NOAA Technical Report NOS CO-OPS 027

EFFECTS OF HURRICANE FLOYD ON WATER LEVELS

DATA REPORT

Silver Spring, Maryland

January, 2000

noaa National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Ocean Service

Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services

Products and Services Division
Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services

National Ocean Service

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

U.S. Department of Commerce

The National Ocean Service (NOS) Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services

(CO-OPS) collects and distributes observations and predictions of water levels and currents to ensure

safe, efficient and environmentally sound maritime commerce. The Center provides the set of water

level and coastal current products required to support NOS' Strategic Plan mission requirements, and

to assist in providing operational oceanographic data/products required by NOAA's other Strategic

Plan themes. For example, CO-OPS provides data and products required by the National Weather

Service to meet its flood and tsunami warning responsibilities. The Center manages the National

Water Level Observation Network (NWLON), and a national network of Physical Oceanographic

Real-Time Systems (PORTS) in major U.S. harbors. The Center: establishes standards for the

collection and processing of water level and current data; collects and documents user requirements

which serve as the foundation for all resulting program activities; designs new and/or improved

oceanographic observing systems; designs software to improve CO-OPS' data processing

capabilities; maintains and operates oceanographic observing systems; performs operational data

analysis/quality control; and produces/disseminates oceanographic products.
NOAA Technical Report NOS CO-OPS 027

EFFECTS OF HURRICANE FLOYD ON WATER LEVELS

DATA REPORT

Chris Zervas, Scott Duncan, Dale Deitemyer, James Hubbard, Janet Culp, 

Thomas Landon, Michael Connolly, Darren Wright, Richard Bourgerie

January, 2000

noaa National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

U.S. DEPARTMENT National Oceanic and National Ocean Service

OF COMMERCE Atmospheric Administration Nancy M. Foster

William Daley, Secretary D. James Baker, Under Secretary Assistant Administrator

Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services

Director, Richard M. Barazotto
ii

NOTICE

Mention of a commercial company or product does not constitute an

endorsement by NOAA. Use for publicity or advertising purposes of

information from this publication concerning proprietary products or the

tests of such products is not authorized.
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

I. Introduction .................................................................1

II. Description of Hurricane Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

III. The National Water Level Observation Network ...................................9

IV. Maximum Observed Elevations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

V. Storm Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

VI. Meteorological Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

VII. Currents near Hampton Roads, VA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

VIII. Operation of the Real-Time Monitoring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

IX. Internet Dissemination of Storm Surge Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

X. Coordination with Federal and State Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

XI. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Appendix I. Data Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Appendix II. Time series of observed water level and predicted tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Appendix III. Time series of storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Appendix IV. Time series of wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
iv

List of Tables

Table 1. Hurricane Floyd weather advisories from the NOAA National Hurricane Center .....3

Table 2. Maximum observed water level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Table 3. NWLON stations with new maximum observed water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Table 4. Greatest timing differences of the maximum observed water levels relative to 

predicted high tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Table 5. Maximum storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Table A. Hurricane Floyd weather advisories from the NOAA National Hurricane Center . . . 62

Table B. Location and period of record for NWLON stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
v

List of Figures

Figure 1. Track of Floyd from September 7 to September 17,1999 ..................... 5

Figure 2. Hurricane Floyd maximum wind speed and minimum pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 3. NOAA-15 AVHRR multi-spectral false color image of Hurricane Floyd at peak 

strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Figure 4. GOES-8 colorized IR image of Hurricane Floyd making landfall near Cape 

Fear, NC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Figure 5. Total rainfall for September 14-17, 1999 .................................. 7

Figure 6. SeaWiFS image showing flooded rivers of eastern North Carolina .............. 7

Figure 7. Northern U.S. Atlantic coast NWLON stations with the track of Hurricane Floyd . 11

Figure 8. Southern U.S. Atlantic coast NWLON stations with the track of Hurricane Floyd . 11

Figure 9. Comparison of historical maximum observed elevations to the maximum 

observed elevations during Hurricane Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Figure 10. Landfall location map of the U.S. for all hurricanes during 1899-1996 . . . . . . . . . . 18

Figure 11. Maximum storm surge at water level stations during Hurricane Floyd . . . . . . . . . . 22

Figure 12. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at selected US Atlantic coast NWLON stations on

or close to the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Figure 13. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in Florida, Georgia, and the 

Bahamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Figure 14. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in North Carolina and South 

Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Figure 15. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in southern Virginia . . . . . . . . . 26

Figure 16. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in northern Virginia, Maryland, 

and Washington, DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Figure 17. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in Delaware, Pennsylvania, New

 Jersey, and New York City, NY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Figure 18. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in New York, Connecticut, 

Rhode Island, and Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Figure 19. Barometric pressure at Virginia Key, FL, Mayport, FL, Cape Hatteras, NC, and 

Duck, NC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Figure 20. Barometric pressure at Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA, Solomons Island, 

MD, Cambridge, MD, and Tolchester Beach, MD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Figure 21. Barometric pressure at Sandy Hook, NJ, Newport, RI, and Eastport, ME . . . . . . . . 33

Figure 22. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Cape Hatteras, NC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Figure 23. Hourly wind vectors at Cape Hatteras, NC and storm surge at Oregon Inlet, NC. . 34

Figure 24. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Duck, NC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Figure 25. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA. . . . . 35

Figure 26. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Hampton Roads, VA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Figure 27. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Lewisetta, VA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Figure 28. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Solomons Island, MD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Figure 29. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Cambridge, MD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Figure 30. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Tolchester Beach, MD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Figure 31. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Sandy Hook, NJ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
vi

Figure 32. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Bergen Point, NY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Figure 33. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Kings Point, NY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Figure 34. Station location map for the lower Chesapeake Bay area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Figure 35. Observed current and tidal current prediction at Craney Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Figure 36. Nontidal (residual) current at Craney Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Figure 37. Observed current and tidal current prediction at Newport News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Figure 38. Nontidal (residual) current at Newport News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Figure 39. Sample Tides Online web page for Lewisetta, VA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Figure 40. Number of hits on the Tides Online web site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Figure 41. Settlement Point, BA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Figure 42. Virginia Key, FL observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Figure 43. Trident Pier, FL observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Figure 44. St. Augustine Beach, FL observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Figure 45. Mayport, FL observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Figure 46. Fernandina Beach, FL observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Figure 47. Fort Pulaski, GA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Figure 48. Charleston, SC observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Figure 49. Springmaid Pier, SC observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Figure 50. Wilmington, NC observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Figure 51. Duke Marine Lab, NC observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Figure 52. Cape Hatteras, NC observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Figure 53. Oregon Inlet Marina, NC observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Figure 54. Duck Pier, NC observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Figure 55. Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . 72

Figure 56. Money Point, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Figure 57. Hampton Roads, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Figure 58. Gloucester Point, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Figure 59. Windmill Point, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Figure 60. Lewisetta, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Figure 61. Colonial Beach, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Figure 62. Washington, DC observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Figure 63. Solomons, MD observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Figure 64. Annapolis, MD observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Figure 65. Baltimore, MD observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Figure 66. Tolchester Beach, MD observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Figure 67. Cambridge, MD observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Figure 68. Kiptopeke Beach, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Figure 69. Wachapreague, VA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Figure 70. Lewes, DE observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Figure 71. Reedy Point, DE observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Figure 72. Philadelphia, PA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Figure 73. Cape May, NJ observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Figure 74. Atlantic City, NJ observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Figure 75. Sandy Hook, NJ observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
vii

Figure 76. Bergen Point, NY observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Figure 77. The Battery, NY observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Figure 78. Montauk, NY observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Figure 79. Willets Point, NY observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Figure 80. Kings Point, NY observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Figure 81. Bridgeport, CT observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Figure 82. New London, CT observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Figure 83. Providence, RI observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Figure 84. Newport, RI observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Figure 85. Woods Hole, MA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Figure 86. Nantucket, MA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Figure 87. Boston, MA observed and predicted water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Figure 88. Settlement Point, BA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Figure 89. Virginia Key, FL storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Figure 90. Trident Pier, FL storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Figure 91. St. Augustine Beach, FL storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Figure 92. Mayport, FL storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Figure 93. Fernandina Beach, FL storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Figure 94. Fort Pulaski, GA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Figure 95. Charleston, SC storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Figure 96. Springmaid Pier, SC storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Figure 97. Wilmington, NC storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Figure 98. Duke Marine Lab, NC storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Figure 99. Cape Hatteras, NC storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Figure 100. Oregon Inlet Marina, NC storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Figure 101. Duck Pier, NC storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Figure 102. Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Figure 103. Money Point, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Figure 104. Hampton Roads, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Figure 105. Gloucester Point, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Figure 106. Windmill Point, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Figure 107. Lewisetta, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Figure 108. Colonial Beach, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Figure 109. Washington, DC storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Figure 110. Solomons, MD storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Figure 111. Annapolis, MD storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Figure 112. Baltimore, MD storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Figure 113. Tolchester Beach, MD storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Figure 114. Cambridge, MD storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Figure 115. Kiptopeke Beach, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Figure 116. Wachapreague, VA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Figure 117. Lewes, DE storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Figure 118. Reedy Point, DE storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Figure 119. Philadelphia, PA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
viii

Figure 120. Cape May, NJ storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Figure 121. Atlantic City, NJ storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Figure 122. Sandy Hook, NJ storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Figure 123. Bergen Point, NY storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Figure 124. The Battery, NY storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Figure 125. Montauk, NY storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Figure 126. Willets Point, NY storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Figure 127. Kings Point, NY storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Figure 128. Bridgeport, CT storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Figure 129. New London, CT storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Figure 130. Providence, RI storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Figure 131. Newport, RI storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Figure 132. Woods Hole, MA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Figure 133. Nantucket, MA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Figure 134. Boston, MA storm surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Figure 135. Virginia Key, FL wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Figure 136. Mayport, FL wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Figure 137. Cape Hatteras, NC wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Figure 138. Duck Pier, NC wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Figure 139. Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . 105

Figure 140. Hampton Roads, VA wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Figure 141. Lewisetta, VA wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Figure 142. Solomons Island, MD wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Figure 143. Tolchester Beach, MD wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Figure 144. Cambridge, MD wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Figure 145. Sandy Hook, NJ wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Figure 146. Bergen Point, NY wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Figure 147. Kings Point, NY wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Figure 148. Providence, RI barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Figure 149. Newport, RI barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Figure 150. Eastport,ME wind speed and barometric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
ix

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADCP Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler

AFOS Automation of Field Operations and Services

ARO Atlantic Regional Office

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

BA Bahamas

CO-OPS Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services

CORMS Continuous Operational Real-Time Monitoring System

DCP Data Collection Platform

EDT Eastern Daylight Time

EST Eastern Standard Time

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FOD Field Operations Division

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

GMT Greenwich Mean Time

GT Great Diurnal Range

HAZMAT Hazardous Materials Response Division

MHHW Mean Higher High Water

MLLW Mean Lower Low Water

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NCDC National Climatic Data Center

NGWLMS Next Generation Water Level Measurement System

NHC National Hurricane Center

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOS National Ocean Service

NWLON National Water Level Observation Network

NWLP National Water Level Program

NWS National Weather Service

PORTS Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System

PSD Products and Services Division

SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor
x
1

I. Introduction

Hurricane Floyd was the strongest and most damaging hurricane of the 1999 Atlantic season. At its

peak strength it was classified as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale. By

the time it made landfall near Wilmington, NC it had weakened to a Category 2 hurricane. Most of

the damage and casualties attributed to the storm were due to the heavy rainfall and flooding caused

by the passage of the storm along the U.S. Atlantic coastline. The hardest hit area was eastern North

Carolina. 

