Special Publication 800-127 

(Draft) 

Guide to Security for WiMAX 

Technologies (Draft) 

Recommendations of the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology 

Karen Scarfone 

Cyrus Tibbs 

Matthew Sexton 
Guide to Security for WiMAX 

Technologies (Draft) 

Recommendations of the National 

Institute of Standards and Technology 

Karen Scarfone 

Cyrus Tibbs 

Matthew Sexton 

NIST Special Publication 800-127 

(Draft) 

C O M P U T E R S E C U R I T Y

Computer Security Division 

Information Technology Laboratory 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8930 

September 2009 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Gary Locke, Secretary 

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Patrick D. Gallagher, Deputy Director 
GUIDE TO SECURITY FOR WIMAX TECHNOLOGIES (DRAFT)

Reports on Computer Systems Technology 

The Information Technology Laboratory (ITL) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST) promotes the U.S. economy and public welfare by providing technical leadership for the nation’s 

measurement and standards infrastructure. ITL develops tests, test methods, reference data, proof of 

concept implementations, and technical analysis to advance the development and productive use of 

information technology. ITL’s responsibilities include the development of technical, physical, 

administrative, and management standards and guidelines for the cost-effective security and privacy of 

sensitive unclassified information in Federal computer systems. This Special Publication 800-series 

reports on ITL’s research, guidance, and outreach efforts in computer security and its collaborative 

activities with industry, government, and academic organizations. 

Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this 

document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. 

Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the 

entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose. 

National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 800-127 (Draft) 

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 800-127, 46 pages (Sep. 2009) 

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Acknowledgments 

The authors, Karen Scarfone of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and Cyrus 

Tibbs and Matthew Sexton of Booz Allen Hamilton, wish to thank their colleagues who reviewed drafts 

of this document and contributed to its technical content, particularly Lily Chen and Tim Grance of NIST. 

Additional acknowledgments will be added to the final version of the publication. 

Trademark Information 

WiMAX, WiMAX Forum, WiMAX Certified, and WiMAX Forum Certified are trademarks or registered 

trademarks of the WiMAX Forum. 

All other names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. 

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Table of Contents 

Executive Summary..............................................................................................................ES-1

1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................1-1

1.1 Authority...................................................................................................................1-1

1.2 Purpose and Scope .................................................................................................1-1

1.3 Audience..................................................................................................................1-1

1.4 Document Structure .................................................................................................1-2

2. Overview of WiMAX Technology ....................................................................................2-1

2.1 Fundamental WiMAX Concepts...............................................................................2-1

2.2 Operating Topologies...............................................................................................2-2

2.2.1 Point-to-Point (P2P)......................................................................................2-2

2.2.2 Point-to-Multipoint (PMP) .............................................................................2-3

2.2.3 Multi-Hop Relay............................................................................................2-3

2.2.4 Mobile...........................................................................................................2-4

2.3 Evolution of the IEEE 802.16 Standard ...................................................................2-5

3. WiMAX Security Features................................................................................................3-1

3.1 Security Associations...............................................................................................3-2

3.2 Authentication and Authorization .............................................................................3-3

3.2.1 IEEE 802.16-2004 Authentication and Authorization ...................................3-4

3.2.2 IEEE 802.16e-2005 and 802.16-2009 Authentication and Authorization .....3-5

3.3 Encryption Key Establishment .................................................................................3-8

3.4 Data Confidentiality................................................................................................3-10

3.5 IEEE 802.16j-2009 Multi-Hop Relay Security Architecture ....................................3-11

4. WiMAX Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Countermeasures ..............................................4-1

4.1 Vulnerabilities...........................................................................................................4-1

4.2 Threats.....................................................................................................................4-2

4.3 Countermeasures ....................................................................................................4-3

4.3.1 Management Countermeasures...................................................................4-3

4.3.2 Operational Countermeasures .....................................................................4-5

4.3.3 Technical Countermeasures.........................................................................4-6

4.4 Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Countermeasures Summary Table ............................4-9

List of Appendices 

Appendix A— Glossary .......................................................................................................... A-1

Appendix B— Acronyms and Abbreviations ....................................................................... B-1

Appendix C— References ...................................................................................................... C-1

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List of Figures 

Figure 2-1. P2P Topology ..........................................................................................................2-2

Figure 2-2. PMP Topology .........................................................................................................2-3

Figure 2-3. Multi-Hop Topology .................................................................................................2-4

Figure 2-4. Mobile Topology ......................................................................................................2-5

Figure 3-1. WiMAX Security Framework....................................................................................3-2

Figure 3-2. PKMv1 Authorization ...............................................................................................3-5

Figure 3-3. PKMv2 RSA Device Mutual Authorization...............................................................3-6

Figure 3-4. PKMv2 RSA-Only AK Derivation .............................................................................3-7

Figure 3-5. EAP after RSA Device Mutual Authorization ...........................................................3-8

Figure 3-6. TEK Three-Way Handshake....................................................................................3-9

Figure 3-7. Multi-Hop Distributed Security Architecture...........................................................3-12

Figure 4-1. Encryption Overlay Solution ....................................................................................4-7

List of Tables 

Table 2-1. Additional IEEE 802.16 Standards and Amendments ..............................................2-6

Table 4-1. Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Countermeasures Summary .....................................4-10

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Executive Summary 

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a wireless metropolitan area network 

(WMAN) communications technology using the IEEE 802.16 standard. The industry trade group 

WiMAX ForumTM trademarked the WiMAX name and promotes the interoperability of broadband 

wireless products.1

 The original purpose of IEEE 802.16 technologies was to provide last-mile broadband 

wireless access as an alternative to cable, digital subscriber line (DSL), or T1 service. Developments in 

the IEEE 802.16 standard shifted the technology’s focus toward a more cellular-like, mobile architecture 

to serve a broader market. Today, WiMAX is a versatile technology that continues to adapt to market 

demands and provide enhanced user mobility. This document discusses WiMAX technology’s topologies, 

components, certifications, security features, and related security concerns. 

The WiMAX amendment that enabled mobile WiMAX operations is IEEE 802.16e-2005. Prior to its 

release, WiMAX was limited to fixed operations by the IEEE 802.16-2004 standard. Additionally, IEEE 

802.16e-2005 provided significant security enhancements to its predecessor by incorporating more robust 

mutual authentication mechanisms, as well as support for Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). 

Although the IEEE 802.16-2004 and 802.16e-2005 standards were released within a year of each other, 

IEEE 802.16e-2005 product certification did not start until 2008. Thus, IEEE 802.16-2004 products are 

still used in today’s information technology (IT) environments. The most recently ratified standard is 

IEEE 802.16-2009, which consolidated IEEE 802.16-2004, IEEE 802.16e-2005, and other IEEE 802.16 

amendments from 2004 through 2008. IEEE also released IEEE 802.16j-2009 to provide a framework for 

WiMAX multi-hop relay (also known as mesh) networking. This publication addresses IEEE 802.16-

2004, IEEE 802.16e-2005, IEEE 802.16-2009, and IEEE 802.16j-2009. 

WiMAX network threats focus on compromising the radio links between WiMAX nodes. These radio 

links support both line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) signal propagation. Links from LOS 

WiMAX systems are generally harder to attack than those from NLOS systems because an adversary 

would have to physically locate equipment between the transmitting nodes to compromise the 

confidentiality or integrity of the wireless link. WiMAX NLOS systems provide wireless coverage over 

large geographic regions, which expands the potential staging areas for both clients and adversaries. Like 

other wireless networking technologies, all WiMAX systems are susceptible to denial of service attacks, 

eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, message modification, and resource misappropriation. 

To improve WiMAX system security, organizations should implement the following recommendations: 

Organizations should develop a robust WiMAX security policy and enforce it. 

A security policy is an organization’s foundation for designing, implementing, and maintaining properly 

secured technologies. WiMAX policy should address the design and operation of the technical 

infrastructure and the behavior of users. Client devices should be configured to comply with WMAN 

policies, such as disabling unneeded services and altering default configurations. In addition, policydriven software solutions can be implemented on client devices to prevent or allow certain actions to take 

place when specific conditions are met. Policy-driven software helps ensure that client devices and users 

comply with an organization’s defined policies. 

 

1

 Information on the WiMAX ForumTM can be found at http://www.wimaxforum.org/home/. 

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Organizations should pay particular attention to WiMAX technical countermeasure capabilities 

before implementing a WiMAX technology. 

Technical countermeasures are typically designed into WiMAX systems before implementation. This 

makes the design phase of implementation particularly important because once a WiMAX system is 

implemented, its technical countermeasures are generally static as compared to other wireless 

technologies, such as IEEE 802.11 wireless local area networks. Additionally, the technical 

countermeasures implemented by each WiMAX system vary widely between vendors. Before 

implementing a WiMAX technology, an organization should consult WiMAX vendors to gain a better 

understanding of potential system reconfiguration constraints and the need for compensating controls to 

address technical security needs that the WiMAX product does not address. 

Organizations using WiMAX technology should require mutual authentication for WiMAX 

devices. 

IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 support an array of authentication solutions to provide both 

device and user authentication between a base station (BS) and client subscribers. These authentication 

solutions can support the use of usernames and passwords, smart cards, subscriber identity module cards, 

biometrics, public key infrastructure (PKI), or a combination of these solutions (e.g., smart cards with 

PKI). Organizations should strongly consider WiMAX solutions capable of supporting Extensible 

Authentication Protocol (EAP) methods for mutual authentication as recommended in draft NIST SP 800-

120, Recommendation for EAP Methods Used in Wireless Network Access Authentication..

2

 WiMAX 

solutions that cannot meet these criteria should employ a different means of authentication at a higher 

layer (e.g., encryption overlay or virtual private network [VPN]). IEEE 802.16-2004 systems are limited 

to one-way or unilateral authentication, allowing WiMAX nodes to be impersonated by rogue stations. 

Native IEEE 802.16-2004 authentication should not be trusted to authenticate nodes. 

Organizations using WiMAX technology should implement FIPS-validated encryption to protect 

their data communications. 

WiMAX communications consist of management and data messages. Management messages are used to 

govern communications parameters necessary to maintain wireless links, and data messages carry the data 

to be transmitted over wireless links. Encryption is not applied to management messages to increase the 

efficiency of network operations, while data messages are encrypted natively in accordance with the IEEE 

standards. IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 support the FIPS-approved AES algorithm, 

whereas IEEE 802.16-2004 supports Data Encryption Standard in Cipher Block Chaining mode (DESCBC). DES-CBC has several well-documented weaknesses, making it a vulnerable encryption algorithm 

that should not be used to protect data messages. For WiMAX solutions that do not provide FIPSvalidated encryption, organizations needing to protect the confidentiality of their WiMAX 

communications should deploy separate encryption solutions, such as a FIPS-validated virtual private 

network. 

 

 

2

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1. Introduction 

1.1 Authority 

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) developed this document in furtherance of its 

statutory responsibilities under the Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA) of 2002, 

Public Law 107-347. 

