the University of Brazzaville, which had 181 students.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labor Code of 1964 forbids compulsory labor and

contains provisions relating to freedom of association, labor organizations, the

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settlement of industrial disputes, contracts of apprenticeship, individual employment contracts, collective agreements, wages, paid leave, the health and

safety of workers, and the employment of women and children. The Civil Service

Code ( 1962) , among other things, regulates the recruitment, conditions of employment, and rates of pay of civil servants; it also deals with discipline and

recognizes the right of civil servants to organize into trade unions. The Old

Age and Survivors1 Insurance Law (1963) applies to all workers subject to the

Labor Code and provides for retirement benefits, which begin at age 55. Persons

who have worked at least 15 years in covered employment are guaranteed a minimum

amount; larger pensions are paid, depending on length of service in covered employment and the amount contributed to the pension fund. Employers contribute

60 percent and workers 40 percent to the fund.

The Directorate of Labor and Social Welfare administers labor legislation. The tripartite National Labor Advisory Board under the authority of the

Minister of Labor and Social Welfare evaluates and makes recommendations with

regard to problems and programs concerning labor, manpower, and social welfare.

Family allowances, workmen's compensation, and the Old Age and Survivors 1 Insurance Law are administered by the National Social Welfare Fund, under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Labor.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Representative hourly wages for adult wage and salary earners in October

1962 in Brazzaville were US$0.20 for bakers, US$0.33 for cabinetmakers, US$0.45

for garage mechanics, and US$0.31 for carpenters. Monthly rates were US$40.60

for retail clerks and US$117.00 for accounting machine operators. In addition

to basic wages, some workers receive family allowances and other fringe benefits, such as transportation to and from work. The statutory workweek is40hours.

The retail price index for Europeans in Brazzaville (1956=100) was 145.2

in January 1962 and 163.0 in January 1963. A new index (January 1964=100) was

106.7 in December 1964. There is currently no cost-of-living index for Africans. Government measures to curb inflation have included credit restraints

and wage controls.

Employer Organizations

There are Chambers of Commerce in Brazzaville and Point Noire; the one

in Point Noire has a branch in Dolisie.

Labor Organizations

No information is available on the total trade union membership in the

Congo. The single national trade union center, the Congolese Trade Union Confederation (Confederation Syndicale Congolais--CSC), was formed in 1964 by

the merger of the Congolese Confederation of Free Trade Unions (Confederation

Congolaise des Syndicats Libres--CCSL), the National Union of CGAT Trade Unions

of the Congo (Union Nationale des Syndicats CGAT du Congo--CGAT-Congo), the

Federation of Postal Workers (Federation Postale), and a public service union.

The CCSL was an affiliate of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions

(ICFTU), and the CGAT-Congo was affiliated with the Communist World Federation

qf Trade Unions (WFTU). The merger took place at the urging of the MNR, the

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single political party. As a result, the CSC has a very close relationship with

that party. It is an affiliate of the All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF).

The National Union of CATC Trade Unions of the Congo (Union Nationale

des Syndicats CATC du Congo--CATC-Congo), an affiliate of the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation International des Syndicats

Chretiens--CISC), refused to participate in the formation of the CSC. Subsequently it was dissolved by the Government, and it is believed to have gone

underground.

Labor-Management Relations

The Labor Code provides for referral to the employer, by staff representatives, of individual or collective employee demands with respect to such

matters as conditions of employment, wage rates, or the application of collective agreements. The code also provides for conciliation through services of

the Inspectorate of Labor and Social Legislation and Labor Courts.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 102

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS,IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

OF THE CONGO (KINSHASA)

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa--f ormerly Leopoldville) is located

in south-central Africa. Its area is about 905,000 square miles, and its population was estimated to be between 14 and 15 million in 1965.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The country achieved independence from Belgium on June 30,

1960. On November 25, 1965, General Joseph Mobutu took over control of the Government by a bloodless coup d'etat. The Republic now has a parliamentary system

of government, abicameral Legislature, aPresident, andaPrime Minister. President Mobutu is now ruling by decree.

Economic. A majority of the native population engage in subsistence

farming, hunting, and fishing; in 1964, a quarter of the population (34 percent of the adult males) were employed in the modern (i.e., cash) economy,

principally plantation agriculture, mining, and manufacturing. Prior to independence, agriculture contributed about one-third of the gross national product (GNP) and 30 percent of exports. The main agricultural products are palm

products, rubber, and coffee. Mining, including copper, diamonds, cobalt, zinc,

gold, and uranium, contributed 50 to 67 percent of the value of exports and

15 to 20 percent of the GNP before independence. Most industrial activity is

in mining and in secondary manufacturing, principally the processing of agricultural products.

Social. French is the official language of the Government and the common

language in the schools. There are four common, or trade, languages: Lingala,

Kikongo, Swahili, and Tshiluba. An estimated 5 million persons are Christians.

There is a small Moslem minority; the remainder are animists. In 1960, it was

estimated that 30 percent of the population had an elementary knowledge of reading and writing; in some rural areas, about 10 percent were literate.

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M a n p o w e r and E m p l o y m e n t

Employment and Unemployment. In 1958, approximately 6.7 million people,

or one-half of the estimated population at that time (13.5 million), were in

the labor force. Only 1.1 million, or about 17 percent, worked in the cash

economy; 83 percent worked as subsistence farmers and unpaid family workers in

the traditional subsistence economy.

In early 1965, it was estimated that approximately 20 percent of the labor

force, estimated at over 7 million, were wage and salary earners. In 1959 (the

most recent year for which data on the distribution of the labor force are available) , 279,742, or about 29 percent of the 961,068 wage and salary earners,

were employed on plantations; 101,800, or 11 percent, in manufacturing; 87,234,

or 9 percent, in construction; 78,732, or 8 percent, in mining; 71,400, or 7

percent, in transportation; 65,590, or 7 percent, in trade; 229,850, or 24 percent, in services; and 46,720, or 5 percent, as office workers.

Unemployment is difficult to measure because of the high rate of labor

turnover, migration of laborers from rural to urban areas, and the absence of

public employment offices.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Productivity is low in the traditional sector of agriculture. An estimated 20 percent of the labor force have

some skills in such occupations as teaching and construction. In 1958, 376

vocational and agricultural schools had a total enrollment of 19,643, and 583

teacher-training schools, an enrollment of 43,906. There are two universities,

a normal school, the National School for Law and Administration, and the National Institute of Vocational Training, as well as other professional training

institutions.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor legislation, dating from before the country

achieved independence, remains in effect until revoked or amended. Among the

laws passed since independence are the Employment Contracts Law (1961), which

covers individual labor contracts, and the Social Security Law (1961). A number

of amendments to the Employment Contracts Law cover such subjects as working

conditions, contracts, procedures for determining minimum wages, and housing.

The Single Statute (1959) regulates employment in the civil service. A decree

of 1957 gave African workers and employees the right to join labor organizations.

The Ordinance-Law Concerning the Regulation of Labor Relations (1964) serves as

a legal basis for the creation of national and regional labor-management relations advisory bodies; it provides protection for worker delegates against arbitrary dismissal, defines legal work stoppages, prohibits politically motivated

strikes, and assures the right to work of nonstrikers. The Ordinance Relating

to Worker Representation in Enterprises (1964) establishes a system of worker

representation within individual enterprises.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor is the main agency

responsible for labor matters. Other ministries and semigovernmental bodies,

such as the National Institute of Social Security, are charged with specific

aspects of labor administration. The inadequate number of inspectors, together

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with their limited technical knowledge, limits enforcement. The United Nations,

the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), and the International Labor Organization (ILO) have assisted the Government in training administrators,

labor inspectors, and other personnel for the Ministry of Labor and have provided teaching personnel in these fields.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The country is divided into six wage districts. The daily legal minimum

wage rate in Kinshasa, as decreed in 1963, was US$2.12 for ordinary labor, US$2.36

for heavy work, and US$1.92 for light work. The law also requires payment of

a housing allowance of US$0.22 and an allowance of US$0.14 for each child per

day. The minimum wage rate varies from 40 to 80 percent of these figures in the

other wage districts. (On May 1, 1966, the Government announced a 30-percent

increase in the national legal minimum wage rate and a 100-percent increase in

family allocations.) The workweek officially consists of 8 hours a day, 6 days

a week.

In practice, increases in minimum wage rates have been tied to increases in

the cost of living; at the same time, the Government has acted to curb inflation. The new index for Kinshasa markets (October-December 1964=100) was 110

in December 1965. The cost-of-living index in Katanga (1959=100) was 157.9 in

1964.

Employer Organizations

The most important management organization is the Federation of Enterprises of the Congo. Membership in this organization, as well as in national

and regional chambers of commerce, is predominantly foreign. In an effort to

encourage a Congolese employer group, the Government, in 1961, approved theformation of the Association of Middle Classes and of Independent African Workers,

an association of small employers. In 1961, this organization had 272 members,

mostly artisans, retailers, small manufacturers, contractors, and representatives of service industries.

Labor Organizations

Total trade union membership in the Congo is estimated at about 152,000,

or about 11 percent of the estimated 1.4 million wage and salary earners.

Of the four national trade union centers in the country , by far the largest

and best organized is the Union of Congolese Workers (Union des Travailleurs

Congolais--UTC), which has an estimated membership of 92,500, or about 60 percent of the total trade union membership. The UTC was formed in 1960 as a

successor to the Confederation of Christian Syndicates of the Congo (Confederation des Syndicats Chretiens du Congo--CSCC), whose origin dates back to 1946.

Since its founding, the UTC has maintained a close connection with the Belgian

Confederation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation des Syndicats Chretiens--

CSC). It is an affiliate of the International Federation of Christian Trade

Unions (Confederation Internationale des Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) and its

African regional organization, the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union

Panafricaine des Travailleurs Croyants--UPTC).

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The second largest national center is the Confederation of Free Trade

Unions of the Congo (Confederation des Syndicats Libres du Congo--CSLC), with

an estimated 50,000 members, or about one-third of the total trade union membership. The CSLC was formed in 1961. The General Labor Federation of the Congo

(Federation Generale du Travail du Kongo--FGTK), with an estimated 8,000 members, is the third major center. Since its formation in 1951, the FGTK has had

a close relationship with the Belgian General Federation of Labor (Federation

General du Travail de Belgique--FGTB). The FGTK and the CSLC, respectively,

affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)

in 1960 and 1961 and are members of its African Regional Organization (AFRO).

The CSLC, FGTK, and UTC all participated in the formation of the African Trade

Union Confederation (ATUC).

The General Confederation of Congolese Workers (Confederation Gdn^rale

des Travailleurs Congolais--CGTC), with an estimated membership of 300, is the

smallest of the four centers. It is affiliated with the World Federation of Trade

Unions (WFTU) and has a close connection with the Communist General Confederation of Labor (Confederation Generale du Travail--CGT) in France. In addition

to its WFTU affiliation, the CGTC is an affiliate of the All-African Trade Union

Federation (AATUF).

Seven International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have affiliates in the country: International Federation of Building and Woodworkers; International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, and Technical Employees; International Graphical

Federation; International Federation of Journalists; Miners' International Federation; Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone International; and Public Services

International.

Labor-Management Relations

Management is generally not organized to deal effectively on a collective

bargaining basis with labor. Except in large enterprises, management handles

industrial relations on an ad hoc basis. If conflicting parties in a dispute

fail to reach agreement, the Ministry Qf Labor establishes a conciliation board.

If its efforts are unsuccessful, voluntary arbitration is the next step. Legislation requires employers and employees to exhaust all conciliation and arbitration procedures before calling a strike or lockout.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 103

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor A ffairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF DAHOMEY

The Republic of Dahomey is located in West Africa on the northern coast of the

Gulf of Guinea. It has an area of 44,700 square miles and had a population

estimated at 2.3 million in 1965.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Dahomey achieved independence from France in 1960. Several

abrupt changes of government since 1960 reflect the deep-seated rivalries among

the three main regions of the country. In the most recent change, the Army suspended the Constitution of 1964 on December 22, 1965, and General Christophe

Soglo assumed power. As President of the Republic, he has appointed a Cabinet,

comprised mainly of civilians outside political circles, and has dissolved the

National Assembly.

Economic. The economy consists primarily of subsistence agriculture. The

main food crops--corn, yams, millet and sorghum, rice, manioc, beans, and a

variety of fruits--account for70percent of the total agricultural product. Palm

products, peanuts, and coffee, the major cash crops, contribute over 90 percent

of exports. Industry is small scale. An important new palm kernel factory,

opened in early 1965, has the capacity to process 80 percent of the country's

palm kernel production. About 55 percent of the gross national product in 1964

was estimated to come from agriculture, forestry, livestock, and fishing, 19 percent from commerce, 9.2 percent from transport and communications, 7.6 percent

from construction and public works, and 9.2 percent from other sectors. Per

capita income was estimated in 1965 at US$65 to US$70.

Social. The most important of the 12 major ethnic groups are the Fon

(900,000) in the south and center of the country, the Yoruba and Mahi (150,000) in

the southeast, andtheBariba (160,000), Somba (80,000), and Peul (70,000) in the

north. About 2,000 Europeans are employed in commerce, industry, and administration. A majority of the population are animist or fetishist. The Christians, a

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smaller group, are in the south; the Moslems are more predominant in the north.

The official language is French; the main native languages are Fon, Yoruba,

Bariba, and Fulani. Literacy is estimated at 5 percent of the population over 15

years of age, varying from 20 percent in urban areas to 2 percent in rural areas.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force was estimated in 1965 to

be 1.1 million (47.8 percent of the total population). Approximately 75 percent

are employed in agriculture, fishing, and hunting, 15 percent in commerce, banking, and insurance, 5 percent in crafts and cottage industries, and 5 percent

in other activities. Manufacturing and processing occupied about 4,000 persons

in 1965. Of the estimated 26,000 wage and salary earners, about 12,000 were in

the public sector and 2,000 in the semipublic sector.

Under French colonial rule, relatively well-educated Dahomeans filled a

large number of clerical and middle-level positions in countries throughout subSaharan Africa. After countries in that area achieved independence, most of

them expelled the Dahomeans, often suddenly, and they had to return home. This

influx aggravated the country's difficult economic situation and helps account

for the serious urban unemployment problems which now exist. Underemployment

characterizes the subsistence sector of the economy.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. A high level of productivity and

skills is occasionally found in the public sector. In general, however, low educational levels, the absence of skills in virtually all fields, and primitive production methods contribute to low levels of productivity.

In 1961, eight schools offered vocational training, three offered teacher

training, and there was an apprenticeship training center at Parakou. The Government operates two agricultural training centers.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation.* Labor legislation, patterned on the French Overseas

Labor Code, provides for collective agreements between employers and employees,

the fixing of minimum wages by the Government, paid annual leave, and children's

allowances. The social security program provides for work injury benefits, for

payment of maternity benefits for employed women, and for family allowances.

Civil servants are covered by a pension system.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor and Civil Service administers labor legislation and the social security program. Enforcement is hampered by a shortage of inspectors and the large number of very small enterprises.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wage rates vary according to the location of the employment and

the sector of the economy. In agriculture, the minimum hourly rate is about

13 percent less than that for other employees. A nonagricultural worker in

the urban centers of Cotonou, Porto Novo, and Ouidah is guaranteed a minimum

hourly wage of approximately US$0.16, which is the highest minimum wage rate

specified.

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The law establishes a maximum workweek of 40 hours. Time worked in excess

of that limit is subject to premium pay.

In 1962, the government of President Maga instituted a 10-percent cut in

the salary of civil servants. Under pressure from the trade unions, this cut

was reduced to 5 percent in 1964 by the Ahomadegbe regime. The salaries of officials were further reduced by 25 percent in 1965 as part of Ahomadegbe 1 s austerity

program. The present government of General Soglo has stated that it intends to

maintain this program.

Employer Organizations

The principal employer organizations are the National Association of

Dahomean Merchants (SYNCAD) and the African Merchants' Association of Dahomey

(SYNACADA). There is also a Chamber of Commerce and the Interprofessional

Association of Enterprises of Dahomey (GIDA).

Labor Organizations

The total trade union membership in Dahomey is roughly 21,000, or about

80 percent of the estimated 26,000 wage and salary earners. About 85 percent of

the membership is concentrated in two of the four national centers: The General

Union of Workers of Dahomey (Union Gdnerale des Travailleurs du Dahomey--UGTD),

with an estimated 10,000 members, and the General Union of Dahomean Trade Unions

(Union G£n£rale des Syndicats du Dahomey--UGSD), with an estimated 8,000 members. The UGTD, which was formed in 1961, is affiliated with the All-African

Trade Union Federation (AATUF). The UGSD was formed in 1964 as a successor to

the General Confederation of Trade Unions of Dahomey (Confederation Generale

des Syndicats du Dahomey--CGSD).

The two smaller centers are the National Confederation of Free Labor Unions

(Confederation Nationale des Syndicats Libres--CNSL), which claimed 2,258 members in 1965 , and the Dahomean Confederation of Believing Workers (Confederation

Dahomeenne des Travailleurs Croyants--CDTC), with an estimated 1,000 members.

The CNSL was formed in 1964 as a successor to the African Confederation of Free

Trade Unions-Workers' Force--Dahomey (Confederation Africaine des Syndicats

Libres-Force Ouvriers--Dahomey--CASL-FO--Dahomey). The CDTC, which was formed

inl952 as a local of theFrench Confederation of Christian Workers (Confederation

Francaise des Travailleurs Chretiens--CFTC), is affiliated with the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation International des

Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) and its African regional organization, the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union Panafricaine des Travailleurs Croyants--

UPTC). Both the CDTC and the CNSL are affiliates of the African Trade Union

Confederation (ATUC).

Labor-Management Relations

Individual grievances are handled by labor inspectors. Usually, grievances concern breaches of labor contracts involving wages, notice of discharge,

separation pay, paid vacations, and overtime. Most collective disputes are

settled through conciliation procedures. A small number are referred to the

courts.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 104

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE EMPIRE OF ETHIOPIA

The Ethiopian Empire, situated in eastern Africa, has an area of approximately

457,000 square miles and had an estimated population of 27 million in early 1966.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Supreme political power in Ethiopia is vested in the Emperor,

a hereditary monarch. The present Emperor is Hailie Selassie I. The 1955 Constitution provides for a bicameral Parliament with an appointed upper house

(Senate) and an elected lower house (Chamber of Deputies). An appointed Council

of Ministers and advisory groups within the Palace assist the Emperor in administering national affairs. There are no political parties.

Economic. Ethiopia is predominantly an agricultural country; a majority

of the population are subsistence farmers or nomadic herdsmen. The small surpluses produced are usually traded in markets within the traditional economy.

Most modern agricultural, industrial, and commercial firms have been established

since World War II by foreigners; almost all are partly owned by the Emperor or

the Government. In 1961, over two-thirds of Ethiopia's gross national product

was contributed by the agricultural sector, less than one-tenth by industry,

and the remainder by the governmental, commercial, and services sectors. Agricultural products account for almost all exports; coffee is the largest single

export, earning from 50 to 60 percent of Ethiopia's foreign exchange. The second

5-year plan (1963-67) provides for economic and social development, with emphasis

on transportation, communications, education, and modernization of agriculture.

Social. There are 11 main ethnic groups, speaking, in all, 70 languages

and over 200 dialects. Politically and culturally, the most important ethnic

groups are the Amharas, the Tigraians, and the Galla people. The first two profess the Coptic Christian faith; the Gallas are predominantly Moslem. Amharic,

spoken by 40 to 50 percent of the people, is the official language; Gallinya and

Tigrai-Tigrinya are the other most widely spoken languages. English is a second

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official language and is spoken by most civil servants and higher level employees

in commerce and industry. The literacy rate is estimated at less than 10 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. Estimates in 1965 placed the number in the

labor force at 11.4 million, or 53 percent of the estimated total population in

that year. Over 96 percent of the labor force were in agriculture, about 2 percent in manufacturing, and 2 percent in commerce and services. Only small

numbers of persons in these sectors work in modern enterprises; however, employment in modern manufacturing plants appears to be growing rapidly. An estimated

100,000 to 125,000 are wage and salary earners. No data on unemployment are

available. The chief problem in rural areas is underemployment; in urban centers, an abundance of unemployed, unskilled labor exists side by side with a

scarcity of persons to fill skilled and professional positions.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Prevalence of debilitating diseases,

rigorous and frequent religious fasting, the high altitude or excessive heat,

and lack of familiarity with modern practices contribute to a generally low

level of productivity, which must be overcome by extensive on-the-job training.

Too few graduate from the specialized courses at secondary and university levels

and vocational and technical training ("special") schools to fill the demand.

In 1962-63, the country’s 43 special schools had a total enrollment of 5,152.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Separate labor laws, all of recent origin, govern

individual work contracts , hours, overtime, employer liability for work-connected

accidents and diseases, pensions, holidays, labor inspection, working conditions, the formation and activities of employers' and workers' organizations,

collective bargaining, disputes settlement, and strikes. These laws usually

cover all sectors of the economy; additional laws cover the public service.

Ethiopian labor legislation often does not spell out detailed standards and

leaves many conditions to be determined by local custom.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of National Community Development has among its duties responsibility for labor affairs. The Ministry's

Labour Inspection Service, created in 1964, is charged with the enforcement of

legal minimum working conditions of all workers, except those in domestic, civil

service, and small-scale agricultural employment. As of late 1965, the Service

had not yet begun to operate in the field; it was awaiting completion of training of inspectors and the promulgation of a Labour Standards Proclamation to

empower it to enter into and inspect worksites and to exact compliance. Compliance is usually good in foreign-managed and other unionized plants, where unions

have helped to set standards of compliance by taking their grievances to the

Ministry's Labour Relations Division for settlement.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Ethiopia has no minimum wage legislation; individual employers set wage

and salary rates. Wages for unskilled workers doing similar work vary. The

generally accepted minimum wage for unskilled casual labor is US$0.40 a day;

most manual workers are paid piece rates. Rates of pay for professionals and

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skilled workers vary, reflecting an acute shortage of skills. Estimated fringe

benefits to Ethiopian manual and clerical workers in 1965 amounted to 45 percent of payrolls, and to administrative, technical, and foreign personnel,

50 percent.

Legislation establishes a 48-hour, 6-day workweek, and in unionized

plants these hours usually prevail. Public service personnel generally work a

39-hour, 5%-day week.

Ethiopia has no retail price index, but prices appear to be relatively

stable, except for prices of individual items, such as sugar, which are subject

to sporadic Government control. The estimated annual per capita income isUS$45.

Employer Organizations

The two management organizations in Ethiopia are the Chamber of Commerce

and the Federation of Employers of Ethiopia (FEE). The former is aquasi-governmental, nonpolitical body organized in 1947, with the primary function of encouraging foreign investment in Ethiopia and promoting the country's economic

development. Its 1,000 members are chiefly foreign owners of small- and mediumsized commercial and service concerns in Addis Ababa, Asmara, and Diredawa. The

FEE is an independent body established in 1964 for the purpose of assisting its

approximately 40 members in the conduct of labor relations. It is represented

on the Labour Relations Board of the Ministry of National Community Development, an appeal board for unresolved labor disputes.

Labor Organizations

The Confederation of Ethiopian Labour Unions (CELU), the nation's only

trade union center, claims a membership of 29,000, or about one-fourth of the

wage and salary earners. The CELU was formed in 1963 following the enactment

of the Labour Relations Law of 1962, which granted the first legal sanction to

trade union activity in Ethiopia. The CELU, which now has 70 affiliates, has

been affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)

and its African Regional Organization (AFRO) since 1964.

Most unions in Ethiopia represent the workers in a single company or establishment. The two International Trade Secretariats (ITS) which have affiliates

in Ethiopia are the International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical Workers

and the International Federation of Plantation, Agricultural, and Allied Workers.

Labor-Management Relations

Labor-management relations have traditionally been characterized by paternalism. The passage of labor legislation beginning in 1960 and the formation

of labor unions, however, have paved the way for modern industrial relations. As

of late 1965, four collective agreements , covering approximately 10,000 permanent

employees, were in effect. Disputes are settled more and more frequently at the

plant level in unionized establishments. Either labor or management may appeal to

the Ministry of National Community Development's Labour Relations Section for

conciliation and then to the Labour Relations Board for arbitration. Strikes are

legal only if the Board has not issued a decision within 60 days after it receives

the case. Participants in several illegal strikes have not been penalized.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 105

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics„

LABOR CONDITIONS IN EQUATORIAL GUINEA

Equatorial Guinea, formerly known as Spanish Guinea, is composed of the territories of Fernando Poo and Rio Muni on the west coast of Africa. Fernando Poo

has an area of 785 square miles and had a population of 62,612 in 1960. Rio Muni

has an area of 6,730 square miles and had a population of 183,377 in 1960.

The Administration of Equatorial Guinea, formed under the provisions of

the Basic Law of December 1963, operates through a legislature, the General

Assembly, and an executive body, the Governing Council. The General Assembly

has 18 members; half of them are elected by the Municipal Councils (Deputaciones

Provinciales) and the other half by corporative bodies. The Governing Council

consists of a president and eight members, four from Fernando Poo and four from

Rio Muni. Representatives of the General Assembly and Governing Council are

elected for 4-year terms. A Civil Governor for each of the territories serves

as the Council's representative and coordinator in the territory. The Government of Spain is represented by a Commissioner General.

Each of the territories has a predominantly agricultural economy. Most

of the cultivated area is farmed for Spanish absentee landlords. Cocoa and

coffee are the principal exports. Rio Muni accounts for about 80 percent of

the coffee and Fernando Poo, for about 90 percent of the cocoa. Bananas, palm

oil, palm kernels, and manioc are other exports. Several large European-owned

forest concessions in Rio Muni provide exports of hardwoods. The several small

enterprises which exist include a sawmill, a furniture factory, and a cement

plant. The per capita income was US$132 in 1963.

The population includes 4,500 Europeans and Levantines and about 50,000

Nigerian contract workers and their families. The Bubis, a Bantu people, is

the major tribal group on Fernando Poo, where approximately 2,000 Spaniards

also reside. The largest tribal group in Rio Muni is the Fang. Rio Muni had

less than 2,000 Europeans in 1960. Spanish is the official language. In 1961,

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19 ,514 pupils were enrol led in the 121 primary schools, and the 3 secondary schools

had 422 pupils.

Data on the size of the labor force and the number of wage and salary

earners are unavailable. Agriculture, fishing (in Annobon and Rio Muni), and

stockraising are the chief occupations of the Africans. Contract labor from

Nigeria is used extensively in both Fernando Poo and Rio Muni to augment the

labor supply on European-owned plantations. In 1963, approximately 40,000 Nigerians were engaged in such work on Fernando Poo and 10,000 were in Rio Muni

under a 1963 treaty between the Governments of Nigeria and Spain. The treaty

provides for the recruitment of Nigerian adult male workers (over 17 years of

age) under 3-year contracts with an option of renewal for 1% years.

There are no trade union organizations and there is no information available on syndicates in Equatorial Guinea.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 106

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1 966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN FRENCH SOMALILAND

French Somaliland, an Overseas Territory of France, is situated in northeast

Africa. It has an area of about 8,494 square miles and had an estimated population of 80,000 in 1964.

French Somaliland is represented in the French National Assembly and in

the French Senate by one deputy and one senator. It is administered by a Governor who represents the French Government. He is assisted by an Executive Council

composed of 8 members elected by the Territorial Assembly, which consists of 32

members elected by universal suffrage. The leading political parties are the

Parti du Mouvement Populaire and the Union Democratique Afar.

An estimated 89 percent of the total area is desert wasteland, 10 percent permanent pastureland, and 1 percent forest. There are few natural resources. Some vegetables and dates are grown but most of the food is imported.

The economy is centered around and based upon the activities of the port of

Djibouti and the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad. Djibouti’s role as a port-ofcall for many vessels transiting the Red Sea and its proximity to the Ethiopian

hinterland make it a major port of entry for that country. The railroad serves

as a link between the port and Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, where almost al 1 of the territory ' s exports originate. The limited exports that originate

in French Somaliland consist mainly of live cattle, hides and skins, and salt.

The indigenous population consists of an estimated 30,500 Danakils and

24,000 Somalis, all of whom are Hamitic and most of whom are Moslem. The foreign

community, almost all of whom live in and around Djibouti, includes about 7,000

Europeans (mainly French), who are Christians, 3,000 Arabs, who practice Islam,

and unknown numbers of East Indians, Pakistanis, Greeks, Italians, and Armenians. The main languages are Somali, Danakil, French, and Arabic.

Education in French Somaliland is modeled after the French system, and

French is the language of instruction. In 1961, 1,834 students were attending

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19 public schools and 1,821 were in 12 private schools. In 1959, the 10 secondary schools were providing technical, commercial, and nurses’ training.

Most of the economically active population are not in the money economy;

they are engaged in nomadic animal husbandry. Subsistence agriculture and coastal fishing provide a livelihood for some of the people. As of January 1962,

there were 10,386 African wage and salary earners in French Somaliland. The

port of Djibouti and the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad provided most of the paid

employment in the territory. Small numbers of workers were employed in the

import-export houses, urban service industries, and construction.

The right of workers to organize into trade unions, to bargain collectively, to engage in strikes, and of trade unions to affiliate with national or

international organizations is defined in the French Labor Code of 1952, as

amended in 1955, which was extended to the Territories and Associated Territories. Administration and enforcement of this legislation is the responsibility

of a Consultative Labor Commission and an Inspector of Labor and Social Laws.

There is a Chamber of Commerce; no information is available regarding

other employer organizations.

Trade union membership in the territory is estimated at 2,200, or about

20 percent of the 10,386 wage and salary earners. The Territorial Federation of Trade Unions-Workers' Force (Union Territoriale des Syndicats-Force

0uvriere--UTS-F0) is the only trade union center in the territory. It has 1,550

members in nine African affiliates and 650 members in six European unions. The

UTS-F0 is a branch of the French General Confederation of Labor (Confederation

Generate du Travail-Force 0uvriere--CGT-F0), through which it is affiliated

with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU).

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 107

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF GABON

Gabon, located on the west coast of Africa at the Equator, has an area of 103,000

square miles and had a population estimated at 446,000 in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Gabon became a republic in August 1960. Under the Constitution of 1959, as amended in 1960 and 1961, executive power is centralized in

the President, who is both chief of state and head of the Government. Legislative power rests in the National Assembly, a unicameral body elected for a 5-year

term. The Bloc Ddmocratique Gabonais (BDG), the Government party led by President Leon Mba, is the dominant political party. The principal opposition party

is the Union Democratique et Sociale Gabonaise (UDSG).

Economic. Although 60 to 75 percent of the population are engaged in

subsistence agriculture, the economy is based on forestry and mining. Only 1

percent of the arable land (which constitutes 11 percent of the total area) is

under cultivation. The main cash crops are cocoa and coffee. The country must

therefore rely heavily on imports of food for consumption. In 1964, wood and

wood products accounted for 50 percent of total exports, and minerals for 47 percent. Manganese, iron ore, uranium, and gold are the chief minerals produced.

Large iron ore deposits have been discovered but, due to inaccessibility, have

not yet been exploited. The principal industries are the processing of timber

and, on a smaller scale, the processing of agricultural products. The 3-Year

Development Plan (1963-65) and the current 5-Year Plan (1966-70) provided for

the expansion of transportation facilities, development of natural resources and

industrial potential, and increased production of food for domestic use. The

per capita gross national product was estimated at US$425 in 1963.

Social. The vast majority of the Gabonese are of Bantu stock, but there

are approximately 40 distinct tribal groups with separate languages and cultures.

The largest tribe is the Fang, numbering about 150,000, followed by the Echira

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with 92,000, theAdouma with 60,000, and the Okande with 25,000. The remainder of

the population is divided among 35 other tribes including a small number of pygmies. The people speak many languages, but French is the official language. In

1965, more than 80,000, or 90 percent of the school-age children, attended school.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. In 1963, the labor force was estimated at

220,000, or about 50 percent of the population. Of the 44,000 (20 percent of

the labor force) wage and salary earners in 1963, 30.4 percent were in agriculture and forestry, 15.9 percent in services, 14.8 percent in mining and quarrying, 12.9 percent in commerce, 9.5 percent in manufacturing, 8.1 percent in

construction, 6.0 percent in transportation and communications, and 2.4 percent

in other activities.

Unemployment is not considered a problem, inasmuch as an ordinance enacted

in 1962 makes employment compulsory. (See under legislation.) The Government

maintains a national employment agency for placing workers who are seeking jobs,

and all unemployed persons must register and accept the jobs offered by the labor registration authorities. Underemployment is widespread in the agricultural

sector.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Although the economy is expanding

at a rapid rate, the level of productivity remains low. There is a serious shortage of trained manpower at all levels. In 1963, only 5 percent of the wage and

salary earners had received vocational training. Many industries offer on-thejob training. In the last 2 years, the Government has also sponsored a large

number of training programs for developing manual and clerical skills. A technical school at Libreville, opened in 1965, trains technicians and executive

personnel; it also has an apprenticeship center and a handicraf t section. Advisors

trained at the Oyem Agricultural School teach farmers modern agricultural methods .

Although the number of training institutes has risen to eight, including secretarial and nursing schools, the demand for trained workers exceeds the supply.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labor Code of 1962 contains provisions relating

to apprenticeship programs, collective agreements, and procedures for settling

labor disputes; it establishes minimum standards for wages, hours of daywork and

nightwork, a weekly day of rest, and annual leave; it covers the employment of

women and young persons and the health and safety of workers; other provisions

deal with transportation and company stores. Social and other labor legislation

covers the conditions of work for expectant mothers, compulsory employment for

all Gabonese citizens over 18years of age unless they are physically incapable

or are enrolled in school, dismissal pay, unemployment, old-age and survivors'

insurance, and family allowances.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs

is responsible for the administration and enforcement of all labor and social

legislation. These duties are carried out through the Directorate of Labor and

Manpower, labor inspectors, labor offices, and placement offices. Most of the

social security programs are administered under the social insurance fund agency

of the Ministry.

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Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Average monthly wages in 1963 were US$41.51 for nonagricultural wage and

salary earners and US$20.40 for unskilled agricultural workers. Hourly wages

for various occupations in 1962 were: Cabinetmakers, US$0.32; bakers, US$0.40;

bricklayers, US$0.18; carpenters, US$0.28; plumbers, US$0.60; truckdrivers,

US$0.22; and unskilled laborers, US$0.14. Wage supplements include the provision of housing facilities, transportation, prenatal care for working women,

birth grants, and family allowances.

The Labor Code provides for a maximum workweek of 40 hours, 1 day of rest

per week, a maximum of 2,400 hours' work a year for agricultural employees, and

10 legal holidays. The code guarantees all workers a paid vacation of 18 days

or more annually, depending on length of service; mothers receive 1 additional

day for each registered birth.

Prices have continued to rise despite governmental control over certain

items. Since 1961, food prices have increased by30percent. The cost-of-living

index rose from 109.9 in 1962 (1959=100) to 131.6 in 1964. Real wages have increased by about 10 percent per year, but between 60 to 75 percent of the people

derive their livelihood from subsistence agriculture. The annual per capita

income is estimated at US$110.

Employer Organizations

Employer organizations include the Chamber of Commerce and UNIGAB0N, a

national organization conducting liaison work among such organizations as the

Societe des Petroles d ' Af rique Equatoriale, Syndicat Forestier du Gabon, Syndicat

des Entreprises Minieres du Gabon, and public works and navigation societies.