This report presents the data collected by the Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and

Services (CO-OPS) during the passage of Floyd in the week of September 13-19, 1999. The storm

track resulted in significant storm surges at almost all of CO-OPS’ National Water Level

Observation Network (NWLON) stations along the Atlantic Coast. At three stations, observed water

levels exceeded their historical records. Previous major storm event data reports are listed in the

reference section at the end of this report.

The report begins with a description of the evolution of Hurricane Floyd from inception to

dissipation, followed by a section indicating the NWLON stations affected by the hurricane at

different times. The maximum observed water levels at the NWLON stations are then presented and

compared with historical maximum elevations. Next, the maximum storm surges at the NWLON

stations are discussed and compared, followed by a presentation and discussion of the ancillary

meteorological data collected by some NWLON stations during this period. An example of currents

driven by the hurricane’s winds is presented using measurements obtained by two CO-OPS current

meters. Finally, there is a discussion of operational problems and damage to NWLON stations, the

operation of the real-time monitoring system, the newly-introduced Tides Online web site, and the

interaction of CO-OPS with federal and state emergency management centers.
2
3

II. Description of Hurricane Floyd

The information presented in this section has been collected from the National Weather Service

(NWS) Monthly Tropical Weather Summary, the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) ClimateWatch September 1999, the NOAA Atlantic Hurricane Season Summary 1999, and the hurricane

advisories disseminated by the NOAA National Hurricane Center (NHC). The information from all

of the NHC Hurricane Floyd advisories are listed in Table A of Appendix I. Table 1 below lists only

those advisories when the storm changed its category on the Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale. The

track of the storm is charted in Figure 1. The maximum wind speed and minimum pressure, plotted

versus time in Figure 2, show that Floyd took slightly over 5 days to reach its peak intensity. The

minimum pressure stayed below 935 mb and the maximum wind speed stayed above 130 mph for

over 2 days showing the power and energy that the storm sustained. However, once Floyd passed

over colder water and then made landfall, it degraded quickly in about 2 1⁄2 days. 

Table 1. Hurricane Floyd weather advisories from the NOAA National Hurricane Center

Advisory # Category Date Time (GMT) Wind Speed (mph) Pressure(mb)

1 TD 9/7/99 2100 30 1008

3 TS 9/8/99 0900 40 1005

11A H1 9/10/99 1200 80 989

15 H2 9/11/99 0900 105 963

19A H3 9/12/99 1200 115 955

21A H4 9/13/99 0000 145 932

24* H4 9/13/99 1500 155* 921*

32 H3 9/15/99 1600 125 943

34B H2 9/16/99 0800 110 956

35B H1 9/16/99 1400 90 962

37 TS 9/16/99 2200 65 974

* Advisory with highest wind speed and lowest pressure.

TD = Tropical Depression; TS = Tropical Storm; H# = Hurricane Category #.

The track of Hurricane Floyd closely resembles that of Hurricane Bertha in 1996. Hurricane Floyd

originated as a tropical wave off the coast of Africa on September 2, 1999. Floyd was first named

a tropical depression on September 7 at 2100 GMT and was about 1000 miles east of the Lesser

Antilles in the mid-Atlantic Ocean. It became a tropical storm (winds exceeding 39 mph) six hours

later on September 8 at 0900 GMT, when it was 850 miles east of the Lesser Antilles. Floyd became

a Category 1 hurricane (winds exceeding 74 mph) on September 10 at 1200 GMT and was located

about 240 miles northeast of the northern Leeward Islands. Tropical storm force winds extended out

to 175 miles from the eye of the hurricane. 
4

One day later, Floyd became a Category 2 hurricane and the following day, it was upgraded to a

Category 3. Floyd became a Category 4 hurricane only 12 hours later. Maximum wind speeds

continued to increase and minimum air pressure continued to decrease until Floyd reached its peak

strength as a Category 4 hurricane on September 13 at about 1330 GMT. The maximum wind speed

was 155 mph and the minimum pressure was 921 mb. If the wind speed had reached 156 mph, it

would have been classified as a Category 5 hurricane. A NOAA-15 Advanced Very High Resolution

Radiometer (AVHRR) multispectral false color image of Hurricane Floyd at its strongest point is

shown in Figure 3.

Floyd remained a Category 4 hurricane for over 2 1⁄2 days with peak sustained winds of 155 mph for

more than 1 day. During this period, Floyd’s eye passed over the islands of Eleuthera and Abaco in

the Bahamas. Floyd then turned north-northwest and gradually weakened to become a Category 3

hurricane on September 15 at 1600 GMT. At this point, the eye was about 110 miles east-northeast

of Cape Canaveral, FL with hurricane force winds extending out 125 miles and tropical storm force

winds extending out 290 miles. As Floyd encountered cooler northern waters, its intensity

decreased. On September 16 at approximately 0630 GMT (0230 EDT), Floyd made landfall near

Cape Fear, NC. Moving north-northeast at 20 mph, it had become a Category 2 hurricane with

sustained winds of 110 mph. Maximum storm surge was reported by NCDC to be 10.3 feet on

Masonborough Island in New Hanover County, NC. A Geostationary Operational Environmental

Satellite (GOES)-8 colorized IR image of Hurricane Floyd as it came ashore is shown in Figure 4.

Several powerful hurricanes have made landfall near Cape Fear, including both Bertha (as a Category

2 hurricane) and Fran (as a Category 3 hurricane) in 1996. Hazel made landfall as a Category 4

hurricane in 1954 at the border between North and South Carolina.

Floyd rapidly weakened over land becoming a Category 1 hurricane at 1400 GMT just before

crossing into Virginia. Thereafter, Floyd generally followed the Atlantic coastline toward

Connecticut, becoming a tropical storm on September 16 at 2200 GMT when it reached southern

New Jersey. Over the open ocean, Floyd had been traveling at a speed of roughly 14 mph. After

landfall, the storm accelerated up to a maximum speed of 35 mph as it passed through New England

and into Maine.

Hurricane or tropical storm warnings were in effect at some point for all of the U.S. Atlantic coast

from south Florida to Massachusetts. The largest peacetime evacuation in U.S. history took place

with 2.6 million people evacuating their homes in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and North

Carolina. Due to Hurricane Floyd’s size, rainfall covered a large inland area and was responsible

for flooding over many parts of the eastern United States, with the greatest totals in North Carolina.

Wilmington, NC set a new 24-hour station rainfall record with 13.38 inches, breaking a 128-year old

record, and over 19 inches was recorded for the entire storm (Figure 5). The death toll estimate is

75, making Floyd the deadliest United States hurricane since Agnes in 1972, with 122 deaths. The

damage total is incomplete but could exceed the $6 billion in damage caused by Hurricane Fran in

1996. A week after the passage of Floyd, flooded rivers which were causing severe environmental

damage could be seen in a Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS) image of eastern

North Carolina (Figure 6).
5

37 TS 37 TS 37 TS

*24 H4 *24 H4 *24 H4

21A H4 21A H4 21A H4

32 H3 32 H3 32 H3

19A H3 19A H3 19A H3

15 H2 15 H2 15 H2

11A H1 11A H1 11A H1

3 TS 3 TS 3 TS

1 TD 1 TD 1 TD

35B H1 35B H1 35B H1

34B H2 34B H2 34B H2

Figure 1. Track of Floyd from September 7 to September 17,1999. Change in Saffir/Simpson

Hurricane Scale category indicated by color change and labeled with corresponding NHC advisory

from Table 1. TD = Tropical Depression; TS = Tropical Storm; H# = Hurricane Category #.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

9/7 9/8 9/9 9/10 9/11 9/12 9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18

GMT

Wind Speed (mph)

900

925

950

975

1000

1025

Pressure (mb)

Figure 2. Hurricane Floyd maximum wind speed (blue line) and minimum pressure (red line)

according to NHC advisories (see Table A in Appendix I).
6

Figure 3. NOAA-15 AVHRR multi-spectral false color image

of Hurricane Floyd at peak strength on September 13 at 1306

GMT [NCDC].

Figure 4. GOES-8 colorized IR image of Hurricane Floyd

making landfall near Cape Fear, NC on September 16, 1999 at

0645 GMT [NCDC].
7

Figure 5. Total rainfall for September 14-17, 1999

[NWS Forecast Office, Wilmington, NC].

Figure 6. SeaWiFS image showing flooded rivers of

eastern North Carolina on September 23, one week after

passage of Floyd [NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center].
8
9

III. The National Water Level Observation Network

CO-OPS, a component of the National Ocean Service (NOS), operates the NWLON which is

composed of approximately 189 long term, continuously-operating stations distributed along the U.S.

coast (including the Great Lakes) and on islands in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. As part of its

National Water Level Program (NWLP), CO-OPS also installs, operates, and maintains additional

short term water level stations in support of NOS hydrographic surveys and other federal and state

projects.

Data from NWLON stations are used in a wide variety of applications, including navigational safety,

coastal forecasting, surveying and mapping, coastal engineering, marine boundary determination,

and monitoring of seasonal and climatological sea levels. These data are increasingly being required

by users in real time. Coastal forecast applications include dissemination of data to the NWS

Automation of Field Operations and Services (AFOS) network and for the development of coastal

forecast models. Physical Oceanographic Real-Time Systems (PORTS), currently active in four U.S.

ports, specifically provide data to users to ensure safe navigation.

The Next Generation Water Level Measurement System (NGWLMS) installed at most NWLON

stations is a stand-alone system that acquires, stores, and transmits water level, meteorological, and

other environmental data. The main requirement for the unit is to accurately measure water level

information with low power consumption, high reliability, and defined accuracy. The NGWLMS

water level sensors have an accuracy of about one centimeter. 

The NGWLMS field unit is a fully automated data acquisition and transmission system. The data

collection platform (DCP) consists of a power supply, communications controller, GOES satellite

transmitter, central processing unit, memory expansion module, telephone modem, general purpose

I/O module, and controller. The unit’s telemetry capability includes satellite, radio, telephone, and

direct access for the dissemination of near-real time data. 

The instruments typically installed at NWLON stations are the primary acoustic water level sensor

and a pressure transducer for back-up water level measurements. The primary acoustic instrument

is a non-contact device that returns water level data that can be directly referenced to the station

datum at the site as an arbitrary zero. Ancillary sensors may include an anemometer for measuring

wind speed, direction, and maximum hourly gusts, air and water temperature thermistors, and a

barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure. 

Observed water levels at many NWLON stations recorded the effect of Hurricane Floyd as it moved

north along the U.S. Atlantic coastline. In this report, NWLON stations between Virginia Key, FL

and Boston, MA will be discussed including the station at Settlement Point in the Bahamas. The

station numbers, names, latitudes, longitudes, and their periods of record are given in Table B of

Appendix I. The locations of the stations and Hurricane Floyd’s storm track are shown on the maps

in Figures 7 and 8. 

The data used in this report was preliminary 6-minute water level observations and hourly

meteorological measurements. Some of the data may be adjusted after careful examination by
10

CO-OPS staff according to standard operating procedures, before an accepted data set is obtained.

However, major changes to the results presented in this report are considered unlikely. 

Since the hurricane made landfall and came closest to most of the stations on September 16, the

period of interest was September 13 to September 19. The nearest NWLON station to the point

where Floyd came ashore was Wilmington, NC which is on the Cape Fear River about 25 miles

upriver from the coast. The NWLON stations closest to the storm track were Wilmington, NC,

Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA, Kiptopeke Beach, VA, Cape May, NJ, Atlantic City, NJ, Sandy

Hook, NJ, and Bridgeport, CT.
11

Settlement Pt. Settlement Pt. Settlement Pt.

