Conference Paper 

NREL/CP-520-42856 

November 2008 

Long-Term Performance Data 

and Analysis of CIS/CIGS 

Modules Deployed Outdoors 

J.A. del Cueto, S. Rummel, B. Kroposki, and 

A. Anderberg 

Presented at SPIE Optics + Photonics 2008 

San Diego, California 

August 10–14, 2008 
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Long-Term Performance Data and Analysis of CIS/CIGS Modules 

Deployed Outdoors 

J.A. del Cueto*, S. Rummel, B. Kroposki, A. Anderberg 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, CO 80401, USA

ABSTRACT 

The long-term performance data of copper indium diselenide (CIS) and gallium-alloyed CIS (CIGS) photovoltaic (PV) 

modules are investigated to assess the reliability of this technology. We study and report on numerous PV modules 

acquired from two manufacturers (A and B), deployed at NREL’s outdoor test facility (OTF) in various configurations in 

the field: some are free standing, loaded with a fixed resistance and periodically tested indoors at STC; other modules are 

connected to data acquisition systems with their performance continuously monitored. Performance is characterized 

using current-voltage (I-V) measurements obtained either at standard test conditions or under real-time monitoring 

conditions: the power parameters plus other factors relating to quality like diode quality factors or series resistance are 

analyzed for changes against time. Using standard diode analysis to determine the sources of degradation indicates that 

CIS modules can exhibit between moderate and negligible degradation, with the dominant loss mode being fill factor 

declines along with decreases in open-circuit voltage, for illumination intensities near 1-sun. At lower intensities, current 

losses can appear appreciable. The real-time performance data also indicate that fill factor loss is the primary degradation 

mode, generally as a result of increases in series resistance. 

Keywords: Long-term performance, reliability, photovoltaic modules, CIS, CIGS 

1. INTRODUCTION 

The highest performing thin-film PV devices are those based on copper indium-gallium diselenide (CIGS) at 

approximately 19.9% as measured at standard test conditions (STC) [1]. The best efficiencies obtained from large-area 

PV modules of this technology are about 12%. However, the long-term stability of CIS/CIGS modules is a key issue in 

the reliability of this technology that needs to be addressed. Performances changes have been observed in CIGS devices 

when subjected to damp-heat stress and/or illumination or bias as noted: decreases in open-circuit voltage (Voc) via 

changes in doping density; conduction band offsets between CIS absorber and cadmium sulfide (CdS) window layers 

[2]; losses in Voc due to defect-induced recombination and fill factor (FF) loss by type conversion at the CdS/CIGS 

interface brought about by degradation of the zinc oxide (ZnO) transparent conductive oxide (TCO) [3]; defects in and 

degradation of the ZnO and CdS layers, leading to poor conductivity or damage at the CdS/CIGS interface [4]; and 

degradation of the top ZnO or CdS/CIGS interface [5] leading to series resistance increases and FF losses. Most of these 

cited studies have focused on un-encapsulated CIGS devices. Nevertheless, recent studies on the effects of damp- or dryheat exposure on encapsulated CIGS mini-modules indicate the primary failure mode observed in the test structures 

entail FF degradation as a result of increases in the series resistance of the top ZnO TCO [6]. 

2. EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 

Either CIS and/or CIGS modules from one manufacturer (type A) were first installed at the OTF beginning in 1988; 

starting in 2002, CIGS modules from a second manufacturer (type B) were deployed. The scope of this study involves 

numerous CIS PV modules deployed on three separate configuration testbeds. Even though the A modules are no longer 

commercially manufactured, we still retain many of them deployed at the OTF. All modules were baseline tested under 

STC using one or more of three solar simulator testbeds: the SPIRE pulsed-light source, the large-area continuous solar 

simulator (LACSS), and the standard outdoor measurement system (SOMS). In addition, dark I-V characteristics are 

measured on representative modules using the LACSS testbed. After baseline testing, these were installed in the field as: 

1) single free-standing modules (A and B) on the long-term exposure rack, loaded with a fixed resistor across the 

terminals (whose value approximates the optimum load at STC); 2) single modules (A and B) deployed on the 

Performance and Energy Ratings Testbed (PERT) system situated on the roof of the OTF; or 3) an array of type A 

1 
modules on the high-voltage stress testbed (HVST2) beginning in 2005. The freestanding and/or PERT modules are 

taken indoors periodically for I-V measurements at STC or under dark conditions and then re-deployed outside. 

The PERT and HVST2 modules are mounted on open-air, steel frame racks, inclined at fixed, latitude tilt (40°) with 

respect to the horizontal, facing due south. Their arrangements are depicted in Fig. 1, showing digital images of PERT 

system and HVST2 array modules, respectively, in the left and right portions of the figure. The HVST2 array and PERT 

system modules are electrically connected to programmable electronic loads (PEL) and continuously monitored in situ 

via separate data acquisition systems (DAS). PERT modules are singularly connected and loaded, one per channel on a 

multi-channel electronic load interfaced to one DAS. The HVST2 array comprises 24 type-A CIGS modules configured 

into two separate bipolar strings that consist of 12 series-connected modules with nominally positive or negative 300-

VDC open-circuit voltages each. The positive and negative strings of the HVST2 array are each connected to separately 

controlled channels in a dual-channel PEL interfaced to another DAS. All connections employ a four-wire measurement 

scheme: two leads to carry the power plus two separate leads to sense the voltages as close to the modules as possible. 

