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CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 1

Overview................................................................................................................................................. 1 

Evolution of Disaster Housing ................................................................................................................ 2 

Charting a Course for the Future............................................................................................................ 3 

The Requirement for a Strategy ............................................................................................................. 6 

How the Strategy Is Organized............................................................................................................... 7 

CHAPTER 2. DISASTER HOUSING PARTNERS ......................................................................................... 10

Overview............................................................................................................................................... 10 

Individuals and Households.................................................................................................................. 11 

Local Government ................................................................................................................................ 11 

States, Territories, and Tribal Governments ........................................................................................ 12 

Private Sector and Nongovernmental Organizations ........................................................................... 14 

Federal Government............................................................................................................................. 17 

CHAPTER 3. DISASTER HOUSING: PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES, AND DIRECTIONS ................................. 24

Overview............................................................................................................................................... 24 

Disaster Housing: A Planner’s Dilemma ............................................................................................. 25 

Principles, Practices, and Future Directions......................................................................................... 27 

 Sheltering ....................................................................................................................................... 29 

 Interim Housing.............................................................................................................................. 50 

 Permanent Housing ....................................................................................................................... 70 

CHAPTER 4. IMPLEMENTING THE STRATEGY .......................................................................................... 86

Overview............................................................................................................................................... 86 

National Disaster Housing Efforts......................................................................................................... 87 

State Disaster Housing Efforts ............................................................................................................. 93 

Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 94 

ATTACHMENTS

Annex 1: Overview of Disaster Housing Programs for Federal, State, Tribal, and Local Government 

and Nongovernmental Organizations 

Annex 2: Methods to House Disaster Victims Where Employment and the Resources They Need for 

Living Are Available 

Annex 3: Summary of Programs for Special Needs and Low-Income Populations, Including 

Provision of Housing Units for Individuals with Disabilities and Housing Opportunities for 

Persons with AIDS (HOPWA) Program 

Annex 4: Disaster Housing Group Site Operations 

Annex 5: Programs to Promote the Repair or Rehabilitation of Existing Rental Housing 

Annex 6: Additional Authorities Necessary to Carry Out the Strategy

Annex 7: Summary of Guidance on Disaster Housing Assistance Available under the Stafford 

Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, including Eligibility Criteria and Application 

Procedures 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page i 
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INTRODUCTION 

Overview 

The National Disaster Housing Strategy (the Strategy) serves two purposes. First, it describes how 

we as a Nation currently provide housing to those affected by disasters. It summarizes, for the first time 

in a single document, the many sheltering and housing efforts we have in the United States and the broad 

array of organizations that are involved in managing these programs. The Strategy also outlines the key 

principles and policies that guide the disaster housing process. 

Second, and more importantly, the Strategy charts the new direction that our disaster housing efforts 

must take if we are to better meet the emergent needs of disaster victims and communities. Today we 

face a wider range of hazards and potentially catastrophic events than we have ever faced before. These 

include terrorist attacks and major natural disasters that could destroy large sections of the Nation’s 

infrastructure. This new direction must address the disaster housing implications of all these risks and 

hazards and, at the same time, guide development of essential, baseline capabilities to overcome existing 

limitations. The new direction for disaster housing must leverage emerging technologies and new 

approaches in building design to provide an array of housing options. It must also be cost effective and 

draw on lessons learned and best practices. Above all, this new direction must institutionalize genuine 

collaboration and cooperation among the various local, State, tribal, and Federal partners, 

nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector to meet the needs of all disaster victims. 

Current practices in disaster housing vary based on the nature and scope of a disaster and can range 

from providing short-term shelters to arranging temporary and, in some cases, permanent housing. 

Establishing emergency shelters is generally a well-choreographed effort that unfolds smoothly at the 

local level as emergency management officials and nongovernmental organizations execute their 

emergency plans. The challenges increase when disaster victims are displaced from their homes for 

longer periods of time and temporary housing must be provided. The process of meeting individual and 

household needs becomes more challenging, and the responsibilities and roles of those involved must be 

absolutely clear. States monitor and support local government efforts and activate their capabilities as 

needed to augment local capabilities. The Federal Government stands alongside the States as an 

engaged partner, maintaining disaster housing resources and ready to deploy those resources, if 

required, to fill any emerging gap. 

While this process generally works very well, it broke down in August 2005 when Hurricane Katrina struck 

the coast of Louisiana and Mississippi and overwhelmed the capabilities of responders at all jurisdictional 

levels. And now, more than 3 years after Hurricane Katrina, we are still wrestling with many technical and 

policy issues related to disaster housing that Katrina brought to light. This Strategy outlines a vision, 

supported by specific goals, that will point the Nation in a new direction to meet the disaster housing 

needs of individuals and communities. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 1 
Chapter 1. Introduction 

Evolution of Disaster Housing 

Disaster housing assistance has evolved and must continue to change to better meet the diverse 

and complex needs of our Nation. Effective disaster housing is a critical step on the road to long-term 

recovery. We must find a better balance between providing housing assistance rapidly in the wake of a 

disaster and meeting the diverse needs of individuals and households, their communities, and the Nation. 

This will not be easy. Even without the complications of a disaster, portions of the country face growing 

challenges in housing people with disabilities, low incomes, and other special needs, including the elderly, 

persons living with chronic health challenges such as HIV/AIDS, and the homeless. These individuals are 

often affected more profoundly, and housing options become even more limited following a disaster. 

Hurricane Katrina 

As a catastrophic event, Hurricane Katrina strained housing assistance capabilities and 

highlighted key challenges and gaps that can now guide the development of the Strategy. 

Hurricane Katrina resulted in the largest national housing crisis since the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. Katrina 

devastated far more residential property than any other recent hurricane, destroying or making 

uninhabitable an estimated 300,000 homes and sending more than 1 million people in search of 

temporary shelter. The consequences of not being prepared with a full range of housing options was 

devastating for victims and had significant implications for the other States and communities that hosted 

Katrina evacuees. 

Traditional approaches to disaster housing, which worked well in most disasters, were inadequate to meet 

the demands of this catastrophic event. Those involved faced the challenge of rapidly registering and 

housing more than 1.4 million households in large congregate shelters and hotels spread across a 

multistate area. The challenge to succeed in the midst of the confusion and imperfect information that 

accompanies a catastrophic event unfolded before the Nation. Throughout the Hurricane Katrina 

response, responsibilities and roles that seemed clear in previous events became less clear as the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and other Federal departments and agencies provided 

increasing levels of support to State and local officials. 

As the demand for support increased, the Federal Government took a greater role in identifying and 

implementing disaster housing solutions. In some instances, FEMA led the coordination with States and 

local communities in deciding what type of temporary housing to provide and where it would be located. 

FEMA engaged directly with disaster victims to meet their housing needs and implemented many of the 

housing options to provide sheltering, interim housing, and permanent housing, even though FEMA is not 

a housing agency. By necessity, the relationships among the Federal, State, and local governments had 

shifted away from their traditional roles in the midst of a catastrophe of immense proportions. While there 

was no official change in responsibility, the reality of daily decisionmaking and action clearly 

demonstrated a shift in roles. 

Lessons Learned 

The experience of Katrina, along with other recent disasters both large and small, has taught us 

important lessons about disaster housing. Local, State, tribal, and Federal governments, 

nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector have assessed the challenges and analyzed 

reports, government audits, and other documentation to identify lessons learned. Key lessons include the 

need for effective communication to manage expectations, proactive planning, and clear delineation of 

roles and responsibilities in disaster housing well before an incident occurs. Additional lessons learned 

Page 2 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
emphasize understanding and meeting individual and household needs and providing a full range of 

flexible and adaptable housing options, as well as the importance of the connection between housing and 

community-related services. These lessons are reflected in new policies and processes adopted by the 

Federal Government. For example, they are evident in the National Response Framework, and they have 

guided the design of new structures, plans, and disaster housing capabilities developed by jurisdictions 

across America. An example is the town of Greensburg, Kansas, which was devastated by a tornado in 

2007 and yet restored with a sense of pride and community due in part to a progressive disaster housing 

program that was based on lessons learned from Katrina. 

Congress passed and the President signed into law the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform 

Act of 2006 (PKEMRA) (Pub. L. 109-295), which established the requirement for this Strategy. The act 

also provided new authorities for FEMA to offer disaster case management services, established a 

disabilities coordinator position at FEMA, authorized a rental repair program, and expanded the authority 

for permanent construction. Congress also passed and the President approved an Alternative Housing 

Pilot Program with $400 million appropriated to FEMA’s Disaster Relief Fund to explore innovative 

alternatives to travel trailers and manufactured homes. Under this program, FEMA and the Department of 

Housing and Urban Development evaluated proposals to award funding for up to 5,000 new housing units 

in the Gulf Coast States. 

In addition, on October 6, 2006, the Pets Evacuation and Transportation Standards Act of 2006 (PETS 

Act) was signed into law (Public Law 109–308), amending the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and 

Emergency Assistance Act. This act requires FEMA to ensure that State and local emergency plans 

address the needs of individuals with household pets and service animals prior to, during, and following 

an emergency or major disaster declaration. The act also authorizes FEMA to study and develop plans 

that take into account the needs of individuals with pets and service animals prior to, during, and following 

disasters. 

Despite these significant improvements and the promise of pilot programs still in progress, disaster 

housing remains a challenge. It requires continued focus, creative exploration, and constant refinement 

by a broad community of partners. This Strategy is intended to focus national attention on the ongoing 

efforts of people and organizations within communities who act to aid those affected by disasters. 

Charting a Course for the Future 

Vision 

A national housing effort that engages all levels of 

government and the nonprofit and private sectors, so 

that when a disaster threatens or strikes our Nation we 

collectively meet the urgent housing needs of disaster 

victims and enable individuals, households, and 

communities to rebuild and restore their way of life. 

This Strategy must chart a new course for 

the future that better meets the needs of 

disaster victims. The Strategy brings together 

key partners that have the expertise, 

experience, and resources required to develop 

a comprehensive disaster housing effort that 

can meet the needs of our Nation. This new 

course should result in a broad range of 

housing options to meet urgent needs during a 

disaster and enable individuals, households, and communities to rebuild and meet their own housing 

needs. Our efforts must address the full range of risks and hazards, including natural disasters, terrorism 

events, and manmade disasters. The resulting approach must also be scalable and flexible to support 

small-scale events, as well as catastrophic disasters that can take years to recover from. We must also 

Page 3 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 1. Introduction 

be able to quickly navigate complex choices, deliver assistance when needed, and respond to changing 

demands. 

To achieve this vision, the Strategy provides a common framework to help integrate existing disaster 

housing efforts and focus our Nation on the following six goals: 

1. Support individuals, households, and communities in returning to self-sufficiency as quickly 

as possible. All those who provide disaster housing assistance must work collaboratively to help 

individuals, households, and communities meet their own housing needs and become self-sufficient 

as soon as possible. Permanent housing helps individuals resume their lives and is vital to restoring 

communities and the region following a disaster.

2. Affirm and fulfill fundamental disaster housing responsibilities and roles. All organizations 

involved in disaster housing must understand and fulfill their disaster housing responsibilities and 

roles, build core competencies, and provide a foundation for effective housing assistance. We must 

align disaster housing roles with the fundamental disaster response and recovery responsibilities 

described in the National Response Framework and the National Strategy for Homeland Security. 

This includes enhancing coordination and developing partnerships across all levels of government, 

nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector. 

 

Special Needs Populations 

Populations whose members may have additional needs 

before, during, and after an incident in functional areas. 

This includes but is not limited to maintaining 

independence, communication, transportation, supervision, 

and medical care. Individuals in need of additional 

response assistance may include people who have 

disabilities, who have chemical or electrical sensitivities, 

who live in institutional settings, who are elderly, who are 

children, who are from diverse cultures, who have limited 

English proficiency or are non-English speaking, or who 

are transportation disadvantaged.1

 

Disaster housing plans must recognize that some people 

with disabilities may have personal assistants, assistive 

technology, and/or service animals on which they rely to 

maintain independence. Service animals are considered 

an extension of the person they serve and must remain 

with that person at all times. As with all individuals affected 

by a disaster, people with special needs should be part of 

the process and have the right to make their own 

decisions. 

1

Source: National Response Framework Online Resource Center 

3. Increase our collective understanding 

and ability to meet the needs of 

disaster victims and affected 

communities. Organizations at all levels 

must develop a deeper understanding of 

and be responsive to the complex needs 

of disaster victims. A host of individual 

needs affect housing choices and shape 

the demands for housing assistance, 

including who will need assistance and 

what type of assistance they will require. 

For example, individuals with special 

needs, including those with medical needs 

and persons with disabilities, may require 

additional support to accommodate 

assistive technologies, durable medical 

equipment, and/or service animals. 

Households with children and pet owners 

may also have additional needs. Housing 

assistance programs must include a range 

of options that can meet those needs and 

accommodate the diversity of cultures, 

languages, and dialects within a 

community, including the need for American Sign Language. Housing assistance programs will only 

be as effective as our ability to communicate with disaster victims, which will require improved public 

messaging to enhance preparedness efforts well before an event, as well as clear and effective 

housing information during response and recovery efforts. 

4. Build capabilities to provide a broad range of flexible housing options, including sheltering, 

interim housing, and permanent housing. All organizations involved in disaster housing must build 

Page 4 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
their own capabilities, be aware of what support is available should they require assistance, and know 

how to request assistance. This will include establishing baseline capabilities for housing assistance 

and providing resources, such as toolkits, planning templates, and grant funding. Disaster housing 

capabilities must support the mission, be planned in advance, provide quality services in the time 

required, and be cost effective. 

5. Better integrate disaster housing assistance with related community support services and 

long-term recovery efforts. Disaster housing assistance options must go beyond the basics of 

providing disaster housing by connecting individuals and household to related community support 

services. Effective disaster housing assistance must also focus on improving case management 

services and increasing the level of awareness of support services for special needs populations, 

such as persons with disabilities, the elderly, the homeless, or persons living with HIV/AIDS. Other 

efforts may also be needed to help restore service delivery efforts by supportive care organizations 

that assist these populations. Those with household pets also may require support services. 

National Goals 

1. Support individuals, households, and 

communities in returning to self-sufficiency as 

quickly as possible. 

2. Affirm and fulfill fundamental disaster housing 

responsibilities and roles. 

3. Increase our collective understanding and ability 

to meet the needs of disaster victims and affected 

communities. 

4. Build capabilities to provide a broad range of 

flexible housing options, including sheltering, 

interim housing, and permanent housing. 

5. Better integrate disaster housing assistance with 

related community support services and long-term 

recovery efforts. 

6. Improve disaster housing planning to better 

recover from disasters, including catastrophic 

events. 

6. Improve disaster housing planning to better 

recover from disasters, including 

catastrophic events. All organizations involved 

in disaster housing must conduct joint planning 

to address housing needs, engage appropriate 

stakeholders, identify a range of options, 

describe how those options would be 

implemented, and identify the necessary 

resources. These plans must address the full 

range of potential disasters that could occur, 

including chemical, biological, radiological, 

nuclear, or explosive incidents in which the 

community is unable to return to the affected 

area. Planning should address small-scale as 

well as catastrophic events, which can 

encompass any natural or manmade incident, 

including terrorism, that results in extraordinary 

levels of mass casualties, damage, or disruption 

severely affecting the population, infrastructure, 

environment, economy, national morale, and/or 

government functions. These extraordinary 

circumstances will place exponential demand on 

disaster housing. All disaster housing plans should include actions to prevent, protect, respond to, 

and recover from disasters. For example, protection activities may include establishing higher 

structural performance levels for housing, such as stricter building codes, or retrofitting structures in 

earthquake- and hurricane-prone areas. 

The Strategy discusses the key steps needed to achieve these goals, including establishing baseline 

capabilities at all levels and identifying the resources necessary to build those capabilities. It also 

addresses the need to provide technical assistance for disaster housing, as well as enhanced emergency 

capabilities for catastrophic events. 

Page 5 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 1. Introduction 

The Requirement for a National Strategy 

The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act (PKEMRA) required the development of a 

National Disaster Housing Strategy. PKEMRA called for FEMA, in coordination with key housing 

stakeholders, to develop, coordinate, and maintain a National Disaster Housing Strategy. It also called 

for a number of specific issues to be addressed within the Strategy, including an overview of existing 

disaster housing efforts and programs, which are described in greater detail below. 

To address these requirements, the Strategy has been developed in two parts. Part 1 focused on the 

development and release of the national strategy foundation document for public review and comment to 

ensure a broad foundation for a national disaster housing effort. Part 2 continued the review and 

cataloging of disaster housing efforts and programs, including establishing stakeholder working groups to 

review and help further develop these materials. 

Part 1: Building a National Strategy 

Part 1 included a development and public review of a draft national strategy that included a vision, goals, 

and direction that the broad range of disaster housing stakeholders could support. While there are many 

approaches to strategic planning, there are common core elements that help focus planning efforts and 

increase the likelihood of success. Effective strategies define the desired end-state or vision, include 

goals that describe how that vision will be achieved, and identify the means or resources to achieve those 

goals, such as skills, knowledge/expertise, organizational structures, tools, management or data systems, 

and funding. This Strategy builds on these elements (see figure 1). 

While strategies are traditionally viewed as the longer term plans that define actions to achieve a desired 

end-state or vision, national strategies must also provide an overarching framework that can enable 

multiple organizations with different missions and authorities to work together to achieve a common vision 

and goals. The public review and comment period was vital and provided good feedback to refine the 

Strategy, which is critical since the most effective strategies typically reflect the communities they serve 

and are clear and easy to understand by those who must act on them. 

Similar to other national 

strategies, this Strategy will 

be supported by a national 

implementation plan, which 

will be developed jointly with 

stakeholders. The 

implementation plan will 

describe specific actions, 

timelines, and performance 

measures to achieve the 

national goals. Feedback 

on performance will enable 

those involved in the 

national effort to assess 

progress, adopt best 

practices, and make course 

corrections, updating the 

Strategy as needed. 

 

Figure 1. ROLE OF A NATIONAL STRATEGY 

Page 6 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Part 2: Completing the Review and Cataloging Summaries of Existing Disaster Housing Efforts 

and Programs 

Part 2 consisted of working with a broad range of stakeholders and disaster housing partners to complete 

a series of annexes that summarize current disaster housing efforts and programs. These annexes, 

which follow the additional requirements in PKEMRA to address specific issues, provide a wealth of 

information to inform future efforts and help to ensure that we build upon current programs and address 

critical issues. These annexes include an overview of disaster housing programs, methods to house 

disaster victims near employment and other resources, programs for special needs and low-income 

populations, disaster housing group site operations, programs to repair or rehabilitate rental housing, 

authorities, and guidance on assistance available under the Stafford Act. 

Authorities 

Various statutory authorities and policies provide the basis for disaster housing assistance 

across all levels of government and lay the foundation for a national effort. The Federal portion of 

the Strategy is based on the authorities provided by the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency 

Assistance Act, as amended (“the Stafford Act,” 42 U.S.C. 5121, et seq.), the Post-Katrina Emergency 

Management Reform Act of 2006 (PKEMRA), and those of other Federal departments and agencies. 

States, territories, tribes, and local governments all have authorities that guide emergency response and 

disaster housing programs. 

The Strategy does not alter the existing authorities of individual Federal departments and agencies. It 

may be implemented in conjunction with other Federal incident management and emergency operations 

plans developed under these and other authorities, and with memorandums of understanding among 

various Federal agencies. 

In addition, FEMA is currently reviewing its regulations to streamline, update, and improve its ability to 

implement the Stafford Act and other authorities. This includes 1) a review of the Public Assistance and 

Individual Assistance Programs and other key areas, 2) a review of lessons learned from Hurricane 

Katrina, and 3) the revising of regulations and related policies to implement the Post Katrina Emergency 

Reform Act and other authorities. 

How the Strategy Is Organized 

The Strategy presents key disaster housing principles, participants, roles, and structures that guide the 

Nation’s disaster housing operations. The Strategy is organized as follows: 

• Chapter 1 – Introduction. Sets the context for the Strategy, describes how disaster housing has 

evolved, identifies lessons learned, outlines the breadth of organizations that must be involved in 

disaster housing, and outlines a national vision and goals to improve disaster housing. 

• Chapter 2 – Disaster Housing Partners. Provides an overview of disaster housing partners, 

including their roles and responsibilities and the importance of shared responsibility and 

collaboration of all levels of government, the private sector, and nongovernmental organizations. 

Page 7 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 1. Introduction 

• Chapter 3 – Disaster Housing: Principles, Practices, and Directions. The Strategy draws on 

best practices and lessons learned to identify actions that must be taken to improve disaster 

housing assistance, an effort that involves renewing our focus on planning, building baseline 

capabilities, and providing a broader range of disaster housing options. This chapter includes an 

overview of sheltering, interim housing, and permanent housing, describing the key principles, 

responsibilities and roles, current practices, and new directions for within each area. 

• Chapter 4 – Implementing the 

Strategy. This Strategy

establishes structures to provide 

full-time focus, elevate the 

significance of disaster housing, 

and oversee the implementation 

of the Strategy. This chapter 

discusses the need for a longterm national effort that supports 

States and localities to develop 

plans that support disaster 

housing, build disaster housing 

baseline capabilities, improve 

national disaster housing 

preparedness efforts and 

resources, and work collectively 

to achieve the vision and goals 

within the Strategy. 

Figure 2. NATIONAL DISASTER HOUSING 

STRATEGY STRUCTURE 

• Annexes – The annexes to the 

Strategy summarize current 

disaster housing efforts and 

programs and provide the 

foundation to review, analyze, 

and improve disaster housing. 

They include: 

Annex 1: Overview of Disaster Housing Programs for Federal, State, Tribal, and Local 

Government and Nongovernmental Organizations 

Annex 2: Methods to House Disaster Victims Where Employment and the Resources They 

Need for Living Are Available 

Annex 3: Summary of Programs for Special Needs and Low-Income Populations, Including 

Provision of Housing Units for Individuals with Disabilities and Housing Opportunities 

for Persons with AIDS (HOPWA) Program 

Annex 4: Disaster Housing Group Site Operations 

Annex 5: Programs to Promote the Repair or Rehabilitation of Existing Rental Housing 

Annex 6: Additional Authorities Necessary to Carry Out the Strategy 

Annex 7: Summary of Guidance on Disaster Housing Assistance Available under the Stafford 

Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, including Eligibility Criteria and 

Application Procedures 

Page 8 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
The Strategy is also supported by an online resource center, which includes each of the annexes and 

provides current resources for disaster housing efforts. The National Disaster Housing Strategy 

Resource Center can be found at www.fema.gov/emergency/disasterhousing.

Page 9 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

DISASTER HOUSING PARTNERS 

Overview

Disaster housing responsibilities, capabilities, and resources cross a diverse array of 

organizations that have varied missions and vested interests in providing disaster housing 

assistance. No single entity working independently has the means to address the full spectrum of 

disaster housing challenges. The range of disaster housing options and the span of disaster housing 

providers depend on the type of disaster, its severity, and the adversity of impact on the existing housing 

situation of those affected. Housing choices and decisions are tied to employment, access to 

transportation and commuting time, healthcare and daycare providers, education, and even proximity to 

grocery stores and pharmacies – all of which form the basic fabric of our communities. We must look 

across all levels of government, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector to identify key 

partners. It is important to understand who can bring essential capabilities and expertise to bear and 

include those organizations in the planning and development of disaster housing assistance programs 

well before an event occurs. In addition, States are all unique, with each facing a different range of risks 

and each having different levels of expertise, resources, and capabilities to address disaster housing. 

An effective National Disaster Housing Strategy must 

be based on a strong foundation of clear 

responsibilities that define the roles and requisite 

competencies across all levels of government, 

nongovernmental organizations, and the private 

sector. To enable these organizations to work 

together effectively, we must better articulate how 

roles, responsibilities, and capabilities of all 

organizations involved in disaster housing assistance 

are fulfilled. In doing so, organizations will 

understand how they support one another and fit into 

the broader Strategy. In most cases, solutions will 

require multiple organizations to combine their 

expertise or services to meet the needs of individuals 

and their households. Our success will depend on 

our ability to collaborate with one another, develop 

comprehensive housing plans, and work toward 

common goals. 

The Strength of Collaboration 

Collaboration can result in comprehensive 

housing assistance plans to meet the needs of 

individuals and households. For example, 

housing experts and community-based 

organizations are well experienced with the depth 

and types of case management services that meet 

household challenges to make housing options 

viable. These options include locating schools for 

children, support for job placement, helping to work 

through transportation issues, and helping to locate 

healthcare or other community services. 

By better linking disaster housing assistance to 

these more traditional types of community-based 

support services, individuals and households can 

get the help they need to become self-sufficient, 

rebuild their lives, and take steps toward obtaining 

long-term housing. 

This section defines and clarifies disaster housing assistance responsibilities based on the fundamental 

roles established by the National Strategy for Homeland Security and the National Response Framework. 

Within these guiding documents, local governments have the primary responsibility for responding to and 

recovering from disasters, with State governments fulfilling a vital supporting role. States provide 

additional resources or capabilities when needed and address issues that may require coordination with 

nearby States. Nongovernmental organizations provide a wealth of community-based resources and 

networks, and the private sector brings unique capabilities and resources. In addition, the Federal 

Government maintains a range of resources and capabilities that can be provided in support of local, 

State, and tribal governments at the request of the Governor. 

Page 10 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

Individuals and Households 

Successful disaster response and recovery hinges on individual and household preparedness. 

Individuals have an essential role in disaster response and recovery that starts with understanding 

personal responsibilities and planning ahead. To increase preparedness, individuals should develop 

personal emergency plans for their households and pets, including planning for their own needs for the 

first few days following a disaster, such as medicine, essential documents, and drinking water and food. 

As part of their personal emergency plans, individuals with special needs, including those with disabilities, 

should also assess what additional services they may need during and after a disaster, know what will be 

available in their community, and learn how to obtain support. Part of preparing for a disaster includes 

thinking through how to manage damage to or loss of one’s home. This includes identifying household 

needs for sheltering or interim housing and ensuring that all owned or rented property is adequately 

insured. In addition, individuals who live in flood-prone areas may be able to obtain flood insurance 

policies through the National Flood Insurance Program. During a disaster, individuals should monitor 

local media to obtain emergency information and implement their emergency plans. Individuals can also 

volunteer with national disaster service organizations or local organizations in their own neighborhoods. 

For additional information on emergency plans, visit the Department of Homeland Security’s Ready 

Campaign Web site at www.ready.gov, call 1–800–BE–READY, or access a guide at 

www.fema.gov/areyouready/index.shtm. 

Local Government 

The senior local elected or appointed official (the mayor, city manager, county manager, or parish 

president) is responsible for ensuring the public safety and welfare of his or her residents. Senior 

local officials and their emergency managers build the foundation for an effective response and recovery. 

Local governments provide crucial leadership and coordinate support and resources from across the 

community through advance planning for a wide range of hazards based on their unique area. In 

developing local emergency plans, they organize and integrate their capabilities and resources with 

neighboring jurisdictions, the State, nongovernmental organizations, the private sector, and the Federal 

Government. 

During a disaster, those plans are implemented and adapted to meet the changing circumstances through 

the local incident command structure, with support from the local or State emergency operations center. 

Within these broader responsibilities, local governments have a key role in identifying potential housing 

assistance needs based on disasters that could occur, the unique characteristics of their community, and 

the needs of their residents. Local governments work with others across the community, in nearby areas, 

and with the State to address disaster housing needs, including sheltering, interim housing, and 

permanent housing. Local governments should factor in the unique characteristics of their population, 

such as the number of people who may need shelter assistance or transportation support, or who may 

have other special needs. In factoring in the unique characteristics of the population, particularly the 

needs of people with disabilities, local governments should build partnerships with disability 

groups/organizations and advocates, as well as disabled persons in the affected community to assist in 

the evaluation and identification of those special needs. 

Page 11 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

Local governments assess their specific 

support requirements. For example, 

hurricane-prone areas develop sheltering 

plans based on their residents' needs, 

including accessible shelters and 

transportation that can accommodate special 

needs populations as well as the general 

public. Local planning for this type of event 

should include community organizations, 

assisted living and residential care facilities, 

hospitals, transportation planners, and nearby 

jurisdictions as each community identifies 

shelter requirements, selects locations and 

facilities, and develops shelter operations 

plans that can accommodate the needs of 

their citizens. In some cases, facilities will 

need to develop specialized plans, including 

memorandums of agreement with nearby 

facilities that can provide the appropriate level 

of care for their residents. 

Community-Based Efforts 

Communities can provide the momentum and 

resources to jump-start housing solutions. For 

example, Rebuild NW Florida was formed shortly after 

Hurricane Ivan devastated Escambia and Santa Rosa 

Counties. The focus of this nonprofit group was to solicit 

donations and volunteers and manage the rehabilitation 

of owner-occupied housing units that were damaged in 

the hurricane. 

Rebuild NW Florida had already amassed a significant 

number of cash and material donations by the time the 

long-term community recovery team began their work. 

The group was focused on both Escambia and Santa 

Rosa Counties and was headed by a former Speaker of 

the House of the Florida Legislature. This organization 

was an obvious choice as a champion for a significant 

portion of the housing projects that came out of the longterm recovery process in these counties. (Reference: 

Long-Term Community Recovery Planning Process: A 

Self-Help Guide, December 2005, FEMA) 

Local governments also play a critical role in determining interim housing options. These may range from 

agreements for the use of schools, arenas, and convention centers as shelter locations, to exercising 

emergency authorities to provide personnel and equipment for joint housing operations. Working with 

State and tribal agencies and the private sector, they can expedite the restoration of essential services 

and infrastructure support that may be necessary to speed residents’ return home after the disaster has 

passed. Since interim housing decisions can have a profound impact on the direction and character of 

permanent housing, it is important for local governments to develop long-term strategies to rebuild and 

renew their community. Local officials also adopt, enforce, and propose building standards and 

administrative regulations to ensure that housing is safe, durable, and affordable. At the same time, local 

officials are sensitive to their citizens’ needs, including accessible housing for persons with disabilities, 

low-income housing, and cultural considerations in developing long-term housing. 