NIST is responsible for developing standards and guidelines, including minimum requirements, for 

providing adequate information security for all agency operations and assets; but such standards and 

guidelines do not apply to national security systems. This guideline is consistent with the requirements of 

the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-130, Section 8b(3), “Securing Agency 

Information Systems,” as analyzed in A-130, Appendix IV: Analysis of Key Sections. Supplemental 

information is provided in A-130, Appendix III. 

This guideline has been prepared for use by Federal agencies. It may be used by nongovernmental 

organizations on a voluntary basis and is not subject to copyright although attribution is desired. 

Nothing in this document should be taken to contradict standards and guidelines made mandatory and 

binding on Federal agencies by the Secretary of Commerce under statutory authority, nor should these 

guidelines be interpreted as altering or superseding the existing authorities of the Secretary of Commerce, 

Director of the OMB, or any other Federal official. 

1.2 Purpose and Scope 

The purpose of this document is to provide information to organizations on the security capabilities of 

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) and provide recommendations on securing 

WiMAX technologies effectively to organizations employing them. WiMAX is a wireless metropolitan 

area network (WMAN) standard used for a variety of purposes, including, but not limited to, fixed lastmile broadband access, long-range wireless backhaul, and access layer technology for mobile wireless 

subscribers operating on telecommunications networks. 

1.3 Audience 

This document discusses WiMAX technologies and security capabilities in technical detail. It assumes 

that the readers have at least some operating system, wireless networking, and security knowledge. 

Because of the constantly changing nature of the wireless security industry and the threats to and 

vulnerabilities of the technologies, readers are strongly encouraged to take advantage of other resources 

(including those listed in this document) for more current and detailed information. 

The following list highlights people with differing roles and responsibilities that might use this document: 

 Government managers (e.g., chief information officers and senior managers) who oversee the use and 

security of WiMAX technologies within their organizations 

 Systems engineers and architects who design and implement WiMAX technologies 

 Auditors, security consultants, and others who perform security assessments of wireless environments 

 Researchers and analysts who want to understand the underlying wireless technologies. 

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1.4 Document Structure 

The remainder of this document is composed of the following sections and appendices: 

 Section 2 reviews the technology components comprising the various WiMAX operating 

environments, the evolution of the IEEE 802.16 standard, and the WiMAX Forum product 

certifications. 

 Section 3 provides an overview of the security mechanisms included in the IEEE 802.16-2004, 

802.16e-2005, 802.16-2009, and 802.16-2009j specifications and highlights their limitations. 

 Section 4 examines common vulnerabilities and threats involving WiMAX technologies and makes 

recommendations for countermeasures to improve WiMAX security. 

 Appendix A provides a glossary of key terms used in this document. 

 Appendix B consists of a list of acronyms and abbreviations used in this document. 

 Appendix C provides a list of references for this document. 

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2. Overview of WiMAX Technology 

A wireless metropolitan area network (WMAN) is a form of wireless networking that has an intended 

coverage area—a range—of approximately the size of a city. A WMAN spans a larger area than a 

wireless local area network (WLAN) but smaller than a wireless wide area network (WWAN). A WMAN 

is typically owned by a single entity such as an Internet service provider (ISP), government entity, or 

large corporation. Access to a WMAN is usually restricted to authorized users or subscriber devices. 

WiMAX, the most widely used form of WMAN, is an IEEE 802.16 standard. The industry trade group 

WiMAX Forum3

 trademarked the WiMAX name and promotes the interoperability of products based on 

the IEEE 802.16 standard. Early iterations of the IEEE 802.16 standard (IEEE 802.16-2004 and earlier) 

were designed to provide fixed last-mile broadband wireless access. The IEEE 802.16e-2005 amendment 

added support for enhanced user mobility. The latest standard, IEEE 802.16-2009, consolidates IEEE 

802.16-2004 and IEEE 802.16e-2005 in addition to IEEE 802.16 amendments approved between 2004 

and 2008. IEEE also released IEEE 802.16j-2009 to provide a framework for WiMAX multi-hop relay 

(also known as mesh) networking. This section explains the fundamental concepts of WiMAX, including 

its topologies, and discusses the evolution of the IEEE 802.16 standard. 

2.1 Fundamental WiMAX Concepts 

WiMAX has four fundamental architectural components: 

 Base Station (BS). The BS is the node that logically connects wireless subscriber devices to operator 

networks. The BS maintains communications with subscriber devices and governs access to the 

operator networks. A BS consists of the infrastructure elements necessary to enable wireless 

communications, i.e., antennas, transceivers, and other electromagnetic wave transmitting equipment. 

BSs are typically fixed nodes, but they may also be used as part of mobile solutions—for example, a 

BS may be affixed to a vehicle to provide communications for nearby WiMAX devices. A BS also 

serves as a Master Relay-Base Station in the multi-hop relay topology (described in Section 2.2). 

 Subscriber Station (SS). The SS is a fixed wireless node. An SS typically communicates only with 

BSs, except for multi-hop relay network operations (described in Section 2.2). SSs are available in 

both outdoor and indoor models. 

 Mobile Subscriber (MS). Defined in IEEE 802.16e-2005, MSs are wireless nodes that work at 

vehicular speeds and support enhanced power management modes of operation. MS devices are 

typically small and self-powered, e.g., laptops, cellular phones, and other portable electronic devices. 

 Relay Station (RS). Defined in IEEE 802.16j-2009, RSs are SSs configured to forward traffic to 

other RSs, SSs, or MSs in a multi-hop Security Zone. (Multi-hop relay security is discussed in 

Section 3.5.) 

WiMAX devices communicate using two message types: management messages and data messages. Data 

messages transport data across the WiMAX network. Management messages are used to maintain 

communications between an SS/MS and BS, i.e., establishing communication parameters, exchanging 

security settings, and performing system registration events (initial network entry, handoffs, etc.) 

IEEE 802.16 defines frequency bands for WiMAX operations based on signal propagation type. In one 

type, WiMAX employs a radio frequency (RF) beam to propagate signals between nodes. Propagation 

over this beam is highly sensitive to RF obstacles, so an unobstructed view between nodes is needed. This 

 

3

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type of signal propagation, called line-of-sight (LOS), is limited to fixed operations and uses the 10–66 

gigahertz (GHz) frequency range. The other type of signal propagation is called non-line-of-sight (NLOS). 

NLOS employs advanced RF modulation techniques to compensate for RF signal changes caused by 

obstacles that would prevent LOS communications. NLOS can be used for both fixed WiMAX operations 

(in the 2–11 GHz range) and mobile operations (in the 2–6 GHz range). NLOS signal propagation is more 

commonly employed than LOS because of obstacles that interfere with LOS communications and because 

of strict regulations for frequency licensing and antenna deployment in many environments that hinder the 

feasibility of using LOS. 

2.2 Operating Topologies 

There are four primary WiMAX topologies: point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, multi-hop relay (i.e., 

mesh networking), and mobile. Each of these is briefly described below. 

2.2.1 Point-to-Point (P2P) 

A point-to-point (P2P) topology consists of a dedicated long-range, high-capacity wireless link between 

two sites. Typically, the main or central site hosts the BS, and the remote site hosts the SS, as seen in 

Figure 2-1. The BS controls the communications and security parameters for establishing the link with the 

SS. The P2P topology is used for high-bandwidth wireless backhaul4

 services at a maximum operating 

range of approximately 48 km (30 miles) using LOS or NLOS signal propagation. 

Figure 2-1. P2P Topology 

 

4

 A backhaul is typically a high capacity line from a remote site or network to a central site or network. 

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2.2.2 Point-to-Multipoint (PMP) 

A point-to-multipoint (PMP) topology is composed of a central BS supporting multiple SSs, providing 

network access from one location to many. It is commonly used for last-mile broadband access,5

 private 

enterprise connectivity to remote offices, and long-range wireless backhaul services for multiple sites. 

PMP networks can operate using LOS or NLOS signal propagation. Each PMP BS has a typical operating 

range of 8 km (5 miles). Figure 2-2 illustrates the PMP topology.

Figure 2-2. PMP Topology 

2.2.3 Multi-Hop Relay 

A multi-hop relay topology6 is defined by IEEE 802.16j-2009 to extend a BS’s coverage area by 

permitting SSs/MSs to relay traffic by acting as RSs. Data destined to an SS/MS outside of the BS’s 

range is relayed through adjacent RSs. An RS can only forward traffic to RSs/SSs within its Security 

Zone. A Security Zone is a set of trusted relationships between a BS and a group of RSs. Data originating 

outside of a BS’s coverage area is routed over multiple RSs, increasing the network’s total geographical 

coverage area, as seen in Figure 2-3. Multi-hop relay topology typically uses NLOS signal propagation 

because its purpose is to span large geographic areas containing multiple RF obstacles; however, 

technically it can operate using LOS propagation as well. The maximum operating range for each node in 

a multi-hop relay topology is approximately 8 km (5 miles). 

 

5

 Last-mile broadband access refers to communications technology that bridges the transmission distance between the 

broadband service provider infrastructure and the customer premises equipment. 6

 Although IEEE 802.16j-2009 refers to this topology as “multi-hop relay,” it has traditionally been referred to as “mesh 

networking” in similar communication architectures. 

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Figure 2-3. Multi-Hop Topology 

2.2.4 Mobile 

A mobile topology is similar to a cellular network because multiple BSs collaborate to provide seamless 

communications over a distributed network to both SSs and MSs. This topology combines the coverage 

area of each member BS and includes measures to facilitate handoffs of MSs between BS coverage areas, 

as seen by the car MS in Figure 2-4. It uses advanced RF signaling technology to support the increased 

RF complexity required for mobile operations. Each BS coverage area is approximately 8 km (5 miles). 

Mobile WiMAX operates using NLOS signal propagation on frequencies ranging between 2 and 6 GHz. 

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Figure 2-4. Mobile Topology 

2.3 Evolution of the IEEE 802.16 Standard 

In 1999, the 802.16 Working Group on Broadband Wireless Access Standards was established to develop 

standards and recommended practices to support the development and deployment of broadband WMAN. 

The following summarizes the standards and amendments that the working group has produced. 

When the IEEE 802.16-2001 standard, which targeted last-mile broadband wireless access, was first 

released in April 2001, the WiMAX Forum formed to promote the compatibility and interoperability of 

IEEE 802.16 technologies. In December 2001, the IEEE 802.16-2001 standard was ratified. It operated in 

the 10–66 GHz frequency range and provided LOS fixed P2P and PMP communications at maximum 

data rates of approximately 70 megabits per second (Mbps). Implementation of the IEEE 802.16-2001 

standard was limited because of its LOS requirement and lack of unlicensed spectrum. Because of the 

shortcomings of IEEE 802.16-2001, three amendments, 802.16a, b, and c, were released during 2004. 

