U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Maternity Leave and Employment 

Patterns of First-Time Mothers:

1961–2008

Household Economic Studies

Issued October 2011

P70-128

Current

Population

Reports

By

Lynda Laughlin

INTRODUCTION

The labor force participation of mothers 

has increased dramatically over the last 3 

decades, and women have become more 

likely to work continuously over their 

life cycle. Almost two-thirds of American 

women (62 percent) with a birth in the 

last year were in the labor force in 2008.1

A child’s birth may also require changes 

in a mother’s work schedule to accommodate the demands of raising young 

children. This report examines trends 

in maternity leave and the employment 

patterns of women who gave birth to 

their first child between January 1961 and 

December 2008.2

The analysis primarily uses retrospective fertility, employment, and maternity 

leave data from the 2008 Panel of the U.S. 

Census Bureau’s Survey of Income and 

Program Participation (SIPP), conducted in 

2008.3 Previously published results based 

1 Jane Lawler Dye, Fertility of American Women: 

June 2008, Current Population Reports, P20-563,

U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 2010, Table 3. 2 The estimates in this report (which may be 

shown in text, figures, and tables) are based on 

responses from a sample of the population and may 

differ from the actual values because of sampling 

variability or other factors. As a result, apparent differences between the estimates for two or more groups 

may not be statistically significant. All comparative 

statements have undergone statistical testing and are 

significant at the 90 percent confidence level unless 

otherwise noted. 3 The data in this report were collected from

January through April 2009 in the second wave (interview) of the 2008 SIPP; from June through September 

2004 in the second wave of the 2004 SIPP; from June 

through September 2001 in the second wave of the 

2001 SIPP; from August through November 1996 

in the second wave of the 1996 SIPP; from January 

through April 1986 in the fourth wave of the 1985 

SIPP; and from January through March 1986 in the 

eighth wave of the 1984 SIPP. The population represented (population universe) is the civilian noninstitutionalized population living in the United States. 

on similarly collected information from 

the 1984, 1985, 1996, 2001, and 2004 

SIPP Panels are also included.4

The report first analyzes trends in women’s work experience prior to their first 

birth and the factors associated with 

employment during pregnancy. Changes 

are placed in the historical context of the 

enactment of family-related legislation 

during the last quarter of the twentieth 

century. The next section identifies the 

maternity leave arrangements used by 

women before and after their first birth 

and the shifts that have occurred in the 

mix of leave arrangements that are used. 

The final section examines how rapidly 

mothers return to work after their first birth 

and the factors related to the length of time 

they are absent from the labor force.

In addition to updating childbearing, 

employment, and maternity leave trends 

through the 1990s, the report provides 

details on changes many new mothers experience in the number of hours 

worked, pay level, and job-skill level 

after the first birth. These changes are 

examined in relation to whether a woman 

returned to the same employer she had 

during pregnancy or changed employers 

4 For more information on the previously published reports, see Martin O’Connell, “Maternity Leave 

Arrangements: 1961–85,” Work and Family Patterns 

of American Women, Current Population Reports, 

P23-165, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 1990; 

Kristin Smith, Barbara Downs, and Martin O’Connell, 

Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–

1995, Current Population Reports, P70-79, U.S. Census 

Bureau, Washington, DC, 2001; Julia Overturf Johnson 

and Barbara Downs, Maternity Leave and Employment 

Patterns: 1961–2000, Current Population Reports, 

P70-103, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 2005; 

Tallese D. Johnson, Maternity Leave and Employment 

Patterns of First-Time Mothers: 1961–2003, P70-113, 

U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 2008. 
2 U.S. Census Bureau

after the birth of the child. This 

report also examines how various 

social and economic factors are 

related to the timing of new mothers returning to work. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF 

MOTHERS AT FIRST BIRTH

Social and economic changes that 

have occurred among women since 

1961 have been noted to be associated with changes in families, child 

bearing, and work. At the same 

time, the demographic picture of 

new mothers has also changed.5

This section analyzes some of 

these events and shows how the 

characteristics of first-time mothers 

have changed over time.

Age and Educational 

Attainment of First-Time 

Mothers

Young women who give birth in 

their late teens and early twenties 

are beginning to start families at 

ages when other women are completing high school and entering 

college. Women who have delayed 

childbearing until their late twenties and thirties are more likely to 

have completed their schooling and 

to have accumulated more years of 

work experience than their younger 

counterparts.6 Education and experience can influence income levels 

and job security, which may in turn 

influence their decisions about 

working during pregnancy and how 

soon to return to work after their 

first birth. 

Age at first birth and the educational attainment of new mothers 

have changed over time. Data from 

the National Center for Health 

Statistics (NCHS) show that the 

mean (average) age at first birth 

increased 3.6 years from 1970 to 

5 Lynne M. Casper and Suzanne M. Bianchi, 

Continuity and Change in the American Family,

Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2002. 6 Lisa Barrow, “An Analysis of Women’s 

Return-to-Work Decisions Following First Birth,” 

Economic Inquiry, July 1999, pp. 432–451.

2007, from 21.4 to 25.0 years.7

The percentage of first births 

that were to women aged 35 and 

over increased nearly eight times 

between 1970 and 2006, from 1 

percent to 8 percent. At the same 

time, the percentage of first births 

that were to women under 20 years 

of age dropped from 36 percent to 

21 percent. Although not available 

by birth order, educational attainment among all mothers has also 

increased since 1970. In 2007, 

24 percent of mothers had completed a bachelor’s degree or more, 

compared with 9 percent in 1970. 

7 T.J. Matthews and B.E. Hamilton, “Delayed 

Childbearing: More Women Are Having Their 

First Child Later in Life,” NCHS Data Brief; Vol. 

21, NCHS, Hyattsville, MD, 2009. J.A. Martin 

and B.E. Hamilton, et al., “Births: Final Data 

for 2007,” National Vital Statistics Reports, 

Vol. 58, No. 24, NCHS, Hyattsville, MD, 2010, 

Tables 2 and 10. 

Among mothers aged 30 to 34, the 

proportion completing 16 or more 

years of education increased from 

15 percent to 43 percent.8

During this time, an increasing 

proportion of women 25 to 34 

years old continued their education 

beyond high school. The proportion who had completed 4 or more 

years of college approximately 

doubled from 12 percent in 1970 to 

23 percent by 1990. By 2007, the 

proportion with a bachelor’s degree 

or more education had reached 34 

8 Data for 1970 are from the NCHS, Vital 

Statistics of the United States, Vol. 1, “Natality,” U.S. Government Printing Office, Rockville, 

MD, 1975. Data for 2007 are from J.A. Martin 

and B.E. Hamilton, et al., “Births: Final Data for 

2007,” National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 58, 

No. 24, NCHS, Hyattsville, MD, 2010, Table 1. 

SIPP FERTILITY, EMPLOYMENT, AND 

MATERNITY LEAVE DATA

The 2008 panel of the nationally representative SIPP included a 

fertility topical module in the second wave of interviews conducted 

in January–April 2009. Information was collected on the birth dates 

of the first and last children born to all women aged 15 to 64 at the 

time of the survey. Women whose first child was born between 1991 

and the survey date were also asked a series of questions concerning 

their employment history before and after the birth, as well as their 

receipt of maternity leave benefits. Data from this survey were used 

in combination with similar information collected in the 1984, 1985, 

1996, and 2001 SIPP panels to provide an extended series of employment and maternity leave data between 1961 and 2008.

The most recent data shown in this report, generally for the time 

period 2006–2008, are from Wave 2 of the 2008 SIPP. In previous 

reports, data for prior decades were often generated retrospectively 

from the most recent survey. For this report, data presented from 

1961–2000 were obtained from earlier maternity leave reports produced by the U.S. Census Bureau or were retabulated and the most 

recent time period was generated by the survey year closest to that 

period. Data from 1961–1965 to 1981–1985 are from the U.S. Census 

Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P23-165 (Work and Family 

Patterns of American Women); data from 1986–1990 to 1991–1995 are 

from P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995); 

and data from 1996–2000 are from P70-103 (Maternity Leave and 

Employment Patterns: 1961–2000). For this reason, some of the data 

for prior survey years shown in this report may not be identical to 

those published in previous reports for similar time periods.
U.S. Census Bureau 3

percent.9 The age and educational 

attainment of first-time mothers as 

related to their work history around 

the time of their child’s birth are 

examined in ensuing sections of 

this report.

Factors Related to Employment 

and Maternity Leave

During the past 40 years, the way 

families approach work and child 

rearing has dramatically changed. 

In the 1970s, the common expectation that women would leave work 

upon becoming pregnant began 

to change.10 Another change during the 1970s was an increase in 

the proportion of families with a 

second income. More mothers, to 

maintain economic well-being and 

for other reasons, began to enter 

and stay in the workforce, resulting 

in an increase in homes where both 

spouses worked.11

Legislative, judicial, and regulatory changes related to maternal 

employment were enacted in the 

1970s and 1980s that affected 

employer practices during an 

employee’s pregnancy and after 

giving birth, and revised policies 

on child care support. For example, 

in 1976 the federal tax code was 

changed to permit working families 

with a dependent child to take a 

tax credit for child care costs. The 

affordability of child care services 

may be an issue for many women 

in deciding whether and when 

9 Educational Attainment Historical

Tables: Table 1, Current Population Survey, 

U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 2007.

<www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/education

/data/cps/2007/tables.html>. Prior to 1992, 

educational attainment was measured by years 

of schooling completed. Four or more years of 

college is equivalent to a bachelor’s degree or 

more education. 10 Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, 

Remarriage, Harvard University Press,

Massachusetts, 1992. 11 Frank Levy, The New Dollars and Dreams, 

American Incomes and Economic Change,

Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1998.

to return to work.12 In 1978, the 

Pregnancy Discrimination Act was 

passed, which prohibited employment discrimination on the basis 

of pregnancy or childbirth. This act 

covered hiring and firing policies as 

well as promotions and pay levels.