During a disaster, local governments coordinate efforts across their communities to implement response 

and recovery plans, which will include providing disaster housing assistance to their residents based on 

the scope and nature of the disaster. They also may amend or suspend local laws or ordinances to 

support response and recovery efforts. When local resources are exceeded, the local government asks 

the State for assistance. Local and State officials then work together to identify options and determine 

which options best meet the needs of their citizens. In addition to State governments, the Nation's large 

cities and urban counties are uniquely positioned to play a key role in disaster housing operations based 

on their day-to-day housing responsibilities. 

States, Territories, and Tribal Governments 

States, territories, and tribal governments have responsibility for the health and welfare of the 

people in their jurisdiction. State governments have the primary responsibility for assisting local 

governments in responding to and recovering from disasters. Before a disaster, States work closely with 

tribal and local governments, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector to develop statewide 

Page 12 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

plans. During a disaster, States coordinate resources and capabilities across jurisdictions in support of 

the local activities, obtaining additional support from nearby States or regions if needed through interstate 

mutual aid and assistance protocols such as the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC). 

States may also amend or suspend State laws or ordinances to support response and recovery efforts. 

How States Can Support Communities 

States work closely with their communities to 

provide additional support and fill crucial 

gaps. For example, the State of Louisiana 

established the Louisiana Family Recovery 

Corps to provide coordinated case management 

services. The Louisiana Family Recovery Corps 

strives to help families address the multiple 

needs by linking them to existing communitybased services that help them move toward selfsufficiency. This may include job placement 

programs, helping to register children for 

schools, locating dispersed family members, or 

connecting families to necessary health services. 

States are uniquely positioned to play a key role in 

disaster housing operations based on their day-to-day 

housing responsibilities. As part of those 

responsibilities, States work to identify, expand, and 

preserve safe, affordable housing opportunities. States 

also implement nonemergency Federal-aid housing 

programs, which include affordable homeownership 

and rental opportunities and provide technical 

assistance to local and tribal officials. As an example, 

States administer tens of millions of dollars of 

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) 

Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) and 

HOME Investment Partnerships funds annually that 

their local governments may use for community and 

economic development and affordable housing. As 

part of those efforts, States address the needs of low- and moderate-income families and special needs 

populations. States can provide technical assistance and some States may also offer financial assistance 

to avoid foreclosures and help with down payments on home purchases, and to implement rehabilitation 

programs for homeowners and rental housing. States administering CDBG and HOME program funds 

may use this funding to remove architectural barriers for persons with disabilities. 

States play a key role in disaster housing preparedness. The State, working with local jurisdictions and 

community organizations, is in the best position to determine what will best meet current and long-term 

housing needs. When assessing emergency response capabilities, States should work with their 

communities to determine sheltering and housing assistance needs, identify requirements, and plan how 

to best meet those requirements across the State. In some cases, tribal and local governments have the 

capacity to meet their own needs, or can fill gaps through mutual aid agreements with nearby areas. In 

other cases, States will need to provide additional housing assistance or develop mutual aid and 

assistance agreements with other States or across the region. If States anticipate that Federal support 

may be needed, they should determine the nature and scope of the requirement and work closely with the 

Federal Government. The Federal Government will work with the State to identify options; the State has 

the responsibility to review those options with the local jurisdiction(s) and select the one that will best 

meet the needs of its residents. 

When disaster strikes, States support tribal and local governments, identify requirements, and coordinate 

additional support when needed. As part of those activities, they may make State facilities, equipment, 

and personnel available for shelter operations, assist in identifying interim housing, or help communities 

plan for and provide long-term housing options. When needed, they also administer emergency housing 

programs or provide other support. In addition, States promote redevelopment of communities by acting 

as a catalyst for public/private community partnerships that are essential to timely and comprehensive 

recovery. 

If a State anticipates that its resources may be exceeded during a disaster, the Governor can request 

assistance from other States through mutual aid and assistance agreements such as EMAC, or request 

assistance from the Federal Government. By law, only a State Governor may request a Presidential 

Page 13 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

emergency or major disaster declaration. To request assistance under the Stafford Act, tribal 

governments work with the State, but, as sovereign entities, they can elect to deal directly with the 

Federal Government for other types of assistance. The National Response Framework provides 

additional information regarding the Stafford Act and how to request Federal assistance. 

Tribal Governments 

During disasters, tribal governments are responsible for the health of their people, protection of their 

properties and lands, and coordination of resources. Based on that role, tribal governments have a wide 

range of disaster-related responsibilities, which include developing recovery plans that meet the unique 

needs of their tribe and negotiating mutual aid and assistance agreements with other tribes or 

jurisdictions. The United States has a trust relationship with Indian tribes and recognizes their right to 

self-government. During a disaster, tribal governments coordinate tribal resources and may amend or 

suspend tribal laws or ordinances to support response and recovery efforts. Tribal governments also 

have the crucial role to communicate with the broader tribal community, helping people, businesses, and 

organizations cope with the consequences of the disaster. 

When local resources are not adequate, tribal leaders seek assistance from States or the Federal 

Government. For Federal Stafford Act disaster assistance, tribal governments work with the State, but as 

sovereign nations, they can elect to deal directly with the Federal Government for other types of 

assistance. In order for a tribe to obtain Federal assistance via the Stafford Act, a State Governor must 

request a Presidential declaration on behalf of the tribe. 

Private Sector and Nongovernmental Organizations 

Private Sector 

Private-Sector Contributions 

The private sector can bring a wealth of 

expertise and additional resources as described 

in the examples below.

In the weeks following Hurricane Katrina, the CocaCola Company and its bottling partners shipped 

more than 30 million bottles of filtered water, juice, 

sports drinks, and other beverages. These drinks 

were donated to the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency, the American Red Cross, the 

Department of Defense, and the Mississippi 

Emergency Management Agency during recovery 

operations. 

America's pharmaceutical research companies 

stepped up Katrina relief efforts, with donations 

soaring to more than $100 million. Bayer donated 

and shipped two tractor-trailer loads of materials, 

including employee-donated supplies, over-thecounter products, and blood glucose monitors. In 

2005, Merck aided hurricane-stricken communities 

by replacing prescription medicines for victims, 

hospitals, and clinics that lost medicines in the 

flood. Also, Merck provided more than $6.7 million 

in vaccines to assist relief efforts. 

Communities cannot effectively respond to or 

recover from disasters without strong 

cooperative partnerships with the private 

sector. The private sector works closely with local, 

State, and tribal officials to provide essential 

services, such as water, power, communications, 

transportation, medical care, and other services that 

are important to both response and recovery. 

To prepare for disasters, the private sector invests, 

plans, and conducts continuity of operations 

activities to ensure they can continue to provide 

essential services to communities. Providing these 

services is essential to enable residents to return to 

their homes. Such services come from grocery 

stores, pharmacies and medical facilities, gas 

stations, and building supply stores. The private 

sector may also develop agreements with local 

governments to provide additional support, such as 

discounted building supplies, bottled water, or free 

or discounted replacement prescriptions. 

Page 14 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

Private-sector partners also leverage their resources to support local emergency management and public 

awareness efforts during response and recovery efforts. For example, to reduce the burden on local 

emergency responders, some larger companies volunteer to meet the postdisaster needs of their 

employees. This includes a wide range of contributions such as providing food for sheltering, supplying 

transportation services when needed, or even providing discounted home-repair materials. Private-sector 

partners should also be involved in local disaster response and recovery planning. 

In addition, the private sector plays a key role in designing, producing, delivering, installing, and 

maintaining housing. This includes temporary housing as well as permanent housing and related critical 

infrastructure. The construction and building community will play a pivotal role in our Nation’s ability to 

identify ways to quickly repair or replace damaged or destroyed housing and must be partners in national 

disaster housing efforts. 

Nongovernmental Organizations 

Success in planning and providing disaster housing is built upon the strength and contributions 

that nongovernmental organizations consistently provide before, during, and after disasters. 

Nongovernmental organizations, including faith-based organizations, form the backbone of community 

disaster efforts, providing relief services to sustain life, reducing physical and emotional distress for those 

in need, connecting people to community services, and promoting recovery and renewal that help give 

communities a fresh start. A diverse range of programs and resources enable nongovernmental 

organizations to provide those services and address critical individual and community needs that cannot 

be met through traditional Federal, State, local, and tribal government programs alone. There are 

significant resource interdependencies between nongovernmental organizations and tribal, State, and 

local governments. 

To improve preparedness, nongovernmental organizations across the Nation collaborate with first 

responders, all levels of government, the private sector, and a wide range of community organizations, 

including those that work with special needs populations. Nongovernmental organizations help develop 

and support disaster plans, as well as recruit, train, and manage large cadres of volunteers so that they 

are ready when needed. Nongovernmental organizations may also enter into agreements with the 

Federal Government to provide personnel or facilities to help distribute essential commodities, such as 

medicine, food, and supplies. 

During disasters, nongovernmental organizations 

provide vital housing assistance by operating and 

supporting emergency shelters. Providing immediate 

safety and refuge from an impending threat or 

approaching disaster, emergency shelters offer 

individuals and households basic support, such as a 

space to sleep, food, water, first aid, support services, 

and restroom/shower facilities. Successfully 

orchestrating that diverse range of services into a 

cohesive operation during the chaos of a disaster 

requires multiple organizations from across 

communities to work together effectively, with each 

fulfilling their important role in support of disaster 

victims and each other. Some of these organizations 

identify facilities in nearby areas that meet the specific 

Partnering With Nongovernmental 

Organizations 

FEMA and the National Center for 

Missing and Exploited Children 

collaborated to develop the National 

Emergency Family Registry and Locator 

System (NEFRLS), a Web-based tool to 

help reunite families separated and 

dispersed by a disaster. Individuals can 

register by either telephone or Internet. An 

additional benefit from this partnership is 

that when children are missing, the National 

Child Locator System is also activated to 

provide additional assistance to reunite 

them with their parents or guardians. 

Page 15 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

requirements for emergency shelters or help develop shelter operation plans well in advance of the 

disaster. Planning activities by these organizations should consider barriers to physical accessibility and 

delivery of services for persons with disabilities or other special needs. Others train and then supply large 

cadres of volunteers to staff and operate shelters during a disaster, provide kitchens to prepare meals, or 

donate food items, blankets, cots, and other items that may be needed by disaster victims. 

After an incident, nongovernmental organizations identify community needs and provide or help locate 

community-based support, such as childcare, emotional support, case management services, and 

referrals for physical, mental, emotional, legal, and financial support. Nongovernmental organizations can 

also assist in the repair and cleanup of damaged homes and community facilities by providing labor, tools, 

materials, and/or equipment. In other cases, nongovernmental organizations can help replace personal 

documents that will be necessary for individuals to rent housing, repair their homes, or purchase a new 

home. Nongovernmental organizations also reconnect people with disabilities to assistive technology, 

durable medical equipment, and other independent living services. These organizations also play a vital 

role in advocating for and assisting in the repair and reconstruction of essential community facilities and 

restoring community-based services. 

American Red Cross 

The American Red Cross has a nationwide system for disaster planning, preparedness, 

community disaster education and mitigation, chapter readiness, and disaster response 

throughout the United States and its territories. Although the American Red Cross is not a 

government agency, its authority to provide disaster relief was formalized through a congressional 

charter. Red Cross chapters form the cornerstone of the organization’s response to disaster and initiate a 

response when a disaster occurs. Red Cross disaster relief focuses on meeting people's immediate 

disaster needs. When a disaster threatens or strikes, the Red Cross provides shelter, food, and health 

and mental health services to address basic human needs. Red Cross relief services are provided to 

minimize the suffering of people affected by providing shelter (individual or congregate temporary 

shelters), food (fixed or mobile feeding operations), basic health services, and relief supplies. In addition 

to these services, the core of Red Cross disaster relief is the assistance given to individuals and families 

affected by disaster to enable them to resume their normal daily activities independently. The Red Cross 

also feeds emergency workers, handles inquiries from concerned family members outside the disaster 

area, provides blood and blood products to disaster victims, and helps those affected by disaster to 

access other available resources. Under the National Response Framework, the Red Cross is a support 

agency to the Mass Care functions of Emergency Support Function (ESF) #6 – Mass Care, Emergency 

Assistance, Housing, and Human Services. The Red Cross has a lead role in coordinating and 

supporting the efforts of the national nongovernmental organizations that provide mass care services 

during response operations. 

National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster 

The National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (National VOAD) coordinates planning 

efforts by many voluntary organizations responding to disaster. Member organizations increase 

their effectiveness and reduce duplication of services by proactively planning before disasters strike. 

Following a disaster, National VOAD or an affiliated State VOAD encourages members and other 

voluntary agencies to convene on site. This cooperative effort has proven to be the most effective way for 

a wide variety of volunteers and organizations to work together in a crisis. National VOAD provides 

information to member organizations about the severity of the disaster, the needs of disaster victims, and 

actions being taken by organizations to support response and recovery operations. Additionally, National 

VOAD may provide guidance on management of unaffiliated volunteers and unsolicited donated goods. 

Page 16 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

National VOAD facilitates and encourages collaboration, communication, cooperation, and coordination, 

and builds relationships among members while groups plan and prepare for emergencies and disasters. 

During major disasters, National VOAD typically sends representatives to FEMA’s National Response 

Coordination Center to represent the voluntary organizations and assist in response coordination. 

Members of the National VOAD often also have representatives at Joint Field Offices and perform 

important functions. 

Federal Government 

The Federal Government maintains a wide array of capabilities and resources that can be made 

available upon request of a Governor. When disasters exceed State resources or when disasters are 

managed by Federal departments or agencies acting under their own authorities, the Federal 

Government may provide resources and capabilities to support the State. The Federal Government 

follows the National Response Framework to integrate all necessary department and agency capabilities, 

organize the Federal response, and ensure coordination with State, tribal, and local partners. Lessons 

learned in the aftermath of the 2005 hurricane season have strengthened Federal response and recovery 

capabilities, making them more comprehensive, scalable, and flexible to meet specific disaster 

requirements. 

Federal assistance can be provided to State, tribal, and local jurisdictions and to other Federal 

departments and agencies in a number of different ways through various mechanisms and authorities. It 

may be provided under the Stafford Act through a Presidential declaration, or without a declaration under 

other authorities. The National Response Framework presents additional information on when and how 

assistance is provided. 

Under the Stafford Act and in support of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) leads the national effort to prepare for, respond to, recover 

from, and mitigate against disasters. Under the National Response Framework, FEMA interfaces with the 

State and coordinates Federal disaster assistance efforts. Within this framework, FEMA works with its 

partners to coordinate Federal sheltering assistance through ESF #6 – Mass Care, Emergency 

Assistance, Housing, and Human Services. Under this Strategy, FEMA and the Department of Housing 

and Urban Development (HUD) will partner to provide Federal interim housing assistance, each bringing 

its expertise and experience to bear. When Federal permanent housing assistance is needed, HUD will 

have the lead responsibility under this Strategy and will coordinate with its partners to provide housing 

and community development resources. 

Legislative authority, staffing, and other resources may be required for the new responsibilities for HUD 

indicated in the Permanent Housing section of this Strategy and to implement a disaster housing voucher 

program, such as the Disaster Housing Assistance Program (DHAP) implemented following the Gulf 

Coast hurricanes for interim housing. With respect to DHAP, permanent authorizing legislation should be 

established that enables HUD to stand ready and quickly mobilize its network of PHAs to administer an 

interim and tenant-based rental assistance program for households displaced from their homes by 

disasters 

Page 17 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

Department of Homeland Security 

Pursuant to the Homeland Security Act of 2002 and Homeland Security Presidential Directive 

(HSPD) 5, the Secretary of Homeland Security is the principal Federal official for domestic incident 

management. Incident management refers to how incidents are managed across all homeland security 

activities, including prevention, protection, and response and recovery. Other Federal departments and 

agencies have key responsibilities to support national response activities and carry out those 

responsibilities within the overarching coordinating mechanisms of the National Response Framework. 

DHS coordinates with other agencies to surge Federal support at the headquarters, regional, and field 

levels. In support of disaster housing, DHS works across all Federal departments and agencies to ensure 

coordinated Federal support, identifies and resolves policy issues, and integrates housing with all the 

other incident management activities. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 

The primary mission of FEMA is to reduce the loss of life and property and protect the Nation from 

all hazards by leading and supporting the Nation in a risk-based, comprehensive emergency 

management system of preparedness, protection, response, recovery, and mitigation. When a 

disaster strikes that may exceed local, State, and tribal capabilities, the Nation looks to FEMA to quickly 

mobilize and integrate the full range of Federal capabilities to meet individual and community needs for 

assistance. FEMA serves as the lead Federal agency for emergency management, coordinating 

response and recovery with the State under the authority of the Stafford Act. This flexible and robust 

authority ensures that FEMA is able to lead the Federal component of a unified Federal and State 

response. FEMA serves as the integrator of strategies and the coordinator of service delivery. FEMA 

coordinates Federal sheltering assistance, partners with HUD to provide interim housing assistance, and 

supports HUD’s role in permanent housing. 

FEMA administers a range of assistance programs that provide Federal assistance to State and local 

governments, nongovernmental organizations, and individuals when a disaster occurs. One of its largest 

programs—Public Assistance—provides funds to States that State and local governments use to repair 

and rebuild damaged public infrastructure through activities such as removing debris, repairing roads, 

reconstructing government buildings, and restoring utilities. These grants help restore community 

services and infrastructure that are vital prerequisites for successful housing efforts. Pursuant to the 

Stafford Act, Public Assistance is limited to either a fixed dollar amount or a percentage of costs for 

restoring damaged facilities. 

FEMA also administers the Individual Assistance Program, which provides aid to individuals affected by a 

disaster. Individual Assistance Programs are based on eligibility and provide financial assistance for 1) 

temporary housing to rent a different place to live, or a government-provided housing unit when rental 

properties are not available, 2) repairs to help homeowners repair damage from the disaster to their 

primary residence that is not covered by insurance, 3) replacement costs for homeowners to replace their 

home destroyed in the disaster that is not covered by insurance, or 4) permanent housing construction. 

Direct assistance or money for permanent housing construction is provided only in insular areas or 

remote locations specified by FEMA, where no other type of housing assistance is possible 

FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Program provides grants to assist communities to implement long-term hazard 

mitigation measures as they repair or rebuild following disasters. In addition to grant assistance, the 

Page 18 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

Disaster Relief Fund is used to reimburse Federal agencies through mission assignments1 for relief and 

recovery work requested by FEMA. 

FEMA’s responsibilities for housing are described in the National Response Framework’s ESF #6 – Mass 

Care, Emergency Assistance, Housing, and Human Services. Under ESF #6, FEMA provides leadership 

to coordinate and integrate Federal efforts associated with housing services. Housing support may 

include rental assistance, repairs, loan assistance, factory-built housing, permanent construction, and 

accessible housing. As part of this, FEMA 1) assists with the collection of data on housing resources 

potentially available in the proximity of the impacted area, 2) coordinates temporary housing resources 

needed to support any sheltering shortfall, and 3) addresses the short-term and long-term disaster-related 

housing needs of victims. Further, the introduction to the National Response Framework ESF Annexes 

states that primary agencies are responsible for notifying and requesting assistance from designated 

support agencies, managing mission assignments, coordinating with appropriate State agencies, and 

working with appropriate private-sector organizations to maximize the use of all available resources. 

FEMA cannot meet its responsibilities or fulfill its role in disaster housing without the engaged assistance 

of other Federal departments and agencies who plan, prepare, and act to ensure the delivery of essential 

commodities and services that support State requirements. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development 

HUD’s mission is to increase homeownership, support community development, and increase 

access to affordable housing free from discrimination. As the Federal experts on providing 

permanent housing assistance for low-income families, HUD is uniquely positioned to assist those 

affected by a disaster. 

HUD’s national network of 4,000 Public Housing Agencies (PHAs) provide 1.2 million units of subsidized 

housing and approximately 2 million housing vouchers to low-income families. Through this network, 

additional Federal funds can be applied so that PHAs can assist disaster-affected families. The PHA 

network gives HUD the ability to efficiently mobilize a housing response to large-scale disasters. In 

addition to housing assistance, some PHAs, when given additional funding, will also provide social 

services, including service connections and case management, to transition disaster victims to selfsufficiency. 

HUD’s National Housing Locator (NHL) is a Web site that can assist individuals and families in finding 

rental housing in a Presidentially declared or local disaster. The NHL is a searchable clearinghouse of 

rental housing available nationwide. It allows HUD and its business partners, in particular other Federal 

agencies and PHAs, to deliver housing assistance by rapidly locating rental housing and available 

government-owned, foreclosed homes for sale during an emergency. 

Through lenders approved by HUD’s Federal Housing Administration (FHA), the Department offers 

insured mortgages for disaster victims to rebuild substantially damaged or destroyed homes or to 

rehabilitate less damaged homes. FHA also may provide homeownership opportunities through 

discounted home sales programs. Access to HUD-assisted housing counseling agencies is also 

available. 

 

1 A mission assignment is a FEMA request to another Federal agency to provide a specific service. FEMA uses 

mission assignments to support Federal operations in a major disaster or emergency declaration under the Stafford 

Act. It orders immediate, short-term emergency response assistance when an applicable State or local government 

is overwhelmed by the event and lacks the capability to perform, or contract for, the necessary work. 

Page 19 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

HUD also addresses community recovery needs through its management of the Community Development 

Block Grant (CDBG) program. The CDBG program focuses on a wide range of community and economic 

development and housing needs nationwide, representing about 1,200 cities and urban counties, and 

States, and is a funding vehicle for the rebuilding of communities devastated in disasters. 

Following a disaster, HUD plays a key role in long-term community recovery under the National Response 

Framework. ESF #14 – Long-Term Community Recovery provides a mechanism for coordinating Federal 

support to State, tribal, regional, and local governments, nongovernmental organizations, and the private 

sector to enable community recovery from the long-term consequences of extraordinary disasters. As 

one of four primary agencies for this Emergency Support Function, HUD provides building technical 

assistance for housing, community redevelopment and economic recovery, public services, infrastructure, 

mortgage financing, and public housing repair and reconstruction. 

U.S. Small Business Administration 

The U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) was created to aid, counsel, assist, and protect the 

interests of small business concerns, to preserve free competitive enterprise, and to maintain and 

strengthen the overall economy of our Nation. Through its Office of Disaster Assistance, SBA is 

responsible for providing affordable, timely, and accessible financial assistance to homeowners, renters, 

and businesses following a disaster. Financial assistance is available in the form of low-interest, longterm loans. SBA’s disaster loans are the primary form of Federal assistance for the repair and rebuilding 

of non-farm, private-sector disaster losses. 

Department of Agriculture 

The Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides emergency farm loans, farm ownership loans, and 

natural disaster loans to low- and very low-income individuals and households, and housing 

repair loans and grants to low- and very low-income individuals and households. The mission of 

USDA’s Office of Rural Development, which is to increase economic opportunity and improve the quality 

of life for all rural Americans, is met through three programs, which can also provide disaster housing 

assistance support: the Housing and Community Facilities Programs, the Utilities Programs, and the 

Business and Cooperative Programs. In providing disaster assistance, USDA is a support agency under 

the National Response Framework for ESF #6 – Mass Care, Emergency Assistance, Housing, and 

Human Services; and ESF #12 – Energy. USDA is also a primary agency for ESF #14 – Long-Term 

Community Recovery. 

In response to a disaster, the Housing and Community Facilities Programs provide information (i.e., 

location, type, owners, and/or management service) on USDA-financed, currently available, habitable 

housing units; provide Letters of Priority Entitlement for lists for placement in USDA-financed housing; 

and assist eligible recipients to meet emergency housing assistance needs resulting from Presidential 

emergency or major disaster declarations. 

During a disaster, the Utilities Programs provide technical support and access to both damage 

assessments and restoration efforts for electric power generation, transmission, and distribution in 

financed systems. They also gather and communicate information to assess impacts and needs and 

provide information on USDA-financed housing units available for response or emergency personnel. 

In response to a disaster, the Business and Cooperative Programs leverage their community recovery 

resources through emergency loans and grants for the agricultural sector; economic and technical 

assistance for recovery of rural community facilities and businesses; technical assistance for agricultural 

Page 20 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

market recovery, community planning, and community development; and resource conservation 

assistance. 

In addition, under ESF #11 – Agriculture and Natural Resources, USDA works with FEMA to ensure an 

integrated response that provides for the safety and well-being of household pets. 

Department of Veterans Affairs 

The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) administers the laws providing benefits and other 

services to veterans, certain dependents, and beneficiaries of veterans. Upon request during 

declared emergencies, VA may make VA property available to provide space for the establishment of 

shelters. Also upon request, VA may provide FEMA a list of all habitable housing units owned by the 

Department that are available for use as transition or interim housing, which would generally last up to 18 

months. VA may also work with HUD to transfer VA properties to local urban homesteading agencies for 

use in a HUD-approved local urban homesteading program. Under the National Response Framework’s 

ESF #6 – Mass Care, Emergency Assistance, Housing, and Human Services, VA assigns representatives 

assigned to FEMA Disaster Assistance Centers to counsel eligible disaster victims on VA housing, and 

can assign to FEMA habitable VA single-family and multiple housing units for the purpose of providing 

interim housing options to eligible disaster victims. The units may also be used by a State when it 

administers the Temporary Housing Assistance program on FEMA's behalf. 

Department of Health and Human Services 

The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is the U.S. government’s principal agency 

for protecting the health of all Americans. The overall goal of HHS’s preparedness and response 

program is to ensure sustained public health and medical preparedness within communities and the 

Nation in defense against terrorism, infectious disease outbreaks, medical emergencies, and other public 

health threats. In a public health emergency, HHS has a wide range of responsibilities, from monitoring, 

assessing, and following up on people’s health to providing medical, public health, and mental/behavioral 

health advice. Under the Public Health Service Act, HHS has a number of additional authorities to aid in 

an emergency, from declaring a public health emergency to making and enforcing regulations. To fulfill 

its role, HHS works closely with State, local, and tribal public health departments, DHS, other Federal 

agencies, and medical partners in the private and nonprofit sectors. 

HHS is the primary agency for ESF #8 – Public Health and Medical Services and is a supporting agency 

to FEMA under ESF #6 – Mass Care, Emergency Assistance, Housing, and Human Services. Under 

ESF #6, HHS provides human services, public health and medical services, and veterinary medical 

services. Human services are designed to address related but nonhousing needs of individuals and 

families. As part of these services, HHS supports the Crisis Counseling and Training Program and 

provides support within the disaster-affected area by deploying human services assessment teams. HHS 

also provides assistance to State agencies that administer emergency human services programs within 

the Disaster Recovery Centers. HHS provides subject-matter expertise, consultation, and technical 

assistance to ESF #6 partners on disaster human services issues, such as working with special needs 

populations, assessing childcare needs, or accessing HHS programs that address human services needs 

in an emergency, etc. HHS coordinates with the ESF #6 lead agencies to ensure that appropriate 

benefits are delivered to the impacted population and assists medically evacuated patients in reunification 

with their families through the National Emergency Family Registry Locator System (NEFRLS) and the 

National Emergency Child Locator Center (NECLC). 

Page 21 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

Bureau of Indian Affairs 

The mission of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) is to enhance the quality of life, promote 

economic opportunity, and carry out the responsibility to protect and improve the trust assets of 

American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives. BIA accomplishes this through the delivery of 

quality services and by maintaining government-to-government relationships within the spirit of Indian 

self-determination. BIA is responsible for the administration and management of 55.7 million acres of 

land held in trust by the United States for American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives. There are 

562 federally recognized tribal governments in the United States. Developing forest lands, leasing assets 

on these lands, directing agricultural programs, protecting water and land rights, developing and 

maintaining infrastructure, and economic development are all part of the agency’s responsibility. In 

addition, BIA provides education services to approximately 48,000 Indian students. 

During disasters and other times of emergency, BIA supports the Federal response as a partner through 

various mechanisms and authorities. BIA provides resources and staff in response to tribal government 

requests for assistance. Resources provided may include firefighting equipment and supplies, as well as 

limited disaster funding for tribal fire response. BIA does not maintain an emergency or disaster housing 

program. Any tribal government requests for housing are referred to and coordinated by HUD. 

Other Federal Agencies 

Numerous other Federal agencies play critical roles in providing disaster sheltering and housing, 

and may provide assistance under or independent of the Stafford Act. The National Response 

Framework and supporting annexes identify key responsibilities for other Federal agencies involved in the 

disaster recovery process. These departments and agencies will work in coordination with FEMA to 

ensure the Federal Government’s response to disasters is well coordinated and comprehensive. These 

departments and agencies include, but are not limited to, the following: 

• Department of Defense (DOD), including the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE): In 

addition to their lead role in ESF #3 – Public Works and Engineering, following a disaster USACE 

provides mass care and human services support at FEMA’s request. These services may include the 

inspection, construction, or installation of housing options, and other forms of support. USACE can 

also conduct or provide technical assistance on the expedited repair of damaged homes, to include 

temporary roofing or other repairs that facilitate reoccupation of minimally damaged structures. 

• Department of Energy (DOE): DOE facilitates the assessment, reporting, and restoration of 

damaged energy systems and components when activated by DHS for incidents requiring a 

coordinated Federal response. 

• Department of the Interior (DOI): DOI is able to assist in the protection of property and mitigation of 

damages and impacts to the Department, individuals, and surrounding communities in preparation for 

or in support of response and recovery from a disaster. This includes rescue, evacuation, emergency 

medical treatment, emergency debris removal, and restoration of essential public services. DOI is 

also able to assist in the safeguarding, collecting, and distributing of food and essential supplies. 

