4

Affected Environment

Piping Plover

Sand Ladder at North Bar Lake

Sleeping Bear Inn, Glen Haven
92 
93 

INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the existing 

environment of Sleeping Bear Dunes National 

Lakeshore. The focus is on elements (natural 

and cultural resources, visitor opportunities, 

socioeconomic characteristics, etc.) that 

would be affected by the actions proposed in 

the alternatives, should they be implemented. 

These topics were selected on the basis of 

federal law, regulations, executive orders, 

NPS expertise, and concerns expressed by 

other agencies or members of the public 

during project scoping. 

The first section in this chapter discusses 

impact topics that are analyzed in detail in this 

General Management Plan / Wilderness Study / 

Environmental Impact Statement. The next 

section discusses impact topics that are not 

analyzed in detail and explains the rationale 

for these decisions. 

Impact Topics Considered 

in this Plan 

Alternatives in this plan have potential 

to affect these resources or topics. 

Impact Topics Eliminated from 

Detailed Analysis in this Plan 

These resources or topics are important, but 

alternatives in this plan would have only positive 

impacts on them, and/or any adverse impacts 

would be negligible to minor. 

Cultural Resources Cultural Resources 

Historic Resources Museum Collections 

Natural Resources Ethnographic Resources 

Soils and Geologic Resources Archeological Resources 

Vegetation Indian Trust Resources 

Wildlife Natural Resources 

Federal Threatened and Endangered 

Species 

Air Quality 

Michigan State-listed Species* Michigan State-listed Species (northern 

goshawk, grasshopper sparrow, least bittern, 

calypso or fairy-slipper, beauty sedge, and 

broad-leaved sedge)* 

Wetlands Floodplains 

Water Quality Coastal Zone Management 

Visitor Opportunities and Use Water Quantity 

Visitor Opportunities Prime or Unique Farmland 

Visitor Use Energy Requirements and Conservation Potential 

Wilderness Character Environmental Justice 

Regional Socioeconomics Wild and Scenic Rivers 

NPS Operations 

 * The northern goshawk, grasshopper sparrow, least bittern, calypso or fairy-slipper, beauty sedge, 

and broad-leaved sedge, all state-listed species, were dismissed from further analysis. The reasons 

for dismissing these species can be found in the discussion of topics eliminated from detailed 

analysis. 
94 

IMPACT TOPICS CONSIDERED AND ANALYZED IN DETAIL 

HISTORIC RESOURCES 

Cultural resources as a group include historic 

structures, cultural landscapes, archeological 

resources, ethnographic resources, and 

museum collections. The latter three categories have not been analyzed in detail 

because they would not be affected under any 

alternative; these categories are described in 

the “Impact Topics Dismissed” section later in 

this chapter. 

Historic Property Definitions 

Within the topic of historic resources there 

are several historic property types defined 

under 36 CFR 800. They are defined as “any 

historic district, site, building, structure, or 

object included in or eligible for inclusion in, 

the National Register of Historic Places.” The 

following definitions are used by the National 

Park Service: 

• Building: created principally to shelter 

any form of human activity such as a 

barn, house, church, or hotel 

• Site: the location of a significant event; a 

prehistoric or historic occupation or 

activity; or a building or structure, 

whether standing or ruined or vanished, 

where the location itself posses historic, 

cultural, or archeological value, 

regardless of the value of the existing 

structure 

• Structure: a functional construction 

usually made for purposes other than 

creating human shelter, such as tunnels, 

bridges, oil wells, or dams 

• Object: primarily artistic in nature or is 

relatively small in scale and simply 

constructed — Although an object may 

be moveable by nature or design, it is 

associated with a specific setting or 

environment, including sculptures, 

boundary markers, or statues. 

• District: possesses a significant concentration, linkage, or continuity of sites, 

buildings, structures, or objects united 

historically or aesthetically by plan or 

physical development, such as a college 

campus, central business district, fort, or 

sprawling ranch 

• Landscape: geographic area associated 

with events, persons, design styles, or 

ways of life that are significant in 

American history, landscape architecture, archeology, engineering, or culture 

Each of the property types above is represented at Sleeping Bear Dunes National 

Lakeshore. However, not all of these property 

types will be affected by actions described in 

this plan. Therefore, within the historic 

resources topic, the property types to be 

discussed include cultural landscapes, sites, 

buildings, structures, and districts. 

All historic properties in Sleeping Bear Dunes 

National Lakeshore have been or will be 

surveyed and evaluated for eligibility for the 

National Register of Historic Places by the 

National Park Service. Currently eight structures or groupings of structures or cultural 

landscapes have been listed on the national 

register (see Prominent Historical Resources 

Base map). 

Within Leelanau County the listed historic 

properties are as follows: the Glen Haven 

Village Historic District, the George Conrad 

Hutzler Farm, the George J. and Margaretha 

Hutzler pig barn, the North Manitou Island 

Life-Saving Station (also a designated national 

historic landmark), the Port Oneida Rural 

Historic District, the Sleeping Bear Inn, the 

Sleeping Bear Point Life-Saving Station, and 

the South Manitou Island Lighthouse 

Complex and Life-Saving Station Historical 
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CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

96 

back of map 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail 

97 

District. In Benzie County, no historic properties listed on the national register exist within 

the boundaries of the National Lakeshore. 

Numerous other properties have been 

determined eligible for listing on the National 

Register of Historic Places by the National 

Park Service and the Michigan state historic 

preservation officer. Many of these properties, 

however, have not yet had their significant 

features or time periods described on a 

nomination form for submission to the keeper 

of the national register for official listing. 

A Note about the National Register of Historic Places and the National Historic Preservation Act 

The National Register of Historic Places (national register) is a comprehensive list of districts, sites, 

buildings, structures, and objects of national, regional, state, and local significance in American history, 

architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture. The national register is maintained by the National 

Park Service under authority of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 as amended. Any property 

that appears eligible must be studied and documented and formally submitted to the state historic 

preservation officer for concurrence and to the keeper of the national register. The final decision on listing 

is made by the keeper of the national register. 

During the time the proposed nomination is reviewed by the state historic preservation officer, property 

owners and local officials are notified of the intent to nominate and public comment is solicited. Once the 

property is listed on or determined eligible for the national register, all actions that could have an effect 

on the property, good or bad, must undergo the Section 106 process. Section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, requires that all actions affecting cultural resources listed on or 

eligible for inclusion on the national register be reviewed both by the state historic preservation officer 

and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation before the undertaking. Should all parties concur, the 

action may proceed. Any disagreement requires additional consultation. Should no agreement be 

forthcoming following additional consultation, a formal decision to proceed may be made by the agency. 

Once a property is listed on or determined eligible for the national register, the National Park Service is 

obligated to preserve and protect that property until a formal, conscious decision to do otherwise is made 

in consultation with the state historic preservation officer and the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation. Under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, the 

National Park Service has an obligation to request adequate funding for preservation maintenance of 

these properties — intentional neglect of a property under Section 106 is an “adverse effect” subject to 

consultation. 

To preserve the historic properties in the National Lakeshore, the National Park Service intends to use a 

variety of means, such as NPS funding, grants, volunteers, and leasing of structures. Should these means 

prove inadequate to preserve all of the historic properties, the National Lakeshore would work with the 

state historic preservation officer when making decisions about preservation priorities. 

By passage of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), Congress established a comprehensive 

program to preserve the historical and cultural foundations of the nation as a living part of community 

life. Section 110 of the act identifies broad historic preservation responsibilities for federal agencies, such 

as the National Park Service, to ensure that historic preservation is fully integrated into all of their ongoing 

programs. Important benchmarks for federal agency preservation programs include the following: 

• historic properties under the jurisdiction or control of the agency are to be managed and maintained 

in a way that considers the preservation of their historic, archeological, architectural, and cultural 

values; 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

98 

• historic properties not under agency jurisdiction or control but potentially affected by agency actions 

are to be fully considered in agency planning; and 

• agency preservation-related activities are to be carried out in consultation with other federal, state, 

and local agencies, Indian tribes, and the private sector. 

Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act requires federal agencies to take into account the 

effects of their undertakings on historic properties either listed in or eligible to be listed in the national 

register. The historic preservation review process required by Section 106 is outlined in regulations (36 

CFR Part 800, Protecting Historic Properties) issued by Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP), 

an independent federal agency established by the act in 1966 to promote the preservation, enhancement, 

and productive use of our nation's historic resources. The goal of the Section 106 review process is to 

seek ways to avoid, minimize, or mitigate any adverse effects on historic properties. 

Federal agencies are responsible for initiating Section 106 review, most of which takes place between the 

agency and state and tribal officials. Appointed by the governor, the state historic preservation officer 

administers the national historic preservation program at the state level, coordinates the state’s historic 

preservation program, and consults with federal agencies during Section 106 review. Federal agencies also 

consult with officials of federally recognized Indian tribes when tribal lands or historic properties of 

significance to such tribes are involved, as well as representatives of state and local governments, 

agencies, and organizations, the general public, and, as necessary, the Advisory Council. 

Section 106 review encourages, but does not mandate, preservation of national register listed or eligible 

historic properties. The purpose of Section 106 review is not to stop proposed projects, but rather to 

ensure that federal agencies fully consider historic preservation values and the views of other agencies, 

tribes, organizations, and the public during project planning and decision-making. Sometimes there is no 

feasible and prudent way for a needed project to proceed without adversely affecting historic properties, 

and there may be overriding natural resource concerns or economic and social benefits that that make it 

necessary for such a project to proceed as planned. Section 106 review does, however, ensure that 

preservation values are factored into federal agency planning and decision-making, and that federal 

agencies assume responsibility for the consequences of their actions on historic properties and are publicly 

accountable for their decisions. 

Properties Listed in the National 

Register of Historic Places 

The Glen Haven Village Historic District 

consists of 17 structures. It was first entered 

into the national register June 24, 1983, and 

the entry was subsequently modified on April, 

19, 1990. The district is listed at a state level of 

significance as an excellent example of a 

frontier company-operated steamboat stop. 

Glen Haven Village is associated with David 

Henry Day whose entrepreneurial skills 

allowed the development of a lumber industry 

to supply cordwood for Great Lakes steamers 

and lumber for shipment to Chicago, dairy 

farming and livestock raising, fruit horticulture, and resort development. Its period of 

significance currently spans the years from 

1857 to 1939, although a recently completed 

cultural landscape report for Glen Haven 

recommends changing the period to 1864 to 

1931, a period bracketed by the construction 

of the first structure, the Sleeping Bear Inn, 

and the last year that the steamboats stopped 

at Glen Haven. 

The Sleeping Bear Inn was constructed circa 

1864. It was individually listed on the national 

register on September 6, 1979, as a fine example of a frontier hotel with significance in the 

areas of commerce, entertainment recreation, 

and exploration and settlement. The inn 

served as home for area workers, an intermediate stop for settlers homesteading the 

area, and later as a resort hotel. The inn’s 

period of significance is currently shown as 

1857 to 1928. The Sleeping Bear Inn was later 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail 

99 

also included in the Glen Haven Village 

Historic District nomination. 

The Sleeping Bear Point Life-Saving Station is 

made up of five structures originally constructed between 1901 and 1931. The lifesaving station was moved in 1931 to its current 

location and continued in operation until 

1942. The station was added to the national 

register on April 26, 1979; its period of significance is 1901 to 1931. Since the nomination 

was entered, several additional landscape 

features have been identified as significant 

components of the complex and have been 

determined eligible for the national register. A 

modified nomination to include these features 

has yet to be prepared. 

The Port Oneida Rural Historic District comprises 146 sites, structures, and buildings in a 

rural agricultural landscape reflecting the 

general settlement patterns of Northern 

European immigrants in the Upper Great 

Lakes region. The district was added to the 

national register in 1997 with a state level of 

significance. The district’s period of significance is from 1880-1945. Since the nomination was entered, several additional landscape 

and archeological features have been identified as significant components of the district 

and are believed to contribute to the significance of the district. A modified nomination 

to include these features has yet to be 

prepared. 

The North Manitou Island Life-Saving Station 

National Historic Landmark was entered on 

the national register on August 5, 1998. The 

station was operational from 1854 to 1938, 

first as a volunteer facility, then as part of the 

U.S. Life-Saving Service (1874-1915), and 

finally as a part of the U.S. Coast Guard. The 

station served as a key element in the network 

of rescue stations that provided humanitarian 

aid to shipwreck victims. Of the nearly 200 

such stations, the North Manitou Island LifeSaving Station is the only remaining station 

that represents the entire U.S. Life-Saving 

Service history from the volunteer era through 

the U.S. Coast Guard era. The 12 station 

structures retain a high level of integrity of 

design, material, and workmanship. The 

station’s period of significance spans the years 

from 1854 to 1932. 

The South Manitou Island Lighthouse Complex and Life-Saving Station Historical 

District was a strategic location on the 

Manitou Passage, providing the only harbor 

large enough for many ships transiting from 

Chicago to the Straits of Mackinac. The 

district consists of a lighthouse complex 

constructed 1858-1875, a life-saving station 

constructed 1901 to 1902, and two woodframe houses constructed in 1902 and 1930. 

The period of significance is ca. 1858 to 1958. 

The historic district was entered on the state 

register on September 21, 1976, and the 

national register on October 28, 1983. Since 

the nomination was entered, several additional landscape features have been identified 

as significant components of the district, and 

have been determined eligible for the national 

register. A modified nomination to include 

these structures has yet to be prepared. 

The George Johann and Margaretha Hutzler 

pig barn, built between 1856 and 1880 on 

South Manitou Island, was entered on the 

National Register of Historic Places January 3, 

1978, with a designation of local significance. 

The structure is significant for its association 

with early settlement and agriculture on the 

island. 

The George Conrad and Mary Ann Hutzler 

farm was listed on the national register May 3, 

1992, with a designation of state significance 

for its association with scientific agriculture, 

particularly the development of Rosen rye and 

Michelite beans for Michigan Agricultural 

College in the 1920s. The period of 

significance is 1860 to 1930.

 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

100 

TABLE 6: EXISTING LISTED PROPERTIES

Property Name Property Type Structures 

Within 

Significance 

Level 

Period of 

Significance 

Glen Haven 

Village Historic 

District 

historic district 14 buildings, 2 

structures, 1 site 

state * 1857–1931 

Sleeping Bear Inn structure 1 building state * 1857–1928 

Sleeping Bear 

Point Life-Saving 

Station 

buildings 4 buildings,1 

structure, 1 

object 

state * 1901–1958 

Port Oneida rural historic 

district 

121 buildings, 

20 structures, 5 

sites 

state * 1870–1945 

North Manitou 

Island Life-Saving 

Station 

national historic 

landmark 

8 buildings, 4 

structures, 1 

object 

national 1854–1932 

South Manitou 

Island Lighthouse 

Complex and 

Life-Saving 

Station Historical 

District 

historic district 13 buildings, 5 

structures 

state* 1858–1958 

George Conrad 

and Mary Ann 

Hutzler Farm 

district (160 acre 

tract) 

9 buildings state* 1860–1930 

George Johann 

and Margaretha 

Hutzler Pig Barn 

structure 1 building local 

* Property was later determined by the National Lakeshore and concurred by the state historic 

preservation officer as meeting a national level of significance as part of a larger historic district. A 

description and recommended significance level has not yet been submitted to the keeper of the 

national register for nomination of these districts (see below). 

Properties Determined Eligible for 

Inclusion on the National Register and 

Possible New National Register Districts 

As cultural resources within the National 

Lakeshore continue to be studied, new themes 

have been proposed for national register 

listing that look at the resources differently. 

Although all historic properties have already 

been identified through initial survey and 

preliminary consultations, the proposed 

themes may result in some resources being 

included in more than one national register 

district. 

Manitou Passage Maritime Landscape 

National Historic District. This district 

would be comprised of a concentration of 

maritime historic sites, geographic features, 

and native habitats with few modern 

intrusions. This district would exemplify the 

historic landscape features related to the 

Great Lakes transportation system more 

completely than any site on the Great Lakes. 

The Glen Haven Village Historic District, 

portions of the villages on North Manitou and 

South Manitou islands, and the three lifesaving stations would be among the prominent contributing elements to this district. In 

1999, the Michigan state historic preservation 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail 

101 

officer concurred that such a district would be 

eligible for the register at the national level of 

significance. The Manitou Passage Maritime 

Landscape National Historic District has not 

yet been formally described or proposed to 

the keeper of the national register. 

South Manitou Island Rural Historic 

District. This district would be significant for 

its association with the island’s agriculture and 

pattern of settlement, and would span a 

period of about 1838-1940. The district would 

include contributing elements such as the 

August Beck, George Johann Hutzler, and 

George Conrad Hutzler farms; the South 

Manitou Island schoolhouse; and other 

properties. In 1999 the Michigan state historic 

preservation officer concurred that such a 

district would be eligible for the register at the 

state level of significance. The district has 

been described, but a nomination has not yet 

been prepared or submitted to the keeper of 

the national register for listing. 

Several additional structures and building 

complexes within the National Lakeshore 

have been determined by the National Park 

Service, and the state historic preservation 

officer has concurred, as eligible for inclusion 

on the National Register of Historic Places as 

individual listings: at a state level of significance, the North Manitou Sawmill Complex; 

and at a local level of significance, the Bufka 

Farmstead (see also Bufka/Kropp/Eitzen 

Rural Historic Landscape below), the Shalda 

log cabin, the Esch house, the Swenson/ 

Westside barn on North Manitou Island, and 

the Henry Haas and Theodore Beck houses 

on South Manitou Island. None have yet been 

documented on a nomination form for submittal to the keeper of the national register for 

listing. 

Several other landscapes also have been 

determined eligible for inclusion on the 

national register by the National Park Service 

and the state historic preservation office, but 

have not yet been documented on a nomination form for submittal to the keeper of the 

national register for listing. These include the 

following: at a state level of significance, the 

Boekeloo Wilderness Landscape, the D.H. 

Day Campground and Log Cabin Landscape; 

and at a local level of significance, the 

Tweddle/Treat Rural Historic Landscape 

(four farmsteads and a rural schoolhouse), the 

Ken-Tuck-U-Inn Historic Landscape, the 

Manitou Island Association Historic 

Landscape, and the Bufka/Kropp/Eitzen Rural 

Historic Landscape. See also table 3 on page 

74. 

NATURAL RESOURCES 

Soils and Geologic Resources 

Landforms of the National Lakeshore were 

shaped by the continental glaciation of the 

Wisconsin stage as well as earlier glacial 

periods of the Pleistocene Era. Additionally, 

fluctuating water levels of the ancient lakes that 

preceded Lake Michigan, along with wave and 

wind action, created the National Lakeshore’s 

truncated headlands and fashioned the Lakeshore’s perched dunes and embayment lakes. 

The glacial ice of some 50,000 years ago 

followed ancient drainage patterns and 

excavated the basins that now form the lakes 

along the coastal area of this region. During the 

final advances of the Wisconsin stage of 

Pleistocene glaciation, the ice deposited large 

terminal and lateral moraines that form 

contemporary dunes and high points of the 

local geography. Ice Age glaciers, combined 

with enormous quantities of melt water and 

huge stranded blocks of ice, created entire 

valleys and left kettles or ice block lakes and 

depressions. (NPS 2005a.) 

As the glaciers retreated, massive volumes of 

water either filled the Lake Michigan basin or 

were drained from it — depending upon the 

extent of glaciation and the development of 

drainage channels that allowed the waters of 

ancient Lake Michigan (Lake Algonquin, Lake 

Nipissing, Lake Algoma, and Lake Chippewa) 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

102 

to deepen or drain away. New beaches were 

cut into the shorelines when the lake levels 

were high. As levels of Lake Michigan waters 

lowered, a succession of beaches was formed. 

These remnant beaches, examples of which can 

be seen at the Platte Basin, the Good Harbor 

Bay region, and the bay portion of South Manitou Island, reflect the shape of the ancient 

shorelines some distance from today’s shoreline. The beaches that are the farthest from the 

current lake shoreline are the oldest. (NPS 

2005a.) 

Later, headlands such as the Empire Bluffs, 

Sleeping Bear Bluffs, Pyramid Point, and the 

western bluffs of North Manitou and South 

Manitou islands directed ice into the 

lowlands, sculpting many new lakes. These 

headlands are now truncated and continually 

eroding. In 1995 more than 35 million cubic 

feet (about a million cubic meters) of sand from 

the beach and bluff at Sleeping Bear Point 

disappeared into Lake Michigan in a huge 

landslide (USGS 1998). 

These headlands also provided the materials 

that wind and wave action transformed into the 

sandbars that cut off the embayment lakes 

(such as Platte Lakes, North and South Bar 

Lakes, Glen Lake, Shell Lake, and Little 

Traverse Lake) from the parent ancient lakes. 

The exposed sand and gravel in these truncated 

morainal headlands were separated by the 

winds. The sand was blown to the top of high 

glacial moraines and created even higher dunes 

on top of the glacial moraines. These are 

referred to as “perched dunes” because they 

developed on top of the glacial moraines. 

Sleeping Bear Dunes, Empire Bluffs, Pyramid 

Point, and the island dunes are examples of 

these perched dunes. Lower dunes between 

the headlands and moraines are found in the 

Platte Plains and Good Harbor areas (NPS 

2005a). These perched and lower dunes, both 

the currently exposed dunes close to the 

shoreline and the ancient dune and swale 

complexes landward of the current shoreline, 

comprise designated critical dune habitat (see 

Natural Resources Base map). 

The National Lakeshore’s soils are predominantly sandy or sand mixed with gravel and are 

well drained. These soils are often found on 

steep slopes. In most areas soils are covered 

with thin topsoil that was depleted in many 

instances by unsustainable farming practices 

after the land was logged in the early 1900s. 

Duff layers covering the soils are extremely 

variable, ranging from no duff layer to a foot or 

more. (NPS 2005a.) 

Vegetation 

Pleistocene-era glaciers, glacial melt water, 

and subsequent wind and water erosion all 

shaped the landforms — including beaches, 

moraines, dunes, kettles, and embayment 

lakes — upon or around which plant communities are established (NPS 2005a). (See 

Natural Resources Base map.) 

Lake Michigan moderates temperature 

fluctuations, influencing the climate, and 

therefore the vegetation, of the National 

Lakeshore. Winters are milder and summers 

are cooler along the shore of Lake Michigan 

than in more inland areas. The moderating 

effect of Lake Michigan, combined with 

regional air circulation patterns, provide a 

growing period of approximately 150 days 

near the shore — 50 days longer than areas 

several miles inland. Another lake effect on the 

National Lakeshore’s climate is increased 

cloudiness in late fall and early winter. The 

cold, winter air mixing with warmer, moist air 

from the lake frequently produces greater 

amounts of snow, rain, and fog near the lake. 