These amendments improved interoperability, quality of service (QoS), and data performance. They also 

provided the ability to propagate signals from one active device to another (i.e., mesh networking) and to 

have NLOS communications. An IEEE 802.16d amendment was also under development to improve 

interoperability, but it was later transitioned from a single amendment to a revision project that 

aggregated IEEE 802.16-2001 and its amendments under a single standard: IEEE 802.16-2004. Versions 

of IEEE 802.16 prior to IEEE 802.16-2004 are no longer supported by vendors and are not discussed 

further in this publication. 

IEEE 802.16-2004 combines all of the improved functionality of the IEEE 802.16-2001 amendments with 

new interoperability specifications. The standard supports communications in the 2–66 GHz frequency 

range, with 10–66 GHz for LOS and 2–11 GHz for NLOS. Each frequency range employs different 

modulation techniques to accommodate LOS and NLOS communications requirements. Additionally, 

IEEE 802.16-2004 can operate in P2P, PMP, and mesh topologies. 

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The IEEE 802.16e-2005 amendment to the IEEE 802.16-2004 standard provides enhancements to fixed 

wireless operations and enables a cellular-like architecture. Specifically, IEEE 802.16e-2005 provides 

mobility support for SSs and implements enhanced signaling techniques that enable new service offerings 

such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), presence, and multimedia broadcast. These enhancements to 

the previous standard’s QoS make it resilient against communications latency and jitter.7

 Additionally, 

IEEE 802.16e-2005 limits the frequency range to 6 GHz or below for mobile operations. IEEE 802.16e2005 also introduces new security measures; these are described in detail in Section 3. 

Providing support in IEEE 802.16e-2005 for mobile devices necessitated a significant departure from the 

process IEEE 802.16-2004 BSs use to manage SSs. IEEE 802.16e-2005 introduces dynamic roaming and 

other new methods to manage the communication handoffs between SSs and BSs, i.e., switching an SS 

transmission from one BS coverage area into a new BS coverage area as the mobile SS moves. The 

communications architecture is also modified to facilitate better power management and efficient modes 

of operation to address the power constraints of MSs. 

In May 2009, IEEE consolidated 802.16-2004, 802.16e-2005, 802.16f-2005, and 802.16g-2007 into the 

latest IEEE 802.16-2009 standard. IEEE 802.16-2009 technically made the consolidated standards and 

amendments obsolete; however, as of this writing, many production WiMAX networks are still based on 

IEEE 802.16-2004 or IEEE 802.16e-2005. In June 2009, IEEE released the IEEE 802.16j-2009 

amendment specifying multi-hop relay as a replacement for IEEE 802.16-2004 mesh. This amendment 

provides a more developed and thorough security and communications architecture for mesh networking 

than was previously defined in IEEE 802.16-2004.8

In addition to the standards and amendments already discussed, Table 2-1 lists other relevant standards 

and amendments to the IEEE 802.16 family of standards. 

Table 2-1. Additional IEEE 802.16 Standards and Amendments 

Name Standard or 

Amendment Status9 Purpose 

802.16h Amendment Draft: Released 6/2008 Develops methods to improve WiMAX coexistence over 

license-exempt spectrum. 

802.16k2007 Standard Active: Released 

8/2007 

Defines procedures to support bridge functionality in IEEE 

802.16-2004. 

802.16m Standard Draft: Released 9/2008 

Enhances the IEEE 802.16 air interface to support speeds 

up to 1 gigabit/second (Gbps) for fixed operations and 100 

Mbps for mobile operations. 

Generally, standards bodies provide a framework for product development but cannot ensure vendor 

interoperability. Product certifications serve to encourage market adoption of standards-based technology 

and to validate vendor operability claims. Established in 2001, the WiMAX Forum is a non-profit 

industry trade group that encourages the adoption of WiMAX technology. A major effort of the WiMAX 

Forum is designing and promoting the certification of products based on the family of IEEE 802.16 

standards. The WiMAX Forum developed the WiMAX Forum Certification to ensure that products are 

compatible, interoperable, and conform to industry standards, guaranteeing that different vendors’ 

products can interoperate in the same WiMAX network. This results in greater competition in the 

 

7

 Jitter, as it relates to queuing, is the difference in latency of packets. 

8

 The lack of a robust mesh networking security and communications architecture in IEEE 802.16-2004 resulted in low 

market adoption of IEEE 802.16-2004 based mesh networking. 9

 Active indicates that the standard or amendment has been approved by the IEEE standards board, Draft indicates that it is 

awaiting tentative approval in Sponsor Ballot, and Pre-Draft indicates that it is still in development. 

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marketplace, greater flexibility in deployment, larger target markets, and lower production costs.10 The 

WiMAX Forum warns that “vendors claiming their equipment is ‘WiMAX-like’, ‘WiMAX-compliant’, 

etc. are not WiMAX Forum Certified, which means that their equipment may not be interoperable with 

other vendors’ equipment.”11

 

10 The WiMAX Forum Certified Product Registry can be found at http://www.wimaxforum.org/productshowcase. 11 WiMAX Forum, “Certification Program,” http://www.wimaxforum.org/certification/program

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3. WiMAX Security Features 

This section discusses the security mechanisms included in IEEE 802.16-2004, IEEE 802.16e-2005, IEEE 

802.16-2009, and IEEE 802.16j-200912 to illustrate their functions and provide a foundation for the 

security recommendations in Section 5. The IEEE 802.16 standards specify two basic security services: 

authentication and confidentiality. Authentication involves the process of verifying the identity claimed 

by a WiMAX device. IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 share the same authentication and 

confidentiality mechanisms. They both support user authentication in addition to device authentication. 

Confidentiality involves preventing the disclosure of information by ensuring that only authorized devices 

can view the contents of WiMAX data messages. The IEEE 802.16 standards do not provide any 

capability to encrypt management messages.13 

The IEEE 802.16 standards do not address other security services such as availability and confidentiality 

protection for management messages; if such services are needed, they must be provided through 

additional means. Also, IEEE 802.16 security protects communications over the WMAN link between an 

SS/MS and a BS, but not communications on the wired operator network behind the BS. End-to-end 

security is not possible without applying additional security controls not specified by the IEEE standards. 

WiMAX systems provide secure communications by performing three steps: authentication, key 

establishment, and data encryption. Figure 3-1 is a high-level overview of the security framework. The 

authentication procedure provides common keying material for the SS/MS and the BS and facilitates the 

secure exchange of data encryption keys that ensure the confidentiality of WiMAX data communications. 

The remainder of this section explains the basics of the WiMAX security framework, authentication, key 

establishment, and data encryption. 

 

12 IEEE 802.16j-2009 contains all of the security capabilities of IEEE 802.16-2009, and also includes security features for 

multi-hop relay networking. All discussions of IEEE 802.16-2009 security in this publication are also applicable to IEEE 

802.16j-2009. 13 Management messages are typically not encrypted in wireless communications because adding encryption could negatively 

affect network operations. A common example of a management message is a ranging request used to determine network 

delay at initial network entry and periodically during operations. Because this message is time sensitive and several bytes 

long, encrypting it would diminish network availability. 

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Figure 3-1. WiMAX Security Framework 

3.1 Security Associations 

A security association (SA) is a shared set of security parameters that a BS and its SS/MS use to facilitate 

secure communications. Similar in concept to Internet Protocol Security (IPsec),14 an SA defines the 

security parameters of a connection, i.e., encryption keys and algorithms. SAs fall into one of three 

categories: authorization, data (for unicast15 services), and group (for multicast16 services). A distinct SA 

is established for each service offered by the BS. For example, a unicast service would have a unique data 

encryption SA, whereas a multicast service would have a unique group SA. 

Authorization SAs facilitate authentication and key establishment to configure data and group SAs. 

Authorization SAs contain the following attributes: 

 X.509 certificates. X.509 digital certificates allow WiMAX communication components to validate 

one another. The manufacturer’s certificate is used for informational purposes, and the BS and SS/MS 

certificates contain the respective devices’ public keys. The certificates are signed by the device 

manufacturer or by a third-party certification authority. 

 Authorization key (AK). AKs are exchanged between the BS and SS/MS to authenticate one another 

prior to the traffic encryption key (TEK) exchange. The authorization SA includes an identifier and a 

key lifetime value for each AK. 

 

14 IPsec is a network layer security protocol that provides authentication and encryption over the Internet. 15 Unicast traffic is a single data transmission sent to a single recipient over the same network. 16 Multicast traffic is a single data transmission sent to multiple recipients over the same network. 

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 Key encryption key (KEK). Derived from the AK, the KEK is used to encrypt TEKs during the 

TEK exchange, as discussed later in Section 3.3. 

 Message authentication keys. Derived from the AK, the message authentication keys validate the 

authenticity of key distribution messages during key establishment. These keys are also used to sign 

management messages to validate message authenticity. 

 Authorized data SA list. Provided to the SS/MS by the BS, the authorized data SA list indicates 

which data encryption SAs the SS/MS is authorized to access. 

Data SAs establish the parameters used to protect unicast data messages between BSs and SSs/MSs. Data 

SAs cannot be applied to management messages, which are never encrypted. A data SA contains the 

following security attributes: 

 SA identifier (SAID). This unique 16-bit value identifies the SA to distinguish it from other SAs. 

 Encryption cipher to be employed. The connection will use this encryption cipher definition to 

provide wireless link confidentiality. 

 Traffic encryption key (TEK). TEKs are randomly generated by the BS and are used to encrypt 

WiMAX data messages. Two TEKs are issued to prevent communications disruption during TEK 

rekeying; the first TEK is used for active communications, while the second TEK remains dormant.17 

 Data encryption SA type indicator. This indicator identifies the type of data SA. There are three 

types: 

– Primary SA. This SA is established as a unique connection for each SS/MS upon initialization 

with the BS. There is only one primary SA per SS/MS. 

– Static SA. This SA secures the data messages and is generated for each service defined by the BS. 

– Dynamic SA. This SA is created and eliminated in response to the initiation and termination of 

specific service flows. 

Group SAs contain the keying material used to secure multicast traffic. Group SAs are inherently less 

secure than data SAs because identical keying material is shared among all members of a BS’s group. 

Group SAs contains the following attributes: 

 Group traffic encryption key (GTEK). This key is randomly generated by the BS and used to 

encrypt multicast traffic between a BS and SSs/MSs. 

 Group key encryption key (GKEK). This key is also randomly generated by the BS and used to 

encrypt the GTEK sent in multicast messages between a BS and SSs/MSs. 

3.2 Authentication and Authorization 

Networking technologies traditionally refer to authorization as the process that determines the level of 

access a node receives after the subject is identified and authenticated. The IEEE 802.16 standard 

generally refers to authorization as the process of authenticating WiMAX nodes and granting them access 

to the network. This slight distinction made by IEEE 802.16 is that authorization processes implicitly 

include authentication. The PKM protocol is the set of rules responsible for authentication and 

 

17 Per the IEEE 802.16-2004 standard, “Each TEK becomes active halfway through the lifetime of its predecessor and expires 

halfway through the lifetime of its successor” [IEE04]. This cyclical process ensures that keying material is continually 

refreshed. 

