Report to Congressional Committees

United States Government Accountability Office

GAO 

October 2009 HIGHER EDUCATION

Issues Related to Law 

School Cost and 

Access 

GAO-10-20 

This report was revised on December 7, 2009, to incorporate 

corrected information not available at the time of publication. 

The figure on slide 13, on page 17, has been accordingly 

revised, and a new figure has been inserted on slide 14, on 

page 18. 
Page i GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

Letter 1

Appendix I Briefing Slides 5 

Appendix II Comments from the American Bar Association 40 

Appendix III GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 42 

Table 

Table 1: Summary of Law School Contacts 3 

Contents 

This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright protection in the 

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Page 1 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

October 26, 2009 

The Honorable Tom Harkin 

Chairman 

The Honorable Michael B. Enzi 

Ranking Member 

Committee on Health, Education, 

 Labor, and Pensions 

United States Senate 

The Honorable George Miller 

Chairman 

The Honorable John P. Kline 

Ranking Member 

Committee on Education and Labor 

House of Representatives 

In order to participate in federal student financial aid programs, law 

schools must be accredited by an agency recognized by the Department of 

Education (Education).1

 Accreditation is intended to ensure that schools 

provide basic levels of quality in their educational programs, and 

Education recognizes those accrediting agencies that it concludes can 

reliably determine the quality of education provided by the schools and 

programs they accredit. The American Bar Association’s (ABA) Council of 

the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar serves as the 

main accrediting agency for law schools, and students who attend one of 

the 200 ABA-accredited law schools can take the bar examination in any 

jurisdiction in the country. There are also several law schools that are 

accredited by other Education-recognized accrediting agencies such as the 

Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Graduates of some of these 

non-ABA-accredited law schools are eligible to take the bar examination in 

their own state, but may not do so nationwide. 

The ABA’s accreditation standards focus on a number of issues, including 

schools’ facilities, student support services, faculty, admissions practices, 

and graduates’ passage of the bar exam. Concerns have been raised about 

how some of these accreditation standards may affect the cost of 

attendance and minority access. In 2007, we reported on the ABA’s 

 

1

20 U.S.C. § 1099b(j). 

 

United States Government Accountability Office

Washington, DC 20548 
 

Page 2 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

process for accrediting law schools and questions that had been raised 

about the process.2

 In this report, in response to a mandate in the Higher 

Education Opportunity Act,3

 we examine the following questions: (1) How 

do law schools compare with similar professional schools in terms of cost 

and minority enrollment? (2) What factors, including accreditation, may 

affect the cost of law school? (3) What factors, including accreditation, 

may affect minority access to law school? 

We briefed your staff on the results of our analysis on September 2 and 3, 

2009, and this report formally conveys the information provided during 

that briefing (see appendix I for the briefing slides). In summary, we 

reported the following: 

• Since 1994, tuition and fees at law schools and selected professional 

schools have increased, and trends in minority enrollment have been 

comparable across types of schools. At law, medical, and dental schools 

during this time period, Hispanics and Asians/Pacific Islanders increased 

as a share of enrollment or stayed at about the same level, while African 

American enrollment declined or stayed at about the same level. 

• According to law school officials, the move to a more hands-on, resourceintensive approach to legal education and competition among schools for 

higher rankings appear to be the main factors driving the cost of law 

school, while ABA accreditation requirements appear to play a minor role. 

Additionally, officials at public law schools reported that recent decreases 

in state funding are a contributor to rising tuition at public schools. 

• Most law school officials do not cite ABA accreditation standards as 

having an impact on minority access at their schools. Lower average Law 

School Admission Test (LSAT) scores and undergraduate grade point 

averages (GPA) may have negatively affected some African Americans and 

Hispanics. 

