GAO 

United States Government Accountability Office

Report to the Chairman, Committee on 

Education and Labor, House of 

Representatives 

HIGHER EDUCATION 

AND DISABILITY 

Education Needs a 

Coordinated Approach 

to Improve Its 

Assistance to Schools 

in Supporting Students 

October 2009 

GAO-10-33 
What GAO Found

United States Government Accountability Office

Why GAO Did This Study

Highlights

Accountability Integrity Reliability

October 2009

HIGHER EDUCATION AND DISABILITY

Education Needs a Coordinated Approach to Improve 

Its Assistance to Schools in Supporting Students

Highlights of GAO-10-33, a report to the 

Chairman, Committee on Education and 

Labor, House of Representatives 

Research suggests that more 

students with disabilities are 

pursuing higher education than in 

years past, and recent legislative 

changes, such as those in the 

Higher Education Opportunity Act 

and Post-9/11 Veterans Educational 

Assistance Act of 2008, have the 

potential to increase the number 

and diversity of this population. 

GAO was asked to examine (1) 

what is known about the 

population of postsecondary 

students with disabilities; (2) how 

postsecondary schools are 

supporting students with 

disabilities; (3) what challenges, if 

any, schools face in supporting 

these students; and (4) how the 

Department of Education is 

assisting schools in supporting 

these students. To conduct this 

work, GAO analyzed federal survey 

and some state data; conducted site 

visits; interviewed agency officials, 

disability experts, school officials, 

and students; and reviewed laws, 

regulations, and literature. 

What GAO Recommends

To improve access to quality higher 

education for students with 

disabilities, GAO recommends that 

the Secretary of Education develop 

and implement a coordinated 

approach to optimize agency 

resources and knowledge in 

providing technical assistance to 

postsecondary schools in 

supporting students with 

disabilities. Education agreed with 

our recommendation and plans to 

create a work group to develop and 

implement a coordinated approach 

to providing technical assistance. 

Students with disabilities represented nearly 11 percent of all postsecondary 

students in 2008, according to a federal survey. Moreover, this population 

appears to have grown, based on selected federal and state data. Also, in 2008, 

students with disabilities were similar to their peers without disabilities with 

regard to age, race, and the schools they attended. Students reported having a 

range of disabilities in 2008, and the distribution of disability types had 

changed since 2000. For example, the proportion of students that reported 

having attention deficit disorder had increased from 7 to 19 percent. 

Postsecondary schools use different approaches and accommodations to 

support students with disabilities. Schools are required to provide reasonable 

accommodations, such as note takers and extended time on tests, tailored to 

individual students’ needs. Further, some schools offer enhanced or more 

comprehensive services than are required by law. For example, some schools 

GAO visited provided support on time management and study skills. Other 

schools offer specialized programs, such as one designed to help students 

with learning disabilities transition to meet college-level reading and writing 

requirements. Assistive technology has expanded the educational 

opportunities for students with disabilities. For example, voice recognition 

software can help students prepare papers by “talking” to the computer. 

Schools face a broad range of challenges in supporting students with 

disabilities as they transition to higher education. For example, schools face 

challenges in supporting students who are unaware of their rights and 

responsibilities regarding accommodations and in providing services that 

involve specialized knowledge. Another challenge schools reported was a lack 

of awareness among some faculty members regarding legal requirements for 

supporting students with disabilities. Schools also anticipate facing challenges 

in supporting two growing populations of postsecondary students: veterans 

with newly acquired disabilities and students with intellectual disabilities. 

Education has provided some assistance to postsecondary schools to support 

students with disabilities through three offices. However, the agency has no 

mechanism to systematically share information across offices and coordinate 

their technical assistance efforts. These offices—Office for Civil Rights 

(OCR), Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, and Office of 

Postsecondary Education (OPE)—have different missions and priorities, 

focus on different clients, and provide different types of assistance to schools. 

Although OCR’s primary role is enforcement, it has taken the lead in providing 

assistance to postsecondary schools regarding disability topics. OPE has 

focused its technical assistance primarily on those 47 schools that received 

grants in 2008 related to students with disabilities. According to OPE officials, 

the office does not provide broader technical assistance on disability issues 

because it lacks expertise in this area. School officials told GAO they need 

more guidance and information about serving students with disabilities. View GAO-10-33 or key components.

For more information, contact George Scott at 

(202) 512-7215 or scottg@gao.gov. 
Page i GAO-10-33 

Contents 

Letter 1

Background 3 

The Population of Postsecondary Students with Disabilities 

Appears to Have Increased and, Demographically, Closely 

Mirrors Students without Disabilities 8 

Schools Use Different Approaches and Accommodations to 

Support Students with Disabilities 13 

Schools Face a Broad Range of Challenges in Supporting Students 

with Disabilities, and New Challenges Are Likely to Emerge as 

the Population Changes 20 

Various Education Offices Provide Assistance to Schools but Lack 

a Coordinated Approach 25 

Conclusions 32 

Recommendation for Executive Action 33 

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 33 

Appendix I Technical Appendix 35 

Appendix II Data on Students with Disabilities 37 

Appendix III Postsecondary Schools, Associations, and 

Experts Interviewed 39 

Appendix IV Postsecondary Schools That Received Education 

Grants to Support Students with Disabilities in 

FY 2008 41 

Appendix V Comments from the Department of Education 43 

Appendix VI GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 45 

 Higher Education and Disability 
Tables 

Table 1: Examples of Academic Adjustments, Auxiliary Aids, and 

Other Services for Students with Disabilities with 

Documented Needs 15 

Table 2: Examples of Assistive Technology Options to Address 

Needs of Students with Disabilities 19 

Table 3: Federal Statistical Programs That Contain Data about 

Postsecondary Students with Disabilities 36 

Table 4: Population Estimates of Postsecondary (Undergraduate) 

Students with Disabilities, NPSAS 2000, 2004, and 2008; 

and ACS 2007 37 

Table 5: Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary 

(Undergraduate) Students, by Disability Status, Gender, 

Race & Ethnicity, Age, and Delayed Enrollment in 

Postsecondary School, 2000 and 2008 37 

Table 6: Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary 

(Undergraduate) Students, by Disability Status, among 

Level and Control of Schools Attended and Attendance 

Patterns, 2000 and 2008 38 

Table 7: Percentage Distribution of Main Type of Disability among 

Postsecondary (Undergraduate) Students with Disabilities, 

2000, 2004, and 2008 38 

Table 8: Postsecondary Schools Interviewed 39 

Table 9: Disability and Higher Education Associations and Experts 

Interviewed 40 

Table 10: FY 2008 Grantees with Demonstration Projects to Ensure 

Students with Disabilities Receive a Quality Higher 

Education Program 41 

Table 11: FY 2008 Grantees with Student Support Services (SSS) 

Projects That Specifically Serve Students with Disabilities 

under the Federal TRIO Program 42 

Figures 

Figure 1: Example of Process for Student to Obtain 

Accommodations 5 

Figure 2: Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Students’ 

Attendance Patterns, by Disability Status, 2008 10 

Figure 3: Percentage Distribution of the Levels of Schools 

Postsecondary Students Attended, by Disability Status, 

2008 11 

Page ii GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
Figure 4: Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Students with 

Disabilities by Main Type of Disability, 2000, 2004, and 

2008 12 

Figure 5: Examples of Accommodations Provided across 

Campuses 14 

Abbreviations 

ADA Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, as amended 

ADD attention deficit disorder 

ADHD attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 

ELS Education Longitudinal Study 

HEA Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended 

HEOA Higher Education Opportunity Act 

IDEA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 

NIDRR National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research 

NLTS2 National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 

NPSAS National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

OCR Office for Civil Rights 

OPE Office of Postsecondary Education 

OSERS Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services 

PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder 

SSA Social Security Administration 

SSI Supplemental Security Income 

SSS Student Support Services 

TBI traumatic brain injury 

VR Vocational Rehabilitation 

This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright protection in the 

United States. The published product may be reproduced and distributed in its entirety 

without further permission from GAO. However, because this work may contain 

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Page iii GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
Page 1 GAO-10-33 

 

United States Government Accountability Office

Washington, DC 20548 

 

October 28, 2009 

The Honorable George Miller 

Chairman 

Committee on Education and Labor 

House of Representatives 

Dear Mr. Chairman: 

Research suggests that more students with disabilities are pursuing higher 

education than in years past, and recent legislative changes have the 

potential to increase the diversity and numbers of these students. More 

specifically, the Higher Education Opportunity Act1

 (HEOA) added new 

provisions to the Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA) to support 

postsecondary students with disabilities; the Americans with Disabilities 

Amendments Act of 20082

 (ADA Amendments Act) amended the 

Americans with Disabilities Act of 19903

 (ADA) to provide broader 

coverage; and the Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance Act of 20084

(Post-9/11 GI Bill) expanded education benefits for members and veterans 

of the military who served on or after September 11, 2001, many of whom 

may have acquired disabilities. Under the laws that prohibit discrimination 

on the basis of disability, postsecondary schools are required to provide 

equal access to education to qualified students through academic 

adjustments and auxiliary aids and services, such as extending time 

allowed for taking tests and providing sign language interpreters. In 

addition, postsecondary schools must ensure physical access to buildings 

on campus. The Department of Education (Education) is responsible for 

enforcing postsecondary schools’ compliance with disability laws. 

Given your interest in this population and how these students are 

supported, we examined: (1) what is known about the population of 

postsecondary students with disabilities; (2) how postsecondary schools 

are supporting students with disabilities; (3) what challenges, if any, 

1

The HEOA, Pub. L. No. 110-315, August 14, 2008, reauthorized and amended the Higher 

Education Act of 1965. 

2

Pub. L. No. 110-325, September 25, 2008. 

3

Pub. L. No. 101-336, July 26, 1990; 42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq. 

4

Title V of Pub. L. No. 110-252, June 30, 2008. 

 Higher Education and Disability 
 

postsecondary schools face in supporting students with disabilities; and 

(4) how the Department of Education is assisting postsecondary schools in 

supporting the needs of these students. 

