National Program 211: 

Water Availability & Watershed 

Management

ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Research,

Education, and 

Economics

AGRICULTURAL

RESEARCH

SERVICE

Office of

National

Programs

JANUARY 2012
Captions of front page photos, clockwise from upper left: 

1. Site of the 90-square-mile Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed in the 

Owyhee Mountains about 50 miles southwest of Boise, Idaho. Photo by Scott 

Bauer/ARS.

2. Subsurface tile discharge to Tipton Creek in north-central Iowa. This 

drainage main is a 36-inch diameter clay pipe draining over 4000 acres of 

cropland. Note white conduit connecting to depth velocity sensors and water 

sampling equipment. Photo by Mark Tomer/ARS.

3. Computer-controlled center pivot irrigation systems can be connected by 

modem to radios or telephones so farmers can run them remotely. Photo by 

Doug Wilson/ARS.

 4. Massive erosion in which gully formed and extended 375 m during a 229 mm 

rain event during tropical storm Erin in the Fort Cobb Reservoir watershed in 

southwestern Oklahoma on August 19, 2007. Photo by Patrick J. Starks/ARS.

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National Program 211

Water Availability & Watershed Management

ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

National Program 211 Introduction

Background and General Information ...........................................................................................1

Planning and Coordination for the NP 211 5-Year Cycle ..................................................................2

Structure of NP 211...................................................................................................................4

Relationship of NP 211 to other national programs and collaborations with partners outside of ARS.........7

How this report was constructed and what it reflects......................................................................11

NP 211 Problem Area 1 – EFFECTIVENESS OF CONSERVATION PRACTICES.............................................13

Theme 1: Organized efforts and data from ARS research watersheds ................................................13

Theme 2: Evidence of water quality and ecological benefits............................................................14

Theme 3: Models for assessing conservation effects at watershed and regional scales...........................18

Literature Cited for Problem Area 1............................................................................................22

NP 211 Problem Area 2 – IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT ..............................................................26

Theme 1: Managing and scheduling irrigation for efficient water use ................................................26

Theme 2: Innovative surface and subsurface irrigation tools and techniques .......................................28

Theme 3: Improved irrigation and cropping for reuse of degraded water............................................31

Theme 4: Sensor technologies for site specific irrigation water management.......................................32

Theme 5: Cropping and management strategies under limited water supplies......................................34

Literature Cited for Problem Area 2............................................................................................35

NP 211 Problem Area 3 – DRAINAGE WATER MANAGEMENT ...............................................................39

Theme 1: Crop production and environmental benefits of drainage water management.........................39

Theme 2: On-site treatment technology for drainage water .............................................................41

Theme 3: Tools and models for assessing impacts of drainage water management ...............................42

Literature Cited for Problem Area 3 ...........................................................................................44

NP 211 Problem Area 4 – INTEGRATED SOIL EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION TECHNOLOGIES .................46

Theme 1: Improved science for targeting erosion control and assessment...........................................46

Theme 2: Tools for assessing potential earthen embankment breach..................................................49

Theme 3: Erosion control techniques and strategies .......................................................................50

Theme 4: Development of erosion prediction models and assessment tools ........................................52 

Literature Cited for Problem Area 4............................................................................................53
National Program 211

Water Availability & Watershed Management

ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

NP 211 Problem Area 5 – WATERSHED MANAGEMENT, WATER AVAILABILITY, AND ECOSYSTEM

RESTORATION ..................................................................................................................................56

Theme 1: Production and management systems that improve water quality and quantity .......................56

Theme 2: Habitat restoration and ecology ....................................................................................58

Theme 3: Climate and climate change effects on the environment and hydrology ...............................59

Theme 4: Remote sensing and in-situ technologies for water resource management .............................64 

Literature Cited for Problem Area 5............................................................................................68

NP 211 Problem Area 6 – WATER QUALITY PROTECTION SYSTEMS ......................................................72

Theme 1: Nutrient management practices that minimize off-site transport..........................................72

Theme 2: Remediation of agricultural pollutants ...........................................................................75

Theme 3: Quantifying agricultural chemicals and pathogens in the environment..................................78

Literature Cited for Problem Area 6............................................................................................81

APPENDIXES ..................................................................................................................................85

APPENDIX 1 – Research Projects in National Program 211 ..........................................................85

APPENDIX 2 – Publications by Research Project ........................................................................97

APPENDIX 3 – The Agricultural Research Service Water Resource Research National Program 

Action Plan 2006-2010 ..................................................................................191
United States Department of Agriculture

Research, Education, and Economics

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

National Program 211

Water Availability & Watershed Management

Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

BACKGROUND AND GENERAL INFORMATION

This report is a compilation of some of the most significant research accomplishments of the past 

5 years achieved by scientists working in the USDA Agricultural Research Service’s (ARS) 

National Program 211 (NP211) Water Availability and Watershed Management (previously

Water Resource Management). The NP211 mission is twofold: (1) to conduct research on the 

processes that control water availability and quality for the health and economic growth of U.S. 

citizens; and (2) to apply this new knowledge to develop new and improved technologies for 

managing the Nation’s agricultural and water resources. Advances in knowledge and 

technologies provide producers, action agencies, local communities, and resource advisors with 

the practices, tools, models, and decision support systems they need to improve water 

conservation and water use efficiency in agriculture, enhance water quality, protect rural and 

urban communities from the ravages of drought and floods, improve agricultural and urban 

watershed management, and prevent the degradation of riparian areas, wetlands, and stream 

corridors. 

At the start of the period of record, NP211 consisted of approximately 43 primary projects and 

23 contributing projects located in 24 different states (see Appendix 1). The more than 146 

scientists working within this national program represent multidisciplinary teams that include 

specialists in agricultural engineering, civil and hydraulic engineering, agronomy, biology, 

ecology, geography, geology, hydrology, chemistry, physical science, or soil science.

Water is fundamental to life and a basic requirement for virtually all of our agricultural, 

industrial, urban, and recreational activities, as well as for the sustained health of our natural 

ecosystems. In that sense, the activities and accomplishments described in this report have at 

least some relevance to nearly every other ARS national program.

At the global scale, the availability of fresh water is strongly linked to food security. During the 

last century, Earth’s human population tripled, but the global demand for Earth’s finite supply of 

available fresh water increased six-fold. According to the United Nations, more than a billion 

people still live without access to clean water, while more than 2.4 billion people lack the basic 

sanitation needed for human health. To help address these important global concerns, in 

December 2010, Secretary Vilsack approved the USDA Global Food Security Action Plan, 

subsequently endorsed by US-AID and the State Department (visit the Feed the Future website 

at http://www.feedthefuture.gov).
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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In more advanced economies, clean water availability is increasingly threatened due to 

contamination from agriculture (e.g., crop fertilizers and animal manure), urban sources (e.g., 

storm and wastewater runoff, pharmaceuticals, disinfection byproducts) and industry. Since 

2009, global concerns about the effects of climate change on water availability have also come to 

the forefront. At the same time, agriculture has been called upon to help meet the Nation’s 

energy needs by increasing the production of renewable biofuel feedstocks. In October 2010, 

Secretary Vilsack formally announced the establishment of five regional USDA Biomass 

Research Centers to help ensure the availability of dependable supplies of the feedstocks needed 

for the production of advanced biofuels to meet legislated goals and market demand, and enable 

as many rural areas across the country as possible to participate and benefit economically. All of 

these issues significantly affect water availability (quantity and quality). In light of these serious 

and growing problems, the importance of conserving water resources has never been greater. 

During the 5-year period covered by this report, examples of ARS accomplishments in waterrelated research include: 1) remote sensing tools to assess the availability of soil water in the root 

zone for drought detection; 2) a watershed model, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), 

for national assessment of conservation effects; 3) irrigation scheduling tools for the Texas High 

Plains, where water levels in the Ogallala Aquifer are rapidly declining; 4) a model to simulate 

plant responses to water deficit that allows producers to make management decisions to improve 

the efficiency of irrigation water use; 6) demonstrating that drainage water management and/or 

controlled drainage can increase crop yield and reduce nutrient losses to aquatic ecosystems; 7) a 

Rangeland and Hydrology and Erosion Model (RHEM) for managing western rangelands; 8) a 

manure injection technology that lowers both odor and ammonia emissions to air and reduces 

phosphorus in runoff waters; 9) a pesticide index, based on long-term watershed data, that 

explains pesticide transport as a function of planting, crop development, rainfall, and dissipation 

in soil; and 10) new surface irrigation management software that can be used to calibrate radial 

gates and automatically control canal gates to minimize water spills. In assessing conservation 

effects, ARS scientists have demonstrated the water quality benefits of riparian buffers, cover 

crops, wetlands, and developed new innovative on-site treatment technologies such as low-grade 

vegetative ditches and a gypsum curtain. Many more significant accomplishments are 

highlighted in the main portion of this report. 

New knowledge generated by NP211 scientists has led to better farming, conservation, and water 

management practices. The water quality information from long-term watersheds and the many

water management tools are used by a host government agencies, researchers, customers, and 

stakeholders. Examples include: 1) the Automated Canal Management Program – SacMan; 2) 

the Integrated Hydraulic Analysis for Surface irrigation WinSRFR; 3) the Dam Safety Analysis 

Model – WinDAM; and 4) Bank Stability and Toe Erosion Model – BSTEM. 

PLANNING AND COORDINATION FOR THE NP 211 5-YEAR CYCLE

The NP211 2006-2010 Action Plan served as the guide for research conducted within this 

national program through 2011. The plan was drafted in 2005 by a writing team composed of 

ARS scientists and members of the NP211 National Program Leader (NPL) team. Incorporating 

input from more than 200 scientists, administrators, customers, and stakeholders who attended 

the NP 211 National Program Workshop in June 2005, the NPLs’ knowledge of the subject 

matter and national needs, ARS scientists unable to attend the workshop, and an assessment of 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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NP 211’s impact during the previous 5 year program cycle, the writing team prioritized the 

research needs identified by these various contributors in light of ARS base funding and other 

resources. Inputs from the NP211 NPL team included those gathered from participation in 

various USDA and interagency water-related programs, committees, and meetings, recent reports 

published by the National Academy of Science, the National Science and Technology Council, 

and the U.S. Government Accountability Office, and research needs identified by, and 

subsequent activities arising from, the Agricultural Water Security Listening Session held in 

September 2004 at Park City, Utah. Individual research needs were then aggregated into six

problem areas, with distinct products, outputs, and outcomes proposed under each problem area. 

The final action plan guided the development of new individual NP211 research projects that 

began the current 5-year research cycle in 2007.

Individual NP211 project plans were then written to address one or more of these six problem 

areas, focusing on specific products, outputs, and outcomes as relevant to each participating 

research location. Project plans were evaluated for scientific quality and feasibility by external 

peer review panels through ARS’s Office of Scientific Quality Review (OSQR) during 2006. 

The ARS Peer Review Process is an essential part of the 5-year ARS research program cycle. 

The process was mandated by the Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act 

of 1998, that required successful completion of peer review as a prerequisite to perform research. 

Each research project in every ARS national program includes statements of the agricultural 

problem(s) being addressed, the anticipated outputs or information to be generated by the 

project, how the planned research contributes to mitigating or solving the larger national program 

problem statements, and timelines and milestones for measuring progress toward achieving 

project objectives. Project plans were revised in response to review panel recommendations as 

needed, and then implemented in late 2006/early 2007. The next 5-year research cycle for 

NP211 has already begun, with a new Action Plan written for 2011-2015. New plans for 

individual research projects have already been subject to formal prospective review, and are 

currently undergoing revisions as necessary, followed by official certification.

Coordination and planning for NP 211 are the tasks of the NP 211 leadership team. Among 

other things, this team coordinates NP 211 activities with those of other ARS national programs, 

other agencies, and other departments. Some of the interagency research coordination associated 

with NP 211 is conducted through Federal Interagency Committees like: (1) the Committee on 

Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) (the relevant National Science and Technology 

Council committee for water research) Subcommittee on Water Availability and Quality 

(SWAQ); (2) the Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force, charged by 

Congress with conducting a reassessment of (i) nutrient load reductions and the response of the 

hypoxic zone, (ii) water quality throughout the Mississippi River Basin, and (iii) economic and 

social effects; (3) the Advisory Committee on Water Information (ACWI) Subcommittee on 

Sedimentation; (4) the Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) Steering Committee; 

(5) various working groups of the US Climate Change Science Program; and (6) the Interagency 

Water Working Group chaired by the State Department. The NP 211 team also confers and 

coordinates with colleagues from other USDA agencies, including the Economic Research 

Service, the Farm Services Agency, the Foreign Agricultural Service, the National Agricultural 

Statistics Service, the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, the Natural Resource 

Conservation Service, and the U.S. Forest Service, both individually and in association with 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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Figure 1: Primary (black) and contributing (blue) locations that contribute research to National 

Program 211, Water Availability & Watershed Management. Open circles (black) indicate 

projects that moved or left the program during the course of the Action Plan.

USDA interagency committees including: (1) the National Agricultural Research, Extension, 

Education, and Economics (NAREEE) Advisory Board, which evaluates USDA Research and 

Development Programs and provides recommendations to the Secretary and REE 

Undersecretaries; (2) the USDA Drought Team and the USDA Working Group on Water 

Resources; and (3) the USDA Water Team.

Customer and stakeholder interaction and research coordination continue to play important roles 

in helping NPLs guide NP 211 research to maintain its relevance to U.S. agriculture. NP 211 

NPLs attended or organized numerous research planning, coordination, and stakeholder 

workshops during 2006-2011. These workshops addressed a variety of agriculturally-relevant 

topics including specific challenges, emerging high-priority issues, and new scientific 

developments in fields related to water availability and watershed management.

STRUCTURE OF NP 211

The approach for this National Program is to address the highest priorities for agricultural water 

management. The core concept in formulating NP211 research projects is based on the 

progression of science and technology development. This includes: basic understanding of the 

scientific principles; verification of concepts and designs at the field scale; development of 

practice standards for field implementations; assessment of aggregated effects from different 

management practices; and finally delivering models and tools that can be used the users and 

customers. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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The NP 211 Action Plan (2006-2010) was composed of the following six components that 

together and in concert with other national programs, worked to achieve breakthroughs in the 

understanding and management of water quantity and quality at scales ranging from fields to 

watersheds to landscapes to regional to global, to maintain or enhance agricultural production, 

environmental quality, and our natural resource base. ARS Action Plans are living documents 

that can be changed in light of emerging problems and needs, new techniques, and new 

information. 

PROBLEM AREA 1: EFFECTIVENESS OF CONSERVATION PRACTICES. 

Understanding the complexities how conservation practices interact with biological, 

chemical, and physical processes at watershed and landscape scales is critical to properly 

evaluating the effectiveness of USDA’s significant investment in conservation programs. 

The goals of this Problem Area are to: (1) develop technologies for the detailed 

assessment of conservation programs at the watershed scale; (2) validate and improve the 

models used to analyze relevant biological, chemical, and physical processes; and (3) 

support coordinated research on the effects of conservation practices across a range of 

resource characteristics (e.g., climate, terrain, land use, soils). Accomplishments in this 

component serve the needs of USDA’s Natural Resource Conservation Service and Farm 

Services Agency, helping farmers to maximize production while minimizing the impacts 

of agriculture on our natural resources.

PROBLEM AREA 2: IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Irrigated agriculture produces 60% of crop market value on less than 20% of the 

cultivated land in the US, but doing so accounts for approximately 80% of the 

consumptive use of freshwater in the US, with growing competition from urban, 

suburban, and industrial sectors. Research in this Problem Area focuses on improving 

the efficiency of agricultural water use in both arid and humid regions, including 

developing technologies and practices for using alternate water sources (i.e., re-use of 

degraded waters) to support agricultural production. Anticipated outcomes and products 

include: (1) improved irrigation scheduling tools and water delivery technologies; (2) onsite sensors or remote sensing techniques to measure soil water content and plant 

responses for site specific irrigation water management; (3) cropping and management 

strategies under limited water supplies and using degraded waters; and (4) tools for 

irrigation scheduling in humid regions. 

PROBLEM AREA 3: DRAINAGE WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Surface and subsurface drainage water management (DWM) systems are crucial for 

mitigating the environmental impacts of agricultural drainage waters in both rainfed and 

irrigated croplands, well-known as major contributors of nonpoint source pollution to 

streams and lakes. Research in this problem area focuses on the specific guidelines and 

tools needed for both surface and subsurface drainage water management systems to 

minimize the impacts of drainage on water quality, including design specifications, 

installation protocols, and automation techniques, with associated evaluation of their 

effects on water quantity and quality, soil quality, and wildlife benefits, and the 

incorporation of improved drainage water management systems into environmental and 

economic decision support systems. Research in this Problem Area is of particular 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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interest to USDA’s Natural Resource Conservation Service, in light of their recently 

announced (2011) Drainage Water Management Initiative.

PROBLEM AREA 4: INTEGTRATED EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION 

TECHNOLOGIES

Because it is linked to both soil fertility and costly negative impacts on channel 

evolution, flooding, water and air quality, controlling soil erosion is an essential 

component of developing sustainable agricultural production systems. Customers 

identified two basic needs: (1) better erosion control technologies; and (2) improved 

decision support systems for planning and assessment. Thus the research focus of this 

Problem Area is shifting from the traditional study of rainfall-runoff induced sediment 

detachment and transport processes, towards quantifying subsurface hydrologic effects on 

ephemeral gully formation and stream bank erosion and identifying sediment sources on 

the landscape for targeting control strategies. Assessment tools and techniques to prevent 

concentrated flow erosion in irrigation furrows, and in earthen spillways and 

embankments associated with flood control structures, are also important. This latter 

research is particularly important to the USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, charged with managing and/or rehabilitating thousands of earthen dams and 

embankments that are reaching the end of the recommended life span.

PROBLEM AREA 5: WATERSHED MANAGEMENT, WATER 

AVAILABILITY, AND ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION

Society relies on adequate freshwater resources to support populations, agriculture, 

industry, wildlife habitat, aquatic ecosystems, and a healthy environment. Because 

agricultural watersheds, including crop, pasture, and range lands, account for more than 

70% of the land surface in the continental US, agricultural watershed management plays 

a dominant role in managing the Nation’s freshwater resources. As exemplified by 

research in this Problem Area, the primary research challenge remains developing and

applying an integrated research approach, based on ecological, geomorphic, and 

hydrological principles, to develop better understanding and management of water 

availability, allocation potential, and their impacts on wetlands, riparian ecosystems, and 

associated fluvial systems, at the watershed scale.

Research in this Problem Area focuses on: (1) developing Best Management Practices 

(BMPs), assessment tools, and decision support systems for managing water quantity and 

quality in a variety of watersheds, landscapes, and climates; and (2) improving a variety 

of tools (e.g., simulation models, remote sensing techniques) to improve estimates of 

water budgets and their components, including water quality assessments and 

assessments of flood and drought risk. Products of this research are of interest to a 

variety of Federal agencies including the National Weather Service, the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, and the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, to improve understanding and prediction of weather, climate, and 

atmospheric processes at a range of scales, and using satellite-collected by satellites and 

other types of remote sensing data.

PROBLEM AREA 6: WATER QUALITY PROTECTION SYSTEMS
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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To be economically viable, most crop production systems rely on chemical inputs (e.g., 

nutrients, pesticides), but excess nutrients can cause eutrophication of both fresh and 

marine coastal waters, and elevated levels of some species (e.g., nitrate) also impact 

human health. Research in this Problem Area focuses on developing reliable and 

effective control strategies and technologies to reduce the transport of nutrients, 

pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and pathogens from agricultural lands to aquatic ecosystems. 

Products of this research are of interest to farmers working to maintain the economic 

viability of their operations, to the Natural Resource Conservation Service, in light of 

their mission to improve conservation on agricultural lands, and to the Environmental 

Protection Agency, charged with maintaining the quality of the nation’s water resources.

Due to the multi-disciplinary nature of the research conducted in NP 211 and the research teams 

that contribute to the program, it is common for research teams in NP 211 to work on multiple 

products, often crossing the boundaries of individual Problem Areas and National Programs. It 

is also common for multiple ARS units to engage in cooperative research to develop some of the 

products and achieve some of the outcomes identified in this action plan. Conservation Effects 

Assessment Project (CEAP) Benchmark Watersheds research is one example of this type of 

collaborative effort.

RELATIONSHIP OF NP 211 TO OTHER NATIONAL PROGRAMS AND

COLLABORATIONS WITH PARTNERS OUTSIDE OF ARS

ARS research is organized into four national program areas: (1) Animal Production and 

Protection (APP); (2) Crop Production and Protection (CPP); (3) Natural Resources and 

Sustainable Agricultural Systems (NRSAS); and (4) Nutrition, Food Safety, and Quality 

(NFSQ). NP 211 is one of six national programs within NRSAS. Since water is fundamental to 

life and a basic requirement for virtually all agricultural activities, research conducted under NP 

211 often contributes to attaining the goals of other national programs:

• NP 212 – Climate Change, Soils, and Emissions. NP 211 scientists have significant 

partnerships with their counterparts in NP 212 in addressing topics like soil erosion and 

soil fertility as affected by irrigation and drainage. In addition, NP 211 scientists cover 

the majority of water-related research linked to climate change. Finally, for nutrient 

elements such as nitrogen that have both aqueous and gaseous forms, strong linkages 

between research on water quality and emissions are essential for closing the agricultural 

nitrogen budget.

• NP 213 – Bioenergy. NP 211 scientists contribute to NP 213 in their examination of 

water quantity and quality issues related to biofuel feedstock production.

• NP 214 – Agricultural and Industrial Byproducts. Land application of manure can be a 

significant source of the nutrients in agricultural runoff that can cause the eutrophication 

of aquatic ecosystems, particularly phosphorus. A significant proportion of ARS 

research on sustainable use of manure as an agricultural fertilizer, and developing

practices to avoid undesirable effects on water quality, is conducted in NP 211. NP 211 

scientists also conduct significant research on how industrial byproducts can be used to 

help solve agricultural water quality problems.

• NP 215 – Pasture, Forage and Rangeland Systems. NP 211 scientists contribute 

significantly to the Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) activities on range 

and pasturelands, where water quantity and quality issues are both major concerns.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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Figure 2: Reference: Derner, J.D. and Schuman, G.E. Carbon sequestration and rangelands: a 

synthesis of land management and precipitation effects. Journal Soil Water Conservation 62:77-85. 

2007.

NP 211 Microbiologist J. 

McLain (left) examines 

bacteria from a park irrigated 

with treated wastewater. 

• NP 216 – Agricultural System Competitiveness and Sustainability. Sustainable 

agricultural systems cannot be developed without paying attention to water quantity and 

quality concerns. NP 211 provides significant input to NP 216 scientists in the 

sustainable use of water to maintain and enhance agricultural productivity in a variety of 

agricultural production systems.

For example, ARS NP 212 and NP 215 researchers Cheyenne, WY, found that soil organic 

carbon (C) storage in rangelands was significantly positively correlated with mean annual 

precipitation, and that the impact of grazing management practices on soil C storage also 

differed as a function of mean annual precipitation (Figure 2). This is a prime example of 

the potentially complex interactions among water availability, soil processes, and land 

management practices that can affect management decisions.

ARS’ research on water is not just focused on 

agricultural crop or animal production systems. The 

following example shows how ARS NP 211 research 

directly addresses a public health concern on park lands 

irrigated with treated sewage water, associated with the 

increased use of the recycled water to increase water 

availability in arid regions. NP 211 scientists at 

Maricopa, AZ monitored levels of fecal bacteria (E. coli, 

Enterococcus) in a reclaimed water holding pond used as 

a source of irrigation water, in water leaving the 

irrigation system, and in irrigated soils over two years in 

a municipal parkland. While they did find spikes of 

bacteria in the pond water, possibly due to fecal inputs 

from parkland dogs, birds, and fish, there was no 

detectable buildup of fecal bacteria in irrigated soils over 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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a two year period. The highest E. coli levels were found in deeper soils during summer, 

suggesting that surface conditions (intense solar radiation and desiccation) were lethal to 

bacteria, reducing potential human health risks in irrigated areas. 

One key to success in natural resources research is developing collaborations and partnerships 

with other government agencies (Federal, state and local), NGOs, commodity groups, 

landowners, and farmers. Water management practices (e.g., new irrigation techniques, water 

quality protection systems) need to be tested in operational farm fields, as well as in research 

plots. Research findings need to be translated into guidelines, practice standards, and decision 

support systems. NP 211 scientists have a long history of collaboration with outside entities. 

Many Federal agencies, including the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), 

the US Forest Service, the US Environmental Protection Agency, the US Geological Survey, the 

Bureau of Land Management, the US Army Corps of Engineers, and the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration, rely on ARS research products. At the local level, ARS scientists 

work closely with university research partners, state and local departments of natural resources 

or environmental quality, local grower associations, water management and/or irrigation 

districts, soil and water conservation districts, environmental groups, watershed associations, and 

most importantly farmers and land managers, on planning the research and delivering the 

technologies that are relevant and practical to help managing water resources. 

An example of ARS collaboration with NRCS is in the development and revision of their 

National Conservation Practice Standards, including the recent revision of NRCS National 

Nutrient Management Standard #590. ARS scientists played a significant role in providing the 

research findings and proposing nutrient 

application criteria that will help to maximize 

yield while minimizing environmental impact. 

At the local level, many ARS scientists provide 

assistance to NRCS State Technical 

Committees in developing state-specific 

nutrient management guidelines. 

An example of an ARS collaboration with 

external partners is the NRCS-funded 2007-

2009 Conservation Innovation Grant (CIG) on 

controlled drainage in five Midwestern states: 

Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. 

Participants in this project included NP 211 

and other ARS scientists, university 

researchers, representatives from the drainage 

industry, and farmers. The purpose of the project was to use farmland under active cultivation to 

demonstrate that controlling ground water levels in tile-drained fields can minimize nitrogen 

leaching through the drains, reducing costly fertilizer losses while improving both environmental 

quality and the farmer’s bottom line.

Another example that will have national and international significance in the future is NASA’s 

Soil Moisture Active and Passive (SMAP) satellite, currently scheduled to launch in 2014. This 
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NASA SMAP Mission is planned to launch in 2014.

is a "Tier-1" mission recommended by the U.S. National Research Council’s Committee on 

Earth Science and Applications from Space. The purpose of the mission is to provide global 

coverage of soil moisture and freeze-thaw measurements--measurements that have significant 

value in a variety of scientific disciplines including atmospheric and climate change science, 

global biogeochemistry, ecology and environmental science, hydrology, and meteorology. ARS 

scientists have been a key part of this mission since the initial field campaign in the Southern 

Great Plains in 1999 (SGP1999). The initial and subsequent campaigns have been used to fieldtest instrumentation that will be carried by the SMAP satellite when launched in 2014. Once the 

satellite is launched, several ARS watersheds will serve as field validation sites. This activity, 

which spans at least three 5-year program cycles and associated action plans, demonstrates the 

broad scale impact of ARS’ NP211 research.

The accomplishments of NP 211 are often attained in close cooperation with public and private 

sector collaborators, and in fact, many NP 211 researchers are co-located with land-grant 

university faculty. The ability of ARS to partner with land-grant universities strengthens the 

capacities of both the institutions and NP 211. As an added benefit, NP 211 researchers help to 

train the next generation of agricultural researchers, by hosting visiting scientists and post docs, 

mentoring or directing graduate student projects, and providing undergraduate student work 

experiences. In fact, many ARS scientists started their career as undergraduate student workers. 

ARS laboratories are also the top choices for many international scholars when they come to the 

US for training or sabbaticals. These students and scholars have contributed significantly to help 

advance the national program’s research agenda. Although training students is not a primary 

mission of ARS, it is nonetheless an important measure of leadership and stewardship that NP 

211 scientists contribute to the agricultural research community. In addition, NP 211 scientists 

have accommodated a number of visiting scientists interested in gaining specific research 

expertise and/or research collaborations.

During the past 5 years, the progress and achievements of NP 211 were also strengthened 

significantly by collaborative and coordinated research supported by non-governmental 

organizations, private industry, and international partners. This support can be in the form of inkind contributions, trust agreements, or cooperative research and development agreements 

(CRADAs). NP 211 NPLs and scientists often participate in strategic planning and coordination 

efforts with these commodity research communities to integrate public- and private-sector 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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partners into cooperative research. These partnerships enable NP 211 to effectively leverage 

additional resources to conduct and transfer research that addresses critical agricultural problems.

HOW THIS REPORT WAS CONSTRUCTED AND WHAT IT REFLECTS 

In this report, NP 211 accomplishments and their impacts are organized and presented according 

to the six Problem Areas and their associated products, outputs, and outcomes, as outlined in the 

NP 211 2006 to 2010 Action Plan. Under the Problem Areas, accomplishments are grouped by 

relevant themes that reference one or more of the products described in the Action Plan. Since 

fiscal resources and research capacity are not uniformly distributed either within or among the 

six Problem Areas, more accomplishments may be reported under some Problem Areas than 

others.

The content of this accomplishment report is derived from the past 5 years of NP 211 Annual 

Reports and the reports of its constituent research projects. This report stresses the impacts of 

those accomplishments and, where relevant, cites key publications or Web URLs documenting 

those accomplishments. The 43 primary and 23 contributing research projects in NP 211 are 

listed in Appendix 1 under the associated Action Plan Problem Area. A complete list of 

publications is given in Appendix 2. References for publications authored by NP 211 scientists 

and cited in the body of the report, appear at the end of each Problem Area. Appendix 3 is the 

Action Plan table showing all the proposed products and research locations and scientists 

involved in each of the products.

This report was prepared for an external (to USDA) retrospective review of NP 211 to assess 

how well this national program attained its projected goals as outlined in the 2006 to 2010 

Action Plan. Accordingly, the purpose of the retrospective review is not to judge the 

performance of individual NP 211 research projects, but to gauge the overall impact of the 

national program. Consequently, the report does not attempt to catalogue all of the individual 

accomplishments of NP 211 research projects. Individual scientists or projects are not identified 

by name in the narrative text. Instead, their achievements are described in the context of 

contributions towards accomplishing NP 211’s stated commitments to the mission of the 

Agricultural Research Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Some of the projects and locations that were part of NP 211 at the start of the 5-year program 

cycle (i.e., during the writing of the Action Plan) moved to other National Programs during the 

evaluation period. For example, NP 211 projects at Pullman, WA, and Lincoln, NE, moved to 

NP 212 (Climate Change, Soils, and Emissions). The NP 211 project at Watkinsville, GA, 

moved to NP 216 (Agricultural System Competitiveness and Sustainability). The NP 211 project 

initially located at Baton Rouge, LA, moved to Houma, LA, during the program cycle, with an 

associated change in project emphasis, from drainage water management in humid and subhumid environments to developing best management practices for managing water quantity and 

quality associated with the production of energy cane. The NP211 project at Miami, FL, moved 

into the Crop Production and Protection National Program Area altogether, to better support 

subtropical horticultural research. Because of associated changes in research emphasis, 

productivity associated with NP 211 products at these locations may have been impacted.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011: Introduction

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ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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Problem Area 1: Effectiveness of 

Conservation Practices

Improved conservation practices reduce 

sediment and nutrient losses from agriculture. 

Ideal practices will reduce the cost of inputs for 

the producer, improve the sustainability of land 

resources, and minimize the impacts of 

agriculture on water quality. Assessments of the 

impact of conservation practices across large, 

complex watersheds depend on the 

development of reliable assessment criteria, an 

understanding of physical, chemical, and 

biological processes that occur at scales ranging 

from fields to watersheds, and on the integration 

of this knowledge into improved, validated 

models and tools to evaluate and predict the 

impact and result of management options. 

Theme 1: Organized efforts and data from 

ARS research watersheds 

With the initiation of CEAP, one challenge was 

to determine how data and information could be 

shared among research locations and with 

customers and stakeholders. Reported here are 

selected accomplishments demonstrating how 

ARS scientists worked together to establish a 

framework where research data can be 

deposited and made available to others to use. 

These selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 1: A data system to organize, 

document, manipulate and compile water, soil, 

management, and socio-economic data for 

assessment of conservation practices. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 1

of Problem Area 1

The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) 

conducts watershed-scale research at 14

locations as part of the United States 

Department of Agriculture (USDA)-led 

Conservation Effects Assessment Project 

(CEAP). Watershed-scale modeling, field 

studies to assess the effectiveness of 

conservation practices, and evaluation of 

practice placement in watersheds, are used to 

assess the impacts of conservation practices on 

water quality in large agricultural watersheds. 

Field studies show that conservation practices 

improve water quality, but water quality 

problems persist in larger watersheds. The 

apparent dissociation between practice-focused 

assessment and water quality status occurs 

because: 1) conservation practices are not 

targeted according to critical sources and 

pathways of contaminants; 2) sediments carried 

by streams often originate from channel and 

bank erosion, rather than from erosion of soil in 

fields; 3) timing lags, historical legacies, and 

shifting climate combine to mask the effects of 

practice implementation; and 4) water quality 

management strategies that address single 

contaminants do not consider inherent trade-offs 

among multiple contaminants. These lessons 

can be leveraged to improve strategies for 

implementing conservation programs and to set 

water quality goals with realistic timelines 

(Tomer and Locke, 2011).

Cobb Creek and its tributaries in Oklahoma

are part of a watershed being studied by 

ARS to gauge the effects of agricultural 

conservation practices on water quality.

Watersheds in the Conservation Effects 

Assessment Project (CEAP).
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

14

As part of the ARS CEAP watershed studies on 

croplands, data and information from ARS 

benchmark watersheds have been assembled 

into a web-based data system—Sustaining the 

Earth’s Watersheds Agricultural Research Data 

System (STEWARDS)—that organizes and 

documents soil, water, climate, landmanagement, and socio-economic data from 

multiple agricultural watersheds across the US, 

allowing users to search, download, visualize, 

and explore data for research and conservation 

management purposes. STEWARDS helps: 1) 

researchers obtain ARS’ long-term data for 

hydrological studies; 2) modelers retrieve data 

for model calibration and validation; and 3) 

watershed managers and a wide array of 

partners and stakeholders access long term 

data to support conservation planning and 

assessment (Sadler et al., 2008).

One of the benefits of long-term data collection 

relates to the potential for subsequent 

integrative and comprehensive analyses. ARS 

scientists at Tifton, GA, have collected stream 

flow and water quality data on the Little River 

Experimental Watershed (LREW) in south 

central Georgia for the past 37 years, and 

sediment and agrichemical concentrations in 

stream flow for the past 20 years. The resulting 

database contains hydrologic and water quality 

data, combined with terrain, soils, geology, 

vegetation, and conservation practices, for this 

watershed. The database was published in six 

manuscripts and via a public ftp site, 

ftp://www.tiftonars.org/, and is being used to 

closely examine long-term water quantity and 

quality patterns for the watershed. The research 

illustrates the dramatic importance of riparian 

buffers within the watershed, which remove 

sediment and nutrients from upland agricultural 

sources, preventing them from entering adjacent 

streams and causing eutrophication (Bosch et 

al., 2007). 

Theme 2: Evidence of water quality and 

ecological benefits 

When implemented, conservation practices may 

produce anticipated benefits at the field-scale, 

but at the down-stream or watershed scale, it 

can take years for the aggregated effects of 

conservation practices to be realized. 

Collecting the long-term data necessary for 

watershed scale conservation assessment is 

also challenging. ARS scientists demonstrated 

that satellite imagery can be used to identify 

fields that have been implemented with 

conservation practices such as cover crops or 

conservation tillage (from crop residue cover). 

ARS research also showed that streams can be 

a primary source of sediment, but can also offer 

another line of protection against agricultural 

pollutants. These selected accomplishments 

demonstrate the effects of innovative in-stream 

treatments such as grade-control structures, 

vegetated drainage ditches, wetlands, and blindinlets (where an inlet for drainage water is 

considered as the beginning of the artificial 

stream network). 

The selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 2: Water quality, water quantity, soil 

quality, and ecosystem effects of conservation 

practices at the field, farm, and watershed 

scales. Some accomplishments focusing on 

the remediation of specific agricultural pollutants 

(i.e., nutrients, pesticides) are reported in 

Problem Area 6, Theme 2 ‘Remediation of 

Agricultural Pollutants’. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 2 

of Problem Area 1 

Winter cover crops have been shown to 

effectively reduce both N and phosphorus (P) 

losses from agricultural fields, but the extent of 

adoption is difficult to monitor at the watershed 

or landscape scale. In collaboration with the 

USGS and the Maryland Department of 

Agriculture (MDA), ARS researchers in 

Beltsville, MD, developed and implemented 

geospatial tools to aid in quantifying the areal 

extent of cover crop adoption and associated N 

and P retention. In the Choptank River

STEWARDS data screen [need more 

information here]. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

15

Watershed, part of ARS’ CEAP croplands 

watershed research network, field-specific data 

on conservation program enrollment were 

combined with satellite imagery analysis to 

rapidly verify, quantify, and certify cover crop 

performance. Following successful 

development of these methodologies, the State 

of Maryland began using these geospatial cover 

crop management toolkits in the Talbot County 

Soil Conservation District. Part of the strategy is 

to automate the aggregation of site-specific data 

on conservation program performance to match 

watershed and county boundaries, providing 

useful, rapid appraisal of cover crop success in 

protecting water quality, while maintaining farm 

data privacy as required in Section 1619 of the 

Farm Bill. Continuing this collaboration among 

the MDA, USDA, USGS, the US Fish and 

Wildlife Service (USFWS), and other partners, 

will substantially improve the potential 

contribution of winter cover crops to preventing 

nitrogen and phosphorus release from 

agricultural fields to the Chesapeake Bay (Hively 

et al., 2009).

Similar to assessing the effectiveness of winter 

cover crops, in order to assess the effectiveness 

of conservation tillage adoption on water 

availability, it is critical to first quantify the extent 

of conservation tillage adoption at the watershed 

scale. However there are currently no methods 

in place to monitor conservation tillage adoption 

at the watershed scale. Using commonly 

available satellite imagery, ARS researchers at 

Tifton, GA, developed a mapping algorithm that 

depicted conservation tillage adoption within the 

Little River Experimental Watershed (LREW). 

The resulting map identified farm sites using 

conservation tillage, defined as having >30% 

crop residue cover, with 71-78% confidence. 

Results suggest that currently available satellite 

imagery can be used to accurately map 

conservation tillage adoption with a minimum 

amount of ground control points (Sullivan et al., 

2008).

In addition to providing producer guidance on 

effective practices and their placement on the 

landscape, it is critical that USDA objectively 

evaluate its own performance as advisors. A 26 

year history of NRCS-assisted conservation 

practice placement was evaluated for the Little 

River Experimental Watershed (LREW) at Tifton, 

GA. Nearly 50% of all croplands fields were 

identified as having participated in NRCS 

conservation programs, with 62% of fields (77% 

of land area) receiving assistance for soil 

erosion and water erosion quality control 

practices in high resource concern areas (slope 

> 2.7 % and low infiltration). ARS also estimated 

that 30-40% of the time, erosion control 

practices were implemented in areas not rated 

as a high concern. Forty seven percent of all 

fields sampled implemented visible erosion 

control-specific conservation practices and the 

implementation was linearly related to slope 

class. The relationship observed between 

erosion control practice placement and slope in 

the sub-watershed database is encouraging and 

suggests a commitment to good stewardship 

regardless of participation in federally funded 

conservation programs (Settimi et al., 2010). 

ARS scientists in Oxford, MS, found that 

conservation efforts to reduce sediment loadings 

to receiving streams and other water bodies may 

only be successful if mitigation measures target 

the major sources of sediment in a watershed. In 

many watersheds, stream channels represent a 

significant sediment source that has been 

largely ignored. Results show that CEAP 

watersheds like the Fort Cobb and Little 

Washita, OK, Goodwin Creek, MS, the South 

Fork of the Iowa River, IA, and Town Brook, NY, 

produce substantially more sediment than other 

University of Maryland PhD student Gabriela 

Niño de Guzmán collects water samples for 

pesticide and antibiotics analyses in a 

stream within the Choptank River 

Watershed.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

16

watersheds in their respective regions that have 

stable stream channels. In some cases, 

watersheds with unstable streams produce 

orders of magnitude more sediment than their 

stable counterparts. Reconnaissance of these 

channels showed that they are dominated by 

stream bank erosion. This finding is further 

supported by on-site measurements using 

naturally occurring radionuclides as tracers. In 

contrast, the Little River, GA, a stream in

dynamic equilibrium without accelerated rates of 

bank erosion, displayed transport rates similar to 

calculated background rates. Knowledge of the 

dominant sources of sediments carried by 

streams identifies the need to design and 

implement measures to stabilize channels in 

watersheds with unstable streams, thereby 

reducing impacts on aquatic communities and 

the quality of surface waters (Wilson et al., 2008; 

Romkens, 2010).

Billions of dollars are spent annually on BMPs to 

control the water quality impacts of crop 

production, but the specific benefits of these 

investments are rarely quantified. ARS 

scientists in Oxford, MS, measured long-term 

improvements in the quality of Beasley Lake, a 

natural lake receiving runoff from a heavily 

cultivated watershed, following BMP 

implementation. During the preceding 15 years, 

BMPs were installed both within crop fields and 

at field edges throughout the 915 ha watershed, 

including the enrollment of 113 ha of formerly 

cultivated land into the CRP, and then planted to 

trees. With the exception of dissolved P, 

sediment and nutrient levels decreased annually 

over a 14-year period, while algal populations 

and water clarity increased. Improvements were 

most pronounced in spring. These findings 

provide the scientific basis for future investments 

in conservation programs supporting land 

retirement and BMP establishment (Cullum et 

al., 2010; Zablotowicz et al., 2010).

In recent years, a resurgence of algal blooms 

has occurred in western Lake Erie, due in part to 

high loadings of phosphorus. Agriculture in the 

watershed has been identified as a key 

contributor of phosphorus loadings to Lake Erie. 

Agricultural Research Service scientists at West 

Lafayette, IN, have worked with local 

cooperators in the St. Joseph River watershed in 

northeast Indiana, to assess the influence of 

conservation practices on the quality of water

conveyed to Lake Erie. Within the monitored 

watersheds, tile-risers have been identified as 

conveying very high loads of sediment and 

contaminants to stream water. In cooperation 

with the Indiana NRCS, a set of blind inlet 

construction criteria was developed and 

implemented at both the field and small 

watershed scales. At the field scale, installation 

of blind inlets was followed by observed 

decreases in sediment, phosphorus, and 

nitrogen. When this technology was used to 

replace all tile risers in a 700 acre watershed, 

there was a clear reduction in P transported to 

the stream following rainfall events. Within 

individual fields, blind inlets reduced phosphorus 

loadings by as much as an additional 86%. This 

research documents the effectiveness of specific 

NRCS conservation practices, and quantifies 

their benefits to water quality (Smith et al., 

2008).

ARS scientists at Oxford, MS, evaluated instream grade stabilization structures in the 2,132 

ha Goodwin Creek Experimental Watershed, a 

CEAP benchmark watershed in northern 

Mississippi. Their research showed that the 

combined effects of grade control structures and 

conversion of croplands to CRP lands, which 

reduced cultivated land from 26 to 8%, caused a 

78% reduction in sediment yield near the outlet 

of the watershed. The evaluation was a 

successful real-world test of watershed 

simulation models intended to help watershed 

managers choose combinations of practices to 

increase environmental benefits (Kuhnle et al., 

2008).

CEAP studies cost-effectiveness of 

conservation practices, such as this restored 

riparian forest buffer that ecologist Richard 

Lowrance is standing next to.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

17

In agricultural landscapes where forest buffers 

are no longer present, vegetative buffer strips 

(VBS) represent an important alternative for 

improving water quality. In association with 

University of Missouri researchers, ARS 

scientists in Columbia, MO, quantified how VBS 

help to reduce the transport of herbicides and 

veterinary antibiotics (VAs) in surface runoff. 

The practice involves the combination of altering 

surface hydrology to initially trap contaminants, 

followed by enhanced soil degradation. Two 

separate but interconnected studies 

investigated: 1) the effectiveness of different 

grass species in reducing herbicide and VA 

transport in surface runoff; and 2) the ability of 

several grass species to promote the breakdown 

of atrazine in soil. All VBS significantly reduced 

the transport of herbicides and VAs in surface 

runoff. Native grasses (i.e., Eastern gamagrass, 

switchgrass) were most effective for reducing 

herbicide transport; tall fescue was most 

effective at reducing VA transport. Based on 

these findings, relationships were developed 

relating buffer size to pollutant transport, 

providing needed design criteria for effective 

implementation of VBS. In the second study, 

while all grasses tested showed significant 

increases in atrazine breakdown as compared to 

bare soil, eastern gammagrass, smooth 

bromegrass, and switchgrass exhibited the 

greatest ability to enhance atrazine breakdown 

in soil. Overall, these studies demonstrate that 

VBS are an effective conservation practice for 

reducing the off-site movement of herbicides 

and VAs. Both land management agencies 

(e.g., NRCS and State conservation agencies) 

and landowners can use this research to help 

design VBS to more effectively protect water 

resources from non-point source pollution in 

agricultural watersheds (Lin et al., 2011a; 

2011b)

While the study above clearly demonstrates the 

water quality benefits of VBS, their ecological 

benefits in agricultural streams are less well 

known. To address this deficiency, ARS 

scientists in Columbus, OH, assessed the 

effects of grass buffer strips on physical habitat, 

water chemistry, and fishes in channelized 

agricultural headwater streams. Installation of 

grass filter strips did not influence vegetative 

structure, vegetative type, channel form, instream habitat, water chemistry, or the stream 

biota. Thus unless used in combination with 

other conservation practices such as no-till or 

cover crops, grass filter strips may only provide 

limited ecological benefits in channelized 

headwater streams. Federal, state, and private 

agencies charged with managing agricultural 

watersheds can use these findings to help plan 

their conservation and restoration activities 

(Smiley et al., 2011).