We used the following methodologies to develop our findings. To compare 

law schools with similar professional schools in terms of cost and minority 

enrollment, we selected medical, dental, and veterinary schools based on 

Education’s list of first-professional degree programs and the availability 

of cost and enrollment data, and analyzed data on tuition and enrollment 

 

2

GAO, Higher Education: Issues Related to Law School Accreditation, GAO-07-314 

(Washington, D.C.: Mar. 8, 2007). 

3

Pub. L. No 110-315, sec. 952, § 3001(i), 122 Stat. 3078, 3473 (2008). 
 

Page 3 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

from Education’s Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS) for these schools. We determined that IPEDS data are sufficiently 

reliable for the purposes of this report by testing them for accuracy and 

completeness, reviewing documentation about systems used to produce 

the data, and interviewing agency officials. Additionally, we analyzed data 

from the ABA and the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) 

on students’ law and medical school debt. To determine the reliability of 

these data, we interviewed ABA and AAMC officials about limitations with 

the data collected and uses of the data. We found these data to be 

sufficiently reliable for our purposes. We adjusted the historical tuition, 

fee, and debt data for inflation using the gross domestic product price 

index. 

To examine what factors, including accreditation, may affect law school 

cost and minority access, we reviewed documentation from the ABA and 

the Law School Admission Council (LSAC), and analyzed LSAC’s data on 

law school acceptance rates. We also interviewed officials from 22 law 

schools, including 19 ABA-accredited schools and 3 schools accredited by 

other agencies recognized by Education (non-ABA-accredited). We 

selected this nonprobability sample to reflect a range of characteristics, 

including institutional control (public, private not-for-profit, private forprofit), geographic location, school size, minority enrollment, and average 

LSAT score (see table 1). Finally, we spoke with a diverse group of law 

students from 1 ABA-accredited and 1 non-ABA-accredited school, student 

representatives from 2 minority law student associations, and officials 

from the ABA and LSAC. 

Table 1: Summary of Law School Contacts 

Type of law school Total number of law schools Sample size

ABA-accredited 200 19

Public 81 9

Private, not-for-profit 113 9

Private, for-profit 6 1

Non-ABA-accredited 11 3

Public 1 0

Private, not-for-profit 7 2

Private, for-profit 3 1

Total 211 22

Source: GAO analysis of Education and ABA data. 
 

Page 4 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

We conducted this performance audit from March through August 2009 in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. Those 

standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient, 

appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and 

conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence 

obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions 

based on our audit objectives. 

We provided copies of a draft of this report to the Department of 

Education and the American Bar Association for review and comment. 

The Association of American Medical Colleges and the Law School 

Admission Council received selected excerpts of the report to review the 

findings related to the respective data they provided, and we made 

changes as appropriate. Education had no comments on the draft report. 

The ABA said that the report was generally accurate, balanced, and fair. 

See appendix II for the ABA’s comments. 

We are sending copies of this report to relevant congressional committees, 

the Secretary of Education, and other interested parties and will make 

copies available to others upon request. In addition, this report will be 

available at no charge on GAO’s Web site at www.gao.gov. 

If you or your staff has any questions about this report, please contact me 

at (202) 512-7215 or scottg@gao.gov. Contact points for our Offices of 

Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page 

of this report. GAO staff members who made key contributions to this 

report are listed in appendix III. 

George A. Scott 

Director, Education, Workforce, 

 and Income Security Issues 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 5 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Higher Education: Issues Related to Law 

School Cost and Access

Briefings for the Senate Committee on

Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions

and the House Committee

on Education and Labor

September 2009
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 6 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

2

Overview

• Research Objectives

• Scope and Methodology

• Summary of Findings

• Background

• Findings 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 7 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

3

Research Objectives

In response to a mandate in the Higher Education 

Opportunity Act (Pub. L. No 110-315, sec. 952, § 3001(i), 

122 Stat. 3078, 3473 (2008)), we addressed the following 

questions:

1. How do law schools compare with similar professional schools in terms of cost and minority enrollment?

2. What factors, including accreditation requirements, may affect the cost of law school?

3. What factors, including accreditation requirements, may affect minority access to law school?
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 8 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

4

Scope and Methodology

To address our research objectives, we:

• Reviewed documentation from the American Bar Association (ABA) and the Law School Admission Council (LSAC).