To answer question one, we reviewed federal data sources and identified 

10 surveys or studies with relevant information on students with 

disabilities (see app. I). For each data source, we determined the purpose 

of the study or survey, its design parameters, and the focus of questions 

and variables related to students with disabilities. We conducted a more 

in-depth analysis of data from four of these sources to report descriptive 

statistics. We selected these four sources because they contain detailed 

information about students with disabilities participating in higher 

education and they represent a range of data collection methodologies and 

estimates. We relied heavily on one source, Education’s National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS), because it specifically focuses 

on the population of postsecondary students and affords the opportunity 

to look at changes in the population over time. All of the estimates from 

the national data bases are from samples and have sampling errors 

associated with them. The percentages from the states are for the 

populations within those states. To answer questions two and three, we 

conducted site visits to 14 postsecondary schools, where we interviewed 

school disability officials and students and conducted telephone 

interviews with officials from 11 more schools. During our school site 

visits, we obtained information on schools’ efforts pertaining to students 

with disabilities and these students’ experiences, collected documentation 

of schools’ relevant policies and procedures, observed different types of 

accommodations, and toured the schools’ assistive technology 

laboratories. We selected these 25 schools because they offered a wide 

range or high levels of services to students with disabilities, and they 

represented institutional variety in terms of geographic location, public 

and private institutions (including proprietary schools), 2-year and 4-year 

schools, and schools that have participated in Education’s demonstration 

grant projects involving students with disabilities. We focused on schools 

that serve a broad range of students and therefore we did not include 

schools designed exclusively for students with disabilities. In addition, we 

did not focus on programs and services that are designed specifically for 

students with intellectual disabilities. We relied on suggestions from 

disability associations, experts, school officials, Education officials, and 

reference literature in identifying schools. To supplement the student 

interviews conducted during site visits, we interviewed representatives of 

national groups for students with disabilities. We also reviewed relevant 

federal statutory and regulatory requirements and legal articles and 

interviewed representatives of national disability and higher education 

Page 2 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

associations to collect information about how schools support students 

with disabilities. To answer question four, we interviewed Education 

officials and reviewed policies, procedures, and other documentation 

related to Education’s grant programs, technical assistance, research, and 

enforcement of laws pertaining to postsecondary students with 

disabilities. 

We conducted this performance audit from July 2008 to October 2009, in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. Those 

standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient, 

appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and 

conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence 

obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions 

based on our audit objectives. 

Background 

Legal Requirements 

Regarding Postsecondary 

Schools Supporting 

Students with Disabilities 

Postsecondary schools are prohibited from discriminating against students 

on the basis of disability under two federal laws. Section 504 of the 

Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Rehabilitation Act) prohibits entities that 

receive federal financial assistance, which includes institutions of higher 

education, from discriminating against otherwise qualified individuals with 

disabilities.5

 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 19906 (ADA) also 

protects individuals with disabilities from discrimination and covers a 

broader range of schools. Whereas the Rehabilitation Act applies to 

schools that receive federal funds, the ADA applies to state and locally 

funded and private-sector schools, with the exception of those that are 

controlled by religious entities. The Rehabilitation Act and ADA define 

individuals with disabilities as an individual who has a physical or mental 

impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, has a 

record of such impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment.7

The ADA Amendments Act rejected several Supreme Court decisions 

which had narrowed the definition of an individual with disabilities. In 

addition, the ADA Amendments Act set out guidelines for determining who 

 

5

29 U.S.C. § 794. 

6

42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq. Title II of the ADA applies to public entities and Title III applies to 

private entities. 

7

29 U.S.C. § 705(20)(B) and 42 U.S.C. § 12102. 

Page 3 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

qualifies as an individual with disabilities and provided a non-exhaustive 

list of “major life activities,” which includes learning, reading, 

concentrating, and thinking. 

Federal regulations implementing the Rehabilitation Act in the context of 

postsecondary education provide that qualified students may not be 

subjected to discrimination in recruitment or admissions to postsecondary 

institutions. Also, they may not be excluded from participation in, or 

denied the benefits, services, or aid related to academic programs, 

research opportunities, occupational training, housing, health insurance, 

counseling, financial aid, physical education, athletics, recreation, 

transportation, other extracurricular activities, or other postsecondary 

education programs.8

 The regulations also further outline the categories of 

academic adjustments (e.g., extended time on tests and reduced course 

load) and auxiliary aids and services (e.g., notetakers and sign language 

interpreters), commonly referred to as accommodations, that schools 

must provide to ensure that qualified students with disabilities can 

participate in higher education. However, laws and regulations cannot 

address the specific accommodations a school must provide for each 

student with a disability. Instead, these depend on the limitations of each 

student’s disability and take into account factors like where the student’s 

classes will be held and the academic requirements of the chosen course 

of study on a case-by-case basis. 

While schools are required to provide reasonable accommodations to 

qualified students and bear the costs, schools are not required to provide 

accommodations that would fundamentally alter the nature of a program, 

lower or waive essential academic requirements, or result in undue 

financial or administrative burdens.9

 Also, schools are not required to 

provide personal devices and services, such as wheelchairs or attendants, 

individually prescribed devices (e.g., eyeglasses), tutoring, or readers for 

personal use or study.10

Students with disabilities beginning higher education face a different 

situation regarding their rights and responsibilities than they did during 

 

8

34 C.F.R. Part 104, Subpart E. 

9

42 U.S.C. § 12182(b)(2)(A)(ii); 34 C.F.R. § 104.44(a); Southeastern Community College v. 

Davis, 442 U.S. 397 (1979). 

1034 C.F.R. § 104.44(d)(2). 

Page 4 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

their elementary and secondary education. Under the Individuals with 

Disabilities Education Act11 (IDEA), states and school districts must 

identify, locate, and evaluate children who may have a disability and 

provide special education and related services to eligible children and 

youth with disabilities. The Rehabilitation Act regulations governing 

elementary and secondary education also require that children with 

disabilities be identified, located, and evaluated. However, unlike in 

elementary and secondary school, it is the responsibility of postsecondary 

students to identify themselves as having a disability, provide 

documentation of their disability, and request accommodations and 

services. Although the general procedure for obtaining accommodations is 

often similar across schools, the particular steps of the process may vary 

among postsecondary schools. (See fig. 1 for example.) 

s may vary 

Figure 1: Example of Process for Student to Obtain Accommodations 

Sources: GAO, Art Explosion (images).

Register with the Disability Services Office

Work with the Disability Services Office to determine what accomodations

are available and may be needed

Provide recent and appropriate documentation of disability

– may need to visit a qualified professional for documentation

– may need additional disability testing

Request accomodations at the Disability Services Office

In some cases, take an accomodations letter to each professor and discuss

needed accomodations

A student may need to: 

Postsecondary schools are required to have an individual who coordinates 

the school’s compliance with the Rehabilitation Act and ADA. The school 

must also have grievance procedures that include steps to ensure a 

student can raise concerns fully and fairly and provide for the prompt and 

equitable resolution of complaints. 

 

1120 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. 

Page 5 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Education is responsible for enforcing the Rehabilitation Act, Title II of 

ADA, and various other anti-discrimination laws.12 The Department of 

Justice (Justice) delegated to Education responsibility for investigating 

complaints relating to elementary, secondary, and postsecondary schools 

under Title II of the ADA, which applies to public entities.13 Justice is 

responsible for enforcing Title III of ADA to ensure that private entities, 

including private colleges and universities, provide appropriate 

accommodations and do not discriminate on the basis of disability. Justice 

and Education share enforcement jurisdiction if a private school receives 

federal funding. Justice also has jurisdiction pertaining to testing entities, 

such as for college admissions tests and law and medical school exams. 

Federal Agency 

Responsibilities 

Education’s strategic plan includes objectives to increase success in, and 

completion of, quality postsecondary education and to prepare individuals 

with disabilities for higher education. To carry out this mission, Education 

provides technical assistance, funding for grants, and regulatory guidance. 

Education’s Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE) is responsible for 

formulating federal postsecondary education policy and administering 

programs that support its mission to increase access to quality 

postsecondary education. In addition, Education’s Office of Special 

Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) is responsible for 

providing a wide array of supports to parents and individuals, school 

districts, and states in three main areas—special education, vocational 

rehabilitation (VR), and research—to help prepare students for 

postsecondary education.14 Education’s Office for Civil Rights (OCR) 

carries out its enforcement activities by investigating complaints, initiating 

compliance reviews, monitoring the resolution of complaints and 

compliance reviews, and providing technical assistance. OCR investigates 

complaints it receives and carries out its other activities with its remaining 

 

12Education’s Office for Civil Rights (OCR) is also responsible for enforcing the following 

federal civil rights laws prohibiting discrimination: Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, and the Age Discrimination Act of 1975. 

OCR also enforces the Boy Scouts of American Equal Access Act. 

1328 C.F.R. § 35.190(b)(2). Justice also delegated to the Department of Health and Human 

Services responsibility for investigating complaints under Title II of the ADA related to 

medical and other health-related professional schools. 28 C.F.R. § 35.190(b)(3). 

14Within OSERS, the Office of Special Education Programs administers the IDEA. 

Page 6 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

resources. Education is also responsible for implementing new provisions 

in the HEOA related to postsecondary students with disabilities.15

Other federal agencies provide services and support for individuals with 

disabilities, including postsecondary students.16 The Social Security 

Administration (SSA) administers the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) 

program, a means-tested entitlement program that provides monthly 

benefits to the aged, blind, or individuals with disabilities who have very 

limited income and assets. SSI beneficiaries who are under the age of 22 

and regularly attending school can qualify for the earned income 

exclusion, in which a certain amount of monthly earned income is 

excluded for SSI benefit computation purposes. This student earned 

income exclusion is intended to help defray the cost of educational 

training. In addition, SSA beneficiaries may obtain a Plan to Achieve Self 

Support (PASS), which allows them to set aside income and/or assets to 

support efforts like higher education in the pursuit of work goals. Further, 

the Department of Health and Human Services administers the Medicaid 

program, which can provide medical benefits to individuals with 

disabilities. Finally, the Department of Veterans Affairs provides services 

and benefits to veterans with disabilities, including VR services and 

student financial aid under the Post-9/11 GI Bill.17

 

15Also, the Office of Vocational and Adult Education provides indirect support to 

postsecondary schools through funding grants to states to support special populations, 

including, but not specifically focusing on, students with disabilities. 

16Other agencies also provide grants to support students with disabilities. For example, the 

National Science Foundation supports a program to increase participation of students with 

disabilities in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and math. 

17The scope of our study did not focus on the role of agencies other than Education, such 

as Justice, SSA, the Department of Health and Human Services, or the Department of 

Veterans Affairs. 

Page 7 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

In 2008, students with disabilities represented an estimated 11 percent of 

all postsecondary students, and this population appears to have grown 

over the past decade.18 According to Education’s National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS), which focuses on the characteristics of 

postsecondary students and how they finance their education, the 

proportion of students who reported having a disability increased from 9 

percent in 2000 to 11 percent in 2004 and remained close to that level in 

2008 (see app. II, table 4).19, 20 In addition, several other sources suggest 

that the size of this population has grown, which may result from the 

increased proportion of elementary and secondary students who have 

received special education services over the past 30 years. For example, 

two states’ online data systems reported increases in the number of 

students with disabilities enrolled in the states’ postsecondary schools. 