Labor Organizations

Total trade union membership is estimated to be 17,800. Of the three national trade union centers, the African Confederation of Believing Workers-Gabon

(Confederation Africaine des Travailleurs Croyants--CATC-Gabon) has an estimated

8,000 members, or 45 percent of the organized work force. The CATC-Gabon, which

was formed in 1956, has 19 affiliates. It is affiliated with the International

Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation Internationale des Syndicats

Chretiens--CISC) and its African regional organization, the Pan-African Union of

Believing Workers (Union Pan-Africaine des Travailleurs Croyants--UPTC).

The National Confederation of Gabonese Workers (Confederation Nationale

des Travailleurs Gabonais--CNTG), had an estimated 6,800 members in 1965, or

about 38 percent of all trade union members. The CNTG, which was formed in 1962,

is composed of three regional centers and one industrial union for mineworkers.

It has been affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions

(ICFTU) and its African Regional Organization (AFRO) since 1962. It also is a

founding member of the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC). One International Trade Secretariat (ITS), the Miners' International Federation, has

an affiliate within the CNTG.

The third national center, the African General Confederation of LaborGabon (Confederation Generale Africaine du Travai1--CGAT-Gabon), was formed in

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1957 and claims about 3,000 members, or 17 percent of the organized work force.

Since its formation, it has been affiliated with the Communist World Federation

of Trade Unions (WFTU). It is also affiliated with the All-African Trade Union

Federation (AATUF).

Labor-Management Relations

The basic provisions for individual and collective agreements and procedures for the settlement of labor disputes are prescribed in the Labor Code.

Labor disputes arising under collective agreements are first submitted to conciliation under the direction of labor inspectors. When this procedure fails,

an arbitration board (composed of a member of the judiciary, a labor inspector,

and an employee and employer representative), whose members are appointed for

a 1-year term, must recommend a settlement. Further appeals can be made to the

Tribunal of Grand Instance.

In 1963, 1,705 man-days were lost as the result of 23 work stoppages.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 108

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN GAMBIA

Gambia, located on the west coast of Africa and surrounded on three sides by

Senegal, has an area of 4,000 square miles and its population is estimated at

325,000.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. An independent member of the British Commonwealth since February 1965, the Government unsuccessfully sought, through a popular referendum

in November 1965, to convert the country from a monarchy to a republic. The Constitution of 1961, as amended, provides for a unicameral representative Assembly

and a Prime Minister, who is responsible for the overall administration of the

country. Political parties are the People’s Progressive Party (PPP) , United

Party (UP), and Gambian Congress Party. Sir Dawda K. Jawara, head of the governing PPP, has been Prime Minister since 1962.

Economic. The predominantly agricultural economy depends heavily upon

imports, which range from foodstuffs and consumer goods to petroleum products.

The main crops are peanuts and rice; peanuts and peanut products account for

90 percent of exports. The largest single industry is a peanut oil mill. The

main nonagricultural activities are import trade, peanut processing, cotton

weaving, clothing manufacture, and fishing.

Social. According to the 1963 census, over 90 percent of the population

were Africans and about 10 percent were non-Gambians. Some of the largest tribal groups are the Mandingo, comprising 40 percent of the population; Fula, 13

percent; and Woloff, 12 percent; each of the other smaller groups comprises under

7 percent. Eighty-five percent of the people practice Islam; most of the remainder are animists; only a small number are indigenous Christians. Although English is the official language, Mandingo is widely used. During the school year

1963-64, 13,207 students were enrolled in primary and secondary schools. The

literacy rate was estimated at 20 percent in 1963.

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M a n p o w e r and E m p l o y m e n t

Employment and Unemployment. In 1963, 165,000 persons, or 51 percent of

the population, were in the labor force. Of this total, 10,000 were wage and

salary earners, 15,000 were self-employed, and 140,000 were in agricultural and

other subsistence occupations.

Since the country has a primarily one-crop economy--peanuts--seasonal

unemployment and underemployment are serious problems. Employment opportunities for unskilled workers during the spring season are numerous and migrant

workers who come from nearby countries to cultivate peanuts make up about 3

percent of the labor force. Because of the seasonal nature of the economy,

not only are the farmers idle during the off-season, but most commercial establishments shut down their operations. Unemployment exists also among high

school graduates, most of whom study liberal arts. The Government attempts to

absorb the many urban jobseekers, particularly juveniles, through public works

programs.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Most of the farms are still tilled

by hand. Such primitive techniques, coupled with the lack of skills and training , contribute to low productivity. The Gambia Employers' Association has

organized classes providing training for clerical workers. Apprenticeship programs are provided by the Government and also in some private establishments for

selected workers. Under the Government's apprenticeship program, applicants

who pass an entrance examination are paid wages equal to those of regular workers

in the same grade but are not guaranteed employment upon completion of their

training. The Government has a limited number of positions available for on-thejob training. It also provides opportunities for study within the country for

junior officers and abroad for senior officers. A Technical School provides

classes in carpentry, metalwork, woodwork, and mechanics, and there is also the

Government's Clerical School.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor legislation, for the most part, is contained

in the following ordinances: The Labour Ordinance, as amended, which provides

the legal framework within which Joint Industrial Councils function; the Factories Ordinance; the Employment Exchange and Registration of Employees Ordinance; the Trade Union Ordinance; the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance; and the

Regulation of Docks Ordinance. There are no insurance programs providing for

unemployment, health, or pension benefits.

Administration and Practice. The Minister of Local Government, Labour,

and Lands, through the Labour Officer assisted by three labor inspectors, is

responsible for enforcing all labor legislation.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The minimum daily wage throughout Gambia is US$0.78. The average daily

wages in 1963 for the following occupations were: Laborers, watchmen, and

messengers ( illiterate) , US$0.78 ; messengers (literate) and store hands , US$0.94 ;

sales clerks, taxi drivers, and telephone operators, US$1.65; dockworkers,

US$1.07; foremen, US$1.84; and dock foremen, US$2.18.

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The average workweek in commercial establishments is 40 hours; in hotels,

oil mills, and factories, 48 hours; and for manual workers and clerical workers

in Government, 42 hours and 36% hours, respectively. Overtime for daily-rated

workers is paid at time and a half their hourly rate and at double time on Sundays and public holidays, of which there are 7. All workers except dailyrated workers are entitled to a paid vacation of 10 or 14 days, depending on

length of service.

The retail price index rose from 103 in 1962 (1961=100) to 180 in 1963.

Over 90 percent of the population live at the subsistence level in rural areas.

In 1964, the annual per capita cash income was estimated to be about US$60.

Employer Organizations

Employer organizations are the Gambia Chamber of Commerce and the Gambia

Employers' Association, which keeps members informed on all labor legislation

and provides for the exchange of ideas and other matters involving labor-management relations.

Labor Organizations

More than 40 percent, or 4,250 of the 10,000 wage and salary earners, are

estimated to be members of trade unions. ^)ver 50 percent of the organized workers

belong to the Gambia Workers' Union (GWU), one of the two national trade union

centers in the country. The GWU, which was formed in 1957, has been affiliated

with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) anditsAfrican Regional Organization (AFRO) since 1963. It is also a member of the African

Trade Union Confederation (ATUC). The GWU is affiliated with two International

Trade Secretariats (ITS), the International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical

Workers and the International Transport Workers' Federation.

The Gambia Labour Union (GLU), the other national center formed in the

late 1940's, has an estimated membership of 500. It had been an affiliate of

the ICFTU in Gambia since the formation of the ICFTU, in 1949, to 1962. It is

presently affiliated with the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions

(Confederation Internationale des Syndicats Chrdtiens--CISC) and its regional

organization, the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union Panafricaine

des Travailleurs Croyants--UPTC).

Labor-Management Relations

A number of bodies are concerned with labor-management relations. The

Labour Advisory Board advises Government, labor, and management; Joint Industrial Councils negotiate agreements covering all the basic terms and conditions

of employment; the Port Labour Board administers the registration, recruitment,

and discipline of portworkers; the Factories Board administers factory regulations ; a Whitley Council provides for discussions of the conditions of service of

Government officers; and works committees deal with working conditions and grievances in the larger departments of Government and industry not otherwise provided

with machinery for wage negotiations. The Commission of Inquiry is also responsible for settling disputes arising over certain fringe benefits. No information

is available on the frequency of work stoppages.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 109

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International L^bor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF GHANA

Ghana, located on the west coast of Africa, has an area of 91,843 square miles

and had a population of approximately 7.5 million in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The Government is in a transitional stage owing to a coup

d'etat which occurred February 24, 1966, and resulted in the removal from office

of former President Kwame Nkrumah and his highly centralized administration. At

present, the Government is administered by the National Liberation Council, an

eight-member body of-military and police officials chaired by Lieutenant General

Joseph A. Ankrah. Numerous committees have been established to handle day-today administrative matters. The military regime has pledged an early return

to constitutional government with a complete separation of legislative, executive, and judicial powers; in the interim, political parties have been banned.

Economic. The economy is based on agriculture, which engages about twothirds of the labor force; the other third of the labor force is evenly divided

between services and production in manufacturing and crafts. Cocoa is the main

crop and leading export. Other major exports are lumber, gold, manganese, and

diamonds. Major imports include machinery, iron and other metals, foods, and

textiles. The 7-Year Development Plan (1964-70) is designed Mto build in Ghana

a socialist state.” Per capita national income--about US$150 per year in 1963--

is higher than in most other African countries.

Social. The population is divided into 50 tribal and linguistic groups.

Tribal allegiances and customs are less dominant than in the past. English is

the common and official language, but many indigenous languages and dialects

are also spoken. Primary and secondary education is free and literacy is rapidly

increasing. About two-thirds of the people adhere to indigenous religions; the

remainder are Christians or practice Islam.

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M a n p o w e r and E m p l o y m e n t

Employment and Unemployment. According to the 1960 census, the labor

force totaled 2,561,040, or 38 percent of the population. Of the persons engaged

in economic activity, 61.6 percent were in agriculture, forestry, hunting, and

fishing; 1.9 percent in mining and quarrying; 9.2 percent in manufacturing; 3.5

percent in construction; 14.5 percent in commerce; 6 percent in services; 2.7

percent in transport, storage, and communications; and 0.6 percent in electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services. About 65 percent of the total number

in the labor force were self-employed, chiefly in smal1-scale agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce; 20 percent were wage and salary earners; 14 percent

were family helpers; and 1 percent were employers.

In 1963, 4.3 percent of the wage and salary earners were reported as

unemployed. Unemployment was most prevalent in urban areas (especially among

young persons) and was due chiefly to lack of marketable skills. Underemployment is most common in the traditional occupations, such as farming and

trading.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. The principal factors contributing

to low productivity are chronic undernourishment and endemic illness, low educational attainment, and the shortage of technical, supervisory, managerial,

and other skills. Ghanaian workers have shown, however, that with proper training, guidance, and incentives, they can achieve high levels of skill and can

perform well. Productivity is low among the large number of workers outside the

modern economy who are engaged in agriculture and in trades and services.

Since 1961, the Government has been expanding its educational system,

and beginning in 1966, included a prevocational curriculum, including English

instruction for both boys and girls in the last 2 of the 8 years of compulsory

education. Except for the programs provided by some of the mining companies

and some governmental and commercial establishments, there is a paucity of

organized and systematic on-the-job training and comparatively little apprenticeship training in the strict sense. The University of Ghana, the Kumasi

University of Science and Technology, technical institutes, and overseas educational institutions are providing training in engineering, agriculture,

medicine, science, business, and other technical fields. In 1965, the Workers’

Brigade, established by the Government in 1957, had 16,000 members who were

receiving some training in agriculture, industry, construction, education, and

administration.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor laws apply chiefly to wage and salary earners.

The Labour Ordinance of 1948 regulates labor recruitment and labor contracts

and prohibits employment of children under age 15. The Factory Ordinance of 1952

provides for establishing wages and working conditions in some industries through

Wages Boards. The Labour Registration Act of 1960 provided for public employment exchanges and regulation of the extensive internal labor migration. When

fully effective, the Social Security Act of 1965, which covers establishments

with at least five wage and salary earners, will provide for retirement, survivor, and sickness benefits. The Aliens Act of 1963 limits the hiring of

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foreigners in positions for which Ghanaians with requisite skills are not available. The Industrial Relations Act of 1965 regulates trade union activities and

labor-management relations.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labour administers labor

legislation and the Ministry of Social Welfare and Community Development administers social legislation. Labor administration is conducted through nine regional

offices, together with the bipartite National Advisory Committee on Labour, the

Unfair Labour Practices Tribunal, and the Apprentices Board. A shortage of

trained personnel impedes adequate enforcement of labor laws. Employment exchange activities have expanded in recent years.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

In 1960, the Government established a nationwide minimum wage rate of

US$0.91 per day and increased the pay for all wage and salary earners earning

up to US$1,708 a year by US$0.14 per day. In December 1962, 4 percent of the

221,835 African wage earners received less than the minimum wage rate; the rates

of slightly over 41 percent were US$0.91 to US$0.98; 26 percent, US$0.98 to

US$1.26; 12 percent, US$1.26 to US$1.68; and, of the remainder, the largest

group (11 percent) received US$1.68 to US$1.98. The monthly salaries of 12percent of the 128,276 African salaried employees were US$98.00 to US$281.00; of

the remainder, 40 percent were paid US$43.68 to US$98.00; 37 percent, US$29.12

to US$43.68; about 6 percent received US$23.66 to US$28.00; and 5 percent were

unaccounted for. Eleven percent of average monthly earnings consisted of overtime payments and bonuses. The average monthly earnings of non-Africans was

US$448.00. Since early in 1964, most daily rated wage earners employed on a

permanent basis have been classified as salaried employees and paid, on a monthly

basis, salaries at 26 times their former daily rate. The principal supplements

to cash earnings are housing and food.

The normal workweek is 45 hours. The Public Holidays Act of 1960 provides

for 9 paid public holidays for yiage earners; holidays of salaried employees are

based on terms in collective agreements. Legislation does not limit overtime

work, and overtime pay, on the basis of collective agreements, ranges from 125

percent to 200 percent of regular rates.

Wages increased more rapidly than prices from 1956 to 1962, and the purchasing power of workers increased by about 10 percent. Since 1962, however,

prices have risen sharply, while wage increases have been controlled, resulting

in a reduction in the level of living of wage earners. Housing is in short supply

despite Government efforts to improve housing conditions.

Employer Organizations

Major employer organizations are the Ghana Employers* Association (GEA),

which has as members individual firms as well as local employers' associations;

the Ghana National Chamber of Commerce, which has regional affiliates; various

trade associations, such as the Ghana Chamber of Mines and the Ghana Indian Merchants' Association; and the Ghana Association for the Advancement of Management (GAAM), which is active in management training. The GEA represents management at the International Labor Organization Conference in Geneva.

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Labor Organizations

The Ghana Trades Union Congress (GTUC), the nation's single trade union

center, had a claimed membership of about 386,750 in 1965, or roughly 75 percent

of the approximately 512,000 wage and salary earners in 1960. The GTUC was

formed in 1943 as the Qold Coast Trades Union Congress. Following the military

coup d 1etat in February 1966, the GTUC was reorganized at a constituent congress

in June. The new constitution expanded the number of GTUC affiliates from 10

to 16. Prior to the coup d'etat, the GTUC had a close relationship with the

presently inactive Convention People's Party (CPP) .

The GTUC played a leading role in the formation of the All-African Trade

Union Federation (AATUF). The headquarters of the AATUF were moved to Accra

following the second AATUF Congress in June 1964. The international relations

of the GTUC were placed under review by the Executive Board following the reorganization conference.

Labor-Management Relations

The Industrial Relations Act forms the legal basis for the conduct of

labor-management relations. The act provides for the certification of trade

unions as exclusive bargaining agents for specified groups of workers and compulsory collective bargaining with the unions by employers of these workers.

(Unions representing civil servants, teachers, or employees of local or central

Government may not be certified.) The certified unions bargain for workers with

an employer, or an employer group, through Government-approved permanent joint

negotiating committees composed of union and employer representatives. In the

public sector, terms and conditions of employment are established by administrative regulation, following consultation with the unions.

In the event of an industrial dispute, the act requires that, if efforts

of a joint negotiating committee fail, either party may apply to the Minister

of Labour for conciliation. If conciliation fails, arbitration, to which at

least one of the disputing parties must agree, is used. The final step is compulsory arbitration, which is rarely employed. A strike or lockout is permissible

only if the Minister of Labour fails to refer a dispute to compulsory arbitration.

The few work stoppages which have occurred in recent years have been

technically illegal and have been quickly settled.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. n o

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF GUINEA

The Republic of Guinea covers an area of almost 95,000 square miles in West

Africa. The population in mid-1964 was about 3.5 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Guinea, a territory of former French West Africa, achieved

independence on October 2, 1958. The Constitution grants considerable power to

the President, who is assisted by a Cabinet appointed by him. The President is

elected by direct universal suffrage for a 7-year term. The Constitution provides for a National Assembly, whose members are elected for 5-year terms. The

country's single political party is the Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG); its

secretary general, Ahmed Sdkou Tour£, is also the President of the country.

Economic. Agriculture, most of which is at the subsistence level, provides a livelihood for 85 to 90 percent of the population. Agricultural production in 1961 accounted for 54 percent of the gross national product (GNP) and

34 percent of export earnings. The principal cash crops are bananas, palm products, coffee, peanuts, and pineapples. Bauxite, iron, diamonds, and gold are

the most important minerals. Secondary industry is limited and small scale,

except for the production of alumina by Fria (an international consortium of

American and European companies). In 1962, alumina accounted for 50 percent of

all exports. Per capita GNP in 1963 was about US$60.

Social. About 99 percent of the population are African. The principal

foreign groups are the French and Lebanese, who numbered about 2,000 each in

1964. The largest ethnic group, the Foulah, numbers over 1 million. Of some

15 other tribal groupings, the Malinkd (about 850,000) and Sous sou (some 250,000)

are the most numerous. An estimated 2 million people, or about 60 percent of

the population, profess Islam; from 25,000 to 30,000 are Christians; and the

remainder are animists. French is the official language; 11 African languages

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and numerous dialects are spoken. Literacy is about 5 to 10 percent. Approximately 28 percent of the school-age children attend school. In 1962-63, primary

school enrollment was 159,944.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. According to official estimates, about 1.6

million people, or almost 46 percent of the population, were in the labor force

in 1964. Most workers were engaged in subsistence agriculture. Wage and salary

earners in 1964 totaled 150,000 to 200,000, representing 9 to 13 percent of the

labor force. Twenty-seven percent were in commercial agriculture, 27 percent

in mining (24 percent primitive, 3 percent modern), 16 percent in Government

services, 2 percent in manufacturing, and 28 percent in other activities. Unemployment data are unavailable. Underemployment is extensive.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Productivity in general is low.

Modern methods of production are employed by a few of the larger enterprises.

One obstacle to increasing productivity has been the widespread prejudice against

manual labor. The rewards associated in more modern economies with concentrated

and sustained occupational effort and initiative have not been sufficient incentives as yet to bring about significant changes in traditional attitudes.

Another major factor has been the acute shortage of technical and managerial

skills. In 1961, there were only a few thousand skilled workers, most of whom

were concentrated in three or four principal industrial areas. The Government

has made efforts to provide facilities for the people to acquire the needed

skills. Training programs have been organized in conjunction with almost every

new project initiated under economic development programs. The Government, with

substantial foreign assistance, has established a school for technical training,

for public administrators, and a polytechnic institute. Vocational training in

agriculture is provided at the School for Practical Agriculture and Cooperatives

and at the National School of Agriculture. A technical training school is

operated by Fria. In 1962-63, 10,398 students were enrolled in 41 secondary

and technical schools.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. A new labor code was being prepared in 1965. The

Labor Code of 1960 embodies most present labor legislation, which covers trade

unions, employment contracts, apprenticeship, collective agreements, wages,

hours of work, working conditions, employment of women and children, health and

safety, and labor-management disputes. The Social Security Code of 1961, as

amended in 1964, provides for family allowances, workmen's compensation, sickness and disability benefits, and old-age pensions.

Administration and Practice. Labor administration is the responsibility

of the Ministries of Labor and the Civil Service. The Labor Ministry deals with

labor laws, workers, and employment conditions in private industry; the Civil

Service Ministry deals with working conditions of Government employees. Enforcement of labor legislation is the responsibility of labor inspectorates, which

operate under the direction of the Labor Ministry. The Ministry of Justice is

responsible for the administration of labor courts which have been established

to handle labor disputes.

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Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Two scales of minimum wages have been established by a number of tripartite commissions. One scale applies to Conakry (the capital) and the main population centers; the other, 20 percent lower, applies to the remainder of the

country. Minimum wage rates vary by category of worker and level of skill. For

example, in 1960, the minimum hourly wage in Conakry for construction workers

ranged from US$0.13 to US$0.44; the minimum monthly salary for white-collar

workers in industry, banking, and commerce ranged from US$29.55 to US$133.58.

The maximum workweek for Government and most other employees is 45 hours. Costof-living data are unavailable. Various estimates indicate that prices have increased from 50 to 100 percent since independence, while minimum wage scales in

most industries have risen only slightly, and those in agriculture have not

changed since 1959.

Employer Organizations

There are currently no Chambers of Commerce. Consumer and producer cooperatives are controlled in some manner by the Government or the PDG.

Labor Organizations

The National Confederation of Workers of Guinea (Confederation Nationale

des Travailleurs de Guinee--CNTG), the nation's single trade union center,

claimed a total membership of 300,000 in 1963. This membership claim is apparently inflated in view of the fact that the number of wage and salary earners

totaled 150,000 to 200,000 in 1964. The CNTG, which was formed in 1958 as the

Syndicalist Union of Workers of Guinea (Union Syndicaliste des Travailleurs de

Guin6e--USTG), has a very close relationship with the country's single political

party, dating from the pre-independence period. This relationship was formally

strengthened in 1963 when the CNTG was reorganized. At that time, the number of

CNTG federations and national unions was reduced from 41 to 19. In addition to

its organization along industrial lines, the CNTG has a geographic structure

consisting of 11 regional centers and 32 local administrative offices.

The CNTG played a leading role in the formation of the All-African Trade

Union Federation (AATUF) and continues to be one of its more inf luential aff iliates .

Labor-Management Relations

The Labor Code of 1960 prescribes procedures for the settlement of labor

disputes. Labor courts handle individual grievances. When a collective dispute

remains unsettled by industrial associations, the labor inspector attempts conciliation. Any strike or lockout started before conciliation procedures have

been exhausted is illegal. If conciliation fails, the dispute is submitted for

arbitration to a recommendation board attached to each regional labor inspectorate. Statutory conciliation and arbitration procedures do not apply where special procedures have been set up by collective agreements.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. I l l

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF IVORY COAST

The Republic of Ivory Coast is a country consisting of about 124,503 square

miles located on the west coast of Africa. The population in 1965 was about

3.8 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The Republic of Ivory Coast, a former territory in French West

Africa, became independent August 7, 1960. The Constitution provides for a republican system of government with a strong executive (a president) and a unicameral National Assembly. The President is elected by direct universal suffrage

for a 5-year term; Felix Houphouet-Boigny was reelected in November 1965. The

only political party is the Democratic Party of the Ivory Coast (Parti D6mocratique de la Cote d 1Ivoire--PDCI).

Economic. The preponderantly agricultural economy occupies about 90 percent of the labor force and accounts for over half of the annual gross domestic

product. In 1964, coffee, tropical woods, cocoa, and bananas, the chief agricultural products, provided 90 percent of total export earnings. Ivory Coast

is the world*s third largest coffee producer, fourth largest cocoa producer,

and ranks fifth in the production of bananas and pineapples. Despite a dearth

of known mineral resources, the industrial sector, mainly light manufacturing

and processing, is growing rapidly, and its volume of business is expected by

the Government to constitute one-fourth of the national product by 1970. Per

capita income in 1964 was about US$186.

Social. The population is predominantly African; the non-African population, consisting mainly of French and Lebanese, totaled about 35,000 in 1965,

and, in contrast to most other African countries, has been increasing since

independence. In 1965, almost one-fourth of the total population consisted

of Africans from outside the Ivory Coast. Of some 60 tribal groupings which

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exist, no single group constitutes more than about 15 percent of the population.

French is the official language. The literacy rate in 1965 was about 20 percent

of the population. In 1963-64, primary school enrollment amounted to perhaps

35 percent of the children of school age (ages 6 to 14).

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force in 1962 totaled about 1.6

million. Wage and salary earners in 1964 numbered about 230,000 and were distributed as follows: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, 45.7 percent; public

services, 14.3 percent; industry, construction, and power, 18.3 percent; transportation, 7.4 percent; and trade and services, 14.3 percent. Over 85 percent

of the wage and salary earners were in the private sector. In addition to the

salaried labor force, some 200,000 to 300,000 agricultural workers, paid in kind,

migrate annually from Upper Volta. At least 75 percent of all agricultural

workers and 45 percent of all wage and salary earners migrate from neighboring

countries.

According to Government officials, unemployment does not exist; some jobseekers are unable to meet employment demands either because they lack the required skills or because they do not want to move from a city to a rural area.

On the whole, there is a shortage of manpower, both skilled and unskilled; in

the agricultural sector, it is filled by workers from neighboring countries.

Data on unemployment as defined in the United States are unavailable.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Worker productivity is low, owing

largely to debilitating tropical diseases, combined with the low protein diet,

lack of skills, and the limited industrial experience of the labor force. In

addition, most workers are "target" employees (i.e., temporary workers who, after

earning a particular amount, return to the farm); this circumstance results in

a high degree of instability in the work force. Modern work methods are employed

on the larger plantations, but most crops are grown by individual, small-scale

African farmers using primitive tools and ancient farming methods. In recent

years, as many as 80 percent of the wage and salary earners have been unskilled.

Most top level skills, particularly in industry, are provided by Europeans.

Both the Government and private industry are attempting to improve the

skill level of workers through on-the-job training and accelerated vocational

training programs. In 1962, some 17,000 students were enrolled in about 20

technical and vocational schools and institutes; most of these institutions were

Government-operated and involved a 3-year postprimary course leading to a professional certificate, followed by a 7-year course leading to a technical baccalaureate. In addition, 2-year tours of duty in the small Ivoirien army include

1 year of vocational training in a civil pursuit.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Most labor matters are regulated by the Labor Code

of August 1, 1964, which includes provisions for the establishment and organization of trade unions, the conclusion of employment and apprenticeship contracts

and collective agreements, the determination and payment of wages, and the establishment of general conditions of work, such as maximum hours, limitations on the

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employment of women and children, paid leave, weekly rest, and travel and transport allowances. The code also requires establishments to provide free health

facilities for workers and establishes procedures for the settlement of labor disputes. Social security legislation includes provisions for the payment of family

allowances (1955) , workmen1 s compensation (1957) , and retirement pensions (1960) .

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs,

responsible for the administration of most labor affairs, is divided into four

Bureaus! A Bureau of Labor, responsible for matters dealing with wages, working conditions, health and safety, and labor relations; a Bureau of Manpower,

which handles such problems as migration, employment of foreigners, and vocational training; a Bureau of Social Security , which administers the family allowance and retirement systems; and a Bureau of Industrial Accidents, responsible

for formulating accident prevention techniques and administering the workmen's

compensation system. An Office of Manpower, a separate unit within the Ministry, operates employment exchanges and assists in the recruitment and repatriation of foreign workers. Two tripartite consultative bodies, the Advisory Labor

Committee and the Technical Advisory Committee for Hygiene and Labor Safety,

make recommendations to the Government concerning regulatory legislation. Enforcement of labor laws is the responsibility of the Inspectorate of Labor and

Social Legislation within the Ministry. Effective functioning of the Inspectorate has been limited largely by the small number of inspectors and the multiplicity of small enterprises, as well as by the workers' general unawareness

of their individual rights and responsibilities.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wages are set by the Government and are established separately

for each of two zones, one covering Abidjan (the capital) and three major cities

and the other covering the remainder of the country. In 1963, the statutory

minimum wage in the first zone was about US$0.17 an hour, or about US$30 a month,

for unskilled workers; in the rest of the country, the minimum was slightly

lower. The actual wages paid to most workers are substantially higher than the

legal minimum and are frequently determined by collective agreements. The maximum worktime, by law, is 40 hours per week in industry and commerce and 2,400

hours per year in agriculture. In 1963, the Government raised wages by 6 percent in an effort to keep wages in line with prices and has been gradually

instituting a single price system for staples throughout the country. The costof-living index for the average African family of 4 to 5 persons in Abidjan was

114.5 (1960=100) in 1965.

Employer Organizations

The leading employer organization is SCIMPEX (Syndicat des Commercants,

Importateurs, et d 'Industrie), which represented 52 business organizations in

1964. Other employer organizations include Chambers of Commerce and Industry and

Associations of Small and Middle-Size Enterprises and of Ivory Coast Merchants.

Labor Organizations

The General Union of Workers of the Ivory Coast (Union Generate des Travailleurs de Cote d 'Ivoire--UGTCI), the nation's single trade union center, has

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an estimated membership of 200,000, The UGTCI was formed in 1962 by merger of

the African Confederation of Free Trade Unions of the Ivory Coast (Confederation

Africaine des Syndicats Libre de Cote d 1Ivoire--CASL-CI), the National Center

of Believing Workers of the Ivory Coast (Central Nationale des Travailleurs

Croyants de Cote d 1Ivoire--CNTC-CI), and the National Union of Workers of the

Ivory Coast (Union Nationale des Travailleurs de Cote d 1Ivoire--UNTCI). Since

its formation, it has had a close relationship with the single political party,

the PDCI. The UGTCI has some 150 affiliates, most of which belong to one of two

federations representing trade unions in the private and mixed sectors and in the

public sector. It also has five geographic departments.

Although the three centers which merged to form the UGTCI were founding

members of the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC), the UGTCI is not affiliated with any external organization.

Labor-Management Relations

The Labor Code of 1964, which established the framework within which current industrial relations take place, provides for the establishment of labor

courts to handle individual disputes arising in connection with employment or

apprenticeship contracts, industrial accidents, and occupational diseases. Collective bargaining agreements must contain provisions for arbitration, should

conciliation and mediation fail. A collective dispute in an enterprise in which

a bargaining agreement does not exist may be submitted through Government channels to arbitration, if both parties agree, or to mediation at the request of

either party. No strikes or lockouts are permitted before the prescribed dispute settlement machinery has been exhausted. The labor movement has followed

a policy of restraint and strikes have been infrequent.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 112

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

L^BOR CONDITIONS IN KENYA

Kenya, situated on the east coast of Africa, lies astride the equator. It has

an area of 224,960 square miles and in mid-1965 had an officially estimated

population of 9,365,000.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Kenya attained independence on December 12, 1963. The Constitution of 1963, as amended in 1964, provides for a republican and presidential

form of government within the British Commonwealth. Legislative power resides

in a bicameral Parliament composed of a 41-member Senate and a House of Representatives, to which most of its 124 members are elected by universal suffrage.

Since independence, Jomo Kenyatta has headed the Government. In November 1964,

Kenya became a one-party state when the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU)

was dissolved and its members joined the majority Kenya African National Union

(KANU), Kenyatta's party.

Economic. The economy is predominantly agricultural. The large majority

of Africans practice subsistence farming on small plots of land. In 1964, agriculture, livestock, forestry, and fishing contributed approximately 42 percent

of the gross domestic product (GDP), of which about 25 percent was outside the

recorded monetary economy; wholesale and retail trade, 13 percent; Government

services, 12 percent; manufacturing, 10 percent; transport, storage, and communications, 9 percent; and other sources, 14 percent. In 1964, the principal

agricultural products (coffee, sisal, tea, and pyrethrum) accounted for about

75 percent of total exports; 80 percent of the exports were produced on Europeanowned plantations. Per capita GDP was US$85 in 1964. A plan for national development covers the period 1964-70.

Social. In mid-1964, Africans accounted for 97 percent of the population; the remaining 3 percent were mostly Europeans, Asians, and Arabs. A majority of the population are Bantu, the largest of the four major cultural and

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linguistic groups. Although English is the official language, Swahili has become

an African lingua franca, and most African tribes have their own distinct language. Of the 922,673 pupils enrolled in primary and secondary schools in 1963,

about 93 percent were African; 6 percent, Asian; and the remainder, European,

Arab, and other. Almost 15 percent of the African population are Christian, 4

percent are Moslem and Hindu, and 81 percent follow their tribal religion.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. In 1964, the labor force was officially

estimated at 2.3 million, or about 25 percent of the population. The total number of wage and salary earners was 589,600, or about 26 percent of the labor

force. About 41 percent were in agriculture and forestry; 30 percent in private

industry and commerce; and 29 percent in public services. No statistics on unemployment are available, but in recent years, it has been considered a major

problem, not only among the permanent urban population but also among migrants

from rural to urban areas. Chronic underemployment is extensive, especially in

the subsistence farming areas.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Productivity is low in the subsistence farming sector, but it has been rising steadily as a result of the Government's efforts to improve the farming methods of African smallholders who are

replacing Europeans. In general, African workers have shown a capacity to benefit from training. Serious handicaps to increased efficiency are the workers'

lack of education and training.

Most training and skill acquisition occurs on the job by informal means.

Various Government departments operate training programs. The Ministry of Works

conducts executive, secretarial, and clerical courses. Three sections of the

Labour Department deal with training: The Trade Testing and Apprenticeship Section, the Training Section, and the Aptitude Testing Unit. In 1962, 1,287 students were receiving training at the six Government technical and trade schools

which provide 2-year courses in 12 major trades. Formal vocational training is

available in regular schools and the Kenya Polytechnic High School.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Kenya has an extensive body of labor and social legislation. It provides for the registration and regulation of trade unions; establishes machinery for the settlement of industrial disputes, including procedures

for conciliation and arbitration, and stipulates conditions under which a strike

is legal; provides for the registration of all workers and covers their recruitment and contracts of service; regulates the conditions of employment and health

and safety of women and young persons, dockworkers, and commercial workers;

provides for the establishment of wages, hours, and conditions of employment in

certain industries through a Wages Advisory Board and Wages Councils; and regulates the training of artisans in industry and allied activities. Social legislation provides for work injury and medical benefits. The National Social

Security Fund Act of 1965 provides for equal contributions from all employers

and all workers in paid employment over 16 years of age (except casual workers

and civil servants engaged on pensionable terms) at the rate of 5 percent of

earnings to a maximum of US$5.60 per month. Other important provisions relate

to old-age, survivor, and invalidity benefits.

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Administration and Practice. Labor laws are administered and enforced

by the Ministry for Labour through a Senior Labour Officer in each of the five

main provinces and a Senior Labour Inspector in each of the two suboffices.

The Labour Department also operates employment exchanges (26 in 1962), produces

employment statistics, and carries out an annual census of the labor force.

