NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-178

Essential Fish Habitat Source Document:

Thorny Skate, Amblyraja radiata,

Life History and Habitat Characteristics

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

Northeast Region

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

Woods Hole, Massachusetts

March 2003
155. Food of Northwest Atlantic Fishes and Two Common Species of Squid. By Ray E. Bowman, Charles E. Stillwell, William

L. Michaels, and Marvin D. Grosslein. January 2000. xiv + 138 p., 1 fig., 7 tables, 2 app. NTIS Access. No. PB2000-106735.

156. Proceedings of the Summer Flounder Aging Workshop, 1-2 February 1999, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. By George

R. Bolz, James Patrick Monaghan, Jr., Kathy L. Lang, Randall W. Gregory, and Jay M. Burnett. May 2000. v + 15 p., 5 figs.,

5 tables. NTIS Access. No. PB2000-107403.

157. Contaminant Levels in Muscle of Four Species of Recreational Fish from the New York Bight Apex. By Ashok D.

Deshpande, Andrew F.J. Draxler, Vincent S. Zdanowicz, Mary E. Schrock, Anthony J. Paulson, Thomas W. Finneran, Beth

L. Sharack, Kathy Corbo, Linda Arlen, Elizabeth A. Leimburg, Bruce W. Dockum, Robert A. Pikanowski, Brian May, and

Lisa B. Rosman. June 2000. xxii + 99 p., 6 figs., 80 tables, 3 app., glossary. NTIS Access. No. PB2001-107346.

158. A Framework for Monitoring and Assessing Socioeconomics and Governance of Large Marine Ecosystems. By

Jon G. Sutinen, editor, with contributors (listed alphabetically) Patricia Clay, Christopher L. Dyer, Steven F. Edwards, John

Gates, Tom A. Grigalunas, Timothy Hennessey, Lawrence Juda, Andrew W. Kitts, Philip N. Logan, John J. Poggie, Jr.,

Barbara Pollard Rountree, Scott R. Steinback, Eric M. Thunberg, Harold F. Upton, and John B. Walden. August 2000. v

+ 32 p., 4 figs., 1 table, glossary. NTIS Access. No. PB2001-106847.

159. An Overview and History of the Food Web Dynamics Program of the Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods

Hole, Massachusetts. By Jason S. Link and Frank P. Almeida. October 2000. iv + 60 p., 20 figs., 18 tables, 1 app. NTIS

Access. No. PB2001-103996.

160. Measuring Technical Efficiency and Capacity in Fisheries by Data Envelopment Analysis Using the General

Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS): A Workbook. By John B. Walden and James E. Kirkley. October 2000. iii + 15 p.,

9 figs., 5 tables. NTIS Access. No. PB2001-106502.

161. Demersal Fish and American Lobster Diets in the Lower Hudson - Raritan Estuary. By Frank W. Steimle, Robert

A. Pikanowski, Donald G. McMillan, Christine A. Zetlin, and Stuart J. Wilk. November 2000. vii + 106 p., 24 figs., 51 tables.

NTIS Access. No. PB2002-105456.

162. U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Marine Mammal Stock Assessments – 2000. Edited by Gordon T. Waring, Janeen

M. Quintal, and Steven L. Swartz, with contributions from (listed alphabetically) Neilo B. Barros, Phillip J. Clapham, Timothy

V.N. Cole, Carol P. Fairfield, Larry J. Hansen, Keith D. Mullin, Daniel K. Odell, Debra L. Palka, Marjorie C. Rossman, U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service, Randall S. Wells, and Cynthia Yeung. November 2000. ix + 303 p., 43 figs., 55 tables, 3 app. NTIS

Access. No. PB2001-104091.

163. Essential Fish Habitat Source Document: Red Deepsea Crab, Chaceon (Geryon) quinquedens, Life History and

Habitat Characteristics. By Frank W. Steimle, Christine A. Zetlin, and Sukwoo Chang. January 2001. v + 27 p., 8 figs.,

1 table. NTIS Access. No. PB2001-103542.

164. An Overview of the Social and Economic Survey Administered during Round II of the Northeast Multispecies Fishery

Disaster Assistance Program. By Julia Olson and Patricia M. Clay. December 2001. v + 69 p., 3 figs., 18 tables, 2 app.

NTIS Access. No. PB2002-105406.

165. A Baseline Socioeconomic Study of Massachusetts’ Marine Recreational Fisheries. By Ronald J. Salz, David K.

Loomis, Michael R. Ross, and Scott R. Steinback. December 2001. viii + 129 p., 1 fig., 81 tables, 4 app. NTIS Access. No.

PB2002-108348.

166. Report on the Third Northwest Atlantic Herring Acoustic Workshop, University of Maine Darling Marine Center,

Walpole, Maine, March 13-14, 2001. By William L. Michaels, editor and coconvenor, and Philip Yund, coconvenor.

December 2001. iv + 18 p., 14 figs., 2 app. NTIS Access. No. PB2003-101556.

Recent Issues in This Series:
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Donald L. Evans, Secretary

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (ret.), Administrator

National Marine Fisheries Service

William T. Hogarth, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries

Northeast Region

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

Woods Hole, Massachusetts

March 2003

Essential Fish Habitat Source Document:

Thorny Skate, Amblyraja radiata,

Life History and Habitat Characteristics

David B. Packer, Christine A. Zetlin, and Joseph J. Vitaliano

National Marine Fisheries Serv., James J. Howard Marine Sciences Lab., 74 Magruder Rd., Highlands, NJ 07732

This series represents a secondary level of scientific publishing. All issues employ

thorough internal scientific review; some issues employ external scientific review.

Reviews are -- by design -- transparent collegial reviews, not anonymous peer

reviews. All issues may be cited in formal scientific communications.

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-178
Editorial Notes on Issues 122-152, 163, and 173-179

in the

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE Series

Editorial Production

For Issues 122-152, 163, and 173-179, staff of the Northeast Fisheries Science Center's (NEFSC's) Ecosystems Processes

Division have largely assumed the role of staff of the NEFSC's Editorial Office for technical and copy editing, type

composition, and page layout. Other than the four covers (inside and outside, front and back) and first two preliminary

pages, all preprinting editorial production has been performed by, and all credit for such production rightfully belongs

to, the staff of the Ecosystems Processes Division.

Internet Availability

Issues 122-152, 163, and 173-179 have been copublished, i.e., both as paper copies and as Web postings. All Web postings

are available at: www.nefsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/habitat/efh. Also, all Web postings are in "PDF" format.

Information Updating

By federal regulation, all information specific to Issues 122-152, 163, and 173-179 must be updated at least every five years.

All official updates will appear in the Web postings. Paper copies will be reissued only when and if new information

associated with Issues 122-152, 163, and 173-179 is significant enough to warrant a reprinting of a given issue. All updated

and/or reprinted issues will retain the original issue number, but bear a "Revised (Month Year)" label.

Species Names

The NMFS Northeast Region’s policy on the use of species names in all technical communications is generally to follow

the American Fisheries Society’s lists of scientific and common names for fishes (i.e., Robins et al. 1991a

), mollusks (i.e.,

Turgeon et al. 1998b), and decapod crustaceans (i.e., Williams et al. 1989c), and to follow the Society for Marine

Mammalogy's guidance on scientific and common names for marine mammals (i.e., Rice 1998d

). Exceptions to this policy

occur when there are subsequent compelling revisions in the classifications of species, resulting in changes in the names

of species (e.g., Cooper and Chapleau 1998e

; McEachran and Dunn 1998f).

a

Robins, C.R. (chair); Bailey, R.M.; Bond, C.E.; Brooker, J.R.; Lachner, E.A.; Lea, R.N.; Scott, W.B. 1991. Common and scientific names

of fishes from the United States and Canada. 5th ed. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 20; 183 p. b

Turgeon, D.D. (chair); Quinn, J.F., Jr.; Bogan, A.E.; Coan, E.V.; Hochberg, F.G.; Lyons, W.G.; Mikkelsen, P.M.; Neves, R.J.; Roper, C.F.E.;

Rosenberg, G.; Roth, B.; Scheltema, A.; Thompson, F.G.; Vecchione, M.; Williams, J.D. 1998. Common and scientific names of aquatic

invertebrates from the United States and Canada: mollusks. 2nd ed. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 26; 526 p. c

Williams, A.B. (chair); Abele, L.G.; Felder, D.L.; Hobbs, H.H., Jr.; Manning, R.B.; McLaughlin, P.A.; Pérez Farfante, I. 1989. Common

and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the United States and Canada: decapod crustaceans. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ.

17; 77 p. d

Rice, D.W. 1998. Marine mammals of the world: systematics and distribution. Soc. Mar. Mammal. Spec. Publ. 4; 231 p. e

Cooper, J.A.; Chapleau, F. 1998. Monophyly and interrelationships of the family Pleuronectidae (Pleuronectiformes), with a revised

classification. Fish. Bull. (U.S.) 96:686-726. f

McEachran, J.D.; Dunn, K.A. 1998. Phylogenetic analysis of skates, a morphologically conservative clade of elasmobranchs

(Chondrichthyes: Rajidae). Copeia 1998(2):271-290.
Page iii 

FOREWORD 

One of the greatest long-term threats to the viability of 

commercial and recreational fisheries is the continuing 

loss of marine, estuarine, and other aquatic habitats. 

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act (October 11, 1996) 

The long-term viability of living marine resources 

depends on protection of their habitat. 

NMFS Strategic Plan for Fisheries 

Research (February 1998) 

The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act (MSFCMA), which was reauthorized 

and amended by the Sustainable Fisheries Act (1996), 

requires the eight regional fishery management councils 

to describe and identify essential fish habitat (EFH) in 

their respective regions, to specify actions to conserve 

and enhance that EFH, and to minimize the adverse 

effects of fishing on EFH. Congress defined EFH as 

“those waters and substrate necessary to fish for 

spawning, breeding, feeding or growth to maturity.” The 

MSFCMA requires NMFS to assist the regional fishery 

management councils in the implementation of EFH in 

their respective fishery management plans. 

NMFS has taken a broad view of habitat as the area 

used by fish throughout their life cycle. Fish use habitat 

for spawning, feeding, nursery, migration, and shelter, but 

most habitats provide only a subset of these functions. 

Fish may change habitats with changes in life history 

stage, seasonal and geographic distributions, abundance, 

and interactions with other species. The type of habitat, 

as well as its attributes and functions, are important for 

sustaining the production of managed species. 

The Northeast Fisheries Science Center compiled the 

available information on the distribution, abundance, and 

habitat requirements for each of the species managed by 

the New England and Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management 

Councils. That information is presented in this series of 

38 EFH species reports (plus one consolidated methods 

report). The EFH species reports are a survey of the 

important literature as well as original analyses of fisheryJAMES J. HOWARD MARINE SCIENCES LABORATORY

HIGHLANDS, NEW JERSEY

SEPTEMBER 1999 

independent data sets from NMFS and several coastal 

states. The species reports are also the source for the 

current EFH designations by the New England and MidAtlantic Fishery Management Councils, and 

understandably have begun to be referred to as the “EFH 

source documents.” 

NMFS provided guidance to the regional fishery 

management councils for identifying and describing EFH 

of their managed species. Consistent with this guidance, 

the species reports present information on current and 

historic stock sizes, geographic range, and the period and 

location of major life history stages. The habitats of 

managed species are described by the physical, chemical, 

and biological components of the ecosystem where the 

species occur. Information on the habitat requirements is 

provided for each life history stage, and it includes, where 

available, habitat and environmental variables that control 

or limit distribution, abundance, growth, reproduction, 

mortality, and productivity. 