The PERT DAS executes I-V traces once every 15 minutes, and at other times actively maintains the modules loaded at 

their optimum-power point appropriate for the instantaneous lighting and temperature conditions. The HVST2 array 

DAS also performs I-V traces on each of the strings periodically, and at all other times actively biases each string either 

at their respective instantaneous optimum-power-point load or at fixed-voltage bias conditions. The HVST2 DAS is 

capable of and also performs cyclic biasing to fixed voltage levels, whose setpoint is stepped over time to produce 

square-wave output bias vs. time. The only pertinent difference between PERT and HVST2 module mounting 

configurations, is that the HVST array modules are erected with their frames electrically isolated from ground through a 

drop resistor, in order to monitor the high-voltage (HV) leakage currents ensuing from the PV devices’ self bias, through 

the module package insulation, to the mounting anchors; but otherwise the I-V data are monitored and produced 

similarly to the PERT module data. The PELs used to electrically characterize and bias outdoor modules do not have the 

capacity to set the bias outside of the voltage range accessible or produced under existing field conditions. In addition, 

the DAS monitor and record the concurrent ambient meteorological conditions: irradiance with broadband pyranometers, 

air and module temperatures using type ‘T’ thermocouples, and relative humidity with a capacitance probe. More details 

of PERT system and/or of outdoor data analysis are described elsewhere [7]. 

Figure 1. Digital images of the PERT modules at left, looking west; and HVST2 modules at right, viewed east, at the OTF. 

Some of the data taken on the LACSS, either at STC or under dark conditions, were further analyzed by normalizing the 

module voltages and currents to the unit cell level. This was achieved by: dividing the module voltage (V) by the number 

of series-connected cells; and dividing the current by the area of each unit cell (taken as the module aperture area divided 

by the number of cells), thereby resulting in current-density (J). The cell areas are approximately 10%–15% larger than 

the active area—so J data are correspondingly smaller—due to interconnect and border area losses extant in modules. 

From LACCS data, device-level parameters such as the series resistance, diode quality factors (A), reverse saturation 

current density (J0), and shunt conductance (Gsh) values are derived via standard diode analysis as cited in the literature 

[8]: e.g., series-resistance data are derived from the intercept of the locus of slopes of the J-V data (dV/dJ) vs. J, 

extrapolated to the origin with 1/J (for dark) or 1/(J+JLight) (for light) characteristics. Using outdoor data, series resistance 

and diode quality factors were derived by a method also previously cited [9] that involves three steps: 1) obtaining the 

2 
slopes of the I-V curves at open-circuit (Roc) as a function of illumination; 2) performing linear regression of these data 

against module temperature and segregated by irradiance bins, typically 50 W/m2

 wide, and then evaluating the Roc, Isc 

data from regression parameters at reference temperature (25°C) across all illumination levels; and 3) performing linear 

regression of Roc vs. 1/Isc from which the intercept and slope of the regression produces the series resistance and diode 

quality factors, subsequently scrutinized for modification with time. 

The presented results are organized in the subsections noted: in 3.1 data, taken at STC or in the dark, for the freestanding 

modules followed by diode analysis, measured using the SPIRE or LACSS; analysis of PERT modules in 3.2, and 

HVST2 array in 3.3, field data taken across all illumination and temperatures. For the PERT A and B modules, we have 

condensed over 49,000 and 42,000 I-V curves each, respectively, taken between January 2002 and July 2008. For the 

HVST2 array modules, we have distilled over 57,000 I-V traces, for each of the positive and negative strings, taken 

between April 2005 and July 2008. The HVST2 array data set is larger, because the curves are dually traced: going from 

Voc to Isc and then back from Isc to Voc for each scheduled measurement. The field data are numerically analyzed, 

segregated into bins of irradiance 50 W/m2

 wide, evaluated at reference temperature (25°C), and partitioned into 2–3 

month-long semesters, thereby allowing for the temporal scrutiny of all parameters The statistical variances of the 

temporally partitioned data sets range between 10 and 30 days for each irradiance, so a large amount of signal averaging 

is achieved, with the goal of retaining sufficient detail across all illuminations for each time interval. Spectral effects are

one of the few field conditions remaining that can modify module performance, have not been fully accounted for: yet, 

we can expect that some manifestation of spectral effects may become noticeable due to our analysis and signal 

averaging executed over time partitions where congruent spectral conditions in the field exist. 

3. DATA 

3.1 Free-standing, long-term outdoor testbed modules measured at STC 

In Fig. 2, we portray the performance and I-V power parameters measured indoors on SPIRE or LACSS simulators for 

both types of CIS modules (A and B) as a function of time. Fig. 2 is a composite-panel graph depicting the efficiency, 