From 1999 to 2007, California public postsecondary schools reported an 

almost 20 percent increase in the number of undergraduate students with 

disabilities, and New York schools reported about a 40 percent increase in 

the number of undergraduate and graduate students with disabilities.21

Also, disability services officials at many of the schools we visited 

reported that increasing numbers of students are registering with their 

offices. Starting in 2009, Education plans to annually collect another 

estimate of this population’s size: the percent of undergraduate students 

registered at schools’ disability services offices. These data, collected 

The Population of 

Postsecondary 

Students with 

Disabilities Appears 

to Have Increased 

and, Demographically, 

Closely Mirrors 

Students without 

Disabilities 

 

18The population of postsecondary students, as defined in this section of the report, 

includes students who lived in the United States and were enrolled in certificate, 

associate’s, or bachelor’s degree programs, i.e., all but graduate-level students. Institutions 

they attended include less-than-2-year, 2-year, and 4-year schools. All of the estimates from 

the four national surveys that are used in this report have 95 percent confidence intervals 

of +/- 4 percentage points or less, unless otherwise stated. 

19The NPSAS pertains to school years 1999-2000, 2003-2004, and 2007-2008. Note that data 

from the 2008 NPSAS are preliminary and may be subject to change. The item response 

rates for the NPSAS 2000 and 2004 data we report are at least 66 percent. Item response 

rates for the data we report for NPSAS 2008 are not available as of October 2009. 

20The American Community Survey (ACS), a survey of the U.S. population that focuses on 

population and housing characteristics, estimated that these students represented 6 

percent of the undergraduate population in 2007. The ACS estimate, which is lower than 

the 2008 NPSAS estimate, may be explained by factors like its purpose and population 

surveyed. The ACS captures information about far broader populations than the NPSAS 

and, unlike the NPSAS respondent, the ACS respondent could be either the student or 

another household member. 

21The numbers reported for California and New York are totals, not estimates, for their 

respective states. These data are from the California Postsecondary Education Commission 

and the New York State Education Department, Office of Higher Education, Office of 

Research and Information Systems. 

Page 8 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

through Education’s Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

survey, will provide a new vantage point to examine the population’s size. 

Beyond looking at size, the portrait of students with disabilities appears to 

closely mirror that of their peers without disabilities, i.e., students who did 

not report having a disability, according to 2008 NPSAS data. Women 

represented about 57 percent of both students with disabilities and their 

peers. There were some small differences among both populations with 

regard to race. White students represented 67 percent of students with 

disabilities and 63 percent of their peers. Conversely, Hispanic or Latino, 

Black or African American, and Asian students represented slightly 

smaller groups among students with disabilities than among their peers 

(see app. II, table 5). Also in 2008, the average age of students with 

disabilities was about 26 years old, or about 1 year older than their peers. 

This represents a substantial change from 2000, when students with 

disabilities were, on average, 30 years old and 4 years older than their 

peers. Moreover, in 2008 a larger proportion of postsecondary students 

with disabilities than in 2000 had begun higher education relatively soon 

after completing high school, as opposed to delaying by 1 or more years. 

Students with disabilities and their peers were also similar in some 

respects regarding the types of schools they attended—public versus 

private—according to NPSAS data. Like their peers, nearly 70 percent of 

students with disabilities attended public schools in 2008 (see app. II, table 

6). However, for those students who attended private schools, students 

with disabilities were enrolled at proprietary (for-profit), as opposed to 

not-for-profit, schools at a slightly higher rate than their peers. 

There were some small differences in attendance patterns (e.g., full-time 

versus part-time) among students with disabilities and their peers. While 

the majority of both groups attended school part-time and/or for part of 

the year, this pattern was somewhat more prevalent among students with 

disabilities (see fig. 2). One contributing factor may be that some students’ 

disabilities hinder them from taking as many credits per semester as their 

peers, according to several disability experts and school officials we 

interviewed. 

Page 9 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Figure 2: Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Students’ Attendance Patterns, 

by Disability Status, 2008 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Part-time and/or

part year

Full-time and

full year

Percent

Source: GAO analysis of NPSAS 2008.

Students with disabilities

Students without disabilities

In addition, the level of schools—2-year or 4-year—is another area in 

which there were some small differences among these two populations. 

According to the 2008 NPSAS, students with disabilities attended 2-year 

schools at a higher rate than their peers and 4-year schools at a lower rate 

(see fig. 3). This relative difference was also true in the 2000 NPSAS (see 

app. II, table 6). Some literature suggests that community colleges may 

offer more specialized services for students with disabilities and provide 

better access for these students than other types of institutions. One 

community college expert we interviewed said that students with 

disabilities can particularly benefit from these schools’ relatively smaller 

classes and more personal attention from faculty. 

Page 10 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Figure 3: Percentage Distribution of the Levels of Schools Postsecondary Students 

Attended, by Disability Status, 2008 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Attended

more than

one institution

Less than

2-year

4-year 2-year

Percent

Source: GAO analysis of NPSAS 2008.

Students with disabilities

Students without disabilities

NPSAS data also showed that students reported having a wide range of 

disabilities; however, the distribution of disability type has changed in 

some notable ways over time (see fig. 4).22 In 2008, the largest proportion 

of students with disabilities, 24 percent, reported having either a mental, 

emotional, or psychiatric condition, or depression. Attention deficit 

disorder (ADD) was the next most common type, accounting for 19 

percent of such students. With regard to physical disabilities, 15 percent 

reported that they had an orthopedic or mobility impairment. Interestingly, 

in the 2000 NPSAS, more than a quarter of students reported an orthopedic 

or mobility impairment as their main disability and only 7 percent cited 

ADD (see app. II, table 7). 

 

22Respondents were asked to identify the main type of disability, but respondents could 

have more than one type of disability. 

Page 11 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Figure 4: Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Students with Disabilities by Main Type of Disability, 2000, 2004, and 2008 

Percent

Source: GAO analysis of NPSAS 2000, 2004, and 2008. 

2000

2004

2008

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Developmental disability 

Brain injury 

Speech or language

impairment 

Blindness or

visual impairment 

Health impairment

or problem 

Hearing impairment 

Specific learning

disability, dyslexia 

Other

Orthopedic or

mobility impairment 

Attention deficit disorder

Mental,

 emotional, or

 psychiatric condition/

depression

Note: In 2000, “mental illness/depression” was one type of disability. In 2004 and 2008 these terms 

were separated into two distinct categories. However, for the purposes of comparison with 2000 data, 

we have combined these two categories in the 2004 and 2008 data. 

For a variety of reasons, NPSAS data on type of disability differed from 

studies that have examined the population of students with disabilities before 

they reached college age. According to two longitudinal studies that began 

when students were in secondary school, learning disability was the main 

type for about 70 percent of those who were in postsecondary school when 

the data we analyzed was collected. In contrast, in the 2008 NPSAS, fewer 

than 10 percent of students with disabilities reported having a specific 

learning disability, such as dyslexia. One reason for the differences is that the 

Page 12 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

two studies, the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2)23 and the 

Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS),24 were designed for different 

purposes and have different populations than the NPSAS. Also, in these 

studies, the school districts identified these students and their disabilities, i.e., 

those who were eligible for special education services under the IDEA. In 

contrast, in the NPSAS, students self-reported whether or not they had a 

disability and its type. Furthermore, in the NPSAS, students with disabilities 

may have chosen not to disclose that they had a disability. 

Postsecondary schools provide a wide range of accommodations to 

students with disabilities. These accommodations can include academic 

adjustments (such as extended time on tests and a reduced course load) 

and auxiliary aids or services (such as notetakers and sign language 

interpreters). Several factors play a role in determining what 

accommodations schools provide for individual students. Schools are 

required to provide reasonable accommodations tailored to an individual 

student’s needs to allow equal access to higher education. The school 

determines which accommodations to provide on a case-by-case basis, 

based on documented needs. Such documentation generally includes a 

disability diagnosis and the implications of the disability on a student’s 

ability to fully participate. Schools are required to assume costs incurred 

for providing accommodations to students with disabilities, unless doing 

so would result in an undue burden or a fundamental alteration of the 

program. In addition, under federal law, schools are required to ensure 

that facilities of the postsecondary environment, such as campus 

buildings, student housing, physical equipment, and transportation 

systems, are accessible for students with disabilities. For example, schools 

may provide desks and tables sized so that students in wheelchairs can use 

them. See figure 5 and table 1 for examples of academic adjustments, 

auxiliary aids, and other services for students with disabilities. 

Schools Use Different 

Approaches and 

Accommodations to 

Support Students with 

Disabilities 

 

23The NLTS2 population includes students who were ages 13 through 16, in at least 7th grade 

on December 1, 2000, and receiving special education services. These NLTS2 data come from 

Wave 3 of the study, which involved students with disabilities who were in postsecondary 

school in 2005—at that time, 23 percent of the NLTS2 population. Of these 23 percent, 

learning disability was the primary type for 69 percent. This estimate has an error rate of +/- 7 

percent at the 95 percent confidence level. The item response rate was 91 percent. 

24The ELS data pertain to the population of students who were high school sophomores in 

the spring term of 2002. Nearly 2.4 million of these students were attending postsecondary 

schools in 2006 and among them, about 14 percent were identified in the ELS as having a 

disability. Of these 14 percent, 71 percent had a learning disability. This estimate has an 

error rate of +/- 6 percent at the 95 percent confidence level. 

Page 13 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Figure 5: Examples of Accommodations Provided across Campuses 

Sources: GAO and PhotoDisc.

Desktop magnifier Course materials in braille Wheelchair lift

Scooters to navigate a hilly campus

Page 14 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Table 1: Examples of Academic Adjustments, Auxiliary Aids, and Other Services for Students with Disabilities with 

Documented Needs 

Description Example/situation 

Academic adjustments and 

auxiliary aids 

Modifications to academic program 

requirements 

Allowing more time to complete a degree for 

students with reading or processing learning 

disabilities 

Modifications to testing requirements, 

including allowing more time and offering 

alternative test formats and locations 

Test taking in a distraction-free room for 

students with ADD who have difficulty 

concentrating due to noise and activity 

Equipment, services, or modifications to the 

classroom environment or course materials 

Peer notetakers to provide class notes for 

students who are deaf or hard of hearing and 

converting textbooks to electronic format for 

students with learning disabilities 

Computer hardware or software designed to 

assist individuals with disabilities 

Voice recognition software that can help 

students who have difficulty writing or typing 

assignments 

Physical accessibility Accessible dorms or other housing to 

provide privacy and/or facilitate learning for 

students with disabilities 

Chemical-free living environment for students 

with chemical sensitivities 

Buildings, facilities, and equipment designed 

for physical accessibility 

“Push” door openers or adjustable desks for 

students using wheelchairs 

Financial and employment 

assistance 

Helping students with disabilities access 

scholarships, fellowships, and other financial 

assistance 

Financial aid liaison with the disability services 

office to help students understand financial aid 

options and processes 

Programs providing vocational support and 

guidance to students with disabilities 

Internship programs for students with disabilities 

Nonacademic services Opportunities for students with disabilities to 

participate in physical education courses 

and athletic and intramural teams 

Wheelchair basketball or “ultimate Frisbee” 

teams 

Specialized campus meals for those with 

food sensitivities or medical conditions 

Gluten-free, dairy-free, wheat-free meals for 

students with severe food allergies or celiac 

disease 

Groups, clubs, or events made accessible or 

organized for students with disabilities 

Sign language interpreters or captioning at 

campus events for students who are deaf or 

hard-of-hearing 

Accessible modes of transportation for 

students with disabilities 

Buses or vans with wheelchair lifts 

Source: Department of Education regulations and GAO analysis. 