Identifying and describing EFH are the first steps in 

the process of protecting, conserving, and enhancing 

essential habitats of the managed species. Ultimately, 

NMFS, the regional fishery management councils, fishing 

participants, Federal and state agencies, and other 

organizations will have to cooperate to achieve the habitat 

goals established by the MSFCMA. 

A historical note: the EFH species reports effectively 

recommence a series of reports published by the NMFS 

Sandy Hook (New Jersey) Laboratory (now formally 

known as the James J. Howard Marine Sciences 

Laboratory) from 1977 to 1982. These reports, which 

were formally labeled as Sandy Hook Laboratory 

Technical Series Reports, but informally known as 

“Sandy Hook Bluebooks,” summarized biological and 

fisheries data for 18 economically important species. The 

fact that the bluebooks continue to be used two decades 

after their publication persuaded us to make their 

successors – the 38 EFH source documents – available to 

the public through publication in the NOAA Technical 

Memorandum NMFS-NE series. 

JEFFREY N. CROSS, (FORMER) CHIEF

ECOSYSTEMS PROCESSES DIVISION

NORTHEAST FISHERIES SCIENCE CENTER
Page iv 
Page v 

Contents 

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 

Life History ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 

Geographical Distribution................................................................................................................................................................. 4 

Habitat Characteristics...................................................................................................................................................................... 5 

Status of the Stocks........................................................................................................................................................................... 7 

Research Needs................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7 

References Cited............................................................................................................................................................................... 7 

Tables 

Table 1. Summary of habitat parameters for thorny skate, based on the pertinent literature ...............................................10

Table 2. Summary of habitat parameters for thorny skate, based on the most recent NEFSC and state surveys......................13

Figures 

Figure 1. The thorny skate, Amblyraja radiata (Donovan 1808), female .................................................................................... 14 

Figure 2. Egg case of thorny skate ............................................................................................................................................... 15 

Figure 3. Abundance (% occurrence) of the major prey items of thorny skate collected during NEFSC bottom trawl surveys.. 16 

Figure 4. Distribution of juvenile thorny skate collected during winter NEFSC bottom trawl surveys ....................................... 19 

Figure 5. Distribution and abundance of juvenile thorny skate collected during spring NEFSC bottom trawl surveys............... 20 

Figure 6. Distribution of juvenile thorny skate collected during summer NEFSC bottom trawl surveys..................................... 21 

Figure 7. Distribution and abundance of juvenile thorny skate collected during fall NEFSC bottom trawl surveys ................... 22 

Figure 8. Distribution and abundance of juvenile thorny skate in Massachusetts coastal waters................................................. 23 

Figure 9. Distribution of adult thorny skate collected during winter NEFSC bottom trawl surveys............................................ 25 

Figure 10. Distribution and abundance of adult thorny skate collected during spring NEFSC bottom trawl surveys.................... 26 

Figure 11. Distribution of adult thorny skate collected during summer NEFSC bottom trawl surveys ......................................... 27 

Figure 12. Distribution and abundance of adult thorny skate collected during fall NEFSC bottom trawl surveys ........................ 28 

Figure 13. Distribution and abundance of adult thorny skate in Massachusetts coastal waters...................................................... 29 

Figure 14. Spring/fall distributions of juveniles relative to bottom temperature, depth, and salinity based on NEFSC surveys ... 31 

Figure 15. Distributions of juveniles relative to bottom temperature and depth based on Massachusetts inshore surveys............ 33 

Figure 16. Spring/fall distributions of adults relative to bottom temperature, depth, and salinity based on NEFSC surveys ........ 35 

Figure 17. Distributions of adults relative to bottom temperature and depth based on Massachusetts inshore surveys................. 37 

Figure 18. NEFSC spring survey index of thorny skate biomass and commercial landings of seven species skate complex........ 39 

Page 1 

INTRODUCTION 

 The thorny skate [Amblyraja radiata (Donovan 

1808); formerly Raja radiata, see McEachran and Dunn 

(1998); Figure 1] occurs on both sides of the Atlantic. In 

the western North Atlantic, it ranges from western 

Greenland, Davis straits, Hudson straits, Hudson Bay and 

Labrador to South Carolina. In the eastern North Atlantic, 

it ranges from Iceland, eastern Greenland, Barents Sea 

and off the coast of Spitzbergen to the English Channel 

and the southwestern coasts of Ireland and England 

(Bigelow and Schroeder 1953a, b; Stehmann and Bhrkel 

1984; McEachran 2002). Bigelow and Schroeder (1953a) 

also reported that in the east it extends from the White 

Sea and Barents Sea to the North Sea, Dutch coast, and 

western part of Baltic. In the eastern South Atlantic it is 

found off South Africa (Hulley 1970). Thorny skate is 

one of the most abundant skates encountered in the Gulf 

of St. Lawrence, off northeastern and southeastern Nova 

Scotia, and in the Gulf of Maine (McEachran and Musick 

1975). This paper will focus mostly on the life history and 

habitat characteristics of thorny skate in the western 

Atlantic, especially in United States waters. 

 McEachran (2002) distinguishes thorny skates from 

other skates in the Gulf of Maine by a combination of the 

following characters: the rostrum is stout and extends 

distinctly anterior to the anterior-most pectoral rays. 

Thorns with radiate bases are present in a single row 

along the midline of the disc and tail. The mid-row thorns 

from nuchal region to origin of first dorsal fin range from 

11to 19. 

LIFE HISTORY 

 The single fertilized egg is encapsulated in an amber 

to brown egg case (Figure 2). The cases are rectangular in 

shape, with a hollow curved horn at each corner, and 

range in size from 48-96 mm long and 34-77 mm wide 

(McEachran 2002). In the Canadian Atlantic, case size 

increases with female skate length; cases are also larger in 

skates that become sexually mature at larger sizes 

compared to skates that become sexually mature at 

smaller sizes (Templeman 1982a). The dorsal surface of 

the case is strongly convex and the ventral surface is 

nearly flat. The cases are covered with longitudinal rows 

of tubercles. The horns are stout and less than the length 

of the capsule excluding the horns. The anterior horns are 

curved inward and are shorter than the posterior horns 

(McEachran 2002). The development of the egg case is 

described by Templeman (1982a). Berestovskii (1994) 

doing laboratory studies on Barents Sea skates, produced 

hatchlings that were 104-114 mm in length. 

 Females with fully formed egg capsules are captured 

over the entire year (Templeman 1982a), although the 

percentage of mature females with capsules is higher 

during the summer (McEachran 2002). Bigelow and 

Schroeder (1953a) reported that females with ripe eggs 

have been taken in Nova Scotian waters or in the Gulf of 

Maine in April, June, July, and September, and in January 

and February off Norway, and from February to June in 

Scottish waters. In the low temperature environment of 

the Barents Sea, Berestovskii (1994) believes that with 

year-round reproduction, females deposit 10-20 

capsules/yr. 

 On the eastern Scotian Shelf during 1996, Simon and 

Frank (1996) found that nearly all sampled thorny skate < 

50 cm TL were immature and nearly all individuals > 50 

cm TL were mature. The results were comparable to 

maturity studies conducted by Templeman (1982a; 

1987a) on the Newfoundland shelf. In other areas of the 

northwest Atlantic, Templeman (1987a) found size at 

maturity (L50) ranges for females to be 44-47 cm TL for 

Baffin Island – Labrador Shelf (same for northern Iceland 

and West Greenland), 50-53 cm TL for the Gulf of St. 

Lawrence, and 65-74 cm TL for Grand Bank and St. 

Pierre Bank. Based on the predictive equations from Frisk 

et al. (2001) and the Northeast Fisheries Science Center 

(NEFSC) survey maximum observed length of 111 cm 

TL, Lmat is estimated at 84 cm TL and Amat is estimated at 

7 years (Northeast Fisheries Science Center 2000b). Size 

and age at maturity is lower for European thorny skate 

(Vinther 1989; van Steenbergen 1994); for example, in 

the North Sea, SkjFraasen and Bergstad (2000) report the 

Lmat to be 45 cm TL, while Walker and Hislop (1998) 

report Lmat to be 40 cm TL and Amat to be 5 years. [See 

also Templeman (1987b) for a discussion comparing the 

length-weight relationships of thorny skate with their 

sexual maturity in the northwest Atlantic.] 

 The maximum size of adult thorny skate varies over 

the species range. (McEachran 2002). European thorny 

skate (e.g., from the North Sea) are smaller than those 

from Iceland and North America. Maximum sizes 

reported include 102 cm TL from Nova Scotia, 89.5 cm 

TL from Georges Bank, 80.0 TL from Massachusetts 

Bay, and 93.5 cm TL from off of New Jersey (Vladykov 

1936; Scott and Scott 1988; McEachran 2002). 

Templeman (1987a) also noted that in the northwest 

Atlantic, in areas where sexual maturity occurs at small 

lengths, the maximum sizes were typically small, and in 

areas where sexual maturity occurs only at much greater 

lengths, the maximum sizes were considerably larger. 

 Based on tagging studies (Templeman 1984), thorny 

skate live up to 20 years. 

FOOD HABITS 

 Prey of thorny skate in the western North Atlantic 

includes hydrozoans, aschelminths, gastropods, bivalves, 

squids, octopus, polychaetes, pycnogonids, copepods, 

stomatopods (larvae), cumaceans, isopods, amphipods, 

mysids, euphausids, shrimps, hermit crabs, crabs, 

holothuroideans, and fishes (Bigelow and Schroeder 

1953a; McEachran 1973; McEachran et al. 1976; 

Templeman 1982b; Robichaud 1991; Pedersen 1995; 

Bowman et al. 2000; Garrison 2000; Garrison and Link 
Page 2 

2000; Avent et al. 2001). It is an opportunistic feeder on 

the most abundant and available prey species in an area 

(Robichaud 1991; Pedersen 1995; also SkjFraasen and 

Bergstad 2000 for the North Sea). 

 McEachran (1973) studied skates collected from 

Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras during 1967-1970; the 

following diet descriptions are from him and McEachran 

et al. (1976). 

 Polychaetes and decapods were the major prey items 

eaten, followed by amphipods and euphausids. Fishes and 

mysids contributed little to the diet. 

Nephtys spp. and Glycera spp. were the most 

frequently eaten polychaetes on Georges Bank while 

Nephtys spp., Eunice pennata, and Aphrodite hastata

were the most abundant polychaetes eaten in the Gulf of 

Maine and on the Nova Scotian shelf. 

Orchomonella minuta and Leptocheirus pinguis were 

the most numerous amphipod prey in the Mid-Atlantic 

Bight, while L. pinguis, ampeliscids, and Orchomonella

sp. were the most frequently eaten amphipods on Georges 

Bank. Pontogeneia inermis and Tmetonyx sp. were the 

most abundant amphipods eaten in the Gulf of Maine, 

while on the Nova Scotian shelf ampeliscids and L. 

pinguis were the most frequently eaten amphipods. On 

Georges Bank, Hyas sp., Eualus pusiolus, 

Dichelopandalus leptocerus, and Crangon septemspinosa

were the most frequently eaten decapods. Pandalus spp., 

Pagurus pubescens, Axius serratus, and Pasiphaea sp. 

were the dominant species eaten in the Gulf of Maine. 

Hyas sp., P. pubescens, E. pusiolus, A. serratus were the 

major decapod prey eaten on the Nova Scotian shelf. 