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authorization to facilitate secure key distribution in WiMAX. PKM uses authorization SAs to authenticate 

system entities so that data and group encryption SAs can be established. PKM’s authentication 

enforcement function provides the SS/MS and BS with identical AKs; each AK is then used to derive the 

message authentication keys and KEKs that facilitate the secure exchange of the TEKs. IEEE 802.16-

2004 derives the AK using PKM version 1 (PKMv1), whereas IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-

2009 derive the AK using PKMv2. This section reviews the procedures used in both PKMv1 and PKMv2. 

3.2.1 IEEE 802.16-2004 Authentication and Authorization 

In PKMv1 [IEE04], the BS authenticates the identity of the SS, providing one-way authentication. Figure 

3-2 illustrates the challenge-response verification scheme used in PKMv1-based authentication. The 

authorization process is initiated when the SS sends an authorization information message to the BS. This 

message contains the X.509 certificate of the SS manufacturer and is used by the BS for informational 

purposes. Immediately following the authorization information message, the SS sends an authorization 

request to the BS, which contains the following information: 

 The SS’s unique X.509 certificate, which includes its RSA public key 

 A description of the SS’s supported cryptographic algorithms 

 The primary SAID. 

Next, the BS validates the SS’s X.509 certificate, communicates the supported cryptographic algorithms 

and protocols, and activates an AK for the SS. Then the BS sends the SS an authorization reply message 

containing the following information: 

 The activated AK, encrypted with the SS’s public key 

 The AK sequence number used to differentiate between successive generations of AKs 

 The AK lifetime 

 A list of SAIDs that the SS is authorized to access and their associated properties. 

The AK is periodically reauthorized based on its lifetime. The reauthorization process is identical to the 

initial authorization process with the exception that the authorization information message is not re-sent. 

Reauthorization does not cause a service interruption because two AKs with overlapping lifetimes are 

supported simultaneously. 

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Figure 3-2. PKMv1 Authorization 

3.2.2 IEEE 802.16e-2005 and 802.16-2009 Authentication and Authorization 

IEEE 802.16e-2005 introduced PKMv2, which requires mutual authentication between the BS and the 

SS/MS. PKMv2 starts with what is known as RSA device mutual authentication. Figure 3-3 illustrates its 

challenge-response verification scheme. It facilitates the exchange of a pre-Primary AK (pre-PAK) to 

ultimately derive a common AK.18 The exchange begins with the SS/MS sending an authorization 

information message containing the manufacturer X.509 certificate to the BS. Similar to the PKMv1 

procedure, the message is strictly for informational purposes. Although the authorization information 

message can be ignored by the BS, it can provide a mechanism for the BS to learn the manufacturer 

certificates of its client’s SS/MS. 

The authorization information message is followed by an authorization request message sent from the 

SS/MS to the BS. It contains the following information: 

 A 64-bit random number generated by the SS/MS 

 The SS/MS’s manufacturer-issued unique X.509 certificate 

 A description of the SS/MS’s supported cryptographic algorithms 

 The primary SAID 

 

18 All key derivations in PKMv2 are based on the Dot16KDF algorithm. Dot16KDF is a counter mode encryption (CTR) 

construction used to derive an arbitrary amount of keying material from source keying material. 

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Upon receipt of the authorization request message, the BS verifies the SS/MS X.509 certificate. If the 

certificate is valid, the BS sends an authorization reply message to the SS/MS containing the following: 

 The 64-bit SS/MS generated random number sent in the authorization request message and another 

64-bit random number generated by the BS19

 The 256-bit pre-PAK encrypted using the SS/MS’s public key 

 The Pre-PAK sequence number used to differentiate between successive generations of pre-PAKs 

 The Pre-PAK lifetime 

 A list of SAIDs that the SS/MS is authorized to access and their associated properties 

 The BS’s manufacturer-issued X.509 certificate 

 The BS’s signature provided by the BS’s private key. 

The SS/MS verifies the BS’s X.509 certificate. If the certificate is valid, the BS and SS/MS proceed to the 

next authentication procedure to derive the AK. 

Figure 3-3. PKMv2 RSA Device Mutual Authorization 

After RSA device mutual authentication occurs, there are two options to derive the AK and complete 

authentication. One is called RSA-only authentication, and the other is known as EAP after RSA device 

mutual authorization. 

 

19 The random numbers are used to ensure that the messages are not stale, which mitigates replay attacks. 

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In RSA-only authentication, both the BS and SS/MS symmetrically perform identical procedures on the 

pre-PAK to eventually derive the AK, as shown in Figure 3-4. The first procedure derives the 160-bit 

PAK from the pre-PAK, SS/MS media access control (MAC) address, and BS identifier. Next, the AK is 

derived from the PAK, the SS/MS MAC address, and the BS identifier. 

Figure 3-4. PKMv2 RSA-Only AK Derivation 

Figure 3-5 depicts the EAP after the RSA device mutual authorization procedure. The pre-PAK is 

delivered to the SS/MS and then used to derive the EAP integrity key (EIK) to secure the first EAP 

exchange. The first EAP exchange results in the production of a 512-bit master session key (MSK) that is 

disclosed to the authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) server, the BS, and the SS/MS. The 

BS and SS/MS truncate the MSK to 320 bits—160 bits for the pairwise master key (PMK) and 160 bits to 

create another EIK to protect an optional EAP user authentication procedure. The PMK, the SS/MS MAC 

address, and the BS identifier are then used to derive the AK. When using EAP after RSA device mutual 

authorization, device mutual authentication only takes place during initial network entry. For network 

reentry or reauthentication, only EAP authentication is required. 

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Figure 3-5. EAP after RSA Device Mutual Authorization 

As shown in Figure 3-5, IEEE 802.16e-2005 also defined an optional EAP method, double EAP, which 

allows both user and device authentication to occur in the same authentication session. IEEE 802.16e2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 permit additional EAP methods for the optional user authentication 

procedure as outlined in Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC 4017 section 2.2.20

3.3 Encryption Key Establishment 

Once authentication is complete, the BS and SS/MS share an activated AK. PKM then uses the 160-bit 

AK to derive the 128-bit KEK and the 160-bit message authentication keys, which are used to facilitate a 

secure exchange of TEKs.21 The secure TEK exchange uses a three-way handshake between the BS and 

the SS/MS, as illustrated in Figure 3-6.

22 

 

20 http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4017.txt 21 In some cases, the message authentication keys can be derived from the EIK during the EAP exchange. 22 The depiction of the handshake in Figure 3-6 illustrates a general framework for TEK exchange defined in PKM. TEK 

exchanges will vary slightly depending on which encryption algorithm is being used. 

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Figure 3-6. TEK Three-Way Handshake 

The first step in this procedure is the TEK-Challenge sent from the BS to the SS/MS. The TEK-Challenge 

is sent during initial network entry or during reauthorization. The TEK-Challenge includes the following 

attributes: 

 BS random number. This number is attached to the TEK-Challenge to prevent replay attacks by 

validating message freshness.

 Message authentication code. These validate data authenticity of the key distribution messages sent 

from the BS to the SS/MS. 

 AK sequence number and AK identifier (AKID). These attributes identify which AK is used for 

the TEK exchange.

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Upon receipt of the TEK-Challenge, the SS/MS validates the authenticity of the TEK-Challenge using the 

message authentication keys. After the TEK-Challenge has been validated, the SS/MS then sends the 

TEK-Request to the BS, which contains the following attributes: 

 BS and SS/MS random numbers. In addition to sending back the BS random number from the 

TEK-Challenge, the SS/MS attaches its own random value. 

 Message authentication code. These validate data authenticity of the key distribution messages sent 

from the SS/MS to the BS. 

 AK sequence number and AKID. These identify which AK is used for the TEK exchange.

 Security capabilities parameters. These describe the security capabilities of the SS/MS, including 

supported cryptographic suites. During initial network entry, the TEK-Request will also include a 

request for SA descriptors to identify the primary, static, and dynamic SAs that the SS/MS is 

authorized to access. 

Upon receipt of the TEK-Request, the BS verifies that the BS random number matches the number sent in 

the TEK-Challenge and validates the message authentication keys. The BS next confirms that the AKID 

refers to an available AK and that the security capabilities parameters provided by the SS/MS are 

supported. Once the TEK-Request is validated, the BS will generate two TEKs, along with the GKEK and 

the GTEK. The BS then sends the TEK-Response to the SS/MS, which contains the following attributes: 

 BS and SS/MS random number. The BS attaches the BS random number generated in the TEKChallenge and the SS/MS random number generated in the TEK-Request. 

 Message authentication code. These validate data authenticity for the key distribution messages sent 

from the BS to the SS/MS. 

 AK sequence number and AKID. These attributes identify which AK is used for the TEK 

exchange.

 List of authorized SAIDs. This is the list of primary, static, and dynamic SAs that the SS/MS is 

authorized to access.

 TEKs, GKEK, and GTEK. Using the KEK derived from the AK, the BS encrypts the two TEKs, the 

GKEK, and the GTEK. These keys include all of the required keying material needed to facilitate 

secure communications between the BS and SS/MS.

Upon receipt of the TEK-Response, the SS/MS will ensure the BS random number matches the value 

given in the TEK-Challenge and that the SS/MS random number matches the value delivered in the TEKRequest. The SS/MS will then validate the message authentication keys. Once validation is complete, the 

SS/MS will install the appropriate TEKs, GTEK, and GKEK, and secure communications can begin. 

In the case of an MS performing a handover to a new BS, the TEK-Response message also includes TEK, 

GTEK, and GKEK parameters of the previously serving BS to reduce latency associated with renewing 

SAs. 

3.4 Data Confidentiality 

The completion of the TEK exchange provides the SS/MS and BS with the TEKs required to encrypt 

WiMAX data communications. The type of encryption employed by the TEK varies by IEEE 802.16 

standard. 

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IEEE 802.16-2004 only supports one encryption algorithm, the Data Encryption Standard (DES) in cipher 

block chaining (CBC) mode (DES-CBC). During the TEK three-way handshake, the BS sends the SS an 

SA-specific initialization vector (IV) as part of the TEK-Response. The DES-CBC algorithm uses this 

SA-specific IV in conjunction with the TEK to encrypt data traffic. DES-CBC has significant weaknesses 

and should not be used to provide confidentiality for communications.23 

IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 support DES-CBC and three AES24 modes of operation for 

data encryption: CBC, counter (CTR), and CTR with CBC message authentication code (CCM). Any of 

the three specified AES modes is acceptable for protecting data message confidentiality.25 CTR mode is 

considered stronger than CBC because CTR mode is less complex to implement, offers encryption block 

preprocessing, and can process data in parallel. CCM mode enhances CTR by adding the capability to 

verify the authenticity of encrypted messages. CCM is considered the most secure of the cryptographic 

suites defined in IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 because it adds a per packet randomization 

integrity check that prevents replay attacks.26 Because of this, whenever feasible the CCM mode should 

be used instead of CTR or CBC. 