Page 15 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Some schools offer enhanced or more comprehensive services than are 

required by law. These schools generally have a structure in place with 

trained staff, such as a disability services office, to provide and facilitate 

services for students with disabilities and coordinate with faculty and 

other campus offices, such as counseling and academic support centers. 

Enhanced services may include having specialized and trained 

professionals, disability screenings and assessments, counseling and 

tutoring, additional accommodations that promote the full participation of 

these students in campus life, and monitoring of student progress. For 

example, some school officials we interviewed told us their schools 

offered a variety of workshops or courses that addressed study skills, time 

management, and social interaction skills. Other schools offered mentors 

and coaches for students with disabilities to help them navigate campus 

culture, both academically and socially. In addition, some schools also 

offer more comprehensive accommodations to promote the full 

participation of students with disabilities in campus life. For example, two 

schools we visited provided on campus dorms staffed with personal 

attendants for students with severe physical disabilities. In addition, one of 

these schools also had an underground tunnel system that provided easy 

access for students with physical disabilities to get across campus, 

especially in inclement weather (see sidebar). 

Physical Accessibility

One university has designed its campus with 

an emphasis on physical accessibility, 

including the construction of an underground 

tunnel system that provides easy access to 

virtually all campus buildings and helps

students with physical disabilities access the 

campus in inclement weather. The school 

also offers a “physical support program” that 

includes personal care assistance services

and allows students to live in any dorm on 

campus. This fee-based service is available to 

eligible students with severe physical 

disabilities for daily activities such as personal 

hygiene, eating, and laundry.

Source: GAO.

Some schools also offer specialized programs to supplement academic 

instruction. For example, one school we visited had established a Learning 

Services Program to help students transition from secondary to 

postsecondary school (see sidebar). In addition, a few schools are 

designed exclusively for students with a specific type of disability, such as 

Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C., for deaf and hard of hearing 

students and Landmark College in Vermont for students with learning 

disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).25

In addition to supports provided by schools, some private organizations 

offer personalized fee-based services, such as coaching, mentoring, and 

personal advocacy to students with disabilities. Some of these groups 

work in cooperation with postsecondary schools while others work 

independently. For example, one private community organization provides 

support, for a fee, to postsecondary students with ADD, high-functioning 

 

25The scope of our study did not include postsecondary schools that focus solely on 

students with disabilities. 

Page 16 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

autism,26 or a non-verbal learning disorder who are attending one of its 

participating schools. This program is specifically designed to address 

students’ social, communication, and organizational challenges and to help 

students develop individualized strategies to manage their college careers 

independently. 

Learning Services Program for Students

with Learning Disabilities

One university operates a “Learning Services

Program” for freshmen with learning 

disabilities. This program is designed to help 

students transition to meet college-level 

reading and writing requirements. The 

Learning Services Program is a small, 

fee-based program offering weekly individual 

meetings with disability professionals, a

specialized writing course and support, and 

course content tutoring. 

Source: GAO.

School and association officials we interviewed emphasized the 

importance of school disability services offices collaborating with other 

campus offices, such as academic departments, counseling centers, 

financial aid, housing, student activities, special events, and career 

services, to provide the full range of services that students may need. Such 

coordination and collaboration is one of the disability services office’s 

primary roles, according to school officials we interviewed. For example, 

these offices may coordinate with the counseling center to arrange for 

treatment of students with psychological disabilities. Some schools have 

efforts in place to help students understand the various sources of aid that 

may help pay for tuition, books, adaptive technology, or other services. 

For example, the disability services office at one school we visited 

employed a financial aid liaison specifically for helping students with 

disabilities. According to research and school and disability association 

officials we interviewed, students with disabilities often have additional 

expenses related to their disability. For example, these students may need 

to pay for testing to document their disability, personal services (such as 

personal care attendants), assistive equipment, transportation, and 

medical expenses related to their disability. Also, these students may take 

more time to finish their degree and face additional room and board 

costs.27 Further, like all students, they may be ineligible for the maximum 

amount of federal financial aid if they take a reduced course load, 

withdraw from classes, or take longer to finish their degree.28

 

26In this report, the term “autism” refers to a spectrum of disorders, including the following 

diagnoses: autistic disorder, Asperger syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder not 

otherwise specified. These disorders are also commonly referred to collectively as autism 

spectrum disorders. 

27Students with disabilities may (1) have demands on their time for treatments and 

services, (2) need time to obtain and learn how to use auxiliary learning aids, and (3) need 

more time to perform academic work. For example, a student with dyslexia may need more 

time to read. 

28According to federal financial aid rules, for undergraduate students, full-time status must 

be at least 12 semester hours. Schools cannot accommodate a student with a disability by 

giving them full-time enrollment status lower than this minimum. 

Page 17 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

In addition, school disability services offices also coordinate with other 

groups in the community to provide services for students with disabilities. 

For example, disability services offices may refer students to local VR 

offices that can provide postsecondary support for individuals with 

disabilities in the form of funding for tuition, books, and auxiliary aids, 

such as assistive technology. However, past GAO work has found that VR 

agencies varied substantially in their frequency of providing certain 

services, and a few students we interviewed described inconsistencies in 

receiving VR funds.29

Technological advances have expanded the educational opportunities for 

students with disabilities. In fact, assistive technology tools are among the 

most frequently provided accommodations for students with disabilities, 

according to school officials we interviewed (see table 2). For example, 

voice recognition software can help students prepare papers by “talking” 

to the computer instead of using the keyboard. Moreover, some schools 

have an assistive technology specialist and/or separate assistive 

technology labs on campus. In addition, to improve faculty technology 

skills, some schools offer specialized training for faculty. For example, the 

community college system in California has developed a High Tech Center 

Training Unit that provides training to faculty and staff of 114 community 

colleges to improve their skills related to assistive computer technology, 

alternate media creation, and Web accessibility. 

 

29GAO, Vocational Rehabilitation: Better Measures and Monitoring Could Improve 

Performance of the VR Program, GAO-05-865 (Washington D.C.: Sept. 23, 2005). 

Page 18 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Table 2: Examples of Assistive Technology Options to Address Needs of Students with Disabilities 

Type of assistive technology 

device Description Who can benefit 

Voice recognition technology 

(or voice input technology) 

Through voice recognition technology, this 

software allows a student to speak into a 

microphone, and the commands and text are 

relayed to the computer. 

Students who cannot use, or cannot easily use, a 

standard keyboard because of motor function, 

visual limitations, or learning disabilities can input 

text and commands into the computer using their 

voice instead of typing. 

“Scribe pen” This handheld pen records and links class 

lectures and discussions to handwritten notes 

taken by the student on special paper. 

Students can later place the pen on the paper 

and play back audio of the recorded lecture at 

the point notes were written. 

Students who need help taking notes in courses 

due to mobility impairments, learning disabilities in 

reading, writing and processing, ADHD, moderate 

hearing loss, and students with autism and 

psychological disabilities can use the pen to 

ensure that they capture the entire lecture and 

class discussion. 

Screen readers (or voice output 

screen review software) 

Screen readers convert words on a computer 

screen, including electronic documents, 

e-mails and internet pages, into voice output. 

Students with visual disabilities can access 

information displayed on a screen by hearing what 

sighted students see. Additionally, students with 

learning disabilities are provided auditory 

reinforcement to visual learning. 

Digital “whiteboard” This technology allows students to capture 

lecture information digitally. Professors can put 

lecture notes, charts, and graphs on the 

whiteboard, and the contents of the 

whiteboard are converted into electronic form 

and can be viewed on a student’s personal 

computer. 

Students with visual, physical, or learning 

disabilities can gain access to the exact course 

notes as they were written on the board. In 

addition, students can rewind and replay notes, at 

their own pace on their personal computer. 

Graphic organizers and 

outlining programs 

This software provides visual guides for 

brainstorming and organizing ideas. Students 

enter and arrange their ideas into a concept 

map and the software converts the visual map 

into a text outline. 

Students who find it difficult to get started with the 

writing process or who can be easily overwhelmed 

by too much information can use this software to 

facilitate the process of getting organized to write. 

Computer screen magnifiers Screen magnifiers fit over the computer screen 

monitor and magnify images that appear on 

the screen. 

Students with visual impairments can use 

magnification to see the screen. 

Switches, trackballs, and 

joysticks 

These pointing or typing aids for computers 

and keyboards can replace a mouse and be 

used to control a keyboard by any body part, 

for example, the forehead or foot. 

Students who cannot use a standard keyboard or 

mouse because of motor function can control the 

computer. 

Source: GAO analysis. 

Schools are also becoming more aware of the benefits of, and are 

increasingly using, the universal design model in curriculum development 

and delivery, according to school and association officials. Universal 

design in education is based on the premise of making learning inclusive 

for all students, not just those with disabilities. It is an approach to 

designing all products and services to be usable by people with the widest 

Page 19 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

possible range of functional capabilities. For example, a professor could 

provide course materials using several different methods, such as by 

lecture, in power point slides, and in narrative to accommodate the 

different learning styles of students. Another goal of universal design is to 

make the environment, such as buildings and transportation systems, 

accessible to all individuals. 

Schools Face a Broad 

Range of Challenges 

in Supporting 

Students with 

Disabilities, and New 

Challenges Are Likely 

to Emerge as the 

Population Changes 

Schools Face Challenges 

during Students’ Transition 

to Postsecondary School 

The transition students with disabilities face regarding their rights and 

responsibilities when beginning higher education can have implications 

for schools if students are not fully prepared for it. Postsecondary schools, 

unlike secondary schools, are not required to identify students with 

disabilities and are not responsible for documenting students’ needs. 

Instead, if students want disability-related services in postsecondary 

school, they are responsible for disclosing to the school that they have a 

disability, providing the required documentation, and requesting 

accommodations and services.30 Schools generally explain what 

documentation is required and how current the documentation must be. 