This relatively temperate and humid climate of 

the near-shore environment strongly 

influences the plant communities within the 

Lakeshore. (NPS 2005a.) 

 
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104 

back of map 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail 

105 

Former land uses and resource exploitation or 

extraction have also impacted the Lakeshore’s 

landforms and vegetative cover. The Lakeshore’s protected landscapes and vegetation 

communities provide sanctuary to several 

threatened and endangered species as well as 

representative regional species of flora and 

fauna. At least 900 species of vascular plants, 

representing more than 100 taxonomic families, occur at the National Lakeshore (NPS 

2005a). Major plant communities occurring in 

the Lakeshore are described below within 

broader vegetation categories, which are generally presented from the shoreline landward. 

Shoreline Vegetation. Beaches and sand 

dunes present harsh growing conditions 

characterized by strong winds, shifting sand, 

seasonally high surface temperatures, and dry 

conditions. Approximately 4,800 acres (1,920 

hectares) of beaches and sand dunes occur in 

the Lakeshore (NPS 2005a). Vegetation starts 

just behind the “storm beach” of Lake 

Michigan. No vascular plants grow on the 

"storm beach" proper because of high waves, 

ice, and moving sand. The first dunes behind 

this beach support some pioneer plants, 

including beach or Marram grass (Ammophila 

breviligulata), Pitcher’s thistle (Cirsium 

pitcheri), sand cherry (Prunus pumila), and 

beach pea (Lathyrus japonicus). Further landward in more stabilized areas of the dunes, 

grass, forb, and shrub species such as little 

bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), hoary 

puccoon (Lithospermum canescens), and 

creeping juniper (Juniperus horizontalis) 

become established (NPS 2005a, MNFI 

2006a). 

Forest Resources. Landward of the grassand shrub-dominated dunes area is typically a 

dynamic zone where the dunes and neighboring woodland or forest move back and forth 

as conditions change. In some sites containing 

actively moving dunes, the dunes zone 

encroaches directly onto the mature hardwood 

forest. More often, however, the dunes zone 

integrates with an open pine forest including 

red pine (Pinus resinosa), white pine (Pinus 

strobus), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), creeping 

juniper, and common juniper (Juniperus 

communis). Alternatively, the dunes zone may 

grade into an oak-aspen woodland that is 

comprised of bigtooth aspen (Populus 

grandidentata), quaking aspen (Populus 

tremuloides), red oak (Quercus rubra), white 

oak (Quercus alba), birch species such as 

yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) or paper 

birch (B. papyrifera), and ground vegetation 

composed of bracken fern (Pteridium 

aquilinum), prince's pine (Chimaphila sp.), 

trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens), wintergreen 

(Pyrola sp.), blueberry (Vaccinium sp.), and 

partridgeberry (Mitchella repens). When lake 

levels go down and beach and dune area is 

increased on the lakeward side of the zone, 

wind speed and sand abrasion at the forest or 

woodland edge decreases, permitting forest 

development. Oak-aspen woods cover about 

3,300 acres (1,320 hectares) of the National 

Lakeshore, and “coastal forest,” of which oakpine and birch-maple-aspen are two subtypes, 

covers an additional 11,000 acres (4,400 

hectares). (NPS 2005a, MNFI 2006a.) 

Further inland, beyond the dynamic zone, is 

found more mature forest. The climax forest 

of this region is primarily a beech-maple 

hardwood forest, known as the northern 

hardwood forest community. The trees are 

predominantly American beech (Fagus 

grandifolia) and sugar maple (Acer 

saccharum), but also include black cherry 

(Prunus serotina), white ash (Fraxinus 

americana), red oak, yellow birch, and green 

ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica). Dwarf or 

bunchberry dogwood (Cornus canadensis), 

Canada mayflower (Maianthemum 

canadense), sweet cicely (Osmorhiza 

claytonii), columbine (Aquilegia canadensis),

trillium (Trillium sp.), and wild leeks (Allium 

burdickii) are represented in the understory 

and on the forest floor. Approximately 24,000 

acres (9,600 hectares), or 42% of the National 

Lakeshore’s land surface area, are covered 

with northern hardwood forest. 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

106 

Approximately 578 acres (234 hectares) of the 

Lakeshore are in plantations of conifers, 

including the native Jack, white, and red pine 

and black spruce (Picea mariana), and 

nonnatives such as Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga 

menziesii), Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), 

Austrian pine (Pinus nigra), blue spruce (Picea 

pungens), and Norway spruce (Picea abies) 

(NPS 2005a, MNFI 2006a, USDA 2007). 

Most of the forests in the National Lakeshore 

are considered second growth, having first 

been logged in the late 19th century. The total 

removal of forested areas is still evident in the 

open fields that remain from past agricultural 

ventures or pine plantations as noted above. 

Several forested tracts were managed by 

individual landowners as woodlots until the 

property was acquired by the National 

Lakeshore. 

The southwestern corner of South Manitou 

Island supports a small area (less than 10 acres 

or 4 hectares) known by some as the “Valley of 

the Giants” or “Giant Cedars” because of a 

grove of giant northern white cedars (Thuja 

occidentalis) (Thompson 1962). This virgin 

stand of giant cedars escaped logging and now 

has the largest northern white cedar in the 

United States, at 110 feet (33 meters) tall with a 

girth of 206 inches (523 cm). Many of these 

cedars are more than 500 years old. This Giant 

Cedars area of South Manitou Island is also 

important in that four plant species, two of 

which are listed as threatened by the Michigan 

Natural Features Inventory, have been 

documented in the general vicinity. Other 

species in this area are mountain maple (Acer 

spicatum), striped maple (Acer pennsylvanicum), red trillium (Trillium erectum), and 

nodding trillium (Trillium flexipes), which is 

also known as Gleason’s trillium (NatureServe 

2007). The vegetation community described for 

the Giant Cedars area is classified as boreal 

forest by the Michigan Natural Features 

Inventory (MNFI 2006a). 

Agricultural Landscapes. The Lakeshore 

includes open areas consisting of former farm 

fields and road edges. Native plants occasionally found in these areas include black-eyed 

Susan (Rudbeckia hirta); goldenrod (Solidago

sp.); pussytoes (Antennaria sp.); pearly 

everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea); yarrow 

(Achillea millefolium); common milkweed 

(Asclepias syriaca); staghorn sumac (Rhus 

typhina); and several grasses. Fields cover 

almost 7,900 acres (3,160 hectares) of the 

National Lakeshore, or about 14% of its land 

surface area. (NPS 2005a.) Some of these agricultural landscapes are maintained as cultural 

landscapes and provide important habitat for 

grassland wildlife species, particularly birds 

(see next section on wildlife). 

Invasive Species. The National Lakeshore 

has embarked on a cooperative program with 

the U.S. Geological Survey Biological 

Resource Division to survey and assess exotic 

species in the Lakeshore. At least 150 exotic or 

nonnative plants or noxious weeds have been 

identified at Sleeping Bear Dunes (NPS 

2005a). Some of the more invasive exotic 

plants in the Lakeshore are garlic mustard 

(Alliaria petiolata), leafy spurge (Euphorbia 

esula), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), 

and baby’s breath (Gypsophila paniculata). 

The Lakeshore placed a high priority on 

controlling these four plants and five others — 

black locust, common reed, myrtle, Scotch 

pine, and the tree of heaven or ailanthus in 

1999 (NPS 1999b). Subsequent surveys 

revealed spotted knapweed, baby’s breath, 

bull thistle, blue lyme grass, bladder campion, 

hoary alyssum, and Lombardy poplar were 

establishing extensive populations in the open 

dune habitat that supports a number of 

sensitive species including the endangered 

piping plover and the threatened Pitcher’s 

thistle among others. A survey was conducted 

in 2005 to determine the extent of infestation 

by baby’s breath, and in 2006 the NPS staff 

developed an invasive species control plan 

and environmental assessment (NPS 2006a). 

Zebra mussels (Dreisenna polymorpha), 

quagga mussels (D. bugensis), round goby 

(Neogobeus melanostomus), and Cladophora (a 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail 

107 

native green algae) are troublesome aquatic 

invaders in the National Lakeshore. 

Wildlife 

Michigan wildlife species are well represented 

at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, 

reflecting the variety of habitats found within 

the Lakeshore. Wildlife documented in the 

Lakeshore include 74 species of fish, 18 

species of amphibians, 17 species of reptiles, 

46 species of mammals, and 247 species of 

birds. The following discussion provides a 

brief description of common inhabitants in 

the various habitats found within the 

Lakeshore and is not intended as an 

exhaustive list of species present. 

Beaver (Castor canadensis), otter (Lontra 

canadensis), mink (Neovison vison), and 

muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) occur in the 

Lakeshore’s wetlands/aquatic areas. Several 

species of ducks and geese nest at the National 

Lakeshore. Snapping turtles (Chelydra 

serpentine), painted turtles (Chrysemys pictis), 

leopard frogs (Rana pipiens), and spring 

peepers (Pseudacris crucifer) are some of the 

reptiles and amphibians found in and near 

aquatic and wetland habitats. 

Common forest wildlife includes the whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), red fox 

(Vulpes vulpes), raccoon (Procyon lotor), fox 

squirrel (Sciurus niger), flying squirrel 

(Glaucomys sabrinus), eastern chipmunk 

(Tamias striatus), and the deermouse 

(Peromyscus maniculatus). Typical forestdwelling birds include the ruffed grouse 

(Bonasa umbellus), pileated woodpecker 

(Dryocopus pileatus), downy and hairy 

woodpeckers (Picoides pubescens and P. 

villosus, respectively), red-breasted and whitebreasted nuthatches (Sitta canadensis and S. 

carolinensis, respectively), black-capped 

chickadees (Poecile atricapillus), brown 

creepers (Certhia americana), barred owls 

(Strix varia), and great horned owls (Bubo 

virginianus). Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) 

are also present, but this is probably due to the 

state feeding programs, because the National 

Lakeshore is north of their native range. Garter 

snakes (Thamnophis spp.) and salamanders 

(Ambystoma spp.) occur in the forest as well. 

In the meadows, fields, and dunes of the 

National Lakeshore, representative birds 

include bobolinks, bluebirds (Sialia sialis), 

killdeer (Charadrius vociferous), meadowlarks 

(Sturnella spp.), horned larks (Eremophila 

alpestris), and northern harriers. Common 

mammals are deer, fox, and meadow voles 

(Microtus pennsylvanicus). The Lakeshore’s 

open fields provide valuable habitat for 

grassland nesting birds in the summer and for 

other wildlife throughout the year. Throughout 

much of North America, populations of open 

land (grassland-shrubland-early successional 

forests) birds have been declining dramatically, 

primarily in response to the loss of available 

habitat. Corace et al. (2003) found the bird 

community associated with the Lakeshore’s 

cultural open areas to include six open land 

species that are of conservation concern as 

designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Region Three (Midwest) (USFWS 2002a) and 

shown in table 7). This habitat is maintained 

with an open field management mowing plan. 

In the absence of cultivation and grazing, 

grassland bird species in national decline such 

as grasshopper sparrows, bobolinks, and 

upland sandpipers flourish in these fields. 

The National Lakeshore’s approximately 160 

species of nesting birds is one of the larger 

numbers among national park system units. 

This is because of the wide variety of undisturbed habitat and the lack of agriculture, 

grazing, and major development. The Lakeshore is an important area for the protection of 

nesting sites for vulnerable bird species and for 

stopover sites and resting for migratory birds. 

Migrant shorebirds like the semipalmated 

plover (Charadrius semipalmatus), ruddy 

turnstone (Arenaria interpres), sanderling 

(Calidris alba), and others can be found on 

National Lakeshore beaches. 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

108 

TABLE 7: BIRD SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH CULTURAL OPEN LANDS IN SLEEPING BEAR DUNES NATIONAL 

LAKESHORE THAT ARE DESIGNATED BY THE U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE AS SPECIES OF CONSERVATION 

CONCERN

Common Name Scientific Name

black-billed cuckoo Coccyzus erythropthalmus 

bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus 

Connecticut warbler Oporomis agilis 

Henslow’s sparrow Ammodramus henslowii 

Le Conte’s sparrow Ammodramus leconteii 

upland sandpiper Bartramia longicauda 

Other bird species that use cultural open areas 

in the Lakeshore included the field sparrow 

(Spizella pusilla), grasshopper sparrow 

(Ammodramus savannarum), sedge wren 

(Cistothorus platensis), eastern meadowlark 

(Sturnella magna), western meadowlark 

(Sturnella neglecta), northern harrier (Circus 

cyaneus), and whip-poor-will (Caprimulgus 

vociferous) (Corace et al. 2003). 

The Manitou Islands are an interesting case 

study in “island biogeography.” As would be 

expected, they support fewer species of wildlife 

than nearby mainland areas. The seven miles 

(11 km) of Lake Michigan between the islands 

and the mainland is a substantial barrier to 

animal migration and has been a major factor in 

the ecology and species composition of the 

islands. 

South Manitou Island has dense ground vegetation rich in woodland wildflowers and 

Canada yew (Taxus canadensis). The vegetation 

developed in the absence of deer browsing. In 

1994 however, deer tracks were observed for 

the first time on South Manitou Island. Their 

presence threatened the natural vegetation 

composition of this island and they were 

removed in 2001. New deer tracks were 

reported on South Manitou Island in 2003. 

These migrants probably came from North 

Manitou Island. The deermouse is the only 

mouse species, compared to seven species of 

mice and voles on the mainland. Eastern 

chipmunks and fox squirrels are found on 

South Manitou Island, but none of the other 

tree squirrels or flying squirrels occurs on the 

island. 

The masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) has been 

documented on South Manitou Island, but not 

the short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda), 

which is found on the mainland. Reptile and 

amphibian species are also limited. Leopard 

frogs, spring peepers, American toads (Bufo 

americanus), painted turtles, and garter snakes 

may all be observed on South Manitou Island. 

South Manitou Island’s bird life is rather 

diverse, with many woodland residents and 

migrating birds. The ruffed grouse, however, is 

not found on this island. There was a large 

ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) colony on 

South Manitou as well as a herring gull (Larus 

argentatus) colony. The combined rookery 

failed in 1990 and 1991, probably due to 

predation by red fox. The ring-billed colony 

has since returned, and there were an estimated 

13,000 nests in 1998. It is unusual for gulls to 

nest where there is a substantial threat of 

predation, and it is thought that the gull 

colonies developed during short periods when 

the numbers of fox were severely reduced or 

eliminated by island settlers. The fox population has declined in recent years, and the 

snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) population 

has increased. 

The wildlife found on North Manitou Island is 

similar to South Manitou Island except that 

white-tailed deer, raccoons, and wild turkey 

were all introduced in the 1920s while the 

island was a private hunting preserve. The deer 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail 

109 

herd exceeded the natural carrying capacity of 

the island because of an artificial feeding 

program. As a result, North Manitou’s vegetation displayed classic symptoms of overbrowsing. Natural browse was almost entirely 

eliminated, and sharp browse lines are evident 

at the level deer can reach. For a number of 

years, deer starved on the island because the 

artificial feeding program favored bucks and 

large does, leaving many of the young deer to 

die. In contrast, South Manitou Island has 

luxuriant understory and ground cover 

vegetation. 

In response to this deer overpopulation and 

subsequent habitat degradation, the National 

Lakeshore initiated an intense public hunting 

program on North Manitou Island in 1985 to 

reduce deer numbers and restore natural native 

vegetation. The annual public deer hunt 

continues under regulation by the state and the 

National Park Service. 

In the Lakeshore as a whole, trapping is 

prohibited. As a result, sightings of fox, coyote 

(Canis latrans), otter, and bobcat (Lynx rufus) 

have increased. In recent years, cougar (Puma 

concolor) sightings have been reported with 

increasing regularity. The National Park Service 

conducted a study from November 2004 

through April 2005 to investigate whether 

cougars are present in the National Lakeshore. 

Using multiple survey methods, no physical 

evidence of cougars was found in the National 

Lakeshore (NPS 2006b). 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore’s 

aquatic habitats contain a number of fish 

species, including rainbow trout (nonnative) 

(Oncorhynchus mykiss), brook trout (Salvelinus 

fontinalis), suckers (Catostomus spp.), several 

genera of shiners, and rock bass (Ambloplites 

rupestris), among others. Smelt (Osmerus 

mordax), sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), 

alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), and zebra 

mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) are nonnative 

species that have a pronounced impact on the 

aquatic environment and native biota. The 

invasion of the sea lamprey, a nonnative species 

to the Great Lakes, has harmed the native lake 

trout stock. The alewife invasion of the Great 

Lakes has also caused major biological and 

shoreline fouling problems. A recent invader to 

the Great Lakes, the round goby (Neogobius 

melanostomus) is believed to be a prime factor 

in the recent waterfowl die-offs attributed to 

type E botulism along Lake Michigan beaches 

within the National Lakeshore. 

The introduction of the coho (Oncorhynchus 

kisutch) and other nonnative species of salmon 

to the area has resulted in a large seasonal 

supply of these fish in area streams, providing 

for a large sport fishery every late summer and 

fall. Fishing for coho salmon is concentrated 

near the mouth of the Platte River and Platte 

Bay, but sport-fishing activity occurs in other 

bays of Lake Michigan and also in the inland 

lakes. The Michigan Department of Natural 

Resources maintains the Platte River State Fish 

Hatchery, located approximately 10 miles 

southeast of the Lakeshore. This facility raises 

coho and chinook salmon and is the main egg 

take station for coho salmon in the Upper 

Great Lakes. Another component of the state 

salmon program is the harvest weir that the 

Michigan Department of Natural Resources 

operates on the lower Platte River, on state 

land within the park boundary. This weir 

blocks the returning salmon swimming up the 

Platte River from Lake Michigan. The fish are 

harvested at this point during their fall run. 

Federal Threatened 

and Endangered Species 

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 prohibits 

the harming of any species listed by the U. S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as being 

either threatened or endangered. Harming 

such species includes not only directly 

injuring or killing them, but also disrupting 

the habitat on which they depend. Section 7 of 

the act also requires federal agencies to consult with the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

when any activity permitted, funded, or 

conducted by that agency may affect a listed 

species or designated critical habitat, or is 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

110 

likely to jeopardize proposed species or 

adversely modify proposed critical habitat. 

Table 8 displays federal and state-listed 

species (threatened, endangered, and species 

of concern) whose occurrence has been 

documented in the Lakeshore and in one or 

both of Benzie and Leelanau counties, the two 

counties in which Sleeping Bear Dunes 

National Lakeshore occurs (MNFI 2006b). 

Piping Plover. The Great Lakes population 

of the piping plover (Charadrius melodus) is a 

federally endangered species and is listed as 

endangered by the state of Michigan as well. 

The piping plover is a small shorebird (length 

about 7 inches) with a black collar, orange 

legs, and a short, stubby tail (USGS 2000). 

Piping plovers breed in three locations in 

North America — along the Atlantic Coast 

from North Carolina to Southern Canada, 

along the shores of the Great Lakes, and along 

rivers and wetlands of the northern Great 

Plains. In Michigan, piping plovers prefer 

wide, sandy, open beaches along the shores of 

the Great Lakes. Nesting territories generally 

have sparse vegetation and scattered cobblestones and may include river, lagoon, or other 

wetland habitat to provide additional food for 

chicks (Hyde 1999a). In the winter, piping 

plovers migrate to the Gulf Coast between 

Florida and Texas and on into Mexico and the 

Caribbean, as well as migrating to the Atlantic 

Coast between southern North Carolina and 

Florida. Initial declines of the species in the 

late 1800s and early 1900s were caused by 

hunting. Declines in the 1950s were attributed 

to habitat loss, recreational pressure, 

predation, and contaminants. In the 1970s and 

mid 1980s high water levels in the Great Lakes 

reduced available breeding habitat in that 

region (Hyde 1999a). Habitat destruction and 

alteration and human development along the 

shores of the Great Lakes continue to impact 

the piping plover and have lead to their 

extirpation over much of their former Great 

Lakes nesting range. 

Protecting current, past, and potential piping 

plover nesting habitat from development is 

essential for expanding the Great Lakes 

population. Protection from predators at 

nesting sites and the reduction of humanrelated disturbance to nesting piping plovers 

is needed to expand the breeding population 

in the Great Lakes region. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has 

designated critical habitat for the piping 

plover along certain shorelines within the 

National Lakeshore (see Natural Resources 

Base map), including 2.1 miles (3.3 km) along 

North Manitou Island and 14.2 miles (22.5 

km) along the mainland lakeshore (USFWS 

2001). These are areas that must be protected 

because they are considered essential to the 

conservation of the Great Lakes breeding 

population of the species. Because actions 

proposed in the alternatives have the potential 

to impact the habitat supporting this species, 

this species is carried forward as an impact 

topic under “Federal Threatened and 

Endangered Species” in chapter 5. 

Indiana Bat. The Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) 

is on the federal list as endangered and is 

listed as endangered by the state of Michigan. 

Habitat requirements for this species can be 

divided into summer habitat characteristics 

and winter hibernating habitat characteristics. 

In the summer, female Indiana bats roost 

singly or in maternity colonies where they 

raise their single offspring (Humphrey et al. 

1977). Maternity colonies use several roost 

trees each season in closed canopy floodplain, 

riparian and upland forests. Males roost 

individually or in small groups as well, 

generally near female colonies (NJDFW 

2007). Preferred roost sites are in cavities or 

under the exfoliating bark of dead tree snags 

or in trees exposed to warm sunlight (MNFI 

2007). In Michigan, a reproductively active 

colony roosted under the bark of eight 

different trees, all of which were sunlit green 

ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) trees (Kurta et al. 

1993). At night Indiana bats emerge to forage 
Table 8: Special Status 

111 

TABLE 8: SPECIAL STATUS PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES

SCIENTIFIC 

NAME

COMMON 

NAME

FEDERAL 

STATUS

MICHIGAN 

STATUS

HABITAT COMMENTS AND 

OTHER NOTES 

F

INSECTS

Analyzed Stenelmis douglasensis Douglas Stenelmis riffle beetle — Species of Concern 

Found in the shallow, unpolluted bodies of water including lakes, spring-fed bodies of water, large to small streams and tributaries with soft or sandy substrates. Adults often found on pieces of wood. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie County. 

Analyzed Trimerotropis huroniana Lake Huron Locust — Threatened 

Found in undisturbed, high-quality sand dunes with sparse vegetation on the shores of the Great Lakes. Often found with Pitcher’s thistle (Cirsium pitcher). Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

AMPHIBIANS

Analyzed Acris crepitans blanchardi. Blanchard’s cricket frog — Species of Concern 

Inhabits areas of permanent water in marshes, marsh ponds, lakes, bogs, and slow-moving streams in open wetland areas. Prefers areas of low emergent vegetation to submergent vegetation. May range into surrounding nonwetland habitats. Documented in Lakeshore and Leelanau County. 