Conservation practices are regularly 

implemented within agricultural watersheds 

throughout the United States without evaluating 

their ecological impacts. Scientific evaluations 

documenting how habitat and aquatic biota 

within streams respond to these practices are 

needed for evaluating the effects of conservation 

practices. Numerous sampling protocols have 

been developed for monitoring streams, but 

protocols designed for monitoring studies are 

not necessarily appropriate for scientific 

evaluations. ARS scientists at Columbus, OH, 

and Oxford, MS, developed a framework for 

designing scientific evaluations of ecological 

responses to conservation practices. The 

framework includes six principles: 1) develop the 

hypothesis first; 2) use replicated experimental 

designs having controls and treatments; 3) 

assess the habitat and biological characteristics; 

Ecologist Rocky Smiley and technician Sarah 

Boone use a backpack electrofisher to assess 

fish communities in headwater streams and 

drainage ditches.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

18

4) select quantitative and repeatable habitat 

sampling methods; 5) use multiple sampling

techniques for collecting aquatic organisms; and 

6) standardize sampling efforts for aquatic 

organisms. Application of these 

recommendations will result in scientific 

evaluations that are hypothesis-driven and 

incorporate quantitative methods for the 

measurement of abiotic and biotic attributes 

(Smiley et al., 2009).

Conservation tillage, vegetative buffers, and 

controlled irrigation are relatively effective 

measures for reducing erosion losses and 

maintaining high soil productivity, but these 

systems can be somewhat ‘leaky’, especially on 

highly erodible soils. As a part of CEAP, ARS 

scientists in Kimberly, ID, examined sediment 

dynamics in the 200,000 acre Upper Snake 

River, Rock Creek watershed, ID. Sediment 

retention ponds were found to be an effective 

conservation practice in this watershed, 

contributing to observed decreases in 

suspended sediment loss from 400 lb/acre in 

1971, to 50 lb/acre in 2005. Sediment retention 

ponds installed on one return flow stream in 

2006, reduced annual average sediment 

concentrations from 400 mg/L in 2005 to 70 

mg/L in 2007, reducing sediment loads by 5500 

tons. This work provides much-needed 

quantification of the value of sediment retention 

ponds in controlling sediment losses at the 

watershed scale helping the NRCS to document 

the effectiveness of USDA-sponsored 

conservation practices (Bjorneberg et al., 2008). 

Atrazine is a cost-effective and proven herbicide 

for corn production in the US, and atrazine 

concentrations in surface water frequently 

exceed drinking water standards. The USDA 

sponsored Environmental Quality Incentive 

Program provides incentives to farmers to adopt 

conservation practices that reduce the delivery 

of agrichemicals to streams. However, 

quantitative information on the effectiveness of 

these practices is often limited. One such 

practice is the pesticide management practice. 

ARS scientists at Columbus, OH, quantified the 

effectiveness of the pesticide management 

practice, when applied at a watershed scale, to 

reduce the delivery of atrazine to a drinking 

water supply reservoir. Significant differences in 

reservoir atrazine concentrations were 

measured between three distinct time periods: 

before there were any restrictions on the amount 

of atrazine that could be applied (pre-label); after 

atrazine label restrictions were implemented;

and during a subsequent EQIP atrazine 

pesticide management practice implementation. 

The primary benefit of the practice, reduced 

water treatment cost, greatly outweighed the 

incentive payment costs for implementing the 

practice. This result indicates that the watershed 

scale implementation of a conservation practice

can be a cost effective approach for addressing 

nonpoint source pollution (King et al., 2009; King 

et al., 2012) 

Theme 3: Models for assessing 

conservation effects at watershed and 

regional scales

From selecting the proper conservation 

practices at the field scale, to making policy 

decisions at watershed, river basin, or national 

scales, conservation planning relies on models 

that accurately calibrated and validated. In 

natural resource research, the ultimate goal of 

the scientific efforts is to either develop practices 

that can be implemented to address specific 

production and environmental concerns, or to 

have a model or a modeling component that is 

based on sound science and has been 

validated. ARS scientists have a long tradition 

of developing natural resource models and tools 

that are now used routinely in conservation 

planning. In the following section, selected 

accomplishments on watershed scale modeling 

are presented. 

These accomplishments cover three proposed 

products in the NP211 2006-2010 Action Plan: 

Product 3--Validate models, quantify 

uncertainties in model output, and conduct 

analyses with models at field, farm, and 

watershed scales; Product 4--Policy-planning 

tools to aid selection and placement of 

conservation practices to optimize profits, 

environmental quality, and conservation 

program efficiency; and Product 5--Regional 

watershed models that can be used to quantify 

the environmental outcomes of conservation 

practices in major agricultural regions. These 

products focus on the development, calibration,

and validation of models or tools that can be 

used to assess the effectiveness of conservation 

delivery. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 3

of Problem Area 1 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

19

Simulation models are critical to accurately

assessing water quality concerns and the effects 

of conservation practices designed to improve

water quality. The EPA and state environmental 

agencies have identified approximately 15,000 

water quality-impaired water bodies in the U.S. 

At the same time, USDA is mandated to: 1)

conduct a thorough analysis of the risks and 

benefits of USDA's conservation programs to 

human health, safety, and the environment; 2) 

determine alternative ways of reducing risk; and 

3) conduct cost-benefit assessments of these 

programs and alternatives. To help address 

these issues, ARS scientists at Temple, TX, 

developed a number of new algorithms for the 

river basin scale model, SWAT, to simulate onsite septic systems, stream sediment routing, 

urban management practices, improved 

phosphorus fate and transport, and stream 

health. As part of the CEAP National Croplands 

Assessment, SWAT was validated at more than 

70 USGS stream gauges across the country, to 

assure realistic simulation of stream flow, 

sediment, nutrient, and pesticide (atrazine) 

loads. Final SWAT validation and scenario 

analyses were completed for the Upper 

Mississippi river basin, the Chesapeake Bay 

watershed, the Ohio-Tennessee river basin, and 

the Great Lakes watershed. Final draft reports 

are under review by NRCS and are available on 

the CEAP website 

(http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/

national/technical/nra/ceap). Validation and 

scenario analyses have also been completed for 

the Missouri, Arkansas-Red, and Lower 

Mississippi river basins, with reports currently 

being developed. Scenario runs from this model 

are being used by NRCS to identify places 

where conservation practices, such as 

conservation tillage, terraces, and the CRP, will 

be most efficient and provide the greatest 

benefits. The results of these activities will help 

guide USDA conservation policy and the Farm 

Bill debate. The model is also being used by 

EPA in more than 30 states to select land 

management alternatives to resolve water 

quality concerns (Migliaccio et al., 2010; Harmel 

et al., 2010; Jeong et al., 2010; Rabotyagov et 

al., 2010; White et al., 2010; Vadas and White, 

2010; Douglas-Mankin et al., 2010; Bosch et al., 

2010; Srinivasan et al., 2010; Chiang et al., 

2010; Moriasi et al., 2011; Tuppad et al. 2010; 

Harmel et al., 2010).

Conservation practices can be implemented 

both in agricultural fields (e.g., conservation 

tillage) and along the stream corridors (e.g., 

buffer strips), but the relative effectiveness of 

these practices in reducing pollutant loads 

carried in agricultural runoff has not been 

evaluated. ARS scientists at Tifton, GA, used 

SWAT to simulate the water quality effects of 

upland conservation practices (CPs) commonly 

adopted in the Little River Experimental 

Watershed (LREW) for erosion and nutrient 

control, as compared to the effects of existing 

riparian forest buffers. Erosion CPs produced 

the greatest reductions in sediment and 

phosphorus concentrations, while nutrient 

reduction practices were most effective in 

reducing total stream nitrogen. Evaluating three 

different implementation prioritization scenarios 

(i.e., random placement, stream order, and 

nonpoint source pollutant load) showed that 

prioritizing based on nonpoint source pollutant 

load yielded more efficient (nonlinear) water 

quality improvements than the two other 

scenarios, which yielded linear returns. Riparian 

forest buffers offered the most comprehensive 

reduction of all three pollutants. Simulation 

Many CEAP watersheds use the SWAT 

computer model to predict effects of farm 

practices on water quality. Here, technician 

Jeff Nichols collects a sample from a 

watershed in Ames, Iowa, as part of earlier 

work to refine the model.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

20

results indicate that the current level of riparian 

forest cover in the LREW may be the single 

largest contributor to reducing nonpoint source 

pollution loadings in this watershed (Cho et al., 

2010a; 2010b).

ARS scientists at Beltsville, MD, and Tifton, GA, 

used the riparian component of the Little River 

Experimental Watershed (LREW) database to 

test the Riparian Ecosystem Management Model 

(REMM). The sensitivity of REMM nutrient and 

sediment output was quantified with respect to 

changes in key riparian buffer parameters (e.g., 

vegetation, soil characteristics). Parameters 

associated with vegetation (e.g., rooting depth, 

plant height) moderately affected nutrient and 

sediment yields, but outputs were highly 

sensitive to changes in physical parameters 

(e.g., slope, Manning's surface roughness 

coefficient). Scientists at Beltsville are 

developing a similar evaluation using the SWAT 

model for the Choptank Watershed. This new 

model will assist farmers and policy makers in 

quantifying the effectiveness of specific riparian 

buffers in reducing pollutant loads to streams 

and other surface waters (Graff et al., 2005; 

Sexton et al., 2010).

Recent developments in remote sensing 

technology provide geospatial data that can be 

used to assess the effectiveness of conservation 

practices at watershed and/or landscape scales. 

To demonstrate this capability, ARS scientists at 

West Lafayette, IN, used an object-based image 

analysis approach with Landsat-5 thermal 

imagery from 2005, and thematic layers of 

streams, to quantify conservation buffers and 

grasslands in the Cedar Creek Watershed 

(CCW) in northeast Indiana. Land cover data 

were used in the SWAT hydrologic model to 

assess the impacts of vegetative conservation 

practices on total P (TP) loads, and the model 

was calibrated and validated for discharge and 

TP loads in the CCW. In general, stream flow 

and TP loads were modeled within acceptable 

statistical ranges for the total contributing area of 

two nested catchments within the upper CCW. 

Compared to no practices, vegetative buffers of 

30.5 and 61 m, combined with conservation 

grasslands generated from the 2005 Landsat 

imagery, resulted in large reductions in TP 

loads, but conservation grasslands alone 

reduced TP loads by less than 2%. These 

findings demonstrate that the improved 

representation of vegetative conservation 

practices in geospatial land cover data sets, 

combined with hydrologic modeling, enables a 

more effective assessment of the impacts of 

conservation buffers and grasslands on water 

quality (Larose et al., 2011).

ARS scientists at West Lafayette, IN, applied the 

AnnAGNPS model in the Cedar Creek 

Watershed (CCW), a main tributary of the St. 

Joseph River that is the source of drinking water 

for the city of Fort Wayne, IN. Modeled flow 

discharge for both the CCW and agricultural 

drainage ditch sites representing subwatersheds within the CCW, were well matched 

with observed values during model calibration 

and validation. For atrazine concentrations in 

runoff water, the AnnAGNPS model was 

satisfactorily calibrated and validated for 

predictions of atrazine concentrations in the 

agricultural drainage ditches, but not in the 

CCW, where only coarsely measured data were 

available. This work indicates the need to first 

identify the proper scales at which a water 

quality model can be calibrated and validated,

before an assessment can be made of the 

effects of conservation practices (Zuercher et 

al., 2011).

ARS scientists at Beltsville, MD, used the 

AnnAGNPS model to assess the specific 

effectiveness of cover crops in protecting water 

quality in the Choptank River Watershed in 

Maryland, which drains into Chesapeake Bay. 

Increases in cover crop acreage resulted in 

significant reductions in N loads. Increasing 

cover crop implementation from 40 to 70 % 

increased N reductions by 58%. Validating 

Watershed and channel computer simulation 

models help scientists identify sedimentproducing sources. Here, agricultural engineer 

Ron Bingner (left) and hydraulic engineer Eddy 

Langendoen study data generated by a model. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

21

predicted N load reductions by examining 

changes in N loads in the Choptank Watershed 

following cover crop implementation would 

increase the confidence in AnnAGNPS and 

similar models for helping land managers and 

policy makers make decisions on conservation 

practice selection, and associated landowner 

incentives, to reduce nutrient loads into the 

Choptank River and ultimately the Chesapeake 

Bay (Sadeghi et al., 2007).

New watershed models are needed that can 

assess the outcomes of implementing 

conservation practices at multiple spatial scales 

and also be customized to regional processes 

and concerns. ARS scientists and Colorado 

State University personnel in Fort Collins, CO 

developed the component-based 

AgroEcoSystem-Watershed (AgES-W) 

watershed model running under the Object 

Modeling System Version 3 framework (OMS3). 

AgES-W has a multi-flow direction routing 

scheme for improved transfer of water and 

chemicals between land units and stream 

reaches, and contains verified modular 

components for water balance, infiltration, 

groundwater recharge, runoff and stream flow 

dynamics, erosion, nutrient cycling, and plant 

growth. The model was used to evaluate runoff 

and stream flow on the CEAP benchmark Cedar 

Creek Watershed (CCW) in northeastern 

Indiana, USA, and is now being used for 

evaluating nitrogen and sediment transport in 

the CCW. Due to its spatial and temporal 

simulation capabilities, AgES-W has the 

potential to better quantify conservation impacts 

on water quantity and quality at field to 

watershed scales (Ascough et al., in press).

For both conservation and biofuels assessment 

needs, simulating the growth and yield of 

grasses requires an accurate, realistic 

simulation model that describes various grass 

types as well as competition among species in 

complex grass mixtures. ARS scientists at 

Temple, TX, improved the Agricultural Land 

Management Alternatives with Numerical 

Assessment Criteria (ALMANAC) model for the 

major commercial grass species and several 

common native grasses, including major 

grasses proposed for use as biofuel feed stocks. 

The efforts involved field measurements to 

determine leaf area per unit land area for each 

species, optimum leaf nutrient concentrations, 

and the efficiency with which each grass species 

converted sunlight into biomass. Through these 

investigations, appropriate equations were 

developed for switchgrass cultivars in both 

Texas and the Upper Midwest, and then 

validated against data from a wide range of 

latitudes, from Texas to North Dakota and 

Wisconsin. These new equations provide 

realistic simulations of grass growth and 

productivity for a wide range of soils and climatic 

conditions. The model is currently being used 

by the Department of Energy (DOE) and 

university scientists to assess potential biofuel 

productivity and natural resource sustainability 

of grasslands across the U. S. (Johnson et al., 

2010; Johnson et al., 2011).

Nitrogen (N) losses from agricultural lands 

represent a serious water quality problem in 

many areas of the U.S., including the Mississippi 

River Basin and the Chesapeake Bay. To 

further support regionalized watershed model 

development, field-scale model evaluation is 

needed to quantify the effects of cover cropping, 

water table and N management, and other 

Computer specialist Ken Rojas (left) and 

range scientist Jon Hanson use the Root 

Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM) to 

examine nitrate distribution in a simulated 

soil profile. The model enables scientists to 

forecast potential environmental pollution, 

such as from excessive nitrate leaching.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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management practices under tile drainage 

conditions. ARS scientists at Ames, IA, and Fort 

Collins, CO, calibrated a hybrid of the Root Zone 

Water Quality Model (RZWQM) and the 

Decision Support System for Agrotechnology 

Transfer (DSSAT), to simulate a rye winter cover 

crop in a corn-soybean rotation, testing the 

ability of the coupled RZWQM-DSSAT model to 

simulate the effects of cover crops on nitrate 

leaching losses in subsurface drainage waters 

under a corn-soybean rotation. When 

simulations were run at various N-fertilizer 

application rates using a long-term climate 

record, results showed that the percentage 

reduction of nitrate in tile drainage due to the 

cover crop remained relatively constant over a 

wide range of applied nitrogen rates. This 

analysis suggests that rye winter cover crops 

can reduce nitrate in tile drainage waters, even 

at relatively low nitrogen application rates. 

Accurate quantification of the nutrient removal 

potential of various cover crops could be linked 

to nutrient credit trading scenarios, to foster the 

adoption of conservation practices aimed at 

improving water quality (Li et al., 2008; Qi et al., 

2011a).

Current soil and water conservation programs 

consist primarily of compensating farmers for 

implementing pre-defined best management 

practices without considering their site specific 

cost-effectiveness. Performance-based 

incentives, an alternative approach, consists of 

payments attached to a specified environmental 

performance, such as the reduction in nutrient 

loss from a field or the reduction in stream 

loading at the mouth of a watershed. 

Performance evaluation requires the definition of 

a performance measure used to calculate the 

payments. To enable rational comparison of this 

approach with conventional approaches, an 

ARS scientist from Columbia, MO, collaborated 

with scientists from several universities to 

characterize performance measures adopted or 

considered by watershed stakeholders in 

several states, and to identify the issues related 

to the selection of a measure: the scale at which 

the performance is measured; modeling versus 

monitoring; and feedback to the farmer. 

Performance measures can then be integrated 

in decision support tools for implementing 

practices where they are most cost effective. 

Watershed managers, policy makers, and 

extension agents can consider this information 

to make informed choices among proposed 

approaches toward improving water quality in 

streams affected by agricultural nonpoint source 

pollution (Winsten et al., 2011).

Developing environmental models and tools for 

natural resource conservation is both expensive 

and time consuming; environmental modeling 

frameworks (EMFs) help facilitate this process. 

ARS scientists and their collaborators at Fort 

Collins, CO, released the Object Modeling 

System (OMS) 3.1 EMF which includes 

numerous improvements and better 

methodology for developing and connecting 

science components in FORTRAN. A new Cloud 

Services Innovation Platform (CSIP) was 

developed to run large and complex 

environmental models quickly and remotely, with 

OMS as the underlying modeling vehicle. The 

Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation 2 

(RUSLE2) model was successfully tested as a 

cloud computer application under CSIP. The US 

Army Corps of Engineers (COE), the USGS, and 

university partners are currently developing and 

implementing models under the OMS. Ongoing 

work with these modeling applications has 

shown the scientific usefulness (environmental 

modeling using cloud computing) and economic 

efficiency (cost reduction for model 

development) of the OMS approach (David et 

al., 2010).

Literature cited in selected accomplishments 

from Problem Area 1 

Ascough II, J.C., David, O., Krause, P., 

Heathman, G.C., Kralisch, S., Larose, M., Ahuja, 

L.R., and Kipka, H. Development and application 

of a modular watershed-scale hydrologic model 

using the Object Modeling System: Runoff 

response evaluation. Transactions ASABE (in 

press).

Bjorneberg, D.L., Westermann, D.T., Nelson, 

N.O., Kendrick, J.H. 2008. The Upper SnakeRock CEAP watershed: Conservation practice 

effectiveness in an irrigated watershed. J. Soil 

Water Cons. 63:487-495.

Bosch, D.D., Sheridan, J.M., Lowrance, R.R., 

Hubbard, R.K., Strickland, T.C., Feyereisen, 

G.F., Sullivan, D.G. 2007. Little River 

Experimental Watershed Database. Water 

Resources Research, VOL. 43, W09470, 

doi:10.1029/2006WR005844

Chiang, L., Chaubey, I., Gitau, M.W., Arnold, 

J.G. 2010. Differentiating impacts of land use 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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changes from pasture management in a CEAP 

watershed using the SWAT model. Transactions 

of the ASABE. 53(5):1569-1584.

Cho, J., Lowrance, R.R., Bosch, D.D., 

Strickland, T.C., and Vellidis, G. 2010a. Effect 

of watershed subdivision and filter width on 

SWAT simulation. Journal of the American 

Water Resources Association. 46(3): 586-602.

Cho, J., Vellidis, G., Bosch, D.D., Lowrance, 

R.R., Strickland, T.C. 2010b. Water Quality 

Effects of Simulated Conservation Practice 

Scenarios in the Little River Experimental 

Watershed. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation Society. 65(6):463-473.

Cullum, R.F., Locke, M.A., Knight, S.S. 2010. 

Effects of conservation reserve program on 

runoff and lake water quality in an oxbow lake 

watershed. Journal International Environmental 

Application and Science. 5:318-328.

David, O., Ascough II, J.C., Leavesley, G.H., 

and Ahuja, L.R. 2010. Rethinking modeling 

framework design: Object Modeling System 3.0. 

In: Swayne, D.A., Yang, W., Voinov, A.A., 

Rizzoli, A., and Filatova, T. (Eds.), Proc. Fifth 

Biennial Conference of the International 

Environmental Modelling and Software Society, 

Modelling for Environment's Sake, Ottawa, 

Canada, July 5-8, 2010, pp. 1183-1191. ISBN: 

978-88-9035-741-1.

Douglas-Mankin, K.R., Srinivasan, R., Arnold, 

J.G. 2010. Soil and Water Assessment Tool 

(SWAT) Model: Current developments and 

applications. Transactions of the ASABE. 

53(5):1423-1431.

Graff, C.D., A. M. Sadeghi, R. Lowrance, and R. 

G. Williams. 2005. Quantifying the sensitivity of 

the riparian ecosystem management model 

(REMM) to changes in climate and buffer 

characteristics common to conservation 

practices. Trans. ASABE 48:1377-1387. 

Hively, W.D., M. Lang, G.W. McCarty, J. 

Keppler, A. Sadeghi, L.L. McConnell. 2009. 

Using satellite remote sensing to estimate winter 

cover crop nutrient uptake efficiency. Journal of 

Soil and Water Conservation. 64(5):303-313.

Jeong, J., Kannan, N., Arnold, J.G., Glick, R., 

Gosselink, L., Srinivasan, R. 2010. Development 

and integration of sub-hourly rainfall-runoff 

modeling capability within a watershed model. 

Water Resources Management. 24(15):4505-

4527.

Johnson, M., Finzel, J.A., Spanel, D.A., Weltz, 

M.A., Sanchez, H., Kiniry, J.R. 2011. The 

rancher's ALMANAC. Rangelands. 33(2):10-16.

Johnson, M., Kiniry, J.R., Sanchez, H., Polley, 

H.W., Fay, P.A. 2010. Comparing biomass 

yields of low-input high-diversity communities 

with managed monocultures across the central 

United States. BioEnergy Research. 3:353-361.

King, K.W., N.R. Fausey, R.D. Dunn, B.L. 

Sohngen, and P.C. Smiley, Jr. 2012. Response 

of Reservoir Atrazine Concentrations Following 

Label and Practice Changes. JSWC accepted 

for publication. 

King, K.W., Smiley, P.C., Fausey, N.R. 2009. 

Hydrology of Channelized and Natural 

Headwater Streams. Hydrological Sciences 

Journal. 54(5):929-948.

Kuhnle, R.A., Bingner, R.L., Alonso, C.V., 

Wilson, C.G., Simon, A. 2008. Conservation 

Practice Effects on Sediment Load in the 

Goodwin Creek Experimental Watershed. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 63(6): 

496-503.

Larose, M., Heathman, G.C., Smith, D.R., 

Norton, L.D. 2011. Impacts of conservation 

buffers and grasslands on total phosphorus load 

using hydrologic modeling and remote sensing 

techniques. Catena. 86:121-129.

Lerch, R.N., Sadler, E.J., Baffaut, C., Kitchen, 

N.R., Sudduth, K.A. 2010b. Herbicide transport 

trends in Goodwater Creek experimental 

watershed II: acetochlor, alachlor, metolachlor, 

and metribuzin. Journal of the American Water 

Resources Association. 47(2):224-238.

Lerch, R.N., Sadler, E.J., Sudduth, K.A., Baffaut, 

C., Kitchen, N.R. 2010a. Herbicide transport in 

Goodwater Creek experimental watershed: I. 

long-term research on atrazine. Journal of the 

American Water Resources Association. 

47(2):209-223.

Li, L., Malone, R.W., Ma, L., Kaspar, T.C., 

Jaynes, D.B., Saseendran, S.A., Thorp, K.R., 

Yu, Q., Ahuja, L.R. 2008. Winter cover crop 

effects on nitrate leaching in subsurface 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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drainage as simulated by RZWQM-DSSAT. 

Transactions of the ASABE. 51:1575-1583. 

Lin, C., Lerch, R.N., Goyne, K.W., Garrett, H.E. 

2011b. Reducing herbicides and veterinary 

antibiotics losses from agroecosystems using 

vegetative buffers. Journal of Environmental 

Quality. 40(3):791-799.

Lin, C., Lerch, R.N., Kremer, R.J., Garrett, H.E., 

George, M.F. 2011a. Stimulated 

rhizodegradation of atrazaine by selected plant 

species. Journal of Environmental Quality. 

40(4):1113-1121.

Lizotte Jr, R.E., Knight, S.S., Bryant, C.T. 2010. 

Sediment quality assessment of Beasley Lake: 

Bioaccumulation and effects of pesticides in 

Hyalella azteca. Chemistry and Ecology. 

26(6):411-424. 

DOI:10.1080/02757540.2010.522997.

Locke, M.A., Weaver, M.A., Zablotowicz, R.M., 

Steinriede Jr, R.W., Bryson, C.T., Cullum, R.F. 

2011. Constructed wetlands as a component of 

the agricultural landscape: Mitigation of 

herbicides in simulated runoff from upland 

drainage areas. Chemosphere. 83:1532-1538. 

DOI:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.01.034.

Moran, M.S., W.E. Emmerich, D.C. Goodrich, P. 

Heilman, C.D.H. Collins, T.O. Keefer, M.A. 

Nearing, M.H. Nichols, K.G. Renard, R.L. Scott, 

J.R. Smith, J.J. Stone, C.L. Unkrich, J. Wong. 

2008. Preface to special section on fifty years of 

research and data collection: US Department of 

Agriculture Walnut Gulch Experimental 

Watershed Water Resources Research 

44(5):W05S01.

Qi, Z., Ma, L., Helmers, M. J., Ahuja, L. R., and 

Malone, R. W. 2011a. Simulating NO3-N 

concentration in tile drainage at various nitrogen 

application rates using RZWQM2. J. Environ. 

Qual. (in press).

Romkens, M.J. 2010. Erosion and sedimentation 

research in agricultural watersheds in the USA: 

From past to present and beyond. In: Sediment 

Dynamics for a Changing Future. K. Banasik, 

A.J. Horowitz, P.N. Owens, M. Stone and D.E. 

Walling (Eds.): IAHS Publ. 337:17-26.

Sadler, E.J., Steiner, J.L., Chen, J., Wilson, G.J., 

Ross, J.D., Oster, T., James, D.E., Vandenberg, 

B.C., Hatfield, J.L. 2008. STEWARDS 

watershed data system: data development, user 

interaction, and operations management. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 

63(6):577-589.

Sadeghi, A.M., Yoon, K., Graff, C., McCarty, G., 

McConnell, L., Schirmohammadi, A., Hively, D., 

Sefton, K. Assessing the Performance of SWAT 

and AnnAGNPS Models in a Coastal Plain 

Watershed, Choptank River, Maryland, U.S.A. 

ASABE Proceeding, Paper # 072032. 2007.

Settimi, John, Sullivan, Dana G., Strickland, 

Timothy C. 2010. Evaluation of Conservation 

Practice Placement in the Little River 

Experimental Watershed (LREW) Using a GIS 

Tool. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 

65(3): 160-167.

Sexton, A., Sadeghi, A., Shirmohammadi, A., 

McCarty, G., Hively, D. 2010. Modeling cover 

crop effectiveness on Maryland Eastern Shore. 

Proceedings of the ASABE, Publication Number 

701P0210cd.

Smiley, P.C., King, K.W., Fausey, N.R. 2011. 

Influence of herbaceous riparian buffers on 

physical habitat, water chemistry, and stream 

communities within channelized agricultural 

headwater streams. Ecological Engineering. 

37:1314-1323.

Smiley, P.C., Shields Jr, F.D., Knight, S.S. 2009. 

Designing impact assessments for evaluating 

ecological effects of agricultural conservation 

practices on streams. Journal of the American 

Water Resources Association. 45:867-878.

Smith, D.R., Livingston, S.J., Zuercher, B.W., 

Larose, M., Heathman, G.C., Huang, C. 2008. 

Nutrient losses from row crop agriculture in 

Indiana. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation. 63(6):396-409.

Srinivasan, R., Zhang, X., Arnold, J.G. 2010. 

SWAT ungauged: Hydrological budget and crop 

yield predictions in the Upper Mississippi River 

Basin. Transactions of the ASABE. 53(5):1533-

1546.

Sullivan, D. G., Strickland, T C., and Masters, M. 

H. 2008. Satellite mapping of conservation 

tillage adoption in the Little River Experimental 

Watershed, GA. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation. 63(3): 112-119.
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Tomer, M.D., Locke, M.A. 2011. The challenge 

of documenting water quality benefits of 

conservation practices: A review of USDA-ARS's 

Conservation Effects Assessment Project 

watershed studies. Water Science and 

Technology. 64(1):300-310. 

White, M.J., Storm, D.E., Busteed, P.R., 

Smolen, M.D., Zhang, H., Fox, G.A. 2010. A 

quantitative phosphorus loss assessment tool 

for agricultural fields. Environmental Modeling & 

Software. 25(10):1121-1129.

Winsten, J., Baffaut, C., Britt, J., Borisava, T., 

Ingels, C., Brown, S. 2011. Performance-based 

incentives for agricultural pollution control: 

identifying and assessing performance 

measures in the United States. Water Policy 

Journal. 

http://www.iwaponline.com/wp/up/wp2011055.ht

m.

Wilson, C.G., Kuhnle, R.A., Bosch, D.D., 

Steiner, J.L., Starks, P.J., Tomer, M.D., Wilson, 

G.V. 2008. Quantifying Relative Contributions 

from Sediment Sources in Conservation Effects 

Assessment Project Watersheds. Journal of Soil 

and Water Conservation. 63(6):523-532.

Zuercher, B.W., Flanagan, D.C., Heathman, 

G.C. 2011. Evaluation of the AnnAGNPS model 

for atrazine prediction in NE Indiana. 

Transactions of the ASABE 54(3):811-825.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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Problem Area 2: Irrigation Water 

Management

Agricultural producers depend on the availability 

of surface and groundwater to supply irrigation 

needs and mitigate drought. While just 17 % of 

all harvested cropland in the U.S. is irrigated, 

these lands contribute over 40 % of our food 

supply, including the majority of high market 

value crops such as fruits, nuts, and vegetables. 

Improving the efficiency of irrigation practices 

can increase the availability of water for other 

uses (urban, industrial, ecosystem, recreation, 

and the environment). Irrigated areas of the 

United States have grown from 7.8 million acres 

in 1900 to 56.6 million acres in 2007. About 42 

million acres of irrigated land are in the 17 

western States, with the remaining 14 million 

acres in the humid East. The East is 

experiencing faster growth in irrigated acreage 

than any other region, having gained almost 

190,000 acres annually from 1997 to 2007. As 

demand for biofuel feedstock increases, there 

will be increasing pressure to produce more food 

on less land using irrigation technologies. The 

increased demand for water from all sectors 

leads to an emphasis on producing more ‘crop 

per drop’, while increasing the efficiency of 

irrigation practices. Climate change induced 

variations in precipitation and snowmelt will also 

foster a greater need for more efficient methods 

to trap, store, and deliver the water needed for 

irrigation.

Theme 1: Managing and scheduling irrigation 

for efficient water use 

While irrigation provides the needed water for 

crop production, developing techniques for 

efficient use of irrigation water, especially in 

areas where water scarcity threatens the 

livelihood of society, is an urgent priority. 

Working under the Irrigation Water Management 

Problem Area, ARS scientists have developed 

real-time sensing technology that can be used to 

schedule irrigation events. These types of 

research are helping farmers and irrigation water 

district managers to decide when and how much 

water to apply to minimize the waste. 

The selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 1: Quantification of 

evapotranspiration (ET) and crop coefficients 

under all constraints, including partitioning of ET 

components, regional variations, effects of 

tillage/irrigation methods, incomplete canopies, 

and deficit irrigation; Product 2: Remote sensing 

tools for ET and water stress predictions for field 

and farm district levels; and Product 3: Irrigation 

scheduling tools for humid and sub-humid 

regions, including crop coefficients, plant stress 

indicators, soil water sensing, and a rice 

automation/feedback irrigation system. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 1 

of Problem Area 2 

For both irrigated and dry land agriculture, 

accurate knowledge of soil water content is the 

key to efficient water management, but existing 

soil water sensors do not work well under all 

conditions. ARS scientists in Bushland, TX, led 

an international team convened by the 

International Atomic Energy Agency, to assess 

the accuracy and utility of the major types of 

sensors, and to produce a book, 'Field 

Estimation of Soil Water Content: A Practical 

Guide to Methods, Instrumentation, and Sensor 

Technology,’ for use by irrigation and natural 

resource managers, scientists, and engineers. 

The guide indicates which sensors are useful 

under which soil conditions. New knowledge 

about sensor problems in common soil 

conditions, used to develop improved sensors, 

has been transmitted to the Irrigation 

Association to guide sensor evaluation in the 

Smart Water Application Technologies program 

approved by EPA. Sensor manufacturers have 

requested assistance in solving problems with 

the sensors. Efficient water management can 

save irrigation costs and conserve valuable 

groundwater resources without putting crop 

yields and profits at risk (Evett et al., 2008; Evett 

et al., 2009).

The ability to map evapotranspiration (ET) and 

soil moisture availability via satellite has broad 

applications in monitoring drought and 

consumptive water use, administering irrigation 

projects, predicting local and regional water 

demand, and in providing important boundary 

conditions to hydrological and weather forecast 

models. Recent advancements in thermal 

infrared (TIR) cameras mounted in small aircraft 

and unmanned aerial systems have allowed 

researchers to assess crop response to 

irrigation and winter cover crop management at 

the field scale, while modeling and data 

acquisition systems that integrate weather 

satellite observations provide global scale 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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coverage. ARS scientists in Beltsville, MD, and 

Tifton, GA, have developed algorithms that 

relate real-time thermal measurements acquired 

from satellites or unmanned aircraft to crop 

water needs and crop production projections in 

both irrigated and rain-fed agricultural 

landscapes. Compared to traditional and more 

time intensive methods of assessment, TIR data 

acquired from unmanned aerial systems are 

more sensitive to crop response and

microclimate conditions. In combination, the 

practical implications of this research, including 

mitigation of in-season crop stress, improved 

irrigation strategies, and an assessment of their 

landscape-level effects on crop productivity, 

lower grower risk, increase potential water 

savings, and reduce nitrogen losses from 

agricultural fields (Sullivan et al., 2008; 

Anderson et al., 2011).

Despite the advantages of thermal infrared TIR 

remote sensing in detecting crop water stress, 

cloudy skies, infrequent images, and/or coarse 

data resolution exacerbate the implementation 

of remote sensing image data into farm-scale 

routines. ARS scientists in Maricopa, AZ, 

demonstrated that these problems can be 

reduced by combining spatially-oriented remote 

sensing data with time-oriented land surface 

temperature data from fixed ground-based sites. 

This combined data approach can reasonably 

forecast crop ET up to 10 days in advance 

without additional remote sensing data. This 

information is valuable for scientists and 

engineers involved in developing decision 

support tools for improving irrigation efficiency 

and effectiveness (French et al., 2009).

Recent agricultural statistics reports indicate that 

the majority of farming households have 

computers and internet access, creating an 

environment in which web-based technology 

transfer is possible. From its inception, the 

Ogallala Aquifer Program has had a presence 

on the worldwide web 

(www.ogallala.ars.usda.gov). National and 

international news organizations use information 

from the Ogallala Aquifer Program web site to 

create mass media stories on the potential 

impacts of declining water levels in the Ogallala 

Aquifer on agriculture world-wide. One story by 

"The Telegraph", a United Kingdom publication, 

was picked up by several news services in the 

U.S. and can be found at 

(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/8359076/USfarmers-fear-the-return-of-the-Dust-Bowl.html). 

A second story, produced by CNN, can be found 

at 

(http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2011/03/2

9/pkg.marciano.dust.bowl.cnn?iref=allsearch). 

The CNN story was broadcast by local TV 

stations in both Lubbock and Amarillo, TX. 

These popular press stories have increased the 

visibility of the Ogallala Aquifer research 

program, the problems of aquifer decline and 

drought in general, and the positive impact of 

the OAP in helping to find solutions to these 

problems.

In the northern Texas High Plains, where 

irrigation accounts for 90% of all water use, 

accurate and representative water use estimates 

are needed to sustain agricultural production. In 

collaboration with Texas AgriLife researchers, 

ARS scientists at Bushland, TX, updated and 

improved data on plant and evaporative water 

loss (ET) from the Texas High Plains ET 

Network (TXHPET), using these data to 

estimate water use and irrigation water demand 

for all crops grown in the Texas Panhandle. The 

ET data are used with Farm Service Agency 

crop acreage data and precipitation on a county 

basis to run the Texas A&M–Amarillo (TAMA) 

irrigation demand model, modified to include 

new crop categories and yearly and forecasted 

ET data inputs. These new estimates reflect 

both regional production potential as well as 

actual reductions in water use by producers 

using new and improved irrigation management 

techniques. They are used by regional water 

planners for water demand planning purposes, 

by water conservation districts for establishing 

groundwater pumping regulations, and for 

regional socio-economic and sustainability 

analyses (Farahani et al., 2007; Ko et al., 2009; 

Marek et al., 2010). 

Over the latter half of the 20th century and the 

first years of the 21st, pumping to support 

irrigated agriculture has led to water level 

declines in the Ogallala aquifer, declines that 

have not been compensated for by natural 

recharge. The drawdown of this important water 

resource has led to questions about the longterm viability of the area's agricultural economy. 

To provide accurate information about the 

required irrigation levels for a range of crops in 

addition to climate and crop ET statistics for the 

Ogallala region, ARS scientists at Lubbock, TX, 

developed the Ogallala Agro-Climate Tool. By 

providing estimates of the water requirements of 

the area's major crops, this easy-to-use PC tool 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

28

will help producers identify wasteful irrigation 

practices and conserve the water resource of 

the aquifer (Mauget and Leiker, 2010).

As water from the Ogallala Aquifer available for 

irrigation declines, farmers will need tools to help 

apply water as efficiently as possible and gain 

the most yield from the water applied. An online 

irrigation scheduling and management tool was 

developed by scientists at ARS in Bushland, TX, 

and Texas AgriLife, that can accommodate 

simple, single-field applications as well as 

multiple field and multiple farm uses. This 

seasonal planning tool evaluates alternative 

water management production strategies and 

scenarios for in-season irrigation scheduling, 

using either local real-time ET data or crop water 

use estimates, helping to reduce the overapplication of irrigation waters, thereby 

decreasing production costs and increasing 

water-use efficiency (Marek et al., 2011).

Deficit irrigation is a management method to 

conserve water and energy by supplying only 

the amount of water necessary to meet crop 

demands. ARS scientists at Parlier, CA, used 

thermal infrared sensors to measure canopy 

temperatures as an indicator of drought stress in 

a peach orchard. Average maximum canopy 

temperature was significantly higher for 

treatments that received deficit drip and furrow 

irrigation than for those receiving full irrigation. 

Despite these higher temperatures, deficit 

irrigation saved over 50% of the water used with 

no significant impact on peach yield or quality. 

This study clearly demonstrates that infrared 

canopy sensors can be used as an onsite guide 

for managing deficit irrigation in orchard crops 

(Wang and Gartung, 2010).

Theme 2: Innovative surface and subsurface 

irrigation tools and techniques 

Irrigation water management tools for both 

surface and subsurface deliveries are necessary 

to achieve maximal irrigation efficiency. For 

example, ARS scientists working on irrigation 

water delivery have found a way to automatically 

control the hydraulic gates along an irrigation 

canal to minimize water spills. 

These selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 4: Management tools, practices, 

and new technologies to make irrigation and 

water delivery systems more dependable, 

flexible, and efficient; and methods to quantify 

the impacts of these practices at field, farm, 

project, and watershed scales, including 

irrigation efficiency evaluation. Some 

accomplishments selected under this theme, for 

work done in humid regions (i.e., Dawson, GA; 

Florence, SC; and Portageville, MO) are also 

associated with Product 3: Irrigation scheduling 

tools for humid and sub-humid regions, including 

crop coefficients, plant stress indicators, soil 

water sensing, and a rice automation/feedback 

irrigation system. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 2 

of Problem Area 2 

Agricultural engineers Susan O’Shaughnessy 

and Nolan Clark adjust the field of view for 

wireless infrared thermometers mounted on a 

center pivot irrigation system. The wireless 

sensors are used to measure crop canopy 

temperature for indications of water stress.

In a deficit irrigation study, corn on the left side 

was fully irrigated while that on the right 

received only half as much water and produced 

about half as much corn. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

29

Corn is a major irrigated crop in the U. S. Great 

Plains. Because corn has a large irrigation 

requirement, efficient and effective irrigation 

technology is important. ARS scientists at

Bushland, TX, compared corn production under 

mid-elevation spray irrigation (MESA), lowelevation spray irrigation (LESA), low-energy 

precision application (LEPA), and subsurface 

drip irrigation (SDI) at five irrigation rates during 

the 2009 and 2010 growing seasons. In 2009, 

grain yield and water use efficiency were 

significantly greater for SDI as compared to 

MESA and LESA at the 50 and 75% irrigation 

rates. In 2010, a more typical year in terms of 

rainfall, there were no significant differences in 

grain yield and water use efficiency for MESA, 

LESA, and SDI for all irrigation rates. In the 

Southern Great Plains, SDI can reduce corn 

yield losses during dry years (Colaizzi et al., 

2010).

In the southeastern U.S., the effects of various 

irrigation rates and crop rotations irrigated with 

SDI on long-term cotton yield are poorly known. 

ARS scientists at Dawson, GA, installed an SDI 

system in 1998, and maintained it over the next 

10 years. The project consisted of three crop 

rotations, two drip tube lateral spacings, and 

three irrigation levels. Crop rotations had either 

one year (cotton-peanut), two years (cottonmaize-peanut), or three years (cotton-maizemaize-peanut) between cotton plantings. Drip 

tube laterals were installed underneath each 

crop row and under alternate crop row furrows. 

Crops were irrigated daily at 100, 75 and 50% of 

estimated crop water use. Lint yield did not 

differ significantly as a function of crop rotation. 

In 4 out of 8 years, significant differences in lint 

yield occurred in response to irrigation 

treatments. In 3 out of 4 years when compared 

with the 100% irrigation treatment, lint yields 

were significantly greater when cotton was 

irrigated at the 75%, as compared to the 50%, 

level. Higher lint yield with irrigation also 

coincided with lower seasonal rainfall totals. 

Drip tube lateral spacing affected lint yield in 4 

out of 8 years. Across all years, alternate row 

middle lateral spacing was as effective as everyrow lateral spacing. Some fiber qualities were 

affected by irrigation, lateral, and rotation 

treatments, but these effects were small and 

inconsistent. For SDI, the recommendation 

would be to irrigate cotton using the 75% 

irrigation level, and with tubing in alternate row 

middles (Sorensen et al., 2010).

In the eastern US, land application of animal 

waste from livestock treatment systems is both 

an environmental and a social concern. ARS 

scientists in Florence, SC, evaluated the 

potential of using a SDI system for the 

application of animal waste effluent to 

bermudagrass hay. Plots receiving treated 

effluent had significantly greater hay yields than 

plots supplied with recommended levels of 

inorganic fertilizer. Moreover, effluent-treated 

plots had significantly greater nutrient biomass 

removal than the commercial fertilizer plots. The 

higher plant nutrient removal prevented adverse 

impacts on soil or water quality (Stone et al., 

2008).

A method was needed to help cotton farmers in 

the US Mid-South decide when to stop irrigating 

their crops: stopping too soon resulted in lost 

yield; stopping too late produced no additional 

yield and complicated harvest. An ARS scientist 

in Portageville, MO, analyzed suitable irrigation 

termination dates during the 2000 through 2007 

Technician Ernest Yoder checks waterflow 

instrumentation on a subsurface drip irrigation 

system used for peanuts, cotton, and corn 

crops.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

30

growing seasons in furrow irrigated Mid-South 

cotton fields. While data from the southernmost 

fields proved too variable to serve as the basis 

for new guidelines, the resulting functions for the 

northern portion of the Mid-South were 

determined to be suitable for developing 

recommendations. The derived equations can 

be used to determine the timing of the last 

profitable irrigation for a known lint price and 

diesel cost, allowing the producer to react to his 

or her own individual situation. These results 

can benefit farmers by eliminating the time and 

expense associated with unnecessary irrigation, 

while everyone will benefit from the water that is 

conserved (Vories et al., 2007).

Because irrigation is a major water use in 

semiarid regions, efficient water delivery 

systems are critical to water conservation for 

agricultural and other uses. Water delivery is 

either controlled upstream by measuring 

differences in inflows and outflows, or by flow 

measurements made downstream. Upstream 

control can result in operational spills; 

downstream control can be difficult to implement 

in practice because of long travel times from the 

water source to the main canal, constraints 

imposed by the water supplier, or because 

inflow rates are determined by river flow, which 

is variable. ARS scientists and engineers at 

Maricopa, AZ, developed a method to distribute 

flow mismatches over the canal length by 

equalizing water level errors for all canal pools. 