CCM was specifically designed to have the following characteristics [Fra07]: 

 A single cryptographic key for confidentiality and integrity to minimize complexity and maximize 

performance (minimize key scheduling time) 

 Integrity protection of the packet header and packet payload, in addition to providing confidentiality 

of the payload 

 Computation of some cryptographic parameters prior to the receipt of packets to enable fast 

comparisons when they arrive, which reduces latency 

 Small footprint (hardware or software implementation size) to minimize costs 

 Small security-related packet overhead (e.g., minimal data expansion due to cryptographic padding 

and integrity field). 

Additional information on data encryption, particularly Federal agency-specific requirements, is presented 

in Section 4.3.3. 

3.5 IEEE 802.16j-2009 Multi-Hop Relay Security Architecture 

The confidentiality and authentication security mechanisms used in IEEE 802.16j-2009 are identical to 

those in IEEE 802.16-2009. An additional security mechanism is required to operate a WiMAX network 

in a multi-hop relay—the establishment of a Security Zone (SZ). SZs are the set of trusted relationships 

between a BS (acting as the master relay), RSs, and SSs/MSs. RSs and SSs/MSs become members of a 

BS’s SZ by authenticating using PKMv2. Upon authenticating, the BS delivers SZ key material used to 

provide integrity protection to management messages in the SZ. 

Multi-hop relay can operate in two security control architectures, centralized and distributed. In a 

centralized security architecture, RSs forward data and management messages destined for the next hop in 

 

23 Additionally, DES-CBC is not approved for Federal agency use in protecting the confidentiality of communications. 24 AES is defined by FIPS PUB 197 (http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips197/fips-197.pdf). 25 NIST SP 800-38A, Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation, recommends the use of five confidentiality 

modes of operation for symmetric key block cipher algorithms. The modes may be used in conjunction with any symmetric 

key block cipher algorithm that is approved by a FIPS. The five modes—the Electronic Codebook (ECB), CBC, Cipher 

Feedback (CFB), Output Feedback (OFB), and CTR modes—can provide data confidentiality. 26 CCM is defined by RFC 3610, Counter with CBC-MAC (CCM), available at http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3610.txt. 

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the network without performing any decryption or authentication of management messages. Thus, every 

SA is established between each node and the BS with RSs strictly relaying traffic. 

In a distributed security architecture, the RS initially relays authentication messages to the destination 

SS/MS or subordinate RS. Upon establishing the MSK between the BS and the destination SS/MS or 

subordinate RS, the BS will forward the relevant AK to the access RS. This allows the access RS to 

derive all of the necessary keys and to establish separate SAs with the destination SS/MS or subordinate 

RS, as seen in Figure 3-7. The access RS has now created a secure tunnel between the BS and destination 

SS/MS or subordinate RS. IEEE 802.16j-2009 allows for a distributed security architecture to provide 

security scalability and deployment flexibility for differing operator requirements. Therefore, a distributed 

model accommodates a more scalable architecture by decreasing RF noise because BS communications 

are limited to adjacent RSs in its SZ. The security risk associated with a distributed model that shares 

keying information across multiple nodes is negligible because all SAs are established using PKMv2. 

Figure 3-7. Multi-Hop Distributed Security Architecture 

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4. WiMAX Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Countermeasures 

This section describes vulnerabilities in the IEEE 802.16 specifications, threats to WiMAX systems, and 

countermeasures to mitigate those threats. WiMAX systems are susceptible to WiMAX-specific threats as 

well as threats common to all wireless technologies. Organizations should mitigate WiMAX threats and 

vulnerabilities by implementing a combination of management, operational, and technical 

countermeasures.27

4.1 Vulnerabilities 

This section discusses vulnerabilities specific to IEEE 802.16-2004, IEEE 802.16e-2005, and IEEE 

802.16-2009. (All discussion related to IEEE 802.16-2009 also applies to IEEE 802.16j-2009.) IEEE 

802.16-2004 has more innate vulnerabilities than IEEE 802.16e-2005 or IEEE 802.16-2009. The security 

mechanisms available in IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 address some, but not all, of IEEE 

802.16-2004’s shortcomings. The following discusses several major vulnerabilities: 

 Lack of mutual authentication. PKMv1 defines authentication of SSs by BSs but provides no 

means to authenticate BSs by SSs. Lack of mutual authentication may allow a rogue BS to 

impersonate a legitimate BS, thereby rendering the SS unable to verify the authenticity of protocol 

messages received from the BS. This may enable a rogue BS operator to degrade performance or steal 

valuable information by conducting denial of service (DoS) or forgery attacks against client SSs. This 

vulnerability is mitigated in IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 by the use of mutual 

authentication. 

 Weak encryption algorithms. For encrypting communications, IEEE 802.16-2004 only supports the 

use of DES-CBC, which has well-documented weaknesses and is no longer approved for Federal 

agency use in protecting communications. IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 support DESCBC, but they also support multiple modes of AES that are approved for Federal use. 

 Interjection of reused TEKs. IEEE 802.16-2004 TEKs employ a 2-bit encryption sequence 

identifier to determine which TEK is actively used to secure communications. A 2-bit identifier 

permits only four possible identifier values, rendering the system vulnerable to replay attacks. The 

interjection of reused TEKs may lead to the disclosure of data and the TEK to unauthorized parties 

[Joh04]. This concern is resolved in IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 with the introduction 

of AES-CCM, which provides per packet randomization by adding a unique packet number to each 

data packet to protect the integrity of data and portions of the packet header.

 Unencrypted management messages. Management messages are not encrypted and are susceptible 

to eavesdropping attacks. Encryption is not applied to these messages to increase the efficiency of 

network operations. IEEE 802.16-2004 does not provide any data authenticity protection for 

management messages. IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 provide integrity protection for 

certain unicast management messages by appending a unique digest to protect against malicious 

replay or modification attacks. This digest is not added to IEEE 802.16 multicast and initial network 

entry management messages. Digest integrity protection cannot be applied to management messages 

sent to multiple recipients (i.e., multicast transmissions), and initial network entry management 

messages cannot leverage integrity protection because nodes must first be authenticated to create the 

unique digest. An adversary may manipulate management messages to disrupt network 

 

27 These controls are typically documented in a System Security Plan. For more information, see NIST SP 800-18 revision 1, 

Guide for Developing Security Plans for Federal Information Systems at http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-18-

Rev1/sp800-18-Rev1-final.pdf. 

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communications, for example, by DoS attacks aimed at the WiMAX system, at specific network 

nodes, or both. 

 Use of wireless technology as a communications medium. Using RF to communicate inherently 

enables execution of a DoS attack by introducing a powerful RF source intended to overwhelm 

system radio spectrum. This vulnerability is associated with all wireless technologies. The only 

defense is to locate and remove the source of RF interference. This can be challenging because of the 

large coverage areas of WMANs. It is recommended that organizations plan for an out-of-band 

method of communications in the event of a DoS attack.

4.2 Threats 

WiMAX network threats focus on compromising the radio links between WiMAX nodes. LOS WiMAX 

systems pose a greater challenge to attack compared with NLOS systems because an adversary would 

have to physically locate equipment between the transmitting nodes to compromise the confidentiality or 

integrity of the wireless link. NLOS systems provide wireless coverage over large geographic regions, 

which expands the potential staging areas for both clients and adversaries. The following threats affect all 

WiMAX systems: 

 RF jamming. All wireless technologies are susceptible to RF jamming attacks. The threat arises from 

an adversary introducing a powerful RF signal to overwhelm the spectrum being used by the system, 

thus denying service to all wireless nodes within range of the interference. RF jamming is classified 

as a DoS attack. The risk associated with this threat is identical for IEEE 802.16-2004, IEEE 802.16e2005, and IEEE 802.16-2009 WiMAX systems. 

 Scrambling. Scrambling attacks are the precise injections of RF interference during the transmission 

of specific management messages. These attacks prevent proper network ranging and bandwidth 

allocations with the intent to degrade overall system performance [Nas08]. Scrambling attacks are 

more difficult to identify than jamming attacks because they are engaged for short time periods and 

are not a constant source of interference. The risk associated with this threat is identical for IEEE 

802.16-2004, IEEE 802.16e-2005, and IEEE 802.16-2009. 

 Subtle management message manipulation. Exploitation of unencrypted management messages 

can result in subtle DoS, replay, or misappropriation28 attacks that are difficult to detect. These 

attacks spoof management messages to make them appear as though they come from a legitimate BS 

or SS/MS allowing them to deny service to various nodes in the WiMAX system. A water torture

attack is an example of a subtle DoS in which an adversary drains a client node’s battery by sending a 

constant series of management messages to the SS/MS [Joh04]. IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 

802.16-2009 provide integrity protection for certain unicast management messages following initial 

network registration with an appended integrity protection digest. All other IEEE 802.16e-2005 and 

IEEE 802.16-2009 management messages, and all IEEE 802.16-2004 management messages, are 

susceptible to attacks involving manipulation.

 Man-in-the-middle. Man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks occur when an adversary deceives an 

SS/MS to appear as a legitimate BS while simultaneously deceiving a BS to appear as a legitimate 

SS/MS. This may allow an adversary to act as a pass-through for all communications and to inject 

malicious traffic into the communications stream. An adversary can perform an MITM attack by 

exploiting unprotected management messages during the initial network entry process. This is 

because the management messages that negotiate an SS’s/MS’s security capabilities are not protected. 

If an adversary is able to impersonate a legitimate party to both the SS/MS and BS, an adversary 

 

28 Misappropriation occurs when an attacker steals or makes unauthorized use of a service. 

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could send malicious management messages and negotiate weaker security protection between the 

SS/MS and BS [Han06]. This weaker security protection may allow an adversary to eavesdrop and 

corrupt data communications. Mandating the use of AES-CCM in IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 

802.16-2009 helps mitigate this attack because it appends a unique value to each data packet, which, 

in turn, prevents the MITM traffic relays between BS and SS/MS. IEEE 802.16-2004 does not offer 

adequate protection against MITM attacks.

 Eavesdropping. Eavesdropping occurs when an adversary uses a WiMAX traffic analyzer within the 

range of a BS and/or SS/MS. The adversary may monitor management message traffic to identify 

encryption ciphers, determine the footprint of the network, or conduct traffic analysis regarding 

specific WiMAX nodes. Data messages are subject to eavesdropping when encrypted using DESCBC; using AES can provide robust data message confidentiality. The large operating range of 

WiMAX helps to shield eavesdroppers from detection; eavesdropping mitigation relies heavily on 

technical controls that protect the confidentiality and integrity of communications. The risk associated 

with eavesdropping management messages is identical for IEEE 802.16-2004, IEEE 802.16e-2005, 

and IEEE 802.16-2009. The risk associated with eavesdropping data messages is high for IEEE 

802.16-2004 systems due to weak encryption. IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 systems 

using AES protect their data messages from eavesdropping. 