Oregon Inlet Oregon Inlet Oregon Inlet

Fort Pulaski Fort Pulaski Fort Pulaski

Charleston Charleston Charleston

Trident Pier Trident Pier Trident Pier

Fernandina Beach Fernandina Beach

Mayport Mayport Mayport

Virginia Key Virginia Key

Duck Duck Duck

Cape Hatteras Cape Hatteras Cape Hatteras

Beaufort, Duke Marine Lab Beaufort, Duke Marine Lab Beaufort, Duke Marine Lab

Wilmington Wilmington Wilmington

Springmaid Pier Springmaid Pier Springmaid Pier

St. Augustine St. Augustine St. Augustine

09/14/1999

0000 GMT

09/15/1999

0000 GMT

09/16/1999

0000 GMT

Figure 8. Southern U.S. Atlantic coast NWLON stations with the track of Hurricane Floyd.

New London New London New London

Montauk Montauk Montauk

Providence Providence Providence

Newport Newport Newport

Bridgeport Bridgeport Bridgeport

Solomons Solomons

Lewes Lewes

Cape May Cape May

Colonial Beach Colonial Beach Colonial Beach

Sandy Hook Sandy Hook

The Battery The Battery The Battery

Philadelphia Philadelphia Philadelphia

Atlantic City Atlantic City Atlantic City

Reedy Pt. Reedy Pt. Reedy Pt.

Wachapreague Wachapreague Wachapreague

Gloucester Pt. Gloucester Pt. Gloucester Pt.

Bergen Pt. Bergen Pt. Bergen Pt.

King's Pt. King's Pt. King's Pt.

Willets Pt. Willets Pt. Willets Pt.

Tolchester Tolchester Tolchester

Windmill Pt. Windmill Pt. Windmill Pt.

Money Pt. Money Pt. Money Pt.

Woods Hole Woods Hole Woods Hole

Nantucket Nantucket Nantucket

Cambridge Cambridge Cambridge

Annapolis Annapolis Annapolis Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.

Lewisetta Lewisetta Lewisetta

Baltimore Baltimore Baltimore

Kiptopeake Beach Kiptopeake Beach Kiptopeake Beach

Hampton Roads, Sewells Pt. Hampton Roads, Sewells Pt. Hampton Roads, Sewells Pt. Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl. Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl. Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl.

Boston Boston Boston

09/17/1999

0000 GMT

Figure 7. Northern U.S. Atlantic coast NWLON stations with the track of Hurricane Floyd.
12
13

IV. Maximum Observed Elevations

A major concern during a storm is the maximum water level reached, which can have a significant

effect on the storm’s potential for damage. This is a sum of the effect of high wind speed and low

atmospheric pressure, and the timing and strength of the tide when the storm reaches its peak

strength. If a storm hits a location at low tide and/or during a period of neap tides, the maximum

observed water level can be significantly less than when a storm hits at high tide and/or during a

period of spring tides. The time period of Hurricane Floyd (September 13-19, 1999) fell between

a new moon on September 9 and a full moon on September 25. Had the storm coincided with either

a new moon or a full moon, higher maximum water levels could have occurred. 

Information on the maximum observed water levels at NWLON stations during the period of

September 13-19 is found in Table 2 which includes the following information: the date, time, and

heights of the maximum observed water level above Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) and Mean

Higher High Water (MHHW), the mean Great Diurnal Range (GT), and the date and heights of the

maximum historical water level above MLLW and MHHW. Elevations relative to a geodetic

reference, the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88), are also available from CO-OPS

(see the Summary of this report for contact information.)

The heights are referenced to the MLLW and MHHW datums at each location. These datums are

based on the 1960-78 National Tidal Datum Epoch. MLLW is the reference datum for NOAA

nautical charts and NOS tide prediction tables. The MHHW datum is the mean elevation of the

higher high water observed each tidal day. The GT is the difference in elevation between MHHW

and MLLW and can be considered the average maximum daily vertical excursion of the water level

at a given location. Elevation comparisons to MHHW and the GT of tide put the effects of this

particular storm in context with the normal elevation of a tidal high water at each location. The

maximum historical values are based on the entire period of record for each location, which is quite

different at each station (see Table B in Appendix I for periods of record). 

Appendix II contains time series plots for each station of the observed water levels and the predicted

tides referenced to MLLW for the period September 13-19. The potential for storm damage to a

shoreline is related to both the height and period of time that the water level exceeds MHHW. A

comparison of the maximum observed elevation to the maximum historical elevation is shown in

Figure 9 for the stations where Hurricane Floyd raised water levels above MHHW. The historical

maxima caused by hurricanes occur between August and November and are labeled with the name

of the hurricane or labeled “Unnamed” for hurricanes before 1950. The historical maxima caused

by winter storms occur between October and March and are unlabeled. Hurricane Floyd approached

or exceeded historical maxima south of and inside of Chesapeake Bay. North of Chesapeake Bay,

the effect was much less than the historical maxima except at the recently installed station at Kings

Point, NY, which was installed in late 1998 as a future replacement for the station at Willets Point,

NY.
14

Table 2. Maximum observed water level (meters)

Station Hurricane Floyd 1999 Great Historical Maximum

Diurnal

Date/Time (GMT) Above Range Date Above

(mo/day, hr.min.) MLLW MHHW (GT) (mo/yr) MLLW MHHW

Settlement Point, BA 9/14 1548 1.106 0.177 0.929

Virginia Key, FL 9/15 0518 1.175 0.484 0.692 11/1994 1.335 0.643

Trident Pier, FL 9/15 0418 1.858 0.620 1.238 8/1995 1.881 0.643

St Augustine Beach, FL 9/15 1636 2.517 0.938 1.579 9/1992 2.395 0.816

Mayport, FL 9/15 1824 2.040 0.540 1.500 9/1964 2.299 0.799

Fernandina Beach, FL 9/15 1724 2.719 0.707 2.012 10/1898 4.197 2.185

Fort Pulaski, GA 9/15 1742 2.648 0.372 2.276 10/1947 3.398 1.122

Charleston, SC 9/15 1718 2.349 0.581 1.768 9/1989 3.901 2.133

Springmaid Pier, SC 9/16 0348 2.305 0.591 1.714 1/1987 2.903 1.189

Wilmington, NC 9/16 0754 2.254 0.876 1.378 10/1954 2.509 1.131

Duke Marine Lab, NC 9/16 0912 2.040 0.985 1.055 9/1996 1.941 0.886

Cape Hatteras, NC 9/16 0548 1.429 0.353 1.076 10/1997 1.822 0.746

Oregon Inlet Marina, NC 9/16 1454 1.847 1.480 0.367 8/1998 1.538 1.171

Duck Pier, NC 9/16 0400 1.517 0.374 1.143 10/1997 2.043 0.900

Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl., VA 9/16 1636 1.846 0.946 0.900 2/1998 2.138 1.238

Money Point, VA 9/16 1718 2.275 1.326 0.949 2/1998 2.297 1.348

Hampton Roads, VA 9/16 1642 1.938 1.084 0.854 8/1933 2.558 1.704

Gloucester Point, VA 9/16 1542 1.654 0.822 0.832 3/1962 2.021 1.189

Windmill Point, VA 9/16 1818 1.146 0.710 0.436 2/1998 1.320 0.884

Lewisetta, VA 9/16 1800 1.158 0.692 0.466 2/1998 1.252 0.786

Colonial Beach, VA 9/16 1218 1.064 0.463 0.601 9/1996 1.667 1.066

Solomons, MD 9/16 1418 0.962 0.502 0.460 8/1955 1.380 0.920

Cambridge, MD 9/17 0006 1.051 0.427 0.624 9/1996 1.554 0.930

Kiptopeke Beach, VA 9/16 1706 1.884 0.961 0.923 3/1962 2.258 1.335

Wachapreague, VA 9/16 1754 2.314 0.912 1.402 2/1998 2.843 1.441

Lewes, DE 9/16 1900 2.062 0.620 1.442 3/1962 2.893 1.451

Reedy Point, DE 9/16 2006 2.291 0.468 1.823 10/1980 2.801 0.978

Philadelphia, PA 9/16 2242 2.848 0.748 2.100 11/1950 3.340 1.240

Cape May, NJ 9/16 1848 2.243 0.563 1.680 9/1985 2.771 1.091

Atlantic City, NJ 9/16 1612 1.896 0.469 1.427 12/1992 2.847 1.420

Sandy Hook, NJ 9/16 1748 2.003 0.418 1.585 9/1960 3.148 1.563

Bergen Point, NY 9/16 1718 2.123 0.428 1.695 3/1984 2.792 1.097

The Battery, NY 9/16 1800 1.972 0.412 1.560 9/1960 3.118 1.558

Montauk, NY 9/16 1924 1.061 0.271 0.790 8/1954 2.646 1.856

Willets Point, NY 9/16 2136 2.883 0.512 2.371 9/1938 5.151 2.780

Kings Point, NY 9/16 2136 2.876 0.506 2.370 1/1999 3.146 0.776

Bridgeport, CT 9/16 2048 2.640 0.406 2.234 9/1938 3.791 1.557

New London, CT 9/16 1942 1.242 0.303 0.939 9/1938 3.280 2.341

Providence, RI 9/17 0512 1.796 0.284 1.512 9/1938 5.398 3.886

Newport, RI 9/17 0500 1.412 0.217 1.195 9/1938 4.124 2.929

Woods Hole, MA 9/17 0542 0.997 0.312 0.685 9/1938 3.349 2.664

Nantucket, MA 9/16 2224 1.201 0.103 1.098 10/1991 2.472 1.374

Boston, MA 9/16 2042 3.251 0.102 3.149 2/1978 4.648 1.499
15

The highest maximum observed elevation above MHHW due to Hurricane Floyd was 1.480 meters

occurring at Oregon Inlet Marina, NC on September 16 at 1454 GMT. Money Point and Hampton

Roads, VA also had maximum observed elevations more than 1 meter above MHHW. Although

some of the NWLON stations dropped below MLLW during the period under consideration, none

went more than 0.5 meters below MLLW. The NWLON stations in Virginia and North Carolina,

with the exceptions of Duck and Cape Hatteras, NC, tended to have the highest maximum observed

elevations relative to MHHW (Figure 9). Note that the Duck and Cape Hatteras stations are both

on the ocean, adjacent to the narrowest part of the continental shelf on the U.S. Atlantic coast, and

also that the storm track was over land to the west of that section of the North Carolina coastline

(Figure 8).

At the three NWLON stations listed in Table 3, Floyd produced a maximum observed elevation

greater than the historical record at the station. At Oregon Inlet Marina, the historical record from

Hurricane Bonnie in August 1998 was exceeded by 0.309 meters. At Duke Marine Lab in Beaufort,

NC , the previous record from Hurricane Fran in September 1996 was exceeded by 0.099 meters.

The previous record at St. Augustine Beach was not associated with a hurricane. 

Table 3. NWLON stations with new maximum observed water levels

Station Date of historical

maximum

Years

of data

Period of

data

Increase in

maximum

St. Augustine

Beach, FL

9/92 7+ 5/92 - present 0.122 meters

Duke Marine

Lab, NC

9/96 26+ 2/73 - present 0.099 meters

Oregon Inlet

Marina, NC

8/98 6+ 5/77 - 4/78

4/94 - present

0.309 meters

The maximum elevations caused by Floyd approached within 0.3 meters of the maximum historical

elevations at nine other locations within or south of Chesapeake Bay. At Wilmington, NC, the

NWLON station closest to the location where Floyd came ashore as a Category 2 hurricane, Floyd

failed to surpass the historical maximum by 0.255 meters, which was set by Hurricane Hazel in 1954

as it made landfall near the border between North and South Carolina as a Category 4 hurricane

(Figure 10). However, Floyd did surpass, by 0.097 meters, the level reached in 1996 when Hurricane

Fran made landfall near Cape Fear as a Category 3 hurricane . 