• Identified medical, dental, and veterinary schools as the most appropriate similar professional schools based on the Department of Education’s (Education) list of first-professional degree programs and the availability of cost and enrollment data on these schools. 

• Analyzed data on tuition and enrollment from Education, the ABA, LSAC, and 

the Association of American Medical Colleges, and found these data to be 

sufficiently reliable for our purposes. 

• Data from Education’s Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS) covered the period from 1994/1995 through 2007/2008. 

• Data on acceptance rates reflected the period from 2000/2001 though 

2007/2008. 

• Data on student debt covered 2001/2002 through 2007/2008.
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 9 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

5

Scope and Methodology (cont.)

We interviewed: 

• Officials from 22 law schools, including 19 ABA-accredited schools 

and 3 schools accredited by other agencies recognized by the 

Department of Education (non-ABA-accredited).

• We selected this nonprobability sample to reflect a range of 

institutional control (public, private not-for-profit, private forprofit), geographic location, school size, minority enrollment, 

and average Law School Admission Test (LSAT) score.

• A diverse group of law students from one ABA-accredited and one 

non-ABA-accredited school. 

• Representatives of two minority law student associations, the ABA, 

and other professional associations.
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 10 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

6

Scope and Methodology (cont.)

• We conducted this performance audit from March to August 

2009, in accordance with generally accepted government 

auditing standards. 

• Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit 

to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a 

reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on 

our audit objectives. 

• We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable 

basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit 

objectives. 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 11 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

7

Multiple Factors May Affect Law School Cost and 

Access; Accreditation Requirements Do Not Appear 

to Be a Major Driver

• Since 1994, tuition and fees at law schools and selected professional 

schools have increased, and trends in minority enrollment have been 

comparable across types of schools. At law, medical, and dental schools 

during this time period, Hispanics and Asians/Pacific Islanders increased 

as a share of enrollment or stayed at about the same level, while African 

American enrollment declined or stayed at about the same level.

• According to law school officials, the move to a more hands-on, resourceintensive approach to legal education and competition among schools for 

higher rankings appear to be the main factors driving law school cost, while 

ABA accreditation requirements appear to play a minor role. Additionally, 

recent decreases in state funding are seen as a contributor to rising tuition 

at public schools.

• Most law school officials do not cite ABA accreditation standards as having 

an impact on minority access at their schools. Lower average LSAT scores 

and undergraduate grade point averages (GPA) may have negatively

affected some African Americans and Hispanics.

Summary of Findings
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 12 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

8

Law School Accreditation

• To be eligible to participate in federal student aid programs, a

postsecondary school must be accredited by an agency recognized 

by the Department of Education.1

• The ABA’s Council of the Section of Legal Education and 

Admissions to the Bar is recognized for accrediting law schools.

• Some law schools that are not accredited by the ABA have 

obtained accreditation from other agencies that are recognized 

by the Department of Education.

• Graduate and professional students at these schools may be 

eligible to borrow up to $20,500 per year in federal Stafford loans, 

as well as additional Graduate/Professional PLUS loans.

Background

120 U.S.C. § 1099b(j). In 2007, we reported on Education’s process for recognizing accrediting agencies and law 

school accreditation issues. See GAO, Higher Education: Issues Related to Law School Accreditation, GAO-07-314 

(Washington, D.C.: Mar. 8, 2007).
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 13 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

9

ABA Accreditation Requirements

• The ABA’s Standards and Rules of Procedure for Approval of 

Law Schools establish requirements with which law schools 

must comply to be accredited by the ABA.

• Standards focus on issues such as curriculum, student 

support, faculty, and admissions.

• As of June 2008, 200 law schools had received ABA 

accreditation.