4.3 Countermeasures 

This section presents countermeasures that may be used to reduce or mitigate the risks inherent to 

WiMAX systems. These countermeasures do not guarantee security and cannot prevent all possible 

attacks. The optimum security design is a dynamic intersection of threat risk and the cost of 

countermeasures that will change in response to technology. Organizations should evaluate their 

acceptable level of risk to determine which countermeasures to implement. 

The WiMAX management, operational, and technical countermeasures described in the following 

sections follow an approach similar to that of NIST SP 800-48 Revision 1, Guide to Securing Legacy 

IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networks [Sca08]. IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.16 share many management and 

operational controls but strongly differ in their technical controls. WiMAX systems should leverage the 

countermeasures found in this Special Publication, in FIPS PUB 199, and in NIST SP 800-53. FIPS PUB 

199, Standards for Security Categorization of Federal Information and Information Systems establishes 

three security categories—low, moderate, and high—based on the potential impact of a security breach 

involving a particular system [NIS04]. NIST SP 800-53, Recommended Security Controls for Federal 

Information Systems and Organizations, provides recommendations for minimum management, 

operational, and technical security controls for information systems based on the FIPS PUB 199 impact 

categories [NIS09]. Regardless of a system’s sensitivity classification, WiMAX security should be 

incorporated throughout the entire lifecycle of WiMAX solutions [Kis08]. 

4.3.1 Management Countermeasures 

Management countermeasures generally address any problem related to risk, system planning, or security 

assessment by an organization’s management. Organizations should develop a wireless security policy 

that addresses WiMAX technology. A security policy is an organization’s foundation for designing, 

implementing, and maintaining properly secured technologies. WiMAX policy should address the design 

and operation of the technical infrastructure and the behavior of users. Policy considerations for WiMAX 

systems should include the following: 

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 Roles and responsibilities

- Which users or groups of users are authorized to use the WiMAX system

- Which office or officer provides the strategic oversight and planning for all WiMAX technology 

programs

- Which parties are authorized and responsible for installing and configuring WiMAX equipment

- Which individual or entity tracks the progress of WiMAX security standards, features, threats, 

and vulnerabilities to help ensure continued secure implementation of WiMAX technology

- Which individual or entity is responsible for incorporating WiMAX technology risk into the 

organization’s risk management framework29

 WiMAX infrastructure 

- Physical security requirements for WiMAX assets 

- The use of standards-based WiMAX system technologies 

- Types of information permitted over the WiMAX system, including acceptable use guidelines 

- How WiMAX transmissions should be protected, including requirements for the use of 

encryption and for cryptographic key management 

- A mitigation plan or transition plan for legacy or WiMAX systems that are not compliant with 

Federal security standards 

- Inventory of IEEE 802.16 BSs, SSs/MSs, and other devices 

 WiMAX client device security 

- Conditions under which WiMAX client devices are allowed to be used and operated 

- Standard hardware and software configurations that must be implemented on WiMAX devices to 

ensure the appropriate level of security 

- Standard operating procedures (SOP) for reporting lost or stolen WiMAX client devices 

 WiMAX security assessments30

- Frequency and scope of WiMAX security assessments 

- Standardized approach to vulnerability assessment, risk statements, risk levels, and corrective 

actions. 

 

29 For more information and guidance on organizational information system risk management, see draft NIST SP 800-39, 

Managing Risk from Information Systems: An Organizational Perspective (http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html). 30 Security assessments, or system audits, are essential tools for checking the security posture of an IEEE 802.16 WMAN and 

for determining the corrective actions to make sure such systems remain secure. It is important for organizations to perform 

regular system audits using wireless and vulnerability assessment tools. For more information on network security, see NIST 

SP 800-115, Technical Guide to Information Security Testing and Assessment 

(http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html). 

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4.3.2 Operational Countermeasures 

Operational countermeasures include controls that are executed by people, e.g., personnel security, 

physical environment protection, configuration management, security awareness and training, and 

incident response. These controls are documented in a system security plan (SSP) which should be 

maintained by all parties involved with WiMAX system operations. SSPs are living documents which 

provide an overview of the security requirements of a system and describe the controls in place to meet 

those requirements; this includes all system hardware and software, policies, roles and responsibilities, 

and other documentation materials. Documentation itself is a security control as it formalizes security and 

operational procedures to a given system. 31 

Physical security is fundamental to ensuring that only authorized personnel have access to WiMAX 

equipment. Physical security includes measures such as physical access control systems, personnel 

security and identification, and external boundary protection. For example, integrating Federal personal 

identity verification (PIV)32 into physical access controls can reduce the risk of unauthorized access to 

WiMAX systems.33 WiMAX system administrators and users should receive training to address the 

specific challenges and threats to wireless technologies. While it is difficult to prevent unauthorized users 

from attempting to access a WiMAX system because of its expansive coverage areas, the use of 

additional security mechanisms may help prevent the theft, alteration, or misuse of WiMAX infrastructure 

components. 

WiMAX operates on licensed or unlicensed RF spectrum. The most prevalent spectrum used to 

accommodate WiMAX is the 2.5 GHz licensed range; nevertheless, WiMAX solutions are also viable 

across several unlicensed spectrum ranges. Organizations should understand the implications of spectrum 

allocation as it impacts system availability. Due to the proliferation of unlicensed wireless technologies, 

interference may become an implementation obstacle when operating in unlicensed spectrum. Regardless 

of which spectrum frequency is used, organizations should use counter-interference technologies34 in 

addition to site surveys to ensure system availability. 

Prior to deployment, site surveys construct the foundation for a WiMAX system’s design to ensure 

system availability. Long distance radio transmissions must be tailored and optimized for RF obstacles 

and interference sources. Site surveys help limit range to provide an organization operational awareness 

of a system’s coverage area. Site survey tools include terrain maps, global positioning systems, RF 

propagation models, spectrum analyzers, packet analyzers, and additional tools which provide a more 

thorough understanding of the environment’s RF landscape. Conducting a WMAN site survey requires a 

highly esoteric skill set, and it is typically provided as part of the overall vendor solution. Organizations 

should, at a minimum, involve themselves in the site survey process and document its findings in the 

system security plan. 

As with all wireless technologies, operational countermeasures may not provide protection against 

general wireless threats such as DoS, eavesdropping, MITM, and message replay. Operational controls 

often require highly specialized expertise and rely upon both management and technical controls. 

 

31 For more information and guidance on system documentation controls, see NIST SP 800-18, Revision 1 Guide for 

Developing Security Plans for Federal Information Systems (http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html). 32 FIPS PUB 201 specifies the architecture and technical requirements for a common identification standard for Federal 

employees and contractors. For more information see http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips201-1/FIPS-201-1-chng1.pdf. 33 For more information and guidance on PIV integration with physical access controls, see NIST SP 800-116, A 

Recommendation for the Use of PIV Credentials in Physical Access Control Systems (PACS) 

(http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html). 34 Examples of counter-interference technologies include, but are not limited to, Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS); 

Multiple Input, Multiple Output (MIMO); and Adaptable Antenna Support (AAS). 

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4.3.3 Technical Countermeasures 

Technical countermeasures are system safeguards implemented by computer systems. Technical 

countermeasures include controls such as authentication, access control, auditing, and communication 

protection. Technical countermeasures are typically designed into WiMAX systems before 

implementation. This makes the design phase of implementation particularly important because once a 

WiMAX system is implemented, its technical countermeasures are generally static as compared to other 

wireless technologies, such as IEEE 802.11 wireless local area networks. Additionally, the technical 

countermeasures implemented by each WiMAX system vary widely between vendors. Before 

implementing a WiMAX technology, an organization should consult WiMAX vendors to gain a better 

understanding of potential system reconfiguration constraints and the need for compensating controls to 

address technical security needs that the WiMAX product does not address. 

Confidentiality and Integrity Protection 

WiMAX systems broadcast data over a large geographic area that is usually outside the organization’s 

physical control. Organizations must rely on data-in-transit encryption to provide confidentiality and 

integrity protection for its wireless links. The strength of this encryption is paramount to data security. As 

explained in Section 3.4, each IEEE 802.16 standard specifies encryption algorithms to provide data 

protection. 

Federal agencies that need to protect the confidentiality of their WiMAX data communications are 

required to use FIPS-approved cryptographic algorithms contained in FIPS-validated cryptographic 

modules to protect their data communications. This can be accomplished in one of two ways: using 

WiMAX equipment (BSs, SSs, and MSs) that is FIPS-certified and operating in FIPS mode,35 or 

encrypting the data through a separate encryption technology, such as a VPN, that is FIPS-certified. 

Organizations using IEEE 802.16e-2005 or IEEE 802.16-2009 WiMAX technology should implement 

FIPS-validated AES encryption to protect OSI Data Link Layer radio data communications. 

Organizations using WiMAX solutions that do not provide FIPS-validated encryption (e.g., IEEE 802.16-

2004 technologies, IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 technologies that are not FIPS-validated) 

should implement FIPS-validated encryption overlay solutions to protect OSI Data Link or Network 

Layer data communications. 36 Data Link encryption overlay solutions provide encryption for all data 

traffic taking place at the OSI Network Layer and above, including packet headers and trailers. Network 

Layer encryption solutions provide encryption for the data portion of the Network Layer, including all 

upper-layer data. 

Encryption overlay solutions add an encryption appliance behind the BS and a corresponding supplicant 

on or before the end user device. A supplicant is a software program on a client device that coordinates 

authentication with the encryption overlay appliance. The encryption appliance and supplicant work in 

tandem to encrypt data before it reaches the WiMAX system. Thus, the WiMAX system serves as the 

transmission medium between the supplicant and the appliance. Figure 4-1 illustrates this 

communications path over the WiMAX network. 

 

35 FIPS 140-2 is the current Federal standard that specifies the security requirements that will be satisfied by a cryptographic

module. A new version, FIPS 140-3, is in development. Both are at http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsFIPS.html. 36 The use of encryption overlay solutions may limit mobile operations because of a lack of handover and QoS support. 

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Figure 4-1. Encryption Overlay Solution 

Data Link Layer encryption solutions are not guaranteed to work with all WiMAX solutions because of 

the way IEEE 802.16 solutions treat the OSI Data Link packet convergence sub-layer that is responsible 

for transferring data between the OSI Data Link and Network layers. IEEE 802.16-2004, IEEE 802.16e2005, and IEEE 802.16-2009 allow for two traffic classifications at the OSI Data Link packet 

convergence sub-layer, Ethernet header and IP. Solutions that use IP classification may not work with 

solutions that completely encrypt the OSI Network Layer because the layered encryption will hide 

information required to pass packets through the WiMAX system. Typically, IP classification is used in 

mobile operations while Ethernet header classification is used in P2P and PMP operations. Prior to 

procuring an OSI Data Link Layer encryption solution, organizations should first inquire which traffic 

classification a vendor’s WiMAX implementation supports and verify functionality. 