Meganctiphanes norvegica was the only euphausid in 

the diet. The mysids eaten were Neomysis americana and 

Erythrops erythrophthalma. 

 The most commonly eaten fishes were sand lance, 

longhorn sculpin, and Atlantic hagfish. 

 There was no indication of periodicity in intensity of 

feeding, although most of the euphausids were observed 

in skates that were collected during the night or early 

morning. 

 Templeman (1982b) conducted diet studies on skate 

from West Greenland to Georges Bank (1947-1967) and 

found that fish made up 74% of the stomach contents. 

The most important fish prey were redfish, haddock, and 

sand lance, as well as fish offal consisting of both cod and 

haddock. The large quantities of some of these prey fishes 

(e.g., haddock) and the offal came mainly from skates 

caught on Grand Bank and St. Pierre Bank. The higher 

percentage of fish prey in this study compared to the 

McEachran (1973) and McEachran et al. (1976) studies 

may be due to the relatively greater number of large 

skates caught and to extensive feeding by the skate on 

cod and haddock offal and on small haddock, which had 

been discarded in large quantities by fishing vessels on 

Grand Bank and St. Pierre Bank during that time period. 

Apparently, it is not uncommon for thorny skate to be 

feeding on trawler discards, as Berestovskiy (1989) also 

noted for thorny skate in the Barents and Norwegian 

Seas. In the Templeman (1982b) study, invertebrates 

constituted 25% of the stomach contents, important 

groups included decapods (spider and hermit crabs), 

cephalopods, and polychaetes. The most numerous prey 

items, in descending order of occurrence, were crabs, 

polychaetes, shrimps, sand lance, amphipods, and capelin. 

 McEachran (1973) and McEachran et al. (1976) 

found that the diet of thorny skate was size dependent. 

Fish < 40 cm TL fed mostly on amphipods while fish > 

40 cm TL fed mostly on polychaetes and decapods. 

Mysids decreased in the diet while fishes increased with 

increase in size of the skate. Fishes were a major 

component of the diet of skates > 70 cm TL. 

Consumption of euphausids was independent of skate size 

(McEachran 1973; McEachran et al. 1976). In 

Passamaquoddy Bay there was also a significant 

difference in the food habits between thorny skate < 40 

cm TL and those > 40 cm TL (Tyler 1972). The principal 

prey of the smaller skates were euphausids (M. 

norvegica), mysids (Mysis stenolepis), polychaetes 

(Aphrodite aculeata, Lumbrineris fragilis, Nephtys incisa, 

Clymenella torquata), and amphipods (Unciola leucopis). 

Larger skates ate decapods (Hyas araneus) and 

polychaetes (A. aculeata, and N. incisa). As in the 

McEachran (1973) and McEachran et al. (1976) studies, 

amphipods decreased and decapods increased in 

importance with increase in predator size; however, 

unlike those two studies, Tyler (1972) found that 

euphausids were important to only the smaller skates and 

polychaetes were important to both size classes. 

Templeman’s (1982b) study found that the stomachs of 

smaller (21-60 cm TL) skates contained higher 

proportions of cephalopods, polychaetes, and amphipods 

and lower proportions of fish than the larger (61-102 cm) 

skates. Pedersen (1995) studied the feeding habits of 

thorny skate collected off of West Greenland during 

1990-1991 and found that skates < 20 cm TL fed 

primarily on copepods, gammarids, mysids, and 

polychaetes, while skates > 19 cm TL fed on northern 

shrimp (Pandalus borealis) and redfish. As both Pedersen 

(1995) and SkjFraasen and Bergstad (2000) note, the 

feeding habits of thorny skate are size-dependent, but the 

food composition varies among the areas studied and the 

skate consumes a wide variety of both invertebrates and 

fishes which may reflect differences in prey availability. 

[For a discussion of the food habits and size-related shifts 

in diet of thorny skate from other regions, see the 

Pedersen (1995) and SkjFraasen and Bergstad (2000) 

studies.] 

The 1973-1990 NEFSC food habits database for 

thorny skate [Figure 3; see Reid et al. (1999) for details] 

generally confirms the previous studies. Overall, 

crustaceans declined in importance with increasing skate 

size. Amphipods, which included species such as 

Psammonyx nobilis and L. pinguis, decreased with 

increasing skate size, while the percent occurrence of 

decapods, which included C. septemspinosa, Cancer and 

pagurid crabs, and pandalid shrimp, generally did not 
Page 3 

change with skate size. The percent occurrence of 

polychaetes, which included those from the Nephtyidae 

and Aphroditidae families, increased with increasing 

skate size until the skate were about 60 cm TL. Fish 

became noticeable in the diet of the larger skates, around 

> 50-60 cm TL, but were never a major component of the 

diet (at least as measured here in terms of percent 

occurrence). 

The following is a detailed description of the diet 

from the NEFSC food habits database broken down by 

thorny skate size class (Figure 3). 

 For thorny skate 11-20 cm TL, 61-78% of the diet 

consisted of crustaceans, with 24-48% of the diet 

consisting of identifiable amphipods. The most abundant 

amphipod species included Ericthonius rubricornis, 

Psammonyx nobilis, Monoculodes edwardsi, and several 

unidentifiable gammarid amphipods. Identifiable 

decapods (11% of the diet during the 1973-1980 study 

period) included C. septemspinosa and Cancer and

Pagurus crabs. Euphausids (M. norvegica), mysids (E.

erythrophthalma), and cumaceans were also eaten. 

Identifiable polychaetes (15-34% of the diet) included 

those from the Nephtyidae and Aphroditidae families. 

For skate 21-30 cm TL, 56-66% of the diet consisted 

of crustaceans, with 23-34% of the diet consisting of 

identifiable amphipods. Major amphipod species included 

L. pinguis, Melita dentata, and Hippomedon serratus. 

Identifiable decapods (5-10% of the diet) again included 

C. septemspinosa and Cancer and pagurid crabs. 

Cirolana (= Politolana?) polita was one of the 

identifiable isopods. Identifiable polychaetes made up 18-

39% of the diet and included those from the Aphroditidae 

and Terebellidae families. 

 The percentage of crustaceans in the diet of thorny 

skate 31-40 cm TL dropped to 44-52%. Some of the more 

numerous identifiable amphipods (10-26% of the diet) 

included P. nobilis, L. pinguis, and Byblis serrata. C.

septemspinosa, pagurid crabs, and E. pusiolus were the 

major identifiable decapod prey (8-15% of the diet). 

Identifiable polychaete prey (38-48% of the diet) included 

members of the families Aphroditidae, Nephtyidae, 

Lumbrineridae, as well as the species Sternaspis scutata. 

 The percent occurrence of crustaceans in the diet of 

thorny skate 41-50 cm TL was between 42-59%. 

Identifiable decapods (5-11% of the diet) included C.

septemspinosa, pandalid shrimp, and E. pusiolus. 

Identifiable amphipods, which decreased to 8-17% of the 

diet, included L. pinguis, while identifiable euphausids 

(10% of the diet during the 1981-1990 study period) 

included M. norvegica. Identifiable polychaetes made up 

35-50% of the diet; major families included the 

Aphroditidae and Nephtyidae. 

 The percent occurrence of crustaceans in the diet for 

skate 51-60 cm TL declined to 37-41%. Identifiable 

decapods (13-15% of the diet) included E. pusiolus, 

pandalid shrimp, pagurid crabs, and D. leptocerus. M.

norvegica was a dominant euphausid (7% of the diet 

during the 1981-1990 study period). Among the 

polychaetes, which were 40-48% of the diet, were found 

members of the Nephtyidae (e.g., N. discors) and 

Aphroditidae (e.g., A. hastata) families, as well as E. 

pennata. The percent occurrence of identifiable fish in the 

diet increased to 5-11%. 

 The percent occurrence of crustaceans dropped to 34-

40% for skate 61-70 cm TL. Among the identifiable 

decapods (13-23% of the diet) were pagurid crabs, 

pandalid shrimp, Hyas sp., D. leptocerus, and C. 

septemspinosa. Identifiable polychaetes (36-49% of the 

diet) again included members of the Nephtyidae and 

Aphroditidae families. The percent occurrence of 

identifiable fish in the diet increased to 10-14%. 

 For skate 71-80 cm TL, crustaceans made up 25-42% 

of the diet. Major identifiable decapods (16-18% of the 

diet) again included pagurid crabs, pandalid shrimp, Hyas

sp., and D. leptocerus. Identifiable polychaetes made up 

38-47% of the diet and included members of the 

Aphroditidae, Nephtyidae, Nereidae, Sabellidae, and 

Opheliidae families. The percent occurrence of 

identifiable fish in the diet increased to 13-17% and 

included sand lance, wrymouth, and silver hake. 

 Finally, the percent occurrence of crustaceans in the 

diet for skate 81-90 cm TL declined to 34-35%. 

Identifiable decapods (12-16% of the diet) included 

pandalid shrimp, Hyas sp., Cancer crabs, and D. 

leptocerus. M. norvegica was a dominant euphausid. 

Identifiable polychaetes comprised 31-35% of the diet, 

most of which were in the Nephtyidae, Aphroditidae, and 

Nereidae families. Identifiable fish, which made up 10-

22% of the diet, included hagfish, wrymouth, and herring. 

 Using NEFSC data from 1977-1980, Bowman et al. 

(2000) found that in terms of percent weight, crustaceans 

and polychaetes were dominant in the diet of skate < 31-

60 cm TL, while fish, including herring, sand lance, and 

wrymouth were dominant in the diet of skate 61-90 cm 

TL. Squid and herring dominated the diet of skate > 90 

cm TL. 

Templeman (1982b) found that fish made up 69% of 

the total food volume in the stomachs of skates from 17-

200 m deep and 82% of skates from 201-700 m deep. 

Haddock and sand lance were the most important fish 

prey at the shallower depths, while redfish and sand lance 

were more important at greater depths. For invertebrates, 

crabs were most important as prey in the shallower depth 

range while cephalopods were most important at the 

deeper depth range. The shrimp, Sergestes sp., and 

octopus were found only in the stomachs of skates from 

depths > 400 m. 

PREDATORS AND SPECIES 

ASSOCIATIONS 

 Thorny skate is eaten, at least as embryos within the 

egg capsules, by halibut, goosefish, and Greenland 

sharks, as well as predatory gastropods (e.g., naticid and 

muricid gastropods) (Jensen 1948; Cox et al. 1999; 
Page 4 

Rountree 2001). Kulka and Mowbray (1998) report that 

around Newfoundland, thorny skate (juveniles/adults?) 

are preyed upon by seals, sharks, and halibut. 

 McEachran and Musick (1975) report that thorny and 

smooth skate (Malacoraja senta) had a high coefficient of 

associaton during 1967-1970 surveys from Nova Scotia 

to Cape Hatteras, and these two species were often 

negatively associated with little (Leucoraja erinacea) and 

winter (Leucoraja ocellata) skates. [However, see the 

Garrison (2000) study on Georges Bank, below.] They 

consider thorny and smooth skate to be sympatric species. 

 Co-occurrence, and possibly competition with thorny 

skate may have led to food specialization in smooth skate 

and could have caused the low abundance and low 

diversity of prey species in the diet of smooth skate 

(McEachran 1973; McEachran et al. 1976). Thorny skate 

has a diverse diet consisting of both infauna and epifauna 

while smooth skate has a very specialized diet consisting 

largely of epifauna, mostly amphipods, euphausids, 

decapods, and mysids (McEachran 1973; McEachran et 

al. 1976). Thorny skate also feeds on these prey items 

over part of the year, perhaps when the prey are in high 

abundance. Thorny skate is also the more widespread and 

abundant of the two. 