Enforcement of labor laws is confined mainly to the larger urban centers and to

areas of large-scale farming. Lack of staff has severely restricted enforcement

in the African tribal areas.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wages and housing allowances are established by law for 13 main

urban areas. Monthly rates (including housing allowances) in force at the end

of 1962 averaged US$18.90 for adult males (age 21 and over) and US$12.32 for

women and youths (including housing allowances). In 1964, the average monthly

earnings of Africans in agriculture was US$11.98 (including the value of housing

and food); in private industry and commerce, US$28.78; and in public service,

US$38.28. For Asians, the monthly average was US$134.15, and for Europeans,

US$351.46. Typical monthly wage rates (including housing allowances) in 1962

varied for unskilled workers in some of the major industries and services from

US$18.90 in laundering and drycleaning to US$31.78 in gasoline and oil distribution. At Mombasa Port, shorehandling labor received US$38.92 per month and

stevedores, US$40.74. In addition to the housing allowance, some workers received food, cash allowances, bonuses, paid leave, and employers' provident fund

contributions.

In 1962, the hours worked per week in commercial offices averaged from

36% to 40; in the public service, 40; and in most other industries, around 45;

in building and construction, the hours worked were 50; baking, 54; and catering, 60.

The middle-income consumer price index for Nairobi (July 1964=100) had

risen only to 101.6 in November 1965, but the consumer price index for Nairobi

(July 1964=100) was 107.0. A large percentage of the rural population live at

a subsistence level.

Employer Organizations

The Federation of Kenya Employers (FKE), to which most employer associations belong, deals with matters affecting labor. It participates in the formulation of national economic and labor policies, advises its members regarding

industrial relations, sponsors an industrial relations training program, and

engages in research on economic and labor matters. Other important employer

organizations engage in collective bargaining on an industrywide basis, including the Port Employers' Association; associations of producers of theprincipal export crops; the Agricultural Employers' Association; and the Distributive

and Allied Trades Association. There are also the Kenya National Chamber of

Commerce and Industry and its subsidiaries.

Labor Organizations

Trade union membership is approximately 215,000, or about 36 percent of

the 589,600 wage and salary earners in 1964. The Central Organization of Trade

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Unions (COTU), the nation's only trade union center, represents some 212,000,

or 99 percent, of the organized workers. The COTU was formed in 1965 as a successor to the Kenya Federation of Labour (KFL) and the Kenya African Workers'

Congress (KAWC), which were dissolved by the Government. The COTU, which has

some 28 affiliates, has a compulsory checkoff arrangement authorized by the Government. Its largest affiliate is the Kenya Plantation and Agricultural Workers'

Union (KPAWU) , with about 43,400members. At the time of the COTU ' s formation, the

external affiliations of all Kenyan unions were dissolved. The KFL had been an

affiliate of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) from

1952 to November 1964.

The 14 registered unions not affiliated with the COTU have a total

claimed membership of about 3,250.

Labor-Management Relations

The Trade Disputes Act (1965) provides that either party may refer a dispute to the Minister for Labour or he may initiate an investigation of the matter.

The Minister may refer the case back to the parties or he may attempt conciliation, calling for an investigation or recommending referral to the Industrial

Court for arbitration. Any strike called during these procedures is illegal.

A dispute in an essential service must be reported to the Minister for Labour,

who may refer it to the Industrial Court; a lawful strike may be called after a

28-day notice period, provided the dispute is not referred to the Industrial

Court.

A substantial number of workers, namely railroad, postal, and telecommunications, are subject to the provisions of the Settlement of Disputes Act (East

African Common Services Organization--EACSO), 1965, with respect to collective

bargaining and industrial disputes. The act provides for the settlement of disputes first at the company level and then, if no agreement is reached, by a conciliator appointed by the secretary general of the EACSO. If no agreement has been

reached by conciliation, the secretary general may direct that the issue be submitted to the Standing Tribunal for arbitration, composed of a chairman, a management, and a union representative, all appointed by him; and he may approve

or reject the Tribunal's decision. Only after the exhaustion of these procedures and rejection of the Tribunal's report can a lawful strike be called.

Industrial Wages Councils regulate the terms and conditions of employment in certain industries; in other industries and services, regulation is

effected by collectively bargained agreements. Important unions, such as those

of the railway workers, dockworkers, oilworkers, and plantation workers, engage

in joint consultation and collective bargaining on an industrywide basis. The

total number of strikes in 1963, 1964, and 1965 was 711.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 113

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations-‘Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF LIBERIA

The Republic of Liberia is situated north of the Equator on the west coast of

Africa. Its area is about 43,000 square miles. Its population in April 1965

was approximately 1 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Liberia is the oldest republic in Africa. The Constitution

of 1847 established a highly centralized government. President William V. S.

Tubman has held office since 1944. The True Whig Party has remained in power

for over half a century. The bicameral Legislature consists of a House of Representatives and a Senate. Membership in the House is related to population, while

in the Senate it is based on geography.

Economic. Subsistence agriculture and the production of iron ore and

crude rubber for export are the bases of the economy. In 1963, iron ore accounted

for about 67 percent of total exports, and rubber for over 25 percent. Other

export products are diamonds, palm kernels, cocoa, and coffee. Economic growth

since World War II has been rapid, but the agricultural, mineral, and industrial

resources of Liberia are still comparatively undeveloped, and probably less than

a fourth of the population have entered wholly into the money economy. For

1963, the gross national product per capita was estimated at about US$164.

Social. Liberia was founded by freed slaves from the United States during the first part of the 19th century. The descendants of these settlers

probably number about 25,000. The population, which is almost entirely African,

consists of a number of tribal groups, among which themost important numerically

are the Gola, Kissi, Kpelle, Kru, and Mandingo. The official language is English; about 23 dialects are also spoken. Liberia has two distinct systems of

education: the traditional system founded on tribal lore and Moslem teachings

and a modern system centered in Government, mission, and private schools. About

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10 to 15 percent of the population are literate, Liberia is officially referred

to as a Christian state, although more than half the population are animists

and about 20 percent are Moslems.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force (according to data for 1962)

included about 425,000 persons, of whom nearly two-thirds were males. About 81

percent of the labor force were engaged in agriculture, fishing, and forestry,

6 percent in services, nearly 4 percent in mining, 3 percent in construction,

3 percent in commerce, 2 percent in manufacturing, and 1 percent in other activities. Wage and salary earners constituted about 22 percent of the labor force,

but many wage earners are temporary, moving back and forth seasonally between

working for wages and subsistence farming. About 42 percent of the labor force

were self-employed and nearly 36 percent were unpaid family workers; employers

constituted less than one-third of 1 percent. Unemployment is reportedly increasing in Monrovia, the capital, but it is little known elsewhere, except on

rare occasions, as when 9,000 workers were made jobless by the completion of

construction at the Mount Nimba mine and the Buchanan harbor in 1963. There is

underemployment, however, especially in the large agricultural sector of the

economy.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. About one-third of the labor force

is skilled in some degree. In 1960, it was estimated that about 12 percent of

the wage earning labor force were highly skilled or professional persons and

that half of these were non-Liberians. About 90 percent of the skilled and

professional Liberians are employed by the Government. In private enterprise,

managerial positions are occupied mainly by North Americans, Europeans, and

Lebanese. Unskilled agricultural labor, as well as skilled manpower, is in short

supply in areas where there is a choice between agricultural work and higher

paid industrial work. Few workers receive formal vocational training. Several

large-scale employers have on-the-job and apprenticeship training systems, but

these involve very few workers, and training is usually limited to learning a

specific task. Most skills are acquired on the job. In general, the level of

skill thus attained is low and productivity is correspondingly so.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Title 19-A (the Labor Practices Law) of the Code of

Laws of 1956, as amended, constitutes the main source of protective labor legislation. This law regulates labor recruitment and hiring practices, minimum

wages , hours, leave, grievance procedures, old-age pensions , workmen1 s compensation, and labor inspection. The obligations placed on employers are very moderate compared to requirements of similar legislation in other West African

countries. The regulations do not apply to civil servants (whose working conditions are governed by a law of 1935), professional and managerial personnel,

domestics, and employees in family enterprises or in establishments employing

fewer than four persons. Legislation to regulate trade union activity and govern the procedures for settling labor-management disputes, after pending for

several years, was signed into law in 1965. Early in 1966, after a rash of

strikes, the Legislature granted emergency powers to the President for 1 year,

which gave him almost complete control of trade unions and their activities.

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There is no legislation providing for industrial health and safety standards

and practically none on collective bargaining and representation elections.

Administration and Practice. The Bureau of Labor of the Department of

Commerce and Industry, created in 1964, is charged with enforcement of labor

legislation and administration of the Government's labor policy. Its responsibilities include regulating labor-management relations, assisting in labor

placement and labor recruitment, assuring an equitable proportion of Liberians

to foreign workers, setting up apprenticeship and training programs, conducting

manpower studies, and protecting workers' legal rights. Enforcement is hampered

by the small number of labor inspectors.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wages were set in 1963 at US$0.15 per hour for unskilled industrial workers and US$0.08 per hour for unskilled agricultural workers. Actual

wages paid vary from rates at the required minimum to almost twice that amount.

Due largely to the lack of established standards of skill or craftsmanship, the

same employer usually pays widely varying wages, depending on his experience

with the individual worker and the latter's demonstrated productivity. Fringe

benefits, such as free housing or food, medical care, scholarships for children,

incentive bonuses, and plots of land for farming, increase real income by as

much as one-third of the cash wage in many instances.

Legislation provides for an 8-hour day and a 48-hour week, except for

agricultural workers and, under special circumstances, in iron mines. Overtime

is payable at time and a half on regular days and double time on holidays and

days of rest. Employees with long, continuous service are entitled to 1 or 2

weeks of paid annual leave.

Agricultural workers are usually better off than industrial workers,

since their work is usually on a task basis, seldom requiring more than 5 hours

a day and allowing time to raise many necessary food products on nearby company

or tribal land. Worse off, at 1964 wage rates, were urban unskilled workers,

who usually received no fringe benefits and often held two or more jobs at a

time in order to meet daily expenses. Workers entirely dependent on a cash wage

have been especially affected by the rising prices in recent years and by the

Government's austerity program, accompanied by new taxes to meet mounting Government debts.

Employer Organizations

The major employer organization is that which has been formed by the

rubber growers. Iron mining interests have begun to act in concert with regard

to labor affairs. The Liberian Chamber of Commerce does not concern itself with

labor matters.

Labor Organizations

Total trade union membership in Liberia is estimated to be about 24,000,

or approximately 25 percent of the estimated 93,500 wage and salary earners in

1962.

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The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), the nation's dominant

trade union center, has an estimated 17,000 members, or about 70 percent of the

organized workers. The CIO, which has eight affiliates, was formed in 1960.

Since that year, it has been affiliated with the International Confederation of

Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and has been a member of its African Regional Organization (AFRO). It also is a founding member of the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC). Two CIO affiliates are affiliated with International Trade

Secretariats (ITS): the International Metalworkers' Federation and the International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical Workers.

The other national center, the Labor Congress of Liberia, Inc. (LCL),

which had an estimated 1,000 members in 1964, is believed to be inactive at

present.

Labor-Management Relations

In enterprises with more than 20 employees, workers are authorized by law

to elect committees to negotiate the settlement of their grievances. Problems

not settled at this level are referred to the Labor Practices Review Board, which

consists of Government, management, and labor representatives appointed by the

President of Liberia. During the last quarter of 1965 and the first quarter of

1966, there were more strikes than in any other corresponding period; this increasing strike activity, particularly on rubber plantations and iron ore mining

sites, led to the recent restrictive provisions of the Emergency Powers Act.

Employer paternalism is the present basis for most labor-management relations.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 114

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE KINGDOM OF LIBYA

The Kingdom of Libya, situated along the coast of North Africa, with an area of

about 680,000 square miles, is the fourth largest country in Africa. Its population, according to the 1964 census, was 1,564,369.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Libya received its independence in 1951 under United Nations

auspices. The Government is a constitutional, hereditary monarchy presided over

by King Idris I. He exercises executive power through a Prime Minister and an

appointed Cabinet. Legislative power is vested in a Parliament (Senate of 24

members and an elected House of Representatives of 91 members).

Economic. The Libyan economy is based on oil, first discovered in 1959

and presently being produced at the rate of 1.4 million barrels per day. In

1964, petroleum accounted for about 99 percent of the total value of exports.

Largely because of petroleum development and the increase in revenue therefrom,

Libya adopted a 5-Year Economic and Social Development Plan (1963-68). The rural

economy consists mainly of subsistence agriculture and livestock raising, in

which roughly 66 percent of the working population are engaged. The most important crops are barley, wheat, olives, dates, potatoes, peanuts, and citrus

fruits. Libya is not self-sufficient in food and large quantities must be

imported. The gross national product per capita is US$300.

Social. Roughly 95 percent of Libya's indigenous population consists of

Moslem Arabs and Berbers. Ethnic minorities include Italians, Jews, Greeks,

and Maltese; for the most part, members of these groups are engaged in various

professions, in skilled and semiskilled occupations, and in commerce. In addition, several thousand British and American personnel are employed by the various

petroleum companies and military installations in Libya. An estimated 10 to 20

percent of Libyans are literate. Primary education is free and compulsory; an

estimated 70 percent of Libyan children 6 to 12 years of age are in school.

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Arabic is the official language and is spoken by a large majority of the population. Islam is the religion of about 95 percent of the populace.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. According to official data, 405,258 persons, or about 26 percent of the total population, were in the labor force in

1964. Roughly 66 percent were in agriculture, 13 percent in Government and other

services, 8 percent in commerce, 5 to 6 percent in manufacturing, 4 to 5 percent

in petroleum, and the remainder in other sectors. An estimated 30 to 35 percent

of the labor force were wage and salary earners. In Government, the largest

single employer, approximately 9.2 percent of the personnel were in the professional, scientific, and technical fields in 1964. The distribution in the private sector was approximately as follows: Professional, scientific, and technical

personnel, 8.5 percent; craftsmen, 31 percent; managerial and supervisory personnel , 6.3 percent; and most of the remainder, unskilled and service personnel.

Unemployment is not considered a serious problem because the demand for

labor exceeds the nation1s available manpower resources. There is some unemployment among unskilled workers who have migrated to urban centers in search of

employment opportunities. Underemployment is probably extensive, especially in

the agricultural sector of the economy, where much of the work is seasonal.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Skilled workers are in short supply.

In 1964, aliens occupied an estimated 2,300 professional and skilled positions

in Government, and an estimated 12,000 were employed in the petroleum industry

in mid-1963. Even with the training programs sponsored by the Government, private enterprise, and the United Nations and its specialized agencies, skills are

difficult to develop because of the inadequate education of trainees. Agricultural productivity is affected by the system of tribal ownership, the use of

poor and antiquated equipment, and a lack of knowledge of modern farming and

livestock raising methods.

Although vocational training is limited, the Government recognizes the

need for such training and is taking steps to improve the existing facilities

and to implement training programs throughout Libya. Agricultural training centers have been established in Tripoli and Benghazi. Tripoli also has an Arts

and Crafts School, a College of Advanced Technology, a Radio and Telecommunications Institute, a Technical and Clerical Training Center, and aWomen's Teachers' Training College. The American Friends of the Middle East have set up

training centers for automobile mechanics and spare parts managers in Tripoli

and Benghazi. Vocational training is available in conjunction with the regular

intermediate and secondary school system. Higher training is available at the

University of Libya in Benghazi. In 1964, about 265 Libyans were studying abroad

in various fields, including engineering, administration, and crafts. In the

same year, some 60,000 persons were reportedly enrolled in the Government's

adult education program, which provides job training and literacy achievement.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor legislation is based upon the omnibus Labor

Law of November 1962 and the Social Insurance Act, No. 53 of 1957, with their

pertinent regulations. The Labor Law provides for a maximum 8-hour day and a

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48-hour week, with certain exceptions; authorization of overtime of not more

than 3 hours in any 1 day and a maximum of 12 hours in any week; a weekly day

of rest with pay, as well as paid holidays and paid annual and sick leave;

limitations on the employment of women and young persons (12 to 16 years of age);

establishment of a wages advisory council to determine minimum wage rates;

minimum health and safety standards in work areas; recognition of trade unions;

collective bargaining; and procedures for the settlement of labor disputes. The

social insurance law stipulates benefits for sickness, maternity, work accidents, occupational diseases, invalidity, medical care, retirement pensions,

funeral grants, and unemployment (not yet implemented).

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs

is responsible for the administration and enforcement of both the labor and

social insurance laws. Most labor matters are handled through a Department of

Labor. Three regional offices have been established. The Department of Social

Security administers the social insurance law mainly through three regional

offices. Enforcement of labor and social security laws is most effective in large

urban areas and particularly in foreign enterprises (including petroleum), which

employ a large part of the skilled and semiskilled labor force.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Legal minimum daily wage rates, effective January 1, 1964, are US$1.40

for adult workers and US$1.10 for young workers (12 to 16 years of age). According to many Libyan officials, employers, and labor leaders, the average Libyan

does not receive much more than the legal minimum, although wages have been

rising, particularly in white-collar and skilled occupations. Wages are highest

in the petroleum and allied industries and in the major urban centers.

Wage and salary earners in industry and Government work an average of 8

hours a day and 48 hours a week. Construction personnel average 56 hours a week.

Prices for some basic items of food have increased by approximately 40

percent since 1955. The overall cost of living is estimated to have increased

by as much as50percent since oil exploration began. The level of living of the

majority of the population is low, especially in rural areas.

Employer Organizations

No management organizations in Libya are directly concerned with labor.

A Personnel Management Council, consisting of the employee relations or personnel officers of the various oil companies, meets once a month to discuss

matters of mutual interest. There are at least two Chambers of Commerce, one

in Tripoli and the other in Benghazi.

Labor Organizations

Total claimed trade union membership is about 50,000, or roughly 37 percent of the estimated 135,000 wage and salary earners. The National Federation

of Trade Unions (NFTU), one of two national centers representing workers in

Tripolitania, claims over 60 percent of all trade union members. Formed inl963as

a successor to the Libyan General Labor Union (LGLU), the NFTU assumed the LGLU' s

affiliation with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)

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and its African Regional Organization (AFRO). The other center in Tripolitania

is the Professional Workers* Federation (PWF), with an estimated 800 members.

The only national center representing workers in Cyrenaica is the Federation of Libyan Trade Unions in Cyrenaica (FLTUC), with an estimated membership

of 16,500. The FLTUC was formed in 1958.

Two International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have affiliates in Libya--

the International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical Workers and the International Transport Workers' Federation.

Labor-Management Relations

The only collective bargaining agreement in effect in Libya is between

bakery employers and workers. Forthemost part, labor-management relations are

characterized by paternalism. Approximately 99 percent of all grievances are

handled at the employer-supervisor-worker level. The remainder are usually

resolved by a labor inspector or conciliator connected with the Department of

Labor. A grievance or dispute not resolved at that level is submitted by the

Director General of Labor to a magistrate's court, then to a court of first

instance, and, if necessary, to a court of appeals. Recourse to the High Court

of Justice (Supreme Court) is possible. Cases which have reached this level,

however, have not yet been decided.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 115

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE MALAGASY REPUBLIC

The Malagasy Republic, situated off the southeast coast of Africa, has an area

of about 227,900 square miles. According to official statistics, the population in January 1965 was 6,335,810.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The Malagasy Republic became independent on June 26, 1960.

The Constitution of 1959, as amended in 1960, provides for a President who is

elected by direct universal suffrage for a 7-year term; a National Assembly,

popularly elected for a 5-year term; and a Senate, of which two-thirds of the

members are elected by provincial general councils and municipal and rural councils and the remainder by the Government, all serving a 6-year term. The Council

of Ministers performs executive functions. The Social Democratic Party (PSD)

has been the dominant political party since 1958; the Congress Party for the

Independence of Madagascar (AKFM) is the principal opposition party.

Economic. The economy is predominantly agricultural and export oriented.

Coffee, vanilla, sisal, sugar, rice, and tobacco, the six principal agricultural

products, accounted for approximately 65 percent of total export earnings in

1964. Although animal husbandry is carried on extensively, cattle are more important as evidence of wealth and for sacrificial purposes than for economic

uses. The limited industrial activities involve mainly the processing of agricultural products. In 1964, the Government adopted a 5-year development plan

(1964-68). In 1963, the per capita gross national product was US$102.

Social. The Malagasy people are descendents of an ancient intermingling

of successive immigrants, including Indonesians, Arabs, and Africans. Of the

18 ethnic groups, the largest are the Merina, 1.6 million; the Betsimisaraka,

941,000; and the Betsileo, 760,000. Tananarive Province, where the Merina predominate, has hadthemost extensive economic and social development. The official languages are Malagasy (of Malayo-Indonesian origin) and French. It is

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estimated that about 50 percent of the Malagasy people are nominally Christian,

9 percent profess Islam, and the remainder are animist. In 1962, the rate of

literacy (in French and/or Malagasy) was estimated at 30 to 35 percent for

Madagascar as a whole and 60 percent in Tananarive.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. According to official statistics, the economically active population in 1964 totaled 2.8 million, or 45.7 percent of the

total population. Approximately 2.6 million were unpaid family workers or persons working on their own account, 196,000 were wage and salary earners, and

the remainder were employers or persons looking for work. Employees in the public sector comprised 16.5 percent of all wage and salary earners. Approximately

23 percent of all wage and salary earners were engaged in agriculture, forestry,

and fishing, 11 percent in manufacturing industries and workshops, 13 percent

in construction and public works, 12 percent in commerce and banking, 16 percent in domestic service, 8 percent in transportation, 11 percent in services,

and 6 percent in other activities. The number of unemployed workers was 4,414

at the end of 1964. Underemployment is known to be widespread among the large

majority of the labor force engaged in subsistence farming.

Productivity, Skills% and Training. A lack of skills, low levels of

education, the lack of modern tools and equipment, unhealthful working conditions, the presence of debilitating diseases, and the tropical climate contribute to low productivity. Agricultural techniques are primitive; most farms are

small and operate at a subsistence level and most agricultural work is seasonal.

In 1964, 63 percent of the wage and salary earners were laborers; 23 percent, operatives (mainly semiskilled workers); 12 percent, salaried employees

(presumably clerical workers); and 2 percent, supervisory and managerial employees. Training is available in vocational training schools and in technical

colleges (150 both public and private in 1962). Some enterprises have good onthe-job training programs. Malagasy people are manually dexterous, intelligent,

and are, with adequate supervision, excellent workers.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labor Code of 1960 contains provisions concerning minimum wages, hours of work, a weekly rest day, paid annual and sick leave,

paid holidays, conditions of employment of women and children, health and safety

standards, the right of labor to organize and bargain collectively, employment

and apprenticeship contracts, and machinery for the settlement of individual

and collective disputes. The legislation applies to all workers employed under

an employment contract, excluding members of the judiciary, Government officials to whom Act No. 60-003 of 1960 and other special regulations apply, persons covered by the Mercantile Marine Code, members of the Armed Forces, the

police, and the supervisory staff of the Malagasy railways. A Family Allowances

and Employment Accidents Code was enacted in 1963.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor and Social Laws is

the chief administrative agency for labor matters. In 1964, the Labor Inspection

Service of the Ministry visited 860 enterprises and found 5,828 violations, involving such matters as the rates and payment of wages, hours of work, employment

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contracts, and paid leave. The Labor Code provides for a labor and manpower

medical inspection service and an advisory National Labor Council under the

Minister. The National Family Allowances and Employment Accident Fund, jointly

controlled by the Ministries of Labor and Social Laws and of Finance, administers

the workmen's compensation program.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wages are set by decree after consultation with representatives

of different trades. In 1962, the hourly minimum wage rates for nonagricultural

occupations in six principal wage zones ranged from US$0.08 to US$0.11 in the

four main cities and the minimum was about US$0.06 in the other districts. For

agricultural occupations in these same areas, the highest hourly minimum wage

rate was US$0.09 and the lowest was slightly less than US$0.05. In two other

special zones, the hourly minimums were US$0.11 and US$0.09 for nonagricultural

occupations and US$0.10 and US$0.07 for agricultural work. Employer provided

benefits, such as food and housing, form part of the worker's wage. In 1962,

employers furnished housing to 36,723 out of 142,332 wage and salary earners

in the private sector and to 2,097 out of 33,020 in the public sector.

The Labor Code prescribes a 40-hour week for all wage and salary earners

(except in agriculture where the maximum is 2,400 hours per year), the payment

of overtime, and at least 24 consecutive hours of rest each week, which, as a

rule, must be on Sunday. Overtime worked on Sunday must be paid for at not less

than ordinary rates plus 40 percent.

Prices have risen steadily since 1960. The consumer price index for

Malagasy families in the city of Tananarive (January 1964=100) was 104.0 by the

end of April 1965; for Europeans, it rose from 105.3 in December 1963 (March

1962=100) to 111.0 in April 1965. A substantial percentage of the population

live at a subsistence level.

Employer Organizations

A number of semiofficial Chambers of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture

are associated in the Federation of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture of Madagascar and the Comores. In 1964, there were 38 professional organizations of employers^ with 2,710 member firms, affiliated with the Union des

Syndicats d'Int6r£t Economique de Madagascar, and 21 other independent, unaffiliated organizations with 1,000 member firms. No information is available

to indicate the functions of these organizations.

Labor Organizations

The four national trade union centers in Madagascar claim a total membership

of roughly 116,000, or about 60 percent of theestimated 196,000 wage and salary

earners.

The Confederation of Malagasy Workers (Fivondronamben'ny Mpiasa Malagasy

--FMM), which was formed in 1957, claimed 17,000 members in 1964. It has a close

relationship with the dominant political party, the PSD. The FMM has been affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) since

1957 and is a member of its African Regional Organization (AFRO).

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The Christian Confederation of Malagasy Trade Unions (Confederation

Chretienne des Syndicats Malagaches--CCSM), which claimed 40,000 members in

1965, has been affiliated with the International Federation of Christian Trade

Unions (Confederation International des Syndicats Chr6tiens--CISC) since 1956,

when the CCSM was made independent of its parent organization, the French Confederation of Christian Workers (Confederation Francaise des Travailleurs Chretiens--CFTC). It also is a member of the CISC's African regional organization,

the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union Panafricaine des Travailleurs

Croyants--UPTC). Both the FMM and the CCSM are founding members of the African

Trade Union Confederation (ATUC).

The Confederation of All Unions in Madagascar (Firaisan'ny Sendika eran'i

Madagasikara--FISEMA) had an estimated membership of 30,000 in 1961. The FISEMA

has a close connection with the opposition party, the AKFM. Since its formation

in 1956, the FISEMA has been affiliated with the Communist World Federation of

Trade Unions (WFTU). The Federation of Autonomous Unions of Madagascar (Union

des Syndicats Autonomes de Madagascar--USAM) claimed about 29,450 members in

1962.

The International Trade Secretariats (ITS) which have affiliates in

Madagascar are: The International Secretariat of Entertainment Trade Unions,

International Federation of Journalists; International Federation of Petroleum

and Chemical Workers; International Federation of Plantation, Agricultural, and

Allied Workers ; Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone International; and International

Transport Workers' Federation.

Labor-Management Relations

Collective bargaining is not widely practiced, as regulation of labor

affairs by the Labor Code is comprehensive. If a grievance submitted to an inspector of labor and social legislation is not settled by him, it may be referred

to labor divisions in courts of law for conciliation. The parties involved in

a collective dispute must immediately refer it to a labor inspector for conciliation. If this procedure fails, an arbitration board hears the case and issues

a binding award, if neither party applies for a stay within 4 days. Strikes or

lockouts started before these procedures are exhausted are illegal and are subject to penalties specified in the code. In 1964, 4,940 individual disputes

were submitted to the Labor Inspectorate and 1,263 to Labor Courts. The five collective disputes which occurred involved 839 workers and the loss of 2,588

man-days.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 116

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics *

LABOR CONDITIONS IN MALAWI

Malawi, formerly known as Nyasaland within the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, is in east-central Africa. The country has an area of 36,686 square miles,

including 9,380 square miles of Lake Malawi. The estimated population in 1965

was about 4 million, of whom approximately 22,000 are European and Asian.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Malawi became fully independent on July 6, 1964. The Prime

Minister, Dr. Hastings K. Banda, exercises executive power and is assisted by

a Cabinet. The 53-member unicameral Legislative Assembly consists of 5 0 members

of the Malawi Congress Party (MCP), which has no organized opposition and which

is the party of Dr. Banda.

Economic. Malawi is essentially an agricultural country. The main cash

crops are tea, tobacco, cotton, tung, and groundnuts (peanuts); the subsistence

crops are corn, sorghum, millet, pulses, root crops, fruit, and vegetables.

Agricultural products in 1965 accounted for 96 percent of total exports, of which

the most important are tea, tobacco, cotton, and groundnuts. Except forteaand

tung, which are estate crops, most agricultural production is on small holdings.

The industrial sector is small, but secondary industries are becoming more numerous. The principal industrial activities are the processing of agricultural

products and the production of construction materials. In 1965, agriculture

was the source of almost 51 percent of the gross domestic product, whereas manufacturing contributed less than 5 percent. The estimated gross national product

in 1965 was well under US$50 per capita. Malawi1s 5-Year Development Plan

(1965-69) places primary emphasis on the development of communications and

education, improvement of agricultural production, and the growth of private

enterprise.

Social. About 99 percent of the population are native Africans who belong

to various Bantu tribes; the remainder are Europeans, Asians (mainly Indians),

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and persons of mixed racial strains. English is the official language. More

than half of the population speak Nyanja; of the many other native languages,

Tumbuka, spoken in the north, is next in importance. About one-half of the population are adherents of Islam, the Asians practice Islam and Hinduism, and the

remainder are animists. The literacy rate was about 7 percent in 1964-65.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. In 1965, 131,200 Africans were wage and

salary earners. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing occupied 40 percent (of whom

over 90 percent were employed in the tea and tobacco industries); building and

construction, 3 percent; wholesale and retail trade, 9 percent; manufacturing,

8 percent; Government service, 19 percent; services (including 17,000, or 13

percent, in domestic service), 16 percent; transport and communications,4 percent; and the remainder were in other sectors. An estimated additional 200,000

Malawians were employed in Southern Rhodesia, South Africa, and Zambia. In 1962,

5,900 non-Africans (75 percent of whom were Europeans) were in the labor force.

The labor supply in Malawi greatly exceeds the demand, and unemployment is a

problem. Underemployment, particularly during the dry season, is widespread

among the large percentage of the population engaged in subsistence farming.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Uneconomic holdings, the use of poor

and antiquated implements, and ignorance of modern methods contribute to low

productivity in the large agricultural, subsistence sector. The Government has,

however, taken steps to modernize methods of production in agriculture and has

undertaken a campaign to encourage the use of fertilizers. Although a majority

of Malawi workers are unskilled, many have acquired some training in industries

and mines outside the country and have an enviable reputation for hard work,

ingenuity, and dependability. Expatriates perform most of the technical, supervisory, and professional work in the country. However, skilled and semiskilled

workers are emerging in increasing numbers from seven technical training institutes. The country does not yet have an apprenticeship program. In 1964, 1,400

students were enrolled in teacher-training institutes.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The principal labor laws are the Employment Ordinance,

1964 , which covers employment contracts, the recruitment of workers, wages, workers' health, and the settlement of disputes; the Trade Union Ordinance, 1963, which

requires the registration of labor organizations; the Apprenticeship Ordinance,

1961, and the Apprenticeship Regulations, 1964; the Factories Ordinance, 1964; and

the Regulation of Minimum Wages and Conditions of Employment Ordinance, 1957, as

amended in 1964, which provides for the establishment of minimum wages through a

Wages Advisory Board and Industrial Wages Councils (aNational Wages Commission,

of which the Minister of Labour is chairman, considers recommendations made by

these bodies before their publication). The Labour Legislation (Miscellaneous

Provisions) Ordinance, 1964, provides for the enforcement and administration of

labor legislation. Malawi has no social security legislation in operation; plans

are underway for complete revision of the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labour, through its Headquarters Section, Industrial Relations Section, General Section, Factories

Inspectorate, and Trade Testing Section, is responsible for the administration

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and enforcement of labor legislation. The Ministry's primary functions are to

encourage the establishment of sound industrial relations machinery for joint

consultation and collective bargaining between employers and employees; assist

in the settlement of industrial disputes by investigation, mediation, and conciliation; enforce legislation providing for the health, safety, and welfare of

workers; ensure the payment of statutory minimum wages and of workmen's compensation; supervise conditions under which migrant labor is employed; and review

labor legislation and advise the Government on labor policy. Ministry officials also conduct trade tests, operate employment exchanges, and register

trade unions. To carry out its duties, the Ministry has established 27 offices

throughout the country (excluding the headquarters at Limbe, which includes the

Factories Inspectorate) and offices at Johannesburg and Salisbury to protect the

interests of Malawians working in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum daily wage rates for unskilled workers set by the Government in

1965 were US$0.49 in the Blantyre/Limbe area, US$0.42 in the Zomba/Lilongwe/

Mzuzu Townships, and US$0.33 in all other areas. The Government also decreed

that young workers less than 18years of age receive 75 percent of the adult wage

and that women receive equal pay for equal work. From 1960 to 1965, the estimated average annual wage of Africans employed within Malawi rose fromUS$158.60

to US$209.00, and, in agriculture, from US$106.40 to US$109.20 (in mid-1964).

Many employers provide housing or a housing allowance for their workers. The

estimated average annual salary of non-Africans in 1965 was US$3,750.

Tripartite Industrial Wages Councils had, by 1964, been established and

had issued wage orders for an estimated 79,200 wage and salary earners inroad

transport, in retail shops, and in the tea, tobacco handling, and building industries. The tripartite Wages Advisory Board had fixed minimum wages for 50,000

wage and salary earners (including 8,000 domestic servants) not covered by Wages

Councils. The wage rates established in 1964 ranged from US$0.17 to US$0.31 per

hour for artisans in the building industry, US$18.20 to US$33.60 per month

for truck and bus drivers, US$10.50 to US$13.30 per month for driver helpers,

US$18.20 to US$21.00 per month for conductors, andUS$26.60 to US$35.00 per month

for stationmasters in road transport. In the tobacco handling industry, wage

rates ranged from US$0.29 to US$1.40 per day, according to the level of skill required by the job, the area in which employed, and educational qualifications.

No information is available on hours of work, overtime payments, and

holidays.

The European consumer price index (excluding rent) stood at 105.2 (January 1, 1962=100) in October 1964, an increase of 11.5 percent since 1959. The

level of living is very low for most of the people in Malawi; it is higher

for Europeans, who have a higher level of skills and receive higher wages than

Malawians.

Employer Organizations

Employer organizations include the National Employers' Consultative

Association, to which tobacco and tea estate managers belong, and organizations

of employers in other major industries. Representatives of these bodies on the

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Wages Advisory Board and Wages Councils participate in the regulation of wages.

Malawi also has an Associated Chamber of Commerce.

Labor Organizations

Total African trade union membership in Malawi was about 7,400, or 6 percent of the wage and salary earners in 1965. In addition, there were about 800

organized European wage and salary earners. The Trade Union Congress of Malawi

(TUCM), the nation's single trade union center, had about 3,960 members in seven

affiliates, or approximately 28 percent of the organized workers. The TUCM was

formed in 1956 as theNyasaland Trade Union Congress. In that year, itaffiliated

with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU); it is a member of its African Regional Organization (AFRO). The TUCM also is affiliated

with the African Trade Union Conference (ATUC).

Five International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have affiliates in Malawi:

The International Federation of Building and Woodworkers; International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, and Technical Employees; International Union of

Food and Allied Workers' Associations; Public Services International; and International Transport Workers' Federation.