Another method of providing confidentiality and integrity protection is by using a VPN. A VPN is a 

virtual network that creates a secure tunnel between devices to provide a secure communications channel 

for data and IP information. VPNs are often used to facilitate the secure transfer of sensitive data across 

public networks, for remote access, and for other situations involving the connection of multiple 

locations. VPNs can be established within a WMAN to create a private network and protect sensitive 

communications from other parties sharing network resources. VPNs are a mature technology, and a 

variety of VPN technologies exist, such as IPsec and Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) VPNs.37 

Organizations using VPNs to protect the confidentiality of WMAN communications must configure the 

VPNs to use FIPS-validated encryption algorithms employing validated cryptographic modules. One 

method is to use VPNs to protect WMAN communications by establishing a VPN tunnel between the 

WMAN client device (i.e., the SS/MS) and a VPN concentrator behind the BS. With an IPsec VPN, 

security services are provided at the OSI Network Layer of the protocol stack, which will secure all 

applications and protocols operating at the OSI Network Layer and above. VPN security services are 

independent of OSI Data Link Layer protocols, and they are recommended for use if the underlying 

wireless security mechanisms are vulnerable or lack FIPS validation. It is important to understand that 

VPNs do not eliminate all risk from wireless networking, and OSI Data Link wireless security controls 

can be used to provide an additional layer of security. 

When determining how confidentiality and integrity should be protected, organizations should examine 

their WiMAX client devices to determine which types of cryptographic algorithms are supported and their 

key length limitations and re-keying period. Organizations should verify that these client cryptographic 

capabilities meet the minimum confidentiality protection requirements. Secret keys should be periodically 

 

37 For more information and guidance on VPNs, see NIST SP 800-77, Guide to IPSec VPNs and NIST SP 800-113, Guide to 

SSL VPNs (http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html). 

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replaced in accordance with an organization’s IT security policy to reduce the potential effect of a key 

compromise.38

Authentication and Authorization 

IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 support an array of authentication solutions to provide both 

device and user authentication between a BS and MS/SSs. These authentication solutions can support the 

use of usernames and passwords, smart cards, subscriber identity module cards, biometrics, public key 

infrastructure (PKI), or a combination of these solutions (e.g., smart cards with PKI).39 Organizations 

should strongly consider WiMAX solutions capable of supporting Extensible Authentication Protocol 

(EAP) methods for mutual authentication as recommended in draft NIST SP 800-120, Recommendation 

for EAP Methods Used in Wireless Network Access Authentication.40 WiMAX solutions that cannot meet 

these criteria should employ a different means of authentication at a higher layer (e.g., encryption overlay 

or VPN). 

Client Device Security 

Devices that have been granted access to a WiMAX system should be properly secured to enhance the 

system security posture. Securing the infrastructure without properly securing client devices may 

compromise system security. Organizations should implement the client security controls appropriate for 

the type of device, the device’s operating system and applications, the sensitivity of the data that the 

device holds and accesses, and the threats that it faces. Possible client device security considerations 

include the following: 

 Personal firewalls. Resources on WMANs have a higher risk of attack than those on wired networks, 

because they generally do not have the same degree of protection. Personal firewalls increase device 

security by offering some protection against unwanted network connections initiated by other hosts. 

Personal firewalls are software applications that reside on a client device and are either client 

managed or centrally managed. Centrally managed solutions provide a greater degree of protection 

because IT departments may configure and remotely manage these solutions rather than leaving the 

management to the end user. Centrally managed solutions allow organizations to modify client 

firewalls to protect against known vulnerabilities, react to new threats and vulnerabilities, and 

maintain a consistent security policy for all client users. Personal firewalls may also have built-in 

VPN capabilities that further ease deployment. 

 Host-based intrusion detection and prevention systems (IDPS). A host-based IDPS provides 

complementary security services to a personal firewall. Host-based IDPS software monitors and 

analyzes the internal state of a client device. IDPS products review logs to ensure that the system and 

applications are not functioning unexpectedly, such as applications inexplicably accessing or altering 

other portions of the system. Several host-based IDPS software products also monitor inbound and 

outbound network communications and report or possibly block suspicious activity. 

 Antimalware software. Antivirus software and other forms of antimalware software can assist in 

preventing the spread of viruses, worms, and other malware between networked devices. Most client 

devices are at risk from malware threats, so such devices should have appropriate antimalware 

software installed and receive automatic updates. 

 

38 For more information on key management, see NIST SP 800-57, Recommendation for Key Management 

(http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html). 39 For more information on entity authentication using public key cryptography, see FIPS PUB 196, Entity Authentication 

Using Public Key Cryptography (http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips196/fips196.pdf). 40 http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html 

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 IEEE 802.16 radio management. Client devices that have no business need for IEEE 802.16 should 

have their wireless radios disabled by default. If feasible, users should disable the radio when not in 

use. In addition, client devices should be configured to prevent the simultaneous use of more than one 

network interface. 

 Policy enforcement. Client devices should be configured to comply with implemented WMAN 

policies. Devices should be configured according to policy, such as disabling services or altering 

default configurations. In addition, policy-driven software solutions can be implemented on client 

devices to prevent or allow certain actions when specific parameters exist. Policy-driven software 

helps ensure that client devices and users comply with an organization’s defined policies. For 

example, policy-based software can prevent client devices from having more than one network 

interface enabled at a time. 

In addition to these considerations for client device security, organizations should also ensure that 

wireless client devices are logically separated from the organization’s wired networks. This is most 

commonly implemented by using a networking appliance between the WiMAX system and the wired 

network. A network appliance can logically segment user populations and govern data communications. 

Patches, Upgrades, and Updates 

IEEE 802.16 vendors typically issue patches, upgrades, or firmware updates to correct known software 

and hardware security vulnerabilities. Network administrators should regularly check with vendors to 

identify these updates and implement them as needed, in accordance with the organization’s procedures 

and policies.41 In addition, many vendors have security alert email lists to advise customers of new 

vulnerabilities and attacks. Administrators can also check the National Vulnerability Database42 and 

Wireless Vulnerability & Exploits database43 for a listing of all publicly known vulnerabilities. 

4.4 Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Countermeasures Summary Table 

IEEE 802.16e-2005 and IEEE 802.16-2009 include security features that address many of the technical 

shortcomings of IEEE 802.16-2004. Organizations with WiMAX implementations pre-dating IEEE 

802.16e-2005 should implement a mitigation plan and/or migration plan to outline the procedures or 

restrictions for transitioning these legacy WiMAX systems to a compliant security architecture. 

Table 4-1 presents a summary of the IEEE 802.16-2004, IEEE 802.16e-2005, and IEEE 802.16-2009 

vulnerabilities, threats, and countermeasures discussed throughout this section. 

 

41 For more information on patch and vulnerability management, see NIST SP 800-40 Version 2, Creating a Patch and 

Vulnerability Management Program (http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-40-Ver2/SP800-40v2.pdf). 42 http://nvd.nist.gov/ 43 http://www.wve.org/ 

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Table 4-1. Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Countermeasures Summary 

Security Concern or Vulnerability Threat Discussion Countermeasure 

IEEE 802.16-2004 Based WiMAX Systems 

Unilateral authentication of SS by 

BS 

SSs have no method for verifying the 

identity of BSs. This leaves SSs 

susceptible to forgery attacks by a 

rogue BS. This may result in 

degraded performance, information 

theft, or DoS attacks. In addition, this 

authentication schema leaves a 

system susceptible to MITM attacks. 

Force communications to take place 

over a VPN or encryption overlay 

that authenticates the devices/users 

outside of the WiMAX system’s 

native controls. 

DES-CBC Weakness DES-CBC is a weak algorithm that 

cannot ensure confidentiality of data. 

Using DES-CBC may lead to 

unauthorized disclosure of 

information. Threats may include 

DoS, eavesdropping, and MITM 

attacks. 

Implement FIPS-validated encryption 

overlay or VPN. 

Interjection of Reused TEK The short 2-bit TEK identifier wraps 

to zero on every fourth re-key. This 

allows adversaries to reuse expired 

TEKs and perform replay attacks 

leading to unauthorized disclosure of 

information and compromise of the 

TEK. 

Implement FIPS-validated encryption 

overlay or VPN. 

All WiMAX Systems 

Unencrypted Management 

Messages 

BSs and SS/MSs communicate 

using unencrypted management 

messages to facilitate network entry, 

node registration, bandwidth 

allocation, and ranging. These 

messages are not encrypted. 

Integrity checks are added to unicast 

messages to prevent replay attacks 

but non-unicast messages still open 

WiMAX systems to DoS threats. The 

unencrypted management messages 

are subject to eavesdropping, replay 

attacks, scrambling, and subtle 

manipulation aimed at degrading 

service. If a system is not using AESCCM, it also opens up the possibility 

of an MITM attack. 

There is no threat mitigation for 

unencrypted management 

messages. AES-CCM should be 

employed to prevent an MITM attack 

from occurring. The impact from 

management message exploitation is 

exposure of node registration 

information and various DoS attacks. 

It is recommended that organizations 

plan for an out-of-band method of 

communications in the event of a 

DoS attack. At a minimum, 

organizational SOPs should include 

incident response plans in the event 

of a DoS attack. 

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Security Concern or Vulnerability Threat Discussion Countermeasure 

Lack of Native FIPS-Validated 

Solutions 

As of mid-2009, most WiMAX 

vendors had not yet completed the 

FIPS validation process. This 

prevents Federal agencies from 

relying on native WiMAX security 

until vendors complete the validation 

process. Communications 

confidentiality relying solely on 

unvalidated native WiMAX security 

may have encryption implementation 

weaknesses that could lead to 

unauthorized disclosure of 

information. Threats may include 

eavesdropping, MITM, and DoS 

attacks. 

Implement FIPS-validated encryption 

overlay or VPN. 

Use of Wireless as a 

Communications Medium 

DoS attack can be executed by the 

introduction of a powerful RF source 

intended to overwhelm system radio 

spectrum. 

Locate and remove the source of RF 

interference. This can be challenging 

because of the large coverage areas 

of WMANs. It is recommended that 

organizations plan for an out-of-band 

method of communications in the 

event of a DoS attack. 

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Appendix A—Glossary 

Selected terms used in the guide are defined below. 

Authentication: For the purposes of this guide, the process of verifying the identity claimed by a 

WiMAX device. User authentication is also an option supported by IEEE 802.16e-2005. 

Authorization: The process that takes place after authentication is complete to determine which 

resources/services are available to a WiMAX device. 

Authorization key (AK): A key exchanged between the base station and subscriber station/mobile 

station to authenticate one another prior to the traffic encryption key (TEK) exchange. 

Authorized data security association (SA) list: A list provided to the SS/MS by the base station. The 

authorized data SA list indicates which data encryption SAs the SS/MS is authorized to access. 

Backhaul: Typically a high capacity line from a remote site or network to a central site or network. 

Base station (BS): The node that logically connects fixed and mobile subscriber stations to operator 

networks. The BS governs access to the operator networks and maintains communications with client 

devices. A BS consists of the infrastructure elements necessary to enable wireless communications, i.e., 

antennas, transceivers, and other electromagnetic wave transmitting equipment. BSs are typically fixed 

nodes, but in a tactical environment, they may also be considered mobile. 