Page 22 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 2. Disaster Housing Partners 

• General Services Administration (GSA): Following a disaster, GSA is able to provide relief 

workers and victims of disaster with the essential products and services needed to help prevent, 

prepare for, and respond to emergencies. Assistance includes food, shelter, cleaning supplies, 

comfort kits, first aid, clothing, personal items, emergency transportation, home repair, household 

items, medical supplies, etc. At FEMA’s request, GSA can also obtain land leases for housing sites, 

logistical staging areas, or other required facilities. 

Page 23 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
DISASTER HOUSING: 

PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES, AND DIRECTIONS 

Overview 

This chapter discusses the complexity of disaster housing needs, key principles and practices, 

and future directions in providing housing assistance to support the goals within the Strategy and 

the broader response and recovery effort. The core of disaster response and recovery is human need 

and the ability to meet that need in times of distress, when resources and capabilities may be limited and 

individuals and communities are struggling to cope with the damage and destruction of a disaster. This is 

especially true when it comes to housing assistance, whether an individual or household is seeking 

immediate shelter from an approaching storm or other threat, struggling to cope with damage to their 

home and personal belongings, or deciding how to repair or replace their home. Local governments must 

meet these needs while also looking at the broader community needs, which may require restoring large 

areas, including the essential services and infrastructure necessary to revitalize the area. 

This chapter introduces some of the competing 

factors that drive individual, household, and 

community needs for housing assistance and 

provides an overview of current practices across 

the country to meet those needs. There have 

been substantial strides in housing assistance as 

a result of the lessons learned in Hurricane 

Katrina and other disasters, and the current 

practices reflect those successes and highlight 

innovative work being done by communities and 

States, as well as nongovernmental 

organizations and the private sector. 

Housing Needs: One Family’s Story 

To provide housing assistance, we must understand 

the challenges and complex choices that people face 

as a disaster unfolds. For example, Gereld Sibely, a 

native of New Orleans, found shelter in the Houston 

Astrodome on September 4, 2005. 

 

Sibely, 32, lived in New Orleans with his wife, mother, and 

six children. His family was one of the lucky ones. They 

owned a car, but it was too small to transport his entire 

family in one trip. When the mandatory evacuation for 

Hurricane Katrina was announced, Sibely decided that 

since he could not successfully transport his whole family 

together, they would all stay behind and ride out the storm. 

The family gathered on the first floor as the storm broke 

that night. The wind howled at well over 140 miles an hour 

and shook the house. The family prayed, fearing the 

house would tip over or tear apart. Then the wind died, but 

soon water breached the levee at the 17th Street Canal. 

The family moved to an upstairs loft, but water soon began 

to seep into it, too. 

Sibley and his family were rescued by motor boat and 

taken to the Astrodome by charter bus. It was not until 

they got to the Astrodome that they felt like they could relax 

for a while. “My family is still together – we are alive,” he 

said. “The Red Cross gave us all blankets and a cot...they 

welcomed us with open arms...we were fed. The 

Astrodome is packed, but it is safe. We don’t know what is 

next...but we are together. It is good to be safe!” (Source: 

Good To Be Safe, by Glenda Plunkett, Mid-Illinois Chapter, 

American Red Cross)

This chapter also discusses future directions for 

how we as a Nation can work together to 

achieve the goals within the Strategy. This 

includes reviewing best practices and 

innovations to develop and establish baseline 

capabilities and core competencies, validate 

roles and responsibilities, and improve the 

range, quality, and timeliness of disaster housing 

services provided by communities, States, and 

the Federal Government. Working toward 

common goals will help focus our efforts and 

identify new opportunities as we continue to 

improve housing assistance that enables 

individuals, households, and communities to 

meet their disaster housing needs. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 24 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Principles, Practices, and Directions 

Disaster Housing: A Planner’s Dilemma 

It is critical to anticipate the challenge of providing housing assistance that meets diverse 

individual, household, and community needs. Meeting urgent housing needs while enabling 

individuals, households, and communities to rebuild and restore their way of life is a complex equation 

that requires all those involved in disaster housing – including all levels of government, nongovernmental 

organizations, and the private sector – to navigate a broad range of competing and interdependent 

factors. This burden falls primarily on planners at each level, who must address these factors to develop 

deliberative disaster housing plans and conduct crisis action planning during a disaster that adjusts to 

meet the real-world circumstances. This process provides critical guidance to decisionmakers when they 

need it most. 

As part of this dilemma, planners must: 1) assess the nature and magnitude of a disaster, 2) prioritize 

individual and household needs, 3) understand the broader community characteristics, and 4) be familiar 

with available housing options that are appropriate within their area. Planners must not only have a 

comprehensive understanding of each of these four factors, but must also consider the operational issues 

such as providing accommodations for disaster workers and those involved in infrastructure restoration. 

Planners must also be able to inform and provide guidance to decisionmakers on how to balance 

competing issues – simultaneously responding to urgent needs, continually adjusting as those needs 

evolve, and developing permanent housing. 

While these factors can be addressed independently, the planner's dilemma is to consider the 

interdependencies among these factors. For example, the perfect shelter with adequate capacity will not 

work if it is available too late or is too far away. This dilemma becomes increasingly difficult to solve as 

life-threatening or urgent needs emerge and resources become scarce or delayed. 

Nature and Magnitude of a Disaster 

The nature and magnitude of a disaster drive the size, scope, and scale of housing assistance and 

determine duration of assistance that may be required, with catastrophic events likely to require 

substantial permanent housing assistance for extended periods of time. Planners must develop a 

range of housing assistance that addresses the full spectrum of disasters that could occur, from smaller 

scale events of shorter duration and concentrated impact, such as tornadoes or wildfires, to large-scale 

catastrophic events that are of a considerable magnitude and result in widespread devastation across a 

substantial area or region. Housing assistance must also address the full range of potential disasters, 

from natural disasters to terrorism incidents and manmade events.

While the needs for smaller scale disasters can be met through a range of sheltering and interim housing 

options, large-scale catastrophic events will require extensive long-term reconstruction and rehabilitation 

to support community and regional renewal and revitalization. Some catastrophic events, such as release 

of a radiological or biological agent or a nuclear detonation, may render an area uninhabitable for 

extended periods of time and will require intensive advance planning. The exponential demands of a 

catastrophic event are arduous and cannot be addressed by merely doing more − substantial planning at 

a higher level is required to prepare for the magnitude of a catastrophic event and develop housing 

options that can meet the potentially overwhelming demand for immediate shelter, interim housing, and 

permanent housing. In extreme scenarios, such as a nuclear detonation, large numbers of people may 

need to relocate, perhaps permanently. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 25 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Principles, Practices, and Directions 

Complexity of Individual and Household Needs 

Accommodating the broad range of human needs during a disaster is the central challenge in 

planning for effective housing assistance. Individuals and households have unique needs and 

circumstances that affect the choices they make, define requirements, and limit the disaster housing 

solutions that will be satisfactory. Planners must understand those needs and how they may change as a 

disaster unfolds. Planners must also anticipate how those needs will drive the demands for housing 

assistance, including who will need assistance and what types of assistance they will require. For 

example, individuals with special needs, including the elderly and persons with disabilities, or persons 

living with HIV/AIDS, may need physically accessible options, and convenient access to appropriate 

medical facilities or emotional support groups. To prepare to meet these diverse disaster housing 

requirements, planners must have detailed demographic data that reflects specific functional issues for 

disabled persons. 

In addition to the needs of individuals, there are also complex issues related to households. It is vital to 

keep households and families together whenever possible, especially when children and older adults are 

involved. However, during the chaos of a disaster, households may become separated, and it is essential 

to reunite them as quickly as possible. In addition, caregivers need to be near and accompany 

dependents to ensure their health and safety. Individuals and households also represent a diversity of 

cultures, languages, and dialects within communities and it is important that planners recognize this and 

tailor housing assistance programs to those needs. 

These housing needs also tie to the broader issues of where we work, where our children go to school, 

proximity to community services, accessibility to public transportation, and how close we are to friends 

and family. 

Community or Regional Characteristics 

Effective housing assistance must be tailored to reflect the community or regional characteristics; 

one size does not fit all. Understanding community and regional characteristics is essential for planners 

to shape a disaster housing plan that reflects the appropriate types, nature, and location of housing 

assistance. One of the fundamental steps in disaster assistance is a high-level assessment of the area 

that has been impacted, including the extent of damage and how it has affected the community and 

surrounding area. This preliminary assessment helps establish priorities for housing assistance and 

provides valuable data to define the range of housing assistance required to meet the community’s 

needs. Communities also need to address difficult questions about whether they will continue to rebuild 

areas that were damaged as opposed to permanently moving such housing to other areas at lesser risk. 

Follow-on assessments to develop interim or permanent housing should take into account a broader 

range of characteristics, such as the size, composition, and distribution of the population, as well as land 

use patterns, socioeconomic conditions, the local government and businesses, community groups, 

infrastructure conditions, and other community resources. This information can help forecast how various 

housing options will affect the local economy and the long-term recovery of the area. It will also help 

identify priorities for rebuilding, as well as opportunities to better integrate local resources and address 

cultural sensitivities. For example, an effective community assessment can identify critical linkages 

between housing options and related community support services, such as referrals for job placement, 

healthcare and daycare providers, and other services. The community’s location and physical 

characteristics are also important. For instance, communities located in a floodplain or earthquake-prone 

area will have additional challenges in rebuilding, such as revising building codes and standards to help 

mitigate future events. 

Page 26 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Principles, Practices, and Directions 

Communities, supported by the State, have an essential role and typically lead planning efforts for longterm recovery in their area, including charting direction, engendering support, identifying financing 

options, and executing rebuilding plans as part of the broader recovery effort. As part of the overall 

approach for housing and rebuilding efforts, communities identify and shape planning and zoning 

requirements, identify assistance for homeowner repair and rebuilding efforts, provide assistance and 

incentives for builders and developers, and lay the groundwork for long-term rebuilding strategies. For 

example, depending on community needs, planners may explore options for mixed-use or mixed-income 

housing or supportive housing, which provides wraparound services for people with special needs. 

Available Housing Options 

The range of available housing options sets the parameters for the type of assistance that can be 

provided and challenges planners to be creative in seeking innovative solutions. Disaster housing 

must include a sufficient range of options that are compatible with the community characteristics, 

including population density, climate, geography, and land availability. They must be safe, durable, 

physically accessible, and cost effective. Viability may also hinge on timely availability and sufficient 

capacity to meet the size and diversity of a household, as well as cost-effectiveness. 

In cases where residents may be able to return to their predisaster neighborhoods quickly, planners 

should make every attempt to create sheltering and interim housing options that allow individuals and 

households to remain near their predisaster residence. Planners should make the best use of available 

infrastructure, considering temporary housing only when needed. Yet when that need arises, the best 

plan will explore the full range of options, from factory-built housing such as manufactured homes and 

cottages to other creative alternatives which will meet the needs of a diverse community population. If the 

disaster results in conditions where the return of residents is expected to be months or years away, longterm or permanent relocation options should be reflected as an element of long-term planning. 

Summary: Understanding and Balancing the Factors 

The planner’s dilemma is in understanding and balancing each of these four factors 

independently and collectively in the formulation of a disaster housing plan. Effective housing 

assistance is a continual balance to assess these interdependent factors, develop housing assistance 

requirements, and deliver a range of services. Planners must assess the full range of housing options 

that are available and determine which ones best meet the needs of the situation, with housing 

assistance evolving as people’s needs evolve and change over the course of the disaster. 

Principles, Practices, and Future Directions 

Key principles and current practices in disaster housing assistance reflect lessons learned in 

meeting the needs of displaced populations. These practices reflect both the art and science of 

disaster housing through a consistent menu of options that unfolds in time of need. The Federal 

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the American Red Cross, and other nongovernmental and 

volunteer organizations work together to implement these practices under the National Response 

Framework. This document will identify these current practices, both to gain value from describing what 

works and to lay the foundation for identifying future directions that have potential to improve our 

effectiveness. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 27 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Principles, Practices, and Directions 

The experience of Hurricane Katrina and the need to plan for a range of other catastrophes require a 

more sophisticated perspective on disaster housing. Certain States and major urban areas have 

recognized the need for new direction. For example, Florida and California are working with privatesector partners and community organizations to develop landmark disaster housing practices that will 

improve shelter operations, expand the range of temporary housing, and mitigate long-term requirements 

by retrofitting and reinforcing building structures in advance of a disaster. Each is developing programs 

based on local needs, potential disasters that could occur, and available resources. And among major 

urban areas, New York City is working with the private sector to develop new designs for high-density 

temporary housing within a framework focused on disaster housing as a key element of disaster recovery. 

Like other densely populated urban areas, New York must plan for a range of disasters that could result in 

a loss of hundreds of thousands of homes, sending millions of people in search of disaster housing. 

This Strategy captures these future directions and suggests others that sharpen the national focus to 

achieve a higher state of preparedness and increase collaboration. To accomplish this, FEMA will 

establish a National Disaster Housing Joint Task Force that will bring together local, State, 

nongovernmental, and private-sector entities. The Joint Task Force and its mission to implement the 

Strategy and improve national disaster housing are discussed further in the chapter titled “Implementing 

the Strategy.” 

The following three sections outline key principles, current practices, and new directions for sheltering, 

interim housing, and permanent housing. 

Page 28 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
SHELTERING 

Overview 

In the face of an approaching disaster or after a disaster strikes, individuals and households may 

be forced to leave their homes to seek shelter. Providing shelters for disaster victims is a complex 

operation that requires collaborative planning across a wide range of organizations, timely decisions by 

local officials, and coordinated implementation among all involved, including nongovernmental 

organizations, the private sector, and various levels of government. Those involved in this process must 

balance the challenge of providing services with the urgency of meeting basic human needs. 

Sheltering is typically conducted at the local level by nongovernmental organizations working closely with 

the local government to plan and operate facilities that meet local needs. When required, additional 

support is provided by the State and, if necessary, by the Federal Government. In most cases, shelter 

residents are able to return home within a short time or locate other housing on their own. However, in 

large-scale or catastrophic disasters, extended shelter stays may be required. As soon as shelters open, 

officials must begin working to address longer term housing needs, ensuring that individuals can either 

return home or transition to interim or permanent housing. Shelters are not designed for, nor should they 

be used for, extended periods. 

Shelters serve multiple purposes. Not only do they 

provide temporary refuge, but they also offer a 

place for families and households to regroup, 

register for disaster assistance, and obtain updates 

regarding damages, casualties, and response and 

recovery efforts. Shelters provide access to 

disaster recovery services that can help meet the 

immediate needs of individuals and households 

while the community responds to the disaster and 

begins the recovery process. 

Sheltering: A Community-Based Approach 

In most cases, building shelter capacity begins at the 

local level, with nongovernmental organizations and 

others working closely with community groups to meet 

local needs. For example, in 2006 the American Red 

Cross Southwestern Pennsylvania Chapter unveiled 

a community sheltering project to prepare 26 

floodprone communities along the Monongahela 

River. 

The project helped the communities learn how they 

can be self-sufficient in times of disaster. It provided 

community volunteers with the tools and disaster 

response skills needed to have a shelter open and 

running within minutes. Led by the Red Cross and 

funded by an $80,000 grant from the United States 

Steel Foundation, the project brought 5 trailers, each 

loaded with shelter equipment sufficient to assist 

100 people, to secure areas in the 5 communities. In 

addition, the Red Cross placed 5 caches of 

equipment in churches or schools in other 

communities, to shelter another 100 per location. A 

new truck was also purchased and stationed at a 

local food bank to increase the efficiency of 

transporting supplies to affected areas. 

This project was a result of planning that dates back to 

the regional flooding caused by remnants of Hurricane 

Ivan in 2004. (Source: Red Cross, Successful Volunteer 

Management 2006)

Individuals have a range of shelter needs that 

communities must be prepared to address. These 

individuals may have to make important sheltering 

decisions under difficult circumstances with less 

than perfect information and may face complicating 

personal situations. When communities develop 

comprehensive shelter plans, they provide options 

to meet those needs and various contingencies. 

The plans include accommodations for the general 

population and those with special needs, including 

persons who are elderly or have disabilities. 

Sheltering household pets must also be taken into 

consideration. Community needs will drive shelter 

configuration and the requirements for support 

services, specially trained staff, supplies, and 

equipment. 

Page 29 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

This section describes key principles, shelter responsibilities and roles, current practices, and future 

directions in sheltering to support the broader goals within the Strategy. 

Key Principles 

The following paragraphs summarize key sheltering principles based on lessons learned from 

past disasters. Shelter services are a critical part of disaster operations, and shelter programs must be 

in place to provide short-term refuge and life-sustaining services for disaster victims who have been 

displaced and are unable to meet their own sheltering needs. The key principles reaffirm that shelter 

operations are primarily a local responsibility and rely on resources within communities. They also 

underscore the fact that shelter operations are complex undertakings, that planning is essential, and that 

catastrophic events can quickly compound sheltering challenges. 

1. Shelter operations are primarily conducted at the local level. 

Successful shelter operations hinge on the ability of local leaders and nongovernmental organizations to 

come together to integrate a wide array of services and capabilities to meet the needs of disaster victims. 

It is the strong sense of community and a commitment to others that rallies the local support required to 

deliver these essential services during a disaster. Local community groups, businesses, schools, 

healthcare facilities, and places of worship all play vital roles in providing sheltering and related support 

services during a disaster. To meet the intensive demands, all organizations must understand their 

responsibilities and roles, be able to deliver effective capabilities tailored to community requirements, 

provide scalable support based on need, maintain communication and coordinate with local government 

emergency management agencies, and work together adapting and adjusting as the situation dictates. 

2. Shelter operations can appear deceptively simple but are extraordinarily complex. 

The demands and nature of shelter operations are complex, requiring both the science of planning and 

the art of meeting human needs. Sheltering can appear on the surface as simple as locating a suitable 

facility and opening the doors to disaster victims. That process becomes increasingly difficult, however, 

when it must meet the full range of individual and household needs, including individuals with special 

needs, such as people with disabilities and their assistive technology and durable medical equipment, 

and/or service animals2

, as well as individuals with household pets. Buildings used as shelters must also 

comply with Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended3

, and the Americans with 

Disabilities Act of 1990. These requirements reflect the diversity of our communities. While they pose 

challenges, they also prompt innovation and highlight the need for deliberative planning. 

3. Shelter operations require sophisticated planning across a wide range of organizations to 

meet urgent needs quickly. 

Effective shelter operations require local officials and nongovernmental organizations to anticipate shelter 

 

2 Service animals, as defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) developed by 

the Department of Justice, must not be separated from their owners. 3

 Section 504 provides that no qualified individual with a disability should, only by reason of his or her disability, be 

excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or 

activity receiving Federal financial assistance. 

Page 30 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

requirements based on the following factors: 1) nature and magnitude of the disaster, 2) complexity of 

individual and household needs, 3) community characteristics, and 4) available shelter options. These 

factors suggest that one plan will not fit all circumstances. These factors also drive logistical 

requirements for commodities and support services. While urban areas typically have a greater number 

and diversity of facilities that can serve as shelters, they may also face the need to shelter very large 

numbers of people. Rural areas tend to have fewer structures that are appropriate as shelters and rely 

more on the social networks of friends, family, and community groups, with shelters typically established 

at local schools or in church meeting rooms. 

The resource requirements and operational implications of these planning factors can be affected by 

other community decisions. For example, mitigation efforts to adopt and enforce effective floodplain 

management can reduce the need for shelters or the costs of repairs. Likewise, strict enforcement of 

building standards can increase the likelihood that buildings will withstand the structural demands of 

potential threats. 

As important as it is to plan the opening of a shelter, it is also important to plan its closure. Individuals 

welcomed to a shelter may also need assistance transitioning out of the shelter. This includes support 

services to help residents return home, reconnect with their community, and resume their lives. 

Disasters in which residents may not return to their homes for an extended period may require interim 

housing or long-term housing of disaster victims. Across all shelter operations, providers must 

understand capability requirements and develop arrangements in advance with those on whom they rely 

for support. Shelter plans must be flexible and adaptable to enable shelter operations to be responsive 

as new issues emerge. 

4. Shelter operations for catastrophic events enter a new realm of planning and coordination. 

Catastrophic events place exponentially greater demands on sheltering operations and generally require 

a new level of planning among community, State, and Federal officials. Such events rapidly exceed local 

shelter capacity and require assistance from the State and Federal governments. It is essential to 

understand how shelter requirements will expand in catastrophic circumstances. 

The full support of the Nation will be required to meet the demands of a catastrophic event. Due to the 

large-scale infrastructure damage expected in a catastrophic event, those who survive may need to be 

sheltered in host cities in nearby States or across the country. The need for emergency shelters may far 

exceed capacity, requiring interstate agreements to provide essential support. Nonconventional shelters 

may be required. Such shelters are time consuming to establish and challenging and costly to implement 

and sustain. All levels of government will need to work together to meet urgent needs, adjust to changing 

circumstances, and conduct operations in highly demanding, stressful situations. Following a 

catastrophic event, the lack of interim housing resources is so acute that stays in shelters may last for 

many months. 

Shelter Responsibilities and Roles 

Effective shelter operations are based on a clear understanding of responsibilities and roles 

across all levels of government, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector. These 

responsibilities and roles should be woven together in a complementary manner, starting at the local level 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 31 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

and tying in support from the State and Federal levels as appropriate. All involved must fulfill their roles 

and conduct joint planning to provide shelter operations that meet the needs of individuals, households, 

and communities. 

Individuals and Households 

Baseline Capability: Individuals and heads of household develop and implement personal 

emergency response plans to meet their sheltering and personal needs (e.g., food, clothing, 

medications, important documents, and identification) during the first 72 hours following a disaster. 

Personal emergency response plans should reflect the composition and character of the household, 

which may include the elderly, children, and individuals with disabilities and their service animals or other 

special needs populations, as well as household pets. Plans should reflect the potential need to shelter in 

place, if directed to do so by the local government for safety reasons. In addition, households should 

have plans to meet their own shelter needs by staying in a hotel or with friends or family, or by seeking a 

publicly provided emergency shelter. Those who may require additional support should make 

arrangements if possible with local service providers well before a disaster occurs. Individuals can also 

prepare by obtaining insurance to cover losses and temporary housing expenses. 

Local Government 

Baseline Capability: Local governments designate an emergency manager who has the day-to-day 

authority and responsibility to work closely with the local government, nongovernmental organizations, 

the private sector, and the State to set requirements, develop plans, and obtain resources for those 

most likely to need shelter assistance.

As part of developing local emergency plans, the emergency manager works closely with community and 

nongovernmental organizations, such as the American Red Cross, the Salvation Army, and Citizen Corps 

Councils to meet the shelter needs of their community. Based upon a thorough assessment of the 

character and composition of the local community, these plans should define shelter requirements, 

identify suitable and accessible facilities, discuss key partners and their shelter responsibilities, and 

describe the support services that will be needed to meet community needs. Emergency managers 

should provide guidelines for shelter operations and management, ensure adequate shelter capacity is 

available, and lay out procedures to ensure close coordination across shelters during a disaster. Shelter 

planning also includes developing public communication campaigns that support preparedness and 

encourage individuals and households to develop personal emergency plans. Preparedness campaigns 

also provide the public with information on evacuation routes and shelter facilities that may be used 

during a disaster, as well as items individuals should bring with them to an emergency shelter. Local 

emergency plans must be updated regularly and tested during exercises. Local governments must also 

prepare and disseminate information to assist individuals and households in developing their evacuation 

plans prior to an event. 

States, Territories, and Tribal Governments 

Baseline Capability: Governors of States and territories and tribal leaders designate or appoint a 

Director of Emergency Management as the lead official responsible for planning, developing, 

resourcing, exercising, and refining a State, territory, or tribal emergency sheltering plan that can be 

implemented to support and supplement local community sheltering or to coordinate shelter 

Page 32 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

operations and resources across the State.

The designated State, territory, or tribal emergency management agency (EMA) establishes guidelines, 

policies, and procedures that aim at increasing collaboration, cooperation, and consistency in statewide 

emergency and shelter planning. The EMA coordinates with all agencies in the State to ensure that 

resources, including equipment, facilities, supplies, and personnel, are available to support shelter 

operations when required to do so. The State sheltering plan integrates nongovernmental organizations 

such as the American Red Cross and the Salvation Army and their resources, as well as private-sector 

resources. The State also coordinates among jurisdictions within the State to identify and fill gaps and 

develops mutual aid and assistance agreements. In time of emergency, the State may request mutual aid 

and assistance from other States though the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC), and 

coordinate with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to obtain Federal assistance. 

Nongovernmental Organizations and the Private Sector 

Baseline Capability: Nongovernmental organizations and the private sector provide indispensible 

sheltering support to States, territories, tribal governments, and particularly local governments. They 

provide expertise, guidance, toolkits, commodities, managers, and volunteers and fill leading roles in 

shelter management, both before and during disasters.

The mass care services of nongovernmental organizations are integral to the community’s ability to 

provide and sustain sheltering services. Through coordinated efforts with State, tribal, and local 

emergency management agencies, these organizations assist in determining sheltering requirements, 

providing shelter guidelines and assistance, and implementing shelter agreements. Organizations such 

as the American Red Cross and faith-based organizations provide sheltering and feeding services and 

should have preexisting agreements that allow them to quickly open shelters. 

In advance of and during a disaster, many private-sector entities provide resources to support sheltering 

operations. These partners contribute to local emergency planning; enter into agreements for technical 

assistance, goods, and services; and, in some cases, provide sheltering for their employees. 

Federal Government 

Baseline Capability: Under the Stafford Act and the National Response Framework, FEMA is 

responsible for coordinating Federal assistance to States in times of disaster through ESF #6 – Mass 

Care, Emergency Assistance, Housing, and Human Services. FEMA and key partners, such as the 

American Red Cross, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers (USACE), coordinate at the Federal and State levels, support shelter planning, develop 

and maintain capabilities to respond to requests from States, and play a leading support role when 

challenged by a catastrophe.

In most disasters where shelter services are required, the role of the Federal Government comes in two 

forms. First, through ESF #6 – Mass Care, Emergency Assistance, Housing, and Human Services, the 

Federal Government provides policy, guidance, and resources to support and build local and State 

capability4

. Second, when the President declares a major disaster or emergency under the Stafford Act, 

FEMA, through its Public Assistance Program, may reimburse a portion of sheltering and mass care 

 

4

 The support provided through ESF #6 to build local and State capability should be reviewed and updated based on 

the baseline capabilities outlined in this Strategy. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 33 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

costs. In larger disasters, however, if sheltering requirements exceed State capabilities, the Federal 

Government must be prepared to respond rapidly to a Governor’s request for assistance. In some 

scenarios, including a catastrophic incident, the nature and magnitude of the disaster will increase the 

urgency and demand for Federal assistance. 

Through ESF #6 – Mass Care, Emergency Assistance, Housing, and Human Services, FEMA, as the 

coordinating agency, leads a host of supporting Federal departments and agencies, as well as members 

of the National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster, in preparedness efforts. The Federal 

Government can augment State and local services, such as feeding, shelter management, facility 

maintenance, security, emergency supplies, medical, veterinary, crisis counseling, family reunification, 

and other emergency assistance. This support, which has traditionally focused on areas impacted by the 

disaster, may also be required by nearby or distant States that agree to host evacuees. In a catastrophic 

incident, the Federal Government can also coordinate the availability of and transportation to shelters 

located in other States. 

Current Practices 

Current practices in sheltering focus on meeting the needs of individuals. Sheltering options can 

range from individuals managing their own needs by temporarily staying with friends or family to 

establishing emergency shelters for those who are unable to meet their own sheltering needs. All 

shelters should follow commonly accepted shelter operation guidelines, be staffed by qualified people 

(usually including a well-trained shelter manager and skilled volunteers), be connected to related 

community support services, and have effective and robust communications with local incident command 

staff. 

Self-Sheltering Planning Local Emergency Shelters 

In late June 2006, torrential rain caused 

widespread flooding across New York’s 

Southern Tier. The flooding was the worst in 

the Binghamton area’s recorded history. 

Floodwaters destroyed bridges, washed away 

houses, and left hundreds homeless. When the 

rain began, 155 volunteers from the American 

Red Cross Southern Tier Chapter (Endicott, 

NY) sprang into action. They opened shelters 

across 4 counties and provided a safe haven 

for nearly 2,000 people forced from their 

homes. In a 3-week period, Red Cross 

volunteers provided more than 245,000 meals 

and snacks and 6,000 cleanup kits. The Red 

Cross has helped nearly 2,000 people in 

numerous southern New York communities to 

begin their recovery. (Source: Red Cross, 

Successful Volunteer Management 2006)

In many disasters, many people who are forced from 

their homes find temporary accommodations without 

assistance. They have emergency plans well before a 

disaster occurs and stay in motels, hotels, or with friends 

and family. 

In some cases, local officials may direct individuals and 

households to “shelter in place” or stay indoors to reduce 

exposure to whatever hazard is threatening the area. In 

some parts of the country, people build “safe rooms” in 

their homes to protect them from tornadoes or other 

natural hazards. Shelter-in-place programs require 

advance planning, including public communications 

campaigns that encourage individuals and households to 

develop emergency supply kits with items such as water, 

nonperishable food, local maps, and battery-powered or 

hand-crank radios. 

These sheltering options are taken by those who have the ability to evacuate themselves and meet their 

own needs. More information on how to assemble an emergency kit and develop an emergency plan can 

be found at www.ready.gov and www.fema.gov/areyouready. 

Page 34 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

Emergency Shelters 

Communities must plan for the eventuality that some residents will lack the means or opportunity 

to find their own temporary accommodations in a disaster. To meet this need, communities open 

emergency shelters. Shelters are planned and sites identified well in advance of a disaster. Not only do 

emergency shelters provide immediate refuge from a threatened or actual incident, but they also provide 

food, water, basic first aid, and access to community services. Emergency shelters can be designed for 

the general population or specialized to meet the needs of individuals who may require additional support. 