Flexible work schedules, employment-based child care benefits, 

and maternity leave emerged 

as issues during the 1980s at 

about the same time that birth 

rates among women 30 and older 

began to increase steadily in the 

United States.13 A U.S. Supreme 

Court decision in 1987, California 

Federal Savings and Loan Association v. Guerra, upheld a California 

law requiring most employers to 

grant pregnant women 4 months 

of unpaid disability leave and the 

right to return to their same job. 

At the federal level, The Family 

and Medical Leave Act of 1993 

(FMLA) mandates up to 12 weeks 

of unpaid leave for childbearing or 

family care over a 12-month period 

for eligible employees. Studies 

have found little evidence so far 

that such laws have increased the 

amount of leave women take by 

any considerable amount.14

EMPLOYMENT HISTORY 

BEFORE THE FIRST BIRTH

The last 3 decades have seen major 

changes in the work patterns of 

expecting mothers. This section 

describes overall trends in women’s 

12 Daphne Spain and Suzanne Bianchi, 

Balancing Act: Motherhood, Marriage, and 

Employment Among American Women, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1996. 13 Harriet B. Presser, “Can We Make Time 

for Children? The Economy, Work Schedules, 

and Child Care,” Demography, Vol. 26, 1989, 

pp. 523–543. See Historical Fertility Tables, 

U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 2005, 

Table H3. <www.census.gov/population

/socdemo/fertility/tabH3.xls>. 14 Wen-Jui Hen and Jane Waldfogel, “Parental Leave: The Impact of Recent Legislation on 

Parent’s Leave Taking,” Demography, Vol. 40, 

No. 2, 2003, pp. 191–200. Jacob Klerman and 

Arleen Leibowitz, “Job Continuity Among New 

Mothers,” Demography, Vol. 36, No. 2, 1999, 

pp. 145–155.

employment history from 1961–

1965 to 2006–2008 and the characteristics of women who worked 

during their first pregnancy.

Overall Trends: 1961–1965 to 

2006–2008

In the Fertility History portion of 

the SIPP, all mothers are asked if 

they ever worked for pay for at 

least 6 consecutive months before 

their first birth and if they worked 

for pay at a job at any time during 

the pregnancy leading to their first 

birth.15 The categories do not necessarily overlap, as new mothers 

may have worked for a few months 

during their pregnancy while never 

having worked for 6 months in a 

row.16 Other mothers may have 

worked for 6 consecutive months 

but quit working before they got 

pregnant. The results presented 

in this report generally refer to 

the time period or years when the 

woman had her first birth. 

Table 1 shows that for mothers 

who had their first child between 

2006 and 2008, 72 percent had 

worked for at least a 6-month 

period in their lives. This percentage had increased since the early 

1960s, when it was 60 percent of 

new mothers. Most of the increase 

since 1961–1965 occurred by 

1986–1990, when the percentage 

reached 76 percent. Since then, the 

percentage of mothers who worked 

6 or more months has decreased 

from a high of 76 percent in 

1986–1990 to a low of 72 percent in 2006–2008. Age is related 

to whether women have worked 

before having their first child. For 

women 30 years and older, 8 out of 

10 women who had a first birth in 

2006–2008 had worked for at least 

15 For the remainder of this report, the term 

“pregnancy” is used to refer to the pregnancy 

preceding the first birth. 16 Working for 6 consecutive months is a 

standard labor force indicator that measures 

the likelihood of a serious commitment to the 

labor force. 
4 U.S. Census Bureau

6 consecutive months, compared 

with 43 percent of women under 

22 years of age.17

The percentage of new mothers 

who worked at all during their 

pregnancy in 2006–2008 increased 

by 22 percentage points since 

1961–1965. Forty-four percent of 

women who had their first birth 

between 1961 and 1965 worked 

while pregnant. For women who 

had their first birth in 2006–2008, 

66 percent worked while pregnant, 

not different from the proportions 

working while pregnant since 

1986–1990.18

Fifty-six percent of first-time 

mothers in 2006–2008 worked at 

full-time jobs during their pregnancy (35 hours or more per week, 

Table 1). The proportion of firsttime mothers working full-time 

during pregnancy was 40 percent 

in 1961–1965, increased to over 

17 Separate analysis, not shown in tables.

18 Overall labor force participation rates 

for women, regardless of pregnancy status, 

were as follows: 32 percent in 1960, 43 percent in 1970, 52 percent in 1980, 58 percent 

in 1990, and 57 percent in 2008. See the 

Bureau of Labor Statistics Web site at

<www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2009.htm>.

50 percent by the late 1970s, and 

stayed above 50 percent through 

2008. The proportion of first-time 

mothers working part-time during 

pregnancy in 1961–1965 was 5 

percent. The percentage increased 

to 11 percent in 1981–1985 and 

has remained between 9 percent 

and 12 percent since then. Subsequent sections of this report will 

show the extent to which weekly 

hours worked while pregnant and 

the amount of leave taken from 

the workforce around the time of a 

first birth are related to the type of 

maternity benefits received. 

Women Who Worked 

During Pregnancy

Table 2 summarizes trends in 

women’s work experience during 

pregnancy in 2006–2008. Overall, 

66 percent of mothers who had their 

first birth in 2006–2008 worked 

during pregnancy. First-time mothers under age 22 had lower rates of 

employment during pregnancy than 

older first-time mothers (ages 22 and 

older). Among women at the ends of 

the age spectrum, 15 percent of new 

mothers under age 18 worked while 

pregnant, compared with 80 percent 

of mothers 30 and older. 

Among the racial groups shown, 

non-Hispanic White women had 

the highest percentage (75 percent) that worked during their first 

pregnancy.19 Sixty-one percent 

of Asian women worked during 

19 Federal surveys now give respondents 

the option of reporting more than one race. 

Therefore, two basic ways of defining a race 

group are possible. A group such as Asian 

may be defined as those who reported Asian 

and no other race (the race-alone or singlerace concept) or as those who reported Asian 

regardless of whether they also reported 

another race (the race-alone-or-in-combination concept). The body of this report (text, 

figures, and tables) shows data for women 

who reported they were the single race White 

and not Hispanic, women who reported the 

single race Black, and women who reported 

the single race Asian. Use of the single-race 

populations does not imply that it is the 

preferred method of presenting or analyzing 

data. The U.S. Census Bureau uses a variety 

of approaches.

For further information, see the Census 

2000 Brief, Overview of Race and Hispanic 

Origin: 2000 (C2KBR/01-1) <www.census.gov

/population/www/cen2000/briefs.html>. 

Hispanics may be any race. Data for the 

American Indian and Alaska Native population are not shown in this report because 

of their small sample size in the SIPP. Based 

on the population of women who had a first 

birth between 2001–2003 surveyed in the 

2004 SIPP, 3.2 percent of the single-race Black 

population and .54 percent of the single-race 

Asian population were also Hispanic.

Table 1. 

Employment History of Women Before First Birth: 1961–1965 to 2004–2008

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Year of first birth Number of 

women with 

a first birth 

(thousands)

Women with a first birth who—

Ever worked for 6 or

more months

continuously1

 Worked during

pregnancy 

Worked full-time

during pregnancy2

Worked part-time

during pregnancy2

Percent 

Margin of 

error3 Percent 

Margin of 

error3 Percent 

Margin of 

error3 Percent 

Margin of 

error3

 1961–1965 . . . . . 6,306 60.0 2.0 44.4 2.0 39.7 2.0 4.7 0.9

 1966–1970 . . . . . 6,956 66.4 1.8 49.4 1.9 44.2 1.9 5.2 0.9

 1971–1975 . . . . . 6,920 68.9 1.8 53.5 1.9 47.6 2.0 5.9 0.9

 1976–1980 . . . . . 7,192 73.1 1.7 61.4 1.9 53.1 1.9 8.3 1.1

 1981–1985 . . . . . 8,129 75.2 1.4 64.5 1.5 54.0 1.5 10.5 0.8

 1986–1990 . . . . . 8,568 75.5 1.3 67.2 1.4 58.3 1.5 8.9 0.9

 1991–1995 . . . . . 8,599 73.8 1.6 66.8 1.8 54.5 1.8 12.2 1.0

 1996–2000 . . . . . 8,558 74.0 1.6 67.2 1.7 56.6 1.8 10.6 1.1

 2001–2005 . . . . . 8,215 75.0 1.4 69.2 1.5 58.7 1.6 10.6 1.0

 2006–2008 . . . . . 5,127 72.3 2.5 65.6 2.7 56.1 2.8 9.5 1.6

1

 At any time before first birth. 2

 Full-time/part-time status refers to last job held before first child’s birth. 3 The margin of error, when added to or subtracted from the estimate, provides the 90 percent confidence interval around the estimate.

Source: 1961–1965 to 1981–1985: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Tables 

C and B-2; 1986–1990 to 1991–1995: P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Table A; 1996–2001: P70-103 (Maternity Leave and 

Employment Patterns: 1961–2000), Table 1; P70-113 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 2000–2003), Table 1; and 2006–2008: Survey of Income and 

Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2.
U.S. Census Bureau 5

pregnancy, followed by 52 percent 

of Black women, and 42 percent of 

Hispanic women.20

Women who had their first child 

before their first marriage rather 

than within or after their first 

marriage were less likely to have 

worked during pregnancy (52 percent, 75 percent, and 80 percent, 

respectively). This difference by 

marital status in terms of employment during pregnancy has been 

consistently noted since 1966–

20 The proportion of women who worked 

during pregnancy is not statistically different 

between Asian women, Black women, and 

Hispanic women.

1970.21 Women who have their first 

child prior to marriage are generally younger, more likely to be a 

minority race or Hispanic, and to 

have lower levels of education. 