REPTILES

Analyzed Glyptemys insculpta Wood turtle — Species of Concern 

Generally found within 500 feet (152 m) of water. Prefers clear, moving, hard-bottom streams, rivers, or creeks with sand or gravel substrates. Also found in a variety of shallow wetland habitats, including woodland bogs and marshy pastures. Will use a range of terrestrial habitats including wet mesic forest, riparian shrub forests, deciduous forests, and cultivated fields. Needs sunny sand banks or gravel bars in streams or similar human-disturbed sites for nesting. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie County. 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

112 

SCIENTIFIC 

NAME

COMMON 

NAME

FEDERAL 

STATUS

MICHIGAN 

STATUS

HABITAT COMMENTS AND 

OTHER NOTES 

F

Analyzed Terrapene 

carolina carolina Eastern box turtle — Species of Concern 

Prefers forested areas with sandy soil near a source of water (pond, stream, lake, marsh, or swamp). Also found in forest-brush, fields, and marshy meadows. Requires unshaded sandy sites for nesting. Documented in Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

BIRDS

Dismissed Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawk — Species of Concern 

Inhabits forested habitats including deciduous, coniferous, and riparian forests and conifer plantations. Prefers forest stands with intermediate canopy cover, small forest clearings, and an open understory. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie County. 

TrethsoSdnoadsun

Dismissed Ammodramus 

savannarum 

Grasshopper 

sparrow 

— 

Species of 

Concern 

Prefers grasslands, including cultivated fields, fallow fields, and hayfields where tall grassy vegetation occurs. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

KpArethacwsu

Analyzed Buteo lineatus Red-shouldered hawk — Threatened 

Nests are typically in mature deciduous trees in relatively mature deciduous or mixed forest complexes. Wetland areas and upland open areas are used for hunting. This species is observed throughout the park. 
Table 8: Special Status 

113 

SCIENTIFIC 

NAME

COMMON 

NAME

FEDERAL 

STATUS

MICHIGAN 

STATUS

HABITAT COMMENTS AND 

OTHER NOTES 

F

Analyzed Charadrius melodus Piping plover Endangered Endangered 

Found on wide sandy lakeshore beaches with scattered cobbles and sparse vegetation. Also found on Lake Michigan islands in areas with same characteristics. Nesting area may include interdunal wetland or small stream. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

Analyzed Cygnus buccinator Trumpeter swan — Threatened 

Use marshes and wetlands associated with ponds and lakes. Nests are frequently placed on muskrat houses. Reintroduced in the southern area of the park in 2006 and 2007. 

Analyzed Dendroica discolor Prairie warbler — Endangered 

Found in early successional habitats, including young pine plantations, clear-cuts in oak forest, upland scrub, fallow fields, young jack pine stands, Christmas tree farms, powerline rights-ofway, and areas of brush or thickets. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

Analyzed Falco columbarius Merlin — Threatened 

Typically nest in boreal forest in lakeshore and island contexts, open areas of which provide hunting opportunity. Reported by Lakeshore staff to nest on both islands and the mainland portions of the Lakeshore. 

Analyzed Gavia immer Common loon — Threatened 

Found on inland lakes and rivers. Nest where fish populations are good. Prefer lakes with islands, bog mats, or undeveloped shoreline on which to build nests. Quiet sheltered coves and limited boating activity are also important. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

Analyzed Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle — Threatened 

Found near coastal areas, rivers, lakes, or other bodies of water with a supply of fish, waterfowl, or seabirds. Generally nest within about 13,000 feet (4 km) of water in dead snags or live trees. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

114 

SCIENTIFIC 

NAME

COMMON 

NAME

FEDERAL 

STATUS

MICHIGAN 

STATUS

HABITAT COMMENTS AND 

OTHER NOTES 

F

Dismissed Ixobrychus exilis Least bittern — Threatened 

Uses a variety of freshwater and brackish marshes with dense tall growths of aquatic or semiaquatic vegetation interspersed with clumps of woody vegetation and open water. Reported by park staff as nesting at the Mill pond. 

Awim

Analyzed Sternia caspia Caspian tern — Threatened 

Although nesting habitat is sandy or pebble beaches, no nests are known for the Lakeshore. This species is reported by Lakeshore staff to use the area around the mouth of the Platte River for courtship. 

MAMMALS

Dismissed Myotis sodalis Indiana bat Endangered Endangered 

Summer roosts and forages are in riparian, bottomland, and upland forests with trees that have loose or exfoliating bark. Not documented in either Benzie or Leelanau counties. 

NBAwim

PLANTS

Analyzed Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking fern — Threatened 

Found on shaded, moss-covered boulders and ledges, usually on limestone or other basic rocks, but occasionally on sandstone or other acidic rocks, rarely found on fallen tree trunks. Documented in Lakeshore and Leelanau County. 

Analyzed

Asplenium 

trichomanesramosum Green spleenwort — Threatened 

Found on limestone and other basic rocks. Documented in Lakeshore and Leelanau County. 

Analyzed Berula erecta Cut-leaved water- parsnip — Threatened 

Found in wet areas; springs, streams, shallows; or often found in water in valleys and plains. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

Analyzed Botrychium campestre Prairie moonwort — Threatened 

Found in prairies, dunes, grassy railroad sidings, and fields over limestone. Extremely inconspicuous. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 
Table 8: Special Status 

115 

SCIENTIFIC 

NAME

COMMON 

NAME

FEDERAL 

STATUS

MICHIGAN 

STATUS

HABITAT COMMENTS AND 

OTHER NOTES 

F

Analyzed Bromus pumpellianus Pumpelly’s brome grass — Threatened 

Found on sandy and gravelly stream banks and lake shores, sand dunes, meadows, dry grassy slopes, and road shoulders. Documented in Lakeshore and Leelanau County. 

Dismissed Calypso bulbosa Calypso or fairy- slipper — Threatened 

Found in mesic to wet coniferous forests, mixed forests, and bogs. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

Naasp

Dismissed Carex concinna Beauty sedge — Species of Concern 

Found in moist to dry meadows; riverbanks; thickets; floodplains; and open spruce, pine, cedar, birch, aspen, and willow woodlands, usually on calcareous substrates. Documented in Lakeshore and Leelanau County. 

Naasp

Dismissed Carex platyphylla Broad-leaved sedge — Threatened 

Found in rich, moist deciduous forests, on rocky or gravelly slopes; soils above limestone, shale, or calcareous metamorphic rocks; and often on clay soils. Documented in Lakeshore and Leelanau County. 

Naasp

Analyzed Cirsium pitcheri Pitcher’s thistle Threatened Threatened 

Found only on the open sand dunes along the shores of the western Great Lakes. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

Analyzed Cypripedium arietinum Ram’s head lady’s-slipper — Species of Concern 

Found in dry to moist open coniferous and mixed forests, coniferous forested fens, beach thickets. Documented in park and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

Analyzed

Mimulus 

glabratus var.

michiganensis 

Michigan 

monkey-flower Endangered Endangered 

Occurs in sunny areas, roots in silty, sandy, alkaline mud, and grows out of a stream of cool, running water. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 

Analyzed Orobanche fasciculata Fascicled broom- rape — Threatened 

Found in drier areas — foothills to rocky ridges, prairies, inland sands; in sandy soil; and as parasites on a variety of plants. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

116 

SCIENTIFIC 

NAME

COMMON 

NAME

FEDERAL 

STATUS

MICHIGAN 

STATUS

HABITAT COMMENTS AND 

OTHER NOTES 

F

Analyzed Panax quinquefolius Ginseng — Threatened Found in cool moist woods; shade; in rich soil. Documented in Lakeshore and Benzie and Leelanau counties. Analyzed Pterospora andromedea Pine-drops — Threatened Found in deep humus of coniferous forests. Documented in Lakeshore and Leelanau County. Analyzed Triphora trianthophora Three-birds orchid — Threatened Found in rich, mesic woods, swamp edges, and floodplains. Documented in Lakeshore and Leelanau County. 

 Analyzed = impact topics considered and analyzed in detail in this environmental impact statement  Dismissed = impact topics considered but not analyzed in detail in this environmental impact statement 

Four federally listed or candidate species were historically found in the National Lakeshore but are no longer present — the endangered gray endangered eastern puma (Puma concolor cougar), the threatened Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), and the candidate eastern massasauga (Sis

catenatus). 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

117 

on flying insects. Reproductively active 

females prefer to forage in closed-canopy 

floodplain forest and around farm ponds. In 

the late summer, northern populations move 

as much as 480 km to winter hibernating caves 

in Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, 

Missouri, and West Virginia (NatureServe 

2007). A new hibernating population has been 

identified at a hydroelectric facility in northern Michigan (MNFI 2007). Typical hibernation sites are limestone caves with a mean 

midwinter temperature of 4-8°C and an 

average humidity of 87% throughout the year 

(NJDFW 2007). Females leave the hibernacula 

first, in late March to April. Males leave later, 

with some males spending the summers in the 

area of the hibernacula (USFWS 1991). 

Declines in the population of Indiana bats can 

be attributed to human disturbance at hibernacula, including caving, vandalism, and 

research (USFWS 1991, MNFI 2007). Alterations to the cave environment can also cause 

the abandonment of hibernacula and can result from the opening of additional entrances, 

blocking entrances, or improperly designed or 

installed gates (intended to protect hibernating bats) that alter airflow or exclude Indiana 

bats (USFWS 1991). The losses of forested 

riparian habitat and suitable roosting snags, 

along with stream alteration and agricultural 

development, have also affected Indiana bats 

in their summer foraging range (MNFI 2007). 

The breeding range of the Indiana bat occurs 

within the southern half and western coastal 

counties of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, 

including Benzie and Leelanau counties 

(USFWS 2006). However, even with suitable 

habitat in the Lakeshore (highly variable 

forested landscapes in riparian, bottomland, 

and upland areas that have roosting trees with 

crevices or exfoliating bark), this species has 

not been confirmed within the Lakeshore. 

The Indiana bat is dismissed from detailed 

discussion as an impact topic because any 

potential impacts on suitable habitat would be 

negligible to minor and because the Indiana 

bat has not been confirmed in the Lakeshore. 

Michigan Monkey Flower. The Michigan 

monkey-flower (Mimulus glabratus var. 

michiganensis) is listed as endangered under 

the Endangered Species Act, and by the state. 

This aquatic to semi-aquatic plant is known 

from only 15 extant occurrences in northern 

Michigan, 12 of which are currently considered viable (USFWS 1997). This plant is 

restricted entirely to Michigan, where it 

occurs in the Grand Traverse and Straits of 

Mackinac regions (Voss 1996). It is concentrated in Charlevoix, Cheboygan, Emmet, and 

Mackinac counties, with outliers in Benzie 

and Leelanau counties. There is a single large, 

exemplary occurrence in the National 

Lakeshore. The plant blooms from about midJune to mid-July and occasionally to midAugust. However, pollen viability is low, 

suggesting that var. michiganensis is primarily 

dependent on vegetative (asexual) reproduction (USFWS 1990). Crispin and Penskar 

(1989) report that var. michiganensis is narrowly restricted to cold, saturated soils of 

seepages on forest edges and in small openings along streams and lakeshores. It is usually 

associated with Northern white-cedar (Thuja 

occidentalis) swamps. Other typical associates 

include touch-me-not (Impatiens biflora), 

forget-me-not (Myosotis scorpioides), watercress (Nasturtium officinal), spearmint 

(Mentha arvensis), and liverwort (Conocephalum conicum) (USFWS 1990). 

The primary threat to this species is the 

destruction and adverse modification of its 

habitat. Its historic range in the Mackinac 

Straits and Grand Traverse regions in 

Michigan are being rapidly developed for 

recreational and residential purposes. The 

monkey flower appears to be highly 

dependent on continuous supplies of cold 

spring water. It is also particularly vulnerable 

because of the low numbers of individuals 

occurring at most sites and because of its 

tendency for asexual reproduction (USFWS 

1990). Critical habitat has not been designated 

for this species. Because actions proposed in 

the alternatives have the potential to impact 

the habitat supporting this species, this species 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

118 

is carried forward as an impact topic under 

“Federal Threatened and Endangered 

Species” in chapter 5. 

Pitcher’s Thistle. Pitcher’s thistle (Cirsium 

pitcheri) is listed as threatened under the 

Endangered Species Act and by the state. It is 

endemic to beach and dune habitats around 

Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior and 

requires active sand dune processes to maintain its early successional habitat (USFWS 

2002b). The range of this Great Lakes thistle 

falls primarily within Michigan’s borders, 

occurring along the entire shoreline of Lake 

Michigan. Pitcher’s thistle populations are 

concentrated in the major dune landscapes of 

the northern Lake Michigan basin, especially 

in the Lower Peninsula counties of Emmet, 

Charlevoix, Leelanau, Benzie, Manistee, and 

Oceana (Higman and Penskar 1999a). 

Although the plant is still widespread in 

Michigan, it depends on dynamic dune 

processes that have largely disappeared 

(USFWS 1988). One of the world’s largest 

populations of Cirsium pitcheri is within 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore 

(Higman and Penskar 1999a). Associated 

plants include beach grass, little bluestem, 

wild rye (Elymus canadensis), common 

milkweed, dune willows (Salix cordata and S. 

myricoides), and many other common dune 

species (Higman and Penskar 1999a). 

Development, loss, and disturbance of dunes 

by people are the principal threats to the 

species (USFWS 1988). Critical habitat has not 

been designated for this species. Because 

actions proposed in the alternatives have the 

potential to impact the habitat supporting this 

species, this species is carried forward as an 

impact topic under “Federal Threatened and 

Endangered Species” in chapter 5. 

Bald Eagle. The Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus 

leucocephalus) was recently delisted as a 

federal species, but it is discussed below under 

Michigan state-listed species. 

Michigan State-Listed Species 

Plant and animal species listed as threatened, 

endangered, or species of special concern by 

the state are not afforded the same formal 

protection provided by the federal Endangered Species Act, but they are monitored and 

may one day become candidates for the 

federal list if their numbers continue to trend 

downwards. As such, those state-listed species 

that have been documented in the National 

Lakeshore (table 8) have been considered for 

dismissal or detailed discussion in this 

document. Species that are analyzed in detail 

are discussed below, and species dismissed 

from detailed analysis are discussed in the 

“Impact Topics Considered but Not Analyzed 

in Detail” section of this chapter. 

Douglas Stenelmis Riffle Beetle. The 

Douglas Stenelmis riffle beetle (Stenelmis 

douglasensis) is a small aquatic beetle and a 

Species of Concern in Michigan. This little 

beetle inhabits spring-fed lakes, shore lines, 

streams, and river margins where the water is 

shallow, clear, and unpolluted and has high 

dissolved oxygen content and a sandy 

substrate. Individuals are frequently observed 

on pieces of wood. This species has a limited 

range and is only found within a 150-mile 

radius of Lake Michigan and in a few locations in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. The 

beetle is vulnerable to the degradation of 

aquatic habitats, including alterations to the 

shore structure, dams, increased siltation, 

changes in nutrient inflow, and reductions in 

dissolved oxygen levels. Suggested management includes maintaining forested buffer 

zones around aquatic habitats and avoiding 

altering stream characteristics. (MNFI 2007, 

NatureServe 2007.) 

In the Lakeshore, these beetles are associated 

with the Platte River and Otter Creek 

corridors. Because actions proposed in the 

alternatives have the potential to impact the 

habitat supporting this species, this species is 

carried forward as an impact topic under 

“Michigan State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

119 

Lake Huron Locust. The Lake Huron locust 

(Trimerotropis huroniana) is listed as a 

threatened species in Michigan and is 

confined to high-quality, sparsely vegetated 

coastal sand dunes along northern Lake 

Michigan and Lake Huron and eastern Lake 

Superior. Its primary diet includes beach 

grass, wormwood, dune grass (Calamovilfa 

longifolia), and dune wheatgrass; however, it is 

also known to feed on the federally protected 

Pitcher’s thistle. In Michigan, the Lake Huron 

locust is found in 18 counties of the eastern 

Upper Peninsula and northern Lower 

Peninsula. The primary cause of this species’ 

decline is loss and degradation of dune habitat 

from residential and recreational development. This dune-obligate species can tolerate 

some human disturbance, but conservation 

efforts should focus on preserving sand dune 

habitat to the degree that the natural process 

of dune blowout and revegetation maintain 

sufficient preferred habitat. Note: Most of this 

information came from Rabe 1999. 

 

In the Lakeshore, the Lake Huron locust is 

known only in the southern section of the 

Lakeshore. Because actions proposed in the 

alternatives have the potential to impact the 

habitat supporting this species, this species is 

carried forward as an impact topic under 

“Michigan State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 

Blanchard’s Cricket Frog. Blanchard’s 

cricket frog (Acris crepitans blanchardi), listed 

as a Species of Concern in Michigan, is considered one of the most aquatic of tree frogs. 

They can be found in habitats associated with 

a permanent or near permanent source of 

water, such as a lake, pond, slow stream, bog, 

seep, or man-made water source (Harding 

1997 as cited in HerpCenter 2004). Polluted 

water is not tolerated well, but shoreline fen 

habitats with alkaline water are commonly 

used by this species in Michigan (Lee et al. 

2000). They prefer open or partially vegetated 

mud flats, sandy or muddy shorelines, and 

emergent water vegetation. Blanchard’s 

cricket frog is found from southern Michigan 

and western Ohio, west to southeast South 

Dakota, east to northern Tennessee, and 

south to northern Mexico (Lee et al. 2000). 

This is a particularly short-lived frog, with 

most individuals surviving only one or two 

breeding seasons (Burkett 1984 as cited in Lee 

et al. 2000, Harding 1997 as cited in 

HerpCenter 2004). Mortality is generally 

through predation, parasitism, desiccation, 

winter kill, and natural death. The causes of 

Blanchard’s cricket frog population declines 

in Michigan are not fully understood, but the 

loss and pollution of wetlands are likely important factors. In addition, reductions in 

habitat from vegetation succession and 

competition with other frog species have also 

likely influenced Blanchard’s cricket frog 

populations. 

In the Lakeshore, Blanchard’s cricket frog is 

known only in the northern section of the 

Lakeshore. Because actions proposed in the 

alternatives have the potential to impact the 

habitat supporting this species, this species is 

carried forward as an impact topic under 

“Michigan State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 

Wood Turtle. The wood turtle (Glyptemys 

insculpta), listed as a Species of Concern in 

Michigan, is found in portions of the eastern 

U.S. and Canada. It lives in riparian floodplain 

habitat along moderately moving rivers and 

streams. Typical wood turtle habitat includes 

a hard-bottom stream substrate, herbaceous 

vegetation for foraging, and a sandy substrate 

for nesting (Lee 1999). In Michigan, wood 

turtles are found in the northern portion of 

the Lower Peninsula and throughout the 

Upper Peninsula. Primary threats to this 

species are poaching for the pet trade and 

collecting by the general public (Lee 1999). 

Minor threats include loss and degradation of 

habitat, road kill, and increased predation by 

natural predators that travel road corridors 

(Soule 1992 as cited in Lee 1999). Wood 

turtles can survive in areas of moderate 

human activities, provided that the essential 

characteristics of their habitat are maintained, 

water quality is maintained, and adult mortality is maintained at a natural rate. Predator 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

120 

control may be necessary at some nesting sites 

(Soule 1992 as cited in Lee 1999). Stream 

channelization, dams, road construction near 

streams, and intense human activity at nest 

sites are detrimental to this species. 

In the Lakeshore, wood turtles are known 

only in the southern section of the Lakeshore. 

Because actions proposed in the alternatives 

have the potential to impact the habitat 

supporting this species, this species is carried 

forward as an impact topic under “Michigan 

State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 

Eastern Box Turtle. Michigan’s only true 

terrestrial turtle, the eastern box turtle 

(Terrapene carolina carolina) is listed as a 

state Species of Concern. The eastern box 

turtle can be found in forested habitats with 

sandy soils and a source of water (Tinkle et al. 

1979 as cited in Hyde 1999b). They can also be 

found in fallow fields, pastures, some wetland 

habitats, and vegetated dunes. Eastern box 

turtles also require sandy sites in full sun for 

laying eggs. They range along the east coast of 

the U. S. from Massachusetts to Georgia and 

west to Michigan, Illinois, and Tennessee. In 

Michigan they are found in the south and 

western portions of the Lower Peninsula. 

Eastern box turtles are absent from much of 

their historic range due to the conversion of 

woodlands and wetlands to agriculture over 

the last century (Hyde 1999b). Today, continued development fragments the remaining 

habitat, cutting turtles off from nesting sites 

and increasing the risk of road kill (Hyde 

1999b). Poaching for the pet trade has also 

reduced populations. Protecting large tracts of 

habitat on public lands from development and 

maintaining wetland hydrologic processes and 

water quality should benefit the eastern box 

turtle. Nesting locations should be identified 

and protected, and where necessary additional ones should be created. New roads 

should be constructed to avoid cutting turtles 

off from nesting sites (Hyde 1999b). 

 

There were no document occurrences of 

eastern box turtles within the National 

Lakeshore until recently, when one individual 

was reported. Due to this recent observation, 

this species is carried forward as an impact 

topic under “Michigan State-Listed Species” 

in chapter 5. 

Red-Shouldered Hawk. The red-shouldered 

hawk (Buteo lineatus) is listed as threatened by 

the state of Michigan. In Michigan redshouldered hawks use mature forested floodplain habitat, with most nests found in large 

(usually >300 acres), relatively mature deciduous or mixed forest complexes associated 

with or interspersed by wetlands. Wetland 

areas and upland open areas are used for 

foraging habitat. Although American beech is 

the most commonly documented nest tree in 

Michigan, a variety of nest trees have been 

used, including aspen, birch, ash, and oak, 

which seems to indicate that tree structure 

and not tree species is the most important 

factor that influences use of a tree for nest 

placement. Nests tend to be placed in dense 

stands of timber with a closed canopy structure and very near wetland habitat (typically 

within 1/8 mile). The primary threat to this 

species in Michigan is habitat alteration and 

destruction due to timber harvest, road 

construction, and residential development. 

(Cooper 1999b.) 

Red-shouldered hawks are observed throughout the National Lakeshore. As such, this 

species is carried forward as an impact topic 

under “Michigan State-Listed Species” in 

chapter 5.

Trumpeter Swan. The trumpeter swan 

(Cygnus buccinator) is listed by the state as a 

threatened species. Trumpeter swans use 

marshes and wetlands associated with lakes 

and ponds for cover and food, and they 

require large open water areas for takeoff and 

landing (MNFI 2007). Nesting areas should be 

buffered by a no-activity zone to eliminate 

human disturbance by boats, personal watercraft, and birdwatchers (MNFI 2007b). 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

121 

Competition from the Mute swan, a nonnative 

aggressive species, has been documented, and 

steps have been taken to reduce mute swan 

populations within the Lakeshore. 