 Using 1973-1997 NEFSC data from Nova Scotia to 

Cape Hatteras, as well as the same NEFSC food habits 

database discussed above, Garrison and Link (2000) 

investigated the dietary guild structure of the fish 

community. Both small (10-30 cm TL) and medium (31-

60 cm TL) sized thorny skate belonged to the 

“Benthivores” group, along with haddock, yellowtail 

flounder, winter flounder, witch flounder, gulfstream 

flounder, scup, American plaice, and croaker. Prey 

consisted mostly of polychaetes. The largest thorny skate 

(31 cm TL to > 80 cm TL) also belonged to a guild of the 

“Piscivores” group, along with spiny dogfish, Atlantic 

cod, silver hake, white hake, sea raven, goosefish, 

summer flounder, bluefish, spotted hake, fourspot 

flounder, and Atlantic sharpnose shark. Their prey 

consisted of a range of fish taxa including herrings, silver 

hake, scombrids, and sand lance; squid was also eaten. 

 The resilience of demersal fish assemblages on 

Georges Bank was investigated by Overholtz and Tyler 

(1985) using seasonal NEFSC trawl survey data from 

1963-1978. Of the five assemblage species groups or 

associations present on Georges Bank in spring and fall 

throughout the survey period, thorny skate belonged to 

the “Gulf of Maine Deep” (on the northern edge of 

Georges Bank) and “Northeast Peak” assemblage groups. 

In the Gulf of Maine Deep assemblage the other major 

species present besides thorny skate included American 

plaice, witch flounder, white hake, silver hake, Atlantic 

cod, haddock, and cusk. In the Northeast Peak 

assemblage, Atlantic cod, haddock, pollock, white hake, 

winter flounder, ocean pout, and longhorn sculpin were 

some of the other major species. The two assemblages 

showed definite seasonal spatial changes between the 

spring and fall survey periods. 

Garrison (2000) also investigated spatial assemblages 

and trophic groups from the Georges Bank region during 

spring and autumn using NEFSC trawl survey data as 

well as the same NEFSC food habits database discussed 

above. In terms of dietary guilds or trophic groups, the 

diet of thorny skate is similar to what was previously 

discussed in the Food Habits section above. In autumn, 

small (10-30 cm TL) and medium (31-60 cm TL) thorny 

skate were in the “Demersal predators” group, along with 

flatfish, haddocks, winter skate, and little skate. Prey 

included gammarid amphipods, polychaetes, isopods, 

Cancer crabs, and C. septemspinosa. Large (61-80 cm 

TL) thorny skate also belonged to the “Crab predators” 

group; prey included polychaetes and decapod crabs. 

During spring, small thorny skate was in the 

“Shrimp/amphipod predators” group, along with hakes, 

longhorn sculpin, Atlantic cod, fourspot flounder, winter 

skate, and little skate. Prey included gammarid 

amphipods, pandalids and C. septemspinosa, polychaetes, 

and Cancer crabs. Medium thorny skate was also in the 

“Demersal predators” group, along with yellowtail and 

winter flounder. Their diet consisted primarily of 

polychaetes and gammarid amphipods. 

 On the Scotian Shelf and in the Bay of Fundy, Scott 

(1989), using research trawl survey data from roughly 

1970-1984 determined that the dominant mid-depth 

assemblage consisted of cod, haddock, and thorny skate. 

It was extremely strong in the Bay of Fundy, but 

diminished progressively southwest to northeast along the 

Scotian Shelf. Mahon (1997), also in surveys of the 

Scotian Shelf and Bay of Fundy from 1970-1993, 

discovered that thorny skate belonged to an assemblage 

found mainly in the mouth of the Bay of Fundy and the 

eastern Scotian Shelf. Major species in the assemblage 

from this study besides thorny skate included American 

plaice, smooth skate, and Vahl’s eelpout. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 

 As stated in the Introduction, thorny skate is a boreal 

to arctic species found on both sides of the Atlantic, but 

whose center of abundance in the western North Atlantic 

extends northward from the Gulf of Maine probably as far 

as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is one of the most 

common or dominant skate species on the Grand Banks 

and northeast Newfoundland Shelf (McEachran and 

Musick 1975; Kulka and Mowbray 1998). In the west it 

has been reported from western Greenland, Davis straits, 

Hudson straits, Hudson Bay, the Atlantic coast of 

Labrador, east and south coasts of Newfoundland, Grand 

Banks, Gulf of St. Lawrence and outer coast of Nova 

Scotia, Banquereau, and Sable Island Bank, Bay of 

Fundy, Passamaquoddy Bay, Gulf of Maine, 

Massachusetts Bay, Georges Bank, the New Hampshire 

coast, and southward along the edge of the continental 

shelf to off of New York and as a stray off Charleston, 

South Carolina (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953a, b; Leim 
Page 5 

and Scott 1966, McEachran 1973; McEachran and 

Musick 1975; Nelson et al. 1983; Macdonald et al. 1984; 

Collette and Hartel 1988; Kulka and Mowbray 1998; 

McEachran 2002). In the Gulf of Maine, Bigelow and 

Schroeder (1953a) reported it from the vicinity of Mt. 

Desert Island, Platts Bank, and in deeper troughs, from 

Casco and Ipswich Bays, off Gloucester, Salem, Nahant, 

and Provincetown. McEachran and Musick (1975), 

during 1967-1970 surveys from Nova Scotia to Cape 

Hatteras, recorded thorny skate to be widespread along 

the eastern and northwestern slopes of Georges Bank. The 

NEFSC bottom trawl surveys from the Gulf of Maine to 

Cape Hatteras caught juvenile and adult thorny skates 

mostly in the Gulf of Maine and around the north and 

northeast perimeter of Georges Bank (see below). 

 Several reports indicate that thorny skate can make 

seasonal migrations and, conversely, be sedentary 

(Bigelow and Schroeder 1953a; Templeman 1984; Simon 

and Frank 1996; Kulka and Mowbray 1998; McEachran 

2002). Seasonal migrations have been noted on the 

Scotian Shelf (Simon and Frank 1996) and the Grand 

Banks (Kulka and Mowbray 1998). In Passamaquoddy 

Bay it is a year-round resident (Tyler 1971) but 

Macdonald et al. (1984) noted that thorny skate increased 

in abundance during summer and declined after late fall 

and juveniles were often captured at beach sites during 

summer. Templeman (1984) tagged over 700 skates in the 

Newfoundland area and noted that within 20 years most 

of them were recaptured < 97 km from their tagging 

location. A few were recaptured 161-387 km from the 

tagging location after < 1 year to 11 years. Similarly, in 

the North Sea 85% of tagged thorny skate were 

recaptured within 93 km of their release point and the 

longest distance traveled was 180 km (Walker et al. 

1997). 

JUVENILES 

 NEFSC bottom trawl surveys [see Reid et al. (1999) 

for details] captured juvenile (< 83 cm TL) thorny skate 

year-round. (Note that winter and summer distributions 

are presented as presence/absence data, precluding a 

discussion of abundances.) In winter, juveniles were 

scattered throughout the Gulf of Maine and on the 

Northeast Peak of Georges Bank, as well as east/southeast 

of Cape Cod (Figure 4). In spring, great concentrations 

were found throughout the Gulf of Maine, Massachusetts 

Bay, the Bay of Fundy, the Scotian Shelf, and the 

perimeter of Georges Bank (Figure 5). In summer, 

juveniles also occurred in the same locations, although 

few were present on the southern perimeter of Georges 

Bank (Figure 6). There also appear to be more juveniles 

present along the coast of Maine than in the winter. In the 

fall, just like in the spring, dense concentrations were 

found throughout the Gulf of Maine, Massachusetts Bay, 

the Bay of Fundy, the Scotian Shelf, and especially 

around the perimeter of Georges Bank near the Northeast 

Peak (Figure 7). 

 Both the spring and fall 1978-2002 Massachusetts 

inshore trawl surveys [see Reid et al. (1999) for details] 

show concentrations of juvenile thorny skate around Cape 

Ann and into Massachusetts Bay, and in Cape Cod Bay 

(Figure 8). Higher concentrations were found northeast of 

Cape Ann and near Wellfleet Harbor on Cape Cod in the 

spring and southeast of Cape Ann in the fall. A scattered 

few were also found south of Cape Cod in the spring. 

ADULTS 

 NEFSC bottom trawl surveys captured adult thorny 

skate (> 84 cm TL) during all seasons. The overall 

numbers of adults in spring and fall were much lower 

than for the juveniles during those same seasons. (As with 

the juveniles, the winter and summer distributions are 

presented as presence/absence data, precluding a 

discussion of abundances.) In winter, they occurred in the 

Gulf of Maine and on the northern edge of Georges Bank 

(Figure 9). In the spring, the adults were scattered 

throughout the Gulf of Maine, the Great South Channel, 

along the northern edge of Georges Bank, as well as the 

Scotian Shelf (Figure 10). Adults were also scattered 

throughout the Gulf of Maine in the summer (Figure 11). 

Distributions in the fall were similar to those in the spring 

(Figure 12). 

 Very few adult thorny skate were caught during the 

spring and fall Massachusetts inshore trawl surveys 

(Figure 13). They were found south of Cape Ann, in 

Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, and east of Cape Cod. 

HABITAT CHARACTERISTICS 

 Information on the habitat requirements and 

preferences of thorny skate (based on both the pertinent 

literature and the most recent NEFSC and state surveys) 

are presented here and summarized in Tables 1 and 2. 

 The depth range of thorny skate is from 

approximately 18-1200 m. (McEachran 2002). It appears 

to be most common at 50-100 m in the northeast Atlantic 

(Stehmann and Bhrkel 1984) and 37-108 m on the 

Scotian Shelf (Scott 1982a). McEachran and Musick 

(1975) in surveys during 1967-1970 from Nova Scotia to 

Cape Hatteras found it occurred between 27-439 m, but 

was most abundant between 111-366 m. Bigelow and 

Schroeder (1953b) reported its general depth range as 18-

183 m, and as deep as 786-896 m off New York, although 

an isolated specimen was found from off Long Island at 

59 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b). Its maximum 

recorded depth is 1478-1540 m in the northeastern 

Norwegian Sea (Stehmann and Parin 1994). In 

Passamaquoddy Bay it has been found in 37-55 m waters 

(Tyler 1971). Bigelow and Schroeder (1953a) reported 

that thorny skate was frequently taken on the New 
Page 6 

Brunswick side of the Bay of Fundy in waters > 18 m or 

deeper, and in 37-55 m in St. Mary Bay on the Nova 

Scotia side. They also note that it is found in the Gulf of 

Maine in waters > 26 m, and down to 669 m along the 

upper part of the continental slope off southern New 

England. At the southern extreme of its range it is limited 

to the continental slope, and off Virginia it occurs at 300-

1200 m (McEachran 2002), although isolated skates have 

previously been reported from off Charleston, South 

Carolina at 135 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b). The 

spring and fall 1963-2002 NEFSC trawl surveys from the 

Gulf of Maine to Cape Hatteras (see below) indicated that 

juveniles were found at depths between 21-500 m and 

especially between 71-300 m (Figure 14). The adults 

were found at depths between 31-500 m, with most found 

between 141-300 m (Figure 16). 

 The temperature range of thorny skate from Nova 

Scotia to Cape Hatteras is from -1.3EC to 14EC 

(McEachran and Musick 1975), although it has been 

recorded down to -1.4EC off Labrador (Backus 1957) and 

only up to 10EC by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953a, b). 