The time series in Appendix II illustrate a variety of localized responses to the storm. While

Hurricane Floyd passed less than 100 miles to the east of Settlement Point on the western tip of

Grand Bahama Island, the storm had little effect on the water level at that station (Figure 41 in

Appendix II), although the bathymetry of the area includes the shallow waters of Little Bahama Bank

and the land mass of Grand Bahama Island. For several days before Hurricane Floyd, the stations

from Trident Pier, FL to Charleston, SC exhibited elevated water levels at both high and low tides
16

(Figures 43 to 48 in Appendix II). After the storm passed through the area, the water level returned

near to predicted levels. 

In contrast, for several days after the storm passed Wilmington, NC, the water levels at low tide were

elevated 0.6 - 0.7 meters above predicted; the water levels at high tide were slightly above predicted

(Figure 50 in Appendix II). This elevation was probably due to the increased flow of the Cape Fear

River carrying the runoff from the heavy rainfall throughout the drainage basin of the river

(Figure 5). The nonlinearity in the fluid dynamics of shallow bays and estuaries can cause the tidal

range to change during periods of abnormal conditions (Parker, 1991). Higher than normal river

flows tend to decrease the tidal range.

At most stations, the maximum observed elevation occurred very close to the time of a predicted

high tide. However, at a few stations listed in Table 4, the intensity of the storm caused the

maximum observed elevation to occur significantly earlier or later than the predicted high tide, with

the greatest tide prediction error at Duke Marine Lab, NC.

Table 4. Greatest timing differences of the maximum observed

water levels during Hurricane Floyd relative to predicted high tide

Wilmington, NC 1 hour 18 minutes later

Duke Marine Lab, NC 4 hours 30 minutes later

Gloucester Point, VA 2 hours 48 minutes earlier

Oregon Inlet Marina, NC 2 hours 12 minutes earlier

Cambridge, MD 2 hours 6 minutes earlier

Hampton Roads, VA 1 hour 36 minutes earlier

Money Point, VA 1 hour 30 minutes earlier

Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA 42 minutes earlier 

Kiptopeke Beach, VA 36 minutes earlier
2/78

10/91

9/38 Unnamed

9/38 Unnamed

9/38 Unnamed

9/38 Unnamed

9/38 Unnamed

1/99

9/38 Unnamed

8/54 Carol

9/60 Donna

3/84

9/60 Donna

12/92

9/85 Gloria

11/50

10/80

3/62

2/98

3/62

9/96 Fran

8/55 Connie

9/96 Fran

2/98

2/98

3/62

8/33 Unnamed

2/98

2/98

10/97

8/98 Bonnie

10/97

9/96 Fran

10/54 Hazel

1/87

9/89 Hugo

10/47 Unnamed

10/1898 Unnamed

9/64 Dora

9/92

8/95 Erin

11/94 Gordon

0.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.0

Boston, MA

Nantucket, MA

Woods Hole, MA

Newport, RI

Providence, RI

New London, CT

Bridgeport, CT

Kings Point, NY

Willets Point, NY

Montauk, NY

The Battery, NY

Bergen Point, NY

Sandy Hook, NJ

Atlantic City, NJ

Cape May, NJ

Philadelphia, PA

Reedy Point, DE

Lewes, DE

Wachapreague, VA

Kiptopeke Beach, VA

Cambridge, MD

Solomons, MD

Colonial Beach, VA

Lewisetta, VA

Windmill Point, VA

Gloucester Point, VA

Hampton Roads, VA

Money Point, VA

Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl., VA

Duck Pier, NC

Oregon Inlet Marina, NC

Cape Hatteras, NC

Duke Marine Lab, NC

Wilmington, NC

Springmaid Pier, SC

Charleston, SC

Fort Pulaski, GA

Fernandina Beach, FL

Mayport, FL

St Augustine Beach, FL

Trident Pier, FL

Virginia Key, FL

Settlement Point, BA

Meters above MHHW

HistoricalHurricane Floyd

Figure 9. Comparison of historical maximum observed elevations (relative to MHHW) to the maximum observed elevations1950 were unnamed.maximum elevations caused by hurricanes are labeled and those caused by winter storms are unlabeled. Hurricanes beforeduring Hurricane Floyd – September 13-19, 1999. Month and year of historical maximum elevations are indicated. Historical

17
Figure 10. Landfall location map of the U.S. for all hurricanes during 1899-1996 classified from Category 3 to Category 5 at

time of landfall [NCDC].

18
19

V. Storm Surge

Storm surge is defined as the difference between the observed water level and the predicted tide

level. The predicted tide is computed using standard NOS harmonic analysis and prediction

algorithms. The timing of the maximum observed water level (discussed in the previous section)

is dependent upon the interaction of the tide and the storm. The timing of the maximum storm surge

does not necessarily coincide with the occurrence of the predicted high tide. Information on the

maximum storm surge calculated at each station is found in Table 5 which provides the following

for each station: the date and time of the maximum storm surge; the observed elevation of the water

above MLLW at that time; the predicted elevation of the water above MLLW at that time; and the

storm surge value (observed minus predicted elevations).

Time series plots of the storm surge were constructed without any smoothing of the observed data

prior to subtracting the predicted time series. Individual plots of the storm surge at each station are

found in Appendix III. Maximum storm surge values for all stations are displayed in Figure 11.

Figures 12 through 18 are simultaneous plots of the storm surge for various geographical regions

over a seven-day time period centered around the time of the storm. The wide solid line in these

figures is the track of the storm. All of the storm surge figures use the same vertical scale (in meters)

so that the magnitude of the surge can be put into perspective between stations and regions. 

The largest storm surge occurred at Duke Marine Lab, NC. The calculated surge was 1.733 meters

on September 16 at 0912 GMT. Storm surge values greater than 1.4 meters also occurred at

Fernandina Beach, FL, Oregon Inlet Marina, NC, and Money Point, VA (Figure 11). 

The storm surge plots for some of the stations show a degree of periodicity at the tidal frequencies.

This is attributed to the subtraction of two curves (observed and predicted) that may be slightly out

of phase because of the storm, and to the effect of a prolonged storm surge in modifying the normal

shape of the observed tide curve.

First, the storm surge for nine selected stations that are closest to the open ocean are shown in

Figure 12. These records are more representative of the storm’s effect on continental shelf water

levels and less influenced by the localized effects of bays and estuaries. There was a general

correlation between the time of the maximum storm surge and the time of the passage of the

hurricane, but several factors influenced the time, height, and duration of the surge. The location

of the station with respect to the track of the storm, the local orientation of the coastline with respect

to the direction of prevailing winds, and the storm’s strength and speed at the time of passage

contributed to the amount of storm surge. 

Storm surges for six regions of the Atlantic coast are shown along with the track of Hurricane Floyd

(Figures 13 to 18): Florida/Georgia, the Carolinas, lower Chesapeake Bay, upper Chesapeake

Bay/Potomac River, Delaware Bay/New Jersey/New York Harbor, and Long Island Sound/Rhode

Island/Massachusetts. A wide variety of storm surges were observed. Many of the stations with

larger surges are located in sounds or bays where persistent winds from the storm pushed water into

enclosed areas and held it there through a complete tidal cycle causing the water level to remain

unusually high during the time of the predicted low tide. After the storm passed and the wind
20

changed direction, these stations showed a rapid drop in water elevation as the water that was held

in the embayment was pushed out to sea. Prominent negative storm surges were seen at Kings Point,

NY (-1.073 m), Washington, DC (-0.977 m), Bridgeport, CT (-0.843 m), and Willets Point, NY

(-0.838 m). Nine other stations showed negative storm surges greater than 0.5 meters.
21

Table 5. Maximum storm surge (meters) for Hurricane Floyd 1999

Station Date/Time (GMT) Elevation Above MLLW Storm

(mo./day, hr.min.) Observed Predicted Surge

Settlement Point, BA 9/15 0836 0.507 0.272 0.235

Virginia Key, FL 9/15 0730 0.943 0.470 0.473

Trident Pier, FL 9/15 0418 1.858 1.096 0.762

St Augustine Beach, FL 9/15 1112 1.450 0.338 1.112

Mayport, FL 9/15 1006 1.294 0.307 0.987

Fernandina Beach, FL 9/15 1018 1.584 0.088 1.496

Fort Pulaski, GA 9/15 0848 1.556 0.552 1.004

Charleston, SC 9/15 2018 1.772 0.845 0.927

Springmaid Pier, SC 9/15 1918 1.987 0.971 1.016

Wilmington, NC 9/16 0830 2.171 1.028 1.143

Duke Marine Lab, NC 9/16 0912 2.040 0.307 1.733

Cape Hatteras, NC 9/16 0942 1.127 0.232 0.895

Oregon Inlet Marina, NC 9/16 1454 1.847 0.285 1.562

Duck Pier, NC 9/16 1054 0.936 0.271 0.665

Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl., VA 9/16 1606 1.829 0.816 1.013

Money Point, VA 9/16 1706 2.262 0.703 1.559

Hampton Roads, VA 9/16 1624 1.937 0.714 1.223

Gloucester Point, VA 9/16 1542 1.654 0.544 1.110

Windmill Point, VA 9/16 1554 1.130 0.233 0.897

Lewisetta, VA 9/16 1706 1.137 0.177 0.960

Colonial Beach, VA 9/16 1742 0.795 0.132 0.663

Solomons, MD 9/16 1636 0.953 0.185 0.768

Cambridge, MD 9/16 1854 0.864 0.166 0.698

Kiptopeke Beach, VA 9/16 1612 1.832 0.787 1.045

Wachapreague, VA 9/16 0912 1.461 0.476 0.985

Lewes, DE 9/16 1912 2.060 1.256 0.804

Reedy Point, DE 9/16 1524 1.170 0.295 0.875

Philadelphia, PA 9/17 0500 1.686 0.458 1.228

Cape May, NJ 9/16 1930 2.210 1.308 0.902

Atlantic City, NJ 9/16 2000 1.692 0.784 0.908

Sandy Hook, NJ 9/16 2330 1.515 0.344 1.171

Bergen Point, NY 9/16 2318 1.727 0.410 1.317

The Battery, NY 9/16 2248 1.649 0.482 1.167

Montauk, NY 9/17 0036 0.978 0.238 0.740

Willets Point, NY 9/17 0136 1.432 0.594 0.838

Kings Point, NY 9/16 1712 1.738 0.839 0.899

Bridgeport, CT 9/17 0154 1.449 0.476 0.973

New London, CT 9/17 0048 1.138 0.262 0.876

Providence, RI 9/17 0206 1.754 0.687 1.067

Newport, RI 9/17 0136 1.270 0.491 0.779

Woods Hole, MA 9/17 0100 0.959 0.245 0.714

Nantucket, MA 9/17 0312 0.579 0.188 0.391

Boston, MA 9/17 0100 1.508 1.008 0.500
0.0

0.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.61.8

Boston, MA

Nantucket, MA

Woods Hole, MA

Newport, RI

Providence, RI

New London, CT

Bridgeport, CT

Kings Point, NY

Willets Point, NY

Montauk, NY

The Battery, NY

Bergen Point, NY

Sandy Hook, NJ

Atlantic City, NJ

Cape May, NJ

Philadelphia, PA

Reedy Point, DE

Lewes, DE

Wachapreague, VA

Kiptopeke Beach, VA

Cambridge, MD

Solomons, MD

Colonial Beach, VA

Lewisetta, VA

Windmill Point, VA

Gloucester Point, VA

Hampton Roads, VA

Money Point, VA

Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl., VA

Duck Pier, NC

Oregon Inlet Marina, NC

Cape Hatteras, NC

Duke Marine Lab, NC

Wilmington, NC

Springmaid Pier, SC

Charleston, SC

Fort Pulaski, GA

Fernandina Beach, FL

Mayport, FL

St Augustine Beach, FL

Trident Pier, FL

Virginia Key, FL

Settlement Point, BA

Meters

Figure 11. Maximum storm surge at water level stations during Hurricane Floyd -- September 13-19, 1999.