General population shelters are typically managed by community organizations, such as the local 

American Red Cross chapter or faith-based groups. In large urban areas, the local emergency 

management agency may partner with these organizations to address the additional complexities of 

sheltering very large populations. The community organization that manages the shelter works closely 

with other community groups, such as service organizations, local fire and police departments, and local 

businesses. Together they may provide additional support services, such as childcare or eldercare, 

recreational activities, and spiritual and emotional support, as well as pharmaceuticals, clothing, blankets, 

and personal hygiene items. These shelters are typically established at preidentified facilities such as 

schools, churches, community centers, and armories that meet specific structural and other requirements. 

These shelters are designed to meet the needs of the general population, including persons with 

disabilities who can maintain their independence. Shelter planners work closely with the disability 

community, service providers, and other community groups to identify needs and provide appropriate 

accommodations in accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act. Shelters must meet the physical 

accessibility requirements for persons with disabilities and accommodate service animals, since these 

animals are considered an extension of the person they serve. 

Depending on the needs of the local population and the magnitude of the disaster, specialized shelters

may be required. Communities analyze their populations to identify individuals who may require 

additional support and develop detailed plans for specialized shelters to meet those needs. The types of 

specialized shelters vary by community, State, or region. Selection of what type of shelter is most 

appropriate for an individual and household is based on functional needs, shelter availability and 

resources, and the preferences and needs of the individual. Following are examples of types of 

specialized shelters that can be established: 

• Medical Support Shelters. Local, State, or tribal governments, in coordination with public health 

and social services agencies, may establish medical support shelters for individuals who have 

medical issues requiring care beyond the capability of a general population shelter. These shelters 

provide a variety of medical services, ranging from extensive first aid, to medical assessment and 

monitoring, to primary care services. To meet the demands of major or catastrophic disasters, more 

specialized medical units may be established that include facilities such as operating rooms, 

decontamination services, delivery rooms, quarantine/isolation rooms, or mortuary services. 

Medical support shelters are typically limited and admission is based on the level of care needed by 

individuals and the resources available within the community. Individuals may be interviewed 

regarding their medical needs and conditions to determine what shelter best meets their needs. 

In major disasters, communities typically request assistance from neighboring communities and the 

State. If Federal support is required, the Medical Reserve Corps is one of the key resources to 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 35 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

provide medically trained personnel. This type of assistance would be provided through the National 

Response Framework under ESF #8 – Public Health and Medical Services. 

• Functional Needs Shelters or Units. Functional needs shelters or units serve individuals with 

functional needs who require additional support. These individuals, who are normally able to live 

independently, may face challenges in a general population shelter. At the same time, they do not 

require the level of care provided in a medical support shelter. Functional needs shelters have 

additional personnel and equipment and provide space to accommodate caregivers and equipment. 

These shelters, for example, can meet the needs of fragile elderly adults, women in the later stages 

of pregnancy, and individuals with cognitive disabilities. 

States establish functional needs shelters or units based on their population’s needs, existing 

capabilities, and resources in the area. Since these shelters and the services provided tend to vary 

from State to State, it is much more challenging to obtain additional support through EMAC or the 

Federal Government. Efforts are underway to better define services and standardize the types of 

support and resources that may be required. This common understanding and terminology will make 

it easier to request and receive special needs sheltering support during a disaster. In some States, 

functional needs shelters operate in conjunction with or within general population emergency shelters. 

• Household Pet Shelters. Local, State, or tribal governments, in coordination with departments of 

agriculture, animal control authorities, nonprofit humane groups, and/or State Animal Response 

Teams, work collaboratively to develop specialized shelters to meet the needs of people with 

household pets5

. Several States have passed legislation requiring disaster assistance to meet the 

needs of household pets and their owners. 

In addition, the Stafford Act, as amended by the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act 

and the Pets Evacuation and Transportation Standards Act, requires FEMA to develop standards for 

local and State emergency preparedness operational plans that take into account the needs of 

individuals with household pets prior to, during, and following a major disaster or emergency. These 

amendments also authorize FEMA to reimburse States for rescuing, caring for, sheltering, and 

providing for the essential needs of individuals with household pets, as well as the household pets 

themselves. This provision does not apply to livestock and other animals not traditionally kept as 

household pets. 

Household pet shelter operations require extensive planning and specialized staffing and equipment, 

such as cages for boarding and transport, veterinarians and veterinarian technicians, fans to support 

air circulation, feeding supplies, and supplies for animal decontamination and parasite control. A 

community’s ability to meet the needs of families with household pets varies and is often a reflection 

of how long the jurisdiction has been addressing the issue. The community’s overall level of 

emergency planning and the availability of facilities, personnel, and equipment to support household 

pet sheltering will also be critical components of pet sheltering preparedness. 

Wherever possible, household pet shelters should be located near general population shelters to 

allow for routine interaction between household pets and their owners. This also enables owners to 

 

5

 Note that service animals, as defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings 

and Facilities (ADAAG), are not considered household pets and must remain with their owners/individuals with 

disabilities who rely on these animals for independence. Separating service animals from individuals with disabilities 

only causes more distress and confusion for people with disabilities, their friends and family, and could put people in 

harm’s way. 

Page 36 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

participate in the care of their animals, thereby reducing the staffing burden. Factors affecting the 

decision to co-locate general population and household pet shelters include the ability to provide 

adequate heating, ventilation, and air conditioning to ensure that the general population has a safe, 

healthy environment away from the household pet area. FEMA is working with the Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service and national humane organizations to 

develop additional planning and response capabilities to aid States. 

Spontaneous or Ad Hoc Shelters 

While it is preferable to provide emergency shelters that are planned well in advance of a disaster, 

in certain circumstances spontaneous or ad hoc shelters may open. Spontaneous shelters may or 

may not be open to the public. While these shelters provide additional capacity, they typically do not 

meet shelter operation guidelines or provide the breadth of services offered by preplanned emergency 

shelters. 

Organizations that open spontaneous or ad hoc 

shelters may not be part of the community’s disaster 

response operations and, more importantly, may not 

be in contact with the local incident command. This 

connection is vital to provide information on how 

many people are in need of assistance and obtain the 

resources required for shelter operations. Local and 

tribal emergency managers must quickly identify 

these facilities and immediately integrate them into 

the community’s response structure. In addition, 

residents of ad hoc shelters need access to disaster 

assistance programs and resources to aid in their 

long-term recovery. 

Planning Facility Shelters: 

The Clara Barton Hospital Shelter 

Critical facilities must operate during and 

following a disaster, whenever possible, and plan 

for the needs of those entrusted to their care. It is 

necessary for hospitals and other critical facilities, 

such as fire stations, police stations, and emergency 

operations centers, to remain operational during an 

event, when possible, and maintain service afterward. 

The local hospital is typically the first place that the 

injured are taken after a disaster occurs. If the 

hospital cannot function because of damage to the 

building, those seeking immediate medical attention 

must be rerouted to a functioning hospital. In rural 

areas such as Barton County, Kansas, towns are 

spread out and the next hospital could be many miles 

away. 

Following an April 2001 tornado in Hoisington, Lloyd 

Arnold of the Kansas Division of Emergency 

Management and hospital administrator Jim Turnbull 

discussed ways to ensure the safety of patients and 

staff in the event of another tornado. They decided to 

build a shelter at the hospital – the first hospital shelter 

in the State to meet the design, performance, and 

construction criteria presented in FEMA 361, Design 

and Construction Guidance for Community Shelters. 

The new shelter is located between the main hospital 

building and the clinic building to facilitate easy access 

from both areas. The shelter connects the two 

buildings with interior doors that meet the criteria 

presented in FEMA 361. The shelter has 1,026 

square feet of finished area and is designed to 

accommodate 14 patients and 30 standing staff 

members, with space for an additional 67 evacuees. 

(Source: FEMA Mitigation Case Studies, Clara Barton 

Hospital Shelter, Hoisington, KS, May 2004) 

Shelters for Use in Major or Catastrophic 

Disasters 

Major or catastrophic disasters require more 

intensive sheltering support. When the demand 

for shelters exceeds capacity or traditional shelters 

are not available, planners and emergency managers 

may need to use nonconventional sheltering options, 

such as cruise ships, tents, vacant buildings, military 

barracks, dormitories, prefabricated structures 

designed for congregate settings, or campgrounds 

(such as scouting camps). In major or catastrophic 

disasters, not only will the number of people requiring 

shelter support be large, but extensive damage to 

structures and the infrastructure will likely limit 

sheltering options and result in substantially longer 

shelter operational periods. Decisions on whether to 

use nonconventional shelters are based on the total 

demand for shelter services and the postimpact 

assessment of structures that meet shelter standards. 

Factors for determining appropriate types of 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 37 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

nonconventional shelters include climate, open land for shelter sites, port access to bring in vessels for 

sheltering, access to transportation, and protection from immediate hazards. Nonconventional shelters 

must also meet the needs of people with disabilities. Given emergency or disaster circumstances and 

limited resources, shelters planners should work with persons with disabilities to meet their unique needs. 

For example, a veteran with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may request to be separated into a 

room/area with less activity and noise, or a person who uses a wheelchair may be able to use a 

temporary, nontraditional ramp. 

Use of nontraditional shelters also requires additional monitoring for potential, unexpected problems that 

could arise with extended use of these structures, such as checking for chemical sensitivities, logistical 

issues, additional support services, or other issues. With sufficient planning and adequate resources, 

these nonconventional facilities can provide shelter for large numbers of individuals and households. 

Shelter Needs of Facilities and Institutions 

Hospitals, nursing homes, extended care facilities, jails, and other facilities offering institutional 

care are required by local and State law to have continuity of operations plans. These plans must 

provide for the continued care of residents during a disaster and meet specific requirements, such as 

identifying alternative facilities that provide comparable care, specialized transportation for residents, and 

procedures to inform relatives of the situation. 

Local and State emergency managers should work with facilities owners to ensure plans and services 

meet the needs of residents, are well resourced, and can be implemented expeditiously and safely. 

Facilities owners should also ensure that staff and resources are available to move, protect, and care for 

residents during a disaster. 

Facilities typically develop agreements with “host facilities” that provide a similar level of care, are located 

outside the risk area, and are willing to provide the support required during a disaster. Lack of 

preparedness on the part of the facilities may interfere with local emergency response and recovery, as 

resources must be diverted to cover the extraordinary needs of these facilities. 

Transitional Shelters 

When emergency shelters are no longer sufficient but traditional interim housing is not yet 

available, communities may use hotels or motels, and facilities such as arenas or convention 

centers may be altered to provide the additional space and privacy. In circumstances where 

demand exceeds capacity, nontraditional transitional shelters may also be used. 

• Lodging Reimbursement/Voucher Programs. Both government agencies and nongovernmental 

organizations provide lodging reimbursement programs that enable disaster victims to relocate into 

hotels or motels. Reimbursement is typically provided in the form of vouchers or payments made 

directly to participating facilities for short-term stays. These programs have the additional benefit of 

stimulating the local economy. 

• Facility Conversion. Emergency shelters and commercial or publicly owned facilities can 

sometimes be reconfigured to provide households with additional space and privacy by constructing 

temporary partitions. Converted facilities may also provide food preparation areas and bathrooms. It 

may take time to create design plans, obtain permissions from property owners, identify funding, and 

complete the necessary construction. 

Page 38 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

Related Human Services 

Disaster housing efforts must be integrated with human services and other efforts to address the 

related nonhousing needs of individuals and households. Such needs may emerge during sheltering 

but tend to increase the longer individuals are displaced from their homes. 

Human Services: 

Pilot Case Management Program 

FEMA and HHS’s Administration for Children 

and Families (ACF) have entered into an 

interagency agreement to develop a pilot 

Disaster Case Management program. The 

goal of the program is to enhance Federal, tribal, 

State, and local response to emergencies by 

helping to connect disaster victims to a full array 

of disaster and other support services, including 

human, social, employment, legal, mental 

health, and medical services. 

Efforts to address these needs may be initiated within 

emergency shelters based on the scope and 

magnitude of a disaster and then expand and adapt as 

needs evolve and change and individuals and 

households transition to interim housing. Although not 

all of these services are appropriate or required in the 

sheltering phase, for larger scale events that have 

substantial disaster housing requirements, decisions 

about these services should be made earlier to allow 

time for the services to be coordinated and provided 

when needed. 

State and local governments and nongovernmental organizations routinely provide a range of social and 

support services in communities. Facilities such as job placement offices, childcare information centers, 

English as a Second Language centers, and offices on aging that are important and helpful during normal 

times can become absolutely critical lifelines for individuals and households who are displaced from their 

normal living arrangements by disasters. 

The online Disaster Housing Resource Center provides a comprehensive listing of disaster housing 

recourses. The following examples demonstrate the range of social services that may be provided at the 

local, State, or Federal level following a disaster. 

• Aging Services. The local agency on aging may assist with special needs such as transportation, 

meals, or home care. 

• Agricultural Aid. The USDA Farm Service Agency (FSA) may make emergency loans to farmers 

and ranchers (owners or tenants) who were operating and managing a farm or ranch at the time of 

the disaster. These loans are limited to the amount necessary to compensate for actual losses to 

essential property and/or production capacity. Farmers and ranchers may also apply for cost-sharing 

grants for emergency conservation programs such as debris removal from crop/pasture lands, repairs 

to land/water conservation structures, and permanent fencing. Further information is available from 

the FSA. 

• Contractors License Board. The Contractors State License Board protects consumers by 

regulating the construction industry through policies that promote the health, safety, and general 

welfare of the public in matters relating to construction. 

• Disaster Case Management. Managed jointly by FEMA and HHS, Federal case management 

services include financial assistance through government agencies or qualified nonprofits to eligible 

individuals. Case management helps streamline assistance, prevents duplication of benefits, and 

provides an efficient referral system. The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) 

also supports and in some cases leads Federal case management efforts. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 39 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

• Crisis Counseling. Local referral services and short-term intervention counseling are typically 

available for mental health problems caused or aggravated by a disaster. At the Federal level, FEMA 

and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) manage the Crisis 

Counseling Assistance and Training Program. This program provides immediate, short-term crisis 

counseling services and is intended to help relieve grieving, stress, or mental health problems caused 

or aggravated by a disaster or its aftermath. Assistance provided is short term and is at no cost to 

disaster victims. 

• Health Services. The local department of health is available to answer questions and concerns. 

Following disasters, individuals can contact their local officer for additional information. The Federal 

Government, through HHS, expedites claims for new Federal benefits; ensures continuity of services 

to beneficiaries, such as Medicaid, Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, Child Care, etc.; 

supports States hosting relocated populations by extending existing programs and benefits or taking 

other actions as needed, consistent with program authorities; provides support and consultation to the 

primary agency in the development and provision of case management services, to include advocacy 

services; and provides public health and medical support under ESF #8. 

• Disaster Recovery Center (DRC). If disaster victims are seeking additional information about the 

programs they have been referred to or require further assistance, a DRC may be open in their area 

and can provide this type of support. Recovery specialists are available to answer questions and 

offer information on specific Federal and State recovery programs. 

• Disaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA). This assistance provides weekly benefit payments to 

those out of work due to the disaster, including self-employed persons, farm and ranch owners, and 

others not covered under regular unemployment insurance programs. At the Federal level, the 

Department of Labor provides DUA, which is administered by the impacted State. This program 

provides financial assistance to individuals whose employment or self-employment has been lost or 

interrupted as a direct result of a major disaster declared by the President, and who are not covered 

by regular unemployment insurance. 

• Emergency Assistance. Emergency food, clothing, shelter, and medical assistance may be 

provided to individuals and families having such needs as a result of the disaster. The American Red 

Cross, the Salvation Army, church groups, and other voluntary organizations can provide assistance. 

• Essential Needs. Local programs or agencies may provide assistance with food, clothing, and 

shelter. 

• Other Needs Assistance (ONA). Assistance may be available for necessary expenses and serious 

needs caused by the disaster. This includes medical, dental, funeral, personal property, 

transportation, moving and storage, and other expenses that are authorized by law and not covered 

by insurance or provided for by other means, such as disaster loans through the U.S. Small Business 

Administration (SBA). At the request of the State, FEMA may provide ONA awards to help pay these 

expenses. 

• Financial Services. Banks that are members of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), 

Federal Reserve System (FRS), or the Federal Home Loan Bank Board (FHLBB) may permit early 

withdraw of time deposits without penalty. Disaster victims can contact their financial institution to 

see if they have obtained a waiver from their regulatory agency. 

Page 40 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

• Fraud Detection. To report possible fraud regarding Federal disaster assistance, individuals and 

households can call FEMA's Fraud Detection toll-free number. 

• Information and Referrals. This referral service can provide referrals to ongoing community 

programs that are available in local areas. 

• Insurance Information. Help and/or counseling is available on insurance problems and questions, 

which may include obtaining copies of lost policies, claims filing, expediting settlements, etc. If 

disaster victims have not been able to resolve problems with their insurance company, they may 

contact their State Insurance Commissioner. For flood insurance inquiries, individuals should contact 

the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). At the Federal level, FEMA also manages the Cora 

Brown Fund, which is used for disaster-related needs of uninsured or underinsured individuals or 

families who are unable to obtain adequate assistance from other local, tribal, State, and Federal 

government programs or from voluntary agencies. This fund is not intended to replace or supersede 

those programs; therefore, if assistance is available from another source, the Cora Brown Fund may 

not be used. Awards from this fund are granted at the discretion of FEMA. 

• Legal Services. Free or reduced legal services, including legal advice, counseling, and 

representation, may be provided to low-income disaster victims. The American Bar Association 

(ABA)/Young Lawyers Program provides free disaster legal services for low-income individuals who, 

prior to or because of the disaster, are unable to secure legal services adequate to meet their 

disaster-related needs. 

• Postal Service. The U.S. Postal Service provides extended mail services to relocated populations. 

• Small Business Administration (Home and Personal Property Loan Program). Disaster loans 

through the SBA are available to homeowners and renters for restoring or replacing disasterdamaged real and personal property. The maximum real estate portion of the loan is $200,000 and 

the maximum personal property portion is $40,000. The loan amount is limited to the amount of 

uninsured SBA verified losses. 

• Social Security. Help is available from the Social Security Administration (SSA) in expediting 

delivery of checks delayed by the disaster and in applying for Social Security disability or survivor 

benefits. SSA provides Social Security Disability, Social Security Retirement, Social Security 

Survivors, Special Veterans, and Supplemental Security Income benefits and ensures continuity of 

service to beneficiaries. 

• Tax Assistance. The Federal tax laws allow the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to grant relief to 

taxpayers who are victims of a Federally declared disaster. This relief includes postponing tax 

deadlines to provide you with extra time to file and pay before you will be assessed any penalty, 

additional amount, or addition to the tax, or abating your interest for periods for which you received an 

extension of time to file tax returns and pay taxes because you were located in a Presidentially 

declared disaster area. The IRS also provides tax counseling and assistance to taxpayers whose 

property has been damaged or lost in a federally declared disaster area. Other tax assistance may 

provide possible property tax relief through the local tax assessor. 

• Veterans Benefits. The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) can expedite delivery of information 

about benefits, pensions, insurance settlements, and VA mortgage loans. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 41 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

Future Directions 

The 2005 hurricane season tested our Nation's shelter capabilities as they have not been tested in 

many years. Hurricanes Katrina and Rita exceeded the capacity and capability of the traditional shelter 

system, requiring unprecedented support and prompting new ways of thinking at the State and Federal 

levels. This included extensive use of nonconventional shelters, such as cruise ships, event tents, and 

mega-shelters, and the relocation of many people to facilities outside of the impacted States. These 

events highlighted challenges and laid the foundation for future directions in sheltering. 

Below are six future directions in sheltering, based on lessons learned, that the National Disaster Housing 

Joint Task Force should consider to achieve the broader strategic goals of the National Disaster Housing 

Strategy.

1. Develop innovative approaches to better meet the diverse needs of disaster victims, 

particularly those with special needs and people with household pets. 

Challenge: There has been significant progress in planning and operating shelters. However, significant 

challenges remain in understanding and meeting the sheltering needs of special needs populations, 

including people with disabilities and their service animals or those with chronic or acute health 

conditions, as well as people with household pets6

. Meeting these needs often requires resources and 

capabilities that may not currently exist in all communities. 

In addition, some individuals’ needs evolve as a result of the disaster, especially when a person does not 

have access to his or her traditional support network. Other individuals have needs that do not fit neatly 

within predefined categories. The disruption in daily routine and the added stress of the disaster may 

result in needs that are difficult to assess, that change over time, and that may require transition to levels 

of greater or lesser care. 

Potential Solutions: Identifying potential needs when individuals enter a shelter, monitoring for 

changes, and, when necessary, rapidly transferring individuals to facilities where they can get the 

appropriate level of care can minimize distress and reduce acute problems for shelter managers. 

Emergency managers must anticipate such situations and explore the development of scalable (or 

modular) shelter networks that better configure shelter services to meet individuals’ needs. A networked 

shelter system, whether linked virtually or physically, could marshal the expertise and experience of 

shelter operators and managers with various special skill sets. Specific steps that could be taken include 

the following: 

• Explore approaches to develop a networked or modular shelter system that better links general 

population and various specialized shelters to provide more comprehensive shelter services to 

communities and States. This system should be adaptable to the array of disasters that could occur 

as well as the different capabilities and resources within communities and States. 

• Develop shelter guidelines for meeting the needs of those with disabilities or special or medical 

needs. Guidelines should be aligned with and informed by ongoing efforts by the U.S. Access Board, 

 

6

 Recent disasters such as Katrina have demonstrated that many households refuse to evacuate without their 

household pets, and thus pet evacuation has a significant impact on human public health and safety. Pet evacuation 

can facilitate moving households out of harm’s way.

Page 42 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

which is an independent Federal agency devoted to accessibility for people with disabilities.7 The 

Board organized a new Federal Advisory Committee that is examining access to manufactured 

housing procured by the Government for use in disasters. Based on lessons learned in Hurricane 

Katrina, the Board determined that this advisory committee should be organized to develop guidance. 

A report from the Committee is expected this year. 

• Increase awareness that planning for the evacuation and shelter of pets will facilitate the efficient and 

effective evacuation of people. Recognition of the public human health and safety aspect of pet 

evacuation and shelter will enhance collaboration among those involved in planning for pets and 

people. 

• Explore new ways to assess individuals and households during the shelter intake process to identify 

current needs that do not fit into predefined categories and predict future requirements that may 

emerge later during sheltering. Community organizations that are run by or advocate for people with 

disabilities can provide technical assistance and guidance about what best meets the needs of people 

within their communities. 

• Seek new ways to recognize changes in individual needs during sheltering and identify opportunities 

to speed the transition of residents to other shelters or services that meet their needs. For example, 

some communities are considering co-locating special needs shelters with general population or 

medical support shelters to make transitioning individuals to greater or less care easier and faster. 

• Evaluate additional ways to reconnect community support organizations with those who may need 

assistance, balancing privacy concerns with the desire of both the individuals and the organizations to 

be reconnected. For example, church groups or senior citizen centers may be seeking their 

members. 

• Recognizing that the full range of specialty programs and assistance cannot be provided in every 

shelter, explore the implementation of a shelter network that can facilitate access to specialty 

programs or services, such as cultural activities, educational services for children, or support for the 

elderly. 

2. Implement a comprehensive national shelter information system that uses existing 

systems and provides accurate and timely information on shelters across the Nation. 

Challenge: The disaster housing community does not have a comprehensive national shelter information 

system. Such a system is required to support disaster operations and planning, particularly in 

catastrophic disasters. The system would include information on location, occupancy, capacity, 

characteristics, service capability, structural capacity to withstand various hazards, and the availability of 

staff to operate multiple shelters concurrently. While this information is typically available within a 

community, it is sometimes not available at the State, regional, or Federal level. The system would need 

to be interoperable, use existing State and local shelter information systems, and enable communication 

and the sharing of data among all stakeholders. 

 

7

 Created in 1973 to ensure access to federally funded facilities, the Board is now a leading source of information on 

accessible design. The Board is structured to function as a coordinating body among Federal agencies and to 

directly represent the public, particularly people with disabilities. Half of its members are representatives from most of 

the Federal departments. The other half is comprised of members of the public appointed by the President, a 

majority of whom must have a disability.

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 43 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

Although the National Shelter System was developed to function as a national database, it is only one 

part of the comprehensive information system that is needed. Key challenges include indentifying 

incentives to share data and concerns regarding how this information will be used. This comprehensive 

information system will integrate the data contained within numerous local and State stand-alone 

systems. 

Potential Solutions: We must build a national interoperable system using existing resources that link 

existing shelter systems and permit data sharing to support advance planning and to inform ongoing 

shelter operations during disasters. Greater sharing of information during operations could permit 

coordination of shelter services, redirecting individuals among shelters to avoid overcrowding and 

assigning individuals to the shelter that best meets their needs. For example, some residents will be 

seeking shelters that provide specific support services, such as technical assistance in providing 

accessible forms of communications for people who are deaf, are hard of hearing, have low vision, or are 

blind. This could also minimize the need for spontaneous shelters and shelters of last resort. 

For a national shelter information system to reach its full potential, shelter operators across the country 

must attain a uniform level of training and have access to technical assistance when needed. The 

national shelter information system database must undergo additional refinements and be compatible with 

existing State platforms. For example, the existing system is linked with Web EOC in several State 

Emergency Operations Centers, which could be explored as a potential platform for the national system. 

Specific steps that could be taken include the following:

• Engage the full range of stakeholders, including all levels of government, nongovernmental 

organizations, and the private sector, that are involved in sheltering to discuss information needs. 

Assess barriers to progress and explore options to overcome these barriers. 

 

• Establish formal system requirements to provide accurate and timely information on the full range of 

shelters nationwide, applying new technologies, such as simulcasting, to display the latest data in 

operations centers at different levels. System requirements should take into consideration existing 

platforms used in State Emergency Operations Centers, such as Web EOC. 

• Develop uniform training and provide technical assistance to shelter operators across the country 

based on input from States, communities, and shelter operators. 

3. Deliver consistent, accurate, accessible, and timely shelter information during disasters. 

Challenge: The absence of a real-time comprehensive understanding of shelter operations during a 

disaster can hinder decisionmaking, result in inefficiencies, and inhibit the delivery of adequate services to 

meet the immediate needs of disaster victims. For example, while shelter registration information is not 

always seen as critical, it is essential in forecasting the supplies and support services that may be 

needed. Moreover, it could provide important shelter status information to local incident command and 

emergency management agencies. This information can also facilitate the reunification of families and 

comfort relatives outside of the affected area. 

Better information is needed to help synchronize and coordinate sheltering openings during multistate 

evacuations. For example, during hurricane evacuations, shelter openings must be phased to maximize 

available shelter capacity and reduce the length of time people must travel to reach shelters. This 

Page 44 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

reduces risks, such as exposure to dangerous weather or becoming stranded due to running out of gas. 

In addition, during multistate evacuations, the affected State may not have received detailed information 

from the host States to tell evacuees how to locate shelters and other services. 

Lack of timely, accurate, and accessible shelter information interferes with the ability of local, State, tribal, 

and Federal governments to provide appropriate support. This lack of information complicates decisions 

on when additional shelters are needed, what life-sustaining services are required, and what support 

services are needed for the shelter. Critical needs can also go unmet when unplanned, spontaneous, ad 

hoc, and private shelters are not integrated into the incident command structure and shelter status 

information is not available. 

Potential Solutions: Shelter information systems should enable stakeholders and decisionmakers to 

share real-time information. Data elements should be standardized and the system simplified to minimize 

the reporting burden on shelter staff. Specific steps that could be taken include the following: 

• Identify best practices, develop a range of options, and provide guidance to better synchronize and 

coordinate sheltering openings during multistate evacuations. For example, some States suggest 

examining voter registration cards as a potential model for disaster-prone areas to better disperse 

residents across shelters. Similar to voter registration cards where a voter is assigned to go to a 

particular polling location based on their address, those living in disaster-prone communities could 

preregister and be preassigned to a specific shelter according to address and based on their needs 

and household composition, etc. The shelter operator would know, weeks if not months in advance, 

who will be under their care during a disaster. 

• Develop a comprehensive and consistent shelter registration service using existing resources that 

balances privacy and protection of personal information with the need to share this information across 

organizations that offer shelter and recovery services. This includes: 

o Identifying advances in technology that can facilitate a common electronic registration tool across 

multiple relief services organizations to improve the quality, level, accuracy, and consistency of 

registrations. The shelter information system must ensure the security of personal information 

and be accessible under disaster conditions in order to provide decisionmakers with real-time 

information on both planned and ad hoc shelters. 

o Exploring opportunities to combine similar data elements for shelter registration and disaster 

assistance registration, reducing the number of forms, duplication, and burden to disaster victims. 

Consider existing systems such as the Coordinated Assistance Network established as a joint 

project by the American Red Cross, National Voluntary Agencies Active in Disaster, and other 

major relief agencies. This system is designed to provide common information for case workers 

across multiple nongovernmental organizations. 

o Ensuring and improving connectivity between shelter registration and the National Emergency 

Child Locator System (NECLS) and the National Emergency Family Registry and Locator System 

(NEFRLS). 

• Provide timely updates on shelter status, capacity, and logistic requirements. 

• Improve connectivity of shelters to local incident command. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 45 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

• Develop comprehensive public messaging plans for evacuation and sheltering to provide information 

that is clear and accessible to all residents, including those with disabilities and special needs. Plans 

should take advantage of current technology, such as text messaging, as well as traditional 

information dissemination methods, such as public service announcements. 

4. Reduce shelter demands by improving the resilience of housing and accelerating 

emergency repairs so people can return to their homes more quickly. 