Confidentiality: For the purposes of this guide, prevention of the disclosure of information by ensuring 

that only authorized devices can view the contents of WiMAX communications. 

Data encryption security association (SA) type indicator: An indicator defining the type of data 

encryption SA (Primary, Static, or Dynamic). 

Eavesdropping: Type of attack in which an adversary uses a WiMAX traffic analyzer within the range of 

a BS or SS/MS. The adversary may monitor management message traffic to identify encryption ciphers, 

determine footprint the network, or conduct traffic analysis regarding specific WiMAX nodes. 

Group key encryption key (GKEK): A cryptographic key used to encrypt the GTEK sent in multicast 

messages between a BS and SSs/MSs. 

Group traffic encryption key (GTEK): A cryptographic key used to encrypt multicast traffic between a 

BS and SSs/MSs. 

Host-based intrusion detection and prevention system (IDPS): An appliance or software product that 

provides complementary security services to a personal firewall, monitoring and analyzing the internal 

state of a client device. IDPS products review logs to ensure that the system and applications are not 

functioning unexpectedly, such as applications inexplicably accessing or altering other portions of the 

system. Several host-based IDPS software products also monitor inbound and outbound network 

communications and report or possibly block suspicious activity. 

Internet Protocol Security (IPsec): An OSI Network layer security protocol that provides authentication 

and encryption over the Internet. 

Jitter: As it relates to queuing, the difference in latency of packets. 

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Key encryption key (KEK): A key derived from the authorization key and used to encrypt traffic 

encryption keys (TEK) during the TEK exchange. 

Last mile broadband access: Communications technology that bridges the transmission distance 

between the broadband service provider infrastructure and the customer premises equipment. 

Line-of-sight signal propagation: Electro-magnetic signaling that is highly sensitive to radio frequency 

obstacles requiring an unobstructed view between transmitting stations. 

Management countermeasure: A countermeasure that addresses any concern related to risk, system 

planning, or security assessment by an organization’s management. 

Management message: A message used for maintaining communications between an SS/MS and BS, 

i.e., establishing communication parameters, exchanging privacy settings, and performing system 

registration events (initial network entry, handoffs, etc.). These messages are not encrypted and are 

susceptible to eavesdropping attacks. 

Man-in-the-middle (MITM): An attack that occurs when an adversary deceives an SS/MS to appear as a 

legitimate BS while simultaneously deceiving a BS to appear as a legitimate SS/MS. This may allow an 

adversary to act as a pass-through for all communications and to inject malicious traffic into the 

communications stream.

Message authentication key: A key that validates the data authenticity of the key distribution messages 

sent from the BS to the SS/MS. 

Misappropriation: An attack in which the attacker steals or makes unauthorized use of a service. 

Mobile subscriber (MS): As defined in IEEE 802.16e-2005, a WiMAX subscriber station capable of 

moving at vehicular speeds and that supports enhanced power management modes of operation. MS 

devices typically have a small form factor and are self-powered, e.g., laptops, ultra-mobile portable 

computers, cellular telephones, or other portable electronic devices. 

Mobile topology: A configuration similar to a cellular network because multiple BSs collaborate and 

provide seamless communications over a distributed network to both SSs and MSs. 

Multi-hop relay topology: A configuration that extends a BS’s coverage area by permitting SSs and MSs 

to relay traffic by acting as RSs. Data destined to an SS/MS outside of the BS’s range is relayed through 

adjacent RSs. 

Multiple input, multiple output technology: The use of multiple antennas and advanced signaling 

techniques to increase wireless network range, resiliency, and speed.

Non-line-of-sight signal propagation: Electro-magnetic signaling that uses advanced modulation 

techniques to compensate for signal obstacles and allows indirect communications between transmitting 

stations. 

Operational countermeasure: A countermeasure that includes controls that are executed by people, e.g., 

physical environment protection, configuration management, and incident response. 

Personal firewall: Software applications residing on a client device that increase device security by 

offering some protection against unwanted network connections initiated by other hosts. Personal 

firewalls may be client managed or centrally managed. 

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Quality of Service (QoS): A categorization of different types of network traffic to prioritize latencysensitive data over non-latency-sensitive data.

Radio frequency (RF) jamming: A threat in which an adversary introduces a powerful RF signal to 

overwhelm the spectrum being used by the system, thus denying service to all wireless nodes within 

range of the interference. RF jamming is classified as a DoS attack. 

Relay station (RS): An SS that is configured to forward traffic to other stations in a multi-hop Security 

Zone.

Scrambling: The precise injection of RF interference during the transmission of specific management 

messages. These attacks prevent proper network ranging and bandwidth allocations with the intent to 

degrade overall system performance. 

Security association (SA): The logical set of security parameters containing elements required for 

authentication, key establishment, and data encryption. 

Security association identifier (SAID): A unique 16-bit value that identifies the SA.

Security Zone (SZ): A set of trusted relationships between a BS and a group of RSs. 

Standard operating procedure: A set of instructions used to describe a process or procedure that 

performs an explicit operation or explicit reaction to a given event.

Subscriber station (SS): A fixed wireless node. SSs are available in outdoor and indoor models and 

typically communicate only with BSs, except during mesh network operations. 

System security plan: A system document that provides an overview of the security requirements of a 

system and describes the controls in place to meet those requirements. 

Technical countermeasures: System safeguards implemented by computer systems, including controls 

such as authentication, access control, auditing, and protecting communications. 

Unilateral authentication: An IEEE 802.16-2004 vulnerability resulting from PKMv1 providing for 

authentication of SSs by BSs but not for authentication of BSs by SSs. Lack of mutual authentication may 

allow a rogue BS to impersonate a legitimate BS, thereby rendering the SS unable to verify the 

authenticity of protocol messages received from the BS. This may enable a rogue BS operator to degrade 

performance or steal valuable information by conducting DoS or man-in-the-middle attacks against client 

SSs. 

Virtual private network (VPN): A logical network that is established at the upper layers of the OSI 

model over an existing physical network and typically does not include every node present on the 

physical network. 

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX): A wireless metropolitan area network 

(WMAN) technology based on the IEEE 802.16 family of standards used for a variety of purposes, 

including, but not limited to, fixed last-mile broadband access, long-range wireless backhaul, and access 

layer technology for mobile wireless subscribers operating on telecommunications networks. 

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Appendix B—Acronyms and Abbreviations 

Selected acronyms and abbreviations used in the guide are defined below. 

AAA Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting 

AAS Adaptable Antenna Support 

AES Advanced Encryption Standard 

AK Authorization Key 

AKID Authorization Key Identifier 

BS Base Station 

CBC Cipher Block Chaining 

CCM Counter with CBC Message Authentication Code 

CFB Cipher Feedback 

CTR Counter 

DES Digital Encryption Standard 

DFS Dynamic Frequency Selection 

DoS Denial of Service 

DSL Digital Subscriber Line 

EAP Extensible Authentication Protocol 

ECB Electronic Codebook 

EIK EAP Integrity Key 

FCC Federal Communications Commission 

FIPS Federal Information Processing Standard 

FISMA Federal Information Security Management Act 

Gbps Gigabits per second 

GHz Gigahertz 

GKEK Group Key Encryption Key 

GTEK Group Traffic Encryption Key 

IDPS Intrusion Detection and Prevention System 

IETF Internet Engineering Task Force 

IPsec Internet Protocol Security 

ISO International Organization for Standardization 

ISP Internet Service Provider 

IT Information Technology 

ITL Information Technology Laboratory 

IV Initialization Vector 

KEK Key Encryption Key 

LAN Local Area Network 

LOS Line of Sight 

MAC Media Access Control 

MAN Metropolitan Area Network 

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Mbps Megabits per second 

MIB Management Information Base 

MIMO Multiple Input, Multiple Output 

MITM Man-in-the-Middle 

MS Mobile Subscriber 

MSK Master Session Key 

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology 

NLOS Non-Line-of-Sight 

OFB Output Feedback 

OMB Office of Management and Budget 

OSI Open Systems Interconnection 

P2P Point-to-Point 

PIV Personal Identity Verification 

PKI Public Key Infrastructure 

PKM Privacy Key Management 

PKMv1 Privacy Key Management Protocol version 1 

PKMv2 Privacy Key Management Protocol version 2 

PMK Pairwise Master Key 

PMP Point-to-Multipoint 

PN Packet Number 

Pre-PAK Pre-Primary Authorization Key 

PUB Publication 

QoS Quality of Service 

RF Radio Frequency 

RS Relay Station 

SA Security Association 

SAID Security Association Identifier 

SOP Standard Operating Procedures 

SS Subscriber Station 

SSL Secure Sockets Layer 

SSP System Security Plan 

SZ Security Zone 

TEK Traffic Encryption Key 

VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol 

VPN Virtual Private Network 

WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access 

WLAN Wireless Local Area Network 

WMAN Wireless Metropolitan Area Network 

WWAN Wireless Wide Area Network 

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Appendix C—References 

The list below provides references for this publication. 

[Fra07] S. Frankel et al, NIST Special Publication 800-97, Establishing Wireless Robust Security 

Networks: A Guide to IEEE 802.11i, NIST, 2007. 

http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-97/SP800-97.pdf 

 

[Han06] Tao Han et al, Analysis of Mobile WiMAX Security: Vulnerabilities and Solutions, Key Lab of 

Universal Wireless Communications, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Posts and 

Telecommunications, 2007. 

[IEE04] IEEE Standard 802.16-2004, IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks—Part 

16: Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Systems, IEEE, 2004. 

[IEE05] IEEE Standard 802.16e-2005, IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks—Part 

16: Air Interface for Fixed and Mobile Broadband Wireless Access Systems Amendment 2: 

Physical and Medium Access Control Layers for Combined Fixed and Mobile Operation in 

Licensed Bands, IEEE, 2005. 

[Joh04] D. Johnston and J. Walker, Overview of IEEE 802.16 Security, IEEE Security and Privacy, 

Vol. 2, no. 3, pp 40-48, May/June 2004. 

[Kis08] R. Kissel et al, NIST Special Publication 800-64 Revision 2, Security Considerations in the 

System Development Life Cycle, NIST, 2008. http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-

64-Rev2/SP800-64-Revision2.pdf 

[Nas08] Mahmoud Nasreldin et al, WiMAX Security, 22nd International Conference on Advanced 

Information Networking and Applications, 2008. 

[NIS04] FIPS PUB 199, Standards for Security Categorization of Federal Information and Information 

Systems, NIST, 2004. http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips199/FIPS-PUB-199-final.pdf 

[NIS09] NIST Special Publication 800-53 Revision 3, Recommended Security Controls for Federal 

Information Systems and Organizations, NIST, 2009. 

http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-53-Rev3/sp800-53-rev3-final-errata.pdf 

[Sca08] K. Scarfone et al, NIST Special Publication 800-48 Revision 1, Guide to Securing Legacy 

IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networks, NIST, 2008. http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-48-

rev1/SP800-48r1.pdf 

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