Trumpeter swans were reintroduced to the 

southern mainland portion of the Lakeshore 

in 2006 and 2007. Because of potential impacts 

of various activities proposed in the alternatives, this species is carried forward as an 

impact topic under “Michigan State-Listed 

Species” in chapter 5.

Prairie Warbler. The prairie warbler 

(Dendroica discolor) is listed as endangered in 

Michigan. This species is typically associated 

with old fields, shrublands, and coniferous 

woodlands (NatureServe 2007), as well as 

coastal dune areas (MDRN 2005). 

In the Lakeshore, prairie warblers have been 

documented in the shrubby dune-forest 

interface along the mainland shoreline. Within 

the context of the dynamics natural to this 

shifting zone between dunes and encroaching 

forest, this habitat is thought to have been 

“stable” for thousands of years (NatureServe 

2007). Because actions proposed in the 

alternatives have the potential for impacts to 

this habitat, the prairie warbler is carried 

forward as an impact topic in chapter 5. 

Merlin. The merlin (Falco columbarius) is 

listed by the state as a threatened species. 

Merlins typically nest in boreal forest, preferring spruce forests near bogs or open water 

(Cuthrell 2002). Open to semi-open areas 

associated with lakeshores and islands are 

used most frequently, probably to facilitate 

hunting. Merlins are likely limited by adequate food items and a source of available 

nesting sites. The food base is normally 

provided by small- to medium-sized birds of 

grasslands, wetlands, or forest edges (Cuthrell 

2002). Merlins do not build their own nests, 

typically using those of other birds such as 

crows or ravens. They will occasionally nest in 

tree cavities, on cliffs, or on the ground 

(Cuthrell 2002). Merlins return to Michigan in 

early spring, following the main migration of 

small birds — their primary food source. 

Males arrive up to a month before females and 

usually establish territories in the same general 

area each year. 

Merlins are reported to nest on both islands 

and on the mainland portion of the National 

Lakeshore. Therefore, this species is carried 

forward as an impact topic under “Michigan 

State-Listed Species” in chapter 5.

Common Loon. The common loon (Gavia 

immer) is listed as threatened in Michigan. 

Common loons are known to breed throughout northern North America and northern 

Europe, reflecting the general distribution of 

boreal coniferous and northern hardwood 

forests. Common loons breed on inland lakes 

that have an abundant population of fish and a 

large proportion of undeveloped shoreline. 

They prefer lakes with a small island or bog 

mat where it can hold the nest inaccessible to 

raccoons and other egg-eating predators and 

where there is little or no high- speed boat 

traffic (MNFI 2007). In Michigan, common 

loons are now known to breed only in the 

Upper Peninsula and the very northern portions of the Lower Peninsula. They are most 

common on Isle Royale and western portions 

of the Upper Peninsula (MNFI 2007). Adult 

common loons are easily disturbed and 

stressed and may desert their nest if 

approached too closely by a person, boat, or 

other water vehicle, or even the wake from 

such a vehicle (MNFI 2007). 

In 2006 there was a large die-off of more than 

2,900 water birds in the Lakeshore, including 

about 180 common loons, due to Type E 

Botulism toxin poisoning. This die-off 

continued in 2007, including an additional 60 

loons and more than 1,000 other birds. A 

combination of invasive species (including 

quagga mussels and round gobies), enhanced 

native algae and Type E bacteria growth, and a 

rapidly changing lake ecosystem have led to 

conditions that are believed to be ongoing and 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

122 

devastating to common loons as well as other 

native bird and fish species. 

In the Lakeshore, common loons have been 

documented on several lakes. Because actions 

proposed in the alternatives have the potential 

to impact the habitat supporting this species, 

the common loon is carried forward as an 

impact topic for discussion in chapter 5. 

Bald Eagle. The bald eagle (Haliaeetus 

leucocephalus), although recently delisted 

under the Endangered Species Act, is still 

listed as threatened by the state. The reason 

for historic declines in bald eagle populations 

in the 1950s and 1960s included the use of 

chemicals such as PCBs (polychlorinated 

biphenyls), DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene), and mercury, and disturbance and 

displacement by humans. DDT was the 

primary cause, and the banning of DDT in the 

early 1970s led to a resurgence in bald eagle 

numbers throughout the U.S. as well as the 

Great Lakes region. Although bald eagles are 

seen throughout almost all counties of 

Michigan during the winter, they nest mainly 

in the Upper Peninsula (especially the western 

portion) and the northern portion of the 

Lower Peninsula (MNFI 2007). 

Because their primary diet consists of fish, 

bald eagles tend to feed, roost, and nest near 

water bodies (NPS 2005a). The nest is usually 

located in the tallest tree in the area, often a 

white pine or dead snag (MNFI 2007). Eagles 

in some parts of the country are particularly 

sensitive to human disturbance. Adult birds 

appear to flush more quickly when foraging 

than when on the nest (NatureServe 2007). In 

Michigan, 75% of all alert responses to human 

activity occurred when activity was within 

1,640 feet (500 m) and flight responses 

occurred when activity was within 656 feet 

(200 m); vehicles and pedestrians elicited the 

highest response frequencies (NatureServe 

2007). 

Bald eagles have been documented in all but 

the central mainland portion of the 

Lakeshore, and nests have been identified in 

the northern and southern mainland portions 

of the Lakeshore as well as on both North 

Manitou and South Manitou islands. Because 

actions proposed in the alternatives have the 

potential to impact the habitat supporting this 

species, the bald eagle is carried forward as an 

impact topic under “Michigan State-Listed 

Species” in chapter 5. 

Caspian Tern. The Caspian tern (Sterna 

caspia) is listed by the state as threatened. 

Caspian tern nesting habitat is open sandy or 

pebble beaches, usually on islands in large 

bodies of water. Caspian terns are a migratory 

species. They arrive at their breeding grounds 

from mid-April to mid-May with most individuals returning to the same general breeding 

area for more than one season (Hyde 1996). 

Caspian terns are not known to nest within 

the Lakeshore. However, they do perform 

courtship rituals on the shoreline in the 

southern section of the National Lakeshore. 

Therefore, this species is carried forward as an 

impact topic under “Michigan State-Listed 

Species” in chapter 5.

Walking Fern. Walking fern (Asplenium 

rhizophyllum) is listed as threatened in 

Michigan. It occurs in eastern North America, 

and in Michigan most occurrences are in the 

eastern Upper Peninsula. This fern typically 

occurs in association with shaded, moist 

boulders and outcrops of Niagaran limestone 

and dolomite. Typical canopy trees include 

sugar maple, basswood (Tilia americana), and 

balsam fir (Abies balsmea). Other associates 

include northern holly fern, common polypody (Polypodium virginianum), herb-Robert 

(Geranium robertianum), and maidenhair 

spleenwort (Asplenium trichomanes). Moist 

moss mats composed of several different moss 

species appear to be a critical element of this 

species’ microhabitat, as well as the availability 

of moist crevices and other depressions that 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

123 

serve as colonization niches (Penskar and 

Higman 1997). 

The occurrence of walking fern on South 

Manitou Island is in habitat that is atypical for 

this species. There are no rocks in the area it 

occupies, and it grows over decaying logs on 

the floor of the forest (Thompson 1962). This 

is the only known occurrence of walking fern 

within the Lakeshore. Because actions proposed in the alternatives have the potential to 

impact the area supporting this species, this 

species is carried forward as an impact topic 

under “Michigan State-Listed Species” in 

chapter 5. 

Green Spleenwort. Green spleenwort 

(Asplenium trichomanes-ramosum) is listed as 

threatened in Michigan. This small evergreen 

fern prefers a moist, shaded environment, 

sometimes in sheltered crevices on rocky 

limestone bluffs or talus slopes. This fern is a 

circumarboreal species of subarctic and alpine 

areas that favors limestone rock and, in 

Michigan, is best known from the limestone 

cliffs of the Niagara Escarpment. Green 

spleenwort is not limited to any one forest 

type and occurs in both conifer swamps and 

upland hardwood forests dominated by sugar 

maple and birch (Betula alleghaniensis). 

Associated fern species include maidenhair 

spleenwort, fragile fern (Crystopteris fragilis), 

bulbet fern (Cystopteris bulbifera), common

polypody, and northern holly fern. The major 

existing and potential threats to this species in 

Michigan include overstory removal through 

logging activities and periodic defoliation of 

canopy vegetation by insect pests such as 

gypsy moths. (USFWS 2002c.) 

The only known occurrence of green spleenwort within the National Lakeshore is on 

South Manitou Island, where it has been 

documented growing in sandy loam 

(Thompson 1962). Because actions proposed 

in the alternatives have the potential to impact 

the area supporting this species, this species is 

carried forward as an impact topic under 

“Michigan State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 

Cut-Leaved Water-Parsnip. Cut-leaved 

water-parsnip (Berula erecta) is listed as 

threatened in Michigan. This perennial 

aquatic plant grows in shallow, clear-flowing 

water, typically occurring within prairie fens 

where it grows in the unshaded marshy 

borders of cold streams and springs. This 

species’ primary ecological need is the 

protection of hydrologic processes and the 

perpetuation of cool groundwater sources. 

Prescribed burns to maintain open, grassy 

wetlands are also likely beneficial because this 

species requires a mostly open canopy. 

(MNFI 2007.) 

Only one occurrence of this species is known 

from the Lakeshore, in the southern section of 

the mainland. Because actions proposed in the 

alternatives have the potential to impact the 

habitat supporting this species, this species is 

carried forward as an impact topic under 

“Michigan State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 

Prairie Moonwort. Prairie moonwort 

(Botrychium campestre) is listed as threatened 

in Michigan. In Michigan it occurs primarily 

in freshwater dune systems, especially 

perched dunes along the northern Lake 

Michigan shoreline, with one occurrence in 

southern Benzie County and seven occurrences in Leelanau County, including North 

Manitou Island, South Manitou Island, and 

South Fox Island, as well as mainland portions 

of Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore 

(Higman and Penskar 1999b). It also occurs in 

roadside habitats, abandoned orchards, and 

other disturbed grassy sites (MNFI 2007). 

Associated species include wormwood, 

bearberry, dune grasses (e.g., Calamovilfa 

longifolia), and other grape-ferns. This species 

requires protection of habitat and maintenance of natural dune processes (e.g., shoreline 

fluctuation, erosion, sand deposition, wind, 

water level fluctuation, and sand movement) 

that create the necessary micro habitats 

(MNFI 2007). 

 

In the National Lakeshore, this species occurs 

in dune habitats on both islands and along the 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

124 

shore of the mainland NPS units. Because 

actions proposed in the alternatives have the 

potential to impact the habitat supporting this 

species, this species is carried forward as an 

impact topic under “Michigan State-Listed 

Species” in chapter 5. 

Pumpelly’s Brome Grass. Pumpelly’s brome 

grass (Bromus pumpellianus) is listed as 

threatened in Michigan. It occurs primarily in 

western North America and, in Michigan, is 

restricted to the northwestern Lower Peninsula in Emmet, Charlevoix, and Leelanau 

counties. This rare grass grows on low sand 

dunes and along beaches in Lake Michigan, 

usually in association with beach grass, 

bearberry, wormwood, dune wheatgrass 

(Agropyron dasystachyum), Pitcher’s thistle, 

and sand cherry. Pumpelly’s brome grass is a 

perennial that spreads vegetatively via 

rhizome growth. Its spikelets mature from late 

June to September. (Higman and Penskar 

1996a.) 

Pumpelly’s brome grass occurs near the 

shoreline throughout the National Lakeshore. 

Because actions proposed in the alternatives 

have the potential to impact the habitat 

supporting this species, it is carried forward as 

an impact topic under “Michigan State-Listed 

Species” in chapter 5. 

Ram’s-Head Lady’s-Slipper. Ram’s-head 

lady’s-slipper (Cypripedium arietinum) is 

listed as a species of concern in Michigan and 

is considered rare throughout its range. 

Eighty-one occurrences of this orchid have 

been reported in Michigan, scattered through 

northern Lower Michigan and across the 

Upper Peninsula from Drummond Island to 

Ontonagan County (Penskar and Higman 

1999). Ram’s-head lady’s-slipper occurs on 

South Manitou Island and mainland areas of 

the National Lakeshore (MNFI 2006b). 

Michigan occurrences of this orchid are 

found either in dense balsam/white cedar/ 

black spruce swamps and bogs or in conifer 

uplands characterized by pine or cedar 

needles over sand (Case 1987). It is a plant of 

cool, sub-acid or neutral soil and occurs in 

three general situations — (1) cool, dense 

white balsam/cedar/spruce swamps (Thuja 

occidentalis/Abies balsamea/Picea mariana); 

(2) nearly pure sand over limestone beach 

cobblestones or bedrock mulched with 

juniper ((Juniperus communis, J. horizontalis), 

jack pine (Pinus banksiana), red pine (Pinus 

resinosa) or white cedar needles; and (3) mesic 

soils of sandy loam, or clay under the partial 

shade of mixed forest (USFS 2000). Ram’shead lady’s-slipper flowers in late May to early 

June and is notoriously difficult to locate 

because of its small size, short flowering 

period, sporadic flowering nature, and sparseness (Penskar and Higman 1999). Threats to 

the viability of this orchid include habitat loss 

or alteration, competition, and collecting 

(USFS 2000). 

Because actions proposed in the various alternatives could impact the habitat for ram’shead lady’s-slipper, and thus its populations 

within the Lakeshore, this species is carried 

forward as an impact topic under “Michigan 

State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 

Fascicled Broom-Rape. Fascicled broomrape (Orobanche fasciculata) is listed as 

threatened in Michigan. This parasitic plant 

species reaches its easternmost distribution in 

the Great Lakes region, and, in Michigan, is 

restricted to the Lake Michigan shore from 

Charlevoix to Oceana counties. Most occurrences are in Leelanau and Benzie counties. 

The species is relatively scarce at all sites 

except one occurrence in Sleeping Bear Dunes 

National Lakeshore where six colonies have 

been found (Higman and Penskar 1996c). In 

Michigan, this species flowers in late June and 

produces fruit in the latter part of July and 

August. Wormwood (Artemisia campestris) is 

its only known host plant in Michigan. Other 

associates include beach grass, little bluestem, 

common milkweed, dune willows, and 

Pitcher’s thistle. 

Fascicled broom-rape occurs in near-shore 

habitat in all three mainland units of the 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

125 

Lakeshore and on South Manitou Island 

(MNFI 2006b). Because actions proposed in 

the alternatives have the potential to impact 

the habitat supporting this species, and thus 

its populations within the Lakeshore, this 

species is carried forward as an impact topic 

under “Michigan State-Listed Species” in 

chapter 5. 

Ginseng. Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is 

listed as threatened in Michigan. Michigan 

occurrences of ginseng are concentrated in 

the southern Lower Peninsula, primarily in 

woodlots and wooded coastal dunes, where 

populations typically are small. There are 

scattered occurrences in the northern Lower 

Peninsula. Flowering and fruiting occurs from 

June to October. This species is found in rich 

hardwoods, often on slopes or ravines. It also 

occurs in wooded dune hollows and leeward 

slopes along the Lake Michigan shoreline. 

Associates include sugar maple (Acer 

saccharum), white baneberry (Acetaea 

pachypoda), maidenhair fern (Adiantum 

pedatum), and rattlesnake fern (Botrychium 

virginianum). The primary cause of decline for 

this species is exploitation by collectors. 

(Penskar and Higman 1996.) 

Ginseng occurs in several areas in the 

National Lakeshore. Because actions 

proposed in the alternatives have the potential 

to impact the habitat supporting this species, 

and thus its populations within the Lakeshore, 

this species is carried forward as an impact 

topic under “Michigan State-Listed Species” 

in chapter 5. 

Pine-drops. Pine-drops (Pterospora 

andromedea) are listed as threatened in 

Michigan. The majority of Michigan occurrences are associated with forested dune 

communities ranging from Ottawa to 

Keweenaw Counties, with concentrations in 

Keweenaw, Emmet, and Leelanau counties. 

Pine-drops are known from dry woods 

containing conifers such as pines, hemlock, 

spruce, balsam fir, or white cedar. Many 

occurrences are associated with dry to drymesic forests of sand dunes along the Great 

Lakes shorelines. Associated herbaceous 

species include large leaved aster (Aster 

macrophyllus), Hepatica (Hepatica spp.), 

spotted coralroot (Corallorhiza maculate), 

wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), and 

various ferns. Pterospora is above ground 

from June through early September and 

flowers /fruits are in their prime from July 

through August. (Higman and Penskar 1999c.) 

Pine-drops have been documented across the 

northern mainland portion of the Lakeshore. 

Because actions proposed in the alternatives 

have the potential to impact the habitat 

supporting this species, and thus its populations within the Lakeshore, this species is 

carried forward as an impact topic under 

“Michigan State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 

Three-birds orchid. Three-birds orchid 

(Triphora trianthophora) is listed as 

threatened in Michigan. It is found in rich 

oak-hickory forests and old wooded dune 

forests with well developed humus layers. 

Natural community types include mesic 

southern forest (southern hardwood forest), 

dry-mesic southern forest (oak-hardwood 

forest), and mesic northern forest (northern 

hardwood forest; hemlock-hardwood forest) 

(MNFI 2007). Stems for this species do not 

appear above ground each year; plants may 

persist as subterranean tuberoids for extended 

periods. Periodic dormancy may result in a 

site containing hundreds of aboveground 

stems in some years and few or no stems in 

other years. This inconsistency and the fact 

that it grows, flowers, and fruits in about a 

month in late summer, makes determination 

of population trends very difficult (USFS 

2005). 

Three-birds orchid has been documented in 

the central portion of the Lakeshore 

mainland. Because actions proposed in the 

alternatives have the potential to impact the 

habitat supporting this species, and thus its 

populations within the Lakeshore, this species 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

126 

is carried forward as an impact topic under 

“Michigan State-Listed Species” in chapter 5. 

Wetlands 

Wetlands in the National Lakeshore can be 

roughly categorized into three groups: classic 

bogs, interdunal wetlands, and wetlands associated with lakes or streams. The Lakeshore contains about 750 acres (300 hectares) of wetlands 

in total (NPS 2005a). (See also Natural 

Resources Base map.) 

The Lakeshore contains a few classic bogs with 

floating mats. The plant species of these bogs 

include sphagnum peat moss (Sphagnum sp.), 

black spruce, water sedge (Carex aquatilis), 

cottongrass (Eriophorum sp.), speckled alder 

(Alnus incana), pitcher plant (Sarracenia 

purperea), Labrador tea (Ledium groenlandicum), bog laurel (Kalmia polifolia) leatherleaf 

(Chamaedaphne calyculata), cranberry 

(Vaccinium macrocarpon), and sundew 

(Drosera sp.). Examples of such bogs can be 

found in the Bow Lakes area. 

Interdunal wetlands occur in the low areas or 

swales between the ancient beach ridges, 

remain wet much of the year, and are a 

component of the dune and swale complex. 

These wetlands contain an association of 

rushes (Juncus spp.) and sedges (Carex spp.), 

willows (Salix spp.), gray dogwood (Cornus 

racemosa), Joe-pye weed (Eupatorium sp.), and 

cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis) (NPS 

2005a, NatureServe 2007). The dune and swale 

complex is one of the dominant physiographic 

and vegetative features of the Lakeshore, 

paralleling the shoreline and extending 1 to 2 

miles inland in many areas. The dune and swale 

complex comprises most of the area from Otter 

Creek to the southernmost border of the 

Lakeshore, and is found near Good Harbor 

Bay and the Crystal River areas as well. 

Finally, wetlands are often found along the 

margins of streams, ponds, and lakes. Wetland 

plants in these settings may be submerged, 

emergent, or floating. Plants typical of these 

wetlands include cattail (Typha latifolia), 

pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.), arrowhead 

(Sagittaria sp.), bulrushes (Schoenoplectus sp.), 

sedges (Carex spp.), yellow pond-lily (Nuphar 

lutea), grass of Parnassus (Parnassia glauca), 

marsh cinquefoil (Comarum palustre), fringed 

gentian (Gentianopsis crinita), and bladderwort 

(Utricularia sp.) (NPS 2005a, NatureServe 

2007). 

Water Quality 

Water quality discussion in this document 

pertains to inland lakes and streams. Although 

waters of Lake Michigan do occur within the 

Lakeshore boundaries, no actions proposed in 

the alternatives would result in effects on the 

water quality in Lake Michigan. 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore 

waters include 26 named inland lakes of varying size and character; four sizable streams (all 

of Otter Creek and parts of the Platte River, 

Crystal River, and Shalda Creek); and many 

bogs, springs, and interdunal wetlands 

(Lafrancois and Glase 2005). All water bodies 

in the Lakeshore are designated Outstanding 

State Resource Waters (Ledder 2003). This 

designation indicates that no lowering of 

water quality is allowed for the designated 

high-quality water body (Ledder 2003). 

During the mid-1980s, the U.S. Geological 

Survey collected water quality data on the 

Lakeshore’s waters. It was found that the 

National Lakeshore had extremely good water 

quality with little or no excessive minerals or 

heavy metals. A biological study undertaken by 

NPS staff in 1988 showed that Lakeshore rivers 

and streams had all pollution-sensitive 

invertebrates present, indicating good water 

quality (NPS 2005a). 

Ledder (2003) summarized a review of all 

available data for water resources in the 

Lakeshore for the period from 1962 to 1996. 

Only two lakes, Big and Little Glen Lakes, had 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

127 

been issued non-compliance status, in both 

cases for fish consumption due to high levels of 

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), mercury, 

and chlordane. Exceedances recorded at least 

once within the Lakeshore and during the time 

frame covered by the review were dissolved 

oxygen, pH, cadmium, copper, zinc, lead, and 

indicator bacteria. The overall conclusion of the 

Ledder (2003) review was that surface waters in 

the Lakeshore generally appeared to be of good 

quality. Potential man-made threats included 

wastewater, septic leakage, runoff, and 

recreational use. 

The Platte River has been the subject of a 

number of studies addressing water quality, 

physical processes and integrity, and visitor 

perception (Lafrancois and Glase 2005). The 

Platte River is affected by a number of activities. 

Increased phosphorous levels have been 

attributed to the state fish hatchery on the Platte 

River, both from feeds provided for the salmon 

and the decay of returning salmon. Steps have 

been and continue to be taken to reduce this 

impact (Lafrancois and Glase 2005). Bank 

erosion and degradation of water quality occurs 

on the Platte River due to high visitor use. The 

occasional use of motorboats increases erosion 

issues and, at times, conflicts with other visitors 

using the river (Lafrancois and Glase 2005). 