22
-1

01

9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18 9/19 9/20

m

Sandy Hook Sandy Hook Sandy Hook

Lewes Lewes Lewes

Montauk Montauk Montauk

Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl. Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl. Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl.

Cape Hatteras Cape Hatteras Cape Hatteras

Springmaid Pier Springmaid Pier Springmaid Pier

Fort Pulaski Fort Pulaski Fort Pulaski

Mayport Mayport Mayport

Trident Pier Trident Pier Trident Pier

Figure 12. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at selected US Atlantic coast NWLON stations on or close to the ocean. 

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

23
-1

01

m

Settlement Pt. Settlement Pt. Settlement Pt.

Virginia Key Virginia Key Virginia Key

Fort Pulaski Fort Pulaski Fort Pulaski

Trident Pier Trident Pier Trident Pier

St. Augustine St. Augustine St. Augustine

Mayport Mayport Mayport

Fernandina Beach Fernandina Beach Fernandina Beach

Figure 13. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in Florida, Georgia, and the Bahamas.

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18 9/19 9/20

m

-101

m

-101

m

24
Oregon Inlet Oregon Inlet Oregon Inlet

Charleston Charleston Charleston

Springmaid Pier Springmaid Pier Springmaid Pier

Wilmington Wilmington Wilmington

Beaufort, Duke Marine Lab Beaufort, Duke Marine Lab Beaufort, Duke Marine Lab

Cape Hatteras Cape Hatteras Cape Hatteras

Duck Duck Duck

Figure 14. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in North Carolina and South Carolina.

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18 9/19 9/20

m

-101

m

-101

m

25
Wachapreague Wachapreague Wachapreague

Gloucester Pt. Gloucester Pt. Gloucester Pt.

Windmill Pt. Windmill Pt. Windmill Pt.

Money Pt. Money Pt. Money Pt.

Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl. Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl. Ches. Bay Brdg. Tnl.

Kiptopeake Beach Kiptopeake Beach Kiptopeake Beach

Hampton Roads, Sewells Pt. Hampton Roads, Sewells Pt. Hampton Roads, Sewells Pt.

Figure 15. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in southern Virginia.

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18 9/19 9/20

m

-101

m

26
Colonial Beach Colonial Beach Colonial Beach

Solomons Solomons Solomons

Tolchester Tolchester Tolchester

Cambridge Cambridge Cambridge

Annapolis Annapolis Annapolis

Baltimore Baltimore Baltimore

Lewisetta Lewisetta Lewisetta

Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.

Figure 16. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in northern Virginia, Maryland, and Washington, DC.

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18 9/19 9/20

m

27
The Battery The Battery The Battery

Sandy Hook Sandy Hook Sandy Hook

Lewes Lewes Lewes

Cape May Cape May Cape May Atlantic City Atlantic City Atlantic City

Reedy Pt. Reedy Pt. Reedy Pt.

Philadelphia Philadelphia Philadelphia

Bergen Pt. Bergen Pt. Bergen Pt.

Figure 17. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York City, NY.

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18 9/19 9/20

m

-101

m

28
Providence Providence Providence

New London New London New London

Newport Newport Newport

Montauk Montauk Montauk

Bridgeport Bridgeport Bridgeport

King's Pt. King's Pt. King's Pt.

Willets Pt. Willets Pt. Willets Pt.

Nantucket Nantucket Nantucket

Woods Hole Woods Hole Woods Hole

Boston Boston Boston

Figure 18. Hurricane Floyd storm surge at NWLON stations in New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts.

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

m

-101

9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18 9/19 9/20

m

-101

m

-101

m

29
30
31

VI. Meteorological Data

A total of sixteen east coast NWLON stations collected ancillary meteorological data including the

wind speed, wind direction, and barometric pressure during the passage of Hurricane Floyd. The

station at Mayport, FL collected wind speed but not wind direction. The stations at Newport, RI and

Providence, RI collected barometric pressure but no wind data. The lowest point of a barometric

pressure record at a water level station indicates the time that the storm came closest to that station;

a rapid fall and rise in pressure indicates that the center of the hurricane came close to or passed over

that station. Time series plots of all wind speed and barometric pressure data collected at NWLON

stations are found in Appendix IV.

Barometric pressure at some representative NWLON stations are plotted in Figures 19 to 21. The

lowest pressures recorded were at Duck, where the pressure dropped to 972.1 mb, and at Chesapeake

Bay Bridge Tunnel, where the pressure reached 976.4 mb. The center of the hurricane passed

Virginia Key around 2200 GMT on September 14, and Mayport around 2000 GMT on

September 15. On September 16, it came close to Duck and Cape Hatteras at 1300 GMT,

Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel at 1600 GMT, the northern Chesapeake Bay stations near 2000

GMT, and Sandy Hook near 2300 GMT. It passed Newport around 0500 GMT on September 17

and Eastport later that day near midnight GMT.

A change in the air pressure over a body of water can raise or lower water levels due to an inverse

barometer effect. Low air pressure results in a rise in the level of the water surface, while high air

pressure depresses the level of the water surface. A simple rule of thumb is that a 1 millibar change

in air pressure corresponds to a 1 centimeter change in water level over open ocean (Harris, 1963).

Although many variables will change the magnitude of the inverse barometer effect, rough estimates

can be made of the pressure effect of Hurricane Floyd on the water level. The maximum effect, at

the instant of lowest barometric pressure, could range from about 10 centimeters at Virginia Key,

FL to about 50 centimeters at Duck, NC.

During a storm, the effect of the wind stress on water levels is often substantially greater than the

inverse barometer effect. Wind stress acting on the surface of a shallow body of water with a solid

boundary creates a slope against the boundary. A reduced slope forms for a deeper body of water

since a countercurrent at depth is induced to oppose the effect of wind stress on the surface slope,

resulting in upwelling or downwelling at the boundary. Since wind stress is proportional to the

square of wind speed, large changes in water levels can be caused by winds over shallow water

(Harris, 1963). In Figures 22 to 33, wind vectors and storm surges are plotted for the three days of

September 15, 16, and 17, before and after the passage of the storm. 

There was an interesting contrast in the storm surges of the three NWLON stations on the Outer

Banks of North Carolina (Figures 22 to 24). The stations at Cape Hatteras and Duck, which are

located on the ocean side of the Outer Banks, show rising water levels as Floyd approached with

increasing easterly winds pushing water toward shore. The station at Oregon Inlet Marina, which

is located on the Pamlico Sound side of the Outer Banks, initially did not respond to the approaching

storm. As the storm passed by, the wind speed rose to a maximum of about 30 m/s and rotated to

a southerly direction, followed by a westerly direction. The water levels at Cape Hatteras and Duck
32

rapidly dropped back to normal as water was pushed away from shore. In contrast, the water level

at Oregon Inlet Marina began a rapid rise in response to a southerly wind direction, reaching a

maximum storm surge about twice the maximum storm surges at Cape Hatteras and Duck. This was

likely caused by the water in shallow Pamlico Sound being pushed toward the north. As the wind

speed dropped over a period of 24 hours, the water level at Oregon Inlet Marina slowly returned to

normal.

At most of the NWLON stations, the storm surge level rose before the passage of the storm and fell

after the passage of the storm. The change in wind direction as the center of the storm passed,

indicated a change in the trend of the storm surge at the station. The closer the hurricane came to

a station, the quicker the wind changed direction as the center passed by. At Chesapeake Bay Bridge

Tunnel, VA, Hampton Roads, VA, Sandy Hook, NY, Bergen Point, NY and Kings Point, NY, the

wind direction rotated over 90 degrees within an hour, near the time of maximum storm surge.

At some locations, where the winds following the storm’s passage were sustained, the storm surge

became negative. The largest negative storm surges occurred in upper Chesapeake Bay and western

Long Island Sound. At Tolchester Beach, MD (Figure 30), there was no positive storm surge as the

rise in water level from southern Chesapeake Bay did not propagate far enough north, before

northerly winds began to push the water of northern Chesapeake Bay toward the south. At Kings

Point, NY (Figure 33), unlike the nearby stations at Bergen Point and Sandy Hook, there was a delay

of about 6 hours after the local winds shifted direction, before the water level began falling. This

could be because the wind at Kings Point was not representative of the winds over Long Island

Sound, which has an effect on Kings Point water levels. 
33

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Millibars

Figure 19. Barometric pressure at Virginia Key, FL (brown), Mayport, FL (red), Cape Hatteras,

NC (blue), and Duck, NC (green).

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Millibars

Figure 20. Barometric pressure at Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA (brown), Solomons

Island, MD (red), Cambridge, MD (blue), and Tolchester Beach, MD (green).

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Millibars

Figure 21. Barometric pressure at Sandy Hook, NJ (red), Newport, RI (blue), and Eastport, ME

(green).
34

Figure 22. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Cape Hatteras, NC.

Figure 23. Hourly wind vectors at Cape Hatteras, NC and storm surge at Oregon Inlet, NC.
35

Figure 25. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA.

Figure 24. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Duck, NC.
36

Figure 26. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Hampton Roads, VA.

Figure 27. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Lewisetta, VA.
37

Figure 28. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Solomons Island, MD.

Figure 29. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Cambridge, MD.
38

Figure 30. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Tolchester Beach, MD.

Figure 31. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Sandy Hook, NJ.
39

Figure 32. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Bergen Point, NY.

Figure 33. Hourly wind vectors and storm surge at Kings Point, NY.
40
41

VII. Currents near Hampton Roads, VA

Mariners have always required accurate and dependable information on the movement of the waters

in which they navigate, and this has become even more important in recent years as the volume of

seagoing commerce and the size of ships has increased, leading to greater risk in the Nation's ports.

One of the responsibilities of CO-OPS is to acquire, archive, and disseminate information on tidal

currents in U.S. ports and estuaries. The CO-OPS Current Observation Program (COP) has the goal

of improving the quality and accuracy of the NOS Tidal Current Tables. The information in the

tables is a critical part of NOS’ efforts toward promoting safe navigation in our Nation’s waterways.

During the spring and summer months of 1999, CO-OPS conducted a small oceanographic survey

of the currents in the lower Chesapeake Bay. Over the decades, the currents have been affected by

extensive dredging and deepening of channels, new harbor and channel construction, and other

natural and man-made modifications. In addition, the large military presence and heavy volume of

shipping in the lower Chesapeake Bay called for the latest technology in evaluating the accuracy and

adequacy of the NOS tidal current predictions. From the mouth of the Bay near Cape Henry to

Newport News, five new current meter stations were occupied in a 23-mile stretch. An acoustic

Doppler current profiler (ADCP) was deployed at the five stations, each for more than two months,

producing valuable new information on the currents. The ADCPs are deployed on the bottom and

sample currents in 1-meter layers from a level close to the instrument head to a level near the surface.