FF, Voc and Isc data, respectively, starting from the bottom-most pane and working up, plotted vs. time. The abscissae 

for the Isc and Voc data panes, respectively, at the top and second-from-top panes exhibit scale changes used to depict 

disparate current and voltages obtained for the various modules. Fig. 2 shows data for A or B modules beginning in 1988 

or in 2002, respectively. Also depicted are data for a 1997 A and 2002 B module deployed on PERT, occasionally tested 

indoors. The A modules represent five separate epochs encompassing changes made to the baseline CIS process by the 

manufacturer between 1988 and 1998. The initial efficiency of the A modules is about 8% in 1988, which improved over 

time to 11%–12%; the initial B module efficiency is about 11%. The efficiency data of A modules from the 1990–1992 

era appear stable, but later vintage A-module data are less stable. One of the 1988 A modules was removed and returned 

to manufacturer in 1998 after dropping precipitously to ~6% efficiency; the other 1988 A module has held up better, 

undergoing a cumulative change in efficiency from about 8% to 5.9% over a 20-year period, or equivalently 1.3% 

relative loss per year. From Fig. 2 we observe some abrupt changes to module performance: in 1990 a hardware revision 

altered the data for the 1988 A modules, resulting in a sharp drop of 0.5% in efficiency, without which the loss rate 

would be only 1.0% per year (%/yr). This illustrates some of the difficulties encountered in accurate testing methodology 

at STC over the long-term, especially for Isc measurements. The relative performance loss rates for the modules shown 

in Fig. 2 range from negligible for 1990 A modules, to -2.2%/yr for the 1998 A modules. The B modules depicted in Fig. 

2 appear more stable, exhibiting a cumulative loss of less than 0.5% absolute, less than 1%/yr relative loss rate, albeit, 

this is based on only 6 years of exposure data. Fig. 2 shows the primary mode of degradation for A modules is FF loss, 

followed by some Voc decline when tested at STC. However, Voc data appear to exhibit slight improvement after the 

initial few years of deployment for A modules made on or before 1992, followed by subsequent loss afterward. Similarly 

for B-module data, there are some FF losses with time, plus transient, slight improvement in Voc values initially just 

after deployment. 

The data in Fig. 2 expose a pattern that reflects transient change upon exposure: initially module performance may not 

degrade very much with time, due to FF losses that are in part offset by increases in Voc; but then years afterward when 

Voc losses begin to accrue, the degradation becomes more apparent. In addition, data for the 1997 A module—resident 

of the PERT, but measured indoors at STC—indicate significant transient or metastable electrical behavior: ~10% 

relative improvement in performance occurs due to FF changes between tests conducted in 2006 and 2007. This transient 

change occurred while this module lay indoors under low light levels at room temperature, during PERT system 

renovation. Some of this transient behavior in performance also appears in the PERT data shown in subsection 3.2. 

3 
1/88 1/89 1/90 1/91 1/92 1/93 1/94 1/95 1/96 1/97 1/98 1/99 1/00 1/01 1/02 1/03 1/04 1/05 1/06 1/07 1/08 1/09

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

 Efficiency (%)

45

50

55

60

65

70

FF (%) Voc (V) B Modules Voc (V) A Modules

50

51

52

53

22

23

24

25

26

27

Isc (A) Isc (A)

0.4

0.5

0.6

1.9

2.0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

1988: A

1990: A

1992: A

1994: A

1997: A

1998: A

2002: B

1988: A

1990: A

1992: A

1994: A

1997: A

1998: A

2002: B

Change

in SPIRE

Taken out of service

Figure 2. Module performance measured at STC plotted against time, showing Isc, Voc, FF, and efficiency data, 

respectively, at top, second from top, second from bottom, and bottom panes of the composite graph. 

The series resistance data under dark conditions and STC were derived for these modules as referenced [8]: a sample set 

of 3-point slopes dV/dJ plotted against 1/J for the dark characteristics, or 1/(J+JLight) for light data, are shown in Figure 3, 

for a 1994 A module and a 2002 B module, respectively, in left and right portions of the figure. These data are 

normalized and reduced to the unit-area cell level. We plot and read the dark characteristics along the lower ordinate and 

light characteristics in reverse order along the upper ordinate axes in order to facilitate depiction of both data for each 

module. The changes observed over time are illustrated by showing data taken over several years, denoted by two-digit 

numbers (e.g., 99, 02, 05, 07, etc., are the year the measurements were taken) to show the evolution of values. Also, in 

the figure legends, ‘Drk’ or ‘Lit’ refer to slopes derived from dark or light J-V data, respectively. For the 1998 A module 

in the left-hand pane, substantial increases in series-resistance values occur over time, about 4 ohm-cm2

 or 1–2 ohm-cm2, 

respectively, for dark or light data. The data for the 2002 B module in the right pane exhibit substantial non-linear 

characteristics that appear to exacerbate over time (2002 to 2008) for the dark dV/dJ data, but to lesser extent in the light. 

The curvature for the 2002 B data complicate the analysis: even though the slope of the characteristics—dV/dJ vs. 1/J—

get steeper, the intercept values do not appear to alter significantly with time, suggesting that the changes are not likely 

due to series resistance. For the 1998 A module, the data exhibit slight non-linear behavior in far forward bias in the 

dark, which may indicate development and appearance of a reverse-bias barrier [8] for the device, but whose effect 

appears to diminish under light. We emphasize that because Jsc values are notably larger for the A modules (30 mA/cm2

at STC) than for the B modules (24 mA/cm2

 at STC), that even with comparable values of series resistance, resistance 

increments will impact A module performance more adversely than the B module. 