Labor-Management Relations

Some collective bargaining takes place; for example, the Malawi Rail

Workers' Union has negotiated successfully with the management of the railways.

In many cases, however, owing to the weakness of the unions, the Government establishes wages and other working conditions. The weakness of the unions also

accounts, in part, for the infrequency of collective labor disputes.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 117

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics„

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MALI

Mali, a landlocked country located in northwest Africa, covers an area of 464,873

square miles and in 1964 had an estimated population of 4.5 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Mali became an independent republic in 1960, following the

dissolution of the Mali Federation. Under the Constitution of 1960, thePresident

whoisboth chief executive and head of state, also appoints the Council of Ministers. Both the President and an 80-member, unicameral National Assembly, which

exercises legislative power, are elected for 5-year terms by direct universal

suffrage on a single national list. The Union Soudanaise-Rassemblement DAmocratique Africain (US-RDA) is the only political party. Modibo Keita, secretary

general of the US-RDA, has been president since independence.

Economic. More than 80 percent of the population are engaged in agricultural and pastoral activities, which are predominantly subsistence in character. In 1964, peanuts contributed about 33 percent of the value of controlled

exports; cattle and fish, 33 percent; and cotton and other raw materials of minor

importance, the remainder. Uncontrolled exports, arising from the traditional

border trade primarily of cattle and dried and smoked fish, had an estimated

value of about one-third of controlled exports. The principal cash crop is peanuts. The country is potentially self-sufficient in foodstuffs; imports of rice

and millet were required in 1965. The main traditional crops grown for local

consumption are mil let, sorghum, rice, corn, manioc, yams, potatoes, and shea nuts.

The industrial sector is very small. Since the Government proclaimed a

socialist economy as its goal, the private sector has been decreasing in size

and importance. The 5-Year Plan for Social and Economic Development (1961-66)

placed primary emphasis on agricultural development and allocated a relatively

small amount to gradual industrial development. The estimated per capita gross

national product in 1963 was about US$65.

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Social. The population, almost 100 percent African, consists of nine

major tribes. The largest are the Barabara (mostly farmers), numbering over

1 million, and the Fulani (semisedentary herdsmen), with over 450,000 members.

Other ethnic groups are the Marka, Songhai, Malinke, Tuareg, Minianka, Senufo,

and Dogon. Most of the people profess Islam, but many practice a mixture of

Islam and animism. There were an estimated 20,000 Christians in 1960. The official language is French, which is used in schools and Government administration;

many native languages are spoken. The estimated literacy rate is between 5 and

10 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force is estimated at 1.8 million, or 40 percent of the total population. The total number of wage and salary

earners in 1965 was 40,000 to 50,000, of whom 3 0 percent were in the civil service, 18 percent in commerce, 15 percent in construction, 11 percent in agriculture, 10 percent in transportation, 8 percent in industry , and 8 percent in other

activities. No information is available on the extent of unemployment. Underemployment is extensive in the agricultural subsistence sector of the economy.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Climate, inadequate health facilities, the shortage of all categories of skilled labor, inadequate vocational

training facilities, and the early stage of development of the economy contribute

to low productivity.

The Government is attempting to expand its educational and training facilities and to increase agricultural production. In early 1966, there were

54 rural seasonal schools operating at the district level, designed to teach

new methods to young farmers, and another 50 were in varying stages of completion. In the 1964-65 school year, 658 students were enrolled in technical

schools. There is a vocational school in Bamako and also a School of Medical

Assistants. In 1965, new quarters for the National School of Public Administration were completed. The country has a technical high school, a vocationaltechnical school, several teacher-training institutions, and the Catholic Mission

operates a free, private vocational school in Bamako. In the 1964-65 school

year, 395 Malians were receiving training abroad.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labor Code of 1962 covers apprenticeship, contracts of employment , collective agreements, hours of work, payment for overtime,

nightwork, holidays, the health and safety of workers, the employment of women

and children, and the settlement of labor disputes. The legislation provides

for the determination of minimum wages and their mode of payment, authorizes

the formation of trade unions, and permits strikes and lockouts after conciliation and arbitration procedures have been exhausted.

The Social Welfare Code of Mali, 1962, effective January 1, 1963, and

regulations for its application cover family, maternity, and sickness benefits,

prevention of and compensation for industrial accidents and occupational diseases, and old-age and survivors' pensions. Coverage extends to all employed

persons excepting State employees covered by civil service regulations. The

program is financed by contributions based on workers' remuneration, subsidies,

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income from investment by the National Institute for Social Security (INPS),

contributions by other public or private organizations, donations, and legacies.

Administration and Practice, The Ministry of Labor is responsible for

the administration of labor legislation. The Labor Code provides for a Superior

Labor Board responsible for advising the Minister of Labor in the drafting

of regulations to implement the code and in the solution of labor problems.

Regional inspectors of labor are responsible for enforcing labor legislation

and regulations. The INPS administers the social security program, and indications are that it is capably administered. No information is available on the

extent to which labor laws are enforced.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The basic minimum wage rates established in 1956 for public sector employees

and in 1959 for employees in the private sector have not since been adjusted.

Austerity measures effected by the Government in 1964, including a special tax

(6 percent) on all salaries, reduced real wages. At the same time, prices have

continued to rise. According to estimates, in July 1964, the cost-of-living

index for Malians was 154 (1956=100). No information is available on wage rates.

The Labor Code provides fora40-hour weekinall activities except agriculture,

hospitals, retailing, baking, hairdressing, and domestic service, and limits

overtime to 24 hours a week. The statutory workweek in agriculture is 48 hours.

The predominantly subsistence economy has been, at least until recent years, a

surplus producer of both foodstuffs and agricultural raw materials and will

undoubtedly be so again once some temporary difficulties in the economy are

overcome.

Employer Organizations

There is a Chamber of Commerce, Agriculture, and Industry in Bamako. No

other information is available on employer organizations.

Labor Organizations

Of the estimated 40,000 to 50,000 wage and salary earners, about 30,000

are members of the National Union of Workers of Mali (Union National des Travailleurs du Mali--UNTM), the nation's only trade union center. The UNTM, which

was originally known as the Sudan Workers1 National Union (Union Syndicaliste

des Travailleurs Soudanais--USTS), developed a very close relationship with the

single political party, the US-RDA, prior to Malian independence. This relationship has been formally strengthened since independence, particularly at the

UNTM Congress in 1963.

The UNTM played a leading role in the formation of the All-African Trade

Union Federation (AATUF) at Casablanca in May 1961. It continues to take an

active part in AATUF activities and served as host for the second AATUF Congress in Bamako during 1964.

Labor-Management Relations

The Labor Code provides for the establishment of works councils in all

enterprises employing more than 10 workers. A decree in 1963 provided for

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workers' committees in all public enterprises. In this system, union members

in the enterprise elect representatives to an 11-member management committee,

which must consult the worker delegates on all matters relating to management.

Collective bargaining has not become an established practice. Strikes

and lockouts occur infrequently. If a collective dispute submitted to a regional

labor inspector for conciliation is not settled at that level, the Minister of

Labor convokes a tripartite arbitration board. Decisions of the board may be

appealed through the Minister of Labor to the Council of Ministers.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 118

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

D i r e c t o r y o f L a b o r O r g a n iz a tio n s —A fr i c a , jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF MAURITANIA

The Islamic Republic of Mauritania, which lies on the northwestern coast of

Africa, occupies an area of 419,000 square miles and had an estimated population

of 1 million in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Mauritania achieved independence in 1960. The 1961 Constitution provides for an Islamic Republic, with executive power vested in the President and legislative power in a 40-member, unicameral National Assembly. The

President (currently Moktar Ould Daddah), who chooses his Council of Ministers,

is elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term. The President also serves

as a secretary general of the sole political party, the Mauritanian People's

Party (PPM), formed through a merger of four political groups in 1962.

Economic. Livestock breeding, the most important economic activity in

the traditional sector, engages approximately 75 percent of the population. The

principal agricultural products are millet, dates, and gum arabic. The major

export is livestock. Mauritania's sole large-scale industry is iron mining.

In 1965, Mauritania exported almost 6 million metric tons of iron ore. Smallscale industries are construction and fishing. The estimated gross national

product (GNP) per capita in 1962 was US$100. In the same year, about 45 percent of the GNP was derived from agriculture, animal husbandry, and fishing; 32

percent from manufacturing, construction, and mining; 14 percent from Government; and 9 percent from other activities. A 4-year development plan (1963-67)

provides for programs designed to increase the GNP.

Social. About three-fourths of the population are Maures; the remainder

are Negro Africans and Europeans. Arabic is the national language and is spoken

by the Maures; French is the official language. Islam is the State religion.

In 1964, the estimated literacy rate was 1 to 5 percent; an estimated 16.4 percent of the school-age children were attending classes. In 1964, there were

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261 primary schools with 18,616 pupils, 6 secondary schools with 1,153 pupils,

and 68 students were attending universities.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. In 1964, an estimated 470,000 persons were

in the labor force. Of the approximately 17,200 wage and salary earners, 8,200

were in the public sector and 9,000 were in the private sector. Urban unemployment, occurring primarily among unskilled workers, is a serious problem. The

Government initiated a modest "self-help" public works program in 1964 in an

effort to alleviate this problem. Underemployment is widespread.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Factors contributing tolowproductivity are low levels of education, a shortage of skilled manpower, poor health

conditions, the Saharan climate, and antiquated production methods. Private

companies and the Government sponsor several vocational training schools. In

1964, a total of 125 persons were receiving training in the fields of automotive

mechanics, stenography, construction, seamanship, and fishing. There are also

agricultural schools. An Administrative Instruction Center for the training of

Government employees opened in 1965.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labor Code (1963), which applies to establishments employing more than 20 workers, provides for benefits covering illness,

layoffs, and severance from employment, minimum wages, paid vacations, family

allowances, retirement pensions, and health and safety standards. The code

regulates labor contracts, apprenticeship training, and the employment and working conditions of women and young persons (minimum working age is 14 years , unless

changed by court order); it guarantees workers the right to organize into trade

unions and to bargain collectively and provides for the establishment of machinery for the settlement of grievances and labor disputes and for setting

up governmental labor agencies. Social security legislation covers retirement,

invalidity, and survivors' pensions.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor, with the advice of

the National Labor Board, administers and enforces labor legislation through

its Labor Administrative Service. Inspectors and labor officers supervise the

administration and enforcement of regulations. Since 1965, the National Social

Insurance Fund (CNPS) has been responsible for the administration of social

security legislation.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

In 1962, the basic wage rate varied from US$0.10 to US$0.12 per hour for

unskilled workers and was US$0.56 for skilled workers. The Labor Code provides

for a maximum workweek of 40 hours, except in the agricultural sector, where

the maximum is 2,400 hours per year.

Most of the population live at a subsistence level. The annual per capita

income was estimated at US$102 in 1965. In order to improve living conditions,

the Government is financing rural development projects. Price controls are in

effect on many basic items, such as foodstuffs.

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Employer Organizations

The main employer organizations are the Chamber of Commerce, Agriculture,

and Industry of Western Mauritania; the Chamber of Commerce, Agriculture, Livestock, Industry, and Mines of Mauritania; and the Union of Industries and Enterprises of Mauritania. No information is available regarding the functions of

these organizations.

Labor Organizations

The Union of Workers of Mauritania (Union des Travailleurs de Mauritanie--

UTM), the nation's single trade union center, claimed 18,000 to 20,000 members

in 1966. This figure apparently is inflated, since it exceeds the number of

wage and salary earners, which in 1964 was estimated to total about 17,200. The

UTM, which was formed in 1961, absorbed all other trade union organizations in

1962. It maintains a close relationship with the single political party, the

PPM. The UTM is organized into eight industrial federations.

Labor-Management Relations

In the event of a collective dispute which cannot be settled by theparties

concerned, a labor inspector attempts conciliation. If conciliation fails, the

inspector brings together a panel of experts to mediate. If this fails, the

Minister of Labor convokes an arbitration board. Arbitration may be appealed

to the Supreme Court. Labor Courts hear individual grievances. In 1964, collective agreements regulated conditions of employment in commerce, construction,

public works, and transportation. Strikes are infrequent.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 119

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations —Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics«

LABOR CONDITIONS IN MAURITIUS

The Colony of Mauritius is an island of some 700 square miles situated in the

Indian Ocean about 500 miles off the east coast of Madagascar. The population

in December 1964 was estimated at 733,600.

The Government is headed by a British Governor. The Mauritius Orders in

Council provide for a Legislative Council, comprising both members elected for

a 5-year term by universal suffrage and members appointed by the Governor, and

an Executive Council of three members appointed by the Governor from the elected

members of the Legislative Council. The main political party is the Labour

Party. The other major parties are the Parti Mauricien, the Independent Forward

Block, and the Moslem Committee of Action.

The economy is based on agriculture, which in 1963 provided over onethird of the gross domestic product (GDP). The main industry is the growing of

sugarcane. Sugar and its byproducts in 1964 accounted for 98 percent of the

total value of exports. Secondary industry, mainly the processing of primary

products, provided about 19 percent of the GDP in 1963. Per capita income in

1964 was about US$200.

The population is of European, African, and Asian origin. The largest

ethnic group is the Indo-Mauritian, which includes two-thirds of the total population. The second largest group, representing about 25 percent of the population, comprises persons of French, English, and mixed descent. About half of

the population are Hindu, 40 percent are Christian, and 10 percent profess

Islam. Both English and French are official languages, but French and a FrenchBantu dialect are more widely spoken. Education is free but not compulsory;

over 80 percent of the children of primary school age attend school. Primary

school enrollment in 1964 was 132,074.

Wage and salary earners in 1963 totaled 187,403, of whom almost 38 percent were in agriculture, 19 percent in services, 14 percent in manufacturing,

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11 percent in construction, 10 percent in commerce, 6 percent in transport,

storage, and communications, and the remaining 2 percent in mining and miscellaneous activities. Information on unemployment is unavailable.

Mauritius has several institutions which offer a combination of secondary

and higher education; it also has technical training centers. A teacher-training

college and an agricultural college are the only institutions which provide

full-time, postsecondary school education.

The main body of labor legislation includes the following ordinances

(updated until 1946): Employment of Women, Young Persons, and Children; Employment and Labour; Recruitment of Workers; Safety of Dockers; Workmen's Compensation; Apprenticeship (1946); Registration of Associations (1949); Old-Age

Pensions (1951); Trade Unions (1954); Regulation of Wages and Conditions of

Employment (1961); Family Allowances (1961); Employment and Training (1963);

Security of Employment (Sugar Industry) (1963); and Trade Disputes (1965).

The Ministry of Labour and Social Security has general responsibility

for labor affairs. Its functions include the formulation of employment policy,

maintenance of employment services, compilation and publication of labor statistics, registration of trade unions, administration of social security programs,

and enforcement of labor legislation. Various tripartite boards and committees

advise the Government on such matters as labor legislation, trade testing,

welfare programs for the sugar industry, and technical education.

Minimum wages are set by wage councils, which have been established for

various industries and categories of workers. Average daily wages in 1964 in

selected industries varied from about US$0.89 for unskilled laborers in tobacco

to about US$3.15 for automobile mechanics. The minimum daily wage for Government

manual workers was US$1.18. The normal workweek in Government and inmost industries is 45 hours. Price levels have been fairly steady; the consumer price

index (January-June 1962=100) was 101.0 in March 1965.

Several employer organizations exist, such as the Association of Port

and Harbour Employers, the Mauritius Employers' Federation, the Mauritius Sugar

Producers' Association, and the Chamber of Agriculture. Information regarding

their functions and membership is unavailable.

Total claimed trade union membership on the island is about 81,000, or

almost 45 percent of the 187,403 wage and salary earners. Some 50,000 of the

trade union members are claimed by the Mauritius Labour Congress (MLC), by far

the largest of the three national trade union centers on the island. The MLC

was formed in 1963 by a merger of the Confederation of Free Trade Unions of

Mauritius (CFTUM) and a faction of the Mauritius Trades Union Congress (MTUC).

The MLC has been affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade

Unions (ICFTU) and its African Regional Organization (AFRO) since 1964. It has

a close cooperating relationship with the Labour Party of Mauritius.

The MTUC, which was formed in 1946, claimed a membership of 18,000 in

1962, or about 10 percent of the organized workers. In 1965, the MTUC affiliated

with the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation

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zation, the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union Panafricaine des

Travailleurs Croyants--UPTC).

The Mauritius Federation of Labour (MFL), formed in 1960, claimed 6,259

members in 1961. Since 1961 it has been an affiliate of the Communist World

Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU). However, two MFL affiliates are affiliated

with International TradeSeeretariats (ITS). Altogether 11 ITS*s have affiliates

on the island.

In 1964, 11,053 man-days were lost through strikes involving a total of

7,302 workers.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 120

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE KINGDOM OF MOROCCO

Morocco, located in the northwestern corner of Africa, is separated from Europe

by the Straits of Gibraltar. It has an area of 172,000 square miles and had a

population estimated at 13,320,000 in 1965.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The Constitution, ratified by popular referendum in 1962,

established a constitutional monarchy in Morocco. A bicameral Parliament was

instituted following national elections in 1963, andaPrime Minister and Cabinet

were appointed by King Hassan II. However, in June 1965, the King decreed a

"state of exception," thereby assuming all legislative and executive powers,

and announced his intention to revise the Constitution and hold new elections.

The three political parties with some semblance of activity and organization

are the Istiqlal, the National Union of Popular Forces (UNFP) , and the Popular

Movement (MP).

Economic. The economy is based on agriculture, but because most agricultural production is on a subsistence level, this activity accounted for only

30 percent of the gross national product (GNP) in 1964; commerce accounted for

24 percent; transport and services, 18 percent; industry, 13 percent; mining,

6 percent; and other economic activities, 9 percent. The traditional sector

consists of small farms, which produce subsistence crops, the most important of

which is cereals; others are oil-bearing seeds, vegetables, and pulses. The

modern sector is characterized by large holdings, the production of which is

mainly for export (i.e., citrus fruit, grapes, and vegetables). The manufacturing sector consists primarily of the processing of agricultural products and

fish; the production of textiles, construction material, and light metal

products; and the assembly of machines. The mining industry accounted for about

40 percent of the total value of exports in 1964. Phosphate rock is one of the

most important of the mineral resources. Others are manganese, lead, zinc, and

iron ore. The principal objectives of the Government1 s 3-Year Economic Development

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Plan (1965-67) are to modernize the traditional sector of agriculture, improve

the level of education and vocational and technical training, and promote tourism. The estimated GNP per capita in 1965 was US$174.

Social. In 1965, 98 percent of the total population were native Moroccans; of the remaining 2 percent, 1 percent were French and most of the others

were Moroccan Jews. A majority of Moroccans are a mixture of Arab and Berber

strains. Islam is the religion of the majority. Arabic is the official language;

however, approximately one-third of the population speak the Berber language

and French is widely used in business and Government. During the school year

1964-65, about 1.2million students were enrolled in primary schools, 139,000 in

secondary schools, and 10,000 in universities. The estimated rate of literacy

in 1965 was 15 to 20 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. In 1964, approximately 4.5 million persons

were in the labor force. About 70 percent were in agriculture, 15 percent

in industry, and 15 percent in other sectors. In 1960, 18 percent of the

labor force of about 4 million were wage and salary earners; 26 percent were in

industry, 48 percent in supplies and services (Government, transportation, and

communications), and 26 percent in agriculture (of whom about 60,000 worked on

large plantations). The largest groups of industrial wage and salary earners

were employed in the mining, processing, and textile industries.

An estimated 20 percent of the labor force were unemployed and 40 percent

of the rural population were underemployed in April 1964. Most of the unemployed

were unskilled workers who had migrated to urban areas and recent school leavers,

whose number is increasing more rapidly than that of available jobs. Seasonal

factors affect employment not only in agriculture but also in the food processing

and construction industries.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Factors contributing to a low level

of productivity are climate, substandard working conditions, the high level of

unemployment and underemployment, and the low prestige attached to manual work.

Additional factors are the lack of modern techniques, training, and skills.

In 1964, the High Commission for Technical Training had under its direction one national institute for the training of administrators and supervisors,

two centers providing vocational training, and eight centers for training journeymen. The Office of Vocational Training of the Ministry of Public Works conducts a series of programs and operates institutions which have facilities for

vocational and technical training; some persons also receive technical training

abroad. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs provides industrial training

through 28 centers and an institute for training teachers to staff the centers.

The National Office of Rural Modernization operates centers throughout the country which offer training in modern agricultural methods. Both governmental and

private enterprises provide on-the-job training.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor legislation in Morocco, modeled after French

laws, covers labor disputes (1962), collective contracts (1957), labor courts

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(1957), wage zones (1948), minimum wages and salaries (1959 and 1961) , hours of

work (1937, 1959, and I960), paid annual vacations (1946), workers' identity

cards (1953), recruitment of workers through placement offices and their hiring

and firing (1959), health and safety (1952 and 1960), employment injury compensation (1963), work-connected illnesses (1943), and social security (1959).

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs

administers and enforces labor legislation through seven offices and five field

services. The Office of Labor Legislation and Social Insurance oversees the

labor inspection service and the National Social Security Fund. Legislation requires inspection in establishments employing more than 10 workers. In practice,

the extent of inspection is limited by the shortage of staff and lack of training

of inspection service personnel. Special fund inspectors also assist in enforcing the social security program.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wage scales , established in four geographic wage zones and vary ing

by the sex and age of the worker, are tied to the cost-of-living index for Casablanca. The last increase in minimum wage rates was in 1962. In that year,

the minimum hourly wages were: zone 1, US$0.17 ; zone 2, US$0.16; zone 3, US$0.15 ;

and zone 4, US$0.14. Women's rates of pay are usually about one-sixth less than

those of men and those of young workers, from one-fifth to one-half less than

the rates for adults. Skilled workers receive 50 to 100 percent more than the

semiskilled, who are paid 25 percent more than the unskilled. The average hourly

wage in 1962 for chemical workers was US$0.23; weavers, US$0.38; coal miners,

US$0.40; carpenters, US$0.44; and printing machine operators, US$0.50. In 1961,

the average daily wage of adult male agricultural workers was US$0.73. Wage

supplements in some sectors include such benefits as family allowances, housing

allowances, and end-of-year bonuses.

The basic workweek is 48 hours, except in agriculture where it is 2,700

hours annually. The law requires 1 day of rest per week and limits overtime to

8 hours per week. The rate of pay for overtime varies from time and a quarter

to time and a half, except in agriculture, where it is time and one-sixth. The

rate on the weekly day of rest is time and a half, except for the hours between

10 p.m. and 5 a.m., when it is double time. The duration of the guaranteed paid

vacation which workers receive depends on the sector in which they are employed

and on their length of service.

The level of living is much lower in rural than in urban areas. The

Casablanca cost-of-living index rose from 113 in 1962 (1958=100) to 127.7 in

October 1965. In 1964, the per capita annual income for most Moroccans in agriculture and handicrafts was US$165.

Employer Organizations

Employer organizations in Morocco are not concerned with labor-management

relations. The Moroccan Association of Commerce, Industry, and Handicrafts

(UMCIA), with a membership estimated at 170,000 in 1964, has 14 provincial organizations and 400 branches. The Moroccan Farmers' Association (UMA) has 10

provincial centers and 70 local branches. The General Moroccan Economic Confederation (CGEM) has 18 organizations; its membership, which includes most of

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the French and other foreign businessmen and some Moroccans, represents over 80

percent of the modern sector. The National Federation of Chambers of Commerce

of Morocco has affiliates in 15 cities.

Labor Organizations

Total trade union membership is estimated at about 725,800, which apparently includes the great majority of the wage and salary earners. Over 95 percent

of this membership belongs to the Moroccan Labor Union (Union Marocaine du Travail- -UMT). Formed clandestinely in 1955, the UMT has become the largest and

strongest labor organization in Africa. Although it has cooperated closely with

political parties in the past (the Istiqlal until 1959 and the UNFP until 1963),

it has remained outside party control and constitutes an independent force in

Moroccan political and economic life. The UMT is organized along both industrial

and geographic lines, with 26 industrial federations and unions, as well as 8

regional and 51 local centers.

The UMT affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade

Unions (ICFTU) in 1955 but disaffiliated in 1963. It played a major role in the

formation of the All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF) at Casablanca in

1961 and continues to take an active part in AATUF affairs. It also is affiliated with the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions (ICATU). One UMT

federation is affiliated with an International Trade Secretariat (ITS), the International Metalworkers' Federation. Another is affiliated with the Arab Federation of Petroleum Workers.

A second national trade union center, the General Union of Moroccan Workers (Union Gen6rale des Travailleurs du Maroc--UGTM), which was formed in 1960

as a labor wing of the Istiqlal, has an estimated 25,000 members. The smaller

trade union organizations are the Free National Union (Syndicat National Libre--

SNL), with about 500 members, and the Union of Free Workers (Union des Syndicats

des Travailleurs Libres--USTL), with approximately 300 members.

Labor-Management Relations

Workers and employees in establishments with more than 10 persons elect

delegates, who present*collective or individual grievances to management. If

agreement is not reached at that level, the matter is referred to a labor inspector for conciliation and, finally, to a special, tripartite arbitration

commission. In 1964, there were 235 work stoppages involving a loss of 152,258

man-days.

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LABOR DIGEST

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

No. 121

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN MOZAMBIQUE

The Portuguese Overseas Province of Mozambique is located in southeast Africa.

It has an area of 303,073 square miles and had an estimated population of 7 million in early 1966.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Under the Portuguese Constitution, Mozambique is an overseas

territory of Portugal, and it is represented in the National Assembly at Lisbon.

The Ministry of Overseas Provinces controls the territory, which is administered

by a Governor General appointed for a 4-year term by the Council of Ministers

in Lisbon, as provided for in the Overseas Organic Law of June 1963 and the

Statute of Mozambique, effective January 1, 1964. Six provincial secretaries,

who head the departments of the Government, assist the Governor General in his

executive functions and are responsible to him. The Governor General exercises

his legislative powers through majority votes of the local Legislative Council,

composed of 27 members elected for 4-year terms. The Economic and Social Council operates as a standing advisory committee designed to assist the Governor

General. The Portuguese National Union, the Governments party, is the only

legal political group. Repeal of the Indigenous Statute in 1961 removed legal

restrictions on the freedom of movement of Africans, and their right to enter

into contracts of employment and to take advantage of minimum wage provisions,

health and retirement benefits, improved working conditions, educational opportunities, and, in theory, syndicate membership; it gave Africans equal civil

rights under Portuguese written law on an equal basis with the Portuguese European in Mozambique.

Economic. The economy is based primarily on agriculture and the transit

shipping trade. Although industry and mining play a minor role, the industrial

pattern is becoming more diversified and a wider range of goods is being produced for local consumption and for export. The majority of Africans engage in

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subsistence agriculture; they sell the surplus they produce (of corn, wheat,

peanuts, manioc, copra, and other) in retail shops or barter it for a few necessary items. Africans also own most of the livestock in the country. Lack of

funds and technical knowledge has hampered the development of agricultural and

livestock production. Despite the extensive coastline and large variety of fish

in Mozambique's territorial waters, the fishing industry has not yet been well

developed.

The country's six leading agricultural products--cotton, sugar, cashew

nuts, tea, copra, and sisal--contributed almost 65 percent of total exports in

1963. (Cotton is produced primarily by Africans on small, individual plots;

most cashew nuts are gathered by Africans from trees scattered in the bush.

Sugar, tea, copra, and sisal are produced primarily on large European-owned

estates.) Exports of other commodities, however, such as mineral ores, vegetable oils, and refined petroleum products, have been increasing, the latter

accounting for 8.6 percent of the total value of exports in 1963. Industry consists primarily of the processing of agricultural products, the production of

goods for local consumption, and small-scale manufacturing. The Government has

been taking steps to increase the country's productive capacity through a series

of development plans. Per capita annual earnings in 1963 were estimated atUS$60

for the entire population and US$45 for the African population.

Social. The population is 97.5 percent African and 2.5 percent European

and Asian. A majority are animists, 10 to 15 percent are Christian, and 12 to

15 percent practice Islam. The official language is Portuguese; many tribal

dialects are spoken. The literacy rate is estimated to be about 5 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. No data are available on the size of the

total labor force. According to 1960 estimates, there were 850,000 African and

44,000 European and Asian wage and salary earners. Of the total number of foreigners, 26 percent were in public administration, 21 percent in transportation

and communications, 21 percent in commerce and insurance, 12 percent in industry, 10 percent in agriculture and fishing, and 10 percent in public works and

construction. The Government, which employed about 68,000 Africans and nonAfricans in 1963, is the largest employer. Civilian wage and salary earners

totaled about 36,500; some 20,000 to 30,000 were in the Armed Forces, and the

remainder were in specialized Government agencies. About 300,000 Mozambique

Africans work in such nearby countries as South Africa and Southern Rhodesia,

mainly in mining.

Unemployment is a serious problem, involving, in particular, unskilled Africans migrating to Lourenco Marques, the capital. Underemployment is widespread

among the predominantly African population engaged in subsistence agriculture.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. The low level of productivity in all

segments of the economy can be accounted for, in part, by the general lack of

education and training and the lack of modernization of agricultural and industrial production. The nomadic way of life and shifting cultivation practiced

by Africans also contribute to low productivity in agriculture. An acute shortage of technical and professional personnel continues to hamper efforts at

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economic development. Engineers and other professionals are often sent from

Portugal on a temporary contract basis. The level of vocational training among

Africans is extremely low. Legislation provides for apprenticeship training in

a number of industries. Industrial and commercial schools on the secondary level

and the curriculum at Mozambique University provide students with the opportunity

to acquire skills in a number of fields.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Rural Labor Code for Portuguese Overseas Territories (1962) contains regulations covering recruitment, the employment of

immigrants, labor contracts, professional and vocational training, working conditions, wages, hours of work, holidays, women workers, child labor, social

security benefits, labor syndicates, and enforcement machinery. Legislation in

1963 and 1965 provided for a social welfare fund for unskilled labor, intended

to provide educational, social welfare, and recreational facilities for African laborers and their families. An act of May 30, 1966, regulates working conditions of domestic servants and provides for the establishment of minimum wages

for these workers.

Administration and Practice. The Institute of Labor, Social Security,

and Welfare, established by legislation in 1961, carries out policies concerned

with labor syndicates, employment, and security. It deals with both African and

European labor and is eventually to handle old-age and other planned social welfare programs for the predominantly non-African syndicate members. In practice,

labor legislation sometimes is not uniformly enforced or implemented.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum monthly wages for adult male farm workers in early 1966 varied

from US$18.21 in the highest of 14 pay zones to US$9.88 in the lowest. For

African male adults in industry, minimum wages ranged from US$19.23 to US$11.36

a month.

The consumer price index for Lourengo Marques (January 1956-September

1957=100) averaged 104.0 in 1961, 108.0 in 1963, and 112.0 in 1965. The retail

price index in the city of Beira (1959=100) averaged 106.5 in 1961, 104.6 in

1964, and about 107.0 in 1965.

Employer Organizations

Employer Organizations include the Chamber of Commerce in Lourenco Marques

and the Mozambique Commercial, Industrial, and Economic Associations, which are

not concerned with industrial relations, and the following which are: the Cereal

Growers' Guild, the Civil Construction (Employers') Syndicate, the Development

Association of Zambezia, the Tea Planters' Association, and the Tobacco Growers'

Guild.

Labor Organizations

No trade union organizations exist in Portugal or its overseas territory

of Mozambique. Labor is organized in syndicates which function essentially as

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beneficent societies. The syndicates are defined in the Rural Labor Code as an

integral part of the corporative organization of the nation. However, the

syndicates in Mozambique are autonomous from those in Portugal and, unlike in

Portugal, membership is not compulsory.

There are 11 syndicates in Mozambique with a total membership of about

31,000, or approximately 3 percent of the estimated total wage and salary earners.

Labor-Management Relations

An industrywide collective agreement setting wages exists only in the

banking field. Syndicate standards and wages for various classes of skilled and

semiskilled workers are enforced by the Government in most industries. Under

such procedures, tripartite (Government, employer, and syndicate) corporative

committees engage in compulsory "conciliation.11 Disputes not resolved under

this procedure are referred to the Labor Court or to civil courts for settlement. Strikes are illegal.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 122

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF NIGER

The Republic of Niger, a landlocked country in West Africa, has an area of

489,000 square miles and had a population officially estimated at 3,130,000 in

1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The country became fully independent in 1960. Under the Constitution of 1960, executive power rests in the President (currently Hamani

Diori), who is elected by direct universal suffrage every 5 years. Members of the

Council of Ministers are responsible to the President, who appoints and may dismiss them. The National Assembly, which exercises legislative power, iscomposed

of 50 members, elected for 5-year terms by direct universal suffrage. The Nigerien Progressive Party (Parti Progressiste Nigerien--PPN), abranch of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Democratique Africain--RDA), is in power.

Economic. The economy is based primarily on agriculture, carried on by

the settled population in the south, and livestock raising, the occupation of

some 600,000 nomadic herdsmen in the north. Crop production accounts for 35 to

40 percent of the gross national product (GNP) and livestock and livestock products, for 20 to 25 percent. The most important cash crop produced for export is

peanuts; millet and sorghum are the staple foods of the country's population.

In 1962, commerce accounted for an estimated 15 percent of the GNP and manufacturing, industry, and handicrafts, an estimated 4.7 percent. Niger's current

4-Year Plan (1965-68) anticipates a total investment equivalent to US$173 million, of which US$39.2 million, or 23 percent, is allocated to the private sector.

Social. The population, which is approximately 99 percent African according to 1964 estimates, consists of several primary ethnic groups: Hausa,

47.8 percent; Djerma (and related Songhai), 20.3 percent; Peuhl (Fulani), 14.6

percent; and Tuareg, 11.2 percent. The estimated European population was 6,000.

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French is the official language and Hausa is the language of trade; several other

African languages are also spoken. According to estimates, 69 percent of the

population profess Islam, 28 percent are animists, and the remainder are Christians. The literacy rate in 1965 was 5 percent. In 1964-65, over 55,000 students

were enrolled in primary schools (about 8.6 percent of the school-age population), 2,520 in secondary schools, 119 in technical schools, and 141 were studying abroad.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. Over 90 percent of the population are engaged in subsistence agriculture and livestock raising. In 1962, an estimated

1.5 million persons, or 48 percent of the total population, were in the labor

force. An estimated 250,000 seasonal agricultural workers received wages. In

1964, 19,388 wage and salary earners (including nearly 3,000 permanent civil

servants) were employed in the nonagricultural sector of the economy. Of the

13,106 wage and salary earners in Niamey, Maradi, and Zinder in 1962, 9,351

were employed in the private sector and 3,755 in the public sector. In the private sector, 37 percent were in construction, 27 percent in domestic service,

14.5 percent in commerce and general mechanics, about 10 percent in transportation, 6 percent in industries, and the remainder in other activities. Unemployment is not a pressing problem. It is likely, however, that underemployment is

widespread in the largely subsistence economy.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. The enervating climate, low levels

of education, and a serious shortage of all levels of skills, including technical and managerial, are among the factors which contribute to low productivity.

Vocational training facilities are limited. The country has a National School

of Administration, three normal schools, a technical school, an agricultural

school, and an accelerated vocational training school.