Challenge: Disaster damage to residential structures and institutions displaces many individuals and 

increases the sheltering requirement. This requirement can be reduced by individual and community 

actions to improve the resiliency of residential structures. Even when a disaster damages a structure to 

the point it is uninhabitable, the building may be quickly repairable. If emergency repairs can be 

accelerated, perhaps by new technologies, individuals and households can leave shelters and return to 

their homes more quickly. 

In jurisdictions that suffer recurrent losses from flooding or forest fires, for example, efforts to curtail 

development often meet resistance. This results in households in high-risk areas frequently requiring 

shelter services, support, and disaster assistance. It can be challenging for communities to strengthen 

land use planning and zoning, building codes, restrict permitting processes, and implement hazard 

mitigation strategies. 

Potential Solutions: Communities should explore a wide range of options to reduce the demand for 

sheltering by improving the resiliency of individual structures. By implementing options such as effective 

hazard mitigation strategies and expediting emergency repairs, communities can reduce the risk of 

damage to structures and/or reduce the time shelters are needed. Specific steps that could be taken 

include the following: 

• Evaluate new technologies in building repair, such as self-adhesive shingles or rapid external wall 

replacement, to identify those that may expedite repairs to structures in the aftermath of a disaster. 

These technologies should be evaluated for their cost benefit, safety, durability, ease of use, and 

regional applicability. 

• Conduct outreach on how resiliency can mitigate damage and reduce shelter demand, and 

encourage participation in mitigation programs to reduce risk. Focus outreach efforts on facilities and 

areas that are difficult to evacuate. 

• Convene a national symposium to examine and explore land use planning and zoning and 

opportunities to improve building codes and enforcement of those codes in high-risk areas. A review 

of this nature would include the evaluation of provisions for incentives and penalties. This forum 

would examine the appropriate roles and opportunities to enhance coordination across all levels of 

government, the private sector, and nongovernmental organizations. 

5. Identify best practices to provide case management services in shelters for those with 

special needs. 

Challenge: Life in an emergency shelter is not particularly comfortable for anyone who must go there. 

For people with special needs, the shelter experience can be much more complicated because they may 

Page 46 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

be separated from facilities, equipment, systems, and people who normally provide support in coping with 

the individual's everyday needs. Meeting those needs and replacing those essential support services 

often requires a concerted effort on the part of several different organizations. 

Potential Solutions: The Joint Task Force should identify best practices and explore opportunities to 

refine and improve services during the sheltering phase to ensure that displaced people with special 

needs receive sustained individualized attention. The primary benefit of employing such an approach 

early is that it provides a single point of contact to help identify future needs as individuals with special 

needs move into interim and long-term housing following large-scale disasters. 

6. Encourage cities and States to develop hosting agreements to provide sheltering and 

support services for evacuees. 

Challenge: The shelter capacity within a community, tribal area, or State can become overwhelmed by a 

major disaster or catastrophic event. In smaller disasters, sheltering shortfalls can generally be 

addressed by a host city or county sheltering arrangement within the same State. However, it is unlikely 

that these agreements will be sufficient for a catastrophic event. During the 2005 hurricane season, 

comprehensive hosting plans were not in place in the Gulf Coast area. The absence of such plans 

compelled local, State, and Federal officials to conduct ad hoc evacuations and sheltering operations. 

This resulted in large numbers of evacuees who did not know where they were going. Families were 

separated, and communication failures with receiving cities caused uneven levels of readiness and, in 

some cases, the absence of essential services. Insufficient planning may contribute to the loss of life and 

erode public confidence in the emergency management system. 

Potential Solutions: State and local governments should enter into interstate host agreements to 

facilitate the movement of evacuees to safe and secure areas capable of providing emergency shelters 

and life-sustaining services. This requires collaborative planning to streamline response procedures, 

align reimbursement policies, and ensure the capabilities and capacities are available to meet all 

requirements, including specific needs of the evacuee population. Steps that could be taken include the 

following:

• Work with EMAC officials to draft and share a host State and host city agreement template. Hosting 

large numbers of evacuees may tax the sheltering facility as well as the community at large. 

Preidentification of resources and issues will help host jurisdictions determine the number of 

evacuees they can manage, what type of support they can provide, and potential shortfalls. 

• Develop a public messaging protocol that can be jointly implemented between the host jurisdictions 

and the impacted area. This protocol would guide communications aimed at setting expectations, 

describing services, and allaying concerns. It should be accessible to people with disabilities, 

including those with visual and hearing impairments, and to non-English speakers. 

• Develop an assessment tool to aid a host State or host city in determining the capabilities required to 

support essential evacuation and sheltering activities. Assessments could include factors such as: 1) 

distance from the affected areas to the host State or city, 2) transportation requirements and 

resources, and 3) nongovernmental organization activity and resources in the host State and their 

capabilities and capacity. 

7. Improve shelter planning to address the full range of disasters, including catastrophic 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 47 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

events. 

Challenge: The standard for shelter planning must be elevated from the current level of developing wellpracticed community plans to meet the most likely disasters to a higher level capable of accommodating 

all types of events, particularly the challenges of a catastrophic event. Shelter planning primarily occurs 

at the community level and is generally focused on providing shelter services for natural disasters. In 

addition, shelter planning is generally more sophisticated in larger metropolitan and high-risk areas. 

These areas typically have more resources and planning support. 

Additionally, a national planning effort must be undertaken to address sheltering in the aftermath of 

catastrophic events involving weapons of mass destruction, such as a radiological/nuclear attack in which 

populations of entire communities may be displaced and unable to return to the affected area. Major or 

catastrophic disasters require more collaborative and comprehensive planning to ensure a full 

understanding of the requirements, consideration of a broad range of alternatives, and a commitment to 

integrate resources from the local, State, tribal, Federal, and even international sources. 

Potential Solutions: Effective shelter plans require those involved to forecast shelter requirements 

based on the nature and magnitude of the disaster, individual and household needs, community 

characteristics, and available shelter options. Catastrophic shelter plans will require even stronger 

coordination with State and Federal officials. Steps that could be taken include the following: 

• Develop plans that address sheltering as a central component of broader local, State, tribal, and 

Federal emergency response plans. 

o Increase the national focus on shelter planning for all types of disasters, including catastrophic 

scenarios. 

o Develop requirements to address sheltering in the National Planning System. 

o Develop specific guidance on sheltering that can be included in the Comprehensive 

Preparedness Guide on Producing Emergency Plans (CPG 101), which is provided by the 

Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to support emergency operations planning for local, 

State, and tribal governments. Develop shelter plan templates and toolkits to support local, State, 

and tribal shelter planning. 

• Provide a wider range of options to support shelter planning. 

o Develop and achieve consensus on national shelter management and operations guidelines for 

catastrophic scenarios. 

o Explore opportunities to use nonconventional shelters and take advantage of new technologies 

and innovations within the housing industry. This effort must engage the private sector as 

partners early in the discovery process. 

o Develop a Guide to Resilient Communities that can be used to strengthen sheltering capacity. 

This can be accomplished by drawing together representatives from all levels of government, 

nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector − including groups representing people 

with disabilities and community action groups − to propose design guides that can be 

incorporated into the construction of multihazard-resistant, multiuse facilities that could serve as 

Page 48 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Sheltering 

mega-shelters when needed. For example, when a new convention center is proposed, shelterbuilding standards would be incorporated into the building design. 

o Collaborate with private-sector owners and managers of arenas, stadiums, convention centers, 

and other large-scale facilities to establish agreements for use of these facilities as megashelters. For example, the International Association of Assembly Managers has developed a 

guide for their membership titled “Mega-Shelters Planning and Activation: A Best Practices 

Guide.” 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 49 
INTERIM HOUSING 

Overview 

Housing disaster victims becomes more challenging the longer they are displaced from their 

primary residence. For most disasters and emergencies, short-term sheltering is the only form of 

housing assistance needed. Once the danger has passed, individuals are generally able to return to their 

homes within hours or, at most, after a few days. For more serious disasters, where homes or 

communities have been destroyed, damaged, or contaminated to such an extent that they are 

uninhabitable for an extended period, additional housing options are required. This intermediate period of 

housing assistance that covers the gap between sheltering and the return of disaster victims to 

permanent homes is referred to as interim housing. Generally, this period may span from the day after 

the disaster to approximately 18 months. In catastrophic or major disasters where the damage to housing 

infrastructure is substantial or in rural areas where rental housing is limited, this period may be longer. 

Delivering interim housing is more challenging than sheltering for a number of reasons. Where sheltering 

operations are often managed by nongovernmental organizations, such as the American Red Cross, 

interim housing includes greater government involvement across various departments and agencies (e.g., 

emergency management, housing authorities, social services, economic development) and all levels of 

government (local, State, tribal, and Federal). Interim housing brings into play numerous legal authorities, 

and the associated costs are generally more significant than for sheltering. Because the assistance 

involves government programs, disaster victims must formally register for the programs and meet 

eligibility requirements. With more organizations involved, there is an increased need for cooperation and 

collaboration among all players. 

Providing the actual structures to house disaster victims during this interim period is the most tangible 

challenge that government officials face. The options vary depending on the nature of the event. When 

the local infrastructure is not badly damaged and the number of individuals with needs is manageable, the 

use of rental properties is the simplest and, in many ways, the best option. However, if the damage to the 

community’s infrastructure is more significant or the venue is rural and rental property is unavailable, 

other options must be considered, thus increasing the complexity as more levels of government become 

involved. Decisions made for interim housing may have substantial implications for long-term recovery. 

The needs and expectations of disaster victims in interim housing are greater than those in shelters, and 

our experience has taught us the importance of addressing these issues early in disaster response and 

throughout the recovery process. Given these expectations, additional support, such as case 

management, must be integrated into interim housing options. 

The challenge of providing interim housing increases in direct proportion to the scope of the event. For 

catastrophic events, the housing challenges are profound and will almost certainly require State and 

Federal assistance. For such events, traditional interim housing approaches may not be sufficient, and 

innovative and nontraditional methods will be required. 

Based on lessons learned, changes are required to ensure that interim housing needs are more fully 

understood and met with a greater range of solutions. Ultimately, providing suitable interim housing

options requires realigning roles and understanding how all involved can work together effectively to meet 

the needs of the disaster victims, including people with disabilities. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 50 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

This section articulates key principles, discusses responsibilities and roles, describes current practices, 

and identifies future directions. 

Key Principles 

Over the years, disasters have taught us valuable lessons on the need to offer a broad range of 

interim housing options. This section presents the key principles, based on those lessons that must 

guide the provision of interim housing. Interim housing should begin with setting clear expectations 

among all involved and should extend well beyond simply providing structures. Interim housing must be 

safe, secure, and accessible. It is intended as a temporary measure, and all involved must accept this 

reality and act accordingly. In addition, catastrophic incidents can dramatically extend stays in interim 

housing and present challenges that require substantial advanced planning among all levels of 

government, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector. 

8. Effective interim housing starts with setting clear expectations among all those involved. 

The complexity of disaster housing assistance increases as it evolves from meeting the short-term 

demands of sheltering to addressing the broader, multifaceted issues of interim housing. Recognizing 

that every situation is unique, interim housing can take longer to implement, is more complicated, and 

generally involves a broader range of stakeholders. In addition, there are typically fewer options that 

meet the range of individual, household, and community interim housing needs. The very nature of 

providing temporary housing, when long-term housing is needed, is challenging. Even if interim housing 

assistance is well planned, delivered rapidly, and tailored to meet the needs of disaster victims and 

communities, it will not provide the same level of stability and security that comes with long-term housing. 

Lessons learned in prior disasters underscore the value of establishing clear expectations well before an 

event occurs. Each jurisdiction should acknowledge the challenges in providing interim housing and the 

limitations of dealing with imperfect solutions. Various government organizations, nongovernmental 

organizations, and private-sector partners have resources and capabilities that can support interim 

housing efforts. All involved should strive for the best possible interim housing, but also recognize the 

inherent difficulties and work collectively to be successful. Working in this environment requires common 

goals, as well as a concerted effort to communicate, share information, and be forthright. 

Achieving common goals starts with advance planning across all jurisdictions, nongovernmental 

organizations, and the private sector to clarify responsibilities, core capabilities, and what types of 

services can be provided. It also includes a commitment to work collaboratively to deliver those services 

and address any gaps. Immediately following disasters, those responsible for interim housing must be 

realistic about what can be provided. They must communicate this effectively so that individuals, 

households, and communities can make informed choices. As the situation evolves, it is vital to continue 

to provide ongoing, clear communication. 

To prepare communities for disasters, local and State officials should address interim housing as part of 

their broader public information campaigns. In addition, messages should be developed in advance to 

describe how the public can obtain housing assistance, what to expect, and what actions they can take 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 51 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

ahead of time. As challenges arise, all involved must strive to raise issues quickly, be flexible, and work 

collaboratively to resolve them. 

9. Interim housing extends well beyond simply providing a structure. 

Wrap-Around Services 

FEMA's National Advisory Council (NAC) Subcommittee for Post 

Disaster Housing has been examining services required to support 

temporary housing for individuals and households and the need to 

provide such services in a comprehensive, coordinated way. 

Referred to as “Wrap-Around Services,” these services encompass 

a variety of human and social support that may be required to 

accompany temporary housing community sites during a disaster, 

such as healthcare, schools and daycare, security, social services, 

maintenance and repair, public transportation, and employment 

counseling. 

Early work has identified the following planning assumptions that 

can help guide planning efforts: 

• Certain wrap-around services are fundamental in nature in that 

they meet community site residents’ basic needs for security, 

life-support, and community connectivity. 

• The provision of more holistic wrap-around services expedites 

the individual/family recovery plan, in particular the 

identification of a more permanent housing solution. 

• To the extent possible, several wrap-around services may be 

met through assistance that serves to enable and/or connect 

community nonprofit organizations’ abilities and interests in 

meeting the needs directly. 

sts in 

The demands of providing interim 

housing can quickly become all 

consuming. It requires those 

responsible to assess undamaged 

structures, execute plans across a 

multitude of organizations, and 

work to restore infrastructure and 

support services that are essential 

to sustain communities. Planning, 

procuring, and constructing interim 

housing is even more demanding. 

Interim housing is much more than 

just the process and mechanics 

required to provide physical 

structures. It must also include 

restoration of private-sector 

infrastructure, such as grocery 

stores, banks, gas stations, and 

healthcare facilities along with the 

other social support services that 

can make temporary circumstances 

work for people who are struggling 

to recover from a disaster and 

rebuild their lives. 

Housing is the connector to how we live our lives and interact with the social networks within our 

communities. While interim housing cannot replicate a household’s predisaster connections, it can be 

planned to integrate delivery of essential support or “wrap-around” services, such as referrals for mental 

health, emotional, and spiritual support; job placement; childcare; social services; and other resources 

that can help make temporary housing viable. Community groups, including faith-based and voluntary 

organizations, combine with municipal organizations, such as local housing authorities, to address the 

social service aspects of interim housing. Disasters have shown the resourcefulness and resilience of 

individuals, households, and communities to find ways to renew and rebuild. Effective interim housing 

supports these efforts and lays the foundation for long-term recovery. 

10. Interim housing must be safe, secure, and accessible. 

The most fundamental requirement for interim disaster housing is to provide a safe and secure 

environment where disaster victims can live while they recover from the event and seek permanent 

housing. Interim housing options must meet applicable health, safety, and accessibility standards and 

should allow for innovations in building technology. Manufactured homes must be built to strict 

Page 52 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) standards and installed to meet local codes. 

Types of housing for which no accepted construction and performance standards exist should not be 

used as interim housing. The design and operation of interim housing sites should also address safetyrelated issues, such as providing security and emergency services and identifying safe locations for the 

interim housing sites. Once units are placed into service and occupied by disaster victims, the 

organization responsible for the units must ensure their continued maintenance, upkeep, and adherence 

to standards. 

Appropriate interim housing options must be available to all eligible persons, including those with special 

needs. Accommodations that meet the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards and the Americans with 

Disabilities Act, for example, must be available to those with disabilities. 

Local public safety officials are responsible for providing support services for disaster victims living in 

interim housing units within their jurisdictions. When community sites are built to house disaster victims, 

local police, fire, and emergency medical services may have to assume additional workload. This must 

be factored into interim housing plans with local, State, tribal, and Federal officials. Options for 

addressing these issues include contracts with private-sector security firms as allowable expenses under 

the Stafford Act. 

Stays in interim housing may last many months, depending on the scope and magnitude of the disaster 

and the availability of permanent housing. The extended time spent in these units, combined with the fact 

that they are designed for temporary occupancy, can place stress on the people who live there and the 

structures they occupy. Officials must recognize these challenges and be vigilant when needs arise. 

Most importantly, they must respond quickly to address issues that could compromise the safety and 

security of interim housing residents. 

11. Interim housing is temporary. 

All involved in interim housing must keep in mind the fact that the intent is to provide temporary housing 

for those displaced by disaster while permanent housing is arranged. Whenever possible, disaster 

victims should be moved directly to permanent housing. In creating interim housing plans, officials must 

balance the intensive effort to supply temporary housing with the need to immediately start developing 

plans for restoring permanent housing. Residents must have safe and secure accommodations while 

they focus on their personal and household recovery. In addition, interim housing programs should 

provide the tools, support, and incentives to help residents on their path to self-sufficiency. Throughout 

the interim housing period, efforts must focus on helping residents become self-sufficient and locate 

permanent housing. During this period, the State should also be ready to resume responsibilities once 

Federal assistance ends. These fundamental expectations must be established at the beginning of the 

interim housing process and guide decisions throughout. 

12. Catastrophic incidents extend stays in interim housing and present many interim housing 

challenges. 

Catastrophic incidents test the limits of all emergency response capabilities, and interim disaster housing 

is no exception. The extent of destruction directly affects the number of people who will require interim 

housing. In responding to Hurricane Katrina, for example, we learned in dramatic fashion that the scale of 

the interim housing requirements in catastrophic events immediately overwhelms traditional options. In 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 53 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

addition, normal sources of temporary housing, such as rental properties and government-owned 

facilities, are insufficient to meet interim housing needs. The result is that for catastrophic events, interim 

housing solutions will be more challenging and will have to support stays of longer duration. We cannot 

afford to relearn the lessons from Hurricane Katrina. We must take what was learned to develop 

planning factors to drive future housing efforts. Planning must explore the complicating factors that are 

present in major and catastrophic events and change our approach and plans for interim housing at a 

fundamental level. 

In catastrophic events, disaster victims may have to be evacuated to locations far from their homes, thus 

complicating the interim housing process and increasing requirements for social services. Repairing or 

replacing homes in an area that has suffered a catastrophic disaster is likely to take many months or even 

years because of construction backlogs and the need to reconstitute roads, bridges, utilities, and 

municipal services. For catastrophic events involving weapons of mass destruction, planners must 

provide long-term interim housing options for areas that may be uninhabitable for months, years, or even 

decades. 

Interim Housing Responsibilities and Roles 

As with all emergency management functions, clear understanding of the responsibilities and roles of all 

players is essential for success. Providing interim disaster housing presents a unique set of challenges 

that involve many government organizations, each with its own authorities, responsibilities, oversight, and 

interests. For the process to be successful, the various players must fulfill their responsibilities, work 

collaboratively, and commit to engaged partnerships as soon as the decision is made that interim housing 

options will be required. 

Individuals and Households 

Baseline Capability: Individuals and households have the primary responsibility for their living 

arrangements and must play an active role in meeting their interim housing needs. 

Heads of households should work with disaster personnel to determine which option best meets their 

household’s needs, with some households requiring more assistance than others. Identifying options 

begins with evaluating personal options and registering for assistance, where individuals and households 

learn about available housing programs and how to receive assistance. Heads of households should 

identify their household needs, seek information about housing options and eligibility requirements, and 

supply the necessary documentation to verify eligibility. When participating in a government-supported 

disaster housing program, households must be responsible partners by 1) staying in contact with the 

government agency managing their housing, 2) maintaining any government-supplied property and 

treating it as if it were their property, and 3) actively seeking opportunities for permanent housing. 

Local Government 

Baseline Capability: Local governments must exercise their responsibility by deciding which disaster 

housing options are best for their jurisdictions, identifying available and suitable land and buildings to 

be used for disaster housing, adopting or adapting local ordinances, and ensuring the availability of 

local services for residents throughout their stays in disaster housing. 

Page 54 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

Local governments are responsible for the safety and welfare of their residents. When disaster strikes, 

local governments must exercise their authority by engaging with various State, tribal, Federal, privatesector, and nongovernmental partners, including disability support organizations, to find the best housing 

solutions for their residents and their community. With their firsthand knowledge of community resources, 

they are also best equipped to refer disaster victims to community organizations that can provide 

additional support. Local officials must make the necessary housing decisions using a long-term planning 

strategy and then be responsible for the implementation of the options they select. Local governments 

establish building codes and zoning regulations and may also need to consider waivers to accommodate 

interim disaster housing. 

States, Territories, and Tribal Governments 

Baseline Capability: When housing needs extend beyond sheltering, State governments ensure the 

safety and security of their residents by working in conjunction with local and Federal officials to 

articulate requirements for interim housing, evaluate options, determine which are best, and, if 

requesting Federal assistance, take responsibility for the assistance when it is provided.

States, territories, and tribal governments play a central role in deciding when Federal interim housing 

assistance is needed, drafting requests, and facilitating the delivery of that assistance to communities in 

need. Immediately following a disaster, States should establish and lead a Disaster Housing Task Force 

that includes representatives from all entities that have a stake in interim housing, including organizations 

that represent people with disabilities. This Task Force develops requirements, explores the range of 

interim housing options, and recommends courses of action. Based on this input from the Task Force, 

the State, working with local officials, finalizes housing requirements and, when necessary, requests 

assistance from the Federal Government. In response, the Federal Government proposes a range of 

interim housing options, and the State determines which options best meet their needs. The State then 

requests the appropriate Federal assistance and provides a plan to quickly transition those services 

and/or temporary housing structures to State oversight and management once they are delivered. 

Federal Government 

Baseline Capability: The Federal Government establishes and maintains a framework of guidelines, 

capabilities, and resources designed to support State and local governments with a range of disaster 

housing options when the State requests support. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 

through the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), has the responsibility to engage with 

State officials and coordinate Federal interim disaster housing efforts. FEMA and HUD partner to 

provide interim housing assistance when needed.

In response to a major or catastrophic disaster, the Federal Government can provide a range of housing 

options based on Federal authorities and capabilities. Federal officials tailor options to meet Statespecified requirements. The State reviews the various options and works through FEMA to request the 

Federal support that best meets residents' needs. FEMA then partners with HUD and coordinates with 

other Federal departments and agencies to provide the necessary support. Federal interim housing 

assistance may include helping to identify affordable rental housing, providing rental assistance directly to 

disaster victims, or providing manufactured housing units to accommodate displaced households. When 

Federal assistance is provided, the State shares responsibility for the oversight and management of the 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 55 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

resources. These responsibilities are formalized in the Federal-State Agreement that is negotiated for 

each Presidentially declared disaster. 

Private Sector 

Baseline Capability: Private-sector organizations fulfill a number of important roles in disaster 

interim housing. Businesses have property, products, services, and expertise that can complement 

and support governmental housing efforts. 

Property owners and real estate professionals perform essential services in locating and renting available 

dwellings to house disaster victims. These services may also include working with building and 

construction professionals and participating in programs to rapidly repair and restore rental property that 

has been damaged as a result of the disaster. Businesses may provide goods and services to support 

interim housing, either under government contracts or as donations. They may also share expertise and 

provide technical assistance to government housing officials. They may collaborate with government 

organizations in examining interim housing options, suggesting innovative solutions, and providing actual 

structures. Companies can also assist their own employees by providing land for placement of temporary 

housing, assisting in job placement, or helping them to relocate within the company. 

Nongovernmental Organizations 

Baseline Capability: Nongovernmental organizations provide invaluable support to meet the 

housing-related needs of individuals, households, communities, and the State. 

Nongovernmental organizations, including faith-based organizations, can assist individuals and 

households in locating interim housing and repairing and rebuilding their homes. Nongovernmental 

organizations also work closely with all levels of government to connect households with the essential 

support services they need to resume their lives. These activities can range from transportation, medical 

services, and counseling support to more formalized case management services including job placement 

and childcare. In addition, communities may establish long-term recovery committees to help organize 

residents and bring community-based organizations, local government, and the private sector together to 

deal with the many recovery-related issues. 

Current Practices 

This section describes interim housing options currently used to meet the needs of disaster 

victims. Interim housing programs should provide disaster victims with safe, habitable, and secure 

places to live, where there is access to community services and the opportunity to begin the process of 

recovery. Whereas sheltering focuses on the immediate needs of the individual, interim housing must be 

designed to meet the broader, longer term needs of households. Not having permanent housing for an 

extended period of time places disaster victims in a difficult situation under heightened levels of stress. 

When housed for longer periods, households need a broader range of accommodations and will be 

looking to reestablish and sustain the social connectivity that they had before the event. Interim housing 

should provide more space and privacy than shelters, enabling families and households units to live 

Page 56 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

together and start to resume their lives. This type of housing should also be designed and structured in 

ways to establish a sense of community and help reconnect households back to their community. 

Interim housing programs should also help link households to essential support services, such as 

referrals to community groups and more formalized case management services. This support can help 

individuals and households make more informed choices about interim housing and connect them to 

related community services. Local officials must balance the needs of individuals, households, and the 

community at large in making interim housing decisions. 

The following pages describe current practices for interim housing, ranging from financial assistance to 

provision of temporary housing units, to the development and construction of temporary communities. 

Maximize Available Housing Resources 

Following a disaster, those providing interim housing focus first on how to maximize the use of available 

resources. This includes rapidly cataloging rental property that has not been damaged and could be used 

to house disaster victims. Initial efforts also focus on identifying homes or rental property that could be 

made habitable with minor repairs. In larger disasters where demand is high and traditional forms of 

interim housing are either unavailable or will take time to put in place, transitional shelters may be 

established. Following is an overview of how these resources can be used to support interim housing. 

 

• Rental Assistance. Rental assistance is the 

preferred form of interim housing when 

suitable rental property is available. This may 

include financial assistance and helping to 

locate privately owned apartments, 

condominiums, and single and multifamily 

homes, as well as Federal- or State-owned 

residential property. To serve as disaster 

housing, government-owned residential 

properties may require repairs, inspection, 

cleaning, or other services. 

Disaster Housing Assistance Program 

The Disaster Housing Assistance Program 

(DHAP) is a pilot Federal rental assistance grant 

program established pursuant to an Interagency 

Agreement (IAA) between FEMA and HUD. 

DHAP provides rent subsidies for non-HUDassisted individuals and families displaced by 

Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, Ike and Gustav. HUD is 

utilizing its existing network of local Public Housing 

Agencies (PHAs) to administer DHAP. 

Under the program, PHAs make a monthly rental 

assistance payment on behalf of participants 

directly to the owner of the rental unit. Rental 

assistance payments are made pursuant to a 

disaster rent subsidy contract between the PHA 

and the owner. 

Under the provisions of the IAAs, DHAP will end 

March 1, 2009 for Hurricanes Katrina/Rita and 

March 1, 2010 for Hurricanes Ike/Gustav. Families 

and individuals in the program must participate in 

case management services to prepare themselves 

for the end of temporary, subsidized housing 

provided under DHAP.

Following a disaster, community groups and 

government agencies work together to catalog 

available rental properties throughout the 

affected area. Available properties may not 

always be located in the same vicinity as 

individuals’ predisaster homes. Relocating 

disaster victims creates the need for additional 

support services to assist the transition to their 

new community. Community groups and local 

public housing agencies play a vital role in 

connecting those households to the support 

services they need, such as eldercare, job 

placement, or transportation services. 

In addition to the identification of rental property, the government may also provide financial rental 

assistance. Under this program, funds are provided – either directly to disaster victims or to landlords 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 57 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

on behalf of victims – to pay for rental of temporary housing. This approach gives disaster victims 

more independence and flexibility. Following submission of assessment of the pilot program, 

Congress will decide whether or not to make it permanent in some form. 

When there is a shortage of rental property in the affected area or in the aftermath of a catastrophic 

disaster, transportation assistance may also be provided to help households relocate temporarily or 

permanently to another area. 

• Immediate Repair Assistance. Property owners are responsible for the maintenance and repair of 

their properties whether the dwellings are owner occupied or rental facilities. Property owners 

generally carry insurance to defray the cost of damages that occur when disasters strike. 

o Repairs to Homes. Most disaster-related repairs to homes are arranged and paid for by the 

owners of the properties. Payment may come from insurance claims or from the owner’s other 

resources. In some cases following disasters, nongovernmental organizations help homeowners 

by providing funding to pay for repairs. It is important for property owners to purchase and 

maintain sufficient insurance coverage for the full range of hazards faced.

• Implement Immediate Temporary Repairs. In certain circumstances, the Federal 

Government may assist in making exigent repairs to damaged dwellings. Such repairs 

typically include installing plastic sheeting on damaged roofs and repairing accessibility 

fixtures, such as ramps or railings. To qualify for this type of Federal assistance, homes must 

be inspected by qualified officials and determined to be structurally sound and free from 

health and safety risks, such as inundated electrical systems, wet conditions, and mold 

formation. Typically, this type of work can begin within a week after a Stafford Act 

Presidential major disaster declaration. 

• Provide Repair and Replacement Assistance. Following inspection and verification of 

damages, FEMA will provide eligible homeowners up to $28,800 for repairs to make their 

home habitable, or to replace a destroyed or condemned home. 

o Repair and Rehabilitation of Rental Housing. Damage to multifamily dwellings causes many 

issues for communities. Not only are the accommodations not available to residents, but the loss 

of these buildings can present serious economic challenges for property owners and the 

community. In such circumstances, some property owners may be eligible for loans from the 

U.S. Small Business Administration. 

In addition, acting on lessons-learned in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, Congress authorized 

DHS/FEMA to conduct a pilot project under which FEMA may lease privately-owned multifamily 

rental property to house individuals and households displaced by a major disaster and to make 

improvements and repairs to the properties that are required to ensure that they meet Federal 

housing quality standards. Implementing this interim housing option generally takes several 

months. 