4 
CIS A: 1998

1/J (cm2/A)

Light dV/dJ (

Ω-cm2)

1/[J + JL] (cm2/A)

Dark dV/dJ (

Ω-cm2)

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 100 200 300 400

400 300 200 100 0

0

5

10

15

20

25

Drk-99

Drk-02

Drk-07

Lit-99

Lit-02

Lit-07

1/J (cm2/A)

Light dV/dJ (

Ω-cm2

Dark dV/dJ (

)

Ω-cm2) 0

5

10

15

20

25

0 100 200 300 400

400 300 200 100 0

0

5

10

15

20

25

CIS B: 2002

1/[J + JL] (cm2/A)

Lit-08

Lit-02

Drk-05 Lit-05

Drk-02

Drk-08

Figure 3. 3 Point slopes dV/dJ of dark and light J-V characteristics, plotted either vs. 1/J, or 1/(J+JLight), for 1998 A and 2002 

B modules, respectively, shown in left- and right-hand panes. The dark data are read along the lower ordinate, the light 

data are plotted in reverse order and read along upper ordinate axes. 

The changes in series-resistance values so derived under dark conditions or STC data are summarized and portrayed in 

Figure 4 as a function of time for dark and light data, between 1999 and 2008, for representative A and B modules. 

Smoothed solid or dashed lines have been drawn manually to serve as a guide for the trends observed. For the A modules 

portrayed: significant increases are observed in the dark series resistance over the course of several years, ranging 1 to 4 

ohm-cm2

; while the series resistance values at STC typically exhibit lesser increase, about 1 to 1.5 ohm-cm2. We 

emphasize the observed substantial drop in series resistance for the 1997 A module: this transient change occurred while 

the module lay indoors for a year between 2006 and 2007. These changes are reflected in transient improvement of the 

performance of both STC and PERT field data shown later. For the B module, the series resistance data exhibit 

ambiguous changes with time, which is an ambiguity largely arising from the choice of fitting interval in the 

extrapolation coupled with the non-linear dV/dJ characteristics for this module. 

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

Jun-99 Jun-00 Jun-01 Jun-02 Jun-03 Jun-04 Jun-05 Jun-06 Jun-07 Jun-08

Rseries (Ohm-cm2

)

1988 A Drk 1988 A Lit

1994 A I Drk 1994 A I Lit

1994 A II Drk 1994 A II Lit

1997 A drk 1997 A Lit

1998 A Drk 1998 A Lit

2002 B Drk 2002 B Lit

Figure 4. Summary of derived dark or light series-resistance values for A and B modules, respectively, from dark conditions 

or STC J-V characteristics, plotted against time. Trend lines are manually drawn to indicate approximate changes.

Values of module shunt conductance (Gsh) were derived from 3-point slopes of current density with respect to voltage, 

dJ/dV, near the origin (0 volts) with voltage, and taken as the minima in dJ/dV from the dark J-V characteristics of such 

curves. Those slopes and calculations are not presented, but we note in passing that over time, the Gsh data appear to 

increase more significantly for the B modules than for most of the A modules, which seems to be an observed trend: A 

5 
modules are less afflicted by shunt losses than B modules. In either case however, the Gsh do not appear inordinately 

large, being less than 1 millisiemens per cm2

, (mS/cm2), for most cases, A or B. Corrections to J derived from the shunt, 

and for V derived from series resistance, were then applied to the J-V traces for further diode analysis. Thus we arrive at 

values for the reverse saturation current density (J0) plus the diode quality factors under dark and light (STC) conditions 

as portrayed in Fig. 5, respectively, in left and right portions of the figure, plotted against time between 1999 and 2008. 

The diode quality factors are derived from the dV/dJ vs. 1/J, or 1/(J+JLight) under dark or light characteristics, 

respectively, while the J0 were calculated from extrapolation of the dark Log(J)-V curves to the origin. Similarly, 

smoothed solid or dashed lines have been drawn manually to serve as a guide for the observed trend changes. Referring 

to the left-hand pane of Fig. 5, the J0 data do not appear to indicate substantial changes in this parameter over time for 

most of the A modules: in the 1988 A, it is negligible, while for the 1998 A module it varied by about a factor of 3. This 

statement is made after consideration that altering the fitting range of Log(J)-V traces in the extrapolation can result in 

multiplicative changes in J0 of 50%. Conversely, for the 2002 B module, changes in J0 look more substantial, varying by 

a factor of ~40. For this module, the diode quality factor appears to alter significantly over time as observed in the righthand portion of the graph. The increments in diode quality factors for the A modules are between negligible and 20% 

over 8 years time, with 10% being a typical variation. Although the changes observed for the 2002 B module appear 

more substantial, perhaps increasing 30% over 5 years, they may be more indicative of changes in the rectification nature 

of this device: a weakening of the primary diode and strengthening of a diode at low voltage. 

Jun-99 Jun-00 Jun-02 Jun-04 Jun-06 Jun-08 Jun-99 Jun-00 Jun-02 Jun-04 Jun-06 Jun-08

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-8

J0 (A/cm2

) 10-4 1988 A Drk 1994 A I Drk

1994 A II Drk 1997 A drk

1998 A Drk 2002 B Drk

Diode Quality Factor

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5 1988 A Lit

1994 A I Lit

1994 A II Lit

1997 A Lit

1998 A Lit

2002 B Lit

1988 A Drk

1994 A I Drk

1994 A II Drk

1997 A drk

1998 A Drk

2002 B Drk

Figure 5. Reverse saturation current density J0 (dark) and diode quality factors derived from J-V( dark and light) data, 

respectively, at left and right portions of the graph, plotted against time for select A and B modules. 