Essentially a combination of upstream and 

downstream control, this strategy promises to 

facilitate automated canal operations, providing 

a more flexible and accurate water supply to 

irrigators while reducing operational spills. The 

strategy has been implemented via the Software 

for Automated Canal Management (SACMAN) 

program to facilitate the operation of control 

gates along the irrigation canal (Clemmens and 

Strand, 2010; Clemmens et al., 2010; van 

Overloop et al., 2010).

As measured by the ratio of the amount of water 

used by a crop versus the amount delivered to 

the field, the performance of surface irrigation, 

the prevalent method of on-farm water 

application both in the U.S. and worldwide, 

typically is low. To improve performance, ARS 

scientists at Maricopa, AZ, developed a surface 

irrigation software program (WinSRFR) that 

uses hydraulic engineering principles to more 

effectively manage irrigation system design and 

operation. The program analyzes field 

evaluation data, estimates field infiltration 

properties from these data, analyzes design 

alternatives, optimizes operations, and conducts 

simulation studies. Current users include 

university extension agents, farm advisors, 

irrigation consultants, irrigation specialists, and 

the NRCS (Bautista et al., 2009c; 2009d).

Computer-based, automatic control is a 

promising technology for regulating water levels 

upstream from check structures in irrigation 

canals. Complicated unsteady-flow simulation 

studies and field tests have been used to build a 

model that represents the canal response to 

control inputs. In cooperation with scientists at 

Montpellier, France, and the Delft University of 

Technology, The Netherlands, ARS scientists in 

Maricopa, AZ, developed a procedure for 

determining a response model for an upstream 

Proportional-Integral controller based on canal 

geometry. A method was also developed to tune 

At the Central Arizona Irrigation and Drainage 

District, hydraulic engineer Bert Clemmens (left) 

and electrical engineer Bob Strand assess the 

automatic control of one of the many hydraulic 

gates operated by ARS-developed software 

while student Matt Robbins (background) 

checks the communications.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

31

the controllers for gates in series to avoid 

problems caused by the interaction between 

adjacent controllers. This research will help 

irrigation district personnel and consultants 

develop upstream controllers without the need 

for sophisticated computer modeling (van 

Overloop et al., 2010).

In surface water irrigation, radial gates are used 

primarily to control and measure the flow of 

water in irrigation canals. Radial gates require

field calibration, which can lead to inaccurate 

flow predictions. High costs often prevent 

irrigation districts from investing in modern flow 

measurement technologies, resulting in the need 

for better measurement techniques using 

existing gates. ARS scientists in Maricopa, AZ, 

developed new calibration procedures for the 

new computer program, “Wingate”, developed 

by cooperating scientists at the U.S. Bureau of 

Reclamation (USBR), Denver, CO. The USBR 

will provide this software to cooperating irrigation 

districts and consultants, improving their ability 

to accurately measure and distribute water to 

users (van Overloop et al., 2010; Clemmens and

Strelkoff, 2011; Bautista et al., 2010; Perea et 

al., 2011)

 

Theme 3: Improved irrigation and cropping 

for reuse of degraded water 

In regions with the limited water supplies, using 

recycled or treated water for agricultural 

production is becoming a necessity. ARS 

scientists at California and Arizona have been 

developing production systems or identifying 

crops that can use recycled water for economic 

benefit. One success story is the identification 

of plants that can: 1) sequester selenium from 

the soil; 2) be used for bio-fuel production; and 

3) be used for selenium enriched feed after the 

oil extraction. 

These selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 5: Guidelines for irrigating in urban 

and agricultural settings with degraded waters,

and models and decision support systems for 

management of treated municipal wastewaters 

and other degraded waters in irrigation, 

including tools for determining the fate and 

transport of emerging contaminants and 

pathogens; and Product 6: New and improved

crops that use degraded waters and/or 

phytoremediate soils, including identification of 

related biological components, and development 

of breeding lines and experimental germplasm.

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 3 

of Problem Area 2 

To support sustainable drainage water reuse, 

ARS scientists in Parlier, CA, identified various 

plant species, including poplar tree clones, 

capable of growing in the WSJV of California, in 

areas with underlying poor water quality due to 

high selenium concentrations. Annual poplar 

tree cuttings served as feedstocks for 

gasification. Within the same drainage-water 

management system, oil-plant species can 

produce 1.5 tons of seed/acre as bio-based 

product that provides economic value for the 

grower (e.g., bio-fuel and Se-enriched feed 

products, after extracting the oil from seeds with 

an on-site press). These studies illustrate ways 

to use an agronomic-based system as part of an 

overall drainage-water reuse strategy. Such a 

system could find widespread usage in portions 

of central California where selenium toxicity is 

an issue (Banuelos, 2009; Banuelos and Dhillon, 

2011).

Use of recycled water for the production of 

ornamental crops helps to conserve scarce fresh 

water supplies in arid regions. In cooperation 

with scientists at the University of California, 

Riverside, ARS scientists in Riverside, CA, 

evaluated the yield and quality of 5 landscape 

species—boxwood, escallonia, hawthorn, 

hibiscus, and juniper—grown under greenhouse 

conditions as container plants and irrigated with 

Cl-dominated waters at 6 salinity levels. Based 

on growth and aesthetic quality data from two 

separate experiments, species were ranked 

according to their suitability for salt-affected 

landscapes. The overall ranking was: hibiscus > 

WinSRFR optimizes design of gravity 

irrigation systems for best water use 

efficiency.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

32

juniper > escallonia > hawthorn > boxwood. 

This research provides nurserymen, home 

gardeners, and landscape professionals with 

needed criteria for selecting ornamental species 

suitable for salt-affected landscape sites 

(Valdez-Aguilar et al., 2011).

To assist landscape professionals, growers, and 

home gardeners in managing salinity in recycled 

irrigation waters, ARS scientists at Riverside, 

CA, in collaboration with researchers at the 

University of California, Davis, developed a Salt 

Management Guide. The guide and 

accompanying CD include an extensive list of 

plant species suitable for water reuse systems, 

ranging from relatively non-saline settings to 

salt-affected problem sites. The product 

provides: 1) information on public health 

aspects and regulations on use of Title 22 

waters and their suitability for landscape 

irrigation relative to plants, soil properties, and 

irrigation application systems; and 2) information 

to educate the public about safe use of recycled 

water and its value in helping to address current 

and future shortfalls in potable waters (Grieve et 

al., 2007).

Due to its high alkalinity (pH >12), odor, and the 

presence of hydrophobic organics, disposal of 

wastewater from processing plants that extract 

latex from guayule is problematic. ARS 

scientists at Maricopa, AZ, determined that up to 

50% of this wastewater could be recycled within 

the processing plant without affecting latex 

recovery. Treating the resulting wastewater with 

acid followed by sedimentation removes the 

odor and the hydrophobic organics and lowers 

the alkalinity. Because it contains both nitrogen 

and potassium, the treated wastewater has the 

additional benefit of being useful as a fertilizer. 

Overall, the process increases the economic 

viability of domestic latex and rubber production 

(Coffelt and Williams, 2009).

Using marginal waters and treated wastewaters 

for irrigation increases the need for accurate 

water quality criteria. ARS scientists in 

Riverside, CA, used results from new field and 

laboratory experiments to revise earlier water 

quality criteria, now relating infiltration hazard to 

pH, SAR (sodium adsorption ratio), and salinity, 

and replacing earlier FAO criteria that did not 

consider pH and underestimated the adverse 

impacts of low SAR on water infiltration. New 

guidelines related to infiltration hazard are now 

also provided for environments where rainfall is 

a contributor to the water budget. Results from 

this work provide water quality specialists, water 

planners, regulatory agencies, and producers 

with the improved ability to evaluate the 

infiltration hazards associated with the 

application of irrigation waters based on their 

chemical composition. The improved guidelines 

-ensure safer use of saline waters for irrigation 

and thus extend the supply of water resources 

available for agriculture (Suarez, 2011).

Boron is a specifically adsorbing anion that can 

be detrimental to plants at elevated levels. Thus 

to avoid B toxicity for agricultural crops, there is 

a need to accurately characterize B pools in soil. 

Release of native adsorbed B has been reported 

to be a significant source of soluble B in arid 

land soils. ARS scientists in Riverside, CA, 

established that most B release is due to 

desorption rather than mineral dissolution. Thus 

producers do not have to be concerned about 

the regeneration of soluble B and its potential 

toxicity after leaching to below toxic levels. This 

research is important for managing and 

controlling soluble B in regions with high native 

soil B, such as commonly occur in the arid 

southwestern U.S (Goldberg and Suarez, 2011).

Theme 4: Sensor technologies for site 

specific irrigation water management 

The concept behind precision agriculture, where 

real-time sensing and application technology 

have been developed to guide fertilizer and 

pesticide applications under spatially varying 

field conditions, can also be applied to irrigation. 

The selected accomplishments reported below 

are associated with Product 7: Systems for 

spatially and temporally variable water, nutrient, 

and pesticide application based on soil-crop 

sensing and feedback. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 4

of Problem Area 2 

As an indicator of crop water stress, infrared 

thermocouples (IRTs) have proven very reliable 

for remote measurement of crop canopy 

temperature. However in commercial systems, 

it would be cumbersome for a grower to set up, 

maintain, and dismantle wired IRTs each 

irrigation season. ARS scientists at Bushland, 

TX, developed a wireless sensor that interfaces 

an IRT via a radio module, to sample, average, 

and send data to an embedded computer at the 

irrigation center pivot. Wireless IRTs and 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

33

spectral radiometers mounted on a moving 

sprinkler system monitor within-field crop water 

stresses, eliminating problems and costs 

associated with deploying and maintaining wired 

sensors. This technology improves automatic 

irrigation scheduling, resulting in more reliable, 

more accurate, and more efficient site-specific 

water applications, with greater associated 

savings in agricultural water use 

(O’Shaughnessy et al., 2010; 2011),

Existing soil water sensors are of two types, 

those using electronic oscillators and those 

using electronic pulses. ARS scientists at 

Bushland, TX, demonstrated that the class of 

sensors that uses electronic oscillators, also 

called capacitance sensors, are ill suited for 

accurate soil water content measurement 

because they’re affected by soil structure, bulk 

electrical conductivity due to clay content and 

salinity, and temperature. They also showed 

why sensors that use electronic pulses, also 

called time domain reflectometer (TDR) sensors, 

are fundamentally less affected by those 

interferences and are inherently better suited for 

accurate measurement. Proceeding from this 

knowledge, they developed calibration equations 

for TDR sensors that reduced the remaining 

interference effects to negligible levels. The 

calibrations are being used by a sensor 

manufacturer to produce a new class of downhole soil water content sensors for agricultural 

production and environmental management 

applications (Schwartz et al., 2009a; 2009b).

In regions with limited water supplies, irrigation 

systems that apply water to crops based on 

plant demand are needed to increase water use 

efficiency. ARS scientists at Bushland, TX, 

developed, constructed, and tested an 

automated moving sprinkler irrigation system 

using a wireless control system. The system is 

designed to work on a six-span, center pivot, 

sprinkler irrigation system, but can be adapted to 

any pressurized irrigation system, including drip 

irrigation. Automatic irrigation scheduling can 

aid farmers in decreasing water use, while 

improving time management and decreasing 

energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions 

(Peters and Evett, 2008; O’Shaughnessy and 

Evett, 2010). 

Field-scale monitoring and mapping of soil 

salinity with mobile geophysical techniques is 

based on statistical sampling strategies that use 

geospatial measurements of apparent soil 

electrical conductivity (ECa) as a surrogate for 

characterizing spatial variability in soil salinity. 

Design-based sampling strategies, such as 

stratified random sampling and unsupervised 

classification, are commonly used, but a modelbased sampling strategy (i.e., response surface 

sampling design) offers the advantage of 

minimizing the sampling requirement. ARS 

scientists in Riverside, CA, compared modeland design-based sampling strategies for 

characterizing the spatial variability of soil 

salinity with ECa-directed soil sampling. 

Computer-controlled center pivot irrigation 

systems can be connected by modem to radios

or telephones so farmers can run them 

remotely.

Aerial view of fields in central California 

(western San Joaquin Valley) suffering from 

severe salinization.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

34

Implementation of this sampling design would 

facilitate more rapid and less costly salinity 

mapping, benefiting producers and irrigation 

districts that utilize mobile geophysical 

techniques (Corwin and Lesch, 2010; Corwin et 

al., 2010; Allred et al., 2011). 

Theme 5: Cropping and management 

strategies under limited water supplies

Improving water use efficiency can be 

approached in two ways: 1) by improving water 

delivery through better scheduling or more 

efficient delivery; and 2) by changing the 

cropping systems and management practices. 

The selected accomplishments on alternative 

cropping and management strategies under 

limited water supplies are associated with 

Product 8: Tillage, irrigation, and crop 

management practices (including amendments 

and residue management) will be developed to 

improve crop water use efficiency in 

rainfed/irrigated cropping systems. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 5 

of Problem Area 2 

For agricultural producers in the U.S. southern 

High Plains, rising energy costs for pumping the 

diminishing water resources from the Ogallala 

Aquifer are a major concern. ARS scientists in 

Bushland, TX, used calculated growing season 

energy and potential planting dates to show that 

in 91 of 131 counties in the panhandle regions of 

TX, OK, and southwestern KS, switching from 

corn to early-maturing cotton varieties would 

save both water and energy costs, thereby 

improving economic returns (Gowda et al., 

2007). In-season yield of forage sorghum 

(1,700 g m-2

) was less than corn for silage 

(2,400 g m-2

), but sorghum had 27 % lower ET 

per unit of dry matter produced. As pumping 

costs escalate and aquifer water availability 

decreases, sorghum is an attractive alternative 

to corn for silage in the Southern High Plains. 

However, because corn yields and respective 

economic returns increase at a higher rate than 

with sorghum, corn for silage would be the 

preferred alternative if water were not a limiting 

factor. These findings help growers make 

informed decisions as they weigh options that

vary in both profitability and risk (Piccinni et al., 

2009).

Conservation tillage and residue management 

have been credited with increasing yields of 

dryland crops, but these principles have not 

been adapted to deficit irrigation strategies. For 

irrigation capacities of 2 to 4 gallons of water per 

minute per acre, ARS scientists at Bushland, 

TX, found that from 2006 to 2009, cotton lint 

yields increased by over 300 pounds per acre 

when a no-till regime was imposed compared to 

disking. These results indicate that crop 

production under deficit irrigation could benefit 

from conservation tillage practices (Baumhardt 

et al., 2008; 2009).

In irrigated potato production systems, potatoes 

are planted in ridge-rows. The deep furrows 

between the ridge-rows are needed for drainage 

under rain-fed conditions, but also function to 

drain water under modern sprinkler irrigation. 

During the past three years, ARS scientists in 

Kimberly, ID, cooperated with private industry 

and potato producers to demonstrate the 

advantages of bed-planted potatoes on more 

than 10,000 acres of Idaho farmland. Side-byside field comparisons of potatoes planted in 

conventional ridge-rows versus 12-foot wide, 

five-row beds have shown that bed-planting 

potatoes can decrease irrigation water use 5 to 

15%, with equal or increased potato yield (King 

et al., 2011; Tarkalson et al., 2011).

Producers in southwest Kansas are considering 

cotton as an alternative crop to conserve water 

while maintaining economic sustainability. Field 

research by ARS and Kansas State University 

scientists demonstrated the feasibility of growing 

cotton in southwest Kansas. Cotton lint yields 

average 2.5 bales per acre on 5 to 7 inches of 

irrigation. The greatest limitations to cotton 

production were: 1) total growing degree days; 

and 2) hail damage. These results indicate 

irrigated cotton as an alternative crop with a 

lower water demand for this region (Esparza et 

al., 2007).

To maximize water use efficiency and conserve 

water, management practices must be adapted

to minimize soil water evaporation, a process 

that is not yet fully understood. ARS scientists at 

Bushland, TX, measured evaporation in bare 

soil columns of undisturbed clay loam, silt loam, 

or fine sand, and in a fine sand cropped to 

sunflower. When irrigation application exceeded 

1.2 inches, evaporation from bare silt loam and 

clay loam soils was greater than from a bare fine 

sand soil. Soil water evaporation determined 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

35

beneath a sunflower canopy averaged about 0.2 

inches, which was 25% of total ET. Soil 

evaporative losses can be significant even when 

a growing crop is present. To decrease 

evaporative losses, irrigation should be deeper 

and less frequent on heavier soils (Tolk and 

Evett, 2009; Tolk and Howell, 2012).

To appropriate sufficient amounts of water for 

new dairies, or to mitigate the effects of existing 

dairies, water managers need to know how 

much water is consumed on dairy farms in 

water-limited areas. ARS scientists at Kimberly, 

ID, measured water use for one year on six dairy 

farms in southern Idaho. The average amount 

of groundwater pumped from wells on the farms 

was 60 gallons per day per milk cow. 

Subtracting the amount of wastewater produced 

on each farm that was used for irrigation 

reduced the net groundwater use to 30 to 40 

gallons per day per milk cow. When calculated 

on an area basis, these dairy farms used less 

than 2 ft of water, which is similar or less than 

irrigated cropland in southern Idaho (Lentz et al., 

2011). 

Water use efficiency of wheat infected with 

wheat streak mosaic (WSM) virus in the fall is 

low. To ensure that water from the Ogallala 

Aquifer is used as efficiently as possible, 

irrigation needs to be adjusted according to both 

crop abiotic and biotic stress levels, as well as 

its yield potential. In cooperation with Texas 

AgriLife Research, ARS scientists at Bushland, 

Texas, conducted experiments in a producer's 

field (natural infection) and in experimental plots 

(artificial inoculation). In the producer’s field 

where WSM infection occurred naturally, water 

use efficiency increased as WSM severity 

declined. In experimental plots, where wheat 

was artificially inoculated with WSM virus, water 

use efficiency of wheat infected in the fall was 

low. Results suggest that wheat infected with 

WSM in the fall should not be irrigated in the 

spring. Following this protocol could result in 

considerable savings of water, fertilizer, and 

pumping costs (Price et al., 2010).

Literature cited in selected accomplishments 

from Problem Area 2 

Allred, B.J., Butnor, J., Corwin, D.L., Eigenberg, 

R.A., Farahani, H., Johnsen, K., Lambot, S., 

McInnis, D., Pettinelli, E., Samuelson, L., 

Woodbury, B.L. 2011. Agricultural Geophysics. 

In: Turk, A.S., Hocaoglu, A.K., Vertiy. A.A. (eds.) 

Subsurface Sensing. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 

Australia. 618-643.

Anderson, M.C., Kustas, W.P., Norman, J., 

Hain, C., Mecikalski, J., Schultz, L., GonzalezDugo, M.P., Cammalleri, C., D'Urso, G., 

Pimstein, A., Gao, F. 2011. Mapping daily 

evapotranspiration at field to global scales using 

geostationary and polar orbiting satellite 

imagery. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 

15:223-239.

Arbat, G.P., Lamm, F.R., Kheira, A.A. 2010. 

Subsurface drip irrigation emitter spacing effects 

on soil water redistribution, corn yield, and water 

productivity. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 

26(3):391-399.

Banuelos, G.S. 2009. Phytoremediation of 

selenium contaminated soil and water produces 

bio-fortified products and new agricultural 

products. In: Bio fortification and development of 

new agricultural products. Eds. G.S. Banuelos 

and Z.U. Lin. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl. Pp 

57-70.

Banuelos, G.S. and K Dhillon. 2011. Developing 

a sustainable FIFO management strategy for 

excessive selenium in Western US and India. 

Michael Bartolo (left) and Ardell Halvorson 

examine onions in drip-irrigated research 

plots at the CSU Arkansas Valley Research 

Center.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

36

International Journal of phytoremediation. 

13:208-222.

Baumhardt, R.L., Schwartz, R.C., and Howell, 

T.A. 2008. Deficit irrigation and conservation 

tillage effects on water use and yield of cotton. 

p.38-39. In D.M. Endale (ed.) Proc. 30th 

Southern Conserv. Agric. Syst. Conf., Tifton, 

Georgia, July 29-31, 2008. Available at: 

http://www.ag.auburn.edu/auxiliary/nsdl/scasc.

Baumhardt, R.L., Staggenborg, S.A., Gowda, P., 

Colaizzi, P.D., Howell, T.A. 2009. Modeling 

irrigation management strategies to maximize 

cotton lint yield and water use efficiency. 

Agronomy Journal. 101 (3):460-468.

Bautista, E., Clemmens, A.J., Strelkoff, T., 

Niblack, M. 2009c. Analysis of surface irrigation 

systems with winsrfr - example application. 

Agricultural Water Management. 96:1162-1169.

Bautista, E., Clemmens, A.J., Strelkoff, T., 

Schlegel, J.L. 2009d. Modern analysis of surface 

irrigation systems with winsrfr. Agricultural Water 

Management. 96:1146-1154.

Bautista, E., Zerihun, D., Clemmens, A.J., 

Strelkoff, T.S. 2010. External iterative coupling 

strategy for surface-subsurface flow calculations 

in surface irrigation. Journal of Irrigation and 

Drainage Engineering. 136(10):692-703.

Clemmens, A.J., Strand, R.J. 2010. Application 

of Canal Automation at the Central Arizona 

Irrigation and Drainage District. Journal of 

Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 136 (7) 451-

459.

Clemmens, A.J., Strand, R.J. and Bautista, E. 

2010. Routing Demand Changes to Users on 

the WM Lateral Canal With SACMAN. Journal 

of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 136 (7) 

470-478.

Clemmens, A.J., Strelkoff, T. 2011. Zero-inertial 

recession for a kinematic wave model. Journal 

of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering. 

137(4):263-266.

Coffelt, T.A., Williams, C.F. 2009. 

Characterization and recycling of waste water 

from guayule latex extraction. Industrial Crops 

and Products (29), pp. 648-653.

Colaizzi, P.D., S.R. Evett, T.A. Howell, and R.L. 

Baumhardt. 2010. Crop production comparison 

with spray, LEPA, and subsurface drip irrigation 

in the Texas High Plains. 5th Decennial National 

Irrigation Proc., 5-8 December 2010, Phoenix, 

Arizona. Paper No. IRR10-9704. ASABE, St. 

Joseph, Mich. (CD-ROM).

Corwin, D.L., Lesch, S.M. 2010. Delineating sitespecific management units with proximal 

sensors. In: Oliver, M. (ed.) Geostatistical 

applications in precision agriculture. New York, 

NY. Springer. p. 139-166.

Corwin, D.L., Lesch, S.M., Segal, E., Shouse, 

P.J., Skaggs, T.H., Bradford, S.A. 2010. 

Comparison of model- and design-based 

sampling strategies for characterizing spatial 

variability with ECa-directed soil sampling. 

Journal of Environmental & Engineering 

Geophysics. 15(3):147-162.

Esparza, A.M., P.H. Gowda, R.L. Baumhardt, 

T.H. Marek, and T.A. Howell. 2007. Heat unit

availability for cotton production in the Ogallala 

Aquifer Region of the United States . Journal of 

Cotton Science, 11(3):110-117. 

Evett, S.R., L.K. Heng, P. Moutonnet and M.L. 

Nguyen. 2008. Field Estimation of Soil Water 

Content: A Practical Guide to Methods, 

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pp. IAEA-TCS-30. International Atomic Energy 

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pubId=7801

Evett, S.R., R.C. Schwartz, J.A. Tolk, and T.A. 

Howell. 2009. Soil profile water content 

determination: Spatiotemporal variability of 

electromagnetic and neutron probe sensors in 

access tubes. Vadose Zone J. 8(4):926-941.

Farahani, H. J., T. A. Howell, W. J. Shuttleworth, 

and W. C. Bausch. 2007. Evapotranspiration: 

Progress in measurement and modeling in 

agriculture. Trans. ASABE Vol. 50(5): 1627-

1638. 

French, A.N., Hunsaker, D.J., Clarke, T.R., 

Fitzgerald, G.J., Pinter, Jr., P.J. 2009. 

Combining remotely sensed data and groundbased radiometers to estimate crop cover and 

surface temperatures at daily time steps. Journal 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

37

of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering. 136:4, 

232-239.

Goldberg, S., and D.L. Suarez. 2011. 

Distinguishing boron desorption from mineral 

dissolution in arid land soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 

J. 75:1317-1323.

Gowda, P.H. R.L. Baumhardt, A.M. Esparza, 

T.H. Marek, and T.A. Howell. 2007. Suitability of 

cotton as an alternative crop in the Ogallala 

Aquifer Region. Agron. J. 99:1397-1403. 

Grieve, C.M., S. Wu, S.R. Grattan and A. 

Harivandi. 2007. Tolerance of plants to salinity 

and to specific ions In: K. Tanji (ed.) Salt 

Management Guide for Landscape Irrigation 

with Recycled Water in Coastal Southern 

California. Chapter 5 1-60. California 

Department of Water Resources. 

www.water.ca.gov

Howell, T.A., S.R. Evett, S.A. O'Shaughnessy, 

P.D. Colaizzi, and P. Gowda. Advanced 

Irrigation Engineering: Precision and Precise. J. 

Agric. Sci. Tech. Accepted August 11, 2011.

King, B.A., Tarkalson, D.D., Bjorneberg, D.L., 

Taberna, J.P. 2011. Planting system effect on 

yield response of Russet Norkotah to irrigation 

and nitrogen under high intensity sprinkler 

irrigation. American Journal of Potato Research 

88:121-134.

Ko, Jonghan, Giovanni Piccinni, Thomas Marek, 

and Terry Howell. 2009. Determination of 

growth-stage-specific crop coefficients (Kc) of 

cotton and wheat. Agric. Water Manage. 

96:1691-1697.

Lentz, R.D., Lehrsch, G.A., Brown, B., JohnsonMaynard, J., Leytem, A.B. 2011. Dairy manure 

nitrogen availability in eroded and noneroded 

soil for sugarbeet followed by small grains. 

Agronomy Journal. 103:628-643.

Marek, T.H., D.P. Porter, N.P. Kenny, P.H. 

Gowda, T.A. Howell and J.E. Moorhead. 2011. 

Educational Enhancements to the Texas High 

Plains Evapotranspiration (ET) Network. 

Technical Report for Contract #0903580956 to 

the Texas Water Development Board, Austin, 

Texas. Texas AgriLife Research, Amarillo, 

Texas. AREC publication 2011-8. 34p.

Marek, T.H., T.A. Howell, R.L. Snyder, D. Porter, 

and T. Scherer. 2010. Crop coefficient 

development and application to an 

evapotranspiration network. Proc. 5th Decennial 

National Irrigation Proc., 5-8 December 2010, 

Phoenix, Arizona. Paper No. IRR10-9786. 

ASABE, St. Joseph, Mich. (CD-ROM).

Mauget, S.A., Leiker, G.R. 2010. The Ogallala 

Agro-Climate Tool. Computers and Electronics 

in Agriculture. 74(1):155-162.

O'Shaughnessy, S.A., and S.R. Evett. 2010. 

Canopy temperature based system effectively 

schedules and controls center pivot irrigation of 

cotton. Agric. Water Manage. 97(9):1310-1316.

O'Shaughnessy, S.A., and S.R. Evett. 2010. 

Developing wireless sensor networks for 

monitoring crop canopy temperature using a 

moving sprinkler system as a platform. App. 

Eng. Agric. 26(2):331-341.

O'Shaughnessy, S.A., M.A. Hebel, S.R. Evett, 

and P.D. Colaizzi. 2011. Evaluation of a wireless 

infrared thermometer with a narrow field of view. 

Computers and Electronics in Agric. 76:59-68.

Perea, H., Bautista, E., Hunsaker, D.J., Strelkoff, 

T., Williams, C.F., Adamsen, F.J. 2011. 

Nonuniform and unsteady solute transport in 

furrow irrigation II. Description of field 

experiments and calibration of infiltration and 

roughness coefficients. Journal of Irrigation and 

Drainage Engineering. 137(5):315-326.

Peters, R.T., and Evett, S.R. Automation of a 

center pivot using the temperature-timethreshold method of irrigation scheduling. 2008. 

J. Irrig. Drain. Engr. 134(3):286-291. 

Piccinni, G., J. Ko, T. Marek and T. Howell. 

2009. Determination of growth-stage-specific 

crop coefficients (Kc) of maize and sorghum. 

Agricultural Water Management 96:1698-1704.

Price, J. A., F. Workneh, S. Evett, D.C. Jones, J. 

Arthur, and C.M. Rush. 2010. Effects of wheat 

streak mosaic virus on root development and 

water-use efficiency of winter wheat. Plant Dis. 

94:766-770.

Scanlon, B.R., Reedy, R.C., Gates, J.B., 

Gowda, P. 2010. Impact of agroecosystems on 

groundwater resources in the Central High 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

38

Plains, USA. Agriculture Ecosystems and 

Environment. 139(4):700-713.

Schwartz, R.C., R.L. Baumhardt, and S.R. Evett. 

2010. Tillage effects on soil water redistribution 

and bare soil evaporation throughout a season. 

Soil Till. Res. 110:221-229.

Schwartz, R.C., S.R. Evett, and J.M. Bell. 

2009b. Complex permittivity model for time 

domain reflectometry soil water content sensing. 

II. Calibration. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 73(3):898-

909.

Schwartz, R.C., S.R. Evett, M.G. Pelletier and 

J.M. Bell. 2009a. Complex permittivity model for 

time domain reflectometry soil water content 

sensing. I. Theory. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 

73(3):886-897.

Sorensen, R.B., Nuti, R.C., Lamb, M.C. 2010. 

Yield and economics of shallow subsurface drip 

irrigation (S3DI) and furrow diking. Crop 

Management. DOI: 10.1094CM-2010-1220-01-

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Stone, K.C., Hunt, P.G., Millen, J.A., Johnson, 

M.H., Matheny, T.A., Vanotti, M.B., Burns, J.C. 

2008. Forage subsurface drip irrigation using 

treated swine wastewater. Transactions of the 

ASABE 51(2):433-440.

Suarez, D.L. 2011. Irrigation water quality 

assessments. In. W.W. Wallender and K.K. Tanji 

(eds), chapt. 11, ASCE Manuals and Reports 

on Engineering Practice No 71. Agricultural 

Salinity Assessment and Management (2 nd 

edition) ASCE. N.Y. 

Sullivan, D.G., Fulton, J.P., Shaw, J.N., Bland, 

G. 2008. Evaluating the Sensitivity of an 

Unmanned Thermal Infrared Aerial System to 

Detect Water Stress in a Cotton Canopy. 

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Tarkalson, D.D., King, B.A., Bjorneberg, D.L., 

Taberna, J.P. 2011. Evaluation of in-row plant 

spacing and planting configuration for three 

irrigated potato cultivars. American Journal of 

Potato Research. 88:207-217.

Tolk, J.A. and T.A. Howell. 2012. Sunflower 

water productivity in four Great Plains soils. 

Field Crops Res. 127:120-128.

Tolk, J.A., and S.R. Evett. 2009. Lysimetry 

versus neutron moisture meter for 

evapotranspiration determination in four soils. 

Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 73(5):1693-1698.

Valdez-Aguilar, L.A., Grieve, C.M., RazakMahar, A., Mcgriffen, M.E., Merhaut, D.J. 2011. 

Growth and ion distribution is affected by 

irrigation with saline water in selected landscape 

species grown in two consecutive growing 

seasons: Spring - Summer and Fall - Winter. 

Hort Science. 46(4):632-642.

Vories, E.D., Hogan, R., Tacker, P., Glover, R., 

Lancaster, S. 2007. Estimating the cost of 

delaying irrigation for midsouth cotton on clay 

soil. Transactions of the ASABE. 50(3):929-937.

van Overloop, P.J., Clemmens, A.J., Strand, 

R.J., Wagemaker, R.M., Bautista, E. 2010. Realtime implementation of model predictive control 

on Maricopa-Stanfield irrigation and drainage 

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Drainage Engineering. 136(11):747-756. DOI: 

10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.00000256.

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temperature of early writing peach trees under 

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Management. 97(11):1787 - 1794.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

39

Problem Area 3: Drainage Water 

Management Systems

Specific guidelines and tools are needed for 

nutrient and pesticide management in both 

surface and subsurface drainage water 

management systems. Automation of these 

systems, including the integration of weather 

forecasts, could enhance water conservation 

benefits during short-term drought periods in 

humid regions. Long-term soil quality 

improvement, increased water availability 

(quantity and quality), and wildlife benefits are all 

possible with improvements in wetland 

management practices. Improved drainage 

water management can also improve water use 

efficiency in irrigated agriculture while reducing 

the long-term effects of salinity and trace 

elements under different cropping systems. The 

combined effects of improved subsurface 

drainage water management practices and 

alternative cropping systems for irrigated 

agriculture need to be incorporated into an 

environmental and economic decision support 

system that fully evaluates the costeffectiveness of drainage water management 

systems. 

Theme 1: Crop production and 

environmental benefits of drainage water 

management 

Agricultural drainage water, coming either from 

irrigated fields or from artificially drained areas to 

remove excess water, has been known to carry 

agricultural chemicals that may be harmful to the 

environment. Draining costly fertilizers is also 

an economic loss to producers. One of the 

goals in this problem area is to develop and 

improved understanding of how to manage 

water drainage. In cooperation with the 

drainage industry and university partners, ARS 

scientists tested an emerging technology in 

drainage water management to control the level 

of shallow ground water based on both crop 

production and environmental benefits. 

The selected accomplishments below are 

associated with Product 1: Guidelines for 

management practices that optimize soil, water, 

and economic benefits associated with surface 

and subsurface drainage water management 

(DWM) systems and wetland resources in humid 

rainfed areas; and Product 2: Design 

specifications of DWM systems for 

environmental benefits in the Midwest and West. 

Theme 1 overlaps somewhat with Theme 2, 

which focuses on on-site treatment technology 

for drainage water. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 1 

of Problem Area 3 

Drainage water management (DWM) is a 

promising technology for reducing nitrate losses 

from artificially drained (or “tiled”) fields, but 

while there is an extensive history for the 

practice in North Carolina, little is known about 

the efficacy or cost effectiveness of the practice 

under Midwestern conditions where artificial 

drainage is widely used. ARS scientists at 

Ames, IA, used soil and land cover databases 

combined with modeling to estimate that 4.8 

million ha of land currently used to grow corn in 

the Midwest would be suitable for DWM, with the 

potential to reduce nitrate loss by approximately 

83,000 metric tons (91,300 tons) per year. 

Considering the cost of control structures, the 

redesign of new drainage systems, and the 

payments to farmers to adjust control structures 

to reduce nitrate losses, the cost per kg of 

nitrate removed from drainage water by DWM 

was estimated at $2.71 ($1.23/lb). While this is 

more than the current cost of nitrogen fertilizer, it 

represents a competitively priced alternative 

method for removing nitrate from agricultural 

drainage waters that does not involve taking 

arable land out of production. Both farmers and 

state and federal action agencies can use this 

information to set priorities for the expenditure of 

Soil scientist Norm Fausey (left) discusses 

site conditions and design features for a 

drainage water management and recycling 

structure with drainage contractor Paul 

Pullins.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

40

conservation funds to improve surface water 

quality (Jaynes et al., 2010; Thorp et al., 2008).

The eutrophication of Chesapeake Bay, caused 

by excessive nutrient runoff, has received 

significant attention. In the Choptank River 

Watershed, MD, excess nutrient transport from 

agricultural fields is primarily through extensive 

open drainage ditches, where on average, 6% of 

the nitrate applied annually may be transported 

to streams, rivers, and eventually the 

Chesapeake Bay. One of the BMPs used in 

these ditches is the installation of water control 

structures at the drainage outlet to reduce water 

flow and nutrient loss. Research conducted by 

ARS scientists at Beltsville, MD, showed that 

that increasing water table elevation to just 

below the root zone during the growing season, 

while lowering it during planting and harvesting 

operations, can reduce nitrate losses up to 40%. 

These findings provide quantitative efficiencies 

for both water and nitrate reductions, and better 

management strategies for more efficient use of 

controlled drainage BMPs (McCarty et al., 

2008).

Drainage waters from agricultural lands, 

especially those coming from subsurface tile 

drains, carry nutrients that degrade the quality of 

downstream waters. Managing drainage system 

outlets during the non-growing season to reduce 

water and nutrient exports can both improve 

water quality and increase yields. In cooperation 

with Ohio State University researchers, ARS 

scientists at Columbus, OH, found that over a 

three year period, corn yields increased in 66 % 

of the fields where DWM was practiced. 

Increased yields should encourage producers to 

adopt DWM to reduce water and nutrient 

delivery to aquatic systems. Doing so will help 

improve water quality in the Gulf of Mexico, 

Chesapeake Bay, and Lake Erie, as well as in 

numerous municipal water supply reservoirs. 

The Natural Resource Conservation Service 

(NRCS) is currently using this information to 

develop a strategy to promote the adoption of 

DWM by farmers in these priority watersheds 

(Sadler et al., 2010; Madramootoo et al., 2007).

Flooding stress is second only to combined heat 

and drought stress as a major cause of 

economic losses to US agriculture. The most 

common cause of flooding stress is water 

ponding in fields during heavy rains, a condition 

that is predicted to occur more often with global 

climate change. Soybeans are especially 

sensitive to flooding stress. In cooperation with 

the University of Missouri, ARS scientists at 

Columbus, OH, made two major advances that 

could contribute to the improvement of soybean 

productivity in soils prone to flooding. One 

approach developed transgenic soybean lines 

containing an anti-senescence gene, and used a 

series of greenhouse experiments to compare 

the impacts of flooding on the productivity of 

transgenic and non-transgenic soybean lines. 

Under flooded conditions, transgenic plants 

generally remained green and healthy during the 

late pod-filling stage and produced twice the 

seed yield of non-transgenic plants. The second 

approach identified quantitative trait loci (QTL) 

and DNA markers associated with flooding 

tolerance and Phytophthora resistance traits in 

the soybean population developed by crossing a 

commercial soybean variety with the tolerant 

non-commercial soybean line PI408105A from 

Southeast Asia. Analysis of the progeny showed 

that flooding tolerance and Phytophthora

resistance are independently inherited, and that 

PI408105A provides valuable gene pools for 

both traits. Additional studies examined the 

flooding responses of eight soybean genotypes 

ARS soil physicist Ali Sadeghi (left) and 

landowner Bill Collier examine water quality in 

a ditch under controlled drainage management 

within the Choptank Watershed. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

41

that differed in levels of flooding tolerance. 

Flooding did not significantly affect seed protein, 

oil, or palmitic acid, but increased oleic and 

stearic acid levels in all genotypes. Levels of 

linolenic acid, linolenic acid, daidzein, genistein, 

and glycitein were significantly reduced in the 

tolerant and medium tolerant genotypes, but 

increased in the susceptible genotype. These 

results provide information to breeders for 

modeling soybean seed composition traits under 

flooding. This research could lead to the 

development of commercial soybean cultivars 

that are more tolerant of flooded soil conditions 

thereby improving soybean yields (VanToai et 

al., 2010; VanToai et al., 2012; Nguyen et al., 

2012).

Theme 2: On-site treatment technology for 

drainage water 

Technologies that can intercept drainage waters

provide the opportunity for on-site remediation. 

Reported under this theme are ARS efforts in 

identifying materials or technologies that can be 

applied to treat drainage water on-site. One 

innovation is the use of a ‘gypsum curtain’ to 

removed dissolved phosphorus in shallow 

ground water before it reaches the drainage 

ditch. The gypsum used—a by-product from a 

coal burning power plant—is generated during 

flue gas desulfurization (the process that 

removes the sulfur which causes acid rain). 

This is an excellent example of a beneficial use 

of an industrial by-product. 

The selected accomplishments reported under 

Theme 2 are associated with Product 2: Design 

specifications of DWM systems for 

environmental benefits in the Midwest and West; 

and Product 3: Evaluation of the advantages 

and limitations associated with operation of 

DWM systems for irrigated areas. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 2 

of Problem Area 3 

The loss of P in shallow groundwater leaving 

fields of the Delmarva Peninsula can account for 

more than 90% of the P exported by drainage 

ditches to tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay. 

ARS scientists at University Park, PA, installed a 

curtain of gypsum (calcium sulfate) along the 

border of a field from which high loads of P had 

previously been recorded in groundwater. 

During the first rainstorms after installation, the 

new curtain (or permeable reactive barrier) 

removed 38-59% of the dissolved P in 

groundwater. Efforts are underway to expand 

the testing of this practice for enhancing water 

quality to other areas in the region (Penn et al., 

2007; Penn et al., 2011). 

Excess nutrients and pesticides in drainage 

waters degrade surface water quality. Treatment 

of these affected waters for public distribution, 

commercial, and recreational use can be costly. 

Capturing these contaminants prior to surface 

water entry is a viable solution to maintain 

cleaner water downstream. The success of 

these systems depends on finding inexpensive 

filter materials capable of effectively and 

efficiently removing nutrients and/or pesticides. 

ARS scientists in Columbus, OH, found that 

some relatively new industrial products have 

potential as filter materials for agricultural water 

treatment. Tests show that porous iron 

composite and sulfur modified iron are 

sufficiently permeable to water flow to be 

hydraulically efficient and exhibit potential to 

remove substantial amounts of nitrate and 

phosphate from water. Porous iron composite 

additionally shows promise for water treatment 

of pesticides such as atrazine. Consequently, 

porous iron composite and sulfur modified iron 

may in the future prove valuable for reducing the 

adverse environmental impacts associated with 

agricultural subsurface drainage practices. 

Several commercial entities have expressed 

Soil scientist Ray Bryant (left) and UMES

researcher Arthur Allen collect samples of 

groundwater before and after it is filtered 

through an underground “curtain” of gypsum. 

Dissolved phosphorus in groundwater is 

reduced after flowing through this setup.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

42

interest in this technology (Allred 2010; Agrawal 

et al., 2011a; 2011b).

Constructed wetlands and bioreactors have 

been used to remove N from drainage waters, 

but in sensitive water locations and under landlimited conditions, smaller reactors with even 

higher removal rates may be required. In these 

conditions, reaction chambers with immobilized 

denitrifying sludge (IDS) may be very useful. 

Using bioreactors containing IDS under field 

conditions, ARS scientists at Florence, SC,

demonstrated that 50% of nitrate-N was 

removed from drainage waters during a 1 hour 

hydraulic retention time. For a cube-shaped 

bioreactor, this would translate to an N removal 

rate of 94 g of nitrate-N m-2 d-2

, a rate that is 

dramatically higher than either treatment 

wetlands or passive carbonaceous bioreactors. 

The IDS bioreactors have the potential to 

significantly reduce N discharge from agricultural 

drainage lines. They also offer a direction for 

future research on emerging bioreactors 

technology as a component of improved water 

quality at both watershed and basin scales (Hunt 

et al., 2008). 

Nitrate is a widespread contaminant found in 

both ground and surface waters, and is often 

introduced into the environment via fertilizer 

application on farm fields. Reducing adverse 

environmental impacts due to nitrate requires, at 

least in part, a better understanding of the 

processes that govern nitrate mobility in soil, 

particularly anion exclusion. A laboratory 

investigation by ARS scientists in Columbus, 

OH, indicated that soil water ionic strength had a 

much greater influence than nitrate 

concentration on the anion exclusion processes

affecting soil nitrate mobility. Results from this 

study can be used to improve computer models 

employed to predict nitrate movement through 

the soil profile, thereby allowing better nitrate 

fertilizer application management scenarios to 

be developed, which minimize adverse nitrate 

impacts on the environment (Allred, 2007; 2008; 

Allred et al., 2007a; 2007b).

In the arid western US, elevated concentrations 

of toxic elements such as selenium and arsenic 

are commonly found in agricultural drainage 

waters. Thus disposal of these polluted waters 

continues to be an environmental concern. ARS 

scientists in Parlier, CA, examined the salinity, 

chemical characteristics, and biogeochemistry of 

selenium and arsenic in drainage waters from 

agricultural fields, and in an evaporation basin 

facility used for the disposal of agricultural 

drainage in the Tulare Lake Drainage District. 

Water parameters, including redox, dissolved 

oxygen, dissolved Fe and sulfur species, and 

speciation of selenium and arsenic, were 

determined in water columns as well as spatially 

in evaporation basins. This information is critical 

for evaluating the potential environmental 

impacts of agricultural production systems 

where drainage disposal is required (Gao et al., 

2007a; 2007b; 2007c; Herbel et al., 2007; Lin et 

al., 2010; Ryu et al., 2010). .

Agricultural water pollution control by drainage 

ditches is directly related to water residence time 

in the ditches, but these channels must also 

provide water drainage. Working with scientists 

from Mississippi State and Arkansas State 

Universities, ARS scientists at Oxford, MS, 

showed that low concrete weirs could be used to 

manage ditches for improved hydraulic 

residence time with minimal impacts on water 

drainage. Results showed that ditches with

weirs reduced higher amounts of dissolved 

inorganic phosphate (71% vs. 66%), total 

inorganic phosphate (60% vs. 12%), nitrate-N 

(96% vs. 76%) and ammonium (-47% vs. -53%) 

than ditches without weirs. These results 

provide a foundation for future research on ditch 

weir design, maintenance, and the benefits of 

controlled drainage strategies for landowners 

(Kröger et al., 2011a; 2011b).