The Government is making eff orts to increase crop production by strengthening agricultural extension and rural development services through training

centers, cooperatives, and farm credit. Projects to develop irrigation in dry

river valleys and along the Niger are in the advanced study state and, when

completed, are expected to contribute significantly to increased yields and

production.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labor Code, Law No. 62-12 of July 1962, is based

on the French Overseas Labor Code of 1952 and retains most of its provisions. It

gives workers the right to organize, bargain collectively, and to strike. The

code stipulates that all workers receive equal pay for equal work, and that they

are entitled to medical care at the employer's expense. It provides forabasic

workweek of 40 hours, overtime pay, holidays with pay, and machinery for the

determination of wages; it also regulates the employment of women and young persons. Legislation provides for work injury compensation, which is financed

entirely by employer contributions based on the worker's total earnings (including

supplementary payments in cash or in kind), and the payment of family allowances, which consist of a cash allowance payable upon presentation of a medical

certificate of pregnancy and extending until the child attains age 14.

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Administration and Practice. The Labor Department of the Ministry of Civil

Service and Labor is responsible for the administration and enforcement of the Labor Code, which applies to civil servants and to employees in the private sector

(but not to the large majority of the population in rural areas who are self-employed). It also operates the Employment Service in Niamey. The Family Benefit

and Employment Injury Equalization Fund is responsible for the collection and

administration of contributions and the payment of family allowances; the Governing Board of the Fund is responsible for management of the financial resources of

the program setup under the Fund. The Labor Departments enforcement of dispute

settlement and minimum wage provisions of the code is considered fairly effective.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

In 1964, theminimum wage was about US$0.08 per hour and monthly salaries

ranged from US$19 to over US$100 for the most highly skilled workers. Most of

the large European employers pay above the minimum required. Salary scales for

civil servants range from US$36 to US$670 per month. Since independence, the

Government has maintained a firm policy against wage and salary increases in

keeping with the modest resources of the country. The Labor Code specifies a 40-

hour workweek, but exceptions to this may be granted. Statistics on the actual

hours worked in the industrial sector and in agriculture are not available.

According to published official information, retail prices for African

families have remained steady. The consumers' price index was 110.7 in 1962

(1960=100) and 98.7 for the first 9 months of 1963. A new index based onJuly 1,

1962-June 30, 1963=100 was 100.7 in December 1964 and 109.1 in December 1965.

The retail price index for Europeans gradually rose to 123.1 in June 1965

(1960=100). A new index was 103.0 in December 1965 (November 15-December 15,

1964=100). This rise was attributed to increased taxes and import duties. In the

large agricultural and pastoral sectors, a majority of the people live at a subsistence level. The estimated average per capita income in 1963 was US$75.

Employer Organizations

There are three employer associations: a Chamber of Commerce, the Employers' Union of Enterprises and Industries of Niger, and the Union of Importers

and Exporters of Niger. These organizations have only a consultative role in

labor matters.

Labor Organizations

An estimated 15 ,000 workers are members of theNational Union of Workers of

Niger (Union Nationale des Travailleurs du Niger--UNTN), the nation's only trade

union center. Since its formation in 1960, the UNTN has had a very close relationship with the single political party, thePFN. The UNTN is divided into three geographical sectors corresponding to the labor inspectorates of Niamey , Maradi, and

Zinder. It is an affiliate of the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC).

Labor-Management Relations

Collective bargaining is not widespread nor well developed, inasmuch as

the modern industrial sector is embryonic and there are only a few thousand

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salaried employees in the private sector. The labor organization is under the

control of the PPN and the Government. Wages and working conditions are set

largely by the Government, which consults closely with labor and management

representatives on such matters. By 1965, labor courts provided for in the Labor

Code had been established in Niamey, Maradi, and Zinder, which are also the seats

of the three labor inspectorates into which the country is divided. Industrial

disputes do not often get as far as the labor tribunals. There have been no

work stoppages since 1960.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 123

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1 966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA

The Federal Republic of Nigeria occupies an area of 356,669 square miles in West

Africa on the Gulf of Guinea. The officially enumerated population in 1963 was

55.6 million, making Nigeria the most populous country in Africa.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Nigeria became an independent nation within the British Commonwealth on October 1, 1960, and a republic on October 1, 1963. A coup d'etat

in January 1966 resulted in the installation of a temporary military government

headed by Major-General John T. Aguiyi-Ironsi. The new Government reduced the

status of the former "Regions to the rank of Provinces under close central control.

It also provided for the unification of the civil service and the establishment

of a commission of lawyers, civil servants, and academics to draft a new constitution. The present Government plans to remain in power for 3 years, during

which time all political activity has been banned.

Economic. The economy is based on agriculture, which, together with forestry and fishing, occupies about 78 percent of the labor force and provides

more than 85 percent of the national income. Per capita income in 1964 was about

US$80. Agricultural products in 1963 represented 81 percent of all exports and

over 65 percent of the gross domestic product. Nigeria is the world's leading

exporter of peanuts and palm oil and the second largest producer of cocoa.

Economic development since World War II has been marked by the growth of manufacturing, transportation, commerce, and mining, and a sharp rise in agricultural production. Recently discovered reserves of petroleum and natural gas

already have made Nigeria the 13th largest crude oil producer in the world.

Social. Of the approximately 250 tribes which exist, the Yoruba of the

Western Region, the Ibo of the Eastern Region, and the Hausa and Fulani of the

Northern Region constitute over half of the population. The predominance of

Mohammedanism among the people of the Northern Region is an important social

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and political factor. In the Western Region, Moslems, Christians, and animists

are almost evenly divided. In the Eastern Region, most of the people are either

Christians or animists. The literacy rate in 1961 was about 20 percent of the

population over 7 years of age and is rising rapidly among the school-age population. In 1963, almost 3 million students were enrolled in primary schools.

English is the official language; over 200 vernacular languages are spoken.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. More than 75 percent of the estimated labor

force of 18 million in 1962 were in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Wage and

salary earners totaled 578,805 (about 41 percent in some type of Government service), or 3.3 percent of the labor force; almost 20 percent were in construction,

10 percent in manufacturing, almost 10 percent in transportation, storage, and

communications, over 9 percent in mining and quarrying, over 7 percent in commerce, 6 percent in agriculture, forestry, and fishing, and the remaining 38 percent in miscellaneous services.

Unemployment of unskilled workers is a growing problem, not only in itself

but also because the continuous drift into the cities from the rural areas of

seekers of jobs and city life further burdens already overstrained housing, transportation, health, sanitation, and other urban facilities and services. The extended family system provides some measure of support for the unemployed, but

such support imposes a drain on the resources of those who do have jobs. Taking

the entire work force into account (agricultural as well as industrial) , estimates of the number of unemployed have reached 5 million. There is virtually no

unemployment among skilled workers. Underemployment of the unskilled and agricultural workers prevails throughout the economy.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Productivity is low mainly because

of the acute shortage of technical, managerial, and other skills, as well as

the country's brief industrial experience. Of persons registering as unemployed

at the employment exchanges in December 1961, 76 percent lacked skills and previous work experience.

Eight Government trade centers train craftsmen and artisans, and some of

the larger employers provide on-the-job training. High-level manpower is trained

at the School of Business Administration of the University of Lagos or through

Government-promoted Training-Within-Industry and scholarship awards programs,

geared to bridge the gap in specific manpower requirements. In addition, the

Federal Ministry of Education has formulated a national plan for technical and

commercial education. In 1960, 27,061 students were enrolled in 317 teachertraining schools. In May 1961, some 6,000 persons were being trained in the

technical institutes and trade centers. Nigeria also has a number of institutions

of higher education, some of which offer courses in a variety of higher technical and professional subjects--for example, theUniversity of Lagos, theUniversity of Nigeria at Nsukka, the University of Ife, theUniversity of Ibadan, and

Ahmadu Bello University at Zaria.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labour Code Ordinance o£ 1953 governs the minimum

age for employment; conditions of employment for women, juveniles, and appren2

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tices; oral and written contracts; recruitment; payment of wages; hours of work;

registration of employers and industrial workers; and working conditions for

clerical workers. The Factories Ordinance (1955) deals with safe and healthful

working conditions. The Trade Unions Ordinance (1938) and the Trades Disputes

(Arbitration and Inquiry) Ordinance (1941) assure the right of association and the

right to conclude collective agreements in the settlement of labor disputes. Social legislation includes the Workmen* s Compensation Ordinance (1948) ; chapter IX

of the Labour Code, which deals with maternity benefits; and the National Provident Fund Ordinance (1961), which provides limited payments in cases of protracted illness or unemployment and full payment upon retirement after age 55.

Administration and Practice. Responsibility for labor affairs in Nigeria, formerly held by the Regional governments concurrently with the Federal Government, was assigned by the Federal Military Government to the Federal Ministry

of Labour in 1966. The shortage of inspectors and ignorance of labor laws among

many small, indigenous employers hamper enforcement. A tripartite National Labour

Advisory Council, created in 1965, advises the Ministry of Labour on existing or

proposed labor and social security legislation; it also reviews conditions of employment and the state of industrial relations. A tripartite National Industrial

Safety Council was established in 1964. A tripartite National Wage Advisory Council, created in 1965, advises the Government on national wage policy.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Wages may be set under the provisions of the Wages Boards Ordinance by special commissions of inquiry or by free collective bargaining. The wage patterns

are strongly influenced by the fact that the Federal and Regional Governments

are the largest employers of labor*, In 1964, the country was divided into six

minimum wage zones, with minimum monthly rates ranging from a high of US$28.00

in Lagos (the capital) to a low of about US$14.56 in the rural north.

The average workweek prevailing in most industries and in the lower salary

level of Government service is 44 hours. The workweek of most salaried employees

in the Government is 40 hours.

General wage revisions in 1960 and 1964 temporarily halted declines in

real income, but indications are that the cost of living is again rising more

rapidly than wages. Increases in the official consumer price index (1960=100)

between 1960 and 1965 ranged from 12 points to 25 points in the four Regions.

Employer Organizations

Registered employers* associations in 1963 included six builders* and

contractors* associations, the Association of Master Tailors, and the Nigerian

Mining Employers* Association, which is the largest. These associations have not

dealt with labor-management relations. They are affiliated with the Nigerian

Employers* Consultative Association (NECA), which provides guidance on labor

relations as well as on social, legislative, management, and wage problems.

Labor Organizations

The total claimed trade union membership of the 313 major unions exceeded

463,000 in 1965. By far the largest of the four national trade union centers is

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the United Labor Congress (ULC), with almost 217,000 members in 144 affiliates,

or about 47 percent of organized labor. Formed in 1959 as the Trades Union Congress of Nigeria (TUCN), the ULC derived its present name from an abortive merger

with the Nigerian Trade Union Congress (NTUC) in 1962. Since its formation, the

ULC has been affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions

(ICFTU) and its African Regional Organization (AFRO), which has maintained its

headquarters in Lagos since its formation in 1960. The ULC also is a founding

member of the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC) and acted as host for

the second ATUC Congress in Lagos in 1965.

The major competing organization is the Nigerian Trade Union Congress

(NTUC), with about 126,100 members in 98 affiliates, or 27 percent of all trade

union members. The NTUC was formed in 1960 by a dissident group of the TUCN.

Following its abortive merger into the ULC in 1962, the NTUC faction briefly

adopted the name Independent United Labor Congress (IULC) before returning to

its present name in 1963. It maintains a close relationship with the Socialist

Workers* and Farmers* Party. The NTUC is a leading affiliate of the All-African

Trade Union Federation (AATUF).

The Labor Unity Front (LUF) is a loose federation of 20 unions, with about

46,400 members (10 percent of the organized work force), who joined together in

1963 ostensibly to promote a national unification of the Nigerian trade union

movement. The LUF has a close relationship with the Nigerian Labor Party.

The Nigerian Workers* Council (NWC) has approximately 11,900 members in

44 affiliates, or 2.6 percent of organized labor. Formed in 1962, the NWC is an

affiliate of the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation Internationale des Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) and its African regional

organization, the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union Pan-Africaine

des Travailleurs Croyants--UPTC). It also is affiliated with the ATUC. Of a

number of unions not affiliated with any national center, the largest is the

Nigerian Union of Teachers, with 56,700 members.

Eleven International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have 29 affiliates in Nigeria, 12 of which belong to the International Transport Workers* Federation.

Labor-Management Relations

The Government encourages free collective bargaining. Joint bargaining

committees exist in the larger and newer companies. Consultation between workers

and management in the Federal Government is carried on through joint councils.

Under the Trades Disputes (Arbitration and Inquiry) Ordinance, the arbitration

and conciliation services of the Government are available, if established machinery for settling industrial disputes has been exhausted.

Strikes involving stoppages have been relatively infrequent. They are

carried on mainly by the larger unions and are usually of short duration. A

nationwide general strike, basically over wage demands, occurred in 1964. It

was supported by all labor organizations and was successful in obtaining increased minimum levels of wages and salaries.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 124

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTUGUESE GUINEA

Portuguese Guinea, located on the west coast of Africa between Senegal and

Guinea, is an overseas territory of Portugal. It has an area of about 13,948

square miles and had an estimated population of 544,000 in 1963.

Portuguese Guinea is controlled by the Portuguese Ministry of Overseas

Provinces and administered by a Governor General, who is appointed by the

Portuguese Council of Ministers. The territory is nominally represented in the

Portuguese National Assembly. The Governor General is assisted by a Government

Council, equivalent to a Cabinet, and by a 15-member Legislative Council of

which 11 members are elected on the basis of limited suffrage.

The economy is predominantly agricultural. Principal export products

are peanuts and coconuts; other exports are timber, hides and skins, rice, and

wax. Industrial activity is small scale and very limited in scope. Most of

the industrial establishments are engaged in processing agricultural products

or supplying building materials.

The principal indigenous groups are the Balanta, Fulani, Manjaco, Mandingo,

and Papel. About 78 percent of the population are animists, 18 percent practice

Islam, and 4 percent are Christians. Portuguese is the official language.

Numerous African dialects are spoken. In 1957-58, 11,140 students were enrolled

in 164 primary schools, and in 1958-59, a secondary school had an enrollment of

240 students. In the same year, 21 technical schools were providing training

for 860 students. The literacy rate is estimated to be about 5 percent.

In 1959, the latest year for which data are available, the number of

wage and salary earners was estimated to be under 10,000, representing less than

2 percent of that year's estimated population of 550,000. Practically all of

the Africans were in the unskilled category; a few hundred were classified as

semiskilled. Most, if not all, of the responsible positions were occupied by

whites, Lebanese, and other "civilized" Portuguese. (The Indigena Law, which

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divided the population of Portuguese overseas territories into two categories,

"civilized11 and "noncivilized," was abolished in 1961.) -Most of the African

population are engaged in agriculture, mainly on family-owned tracts, and are

not in the money economy.

The Portuguese Rural Labor Code for Overseas Provinces (1962) contains

regulations pertaining to recruitment, the employment of immigrants, labor

contracts, professional and vocational training, working conditions, wages,

hours of work, holidays, women workers and child labor, social security benefits ,

professional organizations (syndicates), and enforcement machinery. It provides

certain irrevocable rights, such as the right to have wages paid at specified

intervals, the right to refuse to perform work not called for by the contract,

and the right to receive free medical care. A number of the regulations have

been amplified in implementing decrees.

In 1959, the average wage of "noncivilized" wage and salary earners

ranged from US$0.35 to US$0.69 per day, plus a monthly ration of rice. An assistant mechanic earned US$0.69 per day and a good mason could earn as much as

US$1.38, plus the rice ration. The wage rates for "civilized" wage and salary

earners are higher. In 1959, an office employee earned US$62.28 to US$103.80

per month and a master mason or chief accountant, US$138.40 to US$155.70. A

"noncivilized" unskilled worker, such as a messenger, earned US$27.68 to

US$34.60 per month.

The legal workweek for Government wage and salary earners (according to

1959 data) is 34 hours and for those in the private sector, 45 hours. The latter

are also entitled to an 8-day local vacation annually and 3 to 4 months in

Portugal every 4 years, all at the employer's expense. In practice, however,

only Europeans and very few, if any, Africans go to Portugal; instead, Africans

receive longer local vacations. Government workers receive about the same holiday

and vaction benefits as workers in the private sector.

The Chamber of Commerce of Portuguese Guinea, officially called the

Assogiacao Comercial Industrial e Agricola da Guine, is a semipublic organization, which has a dominant role in the economic activities of the territory.

No trade union organizations exist in Portugal or its overseas territory

of Portuguese Guinea. Labor is organized into a National Syndicate of Employees

in Commerce and Industry; with an estimated 780 members, it functions essentially as a beneficent society. Syndicates are defined in the Rural Labor

Code as an integral part of the corporative organization of the nation. However, the syndicate in Portuguese Guinea is autonomous from those in Portugal,

and, unlike in Portugal, membership is not compulsory.

Two national trade union centers have been formed outside Portuguese

Guinea by workers from the territory: The General Union of Workers of GuineaBissau-In Exile (Union Generate des Travailleurs de Guinee-Bissau--UGTG) with

headquarters in Dakar, Senegal, and the General Confederation of Workers of

Portuguese Guinea based in Conakry, Guinea. The UGTG, which was formed in 1962,

claimed 1,821 members in 1964. It has been affiliated with the International

Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and its African Regional Organization

(AFRO) since 1964. It is also affiliated with the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC).

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LABOR DIGEST

Ho. 125

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor StatisticsLABOR CONDITIONS IN REUNION

Reunion, the largest island in the Mascarene Archipelago, is situated in the

Indian Oceanabout 450 miles east of the Malagasy Republic. It covers an area of

969 square miles and had an estimated population of 363,000 in 1962.

Reunion, like all other French Overseas Departments, is under the authority

of a Prefect; he is appointed by the French Minister of the Interior and assisted

by the General Council, an assembly of 36 members elected by popular ballot.

Three deputies and two senators represent Reunion in the French Parliament.

The basis of the economy is agriculture, and most of the island*s revenue

is derived from the production of sugarcane. Next in importance are geranium,

vetiver, and other plants used for making perfume. Main exports include sugar,

rum, vanilla, and vetiver and geranium oils. The people also engage in the

cultivation of food crops, stockraising, and fishing. The principal industries

are sugar refining, rum distilling, and the processing of essential oils; other

enterprises are small scale and of minor importance.

Reunion has no indigenous population. About 20 percent of the estimated

363,000 inhabitants are of French origin; the remainder are Negroes, Chinese,

Indochinese, Malays, and Malabar Indians. A large majority (about 80 percent)

of the population are Roman Catholics, and most of the others practice Islam.

The official language is French. School attendance is compulsory and education

is free of charge. In 1963, Reunion had 344 public and 200 private schools

providing primary education for a total of 82,241 pupils; 1,662 students were

enrolled in the lycee (public secondary school). The illiteracy rate is very

low. There are technical schools, an apprenticeship center, and a School of

Agriculture.

No data are available on the size of the labor force nor on the number

of wage and salary earners.

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The Chamber of Commerce concerns itself with, and may be consulted on,

legislative and statutory measures which deal with economic matters•

Trade unions in Reunion are local branches of the three major French

national trade union centers: The General Confederation of Labor-Workers'

Force (Confederation Generale du Travail-Force Ouvriere--CGT-FO), the French

Democratic Confederation of Labor (Confederation Francaise Democratique du

Travail--CFDT), and the General Confederation of Labor (Confederation Generale

du Travail--CGT). Data are lacking on the membership of these branches. Through

their counterparts in France, they are affiliated, respectively, with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), the International Federation

of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation International des Syndicats Chretiens--

CISC), and the Communist World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU).

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 126

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF RWANDA

Rwanda, located in east-central Africa, has an area of 10,186 square miles and

its population in mid-1965 was estimated at 3 million.

Rwanda was part of the United Nations Trusteeship Territory of RuandaUrundi under Belgian tutelage until July 1, 1962, when it became an independent

Republic. The President is popularly elected for a 4-year term. The Cabinet

consists of the Premier and 13 Ministers. The 47 members of the unicameral

Legislature are elected by direct universal suffrage for 4-year terms. The dominant political party is the Parti duMouvement de ^Emancipation Hutu (PARMEHUTU) .

Agriculture, most of which is at a subsistence level, is the basis of the

economy and accounts for most of Rwanda*s exports. Coffee is the principal cash

crop and, together with minerals and pyrethrum, accounted for 94 percent of total

exports in 1965. Manioc, bananas, sweet potatoes, peas, beans, sorghum, and

corn are the main food crops. Livestock raising is important but contributes

only a small part of the gross national product (GNP). Mineral production, next

in importance to agriculture and livestock raising, consists largely of cassiterite (from which tin is produced); other minerals produced are tungsten, beryl,

columbo-tantalite, and amblygonite. The production of industry, which is limited, is almost entirely for local consumption. Per capita GNP in 1964 was

about US$40.

The Hutu (or Bahutu), the largest ethnic group, comprise about 85 percent of the population; the Tutsi (or Batutsi), 14 percent; and the Twa, about

1 percent. There were about 5,000 Europeans and Asians in Rwanda in 1960.

Approximately 50 percent of the population are Christians, mainly Roman Catholics, and the remainder adhere to native religions. The official languages are

French and Kinyarwanda. Education is free for children age 7 to 16, but the

percentage of children of primary school age enrolled in primary schools is

small. Data available are for Ruanda-Urundi, where, in 1960, 252,000 students

were enrolled in 2,960 elementary schools, 2,500 in 11 secondary schools, 1,908

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in training schools, 128 in 4 vocational institutes , and 2,555 in special schools.

The literacy rate is 5 to 10 percent.

In 1964, the total number of wage and salary earners in Rwanda was 51,400

(excluding Government officials, teachers, and military personnel), of whom

16,000 were in services, 11,500 in construction, 10,000 in agriculture or forestry, 7,000 in mining, and the remainder in other activities. There is a high

rate of underemployment among the 90 percent of the people engaged in agriculture.

Factors contributing to low productivity are the lack of education and

training, the poor diet and health of the workers, and insufficient investment

in mechanization. The high rate of turnover in the mining industry is an obstacle

to the acquisition of skills, and the use of obsolete equipment and primitive

methods of production keeps productivity low. In the large, rural economy,

productivity is very low as a result of traditional methods of land utilization,

such as bushburning, shifting cultivation, overstocking of pastureland, and

the lack of mechanized equipment and modern methods of production.

The Rwandan Labor Service is responsible for the administration and enforcement of the Labor Code. The Social Fund, an autonomous body under state

supervision, administers social security legislation enacted in 1962, which provides for old-age, invalidity, and survivors* pensions and employee injury benefits; the programs are financed by equal employer-employee contributions.

Annual earnings per capita of the 51,400 wage and salary earners in the

labor force in 1964 averaged US$134.00 at the official rate of exchange and

US$67.00 at the free rate. Laborers at the lowest rates of pay also received a

weekly ration in cash or in kind, in addition towages, amounting annually to about

US$72.00 at the official exchange rate. Wages of carpenters, welders, bricklayers, cement finishers, and plumbers ranged from US$1.12 to US$1.80 per day

at the official rate and US$0.56 to US$0.90 at the free rate. At the official

rate, the daily wage rate for construction workers was US$0.48; agricultural

laborers, US$0.30; underground miners, US$0.60; and automobile mechanics,

US$1.40. The monthly wage rate for truckdrivers was US$50.00; calculating machine operators, US$75.00; and bank cashiers, US$106.00. The legal workweek

is 48 hours, but because of poor diet, poor health, and other causes, most

Rwandans work effectively only about 4 hours a day. The rate for overtime work

is 25 percent of the daily wage rate for the first 2 hours and 50 percent for

overtime exceeding 2 hours. The level of living for most Rwandans is very low.

No information on employer organizations is available.

The only information available on labor organizations in Rwanda indicates

that the Rwanda Workers1 Union (Union des Travailleurs du Rwanda--UTR) affiliated

with the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation

Internationale des Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) in 1965.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 127

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF SENEGAL

The Republic of Senegal covers an area of about 76,000 square miles on the west

coast of Africa. The narrow enclave of Gambia extends more than halfway across

the southern part of the country. The population in 1964 was approximately

3.4 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Formerly part of the French-administered Federation of Mali,

Senegal became independent in August 1960. The Constitution provides for a republican form of government, headed by a president. Legislative power is exercised by a unicameral National Assembly, elected, as is the President, by direct

universal suffrage for a 4-year term. Leopold S6dar Senghor is President of the

Republic and leader of the Senegalese Progressive Union (Union Progressiste

S6n6galaise--UPS), the dominant political party, which has controlled all 80

seats in the National Assembly since December 1963.

Economic. The economy is based on agriculture, which provides a livelihood for 75 percent of the population. Agricultural products, mainly peanuts,

provide the basis for a substantial part of the country's growing processing

industry. Peanuts and peanut products accounted for over 75 percent of the total

value of exports in 1964; other important exports were calcium phosphate and

canned tuna. Per capita income in 1964 was about US$170.

Social. The population is predominantly African. Europeans, mainly

French, numbered about 30,000 in 1965, and there were about 20,000 Lebanese and

Syrians. The Wolof is the largest of Senegal1 s six mo»st important tribal groups,

accounting for over one-third of the population. About 80 percent of the population profess Islam, 10 percent are animists, and 10 percent are Christians.

French is the official language, but most Senegalese speak the vernacular language of their own tribe. Literacy is approximately 10 to 20 percent. In 1963,

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primary school enrollment represented 25 to 35 percent of the children of school

age, and secondary school enrollment, 3.8 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force totaled approximately 1.2

million, or about one-third of the population, in 1964. Wage and salary earners

numbered about 100,000, of whom approximately 35 percent were in Government

service, 14 percent in commerce, banking, and insurance, 13 percent each in construction and manufacturing, 12 percent in transport and communications, 10 percent in services, and the remaining 3 percent in commercial agriculture, mining,

and miscellaneous activities.

Unemployment data are unavailable; however, urban unemployment has been

increasing as a result of continuing migration to urban centers by seasonal

farmers and youths who lack industrial skills.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. The level of productivity is low,

partly because of the severe shortage of skilled workers, the high degree of

mobility among the relatively few skilled workers, and the large number of temporary workers, a factor which has tended to make employers reluctant to initiate

training programs. Other factors contributing to a low level of productivity

are malnutrition, inadequate health facilities, and the social and religious

patterns of the population. In addition, manual labor is viewed with disdain,

and almost inevitably skilled workers aspire to white-collar status.

In 1963, less than 25 percent of jobs requiring university training and

about 60 percent of jobs requiring secondary school education were held by

Senegalese. Basic vocational training is provided by apprenticeship centers,

sometimes called ‘'technical colleges," which train primary school graduates for

a minimum of 3 years; however, attendance at these centers is small. Most basic

skills are acquired on the job, where the workers receive limited training aimed

at the performance of a specific task. Since 1960, several institutions for

training middle- and high-level administrators have been established and others

are in the planning stage,. In 1964, the Senegalese arrily initiated a program

designed to train youths in rudimentary farming skills and some crafts. In March

1965, the Government enacted legislation providing for the establishment of a

Civic Service program under which agricultural training curricula and facilities

are to be expanded.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Labor Code, passed in June 1961 to supersede the

French Overseas Labor Code, provides for tight control of most labor practices

and regulates the organization and operation of trade unions, the employment of

women and children, the settlement of labor disputes, and general working conditions. The code also sets the minimum age for employment at 14, establishes

maximum hours of work, provides for weekly rest, paid leave, and the establishment of minimum wage rates; it also requires all establishments to comply with

strict safety and health provisions. Since 1956, legislation has been enacted

to provide for limited social security benefits, including family allowances,

workmen's compensation, and retirement pensions.

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Administration and Practice. The Department of Labor and Social Security

in the Ministry of Civil Service and Labor is the main agency in the labor field.

It administers labor matters through its Labor Department, Manpower Service,

Labor Inspectorate, and Compensation Fund for Family Allowances and Industrial

Accidents. The West African Retirement Insurance Institution, a semiautonomous

fund of which the membership is determined by collective agreements, administers

the workers' retirement system. A tripartite National Advisory Council for Labor

and Social Security makes recommendations to the Government regarding changes

in the level of minimum wages and other labor matters. An Economic and Social

Council, a mixed advisory body established in 1961, was activated in 1964 and

is expected to serve as a quasi-official channel through which labor and management may express their views on Government policy. Enforcement of labor laws

has been difficult mainly because of the acute shortage of trained personnel.

The problem has been aggravated recently by an increasing tendency of labor inspectors and controllers to seek more remunerative employment.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The prevailing legal minimum hourly wage rate, set in mid-1961, is about

US$0.19 in urban areas and US$0.17 in the remainder of the country. The majority of the industrial and commercial labor force are covered by collective

bargaining agreements providing for wage rates substantially higher than the

minimum.

The maximum work period is 40 hours per week for nonagricultural workers

and 2,352 hours per year for agricultural workers.

Comparative cost-of-living data are unavailable, but Government officials

have acknowledged that the cost of living has been increasing in urban areas.

Limited legislation to control prices of some commodities has been in effect

since at least 1964, but, in general, it has not been effective.

Employer Organizations

The two leading employer organizations are SCIMPEX (Syndicat des Commercants, Importateurs et Exportateurs) and UNISYNDI (Union Intersyndicale

d'Entreprises et d 1Industrie). Chambers of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture

function in the principal cities.

Labor Organizations

Information on the total trade union membership is not available. Two of

the national trade union centers have a combined claimed membership of at least

103,000. The National Union of Workers of Senegal (Union Nationale des Travailleurs du S£n6gal--UNTS), the largest of the four national trade union centers,

claims 100,000 members. This figure is apparently inflated, since wage and salary

earners numbered only about 100,000 in 1964. Organized along both geographic

and industrial lines, the UNTS, which was formed in 1962, has some 40 affiliates

and 7 regional centers. It is a leading affiliate of the African Trade Union

Confederation (ATUC), which was formed in Dakar in 1962 and maintains its headquarters in that city. One UNTS affiliate is affiliated with an International

Trade Secretariat (ITS), the International Transport Workers' Federation.

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The second largest national center is the National Confederation of Believing Workers of Senegal (Confederation Nationale des Travailleurs Croyants

du Senegal--CNTCS), with an estimated 3,000 members. The CNTCS participated in

the formation of the UNTS in 1962 but withdrew from it in 1963. It is affiliated

with the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Confederation Internationale des Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) and its African regional organization,

the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union Pan-Africaine des Travailleurs

Croyants--UPTC). It is also an affiliate of the ATUC.

Two smaller centers are the Senegalese Confederation of Workers (Confederation Sen^galaise du Travail--CST) and the General Confederation of Workers

of Senegal (Confederation Generale du Travail du Senegal--CGTS). The CST is

affiliated with the All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF).

Labor-Management Relations

Legislation provides guidelines for the settlement of labor-management

disputes in all establishments having 10 or more employees. Individual grievances may be submitted to a labor court. If a collective bargaining agreement

does not prescribe procedures for conciliation, a Government labor official

undertakes mediation. Should mediation fail, the Minister of Civil Service and

Labor decides whether or not to make arbitration compulsory in order to avert

a work stoppage that would be contrary to the national interest.

Labor-management relations historically have been relatively peaceful.

Since independence, conflicts have been limited largely to disputes within individual enterprises and have usually been settled quickly and by mediation.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 128

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN SEYCHELLES

Seychelles, a British Crown Colony situated in the Indian Ocean off the eastern

coast of Kenya, includes 92 islands, which have a total area of 156 square miles

(including Aldabra lagoon consisting of over 55 square miles), and had an estimated population of 43,750 in 1962.

Seychelles and its dependencies are administered by a Governor, an Executive Council, and a Legislative Council. The Executive Council, headed by the

Governor as president, consists of four ex-officio members and four other members. The Governor is also president of the Legislative Council, which has four

ex-officio members, three nominated members, and five elected members. The main

political parties are the Seychelles Democratic Party (SDP) and the Seychelles

People's United Party (SPUP).

The economy depends almost entirely on agriculture. Copra (produced from

coconuts) accounted for about 70 percent of the total value of exports in 1963.

The production and export of cinnamon leaf oil, cinnamon bark oil, patchouli

oil (used for perfume), and vanilla are also important to the economy. Industries other than fishing and the processing of primary products for export are

few and of minor importance.

Seychelles, uninhabited until around the middle of the 18th century, has

no indigenous people. Africans, Creoles, and a small number of Europeans, Indians, and Chinese make up the population, of whom approximately 90 percent are

Roman Catholics. English is the official language, but Creole (a patois of

French) is widely spoken. In 1962, 6,090 students were enrolled in primary

schools and 926 in secondary grammar schools. In 1960, approximately 46 percent

of the adult population and 79 percent of the children were literate.

In 1960, an estimated 6,500 persons were engaged in agriculture and fishing, 1,750 in domestic service, 250 in public administration, 2,500 in public

works, and 400 in trade and commerce. An estimated 2,150 were skilled workers.

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The islands lack employment opportunities, with the result that one of their

chief problems is unemployment and underemployment.

The Public Works Department directs a program for training apprentices

as blacksmiths and for the building trades; a technical center under the direction of the Department of Education provides training for carpenters, joiners,

and cabinetmakers and offers evening classes in shorthand, typing, and bookkeeping. Nurses receive training at Government hospitals. There is a teachertraining college. In addition, some students attend technical and vocational

schools in the United Kingdom.

The Labour and Welfare Officer is responsible for the administration of

the Labour Department, which, among other functions, administers labor legislation, provides advice to employers and employees in matters connected with

employment, and attempts to bring about the peaceful settlement of labor disputes. It also provides services similar to those of an employment exchange.

Minimum monthly wage rates established in 1961 for agricultural workers

employed on a monthly contract basis and working 30 hours a week were US$8.40

for males over 18 years of age and US$5.04 for females over 18years of age, if

no housing was provided, and US$7.35 for males and US$4.41 for females, with

free housing provided. For laborers working a 45-hour week, the minimum monthly

rates were US$12.60 for males and US$7.56 for females, without free housing,

and US$11.55 and US$6.93 for males and females, respectively, with free housing.

The minimum weekly wage rates for males and females working a 30-hour week on

a weekly contract basis were US$1.94 and US$1.17, respectively; for those working a 45-hour week, the rates were US$2.94 and US$1.78, respectively.

Minimum monthly wage rates for all Government laborers and artisans,

effective January 1, 1959, were US$7.98 for females and US$12.60 for males;

US$15-75 for semiskilled workers, such as miners, steelfixers, and drivers;

US$2.94 to US$11.76 for apprentice carpenters, masons, and plumbers from 14 to

20 years of age; US$12.60, US$18.90, and US$25.20 for journeymen, depending upon

years of work at the journeyman level; and US$29.40 for foremen; minimum rates

ranged from US$2.94 for boys age 14 to US$7.35 for those age 17.

The retail price index (July 1947=100) was 151 in December 1959, 158 in

June 1961, and 168 in April 1962.

No information is available on employer organizations.

There is no information available on total trade union membership in the

Seychelles. There are no national trade union centers. Of the 13 registered

trade unions on the islands, the Seychellios Christian Workers1 Union, with 1,000

claimed members, is affiliated with the International Federation of Christian

Trade Unions (Confederation Internationale des Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) and

its regional organization, the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union

Pan-Africaine des Travailleurs Croyants--UPTC).