On the Nova Scotian shelf it appears to have a 

temperature preference of 2-5EC (Scott 1982a; Scott and 

Scott 1988). Tyler (1971) recorded its temperature range 

in Passamaquoddy Bay as 1.2-10.2EC. The spring and fall 

1963-2002 NEFSC trawl surveys from the Gulf of Maine 

to Cape Hatteras (see below) collected juveniles and 

adults over a temperatures range of about 2-16EC, with 

most found between about 4-9EC (Figures 14 and 16). 

van Steenbergen (1994) compared the differences in 

reproduction and the storage of energy (food resources) in 

North Sea thorny skate in relation to their differences in 

distribution. One group of thorny skate that lived in a 

“warmer” area developed their gonads and reached 

maturity at a lower size than the group that lived in the 

“colder” area. The group of female skate that lived in the 

“colder” area stored more energy in the liver than the 

group that lived in the “warmer” area. These differences 

suggest a latitudinal influence in which temperature could 

play an important role. 

 Thorny skate is found over a wide variety of bottom 

types from sand, gravel, broken shell, pebbles, to soft 

mud (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953a; McEachran 2002). 

On the Scotian Shelf, Scott (1982b) reports that the 

distribution of thorny skate was widespread but mainly 

concentrated from the sandy bottom of the Sable Island 

facies to the sandy silt and clay of the LaHave facies. 

Scott (1982a) mentions that on the Scotian Shelf during 

the summers of 1970-1979, thorny skate was found at 

preferred salinities of 32-34 ppt. 

EGGS 

Berestovskii (1994) performed laboratory studies on 

the reproductive biology of Barents Sea skates. 

Successful incubation in the lab revealed that the 

development period of the embryos at temperatures 

ranging from –0.3-9.5EC lasted for 2-2.5 yrs. After 

hatching, juveniles consumed the internal supply of yolk 

and switched to active feeding in 2-4 months at 

temperatures of 2.5-4.5EC. Berestovskii (1994) 

extrapolates that in the low temperature environment of 

the Barents Sea, the embryonic development period for 

thorny skate must take 2.5-3 yrs. 

JUVENILES 

The spring and fall distributions of juvenile thorny 

skate relative to bottom water temperature, depth, and 

salinity based on 1963-2002 NEFSC bottom trawl 

surveys from the Gulf of Maine to Cape Hatteras are 

shown in Figure 14. In spring, they were found in waters 

between 2-13EC, with the majority at 4-8EC. Their depth 

range during that season was between 21-400 m, with 

most spread between 71-300 m. They were found over a 

salinity range of between 31-36 ppt, with the majority at 

33 ppt. During the fall, juvenile thorny skate were caught 

over a temperature range of 3-16EC, with most found 

between 6-9EC and with close to 25% caught or 

occurring at 7EC. They were found over a depth range of 

21-500 m, although most were found at depths between 

91-300 m. They were found over a salinity range of 

between 31-35 ppt, with about 40% at 33 ppt. 

The spring and autumn distributions of juveniles in 

Massachusetts coastal waters relative to bottom water 

temperature and depth based on 1978-2002 

Massachusetts inshore trawl surveys are shown in Figure 

15. In the spring they were found in waters ranging from 

about 2-16EC, with the greatest percentages found 

between 4-6EC. Their depth range was from 6-85 m, with 

the majority between 41-55 m. During the autumn they 

were found in waters ranging from 4EC to approximately 

19EC, with most between 6-9EC and the majority of those 

between 8-9EC. Their depth range was from about 6-85 

m, with peaks at 46-55 m. 

ADULTS 

 The spring and fall distributions of adult thorny skate 

relative to bottom water temperature, depth, and salinity 

based on 1963-2002 NEFSC bottom trawl surveys from 

the Gulf of Maine to Cape Hatteras are shown in Figure 

16. In spring, adult thorny skate were found at 

temperatures between 2-13EC, with the majority between 

4-7EC. During that period they were found at a depth 

range of 31-400 m, with the majority spread between 

141-300 m. They were found at salinities of 33-34 ppt. 

During the fall they were found over a temperature range 

of 3-13EC, with the majority found between 5-8EC. They 

were found over a depth range of 31-500 m, with most 

spread between about 141-300 m. They were found at 

salinities of 32-35 ppt, with > 60% at 33 ppt. 
Page 7 

 The spring and autumn distributions of the few adults 

found in Massachusetts coastal waters relative to bottom 

water temperature and depth are shown in Figure 17. In 

the spring they were found in waters ranging from about 

4-10EC, with peaks at 4EC, 6EC, and 8EC. Their depth 

range was from approximately 21-65 m, with a peak 

between 31-35 m. During the autumn they were caught in 

waters ranging from 5-10EC, with the majority at 10EC. 

Their depth range was from 31-65 m, with most between 

46-55 m. 

STATUS OF THE STOCKS 

 The following section is based on Northeast Fisheries 

Science Center (2000a, b). 

 The principal commercial fishing method used to 

catch all seven species of skates [thorny, smooth, little, 

barndoor (Dipturus laevis), winter, clearnose (Raja 

eglanteria), rosette (Leucoraja garmani)] is otter 

trawling. Skates are frequently taken as bycatch during 

groundfish trawling and scallop dredge operations and 

discarded recreational and foreign landings are currently 

insignificant, at < 1% of the total fishery landings. 

 Skates have been reported in New England fishery 

landings since the late 1800s. However, commercial 

fishery landings, primarily from off Rhode Island, never 

exceeded several hundred metric tons until the advent of 

distant-water fleets during the 1960s. Landings are not 

reported by species, with over 99% of the landings 

reported as “unclassified skates.” Skate landings reached 

9,500 mt in 1969, but declined quickly during the 1970s, 

falling to 800 mt in 1981 (Figure 18). Landings have 

since increased substantially, partially in response to 

increased demand for lobster bait, and more significantly, 

to the increased export market for skate wings. Wings are 

taken from winter and thorny skates, the two species 

currently used for human consumption. Bait landings are 

presumed to be primarily from little skate, based on areas 

fished and known species distribution patterns. Landings 

for all skates increased to 12,900 mt in 1993 and then 

declined somewhat to 7,200 mt in 1995. Landings have 

increased again since 1995, and the 1998 reported 

commercial landings of 17,000 mt were the highest on 

record (Figure 18). 

 The biomass for the seven skate species is at a 

medium level of abundance. For the aggregate complex, 

the NEFSC spring survey index of biomass was relatively 

constant from 1968-1980, then increased significantly to 

peak levels in the mid- to late 1980s. The index of skate 

complex biomass then declined steadily until 1994, but 

has recently increased again. The large increase in skate 

biomass in the mid- to late 1980s was dominated by little 

and winter skate. The recent increase in aggregate skate 

biomass has been due to an increase in small sized skates 

(< 100 cm max. length: little, clearnose, rosette, and 

smooth), primarily little skate. The biomass of large size 

skates (> 100 cm TL max. length: barndoor, winter, and 

thorny) has steadily declined since the mid-1980s. The 

abundance of thorny skate has declined to historic lows 

and current abundance is about 10-15% of the peak 

observed in the late 1960s to early 1970s (Figure 18). 

Thorny skate is considered to be overfished (Northeast 

Fisheries Science Center 2000a, b). 

RESEARCH NEEDS 

 Imprecise reporting of fishery statistics where several 

skate species are lumped together under one category 

(e.g., "unclassified skates" or "skates spp.") can mask 

basic changes in community structure and profound 

reduction in populations of larger, slower growing species 

(Dulvy et al. 2000; Musick et al. 2000). Thus, it is 

important to have fishery-independent data on skates 

where the individual species are reported. 

 Northeast Fisheries Science Center (2000b) also 

suggests the following research needs: 

• More life history studies (including age, growth, 

maturity, and fecundity studies) are necessary. 

• Studies of stock structure are needed to identify unit 

stocks. 

• Explore possible stock-recruit relationships by 

examination of NEFSC survey data. 

• Investigate trophic interactions between skate species 

in the complex, and between skates and other 

groundfish. 

• Investigate the influence of annual changes in water 

temperature or other environmental factors on shifts 

in the range and distribution of the species in the 

skate complex, and establish the bathymetric 

distribution of the species in the complex in the 

western Atlantic. 

• Investigate historical NEFSC survey data from the 

R/V Albatross III during 1948-1962 when they 

become available, as they may provide valuable 

historical context for long-term trends in skate 

biomass. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

 The authors thank Barry Shafer, John McCarthy, 

Tom Finneran, and Annette Kalbach for producing the 

maps and graphics. Thanks also to Claire Steimle and 

Judy Berrien for literature reviews and interlibrary loans. 

Frank Almeida and Kathy Sosebee of the NEFSC Woods 

Hole provided much needed information, input, and 

reviews. 

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Rountree. 2001. Planktonic hydroids on Georges 
Page 8 

Bank: ingestion and selection by predatory fishes. 

Deep-Sea Res II 48: 673-684. 

Backus, R.H. 1957. The fishes of Labrador. Bull. Am. 

Mus. Nat. Hist. 113: 279-337. 

Berestovskii, E.G. 1994. Reproductive biology of skates 

of the family Rajidae in the seas of the far north. J. 

Ichthyol. 34: 26-37. 

Berestovskiy, E.G. 1989. Feeding in the skates, Raja 

radiata and Raja fyllae, in the Barents and Norwegian 

Seas. J. Ichthyol. 29: 88-96. 

Bigelow, H.B. and W.C. Schroeder. 1953a. Fishes of the 

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577 p. 

Bigelow, H.B. and W.C. Schroeder. 1953b. Fishes of the 

western North Atlantic. Part 2. Sawfishes, 

guitarfishes, skates, and rays [and] chimaeroids. Mem. 

Sears Foundation Mar. Res., Yale Univ. 1. 588 p. 

Bor, P.F.H. 2001 Jan. 22. Table. Egg-capsules of rays and 

skates. <http://www.rajidae.tmfweb.nl/>. Accessed 

2001 Feb. 26. 

Bowman, R.E., C.E. Stillwell, W.L. Michaels, and M.D. 

Grosslein. 2000. Food of northwest Atlantic fishes 

and two species of squid. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFSNE-155. 138 p. 

Collette, B.B. and K.E. Hartel. 1988. Annotated list of 

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Aquat. Sci. 57: 1679-1691. 

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of the fish community in the Northeast United States 

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202: 231-240. 

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west and south coasts of Southern Africa. Ann. South 

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thorny skate (Raja radiata), a non-traditional species 

in NAFO Divisions 3L, 3N, 3O and Subdivision 3Ps. 

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coast of Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Board. Can. 155. 

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Macdonald, J.S., M.J. Dadswell, R.G. Appy, G.D. 

Melvin, and D.A. Methven. 1984. Fishes, fish 

assemblages, and their seasonal movements in the 

lower Bay of Fundy and Passamaquoddy Bay, 

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Scotian Shelf and Bay of Fundy, based on trawl 

survey data (1970-1993). Can. Manuscr. Rep. Fish. 

Aquat. Sci. 2426. 38 p. 

McEachran, J.D. 1973. Biology of seven species of skates 

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Schroeder’s fishes of the Gulf of Maine. 3rd Edition. 

p. 60-75. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, 

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McEachran, J.D., D.F. Boesch, and J.A. Musick. 1976. 

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relative abundance of seven species of skates (Pisces: 

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Musick, J.A., G. Burgess, G. Cailliet, M. Camhi, and S. 