Theme 3: Tools and models for assessing 

impacts of drainage water management 

Synthesizing research findings into tools or 

models to aid in making management and policy 

decisions is the ultimate goal of ARS’ natural 

resource research. The selected 

accomplishments highlight efforts in improving 

the Root Zone Water Quality (RZWQM) and the 

Drainage Model (DRAINMOD). Although not 

reported here, there are also continuing efforts 

to improve the Soil Water Assessment Tool 

(SWAT) and the Agricultural Non-Point Source 

Pollution Model (AGNPS).

The selected accomplishments here are 

associated with Product 4: Decision support 

systems that include environmental and 

economic effects associated with DWM 

systems.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

43

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 3

of Problem Area 3 

To simplify assessing the benefits of drainage 

water management (DWM), ARS scientists at 

Ames, IA, Ft. Collins, CO, and Tucson, AZ, 

collaborated to parameterize and test a 

multiobjective decision support tool to assess 

economic-environmental tradeoffs. The RZWQM 

model was parameterized using field data from 

the Nashua research site and the DevTreks 

budgeting tool (www.devtreks.org) used quantify 

the effects of management on soil/slope groups 

and the tradeoffs assessed using the Facilitator 

decision support system. The approach could be 

scaled to become an operational N management 

tool integrating field measurements, expert 

opinion, and simulation models to more 

systematically address N management in tiledrained agriculture (Heilman et al., 2012).

Control of subsurface drainage can reduce 

nitrate losses to drain tile flow, but the effects 

can vary with different N application rates and 

weather conditions. ARS scientists in Ames, IA, 

and Fort Collins, CO, used the Root Zone Water 

Quality Model (RZWQM2) to investigate the 

long-term effects of controlled drainage. 

Changing from free to controlled drainage 

reduced measured annual N loss in tile flow by 

12%. Long-term RZWQM2 simulations suggest 

that N loss might be reduced by 39% through 

controlled drainage and decreased N application 

rates, with minimal decreases in corn yield. This 

research will help agricultural scientists better 

understand the potential role of controlled 

drainage in reducing N losses from tile drained 

fields (Ma et al., 2007; Fang et al., 2011). 

The subsurface drainage simulation model, 

DRAINMOD, developed at North Carolina State 

University (NCSU), is commonly used to assess 

different subsurface tile drainage designs. 

Recent upgrades to DRAINMOD (DRAINMODN2) have focused on the addition of water 

quality components for nutrient management 

and environmental impact assessment. 

DRAINMOD-N2 predicts drainage flow and 

nitrate loss, but lacks the needed routines to 

adjust for water table depth fluctuations caused 

by rainfall events or the lack of rainfall, during 

the simulated season. ARS scientists in Houma, 

LA, developed a water table fluctuation 

feedback-control subroutine for DRAINMOD, 

comparing the ability of the original and modified 

models to predict drainage volume, relative crop 

yield, and nitrogen loss. Simulation results for 

seasonal and automatic adjustment of the drain 

outlet water level for controlled-drainage 

systems were nearly the same, reducing 

drainage volume by about 35%, and nitrate loss 

by an average of 30%, when compared to 

conventional (uncontrolled) drainage systems. 

However, both automatic control of dual 

controlled-drainage and sub-irrigation systems 

reduced drainage by about 50%, saving 70% of 

the water needed for sub-irrigation while 

reducing nitrate loss by 45% compared to 

seasonally controlled drainage systems. The 

water table fluctuation subroutine has been 

incorporated into the DRAINMOD models and is 

now used widely.

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a nondestructive and efficient subsurface drainage 

water management tool that is potentially useful 

to farmers and land improvement contractors for 

finding buried agricultural drainage pipes and 

Soil scientist Norm Fausey (left) and Ohio State 

University extension agricultural engineer Larry 

Brown discuss features and treatment 

efficiency of a constructed wetland receiving 

agricultural drainage water. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

44

evaluating their functionality. A field study was 

carried out by ARS scientists in Columbus, OH, 

to determine the GPR pipe response effects due 

to the GPR antenna orientation relative to drain 

line directional trend. Under dry soil conditions, 

a GPR antenna orientation perpendicular to the 

drain line was found to provide the best GPR 

drainage pipe response, while conversely, under 

wet soil conditions, a GPR antenna orientation 

parallel to a drain line provided the best GPR 

drainage pipe response. This information can 

be employed to optimize GPR field survey 

procedures, based on shallow hydrologic 

conditions, for the purpose of improving GPR 

drainage pipe location and functionality 

assessment capabilities (Allred and Redman, 

2010; Allred, 2011).

Literature cited in selected accomplishments 

from Problem Area 3 

Agrawal, S.G., King, K.W., Fischer, E.N., Woner, 

D.N. 2011. Phosphate removal by and 

permeability of industrial byproducts and 

minerals: Granulated blast furnace slag, cement 

kiln dust, coconut-shell activated carbon, silica 

sand, and zeolite. Journal of Water Air and Soil 

Pollution. DOI 10.1007/s11270-010-0686-4.

Agrawal, S.G., King, K.W., Moore, J.F., Levison, 

P.W., McDonald, J. 2011. Use of industrial

byproducts to filter nutrients and pesticides in a 

golf green's drainage water. Journal of 

Environmental Quality. 40:1273-1280.

Allred, B. J. 2007. Effects of nitrate 

concentration and ionic strength on nitrate anion 

exclusion under unsaturated flow conditions. 

Soil Science. 172(11):842-860. 

Allred, B. J. 2008. Cation effects on nitrate 

mobility in an unsaturated soil. Transactions of 

the ASABE. 51(6):1997-2012.

Allred, B. J. 2010. Laboratory batch test 

evaluation of effectiveness and efficiency for five 

filter materials potentially used to remove 

nutrients and pesticides from subsurface 

drainage waters. Transactions of the ASABE. 

53(1):39-54.

Allred, B. J. and D. Redman. 2010. Agricultural 

drainage pipe assessment using ground 

penetrating radar: Impact of pipe condition, 

shallow hydrology, and antenna characteristics. 

Journal of Environmental and Engineering 

Geophysics. 15(3):119-134.

Allred, B. J., G. O. Brown, and J. M. Bigham. 

2007b. Nitrate mobility under unsaturated flow 

conditions in four initially dry soils. Soil Science. 

172(1):27-41.

Allred, B. J., J. M. Bigham, and G. O. Brown. 

2007a. The impact of clay mineralogy on nitrate 

mobility under unsaturated flow conditions. 

Vadose Zone Journal. 6(2):221-232.

Allred, B.J. 2011. Location and assessment of 

drainage pipes beneath farm fields and golf 

course greens using ground penetrating radar: A 

research summary. Fast Times: News for the 

Near Surface Geophysical Sciences. 15(4):49-

55.

Fang, Q. X., Malone, R.W., Ma, L., Jaynes, D.B., 

Thorp, K.R., Green, T.R., and Ahuja, L.R. 2011. 

Modeling the effects of controlled drainage, N 

rate and weather on nitrate loss to subsurface 

drainage. Agricultural Water Management. 

(doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2011.11.006) 

Gao, S, J. Ryu, K.K. Tanji, and M.J. Herbel. 

2007b. Arsenic accumulation and speciation in 

evaporating waters of agricultural evaporation 

basins. Chemosphere. 67:862?871.

Gao, S, K.K. Tanji, and G.S. Bañuelos. 2007a. 

Chapter 15. Processes and conditions affecting 

elevated arsenic concentrations in groundwaters 

of Tulare Basin, California, USA. p. 383?410. In 

P. Bhattacharya, A.B. Mukherjee, J, Bundschuh, 

R. Zevenhoven, and R.H. Loeppert (eds.) Trace 

metals and other contaminants in the 

Environment. Vol. 9 Elsevier Book Series, 

Elsevier.

Gao, S., K.K. Tanji, R.A. Dahlgren, J. Ryu, M.J. 

Herbel, and R. Higashi. 2007c. Chemical status 

of selenium in evaporation basins for disposal of 

agricultural drainage. Chemosphere. 

69:585?594.

Heilman, P., Malone, R.W., Ma, L., Hatfield, J.L., 

Ahuja, L.R., Boyle, K.P., Kanwar, R.S. 2012. 

Extending results from agricultural fields with 

intensively monitored data to surrounding areas 

for water quality management. Agricultural 

Systems 106 (2012) 59-71.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

45

Herbel, M.J., D. Suarez, S. Goldberg, and S. 

Gao. 2007. Evaluation of chemical amendments 

for pH and redox stabilization in aqueous 

suspensions of three California soils. Soil Sci. 

Soc. Am. J. 71:927-939.

Hunt, E.R., Li, L., M, T.Y., Jackson, T.J. 2011. 

Comparison of vegetation water contents 

derived from shortwave-infrared and passivemicrowave sensors over central Iowa. Remote 

Sensing of Environment. 115:2376-2383.

Jaynes, Dan B., Thorp, Kelly R., James, David 

E. Potential water quality impact of drainage 

water management in the Midwest USA. 

Proceedings of ASABE's 9th International 

Drainage Symposium. June 13-17, 2010, 

Quebec City, Canada. 2010.

Kröger, R, Moore, M.T., Farris, J.L. 2011a. 

Concentrated standing tailwater: A mechanism 

for nutrient delivery to downstream aquatic 

ecosystems. Journal of Agricultural Science and 

Technology Part B 1:773-777.

Kröger, R., Moore, M.T., Farris, J.L., Gopolan, 

M. 2011b. Evidence for the use of low-grade 

weirs in drainage ditches to improve nutrient 

reductions from agriculture. Water, Air & Soil 

Pollution. 221:223-234.

Lin, Z.-Q., N. Terry, S. Gao, S. 2010. Mohamed, 

and Z.H. Ye. Vegetation changes and 

partitioning of selenium in 4-year-old constructed 

wetlands treating agricultural drainage. Int. J. 

Phytoremediat. 12:255-267. 

Ma, L., Malone, R.W., Heilman, P., Jaynes, 

D.B., Ahuja, L., Saseendran, S.A., Kanwar, R.S., 

Ascough, J.C. 2007. RZWQM simulated effects 

of crop rotation, tillage, and controlled drainage 

on crop yield and nitrate-N loss in drain flow. 

Geoderma 140:3 (2007) 260-271.

Madramootoo, C.C., Johnston, W.R., Ayars, 

J.E., Evans, R.O., Fausey, N.R. 2007. Drainage 

Water Quality Issues In North America. Journal 

of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering. 56:535-

545.

McCarty, G.W., McConnell, L.L., Sadeghi, A.M., 

Hapeman, C.J., Graff, C., Hively, W.D., Lang, 

M.W., Fisher, T.R., Jordan, T., Rice, C., Whitall, 

D., Lynn, A., Keppler, J., Fogel, M.L. 2008. 

Overview of the Choptank River watershed 

conservation effectiveness assessment project. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 63:461-

474.

Nguyen, V.T., Vuong, TD., VanToai, T., Lee, 

J.D., Wu, X., Rouf Mian, M.A., Dorrance, S.A.E., 

Shannon, J.G., and Nguyen, H.T. 2012. 

Mapping of quantitative trait loci associated with 

resistance to Phytophthora sojae and flooding 

tolerance in soybean. Crop Science. Accepted 

for publication.

Penn, C.J., Bryant, R.B., Callahan, M.P., 

Mcgrath, J.M. 2011. Use of industrial byproducts to sorb and retain phosphorus. 

Communications in Soil Science and Plant 

Analysis. 42:633-644.

Penn, C.J., Bryant, R.B., Kleinman, P.J., Allen, 

A.L. 2007. Removing dissolved phosphorus from 

drainage ditch water. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation. 62:269-276.

Ryu, J., S. Gao, and K.K. Tanji. 2010. 

Speciation and behavior of arsenic in 

evaporation basins, California, USA. Environ 

Earth Sci. 61:1599-1612. 

Sadler, E.J., Bausch, W.C., Fausey, N.R., 

Ferguson, R.B. 2010. Water management: a key 

to reducing nitrogen losses. In: Delgado, J.A., 

and R.F. Follett, editors. Advances in Nitrogen 

Management for Water Quality. Ankeny, IA: Soil 

and Water Conservation Society. p. 38-60. 

Thorp, K.R., Jaynes, D.B., Malone, R.W. 2008. 

Simulating the long-term performance of 

drainage water management across the 

Midwestern United States. Transactions of the 

ASABE. 51(3):961-976. 

VanToai, T.T., J.D. Lee, P. F. P. Goulart, J. G. 

Shannon, J. D. Alves, H. T. Nguyen, O. Yu, M. 

Rahman and R. Islam. 2012. Soybean (Glycine 

max L. Merr.) seed composition response to soil 

flooding stress. Journal of Food, Agriculture & 

Environment 10 (1). Accepted for publication. 

Vantoai, T.T., Tran, T., Nguyen, N., Nguyen, H., 

Shannon, G., Rahman, M.A. 2010. Flooding 

tolerance of soybean (Glycine max) germplasm 

from southeast Asia under field and screenhouse environment. Open Agriculture Journal. 

4:38-46.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

46

Problem Area 4: Integrated Soil Erosion and 

Sedimentation Technologies

Soil erosion, sediment movement, and 

deposition processes involve the interactions of 

land management practices with climate, soil, 

and landscape properties. Because erosion 

affects soil properties progressively over time, 

and generally results in decreased soil quality 

and reduced resistance of agricultural systems 

to stress, soil erosion control is essential for 

sustainable agricultural production systems. 

Sediment generated by soil erosion has costly, 

negative, off-site impacts on downstream 

channel evolution, flooding, water, and air 

quality. Better erosion control technologies and 

improved decision support systems for planning 

and assessment are needed. Managing local 

effects on a field, farm, or channel, as well as 

off-site impacts at larger watershed and 

landscape scales, are both critically important. 

Theme 1: Improved science for targeting 

erosion control and assessment 

To properly control erosion, it is necessary to 

know where the sediments came from and the 

dominant processes that moved the sediments

on the landscape. ARS’ erosion research is 

now more focused on identifying the dominant 

processes that move sediments on the 

landscape. Recent findings show that 

subsurface flow is a critical factor in causing 

ephemeral gully formation and stream bank 

erosion. Using environmental tracers for source 

tracking (i.e., to identify where the sediments 

come from) is another noted accomplishment. 

The selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 1: Database and predictive 

relationships for erosion and sediment transport 

caused by concentrated flow in irrigation 

furrows, ephemeral gullies, and edge-of-field 

gullies; Product 2: Decision support tools and 

databases for sediment loads, yields, and offsite impacts considering fractional sediment 

transport and deposition, geomorphic aspects of 

stream evolution, and reservoir/pond 

sedimentation for purposes of quantifying 

landscape scale erosion rates; and Product 4: 

Improved tools for assessment of soil 

susceptibility to erosion including spatial, 

temporal, topographical, vegetative, and 

management effects.

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 1 

of Problem Area 4

Runoff and erosion are key factors affecting 

water distribution on the landscape, and 

consequently, rangeland sustainability. 

Scientists from Tucson, AZ, analyzed 34 years 

of precipitation, runoff and sediment data 

collected from 8 small (1.1 to 4.0 ha) semi-arid 

rangeland watersheds in southern Arizona. 

Annual precipitation averaged 400 mm y-1

, with 

half of the total rainfall occurring from July 

through September. Runoff depth was, on 

average, about 10 % of annual precipitation 

depth. Ten percent of rainfall events produced 

over half of the total sediment yield. Maximum 

30 minute precipitation intensity was the primary 

factor affecting runoff, while runoff was the best 

predictor of sediment yield. In some watersheds, 

fire and drought may have significantly altered 

the hydrologic sediment response, but the lack 

of continuous monitoring of vegetation 

complicates the interpretation of both fire and 

grazing management effects (Polyakov et al., 

2010a; 2010b).

Sediment is a major pollutant in many watershed 

streams. Identification of sediment sources is

critical to providing cost-effective management 

for these watersheds, thereby reducing 

sediment pollution. Using sediment 

identification techniques, ARS scientists in 

Tucson, AZ, determined that three subwatersheds in the Walnut Gulch Experimental 

Watershed (WGEW) contribute 86% of the total 

sediment load from the watershed. Sixty-five 

percent of the stable carbon isotope leaving the 

watershed comes from shrubs that dominate the 

vegetation in these three sub-watersheds. 

Using these sediment identification techniques, 

land managers and landowners can now 

determine areas where they should focus their 

limited resources to produce the greatest 

reduction in sediment loads (Rhoton et al., 2008; 

2011). 

Accurate quantification of erosion is an 

important component of developing tillage 

practices that minimize soil and associated 

nutrient losses from agricultural fields. However 

tillage practices also turn and move soil material 

in the field, but current soil erosion prediction 

models do not account for soil translocation 

following tillage. ARS scientists at Oxford, MS, 

quantified the amount of soil translocated 

following tillage, taking into account slope 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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gradients both parallel and perpendicular to the 

direction of tillage. The prototype model 

operates on a rectangular grid represented by a 

Digital Elevation Map (DEM) containing initial 

terrain elevations. The model represents a 

valuable future tool for quantifying the effects of 

agricultural practices on soil erosion and 

sedimentation at the landscape scale (Vieira and 

Dabney, 2009; Vieira and Dabney, 2011). 

Sediments stored in lakes are a valuable archive 

that can be used to recover information on the 

erosion history of watersheds. Measuring the 

performance of costly watershed management 

practices is a difficult problem with far-reaching 

consequences. Intensive agriculture results in 

erosion rates that are many times those of 

undisturbed land; however, the return on funds 

used to correct erosion problems is largely 

unknown. In cooperation with scientists from the 

University of Mississippi, ARS scientists at 

Oxford, MS, dated sediments from five natural 

oxbow cutoffs in the Mississippi River alluvial 

floodplain, using naturally occurring radioactive 

substances present in the soil. Observed trends 

in sedimentation rates were then related to 

changes in watershed management practices. 

Compared to pre-management sedimentation 

rates, significant reductions in post-management 

sedimentation rates were observed in 

Roundaway (33%), Beasley (76%), and Wolf 

(81%) lakes. Results demonstrate the 

effectiveness of conservation practices used in 

these watersheds, and that radioisotope-based 

measurements can be used to detect changes in 

sedimentation in response to changes in land 

management over time-frames as short as 15 

years prior to sediment core collection (Wren et 

al., 2011).

The effects of field edges and buffer strips on 

runoff flow patterns have been recognized, but 

quantification of these effects remains uncertain. 

ARS scientists at Oxford, MS, quantified the 

progressive development of small earthen 

berms at the margins of tilled fields, determined 

their influence on runoff flow patterns and 

sediment delivery, and developed computer 

modeling technology to predict these effects. In 

the absence of a berm, most runoff passed into 

and through near-contour vegetative buffers, but 

tillage with a tandem disk immediately adjacent 

to buffers quickly built a berm that diverted most 

of the runoff received during small storms. Once 

a berm had formed, more than half of stormgenerated runoff flowed along the buffer rather 

than through it, even during the largest storms. 

Runoff flowing upslope of and parallel to contour 

buffers had a longer flow path with increased 

opportunity time for water infiltration, resulting in 

decreased runoff volume but no significant 

impact on sediment delivery compared to runoff 

passing through buffers. Runoff diverted by 

tillage berms may become concentrated at 

areas of flow convergence within agricultural 

fields, where a stable outlet must be provided to 

avoid gully erosion. These studies support 

current NRCS National Practice Standards 

design criteria for Vegetative Barriers (code 

601), Filter Strips (code 393), and Contour 

Buffer Strips (code 332) (Vieira and Dabney, 

2011; Dabney et al., 2012; Vieira and Dabney, 

2012).

The majority of erosion research attributes gully 

erosion, often the dominant source of soil loss, 

to surface flow, while overlooking subsurface 

flow processes. ARS scientists at Oxford, MS,

conducted mechanistic studies in the laboratory 

to document the role of preferential flow through 

large soil pores, termed soil pipes, on the 

Hydraulic engineer Daniel Wren makes 

adjustments to the floating instrument platform 

used in Goodwin Creek Experimental 

Watershed near Batesville, Mississippi. The 

platform is used for data collection and 

development of acoustic technology for field 

measurement of sediment transport.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

48

development of ephemeral gullies, quantifying

the conditions under which internal erosion of 

soil pipes can lead to the initiation of ephemeral 

gullies by tunnel collapse. The work provides 

guidance for incorporating subsurface flow 

processes into next generation models of gully 

erosion, and will form the basis for developing

management strategies for controlling gully 

erosion under subsurface flow conditions 

(Wilson, 2009; 2011).

Sediment is one of the primary pollutants of 

surface waters in the U.S.; stream bank erosion 

has been identified as a significant sediment 

source. The use of riparian buffers to stabilize 

stream banks and reduce the loss of agricultural 

land and sediment loadings to streams has 

become a popular management technique, but 

accurately quantifying the reinforcing effects of 

vegetation on bank stability and sediment losses 

is difficult. To help managed stream bank 

erosion, ARS scientists at Oxford, MS, 

developed BSTEM, which is available free of 

charge on the Web. The Bank-Stability and 

Toe-Erosion Model has been used throughout 

the U.S., and in many places overseas, to 

analyze stream and gravitational forces, as well 

as the effects of seepage erosion, fluvial erosion 

and above- and below-ground riparian 

vegetation biomass, on bank stability and bankface erosion (Wilson et al., 2007; Cancienne et 

al., 2008; Chu-Agor et al., 2008, 2009). The

uses field data on root strength and root 

distributions for a broad range of riparian 

species, applying these data to a type of fiber 

bundle reinforcement model used in structural 

engineering (Pollen and Simon, 2005; Pollen, 

2007). A new dynamic version allows users to 

input years of daily river-stage data, allowing 

iterative simulation of the combined effects of 

hydraulic erosion and geotechnical stability. The 

new dynamic version incorporates a near-bank 

groundwater model that provides dynamic 

variations in pore-water pressure distributions 

and, therefore, bank strength, over the course of 

the simulation. The model serves as a tool for 

watershed managers to: 1) determine sediment 

loads from stream bank erosion; 2) determine 

potential sediment-load reductions using a range 

of mitigation strategies; and 3) design stablebank configurations for stream restoration 

activities (Simon et al., 2011).

Accurately measuring sediment concentrations 

in streams draining agricultural watersheds is 

important for quantifying erosion losses, 

assessing the impacts of sediment on the 

dynamics of stream and river flow, and 

predicting sediment buildup behind dams and in 

reservoirs, but sediment measurements are both 

difficult and expensive to collect. In 

collaboration with the National Center for 

Physical Acoustics, ARS scientists in Oxford, 

MS, developed an acoustic technique for 

measuring fine (< 0.062 mm) sediment particles 

in water. This new technology enhances current 

capabilities for measuring suspended sediments 

in water, closing a gap in acoustic 

measurements of particles less than 0.062 mm 

in diameter. The technology: allows remote, 

autonomous deployment; is relatively 

inexpensive; and gives much more detailed 

information about sediment dynamics than 

traditional manual sampling techniques 

(Carpenter et al., 2010)

Digital photogrammetry is the remote 

measurement of geometric or topographic 

information from digital photographs. ARS 

scientists at West Lafayette, IN, found that the 

availability of low-cost digital cameras makes 

photogrammetry a great tool for soil erosion 

assessment. In photogrammetry, reference 

markers of known coordinates are needed to 

provide the scale for the objects in the image. 

Working in farm fields in Kansas where 

ephemeral gullies were present, these scientists 

developed and field-tested a simplified process 

to derive the coordinates of reference markers 

using an object of known geometry, eliminating 

the need to use expensive surveying equipment 

and enabling soil erosion assessments to occur 

much more broadly worldwide. The technology 

is also being adopted by the Agricultural 

University of Vienna, Austria, and University of 

Ghent, Belgium, to facilitate research on soil 

roughness changes during rill development 

(Nouwakpo and Huang, 2012). 

Stream restoration using the BSTEM model

design.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

49

Theme 2: Tools for assessing potential 

earthen embankment breach

USDA flood control dams provide livestock 

water, municipal water and wastewater, electric 

power, flood protection, irrigation, fish and 

wildlife habitat, recreation, sediment detention, 

and manure storage and treatment. Many of 

these dams are approaching their designed 

service life. ARS research efforts in this subject 

area focus on assessing erosion from earthen 

embankments and spillways, which can trigger a 

catastrophic dam failure. Also, an acoustic 

procedure to identify internal erosion inside the 

embankment is another noted accomplishment. 

The selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 3: Improved tools for evaluating the 

potential for earthen embankment breach due to 

erosion and deterioration due to wave action.

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 2 

of Problem Area 4

Present and future USDA Small Watershed 

Dams will require assessments to determine 

hazard classification, population at risk, and 

emergency action plans, and for prioritizing 

rehabilitation of aging infrastructure. A 

physically based dam embankment failure 

predictive model is essential for conducting 

these in-depth assessments. In cooperation 

with the NRCS and Kansas State University, 

ARS scientists in Stillwater, OK, have developed 

the computer engineering application tool, 

WinDAM B. This application software allows 

engineers to evaluate embankment overtopping 

erosion, breach timing, breach location, breach 

failure, and flood discharge, for flood 

overtopping of homogeneous earthen 

embankments. This computer tool will be 

important in evaluating existing structures, with 

potential for determining hazard classification, 

developing emergency action plans, and 

reducing costs associated with rehabilitation 

(Hanson et al., 2011).

The NRCS provides technical and financial 

assistance on the design and construction of 

nearly 11,000 flood control dams installed in 47 

states since 1947; half of these will reach their 

planned service life by 2018. Stepped spillways 

offer a cost savings relative to other 

rehabilitation methods, but there are design 

issues that need resolution. Convergent 

stepped spillways are one potential 

configuration, but they result in increased flow 

depth near the training wall. Thus the height of 

the training walls to retain the flow in the spillway 

chute must be determined. ARS engineers at 

Stillwater, OK, developed an equation for 

estimating the dimension criteria of converging 

vertical sidewalls for convergent stepped 

spillways. This training wall height equation 

provide design guidance so that spillway 

function adequately, protecting the remainder of 

the embankment. Stepped spillways are also 

known to create bulked flow, an increase in flow 

depth due to developing air entrainment created 

by the steps. Engineers have developed energy 

dissipation relationships based on the location of 

the air entrainment inception point that may be 

used for the design of the training walls and 

stilling basins. As a solution to both 

rehabilitation and safety needs, stepped 

spillways will be placed in approximately 10% of 

the existing dam embankments. Thus this new 

‘design criteria’ equation will help in the 

A field gully at Kansas and the digitized 

channel geometry created from 

photogrammetry using a consumer-grade 

camera. 

From an observation platform overlooking a test 

dam, hydraulic engineer Greg Hanson records 

the test for use in computer modeling.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

50

rehabilitation of more than 1,000 flood control 

dams (Hunt and Kadavy, 2010a; 2010b). 

Increasing the flow capacity of the numerous 

flood control dams that exist in small watersheds 

is a growing issue for rehabilitating these aging 

structures and maintaining their safety. NRCS 

engineers are using Roller-compacted Concrete 

(RCC) stepped spillways to increase flow 

capacity, thereby protecting these earthen dams 

from potential erosion. One important design 

issue is determining the dimensions of the 

vertical and sloped training walls needed when 

the spillway chute is required to be narrower at 

the bottom than at the top. Because RCC 

spillways cost several million dollars to build, 

research providing optimal design criteria for 

these spillways could save a significant amount 

of money. ARS scientists at Stillwater, OK, 

completed a series of generalized model studies 

that produced a series of equations to predict 

the appropriate dimensions of converging 

vertical and sloped sidewalls, to achieve 

maximum safe flow capacities in earthen dam 

spillways, thereby minimizing potential costs 

(Hunt et al., 2008).

Internal erosion by pipe flow is a leading cause 

of embankment failures and has been 

postulated to be a major cause of both 

landslides and gully erosion. Non-invasive 

methods are needed for identifying soil pipes 

and detecting when flow is occurring in these 

large soil pores and the resulting internal erosion 

that could lead to gully erosion and embankment 

failures. In cooperation with the National Center 

for Physical Acoustics, ARS scientists in Oxford, 

MS, carried out experiments in which flow 

through soil pipes under controlled laboratory 

conditions was monitored by both passive and 

active acoustic sensors. Internal erosion was 

measured as a function of pipe flow velocity, 

along with water pressure in soil surrounding the 

soil pipes. The study demonstrates the potential 

of acoustic velocity signals for monitoring 

dynamic and highly non-equilibrium conditions of 

soil pipe flow and internal erosion. Once fully 

tested and developed, such acoustic 

technologies could provide a non-invasive 

method for inspecting embankments and the 

early detection of pipe flow and internal erosion 

prior to failure (Wilson, 2009; 2011; Lu and 

Wilson, 2011). 

Theme 3: Erosion control techniques and 

strategies

The accomplishments reported here focus on 

field scale practices that have demonstrated 

erosion control benefits. One area of research 

that ARS scientists are known for is the use of 

soil amendments to improve water infiltration, 

reducing surface runoff and erosion. One 

notable accomplishment reported under this 

theme is that a small amount of ployacrylamide 

added into irrigation water can significantly 

reduce loss of water due to seepage. 

The selected accomplishments reported below 

are associated with Product 5: Best 

Management Practices and design tools for infield erosion control, gully and ephemeral 

channel erosion prevention, riparian corridor 

stabilization, and sediment retention structures; 

and Product 6: Models to predict irrigationinduced erosion using a common interface with 

shared databases: development, 

parameterization, and validation (surface, center 

pivot and set/move sprinklers). 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 3 

of Problem Area 4

ARS hydrologist Glenn Wilson (left), graduate 

student Raja Periketi (center), and Oklahoma 

State University scientist Garey Fox use a 

simulated streambank to conduct laboratory 

experiments of seepage erosion on 

streambank failure. Periketi is measuring the 

lateral extent of a mass failure caused by 

seepage erosion.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

51

In the southern US, erosion and concomitant soil 

loss are common problems associated with 

cotton cultivation, particularly in sloping terrain. 

Standard approaches for growing cotton on 

sloping lands produce rates of erosion and 

sediment yield several times greater than the 

7t/ha tolerance value. ARS scientists at Oxford, 

MS, completed a four-year study that included 

measuring water runoff and sediment yield from 

plots cultivated for cotton with conventional 

approaches, and from plots representing three 

innovative approaches to cotton cultivation in 

sloping terrain—various combinations of narrow 

row spacing, no-till, and grass hedges. 

Sediment yield from no-till plots with grass 

hedges was reduced by 94% relative to 

conventional tillage, while yielding an average of 

0.2 t/ha of cotton more than conventionally tilled 

plots. These results will be useful in guiding 

future research on field-sized areas, with 

potential benefits for extension personnel, action 

agencies involved in water quality planning, and 

farmers (Cullum et al., 2007; Dabney et al., 

2009).

Knowledge of the ‘carbon footprints’ of various 

energy generation and use activities, including 

agriculture, has become an important 

environmental issue. ARS scientists at 

Coshocton, OH, studied the loss of dissolved 

organic carbon associated with runoff and 

erosion. In a system where a beef cow-calf herd 

was rotated weekly through 4 pastures during 

the grazing system, one pasture was used for 

winter feeding. Surface runoff was measured 

from each of these pastures throughout the 

year. Only the pasture used for winter feeding 

had runoff with measureable amounts of 

sediment, and those losses occurred during the 

winter feeding period. Because the cattle were 

constantly in this pasture during the winter 

months, the vegetative cover was reduced to 

less than 50%, increasing the potential for soil 

loss. Most of the sediment and carbon loss 

occurred during a few large, runoff-producing 

storms. On an individual storm event basis, 

there was no correlation between the amount of 

sediment lost and the organic carbon 

concentration of that sediment. Both dissolved 

organic carbon and sediment-attached organic 

carbon were lost in similar amounts on both an 

event and an annual basis. Losses of organic 

carbon (i.e., soil quality) from pastures, and thus 

the carbon footprints of pasture operations, can 

be reduced by using management practices, 

such as rotational stocking during the winter 

months, that reduce overall sediment losses 

(Owens and Shipitalo, 2009; Owens and 

Shipitalo, 2011).

Rock check dams are used across the western 

US for erosion control. These low-cost practices 

also provide a mechanism for increasing 

vegetation by altering soil moisture. However, 

there is a lack of data quantifying their impact on 

soil moisture distribution. ARS scientists in 

Tucson, AZ, found that, compared to control 

sites, significantly greater soil moisture content 

on channel banks were associated with both 

loose rock and wire bound check dams. The 

overall aim of the technology is to increase the 

potential for successful seedling emergence 

from ambient levels of grass seed in the lower 

part of the landscape near channels, which then 

will have the potential in wet years to expand 

across the landscape and increase rangeland 

production (Nichols, 2007; Nichols et al., 2012 in 

press). 

Paper mills generate a large amount of a 

byproduct consisting of clay, lime, and fibers too 

short to make paper. Paper mill sludge (PMS) 

can improve reclamation of surface-coal mines 

where low pH and organic-carbon levels in the 

spoil cover material can inhibit re-vegetation. 

However when used at higher rates, PMS can 

adversely affect water quality. ARS scientists at 

Coshocton, OH, found that compared to 

standard reclamation practices, PMS application 

rates as high as 672 Mg/ha drastically reduced 

runoff and erosion and improved soil quality and 

plant growth, while not increasing loads of other 

pollutants in runoff. Results will help in 

establishing regulatory guidelines for PMS use 

and potentially increase applications of this byproduct thereby helping to improve the 

An example of seepage erosion from a section 

of Goodwin Creek, Mississippi.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

52

reclamation of surface-coal mine spoils 

(Shipitalo and Bonta, 2008). 

Water flowing in irrigation furrows can erode soil 

and transport sediment and associated nutrients 

off the field. In a field test conducted by ARS 

scientists at Kimberly, ID, a new 

starch/polyacrylamide amendment was 

compared against polyacrylamide-treated and 

untreated furrows, with respect to their abilities 

to reduce soil erosion and sediment transport in 

irrigation furrows. The new amendment—a 

blend of potato starch and polyacrylamide 

(PAM)—increased infiltration by 20%, and 

reduced soil erosion by 65%, as compared to 

untreated furrows. When applied at the same 

rate, PAM treatment increased infiltration by only 

13%, but reduced erosion by 98%, as compared 

to untreated furrows. The new 

polysaccharide/PAM amendment can be used 

as an alternative to PAM for improving infiltration 

on furrow-irrigated fields. In addition to the 

erosion control benefits, PAM also increased dry 

bean yield by 14% and silage corn yield by 

4.5%, which offset the cost of the practice to the 

producers (Bjorneberg and Sojka, 2008; Lentz 

and Sojka, 2009).

Replacing surface irrigation with center pivot 

sprinkler irrigation is a common conservation 

practice to reduce irrigation induced runoff and 

soil erosion. However, runoff and erosion can 

still occur if center pivot sprinkler systems are 

improperly designed for the site conditions. 

Based on measurements of sprinkler droplet 

size and velocity, ARS researchers at Kimberly, 

Idaho, have shown that the conventional way of 

characterizing the application of sprinkler energy 

did not match potential runoff. Runoff can be 

minimized by having a large range of drop sizes 

in combination with low application rates. This 

information aids sprinkler selection and can be 

used to improve sprinkler design. Development 

of new ways to characterize sprinkler kinetic 

energy results in better designs for center pivot 

irrigation sprinklers (Bjorneberg et al., 2007; 

King and Bjorneberg, 2011).

Theme 4: Development of erosion prediction 

models and assessment tools

Probably the most well-known ARS science that

has been turned into a technology used worldwide in natural resource management, is the 

development of Universal Soil Loss EquationUSLE. ARS researchers continue to improve 

the erosion science and control strategies and to 

incorporate the knowledge into erosion 

assessment technologies. Erosion models 

have also evolved from empirically based USLEtype concept to incorporate more physical 

processes. 

The selected accomplishments related to 

erosion model development are associated with 

Product 7: Multi-scale modeling system to 

predict wind, water, and tillage erosion, and 

downstream impact of sediment movement on 

agricultural landscapes using a common 

interface with shared databases: development, 

parameterization, and validation. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 4 

of Problem Area 4

Because existing erosion models were 

developed for croplands, where hydrologic and 

erosion processes differ from those found on 

rangelands, accurate prediction of soil loss on 

western rangelands requires an erosion model 

specifically designed for rangeland applications. 

In a landmark paper on rangeland soil erosion 

modeling, ARS scientists from Tucson, AZ, 

describe the new Rangeland Hydrology and 

Erosion Model (RHEM), which can 1) model 

erosion processes under both undisturbed and 

disturbed rangeland conditions; 2) adopt a new 

splash erosion and thin sheet-flow transport 

equation developed specifically from rangeland 

data; and 3) link model hydrologic and erosion 

parameters with rangeland plant communities by 

providing a new system of parameter estimation 

equations based on 204 plots in 49 rangeland 

Jim Entry (left) and Dave Bjorneberg record 

sediment concentrations from furrow irrigation 

runoff samples. The clear sample on the right 

is from a PAM treated furrow.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

53

sites distributed across 16 western U.S. states. 

The Rangeland Hydrology and Erosion Model 

estimates runoff, erosion, and sediment delivery 

rates and volumes at the hillslope spatial scale, 

and at the temporal scale of individual rainfall 

events. Subsequent experiments conducted to 

generate independent data for model validation 

indicate the ability of RHEM to provide 

reasonable runoff and soil loss prediction 

capabilities for rangeland management and 

research needs, helping to sustain productive 

rangelands in the western U.S. in the face of 

changing land use and climatic fluctuations 

(Nearing et al., 2011).

In areas dominated by frozen soil conditions, 

where freezing, thawing, snow accumulation, 

and snow melting significantly affect soil loss, 

erosion prediction consistently performs poorly. 

Cooperative work between ARS scientists in 

West Lafayette, IN, Pullman, WA, and 

Washington State University, produced the 

updated Water Erosion Prediction Project 

(WEPP) model, version 2010.1. Released in 

January 2010, the model contains significant 

improvements in the prediction of soil freezing 

and thawing, snow accumulation, and runoff 

resulting from snowmelt. In validation studies 

using data from Pullman, WA, and Morris, MN, 

the new model performed significantly better 

than the previous version. The updated WEPP 

model will impact thousands of users throughout 

the U.S. and the world, providing better 

predictions of runoff, soil loss, and sediment 

yield from hillslopes and small field-scale 

watersheds. Users in areas experiencing 

substantial erosion from snowmelt on thawing 

soils should notice particularly better 

performance (Dun et al., 2010).

The shape of a river, and therefore the amount 

of material eroded from its boundary, are greatly 

affected by the presence of vegetation and the 

distribution of water in the riparian zone--the 

zone adjacent to the stream or river channel. 

ARS scientists in Oxford, MS, have developed 

new modeling components to accurately 

simulate: (1) the movement of water between a 

river and its riparian zone; and (2) the hydrologic 

and mechanical effects of vegetation on bank 

soil shear strength. These modeling 

components were integrated with the USDAARS computer models CONservational Channel 

Evolution Pollutant Transport System 

(CONCEPTS—a model of in-stream processes) 

and REMM (a model of riparian processes), and 

tested against two years of detailed data 

collected along a restored reach of Trout Creek 

in the Lake Tahoe Basin, CA. Simulations show 

that vegetation and bank orientation significantly 

affect soil water content in the bank, resulting in 

greater bank strength in summer and fall 

seasons. Bank strength, however, is 

significantly reduced in early spring, when 

melting of the bottom of the snow pack on the 

floodplain saturates the bank profile. The 

resulting model can better assess the impact of 

riparian zone management practices on stream 

bank erosion, providing an important tool for 

action agencies such as the NRCS, to evaluate 

the effects of edge-of-field practices at field or 

watershed scales (Langendoen et al., 2009).

Literature cited in selected Problem Area 4 

Accomplishments 

Bjorneberg, D.L., Prestwich, C., Evans, R.G. 

2007. Evaluating the surface irrigation soil loss 

(SISL) model. Applied Engineering in 

Agriculture. 23(4):485-491.

Bjorneberg, D.L,.Sojka, R.E. 2008 Effects of a 

new polysaccharide-based amendment on 

furrow irrigation infiltration and erosion. 

Transactions of the ASABE. 51:529-534.

Cancienne, R., G.A. Fox, and A. Simon. 2008. 

Influence of seepage undercutting on the root 

reinforcement of streambanks. Earth Surf. 

Processes Landforms 33:1769-1787.

An aerial view of a section of James Creek, in 

Mississippi, where channel incision has led to 

rapid bank erosion causing land loss and high 

suspended sediment loads within the water. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

54

Carpenter, W. O., Chambers, J. P., Wren, D. G., 

Kuhnle, R. A., and Diers, J. A. 2010. Acoustic 

Measurements of Clay-Size Particles. 9th 

Federal Interagency Sedimentation Conference, 

Las Vegas, Nevada.

Chu-Agor, M.L., G.A. Fox, and G.V. Wilson. 

2009. A seepage erosion sediment transport 

function and geometric headcut relationships for 

predicting seepage erosion undercutting. J. 

Hydrol. 377:155-164.

Chu-Agor, M.L., G.A. Fox, R. Cancienne, and 

G.V. Wilson. 2008a. Seepage caused tension 

failures and erosion undercutting of hillslopes. J. 

Hydrol. 359:247-259. 

Cullum, R.F., G.V. Wilson, K.C. McGregor, and 

J.R. Johnson. 2007. Runoff and soil loss from 

ultra narrow-row cotton plots with and without 

stiff-grass hedges. J. Soil and Tillage Res. 

93(1):56-63

Cullum, R.F., Wilson, G.V., McGregor, K.C., 

Johnson, J.R. 2007. Runoff and soil loss from 

ultra-narrow row cotton plots with and without 

stiff-grass hedges. International Journal of Soil 

and Tillage Research 93(1):56-63.

Dabney S.M., G.V. Wilson, K.C. McGregor, 

D.A.N. Vieira. 2012. Runoff through and upslope 

of contour switchgrass hedges. Soil Sci. Soc. 

Am. J. 76(1) DOI:10.2136/sssaj2011.0019.

Dabney, S.M., K.C. McGregor, G. V. Wilson, 

R.F. Cullum. 2009. How management of grass 

hedges affects their erosion reduction potential. 

Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 73(1): 241-254.

Dun, S., Wu, J.Q., McCool, D.K., 

Frankenberger, J.R., Flanagan, D.C. 2010. 

Improving frost-simulation subroutines of the 

Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) 

model. Transactions of the ASABE 53(5):1399-

1411.

Hanson, G. J., Temple, D. M., Hunt, S. L., Tejral, 

R. D., 2011. Development and characterization 

of soil material parameters for embankment 

breach. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 

27(4):1-9.

Hunt, S. L. and Kadavy, K. C. 2010a. Energy 

dissipation on flat-sloped stepped spillways: 

Part 1. Upstream of the inception point. 

Transactions of ASABE 53(1):103-109. 

Hunt, S. L. and Kadavy, K. C. 2010b. Energy 

dissipation on flat-sloped stepped spillways: 

Part 2. Downstream of the inception point. 

Transactions of the ASABE 53(1):111-118. 

Hunt, S. L., Kadavy, K. C., Abt, S. R., and 

Temple, D. M. 2008. Impact of converging 

chute walls for RCC stepped spillways. Journal 

of Hydraulic Engineering 134(7):1000-1003. 

King, B.A., and Bjorneberg, D.L. 2011. 

Evaluation of potential runoff and erosion of four 

center pivot irrigation sprinklers. Applied 

Engineering in Agriculture. 27(1):75-85.

Kuhnle, R. A., Bingner, R. L., Alonso, C. V., 

Wilson, C. G., and Simon, A. 2008. 

Conservation practice effects on sediment load 

in the Goodwin Creek Experimental Watershed. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 63(6), 

496-503.

Langendoen, E.J., Lowrance, R.R., and Simon, 

A. 2009. Assessing the impact of riparian 

processes on streambank stability. 

Ecohydrology, 2(3):360-369.

Lentz, R.D., and Sojka, R.E. 2009. Long-term 

polyacrylamide formulation effects on soil 

erosion, water infiltration, and yields of furrowirrigated crops. Agronomy Journal. 101(2):305-

314.

Lu, Zhiqu and G.V. Wilson. 2011. Acoustic 

measurements of soil pipeflow and internal 

erosion. SSSAJ (in review)

Nearing, M.A., Wei, H., Stone, J.J., Pierson, Jr. 

F.B., Spaeth, K., Weltz, M.A., Flanagan, D.C., 

Hernandez, M. 2011. A rangeland hydrology and 

erosion model. Transactions of the ASABE. 

54(3):1-8.

Nichols, M.H. 2007. The walnut gulch 

experimental watershed - 50 years of watershed 

monitoring and research. In: Monitoring and 

Evaluation of Soil Conservation and Watershed 

Development Projects. de Graaff, J, Cameron, 

J., Sombatpanit, S., Pieri, C., Woodhill, J.(eds.). 

World Association of Soil and Water 

Conservation, Bangkok. 496 p.

Nichols, M.H., McReynolds, K., Reed, C. (in 

press). Short-term variations in rangeland soil 

moisture in response to low-tech erosion control 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

55

structures. Rangeland Ecology and 

Management

Nouwakpo, S.K., Huang, C. 2012. A simplified 

close-range photogrammetric technique for soil 

erosion assessment. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 

76(1). (in press, to appear in 2012 Jan-Feb 

issue) doi:10.2136/sssaj2011.0148. 