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 129

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office o f

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

D i r e c t o r y o f L a b o r O r g a n i z a t i o n s —A fr i c a , jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau o f International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN SIERRA LEONE

Sierra Leone occupies an area of 27,925 square miles on the western bulge of

Africa. The population in mid-1964 was approximately 2.2 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Sierra Leone has been independent since April 1961 and is a

member of the British Commonwealth. The Constitution provides for a parliamentary

form of government with a unicameral legislature elected mainly by adult suffrage

but with some members selected by traditional tribal authorities. Although

executive authority is nominally vested in the Queen of England, represented by

the Governor General, it is exercised by the Prime Minister, currently Sir Albert

M. Margai, who is leader of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), the majority

party. The opposition party is the All People's Congress (APC).

Economic. The economy is based on agriculture, which provides a livelihood for 80 to 90 percent of the population. Rice is the basic staple food.

Palm kernels, coffee, cocoa, piassava, ginger, and kola nuts, the major cash

crops, accounted for 17 percent of the total value of exports in 1964. The bulk

of agricultural production comes from small holdings. Diamonds and iron ore,

the basis of the money economy, accounted for over 80 percent of the total value

of exports in 1964. Secondary industry, mainly the processing of agricultural

products, exists on a very modest scale. Practically all manufactured goods are

imported. Per capita gross national product is estimated to be about US$100

per year.

Social. Over 99 percent of the population are African; the remainder are

mainly Asian and European. The African population is divided into some 13 tribal groupings, 2 of which--the Mende and the Temne--constitute about 60 percent

of the population. Animism, Islam, and Christianity are the religions practiced

by the people. English is the official language but is spoken by only about

130,000 inhabitants. Tribal languages predominate in local areas, but Krio, an

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English-based lingua franca, is spoken by the majority of the population. The

rate of literacy is about 10 percent. About 20 percent of the children of school

age attend school. In 1964-65, there were approximately 126,000 primary school

students.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. Statistics on the total labor force are

unavailable. The number of wage and salary earners in 1963 was between 80,000

and 85,000. Their distribution by industry is available only for firms employing

six or more workers (the Government does not require smaller firms to register).

Of the 58,146 employees in the larger firms, 30 percent were in services; almost

20 percent in construction; 14 percent in mining and quarrying; 12 percent in

transport, storage, and communications; almost 8 percent in manufacturing; 7

percent in commerce; 6 percent in commercial agriculture; and almost 3 percent

in electricity and water services. Over 54 percent of these wage and salary

earners were employed in Government establishments.

Unemployment is becoming a serious problem and is being aggravated by the

movement of young men from farms to urban centers and the diamond areas. The

number of unemployed recorded by the Labour Division at the end of December 1965

was 7,576. This figure excluded the 4,739 in the Maritime Pool, comprised of

seamen who have been unemployed for over 3 weeks and of those who have been ashore

for less than 3 weeks waiting for seagoing employment. During the period of

waiting, they are allowed to take on casual dock work and, therefore, are not

usually included in the unemployment figures. Underemployment is extensive in

the agricultural sector.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Lack of training, poor health, and

the traditional work methods used by much of the labor force contribute to the

low level of productivity. There is an ample supply of unskilled labor, but the

number of workers possessing basic industrial skills is severely limited. Both

Government and private industry are attempting to raise the level of skills of

the labor force by expanding and improving training facilities. In 1965-66,

the Government gave assistance to some 51 secondary school classes and operated

6 technical institutions, 9 teacher-training colleges, and 4 literacy centers.

Total enrollment in these facilities in 1965-66 was about 134,000. The Government also conducts apprenticeship and pre-apprenticeship programs and subsidizes

95 to 100 percent of the teachers’ salary budgets of educational institutions

operated by religious missions and other groups. The large iron and diamond

mining companies provide intensive training for their workers through private

schools and apprenticeship programs.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Numerous laws regulate labor matters; the main ones

are the Employers and Employed Act, Registration of Employees Act, Machinery

(Safe Working and Inspection) Act, Workmen’s Compensation Act, Trade Disputes

Act, and the Wages Boards Act. These and other laws regulate the recruitment

of workers and the conditions and termination of their employment; restrict the

employment of women and children; prohibit forced labor; and provide for the

settlement of industrial disputes, the establishment of minimum wages, and the

payment of limited pension benefits to certain civil servants.

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Administration and Practice. The Labour Division, operating under the

Ministry of Lands, Mines, and Labour, has general responsibility for labor matters. The Division's main functions include advising the Government on the

formulation of labor policies, such as the improvement of training facilities

and health and welfare standards; promoting joint consultation and collective

bargaining between management and labor; assisting in the conciliation and arbitration of industrial disputes; administering workmen's compensation programs;

operating employment exchanges; compiling labor statistics; computing consumer

price indexes; and enforcing labor legislation.

In 1962, there were four labor inspectors. Labor officers, as well as

executive officers in the Labour Division, are empowered to conduct inspections

in connection with the enforcement of most labor legislation. In practice, medical officers and sanitary inspectors generally perform inspection duties connected with the enforcement of legislation related to workers' health. There

are several tripartite bodies with labor functions, such as the Wages Boards,

which set minimum wage rates, and the Joint Consultative Committee, which reviews

and advises on legislation affecting labor.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wages, paid holidays, overtime rates, and hours of work are set

by either the Government through Wages Boards, which have been established for

various industries, or through collective agreements which, when concluded, have

the effect of law. For most categories of workers, wage scales vary depending

on the geographic area. The highest rates prevail in the vicinity of Freetown (the

capital) and the lowest, in the rural areas. In 1964, theminimum daily wage rate

for unskilled labor in Freetown was US$1.05. The standard workweek in most industries is45 hours. In 1963, the average hours worked per week varied from46.6

to 57.4. The cost-of-living index for Freetown (1961=100) rose to 117.9 during

the third quarter of 1965. The minimum wage level increased about 7 percent from

1963 to 1964, owing to the significant rise in the cost of living since 1963.

Employer Organizations

Most of the leading employers are members of the Chamber of Commerce, which

represents their interests vis-a-vis the Government. The membership of the recently formed Sierra Leone Chamber of Mines is from the four mining concerns and

replaces the former Sierra Leone Mining Association.

Labor Organizations

The Sierra Leone Labour Congress (SLLC), the nation's single trade union

center, has an estimated trade union membership of about 18,000, or about 21

percent of the approximately 85,000 wage and salary earners. The SLLC was formed

in May 1966 to supersede both the Sierra Leone Federation of Labour and the

Sierra Leone Council of Labour, which was affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) until December 1964. Nine of the SLLC's

12 affiliates are members of International Trade Secretariats (ITS): The

International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, and Technical Employees ; Miners '

International Federation; International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical

Workers; Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone International; and International Transport Workers' Federation.

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Labor-Management Relations

Any magistrate, upon appeal of either party in a labor dispute, may

adjudicate an individual grievance. The Government may also appoint a Board of

Inquiry when a dispute erupts or threatens to arise. In the larger enterprises,

joint industrial councils or works committees attempt to settle disputes at the

factory level. In the event of an industrial dispute, the Government m a y , after

conciliation procedures have been exhausted and with the consent of both parties,

submit the dispute to an arbitration tribunal. In general, strikes have been

infrequent and of short duration. Of the 11 work stoppages involving 1,893

workers in 1963, 8 lasted less than' 1 day.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 130

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations —Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE SOMALI REPUBLIC

The Somali Republic, located in the horn of Africa, has an area of 246,000 square

miles and had a population estimated at 2.3 million in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. In July 1960, the country was established as an independent republic by a merger of Somalia and British Somaliland. The unicameral National Assembly , in which the Somali Youth League (SYL) currently has a majority , elects the

President for a 6-year term. The President appoints or dismisses the Prime Minister

and all other Ministers. In addition to the SYL, the two main political parties

are the Somali National Congress (SNC) and the Somali Democratic Union (SDU).

Economic. Somali has a fundamentally subsistence economy with the greatest part devoted to animal husbandry. Livestock and hides and skins account for

about 45 percent of total exports. Bananas, the main crop, account for another

45 percent. Other crops are cotton and cereals. Industry, which is small scale,

comprises sugar refining, meat canning, and fish freezing. The gross national

product per capita was estimated at US$50 in 1964. A 5-year development plan

(1963-67) provides for economic expansion through such means as the exploitation

of agricultural, livestock, fishing, and potential mineral resources.

Social. At least 85 percent of the population are of Hamitic stock; the

remainder are mainly Bantu. Arabic, English, and Italian are the languages of

instruction and are widely used in urban areas, since Somali, the spoken language, has no written form. Most of the population are Sunni Moslems. The

literacy rate was estimated to be 5 percent in 1963.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. About 60 percent of the population lead a

nomadic or seminomadic existence and another 19 to 22 percent are engaged in

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agriculture. The number of wage and salary earners was estimated at 120,000, or

about 14 percent of the labor force, in 1965. The total number of persons employed in the Government, police, public corporations, banks, and private industrial and commercial units employing 5 persons or more was about 47,000 in 1964.

This was about 2 percent of the population, or 5.8 percent of the labor force.

Employment of women amounted to about 3.7 percent of total employment in the private, nonagricultural sector and 5.5 percent in the Government sector. There is

considerable unemployment in urban centers, to some extent a result of the movement of nomads from rural to municipal areas. In 19 urban centers in the southern

region, 25,153 workers had registered for employment in 1963. Only about 25 percent, or 6,400, were placed in jobs. Since that time, the unemployment situation has worsened considerably. Underemployment is known to be extensive.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. The level of productivity is low in

both agriculture and industry, owing largely to the lack of technical knowledge

and shortages of trained professional, managerial, technical, and skilled and

semiskilled personnel. In 1964, professional or technically qualified persons

comprised only about 0.5 percent of the labor force. In that year, there were

seven intermediate vocational and seven technical schools. A new technical

school accommodating 180 students was built in 1965.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Somali Labor Code of November 1958 has been extended to include the entire Republic. It provides for annual bonuses and establishment of minimum wages, when not regulated by collective agreements; maximum

hours of work; a weekly rest day; annual leave; equal pay for equal work for both

men and women; standards for conditions of work of women and young people; and

maternity benefits. It prohibits nightwork for women and young persons; requires a workbook to be maintained by all employed persons; includes health and

safety standards; provides for collective bargaining and the regulation of labor

disputes; and guarantees the right of labor to organize and to strike. Additional

legislation covers civi 1 servants. The Somali Social Insurance Fund (C.A.S.S.),

under the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Veterinary Services, is responsible for

the administration of the Employment Injury (Occupational Diseases) Law of 1951,

as amended in 1954, which covered 16,040wage and salary earners as of December 31,

1965. The law makes industrial accident insurance compulsory and the program is

financed entirely by the employer (either Government or private). Legislation

enacted in 1954 and 1955, applicable only to public employees, provides for retirement benefits, which are financed by Government and employee contributions.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Health and Labor administers labor legislation. The Labor Department of the Ministry works through

regional and district inspectors in carrying out these duties.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Daily wages in 1966 for painters range from US$1.12 to US$1.68; cement

masons and carpenters, US$1.40 to US$2.10; laborers, US$0.70 to US$1.12; and

mechanics, US$2.10 to US$2.80. In the agricultural sector, daily wages range

from US$0.63 toUS$0.84. Wage and salary earners receive additional remuneration

through fringe benefits, profit-sharing schemes, and bonuses distributed twice

a year.

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The official workweek is 48 hours, 8 hours a day, except for agricultural

and custodial workers, who work 10 hours a day, 60 hours a week. In Government

service, the official workweek is 40% hours. Overtime is limited to 12 hours

a week for those working 48 hours weekly. All workers are guaranteed an annual

vacation, the length of which depends upon the number of years of service. There

are 16 legal holidays.

The cost-of-living index for the capital, Mogadiscio, rose from 112 in

1960 (1958=100) to 125 in 1963 and 159 for the first 9 months of 1965. The

level of wages in the money economy has been rising gradually in recent years.

Most of the people, however, are nomads living at a subsistence level.

Employer Organizations

Information is unavailable on employer organizations.

Labor Organizations

Information on the total trade union membership in the Somali Republic

is not available. Data on the three trade union centers indicate that there

are at least 13,000 organized workers in the country. Of these, the Somali Confederation of Labor (Confederazione Somali dei Laboratori--CSL), the largest of

the national trade union centers, claimed about 5,300 members in 1964, or less

than 1 percent of the 120,000 wage and salary earners. The CSL, which was formed

in 1949, has 14 affiliates. It has been affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) since 1955 and is a member of its African

Regional Organization (AFRO). It also is a founding member of the African Trade

Union Confederation (ATUC).

Two smaller centers are the Conf ederation of United Trade Unions of Somalia

(Confederazione Sindacale Lavoratori Uniti della Somalia--CSLUS) and the General Confederation of Somali Workers (Confederazione Generale dei Lavoratori

della Somalia--CGLS). The CSLUS was formed in 1959 by a. merger of the Somali

Federation of United Trade Unions (Federazione dei Sindacati Lavoratori Uniti

della Somalia--FSLUS) and the Federation of Arts and Crafts Workers (FLAM). The

CGLS, which was formed in 1961, is affiliated with the Communist World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU). It has a close relationship with the opposition

SDU party.

Labor-Management Relations

Collective bargaining contracts are not common, since there are few industries employing large numbers of workers and because the Government is the

largest employer. The first step in the settlement of labor disputes is conciliation by the district labor inspector and/or the regional labor inspector;

if these proceedings fail, a worker-employer arbitration board negotiates a

settlement. Unsettled cases may be referred to ordinary courts. The Labor Code

gives workers the right to strike, providing conciliation and arbitration procedures have been exhausted; 48 hours' notice in writing must be given to the

interested parties. In the case of strikes involving public services and public

utilities, 10 days' written notice must be given after all other procedures

have failed. At various times during the past few years, schoolteachers, dockworkers, and workers in the sugar refining industry have gone on strike.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 131

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

The Republic of South Africa, with an area of 472,359 square miles, is at the

southern end of the African continent. In 1965, it had an estimated population

of 17,832,000.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The Constitution, incorporated in the Republic of South Africa

Constitution Act, 1961, provides for a parliamentary form of government. The

President, theformal Chief of State, is elected fora7-year term by an electoral

college composed of members of Parliament--the House of Assembly, with 170 members, and the Senate, with 54 members. He acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and his Cabinet, consisting of 17 Ministers and 4 Deputy Ministers. Suffrage

is limited to whites over 18 years of age. The two main political parties are

the Nationalist Party and the United Party.

Economic. South Africa has a highly developed economy. Livestock raising is the main occupation of the rural population. The country is virtually

self-sufficient in foodstuff s . Corn, wheat, peanuts, sugar, tobacco, and potatoes

arethemost important field crops. Industrial development is extensive and has

been expanding rapidly in recent years. South Africa not only leads the world

in the production of gold but also has among its minerals large deposits of diamonds, platinum, uranium, coal, iron ore, chrome, manganese, and asbestos, and

a large variety of other minerals. In 1964, gold accounted for 43 percent of

total export earnings, followed by exports of food and live animals (16 percent),

wool (8 percent), and hides and skins (2 percent), metal ores, diamonds, and

metal and metal manufactures (each about 6 percent). South Africa's first 5-Year

Economic Development Program (1965-70) envisions a 5% percent annual growth rate.

Social. Estimates of the population, by racial group, in 1965 revealed

that 68.5 percent were Bantu (African); 19 percent, European (white); 9.5 percent, Colored (racially mixed) ; and3percent, Asiatic (Indian). About 60 percent

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of the Europeans are Afrikaners, of Dutch, French Huguenot, and German descent;

the remainder are of British stock. The principal African groups are the Xhosa

(29 percent), Zulu (26 percent), and Northern and Southern Sotho combined (22

percent). The official languages are Afrikaans and English; the Africans speak

a number of indigenous languages. Afrikaans is now obligatory in most schools.

A majority of the whites are Christian. Over half of the Africans are animists

and the remainder are Christians. The main religions of the Asians are Hinduism

and Islam. Education is free and compulsory for all white children aged 7 to

16 years. School attendance is not compulsory for Africans. Most of the white

population is literate; the literacy rate of Africans is estimated at 35 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. According to the 1960 census, 35.6 percent

of the population, or 5,696,060 persons, were in the labor force. Africans comprised 68 percent of the total; whites, 20 percent; Coloreds, 10 percent; and

Asians, 2 percent. Approximately 30 percent of the labor force were in agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 21 percent, in services; 12 percent, in manufacturing; 10 percent, in mining and quarrying; 8 percent, in commerce and finance;

5 percent, in construction; 4 percent, in transport, storage, and communications;

1 percent, in electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services, and 9 percent,

unspecified and presumably unemployed.

South Africa in recent years has been experiencing a critical manpower

shortage in all sectors of the rapidly expanding economy. According to informed

observers, as well as some members of the South African business community, the

shortage, which consists mainly of professional and technical personnel and

skilled and semiskilled workers, is primarily the result of the Government's

restrictive policies, such as job reservation (by law reserving the higher

skilled, better paid jobs for whites), dual wage scales, and the denial of official status to non-European workers. These policies prevent the full and efficient utilization of the large reservoir of nonwhite labor. Attempts to alleviate

the shortage of white manpower by recruiting workers outside the country have

not been successful.

No data are available to indicate the extent of unemployment. Underemployment exists primarily among the African rural population engaged in subsistence agriculture (40 percent of the total African labor force) .

Productivity, Skills, and Training. The general level of productivity

is low, largely as a result of apartheid laws and regulations, especially job

reservation. In some industries, however, productivity is comparable to that in

European countries and the United States. The increases in productivity which

have occurred in recent years have resulted primarily from the more intensive

use of capital equipment and a rapidly advancing technology. Although the

migratory labor system and legal and institutional barriers severely limit the

ability of nonwhites, primarily the Africans, to acquire and exercise skills

or to undertake more productive work, the shortage of manpower has enabled them

to enter into an expanding range of more skilled jobs formerly reserved for

whites.

Whites constitute only 20 percent of the labor force, but they provide

over 67 percent of the workers in professional, managerial, and administrative

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occupations. Adequate educational, vocational, and technical training facilities

for nonwhites are not available. Africans are not legally barred from entering

into apprenticeships, but most of them cannot meet the prescribed minimum educational requirements; they are not permitted to attend white technical colleges;

employers will not indenture them; and white artisans will not train them. Many

employers provide on-the-job training.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. South Africa has a considerable body of labor legislation. The Industrial Conciliation Act, 1956, as amended, provides machinery

for the registration of labor and employer organizations and the settlement of

industrial disputes, defines conditions under which strikes and lockouts are

lawful, protects the right to organize, and provides for the formation of tripartite (Government, employer, and labor representatives) industrial councils,

which negotiate binding industrial agreements governing wages and working conditions. Section 77 of the act provides for the reservation of specified classes

of work in any enterprise, trade, occupation, or industry to each race. Similar

provisions are incorporated in legislation regulating the mining, building,

and transport industries. Wage Act No. 5 of 1957 provides for fixing wages and

working conditions (by the Wage Board) of workers not covered by collective

agreements or awards. The Factories, Machinery, and Building Work Act, 1941,

provides for the registration of factories and for setting maximum hours of work

and minimum conditions of employment for all factory workers, who, by law, must

be separated by race at the place of work. The Native Labour (Settlement of

Disputes) Act, 1953, prohibits strikes and lockouts among African workers, provides for the compulsory adjudication of disputes through a Central Native Labour Board, Regional Labour Committees, and African works committees at the shop

or factory level. A dispute not settled at these levels may be submitted to

the Wage Board. Legislation requires all Africans over 16 years of age to

possess, and produce on demand, a reference book, which contains a record of

their employment; they must also register contracts of employment with the authorities. A network of labor bureaus controls the entry into, residence in, and

employment of Africans in the principal urban, mining, and industrial areas.

Africans who do not accept the employment offered by the employment officer may

be dealt with under provisions relating to idle and undesirable persons--arrested

without warrant, tried by an administrative official and sent home, sent to

various penal institutions (as provided for under the Worx Colonies Act, 1949),

or ordered to work for some employer for a specified period of time. Nonwhite

workers are also subject to penal sanctions for breach of an employment contract. Employment offices established under another law perform the normal

functions of such offices for non-Africans. The Apprenticeship Act, 1922, as

amended, provides the statutory framework for apprenticeship.

The Unemployment Insurance Fund, established in 1957 and revised in 1962,

is financed by employer, employee, and Government contributions. Its coverage extends to all Africans who earn between US$764 and US$4,000 a year (thus

excluding most Africans), and all whites, Asians, and Coloreds earning up to

US$4,000 annually. In a few cases, Africans are permitted to participate

in private funds established by employers and trade unions. The Workmen's

Compensation Act, 1941, as amended, provides for compensation financed by

employers for employees injured or killed at work and also for occupational

diseases.

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Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Wages set by the Wage Board and industrial agreements vary from industry

to industry and also depend on the area, the employer, and the worker's race.

The wages paid to Africans, a large majority of whom are unskilled workers, are

in general much lower than theUS$84 .00 per month (US$1.80 per day) minimum wage

considered necessary for maintaining an urban standard of living for a typical

African family of five. In 1964, 96.6 percent of the nonwhite railway workers

and over 59 percent of the nonwhite civil servants earned less than this amount,

including salary, rations, and quarters allowances. The average monthly wage

of Africans in industry in 1964 was US$54.60 and in construction, US$51.80; in

mining, it was approximately US$42.00 to US$44.80, including shelter, food, some

clothing, medical care, and recreational facilities. In comparison, the average

monthly wage of whites was US$268.80 in industry; US$281.40 in construction;

and US$224.00 in mining, excluding the value of pension, medical, leave, and

other benefits. In many cases, Africans receive only about 25 to 30 percent of

the average wage of the white laborer, despite the fact that they often perform

the same job as white men.

The average hours of work per week in 1964 ranged from 40 to 44, with the

average for Africans higher than for the other racial groups in both manufacturing and construction.

Prices have risen rapidly in recent years as indicated by the consumer price index, which was 107.1 (1958=100) in December 1963 and 114.4 in

December 1965. The level of living of whites is much higher than that of

Africans.

Employer Organizations

At the end of 1964, 225 employer organizations were registered under terms

of the Industrial Conciliation Act, 1956. Most major industries and trades are

members of employer organizations, the most important of which is the South

African Federated Chamber of Industries. Associations established for every

branch of agriculture are affiliated with provincial organizations, which in

turn are members of the South African Agricultural Union.

Labor Organizations

The Industrial Conciliation Act of 1956, as amended, which excludes Africans from its coverage, has significantly affected the development of trade

unions in South Africa. Although Africans may join trade unions, these unions

are denied legal recognition which, among other things, provides for the right

to organize and to negotiate collective agreements. All unions formed since

1956 have been required to establish autonomous branches for each of the racial

groups represented in their membership. South African trade unions maybedivided

into the following six categories based on their racial composition: African;

Colored; Indian or Asiatic; white; nonwhite, i.e., members from more than one

nonwhite racial group; and racially mixed, i.e., both white and nonwhite members. Most unions have all-white membership.

Complete information is not available on the total trade union membership in South Africa; however, it is probably well in excess of 420,000.

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The largest of the three national trade union centers is the multiracial

Trade Union Council of South Africa (TUCSA), which claims 196,844 members in 76

affiliates, or about 47 percent of organized labor. Formed in 1954 , TUCSA amended

its constitution in 1962 to permit the affiliation of African unions. At present,

it has some 11 African affiliates. TUCSA's total nonwhite membership was estimated in 1965 to be roughly 70,000, or about 36 percent of total TUCSA membership. TUCSA has consistently opposed certain aspects of the Government's labor

policy, such as job reservation and rionrecognition of African unions. It also

has sought to improve the African worker's economic position, particularly by

advocating payment of the rate for the job, regardless of race.

The other two national centers are the Coordinating Council of South African Trade Unions (CCSAIU), with 39,030 members in 1962, and the South African

Federation of Trade Unions (SAFTU), with 66,263 members in that year. These

national centers, together with the Federal Consultative Council of South African Railway and Harbours Staff Associations, cooperate within the South African

Confederation of Labour (SACL), a coordinating body which supports the Government's labor policy. The CCSATU, which was formed in 1948, is composed of allwhite membership, while SAFTU, formed in 1951, has one affiliate with nonwhite

membership.

The Federation of Free African Trade Unions of South Africa (FOFATUSA),

a small African national center which was an affiliate of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), decided to dissolve itself in early

1966 and urged its affiliates to join TUCSA. The South African Congress of Trade

Unions (SACTU), a predominantly African national center alined with the banned

African National Congress party, has ceased to function.

In addition to the existing national centers, there are a large number

of independent unions of varying racial composition. One of the largest of these

is the racially mixed Amalgamated Engineering Union, with 17,608 members claimed,

which disaffiliated from TUCSA in 1966. There are also 14 industrial joint

committees, which coordinate the activities of a number of unions in a particular

industry irrespective of their national affiliation.

Nine International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have a total of 36 affiliates in South Africa, including 19 unions affiliated through three industrial joint

committees. The nine ITS are: The International Federation of Building and

Woodworkers; International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, and Technical

Employees; International Union of Food and Allied Workers' Associations; International Graphical Federation; International Metalworkers' Federation; Miners'

International Federation; International Shoe and Leather Workers' Federation;

International Textile and Garment Workers' Federation; and the International

Transport Workers' Federation.

Labor-Management Relations

At the end of 1964, 132 industrial council agreements were in operation;

44 conciliation boards had been established; of these, 28 had settled the disputes, 10 were still considering their disputes, and 4 had referred their

disputes to the Industrial Tribunal for arbitration (all were settled); 2 disputes were settled by the parties. Of the 37,849 shifts lost during the year

as a result of work stoppages, 36,049 resulted from a 12-week strike involving

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600 white workers in one industry. The large majority of the labor force are

comprised of African workers who are excluded from the system of industrial

relations established by the Industrial Conciliation Act by its definition of

an employee. As a result, their wages and other conditions of employment are

not arrived at through collective bargaining by representatives of their own

choosing but are prescribed either by Government regulation or by the application of existing collective agreements to them. They are not permitted to join

registered trade unions and any they may form are not legally recognized. Legislation also restricts the operations of recognized mixed trade unions of white

and nonwhite persons and, since 1956, has in effect prohibited the registration

of such new unions. Africans have no right under law to participate in the

settlement of disputes and any strike by them is a statutory crime, subject to

heavy penalties.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 132

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics,

LABOR CONDITIONS IN SOUTH WEST AFRICA

South West Africa lies on the west coast of Africa and adjoins South Africa on

the northwest. It covers an area of 317,725 square miles and, according to

the 1960 census, had a population of 526,004.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Since January 1, 1921, South West Africa has been administered

by the Republic of South Africa under a League of Nations mandate, which provided

that it could be administered under the laws of South Africa as an integral part

of its territory. South Africa1s administration of the Territory was recently

the subject of a case before the International Court of Justice.

The Administrator of the Territory, appointed by the South African Government, heads the South West Africa Government. He has semiveto rights on all

matters except African affairs, which, since 1954, have been the responsibility

of South Africa*s Department of Bantu Administration and Development. All executive power rests with the South African Government and all legislative power,

with the South African Parliament. The South West Africa Legislative Assembly,

composed of 18 members, has power to legislate on matters not reserved to the

Republic's Government, subject to the latter's approval. The Territory has six

seats in South Africa's House of Assembly and four seats in the Senate. The

franchise is limited to white adult citizens. The South West Africa National

Party is dominant in the Government; the opposition, the United National Southwest Party, lost its last seat in the territorial legislature in the 1966 general

election.

Economic. The most important economic activities are mining, fishing,

and agriculture, which consists essentially of raising cattle, sheep, and goats.

In 1964, mining accounted for60percent of the total value of exports; fishing,

21 percent; and agriculture, 19 percent. Diamonds, the most important mineral,

contributed 40 percent of the value of total exports; next in importance were

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copper, lead, and zinc. Livestock, pelts, hides, and skins accounted for 96

percent of total agricultural exports and karakul pelts alone, for 43 percent.

Industrial activity, other than the operations of the mining companies and fish

factories, is very limited. The administration is investing heavily in development programs under the first 5-year plan. In 1962, the per capita gross domestic product was US$376.88, one of the highest in Africa.

Social. Of the total population in 1960, 80 percent were Africans (Natives), 14 percent were whites, and 6 percent were Coloreds (people of racially

mixed origin). The Ovambos numbered 239,363 in 1960 and comprise the largest

ethnic group; others are the Damara, 44,353; Hereros, 35,000; Nama, 34,806;

Rehoboth Basters, 11,257; and Bushmen, 11,762. Most of the nonwhite population

is animist; the white population is predominantly Christian. The official languages are English and Afrikaans, but German is officially recognized. It is

compulsory for white children to attend school. The administration has recently

undertaken a campaign against illiteracy among the nonwhite population.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. In 1964, 2,654 of the white wage and salary

earners were employed in mining; 3,270 were railway workers; about 4,000 were

in Government service; and an unspecified number were engaged in the fishing and

other industries. A majority (267,671 in 1960) of the nonwhite labor force live

in the Northern Native Reserves and practice subsistence agriculture, based on

cattle and millet. Almost two-thirds of the 28,000 Africans (in 1961) living in

17 Native Reserves in the Police Zone in the south work on European-owned farms;

they are not allowed to own land. Nonwhite wage and salary earners employed in

mines in 1964 numbered 10,208; in railways, 4,160; and in Government service,

about 4,000.

In order to earn cash wages, Africans from the reserves must enter the

Police Zone to work. The South West African Native Labor Association (Proprietary) Ltd. (SWANLA), the single labor recruitment system in the Territory since

1943, enters into contracts for African labor with the prospective employers,

who pay SWANLA, for each African ordered, an amount varying between US$22.40

and US$50.40, depending on the category of laborer. African workmen enter into

a 12- to 18-month contract with SWANLA, which assigns them to their destination

and determines the wages and working conditions stipulated in their contracts.

Of the 27,161 Angolans and Ovambos recruited in 1961, 6,703 were assigned to the

mines, 9,559 toother industries and works in South West Africa, 8,658 to farms,

and 2,241 to South African mines. Contract laborers are not permitted to bring

their families with them. After the termination of their contract, they must

return to the Native Reserve foraperiod of at least 3 months, after which they

may again be recruited for work in the Police Zone.

There is virtually no unemployment among the white population. The system which regulates the labor force in the Territory precludes the measurement

of unemployment among Africans. Underemployment is widespread among the African

work force in the subsistence economy.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Primitive methods of production in

the large subsistence sector, the lack of opportunities for education, training,

and advancement, illiteracy , and poverty among the African labor force contribute

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to low productivity. In addition, the system of contract labor under which a

majority of Africans are employed results in a high rate of turnover, lack of

job tenure, and limited opportunities for the acquisition of skills and experience. All professional, technical, administrative, managerial, and skilled

jobs are held by Europeans; Africans are confined to unskilled work. Most of

them on farms are laborers, servants, herdsmen, and shepherds; others are mine

laborers, cannery workers, messengers, and porters. In some cases, legal provisions, such as mining regulations, bar African workers from promotion.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Under existing legislation which applies only to

African workers, infractions of labor discipline, unauthorized absences, refusal

to take orders, failures in the performance of assigned tasks, engaging in

strikes, breaking a contract before it expires, and many other acts are considered criminal offenses punishable by law. Africans do not have the right to

organize or bargain collectively. The Government and employers determine wage

rates and other conditions of employment.

Administration and Practice. No information is available on the structure of labor enforcement agencies nor on their operations.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wage rates for contract workers in mining are US$0.42 per shift

(8 hours) for the first half of the contract year, US$0.49 for the next 3months,

and US$0.56 for the last 3 months; for similar periods in industry, the rates

are US$0.36, US$0.42, and US$0.50, respectively. In both mining and industry,

the workweek is 48 hours and time and a half is paid for overtime. In agriculture and domestic service, minimum monthly wage rates are US$6.30 (for young

workers aged 16 and 17), US$8.40, US$9.45, and US$10.50, depending on the category of worker; their hours of work are not regulated and reportedly of ten exceed

48 per week. Labor contracts require employers to furnish their employees with

food, lodging, medical care, and some clothing. The actual wages and fringe

benefits workers receive vary by industry and size of employer. African workers

living in Reserves in tl^e Police Zone receive higher wages than those employed

under contract. A representative monthly wage for Coloreds is about US$112.00.

Europeans receive wages ranging from US$280.00 per month in the motor industry

to US$840.00 in the fishing industry.

Reportedly, the cost of living in the Territory is 20 percent higher than

in South Africa. The level of living in the rapidly expanding economy is high

for Europeans but very low for non-Europeans, many of whom live at a subsistence

level.

Employer Organizations

No information is available on employer organizations.

Labor Organizations

No trade unions are known to exist in South West Africa. The Union of

South West Africa Workers-in-Exile was formed in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, in

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1962. However, current information on this organization is not available and

it is not known if it still exists.

Labor-Management Relations

The conditions under which the large African majority in the labor force

are employed provides them no opportunities to participate in the determination

of their conditions of employment. They have no right to organize, bargain

collectively, elect shop stewards or grievance committees, and they may not

engage in strikes.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 133

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN SOUTHERN RHODESIA

Southern Rhodesia, located in south-central Africa, has an area of 150,333 square

miles. Its population in mid-1965 was estimated at 4.26 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Formerly part of the British-administered Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and a self-governing colony of the United Kingdom, Southern

Rhodesia unilaterally proclaimed itself independent November 11, 1965. As

neither Great Britain nor any other country has recognized the present Rhodesian

regime, the present political and constitutional status is in question. The

United Kingdom imposed economic sanctions to bring to an end the rebellion in

Southern Rhodesia. In this action, the United Kingdom has been widely supported

by the policies of the rest of the world and by the United Nations Security

Council on November 12 and 20, 1965. Future political arrangements and institutions will depend on the nature of the resolution of the present crisis.

Governmental institutions of the rebel regime, operating under the Constitution of 1961 and incorporated into the illegal Constitution of 1965, include

a Legislative Assembly to which members are elected by voters on the income-,

property-, and education-based rolls, which consist of an "A" roll (50 seats,

held almost exclusively by whites) and a "BM roll (15 seats, held almost exclusively by Africans) , and an appointed Constitutional Council whose function is.to

safeguard the constitutional rights of individuals (primarily Africans) . Opposing

the dominant party, the Rhodesian Front, are the Zimbabwe African National Union

(ZANU) and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) , both outlawed since 1963.

Economic. Agriculture, the main economic activity, provides almost 25

percent of the gross national product (GNP), with tobacco accounting for over

50 percent of the total crop value; manufacturing (especially agricultural

implements, truck bodies, and processed foods) contributes about 15 percent of

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the GNP, and commerce, about 13 percent. Among the minerals exploited are asbestos, gold, chrome, coal, and copper. The main exports are tobacco, minerals,

corn, and manufactured goods. Almost half of the 4 million Africans are virtually outside the money economy.