• Nine of the 200 were provisionally accredited.

• Since 1952, only 8 institutions have applied for but never 

received accreditation.

Background
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 14 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

10

A J.D. Degree from an ABA-Accredited Law School Provides 

Eligibility to Take the Bar Exam in Any U.S. Jurisdiction, and for 

Some States It Is a Prerequisite

Background
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 15 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

11

Educational Pipeline: African Americans and Hispanics Have

Lower Educational Attainment than Whites and Asians/Pacific 

Islanders, Reducing the Pool of Potential Law School Applicants

Background

Source: GAO analysis of 2007 American Community Survey data.

Educational Attainment for 25- to 40-Year-Olds in 2007

Note: Unlike other data sources used in this report, the American Community Survey collects data on a sample of the population. All 

differences in levels of educational attainment between racial/ethnic groups are statistically significant.

aHigh school diploma includes equivalent qualifications, such as the GED.
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 16 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

12

Tuition and Fees at Law and Other Professional 

Schools Have Increased since 1994

Finding 1: Comparing Professional Schools—Cost

Source: GAO analysis of Education’s IPEDS data.

Note: All figures have been adjusted to 2009 dollars.
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 17 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

13

Average Professional School Debt for Law 

School Graduates Has Risen since 2001

Finding 1: Comparing Professional Schools—Cost

Source: GAO analysis of American Bar Association data.

Note: ABA data are based on unweighted averages, and all figures have been adjusted to 2007 dollars. Data were not available prior to 

2001. 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 18 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

14

Average Professional School Debt for Medical 

School Graduates Has Risen since 2001

Source: GAO analysis of Association of American Medical Colleges data.

Note: AAMC data are based on weighted averages, and all figures have been adjusted to 2007 dollars. Data were not available prior to 

2001. 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 19 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

15

Grants and Scholarships Can Lower the Net Cost of 

Tuition and Fees for Some Students

Finding 1: Comparing Professional Schools—Cost

• All professional degree programs we examined offer institutional aid–

such as grants, scholarships, tuition remission, and loan repayment 

assistance–that can lower the cost of attendance for students who 

receive it. For example according to ABA data, in 2006-2007:

• Public law schools provided an average of $3,271 per capita in 

institutional aid, which offset median resident tuition by about 24 

percent and median nonresident tuition by about 12 percent.

• Private law schools provided an average of $7,542 per capita in 

institutional aid, which offset median tuition by about 24 percent.

• In addition to receiving institutional aid, students at law, medical, dental, 

and veterinary schools are able to apply for a number of federal grants 

and scholarships, such as Scholarships for Disadvantaged Students 

from the Department of Health and Human Services, and Thurgood

Marshall Legal Educational Opportunity Program assistance through 

the Department of Education.
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 20 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

16

Since 1994-1995, African Americans Have Declined as a 

Share of Enrollment in Law Programs, while Their Share of 

Medical and Dental Enrollment Has Fluctuated

Finding 1: Comparing Professional Schools—Enrollment

Source: GAO analysis of Education’s IPEDS data.

Note: Comparable data on average enrollment by race/ethnicity were not available for veterinary medicine 

programs. Data are for non-Hispanic African Americans. 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 21 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

17

Since 1994-1995, Hispanics Have Increased as a Share 

of Enrollment in Law and Dental Programs, while Their 

Share of Medical Enrollment Has Fluctuated 

Finding 1: Comparing Professional Schools—Enrollment

Source: GAO analysis of Education’s IPEDS data.

Note: Comparable data on average enrollment by race/ethnicity were not available for veterinary medicine 

programs. 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 22 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

18

Since 1994-1995, Asians/Pacific Islanders Have Increased 

as a Share of Enrollment in Law and Medical Programs, 

while Their Share of Dental Enrollment Has Fluctuated

Finding 1: Comparing Professional Schools—Enrollment

Source: GAO analysis of Education’s IPEDS data.