However, schools can face challenges if a student is not aware of these 

responsibilities or does not understand how to obtain accommodations. 

Some schools have responded to this challenge by proactively conducting 

outreach to students with disabilities and their parents to explain the shift 

in rights and responsibilities. For example, school officials told us they 

offer “college nights” at local high schools and “summer bridge” or 

 

30To receive accommodations, an individual must establish the presence of a physical or 

mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. 

Page 20 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

orientation programs to provide information about disability services and 

how to navigate the campus system. In addition, at some schools we 

visited, the disability services offices had made efforts to help students 

develop self-advocacy skills, such as having students personally deliver 

their accommodation request forms to professors rather than the disability 

services office handling this. School officials told us that they also rely on 

OCR’s publications and other technical assistance related to transition 

issues. 

A related challenge for schools is providing services to students with 

disabilities who did not initially disclose their need for accommodations. 

Some students choose not to disclose their disability, even when they are 

aware of available services, according to school officials and disability 

experts. While a student is not obligated to inform a school that he or she 

has a disability, in order for the school to provide an academic adjustment 

or another disability-related service, the student must identify himself or 

herself as having a disability. Any initial nondisclosure may become 

problematic for schools when students disclose and request 

accommodations after they fall behind academically. For example, a 

school may find it difficult to provide timely accommodations to a student 

who disclosed a visual or learning disability in the middle of a semester 

because of the time required to convert text books into electronic format. 

School and disability group officials told us that some students choose not 

to register with the disability services office and request accommodations 

for a variety of reasons. For example, they said some students, especially 

those with “hidden” disabilities, such as learning disabilities, are reluctant 

to disclose because they want a fresh start in higher education without the 

label of having a disability. 

Providing the Range of 

Services Needed Poses 

Challenges to Schools 

Schools face challenges in acquiring and providing some services for 

students with disabilities, in particular, those services that involve 

specialized knowledge and resource-intensive accommodations. School 

and disability association officials told us that recent increases in specific 

populations of students with disabilities, for example, those with 

psychological disabilities (such as bipolar and anxiety disorder), autism, 

or chronic medical conditions (such as cancer or gastrointestinal 

disorders),31 have placed additional demands on schools. In particular, 

 

31Students with severe or chronic medical conditions could also include those with acute 

migraines or those undergoing medical procedures, like kidney dialysis or chemotherapy. 

Page 21 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

school disability officials and researchers reported the need for staff with 

specialized expertise to appropriately support these students. For 

example, school officials told us that their counseling centers were not 

designed to support the types of psychological disabilities they now 

encounter among students. To address this, some schools have hired staff 

with expertise in mental health counseling. 

In addition, some school disability officials told us they lack experience in 

supporting the needs of students with autism, in particular those who need 

coaching in social skills and assistance in organization and time 

management. Some schools have specific programs on campus and 

training for faculty to support the needs of this population (see sidebar). 

Schools can also face challenges in supporting students with chronic 

medical conditions, such as severe allergies, who may need less traditional 

accommodations that schools are not accustomed to providing, such as 

dietary modifications or chemical-free classrooms. 

A Transition Program for Students

with Autism

In response to a need for better transition 

services for students with autism, one college 

has implemented a 1-year program designed 

to provide this support. The program aims to 

help students independently access accommodations and services in higher education 

by building skills in organization, time 

management, social interactions, self 

advocacy, and transition planning. To 

accomplish these goals, students in the 

program work individually with specialists, 

attend individual and group coaching 

sessions, and design long-range plans for 

college and career development. School 

officials also reported building an autism 

community of interest on campus comprised, 

in part, of faculty who are experienced in 

working with students with autism. 

Source: Digital Vision.

Disability association and school officials noted challenges related to 

having resources available to provide accommodations to students, 

particularly those that are costly or staff intensive. For example, providing 

sign language interpreters is expensive and may strain disability services 

office budgets. At one school we visited that served about 1,500 students 

with disabilities, officials reported they devoted about 25 to 30 percent of 

the disability services office budget to interpreters for six students who 

are deaf. In addition, some school officials said that converting course 

materials into accessible formats, such as electronic text or Braille, is 

costly and time consuming, particularly materials including graphics, 

mathematical equations, and foreign languages. To minimize the cost and 

resources needed, schools in several states have established online 

clearinghouses to share materials already converted into accessible 

format. Moreover, the HEOA contained provisions to improve accessibility 

of course materials. However, publishers can be reluctant to make 

textbooks available in electronic formats, according to a 2009 report by 

the National Council on Disability. Further, some school disability services 

officials reported that they lack sufficient staff and space to provide 

certain accommodations, such as proctors and distraction-free rooms for 

test taking. For example, officials from one school told us the need for 

space has changed over time with more students with ADD/ADHD 

requesting separate testing areas and that the disability services staff 

proctored over 200 exams in 1 day. 

Page 22 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Another challenge schools face is a lack of awareness among some faculty 

members regarding legal requirements for supporting students with 

disabilities, according to schools officials we interviewed and research. 

Disability associations and school officials told us that while faculty are 

generally receptive to supporting these students, some faculty members 

showed resistance to providing accommodations. School officials and 

research cited faculty lack of awareness and understanding of the legal 

requirements as key factors. Faculty members generally define academic 

standards through development and delivery of course requirements and 

materials, and some believe that accommodations may undermine their 

academic authority and compromise academic standards and values, 

according to school and association officials we interviewed and research. 

Further, some faculty members are unwilling to modify lectures or course 

materials to make them accessible and some view commonly-accepted 

accommodations, such as extended time on exams, to be a fundamental 

alteration of their course. Some disability services staff told us they 

provide information sessions and written materials to faculty to help them 

understand the legal requirements. 

In addition, some schools face challenges related to lack of faculty 

experience in supporting students with disabilities. Several school officials 

we interviewed told us that some faculty members have not had much 

experience teaching students with disabilities and are not yet 

knowledgeable about instructional techniques or technologies that can 

assist them in teaching students with disabilities. For example, faculty may 

not be used to students with chronic medical or physical conditions who 

may need to take breaks from class, reschedule tests, miss class to attend 

treatment, or have personal attendants with them. To enhance faculty 

understanding and skills, many schools conduct faculty training related to 

students with disabilities, according to higher education association 

officials. For example, some schools have participated in OPE 

demonstration projects to enhance the skills of faculty and administrators 

in working with students with disabilities. Such projects include faculty 

training in using assistive technology, professional development, technical 

assistance workshops, distance learning, and research. 

Page 23 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

Growing Numbers of 

Veterans with Disabilities 

and Students with 

Intellectual Disabilities 

May Pose New Challenges 

for Schools 

The needs of emerging populations of students with different types of 

disabilities can present challenges to schools that lack experience 

supporting these populations. In addition to increasing numbers of 

students with autism, psychological disabilities, and chronic medical 

conditions, schools are expecting more veterans with disabilities. School 

officials told us they anticipate an increase in the number of veterans 

returning from Iraq and Afghanistan seeking postsecondary education, 

especially with the recent enactment of the Post-9/11 GI Bill. Some of 

these veterans have acquired mental or physical disabilities (such as 

traumatic brain injury (TBI), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and 

amputations) that could result in them needing accommodations. 

According to disability association officials, the need for accommodations 

may not become apparent until veterans are in the classroom, given the 

difficulty in diagnosing some disorders, such as TBI. For example, shortterm memory loss associated with TBI may not surface until a student is 

taking classes. Further, according to school disability officials, veterans 

may be reluctant to disclose a disability and request accommodations for a 

variety of reasons. For example, some veterans are reluctant to disclose a 

disability because they think other veterans with more severe impairments 

need more help or they are not sure how disclosure will affect their 

military career. Even when veterans do disclose disabilities, many schools 

lack experience in accommodating the needs of veterans with disabilities. 

School Program for Veterans

with Disabilities

The disability services office of one school 

has developed a comprehensive Veteran 

Student Initiatives project to help veteran 

students adjust to campus life, their 

disabilities, and feel comfortable seeking 

services. The disability services office has

staff specifically dedicated to assisting 

veterans and works with outside agencies, 

such as the Department of Veterans Affairs, 

to help expedite the referral and documentation process for veterans with disabilities. 

This project trains faculty, staff, and 

non-veteran students about relating to 

veterans and the issues they face as they 

return to civilian life. In addition, the project 

aims to work with veteran student groups

in developing peer and social networks

on campus that can help other veterans

overcome the fear of disclosing disabilities. 

Source: GAO.

Some schools are recognizing the need to adapt their support approaches 

by working closely with veterans groups on campus and providing 

resources to disability staff and faculty to help them understand how the 

military experience affects a student’s transition to campus life. For 

example, one school official we interviewed described a recentlyimplemented military outreach program that pairs faculty with students to 

provide support to veterans and their families coming to the school. Other 

schools have initiatives specifically related to helping veterans acclimate 

to campus life and obtain accommodations they need (see sidebar). One 

recent study showed that some schools are planning to train counseling 

staff to assist veterans with PTSD and other health issues. 

Another challenge that more schools will be facing in the future is 

supporting the needs of students with intellectual disabilities seeking 

higher education—a student population that is expected to increase. 

Officials from one organization that focuses on students with intellectual 

disabilities explained that these students generally have different goals 

and needs than their peers. For example, some students with intellectual 

disabilities attend postsecondary classes as part of their overall work or 

career plan but may audit classes instead of working toward a degree. In 

Page 24 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

another example, some students with intellectual disabilities attend 

classes designed to address life skills, such as functional math or reading, 

financial skills, or employment training. Increased attention has been 

placed on this student population as shown by new HEOA provisions32

that include authorizing grants to postsecondary schools to develop mo

transition programs to higher education, establishing a center to provide 

schools assistance in developing these programs, and authorizing financial 

aid eligibility for these students.

del 

 

33 While some schools already have 

programs in place to meet the needs of students with intellectual 

disabilities, other schools may consider developing new programs to 

support this student population, according to Education officials. 

Various Education 

Offices Provide 

Assistance to Schools 

but Lack a 

Coordinated 

Approach 

Education Provides 

Assistance to Schools in 

Supporting Students with 

Disabilities 

Education has provided assistance to postsecondary schools to support 

students with disabilities through three different offices. The three 

different offices—OCR, OSERS, and OPE—have different missions and 

priorities, focus on different clients, and provide different types of 

assistance to schools; however, all three offices have a role in promoting 

access for students with disabilities in postsecondary education. 