All of these factors are related to 

lower levels of employment during 

pregnancy.22 Women who have their 

first birth during or after their first 

marriage are more likely to be older 

21 Kristin Smith, Barbara Downs, and

Martin O’Connell, Maternity Leave and 

Employment Patterns: 1961–1995, Current 

Population Reports, P70-79, U.S. Census 

Bureau, Washington, DC, 2001. O’Connell, op. 

cit., 1990, pp. 14–15. 22 Smith, Downs, and O’Connell, op. cit., 

2001, Tables C and E. These differences by 

marital status were also found to persist 

in being related to employment levels in a 

multivariate analysis controlling for many 

socioeconomic factors. 

and already in the labor force at the 

time they become pregnant.23

A mother’s educational level is also 

associated with the probability 

that she worked during her first 

pregnancy. Table 2 shows that for 

new mothers in 2006–2008, those 

with a bachelor’s degree or higher 

were more likely to have worked 

during pregnancy (87 percent) than 

women with less education (28 

percent to 71 percent of women in 

other educational categories). 

Figure 1 shows the percentage 

of women who worked during 

pregnancy preceding first birth by 

age at first birth and educational 

23 Smith, Downs, and O’Connell, op. cit., 

pp. 6–7.

Table 2. 

Work History of Women During Pregnancy Preceding First Birth by Selected 

Characteristics: 2006–2008

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Characteristic Number of women

with a first birth

(thousands)

Percentage who worked

during pregnancy

Among women who worked while pregnant,

percentage who were working— 

Less than 3 months 

before child’s birth

Less than 1 month 

before child’s birth1

        Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,127 65.6 88.1 64.6

Age at First Birth

Under 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 14.9 63.3 31.9

18 and 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 41.9 85.9 54.1

20 and 21 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 56.0 84.1 60.8

22 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959 69.8 84.9 57.0

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,255 77.7 89.3 69.7

30 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,277 79.8 92.3 70.3

Race and Hispanic Origin

White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,971 68.3 89.2 66.6

Non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,162 74.8 89.6 68.9

Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 52.0 85.1 53.9

Asian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 61.1 86.2 59.1

Hispanic (any race) . . . . . . . . . . . 914 42.0 85.5 50.4

Timing of First Birth2

Before first marriage . . . . . . . . . . 2,162 51.8 82.7 58.6

Within first marriage . . . . . . . . . . . 2,721 75.3 91.0 67.5

After first marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 79.8 89.4 68.1

Educational Attainment

Less than high school . . . . . . . . . 650 28.3 80.4 43.2

High school graduate . . . . . . . . . . 1,204 50.0 82.2 56.0

Some college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,621 70.7 86.7 63.4

Bachelor’s degree or higher . . . . . 1,653 86.6 92.7 71.8

1

 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy. 2

 Refers to marital status at time of first birth. Before first marriage includes never-married women. After first marriage includes first births outside marriage or 

within second or subsequent marriages.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2.
6 U.S. Census Bureau

attainment. Younger mothers with 

less than a high school degree are 

less likely to be employed during 

their pregnancy than women 25 and 

over with less than a high school 

degree (26 percent and 62 percent, 

respectively). While previous reports 

in this series indicate that older 

mothers tend to be more educated 

than younger mothers and to have 

worked at some point prior to their 

first birth, Figure 1 suggests few 

differences in employment during 

pregnancy by maternal age and education.24 Only older mothers with a 

high school degree had higher rates 

of working during pregnancy than 

younger first-time mothers with the 

same educational attainment. 

Duration of Work During 

Pregnancy

Among all first-time mothers who 

worked while pregnant, 88 percent 

worked into their last trimester (less 

than 3 months before their child’s 

birth (Table 2), while 65 percent 

worked into their last month of 

pregnancy. Older mothers were 

more likely than younger mothers 

to work closer to the end of their 

pregnancy. Sixty-seven percent of 

mothers aged 22 and older worked 

into the last month of their pregnancy, compared with 56 percent of 

mothers less than 22 years of age. 

In the early 1960s, high school 

dropouts worked longer into their 

pregnancy.25 During the 1980s, 

a larger proportion of collegeeducated women began to work 

into the last trimester of their 

pregnancy than women with less 

than a high school education.26 By 

2006–2008, 93 percent of college 

graduates who worked during their 

pregnancy were employed into 

their last trimester, compared with 

24 O’Connell, op. cit., 1990, pp.16–17.; 

Johnson, op. cit., 2008, pp. 5. 25 O’Connell, op. cit., 1990, pp. 16–17.

26 Smith, Downs, and O’Connell, op. cit., 

2001, pp. 7–9.

80 percent of women who had not 

graduated from high school. 

White, non-Hispanic women were 

more likely than Blacks and Hispanics to work late into their pregnancy. Compared with Blacks (54 

percent) and Hispanics (50 percent), 

69 percent of White, non-Hispanic 

mothers-to-be worked during their 

last month of pregnancy. 

Table 3 shows how late into 

pregnancy first-time mothers have 

worked since 1961. For the 1961–

1965 time period, 13 percent of 

those who worked during pregnancy reported they stopped working during their first trimester (6 

or more months before the birth), 

while 35 percent worked into the 

last month. By 1986–1990, the percentage of women who left work 

in their first trimester had declined 

to 5 percent, while the proportion working into the last month 

before their child’s birth more than 

doubled to 76 percent. During the 

decade of the 1990s, 7 percent of 

women left work in their first trimester, not different from 6 percent 

in 2006–2008. However, the proportion working into the last month 

before their child’s birth increased 

from 73 percent in 1991–1995 to 

82 percent in 2006–2008. 

The proportion of women who 

worked full-time during pregnancy, 

according to when they stopped 

working, is highlighted in Table 4. 

In the 1960s, 90 percent of women 

who worked during pregnancy 

worked full-time. By 2006–2008, 

the percentage of working women 

who worked full time during 

Figure 1.

Percentage of Women Who Worked During Pregnancy 

Preceding First Birth, by Age at First Birth and 

Educational Attainment: 2006–2008

0

20

40

60

80

100

All ages Under 25 25 and over

Percent 

For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see 

<www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf>.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 

2008 Panel, Wave 2.

Less than high school High school graduate

Some college Bachelor's degree or higher
U.S. Census Bureau 7

Table 3.

Women Who Worked During Pregnancy Preceding First Birth by When They Stopped

Working: 1961–1965 to 2006–2008

(Numbers in thousands. For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Characteristic 1961–

1965

1966–

1970

1971–

1975

1976–

1980

1981–

1985

1986–

1990

1991–

1995

1996–

2000

2001–

2005

2006–

2008

Number of women with a first birth . . . 6,306 6,956 6,920 7,192 8,129 8,568 8,599 8,558 8,215 5,127 

Number of women who worked during 

pregnancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,797 3,435 3,700 4,414 5,239 5,758 5,740 5,749 5,686 3,363 

Percentage Distribution of Women

by Number of Months Before First

Birth They Stopped Working1

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 .0 100 .0 100 .0 100 .0 100 .0 100 .0 100 .0 100 .0 100 .0 100 .0

 1 month or less2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 .6 39 .1 43 .1 58 .9 64 .7 75 .7 72 .9 76 .6 81 .1 81 .6

 2 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 .1 18 .3 20 .9 14 .7 13 .0 9 .1 9 .0 8 .1 6 .5 6 .6

 3 to 5 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 .4 28 .4 22 .9 18 .6 13 .5 10 .0 11 .0 7 .9 8 .3 6 .5

 6 or more months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 .9 13 .9 13 .1 7 .7 8 .7 5 .2 7 .1 7 .3 4 .0 5 .5

1

 Among women who worked during pregnancy . 2

 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy .

Source: 1961–1965 to 1981–1985: U .S . Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women) Tables 

B and B-6; 1986–1990 to 1991–1995: P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Table D; 1996–2000: P70-103 (Maternity Leave and 

Employment Patterns: 1961–2000), Table 3; 2001–2003: P70-113 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–2003) Table 3; and 2006–2008 Survey of 

Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2 . 

Table 4.

Women Who Worked Full-Time During Pregnancy Preceding First Birth by When They

Stopped Working: 1961–1965 to 2006–2008

(Numbers in thousands. For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Characteristic 1961–

1965

1966–

1970

1971–

1975

1976–

1980

1981–

1985

1986–

1990

1991–

1995

1996–

2000

2001–

2005

2006–

2008

Number of women with a first birth . . . 6,306 6,956 6,920 7,192 8,129 8,568 8,599 8,558 8,215 5,217

Number of women who worked during 

pregnancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,797 3,435 3,700 4,414 5,239 5,758 5,740 5,749 5,686 3,363

Worked full-time (number)1 . . . . . . . . 2,503 3,074 3,289 3,823 4,387 4,992 4,690 4,846 4,819 2,876

Worked full-time (percent)2 . . . . . . . . 89 .5 89 .5 88 .9 86 .6 83 .7 86 .7 81 .7 84 .3 84 .8 85 .5

Percentage Working Full-time

Among Women Who Stopped

Working at Each Time Interval:

1 month or less3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 .5 91 .7 90 .5 89 .7 87 .1 90 .0 86 .1 86 .8 87 .1 87 .2

2 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 .2 90 .0 93 .7 84 .5 76 .7 82 .1 71 .2 84 .4 77 .6 67 .4

3 to 5 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 .8 88 .5 86 .9 79 .8 76 .6 73 .4 66 .2 74 .0 76 .3 90 .3

6 or more months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 .5 85 .1 80 .0 83 .2 80 .7 72 .0 72 .4 68 .3 67 .5 76 .9

1

 Full-time employment status refers to last job held before birth of first child . 2

 Among women who worked during pregnancy . 3

 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy .

Source: 1961–1965 to 1981–1985: U .S . Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Tables 

B and B-6; 1986–1990 to 1991–1995: P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Table D; 1996–2000: P70-103 (Maternity Leave and 

Employment Patterns: 1961–2000), Table 4; 2001–2003: P70-113 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–2003), Table 4; and 2006–2008: Survey of 

Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2 .
8 U.S. Census Bureau

pregnancy declined to 86 percent.27 By 2006–2008, 77 percent 

of women who worked only in 

their first trimester had full-time 

jobs, compared with 87 percent of 

women who were still working in 

the last month before their child’s 

birth. 