Owens, L.B., Shipitalo, M.J. 2009. Runoff quality 

evaluations of continuous and rotational overwintering systems for beef cows. Agriculture, 

Ecosystems and Environment. 129(4):482-490.

Owens, L.B., Shipitalo, M.J. 2011. Sedimentbound and dissolved carbon concentration and 

transport from a small pastured watershed. 

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 

141(1-2):162-166.

Pollen, N. 2007. Temporal and spatial variability 

in root reinforcement of streambanks: 

Accounting for soil shear strength and moisture. 

Catena 69:197-205.

Pollen, N., and A. Simon. 2005. Estimating the 

mechanical effects of riparian vegetation on 

stream bank stability using a fiber bundle model. 

Water Resour. Res. 41:W07025,

Polyakov, V. O., M. A. Nearing, M. H. Nichols, 

R. L. Scott, J. J. Stone, and M. P. McClaran.

2010a. Long-term runoff and sediment yields 

from small semiarid watersheds in southern 

Arizona. Water Resour. Res., 46, W09512, 

doi:10.1029/2009WR009001. 

Polyakov, V.O., M.A. Nearing, J.J. Stone, E.P. 

Hamerlynck, M.H. Nichols, C. Holifield Collins, 

and R.L. Scott. 2010b. Runoff and erosional 

responses to a drought-induced shift in a desert 

grassland community composition. Journal of 

Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences Vol. 

115, G04027, doi:10.1029/2010JG001386.

Rhoton, F.E., Emmerich, W., DiCarlo, D.A., 

McChesney, D.S., Nearing, M.A., Ritchie, J.C. 

2008. Identification of suspended sources using 

soil characteristics in a semiarid watershed. Soil 

Science Society of America. 72(4): 1102-1112.

Rhoton, F.E., W.E. Emmerich, D.S. McChesney, 

M.A. Nearing, and J.C. Ritchie. 2011. Sediment 

Source Identification in a Semiarid Watershed at 

Soil Mapping Unit Scales. Catena 87:172-181.

Shipitalo, M.J., Bonta, J.V. 2008. Impact of using 

paper mill sludge for surface-mine reclamation 

on runoff water quality and plant growth. Journal 

of Environmental Quality. 37(6):2351-2359.

Simon, A., Bankhead, N.L., Thomas, R.E. 2011. 

Development and application of a deterministic 

bank-stability and toe-erosion model (BSTEM) 

for stream restoration. In: Stream Restoration in 

Dynamnics Fluvial Systems: Scientific 

Approaches, Analyses and Tools. American 

Geophysical Union. Geophysical Monograph 

Series. 194:500.

Vieira, D.A., Dabney, S.M. 2009. Modeling 

Landscape Evolution Due to Tillage. 

Transactions of the ASABE. 52:1505-1522.

Vieira D.A. and S.M. Dabney. 2011. Modeling 

edge effects of tillage erosion. Soil and Tillage 

Research 111: 197-207.

Vieira D.A. and S.M. Dabney. 2012. Twodimensional flow patterns near contour grass 

hedges. Hydrol. Process. DOI: 

10.1002/hyp.8262.

Wilson, C., R. Kuhnle, D. Bosch, J. Steiner, P. 

Starks, M. Tomer, and G.V. Wilson. 2008. 

Relative source contributions of eroded 

sediment to the suspended load of CEAP 

watersheds in Mississippi, Iowa, Georgia, and 

Oklahoma. J. Soil and Water Conservation, 

63(6):523-532.

Wilson, G.V. 2009. Mechanisms of ephemeral 

gully erosion caused by constant flow through a 

continuous soil-pipe. Earth Surface Processes 

and Landforms, 34:1858-1866.

Wilson, G.V. 2011. Understanding soil-pipeflow 

and its role in ephemeral gully erosion. Hydrol. 

Processes. 25(15):2354-2364.

Wilson, G.V., R.K. Periketi, G.A. Fox, S.M. 

Dabney, F.D. Shields, Jr., and R.F. Cullum. 

2007. Seepage erosion properties contributing 

to streambank failure. Earth Surf. Processes 

Landforms 32:447-459.

Wren, D. G. and Davidson, G. R. 2011. Using 

Lake Sedimentation Rates to Quantify the 

Effectiveness of Erosion Control in Watersheds. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 

66(5):313-322, doi:10.2489/jswc.66.5.313.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

56

Problem Area 5: Watershed Management, 

Water Availability, and Ecosystem 

Restoration

Agricultural lands, including crop, pasture, and 

range lands, comprise > 70% of the continental 

U.S. and play a dominant role in the 

management of the Nation's watersheds and

water resources needed for human 

consumption, recreation, agriculture, industry, 

wildlife habitat, aquatic ecosystems, and the 

environment. The confluence of unprecedented 

demands for freshwater, rapidly changing land 

use to accommodate rural and urban growth and 

biofuel production, recurring droughts, and 

regional climatic variations, means that the 

Nation’s freshwater resources, agricultural 

production, and ecosystems are under more 

pressure and at greater risk than ever before. 

Thus, there is a need to accurately quantify and 

manage our water resources to support these 

many uses across heterogeneous agricultural 

and urban landscapes. Watershed 

management based on multiple objectives that 

include water supply, water pollution, urban 

development, climate variability, recreation, 

ecosystem protection, and habitat restoration, is 

a complex task necessary not only to support 

the goals of the Clean Water Act and the 

Endangered Species Act, but also to address 

concerns of watershed coalitions, policy makers, 

and the public. 

Theme 1: Production and management 

systems that improve water quantity and 

quality

ARS’ natural resources projects are aimed 

towards developing field scale BMPs for both 

production and environmental benefits. Some 

accomplishments with the same objectives have 

been reported under Problem Area 1, Theme 2; 

Problem Area 2, Theme 5; Problem Area 3, 

Theme 1; and Problem Area 4, Theme 3; and 

Problem Area 6, Theme 1. In essence, no 

matter how water resources related research is

divided or categorized, the development of 

BMPs is always the common goal of the 

research effort. 

The selected accomplishments reported here 

are associated with Products 1: Best 

management practices (BMPs), assessment 

tools, and decision support systems for 

managing water quantity and quality within 

agricultural and urban landscapes; and Product 

3: BMPs and assessment tools for determining 

economically and environmentally sustainable 

agricultural enterprises in South Florida.

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 1 

of Problem Area 5

Particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, water 

is a limiting resource for crop production. 

Models can enable a systems approach to

facilitate sustainable water management, but 

modeling spatial relationships in plant growth 

and yield at field-to-watershed scales requires 

accurate simulation of crop developmental 

responses across landscapes that vary in soil 

water availability. To address this need, ARS 

scientists at Fort Collins, CO, developed and 

released PhenologyMMS (Modular Modeling 

System) Version 1.2, and integrated its core 

science code into the Unified Plant Growth 

Model (UPGM). The PhenologyMMS software 

has subsequently received over 500 download 

requests from researchers, farmers, and 

agribusinesses, and numerous direct requests 

for additional information and explanation, 

including from the popular press. By helping to 

schedule farm crop management practices (e.g., 

irrigation) based on crop development stage, 

PhenologyMMS helps increase agricultural 

production while reducing adverse 

environmental impacts such as low water use 

efficiency (McMaster et al., 2011).

Soil maps describe the spatial range of the main 

soil series, and associated databases give 

values for the properties of these soils, without 

consideration of long term management effects. 

However over the long term, soil hydraulic 

properties can be affected by land management 

practices. In cooperation with researchers from 

the University of Missouri, ARS scientists at 

Columbia, MO, quantified soil hydraulic 

properties in two fields with the same soil type 

but very different long-term management 

histories. One field has been under continuous 

row crop cultivation for over 100 years; the other 

is a native prairie that has never been tilled. Soil 

from the row crop field was significantly more 

compact, less permeable, and had a lower 

water-holding capacity than the prairie soil. This 

research provides upper and lower boundaries 

for the hydraulic characteristics of this soil type 

that can be used to improve the accuracy of 

model simulations (Mudgal et al., 2010). 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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Soil-water storage and movement are the 

dominant factors controlling both crop 

production and agri-chemical movement in 

agricultural landscapes. In a rain-fed wheat field 

in semi-arid eastern Colorado, ARS scientists 

from Fort Collins, CO, quantified changes in soilwater content as a function of landscape 

position, to identify locations most likely 

influenced by lateral flows. While vertical 

processes appeared to control soil-water 

movement on hilltops, at lower landscape 

positions, soil-water dynamics were influenced 

primarily by unsaturated subsurface lateral flow 

as well as infrequent overland flow events. This 

study enhances our general understanding of 

soil hydrology in hill-slopes, providing data 

needed test data for watershed modeling to help 

improve assessment of both agricultural 

production for food security and the impact of 

conservation practices on environmental 

benefits in agricultural landscapes (Green and 

Erskine, in press).

In South Florida, the area planted in field crops 

and orchards has decreased dramatically during 

the past 10 years, while the area in floricultural 

crops has steadily increased. The effects of 

this shift in agricultural enterprise on water 

quality in the region are unknown. ARS 

scientists in Miami and Ft Pierce, FL, developed 

BMPs that reduce or mitigate nutrient leaching 

from horticultural and floricultural production 

systems, thereby enhancing water quality in 

South Florida. Research conducted at two 

nurseries, a foliage plant nursery and a bedding 

plant nursery, during irrigation/fertigation events,

showed that significant amounts of nitratenitrogen can leave nursery production sites in 

runoff water associated with drip and overhead 

irrigation/fertigation practices. Rainfall events 

causing drainage through pots and surface 

runoff from the production areas may result in 

similar losses. These research findings benefit 

customers in the nursery industry, the fertilizer 

industry, and other commodity associations, by 

providing guidance on management practices 

that reduce the potential movement of nutrients 

offsite, and by developing growth media that 

utilize locally generated solid waste to enhance 

production efficiency while simultaneously 

ameliorating the negative impacts of solid waste 

collection sites (Wilson et al., 2010). 

Forage-based livestock systems are another 

water quality concern in Florida that have been 

implicated as major contributors to deteriorating 

water quality in many other parts of the US as 

well. Both fertilizers and manures represent 

sources of phosphorus that can be transported

via hydrologic pathways, impacting surface and 

ground water quality. ARS scientists in 

Brooksville, FL, examined historical water quality 

parameters in three lakes located near beef 

cattle pastures, finding that properly managed 

beef cattle operations might not be major 

contributors to excessive nutrient loads 

(especially of P) in surface waters. Current 

fertilization recommendations for forage-based 

pastures in central Florida appear to offer little 

potential for negatively impacting water quality, 

while properly managed livestock operations 

appear to contribute negligible loads of nutrients 

(especially P) to surface water. Periodic 

application of additional P and other 

micronutrients may be necessary to sustain 

agronomic needs and to offset the export of 

nutrients due to animal production. Knowledge 

gained through this study helps improve the 

management of forage-based livestock systems 

in humid temperate and sub-tropical 

environments on similar soils (Sigua et al., 

2011).

Hydrologist Reza Savabi (right) and technician 

Nicholas Cockshutt monitor soil moisture 

fluctuations near the Everglades National Park. 

This investigation is part of improving water 

management on agricultural areas. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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Long-term data bases are necessary to identify 

long-term trends and to develop models to 

describe the impacts of various land uses. The 

North Appalachian Experimental Watershed 

Research Station near Coshocton, Ohio, is

another example of long-term data collection, 

where runoff, groundwater flow, and erosion 

data from agricultural watersheds have been 

recorded since the late 1930’s. Water quality 

data have been collected from a variety of 

management practices since the early 1970’s. 

Corresponding meteorological data are also 

available. Because the collection of long-term 

data requires a sustained investment of 

significant resources, data bases of this nature 

are comparatively rare. This information is useful 

to scientists who need long-term data bases for 

work such as development and/or validation of 

models or model components (Owens et al., 

2009).

Theme 2: Habitat restoration and ecology

The ARS laboratory at Oxford, MS, has the only 

research team fully devoted to the assessment 

of habitats and aquatic ecology. Additional 

accomplishments associated with ecological 

assessment under the Conservation Effects 

Assessment Project (CEAP) are reported under 

Problem Area 1, Theme 2. 

These selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 2: Management tools and decision 

support information for restoration of riparian 

buffers, wetlands, and streams, and 

improvement of aquatic ecology. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 2 

of Problem Area 5

Over $1 billion are expended annually on stream 

restoration, but few projects are monitored 

following restoration, and scientists disagree on 

the most effective approaches to achieve 

various restoration objectives. ARS scientists in 

Oxford, MS, monitored streams for ten years 

after the surrounding watersheds were treated 

with standard erosion control practices. In 

addition, two stream reaches were treated with 

special features to restore fish habitat quality. 

Habitat restoration produced major shifts in the 

types and sizes of fish present—shifts that did 

not occur in non-treated stream sections. The 

study demonstrates that even watershed-scale 

application of traditional erosion control 

measures is not adequate to restore stream 

ecological integrity without identifying effective 

approaches to specifically address fish habitat 

deficiencies. This research will be beneficial to 

managers charged with both controlling erosion 

and restoring fish habitat and ecological integrity 

in streams draining agricultural watersheds 

(Shields et al., 2007; Shields, 2009) 

Rivers and streams in intensively cultivated, lowrelief watersheds often experience periods when 

dissolved oxygen concentrations fall below 

minimum levels set by state regulators. The 

ecological literature contains varying information 

about the effects of such conditions on fish. ARS 

scientists in Oxford, MS, showed that fish 

communities in the Big Sunflower River, MS, 

were sensitive to dissolved oxygen levels, with 

several species disappearing from collections 

obtained when oxygen levels were low. These 

results contribute to ongoing deliberations 

regarding requirements for modification of 

farming activities to improve stream water 

quality conditions in agricultural landscapes 

(Shields and Knight, 2011).

The ability of created wetlands to reduce 

nutrient, pesticide, and sediment loadings in 

agricultural runoff can be optimized by design 

and management, but addressing these 

priorities may result in wetlands that are less 

beneficial as habitats for aquatic vertebrates 

(e.g., fishes, amphibians, reptiles) that are 

exhibiting worldwide population declines. ARS 

scientists in Columbus, OH, documented 

Soil scientist Gilbert Sigua uses a probe to 

measure levels of salinity, dissolved oxygen, 

conductivity, and temperature in Spring Lake, in 

Brooksville, Florida. The lake is located near 

forage-based cow-calf operations. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

59

differences in fishes, amphibians, and reptiles in 

two wetland types created by the wetlandreservoir-sub-irrigation system (WRSIS), using 

this information to develop design and 

management criteria to increase the ecological 

benefits of these agricultural water-recycling 

systems. Differences in amphibian abundance 

and species composition between WRSIS 

wetlands and reservoirs suggest their potential 

to provide habitats for different ecological 

communities, with wetlands favoring amphibian 

populations and reservoirs favoring fishes. 

However, this was not the case for ‘pond-type’ 

wetlands that, similar to reservoirs, favored 

fishes. To alleviate this problem, design and 

management criteria were developed to enable 

WRSIS wetlands to be managed as amphibian 

habitat, and reservoirs to be managed as fish 

habitat. These criteria can be used by federal, 

state, and private agencies when creating 

agricultural wetlands, to assist them meeting 

their conservation and restoration goals 

(Anderson et al. 2011). 

Agricultural pesticides are often removed from 

streams, lakes and wetlands by becoming 

attached to sediments and settling to the bottom, 

but the subsequent fate of these pesticides is 

often unknown. ARS scientists in Oxford, MS, 

found that after mixing sediment sampled from a 

wide range of aquatic environments adjacent to 

cultivated fields with water, and then exposing 

aquatic insects to this mixture for 28 days, 

pesticide compounds were found to move from 

the sediments into animal tissues. These 

findings will guide future studies of the 

movements and fate of such liberated pesticides 

in aquatic ecosystems (Smith et al., 2007). 

Nutrients and herbicides often simultaneously 

enter lakes and streams in agricultural runoff, 

but it is not clear how mixtures of plant growth 

stimulators and inhibitors might alter algal 

growth in receiving waters. ARS scientists in 

Oxford, MS, used a new infrared 

microspectroscopy technique to assess the 

physiological response of individual algae from 

natural communities following their exposure to 

atrazine and nutrient mixtures. They found that 

because each species studied had unique 

reactions, overall algal community response 

depends on community composition. For 

example, nutrients inhibit the negative impact of 

atrazine in some species, while atrazine and 

nutrients both stimulate growth in others. This 

study developed an analytical method to bridge 

the gap between laboratory toxicity tests and 

field observations of algae, and can be used to 

develop predictions of how agricultural pollutants 

will alter aquatic microbial communities 

(Murdock and Wetzel, 2012).

Theme 3: Climate and climate change effects 

on the environment and hydrology

Climate drives the water cycle and energy 

exchange on Earth. The effects of climate and 

climate change on hydrology and agricultural 

production have received significant research 

attention, but there are still many challenges

ahead. Selected accomplishments under this 

theme demonstrate the impacts of ARS climate 

related research on the carbon cycle, water 

yield, crop production and rangeland ecology. 

These reported accomplishments are associated 

with Product 4: Improved watershed simulation, 

plant growth, and weather generation model 

components and data assimilation tools for 

water budget, water quality assessment, and 

flood and drought risk and impact assessment.

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 3 

of Problem Area 5

Ecologist Scott Knight inspects and weighs a 

common carp while biologist Terry Welch 

records data. A wide range of fish species are 

collected from Beasley Lake in an effort to 

determine the overall health of lake ecology.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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Hydrologic shifts towards greater discharge 

have been observed in the Midwest, but it is 

uncertain whether this trend results from 

changes in agricultural land use or changes in 

climate. When evaluating simultaneous shifts in 

how energy (evaporative demand) and water 

(precipitation) were partitioned during a longterm, small-watershed experiment, the effects of 

land use (watershed treatment) and climate 

trend (time) became readily distinguishable. 

Applying this technique to four larger 

watersheds across the Midwest, an ARS 

scientist at Ames IA and an Iowa Department of

Natural Resources hydrologist collaborated to 

show that increasing discharge was more 

attributable to climate change than to land-use 

change. Changes in land use, in particular 

increased soybean acreage, did show a shift 

towards increasing discharge that could be 

attributed to decreased crop water use. But 

since 1975, and after this change in cropping 

occurred, changing climate, in the form of 

increased precipitation and decreased 

evaporative demand, has been the dominant 

influence on watershed hydrology. This trend 

impacts issues such as Gulf of Mexico hypoxia, 

which expands as both nutrient losses and 

discharge increase. Results should be of interest 

to all groups interested in conservation 

effectiveness in the Midwest (i.e., conservation 

groups, policy developers, environmental and 

commodity groups), because increased 

discharge from agricultural watersheds due to 

climate change inherently increases the 

challenges of retaining agricultural nutrients 

within soils (Tomer and Schilling, 2009). 

Agricultural systems models are useful tools for 

decision making and for optimizing agricultural 

management practices, but their usefulness 

could be greatly enhanced if future 

weather/climate could be forecast with sufficient 

lead time to allow adjustment of agricultural 

practices to predictable changes in weather and 

climate. ARS scientists in El Reno, OK, 

evaluated the utility of the National 

Oceanographic and Atmospheric 

Administration’s (NOAA's) seasonal climate 

forecasts to aid in such decision making. The 

NOAA forecasts were found to have limited 

value for managing wheat-cattle production 

systems in Oklahoma. An alternative forecast 

method, based on the similarity between 

forecasted and historical precipitation, was 

tested for potential use with a newly developed 

wheat grazing model, but findings suggest that 

this methodology is an unlikely alternative to 

NOAA's seasonal climate forecast. Because 

investigations of new forecast methodologies 

have reaffirmed the limitations of producing 

seasonal climate forecasts that contain 

actionable information for agronomic decisionmaking in Oklahoma, this research alerts 

agricultural producers and managers in this 

state to use these seasonal climate forecasts 

with great caution (Garbrecht et al., 2010; 

Garbrecht et al., 2007; Schneider and 

Garbrecht, 2006; Schneider et al., 2005).

Multi-year precipitation variations impact water 

resources management and conservation. In 

this study, the existence and impact of multiyear precipitation variations on soil erosion, 

sediment transport, and watershed sediment 

yield were identified. The magnitudes of the 

impact of these variations on watershed runoff 

and sediment yield in the Southern Great Plains 

were demonstrated for several watersheds in 

southern Kansas and Oklahoma. Consideration 

of multi-year precipitation variations and 

associated impacts on watershed runoff and 

sediment yield reduces risk in water resource 

management and improves assessment of 

conservation needs to mitigate water quality and 

sedimentation problems in downstream water 

bodies. The visualization of multi-year 

Hydrology engineer Jurgen Garbrecht and 

meteorologist Jeanne Schneider interpret the 

latest seasonal climate forecast issued by 

NOAA's Climate Prediction Center.
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precipitation variations has been adopted as a 

product by the Oklahoma Climatological Survey 

and used by local newspapers to illustrate the 

alternating and recurring drought and pluvial 

periods in the historical precipitation record. 

(Garbrecht, 2008; Garbrecht and Schneider, 

2008; Garbrecht et al., 2007; Garbrecht et al., 

2006; Zhang, 2006; Garbrecht et al., 2005)

The climate of the Southern High Plains may 

change during the current century, which could 

affect future cropping practices. Thus 

assessments of potential changes in climate,

and how crop varieties can adapt to those 

changes, are needed. In collaboration with 

scientists from Kansas State University, ARS 

scientists in Bushland, TX, assessed the impact 

of climate scenarios on crop production using 

crop simulation models. Climate change models 

suggest that summer temperatures may 

increase by approximately 8o F and summer 

precipitation may decrease. Crop simulation 

models indicate that sorghum production would 

decrease by 40-50% under these climatic 

conditions. Improvements in sorghum genetics 

and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide may 

prevent these yield losses (Lamm et al., 2010; 

Moroke et al., 2011; Baumhardt et al., 2011).

One of the most widespread changes currently 

occurring in the southwestern US is the 

encroachment of woody plants (shrubs and 

trees) into grasslands, affecting both water and 

nutrient cycling in these ecosystems. ARS 

scientists at Tucson, AZ, measured water and 

carbon dioxide exchange between a grassland 

experiencing woody plant encroachment by 

mesquite and the atmosphere over a four-year 

period, and determined how precipitation 

influenced these exchanges. Seasonal drought 

strongly influenced both water and carbon 

dioxide exchange. In contrast to current 

thinking, that woody plant encroachment might 

increase carbon sequestration, this particular 

grassland functioned as a net source of carbon 

to the atmosphere, the magnitude of which 

increased with increasing drought severity. 

Results highlight a complex relationship 

between vegetation change and climatic 

variation in precipitation that influences carbon 

sequestration in these water-limited ecosystems 

(Scott et al., 2009). 

The distribution of post-storm soil moisture in 

arid lands is critical to understanding feedbacks

between moisture distribution and vegetation 

growth. ARS scientists in Tucson, AZ, found that 

root-zone soil moisture was significantly higher 

between shrubs than under shrubs, due largely 

to greater root density there. Results contradict 

the commonly held hypothesis that there is a 

positive feedback between canopy cover and 

soil moisture that explains the stability of woody 

vegetation distribution patterns. This a key 

finding for modeling and management efforts 

related to desertification, suggesting that factors 

other than improved soil moisture status likely 

dominate the observed worldwide expansion of 

woody vegetation into arid and semiarid 

grasslands (Moran et al., 2010).

Previous studies of the impacts of climate 

change on hydrology have focused on how 

changes in precipitation and temperature affect 

runoff, with less emphasis on how plant water 

use (ET), the dominant source of water loss in 

many arid and semiarid watersheds, might 

change. In collaboration with university 

colleagues, an ARS scientist at Tucson, AZ, 

analyzed ET and weather data from three

riparian sites located in a semiarid watershed in 

southern Arizona, and developed a simple 

model to estimate future plant water use (ET) 

rates based on climate model projections. 

Climate predictions for this region indicate that 

hotter and dryer weather conditions could 

increase plant water use, but actual ET rates at 

the studied field sites will remain largely 

unchanged due to plant mechanisms that 

constrain the loss of water from their leaves. 

However, the projected increase in the length of 

the growing season due to warmer temperatures 

will likely result in a greater annual riparian plant 

water use, potentially leading to greater 

groundwater deficits and decreased stream flow, 

further stressing water management institutions 

in semiarid regions (Serrat-Capdevila et al., 

2011). 

Severe drought can cause changes in plant 

community structure that, in turn, can result in 

differences in how water and carbon dioxide are 

cycled in ecosystems. ARS scientists Tucson, 

AZ, studied how the exchange of carbon dioxide 

between the atmosphere and a southern 

Arizona grassland responded to severe drought. 

When the drought ended, native grass species 

were replaced by an invasive African grass. The 

grassland was a source of carbon dioxide to the 

atmosphere during the drought, but became a 

sink for carbon dioxide when the drought ended 

and the exotic grass became established. When 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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another dry growing season occurred after the 

invasion, the grassland still sequestered more 

carbon than it released to the atmosphere. Thus 

in some ecosystems and environments, invasive 

species appear to increase carbon 

sequestration, thereby improving soil quality and 

helping to mitigate increases in atmospheric 

carbon dioxide concentrations (Scott et al., 

2010).

With the overall goal of improving access to data 

on semi-arid rangelands, ARS scientists at 

Tucson, AZ, completed a multi-year project 

aimed at promoting analyses and interpretations 

of historic and current data for the Walnut Gulch 

Experimental Watershed. Although current data 

are being collected in easily–retrievable form, 

the historic data set required extensive 

transcription and compilation. The collection of 

geo-spatial referenced data describing rainfall, 

run-off, sedimentation, meteorology, soil 

hydrology, and vegetation changes is the most 

extensive data set in the world for a semi-arid 

area in a watershed greater than 10 km2

. A 

special section of the journal Water Resources 

Research (Moran et al., 2008) and the 

associated Web site 

(http://www.tucson.ars.ag.gov/dap/) describe 50 

years of data collection and the most recent 

research results. These data are invaluable for 

developing and testing rangeland erosion and 

sediment yield models and assessment tools 

(Weltz et al., 2011; Nearing et al., 2011).

Although large quantities of potentially useful 

data are collected at various research sites, the 

additional work of making them intelligible and

accessible often is not done. Data from multiple 

locations within the Reynolds Mountain East 

watershed for the years 1984 thru 2008, were 

tested, checked, corrected, gap-filled, and 

assembled into a continuous, 25-year hourly 

database by ARS scientists at Boise, ID, for both 

forcing and validating hydrologic models. As a 

result of this work, management agencies and 

other researchers will have the ability to perform 

detailed evaluations of different modeling 

approaches without being forced to collect very 

expensive data. This carefully crafted database 

is the most complete and comprehensive 

modeling data set in existence (Chauvin et al. 

2011).

A variety of studies have found links between 

increasing temperatures, declining snow packs, 

and earlier stream flow in snow fed streams in 

the Western U.S., but in all of these studies, the 

linkages are based on observations collected 

from multiple locations and are thus somewhat 

indirect. ARS scientists in Boise, ID, analyzed 45 

years of air temperature, snow, precipitation, 

and stream flow data measured at the same 

location, the Reynolds Creek Experimental 

Watershed (RCEW). Over the period of record, 

average air temperature has increased about 2o

C, snow disappears more than a month earlier 

at lower elevations, and while total annual 

precipitation has remained constant, the onset of 

stream flow now occurs earlier in the season. In 

the intermountain west where the vast majority 

of agriculture is irrigated, water allocations are 

based in part on water discharge in early spring 

following snowmelt, with the snowpack 

functioning as a reservoir to retain water in the 

upper portions of the watershed. Without 

building additional reservoirs, the earlier 

snowmelt and onset of stream flow means that 

less water will be available during the growing 

season to support irrigated agriculture 

(Flerchinger et al., 2007; Marks et al., 2008).

Site of the 90-square-mile Reynolds Creek 

Experimental Watershed in the Owyhee 

Mountains, about 50 miles southwest of Boise, 

Idaho.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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Despite the observed warming trend from the 

recorded data at Reynolds Creek Experimental 

Watershed (RCEW), one question is whether 

the increase in temperature with no change in 

total precipitation would cause soil to dry out 

earlier in the year, resulting in increased drought 

and fire hazard. To examine trends in soil water 

content over the period during which this 

warming occurred, ARS researchers at Boise, 

ID, analyzed 32 years of biweekly soil water 

data for 4 sites within the RCEW representing 

very different environments. No trends in either 

average annual soil water content or the date of 

soil drying were observed at any of the 4 sites. 

Management practices for climate change 

mitigation cannot be based solely on simple 

projections of climate change to soil conditions 

and/or plant production (Seyfried et al., 2011). 

Simulation models for snowmelt, runoff, stream 

flow, and soil temperature and moisture require 

coupling of surface and subsurface processes 

for energy and mass transfer. Both detailed, 

physically-based snow models and integrated 

hydrology models have been developed over the 

years, but never coupled in a way that 

calculated snowmelt. ARS scientists at Boise, 

ID, coupled the snow model, Isnobal, with the 

Penn State Integrated Hydrology Model (PIHM), 

and then ran this coupled model over the 

Reynolds Mountain East (RME) experimental 

watershed for the 2006 and 2007 water years. 

Though 2006 was very wet and warm, and 2007 

was dry, the results show accurate predictions of 

snow deposition and melt over the catchment, 

soil moisture and temperature, ground water 

level, and stream flow, for both years. Doing the 

test over the well-instrumented RME basin 

enabled comprehensive evaluation of the ability 

to simulate the complex hydrologic state, 

storage, and fluxes from a mountain basin for 

the first time. Results demonstrate the feasibility 

of a physically-based approach to water supply 

management of snowmelt (Flerchinger et al., 

2010). 

Historical weather records over the last century 

show that the number of rainy days and the 

intensities of rain have been increasing. Using 

future precipitation as predicted by six different 

climate change models under three green-house 

gas emissions scenarios (high, medium, and 

low), ARS scientists at Tucson, AZ, examined 

projected changes in mean annual precipitation 

and the power of rainfall to cause erosion for the 

mid and latter part of the 21st century in 

Northeastern China, compared to observed 

conditions for the period 1960-1999. Rainfall 

erosivity increased by 91%, 71%, and 59%, 

respectively, under the three scenarios, 

suggesting severe detrimental impacts on soil 

and water resources. This research increases 

our understanding of how climate change may 

affect soil erosion, while pointing out the need 

for improved conservation strategies and land 

management practices to address future, nonstationary climatic conditions (Zhang et al., 

2010).

Theme 4: Remote sensing and in-situ 

technologies for water resource 

management

A technician examines the snowfall collected in 

a precipitation gauge on the solar-powered 

telemetry system at the Reynolds Creek 

Watershed.

Warming trend means more rain, less snow in 

lower elevations.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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Accurate assessment water flux, particularly

evapotranspiration (ET), is the key to

understanding of the hydrologic cycle. Remote 

sensing provides and opportunity not only to 

help quantify the water cycle, but also to quantify

different vegetative covers and land uses. 

Information derived from remote sensing is

critical in documenting environmental change. 

These selected accomplishments reported 

under Theme 4 are associated with Product 5: 

New remote sensing tools for terrain, ET, soil 

moisture, and water stress characterization and 

data interpretation methods for agricultural and 

rangeland environments; and Product 6: More 

accurate quantitative components of basin water 

budgets that consider ecosystem feedbacks 

affecting watershed states and fluxes and 

enhanced instrumentation (in-situ soil moisture, 

eddy-covariance, etc.) applications coordinated 

with ecosystem and biogeochemical 

observations.

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 4 

of Problem Area 5

Drought-related reductions in agricultural 

productivity can have profound impacts on 

regional food security and global agricultural 

commodity markets. Our ability to mitigate 

these impacts is frequently limited by difficulties 

in accurately detecting the onset and severity of 

agricultural drought, particularly in 

underdeveloped regions of the world prone to 

food insecurity. To address this limitation, ARS 

scientists at Beltsville, MD, examined the 

microwave and thermal radiative signatures of 

agricultural landscapes undergoing drought, 

developing a series of satellite remote sensing 

tools to assess the availability of soil water in the 

root zone over large geographic regions. 

Compared to existing drought detection 

strategies based primarily on rainfall 

observations, these satellite-based strategies 

enable both the earlier detection of agricultural 

drought and a more detailed spatial description 

of its extent and severity. Eventually, these 

improvements will enhance our ability to mitigate 

the impacts of agricultural drought on global 

food markets, and to anticipate the 

social/political consequences of changes in food 

availability and price. Currently, these 

technologies, and/or the data sets they create, 

are being shared with operational drought 

monitoring activities at the USDA Foreign 

Agricultural Service, the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, the National 

Environmental Satellite Data and Information 

Service, and the National Drought Mitigation 

Center (Anderson et al., 2011). 

Accurate knowledge of vegetation condition is 

important for assessing agricultural production 

and forecasting yield. Satellites could collect 

this information, but conventional satellite-based 

vegetation sensors can only collect data during 

daylight and cannot “see” through clouds. 

Unfortunately, many parts of the world are 

plagued with almost constant cloud cover. ARS 

scientists at Beltsville, MD, developed a way to 

use microwaves to quantify vegetation condition 

regardless of weather, using currently 

operational satellites. Because microwaves are 

sensitive to properties of the entire canopy 

rather than just the leaves, microwave data can 

provide significant new information about 

vegetation condition and in many cases can 

“see” through plant canopies. Microwaves 

provide a complementary dataset to 

conventional satellite data that improves our 

capacity to monitor global agricultural 

productivity from space. This information has 

the capacity to improve the timeliness and 

reliability of crop condition assessments and 

yield forecasts made by USDA’s Foreign 

Agricultural Service and other agencies both in 

the US and worldwide, with significant 

implications for improving international food 

security and agricultural adaptation to global 

climate change (Bolten et al., 2010). 

Global soil moisture products are now being 

operationally generated from microwave-based 

satellite sensors by space agencies in the 

United States, Europe, and Japan. Validating 

these products is critical to potential users who 

typically require assurances concerning their 

accuracy and reliability. The disparity of spatial 

scales between what we are able to directly 

measure on the ground versus the coarse 

spatial resolution of the satellite sensors makes 

this a challenging task. In response to this 

challenge, soil moisture products were 

compared to in situ observations derived from 

spatially extensive ARS Experimental 

Watershed networks developed specifically for 

this purpose. These networks were based in the 

Little Washita (OK), Little River (GA), Walnut 

Gulch (AZ), and Reynolds Creek (ID) ARS 

Experimental Watersheds. Results indicate that 

each of the products evaluated had different 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

65

performance statistics that depend on land 

surface characteristics. Nevertheless, it appears 

that satellite-based soil moisture products exhibit 

reasonable error bounds. For example, soil 

moisture retrievals derived from the Advanced 

Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS (AMSRE) instrument (on board the NASA Aqua 

satellite) were validated to within an accuracy of 

0.05 m3

m-3 volumetric (i.e, the volume of water 

per unit volume of soil). Likewise, comparisons 

using the same set of ARS watershed soil 

moisture networks were used to provide an early 

indication that the European Space Agency Soil 

Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission -

recently launched in late 2009 - is meeting its 

stated accuracy goal of estimating surface soil 

moisture to within an accuracy of 0.04 m3

m-3

(Jackson et al., 2010; Jackson et al., 2011).

Better methods are needed for estimating water 

use in semiarid riparian systems so that regional 

water balances can be monitored and healthy 

riparian flows maintained. Working with the 

Universities of Arizona and Florida, ARS 

scientists in Tucson, AZ, explored using airborne 

and ground based LIDAR (LIght Detecting And 

Ranging) technology to improve water use 

estimates for a riparian system in Arizona. The 

LIDAR-derived estimates of canopy height, 

crown and trunk diameters, and canopy cover 

were used to quickly and accurately differentiate 

age classes of cottonwood trees in riparian 

areas in the San Pedro River Basin, near 

Benson, AZ. The LIDAR-derived canopy 

information will improve riparian corridor water 

use estimates in the Upper San Pedro Basin, 

with relevance to semiarid riparian systems in 

general. Accurate water use information is 

particularly valuable to regional water districts, 

so that efficient and timely releases of water can 

be made to maintain important urban, 

agricultural, and environmental flows (Farid et 

al., 2006a; 2006b; 2007). 

Because of the link between atmospheric CO2

concentrations and climate change, improved 

techniques for accurately quantifying CO2

sources and sinks over large areas would be 

particularly useful. ARS scientists in Tucson, 

AZ, used a combination of satellite imagery, the 

Water Deficit Index, and Bowen ratio energy 

balance measurements to estimate daily net 

CO2 fluxes from remotely sensed data. The 

approach could be used to map daily net CO2

fluxes at the landscape scale, helping to better 

understand the contributions of semiarid 

grasslands to the global carbon cycle. This 

information will help improve estimates of 

carbon sequestration in grasslands, contributing 

to an increased understanding of global climate 

change (Holifield-Collins et al., 2008). 

Soil texture and hydraulic properties are critical 

components of energy and water balance 

studies, but are not easily determined over 

heterogeneous regions. This study, conducted 

by ARS scientists at Tucson, AZ, in collaboration 

with the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) and the U.S. Army, used 

soil moisture estimates derived from satellite 

imagery to infer soil texture and hydraulic 

properties from a land surface model. This 

operational approach is useful for mapping soil 

information using available technology, to derive

a better understanding of water availability in 

semiarid environments (Santanello et al., 2007). 

Wetlands in agricultural landscapes are 

important because of their potential to remove 

agrochemicals before they enter aquatic 

ecosystems (e.g., Chesapeake Bay), where they 

can degrade both water quality and ecological 

communities. The majority of wetlands in the 

Chesapeake Bay Watershed are forested 

wetlands that are difficult to map and/or monitor 

using existing methodologies. ARS scientists at 

Beltsville, MD, used satellite-borne radar and 

air-borne lidar data to develop a new 

methodology to map forested wetlands at the 

watershed scale. Maps of forested wetland 

hydrology produced using radar and LIDAR data 

were well correlated with in-situ measurements 

of soil moisture and inundation. Next-generation 

View of cotton field from helicopter showing 

reflectance tarps used in calibrating multispectral imagery equipment.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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wetland maps, produced by these remote 

sensing tools, provide a water quality 

management tool that can be used to quantify 

the proportionate contributions of various types 

of land uses to nutrient and sediment loads in 

the environment. These types of assessments 

are critical for calibrating models used by land 

managers and regulators in their efforts to 

improve the health of the Chesapeake Bay 

(Lang and McCarty, 2009). 

Remote sensing has the potential to identify 

invasive weeds or shrubs that can have 

undesirable consequences (i.e., over-drafting 

limited water supplies or toxicity to grazing 

animals) for native plant communities. ARS 

scientists at Weslaco, TX, analyzed aerial 

photographs, applying spectral analyzing 

techniques to airborne hyperspectral images to 

successfully identify several different 

undesirable invasive plants. Successes include 

1) Giant reed, an invasive weed found 

throughout the southern half of the US that 

presents a severe threat to agroecosystems and 

riparian areas; 2) Saltcedar, dense deep-rooted 

shrubs and trees that invade riparian areas and 

use excessive amounts of water; and 3) Broom 

snakeweed, a perennial shrub widely distributed 

across western North America that is 

undesirable due to its toxicity to livestock and its 

ability to reduce forage production). These 

results benefit natural resource managers and 

local, state, and federal government agencies by 

providing remote sensing technology to aid in 

the detection of invasive plant species over large 

geographic areas (Everitt et al., 2010).

Land managers and policy makers across the 

globe need a regional-scale tool for measuring 

and inventorying soil salinity in agricultural fields 

where salt buildup can lower crop yields. A 

scientific team led by an ARS scientist at 

Riverside, CA, used Moderate Resolution 

Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite 

imagery to assess and map soil salinity in 

300,000 hectares of the Red River Valley (RRV) 

in North Dakota and Minnesota. Rising salinity 

levels in RRV soils have been linked to 

increases in precipitation and rising water tables 

due to climate change. Fifty-three percent of the 

observed variability in soil salinity measured in 

situ was correlated with a vegetation (crop) 

index derived from MODIS satellite imagery 

averaged over 7 years of data collection, and 

whether the land was eligible for inclusion in the 

CRP (a federal program that sets aside 

marginally productive land for conservation 

purposes). The observed relationship between 

soil salinity measured in the field and the 

satellite-derived vegetation (crop) index provides 

the NRCS with protocols and guidelines for 

mapping soil salinity over hundreds of 

thousands of hectares in the RRV, with 

applicability in other regions of the world as well 

(Lobell et al., 2010). 

Megan Lang and University of Maryland 

graduate student Robert Oesterling 

compare forested wetland maps for 

relationships between low (blue) and 

higher (white) elevations on one map and 

wet (red) and drier (white) spots on the 

other map. The maps were created with 

two remote-sensing technologies, one 

using laser light (LiDAR, or light detection 

and ranging), the other radio waves (SAR, 

or synthetic aperture radar). 

During an aerial survey of streamside

vegetation in Nevada, Joe Nance of Cloud

Street Aerial Services, Fort Collins, Colorado,

flies a light sport plane at about 300 feet while

using a remote sensing package developed by

ARS.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

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Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) is a noxious 

invasive weed species primarily occurring in the 

Northern Great Plains. Its yellow-green flower 

bracts are very distinctive and can be detected 

with imaging spectrometers flown in aircraft. The 

Weed Invasion Susceptibility Prediction (WISP) 

model predicts the distribution of leafy spurge 

over a landscape using geographic information 

systems (GIS). ARS scientists at Beltsville, 

MD, tested the WISP model for the distribution 

of leafy spurge near Devils Tower National 

Monument in Northeastern Wyoming using both 

field data and remote sensing data from NASA's 

Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer 

(AVIRIS). Each GIS data layer was compared 

to the remotely sensed classification and many 

of the variables used in the WISP model actually 

decreased accuracy. The improved potential 

distribution map was not only more accurate 

based on the field data, it also predicted 

considerably less land area that would be 

susceptible to invasion by leafy spurge. Remote 

sensing cannot detect the initial stages of 

invasion because the population densities are 

too low. Therefore, monitoring still must be done 

with field crews. Furthermore, hyperspectral 

remote sensing is expensive both for acquiring 

and for processing the data. By using remote 

sensing to determine the most probable areas 

that are susceptible to leafy spurge, monitoring 

on the ground will be much more efficient (Hunt 

et al., 2010).

Accurate measurements of ET (water use) are 

critical for determining the impacts of global 

climate change. Currently, the accuracy of ET 

measurements is limited by the lack of fieldportable sources of precision water vapor 

standards. Field calibration of water vapor 

analyzers has always been a challenging 

problem for those making long-term flux 

measurements at remote sites. To remedy this, 

ARS researchers at St. Paul, MN, developed a 

field-portable mixing ratio generator with 

features that facilitate its use in water vapor 

isotope research. The temperature of water in 

the cell is monitored with a thermocouple and a 

pressure transducer is used to measure the cell 

pressure. A data logger uses this information to 

compute the mixing ratio in the cell and control 

the polarity and duty cycle of the power input to 

the Peltier block in order to drive the system 

toward the desired mixing ratio and to maintain 

it. Testing has shown that the unit is: 1) accurate 

over a broad range of mixing ratios; 2) able to 

compensate for changes in ambient pressure; 

and 3) stable for long periods of time. This 

information is useful to scientists for calibrating 

both conventional gas analyzers and water 

vapor isotope lasers for research applications, 

so that accurate measurements of 

evapotranspiration (water use), critical for 

determining impacts of global climate change, 

can be made (Baker and Griffis, 2010). 

Land surface fluxes and in particular ET are also 

strongly affected by variability in land surface 

properties (soil texture and land cover) and 

states (soil moisture and surface temperature) 

as well as overlying atmospheric conditions. The 

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model has been 

fully coupled with a remote sensing-based land 

surface model for simulating the influence of 

land surface states and properties on exchange 

of heat, water vapor and momentum (wind 

energy) with the lower atmosphere. The model 

was applied to an agricultural study region in the 

Southern Great Plains for investigating in detail 

the spatial relationships between surface fluxes 

and near-surface atmospheric properties, and 

the potential errors in flux estimation due to 

homogeneous atmospheric inputs over 

heterogeneous landscapes. If air properties from 

a single weather station in a non-representative 

ARS pilot Michael René Davis flies the Cessna 

over the Jornada Range as researchers collect 

light-reflectance data. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

68

location within the landscape are applied 

uniformly over the domain, significant 

differences in surface flux estimation with 

respect to the LES output are observed. The 

spatial correlations of atmospheric properties 

with fluxes, the land cover properties, and 

surface states, were examined, and the spatial 

scaling of these fields analyzed, using a twodimensional wavelet technique. The results 

indicate a significant local correlation of the 

spatial distributions of the air temperature, Ta,

with the sensible heat flux, H, the specific 

humidity, q, with ET or latent heat flux, LE, and 

wind speed, U, with surface roughness, z0. A 

simple yet practical method has been proposed 

using remotely sensed observations and the 

land surface scheme, based on general linear 

expressions derived between Ta and H, q and 

LE/ET, and U and z0. This approach is 

recommended when only local weather station 

observations are available (Bertoldi et al., 2008).

While recent research suggests that tree cover 

in savanna systems improves under-canopy soil 

moisture, sustaining higher biomass in these 

locations, these under-canopy plant 

communities are often dominated by plants with 

well-developed drought-tolerant traits. By 

coupling measurements of soil water with wholeplant carbon and water fluxes, ARS scientists at

Tucson, AZ, were able to show that understory 

soil water conditions, though less variable than 

between canopy spaces, were more limiting to 

plant carbon uptake. Thus higher soil water 

under savanna tree canopies appears to be a 

somewhat transient condition. Higher plant 

densities in these microhabitats appear to be 

associated with reductions in temperature and 

light stress due to shading, favoring plants 

capable of tolerating prolonged dry conditions. 