Currents in the lower Chesapeake Bay are tidally dominated; they are primarily driven by the

astronomical tides on the mid-Atlantic continental shelf. The tidal currents are semidiurnal,

consisting of two flood and two ebb periods each day. They are rectilinear and reversing, in that the

water flows alternately in approximately opposite directions, with a slack water at each reversal of

direction. Maximum tidal current velocities in the lower Bay generally range from less than 1⁄2 knot

to slightly over 2 knots.

Two ADCP current meters were operating in the lower Chesapeake Bay during the time that Floyd

transited the Norfolk area on September 16, 1999 (Figure 34). The first station was located just to

the east of Craney Island in the main shipping channel near the mouth of the Elizabeth River, at a

depth of approximately 54 feet below MLLW. The second station was located just off of the main

shipbuilding docks of Newport News in the main shipping channel near the mouth of the James

River, at a depth of approximately 53 feet below MLLW.

The highest current speeds measured by an ADCP are generally at the level nearest the water surface.

Only the currents at this level will be discussed in this report. The maximum current speed observed

during the 68-day measurement period at the Craney Island station was at a depth of 7.0 feet below

MLLW. The maximum current speed observed during the 68-day measurement period at the

Newport News station was at a depth of 5.6 feet below MLLW. Both maxima occurred on

September 16 as Hurricane Floyd passed over the area.

Tidal current constituents were derived using a least squares harmonic analysis and used to predict

the tidal currents for the entire measurement periods. A time series plot representing the measured

currents and the tidal current predictions at Craney Island, along the flood current azimuth of 183b
42

at a depth of 7.0 feet, is presented in Figure 35. The predicted values were then subtracted from the

observed current to obtain the residual current, presented in Figure 36. A time series plot

representing the measured currents and the tidal current predictions at Newport News, along the

flood current azimuth of 342b at a depth of 5.6 feet, is presented in Figure 37; the residual current

is presented in Figure 38. 

During storm events such as Hurricane Floyd, nontidal or residual currents can be driven by

meteorological and hydrological factors such as strong winds, barometric pressure, heavy rain, and

high streamflow. In a bay or estuary, the wind can affect the current both directly as the wind stress

acting on the water surface and indirectly as wind-induced water level changes on a connected body

of water such as a larger bay or the ocean. 

Prior to the approach of Floyd on September 15 and after September 17, the observed currents at

both Craney Island and Newport News closely followed the tidal current predictions. The causes of

the nontidal currents at Craney Island and Newport News during the passage of Hurricane Floyd can

be related to the wind record and the storm surge record at the nearest NWLON station at Hampton

Roads, VA (Figure 26). The sequence of events at Hampton Roads caused by Hurricane Floyd can

be divided into four periods of high wind speeds. 

The first period of 8 hours, between 2200 GMT on September 15 and 0600 GMT on September 16,

is characterized by strong easterly winds of about 14 m/s and slowly rising water levels in lower

Chesapeake Bay. During this period, a nontidal upstream current of about 1⁄2 knot was induced in

the James River at Newport News peaking near 1 knot at about 0400 GMT. No significant nontidal

current was induced in the Elizabeth River at Craney Island in this period. 

The second period of 10 hours, between 0600 and 1600 GMT on September 16, is marked by

somewhat weaker east-southeasterly winds of about 10 m/s as Floyd approached the region over land

after coming ashore near Cape Fear, NC. Nontidal water levels (storm surge) leveled off and then

rose again to a peak at 1600 GMT. During this period, there was no significant nontidal current in

the James River, while a 1⁄2 knot nontidal downstream current flowed in the Elizabeth River, possibly

due to accumulating rainfall in the region. 

During the third period of 2 hours, between 1600 GMT and 1800 GMT on September 16, the center

of Hurricane Floyd swept through the Hampton Roads region and out to sea near the entrance to

Chesapeake Bay. The local wind rotated 90b to a northerly direction and doubled in speed to its

highest value of 20 m/s. A strong 1 knot nontidal downstream current rapidly developed in the

James River at the same time as a strong 1⁄2 knot nontidal upstream current appeared in the Elizabeth

River. The fact that these simultaneous currents are of opposite polarity suggests that they are due

directly to the wind stress on the James River pushing water toward Chesapeake Bay, with a portion

being driven into the Elizabeth River. 
43

Figure 34. Station location map for the lower Chesapeake Bay area.

The fourth period of 11 hours, from 1800 GMT on September 16 to 0500 GMT on September 17,

is characterized by northwesterly winds gradually weakening from 20 m/s to 10 m/s and dropping

nontidal water levels due to water being driven out of Chesapeake Bay, rapidly at first and then more

slowly. During this period, strong nontidal downstream currents were dominating the flows in both

the James and the Elizabeth Rivers. These nontidal downstream currents peaked at about 21⁄2 knots

on the James River and about 11⁄4 knots on the Elizabeth River, at about 1900 GMT on September

16. A smaller current pulse with about half the speeds peaked at about 0400 GMT on September

17. 

The nontidal currents caused by the passage of Hurricane Floyd over the Hampton Roads region

were strong enough to significantly change the timing and amplitude of the predicted flood and ebb

tidal currents. At Craney Island in the Elizabeth River, two floods and two ebbs were affected by

Floyd (Figure 35). At Newport News in the James River, three floods and two ebbs were affected

by Floyd (Figure 37). The timing of some of the predicted slack periods were also shifted by several

hours at both locations.

current meter location

water level gage location

Newport News

Craney Island

Hampton Roads
44

15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep

1999 Days (GMT) 

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

Speed (knots)

observed

(7.0 ft. below MLLW) predicted

Figure 35. Observed current and tidal current prediction at Craney Island, 7.0 ft.

below MLLW, during Hurricane Floyd. Positive current is flood along 183b.

15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep

1999 Days (GMT) 

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

Speed (knots)

nontidal (residual) (7.0 ft. below MLLW)

Figure 36. Nontidal (residual) current at Craney Island, 7.0 ft. below MLLW,

during Hurricane Floyd. Positive current is flood along 183b.
45

15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep

1999 Days (GMT) 

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

Speed (knots)

observed

(5.6 ft. below MLLW) predicted

Figure 37. Observed current and tidal current prediction at Newport News, 5.6 ft.

below MLLW, during Hurricane Floyd. Positive current is flood along 342b.

15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep

1999 Days (GMT) 

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

-2.5

-1.5

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

Speed (knots)

nontidal (residual) (5.6 ft. below MLLW)

Figure 38. Nontidal (residual) current at Newport News, 5.6 ft. below MLLW,

during Hurricane Floyd. Positive current is flood along 342b.
46
47

VIII. Operation of the Real-Time Monitoring System

In addition to running the NWLP, CO-OPS is responsible for the operation and maintenance of four

Physical Oceanographic Real Time Systems (PORTS). To monitor the PORTS sensors and the data

quality, the Continuous Operational Real-Time Monitoring System (CORMS) was developed. The

objective of CORMS is to provide quality control and decision support on a 24-hour a day, 7-day

a week basis. CORMS combines the use of real-time communications and data analysis with a

graphical user interface for monitoring and notification. CORMS is monitored by a team of qualified

technicians who perform designated actions based on standard operating procedures. It is co-located

with the NWS Telecommunications Gateway office in Silver Spring, MD. 

In addition, some specific portions of the NWLON are monitored for operations and data quality.

Data collection platforms (DCP) transmit hourly data to headquarters via NOAA’s GOES satellite.

During times of severe storms, these gauges operate in a special mode to provide data every 20

minutes for distribution to the NWS AFOS network. Since CORMS is co-located with the 24-hour

monitoring systems of the NWS, it is convenient to receive weather bulletins, early designations of

tropical depressions, and storm warnings. 

CORMS monitors National Hurricane Center (NHC) reports of tropical formation of hurricanes and

utilizes the NHC Landfall product to determine when to trigger the special reporting mode capability

of the water level gauges. Gauges in a particular coastal area are triggered when the NHC Landfall

product indicates that, based on the current track of a storm, landfall is predicted with a 10%

confidence level. These gauges provide data about the deviation of water levels from the predicted

tide in order to assist state and federal emergency management teams in deciding strategies for

evacuation. In addition, a new CO-OPS web site named Tides Online, developed to provide real-time

water level data via the Internet, gives the public access to time series plots of the data. 

CORMS operations staff were tracking Hurricane Floyd from its beginning as a tropical depression

until its dissipation. The operations staff were continuously updated by the NWS during the storm.

They monitored gauge performance, providing information regarding gauge failure and data

problems during the hurricane. CORMS continuously maintained gauges in a reporting mode and

experienced only a few gauge failures during the storm. 

One station experienced a significant operational problem; the acoustic sensor at Duck, NC was

malfunctioning as Floyd made its way up the Florida east coast. A field crew from the Atlantic

Regional Office (ARO) of the Field Operations Division of CO-OPS was sent to the site to make

emergency repairs. The acoustic sensor became operational only one day before Floyd made landfall

in North Carolina.

A total of six stations had phone line problems during the storm: Settlement Point, BA, Mayport,

FL, Charleston, SC, Cape Hatteras, NC, Cambridge, MD, and Cape May, NJ. Since stations are

activated into storm surge mode by calling the DCP by phone, these stations did not transmit data

every 20 minutes. They did transmit data either hourly or every three hours, which are the normal

transmission schedules. The station at Cape Hatteras, NC had a phone line problem until September
48

15, when continuous attempts to reach the DCP by phone were finally successful and it was set into

storm surge reporting mode.

The station at Cape Hatteras, NC suffered considerable damage to the protective well and sounding

tube (components of the water level gauge), as was discovered in a post storm inspection by ARO.

The bottom half of the well was broken off by heavy wave action or possibly by debris tossed in the

surf. This damage appears to have happened a few days after the storm passage.
49

IX. Internet Dissemination of Storm Surge Data

CO-OPS has developed a new web site, named Tides Online, to give the public access to real-time

water level, wind, and barometric pressure data from NWLON stations. Stations in storm surge

mode are listed on the main page of the web site, giving the user quick access to available time series

data plots. Currently, some NWLON stations are not equipped with meteorological instruments.

The Tides Online web page provides the most recent 48 hours of water level data along with tide

predictions. Predictions are also provided 24 hours into the future so users can see when the next

high or low tide is predicted to occur. Some stations also show wind and barometric pressure data

available with concurrent time lines. Plotting these data on the same page paints an accurate picture

of the course of a storm. Figure 39 is a plot of the data as it appeared on the web page for Lewisetta,

VA on September 17 at 0948 Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), after the passage of Hurricane Floyd.

On September 14, NOAA issued a media advisory announcing the Tides Online web site.

Newspaper weather page editors and broadcast meteorologists were encouraged to publicize the web

site address. The text of the announcement is printed below. A special note was made that the data

reflects what is happening at the time and is not a storm surge prediction system. 

MEDIA ADVISORY

NOAA OPENS HURRICANE STORM SURGE WEB SITE – TIDES ON LINE

NOAA’s tides and water level experts have created a public web site that provides

near real-time observations from tide gauge equipment along the coast to show the extent of

‘storm surge’ from hurricanes and other storms.

The web site: www.tidesonline.nos.noaa.gov

graphically illustrates tide levels which are actually being observed (shown by red line) as

compared to long-range tide predictions (shown on a blue line) such as those published in

newspapers and in tide forecast books.

The ‘Tides On Line’ system is always in operation giving hourly updates on tides and

water levels around the nation and in some overseas locations. During major storms or

hurricanes, certain observation stations are placed in “storm surge mode” and are automatically

updated every twenty minutes. Some of the observation stations also include wind and

barometric pressure data.