Trends over the last 30 years suggest that first-time mothers are 

working later into their pregnancy. 

Expecting mothers may work 

longer into their pregnancy for 

reasons other than financial needs. 

Many may view their jobs as a longterm investment. The data also indicates that working full-time during 

pregnancy is closely associated with 

the chance of working into the last 

month of pregnancy. By 2006–2008, 

women who worked full-time were 

the most committed to their jobs by 

remaining late into their pregnancy, 

often remaining at their jobs until 

they became mothers. 

MATERNITY LEAVE 

ARRANGEMENTS

This section first provides an overview of the changes in maternity 

leave arrangements since 1980, 

when comparable questions on 

types of leave arrangements were 

first asked on SIPP panels. The 

report highlights types of leave 

arrangements women use before 

and after the birth of their first 

child. It concludes with a look at 

how the use of various categories of leave differs according to 

selected characteristics of women.

Changes in Leave 

Arrangements Since the 1980s 

Types of leave used by firsttime mothers include paid leave, 

unpaid leave, and disability. Other 

27 Bureau of Labor Statistics data show that 

the percentage of employed workers working 

full-time decreased from the 1970s to the mid1980s, and then began to rise. See Women in 

the Labor Force: A Data Book, U.S. Bureau of 

Labor Statistics, 2005, Report 985, Table 20, 

<www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook-2005.pdf>.

circumstances that lead to time other paid leave) increased from 37 

away from a job include quitting percent in 1981–1985 to 43 pera job, being let go from a job, cent in 1986–1990. By 2006–2008, 

and having an employer go out 51 percent received paid leave. 

of business. They are included as Employers may offer paid matertypes of leave arrangements in nity leave as a job benefit when 

this report. Some women use only they weigh the costs of finding and 

one type of leave while others training a new employee against a 

may combine several types. short leave of absence.28

Table 5 shows selected leave For all of the first-birth time periarrangements used by women in ods, about 5 percent of women 

the past 20 years. A drop in the or less reported being let go from 

proportion quitting their jobs was their job while pregnant or within 

noted between the 1981–1985 time 12 weeks after giving birth. Disperiod and the subsequent 1986– ability leave usage over the past 2 

1990 time period, from 36 percent decades appears to have reached 

to 27 percent. The next drop in a high point in 1991–1995 at 11 

the proportion quitting their jobs percent. Unpaid maternity leave 

occurred between 1996 and 2000 usage increased from 34 percent 

and the subsequent time periods of to 41 percent during the 1980s, 

2001–2005 and 2006–2008. Con- and further increased to 45 percent 

versely, the percentage of mothers 

who took paid leave (including paid 28 A Workable Balance: Report to Congress 

on Family and Medical Leave Policies, U.S. maternity, sick, vacation, and all Department of Labor, Commission on Family 

and Medical Leave, Washington, DC, 1996.

MATERNITY LEAVE ARRANGEMENTS

In the 1996, 2001, 2004, and 2008 SIPP panels, two separate 

questions on leave arrangements were asked of every woman who 

worked during pregnancy. The first question concerned arrangements used between the time she stopped working and when the 

child was born, while the second question asked about the arrangements used between the child’s birth and up to 12 weeks after the 

child was born. The 1984 and 1985 SIPP panels asked only one 

question about arrangements used at any time during pregnancy 

or up to 6 weeks after the child was born. If a woman said she had 

never stopped working during pregnancy, no other leave arrangements were tabulated.

In the 1996, 2001, 2004, and 2008 panels, questions about leave 

arrangements used for both periods before and after the child 

was born were asked of all women, including those who reported 

that they had never stopped working before the child’s birth. This 

change from the earlier SIPP panels complicates any comparisons 

with leave arrangements used by women prior to 1980. Maternity 

leave arrangement data for the 1980s were obtained from the 1996 

panel that asked these questions of women who had a first birth 

since 1980. Beginning in the 1996 panel, “disability leave” was 

included as a separate response. Women may have conceptually 

included it in either the paid or the unpaid leave categories in the 

prior SIPP panels.
U.S. Census Bureau 9

Table 5.

Selected Leave Arrangements Used by Women Who Worked During Pregnancy Preceding 

First Birth: 1981–1985 to 2006–2008

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Year of first birth

Number of women 

who worked 

during pregnancy 

(thousands)

Percentage of women using type of specified leave arrangement1

Quit job Paid leave2 Unpaid leave3 Disability leave Let go from job

 1981–1985 . . . . . . . . . 5,147 35 .7 37 .3 33 .7 6 .3 3 .5

 1986–1990 . . . . . . . . . 5,758 26 .5 43 .3 41 .0 7 .5 2 .3

 1991–1995 . . . . . . . . . 5,740 26 .9 42 .7 40 .3 11 .2 4 .2

 1996–2000 . . . . . . . . . 5,749 25 .6 42 .0 45 .0 6 .9 2 .2

 2001–2005 . . . . . . . . . 5,686 21 .5 49 .4 38 .3 7 .8 4 .0

 2006–2008 . . . . . . . . . 3,363 21 .9 50 .8 42 .4 9 .5 4 .7

1

 The total in individual leave arrangements exceeds 100 percent because of multiple answers . Leave arrangements may have been used before, or up to, 12 

weeks after the birth . 2

 Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave .

3

 Unpaid leave includes all unpaid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other unpaid leave .

Source: 1981–1985 to 1991–1995: U .S . Census Bureau, Current Population Reports P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Table 

F; 1996–2000: P70-103 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–2000), Table 5; 2001–2003: P70-113 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 

1961–2003), Table 5; and 2006–2008: Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2 .

Table 6.

Detailed Leave Arrangements Used by Women Who Worked During Pregnancy Preceding 

First Birth: 2006–2008

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Type of leave Before or after birth1 Before birth After birth

Number of women who worked during 

pregnancy (thousands)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3,363  3,363  3,363 

Percentage Using Leave Arrangement2

 Quit job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 .9 15 .9 6 .0

 Paid leave3

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 .8 21 .4 45 .3

 Maternity leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 .7 16 .9 35 .1

 Sick leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 .8 2 .9 8 .1

 Vacation leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 .8 3 .1 9 .2

 Other paid leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .8 0 .9 1 .0

 Unpaid leave4

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 .4 19 .1 36 .5

 Maternity leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 .5 16 .0 30 .6

 Sick leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 .4 0 .9 2 .6

 Vacation leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 .2 1 .3 2 .4

 Other unpaid leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 .1 1 .1 2 .3

 Disability leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 .5 3 .2 8 .1

 Other leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 .4 3 .4 6 .2

 Self employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 .9 0 .4 0 .7

 Employer went out of business . . . . . . . . 0 .1 0 .1 –

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 .4 3 .0 5 .5

 Let go from job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 .7 3 .2 3 .1

– Represents zero or rounds to zero .

1

 Leave arrangements are only counted once if used before and after birth . 

2

 Total in individual leave arrangements exceed the percentage who took leave because of multiple answers . 

3

 Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave .

4

 Unpaid leave includes all unpaid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other unpaid leave .

Source: U .S . Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2 .
10 U.S. Census Bureau

by 1996–2000. An apparent 7 

percentage-point decline in unpaid 

maternity leave usage occurred 

by 2001–2005, coincidental with 

the increase in the percentage of 

women receiving some type of 

paid maternity leave. The decline in 

unpaid leave remained unchanged 

in 2006–2008, reaching 42 percent, while paid leave usage has 

remained unchanged for the last 

two time periods at about 50 

percent. 

Leave Arrangements Before 

and After the First Birth

Table 6 provides a detailed picture of leave arrangements—both 

before and after their child’s birth—

used by employed women who 

had their first birth between 2006 

and 2008. Women were allowed 

to identify more than one type of 

leave arrangement. Less than a 

quarter of women quit their job 

around the time of the birth of their 

child (22 percent). Sixteen percent 

of women quit their job before the 

birth of their child, compared with 

6 percent who quit after the birth 

of their child. 

Both paid and unpaid leave (all 

types combined) were more likely 

to be used after the child’s birth (45 

percent and 37 percent, respectively) 

than during pregnancy (21 percent 

and 19 percent, respectively). These 

findings suggest that for women 

who plan to return to work after having their child, many may work as 

long as possible into their pregnancy 

in order to have more leave, both 

paid and unpaid, available to use 

once their child is born. 

Overall, 41 percent of women 

received paid maternity leave and 

36 percent of women received 

unpaid maternity leave. Both of 

these types of leave were more 

likely to be used after birth than 

before. Whether it was used during 

pregnancy or after giving birth, sick 

leave and vacation leave were more 

likely to be paid than unpaid. 

Another leave-taking strategy that 

women use is to combine different 

types of leave. Figure 2 shows the 

percentage of women who worked 

during pregnancy and used only 

paid leave, used only unpaid leave, 

quit their job only, or used multiple types of leave. These data are 

shown separately for during pregnancy, up to 12 weeks after giving 

birth, and the combined periods. 

Before birth, 4 percent used more 

than one leave arrangement. Fourteen percent used more than one 

type of arrangement after birth and 

34 percent of women used multiple 

leave arrangements in the combined periods of pregnancy and 

up to 12 weeks after giving birth 

(different arrangements before and 

after their child’s birth). 

Using only paid leave was more 

common for women after giving 

birth than before (33 percent and 18 

percent, respectively). Use of unpaid 

leave was also more common after 

the birth compared with those who 

used only unpaid leave before birth 

(26 percent and 16 percent, respectively). Among women who identified quitting their job as their only 

leave arrangement, 15 percent quit 

Figure 2.

Percentage of Women Using Selected Leave 

Arrangements and Multiple Arrangements Before or 

After Their First Birth: 2006–2008 

(Among women who worked during pregnancy)

0

8

16

24

32

40

Before birth After birth Before or after birth

Percent 

For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see 

<www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf>.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel 

Wave 2.