Use Traditional Forms of Interim Housing 

If no apartments or other rentable property are available within a reasonable commuting distance, 

temporary housing units may be provided. The most common forms of temporary disaster housing units 

are manufactured homes and large recreational vehicles. Selection of disaster housing units is based on 

Page 58 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

many factors, but providing units that meet pertinent health and safety standards, including air quality, is 

essential. 

• Manufactured Housing. Manufactured housing is factory-built housing designed for longer-term 

residential use. The term “mobile home” is sometimes used to refer to manufactured homes. The 

units are built on a permanent chassis and must comply with the Federal Manufactured Home 

Construction and Safety Standards, administered by HUD. These standards regulate manufactured 

housing design and construction, strength and durability, transportability, fire resistance, energy 

efficiency, and quality. They also set performance benchmarks for the heating, plumbing, air 

conditioning, and electrical systems. Effective October 20, 2008, manufactured homes must be 

installed according to the Federal Manufactured Home Installation Standards, and are subject to local 

zoning codes, occupancy permits, environmental rules, and other restrictions. In addition, housing 

sites must be located outside of the floodplain. 

Manufactured housing requires substantial 

advance planning. Depending on the 

magnitude of the event and the number of 

households that require housing, 

manufactured housing can be placed at 

existing commercial sites, installed adjacent 

to a damaged home, or developed as 

community sites. While existing 

commercial sites may not be available in 

the area, using these facilities reduces site 

preparation because preexisting pads and 

utility services can be used. It is important 

that site paths, routes of travel, and site 

facilities (e.g., laundry facilities) be 

accessible. Installation of single units on an 

individual’s private property is another 

alternative for situations where disaster 

victims want to remain nearby while their 

home is being repaired. As a last resort, 

manufactured housing can also be used to 

create community sites to accommodate 

multiple units. This option requires 

extensive construction and may involve 

building an entire community, including 

such things as building roads; laying water, 

sewer, electrical, and telecommunications 

lines; and arranging for public 

transportation, police, fire, and emergency 

medical services. 

Indoor Air Levels for 

Temporary Disaster Housing 

FEMA now requires that all manufacturers provide 

temporary housing units that meet indoor air 

levels for formaldehyde that are less than 0.016 

parts per million. Incorporated as a new contract 

specification, this is not a health based value and 

occupants should not presume that current temporary 

housing units that exceed this value are of concern for 

potential formaldehyde health effects. FEMA has 

modified its contracting procedures to require that 

manufacturers certify that their temporary housing 

units meet this indoor air level for formaldehyde. 

FEMA will implement a testing program to confirm 

compliance and provide the results to States for their 

review. When temporary housing is needed, each 

State will exercise its public health responsibility and 

determine the indoor air quality level for formaldehyde 

that is acceptable before any units are provided to its 

residents. 

__________ 

1 While the U.S. Government has does not have an indoor 

air health level for formaldehyde in housing, we note that the 

World Health Organization has set a value of 0.100 ppm for 

odor and sensory irritation for the general population and the 

nonindustrial indoor environment. Similarly, Health Canada 

has recommended a value of 0.040 ppm for chronic 

exposures. 

Although there is a wide range of manufactured housing, the units typically used as disaster housing 

are single-section manufactured homes. They are roughly 60 feet long and 14 feet wide. This is 

smaller than a typical manufactured home but more than three times the size of a typical travel trailer. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 59 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

• Recreational Vehicles. Recreational vehicles should only be used for very short-term interim 

housing requirements when no other options are available, and must meet applicable air quality and 

other safety specifications. Recreational vehicles are designed to be either mounted on or towed by 

another vehicle and to be used as temporary living quarters for camping or travel. They are not 

manufactured homes, and they are not built to the Federal Manufactured Housing Construction and 

Safety Standards. Recreational vehicles include the following: 

o Park Model. A park model is a recreational vehicle that is built on a single chassis, mounted on 

wheels, and has 400 square feet or less of living space. Park models typically have one bedroom 

with a foldout hide-a-bed, can accommodate persons with disabilities, meet the Uniform Federal 

Accessibility Standards, and comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act. For example, a 

park model may be a short-term option when a homeowner wants to remain on his or her 

property during home repairs, but the terrain or lot size prevents the use of a manufactured home. 

o Travel Trailer. A travel trailer is designed to provide temporary living quarters for recreational, 

camping, or travel use, of such size or weight as not to require special highway movement 

permits when towed by a motor vehicle. Following a disaster event, the travel trailer may be a 

short-term option for a household of limited size wishing to remain on existing property or nearby 

while permanent housing is being restored. The travel trailer is typically employed where terrain 

or lot size prevents the use of other forms of manufactured housing. 

FEMA will not normally consider travel trailers for interim housing in declared disasters. FEMA 

will only consider use of travel trailers at the request of the State in extraordinary disaster 

conditions, when no other form of interim housing is available. Further, in these extraordinary 

conditions as a last resort, FEMA will authorize travel trailers for use only on private property (i.e., 

not in community sites); only for a maximum of 6 months’ occupancy (i.e., when the level of 

damage to the occupant’s predisaster dwelling can be repaired in less than 6 months); and only 

after the State has determined for itself the acceptable level of formaldehyde. 

Employ Innovative Forms of Interim Housing 

Recent developments in housing design and construction technology show promise for innovative ways to 

house disaster victims. These advances must be assessed to determine how they can improve quality of 

life, provide high-density housing for urban environments, expedite delivery and installation of housing 

units, and provide options that are more acceptable to communities. Applying new design options may 

also result in structures that can be used as permanent homes. 

Disaster housing efforts are expanding to explore other forms of factory-built housing, such as new 

designs for modular, panelized, and precut housing described below: 

• Modular Homes. Modular homes are housing units assembled in three dimensions at the factory 

and may be more than 90 percent complete. They are towed to the site on flatbed trailers, where the 

three-dimensional units are assembled in a variety of configurations. Most modern modular homes, 

once fully assembled, are indistinguishable from site-built homes. 

• Panelized Homes. Panelized homes consist of panels – a whole wall with windows, doors, wiring, 

and exterior siding – that are built in a factory, transported to the site, and assembled. These panels 

can be combined in a wide variety of sizes and designs and allow a high level of customization. 

Page 60 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

Panels can be shipped flat, which is less costly than moving three-dimensional components of 

modular housing. 

• Precut Homes. Precut homes consist of building materials that are factory cut to design 

specifications, transported to the site, and assembled. Precut homes include kit, log, and dome 

homes. 

Examples of Programs Underway To Explore Innovative Housing 

There are an increasing number of efforts underway across the Nation to explore and accelerate the use 

of alternative housing that can be used to support disaster-housing operations. Below are examples of 

alternative housing programs. Additional information is available online at 

www.fema.gov/emergency/disasterhousing. 

Examples of Federal Efforts 

Joint Housing Solutions Group 

In September 2006, FEMA launched the Joint Housing Solutions Group (JHSG) initiative as a 

multiyear effort to develop a systematic process to evaluate and rate various disaster housing 

options, identify viable alternatives to FEMA travel trailers and manufactured homes, and recommend 

improvements for conducting disaster housing operations. 

The JHSG has secured the support of the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) to provide 

direct technical guidance and services, and to promote linkage to relevant partner organizations. The 

members of the JHSG include housing specialists from HUD; building science experts from NIBS; 

and specialists from FEMA housing, policy, Individual Assistance, Long-Term Recovery, and Public 

Assistance divisions. 

The JHSG identified the following seven action items that FEMA should consider implementing to 

maintain the momentum of the JHSG initiative and leverage the lessons and knowledge gained from 

the assessments to strengthen its temporary housing mission: 

1. Development of Alternative Housing Options Strategy – This strategy would pull together the 

housing stakeholders in a coherent and structured way and establish concrete alternative 

housing options objectives and lay out a plan for choosing alternative housing options, 

exploiting or creating new alternative housing opportunities, and operating within the context 

of the National Disaster Housing Strategy. 

2. Continued identification and assessment of potential alternative housing units 

3. Pilot of most promising alternative housing unit(s) 

4. Development of performance specifications for new alternative housing units (other than 

travel trailers, park models, and manufactured homes) 

5. Procurement plan for pilot and full implementation of alternative units 

6. Increased coordination between JHSG and Alternative Housing Pilot Program (AHPP) 

7. Public information and outreach 

An important component of the overall initiative is the development and documentation of a 

methodology to eliminate or mitigate potential indoor air quality hazards in FEMA-provided temporary 

housing units. Air quality controls proposed involve eliminating potentially harmful air pollutant 

sources through exclusive use of non- and low-emitting building and furnishing materials and 

products; utilizing filtration and ventilation measures during and/or prior to occupancy; and writing into 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 61 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

all procurement and contract documents directives, specifications, and required design standards, 

building testing methods, and penalties clauses. 

The group developed a comprehensive Housing Assessment Tool (HAT) that can be used to analyze 

alternative housing units based on the following criteria: 

• Range of Use: How adaptable it would be under 

various environmental, geographic, and cultural or 

conditions required by local government. 

• Livability: How well the units can accommodate or 

help provide for a household’s daily living essentials 

as well as their physical and emotional needs. 

• Timeliness: How fast units could be made ready for 

occupancy. 

• Cost: How cost-effective the unit would be in 

absolute terms and in terms of its value relative to 

other housing options. 

Additional requirements established as critical in meeting FEMA immediate housing needs and 

priorities, include: 

• Footprint: Units should be small, capable of HUD certification and suitable for FEMA 

community sites or privately owned sites. 

• UFAS: A sufficient number of units must be available for occupants who are disabled and 

the units must comply with Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards. 

• Indoor Air Quality: Utilizing a holistic approach to indoor air quality control measures by 

eliminating or limiting use of products that contain pollutants, enclosing potentially harmful air 

pollutant sources in impermeable barriers, using filtration/ventilation to dilute or decrease 

airborne pollutants, requiring rigorous quality control measures during the manufacturing 

process, specifying control methods through contracting and procurement processes and 

other methods of control. 

• Production Lead-Time: Providers must be able to deliver a certain number immediately or 

within a short time frame to meet FEMA’s operations and performance requirements. 

Alternative Housing Pilot Program 

In 2006, Congress appropriated $400 million to FEMA for the development of an Alternative Housing 

Pilot Program (AHPP) to identify and evaluate better ways to house disaster victims. In response, 

FEMA designed and implemented the AHPP as a competitive grant to the Gulf Coast States. Five 

projects of the 29 submitted were awarded to 4 States. Two projects were awarded to Mississippi 

and one each to Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. 

The AHPP is working in conjunction with FEMA’s Joint Housing Solutions Group (JHSG), whose 

mission is to improve disaster housing assistance by systematically and rigorously assessing 

potential housing alternatives. These assessments will be used to increase the range of housing 

options the Federal Government can provide to people and communities impacted by disasters. 

Together, AHPP and the JHSG initiatives will yield disaster housing alternatives worthy of 

consideration by FEMA and Congress. 

Page 62 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

The types of AHPP housing piloted in each State (permanent, temporary, single family, or multifamily) 

differ in each State. All States must, however, ensure that individuals with an ongoing housing need 

as a result of the 2005 hurricane season are given first priority for occupancy. At the end of the 

program, the States may sell, transfer, or lease the units to individuals and/or nonprofits as permitted 

by their own disposition laws. 

The administering State agency and brief descriptions of each AHPP project follow: 

• Alabama/The City of Bayou La Batre: 

Innovative structures that can 

accommodate up to a six-member family, 

are built using cement fiber materials. 

• Mississippi/Mississippi Emergency 

Management Agency (MEMA): The MS 

Park Model is similar in size to a FEMA 

travel trailer but is built to more stringent 

building codes and uses building materials 

that are rot, moisture, and mold resistant. 

The MS Cottage is a larger 2- and 3-

bedroom unit which complies with both the 

HUD code and local building codes. MS Eco Cottage is an energy-efficient unit that can also 

be used as permanent housing. Its design emphasizes green building technologies, 

durability, and an open interior design to accommodate families of various sizes.

• Louisiana/The Louisiana Recovery 

Authority (LRA): The Katrina (singlefamily) and Carpet (multifamily) Cottages 

will be used as infill development in 

southern Louisiana. The Katrina Cottage 

is a manufactured home with two- and 

three-bedroom options. The Carpet 

Cottage is a multifamily unit with one-, 

two-, and four-bedroom layouts. 

• Texas/Texas Housing and Community 

Development Agency: Manufactured 

housing structures for single families 

(Katrina Cottage) and multiple family 

(Carpet Cottage) configurations.

FEMA and HUD will conduct a multiyear evaluation to assess both the structural integrity of the 

houses (i.e., durability, versatility, engineering, etc.) and the impact of the housing on individual and 

community recovery (i.e., quality of life). Results from the evaluation of the AHPP will be integrated 

with the ongoing research of the JHSG and the best practices of FEMA’s Disaster Assistance 

Directorate. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 63 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

Examples of State and Local Efforts 

“What If New York City..." 

In September 2007, the City of New York’s Office of Emergency Management (OEM) launched the 

“What If New York City..." postdisaster housing design competition. The competition challenged 

entrants to create innovative temporary housing solutions for the vast numbers of New Yorkers who 

might be displaced in the event that a catastrophic disaster destroyed thousands of the City’s housing 

units. Because of New York’s population density, deficit of affordable housing, and concentrated 

infrastructure, the City is not well suited for traditional postdisaster housing, such as small 

manufactured homes. 

The 117 submissions that NYC OEM 

received were from architects, industrial 

designers, engineers, inventors, and 

students from over 30 countries. In 

January 2008, 10 winners and 10 

honorable mentions were chosen by a 

prestigious jury of experts in and out of 

government. The 10 winners will each 

further develop their designs with the 

support of a $10,000 award and the 

assistance of technical consultants made 

available by OEM. 

After the development period, one or more of the winners may be selected for prototype construction. 

In the end, several designs will be included in the City’s Disaster Housing Plan to be ready for 

construction should the City ever need them after a disaster. (See www.whatifnyc.net.) 

Authorize Permanent Construction 

Typically, FEMA does not have authority to support the construction of new permanent homes. However, 

when no alternative housing resources are available and temporary housing assistance is unavailable, 

infeasible, or not cost effective, FEMA, working in close coordination with State and local authorities, may 

authorize the construction of dwellings to provide interim housing for disaster victims. The Permanent 

Housing section of this chapter discusses options for permanent construction in detail. 

Future Directions 

Identifying interim housing solutions for disaster victims while they either repair or replace their 

homes is arguably the most demanding facet of disaster housing. Experience has identified key 

challenges and suggests a number of fundamental steps that should be taken to improve interim housing 

for disaster victims. For example, moving toward the use of State-managed, federally supported interim 

housing programs that actively engage community, nongovernmental, and private-sector partners 

reinforces the State’s responsibilities in disaster response and recovery. We must also expand the range 

and types of interim housing structures that can be used for disaster housing to better equip States and 

communities in meeting the range of individual, household, and community circumstances. Ultimately, 

our success will hinge on our ability to implement interim housing options rapidly as an essential element 

of disaster response and recovery operations. Finally, we must be prepared to provide effective interim 

housing for all types and sizes of disasters and tailor these programs quickly to meet the needs of 

Page 64 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

individuals, households, and communities in specific events. 

The steps described below are intended to be practical measures that the National Disaster Housing Joint 

Task Force should take to improve interim housing efforts for the full range of disasters that could occur.

1. Move toward State-managed, federally supported interim housing programs that actively 

engage community, nongovernmental, and private-sector partners. 

Challenge: In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, the intensive demand for interim housing overextended and 

exceeded the capabilities of all involved. As a result, interim housing programs were rapidly developed or 

expanded without the deliberative planning necessary for complex disaster operations. The available 

housing options were limited, and the distinction between roles and responsibilities became blurred. 

Without robust capabilities and integrated plans, those involved faced numerous challenges. In some 

cases, the Federal Government coordinated services that would normally have been led by the State. 

Based on these experiences, the following roles and responsibilities should form the basis of the interim 

housing framework: 

• States should identify interim housing requirements and determine the best options for their 

communities. States, working with local governments, have the best understanding of their 

populations’ needs and how interim housing options will fit within their communities. Not only do 

States have the primary responsibility for their citizens, but they must also contend with the longer 

term consequences of interim housing decisions. However, local and State governments may not 

have all the resources needed to meet the demands of interim housing and will need to work closely 

with the Federal Government to plan for and request additional support. 

• The Federal Government coordinates with the States to establish national disaster housing policy and 

supports the States by providing grants and other assistance to improve preparedness before a 

disaster strikes. When a disaster exceeds or is anticipated to exceed State, tribal, or local resources, 

the Federal Government must be prepared to provide interim housing resources and capabilities to 

support the State. 

Potential Solutions: Addressing these challenges calls for a more comprehensive national approach to 

how we prepare for and provide interim housing assistance. Building on the fundamental principles 

outlined in this Strategy, we should identify ways to build local and State capabilities to manage interim 

housing programs and enhance Federal support before and during a disaster. We should also explore 

new ways to engage nongovernmental organizations and the private sector to draw upon their expertise 

and experience. Specific steps that could be taken include the following: 

• Convene an intergovernmental working group under the National Disaster Housing Joint Task Force 

to further define how local, State, tribal, and Federal interim housing roles and responsibilities will be 

implemented, including incidents in which more than one State is affected. Develop procedures to 

clarify, streamline, and standardize the process used for different levels of government to work 

collaboratively to acquire, install, administer, and maintain temporary housing units for use by disaster 

victims. Conduct pilot programs to assess effectiveness and refine procedures. Examine how 

existing funding mechanisms could be modified to support new or different roles. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 65 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

• Expand Federal preparedness efforts to build local and State capacity to manage interim housing by 

developing targeted training, resources, and toolkits. This includes materials such as interim housing 

procurement and contracting toolkits, guides on how to assess the suitability of interim housing 

structures for different circumstances, and resources on managing and administering interim housing 

programs. 

• Conduct joint State and Federal planning to understand current State and local capabilities to 

manage interim housing, assess what types of Federal support can be provided, and identify potential 

gaps. Define expectations and enhance capabilities that may be required in a major or catastrophic 

event. 

• Catalog existing resources and best practices across the Nation to develop and effectively manage 

interim housing programs. Sharing innovative approaches, as well as tried and true best practices, 

can help rapidly build capabilities. 

2. Provide a broader range of interim housing options to meet the diverse housing needs 

across the Nation. 

Challenge: The diversity of individual and household needs, coupled with the range of geography and 

the variety of housing across the Nation, requires a broad range of interim housing options. New 

materials and innovations in design have the potential to provide a much broader array of temporary 

housing options than ever before. Although new efforts are underway to identify alternative interim 

housing options, substantial work will be required to make those options viable. This includes the need to 

field-test units, develop contracts to rapidly acquire and install these units, and create effective 

implementation plans. 

Potential Solutions: Continue to seek out and test new types of temporary housing that could meet the 

broader range of interim housing needs. Specific steps that could be taken include the following: 

• Enlist the support of the housing and construction industry to explore how different types of factorybuilt housing could be used to house disaster victims. Explore ways to engage private-sector 

technical expertise with State and community emergency managers to develop and plan disaster 

housing programs. 

• Continue to assess and test the viability of temporary housing alternatives for use in specific disaster 

conditions. Develop tools to evaluate timeliness, accessibility, livability, costs, and range of use for 

temporary housing structures, including adaptability to various environmental, geographic, cultural, 

and legal conditions, as well as the requirements for transport and storage. For example, the FEMA 

Joint Housing Solutions Group has started to use a systematic approach to evaluate various disaster 

housing options and identify viable alternatives to FEMA travel trailers and manufactured homes. 

Their efforts also focus on FEMA’s immediate requirements for temporary housing that have a small 

footprint, comply with the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards and the Americans with Disabilities 

Act, meet indoor air-quality standards, and can be produced quickly. Alternative temporary housing 

options should also be piloted tested by deploying a small number of units during a disaster to 

evaluate performance in real-life situations. 

• Develop disaster housing design and structural requirements to drive new types of temporary housing 

products. Requirements should be based on the range of potential disasters that could occur and the 

Page 66 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

diverse needs of communities. For example, higher density temporary housing will be required in 

urban areas where land use is at a premium. Requirements may also address durability, need for 

rapid development, site and unit flexibility, reusability, livability, accessibility, security, sustainability, 

and cost effectiveness. 

3. Formalize the HUD-FEMA partnership in rental assistance. 

Challenge: Following a disaster, the initial focus for temporary housing is to maximize the use of 

available resources. Rental assistance is the preferred form of interim housing when suitable rental 

property is available. However, it can be challenging to locate affordable rental housing in or near the 

disaster area. To address this problem, FEMA and HUD entered into an interagency agreement to pilot 

test a Federal housing assistance grant program. This program, DHAP, combines the experience and 

expertise of Federal agencies to provide rental assistance. It extended rental coverage for families 

displaced by Katrina by providing temporary rent subsidies for non-HUD-assisted individuals and families. 

DHAP is administered by Public Housing Agencies (PHAs) that are currently administering a HUD-funded 

Housing Choice Voucher program. 

The DHAP Disaster Rent Subsidy Contract, an agreement between the PHA and the owner of a unit, 

ensures that families receiving assistance under DHAP comply with family obligations during their 

participation in the program. The program, which operates until March 1, 2009 for Katrina/Rita and March 

1, 2010 for Ike/Gustav, gives displaced families more time to rebuild their lives. DHAP has been vital for 

helping families recover and become self-sufficient. 

Potential Solutions: HUD and FEMA experience with the DHAP pilot demonstrates that rental 

assistance administered through HUD’s existing network of PHAs is an effective way to meet the longterm housing needs of displaced families following a disaster. Creating a new permanent DHAP-like 

program by providing legislative authority to HUD would represent a significant improvement over current 

efforts. This will include completing the evaluation of lessons learned from the program and identifying 

opportunities to improve the program and better use the expertise from both HUD and FEMA. 

4. Establish a national capability to implement interim housing programs more quickly. 

Challenge: Providing interim housing for people displaced by disasters is one of the key challenges that 

confront emergency management officials. The logistics of providing appropriate physical 

accommodations, for stays that extend many months, are challenging and expensive. The necessary 

support services and their installation and activation take time. This means there is frequently a delay in 

implementing interim housing solutions while approvals and authorities are arranged; housing sites are 

prepared; housing units are acquired, delivered, and installed; and essential community services are 

initiated. And because caring for these individuals and household units is such a key function in 

responding to disasters, even minor delays in interim housing can significantly slow the overall community 

recovery process. The good news is that the corollary is also true: Planning for disasters can accelerate 

community recovery. 

Potential Solutions: Reducing delays in providing interim housing begins with collaborative planning 

across all jurisdictions. Specific steps that must be taken include the following: 

• Develop interagency agreements between FEMA and HUD, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 67 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

(USACE), the Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), and other 

key Federal agencies to establish common terms and standards, align resources, integrate 

capabilities, and preestablish cost reimbursement mechanisms, and deconflict the implementation of 

existing legislative authorities throughout the Federal Government. 

• Plan aggressively for specific interim housing solutions that address the full range of disaster risks 

and hazards the community faces. Put the plans into effect by assigning specific roles and 

responsibilities and taking measures such as negotiating standby contracts to deliver essential 

equipment and services quickly after an event. Train and exercise the assigned roles and 

responsibilities, incorporating lessons learned back into housing plans. Develop strategies to ensure 

jurisdictions can obtain these capabilities, and adequately coordinate disaster-specific plans that 

address potential needs of their community. 

• Outline the interim housing options that can be tailored quickly to meet the specific requirements of 

actual events. Develop crisis action planning capabilities to rapidly adjust operational plans to actual 

conditions. 

• Dedicate full-time staff to key functions for both actual operations and preparedness activities such as 

improving interim housing plans and training stakeholders. 

• By doing these things, stakeholders will create interim housing programs that have been vetted, 

exercised, and rehearsed. Putting such programs in place before disasters strike will reduce delays 

and enable communities to “execute” interim housing options rather than designing, developing, and 

implementing them in the face of an event. 

5. Institute a nationwide case management approach to ensure that disaster-related needs of 

disaster victims are addressed comprehensively and consistently.

Challenge: Disaster victims' needs vary based on many factors. Being displaced from their homes can 

result in a number of housing-related problems, such as unemployment , lack of transportation, childcare, 

and eldercare. These problems can affect the success of temporary housing in meeting household needs 

and complicate the process of finding permanent housing. And while many communities, tribal and State 

governments, and nongovernmental organizations provide support services to disaster victims, the 

process is not always well orchestrated or comprehensive. 

Potential Solutions: An effective case management program empowers disaster victims by providing 

information and access to required resources along with the followup needed to ensure success. The 

Post Katrina Emergency Management Act (Section 689f) amended the Stafford Act by adding Section 

426, Case Management Services. Section 426 provides authority for the Federal Government to "provide 

case management services, including financial assistance, to State or local government agencies or 

qualified private organizations to provide such services, to victims of major disasters to identify and 

address unmet needs." Specific steps that can be taken to better integrate case management services 

include the following: 

• Develop a national consensus to define disaster case management and to integrate federally 

supported, State-led case management services into disaster housing assistance programs. The 

goal of such programs is to provide consistent support to disaster victims, from sheltering immediately 

following the disaster through permanent housing. 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Interim Housing 

• Build a coalition of service organizations with the necessary expertise and resources to provide case 

management support at the local level, as well as organizations that can fulfill a support role at the 

State and national levels.

6. Be prepared to provide effective interim housing in the aftermath of all types and sizes of 

disasters. 

Challenge: Emergency planners work hard to identify all the risks and hazards that their constituents 

face. They look at the capabilities required to address hazards and find ways to deal with capability 

shortfalls. Because we face natural disasters and emergencies such as floods and wildfires quite often, 

we understand the types of problems that can be expected, and the cascading effects that must be taken 

into consideration. The realities of the post-September 11, 2001, and post-Hurricane Katrina world mean 

that we must also be prepared to respond to and recover from new types of manmade disasters and 

terrorism events that could result in extraordinary damage and housing challenges of unprecedented 

proportion and complexity. As devastating as the 2005 Gulf Coast hurricane season was, it did not have 

the long-term environmental impact that would result if terrorists detonated a nuclear device on American 

soil. The challenge, then, is that planners at all levels of government must routinely address the entire 

range of possibilities, from small events with housing requirements of short duration to catastrophic 

events where entire metropolitan areas may need to be relocated permanently. 

Potential Solutions: Competent emergency planning must include thinking the unthinkable. It is far 

easier and more effective to plan for interim housing before a disaster threatens rather than during the 

intensive activity following a catastrophic incident. 

To provide leadership in this area, FEMA will establish a National Disaster Housing Joint Task Force to 

bring together experts and policymakers whose efforts would be dedicated to address disaster housing. 

As a minimum, the Joint Task Force would: 

• Oversee and assist in the development of the interim housing portions of catastrophic incident plans 

for reconstituting communities rendered uninhabitable for long periods due to a natural disaster or a 

chemical, biological, or nuclear event. 

• Establish a national catastrophic housing concept of operations that would guide local, State, tribal, 

Federal, private-sector, and nongovernmental partners through purposeful, collaborative 

decisionmaking centered on accelerating community recovery. 

• Propose strategies for accelerating the exploration of new technologies and practices to repair homes 

and multifamily housing as well as reconstitute supporting community services and infrastructure. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 69 
PERMANENT HOUSING 

Overview 

Permanent housing for disaster victims relies on the successful intersection of individual and 

community choices and financial ability. One of the key goals of disaster housing is to move disaster 

victims into permanent housing as quickly as possible. Many individuals and households may be able to 

return and live in their homes following a disaster, even while repairs are underway. Yet when the 

housing infrastructure of a community has been severely damaged, attaining permanent housing in a 

timely manner becomes an immense challenge that requires choices and, ultimately, alignment of 

individuals and the local government, and the provision of financial resources through both public- and 

private-sector sources. 

For disaster victims lodged in interim housing, many factors affect the process of attaining permanent 

housing. These factors represent an intricate matrix of individual and community decisions along with 

issues of personal, private-sector, and public resources. Current practices in permanent housing focus 

on three distinct groups: renters, homeowners, and landlords. 

Displaced renters are not necessarily tied to a damaged property, allowing for some flexibility in obtaining 

a permanent housing solution. This mobility increases the uncertainty for their landlords as well as others 

working to identify housing requirements for the community. In contrast, a displaced homeowner has an 

owned or mortgaged asset. The homeowner’s permanent housing solution depends on his or her desire 

to repair or rebuild the damaged property or seek alternative permanent housing, and his or her financial 

ability to achieve a permanent housing goal. For homeowners with a mortgage, the bank or mortgage 

company also retains an important interest that must be taken into consideration to complete the 

transition to permanent housing. Finally, landlords also have unique challenges. While landlords 

themselves may be displaced, they must determine whether it is in their financial interest to rebuild. The 

aggregate decisions by rental property owners in an area can have a significant impact on the supply of 

permanent rental housing, especially affordable permanent rental housing. 

A number of factors or obstacles may affect the ability of these groups to retain, obtain, or create 

permanent housing. They include: 

• Their financial ability to secure and/or repair or rebuild permanent housing. For renters, this includes 

their ability to find and afford postdisaster rental housing. For homeowners and landlords, this 

includes whether they had adequate insurance and/or the ability to finance the cost of repairs or 

rebuilding. 

• The timeliness and effect of local land use decisions, environmental and historic preservation laws, 

building codes, and permitting processes, including the implications for where, how, and whether 

homes can be rebuilt. 

• The availability and cost of labor and building materials. 

• The ability to obtain and afford adequate hazard and flood insurance in the future. 

• Decisions by neighboring property owners to rebuild or abandon damaged structures. A large 

number of owners deciding not to rebuild can create substantial problems for the neighbors that do 

rebuild. 