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Page 9 

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Channel. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 54: 797-808. 
Page 10 

Table 1. Summary of habitat parameters for thorny skate, based on the pertinent literature. 

Life Stage Depth Substrate Temperature 

Eggs1 Laboratory studies on Barents Sea skates: 

successful incubation in the lab revealed the 

development period of embryos at 

temperatures from –0.3-9.5EC lasted for 2-

2.5 yrs. After hatching, juveniles consumed 

the internal supply of yolk and switched to 

active feeding in 2-4 months at temperatures 

of 2.5-4.5EC. In low temperature 

environment of the Barents Sea, embryonic 

development period for thorny skate may 

take 2.5-3 yrs. 

Juveniles 2

Depth range is from 18-1200 m, 

most common at 50-100 m in the 

northeast Atlantic and 37-108 m 

on the Scotian Shelf. Surveys from 

Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras 

found it occurred between 27-439 

m but was most abundant between 

111-366 m. Others report a general 

depth range of 18-183 m, as deep 

as 786-896 m off New York, and 

found off Long Island at 59 m. 

Maximum recorded depth is 1478-

1540 m in the northeastern 

Norwegian Sea. In 

Passamaquoddy Bay, has been 

found in 37-55 m waters. 

Frequently taken on the New 

Brunswick side of the Bay of 

Fundy in waters > 18 m or deeper, 

and in 37-55 m in St. Mary Bay on 

the Nova Scotia side. Found in 

Gulf of Maine in waters > 26 m, 

and down to 669 m along the 

upper part of the continental slope 

off southern New England. At 

southern extreme of its range it is 

limited to the continental slope; off 

Virginia it occurs at 300-1200 m, 

although isolated skates previously 

reported from off Charleston, 

South Carolina at 135 m. 

Found over a wide 

variety of bottom 

types from sand, 

gravel, broken shell, 

pebbles, to soft mud. 

Temperature range from Nova Scotia to Cape 

Hatteras is from -1.3EC to 14EC, although it 

has been recorded down to -1.4EC of 

Labrador and only up to 10EC by other 

authors. On the Nova Scotian shelf, it has a 

temperature preference of 2-5EC. In 

Passamaquoddy Bay it has a temperature 

range of 1.2-10.2EC. 

Differences in reproduction and the storage 

of energy (food resources) in North Sea 

thorny skate in relation to their differences in 

distribution were compared. One group of 

thorny skate that lived in a “warmer” area 

developed their gonads and reached maturity 

at a lower size than the group that lived in the 

“colder” area. The group of female skate that 

lived in the “colder” area stored more energy 

in the liver than the group that lived in the 

“warmer” area. These differences suggest a 

latitudinal influence in which temperature 

could play an important role. 

Adults 3

Same as for juveniles. Same as for 

juveniles. 

Same as for juveniles. 

1 Berestovskii (1994). 

2 Bigelow and Schroeder (1953a, b); Backus (1957); Tyler (1971); McEachran and Musick (1975); Scott (1982a, b); Stehmann and 

Bhrkel (1984); Scott and Scott (1988); van Steenbergen (1994); Stehmann and Parin (1994); McEachran 2002). 3 Bigelow and Schroeder (1953a, b); Backus (1957); Tyler (1971); McEachran and Musick (1975); Scott (1982a, b); Stehmann and 

Bhrkel (1984); Scott and Scott (1988); van Steenbergen (1994); Stehmann and Parin (1994); McEachran 2002). 
Page 11 

Table 1. cont’d. 

Life Stage Prey 

Juveniles 1

Opportunistic feeder on most abundant and available prey throughout its 

range. Prey in western Atlantic includes hydrozoans, aschelminths, 

gastropods, bivalves, squids, polychaetes, pycnogonids, copepods, 

stomatopods (larvae), cumaceans, isopods, amphipods, mysids, euphausids, 

shrimps, hermit crabs, crabs, holothuroideans, fishes. Polychaetes and 

decapods are the major prey items, followed by amphipods and euphausids. 

Fish can be major prey for larger skates. Mysids contribute little to the diet. 

Polychaete prey include: Nephtys spp., Glycera spp., Eunice pennata, 

Aphrodite hastata. Decapods: Hyas sp., Eualus pusiolus, Dichelopandalus

leptocerus, Crangon septemspinosa, Pandalus spp., Pagurus pubescens, 

Axius serratus, and Pasiphaea sp. Amphipods: Orchomonella minuta, 

Leptocheirus pinguis, ampeliscids, Pontogeneia inermis, Tmetonyx sp.,

Psammonyx nobilis. Fishes: sand lance, longhorn sculpin, Atlantic hagfish. 

Not uncommon for thorny skate to feed on trawler discards. Euphausids: 

Meganctiphanes norvegica. Mysids: Neomysis americana, Erythrops

erythrophthalma. Diet size dependent: NEFSC food habits database shows 

that overall, crustaceans declined in importance with increasing skate size. 

Amphipods decreased with increasing skate size; percent occurrence of 

decapods generally did not change with skate size. Percent occurrence of 

polychaetes increased with increasing skate size until skate were about 60 cm 

TL. Fish noticeable in the diet of larger skates, around > 50-60 cm TL. Other 

studies: fish < 40 cm TL fed mostly on amphipods, fish > 40 cm TL fed 

mostly on polychaetes and decapods. Mysids decreased in the diet while 

fishes increased with increase in skate size. Fishes a major component of the 

diet of skates > 70 cm TL. Consumption of euphausids independent of skate 

size. In Passamaquoddy Bay, also a significant difference in food habits 

between skate < 40 cm TL and > 40 cm TL. Principal prey of smaller skates 

were euphausids (M. norvegica), mysids (Mysis stenolepis), polychaetes 

(Aphrodite aculeata, Lumbrineris fragilis, Nephtys incisa, Clymenella

torquata), amphipods (Unciola leucopis). Larger skates ate decapods (Hyas

araneus) and polychaetes (A. aculeata, N. incisa). Again amphipods 

decreased and decapods increased in importance with increase in skate size; 

however, here euphausids important to only smaller skates and polychaetes 

important to both size classes. In terms of percent weight, 1977-1980 NEFSC 

data shows crustaceans and polychaetes were dominant in the diet of skate < 

31-60 cm TL, while fish dominated in skate 61-90 cm TL. Squid and herring 

dominated in skate > 90 cm TL.

 

From West Greenland to Georges Bank, fish made up 69% of total food 

volume in skates from 17-200 m deep and 82% of skates from 201-700 m. 

Haddock and sand lance most important fish prey at shallower depths, redfish 

and sand lance more important at greater depths. Invertebrates: crabs most 

important in shallower depths, cephalopods most important at deeper depths. 

Sergestes sp. (shrimp) and octopus found only in skates from > 400 m. 

Adults 2

Same as for juveniles, but note differences in diets of larger vs. smaller 

skates. 

1 Bigelow and Schroeder (1953a); McEachran (1973); McEachran et al. (1976); Tyler (1972); Templeman (1982b); Berestovskiy 

(1989); Robichaud 1991; Pedersen (1995); Bowman et al. (2000); Garrison (2000); Garrison and Link (2000); Avent et al. (2001); 

NEFSC food habits database. 

2 Bigelow and Schroeder (1953a); McEachran (1973); McEachran et al. (1976); Tyler (1972); Templeman (1982b); Berestovskiy 

(1989); Robichaud 1991; Pedersen (1995); Bowman et al. (2000); Garrison (2000); Garrison and Link (2000); Avent et al. (2001); 

NEFSC food habits database. 
Page 12 

Table 1. cont’d. 

Life Stage Predators/Species Associations 

Eggs 1

Halibut, goosefish, Greenland sharks, predatory gastropods can eat embryos 

within egg capsules. 

Juveniles 2

Around Newfoundland, thorny skate (juveniles/adults?) preyed upon by seals, 

sharks, and halibut. 

Thorny and smooth skate (Malacoraja senta) are sympatric species and have 

high coefficient of associaton; these two species often negatively associated with 

little (Leucoraja erinacea) and winter (L. ocellata) skates (however, see Georges 

Bank studies, below). Co-occurrence, and possibly competition with thorny 

skate may have led to food specialization in smooth skate and could have caused 

low abundance and low diversity of prey species seen in diet of smooth skate. 

Thorny skate has a diverse diet consisting of both infauna and epifauna while 

smooth skate has a specialized diet consisting largely of epifauna, mostly 

amphipods, euphausids, decapods, and mysids. Thorny skate also feeds on these 

prey items over part of the year, perhaps when the prey are in high abundance. 

Thorny skate also the more widespread and abundant of the two. Using 1973-

1997 NEFSC data from Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras and NEFSC food habits 

database, both small (10-30 cm TL) and medium (31-60 cm TL) sized thorny 

skate belonged to the “Benthivores” group, along with haddock, yellowtail 

flounder, winter flounder, witch flounder, gulfstream flounder, scup, American 

plaice, croaker. Prey consisted mostly of polychaetes. Largest thorny skate (31 

cm TL to > 80 cm TL) also belonged to a guild of “Piscivores” group, along with 

spiny dogfish, Atlantic cod, silver hake, white hake, sea raven, goosefish, 

summer flounder, bluefish, spotted hake, fourspot flounder, Atlantic sharpnose 

shark. Prey consisted of a range of fish taxa including herrings, silver hake, 

scombrids, sand lance; squid also eaten. 

Based on spring/fall 1963-1978 surveys on Georges Bank, thorny skate belonged 

to “Gulf of Maine Deep” and “Northeast Peak” assemblage groups. In Gulf of 

Maine Deep assemblage other major species included American plaice, witch 

flounder, white hake, silver hake, Atlantic cod, haddock, cusk. In Northeast Peak 

assemblage, Atlantic cod, haddock, pollock, white hake, winter flounder, ocean 

pout, and longhorn sculpin were the other major species. The two assemblages 

showed definite seasonal spatial changes between spring and fall periods. In a 

more recent study, small (10-30 cm TL) and medium (31-60 cm TL) thorny 

skate were in “Demersal predators” group in autumn, along with flatfish, 

haddocks, winter skate, little skate. Prey included gammarid amphipods, 

polychaetes, isopods, Cancer crabs, C. septemspinosa. Large (61-80 cm TL) 

thorny skate also belonged to “Crab predators” group; prey included 

polychaetes, decapod crabs. During spring, small thorny skate was in 

“Shrimp/amphipod predators” group, along with hakes, longhorn sculpin, 

Atlantic cod, fourspot flounder, winter skate, little skate. Prey included 

gammarid amphipods, pandalids, C. septemspinosa, polychaetes, Cancer crabs. 

Medium thorny skate was also in “Demersal predators” group, along with 

yellowtail, winter flounder. Their diet consisted primarily of polychaetes, 

gammarid amphipods. 

Adults 3

Same as for juveniles, but note differences between smaller and larger skates. 

1

 Jensen (1948); Cox et al. (1999); Rountree (2001). 2 McEachran (1973); McEachran and Musick (1975); McEachran et al. (1976); Overholtz and Tyler (1985); Kulka and Mowbray 

(1998); Garrison (2000); Garrison and Link (2000). 

3 McEachran (1973); McEachran and Musick (1975); McEachran et al. (1976); Overholtz and Tyler (1985); Kulka and Mowbray 

(1998); Garrison (2000); Garrison and Link (2000).
Page 13 

Table 2. Summary of habitat parameters for thorny skate, based on the most recent NEFSC and state surveys mentioned 

in the text. 