Note: Multiple types of leave used “Before or after birth” include using more than one type 

before birth only, after birth only, and using a different type before birth than after birth. 

Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave. 

Unpaid leave includes all unpaid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other unpaid leave.

Multiple types Paid only Unpaid only Quit only
U.S. Census Bureau 11

their job while they were pregnant, 

while 5 percent quit their job after 

giving birth. 

Use of Different Leave 

Arrangements

This section examines the types 

of leave arrangements used by 

women—either before or after their 

child’s birth—by various social 

and demographic characteristics. 

Among first-time mothers in 

2006–2008, younger women were 

more likely than women who had 

their first child at a later age to quit 

their job (Table 7). About twice as 

many women who had their first 

birth before age 25 quit their job 

Table 7.

Type of Leave Arrangements Used Before or After Birth by Women Who Worked 

During Pregnancy Preceding Their First Birth by Selected Characteristics: 2006–2008

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Characteristic

Number of 

women who 

worked during 

pregnancy 

(thousands)

Percentage of women using specified leave arrangement

Quit job Paid leave1 Unpaid leave2 Disability leave Let go from job

        Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,363 21.9 50.8 42.4 9.5 4.7

Employment Status at Last Job

 Full-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,876 19.3 56.0 41.8 10.7 4.7

 Part-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 37.2 20.5 46.2 2.3 4.7

Month Stopped Working Before Birth

 1 month or less3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,742 15.5 54.9 43.2 10.2 4.3

 2 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 43.0 44.8 44.3 5.4 4.5

 3 to 5 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 55.5 15.6 41.7 6.0 8.7

 6 or more months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 54.4 40.1 29.1 7.1 6.6

Age at First Birth

 Less than 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (B) (B) (B) (B) (B) (B) 

 18 and 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 44.4 13.5 53.3 4.6 6.9

 20 and 21 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 32.8 32.6 47.8 3.6 5.6

 22 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 18.8 48.1 43.5 8.7 7.6

 25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976 17.9 60.6 38.8 12.6 3.8

 30 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,019 12.3 61.4 40.7 11.1 2.8

Race and Hispanic Origin

 White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,711 21.5 51.6 41.8 8.9 4.6

 Non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,365 21.1 52.3 46.7 9.0 4.1

 Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 25.7 50.3 46.4 6.1 6.4

 Asian and Pacific Islander . . . . . . . . . . . 178 15.2 47.2 47.8 23.0 2.8

 Hispanic (any race) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 24.2 46.6 35.7 10.2 8.1

Timing of First Birth4

 Before first marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,121 29.9 39.4 47.1 6.0 7.0

 Within first marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,048 18.7 56.5 60.2 10.7 3.6

 After first marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 5.2 28.6 29.4 8.6 1.8

Educational Attainment

 Less than high school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 50.0 18.5 48.4 3.3 10.9

 High school graduate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602 33.1 31.6 48.5 6.0 6.5

 Some college, no degree . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,146 22.9 46.8 41.1 8.6 5.2

 Bachelor’s degree or more . . . . . . . . . . 1,432 12.9 66.3 40.1 12.4 2.7

(B) Base less than 75,000 or numerator too small for comparison. 1

 Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave. 2

 Unpaid leave includes all unpaid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other unpaid leave. 3

 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy. 4

 Refers to marital status at time of first birth. Before first marriage includes never married women. After first marriage includes first births outside or within 

second or subsequent marriages.

 Note: The total in individual leave arrangements exceed 100 percent because of multiple answers. Leave arrangements may have been used before or up to 

12 weeks after the birth.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2.
12 U.S. Census Bureau

(32 percent) as women who had 

their first child at age 25 or older 

(15 percent). 

The proportion of women using 

paid leave for their first birth generally increased with age, from 24 

percent of women under age 22 

at their first birth to 61 percent of 

those 25 and older. Older women, 

who have more years of labor force 

experience than younger women, 

may benefit from this experience 

by receiving more paid benefits. 

Employment characteristics of the 

last job held during pregnancy are 

also associated with the type of 

leave arrangements women use for 

the birth of their first child. Full-time 

workers were more likely to use 

paid-leave benefits than part-time 

workers (56 percent and 21 percent, 

respectively), while part-time workers were more likely to quit their 

jobs than were full-time workers 

(37 percent and 19 percent, respectively). Women who worked into the 

last month of pregnancy were more 

likely to use paid leave benefits (55 

percent) than those who left work 6 

months or more prior to their first 

birth (40 percent). Four percent of 

women who worked until their last 

month of pregnancy were let go 

from their job.

Educational attainment at the time 

of interview serves as a useful 

proxy for the type of job one holds, 

the wages one earns, and in turn, 

the type of maternity leave benefits 

offered. Increasing levels of education go hand-in-hand with increases 

in the use of paid leave benefits. 

Sixty-six percent of women with 

a bachelor’s degree or more used 

paid leave, compared with 19 percent of women who had less than 

a high school education. The use 

of unpaid maternity leave did not 

differ statistically between women 

who had less than a high school 

education and those with a bachelor’s degree or more. Women with 

less than a high school education 

were more likely to quit their job 

than women who had a bachelor’s 

degree or more (50 percent and 13 

percent, respectively). 

In the early 1960s, the use of 

paid maternity leave for a first 

birth did not differ statistically by 

educational level. The relationship between educational attainment and use of paid leave began 

to appear in the early 1970s and 

became pronounced by the early 

1980s (Figure 3). The percentage 

of women with a bachelor’s degree 

or more who received paid leave 

increased from 27 percent in 1971–

1975 to 59 percent for those with a 

first birth between 1981 and 1985, 

and grew to 66 percent of new 

mothers between 2006 and 2008. 

The use of paid leave by mothers 

with less than a high school degree 

was 18 percent in 2006–2008, 

about what it was for previous time 

periods (Figure 3). 

In summary, many changes have 

occurred in mothers’ employment 

during and after pregnancy since 

the 1960s. Recent decades have 

seen a profound transformation of 

the organization of family households, maternal employment, and 

legislation regarding maternity 

leave. Women are now working 

longer into their pregnancy and 

approximately half use paid maternity leave. Paid benefits are more 

Figure 3.

Percentage of Women Who Received Paid Leave Before 

or After Their First Birth, by Educational Attainment: 

Selected Years, 1961–1965 to 2006–2008

0

16

32

48

64

80

1961–1965 1971–1975 1981–1985 1991–1995 2001–2005 2006–2008

Percent 

For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see 

<www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf>.

Source: 1961–1965 to 1981–1985: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, 

Series P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Table B-9; 1991–1995: 

P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Figure 4; and 

2001–2003: Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2.

Note: Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid 

leave used before the birth and up to 12 weeks after the birth.

Bachelor's degree or higher

Less than high school

High school graduate

Some college
U.S. Census Bureau 13

likely to be used by more educated 

women, those who work at fulltime jobs, and those who work 

very close to their child’s birth. 

WORKING AFTER THE 

FIRST BIRTH

It has been widely noted that new 

mothers in the United States tend 

to return to work much more 

quickly. New mothers are often 

driven to return to work promptly 

by a combination of factors, including preferences, economic opportunities, or social norms.29 This section looks at how rapidly women 

begin working after the birth of 

their first child. Overall trends since 

the 1960s will be examined. Also, 

recent data from the 2008 SIPP 

29 Jennifer Cheesman Day and Barbara 

Downs, Opting-Out: An Exploration of Labor 

Force Participation of New Mothers, U.S. Census 

Bureau, 2009, <www.census.gov/hhes/www

/ioindex/Opting-Out-paper.pdf/>. 

Panel are analyzed to determine 

the characteristics of women who 

start working most rapidly and 

whether changing employers after 

birth is related to changes in job 

characteristics. 

Trends Since the 1960s

Figure 4 shows the monthly 

employment paths of women during their first pregnancy and for the 

first 12 months after their child’s 

birth. Women with a first birth 

between 2005 and 2007 worked 

longer into their pregnancy and 

started working after childbirth 

sooner than their counterparts in 

the early 1960s. As shown in Figure 4, most of the increases in the 

percentage of women working later 

into their pregnancy and working 

after their first birth came about 

by the early 1980s. Compared 

with the 2000–2004 time period, 

women in the 2005–2007 time 

period worked fewer months, from 

1 month or less to 7 months before 

the birth. In contrast, the percentage of new mothers who returned 

to work for the 2005–2007 birth 

period was not statistically different, except for 1 month or less, 

from women who had their first 

birth between 2000 and 2004. 

This trend is also evident in Table 

8, which shows the monthly 

cumulative percentage of women 

working after the birth of their first 

child. In the early 1960s, 14 percent of all mothers with newborns 

were working by the sixth month, 

increasing to 17 percent by the 

twelfth month. 

These percentages more than 

doubled by 1976–1980, with further increases in these 2 reference 

121110987654321

month

or less

Figure 4.

Percentage of Women Working During Pregnancy and Percentage Working After 

Their First Birth, by Month Before or After Birth: Selected Years, 

1961–1965 to 2005–2007

For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see <www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf>.

Source: 1961–1965 to 1981–1984: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of 

American Women), Table B-5; 1991–1994: P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Figure 7; and

2000–2004 and 2005–2007: Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2.

Months before birth Months after birth

Working During Pregancy Working After Birth

Birth

Cumulative percent

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1

month

or less

23456789

2000–2004

1991–1994

2000–2004

2005–2007

1991–1994

1981–1984

1971–1975

1961–1965

2005–2007

1971–1975

1981–1984

1961–1965
14 U.S. Census Bureau

months occurring by 1986–1990. 