The Crystal River has also been studied relative 

to biological integrity and visitor use 

(Lafrancois and Glase 2005). Biological 

diversity in the Crystal River was considered 

relatively high, with 15 species of macrophytes 

and 35 species of fish documented in several 

studies (NPS 2002). The Crystal River has the 

highest number of riffles (four) of any stream 

reach in the Lakeshore. Canoeing, kayaking, 

and tubing are increasingly popular activities on 

the Crystal River (NPS 2002). Although many 

consider the Crystal River pristine, there is 

concern that increased wading and tubing in 

the channel, bottoming of canoes and kayaks, 

and disruption of the banks will degrade habitat 

to the detriment of the aquatic community 

(NPS 2002). 

The Crystal River is the second largest stream in 

the park and drains the Glen Lake watershed 

down to Lake Michigan. Water levels in the 

river are controlled by a small low-head dam 

that regulates discharges from Glen Lake and 

Fisher Lake. 

The NPS Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) 

Program conducted water quality sampling of 

the following nine lakes in the Lakeshore in 

2005 — Manitou, Florence, Shell, Bass 

(Leelanau County), School, Tucker, North Bar, 

Loon, and Round. The following paragraphs 

summarize the relevant findings reported by 

Elias (2007). 

With the exception of Florence Lake, lakes in 

the Lakeshore were generally well buffered and 

hard. All lakes were alkaline, with average lake 

pH values ranging from 8.3 for Tucker Lake to 

8.8 for School Lake. Several lakes had high 

chloride and sodium ion concentrations, with 

Round Lake having concentrations twice those 

of the next highest lake (School for sodium and 

Loon for chloride). These lakes are close to 

roads and may be receiving road salt via runoff. 

Calcium concentrations were high enough to 

support zebra mussels at all lakes except 

Florence, and several lakes already host this 

exotic species. Several lakes also have relatively 

high sulfate concentrations, which is not 

unusual in calcareous regions. (Elias 2007.) 

Most of the lakes sampled had surface water 

connections, with the exceptions of North Bar 

(which is intermittently connected to Lake 

Michigan), Shell, and Florence. The chemistry 

of Florence Lake suggests that this lake is 

isolated from the groundwater. Shell and North 

Bar lakes likely receive water from groundwater 

discharge as well as their immediate watershed. 

Round, Tucker, and at times, School and Bass 

(Leelanau County) lakes, receive inflow from 

surface water but do not have a surface outlet. 

These lakes likely have slower flushing rates 

than flow-through lakes. (Elias 2007.) 

Total nitrogen and total phosphorus values 

exceeded EPA criteria for Ecoregion VII in 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

128 

Shell and School Lakes consistently throughout 

the season. Criteria for the subecoregion in 

which the Lakeshore lies (Level III ecoregion 

51) are 0.81 mg/L for total nitrogen and 20 

micrograms/L for total phosphorus (USEPA 

2000). High levels of nitrogen and phosphorous 

can lead to excessive aquatic plant growth, 

which interferes with wildlife and recreational 

uses while the plant populations thrive, and 

leads to reduced oxygen availability when 

bacteria break down large quantities of dead 

plant material. Nitrogen and phosphorous 

often enter water bodies from agricultural 

runoff. 

Dissolved silica concentrations were below 

detection level at the beginning of the season at 

all lakes except North Bar and Loon. It is possible that low silica concentrations may have 

affected algal community composition, 

especially early in the season, at several lakes. 

(Elias 2007.) 

Profiles of temperature and dissolved oxygen 

showed that a thermocline had not strongly 

developed in any of the sampled lakes (School 

Lake was omitted because it is too shallow, at 

<2 m, to collect profile data) during the May 

2005 sampling. (Because warm water is less 

dense than colder water, it tends to rise toward 

the top of water bodies and colder waters settle 

toward the bottom. A thermocline is a relatively 

rapid shift in temperature as depth increases 

within a water body. Thermoclines tend to 

indicate layers across which exchange of 

nutrients, including dissolved oxygen, is greatly 

reduced. Thermoclines often develop in water 

bodies through the course of the open water 

season. The presence of thermoclines and 

related rapid shifts in dissolved oxygen (i.e., 

oxyclines) indicate a seasonal decrease in water 

quality due to reduced mixing of nutrients 

throughout the water column and reduced 

capacity of the water body to support aquatic 

life. Thermoclines typically form during mid to 

late summer and are then resolved by the fall 

turnover, which happens when temperatures 

drop for a long enough period of time to cool 

the surface layers, causing water and nutrients 

to redistribute throughout the water column.) 

Except for Shell and Tucker lakes, both of 

which are shallow, all lakes had begun to 

develop an oxycline in May although it was not 

yet strongly established. During the late June/ 

early July and August sampling periods, most 

lakes had a clearly recognizable thermocline. 

Shell and Tucker Lakes remained fairly wellmixed throughout the season. Loon and Round 

lakes had an increase in dissolved oxygen concentration slightly below the Secchi depth in 

early July, suggesting a deeper layer of photosynthetic activity. Several lakes had dissolved 

oxygen concentrations below the EPA criterion 

of 4 mg/L for fresh water in a substantial 

portion of the lake. For example, in Loon Lake, 

the bottom 9-10 m, or nearly half of the total 

depth, was below the EPA criterion in July, 

August, and September. Most lakes had turned 

over by the time of the September sampling, 

with the exceptions of Lake Manitou and Loon 

Lake, both of which are relatively deep and 

both of which maintained an anoxic layer 

below the thermocline. (Elias 2007.) 

The alternatives considered in this document 

could result in impacts to water bodies within 

the Lakeshore. Therefore, water quality is 

considered as an impact topic in chapter 5. 

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES 

This section focuses on what visitors do at 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore — 

for example the variety of visitor activities and 

experiences. 

 

Fundamental Resources and Values 

Several aspects of visitor opportunities and 

experiences at Sleeping Bear Dunes National 

Lakeshore are among the “Fundamental 

Resources and Values” presented in chapter 1. 

These opportunities are fundamental because 

they are closely tied to the National 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

129 

Lakeshore’s purpose and significance (see 

chapter 1 “Purpose” and “Significance” 

sections). The National Park Service believes 

that the National Lakeshore should be 

managed to maintain these important opportunities for visitors. Fundamental visitor 

opportunities include the following: 

• Dune Climb 

• Pierce Stocking Scenic Drive 

• scenic views of historic farmsteads, 

inland lakes, Lake Michigan shoreline 

(Empire Bluffs, Sleeping Bear Plateau, 

Pyramid Point), to/from the shoreline of 

Manitou Islands, and emergence from 

dense canopy to open dunes 

• Lake Michigan beaches 

• experiences of North Manitou and South 

Manitou islands 

• opportunities for quiet, solitude, and 

naturalness 

• Platte River and Crystal River 

experiences 

• learning about the natural and cultural 

heritage of the area (glacial phenomena, 

diverse habitats, human history) 

• the opportunity for visitors to 

understand the complex and rapidly 

disappearing natural history of the 

ecosystems that evolved along the Great 

Lakes shoreline 

Primary Interpretive Themes 

The National Park Service also believes that a 

key component of the National Lakeshore 

visitor experience includes the provision of 

opportunities to learn about the National 

Lakeshore’s primary interpretive themes — 

the ideas and concepts communicated to the 

public about the Lakeshore that are the core 

of all interpretive programs and media (see 

chapter 1 section “Primary Interpretive 

Themes”). 

Information, Interpretation, and Education 

The main center for information and visitor 

orientation is the centrally located Philip A. 

Hart Visitor Center in Empire, Michigan. The 

visitor center offers a wealth of information 

about the National Lakeshore and the natural 

and human history of the area. Open yearround and with rangers and volunteers to 

answer questions, visitors may purchase a 

park pass, find out about various areas to visit, 

view interpretive exhibits, obtain free informational brochures, and purchase educational 

and informational items from Eastern 

National. Campsites are available for a fee on 

a first-come basis, by phone or on-line 

reservations. The Dune Center Bookstore is 

staffed and open seasonally; visitors may 

purchase educational, informational, and 

convenience items from Eastern National at 

the Dune Climb. 

The National Lakeshore also offers many 

interpretive programs and services centered 

around the interpretive themes, including 

ranger-guided walks, hikes, snowshoe tours, 

evening campground programs, and a variety 

of educational/interpretive programs for 

school groups of varying ages. Detailed 

information about these programs is available 

at the visitor center and on the National 

Lakeshore website. 

The Glen Haven Village Historic District 

provides many informational, interpretive, 

and educational opportunities. The Glen 

Haven General Store is staffed and operated 

seasonally. The store appears much as it did in 

the 1920s and offers typical merchandise and 

items related to the history of the Glen Haven 

area, including kitchenware, packaged foods, 

toys, maritime items, and books from Eastern 

National. At the restored Glen Haven Blacksmith Shop, visitors learn about the blacksmith trade and local history from volunteers 

who seasonally staff the site. The Glen Haven 

Cannery Boat Museum is seasonally staffed by 

volunteers who interpret some of the historic 

boats used around Glen Haven and the 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

130 

Manitou Islands. The Sleeping Bear Point 

Coast Guard Station Maritime Museum is 

open seasonally. Here visitors may see 

exhibits about the U.S. Life-Saving Service, 

the U.S. Coast Guard, and Great Lakes 

shipping history and participate in many 

popular interpretive demonstrations and 

talks. 

The Port Oneida Rural Historic District 

encompasses a large collection of farmsteads, 

which provide interpretive opportunities 

related to the area’s human history. Many 

visitors take scenic driving tours of the 

district, participate in interpretive activities 

offered on site, or attend the annual Port 

Oneida Fair. The National Lakeshore also 

contains many additional farmsteads that 

offer interesting insights into the area’s history 

and culture. 

On South Manitou Island, visitor interpretation and orientation are concentrated in the 

village and lighthouse complex area. The 

former general store for the island serves as a 

seasonally operated, unstaffed visitor contact 

station. It houses a collection of photos and 

artifacts that depict life of the loggers, farmers, 

and U.S. Life-Saving Service members who 

lived on the island. Motorized interpretive 

tours of historic island farms (farm loop tours) 

are offered by a concessioner. Interpretive 

tours are also available of the historic South 

Manitou Island Lighthouse. Upon arrival at 

North Manitou and South Manitou islands, 

overnight visitors receive basic orientation to 

the visitor rules and island resources. 

Recreational Activities 

Access to the National Lakeshore is facilitated 

through a network of state, county, and NPS 

roads; National Lakeshore trails; and 

concession-operated ferries that provide 

seasonal access to the Manitou Islands. The 

“NPS Facilities and Infrastructure” section of 

this chapter provides details on National 

Lakeshore facilities that support visitor access 

and use (e.g., beach access points, roads, trails, 

and campgrounds). The scale of recreationoriented development in the National 

Lakeshore is relatively modest, and most 

development is rustic. 

The scenic resources in the National Lakeshore are predominately natural in character. 

The National Lakeshore purpose and 

significance statements (see chapter 1) refer to 

the area’s natural features, setting, and 

character and also to its scenic beauty, 

publicly accessible resources, and cultural 

landscapes. Many scenic views are fundamental visitor opportunities as mentioned in 

the “Fundamental Resources and Values” 

section in chapter 1. National Lakeshore 

scenic resources also include features that 

reflect the area’s history and culture (e.g., 

various farmsteads, a lighthouse, U.S. LifeSaving Service stations); these resources are 

described in the “Historic Resources” section 

of this chapter. 

The varied access and settings provide for a 

wide range of warm and cold-weather 

recreational opportunities. Recreational 

activities include the following: 

• scenic driving (e.g., Pierce Stocking 

Scenic Drive, Port Oneida, two-track dirt 

roads) 

• climbing the dunes 

• hiking or backpacking on about 100 miles 

of designated trails 

• swimming, scuba diving, snorkeling, and 

beach activities on inland lakes and Lake 

Michigan 

• canoeing, kayaking, tubing, or 

motorboating (as allowed) on rivers, 

inland lakes, and Lake Michigan 

• bicycling on roads open to automobiles 

• camping (e.g., Platte River Campground, 

D.H. Day Campground, and backcountry 

camping) 

• fishing and hunting (per state, federal, 

and National Lakeshore rules and 

regulations) 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

131 

• visiting North Manitou and South 

Manitou islands via ferry 

• picnicking, wildlife viewing, and bird 

watching 

• horseback riding on the Alligator Hill 

Trail or along state and county road 

rights-of-way 

• snowshoeing and cross country skiing on 

more than 50 miles of ungroomed trails 

• snowmobiling on state and county road 

rights-of-way 

• launching and landing powerless flight 

craft (e.g., hang gliders, paragliders, and 

sailplanes) in designated areas 

Trapping, off-road vehicle use, and personal 

watercraft use are not permitted in the 

National Lakeshore. 

Only a small portion of the Benzie Corridor is 

owned by the National Park Service, so there 

are currently no visitor opportunities in this 

location. 

Visitor opportunities related to wilderness are 

described in the “Wilderness Character” 

section of this chapter. 

Natural Soundscapes and Night Sky 

Natural sounds dominate the National Lakeshore except along roadways, in developed 

areas, and along rivers, specific inland lakes, 

and Lake Michigan where motorized boats 

are allowed. Vehicular lights from state, 

county, and NPS roads and residential, 

commercial, and National Lakeshore 

developed areas introduce light into the 

otherwise naturally dark night sky of the 

National Lakeshore. 

VISITOR USE 

This section focuses on visitor statistics and 

characteristics (e.g., how many people visit the 

National Lakeshore and when, where they 

come from, and how long they stay). 

An estimated 1,213,026 recreation visits 

occurred at Sleeping Bear Dunes National 

Lakeshore in 2006. Of that total, more than 1.1 

million were day visits and 109,572 included 

an overnight stay in the National Lakeshore. 

The latter includes 17,889 backcountry 

camping visits, many of those on North 

Manitou and South Manitou islands. 

Recreation visitation at the Lakeshore has 

been relatively consistent over time. Since 

1990 the lowest level of visitor use of 1.09 

million visits occurred in 1996, with the high 

of 1.36 million visits recorded in 1999 (see 

figure 1). The 17-year average of 1.19 million 

recreation visits, including about 110,000 

overnight stays, nearly matches the visitation 

in 2006. 

Recreation visitation to the Lakeshore is 

highly seasonal. Peak monthly visitation, 

averaging 388,200 visits over the past 17 years 

(33% of the annual average) occurs in July, 

followed by August (338,100 visits or 28%). 

The lowest use occurs during the winter with 

average monthly visitor use of 4,600 in January 

and 5,600 in December (see figure 2). 

Origin of Visitors and Length of Stay 

Recent visitor origin data are not available for 

the National Lakeshore. Visitor origin data for 

the region indicate that most travelers (70% to 

80%) to the area are from Michigan. Other 

major origin states include Illinois, Indiana, 

Ohio, Missouri, and California. (Travel 

Michigan 2004 and Traverse City Convention 

and Visitors Bureau 2006). 

Most use at the National Lakeshore is day use 

— an estimated 91%. Day use visitors include 

residents of the local area, Michigan residents 

from outside the local area, and residents 

from other states. Residents of the local area 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

Figure 1: Recreatio

Figure 2: Average Monthly Recreatio

account for an estimated 25% of all u

figure 3). Many of the day visitors to

National Lakeshore spend one or m

in the area, either with friends or rel

vacation homes, or in local lodging a

dations. About 46% of all users spen

one night in the area; another 20% a

1,000,000

1,100,000

1,200,000

1,300,000

1,400,000

19901991199219931994

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

J F

Recreation Visits

132 

on Visits by Year at the National Lakeshore 

n Visitation at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakesho

2006 

use (see 

o the 

more nights 

atives, at 

accommond at least 

are day 

users from outside the area or nonlo

continue their travels and spend the

elsewhere. Approximately 9% of th

overnight use, primarily at the Platt

D. H. Day campgrounds, but also in

backcountry camping on the mainla

the islands. 

19951996199719981999200020012002200320042005

F MAMJ J ASOND

ore, 1990 to 

ocals who 

e night 

he use is 

e River and 

ncluding 

and and on 2006
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

133 

Figure 3: Types of Use at the National Lakeshore 

Primary Destinations within Sleeping 

Bear Dunes National Lakeshore 

Vehicle counters located throughout the 

park’s mainland areas and ticket sales for the 

ferry provide insights into the primary 

destinations for visitor use at the National 

Lakeshore. These monitors show visitor use at 

the National Lakeshore is heavily concentrated at the Dune Climb, Pierce Stocking 

Scenic Drive, Philip Hart Visitor Center, and 

the Platte River area. Vehicle counts for 

August 2005 tallied 20,000 or more vehicles at 

each of those locations. Overnight camping at 

the Platte River and D.H. Day campgrounds 

and other locations also received substantial 

use (see figure 4). However, these data are not 

fully representative of use in the National 

Lakeshore, as not all locations are currently 

monitored (other beach accesses, and the Port 

Oneida area, for example). 

WILDERNESS CHARACTER 

The 1964 Wilderness Act refers to the 

following qualities that contribute to 

wilderness character: 

• Areas are largely natural and 

undeveloped. 

• There are outstanding opportunities for 

solitude or “primitive, unconfined 

recreation.” 

Current Management of Areas 

Proposed for Wilderness 

A brief history of wilderness evaluation at 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore is 

provided in the “Purpose and Need for the 

Wilderness Study” section in chapter 1. That 

section also provides information about uses 

and management in wilderness areas. See 

chapter 3 for information about the current 

wilderness study, which is a fresh look at 

wilderness options at the National Lakeshore. 

An amendment (Public Law 97-361, passed in 

1982) to the legislation that established the 

National Lakeshore stated that the lands 

identified in the 1981 “Wilderness Recommendation” “shall, until Congress determines 

otherwise, be administered by the Secretary so 

as to maintain their presently existing wilderness character.” NPS Management Policies 

2006 reinforces this direction by stating that 

no action should be taken “that would diminish the wilderness eligibility of an area . . . until 

the legislative process of wilderness designation has been completed.” By law and policy 

then, since 1981 the National Lakeshore has 

Camping

9%

Local

25%

Nonlocal 

Day

20%

Nonlocal 

Overnight

46%
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

134 

Figure 4: Monthly Visitation at Selected Locations, August 2005 

been managing 30,903 acres (see the Noaction Alternative map) to maintain their 

wilderness character. Until the wilderness 

legislative process is complete (a congressional determination), these lands will 

continue to be managed to maintain their 

wilderness character. 

Natural and Undeveloped 

Much of Sleeping Bear Dunes National 

Lakeshore is largely natural and undeveloped, 

with large expanses of forest land, dunes, and 

wetlands. Some areas that were once 

agricultural fields are gradually returning to 

woodland. Numerous former home sites, 

buildings, and driveways have been removed 

and the sites restored to more natural 

conditions. Several large areas in the National 

Lakeshore, such as Good Harbor, Sleeping 

Bear Plateau, Otter Creek, and Platte Plains, 

have little if any noticeable human imprint 

other than hiking trails, backcountry 

campgrounds, and an occasional historic 

structure, all of which are consistent with the 

Wilderness Act and NPS wilderness management policies. Most of the National Lakeshore’s visitor support facilities, such as visitor 

contact stations, drive-to campgrounds, 

trailheads, and picnic areas, are clustered on 

the periphery of or well outside these natural 

and undeveloped areas. 

North Manitou Island is by far the largest of 

the National Lakeshore’s natural and 

undeveloped areas. This island is nearly all 

forested and has no roads. Development 

(other than hiking trails) is concentrated 

within easy walking distance of the ferry dock. 

Most development on South Manitou Island 

is also concentrated within walking distance 

of the dock. However, this island has a few 

county roads that are used a few times per day 

during the summer by concessions tour 

vehicles and less often by administrative 

vehicles. Historic farmsteads and a historic 

schoolhouse are featured along the concessions tour route. Compared to North Manitou 

Island, this island has more old fields that the 

National Park Service is maintaining as 

Units are in numbers of vehicles except for campgrounds (CG) and the islands, which are 

in numbers of individuals.

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

Coast

Guard

Museum

Dune

Climb

Pierce

Stocking

Drive

Esch

Road

Platte

River

Area

Hart V.C. Platte

River CG

D.H.Day

CG

Islands
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

135 

cultural landscapes. Nonetheless, much of 

South Manitou Island is relatively natural and 

undeveloped. 

Outstanding Opportunities for Solitude 

Areas where relatively large numbers of 

people (10-30+) occur at times include the 

Dune Climb; beach access areas and overlooks; drive-to campgrounds; picnic areas; 

popular historic areas such as Glen Haven, 

and the life-saving stations; the Platte River; 

and on the islands within walking distance of 

the ferry dock. Opportunities for solitude are 

often not available in these areas, particularly 

during the summer. Due to long sight 

distances or the tendency for sound to travel 

over water, solitude is sometimes hard to find 

on Lake Michigan beaches and some inland 

lakes. However, solitude can be found even in 

many of these areas early in the morning and 

during the spring, fall, and winter months. 

In most other areas of the National 

Lakeshore, outstanding opportunities for 

solitude are available nearly year-round. In 

many places it is possible to walk or hike for 

miles without encountering another person. 

 

Outstanding Opportunities for 

Primitive, Unconfined Recreation 

There are opportunities for primitive, unconfined recreation in nearly every portion of the 

National Lakeshore. Backcountry camping 

opportunities are available in two locations on 

the mainland and on each Manitou Island. In 

2006 there were nearly 18,000 visitor days of 

backcountry camping at the National Lakeshore. There are more than 50 miles of hiking 

trails on the mainland alone, and many more 

on the islands (see the “NPS Operations” 

section of this chapter for details.) It is 

unknown how many people use the National 

Lakeshore’s hiking trails, but the numbers are 

substantial and opportunities are plentiful. 

Primitive, unconfined recreation at Sleeping 

Bear Dunes National Lakeshore also includes 

activities such as hunting, fishing, canoeing, 

kayaking, exploring, swimming, sand play, 

wildlife watching, snowshoeing, and crosscountry skiing. Opportunities for these types 

of activities are plentiful and occur throughout the National Lakeshore. 

REGIONAL SOCIOECONOMICS 

The influence area for economic and social 

considerations associated with the Sleeping 

Bear Dunes National Lakeshore encompasses 

Benzie, Leelanau, and Grand Traverse 

counties on the upper northwest side of 

Michigan’s Lower Peninsula. Benzie and 

Leelanau are directly affected as portions of 

the National Lakeshore are within their 

boundaries, whereas Grand Traverse is 

indirectly affected due to its role as a regional 

trade and service center and a center of 

seasonal migration and tourism for the entire 

region. The region is largely rural, though 

along with neighboring Kalkaska County, the 

three counties comprise the Traverse City 

micropolitan statistical area.1

 Traverse City, 

the largest community in the region (2006 

population 14,407), is about 25 miles east of 

the National Lakeshore. The communities of 

Empire, Glen Arbor, Leland, Beulah, and 

others are located in nearby areas surrounding 

the National Lakeshore. Timber, maritime 

commerce, and agriculture were important in 

the region’s economic development, with 

tourism and outdoor recreation emerging as 

more recent economic drivers. 