Note: Comparable data on average enrollment by race/ethnicity were not available for veterinary medicine 

programs. 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 23 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

19

Since 1994-1995, Whites Have Declined as a Share of 

Enrollment in Law, Medical, and Dental Programs

Finding 1: Comparing Professional Schools—Enrollment

Source: GAO analysis of Education’s IPEDS data.

Note: Comparable data on average enrollment by race/ethnicity were not available for veterinary medicine 

programs. Data are for non-Hispanic whites.
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 24 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

20

The Change to a More Hands-on, Resource-Intensive Approach 

to Legal Education and Competition among Schools for Higher 

Rankings Reportedly Have Affected Cost

• Officials from most ABA-accredited schools we interviewed 

reported that changes in the approach to legal education 

have affected cost, particularly in the areas of faculty and 

staff. These changes include:

• increased emphasis on hands-on clinical experiences, 

and smaller skills-based courses;

• increased diversity of course offerings–e.g., international 

law and environmental law; and

• increased student support–e.g., academic support, career 

services, and admissions support.

Finding 2: Factors Affecting Cost
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 25 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

21

The Change to a More Hands-on, Resource-Intensive Approach 

to Legal Education and Competition Among Schools for Higher 

Rankings Reportedly Have Affected Cost (cont.)

• Officials at most of the ABA-accredited law schools we spoke with 

and student representatives reported that schools compete to 

attract students and faculty and to increase their U.S. News and 

World Report ranking. This competition has had an impact on cost 

because:

• Rankings are determined in part by such cost-related factors as 

per student expenditures, student-faculty ratio, and library 

resources.

• According to law school officials, schools offer clinics and 

diverse elective courses to compete for students.

• To attract the best faculty, school officials reported that they

may offer higher salaries.

Finding 2: Factors Affecting Cost
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 26 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

22

ABA Accreditation Is Reportedly Not a Major Driver of 

Cost

• Officials from most ABA-accredited schools we spoke with reported 

that ABA accreditation requirements were not a major driver of cost 

increases in legal education.

• Officials from more than half of the ABA-accredited schools we 

spoke with stated they would meet or exceed some ABA 

accreditation standards even if they were not required. School 

officials noted that the standards often follow market trends and 

changing approaches to legal education. 

• For example, according to ABA data, student-faculty ratios are 

generally lower than the ABA standards require (20:1).

• Officials from most of the schools we spoke to said they would 

offer skills-based courses and clinical opportunities (which are 

required by the ABA standards) in response to shifting 

expectations about the experiences students will need to be 

successful in the legal field. 

Finding 2: Factors Affecting Cost
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 27 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

23

ABA Accreditation Is Reportedly Not a Major Driver of 

Cost (cont.)

• Officials from a few ABA-accredited schools noted major capital 

costs that may be required to meet ABA accreditation standards, 

such as library expansion, may be covered by endowment funds or 

alumni donations.

• However, accreditation may increase costs for a small number of 

schools.

• Officials at one ABA-accredited school reported increasing spending 

on bar exam preparation support in response to ABA concerns about 

its bar passage rate. • Officials at some ABA-accredited schools said that ABA accreditation 

standards related to libraries may impose costs because they find the 

standards do not clearly describe the required size and organization of 

library collections.

• Officials at two of the three non-ABA accredited law schools stated 

they would have to spend significant resources to become ABAaccredited.1

Finding 2: Factors Affecting Cost

1

These schools are accredited by other accrediting bodies recognized by Education. 
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 28 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

24

ABA Accreditation Is Reportedly Not a Major Driver of 

Cost (cont.)

• In some instances, accreditation standards may limit 

experimentation with potentially lower-cost approaches. For 

example, officials at some of the ABA-accredited and all of 

the non-ABA-accredited schools we contacted said the 

standards could affect schools that wanted to take steps such 

as:

• expanding the role of non-tenure track and adjunct 

faculty,

• developing predominantly electronic libraries, and

• delivering courses online.