Life 

Stage 

Survey Depth Temperature Salinity 

1963-2002 spring 

and fall NEFSC 

trawl surveys 

from Gulf of 

Maine to Cape 

Hatteras. 

Spring: range of 21-400 m, 

most spread between 71-300 

m. 

Fall: range of 21-500 m, most 

found between 91-300 m. 

Spring: range of 2-13EC, 

majority at 4-8EC. 

Fall: range of 3-16EC, most 

between 6-9EC, and close to 

25% caught or occurring at 

7EC. 

Spring: range of 31-36 ppt, 

majority at 33 ppt. 

Fall: range of 31-35 ppt, about 

40% at 33 ppt.

Juveniles

1978-2002 

Massachusetts 

inshore trawl 

surveys. 

Spring: range of 6-85 m, with 

the majority between 41-55 m. 

Fall: range of about 6-85 m, 

peaks at 46-55 m. 

Spring: range of about 2-16EC, 

greatest percentages between 

4-6EC. 

Fall: range of 4EC to 

approximately 19EC, most 

between 6-9EC and majority of 

those between 8-9EC. 

1963-2002 spring 

and fall NEFSC 

trawl surveys 

from Gulf of 

Maine to Cape 

Hatteras. 

Spring: range of 31-400 m, 

majority spread between 141-

300 m. 

Fall: range of 31-500 m, most 

spread between 141-300 m. 

Spring: range of 2-13EC, the 

majority between 4-7EC. 

Fall: range of 3-13EC, majority 

between 5-8EC. 

Spring: range of 33-34 ppt. 

Fall: range of 32-35 ppt, > 

60% at 33 ppt.

Adults

1978-2002 

Massachusetts 

inshore trawl 

surveys. 

Spring: range of approximately 

21-65 m, peak between 31-35 

m. 

Fall: range of 31-65 m, most 

between 46-55 m. 

Spring: range of about 4-10EC, 

peaks at 4EC, 6EC, and 8EC. 

Fall: range of 5-10EC, majority 

at 10EC. 
Page 14 

Figure 1. The thorny skate, Amblyraja radiata (Donovan 1808), female, from Scott and Scott (1988).
Page 15 

Figure 2. Egg case of thorny skate, from Bor (2001).
Page 16 

Figure 3. Abundance (% occurrence) of the major prey items of thorny skate collected during NEFSC bottom trawl 

surveys from 1973-1980 and 1981-1990. Methods for sampling, processing, and analysis of samples differed between 

the time periods [see Reid et al. (1999) for details]. 

1973-1980 1981-1990

Amphipoda 48%

Other prey phyla 4%

Decapoda 11%

Fish 2%

Crustacea 19%

n = 28 n = 39

Crustacea shrimp 16%

Other prey phyla 5%

Polychaeta 34% Amphipoda 24%

Other crustacea 21%

11-20 cm

n = 14

Amphipoda 34%

Mollusca 3%

Fish 3%

Polychaeta 18%

Crustacea 22%

Decapoda 10%

Other prey phyla 10%

21-30 cm n = 126

31-40 cm

n = 22 n = 150

Polychaeta 15%

Other prey 

phyla 2%

Amphipoda 23%

Other crustacea 2%

Polychaeta 39%

Crustacea shrimp 8%

Euphausiidae 9%

Fish 2%

Isopoda 9%

Decapoda 5%

Amphipoda 26%

Mollusca 4%

Polychaeta 38%

Crustacea 11%

Decapoda 15%

Other prey 

phyla 6%

Other prey phyla 5%

Amphipoda 10%

Polychaeta 48% Other crustacea 1%

Crustacea shrimp 11%

Euphausiidae 10%

Fish 3%

Isopoda 4%

Decapoda 8%
Page 17 

Figure 3. cont’d. 

1973-1980 1981-1990

Amphipoda 17%

Mollusca 4%

Polychaeta 35%

Crustacea 31%

Decapoda 11%

Other prey phyla 2%

n = 19

Other prey phyla 4%

Amphipoda 8%

Other crustacea 2%

Polychaeta 50%

Crustacea shrimp 14%

Euphausiidae 10%

Fish 5%

Isopoda 3%

Decapoda 5%

n = 124 41-50 cm

Amphipoda 7%

Mollusca 4%

Polychaeta 40%

Crustacea 19%

Decapoda 15%

Other prey 

phyla 9%

Fish 5%

n = 27

Other prey phyla 5%

Amphipoda 4%

Polychaeta 48%

Crustacea shrimp 9%

Euphausiidae 7%

Fish 11%

Isopoda 4%

Decapoda 13%

n = 110

51-60 cm

Amphipoda 8%

Mollusca 9%

Polychaeta 36%

Crustacea 9%

Decapoda 23%

Other prey 

phyla 6%

Fish 10%

n = 24

Other prey phyla 3%

Other crustacea 5% Polychaeta 49%

Crustacea 

shrimp 9%

Euphausiidae 7%

Fish 14%

Decapoda 13%

n = 106

61-70 cm
Page 18 

Figure 3. cont’d. 

1973-1980 1981-1990

Amphipoda 1%

Mollusca 6%

Polychaeta 47%

Crustacea 8%

Decapoda 18%

Other prey phyla 5%

Fish 17%

n = 28

Other prey 

phyla 8%

Other crustacea 11%

Polychaeta 38% Crustacea 

shrimp 13%

Fish 13%

Decapoda 18%

n = 62

71-80 cm

Mollusca 11% Crustacea 18%

Decapoda 16%

Other prey 

phyla 13%

Fish 10%

n = 23

Polychaeta 31%

Other prey 

phyla 7%

Other crustacea 12%

Polychaeta 36%

Crustacea 

shrimp 11%

Fish 22%

Decapoda 12%

n = 45

81-90 cm
Page 19 

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Surveys

(1964 - 2002)

Number per tow

Winter/juveniles

(<= 83 cm)

Present

Figure 4. Distribution of juvenile thorny skate collected during winter NEFSC bottom trawl surveys [1964-2002, all 

years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details]. Survey stations where juveniles were not found are not shown. 
Page 20 

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Surveys

(1968 - 2002)

Spring/juveniles

(<= 83 cm)

NPTOW

1 - 10

11 - 100

101 - 1000

> 1000

Number per tow

Figure 5. Distribution and abundance of juvenile thorny skate collected during spring NEFSC bottom trawl surveys 

[1968-2002, all years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details].
Page 21 

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Surveys

(1963 - 1995)

Number per tow

Summer/juveniles

 (<= 83 cm)

Present

Figure 6. Distribution of juvenile thorny skate collected during summer NEFSC bottom trawl surveys [1963-1995, all 

years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details]. Survey stations where juveniles were not found are not shown. 
Page 22 

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Surveys

(1963 - 2001)

Fall/juveniles

(<= 83 cm)

NPTOW

1 - 10

11 - 100

101 - 1000

> 1000

Number per tow

Figure 7. Distribution and abundance of juvenile thorny skate collected during fall NEFSC bottom trawl surveys [1963-

2001, all years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details]. 
Page 23 

Spring/juveniles

NPTOW

1 - 10

11 - 100

101 - 500

> 500

New Hampshire

Cape Ann

Massachusetts

Cape Cod

Martha's

Vineyard

Nantucket

Spring/juveniles

NPTOW

1 - 10

11 - 100

101 - 500

> 500

Thorny Skate

Massachusetts Inshore

Trawl Survey

(1978 - 2002)

Spring/juveniles

(<= 83 cm)

 Number per tow

Figure 8. Distribution and abundance of juvenile thorny skate in Massachusetts coastal waters collected during the spring 

and autumn Massachusetts inshore trawl surveys [1978-2002, all years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details].
Page 24 

New Hampshire

Cape Ann

Massachusetts

Cape Cod

Martha's

Vineyard

Nantucket

Spring/juveniles

NPTOW

1 - 10

11 - 100

101 - 500

> 500

Thorny Skate

Massachusetts Inshore

Trawl Survey

(1978 - 2001)

Fall/juveniles

(<= 83 cm)

 Number per tow

Figure 8. cont’d. 
Page 25 

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Surveys

(1964 - 2002)

Number per tow

Winter/adults

 (> 83 cm)

Present

Figure 9. Distribution of adult thorny skate collected during winter NEFSC bottom trawl surveys [1964-2002, all years 

combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details]. Survey stations where adults were not found are not shown. 
Page 26 

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Surveys

(1968 - 2002)

Spring/adults

(> 83 cm)

NPTOW

1 - 10

11 - 100

101 - 1000

> 1000

Number per tow

Figure 10. Distribution and abundance of adult thorny skate collected during spring NEFSC bottom trawl surveys [1968-

2002, all years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details].
Page 27 

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Surveys

(1963 - 1995)

Number per tow

Summer/adults

 (> 83 cm)

Present

Figure 11. Distribution of adult thorny skate collected during summer NEFSC bottom trawl surveys [1963-1995, all 

years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details]. Survey stations where adults were not found are not shown.
Page 28 

Fall/adults

(> 83 cm)

NPTOW

1 - 10

11 - 100

101 - 1000

> 1000

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Surveys

(1963 - 2001)

Number per tow

Figure 12. Distribution and abundance of adult thorny skate collected during fall NEFSC bottom trawl surveys [1963-

2001, all years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details]. 
Page 29 

New Hampshire

Cape Ann

Massachusetts

Cape Cod

Martha's

Vineyard

Nantucket

Spring/juveniles

NPTOW

1 - 10

Thorny Skate

Massachusetts Inshore

Trawl Survey

(1978 - 2002)

Spring/adults

(> 83 cm)

 Number per tow

Figure 13. Distribution and abundance of adult thorny skate in Massachusetts coastal waters collected during the spring 

and autumn Massachusetts inshore trawl surveys [1978-2002, all years combined; see Reid et al. (1999) for details]. 
Page 30 

New Hampshire

Cape Ann

Massachusetts

Cape Cod

Martha's

Vineyard

Nantucket

Spring/juveniles

NPTOW

1 - 10

Thorny Skate

Massachusetts Inshore

Trawl Survey

(1978 - 2001)

Fall/adults

(> 83 cm)

 Number per tow

Figure 13. cont’d. 
Page 31 

0

5

10

15

20

25

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Bottom Temperature (°C)

Percent

Trawls N=10537

Occurrence N=1754

Catch N=6035

0

5

10

15

20

1-10

11-2021-3031-4041-5051-6061-7071-8081-90

91-100

101-120121-140141-160161-180181-200201-300301-400401-500

Bottom Depth (m)

Percent

Trawls N=12193

Occurrence N=2063

Catch N=7007

0

20

40

60

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

Salinity (PPT)

Percent

Trawls N=1959

Occurrence N=160

Catch N=364

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Survey 

Spring/Juveniles

Figure 14. Spring and fall distributions of juvenile thorny skate and trawls relative to bottom water temperature depth, 

and salinity based on NEFSC bottom trawl surveys (1963-2002; all years combined). White bars give the distribution of 

all the trawls, black bars give the distribution of all trawls in which thorny skate occurred, and gray bars represent, within 

each interval, the percentage of the total number of thorny skate caught. 
Page 32 

0

5

10

15

20

25

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

Bottom Temperature (°C)

Percent

Trawls N=11844

Occurrence N=2300

Catch N=8046

0

5

10

15

20

1-10

11-2021-3031-4041-5051-6061-7071-8081-90

91-100

101-120121-140141-160161-180181-200201-300301-400401-500

>500

Bottom Depth (m)