• Storm surges and shifts in high tide/low tide lines. Both may claim land previously inhabited, leaving 

property to the sea or on public beaches. 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

• Local economic conditions, particularly the continued availability of jobs. 

• Recovery of the community infrastructure, such a police, fire service, healthcare, public 

transportation, and schools. 

The most difficult decision individuals and local governments must make is whether or not a home, 

neighborhood, or community should be rebuilt or relocated. Some decisions may have national impacts 

on economic sectors such as energy or food that necessitate Federal Government-level discussions as 

well. The local government’s decision not to rebuild an area must be made rapidly, as individuals often 

begin rebuilding quickly and their actions may reduce or eliminate the efficacy of such a decision. This is 

an especially pressing issue when a property or community has had repetitive losses from recurring 

disasters. For local governments, it is often extremely difficult to decide not to rebuild a neighborhood or 

community. While neither the State nor the Federal Government can make local decisions about whether 

or not to rebuild, States may choose to influence the decision, and Federal policymakers can decide 

whether to provide resources and financial incentives to communities choosing to rebuild in dangerous or 

high-risk areas. These funding parameters may prompt local governments to develop recovery plans that 

facilitate a relocation strategy prior to a disaster. 

As with sheltering and interim housing, catastrophic events magnify the scope of decisions that must be 

made, the amount of resources required, and the capacity needed to implement programs to move 

households back into permanent housing. When catastrophic events occur, there is a much greater 

likelihood that the Federal Government will have to play a leading role in facilitating permanent recovery, 

thus requiring extraordinary solutions. 

This section articulates key principles, discusses responsibilities and roles, describes current practices, 

and identifies future directions. 

Key Principles 

There is no “one size fits all” strategy for facilitating a disaster victim’s return to permanent 

housing. The size, location, and type of disaster play a very large role in defining the approach to 

permanent housing. This section presents the key principles learned from past and current efforts to 

achieve permanent housing solutions. Permanent housing begins with individual and community 

decisions on where and how to rebuild, which is a challenging task that often pits individual sense of 

place and property ownership against the need for safety and long-term community viability. Ultimately, 

permanent housing should be better built (including more energy-efficient, more accessible for those with 

disabilities, and healthier), more safely located, and more adequately insured than the housing it replaces. 

1. Rebuilding usually takes more time than people would like, and individuals need to prepare 

for this eventuality. 

Homes that are structurally unsafe to inhabit following a disaster, for example, often require more than 2 

years to repair or to replace. In the best of situations, the process of obtaining insurance funding or 

alternative financing, redesign or specifying the repairs to be made, obtaining local building permits, 

soliciting and hiring a contractor, and the time for the contractor to do the work can take a year or much 

longer, depending on the scope of the disaster. Especially after a catastrophic disaster, this timeline can 

double or triple. Many factors can slow the pace of permanent housing recovery. These include 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

community decisions about where and how to rebuild, the need for property owners to obtain “gap” 

financing to afford the necessary repairs, and the potentially scattered location of the owners. In the 

event of a catastrophic disaster, a shortage of housing for construction workers in combination with a high 

demand for labor complicates the problem. 

Local elected officials and case managers need to regularly use the media to explain the realities of this 

long recovery process to the public to establish and maintain reasonable expectations about how long it 

takes to achieve permanent housing solutions when housing is destroyed. 

2. Individual and community preparedness before a disaster strikes is essential to 

postdisaster housing recovery. 

Permanent housing recovery rests on the decisions and actions of property owners both before and after 

a disaster. Long before a disaster, homeowners and landlords have already made substantive decisions 

that will affect the ability and speed of their recovery based on the hazard, flood, or earthquake insurance 

they have purchased. Not maintaining adequate insurance predisaster will invariably lead to a much 

longer timeline for rebuilding permanent housing. 

Communities can speed up disaster recovery if they have a solid plan to respond to the range of potential 

disasters that could occur in their area. This includes assessing risk, including the threat, vulnerability, 

and consequence of disasters that could occur. For example, if communities or neighborhoods are 

located in known danger areas, such as floodplains along hurricane-vulnerable coastlines, or near 

earthquake fault lines, they not only should have plans for evacuating households and meeting short-term 

sheltering needs, but they should consider developing plans that spell out relocation or rebuilding 

strategies in the event of a disaster. These discussions should be integrated into existing community 

planning processes. In this way, the community can make quicker decisions after a disaster on how and 

where to rebuild, which is directly tethered to the decision process for individuals. In addition, all levels of 

government should consider the consequences of rebuilding in certain areas and should explore the 

benefits of establishing guidelines for when government resources should not be used for rebuilding and 

when those resources should support relocation. For example, chemical and other hazards may make 

the area – or certain portions of a community – uninhabitable for extended periods of time. In other 

cases, the area may be safe, but public perceptions about potential unknown long-term health or safety 

factors may make rebuilding unlikely. 

3. Repaired or replacement housing should be better than the housing it replaces and be 

adequately insured. 

Communities should mitigate the effects of future disaster losses by establishing appropriate building 

standards. Currently, to receive flood insurance the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) requires 

that homes experiencing more than 50 percent damage due to a disaster and new homes built in a 100-

year floodplain be elevated above locally adopted base flood elevations. Many local governments have 

adopted building codes to ensure that new housing units are built to a standard that reflects the risks. 

Miami-Dade County in Florida, for example, has one of the strongest building codes to protect against 

hurricane damage. Because of the extended lifespan of most housing, a community must establish and 

update strong building codes well before a disaster occurs. 

There are more than 126 million homes in the United States. To protect this valuable housing 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

infrastructure, all levels of government should encourage more property owners to make existing homes 

disaster resistant. A key step is to encourage individuals to implement simple measures. For example, 

research shows that the following five retrofits can significantly protect homes from hurricane damage: 

• Installing hurricane shutters or impact-resistant glazing 

• Securing roof sheathing to trusses 

• Reinforcing garage doors 

• Strengthening exterior doors 

• Reinforcing gable trusses 

Local governments in high-risk areas should implement local building codes requiring home hardening as 

part of home renovations or maintenance. 

The extra expense of building homes to be more hazard resistant may be offset by lower insurance 

premiums. Adequate insurance to cover the risks associated with a specific location, including riders for 

flood or earthquake coverage, are essential for expediting permanent housing recovery. In those areas 

determined by insurance actuaries to be especially high risk, insurance premiums are often quite high. 

Property owners also need to determine the levels of risk they are willing to accept. Because insurance is 

the first and preferred resource for permanent recovery, local, State, and tribal governments need to look 

for tools to make sure that all residents take appropriate care to reduce their risk of damage while also 

having affordable replacement-value insurance coverage. 

4. Some interim housing solutions can become permanent housing. 

While interim housing is strictly intended to provide temporary shelter for those displaced by a disaster, 

some households may not need to move from their interim housing solution to achieve permanent 

housing. For example, under some circumstances, selling a manufactured or modular temporary home to 

a homeowner with the unit on their property or in a manufactured housing community can serve as a 

permanent housing solution. 

5. Catastrophic incidents require extra coordination and resources to achieve permanent 

housing. 

A catastrophic incident that affects a majority of the households in a large area limits the ability and 

resources within that community or region to rebuild. For a catastrophic disaster, the place, size, and 

type of disaster can significantly impact how long it takes for a community to decide where and how to 

rebuild and to give its residents rebuilding guidance. This fosters individual indecision on whether to 

rebuild or leave. Those choosing to stay and rebuild may find it difficult to procure local resources to do 

the rebuilding and may therefore initially rely on manufactured, modular, and panelized housing solutions. 

The State and Federal governments can intercede and play larger roles to support community rebuilding 

when a catastrophic disaster significantly affects a large number of households or a high proportion of 

households in a county or State. 

6. Identifying clusters of permanent housing opportunities can speed and enhance recovery. 

Identifying clusters of less-damaged properties or areas to more easily and more quickly rebuild or build 

permanent housing can create a nucleus and catalyst for more permanent housing – a positive 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

snowballing effect. This is especially critical when it is hard for property owners to decide whether or not 

to reinvest because they do not know if their neighbors will reinvest or whether there will be adequate 

community services or social support services. Building out from an area of strength, especially in areas 

that are relatively "safer" from a repeat event, can stimulate permanent housing recovery. This also can 

help the local community focus investment in the public utilities infrastructure. 

Permanent Housing Responsibilities and Roles 

Permanent housing reflects the return to normalcy after sheltering and interim housing. While local, 

State, and Federal governments, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector play a role in 

permanent housing recovery, unlike sheltering and interim housing, permanent housing depends primarily 

on the personal decisions and financial ability of individuals before and after the disaster. 

Individuals and Households 

Baseline Capability: Individuals and households may be renters or homeowners. Renters are 

responsible for seeking out available replacement rental housing in the community. Homeowners are 

responsible for decisions to rebuild, coordinating with their insurance providers, and seeking other 

financing as needed. 

Postdisaster, homeowners must decide whether or not they will repair or rebuild. The first step in that 

decision process may be guided by local government decisions on whether to allow homes to be built in 

specific locations and, if they are going to allow homes to be built, what standards will be required, such 

as building codes and elevation requirements. 

If both the property owner and the local government decide in favor of repairing, rebuilding, or developing 

new housing, the second step is for the property owner to secure enough resources to successfully 

rebuild while meeting local government requirements. If a property owner does not have adequate 

insurance or resources, then he or she can seek out other public and private sources of support. 

After obtaining resources and integrating the requirements of the community, insurance providers, 

lenders, and grant makers, property owners often have to find and hire a construction contractor or 

undertake the repairs themselves. This step in the process is very challenging for many property owners 

who lack experience, or perhaps have very limited experience with selecting and managing a construction 

contractor and a construction project. 

Because permanent housing recovery rests mostly in the hands of the property owners, the private sector 

(particularly insurance and finance companies), as well as local, State, and Federal governmental 

agencies, must communicate the appropriate information on available resources to property owners in a 

clear and accessible manner. Case managers play an important part in this communication process. 

In communities with an adequate supply of affordable housing within a reasonable distance from a 

disaster area, renters can quickly find permanent housing. However, if rental housing that displaced 

tenants can afford is not available, renters often have to wait for the building or rebuilding of rental units 

before they can complete their recovery. Such population shifts may generate public service needs that 

must be recognized and accommodated. In addition, during Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, some landlords 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

significantly increased rents, which prevented many low-income individuals and/or other disaster victims 

from securing housing. Especially in times of disaster, local governments need to act vigilantly to prevent 

rent gouging, though increased rents may be due to such factors as rising insurance costs, high costs of 

rebuilding, and loss of income by the property owner. 

Landlords 

Baseline Capability: Like homeowners, landlords are responsible for decisions to rebuild, 

coordinating with their insurance providers, and seeking other financing as needed. 

Landlords may be individuals, nonprofit organizations, corporations, or other entities. After a disaster, 

landlords decide on whether or not they will repair, rebuild, sell, or abandon their damaged properties. As 

with renters and homeowners, a landlord’s decision may be influenced by local government decisions. 

Landlords provide a vital rental housing resource, especially for affordable housing, in most communities 

If a landlord decides to repair, rebuild, or develop new rental housing, the landlord should factor into that 

decision the complexities of his or her ability to secure financing and insurance and meet local 

government zoning and building requirements. Then, landlords may face the same challenges as other 

property owners in finding and hiring construction contractors or undertake the repairs themselves. 

Various government, nongovernmental organization, and private-sector resources may be available to 

identify reputable contractors, aid with financing or refinancing, and provide other services. 

Local Government 

Baseline Capability: Local governments are responsible for land use decisions, building and 

occupancy inspections and permits, and providing basic services such as water and sewer, trash 

pickup, public transportation, police, and fire service. 

Local governments generally have the responsibility and authority to determine land use, often through a 

zoning commission and legislative body. Common land use questions that local governments should 

consider include the following: 

• Should rebuilding occur in a particular area? 

• What areas should be zoned for residential use, single-family housing, accessory housing, multifamily 

housing, mixed use, open space, etc.? 

• Will the land use decisions reflect responsible floodplain management, or earthquake or wildfire risk? 

These are all important decisions that could affect availability of capital to finance a housing recovery and 

attract or discourage builders, investors, residents, and/or potential residents. 

Local governments should consider how to provide or encourage provision of adequate, hazard-resistant 

housing for all income groups and special needs populations, such as the elderly and persons with 

disabilities, who lived in the disaster-impacted areas. Local officials must ensure compliance with fair 

housing and civil rights laws. These laws are not only important to protect the rights of citizens; in some 

circumstances Federal assistance may be linked to furthering fair housing. 

Responsible local governments adopt, maintain, and enforce modern building codes, or review and 

update current building codes to reflect the latest standards applicable to their geographic area and 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

conditions and remove regulatory barriers to reconstruction. Local governments should also encourage 

construction methods that emphasize high quality, durability, and energy efficiency. They can facilitate 

this by encouraging the use of alternate construction methods or materials or performance-based design 

that improves performance and affordability. Adopting reasonable land use ordinances and modern 

building codes can help mitigate the impact of future disasters. 

The rebuilding strategy undertaken by the local government should include an adequate number of 

trained building inspectors. The local government may already have an adequate number of inspectors, 

may need to develop or use an existing local, regional, or national training program, or may consider 

borrowing inspectors from other jurisdictions. 

Home repair and rebuilding following a disaster can be rife with unscrupulous contractors and price 

gouging. Along with their respective State legislatures, local governments should enact and enforce 

consumer protection laws to combat fraud. 

In addition to providing the basic infrastructure necessary to allow individuals to rebuild, local 

governments are responsible for rebuilding the basic infrastructure required to sustain community life. 

These basics include utilities such as water and sewer, police and fire service, public transportation, and 

schools. In addition to the locally provided utilities, commercial utilities (electricity, gas, and 

communications) are also critical to recovery, and the local government works closely with these and 

other private-sector companies to restore services. Local governments that qualify as “entitlements” 

under HUD’s Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) and HOME Investment Partnerships 

programs may use these funds to help support permanent housing recovery. 

States, Territories, and Tribal Governments 

Baseline Capability: States, territories, and tribal governments have a responsibility to promote 

modern building codes, mitigate flood and other risks, provide State resources, and identify or request 

Federal resources that are available for developing permanent housing.

States, territories, and tribal governments have an opportunity to promote enactment and enforcement of 

modern building codes and mitigation of flood and other risks where appropriate. They also have a 

responsibility to combat fraud that is often prevalent during disaster recovery by enacting and enforcing 

consumer protection laws. States should also work with local governments to provide or encourage floodresistant housing for all income groups and special needs populations, such as the elderly and individuals 

with disabilities, who lived in the disaster-impacted areas. 

As the entity that oversees its local jurisdictions, the State has a special role in helping such jurisdictions 

recover. States are conduits for a variety of Federal programs but also operate or can operate programs 

that aid permanent housing recovery through their own resources. Almost every State has a State 

housing finance agency that may have access to Federal resources such the CDBG and HOME 

programs, or low-income housing tax credit or other programs. Following a major disaster declared under 

the Stafford Act, States will have access to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Hazard 

Mitigation Grant Program. Some States, such as Florida, operate a State housing trust fund that is 

funded through real estate transaction fees. A State can use a housing trust fund for a variety of housing 

purposes, including rebuilding housing following a disaster. Florida’s housing trust fund proved a very 

valuable housing resource following the four hurricanes the State endured in 2004. States can also use 

general funds to support permanent housing, even if they do not have a housing trust fund. 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

Federal Government 

Baseline Capability: The Federal Government is a source for financing and technical assistance to 

support permanent housing decisions made by individuals as well as local, State, and tribal 

governments.

Federal departments and agencies have a responsibility to aid disaster recovery within their authorities 

when the recovery is beyond the resources of local and State governments. In certain circumstances, 

Congress will provide supplemental appropriations. Major Federal players regarding permanent housing 

include HUD, along with the Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Small Business Administration 

(SBA). 

The SBA offers disaster home loans directly to disaster victims for refinancing, rebuilding, mitigation 

improvements to property, and personal property loss. Through the CDBG and HOME programs, HUD 

provides annual funding to State and local governments that they may use for housing and other 

recovery-related activities. Periodically, after large disasters such as Katrina and the attacks on the World 

Trade Center, Congress has appropriated additional CDBG funds to support community recovery. Local 

jurisdictions have generally committed a large proportion of these supplemental funds to support 

permanent housing recovery, especially for low-income homeowners and renters. 

Participating lenders in HUD Federal Housing Administration (FHA) mortgage insurance programs make 

financing available for disaster victims for rebuilding, and HUD makes foreclosed homes available for 

sale, often at a discount. Public housing agencies and some private landlords are supported with 

subsidies from HUD to provide affordable housing for low-income households. USDA also has a variety 

of grant and loan programs that can aid recovery of housing following a disaster. 

The two largest vehicles for financing for the development of new affordable rental housing are the 

Department of the Treasury’s Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) program and the tax-exempt 

Private Activity Bond (PAB) program. These programs are generally administered by individual State 

housing finance agencies. Developers can use the LIHTC program to raise private equity in order to fund 

the repair or new construction of affordable rental housing, and the PAB program to enable lenders to 

support financially distressed properties damaged by a disaster. After Hurricane Katrina, Congress 

temporarily increased the amount of tax credits that could be allocated to multifamily housing 

sponsors/developers in the region, providing a critical source of funds to develop and repair affordable 

multifamily rental housing. 

Private Sector 

Baseline Capability: The private sector brings expertise and critical services that are vital to 

permanent housing. Property insurers play a critical role by both funding the repair of damaged 

properties and continuing to offer insurance to property owners and renters once homes are rebuilt. 

Developers, landlords, lenders, and equity partners in the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit program 

are also critical partners for achieving permanent housing. 

Permanent housing recovery often demands the layering of resources, where insurance proceeds form 

the base amount for repairing damaged properties, followed by private loans (if not SBA or USDA disaster 

loans) to fill in the financing gap between insurance payouts and the actual cost to repair. If the damaged 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

property has an existing lien, private lenders may restructure the loan or allow deferral of payments during 

the rebuilding period. After a catastrophe, loan guarantees or default escrows and mortgage amnesty 

programs can be helpful. 

Local lending institutions represent the first stop for financial resources. Sustainable housing and 

sustainable communities mean viable market areas. Some thrift institutions participate in one or both 

Federal Home Loan Bank housing programs that provide member institutions with grants and other lowcost funds to finance housing. The Affordable Housing Program is a subsidy program that provides 

grants and interest-rate subsidies on loans to member financial institutions. The Community Investment 

Program for housing is a lending program in which member banks and thrifts borrow advances (loans) at 

a discounted rate of interest or obtain AAA-rated letters of credit from the Federal Home Loan Bank for 

that geographic area. Funds from both of these programs can be used for the purchase, construction, or 

rehabilitation of very low- to moderate-income owner-occupied or rental housing. Bank holding 

companies and State banks that are members of the Federal Reserve System may make community 

investments through community development banks or other vehicles. 

Nongovernmental Organizations 

Baseline Capability: Nongovernmental organizations play an important supporting role in helping 

families transition back into permanent housing by providing case management services, information 

and referral services, and establishing the important psychological benefit of conveying that one’s 

neighbors, community, and the Nation care about their return to permanent housing.

Foundations, charitable organizations, community-based organizations, faith-based organizations, and 

national nonprofit financial intermediaries, such as the Local Initiatives Support Corporation or Enterprise 

Community Partners, may provide volunteer labor, expertise, loans, grants, or assistance with raising 

Treasury’s Low-Income Housing Tax Credit program equity, and other resources for building or rebuilding 

housing, especially affordable housing. 

In addition, nongovernmental organizations such as local housing development corporations and local 

affiliates of national organizations can provide important expertise and resources, or access to resources, 

for rebuilding housing. Such organizations may have particular expertise and experience in building or 

managing housing for persons of low and moderate income that have less capacity to recover on their 

own. Some organizations may provide skills training for the labor force needed to rebuild housing, and 

some provide skilled volunteer construction teams that produce quality, resilient homes. Others may offer 

daycare to free up recovery workers. Many communities have HUD-sponsored housing counseling 

agencies to assist displaced persons looking to purchase housing, avoid foreclosure, or find rental 

housing. Information on such housing counseling agencies is available online at 

www.hud.gov/offices/hsg/sfh/hcc/hccprof14.cfm. 

Current Practices 

This section describes current practices to meet the permanent housing needs of disaster 

victims. To avoid the disruption in the lives of individuals and households and heightened levels of 

stress associated with living in interim housing, it is important to transition disaster victims to permanent 

housing as quickly as possible. It is critical that case management services keep displaced residents 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

informed of broader community decisions related to rebuilding that may affect their personal decisions on 

permanent housing. Case managers also help individuals reconnect to community resources and assist 

with identifying and overcoming individual barriers to moving into permanent housing. The current 

practices described below highlight how these issues are addressed and focus on meeting the unique 

needs of renters, homeowners, and landlords. 

Renters 

Displaced renters can be both the easiest and hardest households to return to permanent 

housing. To the extent that affordable rental housing is available within the community, simply assisting 

the disaster victim’s household with relocating to a new rental unit can help them transition to permanent 

housing. However, in situations where there is no available rental housing or the disaster has removed 

what had been affordable unsubsidized rental housing, it can be very challenging to provide assistance to 

displaced renters. 

• Unsubsidized. Low-income renters that lived in unsubsidized rental housing and were displaced by 

a disaster are often the households that require rental assistance or case management services to 

assist in finding acceptable and affordable private rental units. Once Federal assistance ends, these 

households must pay the full rent for postdisaster housing or receive rental assistance from another 

source. In some cases, they will be able to return to their predisaster home once it has been 

repaired. 

• Subsidized. Previously subsidized tenants in the HUD Housing Choice Voucher program may take 

their voucher to another available rental unit and continue to have affordable housing. Tenants of 

project-based assisted housing, such as public housing and project-based Section 8, and displaced 

residents of other existing affordable housing subsidized by Federal resources will receive FEMA 

rental assistance or other interim housing for up to 18 months or until their subsidized unit is repaired 

or rebuilt. 

Homeowners 

In the ideal situation, homeowners have adequate private insurance that will quickly provide the 

resources needed to rebuild. This is the preferred permanent housing option. In many situations, 

however, homeowners have inadequate or no insurance. In these situations, homeowners with adequate 

credit and income to support a loan can obtain a low-interest, long-term loan from the SBA or USDA. For 

most disasters, these loans are the primary form of Federal assistance for the repair and rebuilding of 

nonfarm, private-sector disaster losses. FEMA Individual Assistance home repair grants can provide 

limited funds to help households make minor repairs to make their homes habitable. 

Recovery options for individuals who 1) lack adequate insurance, 2) are unable to qualify for an SBA 

disaster loan, and 3) live in housing that has sustained more damage than a FEMA home repair grant 

would cover are limited to the assistance that State and local governments or nonprofit groups may 

provide. When Congress approves a supplemental appropriation of CDBG funds for long-term recovery 

activities, however, a source of very flexible funding becomes available to address long-term recovery 

needs. Congress generally makes these appropriations when the extent of the disaster is so large it has 

clearly overwhelmed the local capacity to fill in the “gaps” not addressed by the three other options. 

Congress usually states in the legislation its priorities for funding; those priorities are nearly always 

associated with unmet housing, business, and infrastructure needs to facilitate long-term recovery. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 79 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

Landlords 

Landlords are the providers of rental housing in a community. Landlords play an important part in 

providing permanent housing for both renters and previous owners who are unable to rebuild or wish to 

become renters. Rental housing generally falls into two groups: multifamily housing and single-family 

housing. Nationally, half of rental housing units are in single-family structures. In most, but not all, 

markets, there are relatively few owners of multifamily housing developments. This means that a few 

individuals generally control what will happen to a large number of units. In contrast, single-family rental 

housing is usually managed by smaller landlords and individual households. Many single-family housing 

rental units were originally built for owner occupancy and over time have become rental properties. 

Others might have been built so that an owner lives in one unit and rents out one or two adjoining units. 

About one-third of single-family rental housing falls in this latter category. A large proportion of 

unsubsidized affordable rental housing, especially the housing serving families, is this single-family rental 

housing. For both categories of landlords, whether or not their investment can generate enough rent to 

cover its operating costs and debt service strongly influences their decision to redevelop. 

Multifamily Rental Housing. Sources of financing to enable owners of unsubsidized multifamily 

housing to build or rebuild rental housing postdisaster include insurance, SBA disaster loans, private 

loans backed by HUD's FHA mortgage insurance, and Low-Income Housing Tax Credit program 

equity. In addition, there are other potential applications of Stafford Act authorities. For example, in a 

pilot program authorized by the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act, when the 

President declares a major disaster under the Stafford Act, the Federal Government could pay for the 

repair and rehabilitation of privately owned structures when property owners agree to make them 

available for rent by disaster victims for a specific period. Depending on terms negotiated, the 

owners may make repairs or the Government may contract to have the work done. While this is 

considered an interim housing option under the Stafford Act, after meeting those requirements the 

housing can become the permanent solution for many households. 

• Single-Family Rental Housing. If qualified, owners of single-family rental units may also be able to 

obtain SBA disaster loans to supplement insurance proceeds. The most affordable single-family 

rental stock in a community has a very high likelihood of being underinsured or not insured at all 

because the unit rents did not support the insurance premiums. When these units are damaged or 

destroyed in a disaster, they will command much higher rents if they are repaired or rebuilt. As such, 

disasters tend to reduce the affordable rental stock in a community, which also reduces permanent 

housing options for low-income renters. One method to retain this affordable stock is to subsidize 

repair costs with CDBG or HOME funds under agreements that hold rents at an affordable level and 

restrict occupancy to households below a specified income threshold. 

Homeless 

The homeless population represent an important subset of those needing housing following a 

disaster. In nondisaster situations, some households become homeless for a multitude of reasons. 

Following a disaster, this situation is often exacerbated. As part of the permanent housing recovery 

solution, the infrastructure to support housing and services for homeless persons must be addressed in 

community recovery plans. 

HUD funds emergency sheltering, transitional housing, permanent housing, and supportive services 

under its McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance grants. Housing funded under McKinney-Vento can 

either be in a building owned or leased by a grantee or tenant based. Insurance covers most projectPage 80 National Disaster Housing Strategy 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

based programs as required in grant agreement documents and regulations. For tenant-based programs 

following a disaster, the program will assist tenants to move to other suitable units in order to continue the 

rental assistance. HUD does allow some flexibility in disaster situations (with approval from the 

appropriate field office) in terms of budget and program changes so that the program and/or community 

can serve the changing population and maximize housing resources. Following a disaster, these 

continuum-of-care programs serve those who were homeless prior to the disaster and may serve those 

who are newly homeless after a disaster. 

Community 

Permanent housing recovery is contingent on the recovery of community resources that make a 

place livable, including employers, public and private utility infrastructure, schools, police, fire, 

healthcare services, grocery stores, other shopping, libraries, community centers, and public 

transportation. The decisions of renters, owners, and landlords regarding whether or not to return and 

rebuild are heavily influenced by their sense of whether the basic infrastructure of the community will be 

available to them. 

This basic infrastructure in a community is rebuilt with a web of private, public, and nongovernmental 

resources. FEMA Public Assistance or HUD CDBG funds are often used to support rebuilding of the 

public infrastructure such as schools, water and sewer services, and other public buildings. SBA lowinterest loans can be used by local businesses to support their repairs and replacement of inventory in 

excess of their insurance coverage. 

Future Directions 

The faster households achieve permanent housing, the sooner their lives can return to normal. 

Meeting the potential permanent housing challenges we face today requires new directions to remove 

impediments, improve traditional approaches, and develop new tools. The steps described below are 

intended to be practical measures that can help improve permanent housing efforts for the full range of 

disasters. They will require the consideration of the National Disaster Housing Joint Task Force, Federal 

departments and agencies, Congress, and the private sector. 

1. Identify ways to rapidly move disaster victims from interim housing to permanent housing. 

Challenge: Many displaced homeowners will not return to their predisaster homes. Some will not have 

the resources to rebuild, yet the duration of interim disaster housing assistance is limited. 

Potential Solutions: Solutions include providing additional case management support, transitioning 

households from temporary to permanent rental assistance, or, when appropriate, disaster victims in 

temporary manufactured homes may wish to purchase those home. 

• With existing resources, provide comprehensive disaster case management services to 

homeowners in interim housing. Case workers can not only provide information on permanent 

housing options and possible sources of rebuilding assistance, they can also encourage and 

coordinate the array of potential State, community, and nongovernmental organization programs 

available to help displaced homeowners. A clearinghouse of permanent housing resources and 

lessons learned can be established and become a key tool for disaster case workers. The ability 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 81 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

of households to sustain living in permanent housing to which they are transitioned is a key 

consideration. This ability may be dependent on employment, transportation, and the availability 

of a variety of services. Depending on an individual’s circumstances, the interim housing solution 

may become the permanent housing solution. 

• Transition households from temporary rental assistance to permanent rental programs. 

After a specified period of time – longer, after catastrophic disasters – households temporarily 

housed in a standard rental unit who wish to stay will have their rental subsidy reduced over time 

until they are paying the full rental cost of the unit. Build this transition period into the lease 

agreements between the tenants and landlords. 

• Transition households in temporary manufactured homes on their own land or private 

commercial parks. Allow households who wish to continue to live in or retain a FEMA-provided 

manufactured home as their permanent housing to purchase the home at a discounted rate. At 

the time of a disaster, jurisdictions should be encouraged to modify their zoning laws to permit 

manufactured homes as accessory dwelling units. Ideally, regionally appropriate designs for 

interim housing manufactured homes will have been developed and pre-procured with regional 

manufactured home builders to facilitate local acceptance of the interim units as permanent units 

in a community. One advantage of a predisaster regional design is that it can specify to meet not 

only HUD manufactured housing codes, but also the highest level local jurisdiction codes in the 

region to increase community acceptance. 