Finding 2: Factors Affecting Cost
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 29 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

25

Officials at Public Law Schools Report That 

Decreased State Funding Has Contributed to 

Increased Tuition and Fees

• Most public law school officials we spoke with emphasized recent

decreases in state funding as a contributor to rising tuition.

• The tuition and fees at some public schools rival those of selective 

private institutions. For example, in 2008, six public law schools had 

resident tuition and fees greater than $30,000.

• A limited number of public law schools have maintained relatively low prices, but their tuition is increasing:

• In 2008, public law schools in the South had the lowest tuition 

and fees, for both residents and nonresidents, while tuition was

highest in the Northeast.

• The average annual percentage increase in tuition was highest 

in the West and in the South.

Finding 2: Factors Affecting Cost
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 30 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

26

Acceptance Rates for Each Racial/Ethnic Group Have 

Followed Similar Patterns since 2000, with African 

Americans Having the Lowest Rates of Acceptance

.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School

Source: GAO analysis of Law School Admission Council data.

Note: The acceptance rate is the percentage of applicants in each group who were accepted by at least one law school. During the time 

period shown, the Law School Admission Council allowed applicants to select only one racial/ethnic category.
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 31 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

27

With a Few Exceptions, Law School Officials Do Not 

Cite ABA Accreditation Standards as Having an 

Impact on Minority Access at Their Schools

• Most law school officials, students, and minority student group 

representatives we interviewed focused on issues such as 

differences in LSAT scores, academic preparation, and professional 

contacts, rather than accreditation standards, to explain minority 

access issues.

• However, officials from some law schools reported that 

accreditation standards may affect minority access. For example:

• An official at one ABA-accredited law school said the ABA’s standards related 

to bar passage and admissions make schools less likely to admit applicants 

with low LSAT scores because they put the schools at risk of not meeting these 

standards. Officials at a few other ABA-accredited schools said that the bar 

passage standard did not affect their own admissions policies, but could affect 

access at less selective schools. 

• Officials at a non-ABA-accredited school reported that seeking ABA 

accreditation would require them to institute much stricter admissions 

standards, to the potential disadvantage of minorities with lower average LSAT 

scores.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 32 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

28

A Variety of Elements Contribute to the Strength of an 

Individual’s Application Package

• Officials at nearly all of the schools we spoke with said that 

they consider a number of elements in an application 

package, including:

• LSAT score,

• Undergraduate GPA,

• Letters of recommendation, and

• Personal statement.

• Admission to law school depends, in part, on the strength of 

the overall package. 

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 33 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

29

Lower Average LSAT Scores and Undergraduate 

GPAs May Have Negatively Affected Some African 

Americans and Hispanics

• According to LSAC's analysis, African American and Hispanic 

law school applicants had lower average LSAT scores and 

undergraduate GPAs than white and Asian/Pacific Islander 

applicants.

• LSAC cautions that LSAT scores should not be the only 

admissions criterion, and that scores are only a partial 

predictor of first-year law school performance.

• Some law school officials said that schools compete for 

minority applicants with above-average LSAT scores.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 34 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

30

Lower Average LSAT Scores and Undergraduate 

GPAs May Have Negatively Affected Some African 

Americans and Hispanics (cont.)

• However, according to representatives from LSAC, the ABA, 

some law schools, and one minority student group, schools 

are reluctant to admit applicants with lower LSAT scores 

because the median LSAT score is a key factor in the U.S. 

News and World Report rankings.

• Officials from a few schools noted that their reluctance to 

admit applicants with lower undergraduate GPAs stems from 

a concern that these students would be less able to compete 

academically in law school.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 35 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

31

Various Factors May Influence Differences in 

LSAT Scores among Racial/Ethnic Groups

• Officials from law schools and LSAC and law students suggested a

number of reasons for the LSAT score gap:

• Differences in academic preparation throughout the educational 

pipeline.