From 2000–2007, the percentages have remained statistically 

unchanged at 57 percent for the 

sixth month and 64 percent for the 

twelfth month.30

Table 8 shows the relationship 

between work experience during 

pregnancy and the rate at which 

women work in the first year 

after giving birth for the periods 

1961–1965 to 2005–2007. Among 

women who worked during their

30 The time period of analysis for working 

after a first birth is restricted to those who 

gave birth by 2007 because some who gave 

birth in 2008 did not have 1 full year of 

employment data by the time of the interview 

in 2009.

 pregnancy, 17 percent of women in 

the 1961–1965 time period returned 

to work 3 months after their child’s 

birth. Twenty years later, this percentage increased to 46 percent for 

the 1981–1984 time period, and to 

59 percent for the 2005–2007 time 

period. Women who did not work 

during their first pregnancy have 

considerably lower percentages 

working at this 3-month interval 

compared with women who worked 

during pregnancy: 5 percent (1961–

1965), 10 percent (1981–1984), 

and 15 percent (2005–2007). This 

suggests that prebirth employment 

is likely to be an important determinant in employment after a woman’s 

first birth. 

Characteristics of Mothers 

To examine the characteristics of 

women by when they returned to 

work, data are shown in Table 9 in 

two ways: for all mothers and for 

mothers who worked during pregnancy. This latter group, women 

who worked during pregnancy, is 

used to control for the negative 

effect of job-search costs on the 

likelihood of securing work for 

those not employed during pregnancy. Characteristics are shown 

by time intervals of when mothers 

started working after the child’s 

birth: less than 3 months, 3 to 5 

months, or 6 to 11 months after 

the child’s birth. To complete the 

distribution, proportions are also 

Table 8.

Women Working at Monthly Intervals After First Birth by Year of First Birth: 1961–1965 

to 2005–2007

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Characteristic 1961–

1965

1966–

1970

1971–

1975

1976–

1980

1981–

1984

1986–

1990

1991–

1994

1996–

1999

2000–

2004

2005–

2007

Women With a First Birth

Number of women (thousands) . . . . . 6,306 6,956 6,920 7,192 6,671 8,568 6,995 6,918 8,389 5,126 

Percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Cumulative percentage working after:

 3 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 12.7 15.6 22.4 32.9 41.6 40.8 44.7 45.0 44.2

 6 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 18.3 21.9 32.2 43.5 52.9 52.3 57.2 57.3 57.4

 12 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8 23.9 27.9 38.8 52.5 60.8 60.1 64.6 63.5 63.8

Women Who Worked During

Pregnancy

Number of women (thousands) . . . . . 2,797 3,435 3,700 4,414 4,237 5,758 4,621 4,592 5,812 3,415 

Percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Cumulative percentage working after:

 3 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5 19.6 24.1 32.6 46.0 57.3 57.3 59.7 58.0 58.6

 6 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 26.7 32.1 45.4 59.3 70.6 70.4 74.8 72.4 72.9

 12 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.8 32.7 38.8 52.6 69.7 78.6 77.7 81.5 79.1 79.2

Women Who Did Not Work During

Pregnancy

 Number of women (thousands) . . . . 3,509 3,522 3,221 2,778 2,434 2,810 2,374 2,327 2,563 1,711 

 Percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Cumulative percentage working after:

 3 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 6.0 5.9 6.3 9.9 9.4 8.7 15.1 13.1 15.3

 6 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 10.2 10.1 11.1 16.2 16.6 17.3 22.5 21.5 26.6

 12 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 15.3 15.3 16.8 22.5 24.3 25.8 31.2 30.2 33.0

 Note: 2005-2007 estimates are used for the most recent birth cohort to allow for at least one year of postbirth employment data.

Source: 1961–1965 to 1981–1984: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P-23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Table 

B-5; 1986–1990 to 1991–1994: P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Table I; 1996–1999: P70-103 (Maternity Leave and Employment 

Patterns: 1961–2000), Table 8; 2001–2003: P70-113 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–2003), Table 8; and 2005–2007: Survey of Income and 

Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2.
U.S. Census Bureau 15

Table 9.

Women Working at Stated Time Intervals After First Birth by Selected Characteristics: 

2005–2007

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Characteristic

All women with a first birth Women with a first birth who worked 

during pregnancy

Total 

(thousands)

Started working after first birth

Total 

(thousands)

Started working after first birth

Less 

than 3 

months1

3 to 5 

months

6 to 11 

months

Did not 

work 

during 

first year2

Less 

than 3 

months1

3 to 5 

months

6 to 11

months

Did not 

work 

during 

first year2

Number  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION

        Total   . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Employment Status During 

Pregnancy

 Not employed . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Full-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Part-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Age at First Birth

 Less than 18 years . . . . . . . .

 18 and 19 years . . . . . . . . . . .

 20 and 21 years . . . . . . . . . . .

 22 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . .

 25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . .

 30 years and over . . . . . . . . .

Race and Hispanic Origin

 White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Asian and Pacific Islander . . .

 Hispanic (any race) . . . . . . . .

Timing of First Birth3

 Before first marriage . . . . . . .

 Within first marriage . . . . . . . .

 After first marriage . . . . . . . . .

Educational Attainment

 Less than high school . . . . . .

 High school graduate . . . . . . .

 Some college . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Bachelor’s degree or higher . .

Month Stopped Working 

Before Birth

 1 month or less1

 . . . . . . . . . . .

 2 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 3 to 5 months . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 6 or more months . . . . . . . . .

Type of Leave Arrangement 

Used4

 Quit job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Paid leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Unpaid leave . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Disability leave . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Let go from job . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Other leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5,126

100 .0

1,711

2,893

522

308

576

675

941

1,315

1,311

4,007

3,142

694

282

984

2,106

2,741

279

620

1,224

1,652

1,629

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

1,449

28 .3

6 .2

40 .4

33 .5

13 .0

21 .0

32 .6

30 .3

28 .6

31 .0

29 .8

33 .1

25 .8

10 .6

17 .2

25 .7

29 .4

36 .3

9 .9

27 .6

34 .0

30 .0

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

1,370

26 .7

17 .7

32 .8

23 .1

17 .8

20 .9

19 .4

21 .0

32 .3

33 .7

25 .7

27 .3

29 .4

38 .7

21 .2

22 .4

29 .7

30 .7

15 .6

21 .7

25 .3

36 .2

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

379

7 .4

7 .4

6 .8

10 .7

9 .0

8 .1

7 .5

6 .8

7 .8

6 .7

6 .3

6 .0

13 .7

8 .8

7 .9

8 .9

6 .6

3 .8

8 .2

7 .8

5 .9

8 .3

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

1,928

37 .6

68 .7

20 .1

32 .7

60 .2

49 .9

40 .5

41 .9

31 .3

28 .6

38 .3

33 .6

31 .1

41 .9

53 .7

42 .9

34 .4

29 .3

66 .3

42 .9

34 .9

25 .5

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

3,415

 100 .0 

(X)

 2,893 

522

59

249

394

657

1016

1,041

2,759

2,404

403

157

412

1,152

2,041

222

179

610

1242

1384

2,683

242

297

193

794

1,691

1,381

330

114

284

1,343

39 .3

(X)

40 .4

33 .5

47 .1

39 .8

49 .8

42 .4

35 .6

36 .5

40 .8

40 .9

39 .1

13 .9

37 .5

42 .8

37 .0

43 .4

28 .8

47 .3

42 .8

34 .1

43 .3

37 .7

19 .0

16 .9

20 .6

41 .6

45 .4

35 .1

32 .4

38 .2

1,068

31 .3

(X)

32 .8

23 .1

14 .4

19 .1

21 .4

25 .0

37 .0

37 .3

30 .5

31 .3

27 .8

55 .4

27 .6

24 .1

34 .5

38 .6

18 .9

24 .6

27 .1

39 .6

33 .9

16 .9

24 .9

22 .5

18 .2

37 .4

32 .1

47 .8

18 .0

28 .7

252

7 .4

(X)

6 .8

10 .7

18 .4

6 .0

5 .8

7 .8

7 .7

7 .1

5 .9

5 .7

16 .4

11 .6

7 .8

9 .7

6 .5

3 .5

13 .0

6 .7

5 .9

8 .3

6 .0

5 .2

17 .3

14 .6

9 .4

8 .4

7 .7

4 .0

5 .2

5 .2

752

22 .0

(X)

20 .1

32 .7

20 .1

35 .1

23 .1

24 .8

19 .7

19 .1

22 .8

22 .1

16 .7

19 .0

27 .1

23 .4

22 .1

14 .5

39 .3

21 .5

24 .2

18 .0

16 .8

40 .1

38 .9

46 .0

51 .8

12 .6

14 .8

13 .1

44 .3

27 .9

(X) Only applicable for women who worked during pregnancy . 

1

 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy or after their birth .

2

 Includes women who were working after 1 year and those who never returned to work .

3

 Refers to marital status at time of first birth . Before first marriage includes never married women . After first marriage includes first b

riage or within second or subsequent marriages . 4

 Leave arrangement may have been used before or after the birth . The total in individual leave arrangements exceed 100 percent be

Note: 2005–2007 estimates are used for the most recent birth cohort to allow for at least 1 year of postbirth employment data .