 

1

As defined by the U.S. Office of Management and 

Budget, a micropolitan statistical area (micro area) 

contains an urban core of at least 10,000 (but less 

than 50,000) population. Each micro area consists of 

one or more counties and includes the counties 

containing the core urban area, as well as adjacent 

counties that have a high degree of social and 

economic integration (as measured by commuting to 

work) with the urban core. 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

136 

Population 

All three counties have experienced long-term 

population growth, characterized by relatively 

rapid growth in the 1970s, tempered by state 

and national economic slowdowns in the 

early/mid 1980s, and growth resuming 

thereafter. Between 1990 and 2006, net 

population growth of 45%, 32%, and 34% 

occurred in Benzie, Grand Traverse and 

Leelanau counties, respectively, out-pacing 

the statewide growth of 9% for the same 

period. The pace of population growth has 

moderated in recent years (see table 9). 

The three counties had a combined total of 

124,716 residents in 2006, more than twothirds of whom lived in Grand Traverse 

County. Benzie County’s population of 17,652 

accounted for 14% of the total, with Leelanau 

County having 18% of the total. 

Most of the region’s year-round residents live 

in rural, unincorporated areas. In addition to 

Traverse City, only Kingsley (Grand Traverse) 

and Frankfort (Benzie) have more than 1,000 

residents. The remaining communities 

generally range from 250 to 650 residents. 

Population size in these communities has 

remained relatively constant in recent years 

because most of the new development and 

population growth has been in the outlying 

areas (U.S. Census Bureau 2007b). 

In Leelanau County, Empire, Glen Arbor, and 

Leland are the three communities most 

directly affected by the National Lakeshore — 

the first two because of proximity to key 

visitor use/activity centers in the National 

Lakeshore. Leland is the base for the ferry to 

the Manitou Islands. The portions of the 

Lakeshore in Leelanau County are located in 

Centerville, Cleveland, Empire, Glen Arbor, 

Kasson, and Leland townships. 

In Benzie County, the communities of 

Benzonia, Beulah, Frankfort, and Honor are 

also affected by the National Lakeshore, 

because of their proximity to the Lakeshore 

and location along major roads that access the 

Lakeshore. The portions of the Lakeshore in 

Benzie County are located in Benzonia, Lake, 

and Platte, townships. 

Economic Overview 

Strong economic growth accompanied the 

region’s population growth. Total full- and 

part-time employment in Benzie County 

increased by 55% between 1995 and 2005. 

Employment gains in Grand Traverse County 

increased by 19% during the same 10 years. In 

Leelanau County employment increased by 

30% during the same 10 years (see figure 5). 

Recent economic growth and development 

has brought about differences in the economic 

structures of the individual counties. Employment data for 2005 highlight those differences 

(see table 10). Benzie County’s economy tends 

TABLE 9: POPULATION GROWTH TRENDS, 1990 TO 2006 

1990 2000 2006 Change

1990–2006 

% Change

1990–2006 

Benzie 12,200 15,988 17,652 5,452 45% 

Grand Traverse 64,273 77,654 84,952 20,679 32% 

Leelanau 16,527 21,119 22,112 5,585 34% 

Michigan 9,295,297 9,938,444 10,095,643 800,346 9% 

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, 2002 and 2007(a) 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

137 

Figure 5: Total Employment in the Region, 1990 to 2005 

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis 2007 

TABLE 10: EMPLOYMENT BY MAJOR CATEGORY, 2005 

County 

Total 

Employment Agriculture* Industrial** 

Trade and 

Services*** 

Government 

**** 

Benzie 8,611 3% 27% 61% 9% 

Grand Traverse 65,301 1% 24% 64% 10% 

Leelanau 10,200 10% 17% 53% 20% 

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis 2007 

* Includes farming, forestry and logging, hunting and fishing, and agricultural support activities. 

** Includes mining, utilities, construction, manufacturing, transportation & warehousing, and administration & waste 

services. 

*** Includes wholesale and retail trade, information services, finance & insurance, real estate, professional & technical 

services, management of companies, educational services, health care, arts & recreation, accommodation & food 

services, and other services. 

**** Includes federal, state and local government. 

to be more industrial, that of Grand Traverse 

more trade and services oriented, and that of 

Leelanau more dependent on agriculture, 

government, and trade and services. Public 

sector employment, particularly local government employment, is important across the 

region, but particularly in Leelanau County. 

The latter reflects the substantial workforce 

employed by the Grand Traverse Band of 

Ottawa and Chippewa Indians (Grand 

Traverse Band). 

Local employment and unemployment 

generally follow statewide trends, likely 

indicative of a correlation between statewide 

economic health and people’s vacation/travel 

patterns and spending. That pattern is evident 

over the past seven years as local unemployment rates climbed from 2000 through 2003/ 

04, then stabilized or declined (see table 11). 

Unemployment rates are generally below the 

statewide averages in Leelanau and Grand 

Traverse counties; those in Benzie County 

tend to be higher. The latter is the result of 

multiple factors, including a less diverse economy base and higher reliance on seasonal 

industries. 

In terms of employment, the federal government has a relatively modest presence in the 

regional economy. Federal agencies with the 

largest presence include the National Park 

0

10,000 

20,000 

30,000 

40,000 

50,000 

60,000 

70,000 

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005

Benzie County

Leelanau 

County

Grand 

Traverse 

County
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

138 

TABLE 11: UNEMPLOYMENT RATES, 2000 TO 2006 

Area of Interest Annual Average

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Benzie County 4.5% 5.8% 6.9% 7.9% 7.6% 7.7% 7.6% 

Grand Traverse County 3.4% 4.7% 5.6% 6.2% 6.5% 5.9% 5.9% 

Leelanau County 3.0% 3.7% 4.8% 5.6% 5.4% 5.1% 5.0% 

Michigan 3.7% 5.2% 6.2% 7.1% 7.0% 6.8% 6.9% 

United States 4.0% 4.7% 5.8% 6.0% 5.5% 5.1% 4.6% 

SOURCES: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007 

Service, U.S. Postal Service, U.S. Coast Guard, 

and Transportation Security Administration. 

Together these agencies reported a total of 

1,105 (about 1.2%) of all jobs. The economic 

significance of these jobs is amplified by their 

relatively high average earnings and the associated operating, maintenance, and capital 

expenditures by the entities in the local 

economies. 

Agriculture historically played a major role in 

the region, both in terms of land use and 

economics. Agriculture’s economic significance has waned over time, but it continues to 

be important in terms of direct farm employment and indirectly through its support for 

agricultural services, trade, and tourism. 

A total of 1,099 individual farms, 

encompassing a total of 147,729 acres, were 

operating in the three counties in 2002 (see 

table 12). Compared to five years earlier, those 

totals reflect 29 more farms but a reduction of 

more than 10,000 acres of farmland. These 

changes reflect both recent subdivisions of 

large farms into smaller units, as well as the 

loss/conversion of farmland — typically to 

low-density rural residential uses (USDANASS 2004). 

In 2002, 181 of the farms were in Benzie 

County, collectively covering 23,055 acres or 

11% of the county’s land area. Agricultural 

operations in Grand Traverse County 

involved 489 farms or about 21% of the 

county’s land area, and the 429 farms in 

Leelanau encompassed 28% of the county’s 

land area. (The calculations are based on the 

land area in each county. The area covered by 

lakes, streams, and other water bodies is 

excluded.)In 2002 sales of local crops and 

livestock generated more than $60 million in 

the region. Fruit orchards and fields used to 

grow hay, corn silage, or other forage for 

livestock feed accounted for the largest uses of 

farm land. Apples, sweet cherries, tart 

cherries, and Christmas trees were the 

principal cash crops. Maple syrup is another 

TABLE 12: OVERVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS IN THE REGION, 2002 

County 

Number of 

Farms 

Total Farm 

Employment 

Acres in 

Farms 

Average 

Size (Acres) 

Market Value 

of Sales 

(Millions) 

Benzie 181 200 23,055 127 $ 8.0 

Grand Traverse 489 594 62,268 127 $ 20.6 

Leelanau 429 662 62,406 159 $ 32.8 

SOURCES: USDA-NASS 2004 and U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis 2007 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

139 

important local farm product (USDA-NASS 

2004). A local wine industry is emerging, with 

more than a dozen vineyards and wineries 

located on the Leelanau Peninsula. (Michigan 

Grape and Wine Industry Council 2007). 

Outdoor recreation and tourism are vital 

cornerstones for the regional economy. In 

addition to the National Lakeshore, the 

following other recreation and tourism 

attractions are included in the Grand Traverse 

region: 

 outstanding stream and lake fishing 

 abundant boating and canoeing 

opportunities 

 world-class golf courses 

 museums and other heritage and cultural 

attractions, including the Point Betsie, 

Grand Traverse, and Old Mission 

lighthouses 

 snowmobiling, along with Nordic and 

alpine skiing 

 beaches 

 winery tours on the Leelanau and Old 

Mission peninsulas 

 casino gaming and entertainment 

 local arts and cultural festivals 

In addition, Michigan state routes M-22 and 

M-109 carry tourists who are following the 

Great Lakes Circle Tour. The tour connects 

all five Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence 

River and is a cooperative effort between the 

Great Lakes Commission, its eight member 

states, and the Canadian province of Ontario. 

Visitors and travelers support numerous jobs 

in the region’s retail trade, accommodations 

and dining, and entertainment and other 

affiliated industries. 

Commercial and Noncommercial Services 

Provided at Sleeping Bear Dunes National 

Lakeshore 

A variety of necessary and appropriate 

commercial visitor services are provided in 

the National Lakeshore, including nonmotorized watercraft rentals, ferry services to 

the islands, vending machine snacks, and 

campground firewood sales. These services 

will be provided through concession contracts 

and/or commercial use authorizations, as 

applicable. Two concessions currently operate 

in the National Lakeshore. Manitou Island 

Transit, based in Leland, offers ferry service 

for day trips to South Manitou Island and 

overnight camping trips to both North 

Manitou and South Manitou islands. The 

other concession provides beverages and 

snacks from vending machines at the Dune 

Climb. Commercial use authorization holders 

based in nearby communities provide 

incidental commercial services such as 

educational programs, guided fishing, 

professional photography, and other services. 

The Eastern National cooperating association 

operates three bookstores in the National 

Lakeshore — at the visitor center in Empire, at 

the Dune Climb, and at the Glen Haven 

General Store (the latter two seasonally). 

The Friends of Sleeping Bear Dunes, Preserve 

Historic Sleeping Bear, Manitou Islands 

Memorial Society, and the Glen Arbor Art 

Association partner with the National 

Lakeshore to provide informational materials, 

extensive volunteer interpretation, restoration 

and preservation efforts, and other activities 

in concert with NPS staff. Preserve Historic 

Sleeping Bear and the Glen Arbor Art 

Association occupy historic buildings in the 

National Lakeshore. 

Income and Poverty 

Total personal income in the three-county 

region was nearly $4.0 billion in 2005 — $469 

million in Benzie County, $804 million in 

Leelanau County, and $2.69 billion in Grand

 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

140 

Traverse County.2 All three counties registered 

higher than average gains in total personal 

income, relative to the statewide average, 

between 2000 and 2005. The largest gains 

occurred in Leelanau County — 35% (see 

table 13). 

More than 15% of all earnings paid by 

employers in Grand Traverse County, nearly 

$375 million, was to workers commuting from 

outside the county. Residents of Benzie 

County benefited from a net inflow of $87 

million, while residents in Leelanau County 

generated a net inflow of $221 million. In fact, 

such earnings by commuting workers were 

nearly 80% of wages and salaries earned by all 

workers within the county (see table 14). Net 

earnings inflows to Leelanau County have 

increased sharply in the past five years. 

Dividends, interest, and retirement benefits 

and other nonearned income are significant 

sources of income for local residents — 

ranging from $220 million in Benzie County to 

nearly $907 million in Grand Traverse 

County. Such income actually exceeded total 

local wage and salary earnings of employees 

and proprietors in Benzie and Leelanau 

County. High levels of nonearned income are 

commonly indicative of a relatively high 

retired population in an area. 

Recent favorable economic conditions are 

also manifested in local per capita incomes. 

Gains in per capita personal income ranged 

from 11% (Grand Traverse County) to 30% 

(Leelanau County) between 2000 and 2005 

(see table 15). The statewide average increased 

by 13%. Per capita income in Leelanau 

 

2

Personal income includes work-related earnings, 

social security, and other income maintenance 

payments, unemployment benefits, retirement, and 

income derived from investments. Total personal 

income is an indicator of the relative size of an 

economy, while changes in income over time may 

reflect changes in economic welfare, but also 

changes in the levels of economic activity, 

population, and inflation. Per capita, median, and 

other income measures provide a basis for 

comparing economic welfare between areas. 

County, which historically lagged behind the 

statewide average, is now 11% above the state 

average. Per capita incomes in Grand Traverse 

and Benzie counties continue to lag behind 

the statewide average (Benzie County 

residents by 19%). In terms of per capita 

income, Benzie, Grand Traverse, and 

Leelanau counties ranked 37th, 9th, and 4th in 

the state, respectively. 

Another perspective on the economic welfare 

of residents is presented by data on median 

household incomes and poverty rates (see 

table 16). The incidence of poverty in all three 

counties is substantially lower than either the 

state or national averages. Grand Traverse and 

Leelanau counties have median household 

incomes that are above the state and national 

averages, and Benzie County has median 

household incomes that are below the state 

and national averages. 

Demographics 

Residents of the region tend to be older than 

the general population statewide, with median 

ages ranging from 37.7 years in Grand 

Traverse County, to 40.8 years in Benzie 

County, to 42.6 years in Leelanau County. 

Leelanau and Benzie counties have relatively 

higher proportions of residents 55 years and 

older, many of whom are retired or semiretired (see table 17). 

The resident populations of all three counties 

are predominately white, with low minority 

populations and few Hispanic and Latino 

residents. American Indians are the largest 

minority population in the region, with 2,449 

residents identifying themselves as such in the 

2000 census. Many are members of the Grand 

Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

141 

TABLE 13: TOTAL PERSONAL INCOME

Area 2000 2005 

Percent Change 

2000 to 2005 

Benzie County $380,997,000 $468,796,000 23% 

Grand Traverse County $2,254,827,000 $2,694,009,000 19% 

Leelanau County $594,926,000 $804,150,000 35% 

 Three-county total $3,230,750,000 $3,966,955,000 23% 

 Michigan $294,226,742,000 $331,348,575,000 13% 

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis 2007 

TABLE 14: COMPOSITION OF TOTAL PERSONAL INCOME, 2005 (IN MILLIONS) 

Benzie County 

Grand Traverse 

County 

Leelanau 

County 

Earnings by Place of Work $183.1 $2,430.5 $281.7 

Residency Adjustment $87.1 ($374.6) $221.3 

Social Security Deductions ($21.6) ($268.7) ($31.7) 

Other Income to Residents $220.2 $906.8 $332.9 

Total Personal Income — Residents $468.8 $2,694.0 $804.2 

Notes: 

1. A positive residency adjustment reflects a net inflow of earnings by residents of a county who are employed in another county, as compared to earnings paid by local employers to residents of other 

counties.

2. Other income includes dividends, interest, and rent, and personal current transfer receipts.

3. Social security deductions includes employee paid and employer paid social security taxes.

Source: US Bureau of Economic Analysis 2007

TABLE 15: PER CAPITA PERSONAL INCOME, 2000 AND 2005 

2000 2005 % Change 

2000–2005 

% of State 

Average 

Statewide 

Rank (of 83)

Benzie County $ 23,647 $ 26,676 13% 81% 37 

Grand Traverse County $ 28,911 $ 32,089 11% 98% 9 

Leelanau County $ 27,978 $ 36,502 30% 111% 4 

 Michigan $ 29,551 $ 32,804 13% NA NA 

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis 2005 

TABLE 16: MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND INCIDENCE OF POVERTY — 2004 

Area 

Median 

Household Income 

Individuals in 

Poverty 

(% of residents) 

Benzie County $ 41,037 9.0% 

Grand Traverse County $ 45,542 9.0% 

Leelanau County $ 52,141 7.2% 

 Michigan $ 44,409 12.5% 

 United States $ 44,334 12.7% 

SOURCE: U.S Census Bureau 2007d 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

142 

TABLE 17: SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS, 2000 

Area of Interest Median Age 

(Years) 

Persons 19 or 

younger 

Persons 55 

years and older 

Race: 

White 

Race: 

Hispanic or 

Latino 

Benzie County 40.8 25.4% 29.1% 97.6% 1.5% 

Grand Traverse County 37.7 28.0% 21.9% 97.5% 1.5% 

Leelanau County 42.6 26.6% 28.8% 94.4% 3.3% 

 Michigan 35.5 29.0% 20.1% 81.8% 3.3% 

SOURCE: U.S Census Bureau 2002 

Indians, given federal recognition as a tribe in 

1980. The Grand Traverse Band has administrative headquarters in Peshawbestown, in 

Leelanau County, and holds lands in trust and 

in title in Benzie and Grand Traverse 

Counties. Tribal membership was 3,983 in 

2005, though not all members reside on tribal 

lands or within the region (Grand Traverse 

Band 2007). 

At the time of the 2000 census, approximately 

one in four residents in the three-county 

region had moved to their residence since 

1995. Most of the recently migrated residents 

moved from elsewhere in Michigan, though 

30% migrated from other states or from 

another country. 

Housing 

At the time of the 2000 census, housing 

vacancy rates in all three counties were higher 

than the statewide average of 10.6%. Overall 

vacancy rates in both Leelanau and Benzie 

counties were 37%, with more than 4,800 and 

3,800 vacant units, respectively (see table 18). 

However, the majority of these units are 

second homes for seasonal, recreational, or 

occasional use, reflecting the region’s 

vacation/tourism destination history. 

Recent immigration and the region’s 

continued attraction for vacation/second 

homes are reflected in new residential 

construction activity. Building permits were 

issued for more than 9,500 new housing units 

in the three counties from 2000 through 2006; 

the total represents a 16% increase over the 

total existing housing stock in 2000. Twothirds of the permitted units were in Grand 

Traverse County, although Leelanau and 

Benzie Counties each issued permits for more 

than 1,600 new units. Many new units are 

located near the Lakeshore, including around 

Glen Arbor, Empire, and the areas near the 

southern portion of the National Lakeshore. 

TABLE 18: SELECTED HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS

County Total Units Percent 

Occupied 

Total Vacant 

Units 

Vacant Units for 

Seasonal, Recreational 

or Occasional Use 

(Number / % of Total) 

New Units 

Permitted, 

2000 to 2006 

Benzie 10,312 63% 3,812 3,181 / 31% + 1,625 

Grand Traverse 34,482 87% 4,446 3,026 / 9% + 6,157 

Leelanau 13,297 63% 4,861 4,111 / 31% + 1,725 

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau 2002 and 2007c 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

143 

Existing housing facilities at the National 

Lakeshore include 28 dwelling units used on a 

full-time or seasonal basis. The inventory 

includes 13 units on the mainland and the 

remainder on North Manitou or South 

Manitou islands. Most of the Lakeshore’s 

housing resources are historic structures 

acquired by the National Park Service and 

renovated/ rehabilitated over time as part of 

the Lakeshore’s ongoing cultural resource 

preservation efforts. 

Highway Traffic and Emergency Services 

The National Park Service owns and maintains about 25 miles of road in the National 

Lakeshore. All are two-lane roadways, with 

the exception of the Pierce Stocking Scenic 

Drive and numerous one-way segments 

within campgrounds. 

The primary highway access to and through 

the Lakeshore is Michigan State Route 22 (M22), which runs north-south through or 

adjacent to the full length of the Lakeshore. 

M- 22 is a paved, two-lane facility, with paved 

shoulders varying from 1 to 5 feet in width. 

Two other state routes, M-109 and M-72, are 

of particular importance to the National 

Lakeshore. Route M-109, branching from M22 in Glen Arbor and reconnecting north of 

Empire, accesses Glen Haven, the Dune 

Climb, and Pierce Stocking Scenic Drive. 

Route M-72 provides the most direct highway 

connection between Empire and the Traverse 

City area. Both are two-lane, paved roads. 

Leelanau and Benzie counties both have 

public road rights-of-way within the Lakeshore boundaries. These roads access private 

properties as well as providing access for 

many National Lakeshore recreational 

activities. 

Traffic on the major state roads in the region, 

shown in table 19, is heaviest in the northern 

portion of the Lakeshore and near NPS 

headquarters in Empire. Traffic is highly 

seasonal, with peak traffic volumes of 40% to 

50% above the annual average occurring in 

July and August during peak visitor use. 

Winter time traffic volumes are 30% to 40% 

below the annual averages. 

TABLE 19: TRAFFIC VOLUMES 2005/06, SELECTED LOCATIONS NEAR THE NATIONAL LAKESHORE

Route/Location 

Annual 

Average Daily 

Traffic (AADT) 

Average Daily 

Commercial 

Traffic 

M-22, north of the Lakeshore, south of SR 204 3,500 60 

M-22, east of Port Oneida 2,000 60 

M-22, south of Glen Arbor 1,300 50 

M-22, north of Empire 2,700 40 

M-22, south of Empire 1,300 NA 

M-22, south of Benzie/Leelanau line 1,900 120 

M-22, south of the Lakeshore, north of Frankfort 2,400 NA 

M-109, west of Glen Arbor in the vicinity of Glen Haven 1,800 30 

M-109, vicinity of Dunes Climb and Pierce Stocking Scenic Drive 1,300 20 

M-72, east of Empire 2,400 300 

US 31 north of Beulah and east of Honor 7,100 NA 

SOURCE: Michigan Department of Transportation 2007 

NA — commercial traffic volumes were not reported for this location 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

144 

A 2001 transportation study analyzed then 

current and 20-year traffic forecasts for the 

major roads in the Lakeshore. The travel 

demand forecasts assumed a 1% annually 

compounded growth rate in traffic volumes. 

That analysis concluded that all of the major 

roads could accommodate the expected 2020 

traffic volumes without expansions or major 

improvements. That analysis also examined 

the level of service at the key intersections in 

the National Lakeshore. At the time of the 

analysis, all major intersections were 

operating within the desired level of service, 

and with the exception of the intersection of 

M-22 and M-109 (in Glen Arbor) would 

continue to do so through 2020. (Robert 

Peccia & Associates 2001.) 