3.2 PERT system field data 

We portray the I-V power parameters against time as the ordinate, for 1997 A and 2002 B modules, respectively, in left 

and right portions of Fig. 7: a composite multi-pane graph, showing the efficiency, FF, Voc, and Isc, going from the 

bottom to top panes, evaluated at 25°C reference temperature in all cases. Only data measured from 2002 onward are 

analyzed or presented, but we note the 1997 A module has been deployed on the PERT since 1997; while the 2002 B 

module was installed in 2002. All I-V traces were numerically condensed to the power parameters or slopes at open- and 

closed-circuit conditions after binning into irradiance bins across all illuminations and partitioning the data further into 3-

month semesters, evaluating all parameters within such time intervals. This analysis greatly reduces the noise that is 

inherently and typically observed in outdoor data. Note: the abscissae for the respective two modules’ data span 

somewhat different scales, in order to highlight changes. The Voc and Jsc data are normalized to the unit cell area, with 

their abscissae marked in units of millivolts and milliamps per cm2

, respectively. Data in each of three separate 

irradiance ranges, all averaged over ±75 W/m2

 spans, are depicted going from low 250 W/m2, through mid 500 W/m2, 

and up to high 1000 W/m2

 irradiance, to help illustrate the source(s) of some of the losses. Temporal variations aside, 

there are salient differences in power parameters observed for the two modules: 1) the B module efficiency data are 

larger than the A module’s, and their separation between lower and higher irradiance is also much greater, about 2% 

absolute, versus typically 1% or less for the A module; 2) the FF values for the A module at the three irradiance levels 

are consistent with series-resistance limited performance, with lower FF at higher irradiance and vice-versa, whereas the 

B module’s FF data are more typical of those reflecting shunt-limited behavior (i.e., the higher the irradiance the higher 

the FF); and 3) the Voc and Jsc data suggest that the bandgap—and hence the amount of gallium or sulfur alloying—is 

substantially higher for the B module than for the A module. 

6 
Jsc (mA/cm2) Efficiency (%) Cell Voc (mV) FF (%)

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

8.5

9.0

9.5

10.0

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

400

450

500

550

5

10

15

20

25

30

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

8.5

9.0

9.5

10.0

10.5

11.0

11.5

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

550

600

650

700

0

5

10

15

20

25

1/02 7/02 1/03 7/03 1/047/041/05 7/051/06 7/061/07 7/071/08 7/8

1000 W

500 W

250 W

1000 W

500 W

250 W

1997 A

1/02 7/021/037/031/04 7/041/057/051/067/061/07 7/071/087/08

 2002 B

1000 W

250 W

500 W

1000 W

250 W

500 W

Figure 6. I-V power parameters at 25°C distilled from PERT data, plotted vs. time, for 1997 A module at left and 2002 B 

module at right, showing efficiency, FF, cell Voc and Jsc, respectively, going from the bottom panes to the top panes. 

In each of the individual panes, the linear trends with time for each of the power parameters are also depicted, calculated 

by linear regression, for each irradiance level. Note for the B module at 250 W/m2

 irradiance, the FF data dropped more 

abruptly from about 68% to 62% within the first year of exposure—July 2002 to 2003—than it did in the five succeeding 

years since, where it has only dropped by at most another 2%, so that a linear loss rate with time is probably not the most 

accurate description. As discussed previously, we draw attention to the peculiar behavior of the data for the 1997 A 

module, immediately after returning it to the PERT rack in August of 2007: a large discrepancy occurs in FF data at this 

time, especially at the mid to higher irradiance where values are displaced by 4% to 6% above the linear trend lines. This 

change appears to be transient and disappears after several months. 

For the A module, it appears that FF degradation comprises the primary losses observed: loss rates in each illumination 

window are very similar, and Voc losses are negligible. Conversely for the B module, we obtain two appreciable loss 

modes: FF declines constitute the primary loss mode—between 0.4% and 0.8% per year—but degradation in Voc data 

are also palpable, ranging between 2.3 and 2.8 millivolts loss rate per year for each cell. The loss modes for each of the 

power parameters are better quantified via linear regression against time: these are summarized below in Table 1 for both 

modules—the A module toward the left and B module toward the right of the table—expressed in percent change per 

year (%/yr) from initial values; the statistical sizes of ±1 standard deviations of each rate parameter are listed along with 

7 
each entry (also in %/yr). Values determined within each respective illumination band are tabulated under each column 

designated by the center irradiance along the top row. Inspection of loss rates listed in Table 1 show that at 1-sun, the 

1997 A module is losing performance at a rate of 1.3 %/yr, slightly higher than the 2002 B module which is degrading at 

1 %/yr. However, the loss rates at lower irradiance ranges for the B module are significantly larger than those of the A 

module: within the 500 W/m2

 and 250 W/m2 irradiance bands, the performance of the B module degrades at 1.8%/yr and 

2.3%/yr, respectively; while those of the A module decline by only 1.5%/yr and 1.3%/yr. Hence, because the energy 

yield from modules erected at fixed latitude tilt comprises an integration of a substantial amount of irradiance 

frequencies at lower intensity levels, it is likely that on an energy yield basis, both A and B modules may appear to be 

declining at the same rate. From Table 1, the dominant loss modes for the B module at high- and mid-level irradiance 

bands are comprised first by FF decline, followed then by Voc loss; whereas for the A module, the losses in FF are 

dominant at high irradiance, followed by Jsc losses. Surprisingly, this analysis would indicate that current losses 

constitute a substantial portion of the loss rates for both modules, especially from mid- to low-level irradiance, 

expressing nearly identical loss rates in Jsc of about 0.7%/yr. A fundamental difference between the two modules is that 

the Voc loss rate for the A module is negligible, about 0.1%/yr across all illumination levels. 