Source: U .S . Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2 .

irths outside

cause of mul

 of first martiple answers . 
16 U.S. Census Bureau

shown for women who were not statistically different from the their child’s birth, compared with 

working within the first year after rate for women aged 30 and over 33 percent of non-Hispanic White 

their child’s birth.31 (31 percent). mothers. However, among those 

mothers who worked during Some women may be motivated In terms of education, women with their pregnancy, there was no to maintain ties to the labor force a high school degree, some college, statistically significant difference because of personal preferences, or a bachelor’s degree or more were in returning to work between career goals, or because their jobs more likely to work in the first 3 non-Hispanic White and Hispanic offer attractive leave benefits and months after their child’s birth (28 mothers (41 percent and 38 per- do not penalize them for choosing percent or more) than women with cent, respectively). to become mothers. They may also less than a high school degree (10 

feel they have too much invested percent). Women with less than For women who worked during 

in their careers in terms of educa- a high school degree were most pregnancy, when they returned to 

tion, training, and wages to leave likely not to work at all in the year work after their child’s birth was 

the labor force.32 Previous research after their first child’s birth (66 related to when they left work 

has shown that in the 1960s and percent). A larger percentage of during their pregnancy. Women 

1970s, those who were most eco- non-Hispanic White women than who worked later into their pregnomically in need of and dependent Hispanic women were working nancy were more likely to return to 

on their own earnings (teenagers, within 3 months after childbirth (33 work sooner than those who left 

Black women, and women with percent compared with 17 percent) work earlier in their pregnancy. For 

premarital first births) returned to and a smaller percentage did not example, 43 percent of women who 

work the most rapidly.33 work in the first year (34 percent stopped working 1 month or less 

and 54 percent, respectively). prior to their child’s birth were back Table 9 shows that for 2005–2007, at work within 3 months of their older first-time mothers worked at The variations in the timing of birth. In comparison, 17 percent of higher rates in the first few months returning to work previously noted women who left 6 or more months after giving birth than younger diminish or disappear when only before their child’s birth went back first-time mothers. Thirty-one per- women who worked during preg- to work within 3 months. cent of mothers aged 30 or older nancy are considered. For example, 

were working within 3 months, among all mothers, 10 percent The type of leave arrangement 

compared with 13 percent of moth- of mothers with less than a high women used was also related to 

ers less than 18 years of age. Most school education were working when or if they returned to work 

of these women were old enough within 3 months of their child’s in the first year after having their 

to have completed high school or birth, compared with 30 percent of child. Women who said they quit 

college and were potentially old mothers with a bachelor’s degree or a job around the time of their first 

enough to have had some work more. Among mothers who worked birth were more likely not to return 

experience prior to the child’s birth. during pregnancy, there was no to work in the first year of their 

However, these differences are statistically significant difference child’s birth: 52 percent compared 

reduced among women after age in the percentage returning within with 13 percent of women who 

20 as the worker rate for women 3 months between those without used paid leave arrangements. In 

aged 20 to 21 (33 percent) is not a high school education and those contrast, women who used paid 

31 with a bachelor’s degree or more leave at any time during their The 2008 American Community Survey 

found that 61.6 percent of women who had (29 percent and 34 percent, respec- pregnancy or after their child’s 

their first birth in the 12-month period prior tively). Women who were either birth were more likely to return to to the interview were in the labor force at 

the time of the interview. (See Jane L. Dye, high school graduates or who had work less than 3 months after their 

Fertility of American Women: June 2008, some college had return-to-work child’s birth (42 percent), than were Current Population Reports, P20-563, U.S. 

Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 2010, Table rates around 40 percent, higher women who quit their jobs around 

3.) The SIPP for the period 2005–2007 shows than women with a bachelor’s the time of their first child’s birth 

that 62.6 percent of women who had a birth degree or higher. (21 percent). Women who quit their in this period had ever worked within 12 

months of their child’s birth (Table 9). job during pregnancy or after their 32 Sonalde Desai and Linda Waite, “Women’s About 17 percent of Hispanic child’s birth would likely have to Employment During Pregnancy and After the mothers, regardless of their work First Birth: Occupational Characteristics and expend job-search time to find new 

Work Commitment,” American Sociological status during pregnancy, were employment before they could go Review, Vol. 56, 1991, pp. 551–556. 33 working less than 3 months after O’Connell, op. cit., 1990, pp. 23–25. back to work. Differences in receipt 
U.S. Census Bureau 17

of either paid or unpaid leave in 

return to work within 3 months of 

the child’s birth were not statistically different (42 percent and 45 

percent, respectively). It may be 

that availability of leave and the 

assurance of employment continuity may be a more important factor 

in returning to work than whether 

or not the leave is paid leave. 

Multivariate Analysis of Timing 

of Work Following a Birth

To shed light on the factors related 

to the timing of mothers’ postbirth 

work, multivariate regression 

models are estimated, controlling for employment status during pregnancy, age, race and 

Hispanic origin, marital status at 

first birth, education, and type of 

leave arrangement used. Two time 

periods for returning to work are 

examined: mothers who work less 

than 3 months after their child’s 

birth and mothers who work 3 

to 5 months after the birth of 

their child. Logistic regression 

techniques were used because 

the outcome variable, whether a 

mother was working by a given 

time period, is dichotomous (the 

value of 1 is assigned to mothers 

who work by the given time period, 

and a 0 is assigned to mothers 

who did not). The results, while not 

predicting causation, will show the 

relative importance of these indicators with respect to working within 

a given time period. An odds ratio 

of 1.0 indicates that a mother with 

a select characteristic is as likely to 

work as a mother with the specified 

reference or comparison characteristic. Ratios under 1.0 or over 1.0 

Table 10.

Odds of the Timing of Work Following a Birth: 2006–2008

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Characteristics

All women with a first birth All women with a first birth

Less than 3 months1 3 to 5 months

Odds ratio Significance Odds ratio Significance

Employment2

Employed during pregnancy . . . . . . . 9.172 (***) 1.598 (*)

Not employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (R) (R)

Age

Age at first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.991 (n.s.) 1.014 (n.s.)

Race and Hispanic Origin

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (R) (R)

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.992 (n.s.) 1.362 (n.s.)

Non-Hispanic other race . . . . . . . . . . 0.545 (+) 1.341 (n.s.)

Hispanic (any race) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.729 (n.s.) 1.077 (n.s.)

Marital Status3

Not married at time of first birth . . . . . 1.050 (n.s.) 1.012 (n.s.)

Married during or after first birth . . . . (R) (R)

Educational Attainment

Less than high school . . . . . . . . . . . . (R) (R)

High school graduate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.403 (*) 1.299 (n.s.)

Some college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.053 (*) 1.307 (n.s.)

Bachelor’s degree or higher . . . . . . . . 1.485 (n.s.) 1.936 (*)

Type of Leave Arrangement Used4

 Paid leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.207 (n.s.) 1.366 (+)

 Unpaid leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (R) (R)

(R) Reference group

(+) 0.05 <p <0.1.

(*) Significant at 0.01 < p <0.05.

(**) Significant at 0.001 < p <0.01.

(***) Significant at p <0.001.

(n.s.) Not statistically significant. 1

 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy or after their birth. 2

 Includes women who were working after 1 year and those who never returned to work. 3

 Refers to marital status at time of first birth. Before first marriage includes never-married women. After first marriage includes first births outside of first marriage or within second or subsequent marriages. 4

 Leave arrangement may have been used before or after the birth.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2.
18 U.S. Census Bureau

indicate that a mother is less likely 

or more likely to work/return to 

work, respectively. 

Table 10 shows the odds of working 

within 3 months or between 3 and 

5 months for all mothers. Mothers 

who were employed during their 

pregnancy have greater odds of 

working within 3 months as mothers who did not work during their 

pregnancy. The odds of working 

within 3 months were significantly 

lower for women who were nonHispanic other race, compared with 

White, non-Hispanic mothers. Mothers who were high school graduates 

or have some college education 

have greater odds of working within 

3 months than those who did not 

complete high school. 

Prebirth employment, education, 

and paid leave are all statistically 

associated with working within 3 

to 5 months for first-time mothers. 

Table 11.

Job Characteristics of Women Who Worked During Pregnancy Preceding First Birth and 

Returned to Work Within 12 Months After Birth: 1991–1994 to 2005–2007

(For information on sampling and nonsampling error, see www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29.pdf)

Characteristic 1991–1994 1995–1999 2000–2004 2005–2007

Women who returned to work (thousands)1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,539 4,466 4,388 2,639

Returned to Prebirth Employer

Number of women (thousands) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,750 3,388 3,638 2,143 

Percent (among women returning to work) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77.7 75.9 80.8 80.4

Percentage Among Women Returning to Prebirth Employer

Number of hours worked after first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

 More than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 2.7 4.2 3.9

 Same as before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77.2 77.6 75.5 75.2

 Fewer than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.0 19.7 20.3 20.9

Pay level after first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

 Higher than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 7.9 5.1 6.3

 Same as before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88.3 89.0 91.8 91.3

 Lower than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 3.1 3.1 2.5

Skill level after first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

 Higher than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 3.6 3.5 2.0

 Same as before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.6 94.1 94.3 96.7

 Lower than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 2.3 2.2 1.2

Hours, pay, and skill level all the same as before . . . . . . . . . . . 69.1 70.5 69.9 69.0

Different Employer After First Birth

Number of women (thousands) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790 1,078 750 496

Percent (among women returning to work) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3 24.1 16.7 18.6

Percentage Among Women Returning to Different Employer

Number of hours worked after first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

 More than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.7 19.6 13.6 11.0

 Same as before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6 47.7 59.0 45.1

 Fewer than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.8 32.7 27.3 43.9

Pay level after first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

 Higher than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.0 34.0 35.1 27.6

 Same as before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.7 41.4 34.6 41.8

 Lower than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.3 24.7 30.3 30.6

Skill level after first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

 Higher than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8 28.0 27.7 17.7

 Same as before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.9 53.1 53.3 64.6

 Lower than before first birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2 18.9 19.0 17.7

Hours, pay, and skill level all the same as before . . . . . . . . . . . 16.0 21.3 20.4 25.3

1 Excludes self-employed women and women whose prebirth employer went out of business.

Note: 2005–2007 estimates are used for the most recent birth cohort to allow for at least 1 year of postbirth employment data.

Source: 1991–1994: P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Table K; 1995–199: SIPP, 2001 Panel, Wave 2; 2001–2003: P70-113 

(Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–2003), Table 10; and 2005–2007: Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2008 Panel, Wave 2.
U.S. Census Bureau 19

Mothers who worked during their 

pregnancy have greater odds of 

working within 3 to 5 months compared with mothers who did not 

work before the birth of their first 

child. Women with a college degree 

or higher also have greater odds 

of working within 3 to 5 months 

compared with women with no 

high school diploma. Women who 

received some type of paid leave 

have greater odds of returning to 

work within 3 to 5 months following the birth of their first child, 

compared with mothers who did 

not receive or use paid leave. This 

finding suggests that women who 

have paid leave may only use it 

for a short period of time before 

returning to the labor force. Given 

that FMLA and other leave policies 

in the United States do not allow for 

leave for more than 12 weeks, it is 

not entirely surprising that new mothers return to work relatively soon. 