Weather page editors and broadcast meteorologists are encouraged to publish and

publicize the web site, but with regard to storm and hurricane warnings they should remind

readers and viewers that this web site only reflects what’s happening AT THE TIME and is

not a storm surge prediction system. NOAA provides storm surge prediction information as

part of storm and hurricane forecasts and everyone should heed official warnings and forecasts

and predictions about storm surge and flood threats issued by federal, state and local officials.

Real time Storm Surge Levels: www.tidesonline.nos.noaa.gov
50

Figure 39. Sample Tides Online web page for Lewisetta, VA on

September 17,1999 at 0948 Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), after

the passage of Hurricane Floyd.
51

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000

Number of Hits

2-

Sep

12-

Sep

13-

Sep

14-

Sep

15-

Sep

16-

Sep

17-

Sep

18-

Sep

19-

Sep

20-

Sep

21-

Sep

22-

Sep

23-

Sep

24-

Sep

25-

Sep

26-

Sep

27-

Sep

28-

Sep

29-

Sep

30-

Sep

Date

Figure 40. Number of hits on the Tides Online web site after it became operational. The

media advisory was released on September 14. Hurricane Floyd came ashore on

September 16.

The media advisory had a significant effect on the number of web site hits during the storm. Figure

40 shows the number of hits on the Tides Online web site after it became operational. Note the

increase in hits on September 14 when the press announcement of Tides Online was released.

September 16 was the middle of Hurricane Floyd’s interaction with the eastern U.S. coast; the

public’s response is evident. The rest of the graph shows normal use of Tides Online for accessing

daily plots for any of the NWLON stations. 
52
53

X. Coordination with Federal and State Agencies

In the summer of 1999, NOS created a Response Plan for Natural Disasters. The intent of the plan

was to establish a formal response structure with activation and notification protocols to provide for

the efficient use of NOS capabilities in responding to natural disasters such as hurricanes. Each NOS

line office identified an office coordinator and key office capabilities which could be offered to assist

the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and other federal and state agencies in storm

monitoring and disaster recovery. All requests for assistance and resulting actions by NOS were

organized by the NOS coordinator.

Part of the NOS plan included a formal partnership with state emergency management centers in

North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. During the period of Hurricane Floyd, NOS

sent a representative to actively participate with state officials in the North Carolina emergency

operations center. NOS also established a section of its HAZMAT web site, as a central

communication point where all e-mails, reports assessments, and aerial photos regarding the storm

could be reviewed by members of the NOS and state response teams.

The CO-OPS coordinator on the NOS response team provided daily email reports to the NOS

coordinator and state officials on storm progress and water level station status. These email updates

were also posted on the NOS HAZMAT web site. The basic operation of the Tides Online web site

was explained to familiarize team members with its purpose and capabilities. Although the NWS

AFOS network automatically receives storm surge transmissions from NOS water level stations, the

NWS regional forecast offices were also notified of the Tides Online web site as an additional source

of information for storm surge data.
54
55

XI. Summary

Hurricane Floyd was the most powerful and destructive storm of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season.

Due to its storm track, it affected nearly the entire US Atlantic coast before and after making landfall

early on September 16 near Cape Fear, NC. Widespread flooding caused by heavy rains associated

with Floyd resulted in significant casualties, property loss, and environmental damage, particularly

in eastern North Carolina.

Hurricane Floyd raised water levels significantly above MHHW at many of the east coast NWLON

stations, with the highest maximum observed elevation at Oregon Inlet Marina, NC on Pamlico

Sound, setting a new station record of 1.480 meters above MHHW. Historical maximum elevations

were also exceeded at Duke Marine Lab, NC and at St. Augustine Beach, FL. At Duke Marine Lab,

NC, the maximum observed elevation occurred 41⁄2 hours after predicted high tide. 

Storm surge, the difference between observed water levels and predicted tide levels, showed

considerable variation between stations depending on wind speed and direction, air pressure, local

orientation of the coastline, and the storm’s speed and distance at time of passage. The greatest

recorded storm surge was 1.733 meters at Duke Marine Lab, NC. Rapid changes in wind direction

as the storm passed a station were quickly followed by changes in the trend of the storm surge. In

addition, the effect of Floyd’s winds on currents near Hampton Roads, VA was measured by two

CO-OPS current meters that were in the water at the time. 

The operation of CORMS during the period of Hurricane Floyd was described, including the

procedure for setting NWLON DCPs into storm surge reporting mode, the resolution of

communication problems, and a description of equipment damage. The newly-developed Tides

Online website was announced to the public via a NOAA media advisory two days before Hurricane

Floyd came ashore. The main page indicates which NWLON stations are in storm surge reporting

mode and each station’s web page gives time series plots of available water level, wind, and

barometric pressure data. The number of web page hits peaked above 80,000 on September 16 as

Floyd came ashore. Finally, there was a description of CO-OPS participation on the NOS natural

disaster response team and its coordination with federal and state emergency management centers.

Preliminary data recorded during the storm were provided to NWS, FEMA, and the U.S. Army

Corps of Engineers. Information on tidal datums, storm surge, and times series analyses from

stations listed in this report and from other NOS stations can be obtained from:

NOAA/ National Ocean Service

Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services

Products and Services Division, N/OPS3

1305 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910-3281

Telephone: 301-713-2877

Internet URL: www.co-ops.nos.noaa.gov
56
57

Acknowledgments

This report represents the cumulative efforts of personnel of the Center for Operational

Oceanographic Products and Services. We would like to acknowledge the support of the Field

Operations Division personnel who are responsible for the operation and maintenance of the water

level stations, and the Products and Services Division personnel who are responsible for the

processing and analysis of the data incorporated into this report. Zhong Li produced the wind plots,

Noriko Shoji researched historical station record periods, and Cherel Fitzgerald transcribed the

NOAA media advisory. Brenda Via and Gina Stoney prepared and reviewed the final document for

publication. We would also like to thank Stephen Gill, William Stoney, Leonard Hickman, and

Stephen Lyles for their suggestions and reviews which helped to improve this report.
58
59

References

Harris, D. Lee, 1963. Characteristics of the hurricane storm surge, Weather Bureau, Technical

Paper No. 48, U.S. Dept. of Commerce.

Parker, Bruce B., 1991. The relative importance of the various nonlinear mechanisms in a wide

range of tidal interactions (Review). In Tidal Hydrodynamics, (Ed.) Bruce B. Parker, pp

237-268, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY.

Storm Event Data Reports

The following data reports were compiled after major storm events. The formats of the reports vary;

however, each contains tabular and graphical information on the maximum elevations of the water

levels during the storm, as well as storm surge information calculated from the difference between

observed and predicted tides.

1. Hurricane Hugo, Effects on water levels and storm surge recorded at NOAA/National Ocean

Service water level stations. Data Report, November 30, 1989.

2. Effects of Hurricane Bob on water levels. Data Report, October 1991.

3. Effects of the late October 1991 North Atlantic extra-tropical storm on water levels. Data Report,

January 1992.

4. Effects of the January 1992 Atlantic Ocean coastal storm on water levels. Data Report, May

1992.

5. Effects of Hurricane Andrew on water levels in coastal Florida and Louisiana. NOAA Technical

Memorandum NOS OES 004, Data Report, December 1992.

6. Effects of December 1992 northeaster on water levels. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS

OES 006, Data Report, May 1993.

7. Effects of February 1998 northeaster on water levels. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS COOPS 0019, Data Report, December 1998.
60
61

Appendix I. 

Data Tables
62

Table A. Hurricane Floyd weather advisories from the NOAA National Hurricane Center

NHC

Advisory

Date Time

(GMT)

Long.

North

Lat.

West

Wind Speed

(mph)

Pressure

(mb)

Direction/

Speed

Saffir/Simpson

Hurricane Scale

1 9/7/99 2100 14.6 46.2 30 1008 W/14 TD

2 9/8/99 0300 15.2 47.5 35 1007 WNW/16 TD

3 9/8/99 0900 15.6 49.1 40 1005 WNW/16 TS

4 9/8/99 1500 15.8 50 45 1003 WNW/15 TS

5 9/8/99 2100 16.6 51.7 50 1000 WNW/16 TS

6 9/9/99 0300 16.7 53.6 60 1000 WNW/16 TS

7 9/9/99 0900 17.3 54.6 60 1003 WNW/15 TS

8 9/9/99 1500 17.2 55.5 60 1003 W/14 TS

9 9/9/99 2100 18.2 56.9 70 996 WNW/15 TS

9A 9/10/99 0000 18.2 57.2 70 995 W/10 TS

10 9/10/99 0300 18.3 57.7 70 995 WNW/10 TS

10A 9/10/99 0600 18.4 57.7 70 995 WNW/10 TS

11 9/10/99 0900 18.9 58.7 70 985 WNW/12 TS

11A 9/10/99 1200 19.1 58.9 80 989 WNW/12 H1

12 9/10/99 1500 19.3 59.2 80 989 WNW/10 H1

12A 9/10/99 1800 19.9 59.7 80 989 WNW/10 H1

13 9/10/99 2100 20.5 60 80 975 NW/12 H1

13A 9/11/99 0000 20.8 60.4 85 971 NW/12 H1

14 9/11/99 0300 21.1 60.8 90 971 NW/12 H1

15 9/11/99 0900 21.7 61.6 105 963 NW/10 H2

16 9/11/99 1500 22.2 62.4 110 962 NW/10 H2

17 9/11/99 2100 22.7 63.5 110 966 WNW/12 H2

18 9/12/99 0300 22.7 64.5 110 967 WNW/12 H2

19 9/12/99 0900 22.8 65.9 110 960 W/13 H2

19A 9/12/99 1200 22.9 66.2 115 955 W/12 H3

20A 9/12/99 1800 23.2 67.5 120 955 W/14 H3

21 9/12/99 2100 23.4 68.2 125 940 W/14 H3

21A 9/13/99 0000 23.5 68.7 145 932 W/14 H4

22 9/13/99 0300 23.6 69.3 145 931 W/14 H4
NHC

Advisory

Date Time

(GMT)

Long.

North

Lat.

West

Wind Speed

(mph)

Pressure

(mb)

Direction/

Speed

Saffir/Simpson

Hurricane Scale

63

22A 9/13/99 0600 23.6 70 150 923 W/14 H4

23 9/13/99 0900 23.7 70.6 155 922 W/14 H4

23A 9/13/99 1200 23.9 71.4 155 921 W/14 H4

24 9/13/99 1500 24.1 72.1 155 921 W/14 H4

24A 9/13/99 1800 24.2 73 155 926 W/15 H4

25 9/13/99 2100 24.2 73.7 155 923 W/16 H4

25A 9/14/99 0000 24.4 74.1 155 924 W/14 H4

26 9/14/99 0300 24.5 74.7 155 924 W/14 H4

26A 9/14/99 0700 24.9 75.3 155 928 WNW/14 H4

27 9/14/99 0900 25.1 75.9 155 927 WNW/14 H4

27A 9/14/99 1300 25.4 76.1 150 929 WNW/14 H4

28 9/14/99 1600 25.7 76.8 145 932 WNW/14 H4

28A 9/14/99 1900 26 77 140 933 WNW/14 H4

29 9/14/99 2200 26.5 77.4 140 929 NW/12 H4

29A 9/15/99 0100 27.1 77.6 140 934 NNW/12 H4

30 9/15/99 0400 27.7 77.6 140 933 NW/13 H4

30A 9/15/99 0700 28.2 78.5 140 935 NW/13 H4

31 9/15/99 1000 28.8 78.8 140 938 NNW/14 H4

31A 9/15/99 1300 29.3 78.8 135 941 NNW/14 H4

32 9/15/99 1600 29.9 79 125 943 NNW/14 H3

32A 9/15/99 1800 30.3 79.1 125 946 NNW/14 H3

32B 9/15/99 2000 30.8 79.1 120 947 N/15 H3

33 9/15/99 2200 31.3 79 115 949 N/17 H3

33A 9/16/99 0000 32.1 78.7 115 949 NNE/17 H3

33B 9/16/99 0200 32.4 78.6 115 950 NNE/17 H3

34 9/16/99 0400 32.9 78.3 115 951 NNE/18 H3

34B 9/16/99 0800 34 77.9 110 956 NNE/20 H2

35 9/16/99 1000 34.5 77.6 105 956 NNE/23 H2

35A 9/16/99 1200 35.2 77.1 100 960 NNE/24 H2

35B 9/16/99 1400 36 76.6 90 962 NNE/25 H1

36 9/16/99 1600 36.8 76 80 967 NNE/24 H1
NHC

Advisory

Date Time

(GMT)

Long.