These findings are important in understanding 

controls to spatial patterns of productivity 

common to semiarid savanna systems 

(Hamerlynck et al., 2011).

Literature cited in selected accomplishments 

from Problem Area 5 

Anderson, M.C., Hain, C., Wardlow, B., 

Pimstein, A., Meciklaski, J.R., Kustas, W.P. 

2011. Evaluation of drought indices based on 

thermal remote sensing of evapotranspiration 

over the continental United States. J. Climate 

24:2025-2044.

Anderson, M.C., Kustas, W.P., Norman, J., 

Hain, C., Mecikalski, J., Schultz, L., GonzalezDugo, M.P., Cammalleri, C., D'Urso, G., 

Pimstein, A., Gao, F. 2011. Mapping daily 

evapotranspiration at field to global scales using 

geostationary and polar orbiting satellite 

imagery. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 

15:223-239.

Baker, J.M., Griffis, T.J. 2010. A simple, 

accurate, field-portable mixing ratio generator 

and Rayleigh distillation device. Agricultural and 

Forest Meteorology. 150(12):1607-1611.

Barron-Gafford, G., Scott, R.L., Jenerette, G., 

Huxman, T. 2011. The relative controls of 

temperature, soil moisture, and plant functional 

group on soil CO2 efflux at diel, seasonal, and 

annual scales. Journal of Geophysical 

Research. 116:1-16.

Baumhardt, R.L., Schwartz, R.C., MacDonald, 

J.C., Tolk, J.A. 2011. Tillage and cattle grazing 

effects on soil properties and grain yields in a 

dryland wheat-sorghum-fallow rotation. 

Agronomy Journal. 103(3):914-922

Bolten, J.D., Crow, W.T., Jackson, T.J., Zhan, 

X., Reynolds, C.A. 2010. Evaluating the utility of 

remotely-sensed soil moisture retrievals for 

operational agricultural drought monitoring, IEEE 

J. Sel. Topics Appl. Earth Observ. 3:57-66.

Chauvin, G., Flerchinger, G.N., Link, T.E., 

Marks, D.G., Winstral, A.H., Seyfried, M.S. 

2011. Long-term water balance and conceptual 

model of a semi-arid mountainous catchment. 

Journal of Hydrology. 400:133-143.

Everitt, J.H., Yang, C., Davis, M.R. 2010. 

Mapping an annual weed with color-infrared 

photography and image analysis. Geocarto 

International. 25(1):45-52.

Farid A., Goodrich, D.C., Sorooshian S. 2006b. 

Using airborne lidar to discern age classes of 

cottonwood trees in a riparian area. Western J. 

of Applied Forestry, 21(3):149-158. 

Farid, A., Goodrich, D.C., Bryant, R., 

Sorooshian, S. 2007. Using Airborne Lidar to 

Predict Leaf Area Index in Cottonwood Trees 

and Refine Riparian Water Use Estimates. J. of 

Arid Environments. 72:1-15.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

69

Farid, A., Rautenkranz, D., Goodrich, D.C., 

Marsh, S.E., Soorshian, S. 2006a. Riparian 

vegetation classification from airborne laser 

scanning data with an emphasis on cottonwood 

trees. Canadian J. of Remote Sensing. 32(1): 

15-19.

Flerchinger, G.N., Marks, D.G., Seyfried, M.S., 

Pierson Jr, F.B., Nayak, A., Hardegree, S.P., 

Winstral, A.H., and Clark, P. 2007. 45 years of 

climate and hydrologic research conducted at 

the reynolds creek experimental watershed. pp 

135-143. In: J.R. Rogers (ed.), Environmental 

and Water Resources: Milestones in 

Engineering History. Sponsored by ASCE 

Environmental and Water Resources Institute 

(EWRI) National History & Heritage Committee. 

American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, 

VA. 168p.

Flerchinger, G.N., D. Marks, M.L. Reba, Q. Yu, 

and M.S. Seyfried. 2010. Surface Fluxes and 

Water Balance of Spatially Varying Vegetation 

within a Small Mountainous Headwater 

Catchment. Hydrology and Earth System 

Sciences. 14:965-978.

Garbrecht, J.D. 2008. Multi-Year Precipitation 

Variations and Watershed Sediment Yield in a 

CEAP Benchmark Watershed. Journal of Soil 

and Water Conservation, 63(2):70-76. 

Garbrecht, J.D., and J. M. Schneider. 2007. 

Climate Forecast and Prediction Product 

Dissemination for Agriculture in the United 

States. Australian Journal of Agricultural 

Research, 58(10):966-974. 

Garbrecht, J.D., and J. M. Schneider. 2008. 

Case Study of Multiyear Precipitation Variations 

and the Hydrology of Fort Cobb Reservoir.

Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 13(2):64-70. 

Garbrecht, J.D., J. L. Steiner, and C. A. Cox. 

2007. Climate Change Impacts on Soil and 

Water Conservation. Earth Observing System, 

EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysical 

Union, 88(11):136. 

Garbrecht, J.D., J. M. Schneider, and G. O. 

Brown. 2005. Decade-Long Precipitation 

Variations and Water Resources Management. 

pp. 37-50. In Climate Variations, Climate 

Change, and Water Resources Engineering, 

Garbrecht J.D. and T. C. Piechota (Eds). 

American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston 

Virginia.

Garbrecht, J.D., P. J. Starks, and J. L. Steiner. 

2006. The Under-Appreciated Climate Factor in 

CEAP. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 

61(4):110-112.

Garbrecht, J.D., X. C. Zhang, J. M. Schneider, 

and J. L. Steiner. 2010. Utility of Seasonal 

Climate Forecasts in Management of WinterWheat Grazing. Applied Engineering in 

Agriculture, 26(5):855-866. 

Green, T.R. and R.H. Erskine. Dynamics of 

measured soil water content and inferred fluxes 

at different hillslope positions. Water Resources 

Research, doi:10.1029/2010WR010074, in 

press.

Hain, C.R., Crow, W.T., Mecikalski, J.R., 

Holmes, T. 2011. An intercomparison of 

available soil moisture estimates from thermalinfrared and passive microwave remote sensing 

and land-surface modeling. J. Geophys. Res. 

116, D15107, doi:10.1029/2011JD015633.

Hunt, E. R., Gillham. J.H., Daughtry. C.S.T. 

2010. Improving potential geographic distribution 

models for invasive plants by remote sensing.

Rangeland Ecol. Manage. 63:505-513.

Jackson, T. J., Bindlish, R., Cosh, M. H., Zhao, 

T., Starks, P. J., Bosch, D. D., Seyfried, M., 

Moran, M., Goodrich, D. C., Kerr, Y. H., Leroux, 

D. 2011. Validation of soil moisture and ocean 

salinity (SMOS) soil moisture over watershed 

networks in the U.S., IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. 

Sens., 99:1-14.

Jackson, T. J., Cosh, M. H., Bindlish, R., Starks, 

P. J., Bosch, D. D., Seyfried, M. S., Goodrich, D. 

C., Moran, M. S., Du. J. 2010. Validation of 

Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer soil 

moisture products, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. 

Sens. 48:4256-4272.

Lamm, F.R., Kheira, A.A., Trooien, T.T. 2010. 

Sunflower, soybean, and grain sorghum crop 

production as affected by dripline depth. Applied 

Engineering in Agriculture. 26(5):873-882.

Lang, M.W., McCarty, G.W. 2009. LiDar 

intensity for improved detection of inundation 

below the forest canopy. Wetlands. 29:1166-

1178.
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Lobell, D.B., Lesch, S.M., Corwin, D.L., Ulmer, 

M.G., Anderson, K.A., Potts, D.J., Doolittle, J.A., 

Matos, M.R., Baltes, M.J. 2010. Regional-scale 

Assessment of Soil Salinity in the Red River 

Valley Using Multi-year MODIS EVI. Journal of 

Environmental Quality. 39(1):35-41

Marks, D.G., Seyfried, M.S., Flerchinger, G.N., 

Winstral, A.H. 2008. Research data collection at 

the reynolds creek experimental watershed. 

Journal of Service Climatology 1(1), 1-12.

McMaster, G.S., Edmunds, D.A., Wilhelm, 

W.W., Nielsen, D.C., Prasad, P.V.V., and 

Ascough II, J.C. 2011. PhenologyMMS: A 

program to simulate crop phenological 

responses to water stress. Computers and 

Electronics in Agriculture 77(1):118-125.

Moran, M.S., Hamerlynck, E.P., Scott, R.L., 

Stone, J.J., Holifield Collins, C.D., Keefer, T.O., 

Bryant, R.B., DeYoung, L., Nearing, G.S., Sugg, 

Z., Hymer. D.C. 2010. Hydrologic response to 

precipitation pulses under and between shrubs 

in the Chihuahuan Desert, Arizona. Water 

Resources Research. 46:1-12.

Moroke, T.S., Schwartz, R.C., Brown, K.W., Juo, 

A.S. 2011. Water use efficiency of dryland 

cowpea, sorghum and sunflower under reduced 

tillage. Soil and Tillage Research. 112:(1)76-84.

Mudgal, A., Anderson, S.H., Baffaut, C., Kitchen, 

N.R., Sadler, E.J. 2010. Effects of long-term soil 

and crop management on soil hydraulic 

properties for claypan soils. Journal of Soil and 

Water Conservation Society. 65(6):393-403.

Murdock, J.N., Wetzel, D.L. 2012. 

Macromolecular response of individual algal 

cells to nutrient and atrazine mixtures within 

biofilms. Microbial Ecology. DOI 

10.1007/s00248-011-9994-5.

Nearing, G.S., Moran, M.S., Thorp, K.R., 

Holifield Collins, C.D., Slack, D.C. 2010. 

Likelihood parameter estimation for calibrating 

soil moisture using radar backscatter. Remote 

Sensing of Environment. 114: 2564-2574.

Nearing, M.A., H. Wei, J.J. Stone, F.B. Pierson, 

K.E. Spaeth, M.A. Weltz, D.C. Flanagan, M. 

Hernandez. 2011. A Rangeland Hydrology and 

Erosion Model. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 

54(3):1-8.

Owens, L.B., Bonta, J.V., Shipitalo, M.J. 2009.

USDA-ARS North Appalachian Experimental 

Watershed: 70-Year Hydrologic, Soil Erosion, 

and Water Quality Database. Soil Science 

Society of America Journal. 74(2):619-623.

Polyakov, V.O., Nearing, M.A., Stone, J.J., 

Hamerlynck, E.P., Nichols, M.H., Holifield 

Collins, C.D., Scott, R.L. 2010. Runoff and 

erosional response to a drought-induced shift in 

a desert grassland community composition. 

Journal of Geophysical ResearchBiogeosciences. 115: 1-8. G04027.

Santanello, Jr, J.A., Peters-Lidard, C.D., Garcia, 

M.E., Mocko, D.M., Tischler, M.A., Moran, M.S., 

Thoma, D.P. 2007. Using remotely-sensed 

estimates of soil moisture to infer soil texture 

and hydraulic properties across a semi-arid 

watershed. Remote Sensing of Environment. 

110:79-97. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2007.02.007

Schneider, J. M., and Garbrecht, J.D. 2006. 

Dependability and Effectiveness of Seasonal 

Forecasts for Agricultural Applications. 

Transactions of the American Society of 

Agricultural and Biological Engineering 

(ASABE), 49(6):1737-1753. 

Schneider, J. M., Garbrecht, J.D. and D. A. 

Unger. 2005. A Heuristic Method for Time 

Disaggregation of Seasonal Climate Forecasts. 

Weather and Forecasting, 20(4):212-221.

Scott, R.L., Hamerlynck, E.P., Jenerette, G.D., 

Moran, M.S., Barron-Gafford, G.A. 2010. Carbon 

dioxide exchange in a semi-desert grassland 

responding through drought-induced vegetation 

change. Journal of Geophysical Research-

[Biogeosciences]. 115: G03026.

Seyfried, M.S., Marks, D.G., Chandler, D.G. 

2011. Long-term soil water trends across a 1000 

m elevation gradient. Vadose Zone Journal. 10: 

1275-1285.

Shields, F.D., Jr., Knight, S.S. 2011. 

Significance of riverine hypoxia for fish: The 

case of the Big Sunflower River, Mississippi. 

Journal of American Water Resources 

Association. Paper No. JAWRA-10-0164-P. DOI: 

10.1111/j.1752-1688.2011.00606.x

Shields, F.D., Jr., Knight, S.S., Cooper, C.M. 

2007. Can warmwater streams be rehabilitated 
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using watershed-scale standard erosion control 

measures alone? Environmental Management. 

40:62-79.

Sigua, G.C., Myer, R.O., Coleman, S.W., 

Mackowiak, C., Adjei, M., Chase, C.C., Albano, 

J.P. 2011. Regional Distribution of Soil 

Phosphorus Across Congregation-Grazing 

Zones of Forage-Based Pastures with Cow-Calf 

Operations in Florida. Journal of Environmental 

Quality. 2(3):408-417.

Smith, S. Jr, Lizotte, R.E., Jr., Knight, S.S. 2007. 

Pesticide body residues of Hyalella azteca 

exposed to Mississippi Delta sediments. Bulletin 

of Environmental Contamination and 

Toxicooogy. 78(1):26-29.

Tomer, M.D., Schilling, K. E. 2009. A simple 

approach to distinguish land-use and climate 

change effects on watershed hydrology. J. 

Hydrology. 376:24-33.

Weltz, M.A., Jolley, L., Goodrich, D., Boykin, K., 

Nearing, M.A., Stone, J., Guretin, P., 

Hernandez, M., Speath, K., Pierson, F., Morris, 

C., Kepner, W. 2011. Techniques for Assessing 

the Environmental Outcomes of Conservation 

Practices Applied to Rangeland Watersheds. J 

Soil Water Conservation. 66(5):154A-162A; 

doi:10.2489/jswc.66.5.154A.

Wilson, C., Albano, J.P., Mozden, M., Riiska, C. 

2010. Irrigation Water and Nitrate Loss 

Characterization in South Florida Nurseries: 

Cumulative Volumes, Runoff Rates, NO3-N 

Concentrations and Loadings, and Implications 

for Management. Hort Technology. 20:325-330.

Zhang, X.C. 2006. Spatial Sensitivity of 

Predicted Soil Erosion and Runoff to Climate 

Change at Regional Scales. J. of Soil and Water 

Conservation, 61(2):58-64.

Zhang, Y.G., M.A. Nearing, X.C Zhang, Y. Xie, 

H. Wei. 2010. Projected rainfall erosivity 

changes under climate change from multimodel 

and multiscenario projections in Northeast 

China. J. Hydrology 384(1-2):97-106.
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Problem Area 6: Water Quality Protection 

Systems

Nutrients and pesticides (insecticides, 

herbicides, fungicides) applied to agricultural 

fields, and pharmaceuticals (antibiotics and 

hormones) used in livestock production, can all 

move from their point of use into surface and 

ground waters, where their presence raises 

concerns about their impacts on aquatic and 

terrestrial ecosystems and human health. To 

evaluate fully the risks of using these chemicals 

and compounds in agriculture, there is a need to 

know their sources, transport behavior, fate, and 

biological impact at different concentrations and 

in different combinations in the environment. 

The ARS conducts research to better 

understand and predict the source, fate, 

transport, and environmental effects of nutrients, 

emerging contaminants, and inorganic ions. This 

work provides the basis for the development of 

best management practices across a range of 

climates, soils, and agricultural and urban 

settings. To better design and refine existing 

practices, new scientific information needs to be 

developed that clearly delineates how 

agricultural contaminants move and are 

transformed within the environment. 

Theme 1: Nutrient management practices 

that minimize off-site transport 

Agricultural management deals with two basic 

principles: 1) maximizing water and nutrient use 

efficiency; and 2) minimizing the threats of 

diseases and pests. At the most fundamental 

scale, plant roots obtain nutrients in the soil 

through the aqueous phase. Water in the root 

zone also carries nutrients and other pollutants 

to other parts of the ecosystem. 

Under this Theme, selected ARS 

accomplishments in nutrient management are 

collected. The primary focus is on nitrogen (N) 

and phosphorus (P), but the use of animal 

manures is also included. These selected 

accomplishments are associated with Product 1: 

Scientific information regarding nutrient 

retention, transformation and transport 

processes, and field management techniques 

that reduce off-site nutrient movement; Product 

2: Refinement and evaluation of P-based risk 

assessment tools at field, farm, and watershed 

scales; Product 3: Develop and refine sensors 

that detect variation in canopy nitrogen and 

water status and develop methods using these 

sensors for improved crop management and 

water quality; and Product 5: A Nitrogen Index 

(N Index) relative risk assessment tool that 

provides field guidance for potential movement 

of nitrogen via runoff, leachate, or gas emission 

from various landscapes and cropping systems.

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 1

of Problem Area 6

Manures from animal production systems are

increasingly being used as sources of nutrients

for agriculture. In contrast to surface application, 

injecting manure directly into the soil can have 

both environmental and economic benefits. In 

collaboration with colleagues at land grant 

universities in five mid-Atlantic states, ARS 

scientists at University Park, PA, Booneville, AR, 

and Auburn, AL, conducted research on new 

methods to incorporate manure directly into soil, 

as an alternative to the more common method of 

applying manure directly to the soil surface. By 

quantifying the benefits of injecting manures into 

soils with different technologies, researchers 

demonstrated the potential of new shallow 

injection technologies to: 1) lower odor to 

background levels within 3 hours of application; 

2) decrease ammonia emissions by more than 

70%; and 3) reduce P in runoff to levels 

comparable to soils that did not receive added 

manure. Relative to conventional methods, data 

from a field site on Maryland’s Eastern Shore 

showed that phosphorus leaching losses were 

reduced by more than 40% with the manure 

injection technology. In addition, manure 

injection caused minimal soil disturbance, thus 

also reducing erosion in comparison with 

conventional tillage. The costs of purchasing 

and maintaining manure injectors were balanced 

or outweighed by improved use of manure 

nutrients by crops. As a result of this work, state 

and federal initiatives in the Chesapeake Bay 

watershed include plans to expand the use of 

manure injection technologies to more than 

47,500 acres of agricultural lands. The USDA 

and university research team received the 2011 

Mid-Atlantic Regional Educational Institution and 

Federal Laboratory Partnership Award, and their 

work has been cited in the Watershed 

Implementation Plans of four Chesapeake Bay 

watershed states--MD, NY, PA and VA (Maguire 

et al., 2011; Johnson et al., 2011; Brandt et al., 

2011; Pote et al., 2011; Kibet et al., 2011).
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

73

Farmers can use fertilizers containing P to boost 

yields, but elevated P levels in streams and 

lakes are detrimental to water quality. The 

linkages between the amount of fertilizer applied 

to a watershed and the amount of P 

subsequently lost from the land (“loads”) are 

poorly understood. Working with colleagues 

from the U.S. EPA and NRCS, ARS scientists at 

Oxford, MS, used the AnnAGNPS model 

computer simulations of an Ohio watershed to 

quantify the extent to which long-term high 

fertilization rates accentuate P loads leaving the 

watershed. Results of this analysis suggest that 

a “critical point” in soil P levels may exist beyond 

which P load increases dramatically. This finding 

is directly applicable to agencies and land 

managers implementing plans that include 

nutrient management practices and guidelines 

for agricultural watersheds (Yuan et al., 2011). 

With traditional fertilizer management practices, 

it is not uncommon for less than 50% of added 

nitrogen (N) fertilizer to be taken up by growing 

corn crops. Real-time sensors can be used to 

increase nitrogen use efficiency in corn plants, 

providing the basis for matching corn nitrogen 

requirements with nitrogen fertilizer rates to 

maximize economic return and while minimizing 

N losses to the environment. ARS scientists at 

University Park, PA, showed that, compared 

with other methods of guiding N fertilizer rates, a 

canopy reflectance sensor provides

recommendations that best match the economic 

optimum fertilizer rate. Besides producing more 

accurate N recommendations, the sensor 

provides immediate results that can be used to 

tailor fertilizer application rates to variable soil 

conditions within a field. While still new in 

Pennsylvania, this technology provides a way to 

improve N applications to corn, thus improving 

return for the farmer and reducing environmental 

losses in critical watersheds such as the 

Chesapeake Bay (Schmidt et al., 2010).

A similar effort using real-time sensors to 

manage nitrogen (N) application was conducted 

by ARS scientists at Lincoln, NE, in cooperation 

with University of Nebraska researchers. This 

research team developed equations to convert 

field variations in in-season readings from 

canopy reflectance sensors to variable N 

application rates across a field, producing a 15 

to 40% savings in N compared to traditional 

practices. In addition, the new method requires 

only 2 or 3 sensors per 24-row applicator to 

monitor crop N status. As such, it should be 

relatively inexpensive to retrofit this technology 

to commercially available applicators (Bausch 

and Brodahl, 2011).

Managing N fertilizer is one of the many 

challenges facing farmers today. Establishing 

the economically optimal N rate (EONR) 

typically involves fitting an equation to yield 

versus N rate data and finding the point on the 

fitted curve where the profit from an incremental 

increase in yield just pays for the incremental 

increase in the cost of the added N fertilizer. 

While different types of equations have been 

fitted to yield-N rate data, a measure of the 

ARS soil scientist Dan Pote observes as ARS 

technician Stephen Haller operates their 

invention, the Poultry Litter Subsurfer—the first 

commercially viable machine for applying dry 

poultry litter below ground.

ARS hydrologist Tony Buda (far left) and Penn 

State University climatologist Paul Knight 

examine regional data they are using to 

develop a Web-based “fertilizer forecast,” 

which will help farmers limit nutrient runoff by 

avoiding fertilizer applications before 

precipitation events. The program will use a 

range of weather variables, including the type 

of meteorological data Penn State associate 

professor Doug Miller and ARS soil scientist 

Peter Kleinman (far right) are studying in the 

background.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

74

statistical reliability in the computed EONR is 

almost always lacking. ARS scientists at Ames, 

IA, demonstrated a new statistical method to 

compute EONR and its relative error that is 

applicable to most yield response equations, 

and then used this method to compare

economically optimal N fertilizer rates for corn in 

a corn/soybean rotation among yield zones 

identified based on soil and landscape 

characteristics. Yield zones were generally 

demarked by slope position. Maximum yield was 

generally lower on the upper slope positions, but 

was a poor predictor of optimal N rate, which 

varied from 20 to 220 pounds per acre. Six 

years of central Iowa data indicate that N rates 

could be reduced by applying relatively less N 

fertilizer to lower slope positions, and more to 

upper slope positions. Dividing fields into yield 

zones may be a viable method for improving N 

fertilizer rates to corn, thereby reducing the 

potential for nitrate to be lost via surface and 

ground water flow. Helping researchers better 

design and interpret N fertilizer use efficiency 

experiments improves subsequent N 

management recommendations made to 

farmers, reducing fertilizer costs and improving 

water quality (Jaynes 2011; Jaynes et al., 2011) 

Nitrate-N movement to tile drains represents an 

economic loss to farmers, and is a main cause 

of surface water and groundwater pollution in 

the Mississippi River Basin. Agroecosystem 

models have been widely used to evaluate 

management effects on N movement in tiledrained fields, but they do not accurately capture 

the variability of nitrate-N concentrations in tile 

drainage. ARS scientists at Fort Collins, CO, 

and Ames, IA, evaluated the performance of the 

RZWQM2, Ver. 2.0 in simulating the response of 

nitrate-N concentrations in tile drainage to 

different N fertilizer application rates, using a 16-

year field study conducted in Iowa to evaluate 

the model. The RZWQM2 model accurately 

simulated the response of nitrate-N 

concentrations in tile drainage to N fertilizer rate, 

demonstrating that agroecosystem models like 

RZWQM2 can be used to help reduce both 

economic loss (through improved N 

management) and nitrate-N concentrations in 

surface waters (Qi et al., 2011b). 

The sloping landscapes of the mid-Atlantic 

region have a distinct hydrology that can result 

in substantial differences in soil moisture 

availability during the growing season. ARS 

scientists at University Park, PA, demonstrated 

that improving N use efficiency by corn requires 

a better agronomic understanding of the 

interaction between soil moisture and nitrogen 

availability at a particular landscape position in 

the field. When soil moisture availability during 

the growing season is adequate, corn grain yield 

is directly related to N availability, but when soil 

moisture availability is low, N fertilizer has little 

effect on grain yield. Results support the 

ongoing improvement of precision N 

recommendations in sloping, mid-Atlantic 

landscapes, to minimize N losses to aquatic 

ecosystems that eventually drain into 

Chesapeake Bay (Schmidt et al., 2011).

Loss of soluble nitrogen and phosphorus from 

fertilizers to surface and ground waters is an 

unfortunate side effect of agricultural, turf, 

nursery, and home fertilizer use. A new fertilizer 

formulation strategy was developed by ARS 

scientists at Kimberly, ID, that employs chemical 

fixation and ion exchange, rather than 

encapsulation, to slow the release of N and P. 

In greenhouse studies, these patent pending 

formulations reduced N and P leaching losses 

by > 60%. The more than thirty industry 

enquiries received to date for joint development 

and licensing of this product, attest to the 

potential for commercial development of matrixbased fertilizer formulations to help reduce 

nutrient losses from fertilizer applications (Entry 

and Sojka, 2008).

ARS soil scientist Jorge Delgado (far left) and 

colleagues from Bolivia and Ecuador discuss 

the potential to use the Nitrogen Index and 

other nitrogen tools in those countries. 

Pictured with him are Ana Karina Saavedra 

Rivera (Bolivia), Luis Orlando Escudero 

López (Ecuador), and Carlos Marcial Monar 

Benavides (Ecuador).
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

75

Theme 2: Remediation of agricultural 

pollutants 

The selected accomplishments reported here 

are associated with Product 4: New and 

improved technologies that remove nutrients 

from surface or subsurface waters; and Product 

6: New knowledge and prediction capabilities of 

the physical, chemical, and biological processes 

affecting the retention, transformation, and 

transport of pesticides, pathogens, and 

pharmaceuticals and other contaminants and 

new management practices and tools for 

reducing their offsite movement.

Selected accomplishments related to on-site 

treatment of drainage water are reported under 

Problem Area 3, Theme 2. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 2 

of Problem Area 6

Farmers need low-cost, simple technologies to 

help reduce the export of excess nitrogen in 

subsurface drainage waters to sensitive aquatic 

ecosystems. Denitrifying bioreactors introduce 

solid carbon substrates into the flow path of 

contaminated water. ARS scientists at Ames, 

IA, summarized bioreactor design alternatives, 

effectiveness, and the factors limiting their 

performance. Bioreactors successfully removed 

nitrate in the field at rates of up to 22.0 g N m-3

d-1

. Removal rates varied with the design, the 

rate of water flow, and incoming nitrate 

concentrations. Bioreactors can also reduce the 

transport of veterinary antibiotics present in 

manure (e.g., sulfamethazine; enrofloxacin), and 

the herbicide atrazine, commonly applied to 

corn, without affecting denitrification rates. 

Denitrifying bioreactors are cost effective and 

complementary to other practices that can 

decrease nitrate loads to surface waters. This

information will be of use to farmers and state 

and federal action agencies in setting priorities 

for the expenditure of conservation funds to 

improve surface waters affected by excess 

nitrate (Greenan et al., 2009; Ilhan et al., 2011; 

Jaynes et al., 2008; Shipper et al., 2010; 

Moorman et al., 2010).

Vegetative buffers are often used to reduce 

pollutant exports in waters draining from 

agricultural fields. Effective vegetative buffers 

require grass species that can capture nutrients 

before they run off the surface or leach to 

groundwater. In collaboration with scientists at 

the University of Missouri, ARS scientists at 

Columbia, MO, conducted a field study using 

five grass treatments (orchardgrass, tall fescue, 

smooth bromegrass, timothy, and switchgrass)

compared to a bare ground control, to evaluate 

the ability of these grasses to remove nutrients, 

preventing their transport to shallow 

groundwater. All grass species except timothy 

reduced nitrate concentrations in shallow 

groundwater by ~99% compared to the control; 

switchgrass also reduced phosphate leaching by 

60 to 74%. Grass treatments reduced soil 

nitrate levels by 41 to 91%. Because of their 

superior ability to reduce soil nitrate and nutrient 

leaching, switchgrass, smooth bromegrass, and 

tall fescue were the most suitable species for 

use in vegetative buffers. These findings 

provide important information to improve the 

design of vegetative buffers, increasing their 

effectiveness in nutrient removal (Lin et al., 

2007a).

Uptake of P in vegetative buffers varies by grass 

species and P availability. Harvesting of buffer 

vegetation offers the opportunity to increase the 

supply of harvested biomass and remove 

nutrients that accumulate in buffers. 

Researchers found that reed canarygrass and 

switchgrass were better choices than smooth 

brome for P removal through biomass harvest. 

Switchgrass takes up more P from soil solutions 

initially high in P, but reed canarygrass performs 

best when low P solutions receive added P 

(simulating P inputs from runoff). Results 

support other recent evidence that species 

selection can be critical in determining the 

effectiveness of conservation practices such as 

vegetative buffers. This research should be of 

interest to agricultural producers, conservation 

planners, and policy makers seeking to improve 

buffer design and considering biomass harvest 

from conservation plantings (Kovar and 

Claassen, 2009).

In addition to the benefit of vegetative buffers in 

reducing nutrient runoff, the ARS research team 

at Columbia, MO, also studied the effects of 

forage species in vegetative buffers on pesticide 

degradation. The results showed that the 

majority of applied atrazine remained in the soil; 

only relatively small proportions of herbicide 

were leached to shallow groundwater (<15%) or

taken up by plants (<4%). Grasses appear to 

enhance atrazine degradation in soil through 

their ability to increase microbial growth and 

activity in surface soil. Because of its ability to 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

76

tolerate particularly high levels of exposure to 

atrazine, switchgrass is recommended for use in 

vegetative buffers designed to reduce atrazine 

transport to surface or ground waters. In a 

related study, ARS scientists in Miami, FL, 

demonstrated that switchgrass buffers were also 

effective in stopping the movement of 

endosulfan and its major degradation products 

down a 5 % slope. Since it provides the needed 

science for improving vegetative buffer designs 

to improve the protection of water resources 

impacted by row crop production, this research 

benefits both federal conservation agencies 

(e.g., NRCS) and state conservation 

departments (Lin et al., 2008).

Offsite transport of herbicides is a potential 

environmental problem. ARS scientists at St. 

Paul, MN, examined the impacts of six different 

biochars, activated charcoal, organoclay, and a 

biomass waste stream (olive mill waste), on the 

sorption and leaching of two herbicides 

[fluometuron and 2-methyl-4-

chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA)]. 

Amendments were added at 2% by weight to 

soil. Biochars are assumed to increase binding 

(sorption) of herbicides. However, in this study a 

biochar created by fast combustion (pyrolysis) of 

macadamia shells actually decreased observed 

sorption of the two herbicides in biocharamended soil. Activated carbon resulted in 

complete sorption and no detectable leaching of 

the herbicides. Two of the biochars (a fast 

pyrolysis hardwood biochar and a slow pyrolysis 

hardwood biochar) increased observed sorption, 

but in the column study these two biochars 

resulted in increased leaching of the two 

herbicides. The organoclays also increased 

sorption but decreased leaching. These results 

indicate that the impact of biochar on herbicide 

transport is biochar specific; no general biochar 

behavior should be assumed. This finding could 

provide additional insight and direction in the 

focus of the benefits of biochar additions on 

improving water quality by sorbing 

agrochemicals. These results are significant to 

farmers and policy makers and will assist 

scientists and engineers in developing improved 

mechanisms of biochar additions for herbicide 

sorption to decrease agrochemical transport to 

groundwater (Cabrera Mesa and Spokas, 2011).

South Florida's surficial aquifer provides potable 

water for nearly all of South Florida’s rapidly 

growing population. Agricultural practices, 

which contribute to water quality impairment, 

have the potential to adversely affect the 

massive project focused on restoring South 

Florida’s Everglades ecosystem. Investigations 

were conducted in southern Florida to assess 

risks to groundwater quality from atrazine used 

for sweet corn production in the region, and 

whether maintaining fields with a highly vigorous 

cover crop, Sun Hemp [Crotalaria juncea L.], 

during summer fallow periods, would reduce 

impacts. Results demonstrated that climatic and

cropping patterns, relatively high dilution rates in 

the surficial aquifer, and high atrazine 

degradation rates in soil limit contamination 

levels as compared to other atrazine use sites. 

Measurements also showed that cover crop use 

leads to significantly lower contaminant levels in 

groundwater. Atrazine use presents a small, 

although potentially significant, risk to 

groundwater quality in southern Florida. The 

use of a cover crop like Sun Hemp during 

Native grass buffers (including switchgrass and 

gammagrass) were found to be most effective 

in reducing atrazine, a widely used herbicide, 

in runoff.

Bulk hardwood biochar prior to application 

on plots near Ames, Iowa. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

77

summer months, when fields are fallow, may be 

an effective mitigation measure. As a result of 

this research, growers are being strongly 

encouraged to plant cover crops, which have 

many other potential benefits (e.g., reduced 

nutrient leaching and wind erosion; improved 

soil quality) in addition to reducing herbicide 

leaching. 

Along with arid region crop irrigation practices, 

farm field municipal sewage sludge and 

wastewater applications can each lead to the 

presence of heavy metals in surface runoff and 

subsurface drainage waters, which are then 

discharged into local streams, rivers and lakes. 

ARS scientists at Columbus, OH, conducted a 

laboratory study to evaluate the heavy metal 

removal capabilities of four iron based filter 

materials. Results indicate that each of the four 

materials removes some or most of these 

contaminants present in water. Consequently, 

filter systems containing iron based materials 

are an option for field removal of heavy metals 

found in agricultural surface runoff and 

subsurface drainage waters, thereby providing 

an environmental benefit to the public (Allred, 

2010). 

Agricultural drainage ditches are important 

components of water management 

infrastructure, but little is known about how 

these ditches affect water quality. ARS 

scientists in Oxford, MS, found that vegetated 

agricultural drainage ditches were effective in 

reducing insecticide levels. Depending on the 

insecticide evaluated, between 20 and 70% of 

the initial concentration was decreased between 

inflow and ditch outflow. Vegetations in the 

ditches played a significant role in reducing the 

pesticide levels. These findings will help refine 

technologies that use wetlands to ameliorate 

agricultural pollution, allowing more informed 

decisions regarding nutrient and insecticide best 

management practices (Moore et al., 2008; 

Moore et al., 2011; Werner et al., 2010; Lizotte 

et al., 2011).

Treatment strategies for agricultural runoff 

include constructed, natural, or restored 

wetlands as buffers between agricultural fields 

and nearby water sources. ARS scientists in 

Oxford, MS, found that the long-term growth 

patterns of live, caged mussels placed in a 

constructed wetland were affected by 

insecticides received in artificial runoff, and 

documented elevated releases of phosphorus 

during winter die off when a common wetland 

plant species was exposed to elevated levels of 

nitrogen and phosphorus. These findings will 

help refine technologies that use wetlands to 

ameliorate agricultural pollution, allowing more 

informed decisions regarding nutrient and 

insecticide best management practices (Bouldin 

et al. 2007; Kröger et al. 2007).

Wetlands may be used to trap and process 

pollutants in agricultural runoff, but little is known 

about the optimal types of aquatic vegetation for 

such remediation. ARS scientists at Oxford, 

MS, found that a constructed wetland reduced 

the initial toxicity of simulated storm-event 

agricultural runoff more than a similar sized 

holding basin without wetland plants. Simulated 

runoff was amended with two pesticides, 

diazinon and permethrin, and two nutrients, 

nitrogen and phosphorus. The study showed 

that plants were better at decreasing the effects 

of nutrients and pesticides within the first 5 

hours, but no differences between the wetland 

and unvegetated holding basin were noted for 

longer periods. Nutrient and pesticide 

contaminated water had to be retained in the 

constructed wetland for 21 days to remove 

toxicity. These results are of interest to 

regulatory and other agencies and the pesticide 

industry by providing additional information to 

improve and sustain river, stream and lake water 

quality and overall environmental quality using 

In a constructed wetland in Mississippi, 

agricultural engineer Bobby Cullum (left) collects 

water samples as ecologist Matt Moore uses a 

multimeter to record water quality to determine 

how well the wetland filters pollutants. 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

78

wetlands as an effective conservation practice 

(Lizotte et al. 2011). 

Theme 3: Quantifying agricultural chemicals 

and pathogens in the environment

The selected accomplishments are associated 

with Product 6: New knowledge and prediction 

capabilities of the physical, chemical, and 

biological processes affecting the retention, 

transformation, and transport of pesticides, 

pathogens, and pharmaceuticals and other 

contaminants and new management practices 

and tools for reducing their offsite movement.

Some accomplishments related to remediation 

efforts are reported under Theme 2 above. 

Also, accomplishments related to quantifying 

pesticides in the environment are also reported 

under Program Area 1, Theme 2. 

Selected Accomplishments under Theme 3 

of Problem Area 6

Especially in runoff-prone watersheds, herbicide 

contamination of surface waters remains an 

environmental problem. ARS scientists at 

Columbia, MO, analyzed 15-year (1992 to 2006) 

trends in five common herbicides in the 

Goodwater Creek Experimental Watershed

(GCEW), and developed a simple index that 

explained annual variation in herbicide transport 

from planting progress, runoff events, and soil 

dissipation rate. Over this 15-year period, trends 

were apparent only for those herbicides that had 

been phased into or out of use (i.e., metolachlor, 

alachlor, and acetochlor). Despite substantial 

education and extension efforts in the region, 

especially for atrazine management, no trends 

were discernible for either atrazine or 

metribuzin. Combined with previously published 

research on the vulnerability of restrictive layer 

soils to herbicide transport, this work has 

resulted in widespread recognition among both 

other federal agencies (e.g., the U.S. EPA and 

the USGS) and atrazine registrants as to the 

critical nature of understanding spatial variations 

in atrazine contamination across the Corn Belt. 

Both agencies have expressed interest in the 

index, the EPA used the atrazine data during reregistration, and instead of applying the national 

Watershed Regressions for Pesticides (WARP) 

model in the region, the USGS has 

acknowledged the importance of restrictive soil 

layers by developing a new WAPR model 

(WARP-CB) specifically for use in the corn belt 

(Lerch et al. 2010a, b).

Runoff or irrigation return flows from agricultural 

lands can also contain harmful concentrations of 

pesticides. ARS scientists at Oxford, MS, found 

that aqueous diazinon and atrazine 

concentrations in water passing through a rice 

field decreased by approximately 80%. Based 

on current ecological economic values for water 

quality improvement, the water treatment value 

of the rice was almost triple that of its market 

value when harvested as a typical crop (based 

on current commodity prices). Such valuation of 

ecosystem services is necessary to stimulate 

implementation of sustainable practices (Moore 

et al., 2009a, 2009b; Kröger et al., 2009).

Accurately assessing the fate of herbicides and 

their metabolites in the environment requires the 

development of sensitive analytical techniques. 

In collaboration with University of Missouri 

researchers, ARS scientists at Columbia, MO, 

developed two new analytical methods for: 1) 

analyzing atrazine and its chlorinated 

metabolites in plants; and 2) the analysis of 

isoxaflutole (IXF) and its two primary metabolites 

in soils and plants. Both methods employ 

chromatography to separate the compounds of 

interest. Subsequent detection by mass 

spectrometry results in sub-parts per billion 

detection limits (1 to 2 orders of magnitude more 

sensitive than previously published methods). 

To demonstrate their utility, these methods were 

applied to measurements of plants or soils from 

a field experiment. Results showed that in 

forage grasses, ratios of metabolites to parent 

compounds were good indicators of the 

detoxification pathways and overall sensitivity to 

each herbicide. Scientists, regulators, and 

industry will benefit from the availability of these 

appropriately sensitive methods for measuring 

herbicides and their metabolites in plants and 

soils, improving understanding of their fate in the 

environment, and potentially leading to the 

development of vegetative buffers that more 

effectively prevent surface and ground water 

contamination (Lin et al., 2007a; 2007b). 

The herbicide, Balance, is a relatively new 

product marketed as a substitute for atrazine, 

the most commonly used corn herbicide. Recent 

studies by ARS scientist in Columbia, MO, and 

at the University of Missouri, have shown that 

two of the Balance break-down products 

(degradates) are readily transported to shallow 
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

79

groundwater and, based on their chemical 

properties, are also likely to contaminate 

streams. One of the key mechanisms 

responsible for reducing the hydrologic transport 

of herbicides is their ability to bind to soil, a 

process referred to as sorption. The key 

objective of this study was to determine if soil 

iron and aluminum oxides can sorb the Balance 

degradates, diketonitrile (DKN) and benzoic acid 

(BA). Iron and aluminum oxides did show 

significant capacity to sorb both degradates, with 

slightly greater sorption to iron. Thus, metal 

oxides can help to reduce the transport of DKN 

and BA in acidic soils enriched with metal 

oxides, such as those common in the southern 

US. Land management agencies and growers 

can use this information to guide choices 

regarding the use of Balance to minimize its 

contamination of streams and shallow ground 

waters (Wu et al. 2011).

Herbicides present in untreated water can react 

with the chlorine used by water treatment plants 

for disinfection. In collaboration with the 

University of Missouri, ARS scientists at

Columbia, MO, studied the breakdown of DKN, 

the herbicidal metabolite of the corn herbicide 

isoxaflutole (Balance), by chlorine. DKN has 

been shown to be both present in the surface 

waters of the major corn-growing states and to 

rapidly react with chlorine. Results showed that 

DKN was completely broken down by chlorine 

during the water treatment process, but that two 

potentially harmful products were formed: 

cyclopropanecarboxylic acid (CPCA) and 

dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN). Fortunately, levels 

were below those reported to cause toxic effects 

in humans or animals. This research identifies a 

potential human health issue associated with 

agricultural production, demonstrating that 

chlorination results in the complete breakdown 

of DKN, generating the potentially harmful 

breakdown products CPCA and DCAN, that 

appear to be present only at sub-toxic levels in 

affected drinking waters. Best management 

practices suggest routine CPCA and DCAN 

monitoring of chlorinated drinking water for the 

short term, and the development of techniques 

to remove these products from drinking water 

supplies over the long term (Lerch et al., 2007). 

Aminocyclopyrachlor (trade name Imprelis) is a 

new herbicide from a new class of chemical 

compounds known as pyrimidine carboxylic 

acids. Although aminocyclopyrachlor has 

exhibited a number of positive stewardship 

attributes with very low impacts to mammals and 

the environment, not much is known about its 

fate in soil. ARS scientists at St. Paul, MN, 

characterized the binding of 

aminocyclopyrachlor to soil in 14 soils from the 

United States and Brazil exhibiting a range of 

pH, organic carbon, and clay content. Data 

suggest that although aminocyclopyrachlor 

would be very mobile based on its binding 

(sorption) coefficients, its potential for offsite 

transport may be overestimated. Because 

Imprelis does not readily desorb from soil, its 

potential mobility may be less than previously 

anticipated. Now scientists can better evaluate 

its potential mobility, information that is needed 

for aminocyclopyrachlor, particularly in light of 

reported possible damage to evergreen trees 

when applied to adjacent turf areas (Oliveira et 

al., 2011). 

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and herbicides 

associated with managed turf systems (e.g., golf 

courses) have been detected in both stormwater 

runoff and surface waters in urban watersheds. 

ARS scientists at St. Paul, MN, evaluated the 

effectiveness of management practices to 

mitigate the off-site transport of pesticides in 

runoff from turf managed as a golf course 

fairway. Relative to other commonly used 

cultivation methods, cultivation using hollow tine 

cores (HTCC) reduced the percentage of 

precipitation that became runoff. Likewise, the 

percentages of the applied herbicides dicamba, 

MCPP, and 2,4-D measured in runoff were lower 

Runoff from a field planted with corn is directed 

into a grassed waterway where it passes 

through and over a series of compost-filled filter 

socks that help reduce levels of nutrients and 

herbicides.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

80

from turf managed with HTCC. In cooperation 

with a private research organization, ARS 

scientists at Columbus, OH, quantified surface 

losses of both soluble and total nutrients from a 

managed turf system in Duluth, MN. Nutrients in 

surface runoff exhibited a seasonal trend, were 

detectable throughout the year, and routinely 

exceeded levels recommended to minimize algal 

blooms. This research provides quantitative 

information to inform decisions on turf 

management that can maximize chemical 

retention at the site of application, while 

minimizing environmental contamination and 

adverse effects associated with the off-site 

transport of chemicals in surface waters (Rice et 

al., 2010; King and Balogh, 2008). 

Periodic flooding of soil causes substantial 

decreases in agricultural production in 

Midwestern U.S., but how short-term flooding 

affects the biogeochemistry of the root zone and 

subsequent plant growth has not been 

quantified. ARS scientists at West Lafayette, IN, 

performed a greenhouse study comparing corn 

grown with free drainage to that with a perched 

water table. Gypsum was applied with both 

reduction conditions. In the perched water table 

pots, corn roots died at or near the zone of low 

redox potential caused by the perched water 

table. This was alleviated by the addition of 

gypsum and the roots flourished throughout this 

zone. In addition, mercury (Hg) accumulations 

were 10-fold higher in plants grown with a 

perched water table, independent of gypsum 

addition. Results indicate that soil drainage is 

not only important for plant growth, but that 

applying gypsum to soils can prevent production 

losses due to flooding, but not the accumulation 

of Hg in plants (Acuna-Guzman, 2009). 