The multivariate results reinforce 

and add substance to issues 

previously analyzed in this report 

and help us understand mothers’ 

postbirth employment activities. 

Overall, findings suggest there is 

considerable variation in mothers’ postbirth employment across 

groups stratified by race and Hispanic origin, education, and type of 

leave. Among these, the strongest 

factor predicting employment was 

whether the mother was employed 

during pregnancy. 

Job Characteristics 

Before and After Birth 

For women who had their first 

birth between 2005 and 2007, 80 

percent of the women who worked 

during their pregnancy and who 

returned to work within 12 months 

of their child’s birth returned to 

their prebirth employer (Table 11).

Seventy-five percent of those who 

returned to their prebirth employer 

experienced no change in the 

number of hours they worked per 

week, statistically unchanged since 

1991–1994. One in five women 

worked fewer hours after having their first child for both time 

periods. First-time mothers who 

return to their prebirth employer 

can expect to return to similar 

pay at a similar skill level. For the 

2005–2007 time period, about 9 

of 10 women returning to their 

prebirth employer earned around 

the same pay; and 97 percent were 

at the same or higher job-skill level 

as before their birth. 

Compared with mothers who 

returned to their prebirth employers, a larger proportion of women 

who changed employers for their 

first job after childbirth experienced change in at least one of 

their job characteristics. For women 

who had their first birth between 

2005 and 2007, 25 percent of 

women who changed employers 

maintained consistency in hours, 

pay, and skill level before and after 

the birth of their child, compared 

with 69 percent of women who had 

the same employer. 

For women who had their first child 

between 2005 and 2007, those 

who switched employers were more 

likely to have a change in salary. 

Forty-two percent of women who 

changed employers, compared with 

91 percent of women who returned 

to the same employer, had jobs at 

the same pay level. Some women 

may have switched employers with 

better compensation in mind, as 

28 percent of those who switched 

received higher pay, compared with 

6 percent of women who stayed 

with the same employer. However, 

31 percent took jobs with different employers at a lower pay level, 

compared with 3 percent who 

returned to the same employer. 

In the 2005–2007 time period, 97 

percent of women returning to 

their prebirth employer worked at 

a job requiring the same level of 

skill as before the birth of their first 

child compared, with 65 percent of 

women who switched employers. 

Eighteen percent of women who 

changed employers took jobs at a 

higher skill level, compared with 

2 percent of women who returned 

to the same employer. However, a 

larger proportion of those who took 

jobs with a new employer took a 

job at a lower skill level than they 

held during pregnancy (18 percent) 

than did women who returned to 

the same employer (1 percent). 

CONCLUSIONS

Since the 1960s, women have 

experienced gains in education 

beyond the high school years and 

have continued to delay childbearing to older ages. The work experience of women both before and 

during the pregnancy preceding 

the birth of their first child has also 

increased. Women are more likely 

to work both before and during 

their pregnancy than they were 30 

to 40 years ago and are working 

later into their pregnancy. Sixtyfive percent of women who worked 

during their pregnancy in 2006–

2008 did so into the last month 

of their pregnancy. In addition, 

more women are working within a 

year of giving birth (64 percent in 

2005–2007 compared with 39 percent in 1976–1980 and 17 percent 

in 1961–1965). 

One in five women quit their job 

before or shortly after the birth 

of their child in 2006–2008. Paid 

leave benefits were received by 

51 percent of pregnant workers in 

2006–2008, 42 percent of pregnant 

workers received unpaid leave, 

and 10 percent took disability 

leave. Data in this report also show 

that 80 percent of mothers who 

returned to work within 12 months 

of their child’s birth returned to 

their same employer. Sixty-nine 

percent of women who returned to 
20 U.S. Census Bureau

the same employer after the birth 

of their first child experienced no 

changes in pay, skill level, or hours. 

An important factor in working 

after the birth of a child rests on 

one’s employment status during 

pregnancy. Women who worked 

during their pregnancy, especially 

full-time workers and those working up to the birth of their child, 

are most likely to return to work 

within 3 months of having their 

first birth. 

Overall, these findings indicate that 

women are staying longer at work, 

returning more rapidly after having their first child, and in general 

choosing to incorporate work life 

with childbearing and child rearing 

more than did women in the 1960s. 

SOURCE OF THE DATA 

The population represented (the 

population universe) in the 1984, 

1985, 1996, 2001, 2004, and 2008 

Panels of the SIPP is the civilian 

noninstitutionalized population living in the United States. The SIPP is 

a longitudinal survey conducted at 

4-month intervals. The employment 

history and maternity leave information were part of the Fertility 

History topical module collected in 

the SIPP panels referenced below. 

The data in this report were collected from January through April 

2009 (2008 Panel), June through 

September 2004 (2004 Panel), June 

through September 2001 (2001 

Panel), August through November 

1996 (1996 Panel), January through 

April 1986 (1985 Panel), and 

January through March 1986 (1984 

Panel). The number of designated 

housing units in sample in Wave 1 

was 65,500 (2008 Panel), 62,700 

(2004 Panel), 50,500 (2001 Panel), 

49,200 (1996 Panel), 17,800 (1985 

Panel), and 26,000 (1984 Panel). 

The number of eligible units and 

the number interviewed in Wave 

1 were 52,031 and 42,032 for the 

2008 Panel; 51,400 and 43,700 for 

the 2004 Panel; 40,500 and 35,000 

for the 2001 Panel; 40,100 and 

36,700 for the 1996 Panel; 14,400 

and 13,400 for the 1985 Panel; and 

20,900 and 19,900 for the 1984 

Panel. In Wave 2 of the 2004 Panel, 

40,600 interviews were obtained 

from 44,100 eligible units. In 

Wave 2 of the 2001 Panel, 28,100 

interviews were obtained from 

30,500 eligible units. In Wave 2 of 

the 1996 Panel, 35,000 interviews 

were obtained from 37,500 eligible 

units. In Wave 4 of the 1985 Panel, 

11,400 interviews were obtained 

from 13,500 eligible units. In Wave 

8 of the 1984 Panel, 11,100 interviews were obtained from 13,500 

eligible units. 

The institutionalized population, 

which is excluded from the population universe, is composed primarily of the population in correctional 

institutions and nursing homes (91 

percent of the 4.1 million institutionalized population in Census 2000).

ACCURACY OF THE 

ESTIMATES

Statistics from surveys are subject 

to sampling and nonsampling error. 

All comparisons presented in this 

report have taken sampling error 

into account and are significant 

at the 90 percent confidence level 

unless otherwise noted. This means 

the 90 percent confidence interval for the difference between the 

estimates being compared does not 

include zero. Nonsampling errors 

in surveys may be attributed to a 

variety of sources, such as how 

the survey was designed, how 

respondents interpret questions, 

how able and willing respondents 

are to provide correct answers, and 

how accurately the answers are 

coded and classified. To minimize 

these errors, the Census Bureau 

employs quality control procedures 

throughout the production process, 

including the overall design of 

surveys, the wording of questions, 

review of the work of interviewers 

and coders, and statistical review 

of reports. The SIPP weighting 

procedure uses ratio estimation, 

whereby sample estimates are 

adjusted to independent estimates 

of the national population by age, 

race, sex, and Hispanic origin. This 

weighting partially corrects for bias 

due to undercoverage, but biases 

may still be present when people 

who are missed by the survey 

differ from those interviewed in 

ways other than age, race, sex, and 

Hispanic origin. How this weighting 

procedure affects other variables in 

the survey is not precisely known. 

All of these considerations affect 

comparisons across different surveys or data sources.

For further information on the 

source of the data and accuracy of 

the estimates, including standard 

errors and confidence intervals, go 

to <www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac

/S&A08_W1toW3%28S&A-12%29

.pdf> or contact Mahdi S. Sundukchi 

of the Census Bureau’s Demographic 

Statistical Methods Division via 

e-mail at <mahdi.s.sundukchi

@census.gov> or Jamie Choi of the 

Census Bureau’s Demographic Statistical Methods Division via e-mail 

at <jamie.choi@census.gov>.

Additional information on the SIPP, 

including questions on the topical 

modules, can be found at the following Web sites: 

<www.sipp.census.gov/sipp

/sourceac/s&a96_040501.pdf>, 

<www.sipp.census.gov/sipp/> 

(main SIPP Web site), <www.sipp.

census.gov/sipp/workpapr

/wp230.pdf> (SIPP Quality Profile), 

and <www.sipp.census.gov/sipp

/usrguide/sipp2001.pdf> (SIPP 

User’s Guide).
U.S. Census Bureau 21

MORE INFORMATION

The report is available on the Internet <www.census.gov> by clicking 

on the letter “F” in the “Subjects A 

to Z” section of the Web page and 

selecting “Fertility of American 

Women Data.” Scroll down to the 

maternity leave data section. Other 

research on maternity leave can 

be found in the following report: 

Kristin Smith and Amara Bachu, 

Women’s Labor Force Attachment 

Patterns and Maternity Leave: A 

Review of the Literature, Population 

Division Working Paper Series, No. 

32, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 1999. This report is on the 

Internet on the “Population: Working Papers” section under “Subjects 

A to Z.”

CONTACTS

Maternity leave issues:

Lynda Laughlin

<Lynda.L.Laughlin@census.gov>

USER COMMENTS

The Census Bureau welcomes the 

comments and advice of users of 

its data and reports. If you have 

any suggestions or comments, 

please write to:

Chief, Housing and Household

Economic Statistics Division

U.S. Census Bureau

Washington, DC 20233

or send an e-mail inquiry to:

<hhes@census.gov>

SUGGESTED CITATION

Laughlin, Lynda, 2011. Maternity 

Leave and Employment Patterns: 

2006–2008. Current Population 

Report, P70-128. U.S. Census 

Bureau, Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Washington, DC 20233

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