Social. Africans, who comprise about 94 percent of the population, are

mainly of various Bantu tribes; two large groups, the Mashona and theMatabele,

each include various groups of tribes. Europeans comprise about 5 percent of

the population, and the remainder are Asians and Coloreds (persons of mixed

race). The white minority are Christians; most Africans are animists but some

are Christian. English is the official language; two main Bantu languages,

Ndebele and Shona, are spoken by many Africans. African enrollment in primary

schools in 1965 was approximately 628,000 and in secondary schools, 11,500. The

literacy rate is about 20 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. Data on the size of the total labor force

are unavailable. Wage and salary earners in 1964 numbered about 693,000, of

whom the largest numbers were in agriculture, forestry, and fishing (228,000);

services, including domestic service (180,000); and commerce (58,000). About

80,000 to 90,000 were Europeans (holding most supervisory and technical positions) , Asians, and Coloreds; of the estimated 603,000 Africans (mostly unskilled

and semiskilled), 42 percent were in agriculture, 12 percent in manufacturing,

and 23 percent in services (including domestic service). In 1964, almost half

of the labor force (especially migratory farm laborers) came from outside the

country, mainly from Malawi, Zambia, and Mozambique. African unemployment in

1964 was estimated at 70,000. European unemployment has been insignificant, but

it is expected to increase with the disruption in trade following the imposition

of economic sanctions by most of Southern Rhodesia's trading partners in 1965

after the November declaration of independence.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Productivity of African workers is,

in general, low as compared with that of Europeans, owing partly to the relatively limited skills and training of most of the African labor force. A variety

of schools at the secondary level offer some commercial and technical subjects.

In 1964, there were 49 teacher-training institutions, as well as agricultural

colleges. In 1965, African enrollment in teacher-training schools was 2,819 and

in technical and vocational schools, 830. The training of apprentices is governed by industry committees, which include training specialists as well as

representatives of employers and workers.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The principal labor laws are the Apprenticeship Act,

which provides for industry committees; the Factories and Works Act, which provides for protection of workers' health and safety in industry; and the Industrial Conciliation Act, which governs the registration of worker and employer

organizations, procedures for the settlement of industrial disputes, and the

right to strike. The Industrial Conciliation Act also provides for industrial

councils and boards authorized to negotiate conditions of work in industries

where labor organizations are not strong enough to do so.

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Administration and Practice. The Government, in addition to administering the labor laws, conducts employment exchange services and operates a

Workmen's Compensation Insurance Fund to provide compensation in the case of industrial accidents or death resulting therefrom. At the end of 1964, the Department of Labour (in the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare) had 31 industrial

inspection officers and 25 industrial and labor assistants. The industrial

councils and boards had established conditions of work for about 125,000 employees by the end of 1964.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Annual earnings of non-Africans in 1964 averaged US$3,475 and of Africans, US$339. The average hourly wage of skilled workers (electricians, painters, etc.) in 1964 was US$1.54 to US$1.68 in most industries and US$1.88 in

printing. At the end of 1964, minimum monthly wage rates set by industrial

boards ranged from US$18.20 for unskilled work in urban areas to US$40.95 in

motor vehicle manufacturing. In many cases, employers provide free housing for

the lowest paid African workers. No information is available on hours of work

or on vacations and holidays. From January 1962 to June 1965, the consumer

price index for Europeans rose by 12 percent and for Africans in the main towns,

by 9 percent.

Employer Organizations

At the beginning of 1965, there were 33 registered employers' associations; the membership included mine owners, transport operators, clothing manufacturers, and others. In addition, there are Chambers of Commerce and Chambers

of Industry in Salisbury, Bulawayo, and elsewhere.

Labor Organizations

Total trade union membership is approximately 82,000, or about 12 percent

of the 693,000 wage and salary earners in 1964. Unions representing Africans

have a total membership of about 56,000, or some 9 percent of the estimated

603.000 African wage and salary earners. Unions representing non-Africans have

a membership of nearly 26,000, or some 30 percent of the estimated 80,000 to

90.000 non-African wage and salary earners.

The African Trade Union Congress (ATUC) has nine affiliates with a total

membership of 29,198, or about 36 percent of all trade union members. The ATUC

was formed in 1962 as the Southern Rhodesian African Trades' Union Congress

(SRATUC). It adopted its present name in 1963 when it absorbed the Southern

Rhodesia Trades' Union Congress (SRTUC). It is affiliated with the African

Trade Union Confederation (ATUC). The largest ATUC affiliate is the Railway

African Workers' Union (RAWU) , with some 16,000 members.

The other African center, the National African Federation of Unions

(NAFU) , has seven affiliates with about 14,670 members, or 18 percent of the organized work force„ The NAFU was formed in 1965 by former affiliates of the banned

Zimbabwe African Congress of Unions (ZACU), which had a close relationship with

the outlawed ZANU party. The NAFU is affiliated with the All-African Trade Union

Federation (AATUF).

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The national center representing Europeans, the Trade Union Congress of

Rhodesia (TUCR), has 11 affiliates with about 16,140 members, or about 20 percent of all trade union members. The TUCR was formed in 1964 as the successor

to the Trade Union Congress of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (FTUC).

It supports the policies of the Rhodesian Front.

There are a number of African and European unions not affiliated with

any national center.

Nine International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have affiliates in Rhodesia:

The International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, and Technical Employees;

International Union of Food and Allied Workers' Associations; International

Metalworkers' Federation; Miners' International Federation; International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical Workers; Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone

International; Public Services International; International Textile and Garment

Workers' Federation; and International Transport Workers' Federation.

Labor-Management Relations

Collective bargaining plays a less important role than the industrial

councils and boards in the determination of wages and conditions of employment.

The unions, however, from time to time conduct strikes. In 1964, there were 119

strikes involving 14,866 employees and the loss of 42,698 man-days (the largest

figure since 1960); one strike alone (at a colliery) involved 4,200 employees

and the loss of 32,000 man-days.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 134

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN SPANISH SAHARA

Spanish Sahara, located along the northern coast of Africa, covers an area of

approximately 102,700 square miles and, in 1963, had an estimated population of

25,000 to 40,000.

Spanish Sahara, organized as a province in 1958, is administered by an

appointed Governor General, who is assisted by a General Secretary. The Provincial Council is elected on the basis of limited suffrage.

Because most of the area is desert, agriculture is practically nonexistent. Cocoa is the leading commercial crop and some barley and corn are grown

in nondrought years; fruit and vegetables are grown in the few oases. The major

industries are fishing and handicrafts. Animals--mainly camels, goats, and

sheep--are regarded by the people as symbols of wealth and property.

The four principal groups comprising the population are the Chorfa, Arabs ,

Tecna, and Znaga; there are also about 2,000 Spaniards. Moslems constitute 50

percent of the population; most of the remainder are Catholics. In 1957-58, 10

teachers staffed the country's 8 schools, which together enrolled 337 students.

In addition, several hundred adults attended classes. Literacy among the Spaniards is estimated at nearly 100 percent and among the nomads, possibly 5 percent.

Fifty percent of the labor force, estimated at 12,000 in 1961, were engaged in agriculture.

There are no trade union organizations, and there is no information available on syndicates in Spanish Sahara.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 135

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF THE SUDAN

The Republic of the Sudan, located in northeast Africa, has an area of 967,500

square miles and is the largest country in Africa. It had an estimated population of about 13 million in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. The Sudan became an independent republic in 1956 under a provisional constitution establishing a parliamentary system of government. A

military junta seized power in 1958 and ruled the country until October 1964,

when popular discontent forced it to step down. The 1956 Constitution was reinstated, with a number of important changes; a Constituent Assembly, elected

in the spring of 1965, will serve as a legislature for a period of 2 years and

will draft a permanent constitution. The Assembly appoints both the Supreme

Council of State (the Sudan*s highest constitutional authority) and the Prime

Minister. The present Government, headed by Prime Minister Mohammed Ahmed

Mahjoub of the Umma Party, is a coalition of the Umma Party and the National

Union Party (NUP).

Economic. The economy, which is primarily agricultural, consists of a

modern sector based mainly on the production and export of cotton and a traditional sector that produces for domestic consumption. In 1963, agriculture

accounted for 51 percent of the gross domestic product; transportation and banking, 18 percent; mining, manufacturing, and construction, 11 percent; and services and miscellaneous activities, 20 percent. 0nly3percent of the total area

is under cultivation, but land capable of producing crops is estimated tobefive

to six times this amount. The main crops are cotton (which accounted for 55 percent of exports in 1963), gum arabic, grain, and oilseeds; the principal industries are food processing, maintenance and repair of transport and agricultural

machinery, and production of consumer goods. The "National Charter" of the

coalition Government proposes a program of substantial state control and direction

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of all economic activities. A 10-year development plan (1961-71) is in the

process of revision.

Social. Arabic is the official language of the country and the native

tongue of over half of the population. Most of the people in the south speak

diverse African languages and dialects, but English is also spoken, serving to

some extent as a lingua franca. In the north, English is widely spoken among

the educated, but a majority of the population speak only Arabic. Islam, the

official religion, is practiced by over 60 percent of the population; the south has

some followers of Christianity but is predominantly pagan. Among the Sudanese,

the principal ethnic divisions are Arab (40 percent), Nilotic, or Negroid, elements (20 percent), Beja (6 percent), and Nubian (Arab-Negroid, 6 percent).

Although non-Sudanese account for less than 3 percent of the population, they are

important in private industry and commerce. Northern Sudanese dominate politics

and public administration. Of 1.5 million children aged 7 to 11, 397 ,799 were enrolled in elementary schools during the 1963-64 school year. The literacy rate

is estimated at 5 to 10 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force was estimated at 3.5 million, or about 27 percent of the population, in 1964. About 90 percent were

engaged in agriculture, hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry; about 5 percent

were employed in Government services, transportation, and commerce; and the remaining 5 percent were in other activities. The Government, with about 200,000

wage and salary earners, is the largest employer of the nonagricultural labor

force. Much of the economic activity is seasonal. The Gezira Scheme, which

produces the bulk of the Sudan's cotton, attracts thousands of Sudanese from all

parts of the country during the cotton-picking season. Statistical data on unemployment are either incomplete or unavailable. By the end of 1964, the number

of unemployed persons was about 45,000 in urban, northern Sudan, with reportedly

18,000 to 20,000 unemployed in the Khartoum area alone.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. The lack of mechanization , low levels

of education, and poor health, coupled with lack of incentive to produce other

than for immediate needs, are among the factors which contribute to the low level

of productivity in both agriculture and industry.

One of the country's major problems is the shortage of skilled and semiskilled workers, technicians, managers, and administrators. Programs within the

school system and in various Government agencies, as well as on-the-job training sponsored by industrial establishments, have been initiated to increase

skills. The Khartoum Technical Institute and the Khartoum Senior Trade School are

the main training institutes. Almost a thousand students are receiving vocational

training outside the country.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The basic provisions of labor legislation are included in the Employers' and Employed Persons' Ordinance (1948), as amended,

which contains provisions relating to hours of work, rest periods, sick leave,

vacations and holidays, payment of wages, separation benefits, overtime pay,

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and other terms of employment. Other ordinances governing labor are the Domestic

Servants' Ordinance, 1955; Industrial Apprenticeship Act, 1908; Manpower Act,

1955; Employment Exchange Ordinance, 1955; Wages Tribunals Ordinance, 1952;

Workmen's Compensation Ordinance, 1949 ; Workshops and Factories Ordinance, 1949;

and Regulation of Trades Disputes Act, 1966. Social security legislation was enacted in September 1965. Medical and public health services are free.

Administration and Practice. The Department of Labour of the Ministry of

Labour and Social Affairs administers and enforces all labor and social security

legislation and is responsible for the inspection of work places. Enforcement

is limited by the small size of the inspection staff.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The Government, as the largest employer, sets the wage and salary pattern.

Daily wages in 1963 ranged from US$1.26 to US$2.10 for carpenters, US$1.40 to

US$2.24 for mechanics, US$1.26 for plant maintenance workers, and US$1.68 to

US$2.24 for yard supervisors. The average wage of unskilled urban workers is

about US$23.00 per month. Seasonal agricultural workers usually receive higher

wages.

For the small sector of the economy made up of Government enterprises and

commercial and industrial establishments, the average workweek is 36 hours, 6

days a week. Time and a half is paid for overtime in some industries. There

are 15 legal holidays. Some Government enterprises provide free or low-cost

housing.

The cost-of-living index for the lower income wage and salary earners

rose from 142.9 in January 1960 (1951=100) to 165.6 in December 1962 and 178.6

in June 1964, and for higher income wage and salary earners, from 141.2 inJanuary 1960 to 162.8 in January 1963 and 172.3 in June 1964. Rises in the indexes

are followed by increases in cost-of-living allowances for certain categories

of workers and employees. Most of the population live at the subsistence level.

In 1964, the estimated per capita gross national product was US$88.70.

Employer Organizations

The membership of the Chamber of Commerce includes both local and foreign

businessmen. Recently, a number of employers have made considerable progress

toward forming an employer organization, for which tentative registration with

the Department of Labour has been sought.

Labor Organizations

Based on incomplete data, trade union membership is estimated to be

83,600. At present, there are three national trade union centers: The Federation of Sudanese Workers' Unions (FSWU), formed in 1963, and the Federation of

Workers' Trade Unions of the Private Sector and the Federation of Workers' Trade

Unions of the Public Sector, both formed in 1965. Although present labor legislation prohibits affiliation with external labor organizations, the FSWU maintains connections with both the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions

(ICATU) and the All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF). Its secretary

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general, El Shafie Ahmed El Seikh, is a vice president of the Communist World

Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU). The 1965 Registration of Trade Unions Act

required all existing trade unions to reregister to acquire legal status. No

information is available on the registration completed to date nor on affiliation of Sudanese unions with national centers. The largest union in the country is the Sudan Railways Workers' (Trade) Union (SRWU), with an estimated

28,000 members in 1965.

Labor-Management Relations

Collective agreements are not common; from mid-June 1963 to July 1964,

about 10 were signed.

The Regulation of Trades Disputes Act prescribes procedures for settling

all labor disputes, except those involving members of the Armed Forces, police

force, prison administration, and the judiciary. The act requires that in the

event of a dispute, the parties must negotiate within a maximum period of 3

weeks, after which either party may apply to the Commissioner of Labour for

mediation. If mediation fails, the Commissioner, with the consent of both parties, may refer the dispute to an arbitration tribunal, whose membership includes representatives of Government, labor, and management; all of the members

(except the chairman) are appointed by the Minister of Labour and Social Affairs.

The act also authorizes the Constituent Assembly to refer the dispute to an

arbitration tribunal when an essential industry is involved or when the dispute

might jeopardize public tranquility.

Strikes and lockouts are prohibited during negotiations, after the award

of an arbitration tribunal, when harmful to the public interest, and when the

dispute does not involve economic issues.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 136

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor a'nd Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN SWAZILAND

Swaziland occupies an area of 6,704 square miles almost wholly within the Republic of South Africa. The population in 1965 was about 296,000.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Administered as a Protectorate of the United Kingdom, Swaziland is governed by a British Commissioner, appointed by the Queen of England,

and an Executive Council of 10 members (4 official and 6 unofficial). The 1964

Constitution provided for a Legislative Council, of which eight members were

elected by universal suffrage, eight by the European voters, and eight selected

by traditional Swazi methods. The 1964 election was won by the traditionalist

Imbokodvo National Movement and its European allies in the United Swaziland

Association. The modernist parties, principal among which is the Ngwane National

Liberatory Congress, failed to win a single seat. A new constitution, which

will eliminate racial divisions of seats in the Legislature, is likely to go

into effect in late 1966 or early 1967.

Economic. Subsistence farming and livestock raising are the principal

economic activities of most of the population. The main agricultural products

are cotton, tobacco, rice, sugar, and vegetables. The modern economy is based

largely on mining; asbestos, a major export, is being superseded by iron ore.

Secondary industrial development is recent and is limited to the processing of

local agricultural products. In 1963, processed goods, mainly sugar and wood

pulp, accounted for about 60 percent of total exports by value; minerals, about

23 percent; and unprocessed agricultural products, 17 percent. In 1965, the

annual per capita gross national product was about US$100.

Social. About 96 percent of the population are African; 3 percent, European; and 1 percent, "Eurafrican" (mixed European and African). About 73 percent

of the population adhere to traditional religious beliefs and 27 percent are

Christian. The Zulu language is taught in the schools and is generally used for

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official purposes. The Swazi language (Siswati) is spoken by most Africans.

About 60 percent of the Swazi children aged 5 to 14 attend primary schools. Primary school enrollment in 1963 was 44,430. In 1962, about 36 percent of the

population over 9 years of age were literate in at least one language. Literacy

among non-Africans is almost universal.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. Most of the labor force (persons aged 15

to 64) are engaged in subsistence farming and livestock raising. The labor force

in 1964 was estimated at about 50 percent of the total population. According

to official estimates, wage and salary earners in 1964 totaled 50,000. Approximately 38 percent were engaged in agriculture, 23 percent in services, 20 percent

in manufacturing, 8 percent in construction, 7 percent in mining, and 4 percent

in other activities. About 6,500 Swazi workers are employed annually on farms

and in mines in the Republic of South Africa. Unemployment is reported to be

chronic. Underemployment is prevalent, particularly in agriculture.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Productivity improvements are hampered by the continuation of primitive farming methods, overgrazing of land, and

a high rate of labor turnover, which inhibits the development of skills. Some

employers are now encouraging the formation of a permanent labor force by providing quarters for married workers; in the past, the families of most laborers

were left at home. Most of the skilled workers are Europeans from South Africa

and Mozambique. According to a 1960 survey, 80 percent of rural male Swazi

workers and 40 percent of urban male workers were engaged in unskilled manual

jobs, mainly in farming, mining, forestry, and public works. Nonlocals held 30

to 61 percent of the jobs in skilled and professional occupations.

There are a number of trade and teacher-training schools. A tripartite

Apprenticeship Board was established in 1964 to promote apprenticeship training.

An agricultural training institution was opened in 1966.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. « The main labor laws include the New Workers' Compensation Proclamation ( 1963), which covers minimum wages for virtually all workers

whose earnings do not exceed US$1,071 per year; the Trade Unions Proclamation

(1942, as amended in 1963) ; the Industrial Conciliation and Settlement Proclamation (1963) , which provides for the establishment of joint negotiating machinery;

the Employment Proclamation (1962), which regulates working conditions for women

and young persons; and the Mines, Works, and Machinery Proclamation (1960) and

Explosives Proclamation (1961), which cover safety in mines and factories.

Administration and Practice. The Secretary for External Affairs and

Labour and the Labour Commissioner are responsible for the enforcement of labor

legislation. Eight labor officers, an inspector of machinery, and an inspector

of mines conduct inspections.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wages for unskilled workers in agriculture in 1964 were US$0.41

to US$1.71 per week; in mining, US$2.36 to US$2.70; in construction, US$1.61 to

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US$3.57; and in trade, US$2.93 to US$3.21. The monetary value of supplementary benefits, such as housing, rations, schools, and medical facilities, is

generally estimated by employers to be two to three times the amount of the cash

wage. The average monthly earnings of African employees in 1964 varied from

US$8.30 in agriculture to US$45.48 in construction; those of Europeans ranged

from US$139.22 in the wood, paper, and printing industries to US$274.52 in

construction.

The normal weekly hours of work vary from 45 to 48 in mining and quarrying, 45 to 54 in plantation agriculture, 45 to 50 in construction, 45 to 75 in

hotels and catering, 45 to 52 in commerce, and 42 to 68 in domestic service.

The retail price index (January-March 1964=100) was 108.2 in the fourth

quarter of 1964.

Employer Organizations

The Federation of Swaziland Employers, which includes most major employers, plays a role in ipdus-triax relations.

Labor Organizations

Total trade union membership is estimated to be about 5,850, or approximately 11 percent of the estimated 50,000 wage and salary earners. The Swaziland

Federation of Trade Unions, which was formed in 1965, has been dissolved and,

at present, there are no national trade union centers in the territory. However, efforts are being made to organize a new national center, the Swaziland

Trade Union Congress. There are 14 active trade unions in Swaziland.

Labor-Management Relations

The Industrial Conciliation and Settlement Proclamation provides for the

establishment of joint negotiating machinery in each firm and industry and provides for arbitration in essential services. After a dispute is reported to

the Labour Commissioner, a cooling-off period of 21 days is required before a

strike or lockout is permitted. Joint consultative bodies and works councils

exist in a number of enterprises. Reportedly, 4,130 man-days were lost due to

strikes in 1964.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 137

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of L^bor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

Mainland Tanzania, located on the east coast of Africa, has an area of 362,688

square miles and in 1965 had a population estimated at 10,179,000, Zanzibar

consists of the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba and other nearby islets situated

about 25 miles off the coast of mainland Tanzania. Zanzibar island has an area

of 640 square miles and Pemba island, 380 square miles; together they had an

estimated population of 320,000 in 1964.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Tanganyika became an independent country within the British

Commonwealth on December 9, 1961, and a republic on December 9, 1962. In 1964,

Tanganyika and Zanzibar (which achieved independence in 1963) united and became

the United Republic of Tanzania. Under the Interim Constitution approved in

September 1965, the President, assisted by two Vice Presidents, exercises executive power. Legislative power rests with the National Assembly, which can consist of as many as 204 members, 107 of whom are elected; up to 55 members are

from Zanzibar. The Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), headed by President Julius K. Nyerere, who was elected for a new 5-year term in September 1965,

is the only political party on the mainland; the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) is

the national party in Zanzibar.

Economic. Agriculture, by far the largest economic sector, is the basis

of the economy. In 1964, it contributed 57.6 percent of the gross domestic

product (GDP), of which about 12 percent was accounted for by nonagricultural

primary products, namely livestock, forestry, and fishing. The remainder of the

GDP was contributed by services (12.5 percent), commerce (11.6 percent), rent

(4.5 percent), transport (4.1 percent), manufacturing (3.6 percent), construction (3.0 percent) , mining and quarrying (2.4 percent), and water and electricity

(0.7 percent). Sisal (of which Tanzania is the world's largest producer),

coffee, and cotton are the principal exports, accounting for over 50 percent of

the total in value. The most important food crops grown mainly for domestic

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consumption are rice, maize, cassava, wheat, sweet potatoes, bananas and plantains, and millet• Zanzibar is the world's leading producer of cloves, which

account for about 95 percent of its exports. The GDP per capita in 1964 was

US$67.20. The primary objective of the 5-Year Plan for Economic and Social

Development (1964-69) is the growth of the agricultural cash economy largely

through the expansion of cooperatives.

Social. About 99 percent of the population are Africans; the remaining

1 percent is comprised of Indo-Pakistanis, Arabs, Europeans, and others. Of

the numerous tribal groups (122), only the Sukuma has over 1 million members.

English (the language of commerce and administration) and Swahili (the lingua

franca) are co-equal official languages on the mainland. In Zanzibar, Swahili

alone is the official language. According to the 1957 census, 30.9 percent of

the population practiced Islam, 24.9 percent were Christian, and the remainder

were animists. The literacy rate in 1965 was about 10 percent.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. Of the 5.5 million people of working age,

only 351,257 (45,221 foreigners) in 1964 were wage and salary earners. The

total excludes the very large number of workers in subsistence agriculture, in

the military forces, and an estimated 23,000 in domestic service. Forty-seven

percent of the wage and salary earners were employed in agriculture, 21 percent

in services, 10 percent in construction, 7 percent each in manufacturing and in

transport and communications, 5 percent in commerce, and the remainder in mining

and utilities.

No statistics are available to indicate the full extent of unemployment.

The number of wage and salary earners declined from 411,538 in 1961 to 351,257

in 1964, and the preliminary returns for the 1965 Enumeration of Employees indicated a further decline of over 5 percent, most of which was in the sisal industry. Underemployment is widespread in the large agricultural subsistence

sector of the economy.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Among the factors contributing to

very low productivity in the agricultural sector are the poor nutrition and health

of the workers, their use of primitive tools to cultivate small plots of land,

and impoverishment of the soil by the practice of bush burning. The Government,

aware of the shortage of trained and skilled manpower at all levels, is taking

steps to increase educational and training facilities. The country has several

technical and trade schools, teacher-training centers, the Agricultural College

at Tengeru, the Civil Service Training Center and the Institute of Public Administration, and the University of East Africa. At this time, Tanzania has no

widespread formal apprenticeship program. A number of individual employers have

their own training programs.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Basic labor legislation applies to all employees and

assures them the right to organize and bargain collectively. It covers recruitment, contracts of employment, payment of wages, paid holidays, a weekly day of

rest, the employment of women and young persons, and the establishment of pension schemes, and provides for the establishment of a Labour Advisory Board,

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minimum wage boards for fixing wage rates in various industries, the registration and inspection of factories, and workmen's compensation* Legislation enacted in 1962 provides the procedures for the settlement of industrial disputes

through conciliation, arbitration, or boards of inquiry, and makes strikes or

lockouts illegal until the parties have exhausted these procedures. Another law

covers the registration and regulation of trade unions and empowers the Minister of Labour to appoint a "designated federation" of labor. Legislation enacted

in 1964 provides for a provident-fund system initially covering employees of

firms withlOor more workers, financed by equal employer-employee contributions

(5 percent of wages), and providing retirement, invalidity, and sickness benefits. Another law requires employers to pay severance allowances when service is

terminated, provides for the establishment of workers' committees and conciliation boards in all firms with 10 or more union members, and regulates the dismissal and disciplining of employees.

Administration and Practice. The Labour Division of the Ministry of

Labour is responsible for the administration of labor and social security legislation. Factory Inspectors enforce compliance with the Factories Ordinance, and

the Labour Commissioner and Labour Officers assist in the investigation and

settlement of industrial disputes. The Labour Division also operates a number

of employment exchanges. No information is available to indicate how effectively

legislation is enforced.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

In 1964, the average cash earnings for all African wage and salary earners

were US$24.64 per month--US$21.70 in the private sector and US$31.08 in the public sector. Among adult males, the largest group received US$14.00 to US$20.86

per month; 110,560 received more than that amount and 54,950 received less. In

the same year, 127,039 African wage and salary earners, mainly on large agricultural estates and inmining, received free housing and 13,800, free rations.

Wages have increased in recent years, but the prices of essential commodities

have remained relatively stable; the retail price index in Dar es Salaam was

128 in July 1965 (December 1951=100) compared to 122 in July 1960.

The normal workweek for most employees in industry and for industrial

grade workers in Government is 45 hours spread over 5% days. The normal workweek of unskilled agricultural laborers is 36 hours.

Employer Organizations

Employer organizations include the Chamber of Commerce, the Merchants'

Chamber, and the Federation of Tanganyika Employers. Employer associations in

each industry (such as the Tanganyika Sisal Growers' Association) are affiliated

to the Federation; they engage in collective bargaining and are concerned with

other problems of labor; they make the views of employers on labor legislation

and other matters known to the Government.

Labor Organizations

The National Union of Tanganyika Workers (NUTA), the sole legal trade

union center on the mainland, has an estimated membership of 250,000, or about

70 percent of the wage and salary earners in the Republic. Data on trade union

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membership on the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba are not available. The NUTA was

formed by an act of the National Assembly in 1964, when the Tanganyika Federation of Labour was dissolved following its alleged involvement in an attempted

coup d*etat. In accordance with this law, the first general secretary and the

first deputy general secretary were appointed by the President of the Republic.

(The Minister of Labour became general secretary.) Union membership is compulsory, as is NUTA affiliation with TANU.

Organized along both industrial and geographic lines, NUTA has no affiliates but has 9 industrial sections and 10 regional and 41 branch offices. It

has become one of the leading members of the All-African Trade Union Federation

(AATUF) since it affiliated in 1964.

The only labor organization on the islands is the Workers* Department of

the Afro-Shirazi Party. It was formed in 1965 by incorporation within the Party

of all the existing unions in Zanzibar and Pemba.

Labor-Management Relations

Collective bargaining on an industrywide basis is becoming the pattern

of industrial relations. In small industries, works committees at the factory

level may engage in both consultation and negotiation; in larger industries,

joint industrial negotiating councils perform these functions. Wages and other

conditions of employment are established by Government bodies. Strict regulations on the use of the strike and lockout weapons have reduced the number of

labor disputes from 203 involving 89,000 workers and the loss of 1,494,000 mandays in 1960 to 24 involving 3,500 workers and the loss of 6,000 man-days in

1964.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 138

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF TOGO

Togo, located on the west coast of Africa, has an area of 21,850 square miles

and had a population estimated at 1.7 million in early 1966.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Togo achieved its independence in April 1960. The Constitution of 1963 provides for a president and vice president, both elected for 5-year

terms by direct universal suffrage. The President is both chief executive and

head of state and he appoints the Council of Ministers. The 56 members of the

National Assembly, a unicameral body, are also elected for 5-year terms. The

principal political parties are the Union Ddmocratique des Populations Togolaises

(UDPT), the party of President Nicolas Grunitzky, who was elected in May 1963;

the Mouvement de la Jeunesse Togolaise (JUVENTO); theUnit£ Togolaise (UT) ; and

the Mouvement Populaire Togolais (MPT).

Economic. Although subsistence farming is the basis of the economy, only

13 percent of the arable land (42 percent of the total area) is under cultivation. Cocoa and coffee, the country's principal agricultural exports, accounted

for 25.4 percent and 10.6 percent, respectively, of total exports in 1965. Other

export products include palm kernels, palm oil, ginned cotton, copra, cassava

starch, and peanuts. Yams, corn, rice, millet, and sorghum are produced for

local consumption. Phosphate extraction, Togo's principal industry, has been

increasing in importance; in 1965, phosphate exports ranked first, contributing

32.5 percent of the total. The country's first 5-Year Development Plan (1966-71)

places primary emphasis on the development of agriculture and light industries.

The estimated gross national product (GNP) per capita in 1963 (the last year

for which the GNP was figured) was US$75.

Social. The population, which is about 99 percent African, consists of

more than 35 tribes speaking 25 languages and dialects. French is the official

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language and the language of commerce, all public instruction, and most of

Government business; Mina, Ewe, Cotocoli, and Cabrais arethemajor African languages, In 1965, there were an estimated 300,000 Christians and 40,000 who

adhered to Islam among the population; the remainder practiced animism. The

estimated literacy rate was 8 to 10 percent in 1965.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. In 1965, an estimated 687,000 persons, or

41 percent of the population, were in the labor force. The total number of wage

and salary earners in mid-1966 was estimated at 24,500, of whom 52 percent were

in the private sector and 48 percent in the public sector. In the private sector, about 5 percent of all wage and salary earners were in agriculture and

forestry, 6 percent in mining, 6 percent in construction, 18 percent in commerce,

banking, industries, and professions, 11 percent in transportation, and 6 percent

in domestic service. Unemployment is a serious problem. It arises in part from

the influx of jobseekers from rural to urban centers and from Togolese returning

from employment in other African countries. Underemployment is also widespread

among the large majority of the population engaged in subsistence farming.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Low levels of education, limited

training and educational facilities, the use of primitive farming methods, and

poor health and nutrition of workers contribute to low productivity in both the

agricultural and industrial sectors of the economy; Togo, however, has more

trained and qualified middle-level personnel than many other African countries,

and the civil service has undergone a high degree of Africanization. The count r y ^ four vocational schools produce only small numbers of semiqualified technicians. Artisans acquire their skills mainly through the apprenticeship system,

and carpenters, masons, electricians, and other skilled workers, from on-the-job

training. Educational and training facilities include the Governments School

of Administration, a binational (Togo and Dahomey) institute which opened in

1965, three teacher-training institutes, a school administered by the International Labor Organization for training mechanics, a Regional Heavy Equipment

Training Center, which trains operators and mechanics, a Rural Development Training

Center at Tchitchao, and several other agricultural training centers.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor legislation authorizes the Government to establish basic minimum wages and maximum hours of work and to regulate working

conditions. Other regulations relate to paid annual leave, paid overtime, holidays, workmen's compensation, family allowances, and other benefits. Togo does

not yet have extensive social security legislation; however, over half of the

workers in the private sector are covered by some sort of pension scheme and

all regular workers in the public sector benefit from Government pensions and

allowances.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor, Civil Service, and

Social Affairs, through its Office of Labor Inspection, is responsible for the

administration of labor affairs. Fully effective regulation is handicapped by

a shortage of qualified personnel. The Office of Labor Inspection operates one

employment exchange located at Lomd.

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Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The minimum hourly wage rates for nonagricultural workers in the country’s

three geographic wage zones in 1966 were US$0.12 in Lomd and vicinity andUS$0.09

and US$0.08 further inland. The minimum hourly wageratefor agricultural workers

ranged from US$0.07 to US$0.10. Workers in commerce and industry were paid a

minimum monthly wage of US$20.40 and in transportation, US$37.55. Wages of senior

Government employees, especially those who are university graduates, are relatively high in comparison to those of other wage and salary earners.

The legal workweek in industry and commerce is 4 0 hours; a 6-day workweek

with a half day on Saturday is common. In agriculture, the maximum worktime is

2,400 hours per year. There are 9 public holidays. Overtime in the private

sector is paid at the rate of time and a half and on paid holidays at double

time. Paid vacations, based on length of service, are required by law.

Under a decree of May 1963, prices of certain essential consumer items

were brought under Government control. The cost-of-living index (1960=100) rose

from 102 in 1962 to 118 in March 1966. Many Togolese in the predominantly agricultural nonwage economy live at a subsistence level.

Employer Organizations

The Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture is active in Lomd, the

capital, and in several other towns. An informal association of commercial and

industrial employers meets occasionally to discuss matters of general interest.

Labor Organizations

The two national trade union centers in Togo have a total membership estimated at about 13,000. Of these, over 70 percent (9,500) belong to the National

Union of Workers of Togo (Union Nationale des Travailleurs du Togo--UNTT). The

UNTT, formed in 1961 as a successor to the Union of Confederated Syndicates of

Togo (Union des Syndicats Confeddr^s du Togo--USCT), has 19 affiliates.

The Togolese Confederation of Believing Workers (Confederation Togolaise

des Travailleurs Croyants--CTTC) has an estimated 2,500 members in seven affiliates. It was formerly known as the African Confederation of Believing WorkersTogo (Confederation Africaine des Travailleurs Croyants--CATC-Togo), formed in

1956. The CTTC is affiliated with the International Federation of Christian Trade

Unions (Confederation Internationale des Syndicats Chretiens--CISC) and its

African regional organization, the Pan-African Union of Believing Workers (Union

Panafricaine des Travailleurs Crovants--UPTC).

Labor-Management Relations

Collective bargaining contracts governing wages, hours, fringe benefits,

and other conditions of employment, negotiated prior to Togo's independence by

trade unions representing workers in the private sector, a;re still in effect. The

Office of the Labor Inspector is responsible for the settlement of labor disputes.

Appeal may be made to higher courts. There were two minor strikes in 1965 and

none in 1964.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 139

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF TUNISIA

Tunisia, located on the northern coast of Africa, occupies an area of approximately 63,000 square miles. Its estimated population in 1965 was 4,491,000.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. A former French protectorate, Tunisia became independent in

1956 and proclaimed itself a republic in 1957. The Constitution of 1959 provides for a strong executive, a single chamber National Assembly, and an independent judiciary. Habib Bourguiba, leader in the struggle for independence and

head of the Destourian Socialist Party (the country 1s only political party), has

been re-elected President of the Republic twice since 1957.

Economic. Agriculture, the basis of the economy, accounts for about 50

percent of the national income and some 60 percent of annual export earnings.

Other important sectors are mining, light industry, and the processing of agricultural and mineral products (cereal grains, olives, wine grapes, citrus

fruits, phosphate rock, and iron ore). Per capita gross domestic product was

approximately US$212 in 1964. As part of the 10-Year Perspective (1962-71),

the Government in 1965 issued a 4-Year Plan (1965-68).