Table 1. Summary of rate changes in I-V power parameters in three irradiance windows, for 1997 A module in left-hand 

columns and 2002 B module in right-hand columns, in descending order of efficiency, FF, Voc, and Jsc 

Module 250 W/m2

 

(%/yr) 

500 W/m2 

(%/yr) 

1000 W/m2 

(%/yr) Module 250 W/m2

 

(%/yr) 

500 W/m2 

(%/yr) 

1000 W/m2 

(%/yr) 

Eff

1997 A

-1.3 ± 0.08 -1.5 ±0.04 -1.3 ±0.03 

2002 B 

-2.3 ±0.09 -1.8 ±0.04 -1.0 ±0.02 

FF -0.60 ±0.13 -0.75 ±0.13 -0.84 ±0.20 -1.31 ±0.29 -0.80 ±0.15 -0.51 ±0.09 

Voc -0.07 ±0.00 -0.05 ±0.00 -0.13 ±0.00 -0.45 ±0.00 -0.35 ±0.00 -0.38 ±0.00 

Jsc -0.68 ±0.06 -0.71 ±0.06 -0.37 ±0.04 -0.74 ±0.04 -0.72 ±0.04 -0.13 ±0.05 

The underlying causes for the decreases in FF data are investigated further by analyzing the time evolution of the series 

resistance and diode quality factors for these two modules: these are depicted in Fig. 7, with series-resistance data on the 

left and diode quality factors on the right, plotted against time between 2002 and 2008, for PERT A and B modules. The 

series-resistance data are not normalized and represent the values for the entire modules; the diode quality factors 

represent the average values for each cell. The sizes of ±1 standard deviations in the derived parameters are portrayed for 

each individual point. These particular data reflect the derivations from Roc-1/Isc regression analyses for irradiance 

ranges above one-third of 1-sun; albeit the analyses were repeated with varying fitting ranges inclusive down to 200 

W/m2

 and do not alter any of the results significantly, except for the size of the statistical error. The linear trends that 

were analyzed for these data by regression with time are also depicted. From Fig. 7, we can conclude that the series 

resistance of the A module appears to increment from 1.3 to about 1.7 ohms, whereas that of the B module appears 

unchanged within the size of statistical error, remaining close to 1.3 ohms. The linear trends in diode quality factors on 

the right of Fig. 7 indicate an increase with time of about 0.4 for the A module; and 0.1 for the B module, slightly above 

statistical significance. The linear rate increments in these data amount to 2.5%/yr and 0.7%/yr, respectively, for the A or 

B module; the statistical error for each rate is ~ 0.2%/yr. 

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

R series (Ohm)

1/02 7/021/037/031/04 7/041/05 7/05 1/067/061/077/071/087/08

1997 A

2002 B

1/02 7/021/037/031/04 7/041/057/05 1/067/061/077/071/087/08

1997 A

2002 B

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

Diode Quality Factor

Figure 7. Series resistance and average diode quality factors depicted in left and right portions of the figure, respectively, 

derived from Roc-1/Isc regression of field data above 300 W/m2

, for 1997 A and 2002 B modules, plotted against time. 

8 
3.3 High-voltage stress test array field data 

The I-V power parameters distilled via linear regression for both negative and positive strings of the HVST2 array are 

portrayed, respectively, in left- and right-hand portions of Fig. 8, against time as the ordinate. Similar to Fig. 7, Fig. 8 is

a composite multi-pane graph, showing the efficiency, FF, Voc, and Isc, going from bottom-most to top-most panes, 

evaluated at 25°C reference temperature in all cases; but the data plotted are values obtained for the respective strings, 

without any of the normalization to the cell or module level. Also, data obtained in each of three separate irradiance 

windows, all ±75 W/m2

 wide, are depicted starting at low 250 W/m2, through mid 500 W/m2, and up to high 1000 W/m2

irradiance. The ordinate axes in Fig. 8 span the time between April 2005 and July 2008. Each respective abscissae (e.g., 

Voc, Isc, etc.) portray comparable absolute ranges, at left or right. Trend lines calculated via linear regression analyses 

against time are also depicted for all parameters within each and every irradiance band. 

1000 W

250 W

500 W

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

8.5

9.0

9.5

10.0

Apr-05 Oct-05 Apr-06 Oct-06 Apr-07 Oct-07 Apr-08

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

String Isc (A) Efficiency (%) String Voc (V) FF (%)

1000 W

250 W

500 W

Negative String

250

255

260

265

270

275

280

285

290

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

Apr-05 Oct-05 Apr-06 Oct-06 Apr-07 Oct-07 Apr-08

1000 W

250 W

500 W

1000 W

250 W

500 W

Positive String

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

8.5

9.0

9.5

10.0

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

250

255

260

265

270

275

280

285

290

Figure 8. I-V power parameters at 25°C distilled from the HVST2 array data, plotted vs. time, for negative and positive 

strings, respectively, in left- and right-hand portions showing efficiency, FF, string Voc and Isc, respectively, starting 

from bottom-most and going to top-most panes. 