The segments of M-22 and M-109 in Leelanau 

County through and near the Lakeshore 

comprise part of the state-designated 

Leelanau Scenic Heritage Route, a locally 

sponsored effort to preserve and enhance the 

natural, historic, cultural, and scenic resources 

and qualities in the area. The project has 

received approvals from the federal and state 

departments of transportation and has also 

received funding for further planning studies. 

The efforts include plans to develop a hard 

surfaced/paved 25-mile nonmotorized 

hike/bike trail along these roads. The 

hike/bike trail would generally be separated 

from the road shoulder. 

Visitation to the National Lakeshore can 

increase highway traffic and subsequent 

public safety demands on local law enforcement and emergency medical service 

responders. The Benzie County Sheriff’s 

Department responds to incidents in the 

Lakeshore from its office in Beulah. The 

Leelanau County Sheriff’s Department 

responds to incidents in the Lakeshore from 

its office in Lake Leelanau. The Michigan 

State Police respond to incidents in the 

Lakeshore from a Post in Traverse City and 

Detachments in Honor and at the Leelanau 

County Sheriff’s Office in Lake Leelanau. 

NPS rangers and wildland firefighters also 

support public safety. NPS rangers respond to 

law enforcement, emergency medical service, 

and search-and-rescue incidents within the 

National Lakeshore. Federal law allows NPS 

rangers to respond to other emergency 

situations outside the Lakeshore’s boundaries. 

The need for such response arises infrequently. Local fire departments and emergency 

medical responders provide additional capacity, including rescue capabilities. Emergency 

medical transport is via ambulance services 

associated with area hospitals. Hospitals are 

located in Manistee, Traverse City, and 

Frankfort. 

NPS wildland firefighters respond to fires in 

and around the Lakeshore and also support 

wildland firefighting efforts throughout the 

United States. 

Land Use and Landownership 

The predominant land uses in the study area 

include agriculture, forested areas, natural 

areas supporting wildlife, rural residential, 

residential, commercial, and industrial lands. 

Industrial uses are concentrated in and near 

Traverse City, other communities in the area, 

and along the major highway corridors 

through the region. 

Land use adjacent to the Lakeshore is a 

combination of private forested and farm 

lands and rural residential development, the 

latter including clustered developments 

around private inland lakes. Most of the three 

counties are zoned as agricultural, with 

residential uses allowed. Other uses in 

unincorporated areas require approvals from 

the respective zoning administrators and 

commissions. The majority of lands in all 

three counties are privately owned. 

As a result of the federal lands included in the 

National Lakeshore, Benzie and Leelanau 

counties receive payments in lieu of taxes, or 

PILT. The PILT program is administered by 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

145 

the U.S. Bureau of Land Management and 

distributes payments to county governments 

containing qualified federal lands within their 

jurisdictional boundaries. The payments, 

which are subject to congressional appropriations, are to help offset the diminished 

property tax receipts due to nontaxable 

federal lands within their boundaries. A total 

of 8,091 eligible acres were located in Benzie 

County in fiscal year 2007, 39,889 acres in 

Leelanau County, and 2 acres in Grand 

Traverse County. Of these PILT-eligible 

lands, all but 3 acres were in the National 

Lakeshore. 

Fiscal year 2007 PILT payments were $14,250 

to Benzie County and $71,795 to Leelanau 

County. Grand Traverse County did not 

receive PILT payments in 2007 due to the 

limited acreage of PILT entitlement land 

within its boundaries. In recent years, 

congressional appropriations have funded the 

PILT program at about 68% of the statutorily 

approved levels (US DOI 2007). 

Economic Contributions of Sleeping 

Bear Dunes National Lakeshore 

The Lakeshore is an important component of 

the regional economy. Spending by visitors to 

the Lakeshore, as well as NPS personnel and 

operating and maintenance expenditures, 

support local businesses and generate tax 

revenues to help support local governments. 

Visitor Spending. An estimated 1,213,026 

recreation visits occurred at Sleeping Bear 

Dunes National Lakeshore in 2006. Recreation visitation at the Lakeshore has been 

relatively consistent over time. The 17-year 

average of 1.19 million recreation visits, 

including about 110,000 overnight stays, 

nearly matches the visitation in 2006 (see 

chapter 4 “Visitor Opportunities and Use” for 

more information on visitation). 

Based on an estimated origin profile of Lakeshore visitors and typical spending patterns, 

total annual visitor spending associated with 

the Lakeshore is estimated to be about $32.8 

million. The bulk of the total, about $26.1 

million (79%), is by non-local visitors staying 

overnight in area motels, bed-and-breakfasts, 

other lodging, and camping. 

Total spending by visitors includes entry and 

camping fees at the Lakeshore. In 2006, such 

receipts totaled about $1,200,000. About 80% 

of the fees collected are retained by the 

Lakeshore for use in projects and programs 

that directly benefit visitors, such as facility 

maintenance and construction, visitor services 

and interpretive programs, and natural 

resource projects. 

Local visitor spending associated with the 

National Lakeshore supports an estimated 600 

jobs across the region, generating $9.1 million 

in annual personal income. Those sums are in 

addition to the NPS jobs at the Lakeshore and 

those supported indirectly by the payroll, 

operating expenses, and construction 

contracts issued by the National Park Service. 

Lakeshore Operations. The annual budget 

for NPS operations at Sleeping Bear Dunes 

National Lakeshore helps the regional economy (utilities, supplies, and services support 

additional sales, jobs, and income). Spending 

of income by NPS employees also stimulates 

the regional economy. The effects of NPS 

operations are an addition to the effect of 

visitor spending associated with the National 

Lakeshore. 

The annual base operating budget at the 

Lakeshore for fiscal year 2006 was $3.51 

million. The base budget was supplemented 

by funding for specific projects and funding 

retained from entry and camping fees. These 

funds supported a staff of 46 full- and parttime, year-round employees and 84 seasonal 

employees. Annual payroll funding from the 

base budget was $2.54 million in salaries and 

benefits, with another $892,000 spent for 

utilities, services and travel, supplies, small 

equipment items, vehicles, and contracts for 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

146 

services. In addition, annual expenditures of 

about $539,000 for salaries and personnel 

services and $395,000 in other expenditures 

were funded via the portion of entry and 

camping fees retained by the National 

Lakeshore. 

NPS payroll and spending in the local 

economy supports an estimated 25 to 30 

additional jobs and $1.4 million in personal 

income in the region. 

Partner organizations and the large cadre of 

volunteers provide additional benefits to the 

regional economy in the form of purchases of 

goods and services, as well as spending by 

members and guests at events and activities 

hosted by the organizations. Many of the 

estimated 965 volunteers (FY 2007) active in 

the Lakeshore are themselves residents in the 

area, either year-round, or seasonal residents 

returning year after year. The economic value 

of the contributions by volunteers is estimated 

at $600,000 and 17 full-time equivalentemployees per year. 

Combined Effects of Visitor Spending and 

Lakeshore Operations. The combined 

effects of the visitor spending and NPS 

operations include more than 760 full- and 

part-time jobs and $13.6 million in personal 

income. Local spending supports local 

businesses and generates various fees and tax 

revenues to help support local government. 

Attitudes and Lifestyle Issues 

Associated with the National Lakeshore 

Although there is no single, established, 

defined gateway community associated with 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, 

there is a community comprised of the staff, 

visitors, partners, neighbors, and adjacent 

landowners, Lakeshore volunteers, American 

Indians, and many other interested individuals 

and entities. The latter include local, nonlocal, 

and even international residents, private 

enterprises, public interest groups, governmental agencies, and other institutions and 

organizations. The broader community also 

encompasses the residents and business 

owners of the surrounding region. 

A wide spectrum of views, perspectives, and 

attitudes exist within that broad community 

regarding the Lakeshore and associated 

resources and opportunities. For some, the 

Lakeshore is seen primarily as an outdoor 

recreational resource; for others it is a unique 

and significant environment warranting 

conservation. Even among outdoor 

enthusiasts, attitudes regarding the Lakeshore 

vary among those who seek solitude and 

backcountry experiences commonly 

associated with wilderness, those who prefer 

enhanced motorized access to more of the 

Lakeshore (especially to Lake Michigan), and 

those who see the Lakeshore and the 

surrounding environs as contributing to their 

spiritual or emotional well-being. 

Members of this community, be they 

individuals, groups, or institutions, ascribe to 

multiple views toward the Lakeshore, how it 

currently affects them, and how it could affect 

them if the Lakeshore were managed 

differently in the future. Moreover, many may 

see both benefits and adverse effects on their 

personal and community lifestyles, depending 

on how the Lakeshore is managed. For 

example, some residents of the Glen Arbor 

community may see economic development 

potentials associated with future recreation 

use while also being concerned about the 

potential traffic impacts of such use. 

Among local residents, the subject of public 

access to various areas of the Lakeshore and 

the recreational opportunities afforded 

thereby is perhaps the single most critical 

issue associated with future management of 

the Lakeshore, and resolution of that issue 

may shape their sentiments toward the Lakeshore over the long term. For others, efforts to 

preserve and interpret the historical and 

cultural resources in the Lakeshore are of 

paramount concern. And for others, preserva-
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

147 

tion and protection of the natural environment and scenic vistas is of utmost 

importance. 

The range and divergence of attitudes 

regarding the Lakeshore has been apparent in 

the high level of active participation in the 

GMP process, including attendance at open 

houses, comments during scoping, and 

responses to the GMP newsletters. 

NPS OPERATIONS 

Operations and Management 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore is 

administered by a superintendent, assistant 

superintendent, and several division chiefs. 

Management of the Lakeshore is organized 

into the superintendent’s office and five 

functional divisions. The functional divisions 

are discussed in the sections that follow. As of 

2007, there were 66 full-time-equivalent (FTE) 

employees at the National Lakeshore. 

The superintendent is directly responsible for 

the assistant superintendent, the environmental protection specialist, the superintendent’s secretary, and indirectly for the five 

division chiefs. In addition to responsibilities 

for overall leadership and coordination, the 

superintendent’s staff (four FTE employees in 

2007) is responsible for public and external 

affairs, planning and compliance, and safety. 

The main base of operations for the superintendent’s office is the leased visitor/ 

administrative center building in Empire. 

Interpretation and Visitor Services Division 

Interpretation and visitor services includes 

education services for diverse audiences, 

interpretation of themes, staffing the visitor 

center, providing information and orientation 

for visitors through personal (guided) and 

nonpersonal services (e.g., web site, publications, exhibits, and Volunteer-in-the-Parks 

program). This division is also responsible for 

managing the library, fee collection, campground management, and museum collections. The main base of operations for 

interpretive and visitor services staff is the 

visitor/administrative center building in 

Empire. As of 2007, there were 14 FTE 

employees in this division. 

Resource and Visitor Protection Division 

The resource and visitor protection division is 

responsible for visitor and employee safety, 

resource protection, emergency response, 

park and facility patrols, security, emergency 

medical services, search and rescue, structural 

fires, law enforcement, air operations, 

resource protection education, dispatch, and 

concession operations in the Lakeshore. As of 

2007, there were 12 FTE employees in this 

division. The main base of operations for this 

division is the visitor/ administration center 

building in Empire, with district ranger offices 

at the Platte River Campground (Platte River 

District) and the D.H. Day Store in Glen 

Haven (Leelanau District). The Leelanau 

District has responsibility for protection 

operations on the Manitou Islands. 

Facility Maintenance Division 

The facility maintenance division is responsible for operation and maintenance of park 

facilities and equipment, including structures 

and grounds, utilities, roads and parking areas, 

trails and trailheads, picnic areas, signs, and 

vehicles. This division is also responsible for 

managing cultural resources (archeological 

sites, historic structures, cultural landscapes, 

and ethnographic resources). The main base 

of operations for the division is the maintenance area located about a mile south of 

Empire. As of 2007, there were 26 FTE 

employees in this division. 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

148 

Natural Resources Management Division 

The natural resources management division is 

responsible for management of natural 

resources, including natural resource inventory and monitoring, managing natural 

resource research, protecting threatened and 

endangered species, restoring disturbed sites, 

managing invasive nonnative species, monitoring water quality, operating the Geographic 

Information System, and managing wildland 

fires. This division is operated out of the 

visitor/administrative center in Empire. 

Biological technicians work out of the natural 

resources field station in the central part of 

the Lakeshore. As of 2007, there were five 

FTE employees in this division. 

Administration Division 

The administration division is responsible for 

the Lakeshore’s budget, fiscal, purchasing, 

property management activities, and the lands 

program. Administration also has responsibility for human resources, information technology, communications, and housing. The 

main base of operations for administrative 

staff is the visitor/administrative center 

building in Empire. As of 2007, there were five 

FTE employees in this division. 

Volunteers and Partners 

Sleeping Bear Dunes has an unusually large 

volunteer program that is coordinated by the 

interpretation and visitor services division. 

Volunteers contributed 35,544 hours of 

volunteer services in FY 2007. The National 

Lakeshore also benefits from the contributions of several cooperative partner organizations (see below). 

Eastern National is a nonprofit cooperating 

association that provides educational products and services to Lakeshore visitors. A 

portion of proceeds are donated back to 

Lakeshore interpretive and educational 

programs. Eastern National operates bookstores at the visitor center in Empire, the 

Dune Center (at the Dune Climb), and the 

Glen Haven General Store. 

Friends of Sleeping Bear Dunes helps with 

preserving and restoring the National Lakeshore’s natural, historic, and recreational 

resources. This group raises funds via donations and grants, and helps by volunteering on 

a variety of projects, such as trail maintenance 

and revegetating disturbed areas. 

Preserve Historic Sleeping Bear is a nonprofit 

organization committed to preserving historic 

structures and cultural landscapes of the 

National Lakeshore through fund-raising and 

volunteer services. 

The Manitou Islands Memorial Society helps 

preserve the Manitou Islands’ cultural 

traditions, provides educational materials and 

programs, promotes care and maintenance of 

the islands' historic assets, keeps island burial 

records, and provides volunteer help. 

The Glen Arbor Art Association has been 

working with the National Lakeshore in 

recent years to restore the historic Thoreson 

Farm in Port Oneida. Through a special use 

permit, the association uses the farm for art 

and education programs. 

Facilities and Infrastructure 

Introduction. Infrastructure at Sleeping Bear 

Dunes National Lakeshore includes a diverse 

set of facilities or “assets” (e.g., structures, 

roads, parking areas, picnic areas, utility and 

wastewater systems, maintained landscapes, 

campgrounds, and communication systems). 

Increased operational requirements, reduced 

funding, and lapsed staff positions have 

caused the staff to defer routine maintenance 

of some facilities. Deferred maintenance is 

work that should ideally have been done at 

specific times but was not, primarily due to 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

149 

budget constraints. Deferred maintenance 

often leads to costly repairs over time. 

The National Park Service monitors deferred 

maintenance in park units using a facility 

management tracking system. The National 

Park Service is striving to reduce the deferred 

maintenance backlog throughout the national 

park system by prioritizing projects and 

funding them through various sources, 

including the Federal Lands Recreation 

Enhancement Act. During 2006-2007, the 

National Lakeshore updated information in 

the facility management tracking system 

relating to the condition and importance of its 

assets. 

Structures. National Lakeshore staff is 

responsible for maintaining about 475 

structures, more than 360 of which are 

historic. Examples include ranger and visitor 

contact stations, maintenance shops, 

employee residences, and historic Life-Saving 

Service stations and homesteads. 

Roads. The primary vehicle travel corridor 

through the National Lakeshore is along statemanaged M-22 and M-109. This road corridor 

is a state scenic heritage route. Most road 

rights-of-way in the National Lakeshore are 

managed by Benzie or Leelanau counties. 

Some of these roads provide access to Lake 

Michigan beaches or other Lakeshore 

features, while others provide access to 

private property. Some roads do not access 

any particular feature or property, having 

formerly served private properties that no 

longer exist. 

A few roads are owned and managed by the 

National Park Service. Tiesma Road, located 

near the Platte River in the south part of the 

National Lakeshore, is a 1-mile-long gravel 

road that approaches the Lake Michigan 

shoreline. Pierce Stocking Scenic Drive, in the 

central portion of the Lakeshore, is a popular 

7.4-mile, one-way, slow-speed scenic loop 

road. Facilities along the scenic drive include 

an entrance station, parking areas, pull-offs, 

wayside exhibits, scenic overlooks, restrooms, 

and trailheads. The scenic drive includes a 

bicycle lane that is suitable for experienced 

cyclists. Interpretive pamphlets that highlight 

features along the scenic drive are available 

for visitors. 

Trails. The National Lakeshore includes 

more than a dozen trails and trail systems, 

ranging in length from just over a mile to 

nearly 15 miles. The trails vary in terms of 

terrain and habitat. Table 20 summarizes 

characteristics of the mainland trails. In 

addition to the mainland trails, North 

Manitou and South Manitou islands have 

extensive trail systems. 

Campgrounds and Camping. Platte River 

campground, in the south portion of the 

National Lakeshore, is the most developed 

campground in the Lakeshore. Amenities 

include paved roads, showers, flush toilets, 

water, a few sites with electrical hook-ups, and 

a canoe launch. The campground includes 

walk-in and group sites. Campsites can be 

reserved in advance. 

The D. H. Day campground, in the central 

part of the National Lakeshore mid-way 

between Glen Haven and Glen Arbor, is more 

rustic. It has potable water, a small amphitheater, a nature center, vault toilets, dirt 

roads, and beach access. Campsites are 

assigned on a first-come, first-served basis. 

A group campground is located northwest of 

Little Glen Lake. This campground is referred 

to as the D. H. Day group campground, but it 

is separate from the D. H. Day campground 

referred to above. 

There are two backcountry campgrounds on 

the National Lakeshore’s mainland. White 

Pine campground is on the Platte Plains trail 

system near the Platte River campground, 

within walking distance of Lake Michigan. 

Valley View campground is northeast of Glen 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

150 

TABLE 20: TRAILS AND TRAIL SYSTEMS AT SLEEPING BEAR DUNES NATIONAL LAKESHORE

Trail Name 

Length 

(miles) Terrain Vegetation 

Location in 

the 

Lakeshore Notes 

Old Indian 

Trail 

2.5 Flat to gently 

rolling with a few 

sections of steep 

hills 

Evergreens and 

hardwoods 

south Trail leads to a view of 

Lake Michigan 

Platte Plains 

Trail 

14.7 Mostly flat Pine-oak-aspen south Three views of Lake 

Michigan 

Empire Bluff 

Trail 

1.5 Hilly Beech-maple, fields, 

dune plants south Overlook on a high bluff over Lake Michigan 

Windy 

Moraine Trail 

1.5 

Hilly 

Beech-maple, old 

fields, pine 

plantation 

central Views of Glen Lake 

Shauger Hill 

Trail 

2.4 Hilly Beech-maple central Crosses Shauger Hill 

Road and Scenic Drive 

Cottonwood 

Trail 

1.4 

Rolling Dunes 

Grasses, shrubs, 

wildflowers of the 

dunes 

central 

Loose sand (strenuous). 

Views of Lake Michigan 

and sand dunes 

Dunes Trail 

3.5 Steep, rugged 

dunes 

Grasses, shrubs and 

wildflowers of the 

dunes 

central 

Strenuous hike through 

dunes leads to Lake 

Michigan. 2−4 hour 

round trip. 

Duneside 

Accessible 

Trail 

0.9 Flat Field and beechmaple, white cedar central 

Wheelchair accessible 

Sleeping Bear 

Point 2.8 Rolling Dunes Grasses, shrubs, wildflowers central Loose sand, views and access to Lake Michigan. 

Alligator Hill 

Trail 9 Hilly Beech-maple, fields, 

pine plantation central 

Several loops, overlooks 

of Lake Michigan and 

Glen Lake. Horses 

permitted. 

Bay View Trail 

8 Hilly Beech-maple, fields, 

pine plantation north 

Panoramic view of Lake 

Michigan and fields of 

wildflowers 

Pyramid Point 

Trail 2.7 Hilly Beech-maple and fields north Overlook of Lake Michigan 

Good Harbor 

Bay Trail 2.8 Flat, wet in places Wooded, some dunes north Boardwalk over creek 

Arbor. This campground has no potable water 

service and relatively little use. 

On South Manitou Island, camping is allowed 

at three designated campgrounds; backcountry permits are required. On North 

Manitou Island, backcountry camping in 

nondesignated areas is allowed in most areas 

(special restrictions apply and backcountry 

permits are required) and at the Village 

campground. 

There are a variety of non-NPS campgrounds 

outside the National Lakeshore. 

Dune Climb. The Dune Climb, located west 

of Little Glen Lake in the central part of the 

National Lakeshore, is one the Lakeshore’s 
Impact Topics Considered and Analyzed in Detail

151 

most popular family attractions. Facilities 

include an entrance station, large gravel 

parking area (scheduled for paving in 2008), 

picnic tables, Dune Center (bookstore and 

restrooms), and food and beverage vending 

area. 

Beach Access Points. Lake Michigan 

beaches are accessible by motor vehicle at 

various points within the National Lakeshore. 

The beach access points are accessed via 

county-owned roads unless noted otherwise 

below. 

In the south part of the National Lakeshore, 

the Platte River Point beach access area, near 

the mouth of the Platte River, is especially 

popular. Platte River Point has three paved 

parking lots (two NPS-owned and one owned 

by Lake Township), restrooms, picnic tables, 

paved paths, a boat ramp, and a canoe landing. 

Other beach access points in the south part of 

the National Lakeshore include one at the end 

of NPS-owned Tiesma Road, one at the end of 

Peterson Road (“Peterson Beach”), and one at 

the end of Esch Road (“Esch Beach”). These 

beach access points are minimally developed, 

with vault toilets (except Tiesma Road) and 

parking along the road ends. 

Beach access points in the central part of the 

National Lakeshore include North Bar Lake, 

Glen Haven, and the Sleeping Bear Point 

maritime museum area. Facilities at North Bar 

Lake include a paved parking area, picnic 

tables, and vault toilets. Glen Haven has a 

restroom, picnic area, and parking scattered 

throughout the site, but a large parking area is 

being designed. Sleeping Bear Point access 

points are available along Sleeping Bear Drive 

and at the Maritime Museum. Also, more 

remote beaches at Sleeping Bear Point may be 

accessed from the Sleeping Bear Point 

trailhead. 

Beach access points in the north part of the 

National Lakeshore are the County Road 651 

and 669 road ends at Good Harbor Bay. These 

beach access points are minimally developed, 

with vault toilets and uncontrolled parking 

along the road ends. Modest improvements 

(potable water, picnic facilities, and expanded 

parking) will soon be implemented. 

Facilities at Inland Lakes and Rivers. There 

are 26 inland lakes in the boundaries of 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore. 