Percent

Trawls N=13543

Occurrence N=2610

Catch N=9135

0

10

20

30

40

50

27 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

Salinity (PPT)

Percent

Trawls N=1956

Occurrence N=195

Catch N=516

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Survey 

Fall/Juveniles

Figure 14. cont’d. 
Page 33 

0

10

20

30

40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Bottom Temperature (°C)

Percent

Trawls N=2312

Occurrence N=161

Catch N=1072

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1-5

6-10

11-1516-2021-2526-3031-3536-4041-4546-5051-5556-6061-6566-7071-7576-8081-85

Bottom Depth (m)

Percent

Trawls N=2385

Occurrence N=165

Catch N=1094

Thorny Skate

Massachusetts Inshore Trawl Survey 

Spring/Juveniles 

Figure 15. Spring and fall distributions of juvenile thorny skate and trawls relative to bottom water temperature and 

depth based on Massachusetts inshore trawl surveys (1978-2002, all years combined). White bars give the distribution of 

all the trawls, black bars give the distribution of all trawls in which thorny skate occurred, and gray bars represent, within 

each interval, the percentage of the total number of thorny skate caught. 
Page 34 

0

10

20

30

40

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Bottom Temperature (°C)

Percent

Trawls N=2067

Occurrence N=154

Catch N=1064

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1-5

6-10

11-1516-2021-2526-3031-3536-4041-4546-5051-5556-6061-6566-7071-7576-8081-85

Bottom Depth (m)

Percent

Trawls N=2156

Occurrence N=163

Catch N=1184

Thorny Skate

Massachusetts Inshore Trawl Survey 

Fall/Juveniles 

Figure 15. cont’d. 
Page 35 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Bottom Temperature (°C)

Percent

Trawls N=10537

Occurrence N=412

Catch N=606

0

5

10

15

20

25

1-10

11-2021-3031-4041-5051-6061-7071-8081-90

91-100

101-120121-140141-160161-180181-200201-300301-400401-500

Bottom Depth (m)

Percent

Trawls N=12193

Occurrence N=480

Catch N=691

0

20

40

60

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

Salinity (PPT)

Percent

Trawls N=1959

Occurrence N=16

Catch N=18

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Survey 

Spring/Adults

Figure 16. Spring and fall distributions of adult thorny skate and trawls relative to bottom water temperature and depth 

based on NEFSC bottom trawl surveys (1963-2002; all years combined). White bars give the distribution of all the 

trawls, black bars give the distribution of all trawls in which thorny skate occurred, and gray bars represent, within each 

interval, the percentage of the total number of thorny skate caught. 
Page 36 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

Bottom Temperature (°C)

Percent

Trawls N=11844

Occurrence N=674

Catch N=1118

0

5

10

15

20

1-10

11-2021-3031-4041-5051-6061-7071-8081-90

91-100

101-120121-140141-160161-180181-200201-300301-400401-500

>500

Bottom Depth (m)

Percent

Trawls N=13543

Occurrence N=735

Catch N=1221

0

20

40

60

80

27 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

Salinity (PPT)

Percent

Trawls N=1956

Occurrence N=23

Catch N=30

Thorny Skate

NEFSC Bottom Trawl Survey 

Fall/Adults

Figure 16. cont’d. 
Page 37 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Bottom Temperature (°C)

Percent

Trawls N=2312

Occurrence N=9

Catch N=22

0

10

20

30

40

1-5

6-10

11-1516-2021-2526-3031-3536-4041-4546-5051-5556-6061-6566-7071-7576-8081-85

Bottom Depth (m)

Percent

Trawls N=2385

Occurrence N=9

Catch N=22

Thorny Skate

Massachusetts Inshore Trawl Survey 

Spring/Adults

Figure 17. Spring and fall distributions of adult thorny skate and trawls relative to bottom water temperature and depth 

based on Massachusetts inshore trawl surveys (1978-2002, all years combined). White bars give the distribution of all 

the trawls, black bars give the distribution of all trawls in which thorny skate occurred, and gray bars represent, within 

each interval, the percentage of the total number of thorny skate caught. 
Page 38 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Bottom Temperature (°C)

Percent

Trawls N=2067

Occurrence N=11

Catch N=28

0

10

20

30

40

1-5

6-10

11-1516-2021-2526-3031-3536-4041-4546-5051-5556-6061-6566-7071-7576-8081-85

Bottom Depth (m)

Percent

Trawls N=2156

Occurrence N=12

Catch N=32

Thorny Skate

Massachusetts Inshore Trawl Survey 

Fall/Adults

Figure 17. cont’d. 
Page 39 

Figure 18. NEFSC spring survey index of thorny skate biomass and commercial landings of the seven species skate 

complex from the Gulf of Maine to the Mid-Atlantic Bight. 

Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, Southern New England, Mid-Atlantic Bight

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

196019621964196619681970197219741976197819801982198419861988199019921994199619982000

Year

Landings (metric tons)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Stratified Mean Weight/Tow (kg)

Skate complex, commercial landings (mt)

Survey index of thorny skate biomass

Publishing in NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE

Jon A. Gibson, Biological Sciences Editor & Laura S. Garner, Editor

Manuscript Qualification

This series represents a secondary level of scientific publishing in the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). For all

issues, the series employs thorough internal scientific review, but

not necessarily external scientific review. For most issues, the

series employs rigorous technical and copy editing. Manuscripts

that may warrant a primary level of scientific publishing should

be initially submitted to one of NMFS’s primary series (i.e.,

Fishery Bulletin, NOAA Technical Report NMFS, or Marine

Fisheries Review).

Identical, or fundamentally identical, manuscripts should

not be concurrently submitted to this and any other publication

series. Manuscripts which have been rejected by any primary

series strictly because of geographic or temporal limitations may

be submitted to this series.

Manuscripts by Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC)

authors will be published in this series upon approval by the

NEFSC's Deputy Science & Research Director. Manuscripts by

non-NEFSC authors may be published in this series if: 1) the

manuscript serves the NEFSC’s mission; 2) the manuscript meets

the Deputy Science & Research Director’s approval; and 3) the

author arranges for the printing and binding funds to be transferred

to the NEFSC’s Research Communications Unit account from

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disavow all responsibility for the manuscripts’ contents; authors

must accept such responsibility.

The ethics of scientific research and scientific publishing are

a serious matter. All manuscripts submitted to this series are

expected to adhere -- at a minimum -- to the ethical guidelines

contained in Chapter 1 (“Ethical Conduct in Authorship and

Publication”) of the CBE Style Manual, fifth edition (Chicago, IL:

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at virtually all scientific libraries.

Manuscript Preparation

Organization: Manuscripts must have an abstract, table

of contents, and -- if applicable -- lists of tables, figures, and

acronyms. As much as possible, use traditional scientific manuscript organization for sections: “Introduction,” “Study Area,”

“Methods & Materials,” “Results,” “Discussion” and/or “Conclusions,” “Acknowledgments,” and “References Cited.”

Style: All NEFSC publication and report series are obligated to conform to the style contained in the most recent edition

of the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual.

That style manual is silent on many aspects of scientific manuscripts. NEFSC publication and report series rely more on the

CBE Style Manual, fifth edition.

For in-text citations, use the name-date system. A special

effort should be made to ensure that the list of cited works contains

all necessary bibliographic information. For abbreviating serial

titles in such lists, use the most recent edition of the BIOSIS Serial

Sources (Philadelphia, PA: Biosciences Information Service).

Personal communications must include date of contact and full

name and mailing address of source.

For spelling of scientific and common names of fishes,

mollusks, and decapod crustaceans from the United States and

Canada, use Special Publications No. 20 (fishes), 26 (mollusks),

and 17 (decapod crustaceans) of the American Fisheries Society

(Bethesda, MD). For spelling of scientific and common names

of marine mammals, use Special Publication No. 4 of the Society

for Marine Mammalogy (Lawrence, KS). For spelling in general,

use the most recent edition of Webster’s Third New International

Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (Springfield,

MA: G.&C. Merriam).

Typing text, tables, and figure captions: Text, tables, and

figure captions must be converted to the NOAA-wide standard

of WordPerfect. In general, keep text simple (e.g., don’t switch

fonts and type sizes, don’t use hard returns within paragraphs,

don’t indent except to begin paragraphs). Also, don't use the

WordPerfect automatic footnoting function; all notes should be

indicated in the text by simple numerical superscripts, and listed

together in an "Endnotes" section prior to the "References Cited"

section. Especially, don’t use the WordPerfect graphics function

for embedding tables and figures in text.

Tables may be prepared either with WordPerfect text or with

the WordPerfect table formatting function. If text is used, then

data should be assigned to columns by using all tabs or all spaces,

but not a combination of the two.

Each figure should be supplied both on paper and on disk,

unless there is no digital file of a given figure. Except under

extraordinary circumstances, color will not be used in illustrations.

Manuscript Submission

Authors must submit one paper copy of the double-spaced

manuscript, one disk copy, and original figures (if applicable).

NEFSC authors must include a completely signed-off “NEFSC

Manuscript/Abstract/Webpage Review Form.” Non-NEFSC

authors who are not federal employees will be required to sign a

“Release of Copyright” form.

Send all materials and address all correspondence to:

Jon A. Gibson (Biological Sciences Editor)

NMFS Northeast Fisheries Science Center

166 Water Street

Woods Hole, MA 02543-1026 USA.

NORTHEAST FISHERIES SCIENCE CENTER

Dr. John G. Boreman, Acting Science & Research Director

Capt. John T. Moakley, Operations, Management & Information Services Chief

Teri L. Frady, Research Communications Chief
Research Communications Unit

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

166 Water St.

Woods Hole, MA 02543-1026

Publications and Reports

of the

Northeast Fisheries Science Center

MEDIA

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The mission of NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) is "stewardship of living marine resources for the benefit of the

nation through their science-based conservation and management and promotion of the health of their environment." As the research

arm of the NMFS's Northeast Region, the Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC) supports the NMFS mission by "planning,

developing, and managing multidisciplinary programs of basic and applied research to: 1) better understand the living marine resources

(including marine mammals) of the Northwest Atlantic, and the environmental quality essential for their existence and continued

productivity; and 2) describe and provide to management, industry, and the public, options for the utilization and conservation of living

marine resources and maintenance of environmental quality which are consistent with national and regional goals and needs, and with

international commitments." Results of NEFSC research are largely reported in primary scientific media (e.g., anonymously-peerreviewed scientific journals). However, to assist itself in providing data, information, and advice to its constituents, the NEFSC

occasionally releases its results in its own media. Those media are in four categories:

Northeast Fisheries Science Center Reference Document -- This series is issued irregularly. The series typically includes: data

reports on field and lab observations or experiments; progress reports on continuing experiments, monitoring, and assessments;

manuals describing routine surveying and sampling programs; background papers for, and summary reports of, scientific meetings;

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and Publications" (http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/publications/).

ANY USE OF TRADE OR BRAND NAMES IN ANY NEFSC PUBLICATION OR REPORT DOES NOT IMPLY

ENDORSEMENT.

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE -- This series is issued irregularly. The series typically includes: data reports of

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or phenomena; annual reports of assessment or monitoring programs; manuals describing unprecedented field and lab techniques;

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or annotated bibliographies. All issues receive internal scientific review and most issues receive technical and copy editing.

The Shark Tagger -- This newsletter is an annual summary of tagging and recapture data on large pelagic sharks as derived from

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etc.) of these sharks as subsequently derived from the tagging and recapture data. There is internal scientific review, but no technical

or copy editing, of this newsletter.