Figure 8 provides a convenient perspective from which to gauge and compare string performance side by side, 

fundamentally showing that the negative string has suffered definitively larger decay than the positive string, largely as a 

result of FF degradation, at rates of 40%–85% higher than those of the positive string, depending on irradiance band. 

The initially efficiency data for both strings were about 9.3%–9.4%, and/or 8.3%–8.6%, respectively, at 1000 W/m2

, or 

9 
at mid to low irradiance bands. After just over three years of exposure, the efficiency data have decayed about 1%-

absolute at 1000 W/m2

 and closer to 1.5%-absolute at mid irradiance. 

The loss or change rates determined for all of the I-V power parameters in each string of the HVST2 array, and for all 

three illumination bands, are quantified via linear regression analysis against time and are listed in Table 2: toward the 

left side for the negative string, or the right side for the positive string, expressed in %/yr change from initial values. The

statistical sizes of ±1 standard deviations of each rate parameter are listed along with each entry (also in %/yr). Values 

determined within each respective illumination band are tabulated under each column designated by the center irradiance 

along the top row. The rates are organized in descending order of efficiency, FF, Voc and lastly Isc, going from top to 

bottom rows. Inspection of Table 2 shows that performance data for the negative string are decaying at an average rate of 

4.0%/yr, taken over the three irradiance levels; whereas the positive string data are declining at an average rate of only 

2.9%/yr. The difference in degradation rates between the two strings appears to be above the average statistical error of 

0.7%/yr. We observe that the losses comprised primarily declines in FF, followed in significance mostly by Voc loss or 

occasionally by Isc at high irradiance—Isc loss rates in the lower- to mid-irradiance ranges are indistinguishable from 

zero and statistically insignificant. This latter ambiguity may arise as a result of not accounting for spectral effects. 

Table 2. Summary rates of change of I-V power parameters in three irradiance windows, for the HVST2 array’s negative 

or positive strings, respectively, toward the left- or right-hand sides, in descending order efficiency, FF, Voc, and Isc 

Modules 250 W/m2

 

(%/yr) 

500 W/m2 

(%/yr) 

1000 W/m2 

(%/yr) Modules 250 W/m2

 

(%/yr) 

500 W/m2 

(%/yr) 

1000 W/m2 

(%/yr) 

Eff 

Negative 

String

-3.7 ±0.95 -3.4 ±0.68 -4.8 ±0.29 

Positive 

String 

-3.3 ±1.15 -2.0 ±0.83 -3.3 ±0.34 

FF -3.1 ±0.24 -3.1 ±0.22 -3.7 ±0.30 -2.2 ±0.31 -2.0 ±0.29 -2.0 ±0.30 

Voc -0.52 ±0.12 -0.36 ±0.07 -0.30 ±0.09 -0.45 ±0.12 -0.20 ±0.07 -0.21 ±0.07 

Isc -0.24 ±0.76 0.15 ±0.66 -0.99 ±0.21 -0.93 ±0.86 0.33 ±0.77 -1.13 ±0.29 

Finally, we portray each string’s series resistance-data and diode quality factors in Fig. 9, respectively, in left or righthand portions of the graph, derived from the intercept and slope of the Roc-1/Isc regression calculated for data taken at 

irradiance higher than 325 W/m2

. The series-resistance data are not normalized to the cell level, but instead represent 

cumulative string values. The diode quality factors represent average values for each cell in their respective string, 

obtained by dividing the slope of the regression by the number of series-connected cells—numbering 504 cells per string. 

Linear trends in these data are also calculated by regression with time: the data at left indicate that the series resistance of 

both strings has grown by several ohms, but that of the negative string has outpaced the positive string by about 2 ohms 

over this time, representing a larger increase of 25% for the negative string. The growth rates for the series resistance 

constitute increments of 11%/yr and 20%/yr, for the positive and negative strings, also respectively. The average diode 

quality factors of the cells in each string appear to be of comparable value initially, about 2.3 ±0.1, but over time have 

grown at rates of 7.5%/yr and 12%/yr, respectively, for the positive and negative strings; the statistical size of the error in

growth rates is 0.4 %/yr, so that the determined rates are well above the significance level and also substantially above 

those of the single modules exposed on PERT. 

Apr-05 Oct-05 Apr-06 Oct-06 Apr-07 Oct-07 Apr-08

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

String series resistance (Ohm)

Neg String

Pos String

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Average diode quality factor per cell

Apr-05 Oct-05 Apr-06 Oct-06 Apr-07 Oct-07 Apr-08

Neg String

Pos String

Figure 9. HVST2 array positive and negative strings series resistance and diode quality factors in left and right portions, 

respectively, derived from Roc-1/Isc regression of field data above 320 W/m2

, plotted against time. 