• Resources for preparation: African American and Hispanic 

students, a higher proportion of whom come from low-income 

backgrounds compared with whites, may be less able to afford 

to take LSAT prep courses or time off to study for the LSAT.

• The broader pattern of racial/ethnic differences in standardized

test scores.

• The Higher Education Opportunity Act required Education to enter into an 

agreement with the National Academy of Sciences to conduct a study to 

identify any race, ethnicity, or gender bias in the content and construction of 

standardized tests used for admission to institutions of higher education.2

An interim report is due from the academy in August 2010.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School

2 Pub. L. No. 110-315, § 1110, 122 Stat. 3078, 3496 (2008).
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 36 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

32

African American and Hispanic Applicants May Have 

Fewer Professional Contacts to Draw Upon in the 

Application Process

• Officials from two ABA-accredited law schools and some law 

students said that African American and Hispanic law school 

applicants may be disadvantaged because:

• Fewer applicants in these groups may have contact with 

lawyers or other professionals who could advise them on 

aspects of the application process, such as how to 

prepare for the LSAT. 

• These applicants may have fewer contacts to write letters 

of recommendation.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 37 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

33

Law School Cost May Affect Minority Students, but It Is 

Unclear How Cost Influences Students’ Decisions to Apply 

to and Enroll in Law School

• Some law school officials we interviewed stated that rising law 

school tuition may have disproportionately affected minority 

students, a large proportion of whom are low income.

• Officials from two ABA-accredited schools and one minority law 

student association we interviewed said that some minority 

students may have faced challenges securing private or federal 

Graduate/Professional PLUS loans because of poor credit or the 

lack of a cosigner. 

• Cost is one of a number of factors that may affect the decision to 

apply to and enroll in law school. Because data are not readily 

available on how potential applicants make these decisions, the 

impact of cost on minority access is unclear.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 38 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

34

The Percentage of Law Schools Whose Tuition Can Be 

Fully Funded through Lower-Interest Stafford Loans 

Has Decreased over Time

Source: GAO analysis of Education’s IPEDS data

Note: The total Stafford loan limit for graduate students was $18,500 from 1994-1995 through 2006-2007, and 

$20,500 in 2007-2008.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School
Appendix I: Briefing Slides 

Page 39 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

35

Law School Officials Reported Various Efforts to 

Improve Diversity

• At some of the schools we contacted, officials said that they actively 

recruit minority students, for example, by visiting universities with 

high percentages of minorities and participating in summer 

institutes to help minority students prepare for law school.

• A few of the schools we contacted are involved in initiatives to help 

address the pipeline issue, such as mentoring programs for minority 

or low-income high school students. 

• Nearly all the schools we contacted have a variety of support 

services for students once they enroll, such as academic support

programs and career counseling. Officials at a few schools said

that these services had expanded in recent years. 

• Officials from some public institutions reported that their efforts to 

increase minority access are constrained by legal restrictions 

against considering race in admissions.

Finding 3: Minority Access to Law School
Appendix II: Comments from the American 

Bar Association 

Page 40 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

Appendix II: Comments from the American 

Bar Association 
Appendix II: Comments from the American 

Bar Association 

Page 41 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 
Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

Page 42 GAO-10-20 Higher Education 

George A. Scott, (202) 512-7215 or scottg@gao.gov. 

Debra Prescott (Assistant Director) and Eve Weisberg (Analyst-in-Charge) 

managed this assignment. Lauren Gilbertson and Perry Lusk made 

significant contributions in all facets of the work. In addition, Lawrance 

Evans, John Mingus, Dae Park, and Elizabeth Wood provided 

methodological support; Carolyn Taylor provided subject matter expertise; 

Craig Winslow provided legal assistance; Jessica Orr provided writing 

assistance; and James Bennett developed graphics for the report. 

Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

GAO Contact 

Staff 

Acknowledgments 

(130923) 
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