2. Require that all homes with mortgages have threshold levels of insurance. 

Challenge: Insurance is the first line of defense in personal recovery. Households whose permanent 

housing recovery needs are satisfied by insurance recover much faster than households that rely on other 

public or private recovery resources. 

Potential Solution: Mortgage lenders should require that borrowers protect not only the mortgage 

balance when requiring hazard, flood, and earthquake insurance, but also require and monitor over time 

that property owners maintain sufficient insurance that more closely reflects the value of their homes. 

3. Identify alternative approaches to stimulate permanent housing recovery after a 

catastrophic disaster. 

Challenge: Disaster victims frequently lack the financial resources to begin rehabilitation or 

reconstruction, or otherwise obtain permanent recovery housing early on following a disaster. This is 

especially true for lower income homeowners who are without resources to recover or begin the recovery 

process on their own. Costs associated with interim housing could be dramatically reduced if 

homeowners had financial resources or certainty of income to borrow those resources. Disasterdisplaced household are often cycled through several different temporary housing solutions before they 

move into a permanent home. The current process used to fund permanent housing recovery (as well as 

business recovery) delays the process and adds to the costs and the length of time in sheltering and 

interim housing. Most permanent recovery housing is funded through supplemental appropriations or 

SBA disaster home and personal property loans. Lower income homeowners often do not qualify for SBA 

disaster home or personal property loans. 

Potential Solutions: Identify specific actions to institutionalize an efficient, effective, equitable, and 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

predictable way to provide resources that allow disaster victims to begin achieving their permanent 

housing goals as soon as possible following a disaster. This would minimize the duration of stays in 

sheltering or interim housing. 

• HUD is examining the effectiveness of the compensation grant model implemented by several 

States using CDBG funds that is similar to a tax credit. 

• Formulate, evaluate, and implement other approaches to stimulate early action on permanent 

disaster recovery housing. 

5. Improve coordination to deliver permanent housing among local, State, tribal, and Federal 

agencies. 

Challenge: The tools and requirements for permanent housing come from a variety of local, State, tribal, 

and Federal agencies. These agencies need to establish better mechanisms for coordinating in order to 

speed up permanent housing recovery. For example, sometimes more than one Federal source of 

funding is needed to facilitate an individual’s or group of individuals’ return to permanent housing. If each 

of those programs includes a requirement for an environmental review, concurrent separate 

environmental reviews often occur due to lack of coordination or other reasons. Separate reviews are 

not legally required as long as each agency “adopts” a review conducted by a chosen lead agency. 

However, when certain environmental laws or authorities are only applicable to one agency, they must be 

addressed by that agency, whether or not it is the lead agency. The National Environmental Policy Act 

regulations provide for coordination. There is also no reason why consultations under the National 

Historic Preservation Act or the Endangered Species Act must be “separate” for each funding agency. 

In addition, real-time information on recovery progress is needed to quickly identify obstacles. Early 

assessments on the extent of damage and who has been affected can predict the permanent housing 

challenges that may lay ahead. For example, knowing that most of the damaged homes were singlefamily, unsubsidized rental units occupied by low-income households calls for a different level of 

intervention than a situation where the affected housing is all owner-occupied and fully insured. Over 

time, data are needed to see who has recovered and who has not and why. Yet the data to do this are 

held by many different Federal, State, and local agencies, thus preventing the ability to easily measure 

recovery progress and provide a measure of how well the recovery is proceeding. 

Potential Solutions: 

• Environmental reviews. Use the lead-agency approach to assigning responsibility for 

performing environmental reviews as outlined by the Council of Environmental Quality 

Regulations. Each agency participating in the project would examine the environmental review 

and accept it or request or provide perfecting information. Individual agencies would have the 

responsibility for work to comply with requirements of related laws that were not applicable to all 

participating agencies. Congress may also want to explore streamlining the National 

Environmental Policy Act requirements specifically for disasters in order to speed up the 

development of permanent housing. 

• Data sharing. Enabling Federal, State, and local governments to easily share data on affected 

properties will speed recovery. It also must provide information on the damage incurred, the 

resources available to them, and their probability of recovery. Those data could then be mapped 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 83 
Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

at a detail level to address recovery problems. FEMA and HUD are developing tools that will 

verify addresses and connect registrants to parcel data at the time of registration in order to 

facilitate both short- and long-term recovery. 

In addition, for larger disasters research panels should be established to provide technical insight 

into the recovery process. Empirical data on specific aspects of recovery would aid 

decisionmaking for both present and future events. 

6. Explore ways to resolve insurance availability and postdisaster insurance pricing issues. 

Challenge: In the postdisaster environment, obtaining insurance becomes more difficult and more costly. 

Prices for new policies generally rise for about 18 to 24 months – if insurance is available at all. 

Homeowners and businesses may get much less damage coverage than they believe they should or 

need to rebuild. The poor often become underinsured or uninsured, and renters become subject to 

insurance decisions of landlords. 

Restrictions in the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 (42 U.S.C. 5154a) preclude individuals 

from receiving Federal flood disaster assistance for damage to a specific property if 1) they have received 

such assistance for that property in the past, 2) that past assistance required the person to buy and 

maintain flood insurance on the property, and 3) the person failed to purchase and maintain the required 

flood insurance. This “one-bite” rule, as it is known, will apply when the Gulf Coast experiences its next 

major hurricane and could disqualify a substantial number of disaster victims from receiving disaster 

assistance. This rule may not be well known and understood. 

Potential Solution: Conduct a public policy forum to address postdisaster insurance issues. Include 

public- and private-sector representatives to examine a range of factors related to risk, insurance, and 

land use. 

7. The housing production system must become capable of producing or rehabilitating 

enough standard housing units to rehouse populations more quickly following a 

catastrophic event. 

Challenge: After any disaster, especially a catastrophic event, the capacity for building or reconstructing 

homes is limited. Yet with the availability of panelized or modular housing as replacement housing, many 

households could benefit by receiving stronger and more energy-efficient housing in less time and at a 

lower cost. In addition, current housing factory capacity would not be able to produce or rehabilitate 

enough units to quickly rehouse the large numbers of people that would be displaced by a catastrophic 

event. While there is capacity and capability across the Nation, the challenge is in drawing sufficient 

capacity to the disaster area. 

Potential Solutions: 

• Work with industry and local governments to develop a certification process for existing factories, 

indicating that they are producing units rated for wind, flood, or earthquake, depending on the 

area. Local governments could pass laws in advance of a disaster stipulating where and how 

such units may be installed. This information should then be incorporated into disaster planning. 

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Chapter 3. Disaster Housing: Permanent Housing 

• Explore mechanics to speed housing production and bring the industry, the private sector, and 

other key parties into the process. Ultimately, establish public-private partnerships that would 

accomplish specific preparations to deal with rehousing issues following a catastrophic disaster. 

• Establish agreements among building code agencies to support the surge requirements following 

a disaster. This could be in the form of mutual aid and assistance agreements between 

jurisdictions and the harmonization of building code provisions that would allow for a common set 

of requirements. This would both benefit the community government operations and assist the 

construction community critical to the reconstruction. 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 85 
IMPLEMENTING THE STRATEGY 

Overview 

This chapter describes how the National Disaster Housing Strategy will be implemented. The 

Strategy sets a new course for the Nation. It draws on best practices and the lessons we have learned 

over the years to identify actions that can be taken to improve disaster housing assistance. This effort 

includes realigning roles to match responsibilities, renewing our focus on planning, building baseline 

capabilities, and providing a broader range of disaster housing options. The Strategy also underscores 

the need to recalibrate expectations for disaster housing. In addition, we must understand that 

catastrophic disasters result in exponentially increasing demands that require a fundamentally different 

approach to planning. 

Our vision for the future is a national disaster housing effort that engages all levels of government, 

nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector so that when a disaster strikes, we join forces to 

meet the urgent housing needs of disaster victims and enable individuals, households, and communities 

to rebuild and restore their way of life. The Strategy sets goals and identifies future directions to achieve 

this vision. 

Key concepts to implement the Strategy are described below. 

• Focus full-time national attention on disaster housing to improve sheltering, interim housing, 

and permanent housing efforts. To accomplish this, FEMA will establish a National Disaster 

Housing Joint Task Force, comprised of Federal employees. The existing FEMA National 

Advisory Council will be requested to provide recommendations from a broad range of 

disaster housing stakeholders to FEMA and the Joint Task Force. 

• Support and build State and local disaster housing preparedness, response, and recovery 

efforts. Based on best practices from across the Nation, this Strategy encourages States to continue 

to build proactive disaster housing capabilities. When a disaster strikes or threatens that may require 

victims to be temporarily housed or permanently relocated, the State is encouraged to convene a 

State-led Disaster Housing Task Force that brings together housing experts from all levels of 

government, non-governmental, and the private sector to tailor housing plans to meet the needs of 

that particular disaster. 

• Foster the development of operational plans that support disaster housing response and 

recovery operations across all levels. Concerted planning efforts and effective cooperation among 

stakeholders is vital during disaster response and recovery. To improve these efforts, we must 

develop national disaster housing planning guidance that includes clear, well-thought-out planning 

assumptions and guidelines. Such planning will entail identifying requirements, assessing capabilities 

to determine gaps, and taking specific actions to close or mitigate those gaps. This effort must 

include the development of a National Disaster Housing Concept of Operations that integrates 

and synchronizes existing capabilities across all levels of government, nongovernmental 

organizations, and the private sector. All organizations involved should develop detailed operational 

plans and consistent implementation protocols. 

• Build local, tribal, State, and Federal disaster housing baseline capabilities. Conducting more 

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Chapter 4. Implementing the Strategy

effective disaster housing response and recovery operations will require all levels of government, 

nongovernmental organizations, the private sector, and individuals to, at a minimum, meet baseline 

capabilities that align with fundamental responsibilities and roles. This will require an assessment of 

current capabilities, developing engaged partnerships, and making additional investments in 

preparedness activities, including planning, organizing, equipping, training, exercising, and evaluating 

efforts to improve. 

• Work collectively to achieve the vision and goals within the Strategy. We must move from 

theory to practice by providing objectives, milestones, and metrics that will mark progress toward 

achieving the goals outlined in this Strategy. This will include developing and tracking disaster 

housing efforts against a National Implementation Plan.

These concepts and key actions are explored more fully on the following pages. 

National Disaster Housing Efforts 

This National Disaster Housing Joint Task Force will provide a full-time focus, elevate the significance 

of disaster housing preparedness, and oversee the implementation of the Strategy. The Joint Task Force 

will focus FEMA’s disaster housing efforts and will fulfill the following primary roles: 

1. Initiate Deliberative Planning. The Joint Task Force will lead disaster housing contingency planning 

and preparedness efforts, oversee implementation of the Strategy, and advise the FEMA 

Administrator. These responsibilities include identifying lessons learned and best practices and 

engaging a broad range of stakeholders. To raise the visibility of disaster housing issues, foster 

innovation, and build capabilities, the Joint Task Force will host conferences and conduct other 

disaster housing-related outreach activities. The specific short-term and long-term tasks for the Joint 

Task Force are described below.

2. Support Incident Response and Recovery. During the response to a major incident that requires a 

significant housing effort, the Joint Task Force will provide technical expertise and advice to the Joint 

Field Office and the State-led Disaster Housing Joint Task Force. This assistance may include 

deploying liaisons or teams to the affected States to help tailor Federal disaster housing plans to 

meet the needs of the particular event. In this role, representatives from the Joint Task Force will 

work with and support established FEMA field operations and structures. 

To obtain stakeholder input, the Joint Task Force will request the National Advisory Council (NAC) to 

create a new subcommittee or expand an existing subcommittee, which will assess government efforts to 

improve disaster housing across the Nation and provide advice and stakeholder input as the Strategy is 

being implemented. FEMA may also seek individual advice from organizations as needed to obtain 

information on specific disaster housing issues, such as housing needs for special populations. Following 

are the types of organizations that may be involved: 

1. Private sector organizations, such as the Manufactured Housing Institute, the building and 

construction industry, real estate professionals, urban planners, and architects. 

2. Nongovernmental organizations, ranging from the American Red Cross, National Emergency 

Management Association, National Association of Home Builders, National Association of Housing 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 87 
Chapter 4. Implementing the Strategy 

and Redevelopment Officials, disability support organizations, the Manufactured Housing Institute, 

and National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster. 

3. National or international experts in sheltering, interim housing, and permanent housing. 

4. Organizations, such as the National Council on Disabilities, with expertise in specific 

important housing-related areas, such as case management, and special needs populations. 

The Joint Task Force would also engage the following governmental entities: 

1. Federal Government, including FEMA, HUD, SBA, USDA, VA, USACE, and HHS. 

2. State and tribal governments, including a range of States and tribes with varying capabilities and 

resources. 

3. Local governments, including large metropolitan areas and rural jurisdictions. 

The following sections describe the short-term and longer-term tasks the Joint Task Force should 

undertake to implement the Strategy. 

Short-Term Tasks 

1. Develop an Implementation Plan. 

The Joint Task Force must develop a national Implementation Plan to achieve the goals within the 

Strategy and address the challenges in sheltering, interim housing, and permanent housing. 

While the Strategy lays the groundwork, achieving its vision and strategic goals will require the collective 

experience of experts from across the Nation. The Implementation Plan should be developed 

collaboratively within 6 months of publication of the Strategy and reflect the expertise, ideas, and 

guidance of disaster housing stakeholders. 

The Implementation Plan should use the Strategy's vision and strategic goals as a starting point, 

translating them into measurable objectives, actions, and milestones. The plan must prioritize those 

actions and establish a realistic timeline. The Joint Task Force should also identify which organizations 

are best positioned to lead each action, as well as which organizations will play key supporting roles. 

Developing this plan will require not only cooperation and compromise, but also a continued critical look 

at whether the course charted by the Joint Task Force will achieve the broader national goals. 

The Strategy was written in broad terms to provide the Joint Task Force the opportunity to explore a 

range of ideas, encourage creativity, and foster innovation. Yet the Strategy points purposefully to future 

directions for sheltering, interim housing, and permanent housing that should be further defined in the 

Implementation Plan. The Joint Task Force must accomplish their task by asking hard questions and 

continuing to assess key principles, review current practices, and prioritize the future directions within 

each area. 

Every year the Joint Task Force should produce a report that evaluates the Nation’s progress in 

implementing the Strategy, proposing course adjustments as needed. Every 4 years, the Joint Task 

Force should review and revise the Strategy as necessary. 

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Chapter 4. Implementing the Strategy

The effectiveness of disaster housing efforts will be determined by the people who fulfill key roles and 

how they carry out their responsibilities, including their commitment to develop plans and partnerships, 

conduct joint training and exercises, and achieve shared goals. Ultimately, our success will be evaluated 

by individuals and families who are forced from their homes by future disasters. 

2. Improve planning for all disaster housing response and recovery operations. 

The Joint Task Force must develop a comprehensive concept of operations (CONOPS) that 

describes how disaster housing is provided during response and recovery operations. The 

purpose of the CONOPS is to create a definitive description of how the emergency management 

community provides disaster housing, and to do so in a manner that draws concurrence from all 

stakeholders. The urgency of disaster housing issues facing the nation makes this a high-priority task 

and drives the requirement to complete the CONOPS within 10 months of the publication of the Strategy. 

The CONOPS will: 

• Describe specific roles and responsibilities and the actions each player must take to execute effective 

disaster housing operations across all levels of government, nongovernmental organizations, and the 

private sector. 

• Integrate disaster housing capabilities into standard disaster response and recovery operations. 

• List disaster housing options for the various phases (sheltering, interim, and permanent) along with 

pertinent supporting information to guide housing decisions. 

• Explain how disaster housing operations will be conducted for the normal ranges of disasters and 

emergencies. 

The CONOPS must build on the fundamental principle that the State is responsible for the welfare of its 

residents and that the Federal Government has a key support role in helping the State to house disaster 

victims. It must also take advantage of best practices and capabilities that have been developed at the 

State and local levels. The CONOPS should outline a range of disaster housing partnership 

arrangements between the State and Federal governments and with nongovernmental organizations and 

the private sector. All States must have baseline disaster housing capabilities to articulate requirements, 

evaluate and select options, and, if requesting Federal assistance, take responsibility for and manage the 

assistance when it is provided. Some States and localities have greater experience and greater expertise 

to apply to the process. When a disaster strikes, those States may assume a more direct role by 

designing disaster housing options and implementing the actual housing solutions, with the Federal 

Government providing funding, technical assistance, and requisite program oversight. 

The CONOPS must also explain the Federal Government's normal disaster housing support role in 

operational terms, along with the Federal Government's responsibility to maintain readiness to assume a 

greater role in housing disaster victims if required. 

The Joint Task Force should examine how disaster housing assistance is provided under the National 

Response Framework (NRF) (and its annexes) to ensure consistency with the Strategy and identify 

potential gaps. Included in this effort should be an evaluation of the NRF emergency support functions 

(ESF), specifically ESF 6 Mass Care, Emergency Assistance, Housing, and Human Services and ESF 14 

Long-Term Community Recovery, to determine, among other things, whether disaster housing is 

National Disaster Housing Strategy Page 89 
Chapter 4. Implementing the Strategy 

efficiently addressed or whether it should be established as a separate ESF. Based on this assessment, 

the Joint Task Force should recommend changes or improvements to ensure that disaster housing issues 

are addressed fully, consistently and most effectively. 

The Joint Task Force will also assess whether the National Planning System should be expanded to 

better address disaster housing assistance. Establishing disaster housing as a standard planning topic 

will ensure that it is formally addressed in national plans for all scenarios. This approach will help 

institutionalize disaster housing planning as a standard element of national, State, and local plans by 

providing a template for emergency operations plans and housing annexes. It will also provide Federal 

departments and agencies, States, tribal governments, local jurisdictions, and private-sector and 

nongovernmental organizations with national disaster housing information to guide the development of 

their operations plans. 

3. Provide additional support to address the unique challenges of a catastrophic event. 

Building on the disaster housing CONOPS described above, the Joint Task Force must examine the 

unique requirements that the nation will face in the event of a catastrophic disaster. Planning to meet the 

disaster housing requirements resulting from a catastrophic event involves issues that do not simply 

reflect larger numbers of people to be housed (although that will certainly be a factor). Planning for 

catastrophic events involves complexity on a new order of magnitude as officials confront issues such as 

dispersion of evacuees to great distances and multiple States, extended stays in disaster housing, and 

unprecedented requirements for social support services. Those providing disaster housing in 

catastrophic events must anticipate requirements for not only greater quantities of resources, but also for 

entirely new and different capabilities. 

Based on these unique circumstances, the Joint Task Force should develop a catastrophic CONOPS. 

This CONOPS must describe a national approach to housing people displaced by the full range of 

catastrophic hazards. The CONOPS must provide comprehensive frameworks for two basic and very 

different scenarios: 1) events in which the displacement of victims is massive but temporary – resulting, 

for example, from a major hurricane; and 2) an event, such as a nuclear accident or a terrorist attack 

using a weapon of mass destruction, in which some area of the United States is rendered uninhabitable 

for months or years. 

Finally, the catastrophic disaster housing CONOPS will drive improvements in disaster housing planning 

and further define the capabilities that may be required. The CONOPS will support the Catastrophic 

Incident Supplement to the National Response Framework. As the National Planning System becomes 

fully implemented, the catastrophic disaster housing CONOPS must be tailored to support the full 

spectrum of scenario-based national plans. 

Long-Term Tasks 

1. Build capabilities across all levels of government, nongovernmental organizations, and the 

private sector. 

All levels of government, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector must be 

prepared to support housing operations whenever disasters strike. Preparedness includes 

developing sufficient capabilities, including the functions or services required to successfully execute a 

given mission. Based on their disaster housing responsibilities and roles, all organizations should define 

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Chapter 4. Implementing the Strategy

and build capabilities to support the Strategy and execute the National Disaster Housing CONOPS. 

Developing these capabilities should be based on the principles in the National Incident Management 

System and build on best practices, when possible. To develop capabilities for this type of operation, 

organizations typically work together to: 

• Develop operational plans and specify requirements, which may include tasks such as selecting and 

purchasing the appropriate tools and equipment, developing mission-specific training programs, and 

supporting long-term professional development. 

• Define what capabilities will be needed by which organizations to support disaster housing response 

and recovery operations. 

• Identify existing resources to support these capabilities, including people with appropriate skills and 

core competencies, equipment, systems and technologies, or commodities. 

• Conduct exercises and assess operations to identify lessons learned and best practices that can be 

used to revise and continually improve plans. 

Improving national capabilities and preparedness for disaster housing requires cooperation among all 

disaster housing stakeholders, including all levels of government, the private sector, and 

nongovernmental organizations. Joint planning sessions can shorten the process of defining 

requirements, identifying what capabilities are needed by which organizations, and developing 

complementary operational plans and joint exercises. When gaps in capabilities are identified, 

responsible officials must take on the task of building or enhancing those capabilities. 

Disaster housing involves capabilities that are both demanding and unique. For example, the capacity to 

plan, install, and manage interim housing community sites involves skills and resources for construction 

engineering and public works, government services, social work, environmental considerations and 

project management, and diplomacy. Assisting with permanent housing for displaced disaster victims 

requires an entirely different set of resources. Building such capabilities in various levels of government 

and agencies where they do not currently exist will require time, support, and compelling motivation. 

The Joint Task Force must determine what tools will be required to foster the development of these 

capabilities. Planning, training, and exercise support will be essential, but it will not be enough. The Joint 

Task Force must work with the FEMA National Preparedness Directorate to incorporate disaster housing 

capability building into national preparedness efforts that will engage stakeholders at all levels. The 

capability-building efforts must be planned and resourced to be sustainable over long periods of time 

because of the size and scope of the problem. Finally, capability-building efforts must include eligibility 

for existing grant programs and other State or Federal financial incentives to encourage State, local, and 

tribal governments to see disaster housing capability building as a high-priority activity. 

Because of the interagency and interdisciplinary nature of the disaster housing process, preparedness 

efforts will be designed to include nongovernmental organization and private-sector roles. Officials at all 

levels will be encouraged to include these partners in disaster housing planning, training, and exercises. 

2. Expand national resources to support preparedness. 

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Chapter 4. Implementing the Strategy 

It is impossible to conduct effective programs without adequate resources to support 

preparedness. Resource development should be driven by clear requirements based on the 

responsibilities, competences, and capabilities needed to support disaster housing response and 

recovery operations. The Joint Task Force should identify those requirements and develop national 

resources to support planning, organizing, training, equipping, exercising, evaluating, and continually 

improving national disaster housing efforts. 

Key areas where national resources may be required are described below: 

• Online Disaster Housing Resource Center. To support disaster housing preparedness, the Joint 

Task Force should develop an online disaster housing resource center. This web portal will centralize 

existing resources, materials, and tools for emergency management and disaster housing 

practitioners. The resource center will grow and evolve in support of the Strategy and those who are 

called upon to implement it. This effort should include a national assessment to identify tools and 

resources for the resource center as well as unmet State and local needs. 

• Planning Support. Additional guidelines, templates, and models should be developed, in 

consultation with states and other stakeholders, to support disaster housing planning that helps build 

national capabilities for the full range of disasters that may occur. These tools must be adaptable for 

local, State, and Federal planning and include forums for joint planning to identify potential gaps. In 

addition, specific disaster housing planning requirements must be developed to drive capabilities. 

These requirements should address the full range of individual and community needs, including 

special needs populations as well as pet owners. Disaster housing planning tools must also be 

adaptable to meet the diverse range of communities, from smaller rural areas to densely populated 

urban areas. 

• Funding/Staffing. Implementing the Strategy will require dedicated funding and staffing. The Joint 

Task Force should identify existing funding and staffing requirements to support the Strategy and how 

these needs can be met through existing programs and through expanded partnerships to pool 

limited resources toward joint goals. As part of this effort, FEMA will review how existing grant 

programs could support disaster housing preparedness at the local and State levels. For example, as 

part of the 2007 Emergency Management Performance Grants FEMA required 25 percent of funding 

to be applied toward planning. All organizations should review their own disaster housing 

responsibilities and roles and dedicate the necessary resources to fulfill their roles and develop 

requisite capabilities. This may require developing partnerships or agreements with nearby 

jurisdictions. 

• Training. The Joint Task Force will work with FEMA training organizations such as the Center for 

Domestic Preparedness and the Emergency Management Institute to develop competency-based 

training activities to support the creation of disaster housing capabilities. Training will include 

traditional classroom courses, exercise-based courses, and online training as appropriate to meet the 

needs of diverse disaster housing stakeholders. Training results will be captured and provided to the 

Joint Task Force to gauge program effectiveness. 

• Technical Assistance. The Joint Task Force should explore what types and levels of technical 

assistance are needed and how to best provide that support. In some cases, technical assistance 

can be provided through online toolkits or through interactive workshops that enable local and State 

governments to share best practices with each other and jointly address common challenges. In 

other cases, these needs may help further define the types of Federal support that should be 

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Chapter 4. Implementing the Strategy

provided during a Presidentially declared disaster. Other needs may best be addressed by working 

closely with key associations in emergency management, city planning, architecture, or other areas to 

develop national conferences or workshops. 

• Improving Individual and Household Preparedness. FEMA supports State and local efforts to 

encourage individuals and households to be prepared for disasters and emergencies through 

initiatives such as "Ready.gov" and "Are You Ready?" that provide training and outreach materials. 

This includes guidance on developing personal and household emergency plans, for example, and 

public service announcements regarding other recommended preparedness measures. The Joint 

Task Force should examine these programs to ensure that they address the specific steps individuals 

and families must take in case an event should force them from their homes either temporarily or for 

an extended period. The Joint Task Force should enhance existing outreach programs, including 

collaboration with disability support organizations, and develop new ones as needed to help State 

and local governments improve this important element of individual and family preparedness. 

• Improving Federal Systems. Federal systems that support housing operations should be efficient 

and effective in providing timely information for both response officials and policymakers. Examine 

existing systems to ensure, for example, that they track the movement of registrants as they receive 

sheltering, interim housing, and permanent housing assistance. 

• Engaging the Private Sector. Earlier sections of the Strategy reference the key roles that housing 

agents and rental property owners, the manufactured housing industry, and builders play in disaster 

housing. The Joint Task Force should look for ways to foster those relationships, expand 

communications, and extend the scope of private-sector engagement by reaching out to other sectors 

(e.g., retail merchants, medical equipment manufacturers, and urban planners) that may not 

traditionally be associated with disaster housing. The Joint Task Force should also examine 

impediments, such as complicated government contracting processes, that prevent companies from 

sharing innovation, expertise, and more efficient methods of handling aspects of disaster housing. 

3. Review and Assess Disaster Housing Authorities 

A key requirement of the Post-Katrina Emergency Reform Act (PKEMRA) is for FEMA to "describe any 

additional authorities necessary to carry out any portion of the National Disaster Housing Strategy." 

Analyses conducted by FEMA and HUD indicate that both organizations may require additional 

authorities. These requirements are being developed and will be forwarded upon completion. 

State Disaster Housing Efforts 

States should prepare for potential disaster housing events and tap the expertise of stakeholders 

to support State disaster housing planning. States are encouraged to continue to build proactive 

housing efforts that identify risk, develop capabilities, and identify potential gaps. Effective State efforts 

are typically led by emergency managers and bring together other State and local officials, disaster 

housing experts, representatives of advocacy groups, disability support organizations, and others with a 

stake in disaster housing to identify and address potential disaster housing needs within their State 

emergency operations plans. Since States have different capabilities and resources, their disaster 

housing preparedness efforts may range from building capabilities among State, local, and 

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Chapter 4. Implementing the Strategy 

nongovernmental organizations to developing mutual aid agreements with nearby States or fostering a 

better understanding Federal disaster housing support. 

When the impact of a disaster requires disaster housing, the affected State should establish a 

State-led Disaster Housing Task Force. To ensure a collaborative and comprehensive approach to 

meeting the needs of disaster victims, States will be encouraged to establish and lead a Disaster Housing 

Task Force at the State emergency operations center or the Joint Field Office that will be responsible for 

bringing together Federal, tribal, State, and local governments and nongovernmental and private-sector 

expertise. If the State has a standing group of disaster housing experts, that group may become the core 

for the Disaster Housing Task Force. The Task Force will evaluate housing requirements, discuss 

potential solutions, and develop recommendations. Representatives from FEMA's Task Force may 

provide technical assistance to the State-led group. For multi-State events, each State should establish 

its own Disaster Housing Task Force. The State-led Disaster Housing Task Force concept builds on the 

successful housing task forces that have been established in response to several major disasters during 

2007 and 2008, and in prior years. 

Key responsibilities will include: 

• Identifying the need for and coordinating the availability of interim housing community site locations. 

• Organizing intrastate housing authorities to collaborate in the development of a joint, comprehensive 

State housing plan that maximizes the availability and use of all housing options. 

States should involve disability organizations and other advocacy groups on the Task Force to provide 

advice on housing requirements for special needs populations, including persons living with HIV/AIDS, or 

those with limited English proficiency. 

Summary 

Fulfilling a national vision for disaster housing requires a long-term effort that builds on current strengths 

and encourages all involved to work collaboratively and seek innovative solutions. We will encounter 

challenges and obstacles and must persevere, developing engaged partnerships that expand beyond the 

organizations traditionally involved in emergency management and disaster housing. 

An effective national disaster housing effort must build upon a strong foundation based on clear roles and 

responsibilities, key principles to guide national efforts, a joint planning process to build baseline 

capabilities, and additional resources to better prepare for an impending or emergent event. All involved 

in disaster housing will be called upon to be better prepared for the full range of disasters that could 

occur, especially catastrophic events. 

The effectiveness of our efforts will be determined by the people who fulfill key roles and how they carry 

out their responsibilities, including their commitment to develop plans and partnerships, conduct joint 

training and exercises, and achieve shared goals. Ultimately, our success will be evaluated by the 

individuals and families who are forced from their homes by future disasters. 

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