Although OCR’s primary role is enforcement, it has taken the lead among 

the three offices in providing information and assistance directly to 

postsecondary schools to help them comply with legal requirements and 

informing students, parents, community groups, and others of their rights 

and responsibilities. According to OCR officials, the difference in legal 

rights and responsibilities of students with disabilities in secondary versus 

32Pub. L. No. 110-315 § 709, which added Part D “Programs to Provide Students with 

Disabilities with a Quality Education” to Title VII of the HEA. 

33Pub.L. No. 110-315 § 485(s). 

Page 25 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

postsecondary school has often resulted in confusion for both schools and 

students. OCR has taken the initiative to provide assistance in a variety of 

ways, such as issuing publications and conducting presentations to inform 

schools, students, parents, community groups, and others about the 

students’ legal rights and the requirements of the federal disability laws 

related to postsecondary education. According to OCR officials, there is a 

great demand from students, parents, teachers, and parent-teacher 

associations for information about the transition from secondary to 

postsecondary school for students with disabilities. For example, 

determining what accommodations a postsecondary school is required to 

provide to students with disabilities is complex, and school officials are 

often unclear about what is considered a “reasonable” accommodation. To 

respond to this information need, OCR published a pamphlet for students 

entitled Students With Disabilities Preparing for Postsecondary 

Education: Know Your Rights and Responsibilities and a guide for high 

school faculty entitled Transition of Students With Disabilities to 

Postsecondary Education: A Guide for High School Educators. In 

addition, in 2007 and 2008, OCR issued “Dear Colleague” and “Dear 

Parent” letters to schools and parents about the legal rights and 

responsibilities of students with disabilities as they transition from 

secondary to postsecondary education. These letters explain the role of 

postsecondary schools with respect to students with disabilities. OCR’s 

publications and letters are available on OCR’s Web site as well as by mail, 

upon request. According to OCR officials, the office relies on external 

sources, such as schools, parents, news media, interest groups, and the 

general public, to identify topics to cover in its technical assistance efforts. 

In addition, OCR relies on suggestions from OCR regional staff to identify 

issues based on its ongoing work. 

OCR has also conducted technical assistance presentations about a wide 

range of topics related to postsecondary students with disabilities in 

response to requests from schools and other groups, such as parentteacher associations. In fiscal year 2008, OCR presented about 130 

technical assistance presentations that focused entirely or partly on 

disability issues. In both fiscal years 2007 and 2008, the presentation on 

students with disabilities transitioning to postsecondary school was 

among the most frequently offered disability presentation. In addition, 

OCR recently identified veterans with disabilities seeking higher education 

as an emerging issue, and in July 2008, OCR issued letters to notify schools 

and veteran students about its new Wounded Warrior Initiative to assist 

veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan with disabilities who are 

seeking postsecondary education. According to OCR officials, wounded 

warriors who have recently acquired a disability may not be aware of 

Page 26 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

accommodations available in postsecondary education. To support the 

needs of this emerging population, OCR has conducted presentations 

about wounded warriors for postsecondary schools. OCR also offered 

presentations on a range of other topics such as academic adjustments, 

auxiliary aids, Web accessibility, assistive technology, food allergies as a 

disability, grievance procedures, and complying with disability law. In 

addition, OCR staff answer questions about disability issues from students, 

parents, school officials, and other interested stakeholders who contact 

OCR. 

OSERS serves a broad range of clients; however, the office’s initiatives 

related to postsecondary students with disabilities have been focused 

primarily on providing direct support to states and indirect support to 

schools and students.34 OSERS has provided this support through 

technical assistance centers, state vocational rehabilitation agencies, and 

research initiatives. Within OSERS, the Office of Special Education 

Programs is dedicated to improving results for infants, toddlers, children

and youth with disabilities by providing leadership and financial suppor

to assist states and local districts; however, the office has supported three 

technical assistance centers with narrow focuses related to transi

postsecondary education that support states and schools: 

, 

t 

tion and 

 

• the National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center and the 

National Post-School Outcomes Center assist states in collecting data 

related to post-secondary school transition planning and post-school 

outcomes for youth with disabilities, respectively, and 

• the Postsecondary Education Programs Network is a national network of 

regional centers that provide resources, information, and training to 

schools focused on improving services and access for certain students 

only—those who are deaf or hard of hearing. 

Also, OSERS’s Rehabilitative Services Administration funds grants to state 

VR agencies to provide a variety of services to individuals with disabilities, 

including helping postsecondary students with disabilities pay for a range 

of services, such as counseling, tuition, books, housing, transportation, 

and assistive technology. Finally, OSERS’s National Institute on Disability 

and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) has funded grants to schools and 

other groups for research studies related to students with disabilities, 

34OSERS also supports Gallaudet University and National Technical Institute for the Deaf. 

Page 27 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

including studies focused on students with intellectual disabilities, 

psychiatric disabilities, and autism, as well as other studies with broader 

scopes. NIDRR has recently put in place a system of sharing information 

between grantees and state VR agencies to establish a better link between 

research results and practice in the field. 

Education’s office with primary responsibility for focusing on 

postsecondary education issues and schools is OPE; however, it has 

provided limited technical assistance to schools on disability issues. OPE 

funds two grant programs for postsecondary schools—one for training 

faculty and another for supporting students with disabilities. OPE’s 

technical assistance has been focused on the schools that receive these 

grants. In fiscal year 2008, OPE provided technical assistance to the 23 

postsecondary schools that received demonstration project grants for 

improving faculty skills and abilities in working with students with 

disabilities.35 Specifically, OPE has hosted an annual conference and 

monthly conference calls for these demonstration grant recipients to ask 

questions about the projects, discuss their progress, and share best 

practices based on project results. In addition, OPE has provided some 

assistance to the 25 postsecondary schools that received grants through 

the federal TRIO program’s Student Support Services (SSS) program to 

support students with disabilities, for example by providing tutoring or 

counseling.36 According to agency officials, OPE also provided assistance 

through responding to e-mail inquiries, conducting conference calls, and 

attending conferences to assist these postsecondary schools that host 

TRIO programs. OPE also awards grants to other entities to provide 

training on the TRIO programs and identifies priorities for this training. 

For example, one nonprofit group—the Council for Opportunity in 

Education—has used TRIO grant funds to conduct annual conferences and 

seminars to provide information and assistance to postsecondary schools 

that have received SSS grants. 

According to OPE officials, the office does not provide broader technical 

assistance on disability issues to postsecondary schools because the office 

 

35Beginning in fiscal year 2008, Education will provide about $6.7 million in grants per year 

for 3 consecutive years to these schools as part of OPE’s Demonstration Projects to Ensure 

Students with Disabilities Receive a Quality Higher Education program. 

36Education administers the federal TRIO program, which includes SSS program grants that 

support low-income, first-generation college students and college students with disabilities. 

In fiscal year 2008, Education provided $6.5 million for TRIO program grants related to 

students with disabilities. 

Page 28 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

lacks expertise in this area. However, according to the Education Web site, 

OPE is responsible for developing federal postsecondary education policy 

and administering programs that support the mission to increase access to 

quality postsecondary education. More specifically, OPE has lead 

responsibility for administering programs that identify, prepare, and 

facilitate access of students with disabilities to higher education institutions 

and their successful completion of programs at their maximum levels of 

ability. 

In the future, OPE will have the lead role in implementing several new 

initiatives authorized by the HEOA that are designed to provide additional 

assistance to postsecondary schools regarding students with disabilities. 

Specifically, the HEOA added provisions to the HEA requiring the 

Secretary of Education to establish two centers to provide technical 

assistance and information to students, parents, and schools. HEOA also 

added provisions regarding postsecondary students with particular types 

of disabilities. For example, the Act authorized an advisory commission 

and model demonstration programs to improve accessibility to 

instructional materials for students with print disabilities.37 In addition, the 

Act authorized the Secretary to provide grants for model transition 

programs for students with intellectual disabilities in higher education.38

Finally, in reauthorizing the demonstration grant projects to support 

postsecondary faculty and staff in educating students with disabilities, 

HEOA requires Education to report to the Congress on the activities and 

program performance of these projects and provide guidance and 

recommendations on how effective projects can be replicated. As of 

October 2009, Congress has not provided funding specifically for those 

HEOA initiatives that require it. 

Education Does Not Have 

a Coordinated Approach 

for Assisting Schools 

While Education’s three offices have collaborated in some cases to 

provide technical assistance to postsecondary schools to meet their needs 

for information about disability issues, the agency has not developed a 

coordinated approach to guide its technical assistance efforts. 

Coordination efforts among Education offices to provide assistance to 

 

37It is unclear which office within Education will have responsibility for implementing the 

advisory commission and model demonstration programs to improve accessibility to 

instructional materials for students with print disabilities. 

38In addition, HEOA added a provision to allow students with intellectual disabilities to 

receive certain financial assistance. 

Page 29 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

schools about students with disabilities have generally been informal and 

in response to specific issues. For example, according to Education 

officials, OCR and OSERS have collaborated on some postsecondary 

disability issues, including OSERS staff sharing their disability expertise 

with OCR staff in preparing technical assistance publications for schools, 

such as the transition guide for high school educators and the Dear 

Colleague letters. In addition, both OSERS and OCR have had limited 

coordination with OPE on disability issues and coordinate on an asneeded basis when specific issues arise.39 For example, OSERS and OPE 

issued a joint letter to public postsecondary schools and state VR agencies 

encouraging these entities to establish interagency agreements to guide 

their collaboration in providing VR services to students with disabilities.40

Also, OPE invited OCR to attend the annual conference for schools that 

received demonstration grants to give a presentation and answer questions 

about supporting postsecondary students with disabilities. 

School and disability association officials told us that schools need more 

guidance about postsecondary disability issues. Although some school 

officials we interviewed told us they had used Education’s publications, 

attended presentations, and contacted OCR with specific disability-related 

questions, many school officials told us they had limited contact with 

Education related to students with disabilities. Instead, school officials 

said they often relied on sources outside Education for technical 

assistance in this area, such as regional and national disability and 

education associations and other schools. According to both school and 

association officials, schools need more information and technical 

assistance related to supporting postsecondary students with disabilities. 

Several school officials told us they needed more assistance in general on 

complying with disability laws and the transition from secondary to 

postsecondary school. Other school and association officials indicated the 

need for more guidance in specific areas, including assistive technology, 

 

39For example, according to agency officials, OSERS serves on the OPE-led committee on 

negotiated rulemaking regarding the new HEOA provisions related to students with 

intellectual disabilities. 

40The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires state VR agencies and public postsecondary 

schools to establish interagency agreements or other mechanisms for interagency 

coordination related to providing services to individuals with disabilities. 