Accurate testing for the presence of fecal 

indicator bacteria (E. coli and enterococcus) is of 

high importance for treated wastewater, where 

water quality is assessed under a permitted 

system in which a high error rate could result in 

unnecessary use of disinfectant or an invalid 

violation of a discharge permit. ARS scientists in 

Maricopa, AZ, found that methods for 

Enterococcus identification in surface waters 

were robust, and that E. coli identification was 

highly accurate (less than 4% error rate), but 

misidentification rates of E. coli in reclaimed 

water approached 50%. Far higher false positive 

rates were observed in winter, raising the 

possibility that increased survival of competing 

bacteria in cooler waters may contribute to 

misidentification. This information will be useful 

in the development of improved E. coli

identification methods. The work highlights the 

extreme importance of validation of 

microbiological results from selective media for 

accurate analysis of wastewater quality (Mclain

and Williams, 2011).

Land application of bio-solids can introduce 

persistent, slow moving trace metals and other 

contaminants to the subsurface environment, 

affecting environmental quality and human 

ARS agricultural engineer Kevin King (right) and 

soil scientist Jim Balogh, of Spectrum Research, 

Inc., inspect a filter cartridge system being 

evaluated at a golf course tile drainage site. The 

cartridge system was donated by cooperating 

industry Kristar Enterprises, Inc.

Technicians Allan Knopf and Sharette Evans 

collect water samples from a pond that 

supplies irrigation water to Pacana Park in 

Maricopa, Arizona. In the laboratory, the pondwater samples are tested for presence of 

humanspecific Bacteroides molecular markers.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

81

health for decades. Safe use of bio-solids in 

agriculture requires accurate risk assessment of 

contaminant fate and transport. In collaboration 

with researchers in Sweden and Brazil, ARS 

scientists in Riverside, CA, developed a new 

contaminant transport model suitable for 

assessing the transport of slow moving 

contaminants in the root zone. The model has 

relatively modest data requirements, yet is more 

realistic than other root-zone models currently in 

use or proposed for use in bio-solid risk 

assessment. This new modeling tool will benefit 

both researchers and regulators who are 

charged with assessing the impacts of persistent 

contaminants in the root zone (Simunek and 

Van Genuchten, 2007). 

Successful understanding and modeling of 

chemical transport in soils and groundwater is a 

precondition of risk-informed predictions of 

subsurface contaminant transport. Present day 

water quality models, though complex, are 

typically poor predictors of chemical transit 

times. However model abstraction is an 

emerging methodology for reducing the 

complexity of a simulation model while 

maintaining the validity of the simulation. The 

objective of this work was to use model 

abstraction techniques to characterize and 

understand flow and transport in soils in the 

presence of shallow groundwater. ARS 

scientists at Beltsville, MD, developed two case 

studies by carrying out two types of field tracer 

experiments at the USDA Optimizing Production 

Inputs for Economic and Environmental 

Enhancement (OPE3) field site, applying a 

sequence of model simplifications based on 

existing hydrologic models. Soil moisture, soil 

water potential, tracer concentrations in 

groundwater, groundwater levels, and weather 

data, along with ground-penetration radar 

surveys, electric resistivity monitoring, and 

dilution tests complemented borehole log data 

and laboratory hydraulic measurements to 

characterize soil heterogeneity. The invoked 

series of model abstractions showed the 

important role of subsurface heterogeneity in the 

vadose zone and groundwater, substantially 

improving the conceptualization of the 

subsurface (Yakirevich et al., 2009) 

Literature cited in selected accomplishments 

from Problem Area 6 

Acuna-Guzman, S.F. 2009. Nutrient availability 

as affected by periodic saturation and amending 

the soil. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Purdue 

University, West Lafayette, IN. 185 pp. 

Dissertation Abstracts No. 3402267, Univ. of 

Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Allred, B.J. 2010. Laboratory Batch Test 

Evaluation of Five Filter Materials for Removal of 

Nutrients and Pesticides From Drainage Waters. 

Transactions of the ASABE. 53(1):39-54.

Bausch, W.C., Brodahl, M.K. 2011. Strategies to 

evaluate goodness of reference strips for inseason, field scale, irrigated corn nitrogen 

sufficiency. Precision Agriculture. 

(DOI)10.1007/s11119-011-9230-9.

Brandt, R.C., Elliott, H.A., Adviento-Borbe, M.A., 

Wheeler, E.F., Kleinman, P.J., Beegle, D.B. 

2011. Influence of manure application method 

on odor emissions. Journal of Environmental 

Quality. 40:431-437.

Cabrera Mesa, A., Spokas, K.A. 2011. Impacts 

of biochar (black carbon) additions on the 

sorption and efficacy of herbicides. In: 

Kortekamp, A., editor. Herbicides and 

Environment. Rijeka, Croatia. InTech. p. 315-

340.

Entry, J.A., Sojka, R.E. 2008. Matrix based 

fertilizers reduce nitrogen and phosphorus 

leaching in three soils. Journal of Environmental 

Management 87:364-372.

Greenan, C., Moorman, T.B., Parkin, T.B., 

Kaspar, T.C., Jaynes, D.B. 2009. Denitrification 

in wood chip bioreactors at different water flows. 

Journal of Environmental Quality. 38:1664-1671.

Ilhan, Z. E., S. K. Ong and Moorman, T. B. 

2011. Dissipation of atrazine, enrofloxacin, and 

sulfamethazine in wood chip bioreactors and 

impact on denitrification. J. Environ. Qual. 

40(6):1816-1823.

Jaynes, D.B. 2011. Confidence bands for 

measured economically optimal nitrogen rates. 

Precision Agriculture. 12(2):196-213.

Jaynes, D.B., Kaspar, T.C., Colvin, T. 2011. 

Economically optimal N rates of corn 

management zones delineated from soil and 

terrain attributes. Agronomy Journal. 103:1026-

1035.
ARS NP 211 Accomplishment Report 2007-2011

82

Jaynes, D.B., Kaspar, T.C., Moorman, T.B., and 

Parkin, T.B. 2008. In situ bioreactors and deep 

drain-pipe installation to reduce nitrate losses in 

artificially drained fields. J. Environ. Qual. 

37:429-436. 

Johnson, K.N., Kleinman, P.J.A., Beegle, D., 

Elliott, H., Saporito, L.S. 2011. Effect of dairy 

manure slurry application in a no-till system on 

phosphorus runoff. Nutrient Cycling in 

Agroecosystems. DOI: 10.1007/s10705-011-

9422-8.

Kibet, L.C., Allen, A.L., Kleinman, P.J.A., 

Feyereisen, G.W., Church, C., Saporito, L.S., 

Way, T.R. 2011. Phosphorus runoff losses from 

a no-till coastal plain soil with surface and 

subsurface-applied poultry litter. Journal of 

Environmental Quality. 40:412-420. DOI: 

10/2134/jeq2010.0161.

King, K. W., and J. C. Balogh. 2008. Hydrologic 

and water quality assessment from managed 

turf. USGA Turfgrass and Environmental 

Research Online 7(2): 1-12.

Kovar, J.L., Claassen, N. 2009. Growth and 

phosphorus uptake by three riparian grass 

species. Agron. J. 101, 1060-1067.

Kröger, R., Moore, M.T., Cooper, C.M., Holland, 

M.M. 2009. Diazinon accumulation and 

dissipation in Oryza sativa L. following simulated 

agricultural runoff amendment in flooded rice 

paddies. Water, Air & Soil Pollution. 201:209-

218.

Lerch, R.N., Lin, C.H., Leigh, N.D. 2007. 

Reaction Pathways of the Diketonitrile 

Degradate of Isoxaflutole with Hypochlorite in 

Water. Journal of Agricultural and Food 

Chemistry. 55(5):1893-1899.

Lin, C. H., Lerch, R. N., Garrett, H. E., Jordan, 

D., and George, M. F. 2007a. Ability of forage 

grasses exposed to atrazine and isoxaflutole 

(Balance) to reduce nutrient levels in soils and 

shallow groundwater. Comm. Soil Sci. Plant 

Anal. 38: 1119–1136. 

Lin, C.H., Lerch, R.N., Garrett, H.E., Yong-Xi, L., 

George, M.F. 2007b. An improved HPLCMS/MS method for determination of isoxaflutole 

(Balance) and its metabolites in soils and forage 

plants. Journal of Agricultural and Food 

Chemistry. 55:3805-3815.

Lin, C. H., Lerch, R. N., Garrett, H. E., Li, Y.-X., 

and George, M. F. 2007c. Improved HPLCMS/MS method for determination of isoxaflutole 

(Balance) and its metabolites in soils and forage 

plants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55:3805-3815. 

Lin, C.H., Lerch, R.N., Garrett, H.E., George, 

M.F. 2008. Bioremediation of AtrazineContaminated Soil by Forage Grasses: 

Transformation, Uptake, and Detoxification. 

Journal of Environmental Quality. 37:196-206.

Lizotte, R.E., Moore, M.T., Kröger, R., Locke, 

M.A. 2011. Role of vegetation in a constructed 

wetland on nutrient-pesticide mixture toxicity to 

Hyalella azteca. Archives of Environmental 

Contamination and Toxicology. 60(2):261-271.

Maguire, R.O., Kleinman, P.J.A., Dell, C.J., 

Beegle, D.B., Brandt, R.C., Mcgrath, J.M., 

Ketterings, Q.M. 2011. Manure management in 

reduced tillage and grassland systems: A 

review. Journal of Environmental Quality. 

40:292-301.

Mclain, J.E., Williams, C.F. 2011. Assessing 

environmental impacts of treated wastewater 

through monitoring of fecal indicator bacteria 

and salinity in irrigated soils. Environmental 

Monitoring and Assessment. DOI: 

10.1007/s10661-011-2060-4.

Moore, M.T., Denton, D.L., Cooper, C.M., 

Wrysinski, J., Miller, J.L., Reece, K., Crane, D., 

and Robins, P. 2008. Mitigation assessment of 

vegetated drainage ditches for collecting 

irrigation runoff in California. Journal of 

Environmental Quality. 37:486-493. 

Moore, M.T., Denton, D.L., Cooper, C.M., 

Wrysinski, J., Miller, J.L., Werner, I., Horner, G., 

Crane, D., Holcomb, D.B., and Huddleston, G.M. 

III. 2011. Use of vegetated agricultural drainage 

ditches to decrease pesticide transport from 

tomato and alfalfa fields in California, USA. 

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 

30(5):1044-1049. 

Moore, M.T., Kröger, R., Cooper, C.M., Cullum, 

R.F., Smith, S., Locke, M.A. 2009a. Diazinon 

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sediment, and vegetation in stormwater runoff 
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Moore, M.T., Lizotte, R.E. Jr., Kröger, R, 2009b. 

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fields in mitigating diazinon runoff toxicity to 

Hyalella azteca. Bulletin of Environmental 

Contamination and Toxicology. 82(6):777-780.

Moorman, T.B., Parkin, T.B., Kaspar, T.C., 

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Oliveira, R.S., Alonso, D.G., Koskinen, W.C. 

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Pote, D.H., Way, T.R., Kleinman, P.J., Moore Jr, 

P.A., Meisinger, J.J., Sistani, K.R., Saporito, 

L.S., Allen, A.L., Feyereisen, G.W. 2011. 

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Qi, Z., Helmers, M. J., Malone, R. W., Thorp, K. 

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pesticide transport from tomato and alfalfa fields 

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APPENDIX 1

National Program 211 – Water Availability & Watershed Management

ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007 – 2011

Research Projects in National Program 211* [By Action Problem Area]

Problem Area 1: Effectiveness of Conservation Practices.

3625-13000-009-00D

WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT FROM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN AGRICULTURAL 

WATERSHEDS – Tomer, Mark (P); Hatfield, Jerry; Jaynes, Dan; Kaspar, Thomas; Logsdon, 

Sally; Malone, Robert; and Moorman, Thomas; Ames, Iowa.

3625-12000-012-00D

ECOLOGICALLY-BASED SOIL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND 

RESOURCE CONSERVATION – Karlen, Douglas (P); Olk, Daniel; Logsdon, Sally; Hatfield, 

Jerry; Cambardella, Cynthia; and Kovar, John; Ames, Iowa.

1265-13610-027-00D

USING REMOTE SENSING & MODELING FOR EVALUATING HYDROLOGIC FLUXES, 

STATES, & CONSTITUENT TRANSPORT PROCESSES WITHIN AGRICULTURAL 

LANDSCAPES – Crow, Wade (P); Alfieri, Joseph; Anderson, Martha; Cosh, Michael; Gish, 

Timothy; Jackson, Thomas; Kustas, William; McCarty, Gregory; and Sadeghi, Ali; Beltsville, 

Maryland.

3622-12130-004-00D

DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVE PRACTICES FOR IMPROVED WATERSHED 

MANAGEMENT – Lerch, Robert (P); Baffaut, Claire; Kitchen, Newell; Kremer, Robert; Sadler, 

Edward; and Vories, Earl; Columbia, Missouri.

3604-13000-009-00D

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOURCE WATER QUALITY EFFECTS OF MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICES AND LAND USE ON POORLY DRAINED LAND – King, Kevin (P); Fausey, 

Norman; and Smiley Jr, Peter; Columbus, Ohio.

5358-21410-002-00D

INTEGRATING PRODUCTION AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES TO MAINTAIN GRASS 

SEED FARM PROFITS – Griffith, Stephen (P); Whittaker, Gerald; Pfender, William; Banowetz, 

Gary; and Mueller Warrant, George; Corvallis, Oregon.

6218-13000-010-00D

HYDROLOGIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN 

OKLAHOMA AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS – Starks, Patrick (P); Garbrecht, Jurgen; Moriasi, 

Daniel; and Steiner, Jean; El Reno, Oklahoma.

5402-13660-007-00D
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 1 – LIST OF RESEARCH PROJECTS

86

OBJECT MODELING AND SCALING OF LANDSCAPE PROCESSES AND CONSERVATION 

EFFECTS IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS – Ascough II, James (P); Ahuja, Lajpat; Dunn, Gale; 

Green, Timothy; Ma, Liwang; and McMaster, Gregory; Fort Collins, Colorado.

5368-13000-008-00D

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION FOR NORTHWESTERN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE –

Bjorneberg, David (P); Ippolito, James; Lentz, Rodrick; King, Bradley; Dungan, Robert; and 

Lehrsch, Gary; Kimberly, Idaho.

6208-13000-006-00D

MANAGING LIMITED IRRIGATION AND RAINFALL FOR CROP PRODUCTION IN SEMI-ARID 

ENVIRONMENTS – Baker, Jeffrey (P); Acosta-Martinez, Veronica; Gitz, Dennis; Lascano, 

Robert; Mauget, Steven; Van Pelt, Robert; and Zobeck, Teddy; Lubbock, Texas.

6408-13000-018-00D

INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL LANDSCAPE PROCESSES 

THAT IMPACT THE QUALITY AND MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS –

Bingner, Ronald (P); Dabney, Seth; Kuhnle, Roger; Langendoen, Eddy; Rigby, James; Romkens, 

Mathias; Wells, Robert; Wilson, Glenn; and Wren, Daniel; Oxford, Mississippi.

6408-13000-020-00D

TECHNOLOGIES FOR ASSESSING SEDIMENT MOVEMENT & THE INTEGRITY OF FLOOD 

CONTROL STRUCTURES, STREAMBANKS, & EARTHEN POND-LEVEES & EMBANKMENTS

– Kuhnle, Roger (P); Dabney, Seth; Langendoen, Eddy; Romkens, Mathias; Wilson, Glenn; and 

Wren, Daniel; Oxford, Mississippi.

6408-13660-006-00D

UNDERSTANDING AND PREDICTING THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE ON THE 

ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRITY OF MANAGED WATERSHEDS – Locke, Martin (P); Bingner, 

Ronald; Cullum, Robert; Knight, Scott; Lizotte, Richard; Moore, Matthew; Rhoton, Fred; 

Romkens, Mathias; and Shields, Douglas; Oxford, Mississippi.

6206-13610-006-00D

DEVELOPMENT OF MODELS AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES FOR WATER QUALITY 

MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCE ASSESSMENTS – Arnold, Jeffrey (P); Harmel, Daren; Kiniry, 

James; Rossi, Colleen; and White, Michael; Temple, Texas.

6602-13000-025-00D

CONSERVATION EFFECTS ASSESSMENT IN THE SOUTH GEORGIA LITTLE RIVER –

Bosch, David (P); Hubbard, Robert; Lowrance, Robert; Potter, Thomas; and Strickland, Timothy; 

Tifton, Georgia.

6602-13000-023-00D

LAND USE AND MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES AND 

HYDROLOGY IN COASTAL PLAIN WATERSHEDS – Lowrance, Robert (P);Bosch, David;

Hubbard, Robert; Potter, Thomas; Stricklan, Timothy; and Truman, Clinton; Tifton, Georgia.

1902-13000-011-00D

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 

AND ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY IN THE NORTHEAST U.S. – Kleinman, Peter (P);Bryant, 

Ray; Buda, Anthony; Church, Clinton; Dell, Curtis; and John Schmidt; University Park, 

Pennsylvania.

3602-13000-008-00D
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 1 – LIST OF RESEARCH PROJECTS

87

CONSERVATION EFFECTS ASSESSMENT FOR THE ST. JOSEPH RIVER WATERSHED –

Smith, Douglas (P); Heathman, Gary; Huang, Chi-hua; Norton, Lloyd; and Pappas, Elizabeth; 

West Lafayette, Indiana.

Problem Area 2: Irrigation Water Management.

5407-12130-006-00D

DRYLAND CROPPING SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT FOR THE CENTRAL GREAT PLAINS –

Vigil, Merle (P); Nielsen, David; Mika, Maysoon; Benjamin, Joseph; and Calderon, Francisco; 

Akron, Colorado.

3625-11120-003-00D

BIOGEOCHEMICAL PROCESSES INFLUENCING FORMATION AND STABILIZATION OF 

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER AND SOIL STRUCTURE – Laird, David (P); Karlen, Douglas; Hatfield, 

Jerry; and Olk, Daniel; Ames, Iowa.

1265-13610-027-00D

USING REMOTE SENSING & MODELING FOR EVALUATING HYDROLOGIC FLUXES, 

STATES, & CONSTITUENT TRANSPORT PROCESSES WITHIN AGRICULTURAL 

LANDSCAPES – Crow, Wade (P); Alfieri, Joseph; Anderson, Martha; Cosh, Michael; Gish, 

Timothy; Jackson, Thomas; Kustas, William; McCarty, Gregory; and Sadeghi, Ali; Beltsville, 

Maryland.

6209-13000-013-00D

SUSTAINING RURAL ECONOMIES THROUGH NEW WATER MANAGEMENT 

TECHNOLOGIES – Brauer, David (P); Baumhardt, Roland; Colaizzi, Paul; Evett, Steven; Gowda, 

Prasanna; Howell, Terry; Lascano, Robert; Schwartz, Robert; Tolk, Judy; Van Pelt, Robert; and 

Zobeck, Teddy; Bushland, Texas.

3622-13610-002-00D

OPTIMIZING IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT FOR HUMID CLIMATES – Vories, Earl (P); Sadler, 

Edward; and Sudduth, Kenneth; Columbia, Missouri.

6657-13000-009-00D

MANAGING WATER AVAILABILITY AND QUALITY TO MAINTAIN OR INCREASE 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, CONSERVE NATURAL RESOURCES, AND ENHANCE 

ENVIRONMENT – Stone, Kenneth (P); Bauer, Philip; Hunt, Patrick; Ro, Kyoung; Ducy, Thomas; 

and Busscher, Warren; Florence, South Carolina.

5402-13220-003-00D

IRRIGATION AND PRECISION MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO SUSTAIN AGRICULTURE 

WITH LIMITED WATER SUPPLIES – Trout, Thomas (P); Bausch, Walter; Shaner, Dale; and 

Wiles, Lori; Fort Collins, Colorado.

5368-13000-008-00D

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION FOR NORTHWESTERN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE –

Bjorneberg, David (P); Ippolito, James; Lentz, Rodrick; King, Bradley; Dungan, Robert; and 

Lehrsch, Gary; Kimberly, Idaho.

6208-13000-006-00D

MANAGING LIMITED IRRIGATION AND RAINFALL FOR CROP PRODUCTION IN SEMI-ARID 

ENVIRONMENTS – Baker, Jeffrey (P); Acosta-Martinez, Veronica; Gitz, Dennis; Lascano, 

Robert; Mauget, Steven; Van Pelt, Robert; and Zobeck, Teddy; Lubbock, Texas.
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 1 – LIST OF RESEARCH PROJECTS

88

5347-13000-002-00D

REUSE OF TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER FOR IRRIGATION – Williams, Clinton (P); 

and McLain, Jean; Maricopa, Arizona.

5347-13660-006-00D

REMOTE SENSING FOR CROP AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

– Hunsaker, Douglas (P); French, Andrew; and Thorp, Kelly; Maricopa, Arizona.

5347-13000-015-00D

WATER MANAGEMENT IN ARID IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE – Bautista, Eduardo (P); and 

Strelkoff, Theodore; Maricopa, Arizona.

5302-13000-010-00D

WATER MANAGEMENT TO IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY AND PROTECT WATER QUALITY –

Ayars, James (P); Banuelos, Gary; Gao, Suduan; and Wang, Dong; Parlier, California.

5310-13210-009-00D

SALINITY AND TRACE ELEMENT MANAGEMENT FOR CROP PRODUCTION IN IRRIGATED 

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS – Grieve, Catherine (P); Riverside, California.

5310-12130-008-00D

MINIMIZING AIR & WATER CONTAMINATION FROM AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDES – Yates, 

Scott (P); and Skaggs, Todd; Riverside, California.

5310-61000-013-00D

SALINITY AND TRACE ELEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER REUSE IN IRRIGATED 

SYSTEMS: PROCESSES, SAMPLING PROTOCOLS, AND SITE-SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT –

Suarez, Donald (P); Corwin, Dennis; and Goldberg, Sabine; Riverside, California.

5310-61000-014-00D

IMPROVED KNOWLEDGE AND MODELING OF WATER FLOW AND CHEMICAL TRANSPORT 

PROCESSES IN IRRIGATED SOILS – Skaggs, Todd (P); and Bradford, Scott; Riverside, 

California.

5436-13210-005-00D

ECOLOGICALLY-SOUND PEST, WATER AND SOIL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR 

NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS CROPPING SYSTEMS – Evans, Robert (P); Allen, Brett; Jabro, 

Jalal; Lartey, Robert; Sainju, Upendra; Stevens, William; and Caesar, Thecan; Sidney, Montana.

3640-31000-006-00D

DESIGNING FORAGES WITH IMPROVED CELL WALL DIGESTIBILITY AND GREATER 

INTAKE POTENTIAL – Jung, Hans Joachim (P); St. Paul, Minnesota.

6402-12130-003-00D

DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND WATER MANAGEMENT 

TECHNOLOGY FOR THE MID SOUTH – Sassenrath, Gretchen (P); Stoneville, Mississippi.

6602-13000-023-00D

LAND USE AND MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES AND 

HYDROLOGY IN COASTAL PLAIN WATERSHEDS – Lowrance, Robert (P);Bosch, David; 

Hubbard, Robert; Potter, Thomas; Stricklan, Timothy; and Truman, Clinton; Tifton, Georgia.

6602-13000-025-00D

CONSERVATION EFFECTS ASSESSMENT IN THE SOUTH GEORGIA LITTLE RIVER –

Bosch, David (P); Hubbard, Robert; Lowrance, Robert; Potter, Thomas; and Strickland, Timothy; 

Tifton, Georgia.
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 1 – LIST OF RESEARCH PROJECTS

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6612-13000-002-00D

PROTECTING WATER QUALITY AND MITIGATING DROUGHT IN THE SOUTHEASTERN 

USA – Fisher, Dwight (P); Franklin, Dorcas; Endale, Dinku; Schomberg, Harry; Sharpe, Ronald; 

Reeves, Donald; and Jenkins, Michael; Watkinsville, Georgia.

Problem Area 3: Drainage Water Management.

3625-13000-009-00D

WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT FROM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN AGRICULTURAL 

WATERSHEDS – Tomer, Mark (P); Hatfield, Jerry; Jaynes, Dan; Kaspar, Thomas; Logsdon, 

Sally; Malone, Robert; and Moorman, Thomas; Ames, Iowa.

6410-13000-010-00D

INTEGRATED WATER, SOIL, AGROCHEMICAL, AND CROP MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR 

THE SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF BIOFUELS IN HUMID ENVIRONMENTS – White Jr, 

Paul (P); Johnson, Richard; Richard, Edward; and Viator, Ryan; Houma, Alabama. (Formerly 

Baton Rouge, Louisiana.)

3604-13000-008-00D

MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT OF DRAINAGE WATERS FOR WATER QUALITY 

PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABILITY OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN THE MIDWEST 

U.S. – Allred, Barry (P);Fausey, Norman; SmileyJr, Peter; and Vantoai, Tara; Columbus, Ohio.

5402-13660-007-00D

OBJECT MODELING AND SCALING OF LANDSCAPE PROCESSES AND CONSERVATION 

EFFECTS IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS – Ascough II, James (P); Ahuja, Lajpat; Dunn, Gale; 

Green, Timothy; Ma, Liwang; and McMaster, Gregory; Fort Collins, Colorado.

5302-13000-010-00D

WATER MANAGEMENT TO IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY AND PROTECT WATER QUALITY –

Ayars, James (P); Banuelos, Gary; Gao, Suduan; and Wang, Dong; Parlier, California.

3640-12130-005-00D

PROTECTING SURFACE AND GROUND WATERS IN EMERGING FARMING SYSTEMS OF 

THE NORTH CENTRAL UNITED STATES – Koskinen, William (P); Baker, John; Feyereisen, 

Fary; Rice, Pamela; Spokas, Kurt; and Venterea, Rodney; St. Paul, Minnesota.

1902-13000-011-00D

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 

AND ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY IN THE NORTHEAST U.S. – Kleinman, Peter (P);Bryant, 

Ray; Buda, Anthony; Church, Clinton; Dell, Curtis; and John Schmidt; University Park, 

Pennsylvania.

Problem Area 4: Integrated Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Technologies.

1265-12130-002-00D

ASSESSING CLIMATE, SOIL, AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL 

ECOSYSTEMS – McCarty, Gregory (P); Jackson, Thomas; Crow, Wade; Reeves III, James; 

Alfieri, Joseph; Daughtry, Craig; and Anderson, Martha; Beltsville, Maryland.

5362-1361—007-00D

RANGELAND ASSESSMENT, MANAGEMENT, AND RESTORATION – Hardegree, Stuart (P); 

Clark, Patrick; and Pierson Jr, Frederick; Boise, Idaho.
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 1 – LIST OF RESEARCH PROJECTS

90

6625-12000-002-00D

SOIL CONSERVATION FOR SUSTAINABLE SUGARCANE PRODUCTION – Glaz, Barry (P); 

Canal Point, Florida.

5402-13660-007-00D

OBJECT MODELING AND SCALING OF LANDSCAPE PROCESSES AND CONSERVATION 

EFFECTS IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS – Ascough II, James (P); Ahuja, Lajpat; Dunn, Gale; 

Green, Timothy; Ma, Liwang; and McMaster, Gregory; Fort Collins, Colorado.

5368-13000-008-00D

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION FOR NORTHWESTERN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE –

Bjorneberg, David (P); Ippolito, James; Lentz, Rodrick; King, Bradley; Dungan, Robert; and 

Lehrsch, Gary; Kimberly, Idaho.

5368-12000-009-00D

DEVELOP AND IMPROVE STRATEGIES FOR MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATED 

AGRICULTURAL CROPS AND SOILS – Lentz, Roderick (P); Ippolito, James; Tarkalson, David; 

Dungan, Robert; Lehrsch, Gary; and Leytem, April; Kimberly, Idaho.

6208-66000-001-00D

AIR QUALITY ISSUES RELATED TO AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS AND PROCESSES –

Holt, Gregory (P); and Pelletier, Mathew; Lubbock, Texas.

5445-11120-001-00D

SOIL RESOURCE EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS TO ENHANCE 

AGROECOSYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY – Liebig, Mark (P); Kronberg, Scott; Phillips, Beckie; 

Nichols, Kristine; and Tanaka, Donald; Mandan, North Dakota.

5430-11120-008-00D

PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM WIND EROSION: PROCESSES, ASSESSMENT, AND 

CONTROL – Tatarko, John (P); Casada, Mark; and Wagner, Larry; Manhattan, Kansas.

5347-13000-002-00D

REUSE OF TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER FOR IRRIGATION – Williams, Clinton (P); 

and McLain, Jean; Maricopa, Arizona.

5347-13000-015-00D

WATER MANAGEMENT IN ARID IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE – Bautista, Eduardo (P); and 

Strelkoff, Theodore; Maricopa, Arizona.

3645-11000-003-00D

SOIL CARBON CYCLING, TRACE GAS EMISSION, TILLAGE, AND CROP RESIDUE 

MANAGEMENT – Johnson, Jane (P); Jaradat, Abdullah; Weyers, Sharon; and Gesch, Russell; 

Morris, Minnesota.

6408-13000-018-00D

INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL LANDSCAPE PROCESSES 

THAT IMPACT THE QUALITY AND MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS –

Bingner, Ronald (P); Dabney, Seth; Kuhnle, Roger; Langendoen, Eddy; Rigby, James; Romkens, 

Mathias; Wells, Robert; Wilson, Glenn; and Wren, Daniel; Oxford, Mississippi.

6408-13000-020-00D

TECHNOLOGIES FOR ASSESSING SEDIMENT MOVEMENT & THE INTEGRITY OF FLOOD 

CONTROL STRUCTURES, STREAMBANKS, & EARTHEN POND-LEVEES & EMBANKMENTS
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 1 – LIST OF RESEARCH PROJECTS

91

– Kuhnle, Roger (P); Dabney, Seth; Langendoen, Eddy; Romkens, Mathias; Wilson, Glenn; and 

Wren, Daniel; Oxford, Mississippi.

5356-13210-002-00D

CROPPING SYSTEMS AND PRECISION LAND MANAGEMENT IN DRYLAND PACIFIC 

NORTHWEST – Long, Daniel (P); Albrecht, Stephan; Gollany, Hero; Huggins, David; Young, 

Francis; Williams, John; and Wuest, Stewart; Pendleton, Oregon.

5348-12000-008-00D

EROSION PREDICTION TECHNOLOGY TO ENHANCE CONSERVATION PLANNING –

McCool, Donald (P); Pullman, Washington.

5348-11000-005-00D

QUANTIFYING AND PREDICTING EMISSIN OF PM10 AND GREENHOUSE GASES FROM 

AGRICULTURAL SOILS – Huggins, David (P); Smith, Jeffrey; Kennedy, Ann; Albrecht, Stephan; 

Gollany, Hero; Long, Daniel; Williams, John; Sharratt, Brenton; and Wuest, Stewart; Pullman, 

Washington.

6217-13000-008-00D

ENGINEERING TOOLS FOR SAFE, EFFICIENT HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES AND CHANNELS 

– Hanson, Gregory (P); and Hunt, Sherry; Stillwater, Oklahoma.

6206-11120-004-00D

ASSESSING MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON CROPS AND SOILS – Potter, Kenneth (P); Haney, 

Richard; Harmel, Robert; and Arnold, Jeffrey; Temple, Texas.

5342-12660-004-00D

SOIL EROSION, SEDIMENT YIELD, CONSERVATION STRUCTURES, AND DSS FOR 

SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT ON SEMIARID RANGELAND WATERSHED – Stone, 

Jeffry (P); Goodrich, David; Hamerlynck, Erik; Heilman, Philip; Moran, Mary; Nearing, Mark; and 

Nichols, Mary; Tucson, Arizona.

6602-12610-004-00D

SOIL RESOURCES IN THE COASTAL PLAIN: PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION, 

MANAGEMENT IMPACTS & ASSESS. TOOLS – Potter, Thomas (P); Strickland, Timothy; and 

Truman, Clinton; Tifton, Georgia.

3602-12000-012-00D

COMMON MODULAR WIND AND WATER EROSION MODELING FOR CONSERVATION 

PLANNING – Flanagan, Dennis (P); West Lafayette, Indiana.

Problem Area 5: Watershed Management, Water Availability, and Ecosystem 

Restoration.

1265-13610-027-00D

USING REMOTE SENSING & MODELING FOR EVALUATING HYDROLOGIC FLUXES, 

STATES, & CONSTITUENT TRANSPORT PROCESSES WITHIN AGRICULTURAL 

LANDSCAPES – Crow, Wade (P); Alfieri, Joseph; Anderson, Martha; Cosh, Michael; Gish, 

Timothy; Jackson, Thomas; Kustas, William; McCarty, Gregory; and Sadeghi, Ali; Beltsville,

Maryland.

5362-13610-008-00D

SNOW AND HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES IN THE INTERMOUNTAIN WEST – Seyfried, Mark 

(P); Flerchinger, Gerald; Marks, Daniel; and Pierson, Frederick; Boise, Idaho.
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 1 – LIST OF RESEARCH PROJECTS

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6619-13000-002-00D

OPTIMIZING FORAGE-BASED COW-CALF OPERATIONS TO IMPROVE SUSTAINABILITY OF 

BEEF CATTLE AGRICULTURE AND WATER QUALITY PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT –

Sigua, Gilbert (P); and Chase, Chadwick; Brooksville, Florida.

6209-13000-013-00D

SUSTAINING RURAL ECONOMIES THROUGH NEW WATER MANAGEMENT 

TECHNOLOGIES – Brauer, David (P); Baumhardt, Roland; Colaizzi, Paul; Evett, Steven; Gowda, 

Prasanna; Howell, Terry; Lascano, Robert; Schwartz, Robert; Tolk, Judy; Van Pelt, Robert; and 

Zobeck, Teddy; Bushland, Texas.

3604-13000-009-00D

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOURCE WATER QUALITY EFFECTS OF MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICES AND LAND USE ON POORLY DRAINED LAND – King, Kevin (P); Fausey, 

Norman; and Smiley Jr, Peter; Columbus, Ohio.

5358-21410-002-00D

INTEGRATING PRODUCTION AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES TO MAINTAIN GRASS 

SEED FARM PROFITS – Griffith, Stephen (P); Whittaker, Gerald; Pfender, William; Banowetz, 

Gary; and Mueller Warrant, George; Corvallis, Oregon.

3605-13000-004-00D

EFFECTIVENESS OF WATERSHED LAND-MANAGEMENT PRACTICES TO IMPROVE 

WATER QUALITY – Bonta, James (P); Owens, Lloyd; and Shipitalo, Martin; Coshocton, Ohio.

6218-11130-004-00D

INTEGRATION OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND FORECASTS INTO RISK-BASED 

MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION AND RESOURCE 

CONSERVATION – Garbrecht, Jurgen (P); Schneider, Jeanne; Steiner, Jean; and Zhang, 

Xunchang; El Reno, Oklahoma.

6657-13000-009-00D

MANAGING WATER AVAILABILITY AND QUALITY TO MAINTAIN OR INCREASE 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, CONSERVE NATURAL RESOURCES, AND ENHANCE 

ENVIRONMENT – Stone, Kenneth (P); Bauer, Philip; Hunt, Patrick; Ro, Kyoung; Ducy, Thomas; 

and Busscher, Warren; Florence, South Carolina.

6618-13000-003-00D

INTEGRATED HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS FOR WATER QUALITY 

PROTECTION AND WATER CONSERVATION – Albano, Joseph (P); and Evens, Terence; Fort 

Pierce, Florida.

6208-13000-006-00D

MANAGING LIMITED IRRIGATION AND RAINFALL FOR CROP PRODUCTION IN SEMI-ARID 

ENVIRONMENTS – Baker, Jeffrey (P); Acosta-Martinez, Veronica; Gitz, Dennis; Lascano, 

Robert; Mauget, Steven; Van Pelt, Robert; and Zobeck, Teddy; Lubbock, Texas.

5347-13000-002-00D

REUSE OF TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER FOR IRRIGATION – Williams, Clinton (P); 

and McLain, Jean; Maricopa, Arizona.

5347-13000-015-00D

WATER MANAGEMENT IN ARID IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE – Bautista, Eduardo (P); and 

Strelkoff, Theodore; Maricopa, Arizona.
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5347-13660-006-00D

REMOTE SENSING FOR CROP AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

– Hunsaker, Douglas (P); French, Andrew; and Thorp, Kelly; Maricopa, Arizona.

6631-13000-003-00D

DEVELOPING TOOLS TO ENHANCE WATER QUALITY FROM AGRICULTURAL 

ENTERPRISES IN SOUTH FLORIDA – Savibi, M (P); Miami, Florida.

6631-13000-04-00D

ENHANCING WATER QUALITY FROM HORTICULTURAL AND FLORICULTURAL 

PRODUCTION IN SOUTH FLORIDA – Reed, Stewart (P); Miami, Florida.

6408-13660-006-00D

UNDERSTANDING AND PREDICTING THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE ON THE 

ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRITY OF MANAGED WATERSHEDS – Locke, Martin (P); Bingner, 

Ronald; Cullum, Robert; Knight, Scott; Lizotte, Richard; Moore, Matthew; Rhoton, Fred; 

Romkens, Mathias; and Shields, Douglas; Oxford, Mississippi.

6408-13000-018-00D

INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL LANDSCAPE PROCESSES 

THAT IMPACT THE QUALITY AND MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS –

Bingner, Ronald (P); Dabney, Seth; Kuhnle, Roger; Langendoen, Eddy; Rigby, James; Romkens, 

Mathias; Wells, Robert; Wilson, Glenn; and Wren, Daniel; Oxford, Mississippi.

6408-13000-020-00D

TECHNOLOGIES FOR ASSESSING SEDIMENT MOVEMENT & THE INTEGRITY OF FLOOD 

CONTROL STRUCTURES, STREAMBANKS, & EARTHEN POND-LEVEES & EMBANKMENTS

– Kuhnle, Roger (P); Dabney, Seth; Langendoen, Eddy; Romkens, Mathias; Wilson, Glenn; and 

Wren, Daniel; Oxford, Mississippi.

3640-12130-005-00D

PROTECTING SURFACE AND GROUND WATERS IN EMERGING FARMING SYSTEMS OF 

THE NORTH CENTRAL UNITED STATES – Koskinen, William (P); Baker, John; Feyereisen, 

Fary; Rice, Pamela; Spokas, Kurt; and Venterea, Rodney; St. Paul, Minnesota.

6206-13610-006-00D

DEVELOPMENT OF MODELS AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES FOR WATER QUALITY 

MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCE ASSESSMENTS – Arnold, Jeffrey (P); Harmel, Daren; Kiniry, 

James; Rossi, Colleen; and White, Michael; Temple, Texas.

6602-13000-023-00D

LAND USE AND MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES AND 

HYDROLOGY IN COASTAL PLAIN WATERSHEDS – Lowrance, Robert (P);Bosch, David; 

Hubbard, Robert; Potter, Thomas; Strickland, Timothy; and Truman, Clinton; Tifton, Georgia.

6602-13000-025-00D

CONSERVATION EFFECTS ASSESSMENT IN THE SOUTH GEORGIA LITTLE RIVER –

Bosch, David (P); Hubbard, Robert; Lowrance, Robert; Potter, Thomas; and Strickland, Timothy; 

Tifton, Georgia.

5342-13610-010-00D

HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES, SCALE, CLIMATE VARIABILITY, AND WATER RESOURCES 

FOR SEMIARID WATERSHED MANAGEMENT – Goodrich, David (P); Hamerlynck, Erik; 

Heilman, Philip; Moran, Mary; Nearing, Mark; Scott, Russell; and Stone, Jeffry; Tucson, Arizona.

6612-13000-002-00D
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PROTECTING WATER QUALITY AND MITIGATING DROUGHT IN THE SOUTHEASTERN 

USA – Fisher, Dwight (P); Franklin, Dorcas; Endale, Dinku; Schomberg, Harry; Sharpe, Ronald; 

Reeves, Donald; and Jenkins, Michael; Watkinsville, Georgia.

6204-11660-007-00D

USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS FOR DETECTING AND MAPPING INVASIVE WEEDS IN 

RIPARIAN AND WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS – Yang, Chenghai (P); and Fletcher, Reginald; 

Weslaco, Texas.

3602-13000-008-00D

CONSERVATION EFFECTS ASSESSMENT FOR THE ST. JOSEPH RIVER WATERSHED –

Smith, Douglas (P); Heathman, Gary; Huang, Chi-hua; Norton, Lloyd; and Pappas, Elizabeth; 

West Lafayette, Indiana.

Problem Area 6: Water Quality Protections Systems.

3625-13000-009-00D

WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT FROM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN AGRICULTURAL 

WATERSHEDS – Tomer, Mark (P); Hatfield, Jerry; Jaynes, Dan; Kaspar, Thomas; Logsdon, 

Sally; Malone, Robert; and Moorman, Thomas; Ames, Iowa.

1265-13610-027-00D

USING REMOTE SENSING & MODELING FOR EVALUATING HYDROLOGIC FLUXES, 

STATES, & CONSTITUENT TRANSPORT PROCESSES WITHIN AGRICULTURAL 

LANDSCAPES – Crow, Wade (P); Alfieri, Joseph; Anderson, Martha; Cosh, Michael; Gish, 

Timothy; Jackson, Thomas; Kustas, William; McCarty, Gregory; and Sadeghi, Ali; Beltsville, 

Maryland.

1265-63000-001-00D

PREVALENCE AND DIVERSITY OF MANURE-ASSOCIATED PATHOGENS IN AIR AND 

WATER – Shelton, Daniel (P); Beltsville, Maryland.

6209-13000-013-00D

SUSTAINING RURAL ECONOMIES THROUGH NEW WATER MANAGEMENT 

TECHNOLOGIES – Brauer, David (P); Baumhardt, Roland; Colaizzi, Paul; Evett, Steven; Gowda, 

Prasanna; Howell, Terry; Lascano, Robert; Schwartz, Robert; Tolk, Judy; Van Pelt, Robert; and 

Zobeck, Teddy; Bushland, Texas.

3622-12130-004-00D

DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVE PRACTICES FOR IMPROVED WATERSHED 

MANAGEMENT – Lerch, Robert (P); Baffaut, Claire; Kitchen, Newell; Kremer, Robert; Sadler, 

Edward; and Vories, Earl; Columbia, Missouri.

3604-13000-008-00D

MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT OF DRAINAGE WATERS FOR WATER QUALITY 

PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABILITY OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN THE MIDWEST 

U.S. – Allred, Barry (P);Fausey, Norman; SmileyJr, Peter; and Vantoai, Tara; Columbus, Ohio.

3605-13000-004-00D

EFFECTIVENESS OF WATERSHED LAND-MANAGEMENT PRACTICES TO IMPROVE 

WATER QUALITY – Bonta, James (P); Owens, Lloyd; and Shipitalo, Martin; Coshocton, Ohio.

5402-13660-007-00D
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95

OBJECT MODELING AND SCALING OF LANDSCAPE PROCESSES AND CONSERVATION 

EFFECTS IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS – Ascough II, James (P); Ahuja, Lajpat; Dunn, Gale; 

Green, Timothy; Ma, Liwang; and McMaster, Gregory; Fort Collins, Colorado.

5402-12130-007-00D

IMPROVING SOIL AND NITROGEN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR SUSTAINING LAND AND 

WATER QUALITY – Halvorson, Ardell (P); Delgado, Jorge; Follett, Ronald; Hunter, William; and 

Manter, Daniel; Fort Collins, Colorado.

5440-12130-010-00D

CROP AND SOIL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR WATER QUALITY PROTECTION AND 

AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY – Wienhold, Brian (P); Schmer, Marty; Jin, Virginia; and 

Varvel, Gary; Lincoln, Nebraska.

6408-13660-006-00D

UNDERSTANDING AND PREDICTING THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE ON THE 

ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRITY OF MANAGED WATERSHEDS – Locke, Martin (P); Bingner, 

Ronald; Cullum, Robert; Knight, Scott; Lizotte, Richard; Moore, Matthew; Rhoton, Fred; 

Romkens, Mathias; and Shields, Douglas; Oxford, Mississippi.

5310-13210-009-00D

SALINITY AND TRACE ELEMENT MANAGEMENT FOR CROP PRODUCTION IN IRRIGATED 

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS – Grieve, Catherine (P); Riverside, California.

5310-61000-013-00D

SALINITY AND TRACE ELEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER REUSE IN IRRIGATED 

SYSTEMS: PROCESSES, SAMPLING PROTOCOLS, AND SITE-SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT –

Suarez, Donald (P); Corwin, Dennis; and Goldberg, Sabine; Riverside, California.

5436-13210-005-00D

ECOLOGICALLY-SOUND PEST, WATER AND SOIL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR 

NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS CROPPING SYSTEMS – Evans, Robert (P); Allen, Brett; Jabro, 

Jalal; Lartey, Robert; Sainju, Upendra; Stevens, William; and Caesar, Thecan; Sidney, Montana.