North

Lat.

West

Wind Speed

(mph)

Pressure

(mb)

Direction/

Speed

Saffir/Simpson

Hurricane Scale

64

36A 9/16/99 1900 37.8 75.2 75 974 NNE/29 H1

37 9/16/99 2200 39.3 74.6 65 974 NNE/30 TS

37A 9/17/99 0100 40.6 73.5 65 974 NNE/30 TS

38 9/17/99 0400 41.7 72.2 60 980 NE/35 TS

39 9/17/99 1000 43.5 70.8 60 984 NE/26 TS

TD= Tropical Depression; TS= Tropical Storm; H# = Hurricane Category #.
65

Table B. Location and period of record for NWLON stations

Station Latitude Longtitude Starting

Year

Major

Gaps

Number Name Deg. Min. Deg. Min.

8443970 Boston, Boston Harbor, MA 42 21.3N 71 3.1W 1921

8447930 Woods Hole, Buzzards Bay, MA 41 31.4N 70 40.3W 1932

8449130 Nantucket Island, Nantucket Sound, MA 41 17.1N 70 5.8W 1965

8452660 Newport, Narragansett Bay, RI 41 30.3N 71 19.6W 1930

8454000 Providence, Providence River, RI 41 48.4N 71 24.1W 1938 1947-

1956

8461490 New London, Thames River, CT 41 21.3N 72 5.2W 1938

8467150 Bridgeport, Bridgeport Harbor, CT 41 10.4N 73 10.9W 1964

8510560 Montauk, Fort Pond Bay, NY 41 2.9N 71 57.6W 1947

8516945 Kings Point, NY 40 48.6N 73 45.9W 1998

8516990 Willets Point, Little Bay, East R., NY 40 47.6N 73 46.9W 1931

8518750 The Battery, New York Harbor, NY 40 42.0N 74 0.9W 1856 1879-

1892

8519483 Bergen Point W. Reach, Kill Van Kull, NY 40 38.4N 74 8.8W 1981 1992-

1993

8531680 Sandy Hook, NJ 40 28.0N 74 0.1W 1932

8534720 Atlantic City, Atlantic Ocean, NJ 39 21.3N 74 25.1W 1911 1969-

1971

8536110 Cape May, Cape May Canal, Del. Bay, NJ 38 58.1N 74 57.6W 1965

8545240 Philadelphia, Delaware River, PA 39 56.0N 75 8.5W 1900 1921-

1922

8551910 Reedy Point, C&D Canal, DE 39 33.5N 75 34.4W 1956 1967-

1976

8557380 Lewes, Ft. Miles, DE 38 46.9N 75 7.2W 1919 1923-

1936,

1940-

1947,

1950-

1952

8571892 Cambridge, Choptank River, MD 38 34.4N 76 4.1W 1942 1951-

1970

8573364 Tolchester Beach, Chesapeake Bay, MD 39 12.8N 76 14.7W 1986 1987-

1994

8574680 Baltimore, Fort Mchenry, Patapsco R., MD 39 16.0N 76 34.7W 1902

8575512 Annapolis, Severn River, Ches. Bay, MD 38 59.0N 76 28.8W 1928

8577330 Solomons Island, Patuxent River, MD 38 19.0N 76 27.1W 1937
Station Latitude Longtitude Starting

Year

Major

Gaps

Number Name Deg. Min. Deg. Min.

66

8594900 Washington, Potomac River, D.C. 38 52.4N 77 1.3W 1931

8631044 Wachapreague, Wachapreague Channel, VA 37 36.4N 75 41.2W 1978

8632200 Kiptopeke, Chesapeake Bay, VA 37 10.0N 75 59.3W 1951

8635150 Colonial Beach, Potomac River, VA 38 15.1N 76 57.6W 1972

8635750 Lewisetta, Potomac River, VA 37 59.7N 76 27.9W 1974

8636580 Windmill Point, VA 37 36.7N 76 16.5W 1994

8637624 Gloucester Point, York River, VA 37 14.8N 76 30.0W 1950 1968-

1969

8638610 Hampton Roads, VA 36 56.8N 76 19.8W 1927

8638863 Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA 36 58.0N 76 6.8W 1975

8639348 Money Point, S. Br. Elizabeth River, VA 36 46.7N 76 18.1W 1997

8651370 Duck, FRF Pier, NC 36 11.0N 75 44.8W 1978

8652587 Oregon Inlet Marina, NC 35 47.8N 75 33.0W 1977 1978-

1994

8654400 Cape Hatteras Fishing Pier, NC 35 13.4N 75 38.1W 1973 1993-

1994

8656483 Duke Marine Lab, Beaufort, NC 34 43.2N 76 40.2W 1973

8658120 Wilmington, NC 34 13.6N 77 57.2W 1935

8661070 Springmaid Pier, SC 33 39.3N 78 55.1W 1977 1989-

1991

8665530 Charleston, Cooper River Entrance, SC 32 46.9N 79 55.5W 1921

8670870 Fort Pulaski, Savannah River, GA 32 2.0N 80 54.1W 1935 1974-

1977

8720030 Fernandina Beach, Amelia River, FL 30 40.3N 81 27.9W 1897 1924-

1938

8720220 Mayport, FL 30 23.6N 81 25.9W 1928

8720587 St. Augustine Beach, Atlantic Ocean, FL 29 51.4N 81 15.7W 1992

8721604 Trident Pier, Port Canaveral, FL 28 24.9N 80 35.6W 1994

8723214 Virginia Key, Biscayne Bay, FL 25 43.9N 80 9.7W 1994

9710441 Settlement Point, Grand Bahamas, BA 26 42.6N 78 59.8W 1985
67

Appendix II. 

Time series of observed water level and 

predicted tide at NWLON stations
68

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 41. Settlement Point, BA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 42. Virginia Key, FL observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 43. Trident Pier, FL observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
69

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 44. St. Augustine Beach, FL observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on

MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 45. Mayport, FL observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-S ep 14-Sep 15-S ep 16-S ep 17-S ep 18-S ep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 46. Fernandina Beach, FL observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on

MLLW.
70

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 47. Fort Pulaski, GA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 48. Charleston, SC observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 49. Springmaid Pier, SC observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
71

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 50. Wilmington, NC observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 51. Duke Marine Lab, NC observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on

MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 52. Cape Hatteras, NC observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
72

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 53. Oregon Inlet Marina, NC observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on

MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 54. Duck Pier, NC observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 55. Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water

levels on MLLW.
73

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 56. Money Point, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 57. Hampton Roads, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 58. Gloucester Point, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on

MLLW.
74

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 59. Windmill Point, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 60. Lewisetta, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 61. Colonial Beach, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
75

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 62. Washington, DC observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 63. Solomons, MD observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 64. Annapolis, MD observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
76

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 65. Baltimore, MD observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 66. Tolchester Beach, MD observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on

MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 67. Cambridge, MD observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
77

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 68. Kiptopeke Beach, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on

MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 69. Wachapreague, VA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 70. Lewes, DE observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
78

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 71. Reedy Point, DE observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 72. Philadelphia, PA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 73. Cape May, NJ observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
79

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 74. Atlantic City, NJ observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 75. Sandy Hook, NJ observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 76. Bergen Point, NY observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
80

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 77. The Battery, NY observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 78. Montauk, NY observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 79. Willets Point, NY observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
81

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 80. Kings Point, NY observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 81. Bridgeport, CT observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 82. New London, CT observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
82

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 83. Providence, RI observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 84. Newport, RI observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 85. Woods Hole, MA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
83

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 86. Nantucket, MA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 87. Boston, MA observed (solid) and predicted (dashed) water levels on MLLW.
84
85

Appendix III. 

Time series of storm surge at NWLON stations
86

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 88. Settlement Point, BA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 89. Virginia Key, FL storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 90. Trident Pier, FL storm surge.
87

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 91. St. Augustine Beach, FL storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 92. Mayport, FL storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 93. Fernandina Beach, FL storm surge.
88

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 94. Fort Pulaski, GA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 95. Charleston, SC storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 96. Springmaid Pier, SC storm surge.
89

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 97. Wilmington, NC storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 98. Duke Marine Lab, NC storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 99. Cape Hatteras, NC storm surge.
90

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 100. Oregon Inlet Marina, NC storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 101. Duck Pier, NC storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 102. Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA storm surge.
91

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 103. Money Point, VA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 104. Hampton Roads, VA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 105. Gloucester Point, VA storm surge.
92

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 106. Windmill Point, VA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 107. Lewisetta, VA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 108. Colonial Beach, VA storm surge.
93

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 109. Washington, DC storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 110. Solomons, MD storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 111. Annapolis, MD storm surge.
94

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 112. Baltimore, MD storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 113. Tolchester Beach, MD storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 114. Cambridge, MD storm surge.
95

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 115. Kiptopeke Beach, VA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 116. Wachapreague, VA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 117. Lewes, DE storm surge.
96

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 118. Reedy Point, DE storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 119. Philadelphia, PA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 120. Cape May, NJ storm surge.
97

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 121. Atlantic City, NJ storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 122. Sandy Hook, NJ storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 123. Bergen Point, NY storm surge.
98

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 124. The Battery, NY storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 125. Montauk, NY storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 126. Willets Point, NY storm surge.
99

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 127. Kings Point, NY storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 128. Bridgeport, CT storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 129. New London, CT storm surge.
100

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 130. Providence, RI storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 131. Newport, RI storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 132. Woods Hole, MA storm surge.
101

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 133. Nantucket, MA storm surge.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

GMT

Meters

Figure 134. Boston, MA storm surge.
102
103

Appendix IV. 

Time series of wind speed and 

barometric pressure at NWLON stations
104

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 135. Virginia Key, FL wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 136. Mayport, FL wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 137. Cape Hatteras, NC wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).
105

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 138. Duck Pier, NC wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 139. Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, VA wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure

(thin line).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 140. Hampton Roads, VA wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).
106

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 141. Lewisetta, VA wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 142. Solomons Island, MD wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 143. Tolchester Beach, MD wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).
107

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 144. Cambridge, MD wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 145. Sandy Hook, NJ wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 146. Bergen Point, NY wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).
108

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 147. Kings Point, NY wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Millibars

Figure 148. Providence, RI barometric pressure.

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Millibars

Figure 149. Newport, RI barometric pressure.
109

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

13-Sep 14-Sep 15-Sep 16-Sep 17-Sep 18-Sep 19-Sep 20-Sep

Meters/Second

970

980

990

1000

1010

1020

1030

Millibars

Figure 150. Eastport,ME wind speed (thick line) and barometric pressure (thin line).