Motorized boats are permitted on Loon Lake, 

North Bar Lake, Bass Lake (Leelanau 

County), and School Lake. Lakes with motor 

vehicle access or facilities for visitors are 

described briefly below. 

In the south part of the Lakeshore, Loon 

Lake has a boat ramp, dock, restrooms, 

and a picnic shelter. Bass Lake (Benzie 

County) has a dock, hand launch boat 

ramp, and restroom. Otter Lake has a 

small dock and a boat launch for canoes 

and kayaks. 

North Bar Lake is in the central part of 

the Lakeshore. In addition to paved 

parking, restrooms, and picnic tables, 

North Bar Lake has a modest launch for 

small boats. 

In the north part of the Lakeshore, 

School Lake has a launch for small boats 

and a vault toilet. Shell and Tucker lakes 

are accessible by vehicle but have no 

facilities. 

National Lakeshore facilities at Platte 

River are fully developed, and at Crystal 

River are modestly developed (small 

parking area and put-in for paddlers). 

Picnic Areas. Picnic areas in the National 

Lakeshore include Platte River picnic area in 

the south part of the Lakeshore, Glen Lake 

picnic area in the central part of the Lakeshore, and Good Harbor picnic area in the 

north part of the Lakeshore. Picnic tables are 

also available at the Dune Climb, North Bar 

Lake, Glen Haven, Pierce Stocking Scenic 

Drive, and a few other locations around the 

Lakeshore. 
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152 

Historic Sites and Areas. There are a variety 

of historic sites and areas in the National 

Lakeshore, such as Glen Haven, Port Oneida, 

and life-saving stations. These facilities are 

described in the “Historic Resources” section 

of this chapter. 

Accessible Facilities. Most public facilities in 

the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore 

are wheelchair accessible. Each campground 

has handicap-accessible campsites. The 

wheelchair-accessible Duneside Trail is 

available near the Dune Climb. Some locations 

are wheelchair accessible with assistance, such 

as the overlooks along the Pierce Stocking 

Scenic Drive. Sand wheelchairs are available at 

the Maritime Museum boathouse and at the 

Dune Climb to enable disabled individuals to 

enjoy the dunes and beaches. 

For visitors and staff who have some degree of 

hearing loss, the National Lakeshore has 

installed a permanent assistive listening device 

at the Philip A. Hart Visitor Center information desk. A compact text telephone (TTY) 

device is available at the visitor center’s pay 

telephone. Portable wireless FM assistive 

listening devices are also available for 

interpretive programs in the visitor center, 

ranger-led walks outdoors, and evening 

programs in the campgrounds. 

Operational Facilities. The National 

Lakeshore’s main administrative offices are in 

the Philip A. Hart Visitor Center building in 

Empire, Michigan. The National Park Service 

leases this structure. The main maintenance 

facility is about a mile south of Empire, with 

smaller maintenance support facilities at Platte 

River Campground and on each of the 

Manitou Islands. Ranger stations are located 

at Platte River, Glen Haven, and on each of 

the Manitou Islands. A natural resources field 

station is located on Harwood Road.
153 

IMPACT TOPICS CONSIDERED BUT NOT ANALYZED IN DETAIL 

MUSEUM COLLECTIONS 

The National Lakeshore’s collections are 

made up of archeological objects, both 

prehistoric and historic, and natural history 

specimens that have been systematically 

recovered from within the Lakeshore’s 

boundaries and historic items associated with 

the history and development of the 

agricultural and maritime economy of the 

region. The collections also include natural 

history categories on biology, paleontology, 

and geology associated with the origins of the 

National Lakeshore and its native flora and 

fauna. The museum collections and archives 

support the National Lakeshore’s interpretive 

themes and assist in research and resource 

management programs. 

The collection itself consists of more than 

66,000 objects. Many are on display at the 

Philip A. Hart Visitor Center, the Cannery 

Boat Museum, the Sleeping Bear Point Coast 

Guard Station/Maritime Museum, and at 

various other locations throughout the 

National Lakeshore. Other curated items are 

stored in two climate-controlled structures in 

the National Lakeshore and at various off-site 

museums and universities. 

The collections can be expected to grow with 

continuing archeological investigations, 

inventory and monitoring activities, and other 

permitted research. Moreover, archival 

collections can be expected to expand as 

historical research continues. 

Under all alternatives, museum objects would 

be stored or exhibited outside the floodplain. 

Museum objects would continue to be 

acquired, accessioned and cataloged, 

preserved, protected, and made available for 

access and use according to NPS standards 

and guidelines (NPS Museum Handbook and 

Director’s Order 24, “Museum Collections 

Management”). Museum objects would not be 

affected under any of the alternatives, and this 

topic has been dismissed from further 

consideration. 

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES 

Ethnographic resources are defined by the 

National Park Service as any “site, structure, 

object, landscape, or natural resource feature 

assigned traditional legendary, religious, subsistence, or other significance in the cultural 

system of a group traditionally associated with 

it.” 

Ethnographic studies are needed to formally 

identify groups of people with traditional 

associations to park lands and waters. 

Although no groups have been formally 

identified yet, several American Indian tribes 

were consulted about ethnographic resources 

and tribal concerns related to actions that 

might be proposed within the plan. No sacred 

sites were identified. A Consent Decree on the 

U.S. v. Michigan 1836 Inland Treaty Rights case 

was signed in November 2007. The Consent 

decree recognizes a treaty-retained right for 

tribal members to engage in certain hunting, 

fishing, and gathering activities in the ceded 

territory (including the National Lakeshore). 

The five Michigan Indian tribes involved in 

the agreement are the Bay Mills Indian 

Community, the Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of 

Chippewa Indians, the Little Traverse Bay 

Bands of Odawa Indians, the Grand Traverse 

Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians, and 

the Little River Band of Ottawa Indians. 

It is likely that other ethnographic resources 

exist in the National Lakeshore. The National 

Lakeshore will conduct ethnographic studies 

when funding becomes available. Until such 

studies are conducted, there is insufficient 

information upon which to analyze 

ethnographic resources. 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

154 

No actions are proposed in this plan’s 

alternatives that would affect specific known 

ethnographic resources; therefore, the topic 

has been dismissed. Should any ethnographic 

resources be identified after the plan has been 

published, they would be treated according to 

the requirements of the applicable laws and 

policies. 

Copies of the General Management Plan will 

be forwarded to each associated tribe for 

review and comment. If subsequent issues or 

concerns are identified, appropriate consultations would be undertaken. Because ethnographic resources would be unaffected, and 

because all provisions of the 1990 Native 

American Graves Protection and Repatriation 

Act (25 USC 3001) would be followed to 

protect any human remains, funerary objects, 

sacred objects, or objects of cultural patrimony inadvertently discovered, ethnographic 

resources were dismissed as an impact topic. 

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES 

Archeological resources — the physical 

evidence of past human activity — represent 

both prehistoric and historic occupations at 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore. A 

complete assessment and documentation of 

the National Lakeshore’s archeological 

resources has not been undertaken; however, 

identification of such resources is ongoing. 

Despite the lack of a comprehensive archeological survey, approximately 120 prehistoric 

sites have been identified over the years. By 

law and policy, prior to activities that require 

disturbance of previously undisturbed lands, 

an archeological evaluation is undertaken to 

ensure that no resources on or eligible for 

inclusion on the national register are lost or 

damaged due to NPS activities. As appropriate, archeological surveys and/or monitoring would precede any construction. Known 

archeological resources would be avoided to 

the greatest extent possible. If National 

Register eligible or listed archeological 

resources could not be avoided, an appropriate mitigative strategy would be developed 

in consultation with the state historic preservation officer and, if necessary, associated 

American Indian tribes. Due to the avoidance 

of archeological resources during construction, few if any adverse effects would be 

anticipated. 

If during construction previously undiscovered archeological resources were 

uncovered, all work in the immediate vicinity 

of the discovery would be halted until the 

resources could be identified and documented 

and an appropriate mitigation strategy 

developed in consultation with the state 

historic preservation officer and, if necessary, 

associated American Indian tribes. 

At present, one American Indian-related archeological site within the National Lakeshore is 

listed on the national register. Archeological 

site in Benzie County was entered onto the 

National Register of Historic Places April 27, 

1990. It is a locally significant, multicomponent campsite, with evidence of 

repeated prehistoric occupations over both 

the Middle and Late Woodland periods in 

addition to late historic Euro-American 

occupation. Its period of significance was 

from ca. AD 300–1100. 

Because the National Park Service is required 

by law and policy to evaluate archeologically 

any site proposed for development, and 

because this plan does not entail actions that 

would affect specific known archeological 

resources, this topic has been dismissed from 

further consideration. 

INDIAN TRUST RESOURCES 

The federal Indian trust responsibility is a 

legally enforceable fiduciary obligation on the 

part of the United States to protect tribal 

lands, assets, resources, and treaty rights, and 

it represents a duty to carry out the mandates 
Impact Topics Considered but Not Analyzed in Detail

155 

of federal law with respect to American Indian 

and Alaska Native tribes. 

Secretarial Order 3175 requires that any 

anticipated impacts to Indian trust resources 

from a proposed project or action by U.S. 

Department of the Interior agencies be explicitly addressed in environmental documents. 

There are no Indian trust resources in 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore. The 

lands comprising the National Lakeshore are 

not held in trust by the secretary of the 

interior for the benefit of Indians due to their 

status as Indians. Therefore, Indian trust 

resources was dismissed as an impact topic. 

AIR QUALITY 

The Clean Air Act of 1955, as amended (42 

USC 7401 et seq.) was established to promote 

the public health and welfare by protecting 

and enhancing the nation’s air quality. The act 

established specific programs that provide 

special protection for air resources and air 

quality-related values associated with NPS 

units. Section 118 of the Clean Air Act 

requires parks to meet all state, federal, and 

local air pollution standards. NPS Management Policies 2006 addresses the need to 

analyze potential impacts on air quality during 

park planning. 

The Clean Air Act and pursuant regulations 

classified areas of the country by existing and 

desired air quality conditions. Sleeping Bear 

Dunes National Lakeshore is listed as a Class 

II area by Congress. Class II areas of the 

country are protected under the act, but less 

stringently than Class I areas, which include a 

limited number of specially designated wilderness areas and national parks (such as the 

Grand Canyon) where outstanding visibility is 

critical. 

Baseline air quality studies were conducted in 

the Lakeshore during 1987 and 1988 with 

indications that air was of very good quality. 

Examination of sulfur dioxide-sensitive 

lichens in the Lakeshore revealed very little 

impact from this pollutant. White pine needles 

showed the least damage due to air pollution 

of all parks tested in Michigan. The area has 

only light industry, and as a result has 

extremely good visibility most of the time. Fog 

from Lake Michigan is the only occasional 

hindrance to good visibility at Sleeping Bear 

Dunes. (NPS 2005a.) 

None of the actions described in the General 

Management Plan would violate any air quality 

standard or result in a cumulative net increase 

of any criteria pollutant under federal or state 

ambient air quality standards. Implementation 

of any of the alternatives described in the 

General Management Plan would have negligible effects on air quality, and the Lakeshore’s 

Class II air quality would be unaffected. 

Therefore, air quality was dismissed as an 

impact topic. 

MICHIGAN STATE-LISTED SPECIES 

Northern Goshawk 

The northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) is a 

Species of Concern and a resident in Michigan. Northern goshawks use a range of forest 

habitats that include conifers, deciduous 

stands, riverine forests, or plantation stands. 

These forest habitats are generally characterized by an intermediate degree of canopy 

closure, small gaps in the forest, and an open 

understory. Nest tree species will vary, but 

birch, maple, and conifers are common 

(Cooper 1999a). The northern goshawk 

ranges from Alaska and Canada in the north, 

down to central California, southeast Arizona, 

and southern New Mexico in the western 

United States. In the eastern United States, 

populations range along the Appalachian 

Mountains to Tennessee and North Carolina. 

In Michigan, the goshawk is found primarily 

in the northern Lower Peninsula and across 

much of the Upper Peninsula. Northern 

goshawk populations in Michigan suffer from 

habitat alteration and destruction, primarily as 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

156 

a result of timber harvest, road construction, 

and urban development (Cooper 1999a). 

Fragmentation of forest habitats encourages 

invasion by nest competitors and predators 

such as red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) 

and great-horned owls (Bubo virginianus). 

Management practices should aim to preserve 

large blocks of contiguous forest habitat with 

intermediate canopy closure and large trees 

for nesting. 

The only documented occurrences of 

northern goshawk in the Lakeshore are in an 

area north of the Platte River and on South 

Manitou Island. Because none of the alternatives propose activities that are anticipated to 

have measurable impacts on the suitability of 

this area for northern goshawks, this species is 

not carried forward for detailed consideration 

as an impact topic in chapter 5. 

Grasshopper Sparrow 

The grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus 

savannarum) is a Species of Concern in 

Michigan. It inhabits a range of grassland 

habitats including cultivated and fallow fields, 

hay fields, and other sites with tall dense grass 

(MNFI 2007). This species ranges from 

southern Canada and eastern Washington 

south through the plains states and along the 

East Coast down to the Gulf Coast. Breeding 

populations can also be found in coastal 

California and southern Idaho. The nonbreeding range extends into Mexico and 

Central America and the Caribbean. In 

Michigan, the grasshopper sparrow is found 

primarily in the Lower Peninsula and a few 

counties of the central Upper Peninsula. This 

species is in decline due to the loss, degradation, and incompatible management of grassland habitats throughout its North American 

range. Grasshopper sparrow habitats should 

be managed to maintain grass-dominated 

habitat and prevent shrub encroachment. 

Prescribed burns or mowing for vegetation 

management should be conducted in the fall 

after birds have migrated (MNFI 2007). 

Grasshopper sparrows are found in open, 

cultural landscapes in the northern section of 

the Lakeshore. Because all alternatives would 

conserve the habitat supporting this species, 

and no actions are proposed in the alternatives that would be anticipated to impact this 

species, this species is not carried forward for 

detailed consideration as an impact topic in 

chapter 5. 

Least Bittern 

The least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis) is listed as 

threatened by the state of Michigan. This 

species occupies a variety of freshwater and 

brackish marshes with dense, tall growths of 

aquatic or semiaquatic vegetation interspersed 

with clumps of woody vegetation and open 

water (Monfills 2003). 

In the Lakeshore, this species is known only in 

the central section of the Lakeshore. As no 

alternatives include actions that may be anticipated to potentially impact this species, the 

least bittern is not carried forward as an 

impact topic. 

Calypso or Fairy-slipper 

The Calypso orchid or fairy-slipper (Calypso 

bulbosa) is listed as threatened by the state of 

Michigan. This widespread species nearly 

circles the globe in the northern hemisphere, 

ranging throughout North America, Europe, 

and Asia. Calypso is widely distributed in the 

northern Lower Peninsula and the Upper 

Peninsula of Michigan. At least eight counties 

have records dating since 1980. Most 

mainland ― especially more southerly ―

colonies consist of few plants, but large 

colonies with hundreds of plants occur 

occasionally to the north, especially on Isle 

Royale. Calypso is an inhabitant of moist 

coniferous forests with cool soils. In 

Michigan, it is found in spruce balsam-cedar 

swamps, and also in drier cedar-fir thickets 

along the shores of the upper Great Lakes. 
Impact Topics Considered but Not Analyzed in Detail

157 

When found in boggy areas, it inhabits drier 

hummocks or the bases of old trees or stumps. 

It is nearly always in the shade (Higman and 

Penskar 1996b). 

In the lakeshore, Calypso is known only from 

the eastern side of South Manitou Island. No 

actions within the alternatives would be 

anticipated to impact this location or species. 

Therefore, this species is not carried forward 

for further analysis as an impact topic. 

Beauty Sedge 

Beauty sedge (Carex concinna) is a species of 

special concern in Michigan. It is found on 

cobbly gravelly limestone shores of northern 

Lake Huron and northern Lake Michigan. It is 

also found inland in glades, especially where 

limestone bedrock is close to the surface, 

occurring at the edges and within coastal 

forests of cedar, fir, and spruce. Recent 

surveys have determined that this species is 

more common than previously thought, and it 

has been proposed for delisting. 

In the National Lakeshore, beauty sedge is 

known from one location in the northern part 

of the central mainland section. None of the 

alternatives propose activities that would be 

anticipated to impact this location or species. 

Therefore, this species is not carried forward 

for further analysis as an impact topic. 

Broad-leaved Sedge 

This species (Carex platyphylla) is listed as 

threatened by the state of Michigan and is 

known from four Michigan localities, with 

one site each in Berrien and Van Buren 

counties, one St. Clair County record within a 

state game area, and a relatively recent 

discovery in 1988 in Leelanau County in 

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore. 

Most of these populations were observed to 

be very sparse and localized. Over its broader 

range, this sedge prefers well-drained to rocky 

slopes in rich deciduous woods. 

In the National Lakeshore, broad-leaved 

sedge is known from one location in the 

central mainland section. None of the alternatives propose activities that would be 

anticipated to impact this location or species. 

Therefore, this broad-leaved sedge is not 

carried forward for further analysis as an 

impact topic. 

FLOODPLAINS 

Executive Order 11988, “Floodplain 

Management,” requires federal agencies to 

avoid, to the extent possible, the long- and 

short-term adverse impacts associated with 

occupancy and modifications of floodplains, 

and to avoid direct and indirect support of 

floodplain development whenever there is a 

practicable alternative. Section 4.6.4 of NPS 

Management Policies 2006 states that the 

National Park Service will manage for the 

preservation of floodplain values and minimize potentially hazardous conditions associated with flooding. NPS Director’s Order 77-2 

and the accompanying “Procedural Manual” 

(2003) provide guidance and procedures for 

implementing floodplain protection and management actions in units of the national park 

system. 

Approximately 20 miles (32 km) of streams 

that contain floodplains traverse the National 

Lakeshore on the way to Lake Michigan. No 

episode of flooding has occurred in the Lakeshore within the past 13 years. Flooding is not 

typically a concern in this area because of the 

high porosity and rapid drainage of the sandy 

soils and the limited size of surrounding 

watersheds. This topic was therefore 

dismissed from detailed analysis. 

 
CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

158 

COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT 

Michigan established a coastal management 

program in response to the Coastal Zone 

Management Act (1972). The Michigan 

program was developed to improve protection of sensitive shoreline resources, identify 

coastal areas appropriate for development, 

designate areas hazardous to development, 

and improve public access to the coastline. 

The program includes grants, administration 

of sections of Michigan’s Natural Resource 

and Environmental Protection Act that are 

related to coastal resources (1994 PA 451), 

and review of federal agency activities for 

consistency with Michigan’s approved program. The three elements of the coastal zone 

management program — high-risk erosion 

areas, flood risk areas, and environmental 

areas — provide consumer protection from 

the natural hazards of coastal erosion and 

flooding as well as environmental protection. 

The only designated Coastal Zone Management Area on the Lakeshore mainland is a 

narrow band in the south end of the Lakeshore. No actions proposed in the alternatives 

in this plan would alter the Lake Michigan 

shoreline. The National Park Service proposes 

no development in any area of the National 

Lakeshore that would conflict with the coastal 

management program. This topic was 

therefore dismissed from detailed analysis. 

WATER QUANTITY 

Analysis of potential impacts on water 

resources typically includes consideration of 

both water quality and water quantity. 

Because no water withdrawals, diversions, or 

other activities are proposed in the alternatives that would affect water quantity in rivers, 

ponds, or lakes, this topic was dismissed from 

detailed analysis. 

PRIME OR UNIQUE FARMLAND 

In 1980 the Council on Environmental Quality 

directed that federal agencies must assess the 

effects of their actions on farmland soils classified by the Natural Resources Conservation 

Service as prime or unique. Prime farmland is 

defined as soil that produces general crops 

such as common foods, forage, fiber, and oil 

seed; unique farmland produces specialty 

crops such as fruits, vegetables, and nuts. 

Some prime and unique farmlands exist in the 

National Lakeshore, but these have essentially 

been removed from potential agricultural 

production in perpetuity due to creation of 

the Lakeshore. There could be some limited 

site-specific disturbance to prime and unique 

soils from development of an M-22/M-109 

hike/bike trail, but because these soils are not 

in production, there would be no loss of agricultural production. Should it be determined 

that these soils qualify for consideration as 

prime and unique farmlands relative to 

potential construction of the M-22/M-109 

hike/bike trail, they would be addressed in a 

future compliance document. This topic was 

therefore dismissed from detailed analysis. 

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND 

CONSERVATION POTENTIAL 

The implementing regulations of the National 

Environmental Policy Act require that energy 

requirements, natural or depletable resource 

requirements, and conservation potential be 

analyzed. Any differences between the 

alternatives in terms of these factors would be 

localized and negligible. Therefore, this topic 

was dismissed from detailed analysis. 

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE 

Presidential Executive Order 12898, General 

Actions to Address Environmental Justice in 

Minority Populations and Low-Income 

Populations, requires all federal agencies to 
Impact Topics Considered but Not Analyzed in Detail

159 

incorporate environmental justice into their 

missions by identifying and addressing the 

disproportionately high and/or adverse 

human health or environmental effects of 

their programs and policies on minorities and 

low-income populations and communities. 

According to the Environmental Protection 

Agency, environmental justice is the 

fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, 

color, national origin, or income, with 

respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations and policies. 

Fair treatment means that no group of 

people, including a racial, ethnic, or 

socioeconomic group, should bear a 

disproportionate share of the negative 

environmental consequences resulting 

from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or the execution of 

federal, state, local, and tribal programs 

and policies. 

Benzie and Leelanau counties contain both 

minority and low-income populations and 

communities; however, environmental justice 

was dismissed as an impact topic for the 

following reasons: 

• The Lakeshore staff and planning team 

actively solicited public participation as 

part of the planning process and gave 

equal consideration to input from all 

persons regardless of age, race, income 

status, or other socioeconomic or 

demographic factors. 

• The alternatives would not result in any 

disproportionate human health or 

environmental effects on minorities or 

low-income populations and 

communities. 

• The alternatives would not result in any 

effects that would be specific to any 

minority or low-income community. Any 

anticipated impacts, such as increased 

traffic or demand for emergency services, 

would not disproportionately affect 

minority or low-income populations. 

Impacts would not occur all at one time 

but would be spread over a number of 

years. 

WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS 

The National Park Service maintains a 

Nationwide Rivers Inventory, which is a 

register of river segments that potentially 

qualify as national wild, scenic, or recreational 

river areas. The Crystal River and the Platte 

River are included on the National Rivers 

Inventory (see appendix E for more information). Through management zoning, user 

capacity management, and modest facility 

modifications or upgrades, the alternatives in 

this plan would enhance the qualities that 

make these rivers eligible or suitable for 

designation as wild or scenic rivers. This 

impact topic was therefore dismissed from 

detailed analysis.