3640-12000-007-00D

FARMING PRACTICES FOR THE NORTHERN CORN BELT TO PROTECT SOIL 

RESOURCES, SUPPORT BIOFUEL PRODUCTION, AND REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING 

POTENTIAL – Venterea, Rodney (P); Feyereisen, Gary; Spokas, Kurt; and Baker, John; St. Paul, 

Minnesota.

3640-12130-005-00D

PROTECTING SURFACE AND GROUND WATERS IN EMERGING FARMING SYSTEMS OF 

THE NORTH CENTRAL UNITED STATES – Koskinen, William (P); Baker, John; Feyereisen, 

Fary; Rice, Pamela; Spokas, Kurt; and Venterea, Rodney; St. Paul, Minnesota.

6206-13610-006-00D

DEVELOPMENT OF MODELS AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES FOR WATER QUALITY 

MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCE ASSESSMENTS – Arnold, Jeffrey (P); Harmel, Daren; Kiniry, 

James; Rossi, Colleen; and White, Michael; Temple, Texas.

6602-13000-023-00D

LAND USE AND MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES AND 

HYDROLOGY IN COASTAL PLAIN WATERSHEDS – Lowrance, Robert (P);Bosch, David;

Hubbard, Robert; Potter, Thomas; Stricklan, Timothy; and Truman, Clinton; Tifton, Georgia.

6602-13000-025-00D
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CONSERVATION EFFECTS ASSESSMENT IN THE SOUTH GEORGIA LITTLE RIVER –

Bosch, David (P); Hubbard, Robert; Lowrance, Robert; Potter, Thomas; and Strickland, Timothy; 

Tifton, Georgia.

1902-13000-011-00D

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 

AND ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY IN THE NORTHEAST U.S. – Kleinman, Peter (P);Bryant, 

Ray; Buda, Anthony; Church, Clinton; Dell, Curtis; and John Schmidt; University Park, 

Pennsylvania.

6612-13000-002-00D

PROTECTING WATER QUALITY AND MITIGATING DROUGHT IN THE SOUTHEASTERN 

USA – Fisher, Dwight (P); Franklin, Dorcas; Endale, Dinku; Schomberg, Harry; Sharpe, Ronald; 

Reeves, Donald; and Jenkins, Michael; Watkinsville, Georgia.

3602-13000-008-00D

CONSERVATION EFFECTS ASSESSMENT FOR THE ST. JOSEPH RIVER WATERSHED –

Smith, Douglas (P); Heathman, Gary; Huang, Chi-hua; Norton, Lloyd; and Pappas, Elizabeth; 

West Lafayette, Indiana.
97

APPENDIX 2

National Program 211 – Water Availability & Watershed Management

ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007 – 2011

Publications 

Abdu, H., Robinson, D.A., Seyfried, M.S., Jones, S. 2008. Geophysical Imaging of Watershed Subsurface 

Patterns and Prediction of Soil Texture and Water Holding Capacity. Water Resources Research, 44, 

Wood 18, doi:10.1029/2008WR007043.

Abraham, D., Kuhnle, R.A., Odgaard, A.J. 2011. Validation of bed-load transport measurements with 

time-sequenced bathymetric data. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 137(7):723-728.

Abrahamson Beese, D.A., Radcliffe, D.E., Steiner, J.L., Cabrera, M.L., Hanson, J.D., Rojas, K.W., 

Schomberg, H.H., Fisher, D.S., Schwartz, L., Hoogenboom, G. 2005. Calibration of the root zone water 

quality model for simulating drainage and leached nitrate in the Georgia Piedmont. Agronomy Journal. 

97:1584-1602.

Accinelli, C., Koskinen, W.C., Becker, J.M., Sadowsky, M.J. 2008. Mineralization of the Bacillus 

thuringiensis Cry1Ac endotoxin in soil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 56:1025-1028.

Acosta Martinez, V., Dowd, S.E., Bell, C., Lascano, R.J., Booker, J.D., Zobeck, T.M., Upchurch, D.R. 

2010. Microbial community composition as affected by dryland cropping systems and tillage in a semiarid 

sandy soil. Diversity. 2(6):910-931.

Agam, N., Kustas, W.P., Anderson, M.C., Li, F., Colaizzi, P.D. 2008. Utility of thermal image sharpening 

for monitoring field-scale evapotranspiration over rainfed and irrigated agricultural regions. Geophysical 

Research Letters. 35, L02402, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032195.

Agam, N., Kustas, W.P., Anderson, M.C., Li, F., Neale, C. 2007. A vegetation index based technique for 

spatial sharpening of thermal imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment. 107:545-558.

Agam, N., Kustas, W.P., Anderson, M.C., Norman, J.M., Colaizzi, P.D., Howell, T.A., Prueger, J.H., 

Meyers, T.P., Wilson, T.B. 2010. Application of the Priestley-Taylor Approach in a Two-Source Surface 

Energy Balance Model. Journal of Hydrometeorology. 11:185-198.

Agrawal, S.G., King, K.W., Fischer, E.N., Woner, D.N. 2011. Phosphate removal by and permeability of 

industrial byproducts and minerals: Granulated blast furnace slag, cement kiln dust, coconut-shell 

activated carbon, silica sand, and zeolite. Journal Of Water Air And Soil Pollution. DOI 10.1007/s11270-

010-0686-4.

Agrawal, S.G., King, K.W., Moore, J.F., Levison, P.W., McDonald, J. 2011. Use of industrial byproducts to 

filter nutrients and pesticides in a golf green's drainage water. Journal of Environmental Quality. 40:1273-

1280.

Ahiablame, L.M., Chaubey, I., Smith, D.R. 2010. Nutrient content at the sediment-water interface of tilefed agricultural drainage ditches. Water: A Multidiscplinary Research Journal. 2:411-428. 

DOI:10.2290/w2030411.
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 2 – PUBLICATIONS

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Ahmad, H.R., Ghafoor, A., Corwin, D.L., Aziz, M.A., Saifullah, Sabir, M. 2011. Organic and inorganic 

amendments affect soil concentration and accumulation of cadmium and lead in wheat in calcareous 

alkaline soils. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 42:111-122.

Ahuja, L.R., Kozak, J.A., Andales, A.A., Ma, L. 2006. Scaling Parameters of the Lewis-Kostiakov Water 

Infiltration Equation Across Soil Textural Classes and Extension to Rain Infiltration. Transactions of the 

ASABE. Vol.50(5): 1525-1541.2007.

Ahuja, L.R., Ma, L., Green, T.R. 2010. Estimating effective soil properties of heterogeneous areas for 

modeling infiltration and redistribution. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 74(5):1469-1482.

Akbar, W., Showler, A., Beuzelin, J.M., Reagan, T.E., Gravois, K.A. 2011. Evaluation of aphid resistance 

among sugarcane cultivars in Louisiana. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 104:699-704.

Akbar, W., Showler, A., White, W.H., Reagan, T.E. 2010. Categorizing sugarcane cultivar resistance to 

the sugarcane aphid and yellow sugarcane aphid (Hemiptera:Aphididae). Journal of Economic 

Entomology. 103(4):1431-1437.

Allen, P.M., Arnold, J.G., Skipwith, W. 2008. Prediction of channel degradation rates in urbanizing 

watersheds. Hydrological Sciences Journal. 53(5):1013-1029.

Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Howell, T.A., Jensen, M.E. 2011. Evapotranspiration information reporting: I. 

Factors governing measurement accuracy. Agricultural Water Management. 98(6):899-920.

Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Howell, T.A., Jensen, M.E. 2011. Evapotranspiration information reporting: II. 

Recommended documentation. Agricultural Water Management. 98(6):921-929.

Allen, V., Brown, C.P., Segarra, E., Green, C.J., Wheeler, T.A., Acosta Martinez, V., Zobeck, T.M. 2008. 

In search of sustainable agricultural systems for the Llano Estacado of the U.S. Southern High Plains. 

Agriculture, Ecosystems, & Environment. 124:3-12.

Allred, B.J. 2007. Effects of concentration and ionic strength on nitrate anion exclusion under unsaturated 

flow conditions. Soil Science. 172(11):842-860.

Allred, B.J. 2008. Cation Effects on Nitrate Mobility in an Unsaturated Soil. Transactions of the ASABE. 

51(6):1997-2012.

Allred, B.J. 2010. Laboratory Batch Test Evaluation of Five Filter Materials for Removal of Nutrients and 

Pesticides From Drainage Waters. Transactions of the ASABE. 53(1):39-54.

Allred, B.J. 2011. Location and assessment of drainage pipes beneath farm fields and golf course greens 

using ground penetrating radar: A research summary. Fast Times: News for the Near Surface 

Geophysical Sciences. 15(4):49-55.

Allred, B.J., Bigham, J.M., Brown, G.O. 2007. The impact of clay mineralogy on nitrate mobility under 

unsaturated flow conditions. Vadose Zone Journal. 6(2):221-232.

Allred, B.J., Brown, G.O., Bigham, J.M. 2007. Nitrate mobility under unsaturated flow conditions in four 

initially dry soils. Soil Science. 172(1):27-41.

Allred, B.J., Butnor, J., Corwin, D.L., Eigenberg, R.A., Farahani, H., Johnsen, K., Lambot, S., McInnis, D., 

Pettinelli, E., Samuelson, L., Woodbury, B.L. 2011. Agricultural Geophysics. In: Turk, A.S., Hocaoglu, 

A.K., Vertiy. A.A. (eds.) Subsurface Sensing. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Australia. 618-643.
ARS NP211 ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007-2011: APPENDIX 2 – PUBLICATIONS

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Allred, B.J., Clevenger, B., Saraswat, D. 2009. Application of GPS and Near-Surface Geophysical 

Methods to Evaluate Agricultural Test Plot Differences. Fast Times: News for the Near Surface 

Geophysical Sciences. 14(3):15-26.

Allred, B.J., Daniels, J., Ehsani, R., Collins, M.E., Grejner-Brezinska, D.A., Merry, C.J. 2008. Handbook of 

Agricultural Geophysics. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press LLC. 410 p.

Allred, B.J., Daniels, J.J. 2008. Agricultural drainage pipe detection using ground-penetrating radar. In: 

Allred, B.J., Daniels, J.J., Ehsani, M.R. Handbook of Agricultural Geophysics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC 

Press. p. 363-373.

Allred, B.J., Ehsani, R.M., Daniels, J.J. 2008. General considerations for geophysical methods applied to 

agriculture. In: Allred, B.J., Daniels, J.J., Ehsani, M.R. Handbook of Agricultural Geophysics. Boca Raton, 

FL: CRC Press. p. 3-13.

Allred, B.J., Freeland, R.S. 2011. Application of geophysical methods to agriculture: An overview. Fast 

Times: News for the Near Surface Geophysical Sciences. 15(4):13-25.

Allred, B.J., Groom, D., Ehsani, R.M., Daniels, J.J. 2008. Resistivity methods. In: Allred, B.J., Daniels, 

J.J., Ehsani, M.R. Handbook of Agricultural Geophysics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 85-107.

Allred, B.J., Mccoy, E., Redman, D. 2008. Ground-Penetrating Radar Investigation of a Golf Course 

Green. In: Allred, B.J., Daniels, J.J., Ehsani, M.R., editors. Handbook of Agricultural Geophysics. Boca 

Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 353-361.

Allred, B.J., Redman, D. 2010. Assessment of Agricultural Drainage Pipe Conditions Using Ground 

Penetrating Radar. Journal of Environmental & Engineering Geophysics. 15(3):119-134.

Allred, B.J., Rogers, M. 2008. Magnetometry, self-potential, and seismic - additional geophysical methods 

having potentially significant future utilization in agriculture. In: Allred, B.J., Daniels, J.J., Ehsani, M.R., 

editors. Handbook of Agricultural Geophysics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 147-161.

Almas, L., Colette, W., Warminski, P. 2007. Reducing irrigation water demand with cotton production in 

West Texas. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics. 39(2):422.

Al-Qurashi, A., Mcintyre, N., Wheater, H., Unkrich, C.L. 2008. Application of the Kineros2 rainfall-runoff 

model to an arid catchment in Oman. Journal of Hydrology. 355:91-105.

Anapalli, S.S., Ahuja, L.R., Nielsen, D.C., Trout, T.J., Ma, L. 2008. Use of Crop Simulation Models to 

Evaluate Limited Irrigation Management Options for Corn in Semi-Arid Environment. Water Resources 

Research. Water Resources Research, 44,W00E02, doi10.1029/2007WR006181.

Anderson, M.C., Kustas, W.P. 2008. Thermal remote sensing of drought and evapotranspiration. EOS 

Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 89(26):233-234.

Anderson, M.C., Kustas, W.P., Norman, J., Hain, C., Mecikalski, J., Schultz, L., Gonzalez-Dugo, M.P., 

Cammalleri, C., D'Urso, G., Pimstein, A., Gao, F. 2011. Mapping daily evapotranspiration at field to global 

scales using geostationary and polar orbiting satellite imagery. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 

15:223-239.
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Anderson, M.C., Norman, J.M., Kustas, W.P., Houborg, R., Starks, P.J., Agam, N. 2008. A thermal-based 

remote sensing technique for routine mapping of land-surface carbon, water and energy fluxes from field 

to regional scales. Remote Sensing Environment. 112:4227-4241.

Anderson, M.C., Norman, J.M., Mecikalski, J.R., Otkin, J.A., Kustas, W.P. 2007. A climatological study of 

evapotranspiration and moisture stress across the continental U.S. based on thermal remote sensing. I. 

Model formulation. Journal of Geophysical Research. 112, D10117. 

http://dx.doi.org/10.10/29/2006JD007506.

Anhalt, J.C., Moorman, T.B., Koskinen, W.C. 2008. Degradation and Sorption of Imidacloprid in Dissimilar 

Surface and Subsurface Soils. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. 43(3):207-213.

Arbat, G.P., Lamm, F.R., Kheira, A.A. 2010. Subsurface drip irrigatin emitter spacing effects on soil water 

redistribution, corn yield, and water productivity. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 26(3):391-399.

Armstrong, S.D., Smith, D.R., Joern, B.C., Owens, P.R., Leytem, A.B., Huang, C., Adeola, L. 2010. 

Transport and Fate of Phosphorus During and After Manure Spill Simulations. Journal of Environmental 

Quality. 39:345-352.

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Goldberg, S.R., Suarez, D.L. 2011. Distinguishing boron desorption from mineral dissolution in arid-zone 

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Gowda, P., Dalzell, B.J., Mulla, D.J. 2007. Model based nitrate TMDLs for two agricultural watersheds of 

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Gowda, P., Mulla, D.J. 2006. Modeling alternative agricultural management practices for High Island 

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Gowda, P., Mulla, D.J., Jaynes, D.B. 2008. Simulated long-term nitrogen losses for a midwestern 

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Gowda, P., Senay, G.B., Howell, T.A., Marek, T.H. 2009. Lysimetric evaluation of simplified surface 

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Grieve, C.M., Poss, J.A., Grattan, S.R., Suarez, D.L., Smith, T.E. 2010. The Combined Effects of Salinity 

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Hamerlynck, E.P., Mcauliffe, J.R. 2008. Soil-dependent canopy-die back and plant mortality in two 

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Hamerlynck, E.P., Mcauliffe, J.R. 2010. Growth and foliar d15N of a Mojave desert shrub in relation to soil 

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Hamerlynck, E.P., Scott, R.L., Moran, M.S., Huxman, T.E. 2010. Inter - and under- canopy soil water, 

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Hanson, G.J., Temple, D.M. 2009. Final report of coordination and cooperation with the European Union 

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Harmel, R.D., Haney, R.L., Smith, D.R. 2011. Effects of annual turkey litter application on surface soil 

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Harmel, R.D., Qian, S., Reckhow, K., Casebolt, P. 2008. The MANAGE database: Nutrient load and site 

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Harmel, R.D., Slade, R.M., Haney, R.L. 2010. Impact of sampling techniques on measured stormwater 

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Harmel, R.D., Smith, D.R., King, K.W., Slade, R.M. 2009. Estimating Storm Discharge and Water Quality 

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Heathman, G.C., Flanagan, D.C., Larose, M., Zuercher, B.W. 2008. Application of the Soil and Water 

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Henderson, K.L., Moorman, T.B., Coats, J.R. 2009. Fate and Bioavailability of Sulfamethazine in 

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Henry, A., Kleinman, P.J., Lynch, J.P. 2008. Phosphorus runoff from a phosphorus deficient soil under 

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Holan, S., Wang, S., Arab, A., Sadler, E.J., Stone, K.C. 2008. Semiparametric Geographically Weighted 

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Holifield Collins, C.D., Emmerich, W.E., Moran, M.S., Hernandez, M., Scott, R.L., Bryant, R., King, D., 

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Holt, G.A., Buser, M.D., Harmel, R.D., Potter, K.N., Pelletier, M.G., Duke, S.E. 2007. Weed suppression 

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Houberg, R., Henrik, S., Emmerich, W.E., Moran, M.S. 2007. Inferences of all-sky solar irradiance using 

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Houborg, R.M., Anderson, M.C., Norman, J.M., Wilson, T., Meyers, T. 2009. Intercomparison of a 

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Howard, W., Hickey, C.J. 2009. Investigation of the near subsurface using acoustic to seismic coupling. 

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Huang, J., Chen, D., Cosh, M.H. 2009. Sub-pixel reflectance unmixing in estimating vegetation water 

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Hudgeons, J.L., Knutson, A.E., Heinz, K.M., Deloach Jr, C.J., Dudley, T.L., Pattison, R.R., Kiniry, J.R.

2007. Defoliation by introduced Diorhabda elongata leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) reduces 

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Hunsaker, D.J., El-Shikha, D.M., Clarke, T.R., French, A.N., Thorp, K.R. 2009. Using ESAP Software for 

Predicing the Spatial Distributions of NDVI and Transpiration of Cotton. Agricultural Water Management. 

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Hunsaker, D.J., Fitzgerald, G.J., French, A.N., Clarke, T.R., Ottman, M.J., Pinter, Jr., P.J. 2007. 2007. 

Wheat Irrigation Management Using Multispectral Crop Coefficients. II. Effects of Irrigation Scheduling on 

Soil Water Depletion, Grain Yield, and Water Use Efficiency. Transactions of the ASABE. 50(6):2035-

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Hunsaker, D.J., Fitzgerald, G.J., French, A.N., Clarke, T.R., Ottman, M.J., Pinter Jr, P.J. 2007. Wheat 

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Hunsaker, D.J., French, A.N., Clarke, T.R., El-Shikha, D.M. 2010. Water use, crop coefficients, and 

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Hunt, E.R., Li, L., M, T.Y., Jackson, T.J. 2011. Comparison of vegetation water contents derived from 

shortwave-infrared and passive-microwave sensors over central Iowa. Remote Sensing of Environment. 

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Hunt, P.G., Matheny, T.A., Ro, K.S., Stone, K.C., Vanotti, M.B. 2008. Denitrification of agricultural 

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Hunt, S., Kadavy, K.C. 2010. Energy dissipation on flat-sloped stepped spillways: Part 1. Upstream of the 

inception point. Transactions of the ASABE. 53(1):103-109.

Hunt, S., Kadavy, K.C. 2010. Energy dissipation on flat-sloped stepped spillways: Part 2. Downstream of 

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Hunt, S., Kadavy, K.C. 2011. Inception point relationship for flat-sloped stepped spillways. Journal of 

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Hunt, S., Kadavy, K.C., Abt, S.R., Temple, D.M. 2008. Impact of converging chute walls for Roller 

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Hunt, S., Reep, D., Kadavy, K.C. 2008. RCC stepped spillways for renwick dam - a partnership in 

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Hunter, W.J., Shaner, D.L. 2009. Soybean Oil Based Biobarriers Remove Atrazine from Contaminated 

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Hunter, W.J., Shaner, D.L. 2011. Studies on removing sulfachloropyridazine from groundwater with 

microbial bioreactors. Current Microbiology. 62(2):1560-1564.

Ibekwe, A.M., Grieve, C.M., Papiernik, S.K., Yang, C.H. 2009. Persistence of Escherichia coli 0157:H7 on 

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Ibekwe, A.M., Papiernik, S.K., Grieve, C.M., Yang, C. 2010. Influence of fumigants on soil microbial 

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Ibekwe, A.M., Poss, J.A., Grattan, S.R., Grieve, C.M., Suarez, D.L. 2010. Bacterial diversity in cucumber 

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Ibragimov, N., Evett, S.R., Esenbekov, Y., Khasanova, F., Karabaev, I., Mirzaev, L., Lamers, J. 2011. 

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Illangasekare, T., Tyler, S.W., Clement, T.P., Villholth, K.G., Perera, A.P., Obeysekera, J., Gunatilaka, A., 

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Inamdar, A.K., French, A.N. 2008. Land surface temperature retrieval at high spatial and temporal 

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Inamdar, A.K., French, A.N. 2009. Disaggregation of goes land surface temperatures using surface 

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Interrante, S.M., Sollenberger, L.E., Blount, A.R., White, U.R., Liu, K., Coleman, S.W. 2009. Defoliation 

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Ippolito, J.A., Barbarick, K.A., Paschke, M.W., Brobst, R.B. 2010. Infrequent Composted Biosolids 

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Jacinthe, P.A., Lal, R., Owens, L.B. 2009. Application of stable isotope analysis to quantify the retention 

of eroded carbon in grass filters at the North Appalachian experimental watersheds. Geoderma. 148(3-

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Makus, D.J., Zibilske, L.M. 2008. Spinach and mustard greens response to soil type, sulfur addition and 

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Malik, N. and Bradford, J.M. 2008. Recovery and stability of oleuropein and other phenolic compounds 

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191

APPENDIX 3

National Program 211 – Water Availability & Watershed Management

ACCOMPLISHMENT REPORT 2007 – 2011

Action Plan 2006-2010

[By Problem Area]

Problem Area 1 Effectiveness of Conservation Practices

Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Product 1 Leaders

Columbia, MO: J. Sadler)

El Reno, OK: J. Steiner 

Product Locations

Ames, IA, Columbia, MO, Oxford, MS, 

Temple, TX, Tifton, GA, University 

Park, PA, and W. Lafayette, IN

Cooperators

NRCS, ARS Office of Information 

Officer (OICO), and USGS

 

1. A data system to organize, 

document, manipulate and compile 

water, soil, management, and socioeconomic data for assessment of 

conservation practices

Short term*

Comprehensive and 

consistent data sets will 

be developed across the 

14 watersheds. 

The data sets will support 

testing and validation for 

models being developed 

under product 3 and 5 

below.

Long term**

The data system will be 

used for cost-efficient 

assessments of 

environmental effects of 

conservation practices on 

agricultural lands.
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Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Product 2 Leaders

Ames, IA: M. Tomer 

Oxford, MS: Martin Locke 

Product Locations

Ames, IA (202), Beltsville, MD,

Columbia, MO, Columbus, OH, El 

Reno, OK, Kimberly, ID, Lubbock, TX, 

Oxford, MS, Temple, TX, and W. 

Lafayette, IN

 Cooperators

NRCS, CSREES, FSA,

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 

USGS, and Soil and Water 

Conservation Districts 

2. Water quality, water quantity, soil 

quality, and ecosystem effects of 

conservation practices at the field, 

farm, and watershed scales

Short term

Environmental effects of 

conservation practices will 

be quantified for the 14 

watersheds.

Long term

More effective 

conservation practices will 

be developed for use in 

future USDA conservation 

programs.

Product 3 Leaders

Oxford, MS: R. Bingner 

Temple, TX: J. Arnold 

Tifton, GA: T. Strickland 

Product Locations

Ames, IA, Columbia, MO, El Reno, OK, 

Oxford, MS, Temple, TX, Tifton, GA, 

University Park, PA, and W. Lafayette

Cooperators

NRCS, EPA, USGS, and Texas Agric. 

Exp. Station

3. Validate models, quantify 

uncertainties in model output, and 

conduct analyses with models at field, 

farm, and watershed scales

Short term

Models will be modified, 

tested and validated for 

application to the 

assessment of the effects 

of conservation practices.

Long term

Validated models will 

become the primary tools 

used to conduct a 

national assessment of 

the environmental 

benefits of USDA 

conservation programs. 
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Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

The assessments will have 

a major impact on the 

development of future 

USDA conservation 

programs.

Product 4 Leaders

Corvallis, OR: G. Whittaker

West Lafayette, IN: C. Huang

Product Locations

Columbus, OH, Temple, TX, and

W. Lafayette, IN

Cooperators

NRCS, ERS, The Ohio State University, 

Pennsylvania State University, and 

Purdue University

4. Policy-planning tools to aid selection 

and placement of conservation 

practices to optimize profits, 

environmental quality, and 

conservation program efficiency

Short term

The research will provide 

socio-economic data from 

selected watersheds 

relative to the adoption 

and economic value of 

USDA conservation 

practices. 

Tools will be provided 

that enable optimal 

choices of the selection 

and placement of 

conservation practices.

Long term

The results of this 

research will enable socioeconomic issues to be 

included in the national 

assessment of the effects 

of USDA conservation 

programs.

Product 5 Leaders

Fort Collins, CO: L. Ahuja

Oxford, MS: M. Romkens 

Product Locations 

5. Regional watershed models that can 

be used to quantify environmental 

outcomes and conservation practices in 

major agricultural regions

Product Users****

Short term

Science-based watershed 

models will be provided 

that are capable of 

addressing processes that 

are of importance to 

specific regions. 
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Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Ames, IA, Temple, TX, Fort Collins, CO, 

W. Lafayette, IN, Oxford, MS, and 

Tifton, GA 

 

Cooperators 

NRCS, EPA, USGS, and 

Colorado State University

Producers, COE, EPA, FSA, NRCS, USGS, 

Cooperative Extension Agents and 

Specialists, State and local agencies, 

land improvement contractors, 

community planners, and consultants

Long term

This work will result in a 

new generation of 

modular based models 

that integrate scientific 

components of existing 

models and future models 

into an efficient, flexible 

system for use by the 

NRCS and other agencies 

in future national 

assessments or other 

applications.

* The short-term outcomes will be accomplished in the next five years.

** The long-term outcomes will not be fully accomplished in five years given current personnel and physical 

resources, but significant progress will be made.

*** These scientists are conducting research primarily in the ARS Soil Resource Management National Program 

(202) and ARS Global Change National Program (204).

**** Product users are for the entire problem area.

Problem Area 2 Irrigation Water Management 

2.1: Irrigation Scheduling for Water Use Efficiency

Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Product 1 Leader

Bushland, TX: T. Howell

Product Locations

1. Quantification of 

evapotranspiration (ET) and crop 

coefficients under all constraints, 

including partitioning of ET 

components, regional variations, 

effects of tillage/irrigation methods, 

incomplete canopies, and deficit 

irrigation 

Short term*

Improved and more transportable 

crop coefficients and methods for 

adjusting those coefficients as a 

function of growing degree days, 

incomplete crop canopy and irrigation 
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Bushland, TX, Fort Collins, CO, 

Lubbock, TX, Maricopa, AZ, 

Parlier, CA, and Stoneville, MS 

(207)

Cooperators 

ASCE/EWRI ET Task Committee, 

CSREES Multistate Research 

Coordinating 

Committee/Information 

Exchange Group, WERA202, 

"Climatic Data Applications in 

Irrigation Scheduling and Water 

Conservation"

method effects will be determined. 

Long term** 

Irrigation scheduling will be widely 

adopted for more effective use of 

water in irrigated agriculture. 

Product 2 Leader

Bushland, TX: P. Colaizzi 

Product Locations

Beltsville, MD, Bushland, TX, 

Fort Collins, CO, Lubbock, TX, 

Maricopa, AZ, Stoneville, MS 

(207), and Tifton, GA

Cooperators 

Kansas State Univ., New 

Mexico State Univ., Texas A&M 

Univ., Univ. of Arizona, Univ. of 

Idaho, NASA, and Bur. of Rec.

2. Remote sensing tools for ET and 

water stress predictions for field and 

farm district levels

Short term

Tools will be developed that improve 

prediction of crop water use and 

plant stress at field to irrigation 

project scales.

Long term

Operational tools will be used by 

farmers, consultants and water 

districts to predict crop water use and 

plant stress to increase irrigation 

water use efficiencies and improve 

utilization of the Nation’s water 

resources.
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Product 3 Leaders

Florence, SC: K. Stone 

Columbia, MO: E. Vories 

Product Locations

Columbia, MO, Lubbock, TX, 

and Stoneville, MS (207)

Cooperators 

CSREES project S1018 Irrigation 

Management for Humid and 

Sub-Humid Areas

3. Irrigation scheduling tools for 

humid and sub-humid regions, 

including crop coefficients, plant 

stress indicators, soil water sensing, 

and a rice automation/feedback 

irrigation system 

Product Users 

Producers, NRCS, water districts, 

State and local agencies, State 

planning boards, and consultants

Short term

Irrigation scheduling will be 

developed for major crops grown in 

humid and sub-humid regions.

Long term

Planners, water districts, and farmers 

will use advanced irrigation 

scheduling tools to improve crop 

water use efficiencies.

2.2: Managing Irrigation for Effective Water Use

Product 4 Leader

Maricopa, AZ: B. Clemmens 

Product Locations

Bushland, TX, Kimberly, ID

Maricopa, AZ, and Parlier, CA

Cooperators

NRCS and Bureau of 

Reclamation, Water Districts

4. Management tools and practices, 

and new technologies to make 

irrigation and water delivery systems 

more dependable, flexible, and 

efficient; and methods to quantify 

the impacts of these practices at 

field, farm, project, and watershed 

scales, including irrigation efficiency 

evaluation

Short term

A knowledge base will be developed 

on intake/ infiltration parameters for 

various application methods to be 

used in the design of more efficient 

irrigation systems. 

Techniques and tools will be delivered 

for evaluating irrigation conservation 

practices and their impact at the field 

and watershed scale.

Long term

Farmers, consultants, water districts 

and NRCS will be able to improve the 

operation and management of 

irrigation systems at small and large 

scales through the use of these water 

management tools.
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2.3: Improved Irrigation and Cropping for Reuse of Degraded Waters

Product 5 Leader

Riverside: D. Suarez

Product Locations

Maricopa, AZ, Parlier, CA, and 

Riverside, CA

Cooperators

UC Riverside, UC Davis, EPA, 

Bur. Rec, and NRCS

5. Guidelines for irrigating in urban 

and agricultural settings with degraded 

waters, and models and decision 

support systems for management of 

treated municipal wastewaters and 

other degraded waters in irrigation, 

including tools for determining the 

fate and transport of emerging 

contaminants and pathogens

Short term

Guidelines will be developed for 

irrigating with degraded waters.

Long term

Tools will be made available to 

increase water supplies and make 

safer use of degraded waters in urban 

and agricultural settings.

Product 6 Leader

Riverside, CA: C. Grieve

Product Locations

Parlier, CA, Riverside, CA, and 

St. Paul, MN (205)

Cooperators

Univ. of California Riverside,

Univ. of California Davis,

California State Univ., Fresno

Tulare Lake Drainage District

Imperial Valley Research 

Center, Brawley, CA, UC 

Berkeley, Panoche Drainage 

6. New and improved crops that use 

degraded waters and/or 

phytoremediate soils, including 

identification of related biological 

components, and development of 

breeding lines and experimental 

germplasm

Product Users** **

Producers, NRCS, water districts, 

State and local agencies, State 

planning boards, and consultants

Short term

Biological processes will be identified 

for crop specific ion, salt or drought 

tolerance. 

Long term

Specific crops will be available that 

tolerant to degraded water and soils.
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District, Colorado State 

University, and

University of Zurich, 

Switzerland

2.4: Site Specific Technologies to Conserve Water, Nutrients, and Energy

Product 7 Leaders

Bushland, TX: S. Evett

Sidney, MT: R. Evans

Product Locations

Ames, IA (202), Bushland, TX

Columbia, MO, Florence, SC, 

Fort Collins, CO, Lubbock, TX, 

Maricopa, AZ, Riverside, CA, 

and Sidney, MT

Cooperators

NRCS, Universities: Colorado 

State Univ., Texas A&M, Univ. 

of Arizona, Univ. of Idaho, Utah 

State Univ., equipment 

manufacturers

7. Systems for spatially and 

temporally variable water, nutrient, 

and pesticide application based on 

soil-crop sensing and feedback

Product Users 

Producers, producer groups (corn, 

cotton, sorghum, wheat, etc.), 

irrigation equipment companies, 

NRCS, Bur. of Rec., universities

Short term

Improved soil water and plant 

nutrient sensors will be developed for 

use in wireless mesh networked 

feedback control systems. 

Long term

Tools will be developed for variable 

rate application of nutrients, 

pesticides, and water across fields, 

leading to conservation of water, 

nutrients, and energy for 

economically and environmentally 

sustainable enterprises; and feedback 

irrigation systems will be 

commercialized to increase water and 

nutrient use efficiency and reduce 

management time for economically 

and environmentally sustainable 

enterprises.

2.5: Cropping and Tillage Strategies to Best Use Limited Water Supplies

Product 8 Leader

Kimberly, ID: D. Bjorneberg

Product Locations

Akron, CO (202), Bushland, TX, 

Columbia, MO, Florence, SC, 

Fort Collins, CO, Kimberly, ID, 

8. Tillage, irrigation, and crop 

management (including 

amendments and residue 

management) practices will be 

developed to improve crop water 

use efficiency in rainfed/irrigated 

cropping systems

Short term

Cropping and tillage practices will be 

developed for improved crop water 

use efficiency in combined rainfed/ 

irrigated cropping systems.

Long term
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Lubbock, TX, Riverside, CA 

(202), Sidney, MT, Watkinsville, 

GA

Cooperators

Universities, e.g. Utah State, 

Texas A&M, Univ. of Idaho, and 

many others including those 

associated with CSREES project 

S1018, “Irrigation Management 

for Humid and Sub-Humid 

Areas”

Product Users** **

Producers, producer groups (corn, 

cotton, sorghum, wheat, etc.), NRCS, 

USGS, universities, water districts, 

State planning boards, and 

consultants

Crop and tillage systems will be 

adopted that optimize use of limited 

irrigation water supplies. 

* The short-term outcomes will be accomplished in the next five years.

** The long-term outcomes will not be fully accomplished in five years given current personnel and physical 

resources, but significant progress will be made.

*** These scientists are conducting research primarily in the ARS Integrated Agricultural Systems National Program 

(207).

**** Product users are for each of subproblem areas.

Problem Area 3 Drainage Water Management Systems

Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Product 1 Leaders

Columbus, OH: N. Fausey

St. Paul, MN: J. Baker 

Product Locations

Ames, IA, Baton Rouge, LA, 

Columbus, OH, Fort Collins, CO, 

and St. Paul, MN

Cooperators: 

1.Guidelines for management practices 

that optimize soil, water, and 

economic benefits associated with 

surface and subsurface drainage water 

management (DWM) systems and 

wetland resources in humid rainfed 

areas

With adoption of surface and 

subsurface drainage water 

management (DWM) systems in humid 

rainfed areas, tentative guidelines 

developed for improved agronomic, 

nutrient and pesticide management 

Short term*

Tentative Guidelines for 

agronomic, nutrient, and 

pesticide management 

practices will be made 

available to users of DWM 

systems.

Long term**
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Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Iowa State Univ. Louisiana State 

Univ., Univ. of IL, NRCS, Univ. of 

MO, North Carolina State Univ., 

Univ. of MN and Purdue Univ.

practices, and benefits or impacts 

assessed regarding water conservation, 

water quality, soil quality, economic 

factors, and management of combined 

areas of DWM systems and wetland 

resources 

Expanded guidelines will be 

developed in short-term 

project to include other 

conservation practices, such 

as cover crops, buffer strips, 

tillage management, 

wetland diversions, etc., to 

enhance water quality 

benefits in surface waters 

and in coastal waters. 

Product 2 Leaders

Baton Rouge, LA: J. Fouss

Parlier, CA: J. Ayars 

Product Locations

Baton Rouge, LA

Columbus, OH

Cooperators:

NRCS, Univ. of IL, The Ohio State 

Univ., North Carolina State 

Univ., and Univ. of MN

2. Design specifications of DWM 

systems for environmental benefits in 

the Midwest and West

Short term

Design specifications for 

DWM systems will be 

developed for optimizing 

water quality benefits.

Long term

Design specifications for 

DWM systems will be

developed for multiple 

environmental benefits.

Product 3 Leader

Parlier, CA: J. Ayars 

Product Locations

Parlier CA

Cooperators:

3. Evaluation of the advantages and 

limitations associated with operation 

of DWM systems for irrigated areas

Short term

Recommendations for 

operation of DWM systems 

will be developed for 

California.

Long term

Assessment and 

recommendations for use 
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Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Bureau of Reclamation, U.C.-

Davis, CA Dept. of Water 

Resources, NRCS, 

Water/Drainage Districts

of DWM systems will be 

developed for the West. 

Product 4 Leaders

Ames, IA: R. Malone 

Fort Collins, CO: L. Ahuja 

Product Locations

Ames, IA, Baton Rouge, LA, Fort 

Collins, CO and University Park, 

PA

 

Cooperators

NRCS, North Carolina State 

Univ., and University of 

Minnesota

Other Problem Area #4

Cooperators: Drainage 

 industry; producers; commodity

organizations; and international

organizations

4. Decision support systems that 

include environmental and economic 

effects associated with DWM systems 

Product Users****

Producers, NRCS, Cooperative

Extension Agents and Specialists,

EPA, land improvement contractors, 

community planners, and consultants

Short term 

A DWM decision support 

system will be developed 

for benefit analysis in the 

Midwest. 

Long term 

A DWM decision support 

system will be developed 

for cost benefit analysis 

throughout the Nation.

DWM guidelines will be 

developed to estimate the 

length of time required to 

obtain measurable water 

quality improvements at 

the watershed scale.

* The short-term outcomes will be accomplished in the next five years.

** The long-term outcomes will not be fully accomplished in five years given current personnel and physical 

resources, but significant progress will be made.

 *** These cooperative scientists are employed by Land-Grant Universities.

**** Product users are for the entire problem area.
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202

Problem Area 4 Integrated Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Technologies

Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Product 1 Leader

Oxford, MS: S. Dabney 

Product Locations

W. Lafayette, IN, Oxford, MS, 

and Pendleton, OR

Cooperators

Oklahoma State Univ

1. Database and predictive 

relationships for erosion and sediment 

transport caused by concentrated flow 

in irrigation furrows, ephemeral gullies, 

and edge-of-field gullies

Short term*

Predictive ability and databases 

will allow improved estimation 

of concentrated flow erosion 

from selected sites. 

Long term**

Robust predictive ability and 

comprehensive database will 

provide reliable estimation of 

erosion and sediment transport 

caused by concentrated flow

Product 2 Leader 

Oxford, MS: R. Kuhnle 

Product Locations

Oxford, MS and Tucson, AZ

Cooperators

Univ. of Mississippi, USBR, 

USGS, NRCS, USFS

2. Decision support tools and 

databases for sediment loads, yields, 

and off-site impacts considering 

fractional sediment transport and 

deposition, geomorphic aspects of 

stream evolution, and reservoir/pond 

sedimentation for purposes of 

quantifying landscape scale erosion 

rates

Short term

Intermediate gains will increase 

ability to quantify landscape 

scale erosion. 

Science-based and costeffective techniques will be 

developed to monitor changes 

in storage of aging reservoirs.

Long term

Ability to quantify landscape 

scale erosion and off-site 

impacts will be enhanced. 

Improvements to CONCEPTS 

will be developed for more 

accurate assessments of dam 

decommissioning/rehabilitation 
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Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

impact at watershed and larger

scales that will be used by 

Federal and State agencies.

Product 3 Leader

Stillwater, OK: D. Temple

Product Locations

Stillwater, OK and Oxford, MS

Cooperators

NRCS, USACE (ERDC), USBR 

(WRRL), CEATI (DSIG), KSU 

(CIS), NRCS, and Univ. of 

Mississippi

3. Improved tools for evaluating the 

potential for earthen embankment 

breach due to erosion and 

deterioration due to wave action 

Product Users

Producers, COE, EPA, NRCS, USBR, 

Cooperative Extension Agents and 

Specialists, State and local agencies, 

land improvement contractors, 

community planners, and consultants

Short term

Improved predictive and 

preventive capabilities with 

regard to earthen embankment 

dam breach will be achieved. 

Science-based and cost -

effective techniques will be 

developed to control erosion 

from streams and levees.

Long term

Ability to predict performance 

of existing structures and 

ability to improve designs 

based on simulation will be 

demonstrated. 

Product 4 Leader

West Lafayette, IN: C. Huang , 

D. Smith 

Product Locations

Lubbock, TX (NP 202), Oxford, 

MS, and Pullman, WA

4. Improved tool for assessment of soil 

susceptibility to erosion including 

spatial, temporal, topographical, 

vegetative, and management effects 

Short term

Improved assessment of how 

climate, topography, and 

management affect erodibility 

and threshold velocities will 

lead to improved management 

systems and more reliable 

modeling of conservation 

effects at select locations. 

Long term

Improved assessment of how 

climate, topography, and 
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Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

management affect erodibility 

and threshold velocities will 

lead to improved management 

systems and more reliable 

modeling of conservation 

effects nationally.

Product 5 Leader

Tucson, AZ: M. Nearing 

Product Locations

Beltsville, MD (202), Kimberly, 

ID (211 and 202), W. Lafayette, 

IN, Lubbock, TX (202), Mandan, 

ND (202), Manhatten, KS (203), 

Oxford, MS, Pendleton, OR 

(202), Stillwater, OK, and 

Tucson, AZ

Cooperators

Oklahoma State University

(BAE), NRCS, Engineering 

Division, Univ. Az. Ext. Service, 

and Malpai Borderlands Group

5. Best Management Practices and 

design tools for in-field erosion 

control, gully and ephemeral channel 

erosion prevention, riparian corridor 

stabilization, and sediment retention 

structures 

Short term

Design tools and practices for 

erosion prevention, water 

infrastructure improvements, 

and riparian corridor 

management will be developed 

to reduce sediment losses from 

fields and streams. 

Improved technology for design 

and rehabilitation of water 

resource structures will be 

developed.

Long term

Improved conservation 

practices will be developed for 

reducing sediment losses from 

fields, streams to lakes, and 

rivers. 

Engineering tools for design 

and rehabilitation of water 

resource structures will be 

completed.

Product 6 Leader

Kimberly, ID: D. Bjorneberg

6. Model to predict irrigation-induced 

erosion using a common interface with 

shared databases: development, 

parameterization, and validation 

Short term

Field-scale single event models 

will be developed for improved 
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Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Product Locations

Fort Collins, CO, Kimberly, ID, 

and Maricopa, AZ

Cooperators 

Producers, Industry, 

Consultants, University 

Extension, NRCS, Federal 

Agencies (COE, BLM, EPA, 

USGS,), State Agencies (DEQs), 

University of Mississippi

(surface, center pivot and set/move 

sprinklers).

Product Users 

Producers, NRCS, USGS, EPA, 

universities, soil and water 

conservation districts, State planning 

boards, farmers, ranchers, engineers, 

and consultants

predictions of irrigationinduced erosion.

Long term

Integration of irrigationinduced erosion model into a 

comprehensive decision 

support system for water 

erosion, wind erosion, tillage 

erosion, and sedimentation 

predictions will improve longterm conservation planning and 

impact assessments. 

Product 7 Leader

West Lafayette, IN: D. Flanagan

Product Locations

Boise, ID (205), Canal Point, FL

(202), Lubbock, TX (202), 

Manhattan, KS (203), Morris, 

MN (202), Oxford, MS, 

Pendleton, OR, Pullman, WA

(211 and 203) , Temple, TX 

(202), Tifton, GA(202), Tucson, 

AZ, and W. Lafayette, IN

Cooperators

Producers, Industry, 

Consultants, University 

Extension, Amendment 

Industry, Construction Industry

NRCS-The Central National 

Technology Support Center, Ft. 

Worth, TX, NRCS-National 

7. Multi-scale modeling system to 

predict wind, water, and tillage 

erosion, and downstream impact of

sediment movement on agricultural 

landscapes using a common interface 

with shared databases: development, 

parameterization, and validation

Product Users** **

Producers, NRCS, USFS, USGS, EPA, 

universities, soil and water 

conservation districts, State planning 

boards, farmers, ranchers, engineers, 

and consultants

Short term

Integration of existing fieldscale water, wind, and tillage 

erosion models will facilitate 

conservation planning on 

agricultural lands. 

Improved predictions of winter 

erosion processes, rangeland 

hydrology and erosion, tillage 

erosion, and wind erosion 

threshold velocities and dust 

emissions will improve 

resource protection. 

Long term

Comprehensive decision 

support system that integrates

water erosion, wind erosion, 

tillage erosion, and 

sedimentation predictions will 

improve long-term 
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206

Inputs/Resources Outputs/Products Outcomes

Water and Climate Center, 

Portland, OR, USFS, BLM, 

Other federal agencies (COE, 

EPA, USGS), State Agencies 

(DEQs), University of 

Mississippi, U of Arizona, 

Arizona State University, 

Purdue University, University at 

Buffalo, NY, Michigan 

Technological University, 

University of Nottingham, UK

INTA, Argentina, and Mexico 

(INIFAP)

conservation planning and 

impact assessments. 

* The short-term outcomes will be accomplished in the next five years.

** The long-term outcomes will not be fully accomplished in five years given current personnel and physical 

resources, but significant progress will be made.

*** These scientists are conducting research primarily in the ARS Soil Resource Management National Program 

(202), etc. 

**** Product users are for the entire problem area.