Page 30 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

use of service and comfort animals41 on campus, and supporting emerging 

student populations, such as those with autism, psychological disabilities, 

and veterans with disabilities. Several school and association officials 

expressed the need for Education to disseminate information about best 

practices and results of successful demonstration projects that may have 

wide applicability across schools. School officials and disability experts 

suggested several ways Education could share information with schools, 

such as establishing a clearinghouse to share best practices, posting 

answers to frequently asked questions on the agency Web site, maintaining 

a listserv, and developing online videos or Webinars on how school 

officials can support students with disabilities—especially for schools that 

are unable to attend Education conferences.42

Although each of these Education offices has provided some assistance on 

disability issues to postsecondary schools, with OCR taking the lead, the 

agency has not developed a strategy to address the needs of schools. More 

specifically, Education has not developed a structure for these offices to 

coordinate in identifying the needs of schools and the best way to meet 

these needs, including the type of assistance and who should provide the 

assistance. OPE has not regularly collaborated with OCR and OSERS 

regarding disability issues, even though these two offices have experience, 

expertise, and data related to these issues that OPE does not. While 

OSERS officials told us that OPE could benefit from OSERS’s expertise on 

disability issues, the two offices have had only informal discussions about 

collaborating in the future. These three offices have not coordinated their 

technical assistance efforts to systematically leverage expertise and 

resources to meet the needs of postsecondary schools in this area. 

In addition to this lack of strategic coordination described above, in July 

2009 we issued two reports that found that Education lacked 

departmentwide mechanisms to share information and coordinate efforts 

in its support of elementary and secondary school teacher quality 

 

41Service animal is defined in Justice regulations as “any guide dog, signal dog, or other 

animal individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with 

a disability, including, but not limited to, guiding individuals with impaired vision, alerting 

individuals with impaired hearing to intruders or sounds, providing minimal protection or 

rescue work, pulling a wheelchair, or fetching dropped items.” See 28 C.F.R. § 36.104. 

42In the past, Education has funded an information clearinghouse related to postsecondary 

students with disabilities. However, school officials we interviewed did not indicate an 

awareness of this clearinghouse or that they relied on it for information. 

Page 31 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

programs.43 More specifically, in one report we found that Education lacks 

coordination in sharing of information among the six Education offices 

that provide funding and other assistance that can help general classroom 

teachers instruct students with disabilities and English language learners. 

In the other report we also found little sustained coordination and no 

strategy for working systematically across nine Education offices that 

administer programs that provide billions of federal dollars for teacher 

quality improvement efforts. In both reports we recommended that the 

Secretary of Education develop and implement mechanisms to ensure 

more systematic or sustained coordination among program offices that 

support teacher quality efforts. Such coordination could help facilitate 

information and resource sharing as well as strengthen linkages among 

teacher quality improvement efforts to help states, school districts, and 

postsecondary schools in their initiatives to improve teacher quality. In 

response to our recommendations, Education agreed that coordination is 

beneficial and will explore the benefits of creating such mechanisms. 

However, Education also pointed out that such efforts do not always 

prove useful, indicating that it favors short-term, issue-specific 

coordination. In our response to Education in these reports, while 

acknowledging that the department faces some challenges to 

coordination, we emphasized that we continue to believe that Education 

needs to develop a strategy for sustained coordination to ensure that 

different offices routinely become involved in sharing information and 

resources, as well as facilitating linkages among teacher quality 

improvement efforts. 

The number of students with disabilities pursuing postsecondary 

education is growing and this will further challenge current thinking about 

how to support them and schools’ capacity to effectively meet their 

educational needs. Education has played a key role in working to ensure 

equal access to higher education for students with disabilities, in part, by 

providing technical assistance to schools to help them meet the needs of 

this diverse population. However, the management and delivery of this 

assistance is spread among Education offices with limited coordination. 

Conclusions 

 

43GAO, Teacher Quality: Sustained Coordination among Key Federal Education 

Programs Could Enhance State Efforts to Improve Teacher Quality, GAO-09-593 

(Washington, D.C.: July 6, 2009) and Teacher Preparation: Multiple Federal Education 

Offices Support Teacher Preparation for Instructing Students with Disabilities and 

English Language Learners, but Systematic Departmentwide Coordination Could 

Enhance This Assistance, GAO-09-573 (Washington, D.C.: July 20, 2009). 

Page 32 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

This informal technical assistance delivery structure inhibits the regular 

sharing of information and expertise related to students with disabilities 

among offices and does not result in these offices thinking more globally 

or strategically about the information needs of schools and the best way 

for the agency to meet these needs. Without a more coordinated approach 

among the offices that provide technical assistance, schools may not fully 

benefit from the disability expertise and experiences that are currently 

dispersed among various Education offices. As a result, Education may 

miss opportunities to leverage agency resources to help better meet the 

information needs of schools and students. Further, OCR and OSERS have 

expertise that, through coordinated efforts, may better position OPE to 

carry out its new responsibilities under the HEOA. 

To improve access to quality higher education for students with 

disabilities, we recommend that the Secretary of Education develop and 

implement a coordinated approach to optimize agency resources and 

knowledge in providing technical assistance to institutions of higher 

education in supporting students with disabilities. For example, Education 

could develop a plan for routinely and systematically sharing information 

related to supporting postsecondary students with disabilities. 

We provided a draft of this report to the Department of Education. We also 

provided to the Department of Justice and Social Security Administration 

selected sections that specifically pertain to programs these two agencies 

administer. Education provided a written response to this report (see 

app. V). Education, SSA, and Justice all provided technical comments, 

which we incorporated throughout the draft as appropriate. 

Recommendation for 

Executive Action 

Agency Comments 

and Our Evaluation 

In its formal comments, Education agreed with our recommendation and 

plans to develop and implement a coordinated approach to providing 

technical assistance to postsecondary schools through a work group, to 

include the Office of Vocational and Adult Education, the Office of 

Postsecondary Education, the Office for Civil Rights, and the Office of 

Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. In addition, Education 

noted that the same knowledge, resources, and information useful to 

postsecondary schools might be equally of interest and utility to students 

and potential students with disabilities, family members, secondary 

schools personnel, and counselors, among others. Education plans to 

explore making information on higher education and individuals with 

disabilities available in a more centralized and user-friendly manner on its 

Web site, www.ed.gov. 

Page 33 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
 

We are sending copies of this report to appropriate congressional 

committees, the Secretary of Education, and other interested parties. In 

addition, the report will be available at no charge on GAO’s Web site at 

http://www.gao.gov. 

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact me 

at (202) 512-7215 or scottg@gao.gov. Contact points for our Offices of 

Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page 

of this report. GAO staff that made major contributions to this report are 

listed in appendix VI. 

Sincerely yours, 

George A. Scott 

Director, Education, Workforce, 

 and Income Security Issues 

Page 34 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
Appendix I: Technical Appendix Appendix I: Technical Appendix 

This appendix discusses in more detail our review of federal data on 

postsecondary students with disabilities for question one: what is known 

about the population of postsecondary students with disabilities. To 

obtain information on this population, we identified 10 federal datasets 

that are administered by the Department of Education, the Department of 

Commerce (U.S. Census Bureau), and the National Science Foundation 

(see table 3). We selected these datasets, in consultation with GAO 

methodologists, because they are widely known, national datasets that 

would most likely contain information about students with disabilities 

related to higher education. We examined the datasets to determine the 

purpose of the study or survey, the population described, the sample 

surveyed, data collection methods, and the focus of questions and 

variables related to students with disabilities. We evaluated these data and 

studies for methodological rigor, as well as to determine the extent to 

which the data could be used to offer a national perspective on students 

with disabilities in higher education. The data we reported are reliable 

enough for our purposes. For four of these datasets, we assessed the 

quality, reliability, and usability of the data for reporting descriptive 

statistics on student population characteristics (e.g., age, gender, and type 

of disability) and characteristics of the schools they attend (e.g., school 

size and type). Because the four surveys followed a probability procedure 

based on random selections, each sample is only one of a large number of 

samples that might have been drawn. Since each sample could have 

provided different estimates, we express our confidence in the precision 

of the particular sample’s results as a 95 percent confidence interval (e.g., 

plus or minus 4 percentage points). This is the interval that would contain 

the actual population value for 95 percent of the samples we could have 

drawn. All percentage estimates used in this report have 95 percent 

confidence intervals of within plus or minus 4 percentage points, unless 

otherwise noted. After analyzing the relevant data from these four 

datasets, we relied heavily on one, Education’s National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS), for primarily two reasons. First, the NPSAS 

specifically focuses on the population of postsecondary students and the 

schools they attend, which allowed us to report information on many 

topics related to postsecondary students. Second, it affords the 

opportunity to look at changes in the population over time, specifically 

from 2000, 2004, and 2008. Although the American Community Survey also 

provides annual snapshots of the population, we were not able to report 

trend information because the relevant data were first reported in 2006. 

Page 35 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability 
Appendix I: Technical Appendix 

Table 3: Federal Statistical Programs That Contain Data about Postsecondary Students with Disabilities 

Statistical programs Web site addresses as of 9/17/2009 

Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau 

American Community Survey (2007)(ACS)a http://www.census.gov/acs 

Survey of Income and Program Participation (2004)(SIPP) http://www.census.gov/sipp 

Department of Education, Institute for Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics 

Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (1993/2003) (B&B) http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/B%26B/ 

Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (2004/2006) (BPS) http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/bps 

Education Longitudinal Study (2002) (ELS)bhttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ELS2002 

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (2009) (IPEDS) http://nces.ed.gov/IPEDS 

National Education Longitudinal Study (1988)(NELS) http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/NELS88 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (2000, 2004, 2008) (NPSAS)chttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/npsas 

Department of Education, Institute for Education Sciences, National Center for Special Education Research 

National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (2001)(NLTS2)d http://www.nlts2.org 

National Science Foundation 

Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT) is a database of the 

employment, education, and demographic characteristics of the nation’s scientists and 

engineers. The data are collected from the following three surveys: 

• National Survey of Recent College Graduates(2006)(NSRCG) 

• Survey of Doctorate Recipients (2006) (SDR) 

• National Survey of College Graduates (2003) (NSCG) 

http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/sestat/ 

Source: GAO analysis. 

Note: GAO conducted in-depth analysis and reported descriptive statistics for the ACS, ELS, NPSAS, 

and NLTS2. 

a

The ACS 2007 had an overall response rate of 97.7 percent. The Census Bureau does not report 

item response rates for questions in ACS. 

b

The ELS data used in this report are from the second follow-up in 2006 and had a weighted 

response rate of 88.4 percent. 

c

The NPSAS 2000 overall weighted response rate was 89 percent. In the NPSAS 2004, the institution 

weighted participation rate was 80 percent and the student weighted response rate was 91 percent. 