Social. Approximately 95 percent of the population are Moslem, and Islam

is the state religion. French and Italian nationals constitute the largest nonindigenous groups; most of them are Christians. Arabic is the official language,

but most educated Tunisians also speak French. The literacy rate in 1961 was

about 25 percent. In 1964, 593,059 children, or about 60 percent of those of

school age (6 to 12 years), attended elementary schools.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force in 1964 was estimated at

1.39 million; about 1.22 million were actually employed (excluding some 25,000

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in the Armed Forces and 20,000 employed on regional development projects).

Approximately 60 percent of the labor^force are in agriculture and fishing; 8

percent in food processing and textile manufacture (mainly handicraft operations) ; over 7 percent each in commerce and construction; over 6 percent each

in Government administration and other services; and the remainder in mining,

metal processing, and transport, storage, and communications. The Government

claims that unemployment, as such, does not exist in Tunisia, since all persons

able and desiring to work find at least brief employment periodically; therefore,

such persons are classified as underemployed--a large category which includes

seasonal farm workers and the large number of rural workers who are migrating

to the cities in search of employment. Data on unemployment, as defined in the

United States, are unavailable.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. In general, worker productivity is

low, owing largely to the shortage of skilled workers, lags in mechanization,

inefficient management techniques, and widespread malnutrition.

The Government began a rapid expansion of its vocational and technical

training facilities in 1958, when it introduced "intermediate" schools (colleges

moyens) under the Ministry of State for National Education. These schools provide 3-year vocational training for primary school graduates who lack the aptitude for longer range secondary studies. The 6-year secondary school program

includes training for middle-level Government and commercial employment. The

Ministry of State for Youth, Sports, and Social Affairs conducts pre-apprenticeship training centers, a program of apprenticeship and on-the-job training, a

network of adult skill improvement centers, and a specialized mason-helpers program. The Ministry of State for Agriculture conducts a system of agricultural

training schools, including a Higher School of Agriculture, agricultural colleges

moyens, and agricultural vocational training centers. Other Ministries, as well

as trade unions and private employers, conduct training programs designed to

meet their own particular needs. In 1963, the Government established a National

Institute of Occupational Training and Productivity to train instructors for the

various training centers.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. The Constitution guarantees freedom of association.

A Labor Code enacted in April 1966 mainly codifies existing laws and decrees

which regulate other aspects of labor and include provisions for collective bargaining in industry and commerce; minimum wages; maximum working hours; overtime

compensation; restrictions on the employment of women, children, and aliens;

weekly rest; paid leave; industrial safety and hygiene; social security benefits; and cooperatives.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of State for Youth, Sports,

and Social Affairs has primary responsibility for the administration of most

labor affairs. Labor inspectors, who represent the Government in major economic

enterprises throughout the country, enforce labor legislation and also help to

settle labor disputes at the factory level. The Ministry also operates an expanding employment service and assists in the administration of various vocational training programs. The 1966 Labor Code provides for the creation of a

Labor Committee under the Presidency, which will be responsible for advising

the Government on all questions pertaining to labor legislation, organization,

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placement, manpower, and matters affecting wage and salary earners. The Committee will be headed by the Minister of State for the Presidency and consist

of four Ministers, including the Minister of Youth, Sports, and Social Affairs,

and four representatives each of management and labor organizations.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wage rates are set by the Government and vary according to geographic area, type of industry, and the degree of skill required for specific

jobs. The minimum rate for most unskilled agricultural workers is US$0.73 per

day; minimums for workers with special skills are from 15 to 66 percent higher.

Average hourly earnings of nonagricultural unskilled workers in 1963 ranged from

US$0.16 to US$0.22 and from US$0.18 toUS$0.55 for semiskilled and certain specialized workers. Lower rates prevail for apprentices, women, and juveniles.

In commerce and industry, the basic workweek is 40 hours. In agriculture, the

annual maximum is 2,700 hours spread over 300 days. The 1966 Labor Code establishes 4 paid holidays.

A study based on 1959 Government estimates showed that 75 percent of the

population haveaper capita income of less than US$119.00 a year. Severe inflation has beset Tunisia since World War II. Government efforts to protect the

purchasing power of wages have ranged from direct price controls to moral suasion.

Despite such efforts, the cost-of-living index was 116.7 in December 1965 (January 1962=100). The Government faces heightened inflationary pressures as a result of the currency devaluation in 1964. Efforts to improve living conditions

include the formation of cooperatives, of which there were 350 functioning in

1962. Some are financed by the labor movement, some by the National Agricultural

Bank, and some by the Government.

Employer Organizations

Employers have established the Tunisian Federation of Industry, Commerce,

and Handicrafts and the National Federation of Tunisian Farmers, both of which

function more as mutual benefit organizations than as management associations.

There are also several Chambers of Commerce.

Labor Organizations

Total trade union membership in Tunisia is estimated at 150,070; 150,000

are members of the General Federation of Tunisian Workers (Union G£n£rale

Tunisienne du Travail--UGTT) . Formed in 1946, the UGTT has hadaclose relationship with theDestourian Socialist Party since the pre-independence period. This

relationship has been strengthened since independence, particularly at the 1965

UGTT Congress. Organized along both geographic and industrial lines, the UGTT

has 12 industrial federations and 13 regional centers. One of these federations,

the General Federation of Civil Servants and State Workers (F£d£ration G^nerale

des Fonctionnaires et Ouvriers de l'Etat), encompasses almost one-fourth of the

UGTT membership in its 11 national unions.

The UGTT has been affiliated with the International Confederation of Free

Trade Unions (ICFTU) since 1951; it is also a member of its African Regional Organization (AFRO), but ceased participation therein in 1964. It is a leading

affiliate of the African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC).

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Seven International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have affiliates within the

UGTT: International Graphical Federation; International Union of Food and Allied

Workers' Associations; Miners' International Federation; Postal, Telegraph, and

Telephone International; Public Services International; International Federation of Free Teachers' Unions; and International Transport Workers' Federation.

Labor-Management Relations

Legislation establishes national minimum labor standards and outlines

the framework within which labor-management relations are conducted. Under a

January 1962 decree, works councils, composed of labor and management representatives, have been established. Local aspects of labor-management relations

and working conditions above the minimum standards are negotiated by collective

bargaining within ad hoc committees or in works councils, where established.

The 1966 Labor Code stipulates that industrial disputes at the local level must

be submitted to a conciliation commission, presided over by the Governor of

the region concerned. He will be assisted by the regional labor inspector and

four other members--two labor representatives, one of whom represents the national union, and two management representatives. If a dispute is national in

scope, the membership of the commission will correspondingly be at a higher

level. Any strike undertaken before this procedure has been followed and/or

without the consent of the national trade union is illegal. The UGTT has agreed

to avoid strikes as much as possible in support of the Government's plans for

economic development. Hence, strikes are infrequent and usually not of long

duration.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 140

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics*

LABOR CONDITIONS IN UGANDA

Uganda is a landlocked country of about 93,000 square miles in east-central

Africa. The population in 1966 was estimated at 7.5 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Formerly a British Protectorate, Uganda became an independent

member of the Commonwealth on October 9, 1962. In 1963, the Constitution was

amended to make Uganda an independent nation, still within the Commonwealth,

and the Governor General was replaced by a President, Sir Edward F. Mutesa,

who is also King of Buganda. In April 1966, President Mutesa was replaced by

Prime Minister A. Milton Obote, who introduced a new constitution. The Cabinet

and a unicameral Legislature are elected by universal suffrage. The Uganda

People's Congress (UPC), headed by President Obote, is the dominant political

party.

Economic. The mainstay of the economy is agriculture, most of which

is at the subsistence level. Cotton and coffee, grown almost entirely by peasant farmers, account for about 80 percent of all exports. Copper is the third

largest export. Other important products are tea, sugar, sisal, peanuts,

tobacco, and livestock. Annual per capita income was estimated at about US$72

in 1964. Industrialization is characterized by a proliferation of small firms

employing fewer than 50 workers. Industrial activity consists mainly of the

processing of cotton and coffee. There is, however, a growing small industrial

complex at Jinja.

Social. Over 98 percent of the population are Africans. The Baganda

is the largest of the more than 28 tribes and comprises about 16 percent of the

total African population. The major nonindigenous groups are Asians and Europeans. Literacy in English, the official language, is currently estimated by

the Ministry of Education to be about 20 percent. Primary education is not

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compulsory. Of the 4,100 primary schools operating in 1966, 2,600 are Government aided; the remainder are operated and administered by voluntary, nongovernmental agencies. Total enrollment in primary schools in 1966 is estimated at

693,600. Approximately 26,000 students are enrolled in 84 secondary schools,

of which all but 15 are Government aided.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force in 1962 totaled 3.7 million

persons over 16 years of age. A large majority of this number were self-employed

farmers or unpaid family workers. Wage and salary earners in 1964 numbered

224,000 (about 6 percent of the total labor force); almost 31 percent were in

public administration, education, and medical services; 23 percent in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting; 15 percent in the processing of agricultural products and miscellaneous manufacturing; 12 percent in construction; and

19 percent in mining, commerce, transport, communications, and miscellaneous

services. About 25 percent of the labor force are migrants (mainly manual workers) from neighboring countries.

Statistics on unemployment are unavailable. Many unemployed and underemployed agricultural workers seek employment in urban areas but usually return

to farms when they do not find work. Unemployment appears to be most serious

among the many migrant Africans from nearby countries who find the cost of returning home beyond their means. The approximately 9,000 largely unskilled

schoolleavers entering the labor force annually are expected to aggravate the

unemployment problem.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. The small size of farms, inefficient

methods of production, and lack of skills have been major factors in keeping

productivity low. Increased production has been largely the result of more land

under cultivation and more farmers rather than improved farming techniques.

The low protein diets of most workers and the migratory nature of the work force

also contribute to low productivity.

Over 90 percent of the wage and salary earners are unskilled. An expanded training program, initiated by the Government in 1958, is enabling increasing numbers of Ugandans to qualify for jobs requiring technical, professional, and administrative skills heretofore provided mainly by Asians and

Europeans. The training program includes 5-year rural trade schools specializing

in the cultivation of small holdings, 2- and 4-year vocational schools, the

Uganda Technical College (which prepares workers for middle-grade supervisory,

technical, and commercial employment), 2- to 5-year civil service training

schools, and farming institutes. Apprentices receive 2 years of training. In

addition, many private firms have training programs.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor legislation is embodied in various ordinances.

The most important are: The Employment Ordinance of 1955, prescribing general

conditions of employment and requiring employers operating firms outside the

major cities to provide housing for workers; the Minimum Wages Advisory Boards

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and Wages Councils Ordinance of 1957, establishing methods for the determination

of minimum wages; the Trades Disputes (Arbitration and Settlement) Act of 1964,

consolidating all earlier legislation on industrial relations; and the Trade

Unions Act of 1965, prohibiting foreigners from holding trade union offices.

Other ordinances regulate the employment of women and children and the organization of trade unions, and provide for the establishment of a pension scheme

for certain Government employees and a workmen *s compensation system for public

and private employees. The Government has not yet instituted a comprehensive

social security system.

Administration and Practice. Among the major functions of the Labour

Department, which is under the Ministry of Housing and Labour, are the organization and operation of employment exchanges, the establishment of minimum wage

rates, the supervision of apprenticeship programs, and the administration of

the workmen's compensation system. Enforcement of labor legislation, for which

the Inspectorate Division of the Labour Department is also responsible, is

hampered by the shortage of adequately trained labor inspectors. The Department

also provides advisory services to labor and management with regard to the

formation, organization, and administration of trade unions and the development

of joint consultation in enterprises.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Wage rates, set by the Government, represent a sliding scale of regional

minimums based on local costs of living. Thus far, rates have been established

only for the main towns. In 1966, the new, legal monthly minimum rates for

unskilled labor in Kampala and Jinja, the two largest cities, were approximately

US$21.50; minimum monthly rates for Government employees ranged from about

US$19.00 to US$21.00. Many Government employees receive additional benefits,

such as free or low-cost housing. Lower rates prevail for learners and apprentices. All minimum rates include a component for housing which, if provided,

may be deducted by employers. In 1966, the housing component in Kampala was

about US$2.80 per month.

The normal workweek in industry is 48 hours and in Government services,

44 hours. Nearly all agricultural workers are paid on the basis of daily tasks,

each of which usually takes 4 to 6 hours to complete.

There is no cost-of-living index for the country as a whole. The official

cost-of-living index (excluding rent) for Kampala (December 1951=100), which

has risen rapidly during the last few years, was 159 in December 1964 and 165

in December 1965. The official index of retail prices in African markets in

Kampala (January 1957=100) was 107 in December 1964 and 127 in December 1965.

Employer Organizations

Virtually all major concerns with 50 or more permanent employees are

members of the Federation of Uganda Employers (FUE), which has represented

management views on the national level. The membership of the FUE, which was

36 in 1960, the year of its inauguration, had increased to 99 by 1966, and an

additional 300 enterprises were associate^ with it.

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Labor Organizations

Claimed trade union membership is about 122,500, or approximately 55 percent of the estimated 224,000 wage and salary earners in 1964. By far the largest

of the two national trade union centers is the Uganda Trade Union Congress (UTUC),

which claims almost 102,000 members. Formed in 1956, the UTUC has been affiliated

with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) since that

time and is a member of its African Regional Organization (AFRO).

The Federation of Uganda Trade Unions (FUTU), which claims about 20,500

members, was formed in 1964 by dissident unions which withdrew from the UTUC.

Since its formation, the FUTU has had the support of the dominant political

party, the UPC. The FUTU is affiliated with the All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF).

Twelve International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have affiliates in Uganda.

The ICFTU African Labour College, which has been training African trade unionists

from English-speaking countries since 1958, is located in Kampala.

Labor-Management Relations

Labor-management relations are conducted mainly through a system of joint

consultation. Most governmental departments and private companies have bipartite

industrial relations councils and works committees. Legislation enacted in 1964

provided for the establishment of an Industrial Court empowered to arbitrate

trade disputes referred to it by either the Minister of Housing and Labour or

directly by the parties themselves; however, at the beginning of 1966, the

court had not yet begun to function. Strikes or lockouts are prohibited before

the existing industrial relations machinery has been exhausted. An Industrial

Relations Charter intended to promote industrial peace was signed in 1964 by

Government, labor, and employer representatives. In 1963, approximately 67,000

man-days were lost through strikes, a decrease of 30 percent from the previous

year.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 141

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC (EGYPT)

The United Arab Republic (Egypt) is in the northeast corner of Africa. It has

an area of 386,200 square miles and had a population of 25,771,000 in 1960.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. A republic was established in 1953. According to the Constitution of 1964 , the President is Chief of State and Commander in Chief of the

Armed Forces. He establishes state policy, controls its implementation, appoints

the Cabinet, and may dissolve the National Assembly. The Arab Socialist Union

is the sole political movement.

Economic. Agriculture occupied 56.7 percent of the labor force in 1960.

The main crops are cotton, which comprised 6 0 percent of exports in 1962, sugarcane, onions, and grain. The principal mineral product is petroleum. The main

manufacturing industries are the spinning and weaving of cotton, metal processing, and assembly of appliances. The gross national product per capita was estimated at US$160 in 1963. A new 5-year plan was initiated in July 1965.

Social. The population is predominantly Egyptian; the largest minorities

are the nomadic Bedouins, numbering about 600,000, and the Nubians , about 50 ,000.

Islam is the state religion. The Coptic and other Christian population was

estimated by the Government in 1960 to form 7.6 percent of the total population.

Arabic is the official language. Education is free through the secondary and

technical school levels. In 1963, only about 70 percent of the elementary schoolage population (6-12 years) were enrolled in schools. The literacy rate was

estimated at 30 percent in 1960.

Manpower and Employment

Employment and Unemployment. On the basis of the 1960 census, 7.8 million

persons, or 30 percent of the total population, were estimated to be in the

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labor force; 57 percent were in agriculture; 17 percent in services; 9 percent in manufacturing; 8 percent in commerce; and 9 percent in other activities.

An estimated 3 million children under 15 years of age are seasonal farm workers.

A total of 3.8 million, or 48.7 percent of the labor force, were wage and

salary earners in 1960. Unemployment was officially estimated at 294,950, or

4.5 percent of the labor force, in 1961. However, the figures did not take into

account underemployment and disguised unemployment, which are prevalent particularly in agricultural areas.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Although productivity in agriculture is relatively low because of the small size of farms, lack of skills, and

use of primitive techniques, yields are high because of the unusual fertility

of the arable areas. Low productivity in industry has been attributed in part

to the workers' poor physical condition. Because of the rapid development of

industry under the Government's development plan, there is a shortage of skills

in all fields, particularly managerial and administrative, engineering, technical, and scientific.

During the period 1961-62, a total of 123,066 students were enrolled in

27 vocational schools. About 5,000 students were enrolled during 1962-63 in

higher specialized institutes, and about 41,000 students were enrolled in 49

centers for industrial, agricultural, and commercial training. Apprenticeship

training is being expanded.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. As revised in 1964, ' the Labour Code contains the

entire body of labor law and applies to all workers and employees. It provides

for conciliation, arbitration, and collective bargaining procedures, wage fixing and inspection , placement and dismissal procedures, apprenticeship and vocational rehabilitation, and regulates hours of work and the employment of women

and minors. Decree No. 362 of 1962 establishes a minimum wage for workers over

18 years of age in Government and nationalized industries. Decree No. Ill of 1961

provides for a profit-sharing system for workers in industrial and commercial

enterprises, whereby a portion of 25 percent of company profits is tobedistributed directly to individual workers and the remainder is to be spent on social

projects benefiting the workers as a group. A number of so-called Socialist

Laws of 1961 provided for nationalization of the greater part of the industrial

sector. Law No. 63 of 1964 provides for a comprehensive social insurance system.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labour is the chief administrative body concerned with labor. The General Organization for Social Insurance

operates under the Ministry of Labour. The economic development plan (1960-70.)

provided for the establishment of 99 regional offices of the Ministry of Labour by

1965. The shortage of staff and operating funds, lack of emphasis by the trade union

movement, and obstacles of an administrative nature have caused enforcement of the

numerous labor laws to be confined to the larger firms. Most of the labor laws

represent targets to be achieved gradually rather than standards already in force.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The wage structure is based on a minimum wage supplemented by fringe

benefits and a profit-sharing system for workers in industrial and commercial

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establishments<, In 1962, the daily minimum wage for workers over 18 years of

age in industrial companies was US$0.58. The daily minimum wage for agricultural

workers ranged from US$0.41 for adult males to US$0.23 for women, boys, and

girls. In 1963, average weekly wages were: Manufacturing, US$5.45; construction, US$6.03; and transportation (including storage and communications),

US$7.71. The official workweek is 42 hours--7 hours per day for 6 days. There

are 10 legal holidays. Overtime, which is limited to 12 hours a week, is paid

for at time and a quarter for daywork and time and a half for nightwork. Double

time is paid for time worked on a paid day off. Employers are required to grant

to each worker an annual vacation of either 14 or 21 days, depending on the number of years of employment.

The Government exercises price and rent control. Official figures showed

that the cost-of-living index (June-August 1939=100) rose from 302.0 in 1963

to 339.0 in 1964. From February 1963 to February 1965, the retail price index

rose from 368.0 to 478.3, or 29.9 percent. The level of living differs among

the people; a majority of the population live at the subsistence level. In 1963,

the annual per capita income was US$136.39.

Employer Organizations

The Egyptian Federation of Industry has as affiliates about 20 chambers

of specialized industries. The federation operates under governmental control

and, because of the nationalization of most industries, its real role is difficult

to assess. An additional 31 Chambers of Commerce are located throughout the

country.

Labor Organizations

The United Arab Republic Federation of Labour (UARFL), the only national

trade union center in the country, claims a total membership of 1 million, or

almost 40 percent of the 3.8 million wage and salary earners in 1960.

The UARFL was established in 1964 as a result of a reorganization of the

Egyptian Federation of Labour (EFL), which was formed in 1957 under the name

Egyptian Confederation of Labour (ECL), As a result of the reorganization, the

UARFL is composed of 27 industrial unions.

The UARFL took the initiative in the formation of the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions (ICATU), which has its headquarters in Cairo.

It remains one of its most influential affiliates. The UARFL also played a leading role in the formation of the All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF) and

continues to participate actively in AATUF affairs.

Two International Trade Secretariats (ITS) have affiliates in the UAR:

The International Federation cf Petroleum and Chemical Workers and International

Transport Workers1 Federation. The Arab Federation of Petroleum Workers, which

has its headquarters in Cairo, also has an affiliate in the UAR.

Labor-Management Relations

The Labour Code prescribes the basic provisions of collective agreements.

However, collective agreements are not common, and most labor matters are handled

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through Government channels by such committees as the Joint Committees for Fixing

Wages and the Joint Committees on Dismissals. Tripartite regional boards for

the amicable settlement of disputes engage in conciliation. If they do not bring

about a settlement, the case is forwarded to local or regional labor relations

offices of the Ministry of Labour. Cases involving less than 50 workers and

employees are decided by regional offices and cases involving 50 or more workers

and employees, by a tripartite conciliation committee or a tripartite arbitration board.

The nature of labor-management relations is evolving as a result of two

institutional changes in recent years: The establishment of Arab Socialist

union groups in every factory, which have taken over some of the functions of

trade unions in some cases, and the election of workers to the boards of directors of the larger firms.

Strikes and lockouts are prohibited during conciliation and arbitration

procedures. However, an employer may declare a lockout if he obtains written

approval from the Ministry of Labour within 30days of his request. Legislation

limits the right to strike when the work involves the national interest. Few

strikes have taken place over the last several years.

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LABOR DIGEST

No. 142

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics„

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF UPPER VOLTA

The Republic of Upper Volta covers an area of about 105,900 square miles in the

tropical zone of former French West Africa. The population in 1964 was estimated at 4,760,000.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. As a result of a labor-led civil uprising on January 3, 1966,

and the subsequent resignation of the President, Upper Volta is administered

temporarily by a military government, headed by Lieutenant Colonel Sangoule

Lamizana and comprised of a Consultative Committee of 10 military officers and

31 civilians.

Economic. The economy consists almost entirely of subsistence agriculture, which provides a livelihood for a majority of the population. Over 70 percent of the small volume of exports consists of livestock and hides and most of

the remainder, of peanuts, cotton, and small quantities of gold. Industrialization is in an embryonic stage; however, the Government anticipates that recently

planned projects will provide gainful employment for several thousand workers

by 1970. Per capita income in 1964 was about US$50. Remittances to the Government from migrant Upper Voltans working in neighboring countries total

about US$4 million annually and provide an important source of foreign exchange

earnings.

Social. The population is predominantly African. Europeans, the largest

nonindigenous group , numbered approximately 3,000 in 1964 and were mainly French.

There are some 17 different tribal groups, the largest of which, the Mossi,

accounts for about half of the population. French is the official language.

The literacy rate in 1964 was 6 to 7 percent. In 1965, primary school enrollment totaled 85,000, representing about 7 percent of the school-age population

(6 to 14 years of age).

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M a n p o w e r a nd E m p l o y m e n t

Employment and Unemployment. The labor force in 1964 was about 2.5 million; of this number, 32,800, or 1.3 percent, were wage and salary earners.

Thirty-three percent were in Government service, 27 percent in manufacturing and

construction, 23 percent in transportation, 8 percent in commerce and banking,

5 percent in domestic service, and 4 percent in commercial agriculture. From

200,000 to 400,000 Upper Voltan workers, representing about 10 to 20 percent of

the male labor force, migrate annually to Ghana and the Ivory Coast to seek

seasonal employment. Government officials estimated that in 1964 89 percent of

the positions in firms with 10 or more employees were filled by foreigners,

mainly French nationals.

Statistics on unemployment are unavailable, but it is known to be high

in urban areas. Underemployment is extensive in rural areas.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Methods of farming are largely traditional, utilizing crude implements and heavy inputs of hand labor. Most of

the total labor force and about 40 percent of the wage and salary earners are

unskilled. The Government is attempting to raise the level of skills and productivity through an expanded program of agricultural training, which combines primary education with instruction in modern agricultural techniques. In 1964,

approximately 9,000 students were enrolled in about 400 rural education centers.

In addition, about 955 students were enrolled in 10 technical schools, some of

which were privately operated and some Government operated.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor laws, based largely on the 1952 French Overseas

Labor Code, were codified and revised in August 1962. The main provisions of

the new code prohibit forced labor; provide for the formation, administration,

and functioning of trade unions; prescribe the contents and methods of concluding

employment contracts and collective agreements; require that all workers receive

equal pay for equal work; authorize the Government to set minimum wages and conditions of payment; prohibit strikes and the use of the checkoff system; establish standards for workers' hygiene and safety; require all establishments to

maintain medical facilities; and establish general conditions of employment,

including maximum hours of work, paid leave, weekly rest, travel and transport

allowances, and limitations on nightwork and on the employment of women and

children. An old-age and survivors' pension system was established in 1960.

An agreement concluded with the Ivory Coast in 1960 to regulate the recruitment

and employment conditions of Upper Voltans in the Ivory Coast has never been

implemented. Trade union affiliation with non-African unions was prohibited by

law in 1964.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labor and Civil Service

administers most labor legislation through its Department of Labor, Manpower,

and Vocational Training. Systems of family allowances, industrial accidents,

and old-age pensions are administered by the Social Security Fund. A permanent,

tripartite Advisory Committee for Workers' Education was established in 1961.

The Labor Code of 1962 provides for the establishment of a tripartite Consultative Commission of Labor to advise the Government on all matters concerning labor.

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Implementation and enforcement of labor laws have been severely hampered by the

acute shortage of trained enforcement personnel. In 1963, for example, there

were only two labor inspectors.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

The legalhourly minimum wage varies fromUS$0.12 in the three largesturban

centers--Ouagadougou (the capital), Bobo-Dioulasso, and Banfoura--to US$0.09 in

the remainder of the country. The maximum worktime in industry and commerce is 40

hours per week; in agriculture, the maximum is 2,400 hours per year. Increases

in prices and the overall cost of living have generally exceeded wages, which

have remained unchanged since 1960. The cost-of-living index for Ouagadougou

(May 1961=100) rose to 115.1 in May 1964.

Employer Organizations

The leading employer organization is the Syndicat des Commercants, Importateurs, et Exportateurs (SCIMPEX), which claims as members the major commercial employers. Chambers of Commerce function in Bobo-Dioulasso and Ouagadougou;

the former concentrates on industrial and agricultural activities and the latter

on commerce.

Labor Organizations

Claimed trade union membership in Upper Volta is about 12,370, or approximately 38 percent of the 32,800 wage and salary earners.

The largest of the three national trade union centers is the Federation of

Voltan Workers 1 Trade Unions (Union Syndicate des Travailleurs Voltaiques--USTV),

with an estimated 4,300 members in 14 affiliates, or about 35 percent of the

organized workers. The USTV, which was formed in 1958, was formerly known as

the General Federation of Workers of Black Africa of Upper Volta (Union G6n£rale

des Travailleurs d'Afrique Noire de la Haute Volta--UGTAN-HV). It is affiliated

with the All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF).

The Voltan Organization of Free Trade Unions (Organization Voltaique

des Syndicats Libres--OVSL), which was formed in 1960, claims 2,500 members in seven affiliates. Formerly known as the National Federation of Workers'

Unions of Upper Volta (Union Nationale des Syndicats des Travailleurs de la

Haute Volta--UNSTHV), the OVSL is affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and its African Regional Organization

(AFRO).

A third center, the African Confederation of Believing Workers (Confederation Africaine des Travailleurs Croyants--CATC), which was formed in 1950

as a local of the French Confederation of Christian Workers (Confederation

Francaise des Travailleurs Chretiens--CFTC), claims 3,000 members in 19 affiliates. Both the OVSL and the CATC are affiliated with the African Trade Union

Confederation (ATUC). All three national centers cooperated in presenting

demands to the former Government in December 1965 under the banner of the Joint

Action Committee, which served as a catalyst for the coup d'etat. It is believed

the unions continue to cooperate through the committee.

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Labor-Management Relations

Individual grievances are handled by Labor Tribunals, which hear cases

involving contracts of employment and apprenticeship and those concerning work

accidents or illness. Collective agreements must include provisions for the

conciliation of collective disputes. In the event that conciliation procedures

fail, the Labor Inspector attempts mediation and, if unsuccessful, he submits

the case to the Minister of Labor and Civil Service for arbitration.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

LABOR DIGEST

No. 143

1966

This is one of a series of brief notes on labor conditions prepared in the Office of

Foreign Labor and Trade of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for inclusion in the

Directory o f Labor Organizations—Africa, jointly prepared and published in 1966

by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs and the Bureau of Labor Statistics,

LABOR CONDITIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF ZAMBIA

The Republic of Zambia is a landlocked country of about 290,587 square miles in

south-central Africa. The population in 1964 was approximately 3.7 million.

Factors Affecting Labor

Political. Zambia (formerly called Northern Rhodesia) was part of the

British-administered Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland until 1963. The Constitution of 1963, effective January 22, 1964, granted Zambia internal self-government

and provided foraprime minister and cabinet. In October 1964, Zambia became an

independent republic. The Government, republican in form, is headed byapresident

who, along with the National Assembly , is elected by universal adult suffragefora

5-year term. The leading political party is the United National Independence Party

(UNIP) , headed by Kenneth Kaunda, President of the Republic; the other major parties are the African National Congress (ANC) and the National Progress Party (NPP) .

Economic. Subsistence agriculture is the mainstay of about 75 percent

of the population. The money economy is based on mining (mainly copper), which

provided 50 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) and accounted for over

90 percent of export earnings in 1964. The major agricultural export is tobacco;

among other important crops are corn, peanuts, and cotton. The small but growing manufacturing industry provided almost 6 percent of the GDP in 1964. Per

capita GDP in 1964 was about US$190.

Social. Africans constitute over 97 percent of the population. The nonindigenous population consists mainly of South Africans, Southern Rhodesians

(both primarily of European stock), and Asians. The African population is

divided into more than 70 tribal groupings, speaking some 30 languages and dialects. The three largest tribes--the Tonga, Bemba, and Lozi--together represent over 16 percent of the population. English is the official language. The

literacy rate in 1964 was approximately 20 percent. Primary school enrollment

in the first half of 1965 was about 410,000.

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M a n p o w e r and E m p l o y m e n t

Employment and Unemployment. In December 1964, the total number of wage

ana salary earners was 285,000, representing about 8 percent of the total population, who were distributed as follows: Mining and quarrying, over 18 percent;

Government services, almost 18 percent; construction, 14 percent; domestic service and agriculture (including forestry and fishing), almost 13 percent each;

commerce, banking, and insurance, almost 8 percent; manufacturing, over 7 percent; and transport, communications, and miscellaneous activities, 9 percent.

African migration to urban centers has caused considerable unemployment among

unskilled workers. The unemployment situation is being further aggravated by

the increasing number of unskilled school leavers who join the urban labor force

each year. The Government estimated urban unemployment in 1964 at 80,000 persons.

Productivity, Skills, and Training. Factors such as the traditional

migratory nature of much of the labor force and the lack of skills and industrial

experience of most workers contribute to low productivity. The mining companies

have succeeded in reducing the high rate of labor turnover by developing permanent

towns for the workers and their families. More than 80 percent of the African

mineworkers live in such communities. The emigration of Europeans, rapid expansion of the economy, and limited facilities for education have contributed to a

shortage of skilled labor. However, the Government and private industry, as

well as religious missions, have encouraged the development of skills through

a variety of training programs. In 1964, under an extensive Government program

to expand training facilities, construction was begun on 2 teacher-training

colleges, 21 rural secondary schools, 3 urban secondary schools, 950 rural primary schools, and 23 urban primary schools. In the first half of 1965, 2,058

students were enrolled in teacher-training and vocational education institutions.

Labor Standards

Labor Legislation. Labor legislation is embodied innumerous ordinances,

the most important of which include those concerning trade unions and industrial

disputes, conciliation, conditions of employment, apprenticeship, minimum wages ,

employment of women and children, workers' housing, and workmen's compensation.

Administration and Practice. The Ministry of Labour and Mines administers

most labor matters through its Labour Department. The main functions of the

Department include promotion of good industrial relations and safe working conditions, supervision of apprenticeship training, operation of employment services, collection of labor statistics, and enforcement of labor legislation. The

Workmen's Compensation Fund Control Board administers a compensation program.

A tripartite National Apprenticeship Council was organized in 1964 to help formulate policies affecting apprenticeship training. An Off ice of National Development and Planning was established in 1965; its responsibilities include manpower

development planning. Several other administrative bodies dealing with labor

serve in advisory capacities to the Government.

Wages, Hours, Prices, and Level of Living

Minimum wage rates are set by Wages and Conditions of Employment Boards,

which have been established for various industries and , within some industries, for

certain racial groups. The Government believes that minimum wage rates should be

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determined mainly through collective bargaining; consequently, statutory minimum

wage boards have been set up only for industries such as agriculture in which

there are no well-established trade unions. In March 1964, the minimum monthly

wages (including the value of rations) for agricultural workers were as follows:

US$15.46 in the western, central, and southern provinces and US$11.22 in the

eastern province. During 1964, the average annual earnings of Africans in paid

employment varied from a low of approximately US$246.40 in commercial agriculture to a high of about US$834.40 in mining and quarrying.

The standard workweek ranges from 40 to 48 hours; in 1964, it was between

43 and 47 hours in most industries.

During 1964, plans were under study to establish price controls. The

consumer price index (January 1962=100) was 108.5 in January 1965.

Employer Organizations

Information on employer organizations is unavailable.

Labor Organizations

Total claimed trade union membership is about 105,000, or about 37 percent of the estimated 285,000 wage and salary earners. The affiliates of the

Zambia Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU), the nation's only trade union center,

claim a total membership of about 58,526, or over 50 percent of all organized

workers. The ZCTU was formed in 1965 as a successor to the United Trades Union

Congress (UTUC) , which was dissolved by the Government at the UTUC's own request. Under Zambian legislation, the ZCTU is a quasi-official national center,

affiliation to which accords certain privileges to national unions, such as the

right to apply to the Government for compulsory checkoff in certain industries.

The Zambian Government appointed the present Interim Governing Council of the

ZCTU to serve until a special delegates' conference can be called to elect a

permanent executive. The ZCTU is affiliated with the All-African Trade Union

Federation (AATUF).

The largest union in the country is the Zambia Mineworkers* Union, which

has 33,842 members. To date, it is not affiliated with the ZCTU. The eight

anti-Communist International Trade Secretariats (ITS) which have affiliates in

Zambia are the International Federation of Building and Woodworkers (IFBWW);

International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, and Technical Employees

(IFCCTE); International Federation of Chemical and General Workers' Union (ICF) ;

Miners' International Federation (MIF); International Federation of Plantation,

Agricultural, and Allied Workers (IFPAAW); Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone

International (PTTI) ; Public Services International (PSD; and the International

Transport Workers' Federation (ITF).

Labor-Management Relations

In 1963, 409,559 man-days were lost during 194 strikes involving 41,686

workers. Legislation was passed in that year permitting strikes only for specific

reasons and only after all other methods of settling labor-management disputes

have been exhausted. The Government anticipates that this measure will contribute

much toward ensuring industrial peace.

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