10 
11 

4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

Degradation rates for the numerous CIS/CIGS A or B modules exposed outdoors over many years—some for as long as 

20 years—were determined under STC or real-time field conditions. The results for the long-term testbed modules 

measured at STC were previously published [10] and will not be reproduced here, except to note that for the various-era 

A modules, the degradation rates range from negligible to moderate: -0.2%/yr to -0.4%/yr, for 1990–92 era A modules; 

-0.9%/yr to -1.0%/yr for 1988 or 1994 era A modules, up to -2.2%/yr for 1998 and later vintage A modules. The data for 

the long-term testbed 2002 B module exhibit more nuanced changes: palpable degradation loss rates in FF data, about -

3%/yr, that for now are largely offset by gains in Voc of ~4.5%/yr. Because measurements at STC are limited in scope 

and can be misleading, we have focused on performing loss-rate analyses primarily with outdoor field data for the A and 

B modules that we have installed and connected to data acquisition systems on PERT and on the high-voltage array. 

The outdoor field data for the PERT system and bipolar strings of HVST2 array modules were scrutinized in three 

separate illumination intensity bands that are quite representative of a large span of outdoor lighting: going from low 250 

W/m2

, to mid 500 W/m2, and high 1000 W/m2 irradiance; each irradiance window comprises measurements over ranges 

±75 W/m2

 wide spread about the center value. The loss rates obtained from these more numerous modules over the last 6 

years were summarized in Table 1, for PERT A and B modules and in Table 2, for the HVST2 array A modules. When 

viewed from such an average illumination perspective, the PERT A and B module performance data appear to suffer 

average loss rates of -1.3%/yr or -1.7%/yr, respectively, which are both well above the statistical significance of 0.2%/yr 

error of ± 2 standard deviations. For the PERT modules, the degradation primarily occurs in the FF data, with Jsc losses 

of 0.7%/yr for both A and B at lower irradiances; and negligible Voc loss for the A and small Voc loss rates for the B of 

0.4%/yr. The HVST2 array loss rates convey an ever more informative picture, showing the average loss rates are either 

-4.0%/yr or -2.9%/yr, respectively, for the negative or positive strings, which may portend more damaging exposure at 

least for modules configured in negative-string (grounded positive terminal) applications. The HVST2 degradation rates 

determined in this analysis—averaged over the three illumination levels—are consistent with data published earlier [10] 

but analyzed using a different method, the PTC regression. Furthermore, we presented data quantifying the primary loss 

mode for A modules comprising FF degradation largely due to series-resistance increments at rates of 11%/yr or 20%/yr, 

respectively, for the positive or negative strings; the average diode quality factors of cells in each string are seen to grow 

at increments of 7.5%/yr or 12%/yr, also for positive or negative strings, respectively. So far, the B modules have not 

shown significant increases in series resistance for either STC or outdoor data, but yet exhibit FF and Voc losses from 

other source modes: shunt losses coupled with weakening of the primary diode. 

5. REFERENCES 

[1] I Repins, M A Contreras, B Egass C DeHart, J Scharf, C L Perkins, B To, R Noufi, “19.9%-efficient 

ZnO/CdS/CuInGaSe2 Solar Cell with 81.2% Fill Factor,” Prog. in PV: Res. & Appl. 16, 2008, pp. 235–239. 

[2] C Deibel, V Dyakonov, J Parisi, J Palm, S Zweigart, F Karg, “Influence of damp heat testing on the electrical 

characteristics of Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 solar cells,” Thin Solid Films, 403-404, 2002, pp. 325–330. 

[3] M Schmidt, D Braunger, R Schaffler, H W Schock, U Rau, “Influence of damp heat on the electrical properties of 

Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cells,” Thin Solid Films 361-362, 2000, 283–287. 

[4] G A Medvedkin, E I Terukov, Y Hasegawa, K Hirose, K Sato, “Microdefects and point defects optically detected in 

Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin film solar cells exposed to damp and heating,” Sol. Ener. Mats & Sol. Cells 75, 2003, pp. 127–

133. 

[5] J Wennerberg, J Kessler, M Bodegard, L Stolt, “Damp Heat Testing of High Performance CIGS Thin Film Solar 

Cells,” Proc. 2nd WCPEC (1998), Vienna, pp. 1161–1164. 

[6] M D Kempe, K M Terwilliger, D Tarrant, “Stress Induced Degradation Modes In CIGS Mini-Modules,” 33rd IEEE 

PVSC, San Diego, CA, May 2008. 

[7] J A del Cueto, “Review of the Field Performance of One Cadmium Telluride Module,” Prog. In PV: Res. & Appl., 

6, 1998, pp. 433–446. 

[8] S S Hegedus, W N Shafarman, “Thin-Film Solar Cells: Device Measurements and Analysis,” Progress in PV: Res. 

& Appl. 12: 2004; pp. 155–176. 

[9] J A del Cueto, “Method for Analyzing Series Resistance and Diode Quality Factors from Field Data of Photovoltaic 

Modules,” Sol. Ener. Mats & Sol. Cells 55, 1998, pp. 291–297. 

[10] J.A. del Cueto, S. Rummel, B. Kroposki, C. Osterwald, A. Anderberg, “Stability Of CIS/CIGS Modules At The 

Outdoor Test Facility Over Two Decades,” 33rd IEEE PVSC, San Diego, CA, May 2008. 
F1147-E(10/2008) 

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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Long-Term Performance Data and Analysis of CIS/CIGS Modules 

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14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 Words)

The long-term performance data of copper indium diselenide (CIS) and gallium-alloyed CIS (CIGS) photovoltaic (PV) 

modules are investigated to assess the reliability of this technology. 

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PV; long-term performance, reliability, module; devices; copper indium diselenide; copper indium-gallium-diselenide; 

open-circuit voltage; large-area; doping density; fill factor 

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