The response rates for the NPSAS 2008 are not available as of October 2009. Moreover, NPSAS 

2008 data are preliminary and subject to change. 

d

The NLTS2 is a two-stage sample design. The first stage was the school districts with a 14 percent 

response rate. The second stage was students with a response rate of 67.2 percent. Due to the low 

response rate for school districts, a nonresponse bias analysis was done. See p. 13 of Harold Javitz 

and Mary Wagner, Analysis of Potential Bias in the Wave 1 and Wave 2 Respondents to the National 

Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2), a special report prepared for the Office of Special Education 

Programs, Department of Education, May 2005. Based on this bias analysis, we determined that the 

wave 3 sample was reliable enough for our purpose. To calculate the cumulative response rate, we 

multiplied the student and school district response rates to report an overall response rate of 9 

percent. 

Page 36 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
Appendix II: Data on Students with 

Disabilities 

Page 37 GAO-10-33 

Appendix II: Data on Students with 

Disabilities 

Table 4: Population Estimates of Postsecondary (Undergraduate) Students with Disabilities, NPSAS 2000, 2004, and 2008; 

and ACS 2007 

Survey All students Students with disabilities Percent

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study: 2000 15,109,000 1,398,000 9.3

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study: 2004 16,607,000 1,866,000 11.2

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study: 2008 19,155,000 2,076,000 10.8

American Community Survey: 2007 17,317,000 1,055,000 6.1

Source: GAO analysis of NPSAS 2000, 2004, and 2008; and ACS 2007. 

Note: All numbers were rounded to the nearest thousand. The NPSAS population of postsecondary 

students includes students who lived in the United States and were enrolled in certificate, associate’s, 

or bachelor’s degree programs, i.e., all but graduate-level students. Institutions they attended include 

less-than-2-year, 2-year, and 4-year schools. The ACS population represents all college students 

living in the United States or in Puerto Rico. We have structured our analyses of the NPSAS and ACS 

populations in order to define the two surveys’ populations as similarly as possible. 

Table 5: Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary (Undergraduate) Students, by Disability Status, Gender, Race & Ethnicity, 

Age, and Delayed Enrollment in Postsecondary School, 2000 and 2008 

Students with 

disabilities 

Students without 

disabilities 

2000 2008 2000 2008

Gender 

Women 59.3 57.7 56.3 57.1

Men 40.7 42.3 43.7 42.9

Race & ethnicity 

White 72.3 67.4 68.1 62.5

Black or African American 11.5 13.2 12.3 14.5

Hispanic or Latino 7.9 11.3 10.4 13.4

Asian 2.0 3.5 4.5 5.4

American Indian or Alaska Native 2.0 0.8 0.7 0.9

Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.7

Other 1.2 0.3 1.5 0.3

More than one race 2.3 2.9 1.8 2.3

Age 

23 or younger 42.5 54.9 59.9 61.5

24-29 16.6 20.2 16.9 16.8

30 or older 41.0 25.0 23.2 21.6

Delayed enrollment in postsecondary school after completing high school 

Less than 1 year 53.1 64.9 65.0 69.7

1 year 11.1 12.1 11.5 10.7

2-4 years 10.0 9.2 9.7 8.1

5+ years 25.8 13.8 13.8 11.5

Source: GAO analysis of NPSAS 2000 and 2008. 

 Higher Education and Disability 
Appendix II: Data on Students with 

Disabilities 

Table 6: Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary (Undergraduate) Students, by Disability Status, among Level and Control 

of Schools Attended and Attendance Patterns, 2000 and 2008 

Students with 

disabilities 

Students without 

disabilities 

2000 2008 2000 2008

Institution level 

4-year 39.2 42.7 47.9 48.9

2-year 51.4 46.0 43.2 40.8

Less than 2-year 3.5 3.4 2.5 2.4

Attended more than one institution 6.0 7.9a6.4 7.8

Institution control 

Public 76.2 69.2b74.2 69.5

Private not-for-profit 11.4 11.2 14.7 13.6

Private for-profit (proprietary) 6.5 11.6 4.8 9.1

Attended more than one institution 6.0 7.9a6.4 7.8

Attendance pattern 

Full-time, full year 34.3 35.8 42.4 41.3

Full-time, part year 16.7 16.1 13.3 14.1

Part-time, full year 25.0 22.5 22.3 21.9

Part-time, part year 24.0 25.5 22.1 22.6

Source: GAO analysis of NPSAS 2000 and 2008. 

a

These estimates have an error rate of +/- 4.10 percent at the 95 percent confidence level. 

b

This estimate has an error rate of +/- 4.02 percent at the 95 percent confidence level. 

Table 7: Percentage Distribution of Main Type of Disability among Postsecondary (Undergraduate) Students with Disabilities, 

2000, 2004, and 2008 

Percentage distribution 

Main type of disability 2000 2004 2008

Mental, emotional, or psychiatric condition/depression 17.1 22.3 24.3

Attention deficit disorder (ADD) 6.7 11.6 19.1

Orthopedic or mobility impairment 29.0 24.8 15.1

Other 13.2 5.8 15.0

Specific learning disability, dyslexia 5.0 7.7 8.9

Hearing impairment 6.8 4.7 6.1

Health impairment or problem 15.1 17.3 5.8

Blindness or visual impairment 5.2 3.7 2.7

Speech or language impairment 0.3 0.5 0.7

Brain injury 1.2 1.0 1.7

Developmental disability 0.6 0.6 0.7

Source: GAO analysis of NPSAS 2000, 2004, and 2008. 

Note: In 2000, “mental illness/depression” was one type of disability. In 2004 and 2008 these terms 

were separated into two distinct categories. However, for the purposes of comparison with 2000 data, 

we have combined these two categories in the 2004 and 2008 data. 

Page 38 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
Appendix III: Postsecondary Schools, Appendix III: Postsecondary Schools, Associations, and Experts Interviewed 

Associations, and Experts Interviewed 

Table 8: Postsecondary Schools Interviewed 

State School name Public 

Private not 

for-profit 

Private forprofit 

(proprietary) 2-year 4-year 

AL Calhoun Community College • •

AZ University of Arizona • •

AZ University of Phoenix/ headquarters • •

CA California State University/ East Bay • •

CA City College of San Francisco • •

CA University of California/ Berkeley • •

CA Sonoma State University • •

CA University of San Francisco • •

CT University of Connecticut • •

DC American University • •

DC George Washington University • •

GA Emory University • •

GA Georgia State University • •

GA Georgia Institute of Technology • •

IN ITT Technical Institute/ headquarters • • •

MD Montgomery College • •

MO Metropolitan Community College/ Longview • •

NY Rochester Institute of Technology • •

OH Columbus State Community College • •

OH Ohio Wesleyan University • •

OH The Ohio State University • •

OH Wright State University • •

PA Community College of Allegheny County • •

TX Texas A&M University • •

VA George Mason University • •

Source: GAO. 

Page 39 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability 
Appendix III: Postsecondary Schools, 

Associations, and Experts Interviewed 

Table 9: Disability and Higher Education Associations and Experts Interviewed 

American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) 

American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) 

American Council on Education (ACE) 

Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) 

Center for the Study and Advancement of Disability Policy 

Delta Alpha Pi International Honor Society 

Disability Access Information and Support (DAIS) 

HEATH Resource Center at George Washington University 

Institute for Community Inclusion (ICI) 

National Council on Disability (NCD) 

National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center (NSTTAC) 

National Youth Leadership Network (NYLN) (Student Group) 

Source: GAO. 

Page 40 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
Appendix IV: Postsecondary Schools That 

Received Education Grants to Support Appendix IV: Postsecondary Schools That Students with Disabilities in FY 2008 

Received Education Grants to Support 

Students with Disabilities in FY 2008 

Table 10: FY 2008 Grantees with Demonstration Projects to Ensure Students with 

Disabilities Receive a Quality Higher Education Program 

State FY 2008 demonstration project grantees 

CA San Diego State University Research Foundation 

CA Sonoma State University 

CO Colorado State University 

CT University of Connecticut 

GA Georgia Tech Research Corporation 

HI University of Hawaii 

IA University of Iowa 

IL National-Louis University 

IN Ball State University 

MA University of Massachusetts/ Boston 

NE Board of Regents, University of Nebraska, University of Nebraska/ Lincoln 

OR Lane Community College 

OR University of Oregon 

PA Northampton County Area Community College 

PA Temple University of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education 

SC South Carolina State University 

TX Texas A&M University 

TX University of Texas/ Pan American 

VA Longwood University 

VT University of Vermont and State Agricultural College 

WA Eastern Washington University 

WI Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System (University of 

Wisconsin/ Milwaukee) 

WV West Virginia University Research Corporation 

Source: Department of Education. 

Page 41 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability 
Appendix IV: Postsecondary Schools That 

Received Education Grants to Support 

Students with Disabilities in FY 2008 

Table 11: FY 2008 Grantees with Student Support Services (SSS) Projects That 

Specifically Serve Students with Disabilities under the Federal TRIO Program 

State FY 2008 SSS project grantees 

AR Henderson State University 

AZ Arizona State University/ Tempe 

CA California State Polytechnic University/ Pomona 

CA California State University/ East Bay Foundation 

CA California State University/ Los Angeles 

CA California State University/ Sacramento 

CA Long Beach City College 

CA Los Angeles Harbor College 

CA Reedley College/ Clovis & Madera Centers 

CA San Diego State University Foundation 

CA University of California/ Berkeley 

FL Broward Community College 

KS Wichita State University 

MA Middlesex Community College 

MO University of Missouri/ St. Louis 

NJ Middlesex County College 

NJ Ramapo College of New Jersey 

NY CUNY/ York College 

NY Marist College 

NY Nassau Community College 

OR Chemeketa Community College 

PA Commonwealth Technical Institute 

PA West Chester University of Pennsylvania 

WA Lake Washington Technical College 

WI University of Wisconsin/ Stout 

Source: Department of Education. 

Page 42 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
Appendix V: Comments from the Department Appendix V: Comments from the Department of Education 

of Education 

Page 43 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability 
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Education 

Page 44 GAO-10-33 Higher Education and Disability
Appendix VI: 

A

GAO Contact and Staff 

cknowledgments 

Page 45 GAO-10-33 

Appendix VI: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

George A. Scott, Director (202) 512-7215 or scottg@gao.gov

In addition to the contact above, Harriet Ganson (Assistant Director), 

Linda Siegel (Analyst-in-Charge), Jennifer Cook, Jeffrey DeMarco, and 

Alison Grantham made significant contributions to this report. Karen 

O’Conor, Ying Long, and Jay Smale assisted with the data analysis and 

methodology. Jessica Botsford provided legal support. Mimi Nguyen 

assisted with graphics. Susan Bernstein and Jessica Orr assisted in report 

development. 

 Higher Education and Disability 

GAO Contact 

Staff 

Acknowledgments 

(130872) 
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